LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Gl FT OF 
 
 Class 
 


MANUAL 
 
 OP THE 
 
 Elementary Course of Study 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 Common Schools of Wisconsin. 
 
 THIRTEENTH EDITION 
 
 C. P. CARY, 
 
 State Superintendent. 
 
 NOTE This Manual is designed not only for the present, but also for 
 the future use of the common schools. The teachers of these schools, and 
 the clerks of the district boards, who may receive copies, should pre- 
 serve them. 
 
 MADISON, WIS. 
 
 DEMOCRAT FEINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTEB 
 1906, 
 
MANUAL 
 
 OF THE 
 
 Elementary Course of Study 
 
 FOR TUB 
 
 Common Schools of Wisconsin 
 
 T II I It T K K NT II EDITION 
 
 C. P. CARV, 
 
 State Superintendent 
 
 NOTE This Manual is designed not only for the Present, but also for 
 the future use of the common schools. The teachers of these schools, and 
 the clerks of the district boards, who may receive copies, should pre- 
 serve them. 
 
 MADISON, WJS, 
 
 DEMOCRAT FEINTING COMPANY, STATE PBINTEB 
 1906. 
 
4= 
 

 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 GENERAL SUGGESTION'S-Courses of Study 1-9 
 
 READING 10-81 
 
 Fundamental Things for Teachers to Consider 10-14 
 
 Beginning Reading) 14-26 
 
 Work in Phonics, Articulation and Pronunciation the Vocal Mechanics 
 
 of Reading 26-33 
 
 Work in Thought-getting the Mental Aspect of Reading 33-40 
 
 Oral Reading Thougiht Expression Involving the Vocal-Mechanical 
 
 Acts 41-47 
 
 Illustrative Exercises .- 47-54 
 
 COURSES IN READING 54-81 
 
 Primary Form 5-1-72 
 
 Middle Form 7J-7S 
 
 Upper Form , 78-81 
 
 LANGUAGE 82-106 
 
 General suggestions 82-86 
 
 Primary Form 86-99 
 
 Middle Form 99-103 
 
 Upper Form 103-1C6 
 
 ARITHMETIC 106-144 
 
 Primary Form 107-116 
 
 Middle Form 116-130 
 
 Upper Form 13(M40 
 
 Synopsis of Arithmetic, by Years 141-144 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 1 45-187 
 
 General Suggestions 145-148 
 
 Primary and Middle Form, by Years 148-166 
 
 Upper Form, by Years 166-184 
 
 GENERAL SUMMARY A.VD TEST FOR GRADUATION* 184-187 
 
 CIVICS 188-201 
 
 Middle Form 188-194 
 
 Upper Form 104-199 
 
 Suggestions 199-201 
 
 182503 
 
iv CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 HISTORY 201-221 
 
 Primary and Middle Forms 201-207 
 
 Upper Form 207-220 
 
 Suggestion* 220-221 
 
 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 222-236 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 237-248 
 
 Primary Form 237-240 
 
 Middle Form 240-244 
 
 Upper Form 244-248 
 
 WRITING 249-252 
 
 DRAWING-SINGING 253-254 
 
 SPELLING 255-257 
 
 Primary Form 255 
 
 Middle Form 255-256 
 
 Upper Form 25(3-257 
 
 CARE AND USE OF THE SCHOOL I.H'.UARY 258-261 
 
 Primary Form 259 
 
 Middle Form 259-260 
 
 Upper Form 260-261 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS UNDER THE COURSE OF STUDY.... 262-265 
 
 PROGRAM OF DAILY EXERCISES 266-271 
 
 SCHOOL RECORDS 271-273 
 
 EXAMINATIONS AND GRADUATION 273-275 
 
 FORMS FOR CERTIFICATES 275-270 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS 277-312 
 
 INTRODUCTORY 279-280 
 
 LAWS RELATING TO STATE GRADED SCHOOLS 280-282 
 
 First Year's Work 283-285 
 
 Second Year's Work 286-288 
 
 Third Year's Work 288-292 
 
 Fourth Year's York 292-295 
 
 Fifth Year's York 295-299 
 
 Sixth Year's Work 299-303 
 
 Seventh Year's Work 303-306 
 
 Eighth Year's Work 306-311 
 
 Ninth Year's Work 3tt 
 
GENEEAL SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 The numerous tasks facing the rural school teacher from day 
 to day, make it difficult if not impossible for her to become a 
 master of all the details of her daily work. Attention is called 
 here to some of the larger things which she may do with rea- 
 sonable success, and which if mastered, will go a long way to- 
 ward eliminating the smaller difficulties. 
 
 1. Distinguish between the memoriter and the rational studies. 
 
 Rural school teachers waste much time by their failure to 
 distinguish between drill studies and rational studies. Drill 
 studies are branches that aim to secure as a result certain defi- 
 nite mechanical execution. Such branches need little discus- 
 sion. Practice is the road to success. The cardinal drill 
 studies are spoiling, writing, and the parts of arithmetic which 
 have to do with skill in computation. Constant repetition un- 
 der right conditions is the sure means by which good spellers, 
 good writers and rapid calculators are developed. Teachers 
 should make up their minds to this and drill for results. 
 
 On the other hand much time is wasted and the mental pow- 
 ers deadened because repetition is demanded in branches where 
 reason should rule. This fault is illustrated in the teaching of 
 History, Reading and Geography, especially in the Upper Form. 
 Memoriter repetition of the text in history is of little value. 
 The student should be held to a rational statement of the sub- 
 stance of the lesson and should be obliged to prove his under- 
 standing of it so far as possible. 
 
 The teacher should classify the branches to be taught into 
 the memoriter and the rational. She should likewise discrimi- 
 nate in each branch between the mechanical parts and the ra- 
 
 2 a 
 
MANUAL, OF THE EuLJEAOiiN TAltY COUiUSJi, Otf STUDY. 
 
 tional parts. The rational parts should be discussed pro and 
 con. The mechanical parts should receive a sufficient amount 
 of drill to insure accuracy and rapidity. 
 
 2. Teach the pupils how to study. 
 
 The teacher should investigate the pupils' methods of study, 
 that is to say, should find out what they do when they study. 
 To do this, she should observe the results given back in recita- 
 tion ; she should ask questions in class that will reveal not 
 merely what they have learned, but how they have learned. 
 She should supplement the knowledge thus gained by observ- 
 ing their methods of work at their seats. 
 
 Along with this process the teacher should teach pupils how 
 to study to better advantage ; this she should do consciously 
 and persistently. She should make pupils conscious of the 
 way questions, outlines, notes, etc., help them to learn and to 
 think. She should show them how to read, how and when to 
 ask questions of themselves as they read. She should show 
 them how she would study the lesson, or she may at times 
 study it with them with the purpose in mind to help them to 
 help themselves in the lessons that follow. Following this she 
 should make them aware that she is testing their power in 
 this direction, testing them to discover for herself how much 
 they have gained in self help from her help. 
 
 Drills and reviews, in class, upon the fundamental facts, 
 rules and processes of a study raise the pupils' ideals of attain- 
 ment and should stimulate them to drill and review by them- 
 selves. 
 
 In the rational phases of any study, questions asked by the 
 teacher in class, which call for causes or effects, reasons or re- 
 lations and which compel pupils to think out in terms of their 
 own experiences or back to what has gone before in the book, 
 should be brought to the consciousness of the children in a 
 way to get them into the habit of thinking in a similar man- 
 ner for themselves as they study. 
 
 Merely to question pupils in order to test them and to mark 
 clown the result, merely to help them when they fail and then 
 
3 
 
 to help them again and again engenders dependence. Such 
 work does not develop in them initiative or the power of self 
 help unless it is carefully planned to help them help themselves, 
 and unless pupils are conscious that the assistance given is 
 given for that purpose. Simply to question for reasons and 
 relations may not teach pupils to think for themselves ; rather 
 it may develop a habit of thinking only when stimulated to 
 think. The teacher must stimulate pupils to ask themselves 
 and then to answer such questions, and must show them how 
 such questions arise out of the very nature of the study. 
 
 3. Make careful assignments of lessons, and make the recitation 
 a vigorous and thorough exercise. 
 
 Growth in the power to study depends much upon assign- 
 ments. Occasionally in all studies carefully prepared assign- 
 ments in much detail should be make in order to show pupils 
 how to plan their work for themselves. As a rule, however, 
 the assignment need not be elaborate or long drawn out, but it 
 should be explicit and discriminating and adapted to the length 
 of the study period, and to the ability .of the pupils. It should 
 be so explicit that no pupil can truthfully say, " I did not know 
 what we were to do." It should be discriminating so that 
 pupils may use their time to the best advantage in mastering 
 the essentials of the lesson. 
 
 To repeat, the three tests of every assignment are: 
 
 1. Is it explicit? 
 
 2. Is it discriminating? 
 
 3. Is it adapted to the student's time for preparation, and 
 his present ability and needs? 
 
 That there is a distressing lack of intelligent study and reci- 
 tation in a large proportion of our rural schools is the one uni- 
 form report that is made by competent inspectors. There is a 
 lack of thought, lack of understanding or comprehension, lack 
 of grasp of the meaning of the lessons "learned" and "recited." 
 
 It has been stated by inspectors that it is rare to hear in 
 rural schools such questions and directions as the following: 
 "What does this mean?" "Why?" "Give an example." "Ex- 
 
4: MANUAL OF THE ELEME.NTABY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 plain." "Did you ever see anything like this you have just 
 read about?" Without the discriminating and appropriate use 
 of such questions, the pupils are not led to relate the facts con- 
 tained in their lessons, or to grasp principles, and the result 
 is not knowledge or power, but the deadening of all school in- 
 terest and the atrophy of all native faculties of the mind. The 
 child grows only through his own self activity. Neither the 
 question nor the teacher's manner should imply the answer. 
 Every pupil in the class should give careful attention to all 
 that is said during the recitation. 
 
 4. Reduce the number of daily recitations to the minimum. 
 
 It is difficult to give suggestions that will apply in all cases. 
 The teacher must study the situation and proceed in the man- 
 ner that she thinks will best apply to her school. 
 
 Geography classes may often be combined to advantage. 
 Two small classes in written arithmetic may be called at the 
 same time even when the work is widely separated. The 
 teacher can give one section work at the board while she ques- 
 tions the other section, and vice versa. 
 
 Often spelling classes may be combined. It will of course 
 suggest itself to the teacher to have all pupils work together in 
 such subjects as writing, drawing, nature study and singing. 
 
 The more advanced pupils in crowded schools need not re- 
 cite every day of the week in every study they are pursuing. 
 Note the suggestions on classification and program elsewhere 
 given in this manual. 
 
 5. See to the heating and ventilation. 
 
 Teachers will find very few of the country school houses 
 equipped with anything that approaches an ideal system of 
 heating and ventilation. Nearly all are heated with stoves 
 and have no means of letting foul air out, or fresh air into 
 the room except by windows and doors. 
 
 The best of judgment, therefore, needs to be exercised by 
 the teacher in order that the school-room may be kept prop- 
 erly heated and ventilated. 
 
 The school board should be induced if possible to provide a 
 
GEJNEJtAJL 
 
 jacket for the stove if it is not already supplied with one. 
 This jacket should be of heavy, galvanized iron, should be 
 placed several inches from the stove, should entirely surround 
 the stove, should be open at the top, should extend to the floor, 
 should have a hinged door somewhat larger than the one in 
 the stove and opening directly in front of the door in the stove 
 and should have near the bottom a number of large holes that 
 can be opened and closed at will. The jacket should extend 
 above the stove a number of inches a foot at least. An air 
 shaft at least twenty inches square should be so placed as to 
 communicate with the outside air and with an opening beneath 
 the stove. A heavy wire screen should be placed over the 
 outer end of this air shaft and the shaft should be provided 
 with a damper so that the outside air can be shut off during 
 the process of heating the room in the morning, but care must 
 be taken to open the holes in the jacket above referred to 
 whenever the damper in the air shaft is closed, otherwise the 
 intense heat may result in serious damage. When a jacket is 
 thus used a foul air pipe should be placed in the chimney with 
 a grate opening into it through the mopboard near the floor. 
 The heat in the chimney heats the air in the foul air pipe, 
 causing it to rise. This creates a draft, by means of which the 
 foul air of the room is carried off. If the teacher and the 
 county superintendent will take pains to explain to the school 
 board the necessity for some means of ventilation it is probable 
 that in a great many cases favorable action may be secured. 
 When nothing better can be done the teacher must ventilate 
 by means of windows and doors. In such cases the utmost 
 care should be exercised in order to prevent direct draft from 
 striking the children. Windows should always be opened on 
 the side opposite that from which the wind blows, and should 
 not in cold weather or when the children are perspiring from 
 exercise, ever be opened on both sides at once. Probably tha 
 safest and most practical way to ventilate with windows is to 
 place a board from four to six inches wide under the bottom ol 
 the window. This will prevent any direct draft and will allow 
 the air to pass up between the sashes and circulate through 
 
6 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 the room. A reliable thermometer should be placed in every 
 school-room and the temperature should be kept at from OS to 
 70 degrees. The temperature and ventilation of the room are 
 matters that should never be neglected by the teacher. 
 
 6. Outbuildings. 
 
 There should be separate outbuildings for both boys and girls, 
 and they should be placed on opposite sides of the grounds. 
 They should have good doors, and should be provided with 
 strong lock and should be kept locked at night. They should 
 be stormproof, so that rain and snow may be kept out. They 
 should be scrubbed frequently and should always be neat, and 
 *ree from obscene writing, pictures and drawings. 
 
 7. Lighting, Seating, Decoration. 
 
 Most school buildings are poorly lighted. To determine 
 whether there is sufficient window space or not, the teacher 
 may calculate the number of square feet of floor surface by 
 multiplying the length and breadth of the room together, then 
 find the total area of window surface and divide the former by 
 the latter. If the quotient is five or less there is enough win- 
 dow surface, but if the quotient should prove to be seven or 
 more there is not enough window surface. However, teachers 
 are often careless and allow the windows to be covered by win- 
 dow-curtains m part, at least, when such covering is not needed 
 for the purpose of shutting out the direct rays of the sun. Pu- 
 pils should never be allowed to face the windows while study- 
 ing. A mistake is often made in arranging the seats, the 
 common method being to place the largest seat in the back of 
 the room, then the next smaller and so on down to the smallest 
 size. Such an arrangement makes it necessary for many pu- 
 pils to be seated upon a seat that is relatively too high for the 
 desk in front. Pupils are thus required to bend forward over 
 their work to a degree that is a menace to health. The vital 
 organs are compressed unduly, and the shoulders stooped. A 
 much better way is to arrange the largest seats in the outsMj 
 rows, or rows next to the walls. Then the smaller seats in tli3 
 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 7 
 
 no N't row and so on toward the middle of the room. Much 
 more attention should be given than usually is to the matter 
 of decoration of the school room. Space forbids the attempt to 
 give specific directions as to decoration but the teacher should 
 first of all clear out all of the old rubbish that has accumulated 
 in the way of advertising chromos and the like, should clean 
 the walls thoroughly and then put up such decoration as may 
 be available for the purpose. It is far better, however, to have 
 the room severely plain than to have the walls covered with 
 unsightly dust-gathering material. 
 
 Attention should also be given to the school grounds with a 
 view to their improvement. Teachers who are interested will 
 usually find ways and means of temporary, if not permanent, 
 improvement. 
 
 8. Discipline and Management. 
 
 The ideal school is an earnest, cheerful, hard-working com- 
 munity, without any serious internal strife or discord. To bring 
 about and maintain such a condition the community, the school 
 board, the teacher and the pupils must all work in harmony to 
 the end that the school may accomplish its proper work of de- 
 veloping character, training and developing intelligence, and 
 giving skill in using the knowledge that is of most value in 
 every day life and in further acquisition of knowledge. 
 
 The teacher's fitness for her work is shown in the tact and 
 ability with which she organizes the various elements to which 
 reference has been made and secures the hearty co-operation of 
 all. The school room should at all times be quiet and orderly 
 not a death-like stillness, but the quiet that results from strict 
 attention to business. 
 
 The suggestions given above are all so evident and so com- 
 monplace that the careless teacher may pass over them in a 
 thoughtless manner. But if the teacher will ponder over the 
 suggestions from time to time, test her own work in its details 
 by them, and seriously strive to improve her school and its en- 
 vironment, the results will tell. It is necdbss to say that no 
 effort has been made to exhaust the subject of rural school 
 
8 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 pedagogy. On the other hand the effort has been made to 
 point oat a few of the more obvious weak spots in rural school 
 work. 
 
 SCOPE OF THE COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 This course is based on the requirement of the law that cer- 
 tain branches shall be taught in the public schools. Section 
 447, of the Revised Statutes, contains this provision: "Orthog- 
 raphy, Orthoepy, Reading, Writing, Grammar, Geography, 
 Elements of Agriculture, Arithmetic, the Constitution of the 
 United States, and the Constitution of this state, shall be taught 
 in every district school, and such other branches as the board 
 may determine." Section 447a, requires that provision shall 
 be made by the proper local school authorities for instructing 
 "all pupils in all schools supported by public money or under 
 state control, in physiology and hygiene with special reference 
 to the effects of stimulants and narcotics upon the human sys- 
 tem." Instruction in drawing and vocal music is made op- 
 tional for two reasons: first, the law does not specially provide 
 that these studies shall be taught in public schools; second, the 
 majority of the teachers in elementary schools are not yet quali- 
 fied to teach them. Still, it is urged that regular exercises in 
 these branches should be conducted whenever the district board 
 is willing, the teacher is competent, and the ordinary work of 
 the school will not be impaired thereby. It is recommended 
 that oral lessons in morals and manners and in the elements of 
 some of the natural sciences be presented in the general exer- 
 cises throughout the course, whenever this can be done to the 
 advantage of the pupils. 
 
 The attempt made is to adapt the instruction in the various 
 branches to the needs of the pupils in attendance upon the dis- 
 trict schools and to the general conditions under which these 
 schools are organized and managed. There is kept constantly 
 in mind the effort of the past few years in teachers' institutes 
 and normal schools to furnish a clear understanding of the 
 elementary studies, and of suitable methods for teaching the 
 different subjects. Without doubt the state will depend upon 
 these agencies for the same service for several years to come. 
 
GENERAL 'SUGGESTIONS. 9 
 
 A period of nine years is usually required for a child in rural 
 schools to gain a fair knowledge of the common branches. The 
 brighter pupils may accomplish this work in less time, while 
 the others will be occupied for a longer period. A very large 
 percentage of the children in the state receive, before they reach 
 sixteen years of age, all the culture which they ever obtain in 
 the schools. The plan herein adopted is to group the studies 
 of the course into large divisions, each of which can be mastered 
 by the pupils in three years, on an average. It would not be 
 desirable, if it were possible, to draw an arbitrary line separat- 
 ing with precision all the work suitable for primary pupils 
 from that of an intermediate grade. It is believed, however, 
 that a reasonable and practical division is made herein, that 
 will serve as a general guide, though in individual cases some 
 departures from these lines may be found profitable. On this 
 classification the pupils in the country schools can be divided 
 according to the studies which they are pursuing, into three 
 groups, designated as PRIMARY, MIDDLE and UPPER FORM. 
 
 The principal idea of the course is to grade the work of each 
 pupil to a proportionate advance in each of the branches com- 
 posing a Form; the subordinate idea is to grade the school 
 into three sections, each representing but one form. In other 
 words a "Form" is a body of related work, and is not a group 
 of pupils. It is not the purpose of this gradation to regulate 
 one pupil's progress by that of another, but to require each 
 pupil to make equal progress in all the branches. The course 
 shows how much geography or language a boy should know 
 when he has acquired a certain knowledge of arithmetic. It 
 must be borne in mind that as each Form comprises several 
 classes, all pupils of a Form may neither enter nor leave it at 
 one time. The promotion of each pupil will depend upon his 
 ability, industry and regularity of attendance. At the same 
 time, the skillful teacher will be able to preserve reasonable 
 uniformity in the progress of all the pupils and to maintain 
 proper classification. In response to request some effort has 
 been made to indicate work by years. 
 
10 MANUAL OF TIEB ELKMEJS TAEY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 READING. 
 
 I. Fundamental things for teachers to consider. 
 
 1. The child's mental equipment for school. 
 
 When a child enters school he has a store of ideas, and a 
 vocabulary by means of which he expresses his ideas, and 
 understands to a limited extent the spoken language of others. 
 The amount of these mental possessions depends chiefly upon 
 the child's surroundings, that is upon his parents, his asso- 
 ciates, his home and its natural situation, all included under the 
 word environment. 
 
 References: King: Psychology of Child Development, Ch. 
 XVI. 
 
 Carpenter, Baker and Scott: The Teaching of English, pp. 
 64-65. 
 
 Parker: Talks on Pedagogics, p. 16-17; 185. 
 
 Arnold: Reading: How to Teach It, pp. 58-61. 
 
 2. The child's hearing and speaking-vocabulary. 
 
 It has been estimated that the average child of six years is 
 able to use from six hundred to eight hundred words, his 
 speaking vocabulary; and is able to understand when heard 
 four or five times as many, his hearing vocabulary. He has 
 learned, when he enters school, more of language than he ever 
 again can learn in the same time. It may be well to stop and 
 inquire how it was done. Can we get at the secret of the suc- 
 cess of tiie natural home process? And can the school use 
 the same or similar methods? 
 
 Parker: Talks on Pedagogics, p. 312. 
 
READING. 11 
 
 8. First, how did he get his hearing-vocabulary? 
 
 The child begins to hear language long before he begins to 
 speak. His hearing vocabulary, referred to in 2, he learned 
 naturally, which means that he learned it according to the 
 fundamental law of his mental action. The mother was acting 
 in conformity with this law, (law of contiguity) when, putting 
 a spoon into the child's hand, she spoke the word " spoon." 
 The seeing and the feeling of the spoon, (the starting points of 
 the idea), and the namr, hoard in connection with these sensa- 
 tions, became associated in the child's mind. Repetitions of 
 this experience finally made the association permanent so that 
 one form of activity suggested the other: that is, either the 
 memory image of the spoon or the sight of it, called up or sug- 
 gested the spoken word; and the spoken word suggested the 
 idea. Now the word has come to perform its function; it calls 
 up its appropriate activity, it is the " sign of the idea." In 
 this way before he entered school, v;as the entire hearing- 
 vocabulary of the child built up, and in this way will it con- 
 tinue to grow. All words, if of any value to the child, must be 
 learned in connection with the objects for which they stand. 
 
 Ilinsdale: Teaching the Language Arts, Ch. VI. 
 
 Tracy: Psychology of Childhood, Ch. V. 
 
 Parker: Talks on Pedagogics, p. 180-185. 
 
 4-. Second, how did he get his speaking-vocabularyr 
 
 Acting according to his instinct to imitate those around 
 him, he learned by repeated efforts to make his organs of 
 speech say the words. He will learn to sa'y words as he has 
 heard them; he will form good habits of language or bad, ac- 
 cording as he hears it in trie home and among his associates. 
 Whether good or bad, these habits of language like all early 
 impressions are strong, it being well nigh impossible later in 
 life, even under the best teaching, wholly to eradicate them. 
 
 Hinsdale: Teaching the Language Arts, p. 39. 
 
 Carpenter, Baker and Scott: The Teaching of English, pp. 
 111!, 113, 114. 
 
MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COLIUS.B OF STUDY. 
 
 6. What the school is to do. 
 
 It will now be understood what is meant by saying that 
 when a child enters school he knows certain words in two 
 ways: he has the auditory image r.nd the vocal-image of these 
 words, and both are associated with ideas, so that through 
 these words, he both understands and expresses thought. 
 The school must teach him to know these words in two other 
 ways, by means of which he may have another way of getting 
 and another way of expressing thought. The eye must now 
 share with the ear, the work of thought-getting a.nd the hand 
 share with the mouth, the work of thought-expressing. He 
 must learn to read and write. 
 
 Salisbury: The Theory of Teaching, pp. 103-107. 
 
 Titchener: Primer of Psychology, Ch. V1J. 
 
 6. Learning to read compared with learning to hear language. 
 In teaching the child to read, the same method may be em- 
 ployed that the parent used in helping him to get his hearing 
 vocabulary. (Sec. 3.) The parent did not begin to teach the 
 child to hear language by dividing the oral word into its com- 
 ponent parts; so the teacher need not begin to teach the child 
 to read the language by dividing the written word into its 
 component parts. The child does not need to " know his let- 
 ters" in order to learn to read. The teacher starts with some 
 familiar thought or idea which the child can and has expressed 
 in oral language, and lets him see the same expressed in clear 
 script upon the board. Repetitions of the association of words 
 and their meaning finally make the association permanent so 
 that at the sight of the words, their appropriate activities are 
 called up. The written word has become the " sign of an 
 idea." The child has begun to read. 
 
 Hinsdale: Teaching the Language Arts, pp. 88-90. 
 
 7. Learning to write compared with learning to speak. 
 
 In teaching the child to write, as in teaching him to ppenk, 
 (Sec. 4), imitation does its work. By repeated efforts he learns 
 to coordinate his muscles to make the letter-forms he sees. 
 
BEADING. 13 
 
 Fortunate is the child who sees from the start good writing, 
 Good writing for children is large, round, vertical or semi-ver- 
 tical, and near to print in appearance. 
 
 Chubb: The Teaching of English, p. 73. 
 
 Carpenter, Baker and Scott: The Teaching of English, p, 
 117. 
 
 8. The importance of attention. 
 
 In learning words in the four ways already mentioned 
 there is one condition that always determines the ease and 
 readiness with which the different associations are fixed in the 
 memory. This condition is the degree of attention. The greater 
 the attention the fewer the repetitions needed to fix an associa- 
 tion. Hence in teaching^ the attention of the pupil is the first 
 thing to strive for. 
 
 Parker: Talks on Pedagogics, Ch. VI. 
 
 Titchener: Primer of Psychology, Ch. V. 
 
 9. Relation of interest and attention. 
 
 Attention is bound up with interest. The thing that the 
 child attends to is the thing that directly interests him. The 
 interesting thing is the thing that attracts the attention. When 
 one of these appears the other appears with it, they are the 
 two sides of one experience. 
 
 Titchener: Primer of Psychology, pp. 81, 82. 
 
 Salisbury: The Theory of Teaching, Chap. XVI. 
 
 10. The dominant interest of children. 
 
 Interest in activity of some kind is the predominant interest 
 of children. Varied and continual activity, mental and physi- 
 cal, has characterized the first wonderful six years of his life. 
 Activity must continue after he enters school, or stupidity will 
 result. It is the business of the teacher to so direct the child's 
 activities, that through them he is interested, and therefore at- 
 tends to the matters which the school has for its especial ends, 
 among which teaching the child to read is of first importance. 
 
 Parker: Talks on Pedagogics, pp. 20-24. 
 
li MAXUAL OF THE ELEMEJSTAKY (XHJIiSE OF STUUY. 
 
 II. Beginning Beading. 
 
 11. General description of good method. 
 
 The teacher who has clearly realized the full meaning of 
 these fundamental points has made some progress in learning 
 how to teach reading. All methods of teaching reading are 
 good that recognize from the start the important truth that 
 teaching reading is teaching children to get thought from writ- 
 ten or printed sentences; and to give this thought to others. 
 Methods have been successful in their operation, when they 
 have established in children the habit of looking through 
 words to the ideas back of them, and of not being satisfied 
 unless the sentences yield some thought to them; and, further, 
 of never thinking they can read orally, that is, attempt to give 
 the thought of the written or printed sentence to others, till 
 they, themselves, have the thought to give. 
 
 12. The needs of foreign-speaking children. 
 
 Many of the children who must be taught to read English 
 in the schools of Wisconsin, come to school understanding 
 and using only a foreign language or but little English. Be- 
 fore they can be taught to read English, they must be taught 
 to talk English, at least enough English to understand the 
 sentences which the teacher is to make the basis of her first 
 work in reading. Foreign-speaking children easily form asso- 
 ciations between the words as pronounced by the teacher and 
 their written or printed form, and are allowed to call words 
 from the book, and think they are reading. They too, must 
 be made to understand from the first that reading is getting 
 thought. The method is practically the same for all children, 
 English-speaking or foreign-speaking. The chief difference in 
 the treatment of these two classes is the much greater amount 
 of preliminary language work needed by the latter to prepare 
 him for the reading. 
 
 13. Oral expression the basis of reading. 
 
 It cannot be too strongly emphasized that all reading for be- 
 ginners must be based upon oral expression. There should 
 
be much practice in free expression preparatory to the read- 
 ing. There is a variety of interests which the teacher may 
 use to stimulate children to talk. Several of them are 
 mentioned here, in order that teachers may choose those best 
 suited to their need; also to suggest ways of changing method 
 and thus preventing monotony. Reading matter based on oral 
 language may be secured by means of: 
 
 a) Conversations, which should relate to the home life of the 
 child, such as his pets, the animals he knows, etc. A reading 
 lesson coming from such an exercise might be about some 
 one's dog "Jack". Each child repeats something which Jack's 
 master says lie could do, until the teacher has from four to 
 six statements on the board. Jack can jump. Jack can play. 
 
 Each child repeats his own statement pointing to the line 
 which belongs to him. Teacher erases the last word of each 
 statement and supplies another as given by some pupil. 
 Finally all last words are erased leaving only " Jack can" which 
 becomes the basis for the next lesson. The words "Jack" and 
 "can" are placed in the vocabulary list for memorizing and re- 
 view drill. (See course for first year.) 
 
 b) Stories commonly known by children and loved by them, 
 such as the "Three Pigs", or "Jack and the Beanstalk." From 
 the oral expression of the story by the child, short statements 
 are selected for the board. This is better for English-speaking 
 than for foreign-speaking children as is the following: 
 
 c) Mother goose jingles, such as, "I had a little pony." 
 "Rock-a-by, baby." 
 
 d) Collection of interesting things, as toys, bright objects, 
 fruit, etc. Out of play with these and the resulting conversa- 
 tion, sentences for the board are formed. The idioms "I see", 
 "She sees", "He sees", "That is", "I have", "We have" may 
 be taught from these, and a great variety of sentences built 
 up. This is the best way to begin with foreign-speaking 
 children. 
 
 e) Directions and commands. These may need for their exe- 
 cution a collection of objects. The directions are at first given 
 
16 MANUAL, OF T1IE EL,ME.NTA.K,Y COURSE OF blLDY. 
 
 by the children to one another, and later are given by the 
 chalk. This way of using directed activity as a means to 
 teach reading is described more fully in 15. It can be used 
 with foreign-speaking children, and is very helpful in teaching 
 them to understand English. If this method is followed to 
 the exclusion of the others, the pupil is deprived of experience 
 with sentences arranged in logical order, which he needs be- 
 fore taking up the book, and which is given by using the 
 means suggested in a, 6, and c. 
 
 f) Pictures. The examination and discussion of the picture, 
 becomes the source of the sentences used for the reading 
 lesson. 
 
 14. Simple apparatus and its great value. 
 
 The apparatus needed to teach reading, other than that men- 
 tioned in 13, is as follows: 
 
 a) A blackboard. The first reading is entirely done from 
 words and sentences written upon the blackboard by the teacher 
 as they are spoken by the children. There is no need o/ the 
 teacher printing words or sentences; the child can just as easily 
 learn to read writing as printing. 
 
 b) Manila paper. This paper of postal -card weight can be 
 bought of any dealer at five cents a square yard; a heavier 
 quality costs eight cents a square yard. 
 
 c) A shading pen, or a black crayon for making letters with 
 broad strokes that may be seen across the room. (Get black 
 "Standard Checking" crayon, No. 31.) 
 
 d) Colored crayon for teacher's blackboard illustrations. 
 
 e) A common window shade with a spring roller. This is 
 to be fastened to wood work above the blackboard, and used to 
 cover lessons written on board for sight reading. 
 
 f) Directions. 
 
 (1) A square yard of manila paper will cut most eco- 
 nomically into strips 18 inches by 3^- inches and 
 will make twenty strips of this size. These are 
 to contain the sentences as fast as they begin to 
 be known by the pupils. The sentences should 
 
BEADING. 1 7 
 
 be written with the shading pen, or hlack crayon, 
 the teacher taking great pains to make her writ- 
 ing simple, round, and free from all flourishes or 
 useless lines. (Find a good copy in some system 
 of vertical or semi-vertical writing books, and fol- 
 low it faithfully.) If a larger hand writing is 
 wanted than that suited to strips of the size 
 named, cut the strips 28 inches by 4J- inches. 
 
 (2) Cut some of the manila board into cards, 7 inches 
 
 by 4i inches. It will be seen that one square 
 yard will make forty such cards. Upon these the 
 words which pupils have had in their reading and 
 which the teacher desires to have retained in mem- 
 ory, are to be written, that they may always be 
 ready for review. 
 
 (3) Others of the cards can be used for the phonograms, 
 
 as the child learns them. (By the word phono- 
 gram is meant any representation of a sound, either 
 simple, as /", or compound, as ight.) 
 
 (4) If any pieces are left, they can be cut into small 
 
 cards about 1 by i inch. These are for sen- 
 tence building by the pupils at their seats. The 
 quickest and best way to make these small cards 
 is this: Take a piece of manila board, and 
 mark it off with a pencil into spaces 1 by i inch. 
 In the spaces write with pen and ink the words as 
 they are learned. Make at least as many dupli- 
 cates of this sheet as you have pupils. Cut up 
 the sheets. Put each full set of words, with a 
 number of duplicates, into an envelope or a spool 
 box, upon which you have written the child's 
 name. Add to these sets as the list grows. Words 
 tint begin with capitals in the sentences given on 
 the blackboard, or strips, should appear in the 
 same form on the cards. The word with the 
 small initial letter (if it is not a proper noun) 
 can be given later. 
 3 C. 
 
IS .MAXUAI, OF THE ELEMENTARY COU*RSE OF STUDY. 
 
 (5) This outfit of cards, material for which can be 
 bought for a quarter of a dollar, is of greater value 
 to the teacher of reading than the most expensive 
 chart. Since the teacher can change the order in 
 which the words and sentences are to appear, 
 children soon see that they must be alert and 
 attentive. Reading from the cards requires a real 
 discrimination of word forms, not a memorized 
 association of words with pictures, or of words in 
 a fixed series. 
 
 15. Description of method of starting children in reading. 
 (See e in section 13.) 
 
 a) The teacher finds out by conversing with them something 
 >f the exp3rienees and interests of her primary class, and en- 
 leavors in every way possible to put them in a responsive at- 
 titude towards her. 
 
 b) She selects some simple act as tossing a ball, and she anil 
 her class engage in the game. Each child takes his turn at 
 giving the command to the others: "Toss the ball." 
 
 c) "Now the chalk will have its turn in telling you what to 
 <lo." While all eyes are watching her hand, the teacher writes 
 r.ipi lly in large, round script, "Toss the ball." 
 
 d) She writes the sentence several times telling them to 
 watch how her hand does it. She calls on different children to 
 do what the sentence says. 
 
 e) In the next exercise she bounds the ball and writes as be- 
 fore. Powers of discrimination begin to be exercised. She 
 helps by calling attention to the words "Bound" and "Toss" 
 and showing difference in the way they are made. 
 
 f) In a following exercise the pupils find the ball on the 
 desk. The teacher writes one of the sentences already given 
 and asks, "Who can do what the sentence tells you to do?" 
 When in this or some future exercise a child steps to the desk 
 and gets the ball and performs the act called for, he has read 
 the sentence. She writes the other sentence and has the act 
 performed. Erases and repeats. 
 
KEADIAU. 10 
 
 g) Otlier objects are introduced and other sentences follow, 
 as, "Open the umbrella," "Close the umbrella," "Open the 
 red box," "Open the black box," etc. In selecting the nouns 
 for this stage of the work, care should be taken to avoid those 
 that are similar in form, so that too close discrimination will 
 not be demanded. The same words are used in different sen- 
 tences. 
 
 h) As soon as the children are really for it, the teacher will 
 have them use their seat period in sentence building with the 
 word cards. She will give each child several cards, containing 
 the words already used, as "Toss" and "Bound" and the 
 phrase "the ball," telling them to go to their seats and try to 
 put them together to look like the sentences on the board. 
 Section 14. 
 
 i) As the children begin to show some power in the reading 
 of the sentences, the teacher will write them upon the strips. 
 (Sec. 14.) The drill exercise now consists in showing the class 
 these sentences one after the other in ever varying order, and 
 calling upon the children to do what is called for. 
 
 j) Although many exercises are given in which the children 
 read the sentences without speaking the words, they should 
 sometimes be called upon to tell what familiar sentences say 
 that is to read orally. The expression will probably be 
 natural. 
 
 k) The names of the children are early introduced, and used 
 in this way and any other that may be suggested: Teacher, 
 "This child," (writing the name Charlie) "may do this," 
 (writing, "wave the flag.") Their names, as perfectly written 
 as possible should be placed on a large sheet of paper, hung 
 where the children can see it. 
 
 1) The declarative form of the sentence may be introduced, 
 using the same nouns; as, "I have the flag," "I see the flag." 
 The idioms "I have," "I see," and "I can," furnish the foun- 
 dation of many sentences, as do those introducing the other pro- 
 noun as "He has," "He can," "He sees," etc. This form of 
 sentence can be made more interesting, and as a thorough test oi 
 
20 MANUAL, OF THE ELEMENTARY COtTRSE OF STUD^. 
 
 real reading as the imperative by the use of the simple device 
 of "making them true." 
 
 Illustration: Teacher writes the sentence "I have the 
 penny," and asks some one to make it true. The child who 
 can read the sentence will take the penny from the collection of 
 objects, a test that he is able to get thought from the written 
 words. If the teacher writes the sentence, "The apple is on 
 the desk," the child shows that he has read it by putting the 
 apple on the desk. If the phonic exercises suggested in 20 
 are going on, the words selected for the reading should contain 
 as many as possible of the phonograms being drilled on there. 
 
 m) While this work with sentences has been going on, the 
 teacher has called the child's attention frequently to words. 
 The sentence building out of the word-cards has also interested 
 the pupils in words. As soon as children have discovered that 
 sentences are made up of words, which they can be brought 
 to do in a week or two, then words become objects of attention. 
 Now word drills are part of the daily exercise. The words are 
 shown for a moment, and pronounced by pupils in succession. 
 The child has now a motive for learning words, because he 
 readily sees that the more words he knows the more sentences 
 he can read; and the more he can read, the more he can do: and 
 activity of some sort is his greatest desire. The word method 
 has now joined hands with the sentence method to work for 
 the child's progress. The words the, a and an should not be 
 taught as separate words, but always in connection with the 
 words which they modify, and pronounced as the unaccented 
 syllable of that word, a ball, the flaq, an apple. 
 
 n) While this has been going on, another purpose of the 
 teacher has begun to operate. She has begun in a natural, 
 easy way to train the ears of her pupils to hear the elementary 
 sounds in words. For instance, she may spell by sound, the 
 names of objects, and ask the child to find them. She may 
 spell the names of the children of whom the requests are made, 
 as "J-a-m-s (giving the sounds of the word, somewhat separated) 
 may close the door." She has them think about the sounds 
 that words begin with, asking, "What sound does the name of 
 
BEADING. 21 
 
 this begin with?" pointing to an object; or, pointing to the written 
 word on the board, "What sound does this word begin with?" 
 "What sound does you name begin with?" All this is done to 
 lead children to understand that spoken words are made up of 
 sounds, and that the letters in the written words stand for 
 these sounds. As soon as this is understood, then the sounds 
 of the letters become objects of attention. (Sections 20 and 24, 
 also First year d.) The pupil now has a motive for learning 
 the sounds, because he sees that by knowing "what letters 
 say," he can make out words better, and knowing words he can 
 read sentences. The phonic method has now joined hands 
 witli tne other two, making a strong trio to aid the child in 
 the mastery of this all-important art. As soon as the pupil has 
 found out that he can do things, a stimulus is afforded that re- 
 sults in a great strengthening of application, concentration ^nd 
 self-control, 
 o) Summary of the practical advantages of this method. 
 
 (1) The pupils begin to read' at once, and thus time is 
 
 saved. 
 
 (2) From the very start, reading means what it should, 
 
 the getting of thought, not the calling of words. 
 Right habit is begun. 
 
 (3) They have been started rightly in oral reading; for 
 
 they have been obliged to get the thought of the 
 whole sentence before being allowed to say it. 
 
 (4) Right habits of expression are started; for since the 
 
 thought is clearly understood and felt the oral 
 
 reading will be natural and easy. 
 (}} They have had some practice in taking in a number 
 
 of words at a glance, which power, developed 
 
 further, will help to make them fluent readers. 
 (0) They have begun the mastery of phonics which i* 
 
 the means to self-help in getting new words. 
 
 I 0. Time needed for the work just described. 
 
 The time needed for all this will, of course, vary with the 
 maturity and general ability of the children, and with the skill 
 
22 MANUAL OF THE EI-EMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY. 
 
 of the teachers. Children can profitably do all their reading 
 from the blackboard and the cards for a period of from two to 
 four months, according to the maturity of the pupil. Primary 
 teachers advise keeping children at this work until they can 
 execute the commands or "make true" the statements written 
 on twenty-five cards, the oral reading of the same following as 
 a natural consequence. Since they will also know separately 
 the elements of these twenty-five sentences, they can in the 
 same time learn to read from the blackboard many more sen- 
 tences containing the same elements arranged differently. For 
 example: The sentence on the card is, "The red box is on the 
 table". In another is the phrase, "on the chair". A vari- 
 ation for blackboard drill would be the sentence, "the red box 
 is on the chair." Variety of treatment is a strong factor in 
 securing and retaining interest, and a teacher would do well to 
 try all the means suggested in 13. Some work calling for the 
 orderly arrangement of sentences, as the story or description 
 of a pet should be given in preparation for the book. 
 
 17. Preparation for the book. 
 
 Before reading from a book can be profitably introduced, the 
 pupil must be able to speak in clear, intelligible English. It 
 is hoped that when ready for the book, all pupils may have the 
 inviting prospect of a good one. There is really, in a majority 
 of cases, no valid excuse for anything else. Readers abound, 
 beautiful in their general makeup, and filled with pictures and 
 reading matter, adapted to children's interests. The cost of 
 one of these attractive new books is so little that any parent 
 who stops to consider the question would not deny his child the 
 benefit which would come from such a possession so cheaply 
 bought. 
 
 When such a reader is in prospect, the teacher will shape 
 her preliminary work so as to prepare her pupils for using it. 
 The words and sentences occurring on the first pages should 
 be introduced for blackboard reading and drftl along with the 
 others. When this is done the transition to the print from 
 
23 
 
 the script form of sentences already familiar, will be readily 
 made, and progress in the book be more rapid and satisfactory. 
 The phonic work also, should have been planned somewhat 
 towards his needs in getting the first words of the book; or, if 
 the book has a carefully worked out system of its own, the 
 preliminary work should have started the pupils in the mastery 
 of that system. 
 
 18. The transition from script to print. 
 
 If the teacher's writing has been what a primary teacher's 
 should be, the transition from script to print will not be dif- 
 ficult; for the script letters free from flourishes and all unnec- 
 essary lines, are so nearly like print that the children, know- 
 ing the former, soon learn the latter. When the time comes 
 for the pupil to read from a book, the teacher writes the words 
 or sentences on the board in the' familiar form, arranging them 
 as they are in the book. The pupil reads the sentence on the 
 board and then compares the sentence in the book with it, word 
 for word. He is ajked to tell what the sentence on the board 
 says and then that the sentence in the book says the same 
 thing. It will be necessary to put the entire lesson on the board 
 only a few times. After that, only parts of sentences will be 
 troublesome, or, occasionally, whole sentences, which should 
 then be written on the board and worked out by the use of 
 phonics. 
 
 19. The pointing habit. 
 
 The pupil should not be allowed to point to the words as he 
 reads.* He should do as the method described will start him in 
 doing; that is, take in the sentence at a glance and then give 
 the thought. Teachers are sometimes seen pointing to the 
 words of the book or words on the blackboard one after the 
 other and having the child call them in succession, also allow- 
 ing pupils to do the same with finger or pointer. While the 
 child may use his finger to guide his eye while he is studying 
 the sentence to get the thought, when the time for oral reading 
 comes, he is to give the thought, smoothly and naturally, and 
 
24 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTAKY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 not merely call the words separately. This does not refer to 
 pointing in drill exercises upon lists of words. 
 
 20. 1 he use of phonics. 
 
 If the suggestions made in sec. 15, n, have been carried out 
 the pupil will, when the reader is taken up, know a number of 
 the sounds of the consonants, occurring in the words they used 
 in their script sentences. It is easiest with little children to 
 teach sounds in connection with initial letters. He has learned 
 that some of the letters have different sounds in different words. 
 The teacher should have drilled him in the sounds of the letters 
 occurring in the first words of the book. This knowledge 
 should be constantly applied. Thus: He comes to the word 
 hand. He knows the phonogram an, and the sounds of h and 
 d. (If he does not this is the place for the teacher to give him 
 these sounds.) He puts tli3 sound d after an, getting and, and 
 then prefixes the sound of h. In this way he should be taught 
 to work out the pronunciation of new words, a process he learns 
 to do very rapidly if once he gets started, and the teacher 
 knows, herself, how to make the sounds of all letters, dis- 
 tinctly and accurately, and keeps up a short drill daily upon 
 phonograms and consonants. In this work concert drills are 
 of little value. (See suggestions in 14 and 24.) 
 
 21. "Learning the letters." 
 
 During the first weeks the teacher will sometimes name the 
 letters as she writes words, or as she points letters out in the 
 phonic drill. She incidentally calls attention to the character- 
 istics of letters. Thus: "Open begins'with a round o." "See 
 this crooked s," or "this tall /," etc. It will be found at the 
 end of a few weeks that the children have picked up from this 
 incidental mention, the names of many of the letters. The let- 
 ter names should all be recognized by the end of the first year, 
 since the pupil is to begin to spoil by letter in the second year. 
 Pupils should also be able to recite the alphabet by the end of 
 the first year. After the pupils are started in their books, 
 teacher should add to the material for seat work for each child, 
 
25 
 
 a lot of small cards containing the letters of the alphabet, both 
 capitals and small letters. (Set of letters can bo got from 
 Thomas Charles Co., Chicago.) 
 
 '22. Learning to write. 
 
 A child should begin to write just as soon as the impulse 
 prompts him to this act; that is, just as soon as he can and will 
 make the attempt. The writing for the first two months should 
 be on the blackboard and should be large and free. If the de- 
 mand for accuracy is made too early, it is likely to result in a 
 cramped, awkward movement that persists in the later hand- 
 writing. Control of the arm from the shoulder should be the 
 first thing aimed at. (See course for lower form.) The writ- 
 ing at the seats, beginning later, should be on unruled paper 
 or on slates. It is best if children can have an extra largo size 
 of lead pencil similar to those known as the editor's pencil. 
 This will prevent cramping of the fingers, and will promote 
 freedom of movement. 
 
 Since imitation is the chief factor here (Sec. 7), the example 
 set by the teacher, both as to freedom of movement and sim- 
 plicity and beauty of form, will determine largely how her pu- 
 pils will write. All the writing will at first be in connect ion 
 with the reading: the words and sentences attempted by the 
 child will be those used in the reading exercise. The writing 
 thus aids the reading by making the letter and word-forms 
 clearer, and by quickening the power to perceive differences 
 and resemblances. If the teacher has written her small word- 
 cards well, the sentences built out of them by the child will 
 serve him as copies for his writing, the pupil can set up his 
 own copy. 
 
 For the pedagogy of writing, see Parker: Talks on Pedagog- 
 ics, pp. 313-327. 
 
 23. Spelling. 
 
 Spelling during the first year is largely phonic instead of by 
 letter. Regular exercises in spelling should be given just as 
 soon as pupils have caught the idea that words are made up of 
 
20) MAXTAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 sounds, and know the sounds of a few of the letters. This ex- 
 ercise will reinforce the reading by increasing his power to find 
 out words for himself and by giving him practice in doing it. 
 Suggestions for this work are given in sec. 24. For valuable 
 and varied suggestions upon Primary Reading, see Kellogg: 
 Methods of Teaching Primary Reading in Ten- Cities. Ed. 
 Pub. Co. 
 
 III. Work in Phonics, Articulation and Pronunciation 
 the Tocal Mechanics of Reading. 
 
 24. Instruction and suggestions to teachers. 
 
 (NOTE. These suggestions are placed here instead of in the 
 course for the primary form, because this work may profitably 
 be done by middle and upper form pupils, if the teacher finds 
 that this important part of their training has been previously 
 neglected.) 
 
 a) The steps in teaching the sounds of the letters are: 
 
 (1) Analysis of the spoken word into its separate sounds, 
 
 (Sec. 15, n), 
 
 (2) Analysis of the written or printed word into parts 
 
 corresponding to these sounds, 
 
 (3) The association of the sound with their symbols. 
 
 b) Qualify yourself in phonics. 
 
 Unless the teacher can do the first of the above, and can 
 .nake the elementary sounds correctly and distinctly, she can- 
 aot do this important part of her work. But there is no ex- 
 cuse for not being able to make the elementary sounds cor- 
 rectly. Those who have not had this training, in their own 
 school-days, can teach themselves. First turn to the table of 
 consonants in the Guide to Pronunciation in the front part of 
 the International Dictionary, and study it. Find out what the 
 names in the table mean. To teach yourself how to make any 
 consonant sound, pronounce some word having this sound as 
 its initial one. After pronouncing it two or three times in suc- 
 cession, making a particular effort to give the initial sound 
 distinctly, start a fourth time to pronounce the word and "cut 
 
READING. 27 
 
 it off" after the first sound is made. You now have the ele- 
 ment you want. Practice it. Proceed in this way until you 
 can make all the surd and sonant sounds given in the table. 
 Remember that the sound of g is not guh, nor of d, duh, nor 
 of b, buh. Guh is no more the right sound of g, than gih, or 
 giih, or ggh. The sound of g has no vowel element in it. It 
 is just the initial sound in "get," or "game." After getting 
 the consonants, study the vowels. 
 
 c) A daily exercise in phonics distinct from the reading. 
 
 In most of the best primers and first readers, a carefully 
 worked out system of phonics is given. Where readers must 
 be used in which no such help is given, the suggestions given 
 for phonics and word building in course for first year should 
 be followed. Illustration of method is also given in 15, n. 
 There should be one or two other exorcises in phonics each day. 
 [f no more than from three to five minutes can be found for 
 this exercise, much can be accomplished, provided the teacher 
 t )lans for it. Here the teacher should endeavor to reinforce the 
 ,vork going on in the reading class, and drill upon phonics and 
 vvord building. 
 
 d) Teach the consonant sounds first. 
 
 It is claimed that there is a certain sequence of ease that 
 should be observed in the introduction of consonant sounds. 
 The authors of readers differ as to what this sequence is. 
 Tracy, (See "Psych, of Childhood, p. 149) gives the following: 
 b, s, k, p, h, d, in, t, w, f, n, g, 1, r, sh, th, ch, j, y, u, v, q. 
 This with slight modifications is adopted here. 
 
 e) How to teach the consonant sounds. 
 
 Suppose you begin with b, write the letter on the board/ and 
 tell the children what it is, giving the sound, not the name. 
 Practice it a little while and leave it. Find a moment between 
 classes, when the attention of the beginners can be called to it, 
 and the question put, "What is it?" Next teach s. Now for a 
 day or two keep both characters on the board, and have short 
 drills on them. Use any scraps of time for this. Teach k in 
 the same way, and show them the other letter c, which some- 
 times has the same sound. Drill on the three. Keep on in- 
 
28 \fATSTTTAT. OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 troducing them one at a time until p, h, d, n, (instead of m as 
 given by Tracy) and t, are learned. Write the letters, with 
 broad lines on cards, and use these for drills instead of the 
 blackboard. (See 14.) 
 
 f ) How to conduct a drill exercise. 
 
 Stand before the class and show a card to each child in order. 
 If he does not answer instant-ly, say "class," and let any pupil 
 give it who can. Do not be discouraged if there are many failures 
 the first few days. You will find your pupils brightening up 
 under the drill, paying better attention, and soon showing de- 
 cided progress. It will not take a minute to go over the cards 
 several times with your class. Keep the drill up until the 
 eight consonants are known at sight by most if not all of your 
 pupils. You will find that this exercise has done much more 
 for your pupils than merely to teach them eight phonograms. 
 
 Cautions: (1) Be sure vou know how to give the right 
 sound of every phonogram you attempt to 
 teach. 
 
 (2) Do not teach new ones while those previously 
 
 introduced are not well known. 
 
 (3) Never be satisfied with anything but the exact 
 
 pronunciation from your pupils. 
 
 g) Introduce easy compound phonograms. 
 
 The following are selected for the first, because of their ease, 
 and because from them and the consonants already known so 
 many familiar words can be built, an, at, en, et, in, it, un, ut. 
 There will be no need of any diacritical marking. Following 
 the general plan suggested for the teaching of the simple pho- 
 nograms, introduce the above, and drill upon them until they 
 are known. Then begm word building, using the consonants. 
 The teacher writes pan, covers an and has the child sound p; 
 covers p and has the child sound an; child then puts the two 
 together. Out of the eight syllables and eight consonants 
 given, nearly fifty familiar words can he built. Make words of 
 other phonograms within the range of the pupil's present ac- 
 quirements, as am, ad, ip. 
 
READING. 29 
 
 h) Teach the remaining consonants in the same way, as fast 
 as the work can be thoroughly done and no faster. Build new 
 words from them, as one by one they are introduced, and teach 
 new compound phonograms. 
 
 i) Teaching the long vowels. 
 
 Add e to certain words selected from the first list, as hat, 
 mat, fat, pin, din, tin, win, fin, bit, kit. This introduces the 
 long sound of the vowel, and shows the child one of the con- 
 ditions indicating this sound. No marking of the vowel is 
 necessary. 
 
 j ) List of common phonograms out of which hundreds of 
 words can be built. 
 
 (1) Word phonograms: am, and, old, all, ant, ink, air, 
 
 ear, ash, end, ice, ill, edge, out, ought, east, utter, 
 arrow, oil, ounce. 
 
 (2) Combinations of r, which are difficult to analyze: 
 
 ar (share), er (her), ir (sir), or (for), ur (fur). 
 
 (3) ack, eck, ick, ock; atch, etch, itch, otch; ew, ow. 
 
 ang, ing, ong, ung; ight; ay, oy, andoi; tion, ness, 
 oat, oad; ound, awl, eel, eal, earn, ance, eeze, ief, 
 oop, oast, umble. 
 
 (4) Combinations of consonants that will be needed 
 
 early, bl, cl, fl, gl, pi, si; br, cr, dr, fr, gr, pr, 
 tr; sc, or sk, sm, sn, sp, st. 
 k) Suggestions for exercises. 
 
 Exercises with these phonograms take many interesting 
 forms, which are described in the course of study for the grades 
 to which they are adapted. If pupils in higher grades than 
 those specified have not had this work, they can take the same 
 exercises with profit. 
 
 Arnold: Reading; How to teach It, pp. 70-85. 
 1) The effects of these exercises. 
 
 (1) These word-building exercises have their first effect 
 upon the reading by making clearer to children 
 the idea of classification, that is of "families" 01 
 
30 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 types of words, thus increasing their power to 
 recognize and pronounce new words. 
 (2) The next effect is seen in the power to spell. These 
 exercises train children's ears to hear the sounds 
 in words, and knowing the symbols of these 
 sounds, the correct form of words, that are at all 
 phonetic, is more readily mastered. 
 
 Carpenter, Baker and Scott: The teaching of Eng., pp. 109- 
 112. 
 
 m) The treatment of words that are not phonetic. 
 
 There are many words whose correct pronunciation and 
 spelling cannot be told from their sounds, such as through, 
 tongue, cough, enough, laugh, where, their. Such words must 
 be mastered by sight. The teacher will have no difficulty in 
 classifying the words that occur upon any page of the reading 
 lesson, into those that must be learned by sight, and those that 
 can be referred to some phonetic type. Also in the spelling 
 lists the same classification will indicate to pupils where the 
 real difficulties lie. 
 
 n) Syllabication. 
 
 The importance of teaching children early to recognize the 
 syllables in a word is frequently not appreciated by teachers. 
 Dividing a word into its syllables is putting it in shape to be mas- 
 tered part by part. The best method of indicating syllables is 
 thought to be that of unchrllninq with a broken line as here 
 illustrated. When the syllables are thus made known to the 
 pupil he proceeds to get the pronunciation of the word syllable 
 by syllable. Facility is soon gained, (by the third year) to pro- 
 nounce words not underlined, the pupil making the mental 
 division of the word. When spelling by letters is begun, 
 which will not be until the second year, syllables are indicated 
 by a distinct pause; as, "b-o-a-u-(pause>t-i-(pause)f-u-l, beau- 
 tiful." 
 
 o) It is not to be thought that this work in phonics is to be 
 limited to the primary form. The study of sounds should con- 
 tinue through the middle and into the upper form. If in any 
 
HEADING. ol 
 
 form a child hesitates with a now word, refer him at once It. 
 a word he knows of the same type. 
 
 25. Imperfections in speech. 
 
 a) Imperfections classified. 
 
 (1) Those due to physical defects. 
 
 (a) Defective organs of speech. 
 
 (b) Defective hearing. 
 
 (c) Defective nervous control of the organs of 
 
 speech. 
 
 (2) Those due to imitation of something else than goo.l 
 
 English. 
 
 (a) A foreign language spoken in the home. 
 
 (b) Dialects peculiar to families and communities. 
 
 (3) Those due to neglect of parents, who have allowed 
 
 bad habits to become fixed, which could have been 
 prevented if attended to earlier, as to give the 
 sound of d for g. 
 
 (4) Those common for children, lack of clearness and 
 
 precision in articulation. 
 
 b) The duty of the teacher. 
 
 (1) It is the duty of the teacher, to discover as soon as 
 possible the language need of every pupil, young 
 and old, and proceed to minister to those needs, 
 as wisely, as patiently and as persistently as pos- 
 sible. Daily attention must be given to clear' 
 speaking. 
 
 c) Suggestions. 
 
 (1) Some cases coming under (1) above, are cases for 
 the physician rather than the teacher. Class 1 
 (b) are often misjudged. Make sure that the pu- 
 pil whose speech is . indistinct, and who does not 
 improve under your care, is not deaf before you 
 set him down as stupid. Perhaps the best place 
 for the child is in some day-school for deaf. Such 
 cases should be reported to the county superin- 
 tendent. Class 1 (c) stammerers, can often be 
 
32 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY -COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 helped to better control by being allowed to read 
 and recite privately to teacher. 
 
 Salisbury, The Theory of Teaching, p. 83. 
 
 (2) As imitation has made the speech of these pupils 
 
 (Class 2) what it is, so it will continue to operate. 
 Be sure that you set a good model as to tone, pro- 
 nunciation and grammar. Besides these influ- 
 ences which will be always at work, whether we 
 think of it or not, there must be other things 
 done. The exercises here recommended will also 
 benefit classes 3 and 4. The teacher should know 
 how to place the organs of speech for the proper 
 making of every sound (Sec. 24, b), so as to be 
 able to tell the pupils what to do. Have pupils 
 commit to memory some good articulation exer- 
 cises and practice them. One or two good exer- 
 cises committed to memory, and hence ready to be 
 used at any odd moment are better than a variety 
 of exercises not so familiar. The following exer- 
 cise is the best one known to the writer. It is a 
 combination of the cognates with the long and 
 short sounds of the vowels, thus: ba',-pa, b'-pa. 
 be'-pe, b&'-pS, bi'-pl, bf.-pi, bu'-pu, bti'pu, boi-p<>i, 
 bou-pou. Change the accent to second syllable: 
 ba-pa', etc. 
 
 (3) Prescriptions. 
 
 (a) For the foreign-speaking child who has 
 
 trouble with his th's, use tha'-tha; tha'-tha; 
 etc., telling him to attend to keeping his 
 tongue out between his front teeth. The 
 pronunciation of twenty-four syllables with 
 the tongue in right position will soon make 
 the old habit yield to the new. 
 
 (b) For the pupil who says "wery" for very, use 
 
 the cognates v and f, telling the pupil to put 
 his upper teeth on the lower lip, and at- 
 
33 
 
 tend to putting it tl.ore rwh of the twenty- 
 four times: va'-iYi, vfi'-U, etc. 
 
 (c) For the lisper use the cognates, z and s: /.a'- 
 
 sa, z'-sa; telling the pupil to shut his teeth, 
 and attend to keeping his tongue inside 
 them. 
 
 (d) For the pupil who says "tan" for can, and 
 
 ."does" forgoes, use the cognates g and k, 
 ga'-ka, g&"-ka, etc., having the pupils turn 
 the tip of the tongue down under and at- 
 tend to keeping it there while the syllables 
 are said. 
 
 that these are vocal gymnastics, and to be benefi- 
 cial they vnuot be carried out like any other gymnastic exercises, 
 with vigor and precision. 
 
 (e) To strengthen final consonants, other exer- 
 
 cises can be used like, ap, ip, ep, op, up, 
 ad, ed, etc. 
 
 U). Phonetic spelling will help classes (2), (3) and 
 (4) by training the ear to catch all the ele- 
 ments there are in words. 
 
 IY. Work la Thought-getting the Mental Aspect of 
 
 Reading. 
 
 (NOTE. This topic applies to all grades and forms.) 
 Introduction. Teachers should not forget that the chief pur- 
 pose in giving pupils the ability to recognize words, as dis- 
 cussed under III, is to enable them to get thought from the 
 printed page. Words are the signs of ideas. It is only when 
 these signs perform their function and when seen call up in 
 the mind their appropriate ideas, that a person is reading. 
 The habit of thought-getting, of not being satisfied unless words 
 yield thought is the most important habit in education. It is 
 the basis of all profitable study of books. The child in whom 
 40. 
 
31 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 that habit is early formed, is not so badly off if circumstances 
 stop his schooling at the end of his fourth year, as happens to 
 half the children who enter the primary grades of the schools 
 of Wisconsin and other states. 
 
 Parker: Talks on Pedagogics, Ch. IX. 
 
 Clark: How to teach Reading, Ch. V. 
 
 26. Things that promote thought-getting. 
 
 a) Right methods of beginning: 
 
 The great importance of forming in children from the start 
 the habit of thinking, that is, of imagining, or picturing what 
 they read, makes the primary teacher a factor second in im- 
 portance to none in the entire school history of any individual. 
 The method described in II is believed to be one that will lay 
 the foundation for this habit. 
 
 b) Right reading matter. 
 
 The reading matter should be worth the attention of children. 
 Suitable and interesting thought material is the true basis of 
 progress in reading. This demand is met by book companies 
 on all hands, who are putting out new readers, which furnish 
 pure elevating literature adapted to the interests of child life. 
 It is the business of teachers to know about these. Parents 
 and school boards must be educated up to a belter standard in 
 regard to quality and quantity of reading books for their child- 
 ren and teachers have a work to do right here. It would be 
 thought absurd for any parent to oblige his children to read 
 and work by the light of a single candle, when other luminants 
 are easily available. Is it not vastly more absurd in this book- 
 illuminated age, to make his child live in the tallow-candle age of 
 school readers, and injure his mental eye-sight by confinement 
 to one book, which if the best, is not enough. 
 
 e) Have the reading matter reasonably easy at every stage 
 of the child's progress. 
 
 (1) It is best in primary grades, not to read one reader 
 to the end, but to read the first part of one and then 
 of another, and another, the easiest of course, hav- 
 ing been chosen for the first effort. Then go back 
 
35 
 
 and finish the first; then the second, and so on. 
 Children who have the books can thus read four 
 or more readers a year. 
 
 (2) Too much importance must not be attached to the 
 number of the reader as a guide to its proper 
 place in your school. It is often best to put the 
 more difficult first readers, or the last part of 
 those begun in the first year at the beginning of 
 the second year. Also in the third year to pro- 
 ceed in the same way with second and third 
 readers. It is found that children improve much 
 more rapidly with this arrangement of the read- 
 ing course, for the reason that the vocabulary is 
 not so difficult, they read much more, and enjoy 
 reading, and the important habit of thought-get- 
 ting at every stage is more apt to be promoted. 
 If after careful preparation by the teacher, (see 
 "d" and "e" following), a pupil is unable to read 
 with reasonable smoothness, the reading matter 
 is too difficult. 
 d) A preparatory exercise, adapted in length and charactei 
 
 to circumstance, should proceeds the oral reading in ali 
 
 forms. 
 
 (1) In the early stage, the preparation followed by the 
 
 oral reading, precedes sentence by sentence. Sees. 
 13, 15 and 28. 
 
 (2) Later the preparation may occupy a separate period 
 
 in the program. When the pupil has reached this 
 stage he is approaching the time for study. The 
 preparatory exercise should have taught him 
 what "study" means. 
 
 (3) In the third stage, growing gradually out of (2) 
 
 there is first the preparatory exercise; second, a 
 time for independent effort, a study period; third, 
 a chance to show what the study has amounted 
 to, that is, to read orally the lesson which has 
 
36 MANUAL OF THE EXEMENTAKY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 been studied. In the primary grades there should 
 be at least these two exercises daily for reading. 
 In higher form work, they may be on successive 
 days. After pupils are expected to study by 
 themselves, this preparatory exercise is the as- 
 signment. It must precede the study period, and 
 provide for it, and should take no more or no less 
 time than is needed to give the pupils a motive 
 for studying. For illustrative exercises see sec- 
 tion 27. 
 
 e) What the preparatory exercises should do. It is impos- 
 sible to get thought from the printed page unless the words 
 stand for something related in some way to our experience. 
 Hence the preparatory exercise should: 
 
 (1) Reveal to the teacher, through questioning, what 
 
 the pupils already know about the lesson they are 
 to read; in this way old experiences are recalled, 
 and made ready to aid in appreciating the new 
 ideas of the coming lesson. This is a sort of lan- 
 guage lesson. 
 
 (2) It should reveal what more the pupils need in order 
 
 to understand and enjoy the new lesson and sup- 
 ply that need by pictures, drawings, descriptions, 
 story, incident. Also a kind of language lesson. 
 
 (3) The feelings of the pupils should be touched that 
 
 they may be put in the right emotional attitude 
 towards the piece to be read. 
 
 (4) In (1), (2) and (3) the preparation of the minds of 
 
 the pupils for the thought and feeling is indicated. 
 The preparation must also help the pupil master 
 the words used in the book. Hence the teacher 
 will write upon the board, explain, and assist pu- 
 pils to right pronunciation of words too difficult 
 for them to master; or, after the dictionary habit 
 is started, she will point out those they can mas- 
 ter by themselves. After this preparation which 
 should interest pupils in, and clear the way for, 
 
&EADING. 3? 
 
 intelligent study, the seat period given the inde- 
 pendent effort, should be profitable. 
 (5) The direction should not be "read the lesson six 
 times," which has little value, but, "read the lesson 
 so that you will be able to tell me the whole story 
 of it. If you cannot get it copy down all the 
 words and sentences that trouble you." A device 
 that is excellent for stimulating study is to have 
 pupils prepare in writing questions upon the read- 
 ing lesson to be asked of the other pupils. Both 
 the questioner and the ones questioned are spurred 
 to effort. See illustrations in Lesson Section 27, 
 Arnold: Reading, how to teach it, Ch. IV and V, also pp, 
 203-205. 
 
 Salisbury: The Theory of Teaching XXXVII, Law of Apper- 
 ception. 
 
 {) Ilo\v the reading exercise should be conducted to promote 
 i nought-getting. 
 
 (1) Pupils must not be allowed to read orally until they 
 have the thought. 
 
 (a) If pupils have been started as described in 
 
 15, the children have practiced this from 
 the beginning. 
 
 (b) In the first readers, have pupils get the 
 
 thought of a sentence and then look at the 
 teacher and give it. 
 
 (c) AVli en the paragraphs grow larger, let the 
 
 pupils read the paragraphs through "with 
 the eyes" each letting the teacher know at 
 once when a word troubles him. She helps 
 him to apply his, knowledge to phonics in 
 getting it. Some one is called upon for the 
 oral reading. 
 
 (d) When pupils have studied their lessons at 
 
 their seats, the teacher will open the read- 
 ing exercise by questioning them, to see 
 
38 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 what their study has amounted to. Her 
 thoroughness here will largely determine 
 what the study habits of her class will be. 
 This also is a language exercise. 
 
 (2) The teacher should have the conditions best for 
 promoting thought-getting. 
 
 (a) By making the pupil who is reading aloud 
 
 feel that he is responsible for giving thought 
 to others, at least to herself. Hence the 
 teacher will always close her book and lis- 
 ten when a pupil begins to read. It is not 
 always best to have the other pupils close 
 their books. This sense of responsibility 
 is greatly increased by having pupils in 
 succession read to the class from some li- 
 brary book or supplementary reader. If 
 the reading matter is easy, at least one grade 
 below that in which he is regularly read- 
 ing, the pupil will need less time for prep- 
 aration than if the reading matter requires 
 study; but (1) above, holds in so-called 
 "sight reading" as elsewhere. A pupil can 
 do good sight-reading only when he is a 
 good sight-reader. 
 
 Arnold: Reading; how to teach it, pp. 
 205-208. 
 
 (b) Let pupil stand before the class and have an 
 
 audience when he is called upon to read 
 something of some length which he is pre- 
 pared to give well. 
 
 (c) It must bo understood that only the teacher 
 
 who has good control can hold her pupils 
 to their best effort in thought-getting, or in 
 performing any other school duty. 
 
 Clark: How to teach reading in the public 
 schools, Ch. V. 
 
BEADING. 39 
 
 (3) The teacher should allow no school practices that 
 center attention elsewhere than upon the thought. 
 
 (a) One of these to be 'avoided is "reading trft 
 
 they make a mistake." Since a "mistake" 
 is the wrong calling of a word, children 
 soon come to know the game, and devote 
 their energies to calling the words rightly. 
 Perception exercises have their place, but 
 such a one as this tends to distroy the chiel 
 habit that the reading class should aim to 
 form that of getting, holding, and express- 
 ing the thought. 
 
 (b) Another of these practices is allowing class 
 
 criticism to run to -mere fault-finding and 
 competition on the part of the listeners as 
 to who can find the most mistakes; "mis- 
 takes," again, being only those of pronun- 
 ciation or other matters of form. This is 
 absolutely destructive of power to get 
 thought, especially of the sensitive child, 
 and is conducive to bad habits in him, be- 
 sides being harmful to the morals of the 
 others. An atmosphere of helpfulness 
 and sympathy is what is needed. 
 
 (c) For the teacher to interrupt a pupil's reading 
 
 for the correction of slight errors disturbs 
 the though t-getting-holding-and-giving pro- 
 cess. If he blunders badly he should be 
 stopped altogether and made to get ready 
 for the oral reading, with the teacher's help 
 if necessary. But if he is reading with ani- 
 mation and makes errors that do not ser- 
 iously affect the thought let him go on to 
 the end of his time. Corrections can then 
 be made. 
 
40 MANUAL, uF THE EJ.E.M K.N 1'ARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 (-1) Criticism of the right, kind will promote the habit 
 of thought-getting. The form of criticism that is 
 legitimate in a reading class always gets at all de- 
 fects in oral reading from the standpoint of the 
 thought. The teacher who has listened with book 
 closed says, "I did not get the thought of the first 
 sentence; you must have miscalled a word." 
 "Look it through again and when you have the 
 thought give it." Judicious commendation oi 
 really commendable qualities in any pupil's effort, 
 is always in order. 
 
 (5) There should, occasionally, be entire exercises when 
 there is no oral reading. This can be tried, when 
 in a new supplementary reader, a story is selected. 
 One purpose of this is to make pupils enjoy read- 
 ing. The pupils read silently, the teacher sitting 
 ready to help them when difficulties arise. The 
 next exercise may be given to the discussion of 
 what was read. A third exercise may have for 
 its aim practice upon the oral reading of the story. 
 Pupils will now be patient under criticism and 
 repetition, and all the work necessary to make 
 them able to read this story which they have en 
 joyed, in such a way that others will enjoy it. 
 g) How to judge the success of a reading exercise. 
 "We may so easily underrate the importance, for the future 
 development of the child, of the associations that have clus- 
 tered about the class exercise, the class room, and the teacher. 
 It is well in reviewing our efforts for a given period, to ask 
 ourselves: Has the work depressed or braced the mind and 
 character of our pupils? Has it developed power? In what 
 attitude towards the subject have the pupils been left? There 
 are no more important test questions than these; and by the 
 answers to them must the ultimate success or failure of our 
 efforts be judged, be the efforts with a beginner of five or the 
 high school pupil of fifteen." 
 
 Chubb: Teaching of English, p. 75. 
 
READING. 
 
 V. Oral Reading, thought expression, involving the 
 vocal-mechanical and mental acts. 
 
 27. Instruction and suggestions for teachers. 
 
 a) Agencies that combine to make good oral reading, 
 
 (1) Right breathing. 
 
 (2) Correct articulation. 
 
 (3) Clear enunciation. 
 
 (4) Agreeable tone of voice. 
 
 (5) Natural expression. 
 
 b) Influences that bring these agencies into operation. 
 
 (1) The desire to read. 
 
 (2) Ideals of what constitutes good oral reading. 
 
 (3) Drill to develop power to progress towards the ideal. 
 
 c) The teacher's part in promoting these influences. The in- 
 fluences named in "b" must largely come from the school. 
 Read IV, again, in this connection. 
 
 (1) How to promote the desire to read, which is a great 
 propelling force; 
 
 (a) The reading exercise must be pleasant. Pu- 
 
 pils do not fall in love with things that bore 
 them. 
 
 (b) The reading matter has much to do with the 
 
 interest and pleasure felt. The evidence 
 that any piece is mischosen for pupils is, 
 much labor on words, construction, allu- 
 sions, in order that a work may be under- 
 stood. The right reading matter is litera- 
 ture within the range of the pupil's interest 
 and experience. (See 17 and 26 b and c.) 
 
 (c) Thought must be properly developed. Pupils 
 
 must know and feel before they can ex- 
 press. (See 26, d and e.) 
 
 (d) Do not try to make your pupils perfect in too 
 
 many ways at once. Get one thing at a 
 time. When you have secured animation 
 
MANUAL, OF THE ELEMEA 1 TAE.Y COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 in the reading, you have the fundamental 
 thing, just as spontaneity and freedom are 
 the fundamental things in language. Other 
 qualities that make for good reading can be 
 built up from that foundation. (See 26 f, 
 (1) and (2).) 
 
 (e) Wrong criticism may weaken or destroy the 
 desire to read. (See 26 f, (3), (4) and (5).) 
 
 (2) The influence of a pupil's ideals. 
 
 (a) Children are not to blame for their ideals. 
 
 The child who can look off the book and 
 tell the thought of a sentence or paragraph 
 to you naturally, but who assumes a higher 
 pitch and calls words mechanically as soon 
 as he drops his eyes to the book, does so 
 because the latter is his ideal of reading. 
 Change his ideal. Tell him when he has 
 given the thought well in nearly or exactly 
 the words of the book, that he has read the 
 sentence or paragraph well, and let it go at 
 that. It is one way of bringing the pupil 
 to understand that good reading is express- 
 ing the thought as a person would give it 
 in conversation. 
 
 (b) Build up better ideals. Let your children 
 
 hear a little good reading every day. If 
 you are not a good reader proceed to better 
 your condition. Get such a book as Clark's 
 "How to teach reading in the public 
 schools" and study it through from intro- 
 duction to index. 
 
 (3) The influence of drill. 
 
 (a) The regular reading exercises will suggest to 
 
 the teacher certain points for the drill. 
 
 (b) Let pupils take part and act out all conversa- 
 
 tional lessons, or parts of lessons. The 
 
EEADING. 43 
 
 repetition of these docs not diminish their 
 interest. Children are horn dramatists, 
 they love to act out these pieces. 
 
 (c) Use the poems that occur in reading books 
 
 for drill in getting smoothness, and right 
 pausing. 
 
 (d) Encourage pupils to read orally at home, and 
 
 thus rehearse the lessons whose thought 
 
 and expression have been developed in class. 
 
 ({) The. teacher's part in perfecting the agencies named in a. 
 
 (1) Teach pupils to breathe rightly. 
 
 Since the breath is the material of sound, right 
 breathing is needed for full; clear, distinct, effect- 
 ive utterance. To have right breathing, and 
 hence prepare the way for correct utterance, an 
 erect, free, expansive position of the chest is an 
 indispensable condition. The teacher should look 
 after this, and be as watchful of the child's habits 
 of sitting at his seat, as of his position when 
 reading or reciting on his feet. 
 
 (2) Work for clear articulation. Since correct articula- 
 
 tion means giving to every element of a word its 
 proper character, the relation of articulation to 
 the study of phonics is readily seen. 
 
 (a) If the pupils in the higher forms have not 
 
 been taught phonics, the directions given 
 in 24 and 25 can be beneficially followed 
 out with them. 
 
 (b) The need of this drill. Clearness and 
 
 beauty of pronunciation depend upon the 
 accuracy and force with which the mus- 
 cles controlling the organs of speech 
 work. Muscular skill of any kind can 
 come only from directed exercise. 
 
4-i MAX LJAL OF 1'IIE ELEMENTARY COtJSSJE OF STUDY. 
 
 (3) Insist upon clear utterance. 
 
 (a) Pay daily attention from the start to clear 
 
 speaking. Give occasional exercises tc 
 break up the habit of mumbling, and se- 
 cure proper use of the vocal organs. (See 
 25, c, (2) and (3).) 
 
 (b) Bent head and lowered chest is a common 
 
 cause of indistinctness. Have pupils stand 
 with head erect, and book held in such a 
 way that while it is in right position for 
 the eye, it will not obstruct the tone. No 
 rigid directions need be given, just com- 
 mon sense suggestion is enough. 
 
 (c) Absence of motive to read distinctly. Why 
 
 should a child exert himself to make others 
 understand when his audience all have 
 books for themselves, and are not three 
 feet away from him. Give pupils a motive 
 for enunciating distinctly. Get away from 
 the reader and urge him to make you un- 
 derstand him. The worst mumbler in the 
 school never fails to make his fellows un- 
 derstand him on the playground, even 
 though the stretch of the school yard be 
 between them. (See 26 f, (2).) 
 
 (4) Do what you can to correct disagreeable tones. 
 
 (a) Some that you can help little or not at all: 
 
 Those that arise from disease, as catarrh 
 
 i 
 
 enlarged tonsils; those that are due to in- 
 herited defects, as cleft palate. 
 
 (b) Others that can be helped: Harsh tones, 
 
 drawling, high pitch. 
 
 (c) Imitation is the most potent agent in helping 
 
 the qualities named in (b). The teacher 
 who speaks and reads in a smooth well 
 modulated voice is doing much all the tirr>o. 
 
READING. 45 
 
 (d) Dramitization of these pieces in the reader 
 where the proper rendering demands low, 
 smooth, soft tones. 
 (5) Help to build up habits of natural expression. 
 
 (a) When the directions given in 15 have been 
 
 followed in starting pupils in reading, and 
 when, afterwards, they are treated as di- 
 rected in 26, the question of natural ex- 
 pression will not be a troublesome one. 
 
 (b) To improve habits in others, proceed always 
 
 from the standpoint of thought and feeling. 
 This means that you are not to talk to pu- 
 pils about inflections, pausing, emphasis, 
 and so on. Bend your energies to making 
 the conditions of thought and feeling right, 
 and then the manifestations of these condi- 
 tions, which in the child's voluntary, natu- 
 ral speech are instinctive, will appear of 
 themselves in his reading. 
 
 (c) Remember that emphasis is any means of 
 
 making the thought stand out. Stress, 
 that is, hitting the word harder, is only one 
 form of emphasis. Another important 
 form of emphasis is inflection or voice 
 bending. To teach emphasis, teach analy- 
 sis of thought. Every sentence has a cen- 
 tral idea arid until it is found the sentence 
 cannot be read with proper emphasis. 
 That central idea was in the mind of the 
 author when he put that sentence into re- 
 lation with others. Ask questions that will 
 probe for the central idea of the sentence. 
 A teacher who is able to put such questions 
 h r xS attained the most important art in the, 
 teaching of expressive reading. 
 
46 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 (d) Illustration of what is meant by (c). 
 
 Such an exercise as this might be used 
 with upper form pupils, to reveal to them 
 the importance of emphasis in thought in- 
 terpretation. The following sentence may 
 be written on the board: Frank rode his 
 brown pony to school this morning. The 
 central idea of this sentence and hence the 
 reading of it will depend upon its relations 
 to other thoughts and conditions. 
 
 First we will suppose that this is a sen- 
 tence out of a story which has been told UP 
 about Frank and his brother John, both A 
 whom have the privilege of riding the pony. 
 Then the reading is, "Frank rode his 
 brown pony to school this morning. Sec- 
 ond let us suppose that Frank has two po- 
 nies, a black one as well as a brown one, 
 both of which he can ride. Then the read- 
 ing would be, "Frank rode his broiun pony 
 to school this morning." As many differ- 
 ent relations may be invented for this sen- 
 tence as there are different words in it, each 
 of which would change the central idea and 
 hence change the emphasis. It would be 
 a mechanical and worthless exercise for the 
 teacher to tell the pupil to read it and put 
 the emphasis on a certain word. Help the 
 pupil to get the central idea, and then the 
 emphasis will put itself where it belongs. 
 
 (e) Remember that punctuation marks are to 
 
 show the grammatical relations of the ele- 
 ments of the sentence, and are only indi- 
 rect guides to expression. If the thought 
 demands it, pauses must be made where 
 there are no commas. If the thought de- 
 
READING. 47 
 
 mands it, the voice, instead of being kept 
 up, must fall at commas. If the thought 
 demands it a question is given with a down- 
 ward slide, and this happens just as often 
 as the demand to give the question with 
 the upward slide. 
 
 (f) Rules for emphasis, or inflection or pausing 
 are only a hindrance to good expression. 
 References. McMurry: Special Method 
 in the Reading of the English Clas- 
 sics, Chapters IV and V. 
 Chubb: The Teaching of English, CK 
 
 VII and X. 
 Clark: How to Teach Reading, Paj t 
 
 Two: Method of Instruction. 
 Salisbury: The Theory of Teaching 
 Ch. XXVII, "Habit." 
 
 VI. Illustrative Exercises. 
 
 28. Exercise suitable to the First or Second Year. 
 
 The first sentences of the lesson are as follows: 
 
 "The milkweed babies are all in their cradles. 
 
 The wind came to the milkweed and shook the cradles. 
 
 He said, 'Find wings and come/ 
 
 Then the babies came out. 
 
 The wind blew the babies away. 
 
 Where did they sleep all winter?" 
 
 (Taken from "Pathways in Nature and Literature, First 
 Reader, University Pub. Co. 
 
 a) The general preparation for this lesson is the collection 
 and study of the milkweed pods containing the closely packed 
 winged seeds the milkweed babies. .The pod has been spoken 
 of as the cradle of the babies. The words "Milkweed-babies" 
 and "cradle" have been written on the board during the discus- 
 sion. 
 
43 MA^UAJL OF THE ELBiMEIs' TAIcY COURSB OF STUDY. 
 
 b) Reading:. 
 
 Teacher: "We will read to-day about the milkweed-babies 
 that we have been looking at and talking about. The first sen- 
 tence tells you where they are." With this hint the children 
 begin to work out the thought. When all or several have the 
 thought, the teacher calls on one to stand and tell it. This 
 "telling" is the reading, and the more -freely and naturally he 
 tells the thought, the better is the reading. 
 
 Teacher: "The next sentence tells us what happened one 
 day to the babies." Here it may be necessary to help some 
 one with the word wind which is done by the use of the phono- 
 gram in, prefixed by the sound of w t and followed by d. (Sea 
 :M, g); also shook, which is ook with sh prefixed. Probably 
 with this help, the children can get the thought. It is then 
 told, (read) as before. 
 
 Teacher: "The next sentence tells us what the wind said." 
 The children study and tell the thought. 
 
 Teacher: "Do you want to know whether the babies did 
 what the wind told them?" The exclamation from some child, 
 "Yes, they did," shows that he has read the sentence. 
 
 Teacher: "What do you suppose happened then?" Children 
 study and tell. 
 
 Teacher: "The next sentence asks an interesting question 
 that I think you can answer." Children read as before. The 
 question or suggestion of the teacher preceding each sen- 
 tence is the preparation referred to in 26 d, (1). 
 
 The same general plan is followed when the pupil is able to 
 read a paragraph at a time instead of a sentence; and, later, 
 when he is able to advance by still longer thought units . 
 
READING. 4<J 
 
 29. Exercise suitable to the Third or Fourth Year. 
 
 THE SHIP COMING HOME. 
 
 1 
 
 Why stand you there, 
 Sweet maiden fair, 
 With eyes upon the sea, 
 Forgetting play 
 To gaze all day 
 On ocean rolling free? 
 
 2 
 
 Is there a ship 
 
 From foreign trip 
 
 Now coming up the bay, 
 
 That brings you gold 
 
 For treasures sold 
 
 In countries far away? 
 
 3 
 
 Ah, there's a line 
 
 Of black smoke fine 
 
 Upon the distant sky! 
 
 She sees a speck 
 
 The ocean fleck 
 
 Beneath the smoke on high. 
 
 4 
 
 It grows and grows 
 
 Until she knows 
 
 It is the steamer due. 
 
 Her little heart 
 
 Beats wild its part 
 
 As co:u3s the ship in view. 
 
 5 
 
 She turns her head; 
 Her cheeks niv red, 
 Her eyes no longer roam. 
 " I want no gold 
 For treasures sold 
 That ship brings papa home! 1 ' 
 'From Hnldwiirs School Reading by Grades.) 
 5 C. 
 
50 AIA.N UA.L OF THE ELEMEN FARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 The preparatory lesson. 
 
 The preparation for this poem will be very different foi 
 children of different localities. The Sheboygan or other lake 
 port child will have in his experience all he needs to build up, 
 under the questioning of the teacher, the pictures suggested in 
 the poem. Not so the child born and reared inland. How 
 shall the teacher proceed with the latter? 
 
 30. First step. (See 26 e (1).) 
 
 Teacher: "How many of you have ever seen a large body of 
 water, stretching away as far as the eye can see?" If some 
 one responds, he is asked to tell his experience to the others. 
 
 31. Second step. (See 26, e, (2).) 
 
 Teacher: "Here is a picture of such a large body of water 
 called the ocean." "Ocean" written on the board. If so fortu- 
 nate as to have one, the teacher shows children a colored pic- 
 ture representing the sea and a steamship upon it. Otherwise 
 she uses whatever pictures the geography or library books 
 may afford; but pictures she must have, the sketch in the 
 book is not enough. The pictures are discussed. The line 
 where the sky and water seem to meet is pointed out. Pic- 
 tures put away for a time. 
 
 Teacher: "Have you ever been going along the road, when a 
 man has come towards you over a hill?" Teacher draws with 
 simple lines the situation. Teacher: "As he came up the hill 
 in front of you, what would you see first?" Either experience 
 or the drawing should prompt the answer, "The man's head." 
 "Yes, and then his shoulders, and finally you could see his 
 whole figure from head to feet." 
 
 Teacher: "You know the earth is round. When a steamer 
 is away off on the ocean, the curve of the earth hides the ship 
 from sight, just as the curve of the hill hid the man from you. 
 As the steamer comes nearer you first see, what do you sup- 
 pose?" Different answers are given. "Yes, Charlie is right, 
 you see the smoke first. Then the smoke stack, then more 
 and more of the ship, until it is all in sight." (Use pictures 
 or drawings to make the idea clearer.) 
 
BEADING. 51 
 
 32. Third step. 
 
 Teacher: "Open your readers to page 82, and look at the first 
 picture. (It is a small sketch of a little girl standing on the 
 shore, -and looking eagerly out to sea. ) Where is the little girl 
 standing? What makes you think so? What do you suppose 
 she is looking at? What may she be expecting? Why is she 
 so interested? These may be some of the questions the teacher 
 would ask, her purpose being to get the children thinking about 
 the little girl and so preparing them to understand and enjoy 
 the poem. (See 26, e, (3).) 
 
 Teacher: "Look at the next picture." (A small sketch of a 
 steamer at sea.) "See the black smoke coming out of the 
 smokestacks. It is a large ship, isn't it? Do you think the 
 steamer has anything to do with the little girl?" Answer, "I 
 think she is looking for the steamer." Teacher: "Do you think 
 it may be bringing her something?" Oh, so many things come 
 to people from over the ocean. The ships bring beautiful things 
 from foreign countries, which means countries across the ocean 
 from us. (Foreign and countries written on the board.) Ships 
 carry away from our country beautiful things, treasures we 
 can call them, and when these things are sold in foreign coun- 
 tries, the ships bring the money back to the merchants who 
 owned the treasures. (Treasures written on the board.) "Do 
 you think this steamer was bringing this little girl some beau- 
 tiful gift, or some money? See the other picture. (A sketch 
 of a man in uniform just leaving the steamer.) Who do you 
 think the man is? Can you guess whom the little girl is wait- 
 ing for? (See 26, e, (3) and (4).) 
 
 3o. The fourth step, The assignment. 
 
 " This little poem tells you all about it. If you read it you'll 
 find out what she was expecting, and whether you guessed 
 rightly about the man. Perhaps you will read, too, how this 
 ship came into sight. Some of the hard words are on the board. 
 Mtiry may promounce them. There are a few others." The 
 teacher will introduce other words according as she judges the 
 
J'2/ MANUAL, OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 /icc-ds of her class to be. Perhaps the ten words given in the 
 list at the beginning of the lesson will be all that are necessary. 
 She may need to prepare them upon more. She will do well 
 to introduce these words in relation not isolated from the 
 thought of the lesson. Thus: "The little girl is called this in 
 the story." Writes maiden. "When we look at anything very 
 steadily we are said to gaze at it." Writes gaze. "Did you 
 ever hear anyone say that the sky was flecked with clouds? 
 What did it mean?" Teacher writes fleck. "Study the poem 
 carefully so that you can tell me all about it tomorrow." 
 
 Remarks: There is very little value in the study of a list of 
 isolated words. Children should be taught early, as this exer- 
 cise illustrates, to study words in the sentences, and so later 
 ise the dictionary intelligently, and effectively. 
 
 The teacher who reads this will say that the time in her pro- 
 gram for reading is not long enough to do all this. The an- 
 swer is that the time given to reading is too short, too precious, 
 to be used in any other way than to inculcate right habits, 
 open up the mind of the child to an understanding of what 
 reading, really is and teach him to interpret. Call the first two 
 steps of this a geography lesson, and begin the work upon it 
 several days before the reading lesson. Then in the reading 
 lesion you can begin at (3). That step can be taken in one 
 exercise. Arnold: Reading, How to teach it, pp. 203-205. 
 
 34-. Fifth step. 
 
 Children study independently at seats. Questions written 
 upon the board will often stimulate and guide pupils in their 
 study. As, "Who is talking in the first stanza? In the sec- 
 ond? What do the third and fourth stanzas tell you? Does 
 the little girl answer the questions?" 
 
 35. Sixth step. 
 
 Testing the results of the study, and development of the 
 thought. Books are closed. 
 
 Teacher: "Were you right yesterday in guessing who the 
 man in the picture is? How long did the little girl stand 
 
BEADING. 53 
 
 watching the ocean? Did you ever watch that long for any 
 one? What does 'ocean rolling free' mean to you? See 
 sketch. What was the first sign the little girl saw that told 
 her that the steamer was coming? What next? The book 
 says, 'She saw a speck the ocean fleck!' What does that 
 mean? What question was asked the little girl? How did she 
 answer it?" 
 
 Open books. The word list is pronounced quickly. 
 
 Teacher: "One of you may read the first stanza, and talk 
 
 to the little girl." Teacher calls on pupil. Teacher: " 
 
 may ask the little girl the next question." Be sure of those hard 
 words before you begin. Pupil reads. Teacher: "Now we will 
 think we are standing there with the little girl, looking out at 
 
 the ocean, while reads us about what she sees." "Now the 
 
 ship is at the wharf, and the little girl catches sight of some- 
 body. Who wants to tell us what she said?" 
 
 The general order of procedure is outlined here. It is not 
 supposed that the oral reading is satisfactory in every way. 
 For method of criticism see 26, f, (4), of which the following 
 is a specific illustration: 
 
 The pupil reading the third stanza lets his voice fall after 
 "nine." Why did he do this? Simply because he did not 
 have the thought-relations clearly in mind; he did not picture 
 these relations. The remedy then is, help him to get the pic- 
 ture. Teacher: "The little girl is looking away off across the 
 water to where the sky seems to come down to the sea. What is 
 the first thing she sees that makes her think that the steamer 
 is coming?" Ans. "Black smoke." "Have you been where you 
 could see a locomotive rush by, and have you noticed the long 
 line of smoke left behind the train? The steamer does the same; 
 it leaves a line of black smoke upon the distant sky. Look 
 again at the first three lines. Now read it." The probabilities 
 are that the child will correct the wrong pausing. The thing 
 not to do is to say: "Read it again and keep your voice up at 
 'line' "; or to read it for him and have him imitate. 
 
54 MjLNILAi, OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP BTTTDY. 
 
 36. Seventh step. 
 
 The reading of the poem, without much comment, just to 
 see what the result of the study and teaching has been. 
 
 Several days after this the teacher may open the reading les- 
 son by telling the class to listen while she reads them a poem. 
 She reads "The Ship Coming Home," simply, naturally, giv- 
 ing the very best interpretation of which she is capable. If 
 she is a really good reader, the exercise will have an effect in 
 shaping ideals a sort of imitation that is perfectly legitimate. 
 
 From all this we conclude that "teaching" reading is very 
 different from hearing the reading class. We want the children 
 of the common schools taught reading. 
 
 For further illustrative lessons see: 
 
 Arnold's Reading: how to teach it, VII and VIII. 
 
 Chubb: The Teaching of English, pp. 96-102. (The author 
 uses Wordsworth's familiar poem "Lucy Gray.") 
 
 Clark: How to Teach Reading, part three; literary interpre- 
 tation* 
 
 COURSE IN READING. 
 
 Primary Form First Year. 
 
 37. 1. Aim. 
 
 Mechanical fluency, and foundation of right habits. 
 
 2. The preparation of the teacher. 
 
 Read the preceding discussion of Reading and familiarize 
 yourself with its general plan and purport. As to daily prep- 
 aration, the teacher must plan as carefully for her primary 
 reading as for the upper form classes in geography and arith- 
 metic. She should also provide for seat occupation, which oc- 
 cupation should be profitable and should have for its aim the 
 furthering of some regular school interest, and not be merely 
 "busy- work." 
 
MLLDINQ. 65 
 
 #8. 3. The daily program for the first grade. 
 
 Ten minutes is long enough to hold first year pupils to one 
 line of effort in recitation. There should be frequent change, 
 and attention should be given to them just as often as possible. 
 Much can be accomplished in a five minute period if the teacher 
 knows just what she wants to do in that time. There is a var- 
 iety of interests related to reading that afford profitable exer- 
 cises for primary children, both in class recitation and at seats, 
 and all helping towards accomplishing the aim of the year. It 
 may not be possible for teachers with full programs to get all 
 these exercises in daily; but it is believed that some '"chinks" 
 in the daily program can be and will be turned to profitable 
 use with the little ones, if teachers know better what to do. 
 
 39. 4. Exercises relating to reading. 
 
 The following exercises distinct in themselves, yet all boar- 
 ing upon the reading and helpful to one another when properly 
 correlated constitute the Course in Reading for the first year; 
 ciinl, with modifications, as other school subjects besides read- 
 ing claim attention, for the second and third year. 
 
 a Language, oral expression, the preparatory exercise. 
 
 b Reading. 
 
 c Writing. 
 
 d Phonics, word-building. 
 
 e Spelling. 
 
 f Occupation and construction work. 
 
 FIRST YEAR. 
 
 40. 5. Outline of the Course. 
 
 a) Oral language, the basis of reading. 
 
 (1) During the period of blackboard reading. 
 The sentences read by the child from the 
 blackboard are those spoken by himself. 
 These sentences follow observation, ac- 
 tion, or narration, and are the result of 
 
MAM.AL Oi< TilE BLlvMKNTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 the pupil's effort to tell what he has seen, 
 or done, or to reproduce the story heard. 
 (See Sec. 13, 14 (1), and 15 a.) 
 
 (2) When pupils read from the book. The lan- 
 
 guage exercise is frequently necessary to 
 prepare pupils for the thought of the les- 
 son. It is here that the unfamiliar words 
 are presented. (28 a.) 
 
 (3) Adapt the preparatory lesson to conditions. 
 
 Omit when the thought of the reading 
 lesson is familiar. Use time in program 
 for other language work. See Course in 
 Language for First Year, 
 b) Reading. 
 
 (1) A description of how to begin is given in 
 
 Sec. 15. 
 
 (2) Pupils should be kept at black-board read- 
 
 ing until they know what reading is, that 
 it is thought-getting; and have acquired 
 a vocabulary that will make the first 
 twenty or thirty pages of the book easy 
 and enjoyable, Sec. 16, 17 and 18. See 
 McMur ray's Special Method in Primary 
 Reading, Chap. VI for further help. 
 
 (3) The teacher should have the strips described 
 
 in 14, and give by use of them drills in 
 sight-reading of commands, executed 
 rapidly as proof of the reading, and of 
 other sentences which are "made true." 
 The teacher's part of this exercise is to 
 flash a card upon the sight of the pupils 
 and speak the name of a child; then an- 
 other, etc. See 15 -i and j. Concert work 
 has no place here. 
 
 (4) If the spring-roller curtain is adjusted as de- 
 
 scribed in 14, new lessons can be made 
 
BJuADING. 57 
 
 out of the familiar words and kept cov- 
 ered from sight. This apparatus will also 
 serve to exercise the pupil in quick per- 
 ception, by exposing a sentence for a mo- 
 ment and then covering it. 
 
 (5) Make the word cards as suggested in 14 , 
 
 (c), and give drills with these for facili- 
 tating quick recognition of words. 
 
 (6) Make word-cards described in 14 (d) and 
 
 distribute them for seat work. (See "Oc- 
 cupation" below.) 
 
 (7) Amount that should be accomplished. By 
 
 the middle of the year of eight or nine 
 months, pupils should have read the 
 easier parts of at least two primers, like 
 "Child Life" or "Holton" or "Haw- 
 thorn." By the end of the year they 
 should have completed these and read the 
 easier part of at least two first readers. 
 First year pupils can and do read more or 
 less in six or eight readers. 
 
 NOTE. --When a teacher is unable to 
 get more than one reader for her pupils 
 she can greatly extend the range of their 
 reading matter by getting one copy of a 
 new reader, and writing the lessons on the 
 board. Here the curtain is helpful, 
 r) Writing. 
 
 (1) For the place of writing in the educational 
 
 development of the child read Sec. 1-7. 
 
 (2) When and how the first writing should be 
 
 done, see 22. 
 
 (2) The words and sentences should be those 
 that the pupil is having in his reading, 
 thus writing, reading and spelling co- 
 operate. 
 
58 MAX UAL, OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 d) (4) Suggestions for the year's work. 
 
 First tracing. 
 
 (a) Teacher writes with letters three 
 
 or four inches high the name of 
 some child, as Carl. If colored 
 chalk is used it is all the more 
 attractive. 
 
 (b) Children trace in the air, that is, 
 
 point with outstretched arm, fol- 
 lowing the movement of the 
 teacher as she writes or traces the 
 word. 
 
 (c) Individuals are sent to the board to 
 
 trace over the copy freely and 
 lightly, while the class observe. 
 
 (d) Children are given individual places 
 
 at board, each with a large copy. 
 
 (e) At signal ("all aboard!" perhaps, for 
 
 the marks may be a railroad track 
 which no cars must leave until 
 the end is reached), children be- 
 gin to trace, each as fast and well 
 as he can. 
 
 (f) Teacher has the same exercise using 
 
 a large oval instead of a word. 
 
 (g) On sheets of scratch paper, the 
 
 teacher will draw large ovals. 
 Children are given these for seat 
 work, tracing them for develop- 
 ment of free movement. (See 
 suggestions about pencils, Sec. 
 22.) 
 
 e) Second, independent writing. 
 
 (a) When children have developed some arm- 
 control, have them attempt independent 
 writing (third month). 
 
BEADING. 59 
 
 (b) Excellent script copies are frequently found 
 
 in the reader. Have pupils use them for 
 seat work. 
 
 (c) Let pupils set up the copies from the word- 
 
 cards in their envelopes. 
 
 (d) In all this work the teacher should realize 
 
 that imitation is the master-agent in de- 
 termining what a pupil's writing will be. 
 Sec. 22. 
 
 f) (5) Drawing and cutting exercises help hand con- 
 trol and hence benefit writing. 
 
 ) Phonics and word-building. (Read 15n, 20 and 24c.) 
 (1) The first work in phonics should aim to de- 
 velop in pupils a "sound-consciousness". 
 By this is meant to bring pupils to a real- 
 ization that words are made up of sounds, 
 to train to detect these sounds when heard. 
 See 15 n. 
 
 4:1. Further suggestions. 
 
 (1) (a) The teacher calls upon children to point at or fina 
 different objects in the room; as "point at the 
 c-1-o-c-k." "Frank may find the f-l-a-g," etc. 
 
 (b) Commands may be given in which the principal 
 
 words are spelled by sound, as, "r-u-n to the 
 d-o-o-r." 
 
 (c) Much of this work need take no time, but be in- 
 
 cidentally done in connection with other exer- 
 cises. Thus: In the recital of a story, the 
 teacher spells the important words by sound, 
 that is, pronounces them so slowly that the 
 sounds are distinct. "The little girl met a 
 w-o-l-f, as she was going through the w-oo-d-s." 
 Children are obliged to blend the sounds in 
 order to get the word. 
 
 (d) Game: "Tell what I am thinking about." Teacher 
 
 spells d-o-11, f-l-a-g, s-u-n-sh-i-ne. 
 
CO MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 (e) Game: "What I saw in a store." Teacher spells 
 
 c-a-n-d-y, etc. 
 
 (f) Game: "Guess who it is. Teacher: "I see some 
 
 one who wears a b-l-ue d-r-e-ss. She has 
 b-l-a-ck ey-e-s," etc. Other devices will prob- 
 ably suggest themselves to teachers. 
 
 (2) Have pupils give words that have initials and end- 
 
 ings like the word named by the teacher. Teacher: 
 "man," Pupils: "more move Mary," etc. Teacher: 
 "town," Pupils: "drown, frown." etc. 
 
 (3) Pupils discover that words that begin with the same 
 
 sound, begin with the same letter. Sounds are 
 now to be associated with letters. Now begin teach- 
 ing the consonant sounds as given in 24 d, using 
 the method given in 24 e and f. 
 
 (4) Introduce the phonograms an, en, et, in, it, un, ut, 
 
 as given in 24 g. 
 
 (5) If directions have been followed (24 e) there arc 
 
 now sixteen cards containing the eight conso- 
 nants and eight word-bases. Teach the remain- 
 ing consonants in the same way, keeping up the 
 drills as described in 24 f. 
 
 (G) If any of the phonograms given in 24 j occur in 
 their readers, cards for them may be added to UK 
 above. 
 
 (7) Word building. The following suggestions will il- 
 lustrate how the elements taught in the phonic 
 drills are to be employed: 
 
 (a) Constant application of what the pupil know^ 
 
 of phonics in making out and pronounc- 
 ing new words occurring in the reading. 
 See illustration given in 20. 
 
 (b) Exercise. The teacher writes a phono- 
 
 gram as old on the board. "We will now 
 name all the members of this family we CMH 
 think of." Teacher distributes consonant 
 
READING. Gl 
 
 cards containing b, c, f, g, h, m, s, and t. 
 Pupils blend consonant with base and 
 pronounce word. Exchange cards and 
 repeat. Introduce new phonogram. 
 
 42. Spelling. 
 
 There need not be a separate exercise in spelling during 
 the first year. 
 
 v l) The spelling exercises already suggested in the 
 course are: 
 
 (a) Most of those given for the work in 
 
 writing. Learning the written form 
 of a word is learning to spell it. 
 
 (b) The word building exercises described 
 
 above. 
 
 (2) In teaching the spelling of a word in this grade, 
 
 the following method should be used: the 
 teacher writes the word on the board, erases 
 it, pupils write from mental image. 
 
 (3) Memory spelling. Pupils write from memory, 
 
 words previously taught as described in (2) 
 above. 
 
 (4) Spelling by letter. There should be no oral 
 
 spelling by letter the first year, except such 
 as is voluntary on the part of the children. 
 
 (5) Syllabication, if the vocabulary of the book de- 
 
 mands it, should be begun, as described in 
 24 n. 
 
 13 Occupation and Construction work. 
 
 (1) A pupil should not be kept so long at one form of 
 seat occupation that he tires of it; on the other- 
 hand he should not be hurried to a new thing 
 just as .he is beginning to feel the pleasure of mas- 
 tery of the old. 
 
62 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY. 
 
 (2) The envelopes or boxes described in 14 , are neces- 
 sary to keep each pupil's material in order. Sug- 
 gestions for exercises: 
 
 (a) That given in 15 h. Pupil needs small 
 
 word-cards containing all words used in 
 the sentences as they are taught. These 
 can be arranged end to end in the desk, 
 or be pasted on paper, the teacher ruling 
 the guide lines. 
 
 (b) When a story of several sentences has been 
 
 written on the board in line statements, 
 each child may be furnished with a set of 
 sentences to put together and " match' ' 
 the story on the board. (Note These 
 copies may be made by an upper class 
 as their writing lesson.) 
 
 v 'c) When making the transition from script to 
 print, the lesson as given in the book 
 may be written by some one and cut up. 
 Pupil will match the print, word for word 
 or sentence for sentence. 
 
 (d) The tracing of ovals or of large writing, 
 
 also exercises, later in the year, suggested 
 under independent writing. 
 
 (e) Several sets of words having the same 
 
 phonogram base given pupils to pick out 
 the sets. Copy each set or "family" in a 
 column. 
 
 (f) Pupils fit the printed letters together and 
 
 "match" the lessons in the book. See 21. 
 
 (g) The learning of the letters of the alphabet 
 
 in order can be helped by the seat work. 
 Teacher should have the alphabet both 
 in capitals and small letters at top of 
 blackboard or on a chart. Children ar- 
 range the letters in same order, 
 
READING. 0.3 
 
 SECOND YEAR. 
 U. 1. Aim. 
 
 A higher degree of mechanical fluency, and the fur- 
 ther development of the habits started in the firbt 
 year. 
 2. Important habits of pupils upon which to center effort. 
 
 (a) The habit of self-help to new words by the use of 
 
 phonics. 
 
 (b) The habit of taking in a number of words at a 
 
 glance. 
 
 (c) The habit on the part of every child of not think- 
 
 ing he can read orally until he has the thought. 
 
 (d) The habit of reading orally in a natural, conver- 
 
 sational tone. 
 
 4">. 3. Outline of course. 
 
 (a) Phonics and word building. Exercise three to 
 five minutes daily. 
 
 (1) Continue the card-drill in consonant 
 
 sounds until pupils can give all the 
 consonant sounds promptly, clearly 
 and accurately. 
 
 (2) Teach one or two new phonograms from 
 
 lists given in 24 j or others. Be guided 
 in the selection of phonograms for drill, 
 by the vocabulary of the reading book 
 you are using. Make this exereiae 
 prepare for the oral reading. Have in- 
 dividual work, not concert word. 
 
 ".i. (3) Suggestions for exercises. 
 
 (a) Teacher: "To-day we will spell words belong- 
 ing to this family." She writes ang. Pu- 
 pils pronounce it and each in turn 
 passes to the board and writes some word 
 belonging to the same "family;" as, bang, 
 hang, pang, rang, sang, clang, slang. 
 
MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 (b) After a number of phonograms are known, 
 the teacher may cover the board with words 
 containing these promiscuously arranged. 
 The teacher names a "family" and the pu- 
 pils pass to the board quickly in succes- 
 sion, and make a ring around or otherwise 
 indicate all words containing that phono- 
 gram. 
 
 (4) Have pupils use their knowledge of phonics at 
 every step. When the pupil meets with a word 
 in his reading that he does not know, the 
 teacher should show him how to get it.' Illus- 
 tration: The word is mischief. The teacher 
 writes it on the board and syllabicates it by un- 
 derlining (See 24 n), mis chief. Teacher: Both i's 
 say i, (giving sound) and e in second syllable 
 doesn't say anything or is silent." Pupil sounds 
 m-i-s, and pronounces "mis," then sounds 
 ch-i-f, chif, then puts the two syllables together. 
 Later the teacher may not need to put the word 
 on the board, but give one or two helpful sug- 
 gestions and let the pupil work the word out. 
 (See Sec. 20 for further illustration.) The more 
 painstaking work the teacher does with the phonic 
 work in the lower grades, the sooner pupils get 
 the mastery of this all-important tool for self-help. 
 
 45c. (5) Diacritical marking. The teaching of phonograms 
 does away with the need of diacritical marking in 
 the primary grades. Pupils should be prepared 
 as soon as possible to read other books than the 
 school readers, and hence should not be led to rely 
 upon marks to get the pronunciation of words. 
 It is enough for the primary child to know that a 
 certain letter, as a, has a number of sounds, and . 
 what they are. Then when a new word is met 
 
BEADING. 
 
 with, the child can experiment using one sound 
 after the other until one is found that makes a 
 sensible word. 
 
 15(1. (6) Give exercises such as that suggested in 24 i. 
 (b) Writing, (Once a day.) 
 
 s 
 
 }G. (1) Exercises to promote skill. 
 
 (a) Those upon the blackboard for arm-control, 
 
 aiming at greater precision of movement. 
 The same at seats. 
 
 (b) Pupil writes at his seat on paper or slate, aim- 
 
 ing at greater accuracy of letter form. Just 
 as soon as pupils have developed the power 
 to control the hand, the more careful making 
 of letter-forms can be urged without danger 
 of strain. Get control of muscle first through 
 arm exercises, then train for finer and finer 
 adjustment. 
 
 IGa. (2) The selection of words for copy or practice should be 
 guided by this principle: Select words that have 
 meaning to the child when heard and are known to 
 him by sight; the muscular effort in writing will 
 then reinforce both associations, and help the 
 reading and the spelling. 
 
 (61). (c) The preparatory language exercise. When the 
 thought of the reading lesson requires this prepara- 
 tion, as when the teacher must explain, show ob- 
 jects or pictures, there should be a separate exer- 
 cise of five or ten minutes. When the thought of 
 the reading lesson needs little development, the 
 preparation may be done in the first part of the 
 reading period. 
 
 (1) Read introductory note to IV. 
 
 (2) Read 24d and e, and adapt it to second grade 
 
 children. 
 
 e a 
 
66 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 4:6c. (d) The oral reading exercise. (Once a day.) 
 
 (1) To promote habit two, necessary for fluent oral 
 
 reading, have occasional drills using the first 
 grade sight reading strips and cards; also 
 with the same aim, use the curtain for side 
 drills. 
 
 (2) To promote habit three, as well as two, have 
 
 pupils in the early part of the year get the 
 thought one sentence at a time, and give the 
 thought, that is, read it orally, looking at 
 the teacher. While the sentences remain 
 short, this can easily be done. When the 
 sentences get longer, the above practice can 
 be abandoned. The expression of the pupil's 
 reading will be an index of his thought. 
 (Read 27c (2), the influence of ideals.) 
 
 (3) Remember that the oral reading is the last act 
 
 of the child when dealing with any thought 
 unit. It is the test of his mastery of the 
 form and the thought, for which the other 
 exercises have been preparatory. If the 
 thought is clear, and if habits of mechanical 
 reading have not been started in the first 
 year, the expression will be good. 
 
 (4) Amount to be accomplished. Read the hard 
 
 parts of the first readers begun in the first 
 year. Read the first parts of at least two 
 second readers. Use any supplementary 
 readers or other matter the library may con- 
 tain. 
 46d, (e) Spelling. (Once a day.) 
 
 (1) Written spelling should predominate in this 
 
 grade. 
 
 (2) Since pupils know the names of the letters 
 
 oral spelling should also be practiced. 
 
BEADING. O 
 
 (3) Sources of the words taught. 
 
 (a) Words needed for written language 
 
 work. Peculiar words or those needed 
 only for a special series of language 
 lessons had better be copied by the 
 child, so that his energies may be put 
 upon those that should be fixed in his 
 spelling vocabulary. 
 
 (b) A carefully selected list of simple com- 
 
 mon words, the spelling of which 
 should be made automatic to hand and 
 tongue. 
 
 4:6e. (4) Suggestions about the spelling in the written lan- 
 guage work: 
 
 (a) Copying stage. Pupils give the thoughts, the 
 
 teacher writes the sentences, and the pupils 
 copy. 
 
 (b) Independent stage. Pupils think and write. 
 
 Bad habits of guessing at the spelling of 
 words clear to the understanding but new in 
 form, are apt to develop here. Pupils should 
 be urged to use their knowledge of phonics 
 in judging what the spelling of the words 
 may be. When the teacher is at liberty she 
 should help the pupil to the spelling of all 
 words needed, as described in e (2), first 
 grade. If pupils are early made to feel the 
 importance of having all written words 
 spelled correctly, interest in the dictionary 
 is more easily aroused and its use taught in 
 the fourth grade. 
 46f. (5) Suggestions about formal spelling. 
 
 (a) The reader is not the best source of word lists 
 for spelling. Pupils should not be expected 
 to spell all the words they can read. 
 
MANUAL 01* THE ELEaOiNTABY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 (b) The best source for most teachers is a Celling 
 
 book carefully graded, as to difficulty. The 
 words given for any grade should be those 
 already well-fixed in his speaking vocabu- 
 lary, and needed for present use in his gen- 
 eral written expression. Mark accented syl- 
 lables and teach pupils the significance of 
 the mark. 
 
 (c) An average of ten words a week should be 
 
 taught. Frequent reviews are necessary. 
 A word is known by a pupil when he can 
 write it, or spell it orally without hesitation. 
 (G) Oral spelling. Teacher pronounces the word once. 
 Pupil pronounces, and spells. When the word 
 contains more than one syllable the syllabication 
 should be indicated by pausing. (See 24n.) 
 (7) For treatment of words not phonetic see 24m. 
 , 'f) Occupation and construction work. 
 
 {!) Independent work by the pupils. 
 
 (a) Pupils can use the phonics-tool to dig 
 
 out new words for themselves, and 
 hence can do something with books. 
 When the assignment has properly 
 prepared them for it, pupils can study 
 their reading lessons. 
 
 (b) They can copy and write more; can 
 
 draw and make with less attention 
 
 from the teacher. 
 
 (2) The teacher must still give considerable atten- 
 tion to seat work, and provide for one or 
 more periods of profitable occupation. 
 
 (a) Continue such first grade exercises as 
 
 have not grown stale. 
 
 (b) As the phonogram drills continue, val- 
 
 uable additions should be made to the 
 supply of word-cards for seat work. 
 
69 
 
 The sorting out of words having a 
 common phonogram base, and copy- 
 ing the lists, is helpful to both spell- 
 ing and reading. 
 
 (c) Children like to commit to memory 
 
 verses and short poems whose thought 
 has been made interesting and clear 
 by the teacher. 
 
 (d) The library should have some books 
 
 adapted to children of this age. There 
 should be at least one period for such 
 reading. 
 
 (e) There should be no idle moments. 
 
 Hand occupation should relieve the 
 periods of study or recitation especial- 
 ly in the last part of the day. 
 
 THIRD YEAR. 
 
 7. 1. Aim. Same as for second year. 
 
 2. The hdhits to be worked for are the same. 
 
 3. Outline of course. 
 
 ? a. (a) Phonics, at least twice a week. 
 
 (1) If pupils have not had the work outlined for the 
 
 first and second years, and are not able to 
 help themselves to new words, they can profit- 
 ably take the same drills as are given the 
 first and second year pupils. 
 
 (2) If pupils have had the phonic work of earlier 
 
 grades, less teaching is necessary, but vigor- 
 ous drills are still needed to give precision in 
 pronunciation. Towards this end the sug- 
 gestions and exercises given in 25, (Imperfec- 
 tions in speech), may be followed with good 
 effect. 
 
 (3) Do not pronounce words for pupils, when they 
 
 can get the pronunciation by applying their 
 knowledge of phonics. 
 
70 MANUAL OP THE nLJSKBXTAKI OOUBai OF STUDY 
 
 (4) Word-building and spelling exercise. Teacher 
 
 names a phonogram, pupils think of word, 
 pronounce and spell orally. Thus: Teacher: 
 "utter." First pupil: "butter, b-u-t-t-e-r." 
 Second, "Flutter, f-1-u-t-t-e-r, etc. 
 
 (5) Impromptu language exercises with phono- 
 
 grams. Teacher names a phonogram. Pupil 
 describes the use of some word derived from 
 it without naming the word, and class guesses 
 what it is. Thus: phonogram ack. Pupil: 
 "I am thinking of a word that rhymes with 
 ack. It names something that has a flat 
 head, and a sharp point and is very useful 
 about the house." Second pupil: - is 
 
 thinking of tack." Second pupil: "I am 
 thinking of a word that is used to describe 
 people who are not careful or energetic; it 
 also describes a rope that is not tightly 
 drawn." Third pupil: ' - is thinking of 
 slack." The possibilities of this exercise as 
 a means of language training will be apparent. 
 (b) Writing. 
 
 (1) See second grade for suggestions as to drill. 
 
 (2) All written exercises should be considered as ex- 
 
 ercises in writing. 
 
 (a) The written spelling should be carefully 
 
 done. 
 
 (b) The written language exercises should 
 
 be short so as not to fatigue the pupils 
 or oblige them to hurry. 
 
 (c) When exercises are prepared independ- 
 
 ently by pupil, the teacher should ac- 
 cept only the pupil's best. Do not let 
 the practice of writing during the day 
 tear down what you are trying to 
 build up in the writing exercise. 
 
BEADING. 1 
 
 . (c) Oral reading. 
 
 (1) See illustrative exercise, Sec. 29. 
 
 (2) Read d (3) , in course for second year. 
 
 (3) Study 27, much of it applies to the third grade. 
 
 (4) Amount to be accomplished. Finish the second 
 
 readers begun in the second grade. Read the 
 first part of two third readers, and all of some 
 supplementary reader adapted to the ability of 
 the "C" class. The school library should con- 
 tainreading matter suitable for class use. 
 Make individual assignments to pupils from 
 these books and have them prepare to read 
 to the class. 
 
 47d. (d) Spelling. 
 
 (1) See spelling course for second year. 
 
 (2) Use the list for third grade in a graded speller, 
 
 and drill for mastery. 
 
 (3) Bring pupils to a fuller understanding of ac- 
 
 cent and the marking of accented syllables in 
 words. 
 
 47c. (e) Occupation. 
 
 (1) There should be a regular seat period for the 
 
 study of the reading lesson, the same as for 
 doing other things called for by the course. 
 
 (2) Time should also be regularly assigned to suit- 
 
 able library reading. 
 
 (3) The children write answers to questions given 
 
 by the teacher, who has put questions oblig- 
 ing the children to read and think carefully; 
 as, "Do you think the boy was right in doing 
 as he did?" "Why?" "What picture do you 
 find in the third paragraph?" "Draw it." 
 Etc. 
 
 (4) Have children memorize suitable poems. 
 
72 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 NOTE. Pupils of this age should not be engaged all day 
 with books. There should be at least one period of a half-hour 
 or more, when some form of hand work may be done. This 
 should be of a kind, that, when once started, does not need 
 much attention from the teacher. 
 
 Middle Form. 
 
 48. 1. Aim, throughout the Middle form: 
 
 Development of power to learn through reading. 
 48a. 2. Habits upon which attention should be centered: 
 
 (1) The habit of thinking what is read, which in- 
 
 cludes the habit of imaging pictures, of per- 
 sons, of places, scenes, as well as imaging 
 thought relations. 
 
 (2) The habit of passing judgment on what is read, 
 
 as to truth, worth or beauty. 
 
 (3) Right habits in using the dictionary. 
 
 48b. 3. Habits more prominent in the primary form which 
 should not now be allowed to decline. 
 
 (1) That of self-help by means of phonics in getting 
 
 new words; 
 
 (2) That of taking in a number of words at a glance 
 
 that fluency may be prcmoted. 
 
 48c. 4. The reading exercise should be a daily one through- 
 out the Middle form. 
 
 48d. 5. The teacher should often read poetry to the school, 
 
 thus influencing taste and ideals, and affording the 
 
 children the pleasure which they always feel in the 
 
 good reading of good verse. 
 
 48e. 6. For suggestions relating to habit 1 above, see IV, all 
 
 of which the teacher should study carefully. 
 48f. 7. The second habit, that of passing judgment, will grow 
 in the same atmosphere that promotes the first. 
 Questions that will call for judgment: 
 (a) What is the most important truth in to-day's 
 reading? What facts do you think worth 
 remembering? Why? 
 
BEADING. 73 
 
 (b) What passages seem to you beautiful in 
 
 thought? In expression? 
 
 (c) What things in the lesson don't you like? 
 
 Why? 
 
 (d) How does this piece compare in interest or 
 
 value with others already studied? 
 
 (e) Which do you like the best? Why? (Allow 
 
 individuality of taste to manifest itself. ) 
 
 19. 8. The use of the dictionary. When pupils enter the mid- 
 dle form they should receive systematic training in 
 in the use of the dictionary. There should be at 
 least weekly exercises devoted exclusively to the 
 end of making pupils proficient in the different ways 
 indicated below. If pupils have copies of Webster's 
 High School Dictionary for individual use, the work 
 can be made easier at the start, for fourth year 
 pupils, and more can be accomplished. 
 
 49a. (a) Finding words rapidly. Pupils should be taught 
 what an alphabetical arrangement is. 
 
 (1) Have pupils during seat period take the words 
 
 in a certain paragraph and arrange them in 
 alphabetical order with reference to the first 
 two letters. 
 
 (2) Let this continue until they can make the right 
 
 arrangement with reference to first, second, 
 and third letters. 
 
 (3) The spelling lists can give them opportunity 
 
 for further practice. 
 
 (4) Have pupils find words in the dictionary. 
 
 Where there are several dictionaries interest 
 may be excited by timing the competitors. 
 Here comes the teacher's opportunity to 
 show pupils how to handle the dictionary 
 rightly, by turning the leaves down from the 
 top and looking for the guide words, instead 
 
< -i MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTABY COURSE OF STTTDT. 
 
 of pushing the leaves back and forth with 
 
 wet thumb. 
 
 4r9b, (b) Finding the right definition. People use the dictionary 
 to find definitions when they come upon a word in 
 their reading which they do not understand. Hence 
 do not begin this work with lists of unrelated 
 words, but with words that occur in their reading 
 or other lessons. 
 
 (1) Word is found in the dictionary. The teacher 
 
 reads and explains to the class all the defini- 
 tions given. Pupils listen to the different defi- 
 nitions and determine which one fits best, that 
 is which gives satisfactory completeness to the 
 thought of the sentence. Thus pupils are 
 taught that "Getting definitions" is not taking 
 the first definitions or the shortest one given, 
 but judgi-ng which one is needed for the word 
 as used in a particular place. 
 
 (2) Formal lists may be used, as those of the spell- 
 
 ing lessons. Here the pupil may be impressed 
 with the variety of usages many words have. 
 
 (a) To prepare pupils to do this work, the 
 
 the teacher should plan one or more 
 illustrative lessons; choose some word 
 having a number of usages, give defi- 
 nitions in succession illustrating each 
 with a sentence. 
 
 (b) The teacher may write sentences upon 
 
 the board illustrating each of several 
 definitions of a word, and let pupils 
 study the dictionary and find the defi- 
 nitions illustrated. 
 
 49c. (c) Finding the right pronunciation of words. The right 
 pronunciation of a word involves correct elements, 
 syllabication, and accent. If pupils have had the 
 training outlined here for the primary form, this 
 
work will be easily done. If not, special exercises 
 must be devoted to it. These, as well as (a) and 
 (b) above, could profitably take the time of the read- 
 ing or spelling exercise once a week. 
 
 (1) Teaching the key words, at the foot of the 
 
 di ionary page. The words selected for 
 the key words are those most commonly 
 pronounced correctly. 
 
 (a) Pupils must be able to get out of each 
 
 of these words the element of which 
 it is especially designed to furnish 
 the type; hence he must be able to 
 spell words by sound. Any infor- 
 mation the teacher may need about 
 these sounds can be obtained from 
 the Guide to Pronunciation in the 
 first part of the dictionary where all 
 these sounds are described. 
 
 (b) Pupil must be able to put the element 
 
 found into the word in which he is 
 interested. 
 
 (c) He must note syllabication and ac- 
 
 cent. (Call attention to the differ- 
 ence between the hyphen in com- 
 pound words and the mark between 
 syllables.) 
 
 (d) He should then pronounce the word, 
 
 syllable after syllable, placing accent 
 where it belongs. 
 
 (2) Teaching the diacritical markings. As a 
 
 shorter means of getting the pronunciation 
 of words, the pupil will learn the markings 
 of the letters as given in the key words. It 
 should be remembered that the diacritical 
 marks are simply a convenient means of 
 interpretation, varying in different diction- 
 
76 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE O'F STUDY. 
 
 aries, and having no educational value ex- 
 cept as they help in getting the correct pro- 
 nunciation of words. The important thing 
 is to teach pupils to use the markings 
 found in the dictionary. 
 49d. (d) Learning the other resources of the dictionary. 
 
 (1) Noted names of fiction. 
 
 (2) The pronouncing gazetteer of geographical 
 
 names. 
 
 When authorities disagree in regard to the pronunciation of 
 a geographical name refer to the dictionary. 
 
 (3) The pronouncing biographical dictionary. 
 
 (4) Pupils may be interested in finding out what 
 
 their names mean, and so become acquainted 
 with another valuable part of the dictionary. 
 
 (5) There may be occasional need of knowing the 
 
 meaning of some quotation, word or phrase 
 from a foreign language, and thus another 
 interesting section becomes known. 
 50. 9. The habit of self-help. 
 
 After regular instruction in the use of the dictionary 
 begins, oblige pupils to apply what they learn. 
 Thus: It is discovered in the reading class that a 
 pupil does not know how to pronounce a word. 
 Have him find the word in the dictionary and copy 
 it upon the board, syllabicated and marked as 
 given, then pronounce it. This corresponds to the 
 method described in the primary form, by which 
 pupils were taught self-help by means of phono- 
 grams. 
 
 50a. 10. If pupils are slow in perception, it may not be out of 
 place in this form to have an occasional exercise 
 with the curtain (See 14) to give practice in taking 
 in a number of words at a glance. Another exer- 
 cise to quicken perception is to turn their atten- 
 tion for a moment to a sentence in the book, and 
 
HEADING. 77 
 
 then call for it. Thus: "Third paragraph, first 
 
 sentence," (a moment) "Time. Charles, the 
 
 thought," etc. 
 50b. 11. In support of point 5, the following quotation is made 
 
 from the Report of the Committee of Twelve on 
 
 Rural Schools: 
 
 "Poetry must be brought in at every step the poetry of the 
 farm, the clouds, the winds, the flowers, the fields. The pupil 
 will find that the poet and the artist have embalmed in death- 
 less prose or poetry, the commonest things of earth, air and 
 water, by which he is surrounded. Thin, vapid, sensational, 
 injurious reading would have no place in his life, if all reading 
 were carefully selected in the direction of his aroused, sustained 
 and educative interests." Page 157. 
 
 FOURTH YEAR. 
 
 51. 1. See what is said about reading matter in 26b and c; 
 
 also 27c, (1). 
 
 2. Read the last parts of third readers begun in the third 
 
 year and continue with the first parts of one or two 
 fourth readers. Keep the reading easy and read 
 much. 
 
 3. Read some supplementary reader adapted to the ability 
 
 of the class. 
 
 4. Assign parts of library books to pupils for preparation 
 
 and have them read their selections to the class. 
 
 5. What reading matter is not well adapted: 
 
 (1) When it gives a pupil nothing new to master. 
 
 (2) When it is so difficult that he must plod along un- 
 
 der a burden of words not familiar to him in 
 meaning or form. 
 
 FIFTH YEAR. 
 
 52. 1. Readers and supplementary matter adapted to the 
 
 ability of the pupils as indicated in course of Fourth 
 Year. 
 
78 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 2. "Hiawatha" is a type of masterpiece well adapted to 
 pupils of this grade, provided their work in the pri- 
 mary form has made them proficient in word mastery. 
 
 SIXTH YEAR. 
 
 53. 1. See suggestions for Fifth Year. 
 
 Upper Form. 
 
 54. 1. Aims. 
 
 (1) Greater perfection of the oral reading. 
 
 (2) Wider acquaintance with literature. 
 
 2. All the habits named for the lower forms should be well 
 
 established by the time the seventh school year is 
 reached. 
 
 3. There should be a daily reading exercise throughout the 
 
 upper form. Pupils should be made to understand 
 that they have not "finished reading," when they 
 "have gone clear through the reader," but that theue 
 is an unlimited field of literature, some larger units 
 of which they should become acquainted with during 
 the time devoted to reading in the school. 
 
 4. Topic V. is especially designed for this form, to help in 
 
 the accomplishment of the first aim named above. 
 5 4 a. 5. The accomplishment of the second aim maybe assisted 
 by the following suggestions: 
 
 (a) As discussed fully in IV., the reading must 
 begin and never be allowed to proceed on 
 any other basis than that of thinking on the 
 part of the child. The life of thinking is 
 true, vivid, imaging. Whether such imag- 
 ing or picturing is what it should be, that 
 is, whether the pupil is seeing what the 
 words of the page suggest, must be tested 
 by the teacher through questioning the pu- 
 pil, or by asking him to draw, or make, or 
 dramatize what he sees. For illustration 
 
BEADING . 79 
 
 take the familiar lines from "Snow Bound' 
 (in the part telling of the father's reminis 
 cences). 
 
 "Where merry mowers, hale and strong, 
 Swept/sythe on sythe, their swaths along 
 The low, green prairies of the sa." 
 Do the pupils see the first mower, the man 
 who is reputed to be the best mower in the 
 neighborhood, or who thinks himself the 
 best, start his swath, followed in regular 
 order by his first, second, third, fourth com- 
 petitor in succession? Do they see the swaths 
 of heavy grass fall, and appreciate the nice 
 choice in the verb "swept"? Do they see how 
 the vigor of the verb, suits the adjective used 
 in describing the mowers, "merry," "hale," 
 "strong". Do they feel anything of the zest 
 of this game of those old-time, farmer-ath- 
 letes of New England? Is the difference clear 
 to them between our western prairies and 
 the "low, green prairies of the sea?" 
 
 This takes time, but it is the only treat- 
 ment of literature that can be called reading. 
 54b. (b) The short masterpieces, and extracts found in school 
 readers, as well as longer masterpieces, frequently 
 require that their proper historical or geographical 
 setting be given before their study is under- 
 taken. Thus a careful map of the country is 
 needed for the understanding and clear picturing 
 of the "Lady of the Lake," for it is no imaginary 
 country which Scott makes the scene of the stir- 
 ring events related in that poem. The same is true 
 of "Evangeline." For "Paul Revere's Ride," a 
 map of Boston and vicinity showing Charleston, 
 the Charles river, Lexington, Concord, etc., will 
 contribute greatly to the enjoyment, and appreci- 
 
SO MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 ation of the poem. For such a poem as "Evange- 
 line" the historical setting is also needed, and the 
 same is true of "Paul Revere' s Ride" and "Miles 
 Standish." 
 
 This must not be understood as recommending 
 the use of literature for the purpose of teaching 
 history or geography. It is using history and geog- 
 raphy for the sake of the literature. How much 
 of history, or geography, or nature study, or gram- 
 mar, or discussion of personal experience is legiti- 
 mate in a reading class? Just so much as is neces- 
 sary to make the thought of the literature clear, and 
 no more. That the branches thus incidentally 
 made to serve as agents will profit greatly by such 
 use, must be very evident. 
 
 ">lc. (c) Do not spend time in trying to make pupils under- 
 stand those things in literature that only exper- 
 ience and greater maturity of thought can bring 
 them to appreciate. The teacher should read and 
 explain such passages to the class, trusting that 
 some ideas may be gained by the pupils, and let it 
 go at that. If she succeeds in leaving in each 
 child's heart a love for the piece she has been teach- 
 ing, time will remedy the deficiencies in under- 
 standing; but if pupils leave the study with a feel- 
 ing of weariness or dislike even though every con- 
 struction has been mastered, the work must be 
 counted a failure. Literature at its best form is 
 recreation. It must not be classified with the 
 formal studies as arithmetic or spelling or gram- 
 mar, where "grind" is sometimes necessary. 
 
 ~ 1.1. (d) The assignment is a very important part of the work 
 of a teacher of reading. The assignment should: 
 (1) Give enough help about the next lesson to 
 remove the discouraging obstacles. 
 
BEADING. SI 
 
 (2) Excite interest in what is coming, and raise 
 
 problems to be settled by the pupils with 
 the aid of the dictionary. 
 
 (3) Not be the hasty "take the next page," but 
 
 should name the thought unit to be studied. 
 Since with crowded programs the reading 
 time must be short, it would be well, when the 
 reading matter is difficult, to take the reading 
 period one day for the assignment, and the next 
 day for testing the result of the study and the 
 oral reading. 
 
 What teachers want to do is to stimulate 
 energetic and well-directed effort in their pupils. 
 Self-activity is the chief aim in a good assign- 
 ment. 
 
 54:6. (e) By carefully preparing according to these suggestions, 
 a skillful teacher may make even the old reader 
 "finished", read through and dead, take on new 
 life and become a thing of interest. To do this 
 means more work for the teacher; but it is a sort 
 of work that directly promotes mental and spirit- 
 ual growth. It is a work for which no one reaps 
 such a large compensation as the teacher herself 
 
 7-A 
 
82 MAMJA..L 0* THE El-JiAlL-N IARY COUfiSK OF STUDY. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 55. "Most of the forms of our common speech, are things of 
 a type so fixed by repetition as almost to be classed as reflex 
 actions. ... I find my tongue inevitably falling into its 
 old phrases and repeating almost literally what I have said be- 
 fore." Prof. James. 
 
 56. I. Aim. 
 
 To help the child form the habit of using the English lan- 
 guage correctly. 
 
 1. Rouse the child to think and guide him in his thinking. 
 
 2. Lead the child to observe what is going on around him. 
 
 3. Stimulate the child to tell his thoughts to others. 
 
 4. Aid the child in acquiring a working vocabulary. 
 
 5. Cultivate a love for the beautiful in nature, literature, 
 
 and art. 
 
 57. II. General Suggestions. 
 
 1. In language work, "The great difficulty is not in teaching 
 what correct usage is, but in bringing about the incorporation 
 of correct forms into daily unconscious habits." Habits are 
 formed by the repetition of the same act or acts. The teacher 
 should remember that language is not a gift but an acquisi- 
 tion, and that the power to speak and write the English lan- 
 guage comes only through much practice in speaking and 
 writing it. 
 
 2. When the child first comes to school, he has already ac- 
 quired two invaluable mental possessions: 
 
 a. A store of knowledge consisting of facts: ideas, and 
 
 images which have come to him naturally through 
 the experiences of his home-life. 
 
 b. A stock of words with which he expresses in his own 
 
 way these facts, ideas, and images. 
 
LANGUAGE. 83 
 
 3. From these two main facts the child's school culture is to 
 have its beginning, and his teacher has before her a two-fold 
 tusk: 
 
 a. She must strive to enlarge and clear up this store of 
 
 facts, ideas, and images, with which the child comes 
 to her, and make them more full and varied; that 
 is, she must stimulate and direct the growth of his 
 mind and develop his language power through the 
 work she presents to him in his studies in school. 
 
 b. She must strive to enlarge and improve his vocabu- 
 
 lary; enlarge it by teaching him words with which 
 to express his thoughts; improve it by helping him 
 to make his language clear and definite. 
 
 4. The chief means available for developing the child's power 
 of expression are conversation and reproduction. The free and 
 easy conversation between the child and his classmates, or 
 with his teacher, is the most important means, and may be 
 made to yield excellent results, if the teacher is careful in 
 guiding the work. Conversations following the morning talk 
 or the morning story, or growing out of some nature work or 
 picture study, may be the means of leading the child to tell of 
 his own personal experiences, or what he knows of the subject. 
 He may he led to invent or enlarge upon the thought until he 
 gains confidence and fluency. In the Middle and Upper forms 
 this work may easily lead to valuble written composition 
 work. 
 
 Reproduction of stories told by the teacher is a more difficult 
 task; but if the right kind of stories are chosen, and the teacher 
 makes careful preparation to use them, excellent results will 
 follow. This reproductive work will furnish material for writ- 
 ten composition work in the advanced grades. 
 
 5. As ideas should precede words in all language work, so 
 suitable oral expression should precede written work. Pupils 
 who can state clearly what they think or know, and can then 
 write correctly what they have said, have the best results of 
 careful grammatical training. 
 
84 MANUAL OP THE EOUEMBNTABY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 6. In all oral work have pupils talk to the teacher and class- 
 mates. Avoid aimless, disinterested talking by having the 
 pupil talk about something in which he is interested, and about 
 which he knows something to tell to his listeners. Make him 
 feel that he has a message to deliver. He will then feel that 
 he is called upon to put his thoughts into the best language of 
 which he has command in order to make his hearers under- 
 stand his story. 
 
 7. The teacher should know the fundamental laws of compo- 
 sition in order to be able to guide her pupils. 
 
 a. The law of Unity guides in the sifting and selecting 
 
 of material so that each part contributes its share 
 to the central thought of the sentence, paragraph, 
 or whole composition. 
 
 b. The law of Selection requires that only such things 
 
 shall be chosen as are necessary to the clear, 
 forcible presentation of thought. 
 
 c. The law of Order and Arrangement requires such 
 a logical presentation that the thoughts shall 
 not be confused one with another, but shall 
 enable the hearer or reader to get a clear and pro- 
 gressive mental picture of the story as it is pre- 
 sented. 
 
 d. The law of Proportion demands that each thing shall 
 
 have its due share of attention. 
 
 $b. III. Kinds of language work which should be provided for 
 
 all forms. 
 
 1. Constructive, which has to do with the use of 
 language effectively for the accomplishment of 
 a given purpose. It is oral or written composi- 
 tion. The conversation lessons, in the primary 
 form, and the oral and written composition 
 work, in the middle and upper forms, are de- 
 signed for this purpose. 
 
I^NOUAQB. 85 
 
 2. Technical, which includes all phases of grammati- 
 cal accuracy. In the primary and middle 
 forms this work is largely in correcting errors 
 in the pupil's oral or written language without 
 giving the laws of grammar covering such 
 usage. Here the teacher's knowledge of gram- 
 mar is of practical use. "It is constant use 
 and practice, under never-failing watch and 
 correction, that makes good writers and speak- 
 ers; the application of direct authority is the 
 most efficient corrective. Grammar has its part 
 to contribute, but rather in the higher than in 
 the lower grades. One must be a somewhat 
 reflective user of language to amend even here 
 and there a point by grammatical reasons; and 
 no one ever changed from a bad speaker to a 
 good one by applying the rules of grammar to 
 what he said," In the upper form the pupils 
 should be taught the fundamental laws govern- 
 ing the use of the English language, and be 
 taught to apply these laws to his own language. 
 
 3. Interpretative, which aims to open the mind to a 
 realization of the power of language. In the 
 primary and middle forms this work may be 
 done in connection with the stories and poems 
 told to the children by the teacher, and repro- 
 duced by the children; in the nature study 
 lessons, and in the conversation lessons about 
 the pictures studied. In the upper form the 
 work will assume a more formal shape in the 
 work with literature and in the further study 
 of pictures. 
 
86 MANUAL OF T1IE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 Primary Form. 
 
 0. IV. First year. 
 
 A. Conversational lessons on familiar experiences 
 and about familiar things. 
 
 13. Reproduction of stories told or read to the chil- 
 dren by the teacher. 
 
 C. Invention of oral stories suggested by pictures, 
 nature study, etc. 
 
 1. Drawing on blackboard or paper to illus- 
 
 trate stories told. 
 
 2. Exercises in the use of "a" and "an" with 
 
 nouns; as, an apple, an orange, an 
 eagle, a tree, a man, etc. 
 
 3. Use of common verbs to agree with 
 
 singular and plural nouns; as, "is," 
 and "are," "was" and "were." 
 
 4. Correct a list of selected errors; as "I 
 
 aint", "he don't", "hadn't ought" etc. 
 
 5. Use of capital letter at the beginning, and 
 
 period at the end of sentence taught 
 incidentally in connection with work 
 from blackboard in reading. 
 
 6. Copying of words anci simple sentences 
 
 chosen by the teacher from the reading 
 and other lessons. 
 
 60. T. Second year. 
 
 1. Continued oral work with stories and pictures begun 
 
 in the first year. 
 
 2. Simple written composition work begun. Compose 
 
 and write simple sentences based on some of the 
 work done in school, or on some personal exper- 
 ience of the child in school or at home. 
 
LANGUAGE. 87 
 
 3. Knowledge of the use of capital letters extended. 
 
 This work can be done in connection with the 
 work in reading. 
 
 a. in beginning sentences and proper names; 
 
 b. the first word in lines of poetry; 
 
 c. in dates, days of the week, and months of 
 
 the year; 
 
 d. in addresses and titles. 
 
 4. Teach correct use of "this" and "that", "these" and 
 
 "those"; as, "this kind of apple", "that sort of 
 men"; "these kinds of cloth" "those sorts of ap- 
 ples." 
 
 5. Teach correct use of common adverbs; as, "slowly", 
 
 "quickly", "well." 
 
 6. Teach the correct forms of pronouns after "is" 
 
 and "are", "was" and "were"; as, "It is I"; "It was 
 she." 
 
 7. Teach the use of quotation marks in connection with 
 
 the work in reading, and in the story work. 
 
 8. Notice the use of punctuation marks in the reading 
 
 lessons. 
 
 9. Teach some of the common abbreviations met with 
 
 in the other work of the school. 
 
 10. Memorize choice selections from prose and poetry. 
 
 11. Copy memorized verses and proverbs, and give care- 
 
 ful attention to the use of capitals and punctua- 
 tion marks. 
 
 01. VI. Third year. 
 
 1. Oral work with stories and pictures should be con- 
 tinued. Longer stories may now be used and the 
 children held more closely to exact language in 
 reproduction. More critical work can now be 
 done with the pictures. 
 
MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY OOTJBflB OF BTTJDT. 
 
 2. Short written exercises. 
 
 a. Work out with the children a series of simple 
 
 related sentences from a familiar story or 
 from some other lesson. 
 
 b. Write these sentences on the blackboard. Call 
 
 attention to the spelling, capital letters, and 
 punctuation. 
 
 c. Have the children copy these sentences cor- 
 
 rectly. 
 
 d. Later help the children combine these sen- 
 
 tences into complex or compound sentences, 
 and then into a paragraph on the black- 
 board. 
 
 e. Have the children copy the paragraph. 
 
 3. Children write short exercises on the blackboard, 
 
 drawn from: 
 
 (a) stories told by the teacher and reproduced 
 
 by the children; 
 
 (b) nature-study lessons, and excursions; 
 
 (c) home geography descriptions; 
 
 (d) the reading lesson. 
 
 4. Review work with pronouns, verbs and adverbs, 
 
 and extend this work. 
 
 5. Teach the use of the apostrophe to show ownership. 
 
 Examine lessons in readers to find illustrations 
 of this use. Dictate exercises calling for this 
 use of the apostrophe; as, John's knife, Mary's 
 doll, Charles's book. 
 
 6. Extend the list of abbreviations. 
 
 7. Teach spelling and use of the following homonyms: 
 
 rode road rowed 
 sail sale 
 there their 
 to too two 
 no know 
 pail pale 
 
89 
 
 whole hole 
 bough bow 
 pear pair pare 
 week weak 
 won one 
 vale vail veil 
 8. Have children commit to memory at least five good 
 
 poems during the year. 
 62. VII. Suggestions as to method. 
 
 1. The first step to be employed by the teacher in 
 
 teaching language is by means of conversations 
 (IV., 1) with the pupils on suitable subjects sug- 
 gested by the incidents of every day life in 
 school and out of school, as, "My "Doll," "Our 
 Dog," "What I saw at the Circus," "What I 
 got for Christmas," "Where I went on the 
 Fourth of July," "What I like to play," etc. 
 Pupils should be encouraged to talk- freely. 
 "Self-expression is natural to the child; it is a 
 form of self-activity in which he delights, pro- 
 viding we touch his real interests, or wisely 
 tax his ingenuity." In correcting errors, the 
 teacher must be careful not to discourage the 
 child; he must not be nagged. At first the 
 teacher will try to correct by example, find- 
 ing unsuspected openings for substituting the 
 correct for the incorrect form which the child 
 has used, thus winning the child's ear to the 
 right expression, and leading him to use un- 
 consciously the correct form. While the 
 language used by the teacher should be some- 
 what in advance of that used by the child 
 habitually, it should at all times be within 
 his comprehension. 
 
 2. The second effective means of teaching language 
 
 is the reproduction of stories in prose and 
 
90 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENT Alt Y COUBSE OF STUDY. 
 
 verse (IV., 2). In the first year the stories 
 should be simple ones that appeal to little 
 children. With children of foreign parent- 
 age, who are just learning to speak English, 
 stories like the "Little Red Hen," "The Old 
 Woman and Her Pig," "The House That 
 Jack Built," "The Story of the Three Little 
 Pigs," and "The Three Bears," because of 
 of the repetition of common words and 
 phrases, are especially helpful in aiding the 
 child to acquire a vocabulary. In later years 
 longer and more advanced stories selected 
 from fairyland, mythology, fiction, history, 
 biography, and literature may be used to 
 good advantage in language work, and at the 
 same time give the child a fund of valuable 
 information. 
 
 To secure the best results the stories should 
 be told, not read, to the children. To read a 
 story with the covers of a book between the 
 face of the teacher and the faces of the listen- 
 ing children falls far short of producing the 
 best results. The teacher's every facial ex- 
 pression as she tells an interesting story is an 
 element of vital interest to the listening 
 child. The story becomes more interesting 
 and real because of the living part that the 
 teacher takes in it, and if she is in full sym- 
 pathy with it she will make the children feel 
 that the story is worth learning to tell to 
 others. 
 
 After selecting the story she is to tell, 
 the teacher should become a master of it. 
 She should read it over and over again until 
 its facts and episodes are perfectly familiar, 
 and she can reproduce it easily without 
 
LANGUAGE. 91 
 
 the strained effect of a recitation. She must 
 have the central thought of the story so well 
 in mind that, if the children fail to grasp any 
 idea in it, she can call up some familiar ob- 
 ject or experience to make the meaning clear, 
 without herself becoming confused in telling 
 the story. For it is after all by the teacher's 
 manner of speech that she will do most to 
 cultivate right habits in her children. The 
 fundamental need in story telling is simplicity 
 and clearness of thought and language com- 
 bined with a pleasing and attractive manner. 
 The teacher must be strict with herself in 
 this matter and see, while preparing the 
 story, that the language is clear and easily 
 within the comprehension of her children. 
 
 The right presentation of the story may 
 demand many things besides language. Pic- 
 tures, blackboard sketching, gestures, facial 
 expression, and dramatic impersonation, may 
 all be needed to produce the right effect. The 
 teacher should plan carefully beforehand 
 which of these helps she is going to employ, 
 and she will find it advisable to rehearse the 
 whole matter before going before her class. 
 
 When the teacher has her story so well in 
 hand that it partakes of the nature of a per- 
 sonal experience, she should tell it to her 
 pupils, simply, directly, dramatically and 
 with zest, using language so simple as to 
 make the word pictures vivid enough for each 
 little listener to grasp. One can tell on looking 
 into the faces of children whether or not they 
 are following the recital of a story, and the 
 teacher can in different ways attract the at- 
 tention by questions or appropriate gestures. 
 
MJLffUAi OF THB BIxBaOJNTABY OOTTBSE OF STITDT. 
 
 As to reproduction, any story that is worth 
 telling to children should be retold by them. 
 The main purpose in telling the story is to 
 have the children reproduce it. We CMIJ 
 know only by their expression what impres- 
 sions they have gained, and it is through 
 their desire to express that they gain power 
 to talk. It may be necessary to tell the same 
 story two or three times before calling upon 
 the children to retell it to the teacher or to 
 their classmates. 
 
 In getting the children to tell the story, the 
 teacher may ask frhe children questions about 
 the way in which the story began; how they 
 would tell it at home; or she may start to tell 
 it and gradually work up an interest on their 
 part to try to help her tell it. After a little 
 experience, both the teacher and the children 
 will find the story work some of the most de- 
 lightful as well as most profitable work in 
 school. 
 
 While the children are telling the story, the 
 teacher should be on the lookout for errors in 
 the use of English, some of which she may 
 correct by suggestion after the child is 
 through talking. He should not be inter- 
 rupted while he is telling the story to correct 
 errors in the use of language. Such inter- 
 ruption destroys the effect of the work and is 
 apt to make the child timid about trying to 
 talk connectedly about anything before the 
 teacher. The teacher should make a list of 
 the common errors. This list should form a 
 basis for future language work. (IV., 4.) 
 
LANGUAGE. 3 
 
 Stories suitable for the Primary Form, 
 
 63. First year. 
 
 The Story of the Three Little Pigs. 
 
 The Story of the Three Bears. 
 
 The Old Woman and Her Pig. 
 
 The Little Red Hen. 
 
 The House That Jack Built. 
 
 The Ant and the Dove. 
 
 The Fox and the Crow. 
 
 The Fox and the Grapes. 
 
 The Ugly Duckling. 
 
 How the Woodpecker Got His Red Head. 
 
 The Story of Hiawatha's Childhood. 
 
 64. Second year. 
 
 Little R*d Ridinghood. 
 
 Cinderella. 
 
 Little One Eye, Little Two Eye, and Little Three Eje, 
 
 The Anxious Leaf. 
 
 Puss in Boots. 
 
 How the Little Boy Got His Shirt. 
 
 Where the Christmas Tree Grew. 
 
 The Street Musicians. 
 
 Whittington and His Cat. 
 
 65. Third year. 
 
 The Wooden Horse. 
 
 Story of William Tell. 
 
 Ulysses and the Bag of Wind* 
 
 Pied Piper of Hamelin. 
 
 The Holy Night. 
 
 The Story of Jacob. 
 
 The Christ Child. 
 
 The Story of the Pilgrims. 
 
 The Story of Columbus. 
 
 The Story of John Smith. 
 
94 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY OOUBSS OF STUDY. 
 
 66. 3. Pictures furnish another helpful means of presenting 
 language work. (IV., 3.) In order to make the right use of 
 pictures, the teacher must have a definite purpose in mind, 
 and definite means at hand to accomplish that purpose. If 
 she chooses her picture with care, plans definite questions, 
 and has definitely in her own mind what she wants the child 
 to gain from the study, a picture may be made to serve in de- 
 veloping a subject, in suggesting new thoughts to the pupils, 
 and afford an opportunity for the expression of the knowledge 
 gained. 
 
 The purpose of the lesson on a picture should be to lead the 
 children to observe, to think, and to express their thoughts. 
 Any lesson that does these things contains the elements of a 
 good lesson. The teacher must keep constantly in mind that 
 the purpose of language work is to get the child to talk; to use 
 language, but picture study will do more than this, it will 
 awaken a love for and an appreciation of the beautiful in art. 
 
 The simplest picture lessons are those in which the child 
 describes what he sees in the picture. He will at first merely 
 state what he sees. ("At the Watering Trough," Dagnan- 
 Bouveret) "I see a boy," "I see two horses," "I see a watering 
 trough." These statements show that he sees the picture as a 
 collection of isolated objects and not as a group. By question- 
 ing the teacher should lead the child to see the relation of the 
 different objects, one to the other, and to talk about the picture 
 as a whole. The statements will at first be in simple sen- 
 tences which the teacher will help the children to arrange and 
 combine into a connected statement. Later in this work, the 
 children may write these sentences on the blackboard as a les- 
 son in written composition. 
 
 A picture may also be used as a basis of an imaginary story. 
 The order of work in such lessons should be, first, observation; 
 second, thought; third, imagination; and fourth narration. In 
 order to make the work valuable, the teacher must decide upon 
 the line of story she wishes to develop from the picture, and 
 then carefully hold the children to the story she has in mind. 
 
LANGUAOR. 95 
 
 Unless she does this their imagination will oftentimes lead 
 them to ramble far from the story upon which they are work- 
 ing. After the story has been worked out a sentence or two 
 at a time by the different children in the class, they should be 
 called on to tell the whole story in connected form. In the 
 middle and upper forms imaginative stories from pictures may 
 furnish material for written composition work. 
 
 The pictures for these lessons should be selected with care. 
 They should contain few objects, in order that the description 
 may be centralized and complete. The subject should be one 
 in which the children will be naturally interested; not a land- 
 scape or a. village, but a scene which represents life and ac- 
 tion, child-life, if possible. It should suggest good thoughts 
 and be artistically good. The pictures need not be expensive. 
 Excellent material for this work may be found in the Perry 
 pictures, or the Brown pictures at one cent each. 
 
 67. A suggestive list of pictures for use in the primary form: 
 The Gleaners, Millet. 
 Feeding Her Birds, Millet. 
 The Churning, Millet. 
 Shepherdess, Millet. 
 The First Steps, Millet. 
 Picture of the Puritans, Bonghton. 
 The Madonna of the Chair, Raphael. 
 The Sistine Madonna, Raphael. 
 Saved, Landseer. 
 The Pet Bird, Meye von Bremen. 
 Can't You Talk, Holmes. 
 At the Watering-Trough, Dagnan-Bouveret. 
 The Haymakers' Rest, Dupre. 
 The Cat Family, Adam. 
 The Sheepfold, Jacque. 
 The Melon-Eaters, Murillo. 
 The Grape-Eaters, Murillo. 
 
96 MANUAL, OF THI HLJDMHrTABY OOUESE OF STTTOY. 
 
 68. 4. Much of the technical language work called for in the 
 Primary Form may be done in connection with the conversa- 
 tion lessons, the story work, the work with pictures, and with 
 the work in reading. 
 
 68a. The teacher should strive for good results in oral work 
 at first and be in no haste to get the children to "write compo- 
 sitions." The failure to do good work in composition is at- 
 tributable to the following causes: 
 
 1. too much written work is asked for, 
 
 2. it is too labored, because we press for an excel- 
 
 lence in form not to be expected from the 
 young, 
 
 3. the compositions are often too long; a sentence is 
 
 long enough for the first year; a short para- 
 graph at the end of the third year, 
 
 4. wrong topics are chosen, depriving the work of 
 
 reality and interest to the child. 
 
 If the teacher follows the outline of the Course of Study she 
 will avoid these errors. In the beginning we should expect 
 from children, rough, free, hearty work in writing. This does 
 not mean slovenly careless work; but it does mean sincere, 
 childlike work. 
 
 (Chubb, pp. 106-107.) 
 
 68b. Children should be encouraged to sketch on blackboard 
 and paper to illustrate the stories told in language work. 
 Much of this work will of necessity be crude, but the use of 
 the hand in doing this kind of work will help greatly in giv- 
 ing the child facility in the use of his hand in later writing 
 lessons, and it also teaches him a fruitful means of expres- 
 sion. 
 
 68c. In fixing correct forms of expression, the eye as well as 
 the ear and vocal organs, should be made familiar with them. 
 To those pupils who remember best in visual images, this 
 will be especially helpful. As soon as children <ye uble to 
 
97 
 
 read well from the blackboard, exercises similar to the follow- 
 ing should be made the subject of frequent concert and indi- 
 vidual drills: 
 
 an apple, 
 
 an orange, 
 
 a knife, 
 
 a book, 
 
 a pen. 
 
 Is it I? Yes, it is I. 
 
 Is it they? No, it is not they. 
 
 68d. Conversation lessons should be arranged between pupil 
 and classmates or teacher calling for these and other expres- 
 sions which give trouble; as 
 
 Is that you John? Yes, it is I. 
 
 Teacher: John give Henry the book. 
 
 John: I gave Henry the book. 
 
 Henry: John gave me the book. 
 
 The following general plan to aid the pupil to form the 
 habit of correct usage has been recommended as sound in 
 principle and serviceable in practice: 
 
 1. Provide for exercises that require correct use of a form 
 
 commonly misused. 
 
 2. Call attention to the right form to be used. 
 
 3. Secure repetition of Che correct form. 
 
 In later work, in order to make the habit of correct usage 
 an increasingly intelligent usage, the teacher should: 
 
 1. Ask pupils to tell what form has been used and how it 
 
 was used. 
 
 2. Lead to a simple statement of a direction for its use. 
 
 3. Require further repetition to fix the habit. 
 
 68e. Frequent lessons will be required to master the homo- 
 nyms which are met with in all of the work in the different 
 grades. There is no need to anticipate the use of these words 
 before they are met with in some lesson. Then the attention 
 ol the children should be called to them and they may be made 
 
 8 a 
 
98 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 the occasion for a drill exercise, somewhat as follows: "In our 
 lesson today we find three words which sound alike, but are 
 spelled differently and have different meanings". "Do you re- 
 member what they are?" "Rode, road and rowed." 
 
 The teacher may now put the words in sentences on the 
 blackboard, illustrating their different uses. 
 
 I rode my bicycle to school this morning. 
 
 I rode in a carriage yesterday. 
 
 The road in front of the school house is dusty. 
 
 The team came along the road. 
 
 I rowed a boat on the lake last summer. 
 
 My papa rowed the boat while I fished. 
 Have the children learn the spelling of the words, and write 
 them in sentences on the blackboard. Drill on them often so 
 that the children may become accustomed to writing the words 
 correctly. 
 
 69. 5. The poems taught to children may be made a source 
 of pleasure and strength to the children in their language 
 work. No poem should be taught for its rhythm alone, al- 
 though the rhythm should furnish much enjoyment, but 
 every line should be full of meaning to the child. The teacher 
 should repeat the entire poem to the children emphasizing the 
 expression. 
 
 The word pictures in the poem should be made clear to the 
 child while he is learning it, and these pictures should be 
 called up in his mind every time he repeats the poem. Do not 
 teach the poems line by line, but thought by .thought, and help 
 the pupil to give expression to the thought when he repeats the 
 poem. Review the poems learned often enough to keep them 
 in mind. 
 
 69a. A Suggestive List of Poems for the Primary Form. 
 The Tree. Bjornson. 
 The Owl and the Pussy Cat. Lippincott. 
 Hang up the Baby's Stocking. Miller. 
 Stars and Daisies. Sherman. 
 
99 
 
 September. Jackson. 
 
 Thistledown. Buckram. 
 
 The Ferns. 
 
 Autumn Fires. Sherman. 
 
 Kris Kringle's Travels. Best. 
 
 The Bright Side. Macdonald. 
 
 Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star. 
 
 If I Knew. My man. 
 
 Minnie and Winnie. Tennyson. 
 
 Lady Moon. Hough ton. 
 
 The Cow. Stevenson. 
 
 Clovers. Brown. 
 
 Seven Times One. Ingelow. 
 
 6. The committee of fifteen emphasizes the importance of the 
 study of plant life in the elementary schools, and the commit- 
 tee of ten devotes much space to a consideration of this phase 
 of nature work. Under the course of study in nature work 
 will be found many suggestions to the teacher who is on the 
 lookout for material for language work. 
 
 7. The work outlined in History and Geography for the Pri- 
 mary Form will afford excellent material for language work. 
 
 Middle Form. 
 70. First Year. 
 
 1. Continue oral work with stories, pictures, and poems 
 
 begun in the Primary Form. 
 
 2. More extended work in written composition may now 
 
 be undertaken. The written work should follow 
 and be based on the oral work. 
 
 3. Review the work with pronouns, and teach the cor- 
 
 rect use of "who," "which," and "that" as conjunc- 
 tive pronouns. 
 
 4. Give a series of lessons including the homonyms 
 
 taught in the Primary Form, Teach other hom- 
 onyms. 
 
100 MAJSUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 5. Begin the work of developing the chief rules for form- 
 
 ing the plurals of nouns. 
 
 6. In conversational lessons, use sentences calling foi 
 
 the correct use of "as" and "like." 
 
 7. Have frequent exercises calling for the use of irreg- 
 
 ular verbs. 
 
 8. Continue the work with the apostrophe, teaching its 
 
 use in common contractions, as "o'clock," "'tis," 
 "don't," etc. 
 
 9. Begin work with synonyms and antonyms, as "large 
 
 big great;" "tiny little small;" "proud hum- 
 ble;" "weak strong." Have pupils frame sen- 
 tences illustrating these similar and contrasted 
 meanings. 
 
 10. Letter writing begun. Special attention should be 
 
 paid to form of letter. 
 
 11. Memorize choice selections from prose and poetry. 
 
 Have these selections and those learned in the Pri- 
 mary^ Form recited often, and have pupils write 
 them from memory. 
 
 71. Second Year. 
 
 1. Oral work in connection with reading, history, geog- 
 
 raphy, nature study, and other lessons. Work with 
 stories, poems, and pictures should be continued. 
 
 2. Written composition work based on the oral work. 
 
 Pupils should first learn to talk freely. Grace of 
 expression will follow. 
 
 3. Continue work with punctuation marks. Teach the 
 
 use of the interrogation and exclamation points. 
 
 4. Give frequent dictation exercises in which special at- 
 
 tention is paid to form, spelling, and punctuation. 
 
 5. Continue work with rules for the formation of plurals 
 
 of nouns. 
 
 6. Letter writing continued. Familiar letters. Folding 
 
 paper for insertion into envelopes. Addressing en- 
 velopes, 
 
LANOtJAGS. . 101 
 
 7. Review work with irregular verbs and their parts. 
 
 Have frequent oral and written exercises calling for 
 the use of these verbs. 
 
 Give special attention to the verbs that give the 
 most trouble; as, "lie" and "lay;" "sit" and "set;" 
 "be," "do," "see," "go," "fly," "get;" and tlie 
 auxiliaries "shall" and "will," "may" and "can." 
 Make many sentences to illustrate and confirm the 
 various uses of these verbs. 
 
 8. Continue work with homonyms and synonyms. Fre- 
 
 quent exercises to teach the correct use of these 
 words. 
 
 9. Extend list of abbreviations. 
 
 10. Careful attention should be given to common errors 
 
 heard in and out of school. 
 
 11. Care should be taken to prevent the forming of care- 
 
 less habits in the pronunciation of words like 
 "such," "just," "catch," etc. 
 
 12. Continue to have pupils memorize choice selections 
 
 from literature. Longer and more difficult selec- 
 tions may now be chosen. Careful attention should 
 be given to the expression of thought. 
 
 72. Third Year. 
 
 1. The Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools recom- 
 mends that a text-book of language lessons be used 
 in order that a course of teaching may be carried 
 out effectually through the upper forms. During 
 this year emphasis should be placed upon the laws 
 involved in the construction of the English sen- 
 tence. Technical grammar in conjunction with a 
 study of literary style should constitute the greater 
 part of the work in the Upper Form. Special em- 
 phasis should be placed upon dictation and compo- 
 sition exercises with drills to introduce the pupil to 
 the formal study of the sentence. 
 
102 MANUAL or -THE ELEMENTARY COTJSSB OF STUDT. 
 
 , The sentence. Teach that the sentence is the form 
 in which a thought is expressed. Combine simple 
 sentences into complex and compound sentences. 
 Have the children notice the sentences which they 
 use. Examine the sentences in the readers and in 
 library books. 
 
 3. Continue the work in punctuation in connection with 
 
 the study of sentences. Note some of the more 
 common uses of the comma, colon, and semi-colon. 
 
 4. Subject and Predicate: Teach the terms subject and 
 
 predicate in connection with sentences of the child- 
 ren's own composition. Have pupils find simple 
 subject and predicate from their reading lessons, 
 especially in prose selections. 
 
 5. Develop definitions of noun, pronoun, verb, and ad- 
 
 verb, and review the work done with these parts 
 of speech. Select lists of these parts of speech 
 from the pupils' composition work and from the 
 text-books used in other branches of study. 
 
 6. Have pupils talk and write freely from outlines made 
 
 by the teacher. Help pupils to make outlines from 
 which to talk and write. 
 
 7. In making the outlines for and with the pupils, the 
 
 teacher should develop the idea of the paragraph. 
 Each topic or division of the outline needs a separ- 
 ate paragraph, and the matter of the paragraph 
 should be arranged logically. 
 
 The pupils should be led to examine the paragraphs in 
 their readers to find what constitutes a paragraph; 
 the subject of the paragraph; the topic sentenca of a 
 paragraph; and how the matter of the paragraph is 
 arranged. Make outlines of numerous selections 
 from the readers and from library books. Use 
 these outlines from which to write. Compare the 
 composition with the original, and note the defects. 
 
 8. The following points should be emphasized in written 
 
 composition work: proper use of capital letters, 
 
LANGUAGE. 1.03 
 
 spelling, punctuation, paragraphing, correct use of 
 words, correct form of sentence, logical arrangement 
 of matter, division of words at the end of a line. 
 Do not call for long compositions. Quality not 
 quantity should be the teacher's motto in all writ- 
 ten composition work. Better two paragraphs well 
 written than ten paragraphs full of errors. 
 9. Letter Writing. Continue the work already begun. 
 Write friendship letters, business letters, forms of 
 invitations, notes of acceptance, and notes of regret. 
 
 10. Continue the work with synonyms and antonyms. 
 
 Help the pupil to select the best words with which 
 to express his thoughts. Encourage a language 
 pride. 
 
 11. Continue the work of memorizing choice selections 
 
 from literature. 
 
 7 2 a. 12. Stories suitable for use in Middle Form language 
 may readily be found in the school readers, the 
 library books belonging to the district, and such 
 other sources as are available for the teacher's use. 
 
 Upper Form. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY, 
 
 73. 1. In this form the pupils should use a good text-book 
 as the basis of technical language work. 
 
 2. The recitations in every subject in school should furnish 
 opportunity for oral language work. The teacher should in- 
 sist upon the pupil's expressing his thoughts clearly and con- 
 cisely. Loose, incoherent sentences should not be tolerated. 
 The language used by a pupil in his recitation will be governed 
 largely by the attention given it by the teacher. 
 
 3. The regular work of the school will offer opportunity for 
 written work besides the written work based on the stories 
 given for the purpose. Original stories calling for invention 
 and imagination on the part of the pupils will add interest to 
 the work. The pupils should be taught to make outlines for 
 their own work, and use these outlines in their written work. 
 
104: MANUAL OF THE ELEJklESTAKY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 4. Teach sentence structure, and simple form of sentence 
 analysis. 
 
 5. Teach the parts of speech, and show that the use of a word 
 determines the part of speech to which it belongs. Most gram- 
 matical questions can be answered only by discovering the use 
 of the word in expressing the thought. Taught with this 
 thought in mind, grammar becomes as much of a reasoning 
 (subject as arithmetic, and will appeal to pupils in the same 
 way. There is no good reason why a boy should love arith- 
 metic and hate grammar. 
 
 6. Teach the principal rules of syntax and give many exam- 
 ples to illustrate. Give frequent reviews and drills on the 
 troublesome forms of verbs and pronouns. Help pupils to cor- 
 rect their own mistakes. Encourage a language pride. 
 
 7. Do not depend upon the exercises in the text-book to fur- 
 nish material for work with words and sentences, but use the 
 material in the readers and other books. Teach the pupils to 
 use their knowledge of grammar in interpreting a piece of lit- 
 erature. 
 
 8. The teacher must be on the alert to make the study ol 
 grammar and composition a live, invigorating subject. Unless 
 there is life and interest in the recitation, the pupils will get 
 little or no good from the study of the subject. 
 
 SOME SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES FOR UPPER F< RM LANGUAGE 
 
 WORK. 
 
 74:. 1. Book reviews. 
 
 Frequently have pupils give reviews of b\x>ks which 
 they have read. Let these reviews be givn before 
 the class or before the whole school. The teacher 
 should go over the work with the pupil first to help 
 him shape his material. If the review is a long- 
 one, encourage the pupil to place an outline on the 
 blackboard from which to talk. 
 
LANGUAGE. 105 
 
 2. Talks. 
 
 Have the pupils prepare short talks to give before 
 the class, or the school. Encourage the pupils to 
 select subjects of general interest, and let them 
 make simple outlines from which to talk. Current 
 topics, nature study, agriculture, history and geog- 
 raphy furnish excellent material for these talks. 
 
 3. Original work. 
 
 Use only subjects about which the children know 
 something, or in which they are interested. Have 
 them describe things and events of local interest. 
 Local history affords an opportunity for some excel- 
 lent work of this kind. The teacher may suggest in- 
 cidents of a story and have them develop it, or she 
 may read a story as far as some very interesting 
 part, and then allow the pupils to write the con- 
 clusion of the story as they would like it to end. 
 
 4. Letter writing. 
 
 Review parts of letter, folding superscription, etc. 
 Give drill exercises on these. Take up the differ- 
 ent forms of correspondence, using the models furn- 
 ished in the text-book. Pay especial attention to 
 the writing of a business letter. Teach that a bus- 
 iness letter should be characterized by clearness 
 and directness. Teach the proper paragraphing of 
 a letter. The discussion of each topic should form 
 a separate paragraph. 
 
 5. Paragraphing. 
 
 The practice of preparing outlines for oral and 
 written composition work will assist greatly in 
 teaching paragraphing. Study the paragraphing 
 in the reader, history, and in the library books. 
 Notice the arrangement, margin, indentation, and 
 general appearance of the paragraphs in these 
 
MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 books. Work out an outline with the pupils, in- 
 dicating the paragraphs by topics. Have the pupils 
 write from the outline paragraphing as indicated. 
 
 SUGGESTIVE LIST OF MATERIAL FOR UPPER FORM WORK IN 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 75. The text-book used will be suggestive in many ways, so 
 that it is not necessary to make the list here so long as in the 
 other forms. 
 Stories: 
 
 Robin Hood. 
 
 William Tell and the Apple. 
 
 Alexander and Bucephalus. 
 
 Narcissus. 
 
 Diogenes. 
 
 Bell of Atri. 
 
 King John and the Abbot. 
 Pictures: 
 
 Sir Galahad. Watts. 
 
 Christ and the Doctors. Hoffman. 
 
 Fighting Teineraire. Turner. 
 
 Oxen Going to Work. Troyan. 
 
 Horse Fair. Bonheur* 
 
 Windmill. Ruysdael. 
 Poems: 
 
 American Flag. Drake. 
 
 Chambered Nautilus. Holmes. 
 
 Selections from Sir Launfal. 
 
 Selections from Snow-Bound. 
 
 Selections from Evangeliue. 
 
 Ladder of St. Augustine. 
 
 The Rainbow. Wordsworth. 
 
 The Cloud. Shelley. 
 
 Note. Whore pupib have not had the work outlined in the 
 middle form before taking up this form's work, many of the 
 stories, pictures, and poems suggested under the Middle Form 
 may be used to advantage by pupils of the Upper Form. 
 
A&ITHMETIO. 107 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 76. Arithmetic is of two kinds, pure and applied; it consists 
 of abstract processes and concrete problems. The aim in teach- 
 ing the former is to train for the acquisition of skill, viz.: ac- 
 curacy and rapidity in computation, in teaching the latter to 
 develop mental power. 
 
 I. Primary Form. 
 
 77. The purpose of the work in the primary form is to teach 
 the fundamental facts of number (viz.: the tables), to develop 
 mental power in applying these facts in practical problems, and 
 to acquire skill in some of the fundamental processes of number. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 78. 1. Oral lessons with objects to teach the smaller num- 
 bers and their relation to one another. 
 
 2. To count to one hundred or beyond; reading and writing 
 of numbers begun. 
 
 3. The addition and subtraction tables. The making and 
 solution of concrete problems involving applications of these 
 tables. 
 
 4. The multiplication, division and factoring tables. The 
 making and solution of problems involving applications of 
 these tables. 
 
 5. Such portions of tables of denominate numbers as may be 
 used in the operations indicated in No. 4. 
 
 6. Squares, rectangles, and areas of the same; cubes, rectan- 
 gular solids, and volumes of the same; right and oblique an- 
 gles; perpendicular, oblique and parallel lines, and triangles. 
 
 7. The making and solution of problems involving two or 
 more operations of Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and 
 Division. Do much purely mental work. 
 
108 MANUAX, OF THE ELEMENTARY COtJRSE OF STUDY. 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 7 8 a. The following material is essential for teaching number 
 with facility in the primary form: Foot rules marked to 
 quarters or an eighth of an inch, scissors, paste-board inch 
 squares, at least one hundred inch cubes, a box of small rub- 
 ber bands, splints, yardsticks, pint, quart, peck and gallon 
 measures, cards about 2i by 4 inches for table work, and a 
 quantity of sand, bran, corn or some other convenient material 
 for measuring purposes. Each pupil should have his own 
 foot rule and at least forty card-board inch squares. The 
 above material should be regarded as minimum in amount and 
 variety. 
 
 79. It is quite generally admitted now that no formal recita- 
 tions in arithmetic should be conducted the first year of the 
 primary form. The pupil's experiences in play and in his 
 other work in the schoolroom, if a little ingenuity is exercised 
 by the teacher, are sufficient to give him such a working appre^ 
 ciation of number, as, with his greater age, will enable him to 
 do nearly, if not quite, as much during the second year as dur- 
 ing the first two years in formal number work. If, however, 
 class work is begun the first year nothing further than num- 
 bers 1 and 2 in the Course of Study should be attempted. 
 
 80. It is better to have each pupil in the class handle the il- 
 lustrative objects, than to have them watch the teacher do so. 
 This can be more successfully accomplished if the pupils stand 
 or sit about a table. 
 
 81. Determine first what children know of numbers. Havo 
 them handle objects to learn numbers and their relations to 
 each other. They should discover in conversation with the 
 teacher, and by handling the objects, measuring, etc., the sim- 
 ple facts of addition, subtraction, etc.: as, 2 and 3 are 5, that 
 6 less 2 is 4, that two threes are 6, that one-half of 6 is 3, that 
 6 contains 2 threes, etc. Many simple problems involving 
 number less than ten can be solved with the objects. The pur- 
 pose of this work is to give the pupil a real knowledge of num- 
 bers and their fundamental relations. These relations are 
 
ARITHMETIC. 109 
 
 more truly impressed through the pupil's drawing and making 
 things than through anything the teacher may do or say. 
 
 82. The children should early learn to count to one hundred 
 or one thousand. To simply name the numbers rapidly in or- 
 der is sufficient at this time. The purpose here is to learn the 
 law of the nomenclature of the numbers. Most children will 
 learn this in their play if the hint is given with suggestions of 
 competition. Counting by twos with odd or even numbers, 
 counting by tens and fives can easily follow, all furnishing 
 much sport to the children if properly encouraged. The writ- 
 ing of the numbers should follow the counting. As interest- 
 ing seat work, this may relieve many a weary hour of the pu- 
 pil's time. 
 
 83. The order of the work in any given subject is an im- 
 portant matter. The order should be determined by the logi- 
 cal dependence of the various parts of the subject. 
 
 Order of Work for Addition. 
 
 84. Step I. The addition table. 
 
 (a) By the addition table is simply meant the 45 combinations 
 
 798 
 of the digits two at a time as, + 5 2 7 e *' 
 
 (b) In teaching the table give short advance lessons, say a 
 
 combination o-r two, but drill so thoroughly upon all pre- 
 viously learned combinations that it is impossible to for- 
 get any of them. 
 
 / 
 
 (c) A combination, as J| is known only when the pupil, upon 
 
 seeing it, thinks eleven just as, if properly taught, in 
 reading he thinks of an apple when he sees the word sym- 
 
 f\ 
 
 bol. The symbols 6 and 5 of the combination, 5 
 
 should not enter into consciousness any more than the 
 letters of the word apple. The idea eleven in the one 
 instance is wanted and the idea apple in the other. 
 
 (d) The drill for the mastery of the table should be mostly 
 
 written, rather than oral. (For suggestions for drill see 
 85 (b), 85 (b), 89 (b), and suggestions for drill upon 
 word forms and phonic elements in reading. ) 
 
110 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY. 
 
 85, Step II. The addition at sight of a number of two digits 
 to a number of one digit; as, 
 
 23 87 49 
 4, 5, 6, etc. 
 
 (a) This is a two step process and depends upon a memory of 
 the combinations of the addition table. The pupil in 
 
 o 
 
 the first illustration sees and thinks seven t thQn twenty- 
 
 seven. 
 
 In the secojid illustration, he sees Z and thinks 
 
 twelve, then ninety-two. The purpose is not to memorize 
 all possible combinations in this step, but to get results 
 by quick recognition of the combinations of the addition 
 table. 
 
 (b) As soon as a given combination of the table is known all 
 the combinations involving it to one hundred should be 
 
 taught, as | 2 g 7 | 4 ^ 6 | etc. This furnishes 
 
 an excellent means of drill upon the tables. To assign 
 an application of Step II before the table combination 
 involved is known simply drives the pupils to count their 
 fingers or to other cumbersome devices. 
 
 86. Step III. The addition of a column. 
 
 (a) As this is but a series of applications of Steps I and II 
 
 skill in adding a column depends upon the quick recog- 
 nition of the combinations in Steps I and II. 
 
 (b) The column can be introduced while Steps I and II are 
 
 being learned if the sum of the column does not exceed 
 
 Q 
 
 the sums of the largest combination learned, as if g is 
 
 the largest combination yet learned, such columns as 
 the following 
 
 4344 
 
 3123 
 
 2532 
 
 3, 2, 2, 4 
 
 can be given. These can be added in two steps, if the 
 table combinations involved are known, as in the first 
 
ARITHMETIC. Ill 
 
 column adding down, one sees fcsven and five to be 
 added, in the second four and seven, in the third six and 
 five, and in the last seven and six. The pupil in adding 
 aloud says seven, twelve; four, eleven; six, eleven; and 
 seven, thirteen, respectively. Do not point to the figures 
 in the column while the pupil adds for the same reason 
 that one should not point to the words while a pupil 
 reads. This step furnishes excellent drill for training 
 upon the addition table. 
 
 87. Step IV. The addition of two or more columns. 
 
 The carrying process can be mastered in Step II or in sim- 
 ple examples like, 
 
 29 48 
 34, 87 
 
 The numbers can be illustrated by bundled splints, by repre- 
 senting the numbers by the fingers of both hands, etc. 
 
 For Step V in addition see 10'J (b). 
 
 88. More or less in each day's lesson, while the process 
 work is being done, problems to train the reasoning powers 
 should be given. The work from day to day should be about 
 equally divided between the two kinds of work. (Art. 76.) 
 
 Order of Work for Subtraction. 
 
 89. Step I. The subtraction table. 
 
 (a) By the subtraction table is meant all the various subtrac- 
 
 tions in which the subtrahend and remainder are digits, 
 as each combination of the addition table produces two 
 elements of the subtraction table, except that nine of 
 them produce only one each. There are eighty-one ele- 
 ments in the subtraction table. 
 
 (b) As the subtraction table is based upon the addition table, 
 
 the most economical time to learn an element of the sub- 
 traction table is at the time the combination of the ad- 
 dition table, from which it is derived, is learned, as when 
 
 r o o 
 
 o is learned, _ 3 and _^ should be learned. In this way 
 
 the subtraction table may servo as a drill npon the ad- 
 dition table and vice versa* 
 
112 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 (c) The most economical way to learn the subtraction table is 
 to think, What can be added to the subtrahend to make 
 
 Q 
 
 the minuend? as in to think, 6 and what make 9? 
 
 in 5 7 and ? make 15? By this way of looking at it 
 
 | ^ 
 
 the energy expended in learning addition is more easily 
 utilized and less time is needed to learn the subtraction 
 table. 
 
 90. Step II. The subtraction of two numbers in which 
 each order of the subtrahend is less than the corresponding or- 
 der of the minuend; as, 
 
 897 574 6724 
 
 235, 421, 1312 
 
 (a) To solve these it is sufficient if the pupil recognizes the 
 various elements of the subtraction table in order from 
 the right to the bft, and expresses the results under 
 the corresponding elements. The aim here is to train 
 for skill in computation, not for reasoning power. 
 (Art. 7 <5..) 
 
 91. Step III. The subtraction of any two numbers, as 
 
 546 624 8152 
 
 219 362, 4627 
 
 (a) The symbol Jj should suggest _ g of the subtraction table. 
 
 The pupil can be told that the 1 ten of the 16 is taken 
 from the 4 tens of the 46. He can now see that in th2 
 next order of the minuend he has but 3 tens, hence th? 
 
 3 
 next step is ^ etc. 
 
 Drill work in addition and subtraction for the acquisition of 
 skill, should with more or less frequency, be carried out through- 
 out the Middle Form and occasionally in the Upper Form. 
 
ARITHMETIC. 113 
 
 Order of Work in Multiplication. 
 
 02. Step I. The multiplication table. 
 
 o 
 
 (a) See notes under Step I, addition. In multiplication ^ is 
 
 a symbol for 15. Do not let the pupil say, "5 timos ,'i i> 
 15," but "Fifteen." There is no danger of confusing 
 
 3 
 
 5 with eight, for when one is thinking in multiplication 
 
 if well taught, addition will not intrude itself. 
 
 (b) In teaching the addition table do not use the form 
 
 5X3=15. Train the eye to recognize the combination 
 
 o 
 
 more nearly as they will later be used, as 2 
 
 03. \"ccp II. To multiply any number by a digit. 
 
 QOzl 
 
 1. When no product is greater than 9, as ^ 
 
 (a) This is simply a series of applications of the multipli- 
 cation table. Teach the pupils to see in order the 
 combinations of the table. 
 
 2. When one or more products are greater than 9, as ^ 
 
 (a) This may be easily adapted from the knowledge of 
 carrying in addition. 
 (See Middle Form for Step III.) 
 
 Order of Work in Division. 
 
 04. t'lep I. The division table. 
 
 (a) This should be taught in both forms of division, as for in- 
 
 stance: 
 
 (1) When 18^-6? means, "How many sixes are in IS?" 
 
 (2) When 18^-6? means, " What is one-sixth of IS'/" 
 
 (b) Many concrete problems shouldbegivenillustratingthe.se 
 
 problems, as, to illustrate: 
 
 (1) At six cents each how many pencils can I get for IS 
 cents; or if six apples are given to each boy, 18 
 apples could be given to how many boys? 
 
 9 a 
 
114 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 (2) 6 pencils cost 18 cents, how much is that apiece? or 6 
 boys are to have 18 apples divided equally among 
 them, how many apples does each boy get? 
 These simple problems in division will furnish excellent food 
 for exercise of the pupil's reasoning powers. Let the pupils 
 make and solve similar problems and determine to which kind of 
 division each belongs. (76.) 
 
 (c) The combinations of the division table can be taught from 
 the corresponding combinations of the multiplication 
 table. These two tables are complements of each other 
 and should be taught together, as were the addition and 
 subtraction tables (89 (b).) 
 (See 109 for further work in division..) 
 
 95. When the pupil has learned a given combination of the 
 multiplication table, he should be trained to recognize the two 
 factors from the product; as, if 4 times 8 is 32, 32 has for its 
 factors 4 and 8. These three tables, multiplication, division 
 and factoring, may each be used as a drill upon the others. 
 
 96. Practice in adding and subtracting should be continued 
 throughout the work in the Primary Form. 
 
 97. (a) Pupils should be taught to use a ruler to draw lines 
 of given lengths. Have them draw two lines that meet, as, <. 
 An angle is formed. Have them draw a larger angle, as, 
 
 ( ; a smaller angle, as, < . Draw a line to meet another 
 line so as to form two angles, as, \~~. If the two thus 
 formed angles are equal they are right angles; if unequal, 
 oblique angles. Have pupils practice until they can draw 
 these angles readily, and recognize them by their names when 
 they see them. A right angle can be made with the corner of 
 a card, of a book, of a sheet of paper, etc. 
 
 (b) Teach the term perpendicular for either side of a right 
 angle. Draw with the card two perpendiculars to the same 
 line, as, I I . These two lines are parallel. 
 
 (c) Draw a 3 inch "square, a 4 inch square, etc.; a 2 by 4 
 inch oblong rectangle (oblong) , etc. Divide by parallel lines at 
 the inch divisions. By counting the rows and the number in a 
 
115 
 
 row, let the pupils discover the number of inch squares in the 
 respective rectangles. By drawing rectangles and counting 
 squares the pupil can determine for himself the products of the 
 multiplication table before learning them; as, a 5 by 7 rect- 
 angle (5 rows with 7 in a row) has 35 squares, hence 5x7 = 
 35, or 7 rows with 5 in a row, hence 7 X 5 = 35. (Interpret 
 the symbol X, "times;" as, 7 X 5 means 7 times 5.) 
 
 Draw many rectangles and cut up into inch squares. Use, 
 and get the children to use freely the technical terms in this 
 article. 
 
 (d) Much work should be done in measuring with foot rule 
 and yard stick, estimating distances and testing the accuracy 
 by measuring. A rod should be laid off upon the floor of the 
 schoolroom, or the sidewalk; estimates of a rod should be made 
 and corrected, until pupils have a fair idea of its value. Have 
 pupils find how many steps they take to the rod. Then have 
 them lay off by walking, a given distance, as, 4, 6, or 10 rods. 
 Measure the results to see who was most nearly accurate. 
 
 (e) The pint, quart, peck and gallon measures should be 
 used in measuring sand, corn, water, or other material appro- 
 priate to the measure used, until the pupil has a fair idea of 
 their respective sizes. 
 
 (f) Problems involving these measures should be made and 
 solved by the pupils. Reductions from one unit to another, 
 both ascending and descending, should frequently be made. As 
 yet, no rules should be given; simply be sure that the pupil 
 images all that he expresses. 
 
 TESTS FOR PROMOTION. 
 
 98. 1. Ability to name at sight any combination of the addi- 
 tion, subtraction, multiplication, division and factoring tables 
 
 2. Ability to read, write, add, subtract, and multiply by & 
 digit, simple numbers to 1000. 
 
 3. Ability to solve simple problems involving these opera- 
 tions. 
 
 4. A knowledge of the denominate numbers in familiar uee 
 
116 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 which will enable the pupil to make simple reductions within 
 the range of his knowledge of multiplication and division. 
 
 Prepare a list of questions and test the pupil's ability to advance to 
 the next form. 
 
 II. Middle Form. 
 
 99. The purpose of the work in the Middle Form is to ac 
 quire skill in the f undamental processes, fractions and decimals; 
 to train the reasoning powers in solving concrete problems in 
 application of these processes; to train in language in making 
 orderly statements of procedure. 
 
 COURSE OP STUDY. 
 
 100. 1. Reading and writing of numbers extended. 
 
 2. The processes of multiplication and division completed, 
 
 3. The factoring of numbers to one hundred, and L. C. M. 
 taught. 
 
 4. All the processes of common fractions taught and prob 
 lems based upon these processes solved. 
 
 5. All the processes of decimal fractions taught and prob- 
 lems based upon these processes solved. 
 
 6. Knowledge of denominate numbers extended. 
 
 7. Formal statement of definitions, of rules for the processes, 
 and of order of work in the solution of problems. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 Order of work in multiplication of simple numbers. 
 For steps I and II see 92 and 93. 
 
 101. Step III. The multiplication of any number by any 
 number. 
 
 (a) Each example in this work consists of two or more ap- 
 plications of Step II. The pupils need to be shown where to 
 express the right hand figure in the repeated applications of 
 Step II, and that they must add the partial products. 
 
 Order of work in division of simple numbers. 
 For Step I see 94. 
 
ARITHMETIC. 117 
 
 102 (a) Step II. The division of any number by a digit, viz.: 
 Short Division/' 
 
 1. When each application of the division table is exact; as, 
 
 2(842, 3993, 4;1284. 
 
 (a) The pupils simply need to see the successive appli 
 cations of the division table. Show them what to 
 do and drill for skill. 
 
 2. When some of the applications of the division table are 
 
 not exact, as, 8'378, 6 [4237, 4 5368. 
 
 (a) Before taking this step, drill upon such modifica- 
 
 tions of the division table; as, 42-^8, 17+5, 23+4, 
 48-5-6, etc., until the pupils are reasonably expert, 
 
 (b) The pupils simply need to be shown that they must 
 
 apply the division table, mentally prefix the re- 
 mainder to the next figure, and again apply the 
 division table, repeating the process to the end of 
 the division. 
 
 Step TIL The division of any number by any number, viz.: 
 A>ng division." 
 
 (a) In thi-5 work two things must be taught: 1. A form for 
 
 long division. 2. The use of the trial divisor and trial 
 dividend. 
 
 (b) To teach the form, use examples in short division, or, ex- 
 
 amples with larger divisors within the range of the pu- 
 pils extended multiplication table; as, 12, 15, 25, 20, 30, 
 etc. The aim here is to show the pupils where to ex- 
 press the different elements in the example. No other 
 difficulty should be allowed to interfere until they are 
 reasonably expert in applying their knowledge of the 
 form of the work. 
 
 (c) To teach the use of trial divisor and trial dividend, use for 
 
 divisors 21, 31, 41, etc., and be sure that the number of 
 times the first figure of the divisor is contained in the 
 first one or two figures of the dividend 41167421104 
 
 is the true quotient figure; as, 
 In this example 4 is contained in 6 once, ?4p 
 
 in 26, 6 times, in 18, 4 times. -jg^" 
 
 164 
 18 
 
118 MANUAL, OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 Many carefully prepared examples should 45:8363/185 
 be given. When the pupil becomes rea- 
 sonably expert in this simple use of the 
 trial divisor, give graded examples in ^Q 
 
 which corrections must be made; as, 225 
 
 "38 
 
 102. (b) Step V. In addition. 
 For other work in addition see 84. 
 
 Work in addition can be accelerated by acquiring skill in recog- 
 nition at sight of the sum of any number of two digits and 
 
 any number from 10 to 18; as, -f T I ?S ?! etc. This 
 
 -LO, 1^, lo, I/, 
 
 is a double application of the addition table. If step II of 
 addition and this step have been mastered, any column of 
 figures can be added at a double rate of speed by adding 
 
 two figures at a time. If the addition table is 8 
 
 known, the sum of any two adjacent figures will be 7 
 
 recognized at sight, then one has but to combine 6 
 
 these sums by Steps II and V; as in the column at 9 
 
 the right; adding down, 15, 30, 37, 47, 61, 70; or 3 
 
 adding up, 15, 26, 37, 49, 62, 70. 4 
 
 Drill for quick recognition of Step V and apply the 7 
 
 skill acquired in the addition of columns. Accept no 3 
 
 imperfect answers. Time the pupils in adding sev- 8 
 
 eral columns of figures. Record results of a test; 6 
 
 one week later give a similar test to see what progress 9 
 has been made. 
 
 Factoring. 
 
 I. To resolve numbers from 1 to 100 into prime factors. 
 
 103. Step L The separation of the products of the multi- 
 plication table into prime factors. 
 
 (a) When the multiplication table was taught ( 95 ) , the pupil 
 learned to separate each product into the two factors that 
 made it; as, 56=7X8, hence any product of the table may 
 now be completely factored by first separating it into two 
 factors, then each of these factors into prime factors. In 
 this operation nothing should be recorded except the prime 
 factort. 
 
AMTHMBTIO. 119 
 
 Step II. The separation of each multiple of 7, 5, 4, 3 and 2 
 from 1 to 100, not included in Step I, into prime factors. 
 
 (a) Each of these products should first, as in Step I, be sepa- 
 rated into two factors and these factors memorized; as, 
 91=7X13; 68=4X17, etc. To memorize this factoring 
 table from 1 to 100. if one would have much facility with 
 numbers, is important. 
 
 Step III. The recognition at sight of all prime numbers 
 from 1 to 100. 
 
 (a) For drill hold the watch upon the pupils in writing the 26 
 prime numbers 1-100. See if any one can write them in 
 20 seconds or less. 
 
 II. To resolve numbers of three or more orders into pn'me 
 factors. 
 
 (a) Teach the tests of divisibility usually given in arithmetics. 
 
 (b) Determine a factor, composite if possible, of the given num- 
 
 ber by the tests of divisibility, and divide by it. Test the 
 quotient in the same way. Continue this process until a 
 quotient is obtained that can be factored by inspection; 
 complete the work by I. 
 
 103. (a) Give such examples as: 
 
 Divide the product 24 X 28 X 40 by the product 56 X 15. After a little 
 experience in the following form, such a simple example can be worked 
 mentally: 
 
 24V28V40 Cultivate the habit of looking for opportunity to ab- 
 
 -Q ^7 =32. breviate the work of multiplication and division by can- 
 cellation. 
 
 Samples of examples suitable for mental work: 
 72X63-^56. 48X27X11^18X88. 51X42-^-17X6. 84X72X20-*-12X63. 
 Exercises in rapid work upon carefully selected examples of 
 this type constitute an excellent drill upon the multiplication, 
 division, and factoring tables. 
 
 Least Common Multiple. 
 104. 
 
 (a) Teach the principle of multiple, viz: "A multiple of a 
 number must contain each of the prime factors of that 
 number;" as, a multiple of 12 must contain the factors 
 2, 2 and 3. 28 is not a multiple of 12 because it does not 
 contain 3. 
 
IL'O MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 (b) Find the L. C. M. of 12, 18, 15. Take the factor 2 the 
 greatest number of times it occurs in any of the numbers, 
 viz: 2 3 . Take 3 in the same manner, viz: 3 2 , and 5, viz: 
 5 once. As no other factors appear, 4X9X5 or ISO 
 is the L. C. M., because 180 contains each prime factor 
 of each of the numbers (a) and because it is the smallest 
 number that contains each prime factor. 
 
 104a.(c) If factoring is understood most of the work in L. C. M. 
 can be done mentally. la the following example suffi- 
 cient written work is used. The L. C. M. of 84, 56, 42, 
 63, is 8 -9 -7=504. Do not permit pupils to write out the 
 prime factors of each of the numbers. Solve many ex- 
 amples in L. C. M. In drills work for rapidity. 
 (8 -9 -7 is another way of writing 8X9X7.) 
 
 Fractions. 
 
 105. Oral Work. 
 
 (a) In the first year of the middle form, if not before, simple 
 
 problems involving the fractions i, 1, f,i,f ,i,f,f,f,i,f, 
 etc., with digit denominators, tenths and twelfths, 
 should be freely given. Pupils should find the fractional 
 parts of paper circles, squares, applts, etc., make draw- 
 ings of circles, lines and squares and find their fractional 
 parts. 
 
 (b) Various objects can be used to illustrate different frac- 
 
 tional units; as, the foot rule divided into halves, quar- 
 ters, eighths, the clock face into twelfths, the yard into 
 thirds, the week into sevenths, the month into quarters, 
 coins into their various divisions, etc. The main thing 
 gained in this work is the surety that the pupil images 
 the things he talks about. Lyt him indicate whether he 
 would prefer to have the pie cut into fifths or sixths, the 
 watermelon into fourths or eighths; whe.ther he would 
 prefer to saw one-half or one-third of a cord of wood, 
 etc. A difficulty in teaching fractions is to have the pu- 
 pils appreciate the unit indicated by the denominator; 
 the denominator may be 4 but the unit is one-fourth, the 
 denominator 7, the unit one-seventh. Another difficulty 
 is to get the pupils to appreciate that the larger the de- 
 nominator the smaller the unit, and the smaller the de- 
 nominator the larger the unit. A long period of time 
 working upon small fractions is necessary to a full ap- 
 
ARITHMETIC. 121 
 
 preciaiion of these points. This elementary work should 
 be carefully done before taking up the written work of 
 fractions. 
 
 (c) By means of drawings, paper folding, paper cutting, etc., 
 
 determine the number of halves, thirds, fourths, etc., 
 there are in one, in two, etc., the number of halves in 
 2>, 3)4, etc.; the number of thirds in IMj, 2^, 3%, etc. 
 
 (d) In the same way various reductions of the fractions should 
 
 be worked out and committed to memory; as,i=-|=|, 
 i=f, 1=1, etc. 
 
 (e) Give many examples based upon paper cutting, etc., as 
 
 follows: i + f ; i + t; i + f; etc.; i + i, t + f, i+f, etc.; 
 t + f, etc.; f + i, i + i, 1 + 1, etc., *+i,i+f, 
 f H~f e^ ' Make many similar examples in sub- 
 traction. 
 
 (f) Solve such simple examples; as, 5 XI (5 times f, 2X|i 
 
 etc., f -s-2 (readi of |), $-*-2, f -*- 3, etc. 
 
 If 5X1 were written for the pupil, "5X2 thirds" the 
 distinction between the unit and the number in the frac- 
 tion could be more easily seen. Write f -*-2 as " of 
 4 fifths." 
 
 (g) This work should be mental and no rule should be used. 
 
 Let the pupil determine the answer by experiment with 
 paper circles or other objects, paper folding, etc., or by 
 means of his imagination. Be sure he images in his 
 mind the entire process. 
 
 Principles of Fractions. 
 
 205 (1). 
 
 (a) The elementary meaning of a fraction should be shown, viz : 
 
 that the fraction is a quantity in which the numerator is 
 the number and one over the denominator is the unit; 
 as, f means 3 of the {s, or 3 fourths, f means 5 sevenths. 
 Compare with 6 gallons, 3 pints, etc. 
 
 (b) A fraction can be multiplied by multiplying the numer- 
 
 ator, or by dividing the denominator. 
 
 (c) A fraction can be divided by dividing the numerator, or 
 
 multiplying the denominator. 
 
 (d) A fraction can be reduced by multiplying both terms, or by 
 
 dividing both terms. 
 
 Any quantity can be multiplied by multiplying the 
 number or by multiplying the unit. 2 times 3 pints=6 
 pints; or 2X3 pints 3 quarts. In the first illustration 
 
122 ILAJSTUAX, OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 the number 3 was doubled, in the second the unit pint 
 was doubled. 2Xf=f or 2X1 I- Compare with the two 
 ways of taking 2X3 pints. Illustrate this principle fully. 
 In which case is the number multiplied? In which case 
 the unit? 
 
 A quantity can be divided by dividing the number or 
 the unit. 12 gallons *- 4 ( of 12 gallons=3 gallons or 
 { of 12 gallons 12 quarts. Illustrate this principle fully. 
 | +-4= or |-i-4=]jV Show by a drawing that a unit 
 i is four times as large as the unit ^ . 
 
 In reducing to & show that the number 3 has been 
 multiplied by 3 and the unit i has been divided by 3. 
 Show why f = T V 
 
 Addition and Subtraction of Fractions. 
 
 WRITTEN WORK. 
 
 105 (2). Before taking up the written work, be sure that 
 the pupils are reasonably expert in handling fractions with 
 digit denominators. (105). They must learn from this oral 
 work: 1. That to reduce fractions to a least common denom- 
 inator, both terms of each fraction respectively must be mul- 
 tiplied by such a number that the resulting denominators 
 are all alike; 2. That the required denominator is the L. C. 
 M. of the given denominators. When these facts are under- 
 stood a good form for the work should be given. The follow- 
 ing is suggested: No more written work should be allowed for 
 such an example than is given here. 
 
 8 .3 .7 168 
 
 The L. C. D., 168, can be divided by the var- 45! I 
 
 ious denominators mentally by cancellation. 96| 
 
 168=8 -3 -7, 24=3 -8, hence by cancellation 
 
 168-24=7. 
 
 77 
 138 
 100 
 
 65 
 
 !'>"> (3). The following are suggested as convenient forms for 
 subtraction: 
 
AMTHMMTO. 123 
 
 260 
 
 The form (b) differs from (a) simply in being (a) 1365 1145 
 
 adapted to the process of borrowing. 212 can- o4n5 I t>" 
 
 not be subtracted from 95, hence one or f$ is ^ Aff 
 borrowed and added to $& which equals |f$. 
 
 In testing whether %%% can be reduced to ^ f ?60 
 
 lower terms, test 143 by the prime factors of 3471 
 
 260 only; viz.. 2, 5, and 13. 167ff 
 
 95 
 
 7T55 
 
 212 
 
 J79J* )143 
 
 Drill for rapid work in solving examples in addition and subtrac- 
 tion of fractions by these forms. Give tests in competition, hold- 
 ing the watch. 
 
 Give many examples like the following for mental work: A.dd (!) 
 *,*,*,* (2)*,i, i,f- (3) , !, iW?, f, etc. In or al work 
 let the pupil add by naming the successive numerators as, in 
 adding a column, as, in last example: 4, 14, 15, 22,30, $; 25,= 
 ans. There is no objection to naming the denominators except 
 that it takes time and is a slight hindrance in the comput^^on . 
 
 Also like the following: f-J, f-|, 3|-lf, 8f 3ft, 4|-2^ r ?*- 
 3&, etc. 
 
 Teach short method for such groups as: -{-i, i~H H~l etc - 
 tract the same. For|-}-, f+f, f+A- etc. Subtract the 
 
 Multiplication of Fractions. 
 
 105 (4). 
 
 (a) Before taking up this work the principle in 105 (l)(b)l should 
 
 be familiar. Books differ as to the method of reading 
 the sign, X The simpler wav for the children is to read 
 the sign times when the multiplier is an integer, and of 
 when a fraction; as 3X| 5X8, read 3 times 4, 5 times 
 8; |X8, XI, read | of 8, | of |. The sign should be so 
 read in these pages. 
 
 Teach one rule for the whole subject of multiplication of 
 fractions. The following is suggested: 
 
 (b) To multiply a fraction by a whole number, a whole number 
 
 by a fraction or a fraction by a fraction, think one as 
 the denominator of integers, reduce mixed numbers to 
 improper fractions, multiply the numerators together for 
 a new numerator and the denominators for a new de- 
 nominator, using cancellation when possible, and reduc 
 the result to its simplest form. 
 
1^4 MANUAL, OF THE EJLEME-NTAliY COURSE OF STUD\. 
 
 (c) Apply the above principle 105 (1) (b) in a few examples 
 to test the accuracy of the rule. When the pupils have 
 become expert in the use of the rule a short cut might be 
 suggested; as, To mul-tiply a mixed number having a 
 large whole number by an integer, multiply the fraction 
 and the whole number separately. Many methods have 
 a tendency to prevent the acquisition of skill. The price 
 of skill is judicious and thorough drill upon one rule. 
 
 Division of Fractions. 
 
 105(5). Be fore taking up this work the principle in 105 (l)c 
 should be familiar. 
 
 (a) Teach one rule for the whole subject of the division of 
 
 fractions. The following is suggested: 
 To divide a fraction by a whole number, a whole number 
 by a fraction, or a fraction by a fraction, think one as 
 the denominator of all integers, reduce mixed numbers 
 to improper fractions, invert the divisor and proceed as 
 in multiplication of factions. 
 
 (b) Apply the principle above referred to!05, (1) (c) to several 
 
 examples to test the rule. 
 
 105(6). In solving complex fractions, consider the denomi- 
 nator the divisor and apply the rule for division. 
 
 In complex expressions involving only multiplication and 
 division, indicate the whole as one example in multiplication 
 and abbreviate by cancellation, as, 
 
 105(7). Many concrete problems in application of the pro- 
 cesses in fractions should be given. The solutions should be 
 worked out independently by the pupils. The aim in such prac- 
 tical problems should be to develop mental power in the pupil 
 Pupils grow in power of thought by using the power they have 
 already acquired. Any device or assistance enabling the pupil 
 to get the answer without thinking out the problem defeats the 
 aim. 
 
JLEITHMBTIO. 125 
 
 106. The following general problems of fractions should be 
 solved and illustrated until they are thoroughly familiar, as 
 they underlie not only much work in fractions, but the whole 
 subject of percentage. They will be called, for ease of refer- 
 ence, the Three problems of Fractions: 
 
 1. To find a fractional part of a number; as, To find 5/7 of 
 28; To find 3/4 of 12. Solve by analysis. 
 
 2. To find what part one number is of another; as, To find 
 what part 3 is of 5; To find what part 2 is of 5/6. Solve the 
 more difficult examples in this problem by reference to a simple 
 type example; as what part is 2 of 3? 
 
 2. To find a number when a certain fractional part of it is 
 given; as, If 3/4 of a number is 12, what is the number? 
 What is the number 2/5 of which is 20? 
 
 No. 3 should be fully illustrated by drawings, paper-cutting, 
 etc., as, if f of a number is 15, find the number. The re- 
 quired number can be illustrated by a circle divided into 
 fifths, three parts of which equal 15. Since three equal 
 parts or fifths of the circle equal 15, what is one part? 
 Having found one part, what is the whole. 
 
 Application of these problems will occur and recur with vary- 
 ing degrees of difficulty, all through the middle and upper 
 form work, hence especial attention should be given to the mas- 
 tery of them. 
 
 107. Throughout the entire Middle Form, drill occasionally 
 in the processes of the fundamental rules. Remember that the 
 aim in this drill work is accuracy and rapidity; that when 
 these are sacrificed the time is wasted. 
 
 Decimals. 
 
 108. The subject of decimals can be based upon Federal 
 
 money. 
 
 (a) In the first year of the Middle Form teach the denomina- 
 tion tenths. Teach pupils to add, subtract, multiply by 
 an integer, and divide by an integer. To illustrate the 
 latter cases: 
 
 One third of 3.6=one third of 36 tenths=12 tenths 
 =1.2, 
 
126 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 (b) When the pupil has become familiar with the tenths, in- 
 
 troduce hundredths in a similar manner, say in the sec- 
 ond year of the Middle Form. Use both tenths and hun- 
 dredths in many concrete problems . 
 
 (c) In all the examples and problems be sure the pupil clearly 
 
 images the ideas represented by the symbols. Give no 
 rules as yet. 
 
 Decimals. Written Work. 
 
 108 (a). In the last year of the Middle Form teach formal 
 addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and the reduction 
 of decimals. 
 
 108 (b). In multiplication let the pupil express the decimals 
 as common fractions, use the rule for multiplication of frac- 
 tions, note the number of ciphers in the denominator of the 
 product, compare with the number of decimal places in mul- 
 tiplier and multiplicand and deduce rule; as, 
 
 108 (c). In division base the work upon multiplication and 
 deduce rule. The dividend corresponds to the product, and the 
 divisor and quotient to the factors; hence as the rule in multi- 
 plication says "multiply as in simple numbers," etc., the rule 
 for division must be "divide as in simple numbers," etc. Let 
 the pupils determine their own rule for pointing off the quo- 
 tient. Put it as a problem to them: The dividend is the prod- 
 uct of the divisor and quotient. Since the dividend by the rule 
 for multiplication must contain as many decimal places as both 
 divisor and quotient, how many decimal places must be given 
 the quotient? Before beginning the solution, the pupil should 
 see to it that the dividend has at least as many decimal places 
 as the divisor. 
 
 After getting the rule drill for skill. 
 
 Mensuration. 
 
 For area of square, rectangle, etc., see 97 (c). 
 
 109. Teach the meaning of the terms triangle, base of tri- 
 angle, altitude of triangle. Illustrate freely. By means of rulers 
 and right angles, have pupils draw on paper and blackboard 
 triangles and their altitudes. 
 
ARITHMETIC. 127 
 
 Develop a rule for the area of a triangle by means of draw- 
 ings, paper cuttings, etc. Show that it is half of a rectangle 
 having the same base and altitude, 
 
 m an 
 
 b c 
 
 Show by cutting or folding paper that the triangle abc is hall 
 of the rectangle mnbc, and that it has the same base and alti- 
 tude. 
 
 Draw many triangles on the board and have the pupils meas- 
 ure the bases and altitudes and compute areas. Give many 
 problems on the triangle. Have pupils draw an altitude of a 
 triangle from each vertex, compute area with each and com- 
 pare. This is a good test for accuracy. 
 
 109 (a). Teach the meaning of circle, center, radius, and di- 
 ameter. Illustrate freely. Have pupils draw and cut circles. 
 Develop a rule for the area of the circle. Take a slice of a 
 turnip, sugar beet, or the like, half an inch thick and as nearly 
 the shape of a cylinder as possible. Cut it in two through the 
 diameter, then cut it into triangular shaped pieces from the 
 center (sectors), leaving them connected by the skin. These 
 two sets of sectors can be fitted together in the form of a rect- 
 angle nearly, and the area of the circle thus determined; or, 
 the area can be determined by treating the sectors as triangles. 
 The rule found may be stated thus: Multiply the circumference 
 by one-half the radius. 
 
 To use this rule one must know how to find the circumfer- 
 ence from the radius or diameter. To do this let each member 
 of the class measure with a tape line the circumference of a 
 barrel head and its diameter, the circumference of a pie tin and 
 its diameter, of a dinner pail cover and its diameter, etc., then 
 divide each circumference by its diameter, carrying out the 
 division correct to two decimal places. These quotients will 
 average close to 3.14. Use 3} for the ratio in all computations. 
 
128 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 The above rule will be more easily remembered by Middle 
 Form pupils, as it is so closely related to the triangles from 
 which it arose. 3}X radius squared is shorter, but pupils can- 
 not so easily recover it if they forget it. 
 
 A circle is 14 inches in diameter, find its area. Indicate the 
 operation and abbreviate by cancellation; as, 
 
 Give many problems involving circles and triangles. Have 
 pupils draw circles upon paper or blackboard, measure the 
 diameter, and compute the area. 
 
 110. Every school should own a tape line. Measurements 
 should be made of the schoolroom, to determine the areas of 
 floor, walls and ceiling. Problems of plastering and papering 
 should be worked out, based upon actual measurements in the 
 schoolroom or homes of the pupils. Be sure to base solution 
 of problems upon actual business methods. Consult the ma- 
 son and the paper dealer. Measure the school ground in rods 
 and find how many acres or what part of an acre it contains. 
 Measure other convenient plots of ground, If a convenient 
 place can be found, measure a rectangle 10 by 16 rods to enable 
 the pupils to appreciate the size of an acre. Find out by meas- 
 urement or inquiry where certain distances are, that are com- 
 mon terms of conversation in the country; as, 10 rods, 40 rods, 
 80 rods, a mile, etc., and have pupils try to appreciate the 
 meaning of the terms. Locate, if possible, a piece of land 
 called "a 40," "an 80," "a quarter section," etc. 
 
 (a). Measure the stature of the pupils of the school. 
 For this purpose a simple device in the shape of a carpenter's 
 square can be made, one arm to be held against the wall, the 
 other to be brought down upon the head of the one being meas- 
 ured. (One of the pupils will probably volunteer to make the 
 frame.) Teach the boys how to measure the height of horses. 
 Drawing surfaces to a scale can be introduced. The school 
 room, the school grounds, a field adjacent to the school grounds, 
 
ARITHMETIC. 129 
 
 can be measured and so drawn. This work on scales can be 
 made to broaden the knowledge of fractions. 
 
 110 (b). Layoff on the sidewalk 6 rods or 100 feet. Have 
 pupils walk this distance until each knows with a fair degree 
 of accuracy how many steps he requires at his most natural 
 pace to walk it. Let them walk off an assigned distance. 
 Measure to see who is most nearly accurate. Let them esti- 
 mate by walking the distance from the school to the various 
 homes, to the cheese factory, blacksmith shop, etc. 
 
 The teacher's ingenuity will extend the list of things that 
 can be done to awaken the pupils' interests and make them 
 more familiar with their environment. 
 
 110 (c). Build a rectangular solid of inch cubes (80 (a)) 
 and count them. Compute the number of cubes in one layer 
 by noting the number of rows and the number of cubes in 
 a row. Then compute total number of cubes by means of the 
 number of cubes in one layer and the number of layers. 
 Build several similar rectangular solids and deduce rule for 
 volume. Give many practical problems. The following may 
 illustrate: 
 
 (1.) 30 cu. ft. of air should be brought into a school room 
 every minute for each pupil. If a school room is 12 by 35 by 
 42 and contains 30 pupils, how often should the air be com 
 pletely changed? 
 
 (2.) A space of at least 600 cu. ft. should be given to each 
 pupil in a school room. How many pupils can safely use th^ 
 above room? 
 
 (3.) Measure your school room. Determine whether it i? 
 well ventilated or overcrowded? 
 
 111. The analysis of problems was begun in the Primary 
 Form, and should be continued whenever problems are used. 
 (78 (1), 81, 88, 95 (f), 115 (7)). While no set form of words 
 or formal analysis is to be insisted upon, yet a clear statement 
 of the various steps in the solution of a problem should always 
 
 10 a 
 
130 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 be had, with enough of the reason for it, to show that a pupil 
 knows why he performs a given operation. 
 
 Ill (a). All the various problems in Arithmetic fall into a 
 very few classes subject to general laws, and this fact will 
 gradually lead to the adoption of a simple statement of the es- 
 sential facts; that is into a rule or formula. When a formula 
 thus grows out of a child's experience, instead of being made 
 for him and fed to him, it will prove useful enough to be worth 
 retaining. Whether one buys eggs by the dozen, rents land 
 by the acre, loans money at seven per cent., or buys " stock at 
 87," he multiplies "price by quantity to find the cost," or "the 
 price of one by the number to find cost." 
 
 Work of this kind, if not a daily exercise, should certainly 
 be given with small numbers for mental work and to illustrate 
 the principles involved on taking up each new topic. 
 
 TESTS FOR PROMOTION. 
 
 112. 1. Ability to deal rapidly and accurately with simple 
 and compound numbers, common and decimal fractions. 
 
 2. A knowledge of the factors of numbers to 100, and ability 
 to select and combine factors so as to produce mentally the 
 L. C. M. of any group of numbers below 100. 
 
 3. Ability to solve problems involving simple combinations of 
 the processes named, and to form original problems involving 
 these processes. 
 
 4- Ability to define arithmetical terms frequently used; to 
 give an orderly statement of the steps in the processes, orally or* 
 in written language. 
 
 5. Ability to compute the area of rectangles, triangles and 
 circles, and the volume of rectangular solids. 
 
 III. Upper Form. 
 
 113. The chief purpose of the work with numbers in the 
 Upper Form is to continue the work begun in the lower forms, 
 and so to extend it as to give the pupil skill in performing the 
 ordinary arithmetical computations employed in business life, 
 
ARITHMETIC. 131 
 
 and at the same time to give such a training in logical thinking 
 as will be of value to the pupil in any subsequent mental work. 
 Much valuable information will be incidentally gained concern- 
 ing the more common facts of business. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 114. 1. Complete the work on Denominate Numbers, includ- 
 ing the simplest part of Longitude and Time. 
 
 2. Teach such portions of Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids 
 as will be of most practical use. 
 
 3. Give work in percentage involving: 
 
 (a) Reduction of Common Fractions to per cent. 
 
 (b) The three problems: 
 
 1. Finding any per cent of a number. 
 
 2. Finding what per cent one number is of an- 
 
 other. 
 
 3. Finding any number when a certain per cent 
 
 of it is given. 
 
 (c) Profit and Loss, Trade Discount, Commission, 
 
 Simple Interest, including Partial Payments. 
 Teach the forms and uses of the various kinds 
 of commercial paper in common use. 
 
 4. Ratio and Proportion, Extraction of Roots. 
 
 5. Give constant drill throughout this Form to secure accur- 
 acy and rapidity in reaching the results required in the differ- 
 ent lines of work. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 Mensuration. 
 
 115. Each school should be provided with at least one hun- 
 dred inch cubes to facilitate the development of rules for vol- 
 ume of solids. Build a rectangular solid of inch cubes and de- 
 termine again the rule. (110 (c) ). 
 
 1. Find the number of gallons in a rectangular tank H by 
 3* by 11 feet. 
 
132 MANUAL. OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 Indicate the entire operation and abbreviate by cancellation, 
 as, 
 
 
 Define cylinder, base and altitude of cylinder. Illustrate. 
 
 2. To find the volume of a cylinder. Find the area of the cir- 
 cle which is the base of the cylinder in square inches. 109 (a). 
 How many cubic inches would there be if the cylinder 
 were one inch high? If 2 inches high? Any given number of 
 inches high? State the rule. Compare with rule for volume 
 of a rectangular solid. 
 
 3. How many bbls. does a cylindrical watering tank 7 feet 
 in diameter and IT feet deep hold? Indicate the entire solution. 
 Make careful oral statements of the thought as each step is in- 
 dicated. 
 
 Solution: 
 
 4. How many tons of ice 10 inches thick can be taken from 
 five acres of water, allowing 20 per cent, loss in handling? (A 
 cubic foot of water weighs 62^- Ibs., and the specific gravity of 
 ice is about 93 per cent.) Indicate in one expression and ab- 
 breviate by cancellation. 
 
 5. A grain bin is 5 by 6 by 8 feet. How many bushels does 
 it hold? A cubic foot is .8 of a bushel nearly . 
 
 6. My roof is 28 by 33 feet. How deep would a one inch rain 
 fall fill my cylindrical cistern 7 feet in diameter? 
 
 7. If my cistern has a diameter of 9 feet and a depth of 8 feet 
 and my roof is 27 by 33, how many inches of rain must fall to 
 fill the cistern? 
 
 8. A field of five acres of corn was planted in rows 3 ft. 8 in. 
 apart each way. If each hill averaged 2i stalks, each stalk li 
 ears, and it requires 125 ears to make a bushel, what was the 
 yield of the five acres? 
 
ARITHMETIC. 133 
 
 9. Let the pupil determine the increase of yield on 25 acres 
 by increasing the average number of ears on a stalk to If. 
 
 Let pupils make up problems similar to this one, determining 
 the data for it by actual observation. 
 
 115(1). Whenever the solution of an example involves only 
 multiplication and division the probability is that the solution 
 can be abbreviated by indicating the work and using cancella- 
 tion. A knowledge of factoring is valuable for rapid work here. 
 
 (a) Have pupils solve problems in finding cost of lumber. 
 Bring a board into the school room if convenient, or consider 
 a board in the floor or elsewhere and develop the rule. A good 
 statement for the rule is: Multiply together the number of 
 pieces, the length in feet, the width and thickness in inches, 
 divide by 12, multiply by the price perM., and point off three 
 places. 
 
 (b) Find the price of 20 pieces of lumber 3x6x16 $20.00 
 (read: 20 pieces of lumber 3 by 6 by 16 at $20.00.) Ans. $9.60. 
 In this example there is no need of any written work. It is 
 evident that the product of 20, 3, 6, 16, and 20 must be ob- 
 tained and the result divided by 12x1000. The factors of 12 
 cancel 6 and the factor 2 of 20. Then 10, 3, 16 and 20 can be 
 multiplied mentally and three places pointed off; or 3, 16, and 
 2 can be multiplied, and one place pointed off. 
 
 (c) Give many examples and drill for mental work as far as 
 practicable. Have bills of lumber made out in regular form by 
 pupils. 
 
 115(2) (a) In carpeting find the number of breadths re- 
 quired for a room and the number of yards in each breadth. 
 Remember a dealer never cuts a carpet lengthwise. 
 
 (b) If the carpet has a pattern that must be matched, allow- 
 ance must be made for the matching. Carpets are three-fourths 
 of a yard, or a yard wide. 
 
 (c) If a border is to be considered, make a diagram of the 
 room, and, with a strip of paper to represent the carpet, show 
 how it must be cut to fit the room. Border carpet is usually 
 
 of a yard wide. 
 
134 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDT. 
 
 1 15(3). In teaching the solution of cord wood problems, teach 
 the children that a cord of wood is a rectangular pile 4 by 4 by 
 8 feet, and not that it consists of 128 cubic feet. By indicating 
 the complete problem and abbreviating by cancellation, the ad- 
 vantages of the suggestion may be seen. Many times the prob- 
 lem can thus be worked mentally as in the following example: 
 
 What is the cost of a pile of wood 36 by 6 by 4 feet at $4.00 
 per cord? In the solution of the problem it will be seen that 
 the product of 36, 6, 4 and 4 must be divided by 4x4x8. 
 
 Whe width of a pile of cordwood is nearly always a multiple 
 of 4, the height is usually a multiple of 4 and the length is fre- 
 quently a multiple of 8; hence it is a gross waste of time to 
 divide the product of the dimensions by 128 and multiply the 
 result by the price. 
 
 Give pupils drill in solving similar examples mentally, sim- 
 ply stating the answer. 
 
 115(4). The following has been termed the "Golden Rule 
 Df Arithmetic:" In processes involving both multiplication 
 and division, always divide first if the division is exact. It 
 might be summed up in these words: Use cancellation if pos- 
 sible in the solution of examples involving only multiplication 
 and division. 
 
 Time is frequently lost in the solution of problems by per- 
 forming the processes in order as soon as discovered; especially 
 is this true if the processes consist only of multiplication and 
 division. If the entire solution of the problem be indicated as 
 it is thought out, the operation can usually be abbreviated by 
 cancellation. 
 
 115(5). Encourage the pupils to bring practical problems 
 *rom the farm, store or shop involving mensuration of solids or 
 surfaces. These will have the great merit of being real, hence 
 practical, and there is no guide to the answer except the pupil's 
 work. It will be found that the rules of the books for measur- 
 ing masonry and other products are not always the rules fol- 
 lowed by workmen in different localities, and this will have its 
 
ARITHMETIC. 135 
 
 useful result in correcting any tendency to bookishness in the 
 teacher or the pupil. 
 
 115(6). Much valuable tim e is worse than wasted in teaching 
 obsolete tables , units in denominate numbers, and those of 
 special not general use. Surveyor's measure is too technical, 
 "pipe" and "tun" belong only to history, "long ton" is ex- 
 plained by the dictionary, Apothecaries' weight is beyond de- 
 fense, "Averaging Accounts" is out of date, and exchange is 
 no longer in ordinary experience an application of percentage. 
 Teach common measurements and computation effectively, and 
 all the rest will be easily learned when needed. 
 
 115 (7). Continuous examples representing a year's work 
 in some particular on the farm, will have especial value in dis- 
 tinctively rural districts in awakening interest in farm life, and 
 opening the pupil's eyes to the problems of the farm. The fol- 
 lowing may illustrate. As prices and methods are not every- 
 where the same, it will probably need modification to meet any 
 given locality. 
 
 1. Mr. A. bought a farm 80 by 160 rods. Find the number 
 of acres. 
 
 2. He paid $67.00 per acre. Find the cost. 
 
 3. He built two lines of wire fence across the farm parallel 
 to the end fence. The posts were set 1 rod apart and cost 
 18 cents each. The wire runs | of a pound to the rod and it 
 cost $3.25 per hundred pounds. The fence is 5 wires high. 
 The labor for building cost $25.00. Find the total cost. 
 
 4. Find the yearly interest expense at 5c on each dollar of 
 the value of the farm including the cost of the fence. 
 
 5. He planted one field 80 by 80 rods to corn. It ccst $1.12fc 
 an acre to plow it. 
 
 6. It cost 25 cents an acre to pulverize and harrow it. 
 
 7. It cost 35 cents an acre to plant it. The seed corn cost 
 $1.00 per bushel and one bushel planted 4 acres. Find the 
 cost of seed and planting. 
 
136 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 8. The corn was cultivated four times at a cost each time of 
 30 cents per acre. 
 
 9. The corn was cut at $1.10 per acre. The binding twine 
 cost 12 cents per pound and averaged 3| pounds to the acre. 
 
 10. The setting up of the corn cost 45 cents an acre. 
 
 11. The corn was shredded at a cost of 3 cents a bushel with 
 an additional cost for labor, coal, etc., of $25.00. The yield 
 averaged 52 bushel per acre. 
 
 '12. The roughage amounted to 3 loads per acre, worth $1.75 
 per load. If the corn was worth 33^ cents per pushel, what 
 was the profit per acre? What was the profit for the farm if 
 the net yield for the rest of the farm, acre for acre, is f as 
 great? 
 
 Make up several problems representing a year's experience 
 in leading lines of business on the farm; as, a year in dairy- 
 ing, poultry raising, raising of wheat, potatoes, beets, tobacco, 
 etc. Consult people of experience concerning the data for the 
 problems. 
 
 Percentage 
 
 116. To understand percentage the pupil, 1. Must possess a 
 knowledge of various lines of business involved, as of commis- 
 sion, loaning money, of affairs involving profit and loss, etc., 
 and be able to use the language of the business. 2. He must 
 know the Three Problems of Fractions (106) and be able to 
 apply them in percentage. 3. He must appreciate that the dis- 
 tinctive difference between fractions and percentage is not so 
 much that the fraction is usually expressed in the decimal 
 form, as that the base in percentage is understood and is not 
 indicated in the example. In all examples in fractions the 
 base of the fraction is pointed out. The example says f of 12, 
 f of a sphere, of the remainder, etc., but in percentage 
 usually no base is referred to. We find the statements of 
 5 per cent, gain, 16 per cent, commission, 4 per cent, interest. 
 
ARITHMETIC. '137 
 
 etc. It is just as important in percentage to know what it is 
 5 per cent., 16 per cent, or 4 per cent, of, as in fractions. The pu- 
 pil's success too often hangs in the balance on account of failure 
 to get the idea by which this base is determined. In each sub- 
 ject of percentage the base is a particular element of the sub- 
 ject and hence does not need to be named in each example; as, 
 in profit and loss, it is always the cost; in commission the cost 
 when the agent buys, and the amount of sales when he sells, 
 etc. In each subject of percentage the teacher must determine 
 what the base is, and tell the pupils. The analysis of each ex- 
 ample is concerned with it, and depends upon it. Without 
 knowing what the base is the work is largely guesswork. 
 
 116 (a). Each example in percentage should be worked by 
 analysis until the pupil arrives at his own rule or generalization. 
 The problems should be graded but not classified in "cases;" for 
 the pupils will then depend upon the classification rather than 
 upon the conditions of the problem; Train the pupils in chang- 
 ing per cents, to fractions until they can tell instantly the frac- 
 tion which is equal to any per cent, that is an aliquot part of 
 one hundred; as, 12* per cent. = i, 3? per cent. = f , 42$ per 
 cent. = f , 83l per cent. = f ,36f per cent. = $; also the number of 
 hundredths or per cent, in proper fractions having the follow- 
 ing numbers for denominators: 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, etc., as 
 i = 50 per cent., * = 33^ per cent., = 20 per cent., = 83i per 
 cent., | = 40 per cent., | = 14f per cent., f = 28f per cent., = 
 12i per cent., f = 62^ per cent., & = 6* per cent., etc. 
 
 Make out a table of per cents, in common use that could be 
 more conveniently used in the fractional form and commit to 
 memory the per cent, with its equivalent fraction. Which is 
 more convenient for use, 20 per cent, or its equivalent $? 25 
 per cent, or ? 50 per cent, or fc? 66| per cent, or f? 
 
 14? per cent. = ? 16| per cent. = ? 33 per cent. = ? 37| 
 per cent. = ? 62 per cent. = ? 87* per cent. = ? 83* per 
 cent. = ? 
 
138 MANUAL, OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 116 (b). Illustrative problems: 
 
 1. A horse that cost $150.00 was sold at a gain of 10 per cent. 
 Find the gain. 
 
 Sirce 10 per cent, means 10 per cent, of the cost, the gain is 
 10 per cent, of $150, or $15. (Prob. I, 106.) 
 
 2. A horse sold for $150 at a gain of 10 per cent. Find gain. 
 Since 10 per cent, means 10 per cent of the cost, the gain is 
 
 not 10 per cent, of $150. The cost is 100/100 or 100 per cent, of 
 the cost and the gain is 10 per cent, of the cost; hence the sale 
 price or $150 = 110 per cent, of the cost. (Prob. Ill, 106.) 
 Complete the solution. 
 
 (The pupil often guesses that the percent, is reckoned upon the given 
 number: hence he usually guesses right upon the first example and wrong 
 upon this one; hence the importance of determining that the gain is not 
 10 percent, of $150.) 
 
 3. The commission in a given transaction was $25, the sales 
 $500. Find the rate of commission. Since the commission is 
 reckoned upon the amount of sales, we are to find what part, or 
 per cent. 25 is of 500, viz.: 25/500 = 5 per cent. (Prob. II.) 
 
 4. The gain in a transaction is $25, the sales $500. Find the 
 gain per cent. 
 
 Since the gain is reckoned on the cost, the cost must be 
 found, viz.: $475. We now must find what part or per cent. 
 $25 is of $475, viz.: 25/475=1/19=5 5/19 per cent. (Prob. II.) 
 
 5. The gain in a transaction is $25, the rate is 4 per cent. 
 Find the cost. 
 
 Since the rate is 4 per cent, of the cost, it is not 4 per cent, of 
 $25. The gain is 525 and the gain is 4 per cent, of the cost, 
 hence $25=4 per cent, of the cost. (Prob. III.) Complete the 
 solution. 
 
 110 (c). To determine whether a given percentage problem 
 belongs to Prob. I or Prob. Ill, the common ground of error, 
 teach the pupil to ask himself the question: "Is this (the given 
 number) the base?" If "yes" is the correct answer, Prob. I 
 will be recognized. If "no" is the answer, ask further: "What 
 
ARITHMETIC. 139 
 
 per cent, of the base is it?" When by analysis jhis is clearly 
 determined, Prob. Ill is clearly before the pupil. For example: 
 
 1. Think "Is $150 the base?" Ans., "Yes, because it is the 
 cost." (123). Then the problem becomes: To find 10 per cent, 
 of 150 (Prob. I, 116.) 
 
 2. Think "Is $150 the base?" Ans., "No; because it is not 
 the cost." Then think further, "What per cent, of the base is 
 it?" The answer to this question must in "each example be 
 carefully determined by analysis. (Prob. 2, 116.) 
 
 Many oral examples should be solved to enable the pupils to 
 see quickly the relation the given number bears to the base. 
 The complicated examples involving two or more simple ones 
 should not be given until the pupils can at a glance determine 
 which one of the Three Problems is involved in any simple' 
 example: 
 
 116 (d). Prob. II is always easily recognized. 
 
 The difficulty here is, the pupil does not fully appreciate that 
 the number in question must always be compared with the 
 base. It is simplified if he will first ask "what part of the base 
 is the given number?" then reduce the fraction of his answer 
 to hundredths, For example: 
 
 3. "Think what part is 25 of 500?" Answer 25/500. Now re- 
 duce 25/500 to per cent., viz.: 5 per cent. (Prob. 3, 116.) 
 
 . In the 4th think "what part is 25 of 475?" Ans., 25/475. Now 
 reduce 25/475 to hundredths, or per cent. 
 
 116 (e). In teaching simple interest teach thoroughly one 
 simple, practical method of computing interest. Probably tak- 
 ing everything into account, the best way is: Multiply the prin- 
 cipal by the rate, multiply this answer by the number of years; 
 find the interest for months as a fractional part of a year; find 
 the interest for days as a fractional part of a month and add 
 the interests for the several periods. 
 
 116 (f). In general "the three problems" should be so fa- 
 miliar through previous work in fractions, that when by 
 
1-10 MANUAL, OF THE El^EMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 analysis of the percentage problem, the pupil recognizes one or 
 the other of them, the process calls for no further thought; it 
 can. be performed by rule, the more automatically the better. 
 
 116 (g). To sum up the pupil must know: 
 
 1. The business involved (this includes a knowledge of what 
 the percent, is reckoned upon; viz: the base) and, 
 
 2. He must be quick to recognize and skilful to perform the 
 three problems of fractions (106) whether expressed decimally 
 or in fractional form. 
 
 TESTS FOR GRADUATION. 
 
 117(1). 1. Ability to perform with accuracy and rapidity 
 the processes involved in the work of the three Forms. 
 
 2. Ability to analyze problems involving applications of the 
 fundamental rules of simple numbers, of fractions, of decimals, 
 and of denominate numbers; applications of percentage indi- 
 cated in the course of study; and problems in measurements 
 involved in affairs of life. The analysis of these problems 
 should show a logical train of thought properly expressed. 
 
 3. Ability to originate practical problems in the classes indi- 
 cated in No. 2 and to state them in good language. 
 
 4. Skill in writing the various kinds of business forms in 
 common use. 
 
 5. Ability to define the arithmetical terms used in the work 
 of the three forms and to state in an orderly manner the rules 
 or the various processes. 
 
ARITHMETIC. 141 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY BY YEARS. 
 
 Primary Form. 
 
 FIRST YEAR. 
 
 118. Numbers 1 and 2 78. See 78 to 82. 
 
 SECOND YEAR. 
 
 119. Teach the addition (84) and subtraction tables (89), 
 the multiplication table including all combinations whose pro- 
 duct is not greater than 20, (92), and the corresponding parts 
 of the division (94) and factoring tables (95) (103). 
 
 Teach the addition of any two numbers (87) and the sub- 
 traction of two numbers where each order of the subtrahend 
 is less than the corresponding order of the minuend. (90). 
 
 Teach angles, right and oblique angles; perpendicular, ob- 
 lique and parallel lines; squares and rectangles; the use in 
 practical measurements of some of the simple units as inch, 
 foot, etc., pint, quart, etc. (97). 
 
 Continue throughout the year the solution of practical prob- 
 lems. (88). 
 
 THIRD YEAR. 
 
 120. Review addition and subtraction of simple numbers, 
 drilling for skill. Complete subtraction. (91). 
 
 The multiplication, division, and factoring tables completed. 
 
 Teach the multiplication of any number by a digit. (93), 
 
 Areas of rectangles, exercises in use of simple units in 
 measuring extended. (97). 
 
 Teach to read and write numbers to 1,000. To read the 
 Roman numerals to 100 at least. 
 
 Continue throughout the year, the solution of concrete prob- 
 lems for training in thought power. 
 
 (See note on fractions Fourth Year). (121). 
 
142 MANUAL, OF THE ELEMENTARY COUliSJS OF STUDY. 
 
 Middle Form. 
 
 FOURTH YEAR. 
 
 121. Teach the reading of numbers to six orders at least. 
 Continue the drill upon addition and subtraction for accur- 
 
 racy and rapidity. (107). 
 
 Complete the subject of multiplication. (101). 
 
 Teach prime numbers to 100 and the factoring by inspection 
 of the composite numbers from 1 to 100; and the application of 
 the tests of divisibility to the factoring of larger numbers. 
 (103). 
 
 Teach division by use of cancellation. (103). (a).) 
 
 The measurements of areas of rectangles continued and vol- 
 umes of rectangular solids taught. (110 (c).) 
 
 Use of common units in measuring extended. (110, (110) (a) 
 and (b).). 
 
 Continue the solution of concrete problems throughout the 
 year. 
 
 Concrete work in fractions with denominators from 2 to 12 
 to teach the smaller fractions and their relations to each other. 
 (105), (105 (1).) (This work on fractions, if possible, should be 
 begun in the third year and extended in the fourth.) 
 
 FIFTH YEAR. 
 
 122. Work on factoring and division by cancellation ex- 
 tended. (103, 103) (a). 
 
 Least common multiple taught. (104). 
 
 Oral work in fractions extended as a preparation for the 
 written work. (105).. 
 
 Addition and subtraction of fractions-written work. (105) (2). 
 
 Measurements extended; plastering, papering and carpet- 
 ing, simple land areas; volumes of rectangular solids; contents 
 of rooms, excavations, walls of masonry, cordwood, etc. 
 
 The solution of many concrete problems in review subjects. 
 
 Occasional drills upon examples in the fundamental rules to 
 increase the skill of the pupils in computation. 
 
ARITHMETIC. 143 
 
 Oral lessons in decimals in tenths, and later In hundretbs, 
 in concrete work, to teach the meaning of decimals in their var- 
 ious relations. 
 
 SIXTH YEAR. 
 
 123. Continue the work in addition (105 (2)) and subtrac- 
 tion (105 (3)) of fractions. Complete the work in multiplica- 
 tion (105 (4)) and division (105 (5)) of fractions. 
 
 Give many and varied concrete problems in application of 
 the rules in fractions. Teach "The Three Problems of Frac- 
 tions." (106.) 
 
 Extend the subject of decimals through the four fundamental 
 operations. (108 (a to c).) 
 
 Give many concrete problems in application of the same. 
 
 Extend the subject of measurements to areas of triangles 
 and of circles. Teach by experiment the meaning "pi." 
 Give many concrete problems in application of the same.(109)(a) 
 
 Drill occasionally upon computations in review of subjects. 
 
 Upper Form. 
 
 SEVENTH YEAR. 
 
 1 24-. Review and drill upon the work of decimals. 
 
 Complete the work upon denominate numbers, reviewing the 
 work already laid out in measurements of surfaces and vol- 
 umes. Percentage: Review the Three Problems of Fractions, 
 using in part the denominator hundredths, and the per cent, 
 sign, %. (116.) Express per centsi which are aliquot part of 
 TOO in form of common fractions, and all small fractions in 
 common use in per cent. (116 (a)) and have them memorized. 
 
 Use the solutions to many concrete problems in percentage to 
 teach the language of the subject and its dependence upon the 
 Three Problems of Fractions. Make a careful study of profit 
 and loss so that it may be used as a model in teaching the 
 other subjects of percentage. Teach volume of a cylinder and 
 
144 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 give many concrete problems in application of the same. 
 (115 Ex. (2)). 
 
 EIGHTH YEAR. 
 
 125. Extend the subject of Percentage to trade discount, 
 commission, simple interest, partial payments. Teach forms 
 of commercial paper in common use; as, bills, notes, checks, 
 drafts, etc., and their special uses. 
 
 Extend the subject of Mensuration to surfaces and volumes 
 of cylinders, pyramids, cones and spheres. All rules in this 
 subject should be obtained by analysis or experiment. 
 
 Give many practical problems in various industries of the 
 locality, as farming (115 (7)), lumbering (115 (1)), etc. Con- 
 tinued applications of decimals and denominate numbers by 
 way of review. 
 
 NINTH YEAR. 
 
 1 26. A general review, giving more attention to the princi- 
 ples and reasons involved, than in the first course. 
 
 Give frequent drills in quick analysis of groups of similar 
 problems; as, in oral problems in profit and loss or commis- 
 sion, the Three Problems of Fractions, volumes of the different 
 solids previously studied, areas, etc. Gives frequent drills in 
 various lines of computation. Cultivate a pride in quick, ac- 
 curate work. 
 
 If desirable teach ratio, proportion, powers and roots, one 
 or more of them. Probably a better use of the time would be 
 to so review the work already done that it is understood and 
 can be performed with facility and accuracy. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 127. 1. The general purpose of the work in geography is to 
 have pupils learn how man utilizes or overcomes natural con- 
 ditions in securing a living, and to show what his relations are 
 to his fellow-beings. 
 
 2. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 128. Geographical knowledge is acquired in five different 
 ways: (1) by the observation of geographical objects and 
 phenomena, (2) by map study, (3) by information obtained 
 from the teacher in the form of direct oral instruction, (4) by 
 information obtained from the text book and from reading 
 matter of various kinds, (5) by inferences drawn from facts al- 
 ready known. Good teaching requires the proper combination 
 and correlation of the five methods at each stage of advance- 
 ment. 
 
 In the beginning of the course the lessons should be mostly 
 observational. The facts of geography relate mainly to the 
 material world. The chief value of observational geography 
 does not consist in that it acquaints the learner with his home 
 region, but in that it furnishes him with the elementary ideas 
 which he can use in constructing a complete body' of geo- 
 graphical knowledge. For knowledge of the world beyond his 
 home region the pupil depends on information from the book 
 and the teacher. But such information cannot impress itseli 
 on his mind if the descriptions by the teacher or in the book do 
 not cause him to form mental pictures of the scenes described. 
 Lessons in observational geography should not be limited to 
 to the Primary and Middle Forms but should form an integral 
 part of the geography of the Upper Form also. 
 11 C. 
 
MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 great bulk of geographical knowledge must be commu- 
 nicated to the pupils. There are two ways in which this can 
 be don,>; (1) through the text book and geographical readers, 
 and (2) through direct instruction or talks by the teacher. 
 
 The tu\:t in text books of geography has two uses: It gives 
 the poinu around which the facts to be communicated may be 
 grouped *nd it gives a general summary of the lesson. But 
 the text \\ ith the map should never be used as the sole source 
 of information. The descriptive matter which it contains is too 
 brief and the facts presented are too general and lacking in in- 
 teresting detail. For this reason the teacher must resort to 
 tlu 1 use of geographical readers and to oral instruction. The 
 geographical readers and books of travel found in the library 
 should be u-&od freely and unrestrictedly. This work should 
 not be considfc red as a task. When pupils give oral reproduction 
 of what they have read they should feel that they are doing this 
 not to show bow well they have informed themselves, but 
 rather that they are contributing some valuable information to 
 the class. 
 
 Reading on tlu part of the pupils can be stimulated by a 
 short talk by the teacher which serves as a basis for further 
 study and awakeis a desire for more knowledge on the sub- 
 ject. But in ordei to make a talk effective, the teacher must be 
 well prepared on the subject matter, must adapt the talk to the 
 understanding of the class, and must talk in a way to appeal 
 to the imagination of the children. These talks should usually 
 be limited to five or ten minutes. 
 
 Narration is more interesting than description. For this 
 reason geographical information should be woven into narra- 
 tives by means of imaginary journeys. This method is strong 
 in fixing the associations between one place and another, but it 
 is weak in that it has little regard for the logical connection of 
 the facts. The imaginary journey accompanied with the tracing 
 of the map is the easiest form in which the average teacher can 
 give his talk. 
 
 The objects of geography to be understood must be asso- 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 117 
 
 1 with their place on the earth's surface. Unless this is 
 done the facts will constitute but a confused mass. 
 
 Pupils should be taught to read maps and interpret their 
 meaning. A map is not a picture which anybody who looks at it 
 may understand. Exercises in map interpretation are as nec- 
 essary in the advanced as in the primary classes. In an oraj 
 lesson and in the study-recitation the geographical features 
 should always be pointed out as they are mentioned. All facts 
 presented should be associated with some place or places on 
 the map. 
 
 For instructional purposes two kinds of maps may be used; 
 those that are before the pupils ready made, and those that are 
 drawn by the teacher and pupils as the development of the les- 
 son proceeds. Both are important but the latter serves best as 
 a means of instruction. 
 
 There should be much drill in map drawing. Guiding lines 
 should rarely be used. In learning to sketch a map there are 
 three steps to be considered: (1) the pupils must examine the 
 map carefully, (2) they must form a mental picture of it, (3) 
 they must copy this mental picture on paper. 
 
 In general, the teaching in geography should be managed so 
 as to give pupils abundant opportunities for exercising their 
 judgment and reason. Geography should not be taught as if 
 it treated of a mass of unrelated facts to be merely memorized. 
 Each fact should be studied in its relation to other facts. There 
 should be practice in generalizing, going from particular facts 
 to principles, and in deducing particular facts from general 
 principles or laws. This inferential study should occupy aeon, 
 siderable part of the time of every lesson in the more advanced 
 part of the course, and thus make every exercise an exercise 
 in real thinking. The practice of having the teacher or book 
 explain all the inferential matter of geography is just as objec- 
 tionable as would be the practice of giving and explaining the 
 solution of the problems in arithmetic. Much work should be 
 done by the teacher in stimulating pupils to self-activity and 
 
148 MANUAL, OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 in directing their efforts by means of thought questions and 
 directions. 
 
 The application of this form of instruction will also be the 
 means of saving much time in the teaching of geography, e. 
 g. After pupils have studied the general circulation of the air 
 and rainfall of the earth as a whole, it is both easy and inter- 
 e?ting for pupils to study the climate of any country by an- 
 swering problem questions put by the teacher, and using the 
 text book to verify the inferences made and secure full and 
 accurate knowledge. 
 
 I. II. Primary and Middle Forms. 
 
 129. The purposes of the work in these Forms are: 
 
 1st. To have pupils get vivid and correct pictures of small 
 portions of the earth's surface by actual observation so that 
 they may be able to construct pictures of regions beyond the 
 limits of their observation. 
 
 2nd. To teach pupils the elements of commercial or indus- 
 trial geography by studying the industries of the home region 
 so that they may later understand the industrial geography of 
 the world at large. 
 
 3d. To furnish pupils a knowledge of child life among the 
 different peoples of the earth. 
 
 4th. To lead pupils to see that man's occupations are largely 
 dependent on physiographic conditions. 
 
 5th. To teach pupils the most important land and wafer 
 forms and cities of each grand division, and a few of the large 
 facts in the industrial and social life of the people of each grand 
 division. 
 
 130. COURSE OF STUDY. 
 THIRD YEAR PRIMARY FORM AND FIRST YEAR MIDDLE FORM. 
 
 I. Observational Geography. 
 
 1. Exercises on location. 
 
 2. The land and water forms of the home region, 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 149 
 
 3. Elementary facts in the physiography of the home 
 
 region. 
 
 4. Elements of industrial geography. 
 
 II. Geographical stories told and read to pupils. 
 
 SECOND YEAR MIDDLE FORM. 
 
 III. Introductory text book lessons on Home Geography. 
 
 IV. Lessons on the globe. 
 
 1. Shape and size of the earth. 
 
 2. The rotation of the earth and the effects of the ro- 
 
 tation. 
 
 3. The great land and water forms of the earth. 
 
 4. The races of men and their distribution. 
 
 5. Lessons on the earth as the home of man. 
 
 V. Lessons on outline maps. 
 
 VI. Lessons on the grand divisions, using text book and li- 
 brary books. 
 
 1. North America. 
 
 2. The United States. 
 
 3. Canada, Mexico, Central America. 
 
 THIRD YEAR MIDDLE FORM. 
 
 4. South America. 
 
 5. Europe. 
 
 6. Asia. 
 
 7. Africa. 
 
 8. Australia. 
 VII. Geographical stories. 
 
 VIII. Summaries. 
 
 l references for the teacher. 
 
 Mill: IntoriKitioiiMl Geography. 
 
 Avl;ims: Commercial Geography. 
 
 Trotter: Commercial Geography. 
 
 Brigham : Geographical Influences in American History. 
 
150 MANUAL, OF THE ELBMEiNTAJiY COURSE OF BTUDY. 
 
 Shaler: The United States. Vol. I. 
 
 Herbertson: Descriptive Geographies. 
 
 Garnett, Garrison, Houston: Commercial Geography. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS AND ILLUSTRATIVE ANALYSIS OF 
 SUBJECT MATTER. 
 
 THIRD YEAR PRIMARY FORM. 
 
 I. Observational Geography. 
 
 131. Unit I. To have pupils apply their knowledge of di- 
 rection by locating the relative position of objects in the school 
 room. 
 
 Exercises like the following should be given: 
 
 Point to the north side of the room, the south side, the east 
 side, the west side. Name the pupils directly north of you, 
 directly south, east, west. Name any two objects in the room 
 and state the direction the one is from the other. Locate the 
 NE., SE., SW., and NW. parts of the room. 
 
 NOTE. This unit presupposes a knowledge of the cardinal points. 
 If pupils do not possess this knowledge, the cardinal points must first 
 be taught. 
 
 132. Unit II. To locate the relative positions of objects in 
 the school room on a plan of the room drawn by the teacher. 
 
 The teacher should sketch a plan of the room on the black- 
 board without much attention to scale and make clear the rela- 
 tion between the plan and the room itself. The top of the plan 
 should represent the north side of the room. 
 
 133. Unit III. To have pupils locate the positions of objects 
 on a map representing the school, its immediate surroundings, 
 and the homes of the pupils. 
 
 Indicate by means of a map and questions a good method of doing the 
 work called for in this unit. 
 
 134. Unit IV. To have pupils sketch a map of the school 
 room and of the school and its immediate surroundings. 
 
 The teacher should work with the pupils in drawing these 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 151 
 
 maps. They should be drawn on a definite scale, after pupils 
 have made actual measurements. Require pupils also to draw 
 maps on different scales. Introduce many exercises on location, 
 distance and area. 
 
 What is the purpose of map sketching? Why should pupils be re- 
 quired to sketch maps on different scales? Why should pupils make the 
 measurements themselves? 
 
 135. Unit V. To have pupils see and name the land and 
 water forms of the home region, and to learn the definitions of 
 these surface forms. 
 
 Geographical excursions should be made to neighboring 
 creeks, rivers, and lakes to secure vivid and correct pictures of 
 small portions of the earth's surface by actual observation. 
 The imagination will then be able to use this material in con- 
 structing pictures of more or less distant regions. By compar- 
 ing distant regions with the home region all geography can be 
 made home geography. 
 
 Lead pupils to find and name the different land and water 
 forms such as island, lake, bay, strait, slops, divide, etc., and. 
 in the presence of the things observed, have them describe what 
 they see. In this way definitions will be reached naturally and 
 effectively. Later exact text book definitions should be substi- 
 tuted. 
 
 Name all of the different land and water forms which can be taught 
 by actual observation in the district in which your school is located. 
 
 Introduce exercises on location, direction, distance and area. 
 Finally the pupils should get a bird's-eye view of each region 
 visited and describe it in class. 
 
 Name some exercises on location, direction, etc., that you can intro- 
 duce. Why should pupils get a bird's-eye view of each region visited? 
 
 It is best to undertake this work in the fall and spring. 
 School time should not be used unless with the consent of the 
 school board. One exercise per week after school hours or on 
 Saturday will suffice. 
 
152 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 136. Unit VI. To study the surface of the land in the imme- 
 diate neighborhood of the school. 
 
 In connection with the study of the land and water forms 
 make clear to pupils what is meant by the slopes of the land, 
 valleys, plains and hills. Have pupils abserve that after a rain 
 small streams are formed wherever two slopes meet and that 
 the steeper the slope the faster the water runs. 
 
 In what direction<does the stream flow? Upon what does the ^elocity 
 of the current depend. 
 
 137. Unit VII. To familiarize pupils with the symbols used 
 in representing the land and water forms observed in the 
 neighborhood. 
 
 A map of the regions visited should be sketched on the black- 
 board or on a large sheet of manila paper. Exercises like the 
 following may be introduced: 
 
 Find the land and water forms represented on the map. 
 Point to the map symbols and state what each represents. 
 Trace on the map the route the class took in making the excur- 
 sion and point out land and water forms observed. Describe 
 the bird's-eve view of each region described by the map. Make 
 a list of the names of all the different land and water forms 
 which are suggested by the map and learn the definitions. 
 
 138. Unit VIII. To have pupils study the rocks, soil and 
 plants of the home region. 
 
 This work must be very elementary in character. They 
 should be able to recognize limestone, sandstone and granite, 
 if these rocks are found in the neighborhood. The teacher 
 should tell the pupils how soil is formed, and should name the 
 various soils of the neighborhood. Pupils should collect speci- 
 mens. 
 
 13P. Unit IX. To have pupils observe changes of the 
 weather, temperature and rainfall. 
 
 Every school should have a thermometer, and temperature 
 readings should >>e made each day, in. the morning, noon and 
 
GBCXJBJLPH Y. 153 
 
 evening. A record of the wind, fall of rain or snow, and oth^r 
 conditions of the weather should be made each day until pupil u 
 have learned to observe general and specific weather conditions . 
 Their work should continue throughout the year. 
 
 140. Unit X. The teacher should in an informal way dis 
 cuss with the pupils the wants of man and how they are sii|v 
 plied. The following questions may be suggestive in planning 
 work on this unit: 
 
 Name some of the wants of man. Which are the most important? 
 What food products does the farmer raise? What food product* 
 does he need but does not produce? Where does he get those products? 
 How does he pay for them? Where do you get your clothing 1 ! Is any 
 of it made on the farm? How is the clothing paid for? Name the ma- 
 terials that were used in building your house. Where were the mater- 
 ials obtained? How were they transported? 
 
 Name other things which are needed by man besides food, clothing 
 and shelter. Where were these obtained? 
 
 What is money? What does the farmer really exchange for the things 
 he needs but does not produce? 
 
 Name all of the products of the farm of which the farmer usually has 
 a surplus. Indicate on a map the trade centers, i. e., the villages or 
 cities where he sells his farm products and buys tools, lumber, farm 
 machinery, coal, groceries, clothing, and other manufactured articles. 
 
 How are the people of the city dependent on the farmer? Is thn 
 farmer also dependent on the town? Explain. 
 
 141. Unit XI. To have pupils study the manufacturing in- 
 dustries of the neighborhood. 
 
 The manufacturing industries of the region in which the 
 school is located should be visited by the pupils, if possible un- 
 der the supervision of the teacher. Pupils should report in 
 class on what they saw and learned. 
 
 If a cheese factory is visited, pupils should report on the fol- 
 lowing: 
 
 How the milk is obtained. How the cheese is made. Kinds of ehrcsc. 
 How cheese is prepared for the market. Where the cheese is sold ami 
 the means of transportation. How the cheese reaches the consumer. 
 
154 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 Study the different manufacturing industries of the region in 
 which your school is located, and plan how you would conduct 
 the exercise on each. 
 
 II. Geographical Stories Told and Read to Pupils. 
 
 14:2. To have pupils learn of the life of the people of differ- 
 ent lands. 
 
 Geography is a study of the earth as the home of man. We 
 are not only interested in the natural conditions that make cer- 
 tain occupations possible, but we are also interested in how 
 people live, how they make their living, and what their social 
 relations are. Both features of geography should be empha- 
 sized early in the course. Geographical stories should be used 
 throughout the entire course. In the Primary Form and in 
 the first year of the Middle Form the stories should be told by 
 the teacher. After that they should be read by the pupils 
 themselves. The teacher should use maps freely in connection 
 with the stories. 
 
 The following lists will be found suggestive: 
 
 1. Children of Cold Countries: The Seven Little Sisters, 36-38: 
 
 The children of the cold, 9-153 ; The Little People of Asia, 
 280-295; Snow Baby; Little Folks of Other Lands, 26-32; 
 Land of the Long Night, 75-87. 
 
 2. The Children of Hot Countries: Seven Little Sisters, 94-107; 
 
 Seven Little Sisters, 31-34; Little Folks of Other Lands, 
 66-69. 
 
 3. The Children of the Desert: Seven Little Sisters, 48-66; 
 
 Little Folks of Other Lands, 7-16; Little People of Asia, 
 303-222. 
 
 4. The Chinese and Japanese Children: Seven Little Sisters, 
 
 80-93; Little People of Asia, 203-222. 360-405; Carpenter's 
 Asia, 49-58; Japanese Girls and Women, 2 33. 
 
 5. Indian Children: Stories of Indian Children, 7-34; King's 
 
 Geographical Reader, Book IV, 202-208. 
 
 6. German Children: Seven Little Sisters, 108-136; Boys of 
 
 Other Countries. 
 
 7. Swixs Children: Seven Little Sisters, 67-79. 
 
 8. Dutch Children: Around the World, Bk. 1; Little Folks of 
 
 Other Lands, 74-81; The Wide World, 57 65. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 155 
 
 9. French Children: The Wide World, 65-73. 
 10. Mexican Boy: The Wide World, 108-114. 
 
 FIRST YEAR MIDDLE FORM. 
 
 Observational Geography. 
 
 143. Unit I. Observation of the weather, temperature, winds 
 and rainfall. 
 
 The observational work on the weather as outlined in unit 9, 
 p 152, should continue throughout the first year of the middle 
 form. 
 
 Teach in an elementary way the evaporation of water, the 
 difference between fogs and clouds, the kinds of clouds, dew 
 and hoar frost, how rain and snow are caused, and some of 
 the effects of heat on air. 
 
 References for the teacher: Harrington, About the Weather, 
 33-98. Geographical Nature Studies, 11-20. 
 
 How can you prove to children that air is something? How will you 
 show that air contains water vapor? that hot air rises? that cold air 
 flows? Explain to your pupils how your school house is or may be 
 ventilated? 
 
 144. Unit II. Teach pupils that water which falls as rain or 
 snow does not all collect in streams, but some of it may sink 
 into the ground only to appear later on the side of a hill as a 
 spring. 
 
 Formulate questions like the following, to be given to pupils 
 to stimulate thought: 
 
 Where does the water in the spring come from? What makes it bub- 
 ble up? Will the spring dry up after awhile? Where does the water 
 all go? Won't the ocean fill up? 
 
 145. Unit III. To have pupils study the work of the water 
 on the land. 
 
 A temporary stream after a rain, or a permanent creek will 
 offer many lessons for observational geography. Questions 
 like the following may be considered: 
 
 In what direction does the creek flow? Is the current swift 
 or slow? Why does the creek not flow in a straight line? 
 
156 MANUAL. OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 Point out a bend in the creek. Where does the current strike 
 the bank? What effect has this on the bank? In what part ol 
 the bend is the water the deepest? Is the water of the creek 
 clear or muddy? If muddy, where does the mud come from? 
 Make a deep pool in the creek, and when the water has become 
 clear, disturb the bottom of the creek some distance above the 
 pool. Observe carefully the place where the muddy water 
 flows into the pool. What happens to the mud that reaches the 
 pool? What causes the mud to settle? Is any part of the pool 
 clear? By exercising a little ingenuity the teacher can illus- 
 trate the formation of deltas, estuaries, rapids, flood-plain and 
 other fundamental conceptions in geography. 
 
 Is the valley formed by the creek deep or shallow? Point out 
 smaller basins that are parts of the larger creek basin. Locate 
 the divides that separate the different basins. If the region is 
 hilly the divides may be ridges. Make clear, however, that 
 usually the divides are lines only slightly elevated above the 
 surrounding surface. Lead pupils to realize that the creek 
 basin observed is but a part of a larger creek or river basin; 
 that the creek gradually deepens its valley; that the small tribu- 
 taries deepen their valleys, and that thus the entire creek basin 
 is lowered in course of time. Note where the creek flows be- 
 tween two rocks. Is the current increased in velocity? Is the 
 depth of the creek increased? Upon what does the carrying 
 power of the creek depend? During what part of the year is 
 the creek basin lowered most? 
 
 Lead pupils to realize that in all parts of the earth creeks and 
 rivers change the appearance of the land; that the great ocean 
 is the final destination of all sediment carried by creeks and 
 rivers, and that just as the creek basin is lowered by the creek 
 and its tributaries, so all the land of the earth is gradually 
 lowered by the innumerable creeks and rivers of the earth. 
 
 What is the general purpose of these excursions? Why is it nrccssury 
 for the teacher to visit the region to be studied before taking the excur- 
 sions with the class? Outline the work you propose to do in school aftei 
 you have made an excursion with your class. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 157 
 
 146. Unit IV. To have pupils continue the study of rocks, 
 soil, and plants of the home region. 
 
 Encourage pupils to inako a collection of the common rocks 
 found in the neighborhood. Of these, limestone, sandstone, 
 and granite should be studied carefully to bring out their char- 
 acteristic differences. The teacher should discuss with the 
 pupils topics like the following: 
 
 What sandstone is, and how sandy soil is formed. Granite 
 rock and clay soil. Limestone rock and marly soil. How 
 frosts, plants, and animals help in breaking up rocks and form- 
 ing soils. How soil is enriched by animal and vegetable mat- 
 ter. Kinds of soil adapted to the cultivation of different agri- 
 cultural products. 
 
 The teacher should prepare questions like the following to 
 be submitted to pupils: Are there shells in some limestone? 
 How did they get into the rock? Is there solid rock under the 
 soil? How do you know? Account for the difference between 
 the soil found in valleys and that on the top of a hill. Why is 
 some soil quite black? 
 
 Much of the above work should be done in connection with 
 the excursions. Particular attention should be paid to the 
 plants in which the farmer is interested. Make pupils ac- 
 quainted with the different kinds of trees on the farm and in 
 the forest. The wild plants of the forest and fields should be 
 named and characteristic features noted. One of the most im- 
 portant thing to be taught in connection with the field lessons 
 on plants is the difference in plant life of marsh, lowland and 
 upland regions. Lead pupils to observe the natural conditions 
 of soil, moisture and heat that conduce to various kinds of 
 plant growth. 
 
 References for the teacher: Practical Agriculture, James, 
 31-36; Principles of Agriculture, Bailey, 16-28; First Book in 
 Geology, Shaler, 24-29. 
 
 Why should you pay particular attention to the plants of the farm? 
 N.-uue five kinds of trees or shrubs that grow in swamps. Name twelve 
 or more kinds of trees that are found in the neighborhood where you 
 
158 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 live. Name the common wild flowers of the field and forest. Name 
 the wild animals found in your district. Explain the difference between 
 the vegetation found in marsh and upland regions; between that found 
 on the north or south side of a hill or ridge. 
 
 14-7. Unit V. To have pupils review the lessons on the 
 wants of man and how they are supplied, the products of the 
 farm, their uses and the destination of the surplus products, 
 and to have pupils enumerate the food products, clothing and 
 building materials not supplied directly from the farm, and to 
 learn how they are obtained. 
 
 In the work on this unit the farm is considered a commer- 
 cial center. Because it does not produce all that the farmer 
 needs and more of some things than he needs, its surplus prod- 
 ucts must be taken to some other center and there exchanged 
 for products which the farm does not supply. (See Unit 10, 
 p. 153.) 
 
 148. Unit VI. To have pupils learn of the natural condi- 
 tions that make the productions of the home center possible, 
 and to learn how man takes advantage of natural conditions 
 and changes some of them to suit his needs. 
 
 It is impossible in this course of study to outline definitely 
 the character of the work under this unit in each district. If 
 farming is the only industry, the consideration of this unit is 
 comparatively simple. If the community is also a manufac- 
 turing center the conditions that contribute to the success of 
 each industry should be considered. If the school is in a min- 
 ing region, the natural conditions that constitute a basis of the 
 industry should be considered. In general the attempt should 
 be made to show that the character of the occupations depends 
 in a great measure on the physiographic conditions, but that 
 man is of vital importance in taking advantage of the condi- 
 tions, and often changes them to suit his needs. 
 
 Select some home industry and outline definitely the work on it to 
 illustrate the work on the above unit. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 15'J 
 
 149. Unit VII. To summarize the industries of the home 
 region. 
 
 The following map will be suggestive of the kind of map to 
 be prepared by the teacher to represent the home region and 
 the nearest trade centers: 
 
 Suppose the above map represents your home region and 
 neighboring trade centers, and that your school is the one 
 marked x. Pupils should answer questions like the following: 
 
 1. What farm products are raised in excess of the needs of 
 the community? Where do the farmers sell their products? 
 Why do they not take them to Smithville? How are the agri- 
 cultural products shipped from Hay ton and Richmond? Why 
 does the railroad ' run along the river? Why are roads and 
 railroads commercial routes? 
 
 2. For what do the farmers exchange their surplus products 
 at the trade centers, i. e., villages and cities? 
 
 3. Trace the routes the different farmers take in going to the 
 various trade centers. 
 
 4. Will the farmers of this community do some trading at 
 Smithville? Why? There is a store about a mile north of 
 your school. What is the character of the trade it gets? 
 
 5. Do the farmers of your home region do most of their 
 trading at Hay ton or Richmond? Why? How do the roads 
 running diagonally across the country help the trade of Rich- 
 mond? Richmond has a population of 3,000, Hayton, a popu- 
 lation of 600. Richmond has a bank, Hayton has not. How 
 does that influence the trade of the two places? 
 
 6. Point out the cheese factory about a mile north of the 
 school, and the creamery southeast of the school. Indicate on 
 the map the areas tributary to the cheese factory; to the cream- 
 ery. Do these areas overlap? Why? 
 
 7. What other articles are manufactured in your neighbor- 
 hood and where are they disposed of ? 
 
 8. Indicate the telephone lines and the free mail delivery 
 routes. How do these help the farmer? 
 
160 MANUAL OF THE HLH1OJNTABT OOT7BSE OF STUDY. 
 
 9. Name again the things the farmers near the school sell, 
 the villages and cities where they dispose of their products, 
 and trace the routes by which they travel in going to these 
 centers. Name again the things the farmers need but do not 
 produce and state where they buy these things, and trace com- 
 mercial routes. 
 
 Sketch a map of the region in which your school is located and give a 
 summary of the exports and imports of the region, and trace the com- 
 mercial routes. 
 
 NOTE. The work with geographical stories should continue through- 
 out the year. See p. 154. 
 
 SECOND AND THIRD YEAR MIDDLE FORM. 
 
 General Suggestions. 
 
 150. It is suggested that during the second year of the Middle 
 Form, teachers should cover the introductory lessons on home 
 geography, the lessons on the globe, and outline maps, and the 
 lessons on North and South America. 
 
 In the last year of the Middle Form these lessons should be 
 reviewed briefly during the first month of school. The lessons 
 on Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia should then follow. 
 About two months should be allowed at the end of the year for 
 a general review of the work done in' the Primary and Middle 
 Forms. In this review special attention should be devoted to 
 "place" geography and map sketching. 
 
 Pupils should be encouraged to do much supplementary read- 
 ing in connection with the text book work in geography. Ref- 
 erences to books in the library should be prepared by the 
 teacher. 
 
 Ill Text Book Lessons on Home Geography. 
 
 151. In every elementary text book in geography considera- 
 ble space is devoted to the study of home geography. Natur- 
 ally the text book must treat this subject in a very general 
 way. It should be the purpose of the teacher to make clear 
 all statements found in the book by a constant reference to the 
 observational geography of the immediate neighborhood in 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 161 
 
 which the children live. It is advisable to comhine the text 
 book study with excursion work as previously outlined. The 
 time devoted to this phase of geography will depend greatly on 
 the text book in use, but it is safe to say that pupils should not 
 be hurried in their basic work. 
 
 IV. Lessons on the Globe. 
 Topic 1. Shape and Size of the Earth. 
 
 152. Unit I. To have pupils learn the properties of a sta- 
 tionary sphere, and to learn about the shape and size of the 
 earth. 
 
 As preparatory to studying about the shape and size of the 
 earth, pupils should be taught to recognize and in an elemen- 
 tary way define the following: Point, line, straight line, par- 
 allel, vertical, perpendicular and horizontal lines, circle, cir- 
 cumference, diameter, radius, degree, angle, sphere, horizon. 
 
 No elaborate apparatus is needed for teaching the above. A 
 ball painted black may be used in teaching the points and lines 
 of the sphere. 
 
 With books open the teacher should make clear every state- 
 ment found in the text in regard to the shape and size of the 
 earth. This should be done before the teacher assigns the les- 
 son in the book, so that pupils may be in a position to intelli- 
 gently study the new lesson. 
 
 Topic 2. The Rotation of the Earth. 
 
 153. Unit I. To learn that the earth rotates, and to learn the 
 effects of the rotation. 
 
 Pupils have observed the rising and setting of the sun, moon 
 and stars. Tell them of the immense distances the sun and 
 stars are from the earth. Call attention to the fact that mo- 
 tion in one direction may cause apparent motion in the oppo- 
 site direction. Lead pupils to realize that it is more probable 
 that the sun and stars appear to move from east to west than 
 that they actually move around the earth, and that this appar- 
 ent motion is caused by the real motion of the earth from west 
 
 to east. 
 
 12--CI 
 
162 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 Teach in connection with this unit the following terms: 
 
 Axis, poles, north and south poles, equator, parallel, hemi- 
 sphere, meridian, tropic of cancer, tropic of Capricorn, arctic and 
 antarctic circles, torrid zone, temperate zones and frigid zones. 
 
 Teach the meaning of latitude and longitude and show how 
 they help in locating points on the globe. 
 
 Teach how the daily motion from west to east causes the 
 phenomenon of day and night. 
 
 1 54. Unit II. The climate of the world. 
 
 The work on this unit should be based largely on the text 
 book in use. Teach what is meant by climate, and locate on 
 the globe and a map of the world the heat belts. Review stories 
 used in previous years calculated to impress upon the pupils 
 the climate of different parts of the earth. See p. 154. 
 
 Topic 3. The Great Land and Water Forms of the Earth. 
 
 154 a. Unit I. To have pupils find and name the great land 
 and water masses of the earth. 
 
 Exercises like the following may be introduced: Find and 
 name the continents, oceans and grand divisions, ".jocate the 
 grand divisions with reference to each other and with reference 
 to the oceans. Name the grand divisions and oceans accord- 
 ing to size. Learn to spell the names. Point out the zones, 
 and the parts of each grand division included by them. Find 
 the land hemisphere and the water hemisphere. 
 
 If possible a globe should be used in conducting the above 
 exercises. 
 
 These lessons should be followed by lessons on the map of 
 the world. Naturally they will be in the nature of review les- 
 sons. 
 
 NOTE. Each school should have a large political wall map 
 of the world, preferably a hemisphere map. This should be 
 used in connection with the above lessons and in connection 
 with the library reading in geography and history. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 163 
 
 Topic 4. Races of Men. 
 
 155. Unit I. To have pupils learn about the races of men- 
 and their distribution, and to learn the general facts about the 
 earth as the home of man. 
 
 The teacher should review typical stories of people in differ- 
 ent lands, and then teach the characteristics of the races of men 
 and the distribution of the races. 
 
 Topic 5. Lessons on the Earth as the Home of Man. 
 
 156. Unit I. To have pupils learn the general facts about 
 the earth the home of man. (140.) 
 
 Teach pupils that about half of the people of the earth get 
 their living by farming. Have them enumerate the different 
 branches of farming. Review the products of the farm which 
 are used for food, clothing or shelter. Tell pupils that these 
 farm products constitute the principal agricultural products oi 
 the temperate zones. 
 
 Teach pupils the important agricultural products of the hot 
 belts, and their uses. Call attention to the fact that heat and 
 moisture determine in a great measure the character of plant 
 and animal life on the earth. 
 
 Point out the unproductive regions of the earth and lead pu- 
 pils to realize that some deserts are caused by lack of rain and 
 others by excessive cold. 
 
 Teach pupils that in different parts of the earth mining and 
 fishing are important occupations, and that many people are 
 engaged in converting agricultural, mining and other products 
 into articles for the use of man. And finally teach pupils that 
 just as the farmer exchanges his surplus products for things 
 that he needs but does not produce, so the different people of 
 the world exchange their surplus products for things which 
 they need but do not produce, and that this exchange of pro- 
 ducts is called commerce. 
 
164: MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 V. Lessons on the Grand Divisions Using Text Book and 
 
 Library Books. 
 
 157. The following will suggest the work on North America: 
 
 1. The location of North America with reference to latitude, 
 zones and other grand divisions. 
 
 2. The boundaries. The area. Compare the area with thai 
 of each of the other grand divisions. 
 
 3. The surface and drainage. 
 
 4. The climate. 
 
 5. The political divisions. 
 
 6. The land and water forms and cities: 
 
 1. Rivers: Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Hudson, Poto- 
 
 mac, Rio Grande, Colorado, Columbia, Yukon, St. 
 Lawrence. 
 
 2. Mountains: Rocky, Sierra Nevada, Alleghany. 
 
 3. Lakes: Michigan, Superior, Huron, Erie, Ontario, 
 
 Great Salt Lake. 
 
 4. Gulfs and bays and straits: Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, 
 
 Hudson Bay, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Gulf of Mexico, 
 Gulf of California, Bering Strait, Chesapeake, and 
 Delaware Bay. 
 
 5. Peninsulas, capes and islands: Labrador, Nova Sco- 
 
 tia, Florida, Yucatan, Lower California, Alaska, 
 Cod, Hatteras, Sable, Newfoundland, Bahama, 
 West Indies, Cuba, Porto Rico. 
 
 Cities: Washington, New York, Chicago, Philadel- 
 phia, Boston. St. Louis, New Orleans, San Fran- 
 cisco, Denver, Milwaukeo, Montreal, Quebec, Mex- 
 ico, Vera Cruz, Havana. 
 
 7. Pupils should learn to sketch rapidly a map of North 
 America, and insert the above land and water forms. 
 
 8. Library reading work on North America should be begun 
 when the geography of this grand division is first taken up. 
 The teacher should prepare references to all books in the library 
 relating to the people, animals, and products of North America, 
 
165 
 
 NOTE The teacher should prepare outlines similar to the 
 above on each grand division. References to stories relating to 
 each grand division should be prepared. 
 
 VI. Summaries. 
 
 158. The last few months of the Middle Form should be de- 
 voted to a review of the work outlined for the Primary and 
 Middle Forms. The teacher should aim at essentials. Re- 
 quire pupils to give clear, clean-cut summaries of the various 
 topics indicated under tests for promotion. 
 
 TESTS FOR PROMOTION. 
 
 Before entering upon the work of the Upper Form, pupils 
 should be able to do the following: 
 
 1. Draw a map of the home region and summarize the im- 
 
 portant physiographic features. 
 
 2. Name the common rocks of the home region, state how 
 
 soil is formed, name the different kinds of soil and state 
 how soil may be enriched. 
 
 3. Name the important plants and animals used for food 
 
 purposes which are produced in the home region. 
 
 4. Describe the occupations of the people of the home re- 
 
 gion, the various things they produce, and how they 
 exchange their products. 
 
 5. Sketch a map of the home region and surrounding trade 
 
 centers, and show the commercial relation between the 
 home region and the trade centers. 
 
 6. State the effects of the rotation of the earth. 
 
 7. Tell stories of characteristic people of different parts of 
 
 the world. 
 
 8. Name the races of men and state their chief character- 
 
 istics. 
 
 9. Draw outline maps of the grand divisions and locate on 
 
 them the most important land and water forms and 
 cities. 
 
166 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 10. Summarize the geography of each grand division and the 
 
 United States as per outline on North America. 
 
 III. Upper Form. 
 
 159. The purposes of the work in the Upper Form are: 
 
 1. To furnish pupils the elementary facts of mathema- 
 
 tical geography. 
 
 2. To give pupils power to interpret maps. 
 
 3. To extend the work in industrial geography in the 
 
 study of the important countries of the world. 
 
 4. To give pupils a detailed knowledge of the geog- 
 
 raphy of the United states and of Wisconsin. 
 
 5. To give pupils a bird's eye view of the physio- 
 
 graphic and industrial geography of the world. 
 
 160. COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 First Year Upper Form. 
 
 I. Essentials of Mathematical Geography. 
 
 1. Shape and size of the earth. 
 2. Cause of day and night. 
 
 3. Definitions of points and lines, produced by rotation 
 
 of the earth. 
 
 4. The cause of the seasons and the location of the 
 
 zones. 
 
 11. The Earth Studied as a Whole. 
 
 1. The wearing away of the land, the work of streams, 
 
 glaciers, waves and tides and underground water. 
 
 2. Temperature, zones and heat belts. 
 
 3. Ocean currents. 
 
 4. General circulation of the air and rain-fall. 
 
 5. Plants and animals, and their distribution. 
 
 6. Races of men, and man's progress. 
 
 7. Occupations and industries. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 107 
 
 III. North America. 
 
 1. North America studied as a whole. 
 
 2. The United States. 
 
 3. Wisconsin. 
 
 4. Canada. 
 
 5. Mexico, Central America and the West Indies. 
 
 Second Year Upper Form. 
 
 IV. South America. 
 V. Europe. 
 
 VI. Asia. 
 VII. Africa. 
 VIII. Australia and islands of the Pacific. 
 
 Third Year Upper Form. 
 IX. Summaries. 
 
 161. General suggestions. 
 
 In teaching the geography of the other countries the method 
 as outlined under the United States should be taken as a guide. 
 The study of each grand division as a whole should be followed 
 by the careful study of the most important countries. The less 
 important countries should also receive attention, but care 
 should be exercised in reserving sufficient time for emphasizing 
 the study of the important countries. The countries of South 
 America which should receive m'ost attention are Brazil, Argen- 
 tina and Chili; of Europe, Great Britan and Ireland, Germany, 
 Russia and France; of Asia, Japan, China and India; of Africa, 
 Cape Colony and Egypt. 
 
 Every school should be supplied with a full set of outline 
 maps in a roller case. These maps should be political maps 
 but there should be also one physical outline map of the world 
 and if possible a physical map of the United States and of 
 Europe. 
 
 The rapid sketching of maps should have a prominent place 
 in each year's work and there should be frequent reviews of 
 "place" geography. 
 
1G8 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENT ARYjCOURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 Pupils should -be encouraged to read many library books dur- 
 ing the year, relating to geographical subjects. 
 
 The last year should be devoted to the general summary a? 
 indicated on pp.184-7, and the last few months of this year 
 should be given to a review of the essentials of the geography 
 of the United States and Wisconsin. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS AND ANALYSIS OF SUBJECT 
 
 MATTER. 
 
 I. Essentials of Mathematical Geography. 
 
 162. The fundamental facts of Mathematical Geography 
 were taught in the Middle Form. These should be reviewed 
 before taking up the subject in the advanced book. 
 
 While it has been customary to treat of Mathematical Geo- 
 graphy during the beginning of the first year of the Upper 
 Form, it may be best to defer this subject until the end of the 
 year. 
 
 II. The Earth Studied as a Whole. 
 
 163- The physiography of the home region- should be re- 
 viewed in connection with the text book study of the topic, 
 The Earth as a Whole. 
 
 As a result of the text book study of topics number two, 
 three and four, pupils should be able to 
 
 (1.) Indicate on the map of the world the areas over which 
 the trade winds blow, the areas over which the west- 
 erly winds or anti-trades blow, and the three regions 
 of calms. 
 
 (2.) Indicate on a map the climatic regions of the world. 
 
 (3.) Indicate on a map the ocean currents and state whether 
 they are warm or cold currents. 
 
 (4.) State the conditions upon which rainfall depends, and 
 indicate on a map of the world the regions of light, 
 medium and heavy rainfall. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 1G9 
 
 Pupils should not be required, except in a very general way, 
 to state reasons for the above. A possible exception is the, 
 topic rainfall. If pupils understand clearly the conditions upon 
 which rainfall depends, the teacher may by judickvio question- 
 ing get pupils to account for the distribution o* rain and snow. 
 The rainfall map of the world should be carefully studied with 
 this end in view. In connection with this topic the teacher may 
 teach a few facts in regard to cyclonL storms and their relation 
 to rainfall in the temperate zones, but it is probably best to 
 postpone the study of this topic until the climate of the United 
 States is considered. If the climate of the world, including 
 temperature, general circulation of the air and rainfall, is thor- 
 oughly understood it will greatly simplify the "study of any 
 grand division or country. 
 
 In teaching topics five, six and seven under the subject, The 
 Earth, as a Whole, show how climate influences the distribu- 
 tion of plants and animals of the earth. 
 
 III. North America. 
 Topic 1. North America as a Unit. 
 
 164. Before taking up the text book work on North America 
 the teacher should review what the pupils learned about North 
 America in the Middle Form. Most of the large facts in re- 
 gard to temperature, winds and rainfall were taught in connec- 
 tion with the study of the world as a whole. 
 
 Pupils should make a careful study of the map and text 
 book and be prepared to sketch maps of North America and 
 insert the important land and water forms and cities, the heat 
 and rain belts, and the forest areas. They should be required 
 to recite topically on any subject relating to North America. 
 
 Topic 2. The United States. 
 
 165. The work on the United States is outlined fully with a 
 view to having it suggest the method to be followed in teach- 
 ing the geography of the rest of the world. 
 
170 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 SCOPE OF WORK. 
 
 1. Position. 
 
 2. Location of states and their capitals. 
 
 3. Location of the important land and water forms and cities: 
 
 4. How to sketch an outline map of the United States. 
 
 5. Surface and drainage. 
 
 6. Climate. 
 
 7. Population and character of the people. 
 
 8. Industries and commerce. 
 
 9. Physiographic and industrial geography of groups of 
 
 states. 
 
 10. Summaries of the most important industries of the 
 
 United States. 
 
 11. Intensive study of a few typical states. 
 
 12. Important trade centers. 
 
 Unit I. Position. 
 
 166. Suggestive map questions which pupils should answer 
 as a result of map-study: 
 
 What is the latitude and longitude of the United States? 
 In what zone is it? What climate does this suggest? Through 
 how many degrees of latitude does the United States extend? 
 Through how many degrees of longitude? What is the length 
 in miles of the United States from the Atlantic to the Pacific? 
 The width from north to south in miles? What is the dis- 
 tance in miles between meridian 90 west and the meridian of 
 Greenwich on parallel 40 ? 
 
 Pupils should be required to summarize this topic somewhat 
 as follows: 
 
 The United States lies between the parallel 25' J and 49 
 North latitude, and between meridian 67 and 125 West 
 longitude. It is wholly in the North temperate zone. The 
 northern half has cold winters and warm summers, and the 
 southern half has mild winters and warm summers. 
 
 The United States extends through about 25 of latitude and 
 60 of longitude. The length from the Atlantic to the Pacific 
 ocean is about 3,000 miles; the width from north to south is 
 about 1,500 miles. Meridian 90 W. is about 4,000 miles from 
 the meridian of Greenwich on parallel 40 N. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 171 
 
 Unit II. Location of States and Their Capitals. 
 
 167. Exercises like the following will illustrate the mode of 
 procedure in teaching this unit: 
 
 1. Pupils should find the states and their capitals on the 
 maps in their book and learn to spoil the names. 
 
 2. They should answer questions like the following, first, 
 while looking at the map, then without looking at the map: 
 Name the states that border on Wisconsin. Name the states 
 on the east bank of the Mississippi beginning with Wisconsin. 
 Name the states bordering on the Great Lakes in order, begin- 
 ning with Minnesota. Name the states bordering on the At- 
 lantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico and Mexico, in order, beginning 
 with Maine. Through what states would you pass in going 
 directly west from Wisconsin. Locate in space, by pointing, 
 the different states as they are named by the teacher or pupils. 
 
 168. Unit III. Location of the Important Land and Water 
 
 Forms and Cities. 
 
 The teacher should make a list of the important land and 
 water forms and cities to be learned by pupils. This list should 
 not contain too many names. 
 
 169. Unit IV. How to Sketch an Outline Map of the United 
 
 States. 
 
 The teacher should enclose a map of the United States by a 
 rectangle. Pupils should determine the proportions of the 
 rectangle. They should then observe the points in the rect- 
 angle where the outline of the map touches the sides of the 
 rectangle. They should practice sketching maps of the United 
 States, always drawing the rectangle first. 
 
 170. Unit V. Surface and Drainage. 
 
 The teacher should require pupils to determine the surface 
 and drainage from a careful study of the physical map in the 
 text book. The text book should Ve studied to secure the sum- 
 
172 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 mary. In connection with this topic pupils should read ami 
 report on the topics relating to this unit. 
 
 Pupils should be required to sketch rapidly a map of the 
 United States and indicate thereon the principal highlands and 
 lowlands and drainage systems. 
 
 References: 
 
 The Great Lakes: King's Geographical Reader, Book II, 129-139; 
 Carpenter's North America, 172-179, 190-195; World and its 
 People, Vol. IV, 68-83; Guyot's Geographical Reader, 46-56; 
 Around the World, Bk. 3, 63-73. 
 
 Mississippi River: King's Geographical Reader, Book II, 98-108; 
 King's Geographical Reader, Book IV, 31-42; Carpenter's 
 North America, 135-138, 150-159; Guyot's Geographical 
 Reader, 20-37. 
 
 Niagara Falls: Carpenter's North America, 195-202; Our Coun- 
 try: East, 3-8; Around the World, Book 3, 23-27; Wonders 
 of Nature, 79-89. 
 
 Mammoth Cave: Our Country: East, 57-64; Century Book of 
 Famous Ameri ans, 173-174; Wonders of Nature, 283-294; 
 Nagle's Philosophy. 
 
 Great Salt Lake: Carpenter's North America, 259-264; Around 
 the world, Bk. 3, 147-1-19; Naglu's Philosophy. 
 
 Grand Canon: Our Country: West, 161-166; Carpenter's North 
 America, 259-264; King's Geographical Reader, Book II, 
 109-119; Nagle's Philosophy. 
 
 Florida Everglades: Our Country: East, 96-100; Nagle's Phil- 
 osophy. 
 
 Hudson River: Guyot's Geographical Reader, 27-46. 
 
 Yellowstone Park: Picturesque Geographical Reader, Bk. 2, 48 
 57; Our Country: West, 78-85; Nagle's Philosophy. 
 
 171. Unit VI. Climate. 
 
 A study of the map should precede the study of the text 
 book. Questions like the following should be asked: Between 
 what parallels of latitude does the United States lie? What 
 does that suggest in regard to climate? Name the ocean cur- 
 rents that flow along the coast of the United States. What is 
 the character of each in regard to temperature? In what wind 
 zone is the United States? What temperature do the wesf 
 
GBOGEAPHT. 173 
 
 winds bring to the western coast states in summer? In winter? 
 Is the region of the Rocky Mountains and Great Plains warm 
 or cold in winter? In summer? What is the temperature of 
 the winds blowing from these regions in summer? In winter? 
 Do the west winds that blow from the ocean bring rain to the 
 west coast in winter? In summer? Why? Are the west winds 
 blowing from the Rocky Mountain region and Great Plains 
 rain-bearing winds? Why? What makes it possible for the 
 warm south winds to sweep across the United States? Do they 
 bring rain? Why is the New England coast cooler in winter 
 than the coast of Washington or Oregon? 
 
 After pupils have answered questions like the above they 
 should study the temperature and rainfall charts found in their 
 text books and attempt to explain the broad climatic regions 
 and rainfall. 
 
 They should then study their text books for a summary of 
 tk'j unit, Climate. 
 
 As one of the tests on this unit pupils should be required to 
 LLftch rapidly a map of the United States indicating the tem- 
 perature belts and the rainfall area. 
 
 In connection with this unit the teacher should give the pu- 
 pils elementary notions of cyclonic storms of the United States 
 and their effect on rain fall. As a preparation for teaching 
 this topic it would be well for the teacher to carefully study 
 the discussion of cyclonic storms in Harrington's little book, 
 "About the Weather," "Tarr's Elementary Physical Geogra- 
 phy," or any other good physical geography. 
 
 172. Unit VII. Population and Character of the People. 
 
 Pupils should be required to find out the population per 
 square mile of the region east of the Mississippi. Compari- 
 sons should be made with England, Germany and other coun- 
 tries. Pupils should then study the unit as presented in the 
 text book and summarize it. 
 
174 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OP STUDY. 
 
 173. Unit VIII. Industries and Commerce of the United 
 
 States. 
 
 This unit can be resolved into the following sub-units: 
 
 1. Agriculture and horticulture. 2. Fishing. 3. Lumber- 
 ing. 4. Mining. 5. Herding. 6. Manufacturing. 7. Chief 
 exports and imports. 
 
 174:. The teacher should review briefly the surface and drain- 
 age, and climate of the United States, and the physical condi- 
 tions that determine the production of cereals and other food 
 products. Then under the direction of the teacher they should 
 locate the great agricultural regions and name the probable 
 products. They should then study their text books for de- 
 tailed and accurate information and summarize each topic. 
 The subject "Irrigation" should be studied in connection with 
 this unit. 
 
 Unit IX. Physiographic and Industrial Geography of Groups 
 
 of States. 
 
 175. This unit may be resolved into the following sub-units: 
 
 1. The New England States. 2. The Middle Atlantic States, 
 3. The Southern states of the Mississippi river basin. 4. The 
 Northern states of the Mississippi river basin. 5. The Plateau 
 states. 6. The Pacific slope States. 7. Possessions of the 
 United States. 
 
 The following treatment of the geography of the Pacific 
 Slope states will suggest the method of procedure for teaching 
 each sub-unit: 
 
 In teaching this unit the teacher should review and apply 
 what pupils already know relating to the subject. Thus pupils 
 can be made to realize that often the fundamentals of a new 
 subject are already known to them and need but be applied to 
 new conditions. The teacher should review so much of the 
 surface, climate, people, and production areas of the United 
 States as relates to the Coast states. 
 
 This review and the topic the "Surface and Coast" might 
 constitute the first day's work on this unit. Under the direc- 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 175 
 
 tion of the teacher, pupils should study a physical map of the 
 United States and answer questions like the following: Point 
 out the mountainous regions. Point out the lowland plains." 
 What parts of California and Oregon belong to the great pla- 
 teau belt? How high are the Sierra Nevada mountains? The 
 Coast range? The plains? Locate the harbors on the coast. 
 
 As a preparation for the next day pupils should review the 
 above questions and search their geographies and geograpical 
 readers forfacts on the surface and drainage of the Coast states. 
 A few pupils should be required to prepare on special topics to 
 report in class the next day. Topics like the following may be 
 suggestive: The Sierra Nevada mountains. Death valley, 
 Yosemite valley, Columbia river. 
 
 The next day pupils should be required to summarize this 
 unit and list to reports on special topics. The assignment for 
 the next day might be placed on the board as follows: 
 
 (1) Name the states on the Pacific coast, according to size. 
 
 (2) Compare the area of each with that of Wisconsin. 
 
 (3) Locate the important rivers and cities in each state. 
 
 (4) Find the population of each state and compare it with 
 
 that of Wisconsin. 
 
 (5) What is the population of each state per square mile? 
 
 Make comparisons with the population of Wisconsin? 
 
 (6) What in general is the character of the people? 
 
 (7) Summarize this unit. 
 
 The next day pupils should answer questions like the above, 
 and then summarize the unit. As a preparation for the fol- 
 lowing day they might be required to write on the topic, Sur- 
 face and Drainage of the Coast States. 
 
 The recitation time of the following day should be spent in 
 discussing with the pupils questions relating to the climate ol 
 these states. Questions like the following should be consid- 
 ered: 
 
 Locate the group of states in the wind zones of the earth. 
 What ocean current sweeps along the coast? What is the tem- 
 perature of the winds blowing from the ocean in winter? In 
 
176 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 summer? The New England states are in the same latitude 
 as Washington and Oregon. Explain the difference in climate. 
 Where and when is the rainfall the heaviest in the Pacific coast 
 states? Why has Southern California so little rain?. Why i? 
 the climate much drier east of the mountains? Why are the 
 summers much hotter and the winters much cooler east of the 
 mountains than they are west of the mountains? 
 
 Possibly all of the questions cannot be considered in class. 
 They should then be written on the board to be worked out by 
 pupils. They are problem questions and appeal to the reasoning 
 power fully as much as do problems in arithmetic. 
 
 After the subject of climate has been considered in class, 
 pupils should search their geographies for facts, and summar- 
 ize the unit. This may be done either orally or in writing. 
 
 Pupils are now ready to study the topic "Occupations and 
 Industries." While some work preliminary to the study of 
 the text book should be undertaken most of the time should be 
 devoted by the pupils to studying their text books and geo- 
 graphical readers. Pupils should be required to report on 
 special topics like the following: 
 
 The Fairy Land of California, 264-274, Carpenter's North 
 America; Raisin Making, 143-147, Our Country: West; Big 
 Trees of California, 132-133, Our Country: West; Salmon 
 Fishing, 281-283, Carpenter's North America; San Francisco 
 and the Chinese, 274-278, Carpenter's North America; Nagle's 
 Philosophy. 19-29 
 
 Finally the pupils must summarize what they have learned. 
 
 The fallowing outline will be suggestive: 
 
 1. Surface and drainage. 
 
 2. Climate: Temperature, winds and rainfall. Comparison 
 with other parts of the United States. 
 
 3. Industries and principal products. 
 
 4. Collecting and distributing centers. 
 
 5. Exports and imports and commercial routes. 
 
 6. The principal products for which each state is noted. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 176, Unit X. Summaries of the Most Important Indus- 
 tries of the United States. 
 
 The following industries should be considered: 
 
 1. Wheat and flour: 2, Corn and corn meal; 3. Cattle and 
 dairying; 4. Coal and iron; 5. Lumber; 6. Leather; 7. Petro- 
 leum; 8. Wool and woolens; 9. Cotton; 10. Sugar and rice. 
 
 The following suggestions on the teaching of the sub-unit 
 "Wheat and flour" will suggest method of treatment of the 
 other sub-units. 
 
 In most geographies maps are found showing production re- 
 gions. Pupils should indicate the important wheat regions and 
 from their text books and table of statistics gather facts in re- 
 gard to the population of these regions, and deter mine whether 
 there is a surplus of wheat raised. They should learn the 
 most important collecting and distributing centers for wheat 
 and flour, and the ocean-exporting centers and commercial 
 routes. They should find out what countries buy our surplus 
 wheat and flour and how they pay for these products. Pupils 
 should read and report on as many of the references under 
 "Wheat and Flour" as possible. 
 
 Wheat and flour: Great American Industries, Vol. II, ISO- 
 ITS; Carpenter's North America, 164-171; Stories of Country 
 Life, 14-17; Around the World, Bk. 3, 76-81; Payne, Geo- 
 graphical Nature Studies, 104; Corn Plants, 75-79; Home 
 Geography, 88-92. 
 
 The teacher should prepare references to books in the library 
 treating of the various industries which should be used in a 
 similar manner in which those on wheat and flour were used- 
 
 After each industry is taught, 'pupils should be able to sketch 
 rapidly a map of the United States, indicate area of production, 
 and summarize either orally or in writing the entire topic. 
 
 177. Unit XL The Study of Certain Typical States, e. g.: 
 
 1. Texas. 2. California. 3. Minnesota. 4. Colorado. 5 
 Pennsylvania. 6. Massachusetts. 7. New York, 
 13 C, 
 
178 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 In the work on individual states the teacher should first he.ve 
 the pupils tell all they know about the particular state t}a* is 
 studied. If the work on the sections of the United Sta.ten is 
 properly clone it will be found that pupils will give a fairly ex- 
 haustive summary of the geography of each state witho it ap- 
 pealing to the text book for facts. 
 
 178. Unit XII. Important Trade Centers. 
 
 The following trade centers should be considered: 1. 1 )uluih- 
 Superior. 2. St. Paul-Minneapolis. 3. St. Louis. 4. Chio/jgo. 
 5. Milwaukee. 6. New Orleans. 7. San Francisco. 8 Ta- 
 coma-Seattle. 9. Baltimore. 10. Philadelphia. 11. Bo /.ton. 
 12. New York. 
 
 The following will suggest a method of procedure in teach- 
 ing the trade center, Chicago: 
 
 With books open pupils should be led to observe that Chi 
 cago is in the center of the great agricultural region of the 
 United States; that it is a center of many railroad/j which 
 make the agricultural region tributary to it; that Chkago has 
 water communications with the cities along the Great Lakes 
 and New York, and with the cities on the Mississippi river; that 
 Chicago has railroad and water communications with the great 
 lumber, iron, and copper regions of Minnesota, Wisconsin, 
 and Michigan; that Chicago is within easy access of the coal 
 fields of Illinois, and that it has railroad and water communi- 
 cation with the great coal fields of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Pupils should study their text books and tables of statistics 
 and be prepared to make a summary of Chicago as a collect- 
 ing and distributing center. They should rapidly sketch a 
 map of the United States and trace the movements of lumber, 
 wheat and corn, livestock, iron, coal, etc., to and from Chicago. 
 
 The other trade centers of the United States should be taken 
 up in a similar way. 
 
OEOQR kPHY. 179 
 
 Topic 3. Wisconsin. 
 
 179. Scope of work. 
 
 1. Position. 
 
 a. Absolute and relative. 
 
 b. Influence of position on climate. 
 
 2. Area and population. 
 
 3. The principal land and water forms and cities. 
 
 4. How to sketch an outline map of the state. 
 
 5. Surface and drainage. 
 
 6. Climate. 
 
 7. The agricultural regions. 
 
 8. Lumbering. 
 
 9. Mining. 
 
 10. Paper and pulp industry. 
 
 11. Quarrying. 
 
 12. The important trade centers of the state. 
 
 180. Unit I. Absolute and Relative Position. 
 
 A study of the map should precede the study of the text book. 
 Questions like the following should be asked: 
 
 1. Between what parallels does Wisconsin lie? Between 
 what meridians? What is the greatest length of Wisconsin 
 from north to south? From east to west? Estimate in miles 
 the length of the shore line upon the lakes. How far is Wis- 
 consin from the Gulf of Mexico? From the equator? How far 
 is it from the Atlantic ocean? From the Pacific? How far is 
 meridian 90 W. from the meridian of Greenwich, in degrees? 
 In miles? 
 
 2. Bound Wisconsin. Bound Michigan. What marked dif- 
 ference is there between the boundary of Wisconsin and Michi- 
 gan? Through what states, countries, and bodies of water does 
 meridian 90 W. pass? Parallel 45 N.? 
 
 Pupils should summarize this unit. 
 
 181. Unit II. Area and Population. 
 
 Pupils should be required to compare the area of Wisconsin 
 with that of other states, and with the area of the most impor- 
 
ISO MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 tant countries of Europe. They should compare the population 
 of Wisconsin, per square mile, with that of Germany, France, 
 Denmark, and Belgium. 
 
 182. Unit III. The Principal Land and Water Forms and 
 
 Cities. 
 
 The teacher should make a list of the important land and 
 water forms and cities of Wisconsin and have pupils find them 
 on the map. Conduct drill exercises as suggested by the fol- 
 lowing: 
 
 Name the cities on the Wisconsin river beginning with Prai- 
 rie du Chien. Name the cities on Lake Michigan beginning 
 with Kenosha. Point in the direction of Milwaukee, Madison, 
 Ashland, Oshkosh, etc. What direction is Oshkosh from Mani- 
 towoc? From Janes ville, etc.? How far is it from Sheboygan 
 to Milwaukee? Use this distance as a unit of measurement in 
 estimating the distance between Milwaukee and Madison, be- 
 tween Superior and Green Bay, etc. 
 
 183. Unit IV. To Sketch an Outline Map of Wisconsin. 
 The teacher should carefully draw an outline map of the 
 state on the blackboard and enclose it by a square and have the 
 pupils study the map to get a picture of its form and out- 
 line. Pupils should then practice sketching the map, always 
 first drawing the square. 
 
 184. Unit V. Surface and Drainage. 
 
 Sketch a physical map of Wisconsin on the blackboard and 
 by means of questions like the following lead pupils to inter- 
 pret the map: 
 
 1. Name the rivers that flow into the Mississippi. In what 
 general direction do the rivers flow? How does the land slope 
 that is drained by these rivers? Name the rivers that How 
 into Lake Michigan and Lake Superior. What do these rivers 
 tell us of the slope of the land? Draw a dotted line on the map, 
 separating the head waters of all the rivers flowing into the 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 181 
 
 Mississippi from those flowing into Lakes Superior and 
 Michigan. What does this line represent? To what two great 
 basins does Wisconsin belong? Draw dotted lines enclosing 
 the basin of the lower Wisconsin river, and also lines enclosing 
 the basin of the Fox including Lake Winnebago. Are these 
 basins practically continuous? 
 
 Pupils should then study this unit as presented in their text 
 book. 
 
 As a final test they should be required to rapidly sketch a 
 map of the state and summarize the entire topic. 
 
 185. Unit VI. Climate. 
 
 The teacher should bring the knowledge pupils already have 
 to bear on this topic. Questions like the following mav be sug- 
 gestive: 
 
 1. In what zone is Wisconsin? In what part of North 
 America? In what wind zone? Where do the winds come 
 from that blow over Wisconsin in winter? What climate do 
 they bring? Where have the winds been that blow over Wis- 
 consin in the summer? What is the temperature of those re- 
 gions? Compare the winds of Wisconsin with those of Cali- 
 fornia and Oregon in summer. In winter. Explain the dif- 
 ference. What effect have Lake Michigan and Lake Superior 
 upon the climate of the state? Compare the climate of Michi- 
 gan with that of Wisconsin. Account for the difference. 
 
 2. In what rainfall region of the United States is Wisconsin? 
 Explain that the rainfall of the state is due to cyclonic storm? 
 What is the average rainfall of Wisconsin? Why is it impo; ,- 
 ant that about half of the amount of rain falls in spring <<> ad 
 summer? Do the crops in Wisconsin get sunshine longer 1 .\an 
 those in the southern states? What is the effect of this? 
 
 Pupils should study the text book and then summari-,., the 
 entire topic, "Climate." 
 
 ISO. Unit VII. Agricultural Products. 
 Pupils should search their text books for facts renting to 
 soil and agricultural products and then sketch a map indicat- 
 
182 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 ing (a) the fertile soil regions; (b) the comparatively unfertile 
 soil region. Name the important agricultural products of the 
 state. In what parts of the state is stock raising an important 
 occupation? Locate the important potato region. 
 
 Locate the principal cranberry marshes. In what part of 
 Wisconsin is tobacco raised? How is tobacco cultivated and 
 cured? What are the most important tobacco centers in the 
 state? What does the text book say in regard to dairying and 
 cheese making in the state? Where would you expect to find 
 the greatest number of creameries and dairies? Why? 
 
 In summarizing this unit pupils should be encouraged to 
 make use freely of sketch maps in indicating agricultural areas. 
 
 187. Unit VIII. Lumbering. 
 
 Pupils should search their geographies for facts in regard to 
 this industry and summarize by doing the following: 
 
 1. Sketch a map locating the lumber region and name the 
 different kinds of lumber produced. 
 
 2. Name the important lumber centers of the state. 
 
 3. State how the lumber reaches the market. 
 
 4. Woodenware factories and their products. 
 
 Pupils should read, or listen to formal talks by the teacher 
 on the following: 
 
 1. Past conditions of timber area of Wisconsin. 
 
 2. Present conditions. 
 
 3. Remedial and protective needs. 
 
 (a) How European countries manage their forest 
 
 areas. 
 
 (b) How waste can be prevented by forestry manage- 
 
 ment. (1) Fires. (2) Proper methods of cut- 
 ting timber. 
 
 (c) How the forest areas may be restocked. 
 
 (d) What schools can do in creating public sentiment. 
 
 NOTE. A good book on "Wisconsin Forests" is Bulletin 1 of the 
 Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, by Filbert Roth. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 183 
 
 188. Unit IX. Mining. 
 
 Pupils should search their geographies for facts in regard to 
 iron and lead mining, and manufacturing industries, and 
 answer questions like the following: 
 
 Where are the important iron, lead, and zinc regions of Wis- 
 consin? How is iron ore mined and smelted? What is Besse- 
 mer steel? How is steel made? Name important iron prod- 
 ucts. How is lead ore mined and smelted? What are the im- 
 portant lead centers? For what purposes are lead and zinc 
 used? Name the cities engaged in the lead and zinc industries. 
 
 Pupils should sketch maps showing the lead and iron re- 
 gions of the state. 
 
 A summary of the iron and lead industries of the state 
 should be called for at the close of the work on this unit. 
 
 189. Unit X. Paper and Pulp Industry. 
 
 The teacher should review briefly what the pupils have 
 learned about pulp and paper making. The pupils should 
 then be* required to search their geographies for facts in regard 
 to the paper and pulp industry of the state, and answer ques- 
 tions like the following: 
 
 What cities are engaged in the manufacture of pulp and 
 paper? What natural conditions help to make Wisconsin so 
 important a state in the manufacture of pulp and paper? De- 
 scribe the manufacture of pulp and paper. 
 
 190. Unit XI. Quarrying. 
 
 After a study of the text book pupils should answer ques- 
 tions like the following: 
 
 Enumerate all the purposes for which limestone and granite 
 are used. Search your text books for facts in regard to "quar- 
 rying" and then summarize the unit. 
 
 191. Unit XII. The Trade Centers of Wisconsin. 
 
 Teach the largest trade center of the county in which your 
 school is located according to the following outline: 
 
 1. Indicate the area of the tributary region. What does this 
 
184 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 region produce in excess of its needs? What is the function of 
 the smaller trade centers in this "region? How do the surplus 
 products reach the city? 
 
 2. Is the city the final market for the products of the tribu- 
 tary region? What is the destination of the products? Has 
 the city any advantages of position as an exporting center? 
 What do the people in the tributary region consume that they 
 cannot or do not produce? Where do they obtain these things? 
 To what extent does the city act as a distributing center for 
 this region? How does the city obtain the manufactured prod- 
 ucts, groceries, coal, etc.? What articles are manufactured in 
 the city? 
 
 3. Pupils should practice sketching a map indicating the 
 above, and then give a summary of the city as a trade center. 
 
 Pupils should search their text books for facts relating to the 
 fifteen most important cities of Wisconsin, and indicate the 
 probable trade area of each, and state the imports and exports 
 of each. 
 
 NOTE. In teaching the geography of the other countries the method 
 as outlined under North America and the United States should be fol- 
 lowed. The study of each grand division as a whole should be followed 
 by the careful study of the most important countries. The less impor- 
 tant countries should also receive attention, but care should be exercised 
 in reserving sufficient time for emphasizing the study of the important 
 countries. The countries of South America which should receive most 
 attention are Brazil, Argentina and Chili; of Europe, Great Britain and 
 Ireland, Germany, Russia and France; of Asia, Japan, India and China; 
 of Africa, Cape Colony and Egypt. 
 
 General Summary. 
 
 192. The last few months of the Upper Form should be de- 
 voted to a general review of the geography of the world and a 
 special review of the geography of the United States and Wis- 
 consin.- The topics and questions indicated below will cover 
 the subject matter for review: 
 
 1. Name and locate the capes, peninsulas, islands, gulfs, 
 bays, straits, plateaus, mountains, plains, countries 
 and cities of the world. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 185 
 
 2. State the size and shape of each grand division and 
 
 sketch a map of each. 
 
 3. Describe the surface of each grand division of the United 
 
 States and of Wisconsin. 
 
 4. Name the countries and bodies of water through which 
 
 the equator and each of the tropic circles pass. 
 6. State the population of each grand division and state the 
 chief characteristics of the people. 
 
 6. State the cause of day and night. 
 
 7. State the causes of the seasons. 
 
 8. Name the principal rocks. What is soil? Name the dif- 
 
 ferent kinds of soil and state the relative productivity 
 of each. 
 
 9. Describe the wearing away of the land. 
 
 10. State how the land becomes heated and cooled. Why is 
 
 land surface much colder in winter and much warmer 
 in summer than water surface? 
 
 11. Name the wind zones of the earth. What are the tra^ie 
 
 winds and over what region do they blow? Name the 
 belts of calms and define each. Describe the mon- 
 soons of the Indian Ocean. Over what parts of the earth 
 do the prevailing westerlies blow? Describe the effect 
 of winds on climate. 
 
 12. Name and describe the important ocean currents. How 
 
 do ocean currents affect climate? 
 
 13. State the conditions necessary for rainfall. On a map of 
 
 the world indicate the regions of heavy, moderate and 
 light rainfall. State reasons for differences in rain- 
 fall. 
 
 11. Name and locate the broad climatic zones of the earth. 
 Name the plants and animals of the various zones. 
 
 15. On a map of the world indicate the regions where cotton 
 is produced, and name the important cotton exporting 
 cities. Do the same with wheat, corn, beef and hides, 
 rice, sugar, coffee, tea, wool, lumber, iron, coal, petro- 
 leum, gold, and silver. Trace in each case the com- 
 mercial routes. 
 
186 MANUAL OF THE EJ>EMEJ\ T TAEY COURSE )F STUDY. 
 
 I'l On a map of the world indicate the important manufac- 
 turing regions and name the principal articles manu- 
 factured. Trace the commercial routes. 
 
 17. Discuss the following topics: 
 
 a. How water power helps in locating manufacturing 
 
 centers. 
 
 b. How nearness to raw materials helps to determine 
 
 the location of manufacturing industries. 
 
 c. How steam and electricity assist in developing 
 
 manufacturing industries. 
 
 d. How rivers and harbors, canals, telegraphs and 
 
 telephones affect industrial development. 
 
 e. How governments help commerce. 
 
 18. Name the principal fishing regions of the world and the 
 
 products or kinds of fish. 
 
 19. Name the principal exports and imports of New Orleans, 
 
 and trace the ocean routes. Do the same in regard to 
 Vancouver and Seattle, Duluth and Superior, Chicago, 
 Buffalo, Montreal, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, 
 New York, Liverpool, London, Antwerp, Hamburg, 
 Havre, Marseilles, Odessa, Para, Rio Janeiro, Monte- 
 video, Buenos Ayres, Valparaiso, Vera Cruz, Cape 
 Town, Bombay, Calcutta, Hongkong, Shanghai, Yoko- 
 hama, Melbourne, Manila. 
 
 20. On a map of the world show the distribution of the dif- 
 
 ferent races of men. State the character 1 sties of each 
 race. What races are hindered by climatic conditions 
 from becoming highly civilized? 
 
 21. On a map of the world indicate density of population of 
 
 various regions. State to what the density or sparse- 
 ness of population may be due. 
 
 22. On a map of the world indicate the distribution of the 
 
 chief religions. State characteristics of each religion. 
 '_!'}. Name the seven greatest powers of the world and state 
 
 what constitutes their greatness. 
 21. What factors contribute to make the United States the 
 
 greatest food producing and exporting country of the 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 187 
 
 World? Name the principal food products. Narre 
 the principal countries to which these products are ex-_ 
 ported, trace commercial routes, and state how each 
 country pays for the food products. 
 
 25. What factors contribute to make the United States the 
 
 most important manufacturing country of the world? 
 Name the most important classes of articles manufac- 
 tured, and the principal countries that buy our manu- 
 factures. What do we get in return? Trace commer- 
 cial routes. 
 
 26. What political significance attaches to the fact that the 
 
 United States exports large quantities of products used 
 for food, clothing and shelter? 
 
 TESTS FOR GRADUATION. 
 
 193. A written examination at the close of the work in geog- 
 raphy should show that the pupils are able: 
 
 1. To locate the important land and water forms and cities 
 
 of the world. 
 
 2. To sketch a map of each grand division and the United 
 
 States, and be able to describe the surface and drainage 
 of each. 
 
 3. To describe the general circulation of the air, and the 
 
 rainfall regions of the world. 
 
 4. To locate the important agricultural, mining and manu- 
 
 facturing regions of the world, and name the surplus 
 products of each. 
 
 5. To name th.3 most important ocean seaports and state the 
 
 exports and imports of each and commercial routes. 
 
 6. To sketch a map of Wisconsin, indicating natural fea- 
 
 tures and production areas, and state the impor- 
 tant products, and collecting and distributing centers. 
 
 7. To sketch a map of the United States and indicate on it 
 
 the important production areas, collecting and distrib- 
 uting centers. 
 
 8. To answer problem questions on the geography of the 
 
 United States and on the world. 
 
188 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 CIVICS. 
 
 Middle Form. 
 
 194. Purpose: 
 
 To make pupils familiar by means of informal exercises 
 with the more obvious workings of local government, with ele- 
 mentary ideas of the State and National governments, and to 
 stimulate thinking along the lines of good citizenship. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 195. I. Government of the Home. 
 
 Parents provide the home, food, shelter, comforts, care, en- 
 couragement, and children should give ready and cheerful 
 obedience to parents. 
 
 Suggestive questions: What is the nature of the govern- 
 ment of parents when children are good? Not good? Did you 
 think you deserved the punishment you received for not being 
 good? Do the opinions of the children have any weight in the 
 family government? What duties are assigned you in tho work 
 of the home? 
 
 190. II. Games. 
 
 Baseball Team: 
 
 a. The membership is usually made up of those 
 
 who play. 
 
 b. Rules are made by a body of competent 
 
 men. 
 
 c. Captain is selected to direct players to ut- 
 
 most advantage. What are the qualities 
 noted in a captain? By whom elected? 
 Was lie elected on his merits or were other 
 influences at work? What are his duties'! 
 Do players ever object to his commands': 
 How? Why? Is there rebellion an ong the. 
 players? How is it overcome? 
 
civics. ISO 
 
 d. In playing other teams the services of an um- 
 
 pire are necessary. Why? Is his decision 
 final? In what respect may he err? What 
 is the attitude of the players to errors made 
 by him? Are the players right in objecting 
 to his decisions? What are the qualities of 
 a successful umpire? 
 
 e. Wliat expenses are sustained? Who sup- 
 
 plies the funds? Who handles the funds? 
 Qualities of a treasurer? 
 
 f. How does the team secure games? 
 
 g. Could the management of team be improved? 
 The organization and business of a baseball team exemplify 
 
 the functions of legislative, executive, administrative, and ju- 
 dicial activities, and bring the concrete experience of the pupils 
 to bear on these activities when applied to actual governments 
 later. 
 Other athletic organizations exemplify similar principles. 
 
 197. III. Public Property. 
 
 In every community some things, such as schoolhouses, 
 town or city halls, roads, streets, bridges, and parks, belong to 
 all of the people. Such property is called public property. 
 Property, such as houses, farms, cattle, tools, implements, 
 boats and other things belonging to individuals, is known as 
 private property. 
 
 Suggestive questions: Name the different kinds of public 
 property in your town. What use is made of it? Who makes 
 the rules governing the use of it? What happens when one 
 violates these rules? 
 
 11)8. IV. The School:- 
 
 a. The school is an institution whose purpose is 
 
 to furnish good citizens. 
 
 b. It is made up primarily of teacher and pupils. 
 
 c. A comfortable building with suitable desks, 
 
 furniture, apparatus, and books, is necessary, 
 
190 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 d. These, with the salary of teacher, are expenses 
 
 that must be met. 
 
 e. These expenses must be determined by the 
 
 school board, and by the voters of the school 
 district, and the money for defraying them 
 is secured by taxation. 
 
 f. The three members of the board are chosen by 
 
 the voters for a term of three years each, and 
 their duties include the hiring of teachers, 
 the care of the school property, the visitation 
 of the schools, and recommending means for 
 the improvement of the schools, to the annual 
 district meeting. What men should be se- 
 lected to serve on the board? Do all go into 
 office at the same time? 
 
 g. The school board, with the co-operation of the 
 
 teacher, may make rules for the government 
 of the school. What should be the attitude 
 of the pupils toward those rules? What is 
 the effect of disorderly conduct, of untidiness, 
 of carelessness, of not preparing good les~ 
 sons, of tardiness, or of irregularity of at- 
 tendance on the work done in the school? 
 Other questions: What were the expenses of running the 
 school in your district last year? The expenses for each pupil 
 enrolled? Just how does the teacher secure pay for services? 
 Read the order. What does it tell you? Write such an order. 
 What does the county superintendent do when he visits your 
 school? Can you suggest anything that pupils might do to im- 
 prove the work done by the school? Appearance of grounds? 
 What is the area of your district? Is the school house desira- 
 bly located? How might the state or nation assist in paying 
 the expenses of the schools? What subjects are taught? Who 
 determines these? What books in your school library would 
 give you information bearing on the schools? What would 
 happen were there no schools? Do you know some countries 
 
civics. 191 
 
 of the world ha-^ng few schools for the education of tho 
 
 children? 
 
 199. V. The Town. 
 
 a. "Usually covers an area six miles square. 
 
 b. Public works such as roads, bridges, and town 
 
 isialls are found. 
 
 c. In April a town meeting is held, at which all 
 
 of the voters of the town are expected to be 
 present, to take part in the discussions and 
 to vote. 
 
 4 At this meeting the officers of the town are 
 selected, the amount of taxes for the ensuing 
 year is levied, and ways and means for the 
 improvement of the town are discussed and 
 voted upon. 
 
 *. The officers chosen are a chairman and two 
 other supervisors who make up the town 
 board, a clerk, treasurer, assessor, justices of 
 the peace, and constables. 
 
 f. These officers have their special duties and, ex- 
 cept justices of the peace, are elected for one 
 year. 
 
 2. Reports of the government of the town are 
 read, and recommendations for the ensuing 
 year are proposed. 
 
 h. The town meeting trains voters in the method 
 of carrying on good government, enables 
 those who take part to see more than one 
 side of a question, and trains them to keep 
 their temper under control. 
 
 Suggestive questions: What was done at the last town meet- 
 ing? What improvements were suggested? Do you think of 
 others that might be made? Who seemed to be leaders in the 
 discussions? What qualities did they possess? What was the 
 jiiiiDiint of taxes raised last year? For what purposes was the 
 money o-xpended? What does a tax receipt tell you? Who has 
 
192 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COUKSE OF STUDY. 
 
 charge of the money? What is there to prevent him from 
 using it for his own purposes? What is the work of the 
 assessor? If a man steals property in your town what officers 
 would see to it that he was tried? What rights do you think 
 an accused person should have? What people can vote at the 
 meeting? Should others he given that right? 
 
 200. VI. County. 
 
 a. Counties are made up of towns, cities and vil- 
 
 lages and are created by the state legislature. 
 
 b. The functions of a county are to establish jus- 
 
 tice, to provide public works which towns 
 alone could not do, and to provide for the 
 keeping of public records such as deeds of 
 lands and wills. 
 
 c. The county board is made up of a member 
 
 from each town, village and ward of a city, 
 and its business is to make laws for the county. 
 
 d. The executive officer of a county is the sheriff, 
 
 who preserves public order and brings wrong- 
 doers to justice. 
 
 e. Taxes are collected by the county treasurer who 
 
 pays out money on the order of the clerk and 
 chairman of the county board. 
 
 f. Other county officials are the register of deeds, 
 
 clerk, clerk of court, district attorney, super- 
 intendent of schools, surveyor and county 
 judge. 
 
 Suggestive questions: How many counties in Wisconsin? 
 The area and population of your county? The county seat? Is 
 it centrally located? How many members in the county board? 
 What were the expenses of your county last year? What por- 
 tion did your town pay? How was it determined? What does 
 a deed tell you? Why should we have a county judge? What 
 could one learn by a visit to the court house? What differences 
 do you note between the town meeting and county board meet- 
 ing? 
 
civics. 1U3 
 
 201. VII. The state. 
 
 a. The state is made up of a large number of 
 
 counties, governed according to a constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 b. The state capitol, where the governor resides* 
 
 and the legislature meets, is Madison. 
 
 c. The legislature is made up of two houses, a 
 
 senate of thirty-three members and an as- 
 sembly of one hundred members, elected by 
 the voters of the state. 
 
 d. The legislature makes the laws for the people 
 
 of the state, and these laws must receive the 
 assent of the governor. 
 
 e. The governor is the executive officer of the 
 
 state, and is elected by the voters of the state. 
 
 f. The supreme court of the state meets at Madi- 
 
 son and tries cases arising under the state 
 laws. It has final decision upon important 
 cases, and may declare a law unconstitu- 
 tional. 
 
 Suggestive questions: When and how did Wisconsin become 
 a state? What is its area? Its population? Bo and Wiscon- 
 sin. Who can vote in Wisconsin? Who must obey the laws? 
 Where would you find the laws that are in force in Wisconsin? 
 Do you know some important measures passed by the last ses- 
 sion of the legislature? For what purposes does the state ex- 
 pend most money? Name the governor. By what party was. 
 he elected? What do the pictures in the Blue Book tell you 
 about the government of Wisconsin? Who is your assembly- 
 man? Your senator? What political party has a majority in 
 the legislature? 
 
 202. VIII. Nation. 
 
 a. The nation is composed of forty-five states. 
 
 b. Laws are made by congress which is com- 
 
 posed of a senate of ninety members, and a 
 14 O. 
 
194 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 house of representatives of three hundred 
 and eighty-seven members. 
 
 c. Congress enacts such laws as the constitu- 
 
 tion empowers it to enact. 
 
 d. These laws are signed by the president who 
 
 executes them. 
 
 e. Most officers of the United States are ap- 
 
 pointed, and for most positions those who 
 desire to secure them are obliged to pass a 
 written examination. 
 
 f. Our relations with foreign countries are gov- 
 
 erned by treaties made by the president and 
 senate. 
 
 g. The supreme court of the United States has 
 
 jurisdiction over important questions aris- 
 ing under the constitution of the United 
 States. 
 
 Suggestive questions: How much money is expended by the 
 United States annually? How is this money secured? What 
 different kinds of United States money have you seen? Who 
 is your representative in congress? Who are your senators? 
 Who are citizens? Name the president and vice-president. 
 Who chooses them? What were the boundaries of the United 
 States when the constitution was adopted? What are its pres- 
 ent boundaries? Name the political parties of the United 
 States. How are we protected against foreign countries? The 
 population and area of our country? What would a visit to 
 the White House teach you? Why is not Washington cen- 
 trally located? 
 
 Upper Form. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 203. United States constitution. 
 
 I. Brief review of the historical events leading to the 
 formation of the constitution. (See History Outline.) 
 
195 
 
 II. Preamble: Source of power recognized, purpose? 
 
 stated. 
 III. Legislative. 
 
 1. Reasons for having two houses. 
 
 2. Study each house as to membership, eligibility, 
 
 vacancies, officers, powers, salaries. 
 
 3. Who are the senators from Wisconsin? The 
 
 member of the house of representatives from 
 your district? 
 
 4. The process of law making, and the importance 
 
 of committees in the process. How committees 
 are selected in each house. The great powers 
 of the speaker. 
 
 5. The powers of congress. Congress can enact 
 
 such laws only as are authorized or implied by 
 the constitution of the United States, or such 
 laws as are necessary to good government un- 
 der the constitution. 
 
 6. Financial powers. 
 
 a. The amount of money needed to run the 
 
 government. 
 
 b. Power to levy and collect taxes. Learn Cl. 
 
 1, Sec. 8, Art. I. See also Cl. 3, Sec. 2, 
 Art. I; Cl. 4-5, Sec. 9, Art. I; Cl. 2-3, 
 Sec. 10, Art. I. (Cl-clause.) 
 
 c. Where bills for revenue must originate. 
 
 d. Distinguish direct and indirect taxes, duties, 
 
 tariff, imposts, excises, customs, internal 
 revenue. 
 
 e. The great difference in mode of national 
 
 and state taxation. 
 
 f. Power to borrow money. How this is done. 
 
 Present debt. 
 
 g. Coining of money. 
 
 h. Punishment for counterfeiting. 
 
10G MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 7. Commercial powers. 
 
 a. Learn 01. 3, Sec. 8, Art. I. See also 01. 
 
 5-6, Sec. 9, Art. I. 
 
 b. Who are immigrants? Number coming 
 
 each year. Would you be in favor of en- 
 couraging or restricting immigration? 
 How? 
 
 c. Name some great acts of congress in rela- 
 
 tion to commerce. 
 
 8. How a foreigner may become a citizen. 
 
 9. The postal system. 
 
 10. The military powers. See 01. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 
 
 16, Sec. 8, Art. I. 
 
 11. The implied powers, 01. 18. 
 
 12. Name some great measures considered at the 
 
 the present or last session of congress. 
 
 13. Name some powers denied to congress and the 
 
 several states. Sections 9 and 10, Art. I. 
 
 204. IV. The Executive. 
 
 1. Where .vested? 
 
 2. Constitutional provisions as to choosing a presi- 
 
 dent. 
 
 3. How political parties carry out those provisions. 
 
 4. The elections of 1800 and 1876. 
 
 5. The powers and duties of the president. 
 
 6. The Spoils system and Civil Service Reform. 
 
 7. Recommendations of the president to congress 
 
 in his last message. 
 
 8. The cabinet and its work. 
 
 9. Impeachment. 
 
 205. V. The Judiciary. 
 
 1. Where vested. 
 
 2. Term of office and mode of selection of judges. 
 
 3. The principal courts and their jurisdiction. 
 
civics. 197 
 
 4. The rights of accused persons. Sec. 3, Art. Ill, 
 
 Am. IV, V, VI, VII, VIII. 
 
 5. Treason its definition and punishment. 
 
 206. VI. The relations of states, return of fugitives from jus- 
 
 tice, admission of new states, control of territory, 
 and guaranty of republican form of government. 
 Art. IV. 
 
 207. VII. How constitution may be amended. Art. V. 
 
 208. VIII. Supreme law of the land. Art. VI, Sec. 2. 
 
 209. IX. Oath of office. Art. VI, Sec. 3. 
 
 210. X. Ratification. Art. VII. 
 
 211. XI. Slavery abolished. Am. XIII. 
 
 212. XII. Citizenship and suffrage. Am. XIV, XV. 
 
 WISCONSIN CONSTITUTION. 
 
 213. I. Fundamental principles of the bill of rights. Find 
 
 similar provisions in the United States constitution. 
 
 214. II. The qualifications of voters. Art. III. 
 
 215. III. The legislature: Its composition and powers. Com- 
 
 pare congress. Measures of importance enacted 
 at last session. Problems for present or next 
 session. Art. IV. 
 
 216. IV. The executive Qualifications. Powers and duties 
 
 of governor. Art. V. 
 
 217. V. The administrative as distinguished from the execu- 
 
 tive. The Blue Book gives pictures of many of 
 the institutions under the control of the administra- 
 tive department. Art. VI. 
 
 218. VI. Judiciary: Courts named and brief consideration of 
 
 jurisdiction. Manner of selecting judges. De- 
 scription of trial in justice court. Art. VII. 
 
198 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 219. VII. Finance. 
 
 a. Amount of money needed to meet expenses of 
 the state. 
 
 b. Sources of state revenue. 
 
 c. The levy, apportionment, assessment, and col- 
 
 lection of taxes. 
 
 d. The taxation of corporations. 
 
 e. Property exempt from taxation. 
 
 Art. VIII. 
 
 320. VIII. Education. 
 
 a. Purpose of providing schools. 
 
 b. Who may and must attend. 
 
 c. How expenses are met. 
 
 d. The meaning and amount of the school fund. 
 
 Art X. 
 
 221. IX. How the constitution is amended. Art. XII. 
 
 POLITICAL PARTIES. 
 
 1. Definition and purpose. 
 
 2. The great parties and their leaders today. 
 
 3. What these parties believe about the govern- 
 
 ment. What questions divide them? What 
 questions formerly divided them? 
 
 4. How parties nominate candidates for office. 
 
 The Primary Election Law in Wisconsin. 
 
 5. The party committees and what is expected of 
 
 them. 
 
 6. How campaigns are conducted. 
 
 7. How people vote. The Australian Ballot Sys- 
 
 tem. 
 
 a. Purpose of the system? 
 
 b. What does the ballot contain? 
 
 c. Who prints it? Why? 
 
 d. How does the voter mark it? 
 
 e. Secure a sample bal]ot and study it. 
 
civics. 199 
 
 8. What are the qualities of a good citizen, and 
 what should be his attitude toward parties? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 222. Since the public school is maintained in>the interest of 
 good citizenship, the pupils should have a chance to learn the 
 things needful for them to know in order to do well their part 
 in the management of public affairs. For the highest class in 
 the common school this may include a study of the history, and 
 something of the philosophy of our form of national and state 
 government; but for less advanced pupils it is best to direct 
 their attention mainly to such facts of government, either local 
 or national, as are directly observable by the pupils, or which 
 form mailer of general conversation among their elders. Of 
 the first class are town meetings and school district meetings: 
 of the latter are caucuses, conventions, elections, and sessions 
 of the legislature. 
 
 Mention some important points to which the first sentence alludes. 
 
 223. A suitable method of presenting the main facts per- 
 taining to these subjects is through general exercises, in which 
 those who know anything about the subject discussed may take 
 part; and all can be stimulated to ask questions at home, or to 
 consult the text-books. The best time to present any topic is 
 when it is occupying public attention and is therefore under 
 discussion in the public prints. 
 
 How can the teacher best arouse interest in these topics? 
 
 224. Where a separate advanced class is possible, any satis- 
 factory text-book may be used and a variety of text-books in 
 this subject is no misfortune. The preceding outline of topics 
 may be considered suggestive only, and by no means exhaus- 
 tive. 
 
 What is the value of using several texts in this subject? What is the 
 danger? 
 
200 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 225. If the circumstances of the school permit, the study of 
 the constitution may properly be begun when the class has 
 reached that point in the history of the United States where it 
 became necessary to unite the colonies in some form of goverL- 
 ient. The later topics in that study have prepared the way 
 for the introduction of this, whrch may accompany the study 
 of the constitutional period in history, or be taken later, separ- 
 ately, as a means of review of political history. 
 
 Why should the study of the Colonial Period precede the study of the 
 Constitution? 
 
 Study the constitution topically, until its more obvious pur- 
 pose, spirit and meaning are grasped, and the form of govern- 
 ment therein provided is understood. 
 
 What is meant by studying the constitution topically? 
 
 Subsequently, the constitution may be studied as a whole, in 
 a kind o-f review, by critical, consecutive reading, accompanied 
 by a skillful questioning upon its meaning and practical appli 
 cation. 
 
 What are some practical applications? 
 
 Where the work herein suggested has been done with reason- 
 able intelligence and thoroughness, the study of the state con- 
 stitution will be comparatively easy, full of interest, and will 
 require but little time. 
 
 226. Constant reference to real events in the history of the 
 country and of the state will aid in impressing pupils with the 
 fact that these organic laws are documents in which every citi- 
 zen has a personal, vital interest, and about which he should 
 be well informed. 
 
 Why connect the study of constitution so closely with history? 
 
 227. The progress of an important bill through congress may 
 be traced by the aid of the newspapers. The opening and clos- 
 ing of the annual sessions may be studied in like manner, and 
 reference should be made to the section or clause of the con- 
 stitution illustrated. The action of the president or governor 
 
civics. 201 
 
 in calling out troops to quell a riot should ho traced, separating 
 official action from the mass of recorded incidents. 
 
 Why make this close connection between the study of constitution 
 and current events'? 
 
 228. The apportionment into legislative districts may be 
 studied in the Blue Book, and from the maps therein given, in 
 connection with the study of the constitutional provisions; and 
 the pupils may at least acquaint themselves with the limits of 
 the various districts, congressional, judicial, senatorial, and so 
 on, of which they are residents. 
 
 229. In studying the several powers of congress, it will be 
 found interesting and profitable to refer any bills or laws of 
 which the class have knowledge, as the inter-state commerce 
 law or the silver bill, to the several clauses by which they are 
 authorized. 
 
 How may the knowledge called for in the first sentence of the third 
 paragraph best be obtained? 
 
 Also find, if possible, some laws passed by congress to carry 
 into effect each power conferred by section eight of Art. I. of 
 the constitution. A careful study of this section will impress 
 the student with the magnitude of the work of the government 
 and its complexity. 
 
 An understanding of how the constitution is carried into ef- 
 fect in the actual government of the country is necessary to a 
 clear apprehension of the meaning of the text. "The main 
 hope of the usefulness of this work is in awakening the interest 
 of pupils in the process by which government is administered 
 and in stimulating them to talk freely about the various sub- 
 jects considered." Study the texts of the constitutions more 
 and the editor's comments less. 
 
202 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COUKSE OF STUDY. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 Primary and Middle Forms. 
 
 230. Aims: 
 
 The leading purpose in the study of History in the primary 
 and middle forms is to give the mind material out of which it 
 can construct pictures of events that have taken place in our 
 country's life. Secondary purposes are (a) to give a more 
 thorough knowledge of local institutions; (b) to establish a 
 habit of judging men's motives, thoughts and feelings through 
 their actions; (c) to give the mind the habit of careful observa- 
 tion; (d) to prepare for future reading and study; (e) to 
 strengthen, stimulate and cultivate the imagination. 
 
 231. II. Course of Study: 
 
 1. Stories told by teachers to pupils relating to the lives of 
 great men and w r omen: 
 
 (a) in the United States; 
 
 (b) in England. 
 
 The following list is suggestive: Columbus, John Smith, 
 Miles Standish, Daniel Boone, Franklin, Samuel Adams, 
 Washington, Jefferson, Mollie Pitcher, Webster, Fulton, Jack- 
 son, Garrison, Morse, Lincoln, Grant, King Alfred, William 
 the Conqueror, Queen Isabella t Queen Elizabeth, Cromwell, 
 Gladstone. 
 
 232. 2. Stories from the history of the United States and 
 
 other countries: 
 
 Anglo Saxon Invasion, Conquest of England by Normans, 
 Richard I and Crusades, John and Magna Chart a, Great 
 Armada, Turks and Capture of Constantinople, The Discovery 
 of America, The Discovery of the Mississippi River, The 
 
HISTORY. 03 
 
 Founding of Jamestown, The Landing of the Pilgrims, The 
 Dutch in America, The First Thanksgiving, Cromwell and 
 Puritans, William Penn and Great Treaty, Bill of Rights, 1689, 
 The Story of Marquette and La Salle, The Story of the Five 
 Nations, The Struggle for the Ohio Country, The Stamp Act 
 and the Revolutionary War, The Declaration of Independence, 
 The Story of the Constitution. 
 
 233. 3. Stories relating to Industrial Life: 
 
 The Invention of the Mariner's Compass; The Invention of 
 Gunpowder; The Invention of Printing; The Making of Books; 
 The Modern Newspaper; The Invention of the Steam Engine; 
 The Invention sf the Steamboat; The Invention of the Loco- 
 motive; The Building of Canals; The Building of Railroads; 
 Candle; Whale Oil, Kerosene; Gas; Electric Lighting; 
 Light-houses; Implements for Planting and Harvesting; In 
 vention of the Cotton Gin; The Power Loom; Invention of the 
 Sewing Machine; Methods of Ventilation and Heating; The 
 Electric Telegraph: The Telephone; The Electric Motor; The 
 Weather Bureau. 
 
 234. 4. Stories from the History of Wisconsin: 
 
 The French in Wisconsin, Joliet, Marquette and La Salle, 
 Pontiac's Conspiracy, Wisconsin a part of Northwest Terri- 
 tory, The Discovery of Lead Mines, Black Hawk War, 1836 
 Wisconsin Territory, Formation of the State Government, 
 Story of Old Abe, J. M. Rusk. 
 
 235. Suggestions. 
 
 In making selections of biographies emphasize those of men 
 whose acts have been of consequence and whose influence on 
 American History has been of more good than evil. The 
 course of procedure is to emphasize boyhood life, as that ap- 
 peals to pupils, the environment into which he was horn, his 
 amusements, his dress, his appearance, his occupation, his 
 school life, his early training for the work he did later, the 
 marked traits of character exhibited, and a brief mention of 
 the great things he did later. 
 
204 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 235a. Benjamin Franklin as a type: 
 
 Pupils should learn the story as told by trie teacher 
 according to the following outline: 
 
 1. That Benjamin was the fifteenth child in a 
 
 family of seventeen children. 
 
 2. That his parents were poor, his father being a 
 
 maker of soap and candles. 
 
 3. How Benjamin began to read when he was 
 
 very young, and in school studied reading, 
 writing, spelling and arithmetic. 
 
 4. How Benjamin was taken out of school to as- 
 
 sist his father. 
 
 5. How he was influenced by the books he read, 
 
 the Bible, Plutarch's Lives, DeFoe's Essays 
 on Projects, Dr. Mather's Essays to do Good, 
 Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. 
 
 6. How he was a leader among the boys and got 
 
 into many scrapes. 
 
 7. How he carried off some building stones to 
 
 build a wharf, and how he tried to show his 
 father how useful the wharf was, and how 
 his father taught him that what was not hon- 
 est was not useful. 
 
 8. How at thirteen he was apprenticed to his 
 
 brother James, a printer. 
 
 9. How Benjamin wrote articles for the paper. 
 
 How he saved money in order to buy books. 
 
 10. How he improved his style of writing by study- 
 
 ing Addison. 
 
 11. How he ran away to New York and Phila- 
 
 delphia? 
 
 12. How he first appeared in Philadelphia, and his 
 
 meeting his future wife. 
 
 13. How he set up type as a printer and printed 
 
 Poor Richard's Almanac. 
 
HISTORY. 205 
 
 14. How he discovered that lightning is electricity, 
 
 and invented the lightning rod. 
 
 15. How he aided his country in the Revolutionary 
 
 war, and in making its constitution. 
 
 Suggestive questions. What influence had his early life upon 
 him? Why did his friends like him? Would you have en- 
 joyed reading the books he read? Was it right for him to run 
 away from his brother? How must he have felt when he 
 reached Philadelphia? In what way did he show his love for 
 books? 
 
 236. The historical story must be simple, give play to the 
 imagination, afford opportunity for moral and intellectual 
 judgments, form a connected whole and relate itself to import- 
 tant events in United States history. 
 
 236a. The story of La Salle as a type. Pupils should learn 
 the story as told or read by the teacher according to following: 
 
 1. How the French heard wonderful stories of a great river in 
 to the westward. 
 
 2. How Marquette, Joliet and others had partly explored the 
 region. 
 
 3. How La Salle determined to find the mouth of the great 
 river. La Salle' s character. 
 
 4. How the Griffin was built. 
 
 5. How they voyaged to St. Ignace. 
 
 6. How they prepared for the trip to the Illinois. 
 
 7. The journey. 
 
 8. How they built Ft. Crevecoeur, and how La Salle was 
 obliged to return to Ft. Frontenac. 
 
 9. How, during La Salle' s absence, the Illinois Indians were 
 attacked by the Iroquois, and how Tonty, La Salle's lieutenant, 
 brought about a treaty. 
 
 10. How La Salle's followers deserted Tonty, taking tools, 
 ammunition and supplies. 
 
 11. How La Salle returned to the Illinois country with a 
 large company. 
 
206 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 12. How La Salle and Tonty were reunited. 
 
 13. How they discovered the mouth of the Mississippi river 
 and took possession of the area it drained in the name of the 
 King of France. 
 
 14. How La Salle returned to France and fitted out an ex- 
 pedition to explore the region, and make settlements. 
 
 15. How they missed the mouth of the river, and wandered 
 thru Texas in search of it, and how they suffered. 
 
 16. How La Salle was assassinated by one of his followers. 
 Suggestive questions. What kind of a man was La Salle? 
 
 What were the difficulties in building the Griffin? Picture the 
 landing at St. Ignace? Why was La Salle gorgeously dressed? 
 What would he take on a voyage to the Illinois country? Why 
 did his followers desert him? What difficulties did he encounter 
 on his return to Ft. Frontenac? Picture his taking possession 
 of the Mississippi region. Why should they miss the mouth of 
 the Mississippi river? What was the motive of the assassin? 
 
 237. An elementary text may be used by the pupils in the 
 last year of the Middle Form. The teacher should make a 
 judicious selection of the subject matter, and have the stories 
 center around an ideal historic person or about an event in 
 history. The generalizations of the text will be made more 
 concrete by the study of the diagrams, pictures and statistics 
 of the text, and by large use of the township library books. 
 
 There is often no separate class for the study of history in 
 these forms, making it necessary for the work to be presented 
 in the language class, as the material presented readily adapts 
 itself to this work. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 238. In this work the pupil does not in general use a text- 
 book, but some of the matter found in the reader can be used, 
 and some of the books named in the list recommended for pub- 
 lic school libraries will be found especially helpful. 
 
 239. This is the story period of the child's life. While imagi- 
 nation is the strong faculty, children at this age can really 
 
HISTORY. 207 
 
 make judgments and they should be encouraged to do so. The 
 stories may be read, or better, told by the teacher and written 
 by the class; but if reading matter of this kind suitable for 
 children is at hand, the pupils should be encouraged to read 
 for themselves; but the daily conversations about what is read 
 should not be omitted.* The work is preparatory; the object 
 is not to impart a systematically arranged body of knowledge, 
 but to cultivate in the minds of the children a desire and dis- 
 position to learn more of what was thought and done by those 
 who lived before us. 
 
 24:0. With the eagerness that youth has to idealize, adore, 
 detest, and imitate, it is the right of every pupil at this impres- 
 sionable age to come under the influence of the lives of the 
 noble men and women who have made America. 
 
 Upper Form. 
 
 Aim: 
 
 The leading purpose in the Upper Form is to continue the 
 story side of history the representative phase, in the first two 
 .rears of the form, and develop the interpretative powers in the 
 last year of the form. In this form the historical judgment 
 comes into life and is given practice. Here the pupil begins 
 to weigh the motives of men, and compare actions. He here 
 develops a rational basis for his patriotism. He is challenged 
 to pass judgment on the actors in the passing drama of events. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 241. I. Period of Discovery and Exploration. 
 
 1. Conditions in Europe prior to discovery of 
 America. 
 
 a. Mariner's compass. 
 
 b. Invention of printing. 
 
 c. Revival of learning. 
 
 * What is the advantage of telling- a story instead of reading it? What 
 are the essentials of good story telling? Show the importance of the 
 object mentioned in the last sentence. The selections should be care- 
 fully made. 
 
208 MANUAL, OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 d. Trade between Asia and Europe. 
 
 e. Capture of Constantinople by Turks in 
 
 1453. 
 
 2. Study of leading discoverers and explorers: 
 
 Columbus The Cabots 
 
 Vespucius Balboa 
 
 Magellan Verrazano 
 
 Cartier Ribault 
 
 Drake Raleigh 
 Hudson. 
 
 3. What a nation had to do to make good its 
 
 claim. 
 
 4. The physical character of North America. 
 
 5. The Indians: Number, location, character, or- 
 
 ganization, and government. 
 
 242. II. Settlements. 
 
 1. London an^ t^y mouth companies. 
 
 2. First settlements by Spanish, French, English, 
 
 and Dutch. 
 
 3. European conditkvts favorable to colonization, 
 
 a. Changed economic conditions, b. En- 
 larging natural pover. c. Desire to convert 
 Indians, d. Religious and political persecu- 
 tions. 
 
 243. HI. Colonies. 
 
 1. Study of the four leadhig colonies, Virginia, 
 Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylva- 
 nia, according to following outline, the others 
 in less detail: 
 
 a. Motive for colonization and the right to 
 
 colonize. 
 
 b. Geographical conditions. 
 
 c. First settlement aj\d character of first 
 
 settlers. 
 
 d. Plan of govern raeni 
 
IIISTOKY. 209 
 
 e. Growth of colony and character of later 
 
 settlers. 
 
 f. Changes in plan of government; oppor^ 
 
 tunity for self government. 
 
 g. Trouble with Indians and with governors. 
 h. Religious troubles. 
 
 i. Industrial development and social condi- 
 tions. 
 
 j. Education. 
 
 Important topics to be treated in connection with history of 
 the colonies: 
 
 1. First Representative Assembly. 
 
 2. Introduction of Slavery. 
 
 3. Mayflower Compact. 
 
 4. Town Meetings. 
 
 5. Roger Williams. 
 
 6. New England Confederation. 
 
 7. Patroon System in New Netherlands. 
 
 8. Conquest of New Netherlands by English. 
 
 9. Governor Andros' System of Government. 
 
 10. Bacon's Rebellion. 
 
 11. Public Education in New England. 
 
 12. Founding of Harvard. 
 
 244. The pupil thru the study of the colonies should be 
 lo:l to see two distinct types of development the northern 
 type represented by Massachusetts, the southern by Virginia- 
 The conditions of a soil not easily worked, rigorous climate, 
 small rivers with numerous waterfalls, making necessary the 
 small farms on which nearly all their food was produced, emi- 
 gration in church congregations, public schools and town meet- 
 ings developed and strengthened the idea of democracy, or 
 individuality in Massachusetts. While in Virginia the fertile 
 soil and genial climate made possible the raising of large crops 
 of rice, tobacco, and later, cotton, which could be cultivated 
 by unskilled labor, developing the institutions of social inequal- 
 ity and slavery. The emigrants were individuals, and sought 
 15 O. 
 
210 MAIN UAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 to secure large plantations on the navigable rivers, making few 
 towns, developing the ideas of the country as the unit of gov- 
 ernment, private schools, and aristocratic notions of govern- 
 ment. 
 
 2 44 a. 2. Relations of the English Colonies, as a whole, to the 
 mother country. Legislative and commercial re- 
 strictions; the navigation laws. 
 Forms of Colonial Government. 
 
 24-4-b. 3. The French in America. 
 
 a. The exploration and occupation of the St. Law- 
 
 rence and Mississippi valleys. The work of 
 Champlain, Marquette, Joliet, and La Salle. 
 
 b. The later occupation of the Ohio valley, 1754-8. 
 
 c. The purpose of France in colonizing America as 
 
 contrasted with the English. 
 
 d. French colonists in 1750. Their number, occu- 
 
 pations, religion, relation with the Indians and 
 government. 
 
 244c. 4. Intercolonial Wars. 
 
 1. Brief study of the first three wars, causes and 
 
 results. 
 
 2. French and Indian War. 
 
 a. Causes, remote and immediate. 
 
 b. The relative strength of French and Eng- 
 
 lish in America. 
 
 c. The live objective points. 
 
 d. The campaigns. 
 
 e. The work of William Pitt. 
 
 f. Capture of Quebec. 
 
 g. Wolf and Mont calm. 
 
 h. The work of the American Colonists in the 
 
 war. 
 
 i. Treaty of Paris, 
 j. Results of war to France, England, and 
 
 Colonies. 
 
HISTORY. 211 
 
 244d. 5. Pontiac's Conspiracy. 
 
 244e. 6. Colonial Life. 
 
 a. The people, their number and nationality. 
 
 b. Social differences. 
 
 c. Home life and customs. 
 
 d. Means of education. 
 
 e. Religious beliefs. 
 
 f. Industries and travel. 
 
 244f. 7. Forces tending to keep colonies separate, 
 
 a. Differences in social and industrial life. 
 
 b. Poor means of transportation. 
 
 c. Colonial pride. 
 
 d. Lack of intercourse between colonies. 
 
 e. England's commercial policy. 
 
 f. Development of self reliance in America. 
 
 g. Quarrels with colonial governors. 
 
 244g. 8. Forces tending to unite colonies. 
 
 a. Danger from French and Indians. 
 
 b. Sovereignty of England recognized by colonies. 
 
 c. Colonial congresses of 1643, 1690, 1754. 
 
 d. The French and Indian War. 
 
 e. Navigation laws. 
 
 244k. 9. Parliamentary acts affecting colonies. 
 
 a. Efforts to change colonial charters. 
 
 b. The Navigation Acts and Acts of Trade. 
 
 24-5. IV. The Revolutionary War. 
 Causes: 
 
 1. Question as to who should pay war debt 
 
 incurred in French and Indian war 
 English and Colonial ideas contested. 
 
 2. New schemes of Colonial control by Eng- 
 
 land. 
 
 a. Changes in boundaries. 
 
 b. Remodeling of charters. 
 
212 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 c. Writs of assistance, 1761. 
 
 d. New Navigation Act, 1763. 
 
 e. Stamp Act. 
 
 1. New method of taxation. 
 
 2. Provisions. 
 
 3. Remonstrances of Colonies. 
 
 3. Stamp Act Congress, 1765. 
 
 a. Why called? 
 
 b. Colonies represented. 
 
 c. Work done. What principles were 
 
 formulated. 
 
 d. Results Stamp Act repealed, 17(>(>. 
 
 Effect in England and America. 
 
 4. Efforts of Parliament to raise taxes by 
 
 duties on imported goods, 1767. 
 
 5. Resistance to these taxes. 
 
 6. The Boston Massacre. 
 
 7. Committees of Correspondence. 
 
 8. The Boston Tea Party. 
 
 9. The Intolerable or Coercive Acts of 1774. 
 
 10. The First Continental Congress, 1774. 
 
 Compare rts purposes, work and results 
 with Stamp Act Congress. 
 
 11. Lexington and Concord. 
 
 12. Causes of Revolution summarized. 
 
 Justify the American Revolution. 
 
 13. The War. 
 
 1. Government by the Second Conti- 
 
 nental Congress. What powers did 
 it exercise, and what right did it 
 have to exercise them? 
 
 2. What change in colonial govern- 
 
 ments was necessary? 
 
 3. Raising an army and appointment 
 
 of Washington as commander-in- 
 chief. 
 
 4. Hunker Hill, 1775. 
 
HISTOET. 
 
 213 
 
 5. Movement toward Independence. 
 
 a. Original purpose of the struggle 
 
 was to secure rights as English- 
 men. 
 
 b. Failure to secure these rights led 
 
 colonists to securing their rights 
 as men. 
 
 c. The Declaration of Independence. 
 
 1. Resolution introduced by Rich- 
 
 ard Henry Lee. 
 
 2. Committee appointed to draft. 
 
 3. Jefferson, the author. 
 
 4. Statement of rights. 
 
 5. Statement of grievances. 
 
 6. Statement of efforts to remedy 
 
 grievances. 
 
 7. Declaration of Independence. 
 
 8. Effects. 
 
 6. Campaign of 1776. 
 
 a. Strategic importance of Hudson 
 river. Washington's move- 
 ments. 
 
 7. Campaign of 1777. 
 
 a. Burgoyne's Invasion. 
 
 b. Howe's expedition to Philadel- 
 
 phia. 
 
 c. Valley Forge and sufferings of 
 
 army. 
 
 8. French Alliance, 1778. 
 
 a. Work of Benjamin Franklin. 
 
 9. Campaigns of 1778. 
 
 10. Treason of Benedict Arnold. 
 
 11. War in the South. 
 
 a. Green's Campaign. 
 
 b. Siege of Yorktown. 
 
 12. Finances of the Revolution. 
 
 13. The navy. 
 
214 MANUAL Utt TUB ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 14. Foreigners in Army. 
 
 15. Treaty of Peace, -1783. 
 
 a. Nations interested. 
 
 b. Terms of Treaty. 
 
 c. Give original boundaries of the 
 
 United States. 
 
 16. The special work of Washington, 
 
 Morris, Franklin, John Adams. 
 
 244>. V. Formation of the new government. 
 
 1. The work of the second Continental Congress. 
 
 2. The Articles of Confederation. 
 
 a. When and why formed? 
 
 b. How ratified? 
 
 c. Why did Maryland delay ratification? 
 
 d. Main provisions. 
 
 e. Why were they defective? 
 
 3. Work accomplished by Confederation. 
 
 Treaty of 1783. 
 Ordinance 1787. 
 
 4. The Constitution. 
 
 a. What led to the calling of the Annapolis 
 convention of 1786? 
 
 b. Of Philadelphia convention, 1787? 
 
 c. Did Convention do as it was instructed? 
 
 d. Leaders in the convention? 
 
 e. Main provisions. 
 
 f. How ratified? 
 
 g. Arguments for and against ratification, 
 h. Influence of Hamilton and Madison. 
 
 5. The Ordinance of 1787. 
 
 6. The critical period, 1783 to 1789. 
 
 347. VI. The Constitutional period. 
 
 1. The election and inauguration -of Washing- 
 
 ton. 
 
 2, The first congress. 
 
HISTORY. x _ 215 
 
 3. The first cabinet. 
 
 4. Hamilton's Financial policy. 
 
 a. Financial condition at time of Washing- 
 
 ton's inauguration. 
 
 b. The tariff. 
 
 c. Excise laws and the Whiskey Rebellion. 
 
 d. The assumption of state debts. 
 
 e. The funding of the debt. 
 
 f. The first United States bank. Purpose 
 
 and constitutionality. 
 
 5. Political parties. 
 
 Origin, leaders and principles of Federalists 
 and Republican parties. 
 
 6. The Alien and Sedition Laws. 
 
 7. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. 
 
 8. Election of 1800. 
 
 9. The Louisiana Purchase. 
 
 a. Conditions leading to its acquisition. 
 
 b. The importance of the Mississippi River. 
 
 c. Area and resources of region. 
 
 d. Constitutionality. 
 10. Struggle for Neutrality. 
 
 a. War between France and England, 1793. 
 
 The Neutrality Proclamation. 
 
 b. Our grievances against England. The 
 
 Jay Treaty. 
 
 c. Our grievances against France, France 
 
 aided us in Revolution. Should we 
 assist France now? Genet. Demands 
 of the Directory. The x, y, z affair. 
 Naval War. Treaty 1800. 
 
 d. Impressment of our seamen and seizures 
 
 of our ships. 
 
 e. Jefferson's retaliatory measures. Non- 
 
 importation. The Embargo. Non-in- 
 tercourse. 
 
216 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTABY COUESE OF STUDY. 
 
 f. War of 1812. 
 
 1. Causes. 
 
 2. Relative strength of English and 
 
 Americans. 
 
 3. Campaigns. Leaders. 
 
 4. Our successes on sea. 
 
 5. Battle of New Orleans. 
 
 6. Treaty and results. 
 
 g. The Hartford Convention. 
 
 Compare its proceedings, with Virginia 
 and Kentucky Resolutions. 
 
 11. The new policy of the Republican party as 
 
 seen in Tariff act of 1816. Internal Im- 
 provements and second United States 
 Bank. 
 
 12. The acquisition of Florida, 
 
 13. The Monroe Doctrine. 
 
 a. Occasion. 
 
 b. Principles. 
 
 c. Is it now operative. 
 
 14. The elections of 1824 and 1828. Compare 
 
 election of 1800. 
 
 15. Jackson and the Spoils system. 
 
 a. Character of Jackson. 
 
 b. His relation to friends and enemies. 
 
 c. How the Spoils system is used to fur- 
 
 ther a party's interests. 
 
 d. How Jackson introduced it into National 
 
 politics and how it affected the public 
 service. 
 
 e. Civil Service Reform. 
 
 16. Tariff Legislation and Nullification in South 
 
 Carolina. 
 
 a. Tariff acts of 1816, 1824, 1828. 
 
 b. How they affected the South. 
 
 c. Hayne's attack on the Constitution and 
 
 Webster's defence. 
 
HISTOBT. 
 
 d. Jackson's attitude. 
 
 e. Calhoun's theory. 
 
 f. The act of nullification. 
 
 f. Clay's compromise. Tariff, 1833. 
 h. Which side won? 
 
 17. The second United States Bank. 
 
 a. Purposes and how served. 
 
 b. Jackson's attack upon it. 
 
 c. His veto in 1832. 
 
 d. Removal of deposits. 
 
 e. Specie circular and distribution of sur- 
 
 plus among states. 
 
 f. Panic of 1837. 
 
 g. The Sub-Treasury scheme. 
 
 18. Election of 1840. Whigs in power. 
 
 a. Their principles. 
 
 b. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty. 
 
 c. The annexation of Texas. 
 
 19. The Mexican War. 
 
 a. Causes. 
 
 b. Relative strength of the parties. Lead- 
 
 ers. 
 
 c. Campaigns on the Rio Grande, against 
 
 the city of Mexico, and in California. 
 
 d. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 
 
 20. Acquisition of Oregon. 
 
 21. The Slavery Question. 
 
 a. Introduction and Growth of Slavery. 
 
 b. Invention of Cotton Gin and its effects. 
 
 c. The Missouri Compromise. 
 
 d. The American Anti-slavery society and 
 
 William Lloyd Garrison. 
 
 e. The Mexican war, discovery of gold in 
 
 California, and question of slavery ex- 
 tension. 
 
 f. Clay's Compromise measure of 1850, 
 
 and the enactment of a new Fugitive 
 Slave Law. 
 
MAM'AL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STTTDY. 
 
 g. Summary of the influence of Webster, 
 Clay, and Calhoun on American His- 
 tory. 
 
 h. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill and its rela- 
 tion to the Missouri Compromise. 
 
 i. The formation of the Republican party. 
 Its principles. 
 
 j. The Dred Scott Decision and how it af- 
 fected the extension of slavery. 
 
 k. The John Brown raid. 
 
 1. Uncle Tom's Cabin. 
 
 m. The election of 1860. Candidates, Plat- 
 forms, and result. Effect on South. 
 22. The Civil War. 
 
 a. Causes. 
 
 b. The South Carolina Ordinance of Seces- 
 
 sion, and reasons given in defense of it. 
 
 c. South Carolina followed by other states. 
 
 d. The establishment of the government of 
 
 the Confederate states of America. 
 How would the constitution differ from 
 the Federal constitution? 
 
 e. Lincoln's Inaugural address. 
 
 f. Fort Sumpter and calls for troops. 
 
 g. The Trent affair. 
 
 h. Leaders North and South. 
 
 i. The war itself. Topics centering about 
 
 1. the struggle for the Mississippi, 
 
 2. the blockade of Southern ports, 
 
 3. attempt to capture Richmond. 
 (Biographies of Lincoln, Grant, Lee, and 
 
 Stonewall Jackson.) 
 j. Legislation during the war. 
 
 a. The tariff and excise laws. 
 
 b. National Banks and Greenbacks, 
 
 c. Emancipation Proclamation. 
 
HISTORY. 219 
 
 k. The Thirteenth Amendment. 
 
 23. Reconstruction. 
 
 a. Its meaning. 
 
 b. Lincoln's plan. 
 
 c. Lincoln's assassination. 
 
 d. Johnson's plan. 
 
 e. The congressional plan. 
 
 f. Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments. 
 
 g. Carpet Baggers. 
 
 h. Removal of troops. 
 
 i. South today, industrially and politically. 
 
 24. Foreign Relations. 
 
 a. French in Mexico. 
 
 b. The purchase of Alaska. 
 
 c. The Geneva award. 
 
 25. Important events since the close of the war. 
 
 a. The Pacific Railroads. 
 
 b. The Panic of 1873. 
 
 c. The election of 1876. 
 
 d. Labor troubles. 
 
 e. Resumption act and legislation concern- 
 
 ing silver. 
 
 f. Growth of Civil Service Reform. 
 
 g. Presidential Succession Law. 
 
 h. The Inter-state Commerce Commission. 
 
 i. Tariff Laws. McKinley, Wilson, and 
 Dingley acts. 
 
 j. The Columbian, St. Louis, and Portland 
 Expositions. Exclusion of Chinese, 
 and Immigration problems. 
 
 k. Venezuela and the Monroe Doctrine. 
 
 1. Trust legislation. 
 
 m. The war with Spain. 
 
 1. Causes. 
 
 2. Campaigns. 
 
 3. Results. 
 
220 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COUKSE OF STUDY. 
 
 n. The Panama Canal. 
 
 o. The Insurance Scandals. 
 
 p. Railroad Rate Legislation. 
 
 '218. Review and Summary. 
 
 1. Reasons for establishment of colonies. Relation* 
 
 of colonies to mother country. 
 
 2. How English won the Continent. 
 
 3. How Americans gained their Independence. 
 
 4. The Critical Period and Formation of Government 
 
 under the Constitution. 
 
 5. Struggle for Neutrality. 
 
 6. Territorial Growth. 
 
 7. Slavery and the Civil War. 
 
 8. Reconstruction. 
 
 9. Political Parties. 
 
 a. Federal and Republican parties. 
 
 b. Whigs and Democrats, 
 
 c. Republicans and Democrats. 
 
 1. Principles of each. 
 
 2. What each accomplished. 
 
 10. Great Inventions and the Industrial Development 
 of the United States. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 210. A knowledge of the main course of events is essential 
 to an adequate conception of the institutions of a country, and 
 the study of history may become the source of the best culture 
 acquired in the schools. The text should neither be memor- 
 ized nor used merely for reading; but when a portion has been 
 assigned and studied, the pupil may fairly be held for the sub- 
 stance of the lesson. When a period has been studied, the 
 teacher should summarize the important facts, and show their 
 relation to other events as causes or results. 
 Show the truth of the first statement. 
 
HISTORY. 221 
 
 250. Encourage pupils to bring to the school all the books 
 of biography and history which they can get, bearing upon 
 the topics treated, and to exchange with one another. In no 
 other branch of the course of study is "uniformity of text- 
 books" of less consequence. What is vital and true is in all 
 of them. The habit of "looking up" a subject in all available 
 sources is thus acquired, and pupils learn how to use books to 
 get information. Use the books of the school library freely. 
 To know how people lived in former times, and how they con- 
 ducted themselves in emergencies, is more important than the 
 details of battles and campaigns. 
 
 How can you get pupils to use Township library books in studying 
 history? In what way does the truth of the last sentence affect our 
 teaching of history? 
 
 251. Interest the children in making a collection of pictures 
 of places of historic interest, of famous buildings and of great 
 men. Watch the papers and magazines for sketches and illus- 
 trated articles. If the locality is one of significance, visit the 
 noted places with the class. Create enthusiasm and an abid- 
 ing interest. 
 
 252. Study the geography of the country as it affects the 
 growth and development of the nation. Locate places of his- 
 toric importance. It will seldom happen that these places will 
 be studied at the same time in the geography and in the his- 
 tory classes; one of these studies, therefore, will afford oppor- 
 tunity to review the other. 
 
 253. Children are naturally partisans. In their estimation, 
 one side is always and altogether right, the other wholly 
 wrong. The study of the history of his own country by a 
 person of immature years, may cause this natural tendency to 
 develop into an intellectual habit. Guard against this result, 
 especially if the text in use is written in a glowing style. Cul- 
 tivate in your pupils a spirit of judicial fairness. Disinterest- 
 edness is one of the cardinal intellectual virtues, and this study 
 offers exceptional opportunities to cultivate it. 
 
 How can this spirit of "judicial fairness" be inculcated? 
 
222 MANUAL, OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Chapter 158 of the laws of 1905 placed Elements of Agricul- 
 ture among the branches of study to be taught in public 
 schools. It must not be presumed that any special instruction 
 must be given to the children unless by maturity and previous 
 preparation they are prepared to take up regular class work 
 intelligently. It is expected that in the country schools, pupils 
 in the upper form will do regular class work, using some ele- 
 mentary, text. There are several such texts already published 
 that will prove satisfactory. In all districts in which it is ad- 
 visable to organize classes, it is the duty of the school board 
 to meet and formally adopt a suitable book. The teacher may 
 be consulted, but care must be exercised that the book selected 
 may not be too difficult for the school. In graded schools be- 
 low high schools and in state graded schools the study should 
 be pursued for the last half of the eighth year. The conditions 
 under which the school is working should be taken into con- 
 sideration and classes organized when in the judgment of the 
 board and the teachers, the most efficient work may be done. 
 
 The teacher must not take it for granted from what is said 
 here that nothing is to be done in this subject until the pupil is 
 prepared to pursue it as a regular text book or class study. A 
 glance through these outlines must lead to a far different con- 
 clusion. Instruction in what is commonly designated Nature 
 Study may be given to all grades through general exercises, 
 and in connection with Language Exercises, Geography, and 
 possibly Reading and History. Different text books on Nature 
 Study, Agriculture and Elementary Botany should be read and 
 studied by the teacher. In this way only can the teacher be- 
 come the possessor of a sufficient amount of ready knowledge 
 to enable him to interest his pupils and make the instruction 
 in Elements of Agriculture effective. 
 
ELKMEXTS OF AGiltCULTURE. 22o 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Aims. 
 
 1. To instruct the pupil in some of the foundation principles 
 of agriculture. 
 
 2. To interest the pupil in farm work and farm life. 
 
 3. To enable the pupil to read agricultural literature intelli- 
 gently. 
 
 It is not the purpose to attempt to teach farming out of a 
 book; but it is expected that a study of the reasons and princi- 
 ples underlying agriculture will serve to create an interest in 
 farm life, to prevent a dislike for agricultural pursuits, and to 
 explain the meaning of farm processes. The study will also 
 give general knowledge and culture by teaching some of the 
 principles of the various sciences that relate to farming. The 
 three aims noted above should be kept constantly in mind by 
 the teacher of the subject. 
 
 The Soil. 
 
 254. Since all products come directly or indirectly from the 
 soil, naturally thu work should begin with the soil. Work on 
 this subject should be done in the field, or with the soils col- 
 lected by the pupils for this purpose in order that the different 
 kinds may be studied and their qualities learned by actual con- 
 tact. Pupils should be able to recognize and readily name 
 different kinds of soil and state their different qualities. 
 
 Teach: 
 
 1. Kinds of soil. 
 
 2. Qualities and constituents of each kind. 
 
224 MANUAL OP THI ELEMENTABY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 3. Origin of each. 
 
 4. Uses of soil: (a) To fix plants, and (b) to supply plant 
 
 food and moisture. 
 
 5. Adaptation of certain soil to certain plants. 
 
 Pupils should be able to answer the following questions: 
 
 1. What are the principal kinds of soils? 
 
 2. What is the origin of each kind of soil? 
 
 3. Name the qualities of each. 
 
 4. Why is one kind of soil called heavy? 
 
 5. Why is one kind of soil called light? 
 
 6. What is humus? What are its uses? 
 
 7. How may a sandy soil be improved? 
 
 8. How may a clay soil be improved? 
 
 9. What is meant by texture of the soil? 
 
 255. Water and the Soil. 
 
 Teach: 
 
 (a) The meaning of the terms free, capillary, and hygro- 
 scopic, as related to water in the soil, (b) Chemical 
 processes, (c) Plant tissue. 
 
 1. By experiments, the three kinds of water free, capillary, 
 
 hygroscopic, or film. 
 
 2. The uses of water in the soil 
 
 a. To supply the plant with water. 
 
 b. To dissolve plant food. 
 
 c. To carry plant food. 
 
 d. To aid in chemical processes. 
 
 e. To build up plant tissue. 
 
 3. The water capacity of the different kinds of soil. 
 
 4. The amount of water needed by plants. 
 
 5. How to conserve soil moisture 
 
 a. By draining. 
 
 b. By cultivating. 
 
 c. By adding humus. 
 
 6. The importance of water to plant life. 
 
 7. The effect of saturation of the surface soil upon plant life 
 
ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE* 225 
 
 a. Prevents warming in the spring. 
 1). Hinders working. 
 
 c. Causes washing and erosion. 
 
 d. Prevents root penetration. 
 
 e. Keeps oxygen from entering the soil. 
 
 8. Drainage how accomplished, benefits of drainage, kinds 
 of drainage. 
 
 256. Tilling the Soil. 
 
 Teach: 
 
 1. The definition of tillage. Inter-tillage. 
 
 2. The different kinds of tillage: 
 
 a. General. 
 
 b. Inter-tillage. 
 
 c. Deep and shallow. 
 
 3. The purpose 
 
 a. To loosen the soil. 
 
 b. To conserve moisture. 
 
 c. To pulverize the soil. 
 
 d. To dry the soil. 
 
 e. To expose the soil to atmospheric action and weathor 
 
 conditions. 
 
 f. To increase amount of available piiint food. 
 
 g. To destroy weeds, 
 h. To cover the seed. 
 
 4. The time for tillage. 
 
 5. The tools and methods. 
 
 6. The process of plowing. 
 
 7. The time of plowing spring and fall. 
 
 8. The advantages of each. 
 
 9. Depth of cultivation. 
 
 10. Danger of root pruning. 
 
226 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 257. Soil Enrichment. 
 
 Teach: 
 
 1. Properties and uses of phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, 
 
 calcium. 
 
 2. The thirteen elements necessary for plant growth. 
 
 3. That phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, and calcium are 
 
 the only elements that the farmer needs to provide. 
 
 4. Where each of these plant foods is found, as in barn yard 
 
 manure, ashes, plowed-under stubble, roots of stubble, 
 in leguminous plants, commercial fertilizers, etc. 
 
 5. That plant food already in the soil may be set free by 
 
 chemical changes which are aided by tilling the soil or 
 adding humus. 
 
 0. Distribution of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus in 
 
 parts of the plant, and the relative loss of these ele- 
 ments by the sale of grains and grasses from the farm. 
 If a school garden is made, plant corn, or some other crops, 
 and put well rotted manure in every other hill. Note the dif- 
 ferences in the growth of the plants. Numerous soil experi- 
 ments illustrating the effect of soil enrichment should be per- 
 formed in school by pupils and teachers. A bulletin on soil 
 fertility, and one on the soils of Wisconsin will be issued by 
 the Wisconsin Experiment Station and should be secured by 
 all teachers when ready for distribution. 
 
 258. The Plant. 
 
 Teach: 
 
 1. Definition of cell, root hairs, root, stem, leaves. 
 
 2. The parts of the plant. 
 
 3. The uses of the different parts. 
 
 a. The stem to support the plant and convey the sap. 
 
 b. The root to anchor the plant and convey sap. 
 
 c. The root hairs (single celled) to gather and absorb 
 
 plant food and water. 
 
 d. The leaves to transpire water and absorb carbonic 
 
 acid gas and serve as a laboratory where plant food 
 is compounded chemically, 
 
ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 227 
 
 e. The flowers to produce seed, and furnish food for 
 animals and man. 
 
 4. How all these different parts are adapted to their uses. 
 
 5. Point out relation between texture of soil and plant root 
 
 system. Have pupils compare the root systems of 
 several plants grass, corn, etc., growing in different 
 soils and under different conditions. 
 
 6. In what kind of soil do they find that the different root 
 
 systems have their best development? 
 
 259. The Leguminous Plants. 
 
 "Define leguminous, bacteria, ferment, nodules. 
 
 Teach: 
 
 1. The more important leguminous plants and their charac- 
 
 teristics. 
 
 2. Have the pupils bring plants to school showing nodules. 
 
 3. Note, size, shape, location, etc., of nodules. 
 
 4. Explain about the nodules and the bacteria they contain. 
 
 If possible get some inoculated earth and plant some 
 beans. Note the vigorous growth of the nodules on the 
 roots. Make clear to the pupils that leguminous plants 
 are necessary to fix the nitrogen from the air in the 
 soil. 
 
 5. Discuss these bacteria by comparison with others, such as 
 
 found in yeast, vinegar, ferment, sour milk and cheese 
 ferments. 
 
 G. Tell how clover improves soil by gathering nitrogen, and 
 that it takes away phosphorus and potassium from the 
 soil the same as other crops. 
 
 7. Show the mechanical effects upon the soil of deep rooted 
 plants. Read Farmers' Bulletin No. 214 on "Bene- 
 ficial Bacteria for Legumes." This bulletin is to be had 
 free from the United States Department of Agriculture, 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
228 MANUAL OF THE KLEME3TTA3Y COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 260. Plant Enemies. 
 
 Teach: 
 
 1. Definition of beetle, larva, insecticide, fungicide, rusts, 
 
 smuts, etc., and give the formulae for Bordeaux mixture 
 and other fungicides, also formulae for paris green mix- 
 ture and two or three other insecticides. 
 
 2. The two classes of plant enemies, animal and vegetable. 
 
 3. Animal enemies potato beetles, currant worm, cabbage 
 
 worm, plant lice, chinch bug, etc. 
 
 4. Two classes of animal enemies leaf chewing, sap sucking. 
 
 Give methods of application of different insecticides. 
 Send to the Wisconsin Experiment Station for Bulletin 
 No. 112. 
 
 5. Vegetable enemies rusts, blights, smuts, mildews, etc. 
 
 6. Teach ways of destroying with Bordeaux, formaldehyde, 
 
 and other fungicides. Collect cocoons of various insects 
 and keep them over winter in a cool, medium dry place. 
 . Watch them develop in the spring. 
 
 Collect adult larval forms of these insects and feed the larva? 
 on the leaves of the plant on which found. 
 
 Read the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station Bul- 
 letin No. Ill, 1905, on "The Prevention of Oat Smut." This 
 bulletin may be procured from the Agricultural Experiment 
 Station, Madison, Wis. Read "Potato Culture," Farmers Bul- 
 letin No. 35, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
 D. C. 
 
 261. Rotation of Crops. 
 
 On the subject of rotation of crops, 
 
 Teach: 
 
 1. Definition of rotation. 
 
 2. Reasons for rotation: 
 
 a. Different crops take different amounts of the several 
 plant foods from the soil. 
 
ELEMENTS OF AGFaCtJLTURft. 229 
 
 b. Crops have different methods of getting some of 
 
 their foods; for instance, clover takes its nitrogen 
 from the air; other plants get nitrogen from the 
 soil. 
 
 c. Some plants feed deep, some shallow. 
 
 d. Different crops require different treatment of the soil. 
 
 e. Different crops mature at different times. 
 
 f. Different weeds infest different crops. 
 
 g. Certain insects may be avoided by raising different 
 
 crops for a few years. 
 
 Have the pupils bring in samples of grain grown under dif- 
 ferent systems of rotation. Discuss the different plans of rota- 
 tion followed by the farmers in the neighborhood. The different 
 crops used in the several systems of rotation. The advantages 
 of each system. 
 
 262. Selection of Seed. 
 
 Teach: 
 
 1. The importance of the selection of the best seed. 
 
 2. How to choose the seed. 
 
 3. The care of the seed during winter. 
 
 4. How to test seed. 
 
 5. Have the pupils bring in sample ears of seed corn. Com- 
 
 pare: 
 
 a. The size and the depth of the kernels. 
 
 b. The number of rows of corn on the ear. 
 
 c. Relation of the size of the cob to amount of corn. 
 
 d. Length of the ear. 
 
 e. The degree to which the tip of the ear is filled. 
 Have the pupils plant on blotters in the school room, grains 
 
 of corn, wheat, rye and oats and determine the percentage of 
 vitality of each kind. The blotters must be kept moist. Dis- 
 cuss in this connection the preparation of the ground for dif- 
 ferent grains and the importance of thorough preparation be- 
 fore planting. Discuss the effects of tilling the soil after plant- 
 ing and before the plant appears above the ground. 
 
230 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 263. The Farm Garden. 
 
 If possible, every school should have a farm garden. In 
 this the children should be taught to plant and care for what- 
 ever is grown in the home garden. 
 
 Teach: 
 
 1. The best location for the home garden. 
 1. The proper kind of soil needed. 
 
 3. The preparation of the soil. 
 
 4. The most desirable things to grow vegetables, fruits, 
 
 flowers. 
 
 5. The arrangement of crops in order that the early matur- 
 
 ing plants may be out of the way of the later ones. 
 
 6. The best time to plant the various crops. 
 
 7. Best methods of planting, cultivating and caring for 
 small fruits, such as strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, 
 gooseberry, grape, currant, etc. 
 
 The pupil should be able to tell how to grow all the common 
 vegetables. Encourage each pupil to plant and care for a gar- 
 den of his own. If practicable, have the pupils plant and care 
 for some marketable crop which may be sold when grown, 
 and the proceeds of the sale used for securing some needed 
 school equipment. 
 
 264. Weeds. 
 
 Define: Weed, annual, biennial, perennial. 
 
 Teach: 
 
 1. The names and habits of the different kinds of weeds. 
 
 2. Their manner of growth and propagation. Their nature: 
 
 (a) annual, (b) biennial, (c) perennial. 
 
 3. How each kind may be exterminated. 
 
 4. Show how knowledge of habit, length of natural life and 
 
 plan of reproduction determine the best methods of kill- 
 ing certain weeds. 
 
ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 231 
 
 5. Classify weeds into several groups, as, 
 
 a. Weeds of cultivated fields, as found in corn and po- 
 
 tatoes. 
 
 b. Weeds found in pastures. 
 
 c. Weeds found in meadows. 
 
 d. Weeds of the road-side, fence corners and neglected 
 
 places. 
 
 e. Discuss improved methods of eradicating each class. 
 
 Incite the pupils to destroy all the weeds in the school 
 grounds and along the road-sides. Interest them in having 
 their home yards kept neat and clean. Have the pupils discuss 
 the methods used by the farmers of the neighborhood in de- 
 stroying different kinds of weeds. 
 
 Have the pupils bring in and label specimens of the more 
 common weeds. Secure copies of the pamphlet on "Noxious 
 Weeds of Wisconsin" from the Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
 tion, Bulletin No. 76, and Circular No. 27, U. S. Department 
 of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 
 
 265. Home and School Garden. 
 
 The instruction in agriculture should be so given that a dis- 
 position to clean up and beautify the home and school grounds 
 will be created in the children. 
 
 1. Have the pupils gather and burn leaves, dead weeds, and 
 
 rubbish; pile stones, dig up stumps, and level uneven 
 places. 
 
 2. If necessary have the ground plowed and leveled. 
 
 3. The weeds and grass should be removed, and the large 
 
 weeds pulled. 
 
 4. Prepare part or all of the ground for sowing grass seed. 
 
 5. Interest the school board in making all needed repairs on 
 
 school buildings, fences and grounds. 
 
 6. Plant trees in the background and along the driveway, 
 
 plant shrubs near the building and on the borders of 
 the school grounds. 
 
232 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 7. In planting, trees and shrubs must be kept on the borders 
 
 and whore they will hide the outhouses and any other 
 unsightly objects. Clear open spaces must be preserved 
 for play grounds. 
 
 8. Vines, such as wild grape, Virginia ivy and wild hop, 
 
 may be planted along fences. 
 
 9. Always choose hardy shrubs. Wild shrubs that grow in 
 
 the locality are often the best to plant. Confer with the 
 patrons of the district as to what kinds of shrubs grow 
 best in your locality. There are always people who 
 know about such matters, willing to assist with advice, 
 and often with the desired plants. Do not experiment 
 with unknown shrubs and trees. 
 
 10. If possible, obtain the services of some experienced person 
 who knows how to set out trees and shrubs. Study the 
 bulletin on tree planting sent out with the Arbor and 
 Bird Day Annual for 1905. 
 
 In the spring have a small portion of the school grounds 
 prepared for a school garden. Assign a portion of this plat of 
 ground to each pupil, and instruct him in the best method of 
 preparing the ground, and planting the seed. Have the pupils 
 do all the work. The work done in the school garden may be 
 very profitably made the topic for general discussion at morn- 
 ing exercises, and also the basis of composition work. 
 
 Send to the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, 
 Madison, Wis., for Bulletin No. 105; to the U. S. Department 
 of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., for Farmers' Bulletins 134, 
 185 and 218, 
 
JS ilo U.b' 
 
 233 
 
 FAT? 31 ANIMALS. 
 
 266. Care and Feeding. 
 
 The farm animal may be looked upon as a machine, which 
 takes its food as raw material and transforms it into other 
 products, such as milk, wool, meat, etc. 
 Teach: 
 
 1. The different kinds and composition of feeds. 
 
 2. The amount of food required by the various animals for 
 
 maintenance for each thousand pounds of weight. 
 
 3. What is meant by a nutritive ration? Balanced ration? 
 
 4. The meaning and uses of protein, albumen, carbohy- 
 
 drates. 
 
 5. How to use the feeding tables. 
 
 6. How to make a balanced ration. 
 
 7. Find the results obtained from feeding various feeds and 
 
 combinations of feeds. 
 
 8. Have each pupil determine by the tables, the nutritive 
 
 ratio of the rations fed the animals on his father's farm- 
 The above suggestions are not intended to be exhaustive, 
 but to suggest some lines along which the teacher and pupil 
 may profitably work. It is expected that as the teacher's 
 knowledge of and familiarity with this subject increases, he 
 will learn from other sources what to do and how to do it. 
 
 267. Type Forms. 
 
 Knowledge of qualities of farm animals can be gained by cul- 
 tivating the power of observation. 
 
 1. Call the attention of pupils to pictures and written de- 
 scriptions of the different breeds and types of farm ani- 
 mals. 
 
L'34 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 2. Study carefully the correct type form, and have the pupils 
 
 compare the animals found on the nearest farms with 
 these pictures and descriptions. 
 
 3. The pictures may be clipped from farm bulletins and 
 
 papers. Mount them on cardboard and keep for further 
 reference. 
 
 4. Teach the characteristics, types, and special uses of each 
 
 breed of animals. 
 
 5. In this way a study should be made of the different breeds 
 
 of cattle, sheep, hogs, horses, and other farm animals. 
 
 268. Farm Economics. 
 
 1. Encourage the pupils to bring in reports of the amount ot 
 
 butter and milk produced during the year by the differ- 
 ent breeds of cattle on the several farms of the neigh- 
 borhood. 
 
 2. Have the pupils investigate the total amount of money re- 
 
 ceived from the various farm dairy herds in the local- 
 ity, the cost of keeping the cows, and the total net loss 
 or gain. 
 
 3. Discuss the reasons for this loss or gain. 
 
 4. Make a table showing the average value per cow of the 
 
 dairy products in the district. 
 
 If sheep raising is practiced in the district, a study may be 
 made of the breeds of shoep and data collected relative to the 
 amount of wool produced by individuals of the different breeds 
 in the district. 
 
 1. Age at which sheep are most profitably killed for mutton. 
 
 2. Amount of mutton produced by various breeds of sheep, 
 
 the cost of keeping, etc. Best mutton breeds. Best 
 wool breeds. 
 
 3. The effects produced on land by sheep. Why are they 
 
 considered especially profitable on hilly land? On wild 
 land? 
 
OF AGRICULTURE. 235 
 
 4. Why are certain breeds. called mutton sheep? Wool sheep? 
 etc. Why is not one kind a perfect substitute for the 
 other? 
 
 The same course may be observed in regard to other farm 
 animals, the object of this work being to awaken the pupils' in- 
 terest in these animals, create and form a habit of observation 
 that shall lead to definite knowledge regarding the things with 
 which they are in almost daily contact and with which they 
 must deal in active life, even though they may be engaged in 
 some pursuit other than agriculture. 
 
 FARM POULTRY. 
 
 269. This is a branch of agriculture that will appeal directly 
 to farm boys and girls. Instruction in this subject should 
 serve to impress upon every pupil the necessity of the closest 
 attention to details. No other phase of farm work demands 
 such prompt and exact attention at all times and in every 
 small particular. It is, however, a branch of agricultural in- 
 dustry which the pupil may pursue in a small way and with 
 very little expense, and the fact that it does require the most 
 exact attention to small things makes it unusually valuable in 
 forming habits of business discipline. 
 Teach: 
 
 1. Different classes of chickens 
 
 a. Breeds included under each class. 
 
 b. The characteristics and habits of each breed. 
 
 2. What is meant by moulting? 
 
 a. The age at which chickens of the different breeds 
 
 reach maturity. 
 
 b. At what time in the year should each breed of 
 
 chickens be hatched in order that the pullets may 
 become winter layers? 
 
MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 3. The chemical constituents of an egg. 
 
 4. What elements must be supplied in the food in order to 
 
 stimulate egg production? 
 
 a. In what common farm foods may these elements 
 
 be fonnd? 
 
 b. Preparo a satisfactory winter ration for laying 
 
 hens. 
 
 5. At what age are chickens most profitable 
 
 a. As layers? 
 
 b. For food? 
 
 6. The care of the flock during the different seasons of tho 
 
 year. 
 
 7. The proper care of the young chickens. 
 
 8. The more common diseases of poultry, and how to pre- 
 
 vent and cure them. 
 
 9. The several different plans and styles of poultry houses. 
 
 a. Advantages of each. 
 
 b. Floor space required for each chicken. 
 
 c. Necessity of ventilation, cleanliness and light. 
 
 d. Methods of ventilation, arrangement of windows, etc. 
 10. The principles underlying artificial incubation. 
 
 The same methods should be pursued in the study of the care 
 of turkeys, ducks, and geese. Where practical, urge the pupils 
 to induce their parents to allow them to have the care of the 
 poultry on the farm. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 237 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 270. The object of the study of physiology in the public 
 schools of this state, is to shape the habits of the children. 
 Since new habits are formed each year, the child will miss the 
 restraining influence of that instruction needed to help him to 
 resist the temptations peculiar to that particular period of his 
 development if the study is omitted or neglected for any one 
 year. The study should run through the entire course instead 
 of being massed in the advanced years, where it might come 
 after the formation of wrong habits, and many pupils have quit 
 the school. 
 
 While a practical knowledge of the fundamental laws of 
 health is the object of the study, such facts of physiology must 
 also be taught as are necessary in order to make plain the rea- 
 son for obeying hygienic laws. 
 
 Primary Form. 
 
 271. It is not expected that in this form the teacher will 
 hold daily recitations in this subject, but that at least one 
 period a week throughout the entire form will be devoted to 
 this work. The teacher should study a book adapted to this 
 elementary form of instruction and aim to present the matter 
 in a manner suited to the age and understanding of the pupil. 
 The instruction in this subject should be oral, and of a nature 
 readily comprehended by the children. Pupils should be lead 
 to make such observations as will help to fix in their minds 
 the truths taught. The topics should be presented in the order 
 
238 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY OOUBSE OF STUDY. 
 
 in which they appear in the manual and may be made the sub- 
 ject matter of opening exercises, or used for the closing work 
 on Friday afternoons. 
 
 272. 1. The body as a whole: Trunk, limbs, and head. Rela- 
 tion of a correct position to a well formed body; 
 to good health. 
 
 (a) The bones: Bones of arms, fingers, head. Re- 
 
 lation of framework to shape of body. Care 
 of bones. Why sit and stand erect. Differ- 
 ence between framework of the young and old. 
 Effects of the use of tobacco and alcoholic 
 drinks on growth of bone and body. 
 
 (b) The head: Parts of the head and face. Care 
 
 necessary. Desirability of attractive forms 
 and features and of good personal appearance. 
 
 (c) The arms and hands: Parts of the arm. Parts 
 
 of the hand. Uses and care of hand. 
 
 (d) Legs and feet: Usos of the leg. Parts and 
 
 propor care of the feet. 
 
 2. Position: Sitting and standing erect. Chest position. 
 
 Drill in filing, marching and orderly self controlled 
 movements. 
 
 3. Playing: Need of exercise. Play of young animals. 
 
 Play necessary for children. Strength gained by 
 play. Teaoh games and train to be fair and avoid 
 anger, selfishness and rudeness. 
 
 4. Sleeping: Sleep needed by animals, children and every- 
 
 body. Best time for sleep. Repair most rapid in 
 sleep. 
 
 5. Wear and Repair of body. Need of food for growth, 
 
 warmth, strength. Hunger. What children should 
 and should not eat. Effect of eating too much. 
 Rules for eating. Why not between meals? What 
 constitutes a good breakfast, dinner. Table man- 
 ners. Proper use of knives, forks, spoons, napkins, 
 etc. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIEDm 239 
 
 6. Cleanliness: Soap, water and individual towels. Care 
 
 of hair, teeth, nails, clothing, desk. Use of 
 door-mat, waste-basket. Need of bathing often, el 
 clean hands and face, of clean clothing. Unclean- 
 liness of tobacco using. The skin and cleanliness: 
 The skin a garment; why it does not wear out. The 
 pores of the skin. Care of the skin. 
 
 7. Pure air and breathing. How air gets to the lungs. 
 
 Why air of rooms needs to be changed often. Im- 
 portance of fresh air in the bedroom during the 
 night. Boys and girls should be taught how to air 
 their bedrooms in the morning. 
 
 8. The senses: 
 
 (a) The eye: Visible parts of the eye and their use. 
 
 Sight; guard against close work and poor 
 light. Care of the eyes. Danger to the eyes 
 from use of tobacco and strong drinks. 
 
 (b) The ear: Hearing. Training in quick and ac- 
 
 curate hearing: How injured. What we 
 learn through hearing. Distinguish between 
 high and low, soft and loud, agreeable and 
 disagreeable sounds. Why cultivate pleas- 
 ant tones. Danger in screaming, in bad air 
 and tobacco smoke. 
 
 (c) The nose: What facts are learned by smell 
 
 alone. Other uses of the nose. Use of hand- 
 kerchiefs. Colds from breathing impure air. 
 
 (d) The touch: Where the sense of touch is located. 
 
 Distinguish between objects that are hard 
 soft, rough, smooth, etc. 
 
 (e) The taste: Different flavors of foods. Things 
 that blunt the sense of taste. 
 
 9. The heart: Its motion. The pulse. Veins that can 
 
 be seen. 
 
 10. The blood: The food carrier. Blue and red blood. 
 
 11. The muscles: How the body moves. Location of im- 
 
 portant muscles. Difference between muscle and 
 
240 MANUAL OP THE ELEMENTARY COTJUSB OF STUDY. 
 
 fat. Exercise and proper food strengthen, alcoholic 
 drinks weaken muscle. 
 
 12. The brain and nerves: Use. Protection. Their need 
 
 of food. Alcoholic drinks and tobacco make nerves 
 act more slowly and less accurately. 
 
 13. Drinking: Water and milk good drinks. Individual 
 
 drinking cups. Tea and coffee not good for children. 
 The juice of ripe "fruits helpfu) in the fruit, but not 
 after being pressed and allowed to stand. The 
 grape and its use. Proper use of grapes. Unwise 
 use of beer, wine and cider. 
 
 14. Grain: Starch in grain. How changed to sugar. 
 
 Sugar in sprouted grain soaked out and changed into 
 alcohol, in beer making. Difference between grain 
 and alcohol. Beer made from grain. 
 
 15. Harmful drinks: How soon alcohol may be formed in 
 
 cider. Danger that cider, beer and wins drinking 
 may create a desire for stronger drinks. 
 
 16. Cigarettes: Hinder growth and healthy physical and 
 
 mental development. Contain nicotine and some- 
 times other harmful poisons. The law forbids the 
 sale of cigarettes in Wisconsin. 
 
 Middle Form. 
 
 273. It is expected in this form that pupils will be provided 
 with a suitable text book, and the course of instruction 
 will extend throughout the entire form. It will not be neces- 
 sary for the teacher to conduct daily recitations in this subject, 
 but at least one lesson a week should be given in the text book. 
 The work of the text should be supplemented by observation 
 and oral instruction. The outline prepared for this Form 
 should be followed by the teacher in the assignment of the 
 topics for study by pupils, and for oral presentation. 
 
 274-. The Framework: A turtle compared with the jelly 
 fish. Disadvantages of an outside framework for m.in. Frame 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 241 
 
 \vork of animals as compared with that of man. Why many 
 pieces in human skeleton. Different shapes of bones. An- 
 imal and mineral matter in bones. The jelly-like part. Mar- 
 row. Blood in bones. Source of hardness of bone. Soft bones 
 of children. Location of principal large bones. Joints, hinge, 
 ball and socket, and immovable joints. How held together. 
 Supports and protection furnished by principal bones, as ribs, 
 skull, etc. Effect of tight clothing, of ill-fitting shoes. 
 
 275. Foods: Nature's foods for the young. Materials which 
 furnish these. Proper choice of food. Effect of too much moat. 
 Milk and eggs the most complete foods. Need of cereal foods. 
 The part of meat which makes musde. Value of cheap cuts, 
 of meat, of vegetables and fruit. Sources of common foods. 
 Best ways of preparing food. Why food should be attractively 
 served. Danger from impure ice, from drinking much very 
 cold water. 
 
 27.0 Body heat: Source of body heat. Oxygen and burn- 
 ing. Fuel foods. Regulation of heat by skin. Relation of 
 clothing to body heat. Effect of exercise on warmth. Effects 
 of alcohol. 
 
 277. Digestion: Importance of good teeth, of chewing food, 
 Waste of saliva in chewing gum and in chewing or smoking 
 tobacco. The two sets of teeth. The cutting and grinding 
 teeth. Bone-making food necessary for preserving teeth. Tooth 
 picks and tooth brushes. Dentist's care. Forming tastes for 
 healthful foods in childhood. The epiglottis. The soft palate. 
 The esophagus. The stomach. Gastric juice. Work and rost 
 for stomach. Irritating effect of alcohol. Changes of food in 
 stomach. The intestines and intestinal juices. The villi of the 
 intestines; their blood vessels and other tubes. Thelacteals and 
 fatty food. Danger of giving alcoholic drinks to infants and 
 young children, Passage of other food into blood vessels. 
 .Sugar stored in Ihe liver. How food is used by the muscles 
 : i.iKl other organs. 
 
 17 a 
 
242 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 278. Circulation: The Heart: Right and left sides ol 
 heart; auricles and ventricles. Valves. Number of heals per 
 minute. Strengthening the heart by exercise. Effect on the 
 heart of sudden fright; of alcoholic drinks and tobacco. Veins 
 and arteries. How the blood feeds the body. Need of good 
 food to make good blood. The blood as an air carrier. 
 
 279. Respiration: Air as a purifier. The air passages. 
 Air sacs of the lungs. Full, deep breathing. The advantage 
 of well-developed lungs. How air is polluted. Airing living- 
 rooms. Need of air in the blood. Where the blood comes in 
 contact with the air. Importance of breathing through the 
 nose. "Adam's apple." Movement in swallowing. Branch- 
 ing of windpipe. Elasticity of lungs. Change of air in air- 
 sacs; Why air once breathed is unfit to be re-breathed. De- 
 velopment of the lungs by deep breathing, by "forced respira- 
 tion," by exercise. Simple methods of ventilation in the home 
 and school-room. Why and how dust should be avoided. 
 
 280. Muscles: Muscles composed of bundles of fibers. 
 Fastening of muscles to bones. How they move bones. Sizes 
 and shapes. Cords. Tendons. Tendency of beer to cause 
 the storing of fat instead of the formation of muocle. Relation 
 of muscle and fat to strength. Why business men choose boys 
 who do not use tobacco. Power of muscles to contract and 
 relax. Use and proper food nocessary to size and strength of 
 muscles. Proper time for exercise. Beer, wine, and cider 
 tend to lessen precision of muscles. 
 
 281. The Skin: Work of tho skin. Oil and sweat glands. 
 D.mger of cooling off too quickly. Bathing as a preventive 
 of taking cold. Skin as protection. Varying thickness 
 of outer layer. Cause of callousness and corns. Skin as 
 an aid in removal of waste. Sweat glands. Deposits left on 
 skin in perspiration; consequent need of bathing. Use of oil 
 in skin. Alcohol enlarges capillaries of skin. Formation of 
 hair and nails; use and care. Why the hair needs frequent 
 washing. Proper time for bathing. Importance of cleanliness 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIEOm 243 
 
 of underclothing, of bedding. Need of waste matter being 
 promptly expelled. 
 
 281 a. The kidneys: shape, location, blood supply; their 
 work; how overworked; how kept in good order. 
 
 282. The Brain and Nerves: Work of brain. How made 
 strong and how rested. Spinal cord. Connection with legs, 
 arms, etc. Alcohol benumbs brain and nerves. The brain as 
 a receiver and director of messages. Cerebellum and motion. 
 Cerebrum, the organ of thought. Relation of attention and 
 clear thinking to brain power. Importance of rest and sleep. 
 Alcohol and tobacco weaken power to think, to recognize 
 warnings of the senses, and to take proper precautions against 
 danger. Alcohol the cause of many accidents on land and sea. 
 
 283. Senses: Show that sense organs do not see, hear 
 taste, touch or smell, but are only avenues to or instruments 
 of the mind. Continue training of senses. 
 
 284. Sight: Pleasure derived from it. The eye: shape; 
 bony socket and cushion of fat; muscles; tear-glands; lashes; 
 lids; iris. Danger in reading in too strong a light or by twi- 
 light, when lying down, when the eyes smart. Avoidance of 
 small type and poor paper. Uncleanliness and "sore eyes," 
 touching eyes with soiled fingers. Danger from public wash 
 basins and public towels. 
 
 285. Hearing: Outer parts of ears. Ear wax and care in 
 its removal. Danger from blows. Protection from draughts 
 and strong wind, especially when riding. Effects from work- 
 ing in constant noise. Avoidance of unnecessary noise and dis- 
 agreeable tones in speaking. 
 
 286. Smell: Where the sense is located. Nerves of smell. 
 Dependence of animals upon smell. Connection with taste. 
 HUNV affected by colds. Use in detection of foul air, gas, etc. 
 
 2S7. Taste: Use. Papillae of tongue. Nerves of taste. By 
 what affected. How dulled. 
 
244 MANUAL, OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 288. Touch: Nerves in skin. Where touch is most deli- 
 cate. Why delicacy of touch is desirable. 
 
 289. The blood: Appearance of blood under microscope. 
 Its three parts. Work of serum, red corpuscles, white corpu- 
 scles. Clotting. Good blood necessary for strength of body 
 and power of mind. Bloodvessels. Capillaries. Distribution 
 of food, and removal of waste. Meaning of circulation. Rela- 
 tion of good food, pure air, and exercise to good blood. 
 
 290. Alcoholic drinks, tobacco and other narcotics: The 
 cause of decay. Work of molds and alcoholic ferments. Fer- 
 mentation changes character of substances. Sugar a food; al- 
 cohol a member of a group of poisonous substances. Defini- 
 tion of a poison. Use of yeast in breadmaking; why there is no 
 alcohol in bread. Nature of a narcotic. The nicotine in to- 
 bacco a narcotic; the shelfishness and expense of the tobacco 
 habit. Danger that smoking may lead to drinking. Why 
 children should not be given soothing syrups. Proper choice 
 of drinks. Water, why needed. How fruit juices are made 
 unhealthful. Special danger in cider and wine. Self-control 
 in eating and drinking. Power of alcohol to weaken self-con- 
 trol. 
 
 291. Exercise: Good forms of in-door and out-door exer- 
 cise; why the latter is preferable. Necessity of exercise; how 
 secured; in games, work; proper time; adaptation to individuals 
 and to age; proper dress. 
 
 Upper Form. 
 
 292. A text book adapted to the .Form in the hands of the 
 pupils. Experiments to be performed before tha class by the 
 teacher. 
 
 293. Plant Physiology: Sprouting and growth of plants; 
 necessary conditions. Food stored in seed. Plant respiration, 
 oxidation and work. Parts, structure, organs. The seed. 
 Plant digestion. Plant and human physiology 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 245 
 
 gans of protection and digestion. Cells. Tissues. Organs. 
 Systems. Health of the cells. 
 
 294. General Structure and Processes of the Body: Varie- 
 ties of tissues. Properties of cells. Chemical composition. 
 Protoplasm. Maintenance of life. Building material. Energy: 
 sources, storage, liberation, and use. Bodily organs and func- 
 tions. Health and disease. 
 
 Osseous system; general arrangement. Upright position of 
 human skeleton. Composition of bone. Structure of carti- 
 lage. Dislocation. Fracture. Gout. Vertebral column the 
 axis of the body. Relative position of axis in man and ani- 
 mals. Correspondence of leg and arm bones. Purpose of elas- 
 tic cartilage in spine. The shaft, cancellous tissue, red and 
 yellow marrow of bones. 
 
 295. Nutrition: What it includes; composition, digestion, 
 and assimilation of foods. Definition of a food. Classes of 
 foods: nitrogenous or albuminous, starchy, fat, and mineral; 
 what each supplies to the body; sources of and experimental 
 tests for each. Food material in cereals, vegetables, fruits, 
 meat, milk and eggs. Unwholesome foods: indigestible food; 
 unripe; over-ripe, or decayed fruit, stale vegetables and meats; 
 adulterated foods; injurious drinks. Principles of selection of 
 food. Constituents of animal food. Need of organic foods. 
 Quantity and proportion of food substances in diet. Object of 
 digestion. Mucous membrane of alimentary tract. Secretion. 
 The action of villi in absorption. Structure of liver. Uses of 
 different foods. Special foods or compounds needed. Essen- 
 tials in a diet list. Condiments. Beverages. 
 
 296. The Digestive System: The alimentary canal; parts, 
 structure, and processes; glands, and digestive properties of 
 their secretions. Hygiene of digestion; amount of food; as af- 
 fected by age, activity, occupation, climate, etc. Preparation 
 of food: reasons for cooking. Importance of regularity and 
 moderation in eating; of careful mastication. 
 
24:6 MANUAL, OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUBY. 
 
 297. Absorption: Of fat, albumen, sugar. Storing of 
 sugar, of fat. Use made of proteid matter. Definition of diges- 
 tion, absorption, assimilation, oxidation. 
 
 298. Excretion: How waste materials are formed in the 
 body. Organs that remove waste: skin, lungs, kidneys, liver, 
 and large intestine. Importance, size and location of the kid- 
 neys, connection with circulation, separation of waste. How 
 the liver removes waste. Hygiene of liver and kidneys. How 
 affected by alcoholic drinks. The chemical compounds of body 
 wastes; how separated from the blood. Composition of per- 
 spiration; amount eliminated daily. Necessity of accelerating 
 removal of waste by exercise, baths drinking plenty of water, 
 avoiding substances which irritate the kidneys. Regularity 
 of bowels. 
 
 299. Circulation: Valves of nerve supply of heart; differ- 
 ences in structure of right and left sides. Valves in veins; 
 Inferior and superior vena cava. Gains and losses of the 
 blood in circulation. Location of arteries. Wounds. Methods 
 of checking bleeding. The lymph: its circulation; how affected 
 by exercise. Lymph glands. Thoracic duct. Effect of exer- 
 cise on tissue exchange. Massage. Change in heart structure 
 caused by beer and other alcoholic drinks. "Tobacco heart." 
 Muscular tissue of heart; its irritability. Systole and diastole. 
 Contractions of auricles and ventricles. Amount of work done 
 by heart. Lymphatic notes. Vasomotor nerves. Danger of 
 strain and overwork. Taking cold. Hemorrhage. Fainting. 
 Anaemia. Germicidal power of blood. Alcohol lessens con- 
 tractile power of heart, lessens ability to endure strain, weak- 
 ens blood vessels. Use of tobacco a hindrance to athletic 
 success. 
 
 300. Respiration: Breathing organs of land and water an- 
 imals. Nasal passages, pharynx, local cords, trachea, bronchi, 
 cilia. Pulmonary circulation. Respiratory movements of diaph- 
 ragm and chest walla. Lung capacity; complemental, Deserve, 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 247 
 
 tidal, and residual air. Chest and abdominal breathing. Modi- 
 fications of breathing 1 ; coughing, yawning, sneezing, etc. Voice: 
 how produced; training. Results f insufficient oxidation. Ex- 
 perimental determination of impurities of air. Causes contri- 
 buting to disease of air passages and lungs; over-crowded, 
 poorly ventilated houses, damp or sunless rooms, insufficient 
 food and clothing, lack of outdoor exercise. Effect of alcoholic 
 drinks in depressing vitality and causing proneness to lung 
 diseases. Membranes and cells of lungs. Mechanism of in- 
 spiration. Affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. Volume of air 
 expired. Damage done by dust, alcohol, carbon dioxide. As- 
 phyxia, drowning. Artificial respiration. 
 
 301. Muscles: Voluntary, and involuntary. Work of 
 the muscles in generating heat. The stronger the muscles, 
 the more work and heat. Muscular system sensitive to changes 
 in food. Alcohol decreases muscular power and consequent 
 working ability. How this has been proved by experience and 
 laboratory experiments. Principle of levers in bodily motion. 
 Muscular action in walking, running and maintaining the up- 
 right posture. Structure of voluntary and involuntary muscle. 
 Training and development. 
 
 302. Sensation: General sensation. Tactile and temper- 
 ature senses. Sense of position. Special senses: Cornea, cry- 
 stal line lens, retina, aqueous and vitreous humors of the eye; 
 iiK'thods of resting eyes during close work; ear drum, bones 
 and canals. Relation of hearing to speech; hearing affected by 
 growth in the throat. Effects of alcohol and tobacco in inspir- 
 ing delicacy and accuracy in sense-perceptions. 
 
 803. The nervous system: Harmonious actions of organs. 
 r>r;iiu the central controlling organ. Co-operation of nerves, 
 spinal cord and ganglia. The sympathetic nervous system. 
 Reflex action. Habit. Narcotics: alcoholic drinks, tobacco, 
 opium; effects upon the nervous system; dangers of moderate 
 use. Structure of nerves: axis cylinder, central and outer 
 
248 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 sheath. Ganglion cells. White and gray matter, fissures ami 
 layers of the spinal cord and brain. Spinal nerves. Mem- 
 branes and fluids of brain. Brain functions. Building and 
 wasting of brain cells. Importance of an all-round develop- 
 ment. Harm done by alcohol. The alcoholic habit. 
 
 304. Beverages: Water: forms found in nature; necessity 
 for water in the body; kinds: spring, well, rain, river, salt, 
 mineral, hard, soft, impure; principal sources of supply: rain, 
 wells, springs, rivers, lakes: importance of pure water and ice 
 supplies. Tea and coffee: sources, properties. Nourishing 
 drinks: milk, chocolate, cocoa, and cereal drinks; when most 
 useful. Non-alcoholic refreshing drinks: lemonade, orangeade, 
 unfermented fruit juices, fruit syrups. Alcoholic drinks: why 
 not classed as foods; effects upon digestion; comparison of fer- 
 mented and distilled liquors. 
 
 305. Domestic Economy: Apportionment of necessary ex- 
 penses on an income of $500 to $1,800 per year. Food for a 
 family of five on $10 per month. Dietaries on a basis of $25 
 anil $30 per month for food. Typical menus for each meal. 
 Problems. 
 
WiUTJJSG. 24 ( J 
 
 WRITING. 
 
 PURPOSE OF WORK. 
 
 306. The purpose of the work in writing is essentially the 
 same in all schools and in all forms, namely, to acquire the 
 ability to write LEIGIBLY, NEATLY and rapidly. 
 
 To attain the desired results there must be a simultaneous 
 development of correct ideas of form, and of muscular skill 
 that the hand may execute what the mind intends. 
 
 Show that the three qualities enumerated are given in the 
 right order and that they are essential in this art 
 
 307. For two reasons the work is not outlined by forms. 
 
 1. All pupils, young or old, who have not acquired the power 
 this outline aims to secure should be given the same course. 
 
 2. Above the Primary grade, every pupil of average intelli- 
 gence can do in one term of three months, all that the outline 
 indicates except the long continued practice absolutely es- 
 sential 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 308. With the arm resting upon the muscle between the 
 elbow and the wrist, with the fingers extended, and the palm 
 of the hand downward near the desk, but with no part of the 
 hand or wrist in contact with the desk, move the hand back 
 and forth, obliquely and in curves, until the arm rolls easily 
 upon the muscle. Do not slide the arm on the desk. 
 
 309. With the movement described in 294, exercise upon the 
 oval, the usual size of the capital O, the hand passing through 
 the oircumjference at the rate of 150 to 200 times a minute. 
 
250 MANUAL OF THE E-LEMBNTABY COUB.SE OF STUDY. 
 
 This should be practiced from right to left and from left to 
 right, until perfect freedom of movement is secured, the hand 
 moving around many times in the same circuit. 
 
 310. With the same movement practice upon the capital O, 
 made with three quick strokes (down, up, down ) at the rate of 
 GO to 80 a minute. 
 
 311. At the same rate, keeping up the fore-arm movement 
 and avoiding all use of the fingers except to hold the pen, make 
 the simplest form of the capital P. Afterward capital B, and 
 then the easy capitals, 
 
 312. Practice upon the small letter n, in the same manner as 
 directed in case of the capitals. Follow with other small let- 
 ters, the easier ones first, as m, i, u, combining them as soon as 
 possible into simple words. 
 
 313. Follow the small letters with 1, then h, j, g, and the 
 other extended letters. 
 
 314. With proper movement and high speed, practice special 
 exercises a few minutes daily until perfect freedom of mover 
 ment is secured and correct form attained. 
 
 315. Practice upon easy words beginning with, capitals, then 
 with versos of poetry, mottoes, etc., care being taken to so grade 
 the work that not many difficulties will be presented in any one 
 
 lesson. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TE1ACHEES. 
 
 316. The four things to be considered in every exercise in 
 writing are position, form, movement, speed. A good position 
 enables the pupil to use the muscles easily. To seen IT this lie 
 should sit erect, near the desk, but without leaning upon it, 
 face it directly when convenient, otherwise turn the right side 
 slightly towards it, rest the fore-arm upon it> and set the feet 
 squarely upon the floor. 
 
WBITTWO. 251 
 
 Why give attention to position? Form? Movement? Speed? 
 
 317. The idea of good form is developed by inspection of 
 good writing done by the teacher and from examination of 
 charts and engraved letters. Some analyses of letters will 
 prove helpful, but a careful inspection of letters in their en- 
 tirety will be more valuable. It should be remembered that 
 one's ideas of form are usually far in advance of his ability to 
 execute. 
 
 What Is the value of copy books? 
 
 318. A good movement is of the utmost importance, as one 
 acquires through it the ability to write rapidly for hours with 
 little fatigue. The best movement for all school purposes is 
 fully explained in 293. The pen should be held lightly be- 
 tween the thumb and first and second fingers. The finger move- 
 ment makes the writing cramped. The whole arm movement 
 may be used only in exercise for practice to secure freedom and 
 skill in execution, 
 
 319. Speed is exceedingly desirable. The writer who can 
 turn off a large amount of correspondence in a given time is the 
 one whose sendees are in demand. Many persons look upon 
 writing as a drudgery, because emphasis has been laid upon 
 form at the expense of legibility and rapidity. It is a misdi- 
 rected effort to spend upon six lines in a copybook, time enough 
 to write well two pages of legal cap. 
 
 320. In the primary grades, paper and long, medium-soft 
 lead pencils should be used until the movement is thoroughly 
 acquired. 
 
 The pupils should be taught how to keep their pencils and 
 pens in order. They should be required to get blotters, pen 
 wipers, and clean, .smooth paper, and to use for practice pur- 
 poses, plenty of foolscap or Idler paper of good quality. 
 
 Require neatness, but do not allow the pupils to draw the 
 letters to secure that result. Show that legibility depends upon 
 correct forms of letters, uniformity in height, slant, spacing. 
 
252 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 Teach pupils to practice self-criticism by comparison of their 
 own work with the standard. 
 
 During the writing exercise the teacher must give his whole 
 attention to it, and should make it pleasant to the pupils. Gen- 
 eral directions may be given to the class, but much of the teach- 
 er's help must be given to the pupils as individuals. 
 
 321. Writing of business forms, such as notes, checks, drafts, 
 receipts and bills, will furnish agreeable variety and suitable 
 matter for the practice work of middle and upper forin pupils. 
 Proper forms of business and social correspondence may also 
 be taught. 
 
 322. Teachers should write well, but whether they write well 
 or not, should use the board in teaching writing. 
 
 Show the importance of this suggestion. 
 
 323. The test of a good writer is the ability to produce read- 
 able manuscript readily. 
 
 324. As writing consists in producing certain forms con- 
 ceived by the mind, it follows that putting letters into rectangu- 
 lar spaces, tracing what others have written, running the pen- 
 cil in grooves and kindred devices are of little use in teaching 
 writing. 
 
 THE TEST FOR GRADUATION. 
 
 325. The ability to write legibly, neatly and in good form, 
 within three minutes, two stanzas from Longfellow's poem, 
 "A Psalm of Life," or an equivalent selection not previously 
 written. 
 
DRAWING SIEGING. 253 
 
 DRAWING-SINGING, 
 
 326. The branches in which a course of study has been out- 
 lined, are those which are required by law to be taught in all 
 common schools. The district board may authorize or require 
 others to be taught. Among these, frequently, with the advice 
 of the teacher, will be found drawing, vocal music, and nature 
 lessons. 
 
 327. It is no discrimination against any branch that no 
 formal course is outlined. Where teachers are prepared to 
 give instruction in drawing and singing they are usually com- 
 petent to arrange for themselves a satisfactory course. Draw- 
 ing trains the eye and the hand and gives the power to express 
 ideas graphically, greatly quickens and strengthens intellectual 
 activity and comprehension in all branches of study, and lays 
 the foundation for subsequent manual and technical skill in 
 many industrial pursuits. That school is exceptionally for- 
 tunate whose teacher is alive to the value of drawing and skill- 
 ful in giving instruction in it. The attempt of children to 
 represent fairly what they see will lead them to see much more 
 accurately. This is perhaps the best result of teaching draw- 
 ing in schools. At the same time it turns the natural activity 
 of children into profitable channels. 
 
 In what school subjects and for what purposes may drawing be used 
 advantageously ? 
 
 328. The training in attention, in the use of clear, distinct 
 and musical tones, the subjection of the vocal organs to the 
 will 2 the habit and the power of concerted action, as well as the 
 opportunity for cultivating humane, patriotic and fraternal 
 
254 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 sentiments, are features of education of great value, naturally 
 ]irmiiol<Ml by (-.arcl'ii II y in-ranged exorcises in vocal music and 
 by persistent and judicious practice of them. 
 
 How can clear, musical tones be obtained? Is the training given in 
 this subject of value in other branches? Show how. 
 
 329. As a rule children like to sing, and their disposition to 
 do so should bo so guided that good and not evil will result. 
 It is very desirable that children should b taught to sing by 
 nvt>te or by rote, the simpler familiar patriotic songs. Collec- 
 tions of suitable secular songs are common. Music shoaild 
 commend itself to all teachers for opening and closing exercises, 
 on account of its power as a moral agent, as a balm for wounded 
 spirits and as an inspiration to the highest endeavor. 
 
SPELLING. 255 
 
 SPELLING. 
 
 I. Primary Form. 
 
 330. The first steps are in connection with reading. Oral 
 spelling with the word in sight, and copying words on slates 
 from blackboard, chart and reader. After the first year oral 
 and written spelling of words dictated from the reader. 
 
 Why spell at first with the word in sight? 
 
 331. Frequent oral and written review's of the more import- 
 ant and difficult words learned. 
 
 What is the value of oral spelling? Of written? 
 
 332. The pupils should be able to spell, both orally and in 
 writing, all the words of the Second Reader. In order that 
 common words may not be neglected, the pupils should occa- 
 sionally be required to write sentences dictated from the reader 
 ni id from books of like grade. 
 
 What is the value of a dictation exercise? What points should it 
 test? 
 
 II. Middle Form. 
 
 333. Pupils should be drilled in the oral and written spell- 
 ing of the words found in the Third Reader, and in all other 
 text books used by the pupil. Use a spelling-book and follow 
 the methods therein outlined. Spell the new words used 
 in all other recitations. Make much use of dictation exercises, 
 and exercises with lists of words of different kinds ; as, verbs 
 derived from 'nouns; terms used in arithmetic or other 
 brandies; synonyms, abbreviations. Careful training now will 
 
 the pupil a good sj>eller. It will be so much more difft- 
 
256 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 cult to do it later, that in all probability it will never be well 
 done. Difficult words must bo brought up again and again, 
 until the pupil forms the JiabU of spelling them correctly when- 
 ever he uses them in compositions or written examinations. 
 
 Make lists of the words frequently missed and drill fre- 
 quently on those words. 
 
 Why use a spelling book? Why spell the new words used in other 
 recitations? How will you prepare the lists mentioned in the last sen- 
 tence? How should this drill be conducted? 
 
 334. Whenever the pupil spells, look closely to his writing; 
 whenever he writes, insist on good spelling. 
 
 Show the importance of these suggestions. 
 
 335. In oral spelling the child should be required to syllabi- 
 cate and pronounce the words for the aid it gives to reading 
 and pronunciation. In spite of all the defects of our alphabet, 
 pronunciation and spelling are mutually helpful. The old- 
 fashioned way of mastering a word syllable by syllable should 
 not be allowed to become one of the lost arts. 
 
 336. Habitual good spelling in everything written by the 
 pupil, especially in examinations, where his mind is centered 
 more upon the thought than upon the spelling of the word he 
 is using, should be insisted upon. 
 
 III. Upper Form. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 337. Continue the practice of spelling the words met in all 
 textbooks, and in supplementary reading. The best time to 
 learn to spell a word is when we first meet it We .thus form 
 a habit of noting new words carefully. 
 
 What is the value of the habit mentioned in the last sentence? 
 
 338. Master the spelling book, including two or three rule* 
 of spelling, as the following: 
 
257 
 
 1. Monosyllables arid words accented on the last . syllable 
 ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel double 
 the consonant on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel. 
 
 2. Final silent e is omitted before a suffix beginning with a 
 vowel except when necessary to retain the soft sound of c or g. 
 
 Of what value are rules in spelling? 
 
 339. Review lists of words mis-spelled. 
 
 340. Whatever form these exercises take require the pupils 
 to pronounce the words. Correct pronunciation is of even 
 greater value and importance than is good spelling. Why ? 
 
 TESTS FOR GRADUATION. 
 
 341. The pupil should spell correctly through force of habit, 
 whatever he writes. Ho should have the habit of consulting 
 the dictionary in all doubtful cases. He may fairly be tested 
 by his spelling in examination papers, by a list of words, not 
 less than fifty in number promiscuously arranged, and by his 
 ability to apply the principal rules of spelling. 
 
 18 C. 
 
258 MANUAL OF TJII-: i-: i. KMJ:. \TAiiv CGUHSE. OF STUDI. 
 
 CARE AND USE OF THE SCHOOL LIBRARY. 
 
 342. The value of the school library depends largely upon 
 the teacher, who should have charge of it during term time. 
 It should be kept in a secure case, and should be easy of access. 
 The books should be so grouped that those bearing on related 
 subjects should stand together. 
 
 CAEE OF BOOKS. 
 
 343. Pupils should be carefully trained to keep books clean 
 and whole. In this training the teacher's example is most 
 effective, but it should be supplemented by kindly counsel. 
 
 This care develops greater respect for books, more regard for 
 public property, habits of cleanliness, order, thoaightfulnesa 
 and self-control. It gains for the teacher and pupils the pleas-' 
 ure of handling cleaner and more attractive volumes, and thus 
 adds to the interest in the library. The books last longer, but 
 the saving of money is the least important object to be gained. 
 
 344. Pupils should handle the books only when their hands 
 are clean and dry. They should not be allowed to leave them 
 on dusty or damp desks or shelves, in the sunlight or too near 
 stoves, as the light fades and the heat warps the covers. They 
 should not turn down the corners of the leaves nor mark the 
 pages or covers. They should not be permitted to lay open 
 books downward nor wet their fingers to turn the leaves. 
 Neither should they be permitted to strap them up tightly and 
 above all they should be taught to guard against letting them 
 fall. These cautions apply with three-fold force to the teacher. 
 
 345. Books to be taken to the pupil's home should be care- 
 fully wrapped and guarded in inclement w r eather. Do not 
 
CARE AND USE OF THE SCHOOL LIBRARY. 259 
 
 make the child timid about using books, but teach him how to 
 handle them properly. 
 
 USE OF BOOKS. 
 
 346. The vital thing 2 however, is to lead the children to love 
 good books. To secure this result the teacher must know the 
 books thoroughly and enjoy using them. He must be quick 
 to turn to the library for apt information, illustration or in- 
 spiration. He must feel so keenly the pleasure of gaining 
 new thoughts and new power from books that he will not rest 
 satisfied until he has brought the boys and girls under the same 
 spell. Heal enthusiasm in a good work is contagious. 
 
 Primary Form. 
 
 347. Among un'trained pupils the younger are generally the 
 readiest to feel the charm of books. The books should be read 
 to, and sometimes by, the pupils of the Primary Form to so- 
 cure the following results : 
 
 1. To enlarge the vocabulary. 
 
 2. To quicken the imagination. 
 
 3. To give the first knowledge of many tilings outside the 
 
 immediate surroundings. 
 
 4. To give practice in reading. 
 
 5. To stimulate the powers of observation. 
 
 C. To form a basis for oral language lessons. 
 
 7. To give early familiarity with good literature. 
 
 8. To give pleasure. 
 
 348. Most of the few books suited to the needs of pupils in 
 this form must first be read to them by the teacher. Fortun- 
 ately these small volumes contain the choicest of the famous 
 old fables and folk stories, and a number of charming descrip- 
 tions of child life and of the animal world. 
 
 Middle Form. 
 
 349- In this form the books should be used : 
 1. To supplement and add interest to the regular reading 
 lessons. 
 
260 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 2. To broaden the study of geography and give a wider 
 
 knowledge of peoples, their customs, habits, peculiari- 
 ties and relations to other peoples, and of the countless 
 facts that alone give life and value to the lines, colors 
 and spots that constitute maps, 
 
 3. To teach spelling, by observation, and furnish new les- 
 
 sons. 
 
 4. To teach language, by giving object lessons in the use of 
 
 words and sentences by good writers, and to provide 
 excellent examples for oral and written reproduction. 
 
 5. To incite a love for the study of history. 
 
 6. To furnish high ideals of life by interesting pupils in the 
 
 biographies of great and noble men. 
 
 7. To familiarize pupils with specimens of good literature. 
 
 Upper Form. 
 
 350. In this form the principal benefits to be gained are as 
 follows : 
 
 1. To extend the knowledge of all branches studied and to 
 
 give greater interest. 
 
 2. To give pupils new lines of thought 
 
 3. To store the minds with inspiring passages from great 
 
 authors. 
 
 4. To afford opportunity to pupils to acquire information 
 
 on any special subject 
 
 5. To teach pupils to use books so as to get out of them in- 
 
 formation on desired subjects. 
 G. To give wider and larger views of life. 
 
 7. To lead to the formation of better ideals. 
 
 8. To impart the power of discriminating between good and 
 
 poor books. 
 
 9. To awaken a taste for what is best in books. 
 10. To lead pupils to acquire the reading habit 
 
 351. The results of a few years' training with a small li- 
 brary should be: a love for good books, ease in understanding 
 
CARE AND USE OF TTIK SCHOOL LifiRA&t. 261 
 
 their meaning, familiarity with allusions, facts and references 
 that are common in good literature, and a good knowledge of 
 a few of the literary masterpieces which are essential to a fair 
 education. 
 
 352. A bright selection, or a chapter from a continuous story, 
 if read at the opening of school will aid in securing promtpt 
 attendance. Beautiful passages, if read appreciatively, will 
 often enliven the school when it has grown dull, or quiet it 
 when restless. The reading of an extract from an entertain- 
 ing book will often incite children to read the remainder. 
 
 353. For the special purposes for which each book is most 
 valuable, read the notes under the titles of the books recom- 
 mended by the state superintendent in his list of books for 
 township libraries. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 354. As the library grows, put more stress upon the home 
 reading of the books. An entertaining book will frequently 
 catch the attention of the parents and will sometimes be read 
 aloud with the whole family as an audience. This makes the 
 relation between the school and the home more close, and 
 should be encouraged by the teacher. 
 
 Talk over the merits and beauties of the books with the pu- 
 pils before and after they read them. 
 
 If possible, lead the pupils to recognize fine and noble traits 
 in the characters read about whether real or fictitious. 
 
 Draw the attention of the pupils to the most attractive pages, 
 illustrations and bindings, and teach them to see the beauties 
 of the printer's part of the work of book-making. 
 
262 MAjsrtJAi, OF THE ELEMENTAL COTJBSB OF STUDY. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS UNDER THE 
 COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 355. Arranging the pupils of a district school into classes, 
 and allotting to each class the particular study which it must 
 pursue, usually devolves upon the teacher. On this subject he 
 may receive advice from the district board, and suggestions 
 from the county superintendent; but very properly he is re- 
 quired to bear the responsibility. He can aid very materially 
 the effort to introduce into the common schools the course of 
 study herein advocated ; for its success greatly depends upon 
 the correct and efficient classification of the pupils. The fol- 
 lowing suggestions will prove helpful : 
 
 356. He should have a clear conception of the general plan 
 of the Course of Study, the ideas upon which its three-fold di- 
 vision is based, the branches of study arranged under each, 
 form, the order of the subjects belonging to each branch, and 
 the suggestions offered for pursuing and teaching these sub- 
 jects. 
 
 357. When he knows the advancement of the classes he 
 should determine their relation to the studies of this course. 
 
 358. In some schools there exist already the fundamental re- 
 quircments for easy classification. With such conditions the 
 teacher will consider one group of classes as belonging to the 
 Primary Form, as they are pursuing exclusively the subjects 
 of that form ; another to the Middle, and the third to the Upper 
 Form for the same reason. In many schools, especially those 
 taught during the spring and summer, no advanced pupils will 
 be enrolled. The children present can then be quite easily ar- 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS. 263 
 
 ranged under tLo first two forms. This should be done 
 promptly, and the classes treated as progressing in the course. 
 
 359. In other schools there r.ro far too many classes. Here 
 little difficulty will be encountered in arranging the smaller 
 children under the Primary Form. The teacher will have to 
 see that all those who are reciting in the Primer and the First 
 and Second Headers are also giving attention to the other sub- 
 jects under that form. On their completion of these subjects 
 he will arrange for their examination for promotion to the 
 Middle Form. He should here establish a rule that a pupil 
 who has not in some degree mastered the topics associated with 
 those Readers, shall not, at the examination, be advanced to 
 the next form. 
 
 360. By a similar procedure, though with more difficulty, he 
 will be able to classify the pupils under the Middle Form. lie 
 can take the summary of the studies under the Middle Form 
 and establish the closing limit for all the work accomplished 
 therein. He can arrange for all pupils whose attainments are 
 below this limit to study during the term with a view to reach- 
 ing it. These who have finished a.ll the work named, he can 
 bring at the proper time into the examination for promotion 
 into the Upper Form. In judging of the advancement of the 
 pupils he must a.llow for the study which has in many cases 
 been carried on at home, as well as that which has been per- 
 formed under his own eye in the school room. In fact, it ia 
 believed that this system of a course of study for the common 
 schools will induce many children to p<ursue by themselves the 
 common branches, particularly those in which they are defi- 
 cient. The principal requisite to promotion must be the abil- 
 ity of the student to pass the required tests. 
 
 361. The teacher will often nfid the older children well ad- 
 vanced in some studies, and very deficient in others. In those 
 studies in which they are deficient they should be induced, 
 even at the loss of some pride, to bring forward their standing 
 as speedily as possible. They should be shown the great mis- 
 
264 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COUEST3 OP STUDY. 
 
 take which they are committing in acquiring a partial and one- 
 sided education. Before all the members of this Form can be 
 placed the potent incentives to prepare for the final examina- 
 tions in the Course, and for graduation which results from a 
 successful trial on that occasion.. These the teacher should 
 present with all the skill and vigor which he can command. 
 
 362. He should not be discouraged if he does not for weeks 
 find it possible to organize the older pupils under the regula- 
 tions of the Upper Form. He should remember that he is en- 
 deavoring to introduce a new measure into the school and that 
 
 O 
 
 success in such an effort always requires a considerable -period 
 for reflection and change of feeling. His work in this case is 
 greatly increased by the fixed habits of the boys and girls over 
 twelve years of age who have been trained in classes where 
 there was no regular system to guide them,, and who have not 
 yet acquired sufficient independence and strength of mind to 
 comprehend and accept the new arrangements. Besides, the 
 conservatism of the district may sustain the views and conduct 
 of these pupils. There may be a lack of suitable books; the 
 attendance of these advanced children may be irregular; their 
 education may be very unequal, and they may have no genuine 
 enthusiasm for study. He should set himself resolutely to 
 overcome all these for the benefit of his pupils. He must labor 
 until he succeeds; by means of visits with the patrons, by per- 
 sonal influence with the district board, by reasoning with the 
 older children, and, more than all else, by interesting pupils in 
 the study of the various branches included in this Form. The 
 p-articular measures to be employed in this endeavor he must 
 discover while on the field. 
 
 363. He should strive to awaken the interest of the pupils 
 and their parents in the school and in the introduction of the 
 Course of Study. He may begin the use of some methods pre- 
 sented in it for the common branches. He may speak of the 
 advancement of other schools which are trying it, and whose 
 most forward pupils will be examined during the year for grad- 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS. 265 
 
 nation. He may explain the advantages of completing all the 
 studies in the school, and receiving the diploma awarded a.t its 
 close, and may assure them that elsewhere such exertions have 
 been eminently succssfuL It will ho an ini]>ortant point gained 
 if he induces one pupil in his school to commence the effort to 
 finish in the Upper Form the studies of the Course, and to 
 present himself for the closing examination. This pupil is very 
 likely to become the nucleus around which his associates will 
 be collected and in this way the desired classification will be 
 established. 
 
 364. The teacher should try to exclude text-books not belong- 
 ing to the scries adopted for the school. This is necessary to 
 limit the daily recitations or exercises to the least practicable 
 number and to arouse more interest in those which are estab- 
 lished. If pupils have different texts in arithmetic, geography, 
 history and constitutions, different classes must not be organ- 
 ized to accommodate them. The essential facts are the same 
 in all. 
 
 365. The occasions are quite rare in which it would be proper 
 t<> add the higher branches to the already overburdened pro- 
 grain of the ungraded schools. The teacher may also induce 
 the school board to adopt uniform text-books, as the law re- 
 quires them to do. lie will sometimes have to secure from the 
 board books for children whose parents are unable to provide 
 them. 
 
2C6 MANUAL OF TILE KLJLALENTAE.Y COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 PROGRAM OF DAILY EXERCISES. 
 
 366. A pro-gram of recitations and study periods should be 
 posted in tho school and closely followed. This order*/ ar- 
 rangement of classes saves the time of teacher and pupils, and 
 develops a habit of preparing for tasks and meeting them 
 promptly. The periods of study in different branches should 
 bo so arranged as to separate the studies requiring close appli- 
 cation by lighter tasks. A program gives the teacher an op- 
 portunity to insist that pupils shall give their full thought to 
 one topic till it is mastered. The power of holding the mind 
 to one thing at a time till that is mastered is necessary to suc- 
 cess in business and social life as well as in the school world. 
 
 367. If possible, secure the program of your predecessor bo- 
 fore beginning the school. Examine it with care and use it 
 until you are sure you can make a better one. Learn the num- 
 ber, ago and capacity of the pupils who are to study each 
 branch. Assign each pupil to his proper form, and then make 
 &3 few classes as possible in each branch. Fix the time you 
 will give to each branch. Take into consideration the number 
 and age of pupils in determining the time you will allot to 
 each class. 
 
 368. Any number of pupils in an upper form class requires 
 moro time- for recitation than tho same number in a Primary 
 Form class ; but a few pupils in an Upper Form class may ro- 
 quiro no moro time for recitation than a large number in a 
 Primary Form class. Primary Form classes should recite not 
 
 than twice daily, and oftener if possible. If it be imposr 
 
PROGRAM OF DAILY EXERCISES. 267 
 
 gible to have all classes recite daily, let some recitations of the 
 'tipper Form alternate. Twice a week physiology may give 
 place to drawing. In the same way language of the Middle 
 Form may alternate with history and elementary science, the 
 last two furnishing abundance of the best material for the 
 language class. 
 
 369. When several pupils are studying the same branch in 
 the same form and may be separated into several groups of two 
 or three pupils each, and no two groups are working in the 
 same place, do not consider it necessary to have a separate pe- 
 riod for tlie recitation of each group. Have two or more of 
 the groups most nearly equal in advancement recite together 
 during the recitation period. During the recitation period each 
 group in the class may be doing its proper work. But every 
 effort should be made to unite these groups whenever possible 
 into one class having the same lesson. By pushing the back- 
 ward group and giving special help, while allowing the more 
 advanced group to devote more time to other branches, they 
 may often be brought together, and so the work of the school 
 may be done more economically. Make special effort to have 
 each pupil study all the branches for which he is prepared and 
 which he has not completed in any form. 
 
 370. Have no pupil recite during two successive recitation 
 periods if it can be avoided. Begin in the morning with those 
 classes which may be depended upon to prepare for the recita- 
 tion, or with those classes which are able to make little prepara- 
 tion, as Primary Heading classes. Writing or drawing should 
 not come immediately after violent physical exercise. 
 
 In carrying out your program, before beginning any recita- 
 tion be sure that every pupil except, those in the class before 
 you, has prepared or is preparing his next lesson. 
 
 371. The program presented on another page will probably 
 not meet the exact requirements of any school in Wisconsin. 
 It was not prepared, for that purpose, but rather with the hope 
 that the general order of arrangement and apportionment of 
 
MANUAL of THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 time might prove suggestive. The apportionment of time 
 among the various branches may aid inexperinced teachers, and 
 those liable to favor special branches, in making a proper dis- 
 tribution of the time at their disposal. 
 
 372. In the following program, the time is apportioned 
 among the forms as follows: To the Primary Form, 95 
 minutes; to the Middle Form, 80 minutes; to the Upper 
 Form, 115 minutes; to the Middle and Upper Forms working 
 together in Physiology and writing exercises, 35 minutes; thus 
 leaving 35 minutes for opening exercises and recesses. 
 
 373. By branches the time is apportioned as follows: To 
 reading, 110 minutes; to arithmetic, 60 minutes; to language, 
 40 minutes; to geography, 35 minutes; to spelling, 25 min- 
 utes; to history, 20 minutes; to physiology, 15 minutes; to 
 writing, 20 minutes; to opening exercises, 5 minutes. 
 
 374. In this program the highest class in each branch in each 
 Form is the A class. 
 
 375. Pupils in the Primary Form should have daily exer- 
 cise in writing on slates and in number work. Such instruc- 
 tions as may be necessary for this work should be given in some 
 one of the recitation periods alloted for Primary Work. 
 
 376. Language exercises should be given in connection with 
 the reading lesson in all classes which do not make a regular 
 study of the subject 
 
PROGRAM OF DAILY EXERCISES. 
 
 269 
 
 377. PROGRAM OF RECITATIONS FOR A DISTRICT SCHOOL 
 HAVING PUPILS IN ALL FORMS. 
 
 A. M. 
 
 a 
 
 I 
 
 
 Form. 
 
 Branch. 
 
 Text-Book, 
 
 9:00 
 
 
 
 
 Opening Exercises- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9:05 
 
 c 
 
 Primary 
 
 Reading 
 
 Primer or Chart. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9:15 
 
 B 
 
 Primary 
 
 Reading 
 
 First Reader. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9:25 
 
 A 
 
 Primary 
 
 Reading 
 
 Second Reader. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9:40 
 
 A 
 
 Middle 
 
 Reading 
 
 Third Reader. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9:55 
 
 A 
 
 Upper 
 
 Arithmetic. . . 
 
 Practical. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10:15 
 
 
 
 Physiology 
 
 General Exercises, Middle and Upper 
 
 
 
 
 
 Forms. 
 
 10:30 
 
 
 
 Recess 
 
 
 10-45 
 
 c 
 
 Primary 
 
 
 Primer or Chart. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10:55 
 
 A 
 
 Primary 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Oral. 
 
 11:00 
 
 A 
 
 Middle 
 
 Geography .. . 
 
 Outline Map and Elementary Text- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Look. 
 
 11:20 
 
 A 
 
 Upper 
 
 Geography .. 
 
 Advanced Text-book. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 -40 
 
 A 
 
 Middle 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12:00 
 
 
 
 
 Intermission. 
 
 P.M. 
 
 1:00 
 
 A 
 
 Upper 
 
 i History ) 
 
 S and > 
 
 Where both branches are studied, 
 
 
 
 
 i Constitution. \ 
 
 classes may alternate 
 
 1:20 
 
 C 
 
 Primary 
 
 Reading 
 
 Primer or Chart. 
 
 1:30 
 
 B 
 
 Primary 
 
 Reading 
 
 Firs Reader. 
 
 1:40 
 1:50 
 
 A 
 A 
 
 Primary 
 Middle"".... 
 
 Reading 
 Language 
 
 Second Reader. 
 Language Lesson. 
 
 2:10 
 
 
 
 Writing 
 
 General Exercises, Middle and Upper 
 
 
 
 
 
 Form. 
 
 2:30 
 
 
 
 Recess. 
 
 
 2:45 
 
 A 
 
 Upper ... 
 
 Language 
 
 Language Lessons or Grammar. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3:0') 
 
 B&C 
 
 Primary 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Oral. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3:15 
 
 A 
 
 Upper 
 
 Re tdin 
 
 Fourth Reader. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3:35 
 
 A 
 
 Middle 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Spelling book, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8-15 
 
 A 
 
 Upper 
 
 Spelling . . . 
 
 Spelling book. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4:00 
 
 
 
 
 Dismissal. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
70 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDT. 
 
 The following "Form" program of study and recitation may 
 be of service to the teacher in making out her daily program: 
 
 Subjects 
 
 Open Min. 
 
 Primary 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 9:00 10 
 
 
 60 Min. 
 
 9:10 20 
 
 Seat Work 
 
 Reading 
 
 9:30 20 
 
 Reading 
 
 90 Min. 
 
 9:50 20 
 
 Number 
 
 Geography 
 
 10:10 20 
 
 Form Work 
 
 40 Min. 
 
 10:30 10 
 
 
 Language 
 
 10:40 20 
 
 Reading 
 
 30 Min. 
 
 11:00 20 
 
 Realm* 
 
 History 
 
 11:20 20 
 
 Seat Work 
 
 Constitution 
 
 11:40 20 
 
 Reading 
 
 and 
 
 12:00 60 
 
 
 Reading 
 
 1:00 10 
 
 i 
 
 40 Min. 
 
 1:10 20 
 
 Reading 
 
 Writing 
 
 1:30 20 
 
 Form Work 
 
 Language 
 
 1:50 20 
 
 Reading 
 
 20 Min. 
 
 2:10 20 
 
 Writ. Lang. 
 
 Physiology 
 
 2:30 10 
 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 2:40 20 
 
 Spelling 
 
 etc., 30 Min. 
 
 3:00 20 
 
 Pays. N,it. V 
 
 Bpelling 
 
 3:20 20 
 
 Spell. Read 
 
 20 Min. 
 
 3:40 20 
 
 Excused 
 
 Middle Upper 
 
 Opening Exercises. 
 
 Arith. Arith. 
 
 Arith. Reading 
 
 Reading Geography 
 
 Geography Geography 
 
 Recess. 
 
 Reading Grammar 
 
 Geography Grammar 
 
 Geography Hist. Const. 
 
 Form Work Heading 
 Intermission. 
 
 Opening Exercises. 
 
 Physiology Physiology 
 
 History. Grammar 
 
 Hist. Head. Hist. Const. 
 
 Writ. Lang. Writ. Lang. 
 
 Recess. 
 
 Spelling His.Con.Read. 
 
 Vk.Phys. Nat. Wk.Phys. Agric. 
 
 I. Arith. Spelling 
 
 Spelling Spelling 
 
SCHOOL RECORDS. 271 
 
 SCHOOL RECORDS. 
 
 378. The records kept by most of the common schools include 
 only the enrollment, age, attendance and deportment of the 
 pupils. The important items of the classification, standing 
 and progress of these pupils in the studies of each form are 
 wholly ignored. Yet these are important requisites for estal>- 
 lishing and maintaining a continuous course of study in the 
 country schools. A record should be kept of the classes which 
 each pupil enters, the time of entering, time of leaving, his 
 standing gained in recitations or examinations, his advance- 
 ment in his studies during the term, his promotions to higher 
 classes, and suggestions to the succeeding teacher where the 
 pupil should begin at the opening of the next term.. 
 
 379. The teacher is provided with a register in which should 
 be recorded a summary of the items specified above. 
 
 380. The proper classification of pupils of the common 
 schools and their regular advancement through the course of 
 study depend greatly on making proper records of each pupil's 
 work in each study. 
 
 381. The impression seems to prevail that school records 
 are complicated, and therefore difficult The truth is that the 
 plainest and simplest plan possible is best 
 
 382. All facts relating to the school necessary for the reports 
 required by law or by the department of public instruction^ 
 may bo found in the teacher's register if it has been properly 
 completed. 
 
272 
 
 MAXUAT, OF THE ET.EMEIS' TAE Y COURSE OF STl'Dl . 
 
 
 
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EXAMINATIONS ANb G KA I > CATION. 
 
 EXAMINATIONS AND GRADUATION, 
 
 383. Besides the usual examinations of pupils held for the 
 purpose of assigning them to the different classes under each 
 form and for determining their progress in their school work, 
 there must be held three special examinations, one for the pur- 
 pose of determining whether certain pupils are ready to be pro- 
 moted from the primary form to the middle form, one for de- 
 termining what pupils are ready to be promoted from the mid- 
 dle to the upper form, and the last and perhaps the most im- 
 portant, to ascertain what pupils have so satisfactorily com- 
 pleted their work as to be entitled to graduation. 
 
 384. The examination for promotion from form to form 
 should usually take place at the close of the ternu It some- 
 times occurs that there are pupils in the school who, because of 
 certain advantages, may be prepared to take up work in the 
 next form above before the close of the term. Special exam- 
 inations may be given such pupils as the judgment of the 
 teacher may direct. The teacher should, however, consult the 
 school board or the county superintendent in regard to these 
 examinations for individual promotion. The school record 
 should be so kept as to show when all promotlcms are made. 
 The examination held for the purpose of determining who have 
 completed the full course of study should occur but once each 
 year, probably at the close of the winter term. The reasons 
 for fixing this date are obvious. While the examinations for 
 promotion from one form to the other, and from one class to 
 the other, may be largely oral the examination for graduation 
 
 19 a 
 
274 MANUAL OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 should be chiefly written and a minim-urn standing for each 
 study with an average for all the studies should be fixed. The 
 county superintendent must be consulted upon this point It 
 is clear that there should be no spirit of favoritism shown, by 
 the examiners nor should any pupil be permitted to pass with- 
 out meeting the required test in the prescribed studies. The 
 character of his daily recitations and his ability as tested in 
 the occasional examinations may, however, be considered by 
 the examiners when the final standing of each pupil is de- 
 termined. 
 
 385. The examinations for promotion from one form to 
 another should be held by the teacher with the consent of the 
 board or executive committee and under the direction of the 
 county superintendent. The county superintendent should 
 suggest the standings to be fixed at each, of the examinations 
 and the examination for graduation should be conducted 
 largely under his direction, and he should furnish the ques- 
 tions to be submitted and outline a specific plan and program 
 to be followed. 
 
 386. The usual method of conducting the examination for 
 graduation from the common schools is for the county superin- 
 tendent to send to each teacher a few days before the time fixed 
 for the examinations throughout the county, a copy of the ques- 
 tions, securely sealed in an envelope with instructions printed 
 on the outside. This envelope must be opened by no one except 
 the teacher and by the teacher only in the presence of the 
 pupils. The reasons for this are plain. When the papers of 
 all the pupils are marked and graded by the teacher, the pap< is 
 of those whose standings meet the required test as well as the 
 papers of those whose work is doubtful, are forwarded to the 
 county superintendent for further and final examination. A 
 form of statement prepared by the county superintendent 
 should be filled out by the teacher and signed by at least two of 
 the older pupils in the school, to the effect that they were witr 
 nesses to the opening of the sealed envelope containing the ques- 
 
EXAMINATIONS AND GRADUATION. 275 
 
 tioiis and that said envelope was opened in the presence of the 
 school assembled at that time. This plan of final examination 
 is oomraon and in many cases is probably the best that can be 
 devised. Some county superin ten dents have, however, secured 
 a special allowance from their county board of supervisors per- 
 mitting them to engage three examiners, none of whom shall bo 
 interested either directly or indirectly in any of the applicants 
 for the graduation diploma. This examining board holds the 
 examinations in different parts of the county, as directed by the 
 county superintendent. Upon this board rests the responsibil- 
 ity of marking the papers and sending the results to the county 
 superintendent. The county superintendent must, however, 
 reserve the privilege of refusing to accept the markings and he 
 will issue the diplomas in accordance with his judgment This 
 plan, where adopted, has been very satisfactory. The county 
 superintendent should use every effort in his power to stimu- 
 late pupils to attempt these examinations, as well as the exam- 
 inations for promotion from form to form. In this way he will 
 render the schools under his jurisdiction a most excellent serv- 
 ice. He must also exercise sound discretion as to the character 
 of the questions submitted and the method of conducting the 
 examinations. It will no be out of place for him to send to his 
 teachers neatly printed certificates of promotion from form to 
 form. The diploma issued after the final examination should 
 lx) neat and appropriate in form and matter and should con- 
 tain places for the signature of the teacher, at least one mem- 
 ber of the school board and the county superintendent It 
 should be a document prized by the holder. 
 
 387. COMMON SCHOOL CERTIFICATE. 
 
 Primary Form. 
 
 This certifies that , of District No. , in the town 
 
 of - , in the county of , State of Wisconsin, is herewith 
 
 promoted to the Middle Form, for having completed that pop- 
 
276 MANUAL OF THE -ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 tion of the Course of Study in the Common Branches embraced 
 in the Primary Form of the Public School of said district, 
 , A. D. 19. Teacher. 
 
 -, Director of District No. . 
 
 388. COMMON SCHOOL CERTIFICATE 
 
 Middle Form. 
 
 This certifies that , of District No. , in the town 
 
 of , in the county of , State of Wisconsin, is herewith 
 
 promoted to the Upper Form, as has this day completed 
 that portion of the Course of Study in the Common Branches 
 embraced in the Middle Form of the Public School of said dis- 
 trict 
 
 , A. D. 19 . > Teacher. 
 
 . . . , Director of District No. . 
 
 389. DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 County, Wisconsin. 
 
 Common School Diploma. 
 
 This certifies that , of District No. , in the town 
 
 of , has this day completed the Course of Study in the 
 
 Commjon Branches required by Law to be taught in the Public 
 Schools of the State, viz. : Reading, Spelling, Orthoepy, Eng- 
 lish Grammar, Arithmetic, Eflements of Agriculture, Oleog- 
 raphy, Writing, United States History, the Constitution of 
 United States and that of Wisconsin, Physiology and Hygiene, 
 , A. D. 19. 
 
 County Superintendent of Schools. 
 Teacher of District No. . 
 -, Director of District No. . 
 
COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 FOR 
 
 State Graded Schools 
 
 OF 
 
 WISCONSIN 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Complying with the requests of many superintendents and 
 teachers, the Course of Study for State Graded Schools is 
 printed in connection with the course of study for the common 
 schools of tli is state. This course of study will assist all teach- 
 ers to determine how much work should 1x3 attempted each 
 year of each form. The teacher, however, should keep MI 
 mind that under the course for one department schools nine 
 years' work is outlined while under the state graded school 
 course the same amount of work is completed in eight years. 
 
 The law relating to state aid for graded schools provides as 
 follows : 
 
 "Sufficient equipment, including globes, maps, blackboards, 
 library, and other essentials for the proper work of the school, 
 shall be provided by the school district. 
 
 Each department, the primary excopted, should be provided 
 with a globe, and a good set of outline maps. The lower de- 
 partment should have a good reading chart, and each depart- 
 ment should have a good blackboard of not less than fifty 
 square feet 
 
 There should be in each school a well equipped library of 
 books, selected from the township library list issued by the 
 State Superintendent. Each school should also have sets of 
 supplementary first, second and third readers, and a set of 
 geographical readers. The** books are inexpensive, and if 
 properly cared for will last a number of years. 
 
 The attention of teachers, county superintendents, and school 
 boards is called to the statute providing for the organization 
 of graded schools of the first and the second class in Wisconsin. 
 
280 COUliSE OF STUDY FOIi STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 So much of chapter 439, of the laws of 1901, amended by the 
 laws of 1903 and 1905, as pertains to this subject is herewith 
 given. 
 
 CHAPTER 439, LAWS OF 1901. 
 AID TO GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 Bi3tricts which may receive state aid for graded schools. 
 
 SECTION 9. The school board of any school district contain- 
 ing within its limits a graded school but no free high school, 
 nor a high school of a grade equivalent to a free high school, 
 town free high schools excepted, may receive special state aid 
 as hereinafter provided, upon full compliance with the follow- 
 ing conditions: 
 
 Classes. 1. There shall be two classes of state graded 
 schools in Wisconsin, known Mfieetlvelj as first class, and 
 second class; all state graded schools of three or more depart- 
 ments shall be in the first class, and all state graded schools of 
 two departments shall be in the second class. 
 
 2. Schools shall be maintained in the district receiving such 
 aid, at least nine school months, including legal holidays, in 
 each and every department. At least three departments in 
 schools of the first class and both departments in schools of the 
 second class shall have an average daily attendance of not less 
 than fifteen pupils for the entire school year, to entitle the 
 school to state aid. 
 
 Qualifications of teachers. 3. All persons employed in both 
 classes of graded schools applying for state aid shall be com- 
 petent teachers and shall hold the following grade of certifi- 
 cates: The principal of a state graded school of the first class 
 shall hold some form of a state certificate. In each school of 
 this class one assistant shall hold a third grade certificate, or 
 a certificate of a higher grade, provided such assistant, if hold- 
 ing a third grade certificate, shall also have had one year's suc- 
 cessful experience as a teacher in the public schools of Wis- 
 consin ; one assistant shall hold a second grade certificate or a 
 certificate of a higher grade, and all other assistants shall hold 
 first grade certificates or certificates of a higher grade. The 
 principal of a state graded school of the second class shall hold 
 a first grade county certificate, or some form of a state certifi- 
 cate, and the assistant shall hold a third grade certificate or a 
 certificate of a higher grade, provided such assistant, if hold- 
 ing a third grade certificate, shall also have had one year's sue- 
 
COURSE OF STUDY Foil STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 cessful experience as a teacher in the public schools of Wis- 
 consin. The word "principal" is' hereby interpreted as mean- 
 ing the teacher of the highest gra.de or grades in the school 
 who shall have immediate supervision of all the grades; the 
 word "assistant" is hereby interpreted as meaning each and 
 every teacher in a state graded school other than the principal. 
 Condition of building and grounds. 4. The schoolhouse or 
 schoolhouses, the outhouses and grounds, the furniture and 
 equipment, shall be maintained in good condition and kept free 
 from any unsanitary feature. 
 
 Equipment required. 5. Sufficient equipment, including 
 globes, maps, blackboards, library, and other essentials for the 
 proper work of the school shall be provided by the school dis- 
 trict 
 
 Application for aid; must be inspected. 6. When the school 
 board of any school district desires to secure state aid for its 
 graded schools, said school board shall make written applica- 
 tion for the same to the state superintendent, No graded 
 school shall be entitled to be placed upon the list of state 
 graded schools and to receive special state aid until said school 
 shall have been duly inspected by the state superintendent, or 
 some member of his staff, and found to be fully complying 
 \vilh all the conditions of this act. 
 
 Application before September 1. 7. In order that any graded 
 -ohool may receive special state aid as herein provided, appli- 
 cation shall be made to the state superintendent by the school 
 !>ard before the first day of September preceding the school 
 year for which said special state aid is requested. 
 
 Amount of aid for two classes of graded schools; apportion- 
 ment. SECTION 10. Any school dis.triot which shall have 
 maintained a graded school of the first class in accordance with 
 the provisions of this act shall be entitled to receive from the 
 general fund of the state, annually, the sum of three hundred 
 dollars. Any school district which shall have maintained a 
 graded school of the second class in accordance with the pro- 
 visions of this act shall be entitled to receive from the general 
 fund of the state, annually, the sum of one hundred dollars. 
 To obtain such state aid the school board shall on or before the 
 first, day of August of each year, succeeding the school year in 
 which application is made, report to the state superintendent, 
 under their oaths, that such state graded school has complied 
 
282 COUHSE OF STUDY FUR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 with all the provisions of this act. Thereupon, the said state 
 superintendent shall fix the amount to bo paid such district, 
 and certify the same to the secretary of state ; the secretary of 
 state shall then draw his warrants upon the state treasurer for 
 the several claims of the school districts. The secretary of 
 state shall annually include and apportion in the state tax such 
 sum as shall have been certified by the state superintendent 
 under the provisions of this act; upon receipt of the annual 
 state taxes said state treasurer shall pay to the school district 
 treasurers, the several amounts called for by such warrants. 
 The state superintendent is hereby empowered to refuse state 
 aid to any school district which in his judgment has failed to 
 comply with the provisions of this act. The whole amount an- 
 nually paid under the provisions of this act, shall not exceed 
 eighty thousand dollars, and if more be demanded by the state 
 graded schools, it shall be paid proportionally. Any unex- 
 pended balance shall revert to the general fund. 
 
 Inspectors. SECTION 11. The state superintendent is here- 
 by authorized to appoint two persons of suitable qualifications 
 to assist him in inspecting and supervising the state graded 
 and free high schools, and to aid him in giving information 
 and needed assistance to localities in organizing such schools. 
 Such persons shall be known as state school inspectors, 
 
 Course of study; reports. SECTION 12. The state superin- 
 tendent shall prepare a course of study suitable to be pursued 
 in graded schools, publish the same, and furnish to school 
 boards upon application. This course of study shall be fol- 
 lowed by all state graded schools, as one condition of semi-ing 
 special state aid. Said state superintendent shall furnish suit- 
 able blanks for annual and special reports for all such stnte 
 graded schools, which reports shall call for such information 
 as he may deem necessary. The refusal or neglect of the 
 school board or any of its officers to file these reports with the 
 state superintendent when called for, shall be deemed sufficient 
 ground for refusing special state aid, as provided for in this 
 act. 
 
 Number limited; incorporated cities excluded. SKCTIOX 13. 
 Xo more than one such graded school in any village, or school 
 district or sub-district, shall receive state aid as herein pro- 
 vided, nor shall any graded school in any incorporated city 
 participate in said state aid. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY FOE STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 283 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 FIRST GRADE. 
 
 390. READING. 
 
 Blackboard, word cards, charts and First Reader. 
 
 1. Learning to call at sight, from blackboard, word cards, 
 
 charts and books all the words found in the Primer and 
 First Reader. 
 
 2. Reading at sight sentences formed from the words learned. 
 
 3. Phonic drill or separation of spoken words into their ele- 
 
 mentary sounds and association of these sounds with the 
 letters which stand for them. 
 
 4. Drill in articulation. 
 
 5. Intelligent, distinct and ready reading of lessons on the 
 
 chart and in the Primer (if one be used), and First 
 Reader. 
 
 6. Demand correct expression from the very first, Word call- 
 
 ing is not reading. 
 
 T. Develop the power in the child to grasp the group of words 
 at sight. 
 
 391. LANGUAGE, 
 1. Conversational Exercises. 
 
 The teacher should talk with the children about tilings with 
 which they are familiar. Thus two ends will bo attained : 
 cultivation of the power to express thought, and familiarity 
 with the teacher. Considerable of this work shonlj be done 
 before any teaching is attempted in other branches. 
 
284 COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 2. Picture Talks. 
 
 Train the children to talk about interesting pictures which 
 may be on the reading chart, in the Primer, or furnished by 
 the teacher. This work should not consist in the teacher's ask- 
 ing questions and the children's answering them in one or two 
 words ; questioning in such a way does not develop language. 
 Neither does it consist in the teacher's asking questions and 
 rigidly insisting that the children answer in complete sen- 
 tences. This is not language but something that is entirely 
 mechanical Language means converting thought into con>- 
 nected expression. Lead the children to talk connectedly about 
 the picture. Children having sufficient imagination may be 
 led to tell delightful little stories which portray action, 
 
 3. Simple Story Telling. 
 
 This should consist both in having the children tell the sim- 
 ple stories which they read in the Primer and First Reader, 
 and of stories told to the children by the teacher and retold by 
 the children. Insist on the child's telling the complete story. 
 Do not hamper his thought and cripple his language by ques- 
 tions; questions have their place, but it is not to develop lan- 
 guage. Let the questions come after the child has told all he 
 can without interruption, then question him to bring out points 
 he has omitted. 
 
 Little attention should be paid to errors in language until 
 the child can talk connectedly and fluently. The first object 
 is to get the child to use language of some kind, then mould 
 this into correct expression. 
 
 392. ARITHMETIC. 
 
 1. Counting, grouping, and other object exercises in number. 
 
 2. Reading and writing numbers to 100. 
 
 3. Addition and subtraction of ones and twos with single 
 
 digit numbers. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 285 
 
 4. Simple practical problems by teacher and pupils, based on 
 "3" of the foregoing. 
 
 This work may be done incidentally in connection with read- 
 ing, writing, language and drawing. Reading, writing, spell- 
 ing and language should be emphasized in the primary form. 
 Arithmetic can very readily be finished later on, when the pu- 
 pil has secured a fair mastery of the subjects mentioned. 
 
 Objects should be used to teach the meaning of numbers and 
 in connection with counting. Do not use objects to teach addi- 
 tion. Addition is a memory process and must be taught as 
 such. 
 
 393. SPELLING. 
 
 1. Oral spelling from chart and reader. 
 
 2. Copy words from blackboard. 
 
 394. WRITING. 
 
 1. Training in position, and manner of holding 
 
 2. Letters, words and sentences from blackboard, 
 o. Words and sentence's from Reader. 
 
 4. Secure good form. 
 
 Pupils may use slate or paper and soft pencil. 
 
 335. DRAWING, SINKING. 
 See Common School llanual. 
 
 395a. PHYSIOLOGY. 
 SOP Common School Manual, numbers 270, 271. 
 
286 COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 SECOND GRADE. 
 
 396. READING. 
 
 Supplementary First Reader and Second Reader, black- 
 board and charts prepared by teacher, giving lists of new words 
 taught for use in drill in pronunciation. 
 
 1. Continue work begun in First Grade in phonic drill, intro- 
 
 ducing marks of long and short vowels and consonants. 
 
 2. Continue drill in articulation. 
 
 3. Drill in reading to secure an agreeable tone of voice, ready 
 
 control of vocal organs, correct emphasis and inflection. 
 
 4r. Simple stories, fables, and folk lore, read to and by the pu- 
 pils and told by the pupils. 
 
 5. Short pieces memorized and recited. 
 
 Use first reader for first four months at least; use it longer 
 
 if pupils are backward. 
 
 397. LANGUAGE. 
 
 1. Continue oral language work in connection with the read- 
 
 ing. 
 
 2. Tell a story or fable and then ask for its oral reproduction. 
 
 3. Teach pupils to use a capital letter at the beginning of a 
 
 sentence, that the pronoun I should always be a capital, 
 and the correct use of the period and question mark. 
 
 4. Correct Use of Troublesome Words. 
 
 There is but one way for a child to learn to do a thing and 
 that is by actually doing it. A child can never learn to use, 
 to, too, two, was, were, have, has, etc., correctly by filling 
 blanks. That is asking the child to do a thing that he knows 
 nothing about The only time to use the blanks is at the very 
 
COURSE OF STUDY FuK STATE GRADED SCnOOLS. 287 
 
 last as a test to find out whether the child has acquired the 
 h;il)it of using these words correctly. To learn to use these 
 troublesome words correctly, the child must have daily prac- 
 tice in using them correctly in his ordinary work. 
 
 398. ARITHMETIC. 
 
 1. "Reading and writing numbers to 1,000. 
 
 2. The forty-five combinations of addition and subtraction 
 
 thoroughly mastered. 
 
 0. .Multiplication tables of twos and threes. 
 
 4. X nines and uses of +, , X, -i-, =. 
 
 5. Simple problems by teacher and pupils based on the fore- 
 
 going. 
 
 C. Base all work done by pupils at their seats on their abso- 
 lute knowledge of the combinations. Do not let a com- 
 bination enter into their written work unless you are ab- 
 solutely certain that the pupils know it> otherwise the 
 pupils will count and not add. 
 
 399. SPELLING. 
 
 1. Oral spoiling O f new words of reading lesson. 
 
 2. Drill on syllabication, pronouncing each syllable after 
 
 spelling it, 
 
 400. WRITING. 
 
 1. Training in position, and manner of holding pencil. 
 
 2. Copying from blackboard. 
 -}. Copying from reader. 
 
 4. Secure legibility. 
 
 5. Work for perfect form, 
 
 401. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 See Common School Manual, numbers 270, 271, 272. 
 
288 COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE. GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 402. HISTORY. 
 
 Oral work. 
 
 1. Stories about boyhood of Columbus, Franklin, Washington, 
 
 Lincoln. 
 
 2. Stories from mythology. 
 
 No special period for the foregoing is needed. It can be 
 covered in connection with the language work, 
 
 403. DRAWING, SINGING. 
 See Common School Manual 
 
 THIRD GRADE. 
 
 404. HEADING. 
 
 Supplementary Second Header and books of similar grade 
 from the school library, blackboard and charts prepared by the 
 teacher giving lists of new words taught, for use in drill in 
 pronunciation. 
 
 1. Work in phonic drill and diacritical markings continued. 
 
 2. Continue drill in articulation using difficult combinations 
 
 of sounds. 
 
 3. Continue work indicated in 3, 4, and 5, for second grade. 
 
 405. LANGUAGE. 
 
 1. Continue the work on the story and its oral reproduction by 
 
 the pupil. 
 
 2. Have pupils Avrite short stories from pictures and geography 
 
 work. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY FOE STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 2S9 
 
 3. Oommit to memory choice selections found in the reader or 
 
 other books. 
 
 4. Correct errors. Insist on correct language* 
 
 5. Language and Reading. 
 
 406. After the second grade, and if possible during the sec- 
 ond your, pupils should tell the story of their reading lesson at 
 e.idi recitation before reading. When the class is large it may 
 not be possible to have every member of the class tell the story 
 every time, but at least a part should do so. Do not question 
 them until they have finished talking. If at first the children 
 do not know how to proceed, the teacher should tell the story, 
 for them in very simple language and in an interesting man- 
 ner, then have the children tell it. This will not need to be 
 done many times before the children get the idea, and will be 
 able to tell the story without help from the teacher. For vari- 
 ety have them read a paragraph silently and then call upon 
 the pupils to give the substance of the paragraph. This will 
 cultivate a habit of thoughtful reading. Also have one mem- 
 ber of the class read orally while the others listen, then call 
 upon different members of the class to tell what was read. 
 This will stimulate the power of attention and give training in 
 language. Continue language in connection with reading dur- 
 ing the entire course. 
 
 6. Written Language. 
 
 As soon as the child has learned to tell a story well orally, 
 and has learned to write, the writing of stories should be com- 
 menced. From this time on, have the children do both oral 
 and written work in language, 
 
 7. Punctuation and Capitalization. 
 
 Drill upon correct use of capital letters and punctuation 
 marks commonly used, as soon as written language is COILL- 
 20 C. 
 
200 COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 menced. Teach these subjects every day in connection with 
 written language. Cultivate the habit of doing these things 
 correctly by practice. 
 
 407. ARITHMETIC. 
 
 1. Review thoroughly the entire work of second grade. 
 
 2. Notation and numeration to 10,000. 
 
 3. Multiplication tables mastered as far as the 6's, inclusive. 
 
 4. Processes of the four fundamental operations thoroughly 
 
 mastered, so far as their knowledge of the multiplication 
 table permits. Addends, minuends, and dividends not to 
 exceed one thousand ; divisors not to exceed one digit 
 
 5. Master portions of the tables of liquid, dry, and linear 
 
 measure so far as their reduction can be used in the opera- 
 tions indicated above. The reduction should be limited 
 to two denominations in the same example. 
 
 6. United States Money. 
 
 Beading and writing numbers representing dollars and 
 cents, and simple operations involving their use. 
 
 7. Practical problems by teacher and pupils involving the fore- 
 
 going. 
 
 Strive to secure accuracy and rapidity, nothing short of ab- 
 solute accuracy is of any value. 
 
 408. GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 1. Observational Geography. 
 
 a. Exercises on location. 
 
 b. The land and water forms of the home region. 
 
 c. Elementary facts in the physiography of the home re- 
 
 gion. 
 
 d. Elements of industrial geography. 
 
 2. Geographical stories told and read to pupils. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY FOE STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 291 
 
 Geography work in the third and fourth grades should be 
 conducted largely as a language exercise. Geographical stories 
 should be read to and by the pupils and reproduced by them 
 both orally and in written form. 
 
 Geography work of this grade may be done in language 
 class in schools where program is crowded. Geographical and 
 historical stories make the best possible basis for language 
 work. 
 
 Note: The following books found in the district library 
 will be found valuable in carrying out the work outlined in the 
 third and fourth grades. 
 
 "Big People and Little People of other Lands," "Fairbank's 
 Home Geography," "Little Folks of Many Lands," "Children 
 of the Palm Lands," "Our Little Chinese Cousin." 
 
 409. SPELLING. 
 
 1. Use a good spelling book and have the pupils spell orally 
 
 twice per day from it. 
 
 2. Continue oral spelling of difficult words from reading 
 
 lesson. 
 
 3. Have pupils pronounce words before they attempt to spell 
 
 them. 
 
 4. Give oral and written reviews. 
 
 410. WRITING. 
 
 1. Copying with pencil and paper. 
 
 2. Use of pen taught, training in position, movement and 
 
 manner, same as with pencil, care of the pen. 
 
 3. Insist on neatness and legibility in all written work. 
 
292 COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 411. PHYSIOTX3GY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 See Common School Manual, numbers 270, 271, 272. 
 
 412. HISTORY. 
 
 1. Stories from mythology continued. 
 
 2. Biographies of Columbus, Franklin, Washington, Lincoln, 
 
 Longfellow. 
 
 3. The Indians. 
 
 This may also bo taken in connection with language work. 
 It should be largely oral. The teacher may tell or read a story 
 and then call on the pupils for reproduction. 
 
 413. DRAWING, SINGING. 
 See Common School Manual. 
 
 FOURTH GRADE. 
 
 414. READING. 
 
 Third reader and books of similar grade found in the school 
 library. 
 
 t. Work in phonic drill, in diacritical markings, and in cor- 
 rect articulation continued. 
 
 2. Mastery of the thought and of the pronunciation of words 
 
 insisted upon as a preparation for the oral reading of the 
 lesson. 
 
 3. Pupils trained in stating orally the substance of the reading 
 
 lesson, sometimes beef ore and sometimes after the reading, 
 aiming to secure good expression. (That the pupils fol- 
 low closely the words of the lesson is not objectionable.) 
 
COURSE OP STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 293 
 
 4. Good expression should bo insisted upon. Frequent read- 
 
 ing of lessons already gone over and with which the pu- 
 pils are familiar will give excellent opportunity for drill 
 in expression. 
 
 5. Choice selections memorized and recited. 
 
 415. LANGUAGE. 
 
 1. Continue the reproduction of the story both orally and in 
 
 writing. 
 
 2. Teach letter writing, paying particular attention to capital- 
 
 ization, punctuation, and arrangements of the parts. 
 
 3. Continue the work of writing stories from pictures. 
 
 4. Secure the correct use of possessive and plural forms of 
 
 nouns and the common irregular verbs. 
 
 5. Correct errors. Insist on correct language. 
 
 In this grade teach 'the form of the composition. Some in- 
 struction may be given along this line earlier than the fourth 
 year* this will depend somewhat on the advancement of the 
 pupiL 
 
 416. ARITIOIETIC. 
 
 1. Thoroughly review the work of second and third grades. 
 
 2. Notation and numeration to third period. Law of deci- 
 
 mal notation developed so far as it relates to integers. 
 
 3. Complete work on multiplication tables and processes in 
 
 division. 
 
 4. Definitions of terms used. 
 
 5. Forms of bills and receipts. 
 
 G. Continued drill in practical problems, formulated by 
 
 teacher and pupils, including use of United States money, 
 
 dry, liquid, and linear measures, and avoirdupois weight. 
 
 Do not use large numbers. Q ( uick, sharp drills on many 
 
 problems involving small numbers are far preferable to work 
 
 on a few problems involving large numbers. Divisors as a 
 
294 COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 rule should not exceed throe digits. A few examples involv- 
 ing larger divisors may be given for the purpose of testing the 
 power of pupils. 
 
 417. GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 1. Needed reviews on, and amplification of, work on observar 
 
 tions; geography. 
 
 2. Work on geographical stories continued, (read by pupils). 
 
 3. Lessons on the globe. 
 
 a. Shape and size of the earth. 
 
 b. The rotation of the earth on its axis and the effects of 
 
 the rotation. 
 
 c. The great land and water forms of the earth. 
 
 d. Transition of the globe to outline maps. 
 
 e. The races of men, and their distribution. 
 
 f. Lessons on the earth as the home of man. 
 
 4. Lessons on outline maps. 
 
 5. Elementary text book introduced. 
 
 Teach the use of the text book and do enough work with it 
 so that the pupils' work will be strong during the following 
 year. 
 
 418. SPELLING. 
 
 1. Oral spelling from speller twice per day. 
 
 2. Continue the oral spelling of difficult words from the read- 
 
 ing and other lessons. 
 
 419. WRITING. 
 
 1. Copy book No. 3. 
 
 2. Secure legibility. 
 
 3. Letter writing. 
 
 4. Insist on neatness and legibility in all written work. 
 
 420. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 See Common School Manual, numbers 273, 274, 275, 276. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 295 
 
 421. HISTORY. 
 
 1. Biographies of Captain John Smith, Daniel Bbone, Grant> 
 
 Morse, Whittier, Bryant, Webster. 
 
 2. Pioneer history stories of the Mississippi valley. 
 
 3. Stories of the Badger state. 
 
 The foregoing may be given in connection with, language 
 work and supplementary reading. 
 
 422. DRAWING, SINGING. 
 See Common School Manual. 
 
 FIFTH GRADE. 
 
 423. READING. 
 
 Supplementary Third Reader, and books of similar grade 
 from the school Library. 
 
 1. Continue work indicated in course of study for preceding 
 
 grade and teach use of dictionary for pronunciation and 
 as an aid in getting meanings of words. 
 
 2. Frequent exercises in sight reading from books in the school 
 
 library and from work previously gone over in the 
 readers. 
 
 3. Choice selections memorized and recited. One exercise a 
 
 week may well be given to the recitation of memorized 
 selections. Train for good expression. 
 
 Several copies of an academio dictionary should be avail- 
 able for above work. 
 
296 COUESB or STUDY FOB STATE GRADES) SCHOOLS. 
 
 424. LANGUAGE. 
 
 1. Language book as a basis for work outlined below. 
 
 2. Continue work of letter writing, giving attention to para- 
 
 graphing, correct syllabication at end of line, pun etna 
 
 tion, capitalization and penmanship. 
 
 '). Drill on correct use of pronouns and the irregular verb*. 
 L Brief compositions on simple and familiar topics, suggested 
 
 in the reading and geography lessons. 
 .">. Have pupils write short compositions from brief outlines. 
 
 425. ABITIIMETIO. 
 
 1. Short,, sharp drills in the fundamental operations 
 
 2. Factors and factoring. 
 
 a. Tests of divisibility of numbers. 
 
 b. Prime factors to 100. 
 
 c. Separation of numbers into prime factors. 
 
 d. G. O. D. 
 a L. C. M. 
 
 3. Determine L. C. M. largely by inspection. Limit this work 
 
 to numbers whose L. O. M. does not exceed 144. Thor- 
 oughly master tables commonly used as liquid, dry, 
 linear, square and cubic measure, avoirdupois weight, 
 etc., and give practical problems involving reduction of 
 the same. Limit tables to those in common use, and to 
 two denominations in the same example or problem. 
 
 426. GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 
 
 1 . Primary text book in geography completed. 
 ) . Supplementary readings from library. 
 
 a. Pay special attention to the physical features ns de- 
 
 termining climate and hence productions. 
 
 b. Teach a few cities but dwell upon map forms, large 
 
OOUKSE OF STUDY FOB STATE GRADED SCHOOl^S. 297 
 
 areas of productions and what is done with prod- 
 ucts; the work of man, 
 
 c. Use library books in teaching how raw materials are 
 manufactured, land irrigated, harbors deepened, 
 mountains tunneled, land cultivated, etc. 
 
 427. SPELLING. 
 
 1. Have oral spelling from a speller. 
 
 2. Continue the oral spelling of difficult worda from the read- 
 
 ing lesson* 
 
 428. WRITING. 
 
 1. Copy book No. 4. 
 
 2. Movement drills. 
 
 3. Business forms, letter writing, and composition. 
 
 The penmanship of pupils in this grade should be uniformly 
 good. The estimate of the pupil's standing in penmanship 
 should be based as much upon his habitual performance as 
 shown in his daily written work, as upon his special penman- 
 ship papers. 
 
 429. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 1. Digestion.. 
 
 a. The organs of digestion briefly described. 
 
 b. The work of each of these organs. 
 
 c. Good habits of eating; some bad but common habits of 
 
 eating. The effect of bad foods and stimulants upon 
 the organs and upon the process of digestion. Wlirn 
 to take exercise. The kinds of food needed by the 
 body, and the purposes for which they are requira!. 
 
 See Common School Manual, number 277. 
 
298 COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 2. Breathing. 
 
 a. The structure of the lungs. 
 
 b. Function of the lungs and how they perform it. 
 
 c. Proper habit of breathing. Keeping the lungs free 
 
 from pressure. The effects of bad air. Need of 
 pure air. How to keep the air pure in and about 
 our houses. Helpful breathing exercises. See Com- 
 mon School Manual, number 279. 
 
 3. The circulation. 
 
 a. The heart, arteries, veins, and blood. 
 
 b. The office of the blood. Its relation to digestion and 
 
 breathing. The manner of its circulation. 
 
 c. How the quality of clothing and the manner in which 
 
 it is worn affect the circulation. How alcohol and 
 narcotics impoverish the blood, make it impure and 
 retard the circulation. Danger of blood poisoning 
 in various ways. The good and bad effects of exer- 
 cise. Common School Manual, numbers 278, 281, 
 281a,, 289. 
 
 4. The nerves. 
 
 a. A brief general study of the nervous system including 
 
 the nerves and chief nerve centers. The nature of 
 nerve tissue. 
 
 b. The chief office of the nervous system. Some of its 
 
 special offices. 
 
 c. How the nerves are affected by fatigue of the body, 
 
 by overworking the mind; by cheerfulness, or a lack 
 of it The necessity of regular and sufficient sleep 
 and exercise. How alcoholic liquors, tobacco and 
 other stimulants and narcotics injure the nerves and 
 through them disturb the functions of other organs. 
 See Common School Manual, numbers 282, 283, 
 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 290, 291. 
 
 430. HISTORY. 
 
 1. Study of biography and great events in the United States 
 history continued. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY FOE STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 299 
 
 2. American inventions and inventors. 
 
 Use an elementary text which is written in biographical 
 form. See following suggestions. 
 
 Let the pupils reproduce orally and in writing the portions 
 studied. 
 
 Language and History. 
 
 The work in history in all grades below the sixth consists of 
 biographical sketches of great men, interesting historical 
 stories, and tales of travel. This work makes the best possible 
 basis for language work and should be conducted largely as a 
 language exercise. Have the pupils tell these stories without 
 interruption. Questions should come after story is completed, 
 for the purpose of bringing out points omitted. Have the 
 oral exercises followed by written exercises* 
 
 SIXTH GEADE. 
 
 431. READING. 
 
 Fourth reader and supplementary work in books of a similar 
 grade found in the school library. Geographical readers on 
 Western continent. 
 
 1. Intelligent reading insisted upon as a basis for expressive 
 
 reading. Meaning of words, phrases, clauses, and sen- 
 tences must be clear to the pupil in order that he may 
 read intelligently. The study of the dictionary by the 
 pupil must be supplemented by the teacher's instruction 
 in the meaning of words and expressions. 
 
 2. Careful preparation for each day's reading lesson should be 
 
 insisted upon by the teacher. Unless the teacher makes 
 definite assignment of work to be prepared the pupils can- 
 not be held responsible for preparation. 
 
300 COURSE OF STUDY FOB STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 3. Reading of library books by pupils for pleasure as well a* 
 
 for information; this reading should be done at homo an.l 
 in school outside the period devoted to the reading rod ra- 
 tion. Pupils may report orally on thi# reading during 
 the language recitation period. 
 
 4. One exercise a week in the recitation oi selections memo- 
 
 rized, 
 
 432. LANGUAGE, 
 
 1. Language Book. 
 
 2. Continue work of writing compositions fi-wri outlines. 
 
 3. Have pupils write compositions based OE their own exper- 
 
 ienca 
 
 4. Secure definite and orderly arrangement <> oral and written 
 
 expression. 
 
 5. Combine short, simple sentences into easy connected dis- 
 
 course. 
 C. Analysis of simple sentences. 
 
 433. ARITHMETIC. 
 
 1. Fractions. 
 
 a, Nature of fractions. 
 
 b. Reduction of fractions. 
 
 o. Reduction of improper fractions to whole or mixed 
 
 numbers. 
 
 d. Addition and subtraction of fractions, 
 a Multiplication and division of fractions. 
 f. Practical problems by teacher and puplils, based on 
 
 the foregoing. 
 
 2. Continue writing of bills, accounts, orders, a;id receipts. 
 Master thoroughly the principles by means of fractions hav 
 
 ing small denominators. Xine-tenths of the work in fractions 
 should be done with denominators not to exceed 21. Reduc- 
 tion of fractions is the principal unit. When that is thor- 
 
OODRSB OF STUDY FOE STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 301 
 
 "uglily understood, addition and subtraction will not present 
 any difficulty. 
 
 3. Decimals, 
 
 a. Nature of decimals. 
 
 b. Reading and writing of decimals. 
 
 c. System of decimal notation, extended to decimal frac- 
 
 tions. 
 
 d. Addition and subtraction of decimals, 
 a Multiplication of decimals. 
 
 f. Division of decimals. 
 
 g. Reduction of decimals to common fractions and of 
 
 common fractions to decimals. 
 
 h. Practical problems formulated by teacher and pupils, 
 based on the foregoing. 
 
 4. Continue the work on tables in common use. Give practical 
 
 work only in denominate numbers. Restrict to two 
 denominations in a problem or exampla 
 
 434. GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 1 . Advanced text book in Geography. 
 
 2. Supplementary geographical readers. 
 
 a. Western hemisphere completed by the tracing and 
 
 sketching method, special attention being given to 
 the United States. 
 
 b. Have pupils compare the conditions of the section un- 
 
 der study with others producing a like product 
 
 c. Great care should be taken not to give too many cities 
 
 and details but rather fix thoroughly the physical 
 features, the great routes of commerce, occupations 
 of the people and large cities. 
 
 d. A carefully prepared map with special study on Wis- 
 
 consin. 
 
302 COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 435. SPELLING. 
 
 1. Have oral spelling once per day from a speller. 
 
 2. Continue the oral spelling of difficult words from the read- 
 
 ing lesson. 
 
 3. Drill on words frequently misspelled. 
 
 436. WRITING. 
 
 1. Movement drills. 
 
 2. Commercial papers and other forms of composition. 
 
 3. Secure speed. 
 
 4. Use period for penmanship in movement drills, secure an 
 
 easy fore arm movement, correct position and rapid legi- 
 ble writing. 
 
 437. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 1. Regular recitations frbm an elementary texffc. Complete 
 
 the text, following the order there given. 
 
 2. Review. Enlarge upon, but follow order of topics suggested 
 
 for fourth and fifth grades. 
 
 See Common School Manual, numbers 292-305 inclusive. 
 
 438. HISTORY. 
 
 Reading of and reports on books on history from the school 
 
 library. 
 The outline in history for this grado is light on account of the 
 
 heavy work in physiology. 
 Assign books or p<arts of books for pupils to read at home. 
 
 Have reports both oral and written as often as convenient. 
 
 These reports may be given in language class. 
 
COUliSE OF STUDY FUR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 303 
 
 SEVENTH GRADE. 
 
 439. LITERATURE. 
 
 U?e several complete selections of standard literature which 
 will give variety and at the same time interest pupils and in- 
 troduce them to good literature. In these grades pupils should 
 become familiar with much that has been written by Ameri- 
 can authors. Systematic use of books in the school library 
 should be continued. 
 
 1. The historical, geographical, literary, and scientific allu- 
 
 sions found in the reading matter should be explained to 
 the extent necessary for an understanding and apprecia- 
 tion of the selection in which they occur. 
 
 2. The teacher should train pupils in such analysis of sen- 
 
 tences as is necessary to secure the correct interpretation, 
 and by questioning should test thoroughly the pupil's un- 
 derstanding of what is read. 
 
 3. Continued attention should be given to pronunciation, ar- 
 
 ticulation, quality of tone,, emphasis, and inflection in the 
 pupil's reading in order to secure good expression. 
 
 4. Weekly recitation of memorized selections continued. 
 Consult and follow plan and method outlined for work in 
 
 literature and literary reading in "Manual of the Free High 
 Schools." 
 
 When necessary select reading matter less difficult than that 
 indicated in the High School Manual. 
 
 440. GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. Complete the first half of any good grammar. 
 
 2. Write descriptive and narrative compositions, paying par- 
 
 ticular attention to the choice of words and expressions, 
 
 3. Write letters of introduction, recommendation, application, 
 
 formal invitations and replies, notes, bills, and receipts. 
 
504 OOUBJSIJ OF STUDY FOB 8TTE GBADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 441. AjtlTHMBTlO. 
 
 1. Briefly review essentials of sixth grade work. 
 
 2. Percentage. 
 
 a. Nature of percentage, 
 
 b. Percentage table of per cents and equivalent fractions. 
 
 c. The three general problems in percentage. 
 
 1. Finding any per cent of a number. 
 
 2. Finding what per cent one number is of another. 
 
 3. Finding the number when a given per cent of it 
 
 is known. 
 
 d. Applications of percentage not involving the element 
 
 of time. 
 1. Profit and loss. 
 
 2. Commercial discount* 
 
 3. Commission and brokerage, omitting problems in 
 
 buying where sum includes investment and com- 
 mission. 
 
 4. Insurance. 
 
 5. Taxes. 
 
 6. Customs and duties. 
 
 3. Applications of percentage involving the element of time. 
 
 a. Simple interest; one good method taught; interest 
 tables made and their use explained; promissory 
 notes studied, negotiable and non-negotiable, interest 
 bearing and non-interest bearing; indorsements; pro- 
 test 
 
 4. Needed reviews. 
 
 442. GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 1. Advanced textbook in Geography. 
 
 2. Supplementary Geographical readers. 
 
 a. Teach Europe. 
 
 b. Complete the other grand divisions in a similar 
 
 manner but do not give as extended work on 
 item. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 305 
 
 c. Teach comparative geography, especially of Eu- 
 
 rope and United States. 
 
 d. Pay much attention to the relative positions of 
 
 countries usin'g the southern line of Wisconsin, 
 Milwaukee or some prominent natural feature 
 of the United States with which to compare. 
 
 443. SPELLING. 
 
 1. Oral spelling from speller and difficult words selected by 
 
 the teacher from the work of the class. 
 
 2. Much drill on difficult words. 
 
 3. Teach four or five simple rules of spelling and have pupils 
 
 illustrate the application of these rules to the words 
 spelled. 
 
 4. Written spelling from speller once per day. 
 
 444. WRITING. 
 
 1. ISTeerlrd drill and practice for those not exempt. 
 See outline for preceding grades. 
 
 445. HISTORY. 
 
 1. United States History to close of Revolutionary W T ar. Fol- 
 
 low text in use. 
 
 2. Review the foregoing under these heads : 
 
 a. Discovery and early exploration of America, and 
 
 causes which led different nations to plant colo- 
 nies. 
 
 b. Manner of life in different colonies, and the rela- 
 
 tions of colonists to the aboriginal races. 
 
 c. Conflicting claims of European nations, and the 
 
 final struggle for supremacy in North America. 
 
 21 C. 
 
306 COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 d. The causes of the revolutionary war, and the 
 
 growth of the desire for self-government, 
 
 e. Political history during and immediately follow- 
 
 ing the Revolution ; social disorder. 
 
 a. The Continental Congress, how constituted, 
 
 weakness. 
 
 b. Declaration of Independence. 
 
 o. Articles of Confederation origin, ratifica- 
 tion, significance, principal features. 
 
 d. Treaty and Alliance with France its mili- 
 
 tary, political and social effects. 
 
 e. Conventions of 1786 and 1787. 
 
 f. Ratification of the Constitution. 
 
 cr. Federal and Anti-Federal doctrines. 
 
 446, DRAWING, SINGING. 
 See Common School Manual. ' 
 
 EIGHTH GRADE. 
 
 447. LITERATURE. 
 (First half of year.) 
 
 See outline for seventh grada 
 
 448. ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 
 (Second half of year.) 
 
 Use text book. See outline in Manual for Common Schools. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 307 
 
 449. GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. Last half of any good grammar. 
 
 2. Continue composition work in similar manner to the work 
 
 in preceding grades. 
 
 3. Have pupils prepare outlines of subjects and write from 
 
 them. 
 
 4. Continue the writing of letters of introduction, recommend- 
 
 ation, etc., of the preceding grade. 
 
 5. Supplement the exercises in analysis and parsing by work 
 
 selected from the reading lessons. 
 
 450. ARITHMETIC. 
 
 1. Briefly review essentials of seventh grade work in percent- 
 
 age. 
 
 2. Applications of percentage involving the element of time, 
 
 a. Partial payments. Work solely by the United States 
 
 rule. Do not make the work too difficult, but bring 
 in cases of payments less than interest due. 
 
 b. Bank discount. Limited to finding the bank discount 
 
 on sums due at maturity. 
 
 c. True present worth. 
 
 d. Compound interest: nature and use of tables. 
 
 3. Practical measurements, including elements of longitude 
 
 and time. Pupils should be required to measure yards, 
 houses, rooms, etc., and to determine from the data thus 
 obtained the area, cost of fencing, cost of shingling, cost 
 of painting schoolhouse, cost of laying a new floor, cost of 
 papering room, etc. 
 
 4. Square and cube root, ratio and proportion. 
 
 5. Continue writing of commercial papers and practical prob- 
 
 lems formulated by teacher and pupils, based on the fore- 
 going. 
 G. Needed reviews. 
 
451. SPELLING. 
 
 1. Apply rules learned in previous grade to words in connec- 
 
 tion with other studies. 
 
 2. Have pupils keep a list of misspelled words and the teacher 
 
 give drills upon this list. 
 
 3. Drill on difficult words from other studies. 
 
 452. WRITING. 
 
 1. deeded drill and practice for those not exempt. 
 S<.'o outline for preceding grades. 
 
 453. HISTORY. 
 
 First two terms. 
 
 1. Review articles of confederation, constitutional convention, 
 
 ratification and constitution, federal and anti-federal doc- 
 trines. 
 
 2. Study constitutional period. Follow the text in use. 
 
 3. Heview periods under these heads: 
 
 a:. Political parties: origin, principles, leaders, growth. 
 
 b. Slavery ; measures favoring extension ; measures re- 
 
 stricting it Effect of each. 
 
 c. Civil War : causes ; leading campaigns ; reconstruc- 
 
 tion. 
 
 d. Territorial acquisitions; what? when? why? 
 
 s. Industrial progress: inventions; improvement in 
 travel, manufacturing, farming, building, housekeep- 
 ing, education, etc. 
 
 454. PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Last term-. 
 Review thoroughly and enlarge upon outline for sixth grade. 
 
OOUBS3 OF STUDY FOK STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. SOU 
 
 455. CONSTITUTION'. 
 First two terms. 
 
 UNITED STATES CONSITUTION. 
 
 1. Preamble. 
 
 Source of power recognized, purpose stated. 
 
 2. Legislative: 
 
 a. Reasons for having two houses, membership, organiza- 
 
 tion, limitations, special powers; method of lawmak- 
 
 in g- 
 
 b. Powers most used and most abused, most expansive. 
 
 c. "General welfare" clause, elasticity. 
 
 d. Impeachment 
 
 3. Executive: 
 
 a. Elections; what complications have arisen, and what 
 
 remedies have been applied ; conventions, national 
 and state. 
 
 b. Powers and duties; special attention to the origin, ex- 
 
 tent and limitations of the appointing power; Civil 
 Service Commission. 
 
 4. Judicial: 
 
 a. How judges are selected, term of office. 
 
 b. Courts, kinds and relations, powers. 
 
 5. Sovereignty: 
 
 a. Supreme law of the land; reserve powers, provisions 
 relating to states, officials and individuals; control 
 of territory and admission of states, guaranty of re- 
 publican government, citizenship, suffrage. 
 
 6. Amendments: 
 
 a. Process of making; what changes have been effected, 
 especially by later amendments. 
 
 The general organization and work of the several executive 
 departments; as the Postoffice, Weather Bureau, various offices 
 in the Treasury Department; the President's Message. 
 
olO COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 WISCONSIN CONSTITUTION. 
 
 Follow the above specifications so far as applicable, with 
 special attention to articles on Declaration of Rights, Execu- 
 tive, Administrative, and Legislative Departments; Education 
 and Finance. 
 
 456. ORTHOEPY. 
 Last term. 
 
 1. A brief study of the organs of voice and organs of speech 
 
 with special reference to the correct use of these organs 
 in producing the elementary sounds. 
 
 2. Drill on diacritical marks and the elementary sounds which 
 
 they represent. Pupils should be able to write readily, 
 lists of diacritical marks with corresponding key- words; 
 also tables of substitute vowel sounds, (different vowels 
 marked so as to represent the same sound). 
 
 3. Teach the simple principles of syllabication and accent. 
 
 4. Teach and apply rules for marking vowels in accented syl- 
 
 lables, also the most important rules for marking vowels 
 in unaccented syllables. Considerable time should be 
 spent in systematic analysis of words, applying rules re- 
 ferred to above. Use simple words until rules and their 
 applications are thoroughly mastered; then drill upon 
 troublesome words often mispronounced. 
 
 NOTE. It is, of course, understood that teachers must give 
 drill upon diacritical marks and the sounds which they repre- 
 sent ; through the entire course in connection with reading, but 
 experience has proved that a term at the end of the course can 
 be well spent in rounding up this work. Too many graduates 
 are found deficient in pronunciation. 
 
 Our public school system has differentiated itself into four 
 distinct steps, each having its own course of study; the rural 
 school, state graded school, three year course high school, and 
 
COURSE OF STUDY FOE STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 311 
 
 four year course high school. In general the three year high 
 school stage seems the least satisfactory in the development of 
 the system, notwithstanding the fact that there are some strong 
 three year high schools. This form of school was originally 
 intended as a stepping stone to a complete four year school. 
 In Minnesota it has entirely disappeared. Much of the weak- 
 ness has been due to lack of teaching force. In many of these 
 schools the high school boards are this year for the first time, 
 providing assistants, and no doubt a large percentage will be 
 found to be in a much improved condition. Nevertheless the 
 three year school may be safely counted a temporary stage. It 
 seems a wise policy to caution graded schools against hurrying 
 into the three year high school stage. A strong graded school 
 can do more efficient work than a poor three year high school. 
 Before attempting to organize a high school, it ought to be rea- 
 sonably certain that local conditions will, in a very short time, 
 assure a four year course with an assistant principal. The fol- 
 lowing year's work is designed for state graded schools that 
 find it necessary to do work beyond the graded school proper. 
 The consent of the state department should always be obtained 
 before attempting to do any of this work. In the revising of 
 the course of study algebra and physical geography have been 
 taken out of the eighth grade and history and constitution have 
 been given more time. Arithmetic, orthoepy, and physiology 
 have been put into the eighth year. 
 
312 COURSE OF STUDY FOR STATE GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 NINTH GRADE. 
 
 457. First Term. 
 
 Algebra. 
 
 Physical Geography. 
 Grammar and Composition. 
 Literary Reading. 
 
 458. Second Term. 
 
 Algebra, 
 
 Physical Geography. 
 Grammar and Composition. 
 Literary Reading. 
 
 459. Third Term. 
 
 Algebra- 
 Elements of Agriculture. 
 Grammar and Composition. 
 Literary Reading. 
 
 NOTE. The ninth grade work corresponds with the first 
 year of high school work. For suggestions see High School 
 Manual. 
 

 

 
 
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