UC-NRLF

^B '^^ "^"^t.

TFE

BOOK OF COIVBiERCE

SEA AND LAND,

EXHIBITING ITS CONNECTION ^^ ITH

AGRICULTURE, THE ARTS, A sD MANUFACTURES.

TO y'hl-.u ARE A^T'ED

A HISTORY OF COMMERCE,

A 1 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

I PHILADELPHIA :

\ URIAH HUNT & SON, U^M- FOURTH STREET,

j aNU iK)R SALE BV BOOKSELLERS OENERAi LY J HROUGUO'JT THE UNITED STa

\ .. 18.3(i.

J I

THE LIBRARY

THE UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND

MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

THE

BOOK OF COI^IMERCE

■' BY •

SEA AND LAND,

«•

EXHIBITING ITS CONNECTION WITH

AGRICULTURE, THE ARTS, AND MANUFACTURES.

TO WHICH ARE ADDED

A HISTORY OF COMMERCE,

\ND A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

PHILADELPHIA:
URIAH HUNT 8c SON, 44 N. FOURTH STREET,

AND FOR SALE BV BOOKSELLERS GENERALLY THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES.

Ektered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1836, by

URIAH HUNT,

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.

KITE & WALTON. PRINTERS,

No. 50, North Fourth Street.

PREFACE.

There are few words of more extensive signification than the
word CoxMMERCE. If a person will visit a large seaport, crowded
with vessels from all parts of the earth, and consider the multitude
of articles which they transport across the ocean, he may form some
vague idea, not only of the immense value, but also of the infinite
variety of the merchandise, which it is the business of Commerce to
distribute throughout the world.

But to form a more definite conception of the subject, let a
person pass through one of the streets in Boston, New York, or
Philadelphia, devoted to the retail trade. Enter for instance a single
shop, devoted to one class of goods; — how great is the variety! If
the goods are groceries, there are sugars fit)m Louisiana, and the
West Indies, teas from China, figs from Smyrna, oranges and lemons
from Portugal, whines from France, pepper and spices from the islands
of the Pacific, and a multitude of other things, some from one hemi-
sphere, and some from the other; some from climes where the sum*
mer never ceases to shed its prolific influences, and some from regions
of snow and frost, where winter « holds perpetual sway : ' some are
sent to us by nations or tribes, who have carried the arts to the high-
est pitch of perfection, while others are supplied by half civilized
men, or perhaps by wandering savages.

4 PREFACE.

How many and how interesting then, are the topics which are
suggested by a history of the articles in a grocer's shop ? If we pro-
ceed further, the subject only expands, and grows more varied and
more curious.

This little book is devoted to a description of the leading-
articles of commerce ; including an account of their mode of cultiva
tion, preparation, or manufacture ; where they are found ; where and
to what extent they are exported, &.c. It embraces a description of
some of the most interesting productions of the animal, mineral, and
vegetable kingdom, with a view of the uses to which man has turned
them, and the arts by which they are thus converted to the purposes
of want or luxury. From the foregoing suggestions, the reader will
see that the subject is of great extent and importance, and we trust
that from the manner it is treated in the following pages, it may
prove both instructive and entertaining to the youthful reader.

It is of course impossible, in a volume of a size adapted to youth-
ful reading, to give extensive accounts of a great variety of articles.
We have chosen a medium, and sought to combine a good degree of
particularity, with a full list of subjects. If some descriptions are
thought brief, the reader will consider them only as hints, to excite
curiosity, and lead to further investigation.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMERCE ARTICLES

OF FOOD

CHAPTER II.

ARTICLES OF FOOD Cowtihubd. -

CHAPTER III.

ARTICLES OF FOOD Continued.

CHAPTER IV.

ARTICLES OF FOOD.— Continued.

CHAPTER V.

SALT, SPICES, &c. - - -

CHAPTER VI.

TEA, COFFEE, &c. - - -

CHAPTER VII

CIDER, BEER, &c. - - -

Page

CHAPTER VIII.

WINES.

CHAPTER IX.

DISTILLED SPIRITS. -

CHAPTER X.

ARTICLES OF CLOTHING. -

CHAPTER XI.,

ARTICLES OF CLOTHING.— Continued.

CHAPTER XII.

BILKS, VELVETS, &c.

CHAPTER XIII.

CARPETS, HOSIERY, &c.

CHAPTER XIV.

FURS, &c. -

FEATHERS

CHAPTER XV

CHAPTER XVI.

PERFUMES, &c. -

CHAPTER XVII.

CHINA, POTTERY WARE, &c.

CHAPTER XVIII.

GLASS WARE. - - - -

CHAPTER XIX.

IVORY, JEWELRY, &c.

CHAPTER XX.

PEARLS AND PRECIOUS STONES. -

CHAPTER XXI.

PRECIOUS METALS. - - -

CHAPTER XXII.

USEFUL METALS.

CHAPTER XXIII.

USEFUL METALS.— Continued.

CHAPTER XXIV

COAL.

CHAPTER XXV.

GRANITE, MARBLE, &c.

CHAPTER XXVI.

WOODS.

CHAPTER XXVII.

WOODS.— Continued.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

DRUGS, MEDICINES, &c.

CHAPTER XXIX.

WHALE FISHERY.

CHAPTER XXX.

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTIONS. -

Pago
54

5S
61

69 '

100

105

109

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXXI.

MIS(^ELLANEOUS PRODUCTIONS.-Coktikoed. 113

CHAPTER XXXn.

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTIONS.— Cowtiitobd. 116

CHAPTER XXXni.

MODES OF CONVEYANCE. - - - 120

CHAPTER XXXIV.

MODES OF CONVEYANCE.— Continued.

125

CHAPTER XXXV.

FACILITIES FOR PROSECUTING COMMERCE. 130

CHAPTER XXXVI.

BANKS, tc .... 135

CHAPTER XXXVII.

DOCKS, WHARVES. TELEGRAPHS, &c - 137

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

CUSTOMS, TARIFF &c. - mt

CHAPTER XXXIX.

HISTORY OF COMMERCE. - - 14J

CHAPTER XL.

HISTORY OF COMMERCE.— Co KTitroED. - 151

CHAPTER XLI.

HISTORY OF COMMERCE.— Continued. - 250

CHAPTER XLII

HISTORY OF COMMERCE.— Continued. 161

CHAPTER XLIII.

HISTORY OF COMMERCE — Cowtiwuid I6<

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

CHAPTER I.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMERCE.-ARTICLES OF FOOD.

1. I am sure that my young readers
cannot fail to be interested in an account
of that extensive branch of human indus-
try, which is one of the chief sources of
the comforts wh'ch they enjoy It is
by our intercourse with neighboring and
foreign places, that most of the common
necessaries of life are now obtained. It
has been said, that the supper of the poor-
est artisan has cost the labor of many
hundred hands. If we think of nothing
but the tea and the sugar, this may be fair-
ly asserted. For consider the toil of those
who prepare these articles, the merchants
by whom they are shipped, the sailors who
must help to bring them to our shores, not
to speak of the carpenters, blacksmiths,
and other people who must first build the
vessel, — and you will perceive the truth
of the remark.

2. But commerce does not contribute to
our bodily wants and comforts alone. It
has an immense influence upon the civil-
isation and mental improvement of a peo-
ple. By its aid, the seeds of religion and
knowledge are scattered over the globe ;
the cause of science is strengthened and
advanced ; and the researches and disco-
veries of great men of every nation are
brought together for the general benefit
and good of mankind.

Questions. 1 . What is said of the importance
of commerce ? 2. Its effects upon civilisation ?
3. Where is wheat thought to have been origin-

WHEAT.

3. This important article, from which our
daily bread is prepared, may naturally claim
our attention first. Africa is thought to be
the native place of wheat ; but it will grow
in almost any climate. In Europe, the
grand supply, in times of scarcity, is from
Poland ; and the principal port for this
trade is Dantzic, near the mouth of the
Vistula, in the Baltic. Many of the PoHsh
nobles have vast territorial domains, on
which grain is grown in such abundance
that they cannot use half of it ; yet they
take no measures to dispose of this super-
fluity. If the English suspect a want
of it, they send to Dantzic, where vast
magazines are kept constantly full of
wheat ; or they travel up the country, and
bargain for so much as they find, to be
sent to Dantzic.
buy, the wheat
lost.

4. Much wheat is sent to Europe and
other countries from North America ; but
it is generally exported in the form of
flour. The soil of the United States is
well adapted to the growing of wheat ; and
the states of Delaware, Maryland, New
York and Pennsylvania produce it in very
great quantities. The cultivation of it
gives employment to numerous individu-

But if no one comes to
is scattered about and

ally produced ? What country of Europe affords
the grand supply ? 4. What is said of the ex
portation of wheat from this country? What

BOCK or COMMERCE.

als ; and thousands of acres are covered
by its growth.

5. Sicily was long the granary of the
Grecian states, and afterwards of the Ro-
mans. When the Romans had conquered
Egypt, the prolific soil of that country sup-
plied them. Any hinderance in these sup-
plies created a famine at Rome; and a
sedition among the populace was the usual
consequence.

6. The ancients fabled that the god-
dess Ceres first taught men to sow grain.
She came from Sicily. Wheat is said
to be her daughter; and as that lies so
many months buried in the earth, the
poets imagined that Pluto, god of the in-
fernal regions, ran away with her ; though
at last he agreed to let her continue
above ground all the summer months.
The name of this daughter of Ceres was
Proserpine.

FLOUR.

7. Flour is the meal of wheat finely
ground and sifted. It is exported in barrels
from many parts of the United States ; and
is one of the staple commodities of the
country. Some of the principal -flour
mills are those of Brandy wine in Dela-
ware and of Rochester in New York ;
these are the most extensive, but there are
large flour mills in most of the southern
states. Many of these mills are so con-
states produce it in the largest quantities? 5.
What is said of Sicily ? 6. The fable of the an-

trived that the wheat is carried by ma-
chinery to one of the upper rooms and
there ground; it then falls into a room
below and is sifted or bolted, and falling
still lower is received into the barrels,
and there packed and headed ready for
shipping, and the whole process, which
formerly occupied a considerable time,
is now by the aid of new machinery,
reduced to the work of a few min-
utes.

MAIZE.

8. Indian corn, or maize, is a native pro-
duction of North America, and till visited
by the Europeans it was the main depend-
ence of the Indians ibr food. They were
accustomed to boil it, and eat it when soft.
They have now learned to make bread of
it. Immense quantities of this corn are
raised in Ohio and other of the western
states. Like flour it is ground, and vast
quantities of it are shipped as corn meal
from the southern to the northern states.
Corn meal is not however so great an ar-
ticle of commerce as flour, as it is. more
liable to be aflfected by heat, and rendered
sour and unfit for use.

BARLEY.

9. This well known species of grain is
raised in great quantities, both in North
America and Europe. It is the principal
ingredient of beer and ale ; and all sorts
of malt liquor are extracted from it. It is
also tolerably good for making bread, par-
ticularly if mixed with the med of some
other grain. More than thirty million
bushels of barley are annually converted
into malt in Great Britain.

RICE.

10. Rice is a plant very much resembling
wheat in shape, color, and the figure of
its leaves. The stem does not much ex-
ceed three feet in height. Rice for the
most part requires a low and moist soil

cients ? 7. What is flour ? What are some of
the principal flour-mills in the United State*?

ARTICLES OF FOOD.

but there is a sort grown on the higher
lands, which is in great esteem.

11. In China the rice crop is of great
Importance ; it forms the principal part of
the food of the inhabitants ; and, as much
©f the land lies flat and low and the coun-
try is plentifully intersected by canals, it
has an excellent opportunity for irrigation.
From the time the seed is sown, till it is
almost ripe, it requires the fields to be
r-overed with one entire sheet of water.

12. The rivers of China annually over-
flow these low grounds, bringing with
ihem a rich manure of mud ; and when
ihe mud has lain a few days, the Chinese
prepare to plant the rice. They enclose a
piece of ground with a clay -bank ; they
plough up the soil, and harrow it, with the
help of buffaloes. The grain is sprinkled
rather thickly over the field, and imme-
diately a sheet of water is let in, which
covers the whole to the depth of a few
inches. Channels are cut from the rivers
and canals to effect this. Where the
grounds lie too high for the rivers to over-
flow them, water is raised by pumps and
other hydraulic machines, for this purpose.
Sometimes, a chain of pumps is construct-
ed, each one raising the water a little, till
the proper height is gained. This is, how-
ever, only a preparatory seed-bed.

13. The ground is next prepared for
the main crop, by ploughing, harrowing,
and laying it level. As soon as the plants
in the seed-plot are about seven inches
high, they are plucked up by the roots,
and planted separately, in rows, either in
furrows, or in holes about six inches
asunder. Water is again brought over the
whole field, which is divided by low clay-
banks into smaller plots, to which the
water is conveyed by channels, at pleasure.
As the rice grows and ripens the water

8. What is said of maize ? 9. Barley ? 10. Rice ?
11. What is said of tlie rice-crop in China? 12.
13. How do the Chinese cultivate their rice ?

dries away. So that the crop when ripe,
covers dry ground. The rice is reaped
with a small toothed sickle.

14. Neither carts nor cattle are used to
carry away the crop ; the sheaves are laid
upon frames, which are carried, one hang-
ing at each end of a pole or bamboo, on a
man's shoulder. Sometimes these sheaves
are threshed out with a flail ; sometimes
the ends are beaten against a board set up
on its edge, or against the sides of a tub ;
or, more frequently, the sheaves are laid
on the ground, in a circle, and oxen are
driven over them, to tread out the grain.

15. The grain is separated from the
husk, frequently by pounding in a sort
of mortar. A heavy stone fastened to a
lever is raised, by a man treading on the
other end. In some cases, mills are built,
which lift up these levers, perhaps twenty
at a time. Sometimes the rice is ground
between two flat stones, kept so far asunder
as not to crack the grain itself. As the
first crop ripens in May, the ground is im-
mediately prepared for a second, which is
reaped about October.

16. Half the people of Asia live upon
rice. It is almost the only food in many
parts of Africa, especially among the
Moors, in the northern provinces. Great
quantities are also carried to Eux-ope,
where it is in high esteem. In some
countries, fowls and meat are stewed with
the rice, and served up altogether.

17. In 1697, rice was carried to South
Carolina, where the soil and temperature
have suited it so well, that it has become
a great addition to the products of that
state. The grain grown there is larger
than that which comes from the East
Indies ; which, added to its swelling and
softening more, in the cooking, makes it
in higher repute.

! 14. What is done with the sheaves ? 15. How is

the grain separated from the husk ? 16. Is rice

I much an article of food? 17. When was rice

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

18. The lands which produce rice are
more numerous and more fertile in the
southern parts of North America, than in
any other part of the world. Along the
whole coast from the bay of Delaware to
the Gulf of Mexico, there is almost one
continued tract of rice-fields. The rice-
fields, or marshes of Virginia alone pro-
duce more rice than is sufficient to supply
all the people of America.

19. There is also in the inland parts of
North America, a description of wild rice,
which has been found of great use to the
new settlers, as affording them a supply,
till their lands could be made productive.
It grows in places where the water is
about two feet deep. The Indians gather
it thus : about the time that it begins to
ripen from its milky state, they go into the

midst of it in their canoes. They tie to-
gether large bunches of it, just below the
ears, or panicles ; in about a month it be-
comes quite ripe, and hard. Then, near
the end of September, they return, and
running their canoes under these several
bunches, they beat the grain out, and
catch it as it falls. Thej^ then dry it in
smoke, and rub or tread off the husk.

20. Besides the places already mention-
ed, the common rice thrives well in Spain,
Italy and other parts of Europe.

carried to South Carolina ? 18. Is rice success^
fully raised in this country ? 19. What is said
of wild rice <' 20. In what other countries does

SAGO.

21. Sago is the pith of a tree, which
grows in the East Indies, chiefly in the
Spice Islands, and is a species of palm.
The fruit of the tree is worth nothing as
food ; the only eatable part being the pith,
which fills the inner part of it. The bark
is about an inch thick, and covers an as-
semblage of long fibres, interwoven with
each other into a kind of net work, which
is enclosed and every where mingled with
a gummy powdery substance, almost like
meal.

22. The natives are obliged to destroy
the tree to get at this substance, which is
very important to them as a substitute for
bread ; besides being an article of exporta-
tion, as they send vast quantities of it to
Europe. The tree grows to be thirty or
forty feet high, and its diameter . is often
two feet. This large tree is cut down and
sawed into pieces, each about five or six
feet long ; and these are split, that they
may more easily strip off the bark, and get
at the mealy pith. This substance they
scrape out carefully, and soak, and wash
it in water, to get it quite clear from any
fibrous or woody matter that may adhere
to it. They then pound it in mortars,
and strain it through bags and cloths, as
the meal \vill run through with the water,
and leave the refuse behind, which is
thro\vn away. The meal thus becomes a
kind of paste, which may be eaten direct-
ly, or preserved for several years. When
they want to use it, they dilute it with
water, or bake or boil it, as they please.

23. That which is exported is first dried,
and hardened, in earthenware dishes, by

j means of fire. It is then a sort of bread,
I and will keep a great length of time, and
j in any climate. Sometimes they eat this
I sago bread just warm as it is baked, when

rice thrive ? 21. What is sago ? 22. How is it
i obtained ? Describe the tree which produces
! it. 23. How is sago prepared for exportation ?

ARTICLES OF FOOD.

it resembles our hot rolls. Should they
make the fire too fierce, the ends and
corners would be done too much, and be-
come a sort of jelly.

24. It comes to us in small grains,
somewhat resembling coriander seed. To
bring it to this state, they moisten it, and
then rub it through a sieve, into an iron
pan, under which is a fire ; which partly
hardens each drop as it falls ; thus the
•eparate grains are half baked ; in which
state it will keep a long while, if well de-
fended from the air ; otherwise it is liable
to become sour.

25. Three or four hundred weight of
•ago are often obtained from a single tree.
There is a species of sago brought from
the West Indies, but it is inferior to that
brought from the East.

PEAS AND BEANS.

26. The common peas when dried are in
considerable demand as food for cattle and
hogs. There is a better sort, which is in
use for the table. Beans are extensively
raised in New England. They form a
great article of food among the people,
and a ship's stores would be incomplete
without them.

BEEF AND PORK.

27. Considerable quantities of these arti-
cles are salted and packed in barrels and
half barrels in the northern and middle
states for home consumption, ship stores
and for exportation to the West Indies and
other places. Pork is extensively sent
from Ohio to New Orleans. Lard forms
a considerable article of commerce be-
tween the western, southern and eastern
states, and the West Indies. There is
a mode of preparing beef practised in
•South America, for preservation, by cur-
ing and drying. When so prepared it is

24. How does it come to us ? 25. What quantity
may be obtained from a single tree .' Where is it
brought from ? 27. Are beef and pork articles
of commerce ? What of lard ? 28. Cheese and
butter?

called jerked beef, and forms an import-
ant article for exportation.

CHEESE AND BUTTER.
28. Good cheeses are made in New Eng-
land, and other parts of the United States,
and exported to the West Indies. The
cheeses of Holland are held in the highest
esteem, and come to us usually in the
form of a pine-apple. The English cheese,
called Cheshire, acquires its peculiar fla-
vor chiefly from the marshes where the
cows which yield the milk feed. Butter
is an article of very general domestic pro-
duce, and is exported from the United
States in tubs or firkins to the West Indies,
South America and other places.

CHAP. II.

ARTICLES OF FOOD.— continued.

COD-FISH.

1. The general resort of the cod-fish is on
the banks of Newfoundland, and the other
sand-banks that lie ofl" the coasts of Cape
Breton, Nova Scotia and New England.
The grand sand-bank on which the cod-
fish are taken is represented as a vast sub-
marine mountain, of more than five hun-
dred miles in length, and nearly three hun-
dred miles broad. Seamen know when
they approach it by the great swell of
the sea, and the thick mists that impend
over it.

2. The labor of catching the cod-fish Is
very great, as they are caught singly wit!
the hook ; yet an active fisher may catcli\
three hundred, or more, in a day ; and hisV^
comfort is, they wiii not bite at night.
The weight of these fish, which are often
three feet long, and the great coldness of
the climate, render the work very fa-
tiguing. Six or seven hundred vessels

1. Where do the cod-fish generally resort.''
What is said of the Grand Bank ? 2. What of
catching cod-fisli r How many vessels may be
seen engaged at a time in the business f 3. What
is done with the fish when caught f When is the

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

may be seen at a time engaged in this pra-
fitable work ; in size, from a hundred to
a hundred and fifty tons. As they gener-
ally succeed in taking thirty or forty thou-
sand fish each, the whole number taken is
immense ; though this varies at different
seasons, for the fish often change their
haunts. .

3. As the fish are taken, it is generally
the master's business to open them, cut
off the heads, and salt the carcasses. This
is done as soon as the fish is caught ; and
the success of the concern depends on his
skill and care in these particulars. They
are then stowed in the hold to drain ; after
which they are stripped, salted, and drain-
ed again. The best season for fishing is
from the earlier part of February to the
end of April ; as at that time the cod,
which had retired to the deeper parts of
the sea, return to these shallow banks, and
grow large and fat very fast. Such as. are
caught later are good, but will not keep
so long, especially if caught in the warmer
month.

4. When several vessels arrive to fish
together, he who first touches ground be-
comes a sort of admiral, and takes his
choice of station, and of the wood to be

cut on the island. They each raise a tent
on shore, with large scaffolding of fir-

nest season for fishing? 4. What is the practice
when several vessels arrive to fish together ?
5. What is done when the cod are to be dried ?

trees, covered with their sails ; for they
unrig their vessels, and leave nothing but
the masts and shrouds standing during
their operations of fishing.

5. When the cod are to be dried, they
bring on shore every day what they have
caught, each crew to their own tent.
There they are salted, and dried in thf»
sun, being laid out on stages, and turned
several times a df^^ They are next laid
in heaps, and saWd^^ain, till properly
prepared. They SfPe finally stowed on
board ship, and carried to the several
markets.

SHAD.

6. The shad of America is a very supe-
rior fish, and is abundant in the northern
rivers. Those of the middle states are
much esteemed, and when salted and bar-
relled command a jrood price. These fish

are chiefly taken during the months of
April and May.

SALMON.
7. The salmon, though a salt-water fish,
swims up our rivers to spawn. They are
caught on their return in great numbers.
The rivers of Maine are plentifully sup-
plied with this fish, which the first of the
season bring a high price in the great
cities, where they are transported, having
been packed in ice for preservation. This

1 6. What is said of the shad ? When are these
I fish generally taken ? 7. What of the salmon >
1 Mention the different methods of taking this fish

ARTICLES or FOOD.

ALMONDS.

7. The tree which produces almonds
nearly resembles the peach both in leaves
and blossoms It grows spontaneously only
in warm countries, as Spain, and particular-
ly Barbary. The aimond harvest in the
island of Majorca, is a very merry season.
Almonds are of two kinds, sweet and bit-
ter; the Jordan almond is of the highest
({uality, aed the bitter almonds are most-
ly from Barbary. The best almonds are
exported from Malaga. In medicine, the
oil drawn from almonds is found useful ;
and that extracted from the bitter one, if
dropped into the ear, proves efficacious in
cases of deafness.

FIGS.

8. Figs are much cultivated in the Archi-
pelago, where they serve almost as bread
to the inhabitants. The best are those
which come from Turkey packed in cases
or drums. While fresh they are excellent
eating ; and like grapes, they are dried
sometimes in the sun, and sometimes by
lire. They are covered with the candy of
their own sweetness, and are full of a de-
licious seedy pulp. Figs of a good qual-
ity grow in the southern states.

PRUNES.

9. Prunes were once plums. Some very
rich ones, neatly done up in little baskets,
are called French plums. The prunes
have been dried in an oven. They come
to us chiefly from Bourdeaux.

ORANGES.

10. Oranges are thought to have been
originally brought from China. They were
introduced into Portugal many years ago ;
and it is said that the very tree first plant-
ed there is still alive ; and it is that from
which all the orange-trees of Europe have
been produced. A great many oranges
are brought from Seville in Spain, and the

of the almond tree ? What kinds of almonds are

there .' Whence do the best almonds come ? Is

'he oil of any use ? 8. What is said of figs, and

hence are the best iigs brought.' 9. What of

Island of Malta, situated in the Mediterra-
nean furnishes an abundance. Oranges

come to great perfection in the West In-
dies, and those of the Bermudas are of an
extraordinary size. Oranges are some-
times raised in green-houses with success ;
and they thrive tolerably well in the
southern states, but do not form an article
of extensive exportation from thence.
LEMONS.

11. The ports of Lisbon and Malaga are
the principal shipping-places of lemons ;
and they come packed in cases and boxes.
They are always shipped while green ;
and generally become quite yellow before
they reach this country. The lemons of
the Bermudas are large and of fine flavor.

CITRONS.

12. The citron is a sort of lemon, but
larger, finer, and more fragrant. They

prunes.' 10. From what country are orangeB
thought to have been originally brought ? What
countries export them principally? 11, From
what ports are lemons exported: How are ther-

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

are brought preserved from Madeira. They
grow likewise to great perfection in many-
parts of Italy.

PINE APPLE.
13. This fruit grows wild in Mexico,
South America, Africa, and the East and
West Indies. Hot-houses, and great care,
will ripen them in the north. The plant
itself is very stately, rising from a tuft of

long green leaves, with a stout stalk; the
fruit resembles in shape the cone of the
pine-tree, whence it has derived its name.
It is of a fine yellow color, and has a
coronet of green leaves adorning the top.
OLIVES.
14. The olea or olive-tree is a native of
the southern parts of Europe, and is exten-
sively cultivated in France, Italy, Portu-
gal and Spain. Olives have a bitter taste,
but pickled they prove more palatable.
A sweet oil is obtained from them when
pressed, which is in very general use.
What comes freely, with slight pressure,
is the finest and sweetest ; more pressure
with some heat, forces out a second sort,
not so pure ; and a third, still more
coarse, is obtained by the aid of hot water
and still greater force. Scarcely any veg-
etable produce is more used than oil ;
especially in those countries where the
climate is too warm for butter.

shipped? 12. What of citrons ? 13. In what coun-
tries does the pine apple groAv .' What is said
of the plant ? 14. What of the olive ? How is
sweet oil obtained ' 15. What are tamarinds ?

TAMARINDS.

15. These are the fruit of an Indian treo,
which grows very large, somewhat lika
the ash-tree. The fruit grows in clusters,
like a number of bean-pods tied together
about as long, and rather thicker, eacl
containing several stony seeds enclosed ir
a dark-colored pulp. Tamarinds are of f
cooling nature, and in sickness, help tt
allay the feverish thirst of the patient
The East India tamarinds are longer thar
the West India; the former containinf
six or seven seeds each, the latter rarej,-
above three or four.

DATES.

16. Dates are the fruit of a specie*
of palm-tree, which grows in Barbary ani
other parts of x\frica, and in Arabia. Thew
are of a sweetish taste and contain a ker
nel with a furrow running its whole length
The fruit is frequently imported into thi»
country.

COCOA-NUTS.

17. The cocoa-nut is the produce of a
tree, which is common in the West Indies,
Asia, the South Sea Islands, &c. It is
a woody fruit of an oval shape from four
to eight inches in length, covered with a
fibrous husk, and containing a white, firm
and fleshy kernel. The tree is a kind of
palm ; and the nuts hang from the summit
in clusters of a dozen or more together.
FILBERTS, WALNUTS, &c.

18. Among the other species of shelled
fruit which form a commercial commodity
amongst us, are the common filberts, wal-
nuts and chestnuts of this part of the
country, the ground-nuts of the southern
states, the pistachia-nuts of Sicily and
other warm climates, the castana-nut of
Louisiana and the West Indies, and many
others, which it is perhaps unnecessary to
enumerate.

How does the fruit grow ? Are the East India
longer than the W. India tamarinds.^ 16. Where
do dates come from : 17. What of cocoa-nuts .-*
18. What other nuts form with us articles of trade f

ARTICLES OF FOOD.

dCHAP. IV
ARTICLES OF FOOD.— Continued.

SUGAR.

1. Whether the sugar-cane is indigenous
to the West Indies has been a matter of
some dispute, aUliough authors generally
agree that it is found growing wild in both
continents of America. Yet it seems an
allowed fact, also, that, at a very early
period of the occupation of Ilispaniola, by
the Spaniards, Ovando, the governor, pro-
cured from the Canary Islands some plants
of the sugar-cane ; as a curiosity, perhaps
as a nicety. But the mode of procuring
sugar from it, which occasions its present
value and importance, does not appear to
Iiave been known, even if the plant were
common then. It is to the Spaniards
and Portuguese that we are indebted for
this process. The plant itself is eatable in
some states, and much sweet juice might
be extracted from it, in which form only it
was used for ages, for the art of granulat-
ing and crystallizing that juice had not been
discovered.

2. That the sugar-cane grows naturally
in the East Indies is well known, and much
sugar is now made there, though it is not
so strong in its sweetness as that of the
West Indies. Marco Paulo, a Venetian,
who travelled into the East about the year
1250, tells us, he found sugar plentiful in
the Indies : and when De Gama, by doub-
ling the Cape of Good Hope, in 1497, came
to Calicut, he not only found sugar, but
also, that it constituted a considerable arti-
c'.le of commerce among the natives.

3. Sugar was first known to Europeans
during Alexander's expedition to India. It
was found there by Nearchus, his famous
naval commander, above three hundred

1. What is said of the sugar-cane ? To whom
are we indebted for the method of procuring
sugar ? 2. Does the sugar-cane grow naturally
in the East Indies ? Was sugar found plentiful-
ly there by the early travellers ? 3. When was
2

years before the Christian era. Possibly
we do not err in carrying our researches
back to the time of the Jews ; for Jeremiah
says, chap. v. v. 20, 'to what purpose
cometh there to me the sweet cane, from
afar country?' Isaiah prophesies, chap.
XXXV. V. 7, * that in the wilderness inhabi-
ted by dragons, should grow grass, with
the sweet cane.' And indeed Moses, Exod.
XXX. V. 23, is told to compound the sacred
ointment with ^among other articles) 'the
sweet cane.'

4. The plant, therefore, has long been
known, although the method of extracting
sugar from it is comparatively modern.
The Romans had nothing in common use
as a sweetener but honey ; their sweet
wines, therefore, must have been very lus-
cious and clammy.

5. The sugar-cane seems to have been
more especially brought into the notice of
European countries, by the Crusaders.
The plant was spread early, by their means,
over the lands bordering upon the Medi-
terranean, Rhodes, Malta, and Sicily,
especially ; and so, from thence, to Spain,
and its newly discovered islands, the Ma-
deiras and Canaries.

6. In the West Indies, the plant appears
in all its beauty and usefulness. It is a
reed, full of joints, rising to the height of
three, six, and sometimes twelve feet, ac-
cording as the soil is favorable. The joints
are from forty to sixty in number. Seve-
ral stalks rise from one root. The bark,
when ripe, is of a golden yellow, sometimes
beautifully streaked with red. From the
centre, shoots up a sort of silver wand, of
three or more feet in length, from the top
of which spreads out a kind of plume of
white feathers, a little fringed with lilac, or
light purple ; this is the blossom ; so that a

sxigar first known to Europeans ? Is there any
thing, which might be construed into an allusion
to it, in Scripture ? 4. What did the Romans use
for sweetening. 5. How was the sugar-cane
brought into notice ? i> Describe the plant, as

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

field of sugar-canes, when fully grown, is
beautiful, and even splendid, under the il-
lumination of a tropical sun.

7. When a plantation is to be made, the
ground is accurately marked out, by a line,
into little squares of three or four feet wide.
A hole, or trench, is then digged in the
middle of each square, and the new plants
(which are the top shoots of such old ones
as have yielded their sugar,) are laid in
pairs, horizontally, in them, and covered
up about two inches deep in mould. Each
of these shoots has five or six joints ; every
joint will grow and send forth several
stems, which appear in about a fortnight.

The labor then is to keep the whole plan-
tation clear from weeds.

8. Not that the plantation is altogether
safe, for rats devour, and insects infest the
young plants ; but the most important ma-
rauders, are the monkeys ; these come
down in troops, silently, during the night ;
and they are cunning enough to place sen-
tinels around the scene of their depreda-
tions, to give alarm in case any interruption
should be threatened. While all is safe,
they play their antic gambols, by running,
scampering, climbing, quarrelling, fighting,
and do more mischief thus than by their
voracity, although it may be supposed, that
such numbers devour a great quantity.

The only way to defend the crop, is" to set
a numerous watch of negroes, with guns ,
a work they readily undertake, becauso
they are very fond of monkey's flesh for
food.

9. In November, the canes are in
blossom ; their ripening season comes in
the next spring and summer ; as differ-
ent plantations become ripe at various
times, and different modes of reaping are
adopted.

10. The time of the sugar crop, like
that of the vintage, is a season of rejoicing
and jollity. The juice of the sugar-cane
is so gratifying, so nourishing, so healthful,
that all ranks reckon upon it. The sickly
negroes soon get well ; and the healthy be-
come robust and vigorous. The horses,
oxen, and mules, to whom the green tops
are given, with skimmings from the boil-
ers, thrive and grow fat, notwithstanding
their additional labor; while poultry and.
pigs fatten on the mere refuse.

11. When the canes are ripe, they are
cut down; the leaves and top branches
are stripped off immediately, and the stems
are bundled up like fagots, and carted to
the mill-house ; where, by great pressure,
the juice is squeezed out, and it runs by
a trough into a vessel placed to receive it.
To fit them for the mill, they are cut into
pieces about three feet long. The mill
consists of three upright rollers ; the canes
are drawn through between the middle and
one of the other rollers, and then returned
to be compressed again between the mid-
dle one and the other ; by which they be-
come quite dry, and are only fit for fuel to
boil the Hquor.

12. The juice thus obtained would
ferment presently, if it were not boiled.
This part of the process, therefore, takes
place directly. Some powdered lime is
mingled with the juice, to imbibe an acid

it appears in the West Indies. 7. A plantation. !; 9. When do the canes blossom and ripen.' 10.
8 To what enemies are the plantations Uable ' [j How is the time of the sugar crop observed?

ARTICLES or FOOD.

which abounds in it. The heat is applied,
»nd increased gradually, that the scum
may rise ; were it to boil furiously, the
dregs would mingle, so that it never could
be purified. The juice thus clarified is
boiled again and again ; which repeated
boilings not only cleanse it from more
jcum, but also evaporate the watery par-
iicles, so that what remains is more ready
« crystallize.

13. To produce crystallization, the li-
quor is run into broad, shallow coolers,
iv'hen it begins to granulate. It is then
removed again into vessels, contrived to
'et the sweet moisture, called molasses,
irain away from it; and then becoming
j»retty dry, it is called sugar ; muscovado,
»r raw sugar. In this state, it comes to
MS from the West Indies. The process
ff£ refining, by which it is made white,
hard, and, as we call it, lump sugar, takes
place in this country. The essence of the
process consists in repeated boilings, which
Again reduce it to a fluid state, and then
it is mingled with substances which cause
Ihe scum to rise. When this scum is
completely cleansed away, the sirup is, by
great heat, crystallized ; and being poured
into moulds, becomes lump, or loaf sugar.

14. Sugar is the most nourishing sub-
stance in nature ; persons have lived upon
it in times of scarcity, on board a ship ;
it is also wholesome, as it in such cases
cured the scurvy. The Indians of North
America prefer it for their long journeys,
because it does not corrupt and spoil, as
many sorts of provisions do ; and they mix
it with an equal quantity of powdered In-
dian corn. Horses are very fond of it,
and are kept in excellent condition by it.
It may be added that the plague has
never appeared in those countries where
it is much in use ; and also, that it tends

11. How is the juice extracted ? 12. Boiled ?
13. Crystallized ? What is the sweet substance
drained from it called ? 2. What is the produce of

to hinder the occurrence and virulence of
malignant fevers.

15. There are extensive sugar planta-
tions in Louisiana, and great quantities
of sugar are exported from New Orleans.
The sugar-cane is principally raised upon
that tract called the coast, upon the shores
of the Gulf of Mexico, and upon the ba-
yous of the Mississippi.

16. Although sugar is most plentifully
obtained from the sugar-cane, yet that is
not the only vegetable which contains it.
It is found in many plants, though in none
from which it can be so easily drawn as
this. There is in this country a tree called
the Sugar Maple. This yields it in con-
siderable quantity, though the flavor is by
no means equal to that of the cane. In
the spring of the year, when the sun be-
gins to draw the sap into the branches, a
hole is bored through the bark of the tree;
into this is put a spout, and this leads the
sap, as it runs, into a vessel placed to
catch it. As the south side of the tree
first feels the influence of the sun, it is
tapped first on that side ; afterwards it is
bored on the north side, and a fresh sup-

ply is obtained. The quantity of juice or
sap which runs in a day varies from one
pint to five gallons. This sap is boiled
down, skimmed and crystallized, by a pro-

the cane called, when dried.? What is lump
sugar, and how is it made ? 14. Is sugar a nour-
ishing substance .' 15. Are there any sugar plant-

BOOK or COMMERCE

cess well known, and is extensively used
in the back settlements. This sugar is as
dark in color almost as mahogany.

17. There are many othe^ vegetables
from which sugar can be obtained by
chemical processes, as beet-root, parsneps,
potatoes, red cabbage stalks, &c. but the
qua^ty produced from these is too small
to make it an article of commerce.

MOLASSES.

18. Molasses is the gross fluid matter
that remains of sugar after refining ;
which no boiling can bring to a consist-
ence more solid that sirup. It is export-
ed in hogsheads from the West Indies,
and is perniciously used in the distillation
of rum.

HONEY.

19. Honey is found in large quantities
in a number of vegetables, and is collected
and prepared by bees. It is the produc-
tion of almost every country, but is more
abundant in the island of Candia, in the
Archipelago, than any where else. Con- i
siderable quantities of honey are produced
by the wild bees in the woods of North
America; and it is sometimes imported
from the West Indies in barrels.

CHAP. V.

SALT, SPICES, &c.

SALT.
1. Salt being a substance of actual ne-
cessity to man, is widely and plentifully
diffused. The salt commonly known by
the name of bay-salt, is obtained from the
water of the sea by evaporation. It had
this name from being first made in the
bay of St. Ubes, in Portugal ; and great
quantities of it are still exported from this
place.

2. In France large shallow pits are dug
by the sea-shore, into which the water
flows at high-tide ; and by a sluice, it is

ations in the United States ? 16. Is sugar obtain-
ed from any other vegetable? What is maple
sugar.' 17 Are there any other vegetables from
which sugar can be extracted? 18. What is
molasses? 19. Honey?

prevented from returning when the tide
falls. The heat of the sun evaporates
this water; the salt crystallizes on the
edges and bottoms of the pits ; and this is
carefully gathered up for use.

3. Much salt is prepared in vats at Cape
Cod and other places along the sea-coast
of the United States. Salt springs abound
in the western part of the state of New
York; and at Salina, there are large es-
tablishments for the manufacture of salt.
The salt water is obtained by sinking wells
and boring ; and the salt prepared is beau-
tifully white and fine-grained.

4. Providence has kindly given man-
kind great stores of this useful materi-
al. Some mountains are composed in-

Iternally of salt; many pits have been
opened in which the miners travel far,
among arcades of rock-salt, from among
which they obtain large quantities of this
valuable article. England, Italy, Poland,
have such. The island of Ormuz, in the
Persian Gulf, is little else than a mass of
salt; vast plains of it are found in Ame-
rica; and it is most likely, that moun-
tains of salt at the bottom of the ocean,

1. What is meant by bay-salt? 2 Hovsr is salt
obtained in France ? 3. Is salt prepared in New
England ? Are there salt springs in the United
States ? 4. What else is said of salt ? Whence
are great quantities brought to the United States?

SALT, SPICES, &C

occasion the saltness so perceptible in sea- I
water, and by which it is kept from be-
coming corrupted. Great quantities of
Bait are brought from Turk's Island, in the
West Indies, to the United States.

5. The only mines of rock-salt in Eng-
land are those in Cheshire. It is there
ilug out of the mines with pickaxes ; and
« conveyed by shipping to places where
the refiners dissolve it by boiling it in sea-
ivater; then, by mixing eggs with it, a
«cum is made to rise, which is taken off;
by longer continuance of the heat, all the
•vater is evaporated, and the pure salt
crystallizes, fit for use.

PEPPER.

6. Pepper is a small berry, which is
ground to a fine powder, to make it con-
venient for use at the table. The plant
©n which it grows flourishes in the East
Indies, on the coast of Malabar, in Java,
Sumatra and Ceylon. It is a feeble creep-
ing plant, and therefore, in cultivation, is
placed near some large tree, which may
yield it support. The grain, which grows
in clusters, appears first green, then red ;
and is turned black by exposure to the
sun. It is best for families to buy the
pepper whole, as, in grinding, dealers have
opportunity for adulteration. White pep-
per is a preparation from this, which takes
away much of its strength. Sometimes
too, that is adulterated ; and is even, by
art, stained whitish to deceive.

ALLSPICE.

7. Allspice or ^mento is the aromatic
fruit of a tree which grows in Mexico and
the West Indies. It is sometimes called
Jamaica pepper, and received its name of
allspice, because it is similar in smell to
cloves, nutmegs and cinnamon.

NUTMEGS.

8. The nutmeg is a very aromatic spice.
It is the fruit of a tree which grows in
the East Indies, and is about the size of

5. Are there any mines of salt in England ?
3

a pear-tree. The nutmeg is the kernel
of a fruit, not unlike the peach, and its
rind or coat is called mace. The round
nutmeg is preferred to that which is ob-
long. Nutmegs have been long used both
for culinary, and medicinal purposes. Dis-
tilled with water, they yield a large quan-
tity of essential oil, resembling in flUor
the spice itself. The growth of this aro-
matic is chiefly confined to a few of the
Banda Islands, whereof Banda itself, Neira,
and Pouloay produce 800,000 lbs. of nut-
megs annually. The method of gather-
ing and preparing nutmegs is as follows :
When the fruit is ripe, the natives ascend
the trees, and gather it by puUing the
branches to them with long hooks. The
nutmegs when gathered would soon cor-
rupt if they were not watered, or rather
pickled, with lime-water made from cal-
cined shell-fish, which is diluted with salt
water till it attains some consistence. Into
this mixture the nutmegs, contained in
small baskets, are plunged two or three
times, till they are completely crusted over
with the mixture. They are afterwards
laid in a heap, where they heat, and lose
their superfluous moisture.
CINNAMON.

9. Cinnamon is the inner bark of the
younger branches of a sort of laurel, which
grows in the island of Ceylon, and other
parts of the East Indies. Cassia is the
bark of another sort of laurel. It is thicker
and coarser than cinnamon, but of a simi-
lar taste. It is mosltly imported from
China.

CLOVES.

10. The clove grows in Amboyna, as it
did once over all the Molucca Islands ; but
the Dutch destroyed those trees, in order
to keep all the trade in their own power.
It is the unexpanded bud of a tree, similar
to the laurel in height, and in the shape
of its leaves. It had its name m France

What is said of pepper ? 7. Allspice ? 8. Nut-

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

because it looks much like a nail, called in
French clou.

GINGER.
11. Ginger grows near Calicut, in Asia,
but we have it from the West Indies. It
is the root of a plant something like our
rush. It does not grow deep, but spreads
abrc^ under the surface. It is dug up,
when fully grown, and dried as you see it.
When preserved, it is boiled with sugar
and honey, just as it was dug up green.

CHAP. VI.
TEA, COFFEE, &c.

TEA.

1. The dry leaves of the tea-plant have
become one of the necessaries of life.
There are many denominations of tea, in
commerce ; as Imperial, Gunpowder, Sin-
glo. Hyson, &c. But the general divisions
may be stated thus, black and green teas.
Some travellers tell us, that there is but
one sort of plant from which the leaves
are taken, and that all the difference is
made by their being either young leaves,
or fully grown. Yet botanists usually
hold, that there are at least two species ;"
differing something in their leaves, and
essentially different in their flowers ; that
pf the bohea, or black tea, having six
petals ; and that of the green tea-shrub
having nine.

2. It is said, too, that the finest tea-
shrubs grow in Japan, on one particular
mountain, which is f|iclosed with a strong
hedge, and wide ditches, and carefully
guarded, by persons maintained for this
express business. .These have a trouble-
some office, as they are charged not to
suffer the dust to remain upon the leaves.
They must never breathe on them, nor

megs ? 9. Cinnamon ? Cassia ? 10. Where does
.the clove grow ? What is it ? Whence had it its
name ? 11. What can you say of ginger ?
I Are there oany kinds of tea ? 2. Where is

touch them with their fingers when they
gather them, but must wear very delicate
gloves. When this tea is fully prepared,
it is conducted, under a strong guard of
soldiers, to the emperor's palace ; because
it is all set apart for his personal use. Of
course, this is not the tea which we drink
Indeed, we are not allowed to trade to
Japan.

3. The tea we have in America comes
from China. And the trade in it forms
a very important branch of commerce.
The quantity of tea now consumed in
the United States is very great, and it in-
creases every year ; as the lowest persons
of our large population make a part of
their meals of it. The quantity brought
annually into England thirty years ago
was twenty millions of pounds, and nearly
as much more goes now to the other na-
tions of Europe. The English govern-
ment obtains a revenue from what comes
to Britain, amounting to between three
and four millions of pounds sterling every
year.

4. Sixty or seventy years ago tea was
scarcely known among the common peo-
ple. A story is related of a farmer's
wife, to whom was sent a present of a
pound of tea ; and she was so ignorant of
the proper mode of using it, that she boil-
ed it all in milk, and the family ate it up,
leaves and all, at one meal ; declaring it
was very good indeed !

5. The use of. tea, is comparatively
modern. The first thaAjame into Europe
was brought by the Dutch, in the year
1610. Fifty years after this, it was intro-
duced in London, at the coffee-houses, as
a rarity and a luxury. It was two years
longer before some of the private families
among the nobility adopted it. At this

the finest tea said to grow ? How is this tea cul-
tivated.' 3. Whence does our tea come ? Do we
use much ? Does much go to Europe ? 4. Was
tea much known sixty years ago r 5. When w»s

TEA, COFFEE, &C.

time, it was sold at sixty shillings per
pound ; it could not therefore come into
common use. As greater quantities were
brought over, the price was lowered ; and
the use gradually increased ; till it is now
become almost one of the necessaries of
life to people even in the humblest stations.
6. The plant which produces tea will
grow, if permitted, to ten or twelve feet
in height ; but in China, where it is very
carefully cultivated, it is kept much lower.
They dibble the seeds into the earth in
regular rows. They will then grow with
only the care of pruning, and weeding.
Some of the cultivators richly manure

the soil ; for the Chinese are as careful of
their tea-plants, as Europeans are of their
vines,.

7. iThe plant must be three years old,
befor^ the leaves are fit for use ; and when
It has: borne for about an equal length of
time, the leaves get so coarse and hard as
not to\ be worth ^Itivating any longer;
The plant must then be cut down almost
10 the ground ; this will occasion a new
set of shoots to arise, which, in their turn,
yield young and excellent leaves for several
seasons. The flower which it bears is not
very splendid. Neither is the fruit of it
of any use. It bears 3. sort of triple berry ;
we now and then find one among the tea.

tea brouffht into Europe ? How was it sold ? 6.
What of the plant which produces tea ? 7. How
old must it be before the leaves are fit to gather ?

8. The plant is cultivated to best advan-
tage on the side slopes of hills which face
the sun : or in warm valleys, adjacent to
the banks of rivers. It will, however,
grow even in rocky places, and on strong
soils ; where, indeed, the finest leaves are
produced. The Chinese do not suffer a
single inch of ground to remain barren.
It will grow in the northern parts of the
empire ; but it flourishes best in the mild-
er provinces of the south.

9. There are three seasons for gather
ing the leaves. The first is about the be-
ginning of March, when the leaves are
very small, and not a week old. This is
called imperial tea, and is reserved for the
emperor and the grandees, who only can
afford to pay for it ; the produce being
small, the price must be the greater. The
persons who gather these leaves cannot
pick them by handfuls, but only one by
one ; and they must be very careful not
to break or damage them, in the least.

10. The second crop becomes fit for use
about a month afler the first, at the begin-
ning of April. At this time some leaves
are fully grown, and others are still young ;
they are, however, all plucked, and after-
wards sorted. The smaller sort are often
sold, as belonging to the first crop, at a
high price.

11. The country is all alive in this
business, when the third and principal
gathering takes place, which is in the
month of June ; then the leaves are very
numerous, and have^^jsittained their full
size. This tea is consequently of a coarser
flavor, and lower price.

12. Those who do notjpake these three
gatherings, but only two, or even only one,
yet sort out the leaves into several par-
cels, according to their size and delicacy.
These gatherings take place on those lands
where the plant is regularly cultivated.

8. Where is it best cultivated ? 9. What are the
seasons for gathering the leaves ? What of the
first crop? 10. The second? 11. The third?

feOOK OF COMMERCE.

But it also grows wild in great abundance,
and often to superior excellence, upon the
steep sides of mountains and rocks, where
it is almost or quite impossible to reach
them. A singular method of obtaining
the leaves growing in these difficult places,
is resorted to. Although these rough spots
are inaccessible to men, they are, for that
very reason, inhabited by large troops of
monkeys. Now monkeys are not only
imitative creatures, but also very irascible ;
the silly creatures are easily provoked into
a violent passion, and in that state they
seek all the revenge in their power. The
people, therefore, get as near as they can
to their haunts, and provoke them, by pelt-
ing them with stones. In revenge, the
monkeys break off large branches of the

trees, among which they clamber and chat-
ter, and with these they pelt their enemies.
These are carefully picked up, and the
leaves stripped off them for use.

13. But these leaves are not yet fit for
use. They must be dried, curled, and
rolled up, to make them as we see. Those
who cultivate the tea-plant on a large scale
have an apparatus for these purposes. But
as many have not, there are public drying-
houses, to which any one may take his
leaves, be they few or many, and have
ihem properly cured. These buildings are

provided with small stoves, covered with
iron plates, which are thereby heated to
the proper degree.

14. On these heated plates, a few pounds
of leaves are placed, and constantly stirred
with the fingers. The leaves, being very
moist, crackle, curl, and dry. When they
become too hot for the hand to bear, they
are shovelled off the iron plates upon mats,
spread on a table, around which the work-
men sit, whose business it is to roll them
in the palms of their hands, (always mov-
ing them one way) to curl them up, regu-
larly and closely. By repeating this pro-
cess several times, the leaves are render-
ed perfectly dry, and are fit to be placed
in the warehouses for sale. Yet it is
reckoned safest to keep the tea there a
full year, before it is actually used.

15. The tea comes to us packed close
in wooden chests, which are lined with a
very thin sheet of lead, in order to keep
it entirely from the air, which would soon
exhale all its fine flavor. The tea is
brought to Canton, in tlie southern part
of China, the ojily port at which we are
allowed to trade. There the merchants

12. Does the plant grow wild ? How is it obtained
from such inaccessible places? 13. Must the
leaves be dried? How are they dried ? 14. De-

d^al with the agents who purchase it ; and
from thence it is brought in ships, direct
for the United States.

16. The Chinese drink t«a, not as one

scribe the process further. 15. How is the tea
brought to us, and from whence? 16. Do the
Chinese drink much tea ? What do the people

TEA, COFFEE, &C.

specific meal, as we do, but all day long ;
at every meal, and whenever they are
/hirsty. They drink the pure tea, in a
strong infusion, without sugar — although
they have sugar — ^and without milk. I
think, we are much wiser in putting to it
tliese salutar)'' mixtures ; they give it some
Qourishment, and blunt, in a considerable
degree, the too violent effect it would have
upon the nerves. It is said, indeed, that
the waters of China are unwholesome,
and that their evil influence is averted by
the tea. The people of Japan sometimes
grind the tea to a fine powder ; then they
serve out warm water in cups, to their
guests, each of whom takes, on the point
of a knife, as much of the powdered tea
as is agreeable, throwing it into the cup,
and, after stirring it about thoroughly,
drinks it.

17. Those who have written upon tea
are much divided in their opinions ; some
calling it little short of poison, while
others are loud in its praise. Perhaps the
difference of constitutions makes the chief
difference in its effects. That tea is ex-
hilarating, every one knows, especially
after considerable fatigue ; it seems, there-
fore, to have ready access to the nerves ;
for which reason, nervous and weakly
people, though very fond of it, should
deny themselves, and be sparing of an in-
dulgence so fascinating, but so insidious.

18. The story of the destruction of the
tea in Boston harltor, in 1773, is doubtless
familiar to you. A tax of three pence a
pound being retained on tea, the Ameri-
cans resolved to prevent the importation
of the article rather than pay a duty,
which they believed to be unjust. Im-
mense cargoes were sent to America by
the English East India Company, but the
colonists refused to receive them. Several

of Japan ? 17. What is said of the effect of tea-
drinking.'' 18. Is tea anywise connected with
tlie story of our revolution ? 19. Of what country

vessels having arrived in Boston harbor
laden with tea, a number of persons, dress-
ed like Indians, went on board the ships,
and staved and emptied into the sea about
three hundred and fifty chests.
COFFEE.

19. The coffee-tree is said to be a na-
tive of Arabia Felix. It was in very early
repute at Mocha, a port situated at the
entrance of the Red Sea, to which place
coffee was brought from all the neigh-
boring districts, for exportation. To this
day,, Mocha coffee is considered the best
in flavor, as it is the most expensive in
price. Excellent coffee is obtained at the
island of Java. Coffee was introduced
into the West Indies in 1727, and great
quantities of it are nowa-aised there. Bra-
zil also furnishes an abundance.

20. The coffee-tree, if left to grow
wild, will rise to the height of sixteen or
eighteen feet ; but when cultivated, it is
found more convenient to keep it down to
five or six feet. To do this, it is planted
in rows, the plants about eight feet distant
from each other. When topped, to pre-
vent their rising too high, they spread out
their branches widely, so as to cover the
spaces between them.

21. The flower of the coffee-tree forms
a cluster, at the root of the leaves ; it is
white, and very fragrant, and of a funnel
shape. The fruit, or berry, looks some
thing like a cherry, but is oval. When
ripe, it is of a deep red. They should be
obtained by shaking the tree ; then all that
fall are ripe. This berry is conveyed be-
tween three wooden rollers, the pressure
of which gently cracks it into its two
parts, and clears it from its outer skin.
There is still a thin skin, called the parch-
ment, which is taken off by another mill.
When wholly cieared of broken bits and

is coffee said to be a native ? What is said of
Mocha? Java? The West Indies ? Brazil? 20.
What of the coffee-tree ? 21 . Its flower and fruit ?

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

offal, it is fit for sale. But you see, though
brown, it is not very dark.

22. Who first thought of making a
(hink from the coflTee berry, cannot now
be known. It is said, that an Arab goat-
herd, observing that his kids appeared
particularly lively after browsing upon the
tree, so as to be wakeful, and capering, all
the night after, happened to mention the
circumstance to the prior of a neighbor-
ing monastery, who determined to try if
it would not keep his monks awake, who
were all apt to nod at their early morning
prayers.

23. Some Mohammedan dervishes next
took to it, to enable them to spend all
night in their devotions. Studious per-
sons, who wished to be wakeful, found it
exhilarating and refreshing. From Mecca
it passed to Cairo ; and thus it has spread,
at last, over the civilized world. Its use
in the East, to counteract opium, is very
great.

24. The French traveller, Thevenot,
brought it from Persia into France ; and
the Greek servant of an English Turkey
merchant brought it into England, and
opened a house for the sale of it. At first,
it was called in Europe, Sirup of the Indian
mulberry J and was thought nice, of course.
It is in general use in the East, and is
esteemed so much a necessary of life, that
it is one of the things which a Mohamme-
dan is obhged to supply his wife with, at
all events.

25. To prepare coflTee for use it must
be roasted, and then ground in a mill.
The excellence of coflTee depends in a
great measure on the skill exercised in
roasting it. In Europe, it is usually roast-
ed in a cylindrical tin box, perforated with
numerous holes, and fixed upon a spit,
which runs lengthwise through the centre,

The berry ? 22. What is the story of the Arab
and his kids ? 23. The Moharamedaa dervishes ?
24. By whom was coffee brought to Europe?

and is turned by a jack, or by the han#
The best coffee is made in France.
CHOCOLATE.

26. Chocolate is a kind of cake, or har^
paste, which is prepared chiefly from x\i%
pulp of the cacao or chocolate-nut, a pro
duction of the West Indies and South
America. The cacao-tree, both in size
and shape, somewhat resembles a youn^
cherry-tree, but separates, near the ground
into four or five stems. The fruit of tht
cacao-tree is similar to a cucumber ii
shape. As soon as it is ripe, it is gather
ed, and cut into slices; the outs are thei
taken out and dried. When perfectly dry,
they are put into bags, and exported to
foreign countries. Before they are made
into chocolate, these nuts are generally
parched over the fire in an iron vessel.
The kernel is then pounded in a mortar,
and subsequently ground on a smooth,
warm stone. Sometimes a little arnatto,
a dying drug of South America, is added,
and with the aid of water, the whole is
formed into a paste. This is put, whilst
hot, into tin moulds, where, in a short
time, it congeals ; and in this state, it is
the chocolate of the shops.

27. The French have a method of pre
paring chocolate, with sugar, and sell it
in small rolls of two or three inches in
length. It has an agreeable taste when
eaten in this state, and mixed with water
is very rich, and has a delightful flavor.
The chocolate thus prepared is made into
a multitude of fanciful forms and sold in
the shops of Paris. In the Palais Royal,
you may see the windows filled with
chocolate images, of heathen gods and
goddesses, men and women, chairs, tables,
pitchers, &c. all of which are destined to
be eaten.

28. The shells of commerce are the

What was it at first called ? 25. What of the
preparing of coffee ? 26, What is chocolate ? De-
scribe the process of making it. 27. Have the

CIDER, BEER, &C.

outside covering of the small cacao-nut;
Avhen properly prepared this forms an
agreeable beverage

29. The infusion of cacao-nut is itself an
article of much consumption as a drink, and
a method has recently been introduced of
crushing and preparing the nut in a pecu-
liar manner, so that without the process
of manufacturing it into what is called
chocolate, it makes a drink of great rich-
ness and fine flavor. A plantation of it is a
long time coming to maturity, and is liable
to be aflfected by every casualty. When
however a plantation has arrived at full
growth it is considered a valuable inherit-
ance.

CHAP. VII.
CIDER, BEER, &c.

CIDER.

1. Cider is a well known drink extract-
ed from the juice of apples. The prepara-
tion of this liquor forms an interesting por-
tion of agricultural labor in this country.
It is also an article of considerable com-
merce. The first process is to collect the
fruit into heaps, where it ferments, and
becomes perfectly ripe. The apples are
then taken to the mill, and being ground,
are made to yield a liquor, which is after-
wards put into casks, and prepared for
use. The best cider manufactured in the
United States is said to be that of New
Jersey. In the country towns of New
England, cider is used in almost every
house. In common seasons, it is worth
little more than a dollar a barrel. It is a
slightly intoxicating liquor, but is seldom
taken in a quantity sufficient to intoxicate.

PERRY.

2. Perry is a beverage made from pears,
by a process similar to the manufacture

French any peculiar method of preparing choco-
iate ? 28. What of shells ? 29. What of the
cacao-nut ?

]. What can you say of cider.' Is it much used

of cider. It is a wholesome and pleasant
liquor, and has sometimes been made so
excellent as to pass for Champagne. Pears
should be fully ripe before they are ground.
Crab apples are frequently mixed with the
pears, and are said to improve the perry.

BEER, ALE, &c

3. Beer is a generic term for drink ex-
tracted from malt. It is a very ancient
liquor, and is said to have been invented
by the Egyptians. Malt is prepared by a
peculiar process from barley.

4. Brewing is the art of gaining from
malt all its sugary sweetness, and, by fer-
menting it, making it into a soit of vinous
liquor.

5. The general mode of operation is as
follows. The first part is mashing. This
consists of pouring water which has boil-
ed, but is now cooled down to a proper
heat, upon the ground malt, in a deep
open vessel, or tun, and stirring it well
about. If the water were boiling, it would
not dissolve it properly. When it has
been mashed for two or three hours, the
liquor, sweet-wort as it is called, is drawn
off. Hot water is a second time poured
upon the malt, and drawn off. Also a
third time. If you mix the two first worts
together, they will make good ale ; the
third will then be small beer. If you mix
the two last together, they will make excel-
lent table beer; and the first wort alone will
be capital ale.

6. When all the strength is thus gained
out of the malt, the liquor is then to be
boiled up with a proper proportion of hops.
The worts alone would make a ropy liquor,
which would in a few weeks turn sour:
the hops tend to break the viscidity of the
ale; to give it that flavor of bitterness,
which is so pleasant to the palate; and to

in New England ? 2. What is perry ? 3. What
do you mean by the word beer ? 4. What is the
art of brewing ? 5. Describe the mode of opera-
tion. 6. When th*» strength of the malt is ex-

BOOK OF COMMERCE

make it keep for months, or years, without
turning sour.

7. After it is boiled with hops it must be
worked, that is, made to ferment. The wort
must be in a proper state of warmth for
this : too much heat or cold will spoil it.
A quantity of yeast, spread upon a toast, is
set a swimming in the middle of the cooler.

8. When the fermentation is evidently
getting on, then the whole liquor is to be
tunned, that is, put into the vessels in
which it is to stand, till drawn off for use.
These vessels are filled, and as the fermen-
tation proceeds, it throws over at the bung-
hole a brown froth, which is yeast, fit for
setting other beer at work, but especially
useful in making bread.

9. The art of making the ale good will
now consist in knowing when to stop the
fermentation. Were you to close the
bungs of the vessels at first, the force of
the gas set at liberty by the ferment would
burst the vessels. On the other hand, if
it were not to be bunged up till it had
quite done working, the liquor would be
flat, as all its spirit and strength would have
escaped. The object is to bung it up as
soon as the first violence is over, and keep
in all the spirit you can without bursting
the cask.

10. After awhile, the liquor, which is
now thick, or turbid, will fine itself; that
is, all the mash of the malt will sink down
into lees, a sort of mud, at the bottom ; and
the body of the ale will become clear and
sparkling. The stronger the ale is, the
longer must it be kept before it will be
fine enough to drink: three months, or
even twelve.

11. The general principles of brewing
ale have now been stated. Beer is similar
in its process, and so is porter ; the chief
difference lies in the materials put in to

hausted, what is done? 7. After it is boiled with
hops? 8. Describe the continuation of the pro-
ges!?. 9. How is the ale now improved ? 10. How

give it either color or peculiar flavor. Tho
brewers are said to have secrets, in theso
respects, which they do not wish the pub-
lic to know. There are many places in
New England and the Middle States, where
beer and ale of excellent quality are made,
and the brewing of them is quite extensive
in the United States.

PORTER.
12. Porter is said to receive its deep
brown from Spanish liquorice, or froit
burnt sugar. The English Porter is gen
erally esteemed superior to that of any othe^
country ; but it is made in nearly equa
perfection in America.

CHAP. VIII.

WINES.

1. A great number of vegetable sub
stances may be made to afl^or.d wine, ai
currants, cherries, &c ; but that obtained
from the fruit of the vine is the best and
most drank. There are many sorts of
wine, because there are many countries
where the vines grow luxuriantly ; and
each has its own peculiar flavor. Some-
times this excellence is confined to a single
hill ; and sometimes it extends over a
whole country.

2. Tokay Wine, for instance, is, if genu-
ine, the produce of only a small district in
Hungary ; the whole of which is (or ought
to be) reserved for the emperor's use
However, Tokay wine, or something hav-
ing that name, may be bought at any time
in our large cities, and in any quantity.

3. Madeira. The true Madeira wine,
is made at Madeira, an island lying north-
west of the, coast of Africa. As the
wine of Madeira stands so high ia repute,
a little account of the vineyards in that
island, and the mode of cultivation, may
amuse you. In every spot, where the soil

long must the ale be kept ? 11. What is said of
beer and porter .''

1. From what fruits are the most esteemed

is suitable, and a due exposure to the sun
affords sufficient warmth, the vines are
planted. Low stone walls enclose the sev-
eral walks, which cross each other from
one side of the vineyard to the other.
These walks have a kind of trellis- work of
laths and bamboos, which almost meet at
the top, and render them ielightfully shady.
It is the ripening of the grapes in the
shade, which is said to give them their
peculiar flavor. The vin^^s are thus sup-
ported ; and the keepers can clean the
ground of every weed with the utmost ease.
Every vineyard has a plantation of bam-
boos adjoining, as the grapes will not prove
excellent without this shade and support.
The external hedges which defend these
vineyards are composed of the prickly pear,
myrtles, brambles, and wild roses : so that
the whole country has the appearance of a
garden. •

4. Besides what may be consumed at
home, the islanders export sometimes forty
thousand pipes of wine in a year ; each
worth from one hundred to two hundred
dollars. Some of our East-India ships
take a great quantity in their outward
voyage, and bring it back to America. The
voyage and the warmth ripen and im-
prove the wine much. In its native state,
as brought immediately from the island,
Madeira wine is worth very little. There
are, besides this description of the wine.
Burgundy Madeira, Sicily 3Iadeira, and
Malmsey Madeira, a white, luscious, and
highly palatable wine. The vine which
produces malmsey wine, properly so called,
is a native of Malvasia, a small Grecian
island where its cultivation is at present but
little attended to.

5. At Teneriffe, one of the Canary Isles,
great quantities of good wine are made,
which may be obtained at less than half

wines obtained ? 2. What of Tokay ? 3. Madeira ?

"What is said of the vineyards in Madeira ? 4. Is

muclT wine exported from Madeira ? 5. What of

the price of Madeira ; and to some palates
it is more agreeable.

6. In Madeira, the grapes are gathered
when ripe, and put into wooden vessels
Then, to press out the juice, the vintagers
strip off their jackets, and their shoes, and
get into the vessels ; there, working with
their hands, and feet, and elbows, they
press and squeeze, till every grape is
crushed.

7. When they have obtained the juice
clear from the stalks, it does not want
sugar ; for the grapes are so very ripe and
sweet, that the liquor presently ferments.
It is the sugary substance in the grape,
which, by fermenting, evolves a vinous
spirit, and produces, after long standing,
(which ripens and clears it) the liquor we
call wine.

8. Port Wine. What we call Red Portj
comes from Oporto, a city of Portugal.
The vines grow in the surrounding coun-
try. The quantity exported annually is
said to be eighty thousand pipes. It is
a trade of considerable importance to the
Portuguese. Some of the wine merchants
at Oporto have cellars which will contain
six or seven thousand pipes ; a great num-
ber of the inhabitants employ themselves
as coopers.

9. Spanish Wine. What is with us
called Sherry, comes, if genuine, from
Xeres in Spain, where forty thousand
pipes of it are annually made. There are
two kinds of this wine, the pale and the
golden. The Sherry wines are shipped for
the most part at Cadiz.

10. Other Spanish wines are in great
request. Mountain wine is made from
the vines around Malaga. It has this
name if white ; the red wine, made in the
same district, is in repute with us as very
luscious, under the name of Tent Wine,

Canary or Teneriffe wine ? 6. What is done with
the grapes in Madeira ? 7. Is sugar needed to
sweeten the wine ? 8. Whence do we obtair

BOOK or COMMERCE.

called there Vine tinto^ that is, tinted, or
colored wine. There are fourteen thou-
sand wine-presses in this province, so that
the produce must be immense.

11. Vines in Italy. The plains of
Lombardy, in the centre of the upper part
of Italy, are nearly one continued vine-
yard. The vine in this country too appears
with unusual luxuriance, not being tied to
stakes, and cut down to dwarf plants, as
in France ; but suffered to grow as it
pleases, climbing up the tallest elms, and
hanging in rich festoons from tree to tree,
all about, and almost encumbering the

traveller's pathway. The sight is ex-
tremely picturesque and gratifying.

12. When the vine runs to this ex-
tent, it sometimes bears bunches in propor-
tion. Something of this kind must have
been common in Canaan, when the spies
brought home one cluster, so hirge as to
be borne between two persons on a staft".

13. French Wines. But the most luxu-
rious wine countries are in France. In
the South, the vineyard fortns the farm,
and the produce constitutes the grand
liarvest, called the vintage ; a joyous sea-
son, as well it may be, especially if the
weather has been favorable to the al)un-
dance and ripening of the fruit.

14. Champagne is a wine produced in
the northeastern part of France, from a

Port wine? 9. Sherry ? 10. Malaga? 11,12.
What of vines in Italy ? 13. What of French

province which was once called by tha^
name. The wine is of exquisite flavor,
rich, and racy ; it is in high repute, and
bears a considerable price.

15. The country once called Burgundy^
lies south of Champagne, and gives its
name to a wine much celebrated for its
beautiful color and delightful flavor.

16. Claret is a French wine of a pale
red, as its name implies, brisk and spark-
ling. It comes from the country about
the Garonne, on the western coast of
France.

17. A journey through the wine coun-
tries of France, in the vintage season,
is very gladdening. In the eastern and
southern departments especially, the vines
are seen every where, crowning the warm
er slopes of the sunny hills, league after
league. The vines do not need a house
or a wall to assist in ripening the grapes ;
the warmth of the atmosphere is suflUcient,
during the summer months. The vines
are kept short. They are planted within
five or six feet of each other, in regular
rows. As they grow, two stakes, about
four or five feet high from the ground,
must be planted to each vine, at a littlo
distance to the right and left. To these
stakes the principal shoots of the vines are
tied ; all others, which will not tie in, are
cut off to two or three eyes, (as they call
the buds,) according to the strength of the
branch. By this means, none of the fruit
can trail upon the ground, for that would
rot and spoil the grapes.

18. Very carefully is all the ground be
tween the rows dug, at the proper sea

I sons ; and kept clear of weeds, from tho
time that the vines begin to bud. And
continually is the pruning-knife used, to
cut off all the shoots which are not intend-
ed to be left for fruit ; in order that the
whole strength of the plant may be forced

wines ? 14. Champagne ? 15. Burgundy ? 16.
Claret? 17. What is said of the vintage season

DISTILLED SPIRITS.

into the branches which remain, to make
the grapes large and fine.

19. This season may well be anxious,
because, not unfrequently, storms of thun-
der, rain, and hail, arise, in a manner so
fierce as to destroy all the peasant's hopes
at once ; the labor of the whole season
is frustrated in a single hour. The ca-
lamity is ruinous. The whole produce is,
for that year, cut off; and nothing but
poverty and suffering, all through the win-
ter are before the miserable inhabitants.

20. If, however, the season continue
propitious and the vintage sets in pleasant-
ly, then the whole country is alive ; lads
md lasses, with the old and young of both
«exes, join their labors with the greatest
^llity. The vines are stripped of their
purple clusters, which are borne home tri-
umphantly in baskets, or in wagons, by

the singing, dancing, revelling, troops of
villagers, exhibiting, at the present day,
something like the Bacchanalian vagaries
of heathen times; the girls dressed up with
flowers, and the lads with vine leaves. The
wagons, fantastically decked with boughs,
are drawn by oxen, and attended by the
shouting multitude, with all the music the
Tillage can afford, making the scene highly
interesting and exhilarating, not only to
Those engaged in it, but even to a looker-

in France ? 18. Are the vines carefully tended ?
19 Are the hopes of the vintagers oflen destroy-
ed ? 20. If the season is propitious .' 21. What
of Hock ' 22. What of the color of wines : What

on. It is the hey-dey of rural festivity.
The flowing bowl circulates; abounding
plenty enlivens ; and the very labor itself
rejoices the heart.

21. Hock. Hock is a German wine of
excellent flavor when old. The best comes
from Frankfort on the Maine, whence it is
exported in casks called aumes.

22. Color of Wine, &c. To give a
deep red color to wine, it is necessary to
make use of black grapes. The color of
wine is, however, often artificial. Red-
wood, logwood, elder berries &c. are used
in dying it. It is sometimes the practice
to throw sugar of lead and alum into
sour wine in order to sweeten it. These
substances are extremely injurious.

23. Dealers distinguish wine into two
general descriptions ; namely, sweet or
luscious ivines, and dry wines, or such as
are not sweet.

CHAP. IX.
DISTILLED SPIRITS.

BRANDY.
1. The difference between distilled and
fermented liquors is important. Wine
is fermented ; in this process an ardent
spirit, called alcohol, is generated ; this
mingles through the whole substance of
the liquor, ripens by age, and makes it
wine. The purpose of distillation is to
separate this ardent spirit from the watery
parts of the wine ; and thus produce a
liquor much more filled with alcohol, in
which it is concentrated, and bears a much
greater proportion to the bulk of the fluid.
In order to this, it is put into an apparatus
called a still, and subjected to considera-
ble heat. This heat presently raises the
spirituous part, or the alcohol, into vapor,
which rises, and would be lost in the at-

is sometimes done in order to sweeten wme'
23. What is meant by dry wines .'

1. What is the difference between distilled and
fermented liquors ? 3, 4, 5. Describe the procea*

BOOK or COMMERCE.

mospliere, were not the apparatus contriv-
ed so as to condense, and retain it.

2. The vaj)ors rise to escape by a nar-
row lube, which is carried to a great
length through a large quantity of water ;
the pipe is cooled by this chill, the steam
is condensed into drops, and, at the ex-

tremity, runs out in a stream of spirituous
liquor. The liquor, treated thus repeat-
edly, will lose most of its watery particles,
and, at last, become pure spirit, called in
commerce, s^iiit of wine.

3. Distillation produces alcohol very
similar in its properties, let the substance
distilled from be what it may. In England,
the spirit is usually produced from malt.
The specific flavor, and color are given
afterwards in a process called Rectification.

4. As we are speaking of French brandy,
it is proper to observe, that this is distilled
from wines. Wines beginning to get tart
will do. Nay, even the grape-stalks, and
the refuse, will yet afford the brandy
spirit, if treated properly.

5. All this refuse used to be cast away
as worthless ; but they have learned to use
it. After the juice has been well squeezed
from the stalks and husks, the whole mass
is lightly loosened, and put into vessels,
with a certain proportion of water ; it is
then covered over with clay, to prevent
any of the fermentation from escaping ; in
this confined state, it is kept four or five

of distillation. 6. In what part of France is the

weeks; the whole is then distilled, and
the produce of spirit is considerable.

6. The part of France where brandy
is said to be produced of the finest kind
and best flavor, is in the western borders,
about Nantz ; and the town of Cognac is
famous for it. It is at first colorless, and
is said to attain its tint from the wood, by
standing a year or two in the vessel. This
long keeping tends also, by a continued

iiternal commotion, to ripen or soften Jr,
and take oflT much of that fiery quality,
which burns the throat when brandies are
new. It is said, that not less than fifty
thousand pipes of brandy are made every
year in France.

7. The intemperate use of brandy and
other spirituous liquors is productive of
the most injurious eflfects both to the body
and soul of man. The amount of misery
and disease it has caused in the world,
is incalculable. The strongest constitu-
tions have been enervated and destroyed by
its pernicious influence ; and the noblest
minds have been prostrated by its de-
grading power.

GIN.

8. The name of Geneva is given to this
liquor because, originally, it was flavored
with juniper berries, the French word for
which is genevie. It was in Holland that
this liquor was first made ; and the only
true Geneva is distilled there now. The
English gin is nothing more than malt
spirits flavored with oil of turpentine ,
and they are distilled together. It is a
destructive drink among the lower classes.

RUM.

9. Rum is a spirituous liquor distilled
from the sugar-cane. When the juice of
the cane has been forcibly pressed out for
sugar, the mashed cane and all the refuse
are put into the still. The produce is a
very powerful spirit, called Rum. This
spirit is mixed with much of the oil of

best brandy produced .-' 8. What of ^rin ? 9. Rum ?

ARTICLES or CLOTHING.

the sugar-cane, from which it receives its
peculiar flavor. Sometimes in distilling
the rum, a few pine apples are added.
The rum manufactured in Jamaica is
highly valued. Rum is distilled from
molasses in great quantities in New Eng-
land, and exported to Europe and other
rountries in hogsheads. This deleterious
ipirit is sold so cheap in America, that
die wages of a day's labor will purchase
.hree gallons of it. Three-fourths of the
;)overty and crime that lead to the alms-
louse and the penitentiary, spring from
Jiis fruitful source.

WHISKEY, &c.

10. Whiskey is obtained by distillation
/rom corn, rye, wheat, sugar or molasses,
Uiough generally from the former. It is
made in great quantities in Ireland and
Scotland ; as well as in Ohio and some of
the middle and western states.

ARRACK.

11. Arrack is an East India liquor, pro-
cured from rice, when made at Batavia ;
and from the juice of cocoa-nuts by the
people of Goa.

12. There are various kinds of cordials,
such as Noyau, Annisseed, Mareschino,
&.C., which are considered articles of com-
merce. But the basis of these liquors is
most Commonly some one of the above
spirits, and they are flavored and colored
by vegetable substances. Brandy and rum
are often impregnated with the juice of
the common wild cherry, and in this state
they are much drank.

CHAP. X.

ARTICLES OF CLOTHING.

WOOL.
1. The fleeces of sheep seem to have
been the first resource of mankind for

clothing. Adam and Eve had skins for
their garments, after sin had made a cover-

ing necessary. The art of forming cloth of
the wool is very ancient ; for Naamah, sis-
ter of Tubal Cain, of whom we read Ge-
nesis^ iv. 22, is said by the Jewish writers
to have invented spinning and weaving ;
and it is most likely that wool was the
first material.

2. In the book of Leviticus^ we find
distinct mention both of the warp and of
the woof; which describes the woollen
cloth to be made as in modern times.

3. The wool of Attica, in Greece, ana
of Tarentum in Italy, were in high esteem
with the ancients. And garments were
dyed purple by the people of Tyre, of
great value for magistrates and kings.
That was the Imperial purple^ which none
else might wear.

4. There has been a considerable trade
therefore always in an article so necessary
and so costly. From Syria these commo-
dities were brought, in great abundance,
♦owards Europe.

5. The Roman toga was a woollen gar-
ment, white, fine in its texture, and ample
in its folds. The best materials, from all
their provinces, were drawn to the metro-
polis. There alone was to be found the
wealth which could pay for every thing
luxurious.

10. Whiskey? 11. Arrack? 12. What of cor-
dials ?
1, 2. What is said of the antiquity of woollen i

cloth ? 3. The purple garments of Tyre ? 4. The
trade in this article ? 5 The Roman toga ? 6.
Did the Romans establish tlie manufacture in

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

6. Wherever the Romans took up their
abode, they brought and established some
of their arts ; so that the nations which
they conquered were in fact enriched. In
Britain, Winchester was the seat of their
woollen manufacture ; and here it was con-
ducted on a scale sufficient to supply their
army. The business was not wholly lost,
when, in the fifth century, they abandoned
Britain ; yet it went very much into decay ;
for we find one of the most important acts
of Edward III., in the fifteenth century, (a
thousand years after the Romans left Eng-
land,) was the inviting over from Flanders,
and establishing in England, wool-comber^
and weavers, who could teach his sub-
jects how to work up their own excellent
fleeces.

7. It seems, that the wool trade was all
against them at that period. Merchants
from the Netherlands used to come over
to England to buy up all the fine un-
wrought wools, which they took home ;
and when they had woven, dyed, and
dressed them, they returned with their
cloths, and sold to the English their own
fleeces, at an exorbitant advance of price.
Edward, on a visit to Flanders, saw in
what a princely style these merchants and
manufacturers lived ; and he thought, and
thought truly, that if his people could be
taught to work up their own wools, much
money might be detained in the kingdom,
which now went abroad, to th-e great im-
poverishment of his own people, and the
enriching of foreigners. His scheme suc-
ceeded ; and the Enghsh became so ex-
pert in the manufacture, that, in Queen
Elizabeth's time, a law was made prohibit-
ing entirely all exportation of unmanufac-
tured wool.

8. Yorkshire is now the principal seat
of the English woollen manufactures, espe-

Brltam ? 7. What induced Edward to encourage
the manufacture ? 8. What is now the chief seat
of the English woollen manufactures f 9. How

cially of broad cloths ; and Leeds is the
central mart, where most of the wholesale
business is transacted.

9. It is supposed there are about thirty
million of sheep in the kingdom of Great
Britain ; the wool of them, on an average,
is worth about seven millions of pounds
sterling, the value of whicli is increased,
by manufacturing skill and labor, to be-
tween twenty and thirty njillions sterling.
To this may be added five millions pounds
weigiit of foreign wool. This great manu-
facture is supposed to give employment
and maintenance to more than three mil-
lions of persons, men, women, boys, and
girls.

10. Spanish wool, at least that of the
merino breed, seems to be in favor, as of
the finest texture. Those sheep crop the
short sweet grass of the mountains, and
their wool, though not so abundant, is
of a more delicate quality. The Span-
ish breed is said to have sprung from a
few sent as a present from England, by
Henry II.

11. The manufacture of wool in the
United States is very considerable, and is
yearly improving and increasing. The
sheep of New England produce a wool of
a very excellent quality, which is woven
into various kinds of fabrics. Fine* broad
cloth is woven at Lowell, and at several
other of our manufacturing towns.

12. The fabrics formed of wool are very
various. The superfine broad cloth, of
which our coats are made, stands at the
head of the list; then come narrow cloths
which are of a coarser texture. Flannels
blankets &c. are also made of wool : indeed
so many are its uses, that it would bo
tedious to enumerate them. Many elegant
fabrics are formed by a small mixture of
wool with other articles. Poplins and

many sheep are estimated to be now in Great
Britain? 10. What of the Spanish wool,? .11.
What of the manufacture of wool in the United

ARTICLES OF CLOTHING.

iistres have some silk in them ; and some
flannels have a little cotton mingled. .
SHAWLS.

13. The finest shawls are imported from
tne East Indies. Cachemere is the great
seat of the manufacture of those beautiful
shawls, which bear the name of this pro-
vince. These shawls are of two sorts:
those of the first sort are made from the
wool of the country, which is finer than
lliat of Spain ; and those of the second sort
from the wool, or rather hair, taken from
the breasts of the wild goats, which inhabit
Great Thibet. The shawls of the second
sort are much dearer than those of the first,
no beaver being more delicate than they
are. Tn Russia shawls of an excellent
quality are made, called Moscow shawls.

CAMLETS.

14. Camlets are of various colors and
sorts ; some of goats' hair, both in the warp
and woof ; others, in which the warp is of
hair, and the woof half hair, and half silk.
Camlets are manufactured both in France
and Great Britain.

BOMBAZINE, &c.

15. This is a kind of silk and woollen
stuff originally manufactured at Milan,
and thence sent into France and other
countries. It is now made in Great Britain
as well as in this country. Kersey is a
species of coarse woollen stuff usually
woven in ribs. Long wools are those
mostly used in the manufacture of this
article.

CHAP. XL

ARTICLES OF CLOTHING &c, -Continued.

COTTON.

1. Cotton is a soft vegetable down, which

is the product of a small tree, about the

size of a currant bush. It makes a light,

cheap and cleanly garment ; and, in many

States? 12. The fabrics formed of wool? 13.
Shawls .' 14, Camlets ? 15. Bombazine '

respects, is preferable to wool: although
wool will always be in esteem, where
warmth is the especial convenience sought
after.

2. The cotton plant, which has become
of so much importance to our manufac-
tures, would naturally grow to eight or ten
feet in height ; but the cultivators find that
it never bears its downy fruit in so great

abundance as when it is kept to about foui
feet. In the cotton plantations, the plot is
regularly laid out, and holes ai-e made for
the seeds, at the distance of seven or eight
feet from each other. Into each of these,
several seeds are dropped, though all are
not suffered to grow, the weaker ones being
pulled up as soon as the planter can discern
which are likely to thrive best; so that
only two or three are left in each spot.
As these plants grow, ihey are pruned, as
no fruit would appear either soon, or plen-
tiful, if they were allowed to run wild.
This pruning process, anrl gathering of the
crops, continues about three years, when
the plant is so worn out, that a new one is
more productive. The cotton fruit is gath-
ered in March or April.

3. This fruit is a brown pod bearing a
seed, enveloped in a downy covering. The
seeds are separated by a machine called
the cotton gin, and the woolly covering,
which is the cotton itself, is preserved for
sale.

! 1. What is cotton ' 2. What is said of llie.cot-
; ton plant ? When is the cotton gatliered ? 3. De«

[OOK OF COMMERCE.

4. Cottci was found growing naturally
in America ; and the Southern States now
supply immense quantities of the article.
The plant is also much cultivated in the
countries of the Levant, or eastern part
of the Mediterranean ; as the Morea, Candia,
Cyprus, and the islands of Sicily, Malta,
&c. ; also in the country about Jerusalem
and Damascus. It is also raised in the
West Indies, and in Brazil and other parts
of South America.

5. When gathered to be exported the
cotton is packed in a curious manner : large
bags are provided, two or three yards in
length, and above a yard in width. The
mouth of this bag is held open, by two
cross pieces of timber to which it is fast-
ened, and supported by posts strong and
high. The packer gets into this deep bag,
to the bottom of it ; while another hands
to him small parcels of cotton continually ;
these he places, treads down, and forces
into as small a compass as possible. The
bag, when thus crammed, will contain three
or four hundred weight.

6. Cotton being a very light commodity,
one grand object has been to reduce it in
bulk ; that a ship might be able to hold a
larger quantity, and so make her voyage
more profitable. To accomplish this, ma-
chinery of very powerful pressure has been
invented, by which the cotton is reduced
into one-thirtieth part of the bulk to which
common, packing could bring it. It lies so
close now as to be almost solid ; but it re-
covers its usual springy lightness on being
unpacked and pulled out.

7. The whole process in the manufactur-
ing of cotton has been so improved of late
years, by ingenious machinery, as to be to-
tally changed. By this means, it can be
afforded cheaper at the market ; a much
larger quantity is thus disposed of; and the

scribe the fruit. 4. What of the growth of the
plant ? 5. How is the cotton packed ? 6. How is
It reduced in bulk ? 7. What is said of the use of

trade has become a great source of emolu •
ment while it affords employment to many
people. The English are able, even to
fetch the cotton from India, work it up in-
to muslins, send it back again all that way,
and sell it in Hindoostan cheaper than the
natives can produce it on the spot.

8. The ladies who wear those fine deli-
cate India muslins, would be surprised to
see in what an inartificial manner they are
woven, by a people whose loom is so clum-
sy as scarcely to deserve the name of ma-
chinery. The Indian weaver works in the
open air ; he takes his apparatus under the
shade of some tree, where he incessantly
plies his adroit fingers. His progress is
tediously slow, but it is patiently persever-
ing. He can live upon a little, and is con-
tent with his monotonous employment ; as
was his father before him.

9. The first process with the cotton,
when unpacked, is that* of carding, in order
to prepare it for spinning. This consists in
tearing it asunder, by means of a board set
with steel hooks, in which the flaky cotton
is entangled, and from which it is foreed
out by another instrument of the same de-
scription, which, being drawn the reverse
way, tears open the compressed substance
of the cotton, and brings it into the state of
fine wool.

10. This carding is now effected by very
ingenious machinery, by means of which the
work is expedited in an astonishing degree^
and performed too with much greater regu-
larity and evenness than could be accom-
phshed by the hand-cards. It consists of
cylinders stuck full of teeth, working con-
trary to each other, and of considerable
size and rapidity of motion. The saw-gin^
invented by Mr. Whitney, an American, is
an ingenious machine, for clearing the cot-
ton from the seeds.

machinery ? 8. Of the working of Indian mua
lins ? 9. What is the process of carding ? 10
How is it now effected ? By whom was the saw

ARTICLES OF CLOTHIiVG.

11. The spinning of cotton was once a
very tedious process ; one tliread at a time,
by a pair of hands, could make but little
progress. This spinning is also now per-
formed by machinery, in a manner most
ingenious, and, to those unaccustomed to it,
very surprising. That the pliant fingers
should be supersedec^ and excelled by a
pair of rollers whirled round by a steam-
engine, a body of water, or any other inani-
mate power, seems to be an astonishing
effort of art. Yet such is the case, and a
thread much more thin, even, and strong,
is the result. The credit of inventing this
wonderful mode of operation is due to Mr.,
afterwards Sir Richard, Arkwright.

12. The cotton manufactory is now a
very large concern. It is carried on chief-

HHba^^^E

y m extensive buildings, and all the opera-
tions of carding, roving, spinning, &c. are
carried ort under one roof. Some of these
manufactories contain several thousand
spindles, driven either by large water-
wheels, (where a fall of water can be had,)
or by steam. Some of them will spin a
thousand yards of warp yarn in a minute.
The number of persons they employ, often
taking three thousand dollars a week to
pay the operators.

13. The immense advantage of skill in
manufactures appears strikingly in cotton.

gin invented ? 11. How is the spinning now per-
tormed ? Who invented this species of machine-

One pound of cotton in wool, has, by spin-
ning it into yarn, been raised in value to
five guineas ; and afterwards, when woven
into muslin, and ornamented with tambour,
has become worth fifteen pounds : yielding
a profit of almost six thousand per cent,
on the raw material.

14. The greatest manufactories of cot-
ton in the United States, are at Lowell and
Waltham, in Massachusetts, Dover in New
Hampshire, Pawtucket and Slatersville, in
Rhode Island — but there is hardly a town in
New England, possessing the requisite ad-
vantage of water, &c., which does not re-
sound with the noise of the machinery of
a cotton or woollen manufactory.

MUSLIN.

15. Muslins, so denominated from the
downy nap upon them, which the French
call mousse^ are the finest sort of cloths
made of cotton, and are the lightest, most
transparent, and beautiful for female dress ;
though indeed in India, sometimes the men
dress in long muslin draperies, which reach,
like gowns and petticoats, down to the feet.
There are .different names of muslins ; as
book muslin, which is the clearest and most
transparent sort ; this is used by our ladies
for a ball dress, and looks very beautiful
when worn over colored silk.

16. Jaconots are a thicker sort of mus-
lin, more commonly worn as a female
dress. Neckcloths are also made of it.
The turbans of the Indian princes are
made of a great length of muslin, so fine,
and so long, as to be the labor of twenty
years of the weaver's life ; and the crite-
rion of the value of a dress among the
ladies of the seraglio, is, its capability of
being drawn through a ring. We have
also cambric muslins, which are closer
woven than jaconots, and have less nap
upon them.

ry ? 12. What is said of the cotton manufactory '

13. Of the advantage of skill in manufactures'

BOOK or COMMERCE.

CALICOES.

17. Calicoes are so called because they
were originally brought from Calicut, in
Southern India. They are a thicker,
closer sort of cloth, and made of a larger
cotton thread. In the East Indies the
calicoes are all painted by the hand, which
is performed with great expedition. But
in Eurojie and in this country, they are
printed. There are two ways of doing
this : one is by copper-plate, just as prints
are engraved and printed ; that is, the pat-
tern is cut out in large plates of copper, by
the graving tool ; these lines, or grooves,
are filled in with a proper ink ; the sur-
face of the plate is then cleaned, so as to
leave ink only in the strokes ; the cloth is
then placed over this plate, and the whole
is violently pressed with a roller, which
forces the cloth so close to the plate, and
even into the strokes, that all the ink in
them comes off upon the cloth. Engrav-
ing of prints is done on the same prin-
ciple ; only paper, softened by wetting, is
used instead of cloth ; and the whole work
is much finer, and more delicatejy done.

18. The other mode of printing is done
by wooden blocks. The pattern is drawn
very correctly upon a block of smooth hard
wood, as box or holly ; then all the parts
between the actual strokes of the pattern
are cut away, in deep hollows. If now
the surface of the block be daubed with
ink, and that surface be forcibly pressed
down on the cloth, the exact print of the
pattern will be transferred to the cloth ;
as flowers, or sprigs, or birds, just as you
see them on the curtains.

19. Yet this is little more than a mere
outline, and the pattern has many gay
colors; these are often put in by hand,
with a camel-hair })encil, as if drawing in
water colors ; which is easy when the out-
line is correctly done.

J 5. What of muslins? 16. Jaconots? 17. Cali-
eoes ? How a.'-e they printed ? 18. 19. The other

COTTON THREAD.

20. Cotton thread for sewing has beeb
brought to great perfection, so as almosi
to supersede that made of flax. It was
formerly sold in skeins, but great quanti-
ties are now disposed of already wound
upon small wooden spools. These being
wound by machinery are afforded abou
as cheap as the skeins, and save much
trouble.

CHINTZ.

21. Chintz is a fine cotton fabric; the
patterns, as of all Indian goods, are pecu-
liar and showy, though not elegant. The
English have succeeded in imitating tht
chintz patterns ; and the Swiss are ven
expert at these imitations.

LINEN.

22. All linens are made either of hemp
or flax. Flax is also called liii. The lin,
or flax-plant, very much resembles the
nettle, only it grows taller ; and the hemp-
plant is still larger and coarser. The stalks
of these plants are laid in water, to soften
them, that the bark may be easily stripped
off. This bark is then separated length-
wise, into its distinct fibres, which fibres,
in fact, become the thread, of which linen
is made.

23. The chief countries in which linens
I are manufactured are Russia, Germany,

Switzerland, Holland, Scotland and Ire-
land. Immense quantities of linen are ex^
ported from Ireland to England, as well
as to North and South America. Russia
expoi&ts vast quantities of a coarse but dur-
able Kind, called Russia duck and Ra-vens
duck, and Russia diaper, &c. France is
eminent for the delicacy of her linens ; and
Cambray in Wales has furnished cambrics,
as fine as the finest sort of linen. Hol-
land exports a linen of that name, in high
esteem for its beauty, and the fineness of
its fabric. The province of Zealand in

modes of printing ?
Chintz ? 22. Linen .=>

20. Cotton thread.? 21
23. The chief countries ia'

SILK, VELVETS, &C.

Denmark, lying low, grows flax of a very
fine and delicate texture.

24. The flax-seed is, for the most part,
procured from America ; but other nations
engaged in this lucrative branch of trade,
either raise their seed at home or procure
it from the north of Europe.

25. Linen must have been in use in very
early times ; for when Pharaoh honored
Joseph, he put on him vestures of fine
linen. Egypt was famous for this commo-
dity ; the fine linen of Egypt was sought
after by princes. Solomon had linen yarn
brought out of Egypt, by his merchants,
at a high price. Yet linen was not com-
monly worn by the Jews ; it belonged only
to the rich, and was seldom used but upon
grand occasions.

26. There is no doubt but the Greeks,
by their intercourse with Egypt, became
acquainted with the luxury of linen. Yet
we do not find any mention of its being in
use among them in the early ages.

27. Neither was it common among the
Romans, till late in their history. Alexan-
der Severus, history assures us, was the
first Roman Emperor who wore a shirt;
he reigned in the third century. And it
may be supposed that this imperial luxury
was a long while in descending to the
common people.

28. There is reason to believe, however,
tliat it is to the Romans the English owe
the introduction of linen into their country ;
both as an article of raiment, and as a
manufacture; they taught the natives to
plant, and prepare the flax, and showed
them how to spin it into thread, and weave
it into cloth.

29. The manufacture of linen in Eng-
land is not on a large scale ; although the
Suffolk hemp is in esteem for sheeting.

which linens are manufactured ? 24. Whence is
the flax-seed procured ? 25. What is said of th^
early use of Hnen .? 26. Were the Greeks ac-
quainted with it ? 27. The Romans ? 28. To

and indeed for shirting ; as it is said to
outlast every other material, when once
made up. To the English, the woollen
manufacture is of far greater consequence.

30. Linen rags are yet extensively used
for the manufacturing of paper. Cotton
has, of late years, taken the place of linen
for many purposes, on account of its greater
cheapness.

31. Buckram is a sort of coarse cloth,
made of hemp, gummed and dyed several
colors. It is put into those places of the
lining of a garment which are to be stiff,
and intended to keep their forms.

CHAP. XIL

SILK, VELVETS, &c.

SILK.
1. For many years after silk was brought
into Europe, those who brought it did not
know what it was, nor how it was obtain-
ed, nor where was the original country
whence it came. Its beauty, when made
up into garments, induced in every one who
was able to pay the price a desire to obtain
it. For, coming from a great distance,
and through the hands of numerous mer-
chants, the price was exorbitalit ; twelve
ounces of gold being demanded for a sin-
gle pound of this scarce commodity. The
Greeks had known silk from the time of
Alexander's conquest of Persia. The Per
sians had supplied the Roman Empire, till
the time of Justinian, in 555. This em
peror, becoming indignant at the rapacity
of the silk merchants, contrived, afler m-any
unsuccessful attempts, to obtain some of
the silk- worm's eggs, by means of a couple
of pilgrim monks, who concealed them in
the hollow of their staffs. They brorught
over also such instructions concerning the

whom do the English owe the introduction or
the manufacture.? 29. Is it on a large scale
among them at present ? 30. Is linen used in the
making of paper .' 31. What is buckram ?
c2

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

mode of feeding the worms, and manufac-
tUFing the produce, as enabled the Greek
empire to supply itself. The rearing of
silk-worms soon spread through all the
countries of the Levant : Greece, Sicily,
and several towns in Italy, also obtain-
ed these valuable insects, and shared in
the lucrative traffic deduced from their
labors.

2. The first thing we see in the process
of obtaining silk, is a multitude of small
eggs, which are laid by a whitish-gray
moth, extremely frail, whose only existence
is for this one service of laying eggs. Per-
sons who cultivate silk, place these moths
upon sheets of paper, with the edges just
doubled up, as a wall to keep them in.
There they deposit their eggs, which ad-
here, by a glutinous matter, to the paper.
The eggs are now about the size of a com-
mon pin's head, and of a yellowish color.
The moth lays a considerable number of
them, (between two and three hundred,)
and then dies, without, in this state, ever
tasting food.

3. Let us return to the eggs, which are
adhering in clusters to the sheets of white
paper. These sheets are hung up, with the
eggs inward, to a beam, in an airy room ;
never to a hempen line, as that is injurious
to them. In a few days, they will be suf-
ficiently dry to admit of the sheets being
rolled up, with the eggs inward ; in which
state they may be hung up for the remain-
der of the year ; or rather they are put
into stone or glass bottles to prevent acci-
dent. They are kept in the early part of
the spring considerably cool, because they
must not hatch till the mulberry leaves are
sufficiently forward to feed them. A little
warmth. is allowed them as soon as these
leaves begin to bud. Presently will the
eggs swell, and become pointed. Now the

1. "What is said of the early history of silk ?
What is the fi] ■ ■
of obtaining silk ?

2 What is the first thing we see in the process
" " 3. What is done with the

rolls of paper are spread out, and hung
with their backs toward the sun, to gain
warmth. The eggs first change to a gray
color, and in a few days become blackish.
These must now be kept in a pretty warm
place ; and the next day, the rolled u}
papers will be found full of small blacl
worms, the size of ants.

4. Their apartment must be airy, yeJ
kept considerably warm. Broad frame?
placed like shelves, one above another, art
provided for them ; on which they are kept
and fed, till they begin to spin ; the rooit
being kept all the while in a regular and
comfortable degree of warmth.

5. The silk worm is a sort of caterpillar,
about an inch and a half in length, of a
milky or pearly color. It feeds voracious-
ly upon the mulberry leaf, so that it cannot
be reared in any country where the cli-
mate is not warm enough for the mulberry
tree to grow certainly and luxuriantly
It will, indeed, eat the leaves of lettuce ,
but it does not thrive unless it has its own
proper food. It eats night and day. The
more it feeds, the faster it grows ; and the
faster it grows, the more silk it produces ;
so that its voracity is a good sign for those
who rear them for profit. The Chinese
feed them with fresh leaves every half
hour, both day and night. If they feed
fast, so as to come to maturity in twenty-
four days, a sheet full of worms will pro-
duce twenty-five ounces of silk ; should
they be thirty or forty days in growing,
they will not make above ten ounces.

6. When they begin to spin, they must
have more room allowed them. They are
covered with mats, to defend them from
blasts of air, and to enable them to work
in the dark, when they are most active, as
being most at ease. The thread they spin
around themselves is formed of a juice from

eggs ? 4. Must their apartment be airy ? 5. De-
scribe the silk worm, G. What must be done,
when it begins to spin ? 7. When have they fin-

SILK. VELVETS, &C.

their own bowels ; something like the web
of a spider.

7. In about a week they have finished
their spinning, each having enclosed itself
in a case, wliich, though formed of single
threads, looks like tissue paper; it is of an
egg shape, and is called a cocoon. When
the silk- worm has done its part thus, it
changes into a chrysalis, or aurelia ; like the
changed remains of our own caterpillars,
which we often find adhering to the walls
of houses in the country. It seems dead,
and has no motion, unless you press it.
In a few days, it will hatch from this
state, gnaw its way through the cocoon,
and come out a complete moth. In that
state it will do nothing, nay it has nothing
to do, but lay its eggs, for another genera-
tion of silk-worms.

8. The substance which forms the silky
thread is in its stomach, in two compart-
ments ; and when it spins, it sends out a
thread from each of these ; which it joins
together by a gummy matter, by the help
of two hooks in its mouth.

9. I have said that the moth will make
its way out of the cocoon in a few days
after it ceases to spin. If this be suffered,
the silk will be spoiled ; for the hole made
by the insect would divide the string of
silk into so many short pieces, and render
it unfit for general use. Some of them,
the largest and best, may be suffered to do
so, in order to have a supply of eggs for
breeding in the next season.

10. Those cocoons, of which the silk is
to be used, must be put into a tolerably
hot oven, in baskets, in order to kill the
moth inside. This will take an hour's
baking to make sure of it. You will find
a coarse kind of web about the outside of
the cocoon, which must be carefully sepa-
rated, as it is of little use.

ished their spinning ? When the silk- worm has
done its part ? 8. Where is the substance that
forms the silky thread ? 9. Must the moth be per-
mitted to make its way out of the cocoon ? 10, 11.
4

11. The cocoons are then thrown into
water, at hot as the hand is able to bear,
and whisked about ; which will loosen the
ends of the thread. Then, eight of these
ends are twisted several times pretty firm-
ly together, to unite them into one ; and
this thread is drawn through a hole in a
plate of iron, and is fastened to the reel,
which, in turning, draws forth the sub-
stance of the eight •cocoons. Care must
be taken if any one of them break, to
join it again ; or to supply its place with
another, if expended. More than eight
cocoons are sometimes wound together
into one thread ; eight suffice for ribbons ;
velvets require fourteen ; it is difficult to
unite more than thirty. The length of the
thread varies much in different cocoons ;
some of them will measure twelve hundred
ells in length, but in common they have
not more than five or six hundred.

12. The refuse and coarser parts of
these cocoons are carded and spun, and
become useful for many purposes ; it is
called j^05 silk, and is made into stockings,
or used for covering hats.

13. We have now obtained a thread, but
two of these at least are usually twisted
together, to make a thread fit for weaving.
This is thrown silk, or organzine, which
forms the ivai-p, or lengthwise thread of
the broad silk. That which crosses it is
called the tram, or ivoof, and is more loose-
ly twisted.

14. The great trade in silk consists
of raw silk, just as it is reeled from the
cocoons. Much comes from Persia and
Asia Minor ; the centre of which trade is
Smyrna. Much comes from Sicily, and
the provinces of Italy, to Lyons, which is
the grand mart for silk, and the grand
manufactory for silk stuffs, although it is
little now to what it was once. Yet bro-

What must be done with the cocoons ? 1 2. What
becomes of the coarser parts? 13. What is meant
by thrown silk ? ]4. Of what does the great trade
in silk consist ? 15. What of silk in this country ?

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

cades, and silk goods of exquisite manu-
facture, still issue from their looms. Also
much raw silk comes to us from China.

15. The manufacture of silk has become
an object of considerable attention in this
country ; and the tijiio will doubtless arrive
when we shall be able to obtain excellent
silk without sending for it to Euro})e and
to Asia.

16. The term hro«a(le relates to any sort
of silk goods richly ornamented with flow-
ers, wove in. Anciently, these ornaments
were made with gold and silver threads.
Brocaded silks were much in fashion in
former days ; now lighter fabrics are pre-
ferred. That sort most commonly seen is
called lusb'ing. This is woven over and
under, like a piece of calico : the warp,
and the woof or tram, appearing equally
on the face of it, glistening as it catches the
light. It has its name from its lustre or
brilliancy. It is usually the stoutest of
broad silks. Satins, on the contrary have
the woof passing over several threads of
the warp at a time, presenting a very soft
ami glossy surface.

17. Velvets have the woof thrown over
a small wire. If the wire were drawn,
it would show a rich arrangement of loops ;
but before it is removed, these loops are
cut, which gives it the appearance of a
rich shaggy texture, intensely deep in its
color, and having a smooth and fine appear-
ance. Florence, Genoa, and some other
cities of Italy are most noted for the man-
ufacture of velvets. At present the French
velvets made at Lyons are much esteemed.

18. Ribbons are usually woven as narrow
(ustrings, but sometimes satin is inter-
mingled, in stripes or flowers. These are
called figured ribbons. The principal man-
ufactory for these in England, is at Coven-
try and in France at Lyons.

19. Sarcenet is a thinner, slighter sort

16 What is brocade? Lustring? Satin? 17. Vel-
7et? 18. What of ribbons? 19. Sarcenet? 20.

of lustring woven in a similar manner
though sometimes it is twilled.

20. Modes are something like sarcenets,
but have the warp and woof of difleren#
thicknesses. Persian is still thinner, and
more flimsy.

21. Tiffany is a very thin silk, having
some stiftiiess given it. It was formerly
used for trimmings, but it is now out of
fashion.

22. Gauze is a silken fabric, quite trans-
parent, held together by artificial stiflTening.
Paisley, in Scotland, is famous for this
delicate material, which is used chiefly as
a trimming to ornament stouter fabrics.

23. Bombazine is a fabric formed part-
ly of silk and partly of worsted. This
is woven at Norwich, in England. It is
worthy of remark, that there has always
been a difiiculty in dyeing bombazine, as
those coloring materials which fasten upon
wool, will not lay hold permanently of
silk. One man alone, a dyer in London,
had the secret, by which he could make
the dye strike on both at one operation.
Of course, he got the whole trade in his
hands, and made a fortune by it.

24. Crape is also made of raw silk ; it
is woven without crossing, and is highly
stiflfened with wax and gum. Having a
peculiarly dull appearance, it is appropri-
ated to mourning.

LACE.

25. Lace is a texture composed of
many threads of gold, silver, silk, or thread,
which are interwoven and worked on a
cushion from bobbins, according to the
patterns designed. Thread lace is of va-
rious kinds, denominated either from the
place where it is manufactured, or from
the particular method of working. That
which is woven with bobbins, made of
bone or ivory, is called bone-lace.

26. Bone-lace is said to have been the

Modes? Persians? 21. Tiffany? 22. Gauze.-'
23. Bombazine ? 24. Crape? 25. Lace? 26. Bon©

CARPETS, BOSIERT, &.C.

invention of a poor woman in Germany,
about the time of Queen Elizabeth. Her
husband was a miner, and his business
becoming slack, she endeavored to supply

^mily expenses by her own labor. Her
Ingenuity succeeded; lace became a very
fashionable article of female adornment,
and has continued so to the present
day.

27. This has been a great manufacture,
employing thousands of poor women and
Uprls. Of late, this has been almost sup-
planted, by the superior neatness and
cheapness of bobbinet, which is a sort of
lace formed by the loom. There is a
*ace manufactory at Ipswich, Massachu-
setts, and another at Newport, Rhode Isl-
and.

28. As a matter of commerce, lace
comes to us in great quantities from
abroad. Mechlin, Brussels, Valenciennes,
fcc, in the Netherlands, still retain the ex-
cellence of their manufacture, and their
reputation for it. The commodity is ex-
quisite for its richness and fineness ; and
of course, it bears a high price. Fi*ench
lace is also of a superior tjuality. Much
of that fine sort called point lace^ was
formerly worked in the convents, most
laboriously, stich by stich, with the nee-
dle.

lace? 27 Bobbinet? 28. Whence is lace brought
tons? ^

1. What are carpets? 2. 3. Where are they

CHAP. XIII.

CARPETS, HOSIERY, &c.

CARPETS.
1. Carpets are thick textures made
wholly or partly of wool, and wrought in
a variety of ways. Persian and Turkey car-
pets are most esteemed : though at Paris
there is a manufactory where they make
carpets little inferior -to the true Persian.

2. Fine carpets are made at Axminster,
Kidderminster and Wilton in England,
and also at several towns in Scotland and
Ireland. Excellent carpeting is exported
from Brussels in Germany.

3. There are several carpet manufacto-
ries in New England, which make hand-
some goods. The English and Americans
are the only people among whom carpets
are articles of general use.

4. The carpet-weaver has his loom plac-
ed upright before him; not horizontally,
as in most other cases. The warp (which
means that parcel of threads which goes
lengthwise) is wound round a roller at top,
and another at bottom ; by rolling which
he can remove out of his way what has
been done, and bring that part of the warp
on which he is working exactly level with
himself, that he may shoot the wefl across
it.

5. He has a pattern before him, exactly
colored, and so divided by squares, an-
swering to every ten threads, that he can
see what color and how many threads of
each he is to place on the spot on which
he is working. He has spindles of colored
yarns, of every shade he can need ; these
he lays conveniently for reaching, and
takes up that which he wants, passing it
under and over so many threads as his
pattern indicates.

6. Ruggs, such as lie on our hearths.

made ? 4. How wove? 5. Colored? 6. What of
ruggs? 7. When were beaver hats introduced
into England? 8 What are the materials for

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

are a sort of small carpet, woven with the
shag very long. They are of course
warm to the feet, and comfortable in win-
ter time.

HATS.

7. Beaver hats are said to have been in-
troduced into England in the reign of
Queen Elizabeth. The manufacture of
hats has of late years become a great ob-
ject of national commerce ; and the im-
provements made therein are considera-
ble.

8. The materials for making hats are,
rabbits' fur cut off from the skin, together
with wool and beaver ; to which may be
added mole fur, and kid hair. These are
mixed in various proportions, and of differ-
ent qualities, according to the value of the
hats, intended to be made. The best sorts
are made chiefly of beaver.

9. A hat is neither wove nor spun, but
consists of wool and hair entangled to-
gether into a sort of clothy substance call-
ed felt. The wool is cut into short lengths
and mixed with the hair, by beating it with
a bow. The materials are spread out, and
thinned regularly, so as to adhere together
enough to be handled ; this is called a batt ;
two or more batts are placed together, and
hardened, by being pressed close, and
made to unite ; the hairs and wool becom-
ing closely twisted together.

10. The whole is much pressed about
with the hand for a considerable time, and
occasionally sprinkled with water ; this
operation is called basoning. It is then to
be worked in hot water, having mixed
with it a little sulphuric acid ; in this the
felt is wetted, then worked on planks ; this
is called soaking ; some beaver hair is ad-
ded in this latter operation, which being
very soft and glossy, forms an outside to
the felt. The hat is now something in
shape like a funnel ; but it is placed on a
wooden block, to which it is pressed and

making hats? 9. 10. How is a hat made?

coaxed, till it is brought mto the propel
shape.

11. It is now to be dyed, which is
done by boiling it in logwood, and then
dipping it in a solution of copperas ano
vitriol. In the stiffening shop it is render
ed more firm, by beer grounds and weak
glue ; when dry, it is brought into shape
and gloss, by being moistened, brushed^
and smoothed with a hot iron.

12. Hats of chip, straw or cane are
made by platting and sewing the plats to-
gether; beginning with the centre of the
crown, and working round till the whole
is finished. Hats for the same purpose
are also woven, and made of horse-hair
silk, &c.

BONNETS.

13. The bonnets brought from Leghoia
in Italy, are esteemed the finest and most
valuable. Bonnets, however, are made
of an excellent quality in New England ,
and at Dunstable there is quite a mauufac
tory of them. The finest straws are used
in the formation of them.

GLOVES.

14. Gloves, with respect to commerce,
are distinguished into wasli or tan leather,
silk, thread, cotton, worsted, &c. Leathern
gloves are made of chamois, kid, lamb,
doe, elk, buff, &c. The leather of gloves
is not tanned, properly speaking, but cured
with alum, which renders it soft and plia-
ble, and therefore more proper for gloves,
&c. The Limerick gloves are manufac-
tured in a city in Ireland from which they
derive their name, and are remarkably
fine. Mittens made of deer-skin, are
manufactured in considerable quantities in
Vermont, New Hampshire and other parts
of our country.

15. The gauntlet or glove worn of old
by knights in armour, was made of jointed
steel plates. The throwing down of the
gauntlet was the way of communicating a

11. How died.' 12. How are straw hats made.'

FDRS, &C.

challenge ; and if it was taken up by any
one. it was a token that the combatants
were to fight till one was slain, or at least
desperately wounded.

TAPESTRY.

16. Tapestry is a kind of woven hang-
-ings, of wool, and silk, frequently raised
and enriched with gold and silver, repre-
•enting figures of men, beasts, landscapes,
histories, &c. The art of tapestry was in-
troduced into England in the reign of
Henry VIII.; and is said to have been
learned from the Saracens. At first the
figures and groupes which rendered this
manufacture popular, were copies of favor-
ite paintings, but, as taste improved, and
skill increased, they showed more of origin-
ality in their conceptions if not more of
nature in their forms. They exhibited, in
common with all other works of art, the
mixed taste of the times ; a grotesque
union of classical and Hebrew history;
f)f martial life and pastoral repose ; of
Greek gods and distinguished saints. The
art of tapestry is now considerably neg-
lected.

17. There is a famous manufactory,
railed Goh lins, near Paris, for making ta-
pestry and other furniture. It was institu-
ted by the brothers named Gob- lins, who
were celebrated dyers in the 15th century.
They first introduced into Paris that beau-
tiful scarlet color, which has since borne
their name. The process of manufactur-
ing tapestry is extremely slow and tedious ;
and it is of a price to be purchased almost
exclusively by princes.

CHAP. XIV.

FURS, &c.

1. By a fur, we mean the skin of some
animal, dressed with the hair on ; when

I the hair is taken off, it becomes leaiher.
One mark of the kind attention of Provi-
dence to our wants, is the extraordinary
fulness, softness, and warmth of the hairs
of those animals which live in the cold
Northern regions. Man soon found out,
when he had killed a bear, that his skin
might be made comfortable to himself.
He killed him at first in his own defence,
when he came to annoy him ; he now
seeks him for his personal convenience ;
finding that, by borrowing his warm fur,
he can defend himself from the cold, and
provide his family with a warm and soft
bed to sleep on.

2. It was the usefulness of furs which
brought them at first into request. After-
wards, they were thought to be proofs of
valor ; and every young man wanted them
to evince his prowess. They were then es-
teemed as articles of ornament. Smaller
animals were sought after ; especially such
as were so unfortunate as to be beautiful.

3. In the middle regions of the globe,
the climate is too warm to need furs, or
indeed to bear them, except as articles of
finery and ostentation. The Greeks and
old Romans do not seem to have worn
them. But when the Northern nations,
termed Goths, overran the plains of Italy,
they brought with them handsome furs,
and introduced the fashion of wearing
them. They were, however, for a long
while very scarce, and, of course, very
costly.

4. For ages, the northern provinces of
Asia alone supplied these articles of luxu-
ry to Europe ; and still we draw many
furry treasures from thence. But North
America now furnishes the chief supplies ;
and great quantities are sent from the new
world to Turkey, and even to China.

5. The most valuable skins brought

13. What of bonnets ? 14. Gloves? 15. The
throwing down of a gauntlet, in ancient times?
IG. Tapestry? 17. Gobelins?
5

1. What of furs? ^. What first brought them
into request ? 3. In the middle regions of the
globe — ? 4. What a^ antry now furnishes the chief

BOOK or COMMERCE

from Siberia, are sables, ermines, and black
foxes. The sables are dark, even to black-
ness, and so scarce, that a single skin, not
broader than one's hand, will be valued at
twelve or fifteen guineas. Criminals con-
demned to these dreary regions, and sol-
diers, are employed to catch these animals

in traps, or to shoot them ; but in such a
way as not to spoil the skin. These hunt-
ers most commonly endure great hardships
in this uncertain enterprise. The woods
they traverse are very large, and they iiave
no guide to direct them out again, except
the mark which they themselves make in
the principal trees. Should they mistake
these, they must perish.

6. Frequently they have to wait two or
three days at the hole of a sable, where
they have set a trap, watching in the snow
till the creature chooses to come out. Of-
ten their provisions fail during their long
excursions ; and to prevent, or mitigate,
the pains of hunger, they fasten thm boards
tight round the stomach.

7. Black foxes are highly esteemed ; a
smgle skin will fetch a hundred guineas.

8. Ermines, which are delicately white,
are found in all the colder parts of the
North, and their skins become an impor-
tant article of commerce with Norway,
Lapland, Russia, &c., where they are

Bupply of furs ? 5. Whence are the most valuable
skins brought ^ 6. How are the sables taken ?
7. What of black foxes > 8. Ermines ? 9. What

found in prodigious numbers. They arc
taken in traps, baited with flesh, and made
of two flat stones, the uppermost of which,
in falling, crushes them ; or they are shot
with blunt arrows. This animal, in warm-
er climates is called a stoat, but its fur is*
coarse there, and of no value.

9. In North America, there are two
principal stations for the fur trade ; one
on the eastern side is connected with Hud-
son's Bay, or with Canada; and the other
is on the north-west coast in the Pacific
ocean.

10. The first of these was begun by
Mr. Henry Hudson, who, in endeavoring
to find a north-w^est passage to India, dis-
covered that large inlet in North America,
which, after him, bears the name of Hud-
son's Bay. Here he traded with the na-
tives chiefly for skins. The trade became
lucrative, and a company was formed for
supporting that commerce ; forts were
built, and settlements made. At regular
seasons, the Indians bring their stock of
skins, when a sort of market is established
for exchanging them for British commod-
ities and manufactures. The profits from
this trade are considerable.

11. Another distinct fur trade is carried
on through Canada, and concentrates at
Montreal and Quebec.

12. The most valuable skins soon be-
came scarce, in the immediate neighbor-
hood of the several settlements. The In-
dians, therefore, were excited to penetrate
the most remote woods, in order to pro
cure them ; and nations the most distant
were induced to bring them for sale, that
they might obtain European goods, espe-
cially intoxicating spirits. Some of the
early Canadian settlers adopted the hunt-
er's life, or became trading pedlars among
the natives ; and embarking in canoes on

are the two chief stations of the fur trade in North
America ? 10. By whom was the first of these
begun? 11. What of the other trade? 12. Did

FURS, &C.

the large rivers, carried their goods to
great distances, so as to be a year or more

before they returned, with the rich furs
they obtained.

13. This trade was begun by the French,
who were the first settlers in Canada. After
the country was ceded to the English, it
was long before it could be revived ; as the
new parties were ignorant of its course,
and strange in manners and language.

14. Michilimakinac, situated at the junc-
tion of the lakes Michigan and Huron, was
long the boundary of a considerable trade ;
it then became the centre of one much more
considerable. But population has spread
so much of late years, both from the Bri-
tish settlements and the United States, that
the boundaries of their conunerce are ex-
tending every year.

15. A considerable part of the fur trade
of the western states concentrates at St.
Louis, in Missouri. Not only the skins
of beavers, otters, foxes and martens, but
likewise those of buffaloes, deer, rein-deer
and elks are brought for traffic to this
place.

16. As the skins of beavers form one
of the prime articles in this trade, an ac-
count of the method of catching them may
be appropriate. It should be premised,
that the beaver commonwealths are sur-
prising instances of animal sagacity. They

the skins soon begin to grow scarce? 13. By
whom was the Canada trade begun ? 14. Michi-

live in companies of three or four hundred.
Their first care is to build a dam across
some valley, through which a small stream
runs, to stop the waters, and form a lake,
or pond. In this they build their huts,
each containing one or more families, hav-
ing various rooms, for dwelling and for
stores. Their chief stores are branches of
favorite trees, cut in small lengths. Bea-
vers are sometimes taken in traps baited
with aspen wood, but not often, for they
are very cunning. The hunter's usual
method is to make a hole in their dam
and let the water out ; this leaves the bea-
vers on dry ground, and they are easily
killed. A few are left to stock the place
afresh, and the hole in the dam is carefully
stopped again.

17. In winter, when the lakes are frozen,
the method is to make holes in the ice
around every beaver hut, over which nets
are spread. The hunters then break down
the hut ; and the beavers instantly plunge
into the water, under the ice, but as they
are obliged frequently to come to the holes
to breathe, they are then entangled in the
nets, and taken. The hair of the skins
is wrought into hats and other articles of
dress.

18. Another new and lucrative trade,
suggested by the memorable navigator
Capt. Cook, consists in buying up the skins
found about Nootka Sound, on the north-
west coast of America, in high latitudes,,
and conveying them to China, where they
are in great request, and fetch a high
price : the skins and furs obtained there
being far superior to those found on the
Atlantic side of that continent, about Hud-
son's Bay.

19. Ermines and sables are used to or-
nament robes of high state and dignity ; as
those of judges, peers, &c.

20. Ladies' muffs, tippets, and trim-

limackinac ? 15. St. Louis .'' 16. Beaver-skins f
17. In winter— ? 18. What new trade did Capt,

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

mings, are beholden to the bear, the gray
fox, &c. Tiger skins serve as grand sad-
dle cloths.

21. When the hair alone is used, or
used separate from the skin, the articles
are not called furs. Yet it may not be
amiss to mention, that the hair of our cows
is of great use to the plasterer ; being min-
gled with the moitar, it helps to bind or
keep it together.

22. The long hair from horses'* tails is
woven into a peculiar sort of fabric, as a
covering for chair bottoms. A principal
manufacture of this article is at Worcester,
in England. It is spun also into lines for
the laundry, and likewise twisted into
bracelets for ladies' wrists.

23. The long white silky hair of the
Angora goat is a great article of com-
merce ; the finest stuffs and camlets are
made of it. Angora is a city of Natolia, in
Asia Minor.

24. The hair of the camel falls off every
spring, and is made into fine stuffs, for
coverings of tents, and articles of furni-
ture. The artist feels his obligation here
also, as the camel-hair pencils are his
great dependence, for drawing and paint-
mg in colors, especially in the smaller
sized pieces.

25. The stiff hair of hogs, called bris-
tles, is of considerable use in larger works
of art. Brushes of various sorts and of
considerable power are made of them ; and
the shoe-maker, by their assistance, gets
his waxed thread easily through the hole
which his awl has made. The best bris-
tles come from Germany and Russia.

CHAP. XV.

FEATHERS.
1. Feathers make a considerable article
of commerce, particularly those of the

goose, swan, ostrich, heron and peacock,
which are used for the filling of beds
writing pens, ornaments of the head, &c.

2. Goose feathers are in most common
use for beds. Geese are kept in vast flocks
in the fenny parts of Lincolnshire, in Eng-
land. More profit is made of these by
their quills and feathers, than, by their
flesh. They are on this account plucked,
while alive, five times in the course of the
summer. About the end of March their
quills are pulled out, and these make the
pens we write with ; then their feathers
are torn from them ; fresh feathers grow,
which are again plucked every few weeks,

Cook suggest ? 19. What of ermines and sables ?
20. Muf^, tiger-skins, &c. ? 21. The distinction
beti»^^en hair and fbrs ? 22. Horses' hair ? 23.

until the poor birds are driven to market
for sale. Many die under the operation,
if the weather turns cold at the time.
When they live, it is thus to suffer, and
then die. Fair death seems to be less a
grievance, than these repeated tortures.
EIDER DOWN.
3. This material, so soft, is borrowed,
or rather stolen, from the eider duck ; a
wild bird, but one that is, for the sake of
its down, so kindly treated, as to be almost
tame at the breeding season. They are
inhabitants of Iceland and other northern
countries, but are often met with in New
England and Canada. All the islands
west of Scotland breed numbers of these

Angora goat .^ 24. Camel's hair.? 25. Bristles?

1. What of feathers.? 2. Geese? 3. Eider

down .' 4. Where do the eider ducks associate ?

FEATHERS.

birds, wliich are a profitable branch of
trade to the poor inhabitants.

4. In Greenland, Iceland, Spitzbergen,
Lapland, and some of the northern dis-
tricts of Norway, the eider ducks associate
in vast flocks, having favorite breeding-
places, usually on little islands near the
shore, to which they constantly resort.
Their nests are often built so close to-
gether, that a man can hardly walk among
them without treading on their eggs. The
Inhabitants wat<!h them, when they begin
to lay, and take some of their first eggs
for food.

5. Their laying and hatching continue
for nearly two months. Once a week, or
so, the natives visit their breedmg-places.

and seize a great part of the down with
which these fond creatures line their nests
and cover their eggs. When the duck has
torn all the down from her own breast,
by replacing what had been stolen away,
her partner, the drake, assists her with his.
About half a pound of this down is ob-
tained from each nest, during the season.
Iceland usually exports to Denmark from
1,500 to 2,000 pounds' weight ; which, as
it is a very light substance, must constitute
a considerable bulk.

OSTRICH FEATHERS.
6 It is for its plumage only that the
ostrich is hunted ; although its eggs are

5. Their laying and hatching ? 6. 7. What of
ostrich-feathers? 8. Peacock? 9. Argus phea-

good as articles of food. Some of the
ostrich feathers arc white, some black, and
some gray ; and they may be died of any
color by the feather dressers.

7. As adornments of dress, they certain-
ly rank high for beauty, whether they be
white or black. Such as are plucked from
the bird while alive are much the most
valuable, as being stronger and less hablc
to decay. Ostrich feathers are brought to
us from Africa, and particularly from the
coast of Barbary. Immense quantities are
bought up by the merchants of Leghorn.

8. Other Ornamental Feathers. The
feathers of the peacock are in some de-
mand as ornaments for the head. This
bird surpasses in the splendor and variety
of its colors, all the rest of the feathery
creation. Of this he seems proudly con-
scious, when he struts about enjoying the
bright sun. The length and the beauty
of this feather require a noble and elegant
figure, to bear it with propriety, as part of
the head-dress.

9., There are a few feathers in the wing
of the Argus pheasant, of great beauty.
They do not possess a great variety of
colors, for the marks are only different
shades of a lightish brown, or stone color ;
but they appear in regular rings and spots,
from end to end, in a manner which gives
the idea of their being artificially produced.
They form a very elegant ornament.

10. The Egret, a small sort of heron,
bears on his head a very beautiful tuft of
feathers. In the days of chivalry, warriors
wore them on their helmets. They are
now in request as ornaments for ladies'
head-dresses; and the Turks and Persians
wear them in their turbans. The bird was
once very plentiful in England, but is now
scarce ; though it may be found in moist
places, in all the temperate climates of the
globe.

sant? 10 Egret? For what are they now in
request ?

BOOS OF COMMEACE.

CHAP. XVI.

PERFUMES, &c.

1. Hungary water is so called from a
queen of Hungary, who was cured by it
of a palsy. It is distilled with spirits from
rosemary. It is now principally manufac-
tured in France, under the name of Co-
logne-water.

2. Lavender-water is distilled from the
flowers of lavender, with spirits also.

3. Musk is one of the strongest scents
m nature. It is scarcely endurable un-
less much diluted, and mixed with other
weaker perfumes. Musk is a sort of co-
agulated blood, found in a bag under the
belly of a creature which runs wild in
the forests of Thibet, Tonquin,and Cochin
China. There the animal is of the ante-
lope or goat kind ; but the species seems
not to be well known to naturahsts ; per-
haps there may be several sorts.

4. The hunters cut off the bag, and
leave the creature to perish. A great
many of these animals must be destroy-
ed annually, for immense numbers oY the
bags come over, each about the size of a
pigeon's egg. Musk is of considerable
service in medicine.

5. The Civet is of the weazel kind, and
carries its bag of perfume behind. It is of
a milder and more pleasant fragrance than
musk ; the creature is wild in the warmer
climates, but it will live in colder regions,
if kept carefully. The Turks, Indians, Af-
ricans, and even the Dutch, keep them as
articles of trade. With a wooden spoon,
they scrape out this perfumed substance,
every few days; and make great profit,
as the demand for it is very considerable.
Much of it is brought from the East Indies,
about Calicut ; from the coast of Guinea,
and from Brazil.

1 . Whence did Hungary- water derive its name ?
2. What is lavender water distilled from? 3.
What of musk ? 4. Civet? 6. 7. Ottar of roses?

OTTAR OF ROSES

6. This fragrant perfume is the essentia
oil of roses. Roses are cultivated in tne
East Indies, in whole fields in order to
obtain this precious commodity. It is
found as a scum, rising upon i-ose-wa-
ter, repeatedly and carefully distilled. So
small a quantity of oil is obtained from a
large fiekl of roses, that the price has al-
ways been enormous.

7. It is said, at one time, to have been
a guinea a drop ; but the ottar may be ob-
tained with less trouble than by distilla-
tion, by exposing to the sun, water, in
which are steeping the petals of the rose,
cleared from all the stalks and green parts.
This must be covered up warm at night.
When the scum rises, it may be taken off
by a small piece of cotton fastened to the
end of a stick ; this is squeezed into some
very diminutive vial, and stopped close, to
preserve it from the air, until used.

SOAP.

8. Soap is a composition of oil or fai,
and potashes or any other alkali. You
must remember that alkali is a substance
obtained from the ashes of certain plants
when burnt, or it may be obtained from
some mineral bodies, particularly common
salt. Alkali will unite with oil or tallow
When united the two make that hard sub
stance called soap.

9. The greatest quantities of soap are
made in Spain, Portugal, France and
Italy ; olive oil being in those countries
most plentiful. That which is called Cas-
tile soap comes from Spain.

10. The soap met with in commerce is
generally divided into two sorts, the Jiard^
which is made of soda and tallow or oil,
and the soft, which is made of potash, and
the same oily matters. Soap made of
tallow and soda has a whitish color, and

8. Soap ? From what substances may alkali be
obtained ? 9. Where are the greatest quantities of
soap made ? 10. Into how many sorts is tlie soap

CHINA, POTTERY WARE, &C.

is, therefore, sometimes denominated tvhite
soap ; but it is usual for soap-makers, in
order to lower the price of the article, to
mix a considerable portion of rosin with
the tallow ; this mixture forms the com-
mon yellow soap of the country.

11. Soap may be easily scented with
any perfume, and dyed of various colors.
The soap manufactured at Windsor, in
England, is in high repute. Soap im-
proves by age.

12. There are various kinds of cosme-
tics and lotions for the skin, which are a
considerable article of trade. But the use
of these is injurious, and they sometimes
turn the skin to a lead color, or even
black, when mineral fumes happen to meet
them. A preparation is made from bears'
grease, which is efficacious in improving
the growth of the hair.

CHAP. XVII.
CHINA, POTTERY WARE, &c.

1. The art of manufacturing China
ware, as may be supposed from its name,
was originally obtained from China. The
commercial term for China ware is por-
celain. This, however, i# not a Chinese
word, but comes to us from the Portu-
guese, who first brought over these beau-
tiful wares, and with whom the word por-
cellana means a cup.

2. Porcelain, as distinguished from other
wares formed of earth, means something
fine in its texture, half-transparent, and
beautiful in its colors. Pottery, stone
ware, &c. are opaque ; glass is extremely
transparent ; porcelain seems to come be-
tween the two, as partaking somewhat of
both.

3. Although we call it China ware by

of commerce divided ? 11. May it be easily scent-
ed ? 12. What of cosmetics ?

1. What of China ware, or porcelain? From
what is the word porcelain derived ? 2. What is

way of excellence, yet, it is said, a far su-
perior sort is manufactured in Japan ; but
as the Japanese keep it all to themselves,
we must take their word for it, and be
content.

4. Porcelain is an article of very exten-
sive manufacture in China. The origin of
it is beyond date ; as the earliest records
speak of it as having always been in com-
mon use. The town of King-te-tching,
where is the principal manufacture, is four
or five miles long, and contains a million
of inhabitants.

5. There are two substances necessary
for this ware, called by the manufacturers
petuntse, and kaolin. The last is a white
clay, and the former a flint ; both are re-
duced to a very line powder, and washed
repeatedly, with extreme care. These are
then mixed thoroughly together ; and be-
ing thrown into a large well-paved pit,
the substance is well trodden, and after-
wards kneaded together with the hands,
with great and incessant labor ; care being
taken that not a single hair, nor a particle
of sand, should be mingled with it ; for any
foreign substance would spoil the compo-
sition, and occasion cracks and warping,
when the ware came to the fire.

6. This clay has then to pass through
many operations to give it shape. The
first workman makes it into a sort of semi-
circular cup ; this shape is given it by a
wheel, in a moment ; the next forms the
base, on which the cup stands: a third,
by a mould, gives it, while still soft, its
exact shape. A fourth polishes it with his
chisel, and reduces its thickness greatly, to
help its transparency.

7. This is but a general account ; for it
is said that seventy workmen handle a cup
before it comes to us fit for use. Some

the difference between porcelain and pottery ?
3. Is it made in Japan ? 4. China ? 5. What two
substances are necessary for the ware ? 6. Thia
clay has then to pass — ? 7. How many workmen

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

pieces of China have large ornaments upon
them; these are formed separately, and
fastened on with the same kind of clay,
greatly diluted.

8. When the shape is thus formed, it is
given to the painters, of whom there are
many. He who paints the colored circle
round the brim, does nothing else ; if one
man traces the outlines for the flowers, it
is the business of another to paint them.
Supposing it to be a landscape, one paints
mountains only, another trees; and the
birds are not put in by the same hand
which paints the human figure.

9. It is next to be glazed, or varnished ;
which is done with a sort of cream, made
of powdered flint. When carried to the
furnace for baking, each article is enclos-
ed in a case, to keep it to its shape. The
furnace is heated a day and a night, be-
fore the ware is put in, and the whole is
made red hot, by the passage of the flame
on every side. By this heat the flinty
petuntse would be completely vitrified, or
made transparent as glass ; but the clayey
kaolin, which is every where intermingled,
being incapable of fusion, or melting, the
whole together assumes the delicate ap-
pearance so much admired.

10. Porcelain is sometimes left without
glazing, as in figures and ornaments ; it
is then called biscuit, and is delicately
white, almost like marble. The colors
used in painting porcelain are all metal-
lic, like those used in enamelling. They
are ground with gum-water, or with some
essential oil.

11. All those articles which can be form-
ed with the turning lathe, are so produced.
Those which are not round in shape, are
formed by pressing the prepared clay into
moulds, with the hands. Figures are cast

are said to handle a cup before it is ready for use ?
8. What of the painting of China? 9. What is
next done to it? 10. What is porcelain called
when left without glazing ? The colors used in

in moulds of plaster of Paris, the clay b^-
ing rendered considerably liquid by water
The mould imbibes the liquid, and leaves
the figure perfect and firm. Sometimes,
the diflTerent parts of a figure are cast in
separate moulds, as the head, arms, &c.»
these are afterwards joined together with ^
some liquid clay, and smoothed at tho
joinings, before they are baked.

12. In England, in many cases, th*
various colors in the painting are laid on
separately, and each color is fixed by
baking, before the next is put on. The
gilding is executed by a solution of gold,
mixed with quicksilver, and ground up
with oil, and laid on with a camel's-hair
pencil. In the oven, the gold fastens to the
porcelain ; and the quick-silver is evapo-
rated. The gold at first appears dull, but is
afterwards burnished.

13. The Europeans have imitated this
delicate ware, and brought their manufac-
ture to great perfection. Saxony first be- •
gan ; and Dresden china is in high repute.
There are establishments for this ware
also at Vienna, near Berlin, and at Frank-
endal, all in Germany. Italy has porce-
lain works at Florence, and Naples ; even
statues, half the size of life, are form-
ed most beautifully at the former place.
France has excellent china-works at Ville-
roy, Chantilly, Orleans, but especially at
Sevres, near Paris ; where elegance of
shape, and beauty of colors and designs,
are exhibited in great perfection.

14. At Tournay, the cups are formed
diflferently, the clay being neither turned
in the lathe, nor pressed into shape. It is
made so liquid as to run into the mould,
which is filled with it, and suflfered to
stand a little ; then what has not adhered
to the sides of the moulds is poured out,

painting — ? 11. Those articles which can be
formed with the turning lathe ? 12. What is some-
times done in England ? 13. Have the Europeans
imitated the China ware ? 14. At Tournay, how

CHINA, POTTERY WARE, &«.

and that which remains attached constitutes
the cup. At Derby, and at Worcester, in
England, there are extensive works, and
very beautiful articles are made.

15. Porcelain earth is found in various
parts of the United States, and will doubt-
less one day constitute the material of ex-
tensile manufactures. But the finer and
more costly kinds of porcelain derive their
value, more from the labor bestowed upon
their external decoration than from the
quality of the material.

POTTERY.

16. Pottery, or the forming of vessels of
earth for the use of man, is very ancient.
David says of the wicked, "they shall be
dashed in pieces as a potter's vessel ;" and
Jeremiah broke one, as an example of di-
vine vengeance. The Chinese annals go
very far back ; but the art of making pot-
tery was known before their beginning;
for their first accounts speak of it as a thing
of long standing.

17. The Egyptians were famous in their
day for such wares ; from them the Greeks
learned the art ; and from the Greeks, pot-
tery passed into Italy, to Etruria in Tus-
cany, and to Rome.

18. Some admirable specimens of Etrus-
can pottery which are preserved in the
British Museum, gave Mr. Wedgewood the
ambition to try to rival them in Eng-
land. About the year 1763 he invented a
new kind of ware, which is manufactured
under the name of queen's ware or Wedge-
wood ware. Clay from Devonshire, and
flint from the Thames, are carried, at a
great expense, into Staffordshire, for its
formation.

19. Mr. Wedgewood raised a village, or
rather a series of villages, which he called
Etruria, and which contains about ten
thousand people, all of whom are employed

are cups made ? 15. Is porcelain earth found in
the U nited States ? 16. What of pottery ? 17. The
Egyptians—? 18. What did Mr. Wedgewood in-

in these potteries. Great quantities of
queen's ware are exported.

20. The delft- ware is made of clay, hav-
ing a thick coat of enamel within and with-
out. It is brittle, and now but little used.
Common brown ware is made in many
places; and a very neat blue and white
ware is held in considerable estimation, as
in some degree resembling foreign China.

21. I will now tell you about the pro-
cess of making pottery. Clay alone may,
by burning, be made sufficiently hard and
neat for bricks: but it will not work so
thin as is requisite for drinking vessels,
and it would crack in the baking — there-
fore some tougher substance must be min-
gled with it. The substance found to an-
swer best is flint, reduced to powder. This
gives strength to the clay, and the whole
composition when baked becomes earthen-
ware, which is valued chiefly according to
the proportions in which the ingredients
are mixed together, and the care taken to
have each pure and finely pulverized.

22. For this purpose the clays are dis-
solved in water ; the mixture is well stirred
about ; a little time is allowed for the grit
and sand to settle ; then the mixture is
drawn off, when the clay sinks to the bot •
tom, and the water is easily poured away.
This clay is also well beaten, to mix it,
and give it a sort of tough pliancy. The
flints are pounded and sifted, when the
fine dust is mingled with the purified clay,
in such proportions as are best for the
ware intended to be made.

23. This mixture is by water made into
a tpugh paste, sufficiently soft to be easily
wrought into shape. The manner of shap-
ing it is either by pressing it in moulds,
or working it on the wheel. All round
dishes, basins, ewers, &c. are formed in
the way first mentioned.

vent ? 19. What of Etruria ? 26. Delft ware ?
21, 22, 23. Describe the process of making pot-
tery. 24. What is done with the articles when

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

24. When quite formed, the various ar- |
tides are first dried by a gentle heat, and
then thoroughly baked by a more violent
fire, by which they are almost vitrified,
that is, they are no longer dried clay, but
almost glass. They are put into cases of
the same shape, made of clay, that they
may endure the fire without being warped.
The vessels thus forwarded, are called
biscuit ; but as they have a dull appear-
ance, they must now be glazed.

25. Common stone wares are glazed by
a very simple process. When they are
in the oven, a handful of salt is thrown
into the fire : this instantly becomes vapor,
which fixes on the biscuit, and settles in a
glassy polish. But for Queen's ware, a
mixture is made of water, white lead,
ground flint, and pounded glass. Into this
each piece is dipped ; the fierceness of the
fire fuses (that is, melts) the several ingre-
dients, and the mass settles as a glass coat
on the surface of each piece.

SPAR ORNAMENTS.

26. The hard mineral substance called
spar is formed in the crevices in the sides
of caverns. It is shaped into various or-
naments such as vases, columns and can-
dlesticks, which are used chiefly for our
mantlepieces.

ALABASTER, &c.

27. This is a kind of stone resembling
marble, but softer. It is of various colors,
but the white shining alabaster is most
common. It is used by the sculptors for
the formation of small statues, vases, col
umns, &c. It is found in great quantities
in some parts of England ; and there are
places in our own country where it may
be obtained. Plaster of Paris is a composi-
tion of several species of gypsum dug near
Montmartre, near Paris, in France, used
in building and in casting busts and statues.

formed ? 25. How are common stone wares glaz-
ed ? 26. What of spar ornaments ? 27. Alabaster ?
Plaster of Paris .'

CHAP. XVIII.

GLASS WARE.

L The first discovery of glass was madf
by one of those accidents, which happen-
ing to an inquisitive mind, often lead to the
most important and unlooked-for results.
Pliny, an ancient writer, tells us that some
merchants were driven by a storm, to take
shelter near the mouth of a river, in Syria,
where they were obliged to continue several
days. They landed, therefore, and made a
fire on the sands on the edge of the shore,
in order to cook their food ; and they gath-
ered the wild plants growing about, for
fuel. To their great surprise, when their
fire was extinguished, they discovered cer-
tain lumps, of a half-transparent substance,
which glittered almost like precious stones.

2. Some persons who heard of this
wonder, made inquiry as to the plants
used, which they found to be what is com-
monly called kali. They tried experi-
ments, by burning this plant ; but nothing
came of it ; they then burned some of it
with some of the sand intermingled ; and
soon found, they could thus form, at pleas-
ure, the substance now called glass. The
people of the neighboring city, Sidon,were
very industrious in pursuing the discovery,
and they established a manufacture for the
supply of all the countries round.

3. The glass then manufactured, must
have been much inferior to what is now
produced ; materials so coarse, and so lit-
tle selected, could not furnish an elegant
fabric.

4. Sand, and the ashes, or salts, of tha
plant kali, will make glass, if melted to-
gether in a fierce fire. But, in the present
day, other things are added, in order to
render it brilliantly clear, or to give it some
beautiful color. The salts requisite aro

] . How was glass discovered ? 2. What wer«
the plants used ? 3. Was the glass then manu
factured equal to that which is now produced '

CLASS WARE.

euiled, from the original plant, alkalies. Iii-
etead of sand, which is a mixture of many
stony substances, clear flint, ground to
powder, is used for the finest specimens;
but this is too expensive for common use.
t^ands, which, under the microscope, ap-
^ar white, and half transparent, do well.
o. Some stones found in rivers are ex-
®;ellent, as are many in our gravel pits ;
out the white sand is in greatest repute.
Manganese, lead, and nitre, are in use, as
jtdditions, but very sparingly ; these tend
«o render the glass more clear, and color-
less, if not added in too great quantities.

6. To two hundred weight of this white
iand, or stones pounded small, is added

"*>ather more than half that quantity of
jpearl-ash, which is the alkali ; this is kept
in a furnace for about an hour, by which
time the mass is melted and well incorpo-
rated together. The fire is then greatly
increased, and continued for five hours
^niore, by which time the mass becomes
■^what is now denominated /n'^

7. As, in metallurgy, many ores will not
ffielt without something, called a Jlux, to
aiake them flow, so, here, the crystal sand is
melted by the help of the alkahne salts ; and
being run into one body, is ready for use.

8. If you should go into a glass-house,
you would see a man who has a long tube
of iron in his hand. He dips one end into

'4. What will make glass ? 5. What is said of the
use of manganese, lead and nitre ? 6. To two

a pot of melted glass, some of which sticks
to the iron tube. The glass in that state
is almost liquid, and will run any way.
The iron being hollow he can blow
through it. He claps his mouth to the
near end, and blows ; his breath is dilated
by the heat of the glass, and the glass
swells out, like a bladder when blown into.
The more it swells in size, the thinner it
becomes in substance. He repeatedly
rolls it, too, on a flat piece of iron, or mar-
ble, to shape and polish it. If he is going
to make a goblet, he opens the end of the
bladder of glass, and whirls his iron
round, which makes the glass fly open in -
to the wide shape wanted : were it a bot-
tle, he would put the lump into a mould,
and his blowing would force the glass into
the exact shape of the mould. Then he
would open the neck, forming it with a
piece of iron, or cutting it with scissors.

9. To make window glass, which you
know must be quite flat, he dips the iron
tube several times into the melted glass,
and blows till it becomes of a large size.
He is obliged to take his work to the fur-
nace frequently, to heat it afresh, because
when it gets cool he cannot work it any
longer. This globe of glass is opened,
and this opening is worked wider and
wider, till the glass, which was a globe,
becomes quite flat — a whole circle of thin
flat glass — except the knob in the middle,
by which the iron rod held it.

10. At another furnace you would see
them making what is called plate glass, for
mirrors. Here you perceive a flat table,
covered with copper, with ledges at the
sides to keep it in. They pour some melt-
ed glass from the furnace upon this table.
It runs all over it, up to the ledges ; but
in order to make it perfectly flat, and of
an even thickness, the man passes a huge
metal roller over it.

hundred weight of this white sand — ? 7. What

is meant by a flux in metallurgy ? 8. How is the

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

11. When cold, this plate of glass must
be ground on both sides with sand ; then
polished with emery and putty, till the
surfaces are extremely smooth. Yet it is
not a looking-glass, till a thin coat of
quicksilver is fixed on the back of it.

12. When the glass is brought to its
proper shape, it must undergo another
process before it is fit for use ; this is call-
ed annealing. The pieces of ware must
be brought so near the fire, as to be almost
in a melting state ; they must be drawn
away in a very gradual manner, so as to
cool gently ; else they would be so brittle
as not to bear hot water ; and they would
break too with the slightest stroke.

13. The silvering of the plate glass for
mirrors is not done at the glass-house ;
but aa.1 suppose you are curious to know
how quicksilver can be fastened upon
glass, I will tell you. It is called silver-
mg the glass ; although, in fact, it is tin-
ning the glass ; for it is a sheet of tin foil
which is fastened upon the glass by the
help of quicksilver, which dissolves and
mingles with the tin foil, and thus adheres.
Tin foil is pure tin, beaten out to a very
thin leaf. This must be the whole size of
the glass. The foil is laid on a very flat
smooth stone table ; quicksilver is poured
on this, till it is floated with it ; the glass
is then placed on it, and pressed down
with leaden weights. It remains thus for
several days, till the mixture cleaves firm-
ly to the glass.

14. You would perhaps like to know
about the cutting of glass. You see many
wine glasses and decanters have formed
on them beautiful shapes, knobs and an-
gles, which glitter and show a variety of
colors ; now this is done by grinding.
Glass, to be cut, is held against a sharp

glass blown ? 9. Window glass made ? 1 0. Plate
glass? 11. Is it polished? 12. Describe the pro-
cess of annealing. 13. How is the quicksilver
fastened to the glass ? 14. What is meant by cut

wheel, which revolves swiftly ; and the
workman by moving the glass produces
the diflEerent designs — squares, triangles,
diamonds &c. — which you see upon it.

15. The Venetians were long preemi
nent in the art of making glass, both as to
purity and magnitude. During the thir-
teenth century, they were the only people
who were able to fabricate mirrors of a
large size, fit for the decoration of splendid
apartments. All the European courts
were obliged to buy of them, not only
looking-glasses, but all the better sort of
glass vessels, as well for use as elegance.

16. This manufacture was too impor-
tant, and too profitable, to be suffered long
to remain exclusively in the hands of one
nation, especially when the use of glass
for windows had been thoroughly intro-
duced. This convenience first appeared
in England in 674, when the monastery
of Weremouth was glazed. But the first
manufacture of the kind was in 1557,
when fine flint glass was produced. Ex-
cellent glass is now manufactured in dif-
ferent parts of the United States.

17. Glass, for windows, and for glazing
prints, called Crown-glass, is an article of
great use. For a long season, all this kind
of glass, made in England, had a greenish
tint ; till one person, who had his manu-
factory in London, was able to produce it
clear, and he made a great fortune. You
may suppose his method was of some im-
portance, since he was offered more than
seventeen thousand dollars for the secret.
He, however, wanted twenty thousand ; and
because he could not get that price, his se-
cret died with him.

18. Glass may be colored by the addi-
tion of various substances, chiefly oxydes,
or rust of metals. Glass of a very fine

glass ? 15. Were the Venetians famed for the art
of making glass? 16. When was it introduced
into England? 17. What is meant by crown
glass ? 18. May glass be colored ? What is paste ?

IVORT, JEWELRY, &C.

and hard textwre, s coxored, so well as to
represent most of the more precious gems.
When quite clear from color, it is called
paste, and was once much in ftishion, as
producing a brilliancy nearly equal to that
of diamonds. The French are fond of it
still.

CHAP. XIX.
IVORY, JEWELRY, &c.

IVORY.

1. Ivory is a hard, sohd and firm sub-
nance, of a white color, and capable of a
•'ery good polish. It is the tusk of the
ilephant, and is hollow from the base to a
.certain height, the cavity being filled up
with a compact substance, similar to mar-
row. The Ceylon ivory, and that of the
island of Achem, do not become yelloAV in
the wearing, as all other ivory does. For
this reason the teeth of those places bear
a higher price than those of the coast of
Guinea.

2. Ivory is usually brought to us from the
coasts of Africa, where elephants abound.
The elephants' teeth of Asia are not more
than three or four feet in length ; but those
of Africa, especially such as are procured
from Bombaza, and Mozambique, are sel-
dom less than ten feet long, and are so
heavy, that two men can with difficulty
carry one of them.

3. Ivory, among the wholesale dealers
in the article, is divided into elephants'
teeth, properly so called, and schrivelli,
or schrivellos, which last consist of the
smallest teeth and fragments.

4. The Jises to which ivory is put are
various. It is employed in the manufac-
ture of ornamental articles, mathematical
instruments, cases, boxes, balls, combs, dice,
and a variety of toys.

1. What can you say of ivory ? 2. Whence is
ivory usually brought to us ? 3. Into what is ivory
dividea, among wholesale dealers? 4. To what

TORTOISE SHELL.

5. There are two general kinds of tor-
toises, namely, the land and sea tortoise.
It is a species of the latter class, and a
native of the tropical seas, which furnishes
the beautiful shell so much admired. This
shell is used in inlaying, and in the manu-
facture of combs, boxes, and a great va-
riety of other articles.

6. The best tortoise-shell is obtained on
the shores of the Spice Islands and New
Guinea, although much of it is brought
from the West Indies. The goodness of
tortoise-shell depends mainly on the thick-
ness and size of the scales, and in a smaller
degree on ^le clearness and brilliancy of
the colors.

HORN.

7. Horn is a hard substance, growing
on the heads of animals, particularly the
cloven-footed quadrupeds. When in thin
plates, horn is quite transparent, and has
sometimes been substituted for glass in
windows. When heated sufficiently, it
becomes very soft and flexible, so that its
shape may be easily altered. Hence it
may be gradually squeezed into a mould
and wrought into various forms.

8. Horns make a considerable article
in the arts and manufactures. Bullocks'
horns, softened by the fire, serve to make
lanterns, combs, handles for knives, and
numerous other useful things. Horns ma;'
be died of various colors, and stained by
sort of paste, so as to bear o great resem-
blance to tortoise-shell.

COMBS.

9. Combs are generally made of horns
of bullocks, of tortoise-shell, or of ivory.
Some are made of sea horses' teeth, and
others of box or holly woods.

10. Bullocks' horns are thus prepared
for the manufacture of combs. The tips

uses is ivory put ? 5. What of tortoise shell ?
6. Whence is the best obtained? 7. What is
horn ? 8. For what is it used ? 9. Of what are

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

are first sawed off; they are then held in
the flame of a wood fire ; this is called
roasting, by which they become nearly as
soft as leather. While in this state they
are slit open on one side, and pressed in a
machine between two iron plates. They
are then plunged into some water, from
which they are taken out hard and flat.
The comb-maker next saws them into
lengths according to the sized combs he
wants. To cut the teeth, each piece is
fixed in a tool called a clam. The teeth
are cut with a fine saw, or rather a pair
of saws, and they are finished with a file.

11. The process used for making ivory
combs is nearly the same as ttiat already
described, except that the ivory is first
sawed into thin slices.

JEWELRY.

12. Jewelry, properly speaking, is the
preparing of jewels; but as they require
gold and silver for setting, so all orna-
mental work in silver and gold has the
name of jewelry, although there may be no
use made of precious stones.

WATCHES.

13. The making of watches is often, a
considerable part of a jeweller's business.
The town of Geneva in Switzerland is
very celebrated for this manufacture, but
it is extensive all over Europe. The Le-
pine watches of Paris, made by one firm
in that city, are quite famous. Many thou-
sands of them are annually sold.

14. A striking watch is one which be-
sides the common watch-work for measur-
ing time, has a clock part for striking the
hours, so that, properly speaking, it is a
pocket-clock.

15. A repeating watch is one that by
only pulling a string, touching a spring,
&c., repeats the hour, half-hour, or quar-
ter, at any time of the day or night.

combs generally made? 10. 11. How are the
horns prepared ? 12. What is meant by jewelry ?
13. What of watches ? 14. A striking watch ?

CLOCKS.

16. The measuring of time with wheel -
work was not known in ancient times.
We owe the invention of clocks to the
monks of the middle ages. In the 12th
century, clocks were made use of in the
monasteries, to announce the end of every
hour by the sound of a bell, put in mo-
tion by means of wheels. From this time
forward, the expression "the clock has
struck" is often met with. The elegant
Parisian pendulum-clocks are well known,
in which the art of the sculptor is com-
bined with that of the machinist.

17. Wooden clocks are made in great
quantities in a part of South Germany
called the Black Forest. It is said that
70,000 of such clocks are made there an-
nually. Great numbers of wooden clocks
are also made in Connecticut, and sold
by pedlars through different parts of the
country. The character of some of these
itinerant venders has often brought the ar-
ticle into disrepute.

MOSAICS, &c.

18. It would be useless to enumerate
the great variety of articles, which are
displayed in a jeweller's shop. Some of
them will more properly come under our
succeeding chapter. Rings, ear-rings, and
breastpins are ornaments too familiar to
need a description. Some of these are
inlaid with mosaic-work, and others with
precious stones. In mosaic-work, figures
are composed, joined, and cemented to-
gether of various colored stones, or glass
imitations. The ancients practised this
art with much skill and exactness.

AMBER.

19. This is a transparent, and very haid
inflammable substance, of a bituminous
taste, very fragrant smell, and highly elec-
tric. Its natural color is a fine pale yel-

15. A repeating watch ? 16. Clocks ? 17. Wood-
en clocks ? 18. What of mosaics ? 19. Amber '
20. Coral ? 21. Where is coral found ? 22. How

PEARLS AND PRECIOUS STONES.

low, but it is often made white and some-
times black. Amber is principally to be
met with on the sea-coasts of Prussia.
The river Giaretta in Sicily, which takes
its rise on the north side of Mount Etna,
throws up near its mouth great quantities of
fine amber. Some pieces contain flies and
other insects curiously preserved. Amber
is sometimes used in medicine, but it is
chiefly manufactured into beads, crosses,
and other ornaments.

CORAL.

20. Coral is a marine production, of
which there are several varieties. It is in
fact the nest of a certain species of insects,
which has the same relation to coral, that
a snail has to its shell. The white coral is
the most common, and the least prized.
As an ornament, black coral is most es-
teemed ; but the red is also quite valuable.

21. Coral is found in great abundance
in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, in vari-
ous places in the Mediterranean, on the
coast of Sumatra, &c. The red coral,
most in use among us, is fished up in the
Mediterranean, on the coast of France.
This is used principally in making beads
for necklaces and other ornamental ap-
pendages.

22. It is obtained in the following man-
ner. The boats go out with seven men
in each ; six of them manage the boat, and
the seventh is the fisher. They let down

.a large cross of wood, furnished with
hempen loops, and hooks ; when it seems
to be sufficiently entangled among the
coral-beds, the boatmen row away, and
endeavor to tear it up. Sometimes it is
more than one boatful of men can do ;
five or six boats must join. And some-
times, when the coral snaps unexpectedly,
the jerk oversets the boat, and precipitates
the men into the sea, at the hazard of their
lives.

.8 it obtained ? 23. What is said of the formation
of some of the South Sea Islands '

23. Although the insects, which pro-
duce coral, seem too diminutive to be of
any importance, yet they are effecting re-
sults of startling magnitude in the South
Seas. Almost all the islands there are the
tops of coral reefs, which have been raised
by these little creatures. The growing
mass as it spreads its branches outwards,
becomes hard, and uninhabitable in its
inner recesses. In the course of time,
these coral rocks rise above the water, and
grow no higher, for the animal cannot live
out of the sea. Weeds, branches and sea
plants then help to form the remainder of
the island.

CHAP. XX.

PEARLS AND PRECIOUS STONES.

PEARLS.

1. Pearls are hard, white, shining bodies,
usually round, obtained from various kinds
of shellfish. Although highly valued in the
rank of gems, pearls are supposed to pro-
ceed only from a distemper in the creature
that produces them.

2. The pearl fisheries in Europe are
not of much importance. Pearls are
found occasionally on the coasts of Scot-
land, Bohemia, Bavaria, and a few other
places. These are not prized like the
Oriental pearls, though they make good
necklaces, even to the value of a thousand
crowns.

3. In America there are pearl fishe-
ries, in the Gulf of Mexico, and all along
the coast towards Brazil. The island of
Margarita has its name on this account ;
Margarita signifying a pearly through the
languages of the Latins, Greeks, upwarda
to the Hebrews. On the other side of the
isthmus of Darien also, at the Gallipagoa
Isles, the fishery is considerable.

4. But as the finest and most valuable

1. What of pearls? 2. The pearl-fisheries of
Europe ? 3. America? 4. Whence are the most

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

pearls come from India, it is most to our
purpose to describe that fishery which
takes place on the coast of Ceylon. Al-
though, on the Arabian coast, and in the
Gulf of Ormuz, many are obtained.

5. Ceylon is a large island in the Indian
ocean, adjacent to the southern point of
Hindoostan. The banks where the fish
abound, lie about twenty miles off at sea,
opposite the Bay of Condatchy. The gov-
ernment does not allow the whole bank to
be fished in any one season ; it is divided
into four portions, one of which suflices
for a year ; thus, as the fishers make pro-
gress through the whole, each bank obtains
time to recover the devastations made in
it. The right of fishing this bank is put
up to sale, and is usually bought by some
black merchants.

6. The fishing begins in February, and
is continued through the month of March.
In stormy days the divers cannot proceed.
The boats set off at the signal of a gun,
about ten o'clock in the evening, when the
land breeze is in their favor ; they reach
the banks about break of day ; and about
noon the sea breeze rises, with which they
return to land.

7. Each boat carries about twenty men ;
half of whom are to row, and assist the di-
vers, especially in ""oming up, when they
are considerably exhausted. Of the other
ten, who are divers, five go dtown at a
time ; one company resting, while the oth-
er dives. They have a large stone tied to
their foot, of forty or fifty pounds' weight,
to enable them to sink ; this has a line
fastened to it, that it may be drawn up,
and serve again.

8. The diver, when about to descend,
seizes the rope between the toes of his
right foot, for by custom he can use his
toes as well as his fingers ; and he holds a

valuable pearls brought r* 5. Where is Ceylon ?
What is said of the banks where the fish abound ?
5. W^hen does the fishing begin ? 7. How is it

bag of net with his left foot. He taker
hold of another rope with his right handj
and holds his nostrils with his left. He
then plunges into the spa, holding his
breath ; he hangs the net round his neck,
and, as quickly as possible, fills it with aa
many oysters as he can gather up in about
two minutes. By jerking the rope, he
gives notice to those above to draw him
up ; and loosing the stone from his foot,
he rises quickly into the air. They sel-
dom get deeper than thirty yards, which
is indeed a great depth.

9. When in the boat again, the violence
of the operation appears, by his discharg
ing water, and sometimes blood, from his
mouth, ears, and nose. He then rests,
while the other five descend. Each man
will thus go to the bottom forty or fifty
times in one day, bringing up possibly a
hundred oysters at every turn. They are
the poorest wretches who labor in this
dangerous way ; they live but a few years,
for they are liable to the bursting of
blood vessels, drowning, being devoured by
sharks, or death from deep consumption.

10. When the boats return to land, the
oysters are heaped in pits, lined with mats,
to prevent the oysters from coming in con-
tact with the earth itself. They could not
be opened while alive without great force ;
but when they begin to putrify they open,
and are taken out without injury.

11. The formation of these beautiful
gems of the ocean, is among the wonders
of nature. The oyster itself lines its own
shell with a pearly matter, oozing froik
glands in its body, provided for this pur-
pose. Perhaps this liquor may be gener-
ated in too great quantity, and may bursr
in drops, into the cavity of the shell.
There is reason too to think, that the crea-
ture is sometimes wounded, and that this

continued ? 8 How does the diver obtain the
pearls ? 9. Is the occupation a dangerous one ?
10. What is done with the oysters? 11. What it

PEARLS AND PRECIOUS STONES.

matter flows from the wound ; especially,
as smooth and perfect shells are not so
likely to have pearls in them as those
which are deformed and distorted, or
crooked.

12. Pearls should be of a clear white,
and highly glistening; this lustre is called
their water. In the East, those which are
tinged with a little yellow are preferred ;
especially as they are thought never to
change their color. The white are apt to
degenerate to a very dingy yellow, after
forty or fifty years' wearing.

13. The black natives paint them with
powder of pearls ; and drill them with
great dexterity, that they may be strung
ready for use.

14. Pearls are valued according to the
square of their weight. If a pearl of one
carat be worth ten shillings, a pearl of six
carats will be worth thirty-six times as
much, or eighteen pounds ; for the square
of six, that is the number multiplied by it-
self, is thirty-six.

15. The ignorant are often deceived by
buying, as genuine productions of nature,
articles which are mere fabrications, or ar-
tificial pearls. Some pretend to unite sev-
eral small pearls into one large one, which
is impossible. From the scales of some
fish a silvery matter may be obtained ; this
is dropped into a hollow bead of very thin
glass ; and the appearance is so nearly that
of the real pearl, that none but a practised
eye can distinguish the difference. Nay,
a thin skin from the eye of the mackerel,
may be stamped into a half-globular shape,
which, when set, will deceive the careless
and inattentive, into the conceit of a great
bargain.

16. Seeing the dangers of ihe pearl fish-
ery are so great, one may be allowed to
wish, that the better sort of artificial pearls

said of the formation of the pearls? 12, How
should pearls be ? 13. The black natives — ? 14.
How are pearls valued? 15. What of artificial
5

might content our fair ladies ; as the whit-
est of the real pearls, morally viewed, are
stained with blood.

MOTHER OF PEARL.

17. What is called mother of pearl, is
the inner lining of a shell, not of the pearl-
oyster, but of another species ; this is of
the same substance as the pearl. It is
very beautiful, and is made up into many
trinkets, or used with great advantage
to inlay the nicer sorts of cabinet-work.
Fishes and counters, for card-players, are
formed of it. Its neat and beautiful ap-
pearance makes it suitable for various
small ornaments. The principal manufac-
ture of this material is in Jerusalem ; vast
quantities of it are brought thither from
the Red Sea; it is formed into wafer-
boxes, crucifixes, &c., which, when ex-
ported to the Spanish West Indies, are
highly prized, and bring an immense profit.
There is also a manufactory of Pearl work,
as it is called at Boston, which has sup-
plied the United States with most of these
articles for two or three years.

DIAMONDS.

18. The diamond is a most precious
stone, which has been known from the re-
motest ages. When pure, it is perfectly
transparent like crystal, but much more
brilliant. Indeed, it has been said that the
excellency of a diamond is greatest, when
you cannot see it. For, if you consider a
little, it is not the diamond itself that you
see, but the light reflected by it.

19. T\\Q first ivater in diamonds, means
the greatest purity and perfection of their
complexion, which should be that of the
purest water. When diamonds fall short
of this perfection, they are said to be of
the second or third water &c. If you were
to see a diamond in its rough state, before
it is polished, you would not suspect it to

pearls ? 16. Viewing' the pearl-fishery in a moral
point of view, what is the conclusion ? 17. What
of mother of pearl ? 18. What of the diamond?

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

be any thing but a common stone ; unless
you were accustomed to it. When un-
polished, diamonds have a whitish-gray
appearance, and are destitute of brilliancy.

20. A poor woman at Norwich, in Eng-
land, once had a Jew rap at her door, to
ask her if she would part with a stone,
which lay in her window. She said, No,
it was a keepsake from her son Ben, who
was gone to the Indies. The Jew, instead
of being daunted, was stimulated, by this
account, and said he had taken a fancy to
it, and would give her a crown for it.
The woman was shrewd enough to know,
that a Jew would not give five shillings
for any thing unless it were worth a great
deal more. She therefore refused to part
with it obstinately, till she had found out
what it was, and what was its real value.
In the sequel, it was discovered that tliis
stone was a very large diamond, in its
rough state, for which she procured a
thousand guineas or about fixe thousand
dollars ; after it had thus lain in her win-
dow for years, as a connnon stone.

21. I can tell you another story too,
which may serve to make you careful, in
things which might not at the time seem
to be of any importance. Some fifty years
ago, an East-Indiaman was wrecked near
Aldborough, on the coast of England. A
few weeks afterwards, some gentlemen
<*ame down in a post-chaise, inquiring for
any remnants of the wreck; especially for
some small, but strong, boxes. At last,
they found a laboring man had got one of
the boxes, which they might have if they
liked. It had taken him, he said, a plaguy
deal of time to break it open, and when he
had done so, there was nothing in it but a
parcel of ugly stones. The gentlemen
eagerly inquired what he had done with
them. Oh, he said, they were good for

19. What is meant by the first tcater in diamonds?

20. Relate the story of the poor woman and the
Jew. 21 . 22. What is the other story t 23. What

nothing, and he had hulled them away into
the field.

22. They made him point to the place
as nearly as he could, and were at the ex-
pense of having the whole field sifted and
searched, but almost to no purpose ; as
very few of the diamonds (for such were
these stones in reality) were recovered.
Had he been a little wiser, iie would have
supposed, that those could not be common
stones which were packed up so carefully,
in strong iron-bound boxes. As it was^ •*
he had the punishment of knowing, that
he had thus missed of a handsome reward
through his ignorance, and his want of
common honesty, which ought to have in-
duced him to wait to see if any one came

to claim the boxes.

23. The diamond has always been in
request, from its scarcity, as well as its
beauty. The ancients called it adamant ;
which word is still in use to express any
thing extremely hard. The diamond is
the hardest substance in nature ; nothing
but itself can cut it.

24. To get the diamond into a proper
shape for showing its brilliancy to advan-
tage, the lapidary rubs two of them to-
gether, and they wear away each other.
The very dust so made is also carefully
saved, as nothing else will polish this ex-
cessively hard stone.

25. There is a diamond mill at Amster-
dam, which is an interesting object. The
process of polishing the diamonds is as fol-
lows: Four horses turn a wheel, setting in
motion, in the room above, a number of
smaller wheels, whose cogs, acting on cir-
cular metal plates, keep them in continued
revolution. Pulverized diamond is placed
on these ; and the stone to be polished,
being fiistened at the end of a piece of
wood by means of a preparation of zinc

name did the ancients give to the diamond ? 24.
How are diamonds shaped.? 25. Describe the
diamond mill at Amsterdam. 26. What country

PEARLS AND PRECIOUS STONES.

find quicksilver, is submitted to the fric-
tion of the adamantine particles. This
is the onl}' mode of acting on diamond ;
which can be ground, and even cut by
particles of the same substance. In the
latter operation, diamond dust is fixed on
a metal wire that is moved rapidly back-
wards and forwards over the stone to be
cut. The distinction between a rose dia-
mond and a brilliant, is this. The one is
ontire and set vertically, the other is di-
vided, and set horizontally. The largest
diamonds are reserved for roses, which
always rise in the centre to an angle ; the
smaller are used as brilliants, and are flat
on the upper surface.

' 26. The main source of supply, for
ages, has been the East Indies. There
we still find four principal mines, or rather
two mines in which they are digged, and
two rivers, by which the diamonds are
washed down from the bowels of the
mountains.

27. In Golconda on the Eastern coast
of Hindostan, it is common for the mer-
chants, who are often blacks, to buy a cer-
tain portion of land, in which their slaves
dig for diamonds. Sometimes they find
nothing ; at other times they obtain great
wealth in a single season.

28. The diamond mine at Raolconda,
in this province, has been resorted to for
this purpose full two hundred years. The
soil is sandy, and the rocks are full of
clefts. In these clefts, though not above
an inch wide, the miners search with
hooked tools, dragging the sand all out.
This they wash carefully, to search for the
stones. The people work naked, (except
one narrow piece of cloth.) that they may
not be able to secrete any for themselves.
They do, however, now and then succeed
in swallowing some, and thus bring them
nway without being discovered.

has furnished the chief supply of diamonds ? 27.
In Golconda- ? 28. What of the diamond-mine

29. There is another mine at Gaui, also
in the province of Golconda. This was
discovered about a hundred and fifty years
since, by a peasant, who, in digging, found
a large one. Here the Great Mogul's fa-
mous diamond was found, weighing almost
eight hundred carats ; in general, they do
not weigh above ten or twenty. A carat
is a weight used only for gold, diamonds,
pearls, and similar precious commodities;
about one hundred and fifty carats make
an ounce, in the troy weight.

30. In this mine there are often sixty
thousand poor wretches obliged to dig.
The manner is thus : near the place where
they hope to find diamonds, they dig a pit,
which they enclose with low walls ; they
then dig in the spot they have chosen, till
they find water; and they stir up the earth
well with this water, which is afterwards
let off. What the men have dug and
washed, is carried by the women and
children into the first pit ; there they wash
the earth they have obtained, and dry it,
and sift it; and then adroitly search with
their hands for the diamonds, which they
learn to know by the feel. This mine is
on a plain, at the foot of the mountains ;
the nearer the mountains they can dig, the
larger are the diamonds they find. All
this work, laborious as it is, is made a kind
of holyday, by the feast given previously,
and the superstitious rites and sacrifices,
supposed to make the genii of the place
propitious to them.

31. The river Goual runs into the Gan-
ges, in the northern part of India. After
the great rains, which have flooded all the
country, have subsided, the natives of the
neighborhood, to the number of ten thou-
sand, assemble; they gather up the sands
of the river, digging it about two feet deep,
where, by experience, they see reason to
expect diamonds. This they wash dry,

at Raolconda ? 29. Gani ? What is a carat ''
30. What is the manner of digging? 31. Whati*

BOOK or COMMERCE.

sift, and search, as before. The stones
they thus obtain are small, and are called
sparks.

32. There is another diamond-mine in
a river, in the island of Borneo. This is
secluded from strangers, so that we know
little about it ; except that by stealth, dia-
monds are brought from thence and sold
at Batavia.

33. Diamonds are also found near Villa
Rica and in other parts of Brazil. They
are so plentiful, that to prevent the price
of diamonds from becoming too low, the
government limits the number of persons
employed in the mines. The sand is
washed in a manner somewhat similar to

that described above. After the current
flows away quite clear, the largest stones
are thrown out and then those of inferior
size: then the whole is examined with
great care for diamonds.

34. The value of diamonds is artificial,
yet, while they are in request, and can be
turred into money, the value is truly real.
But the usual mode of valuation makes the
(arger sort rise in price, much beyond their
increase in size and weight; till, for some
few, the valuation is enormous.

35. The largest diamond on record was
found in Brazil. An ignorant man, by a
violent blow of a hammer, split off a large
piece ; but it now weighs one thousand

said of the river Goual ? 32. The diamond-mine
ef Borneo? 33. Brazil diamonds ^ 34. The value

six hundred and eighty carats. It how
ever remains uncut, because the cost of
polishing it would be so great.

36. The Emperor of Russia has one
next in size, which may well be esteemed
a famous one. It was once the eye of ar
idol, in the East Indies. A French sol-
dier, who deserted his regiment, contrivetf
to become a priest to this idol, and took
his opportunity to steal the idol's eye ou<
of its socket ! He then escaped to Madras
where he sold it to a sea-captain, for twen •
ty thousand rupees, or about two thousanc
pounds. A Jew then purchased it for sev
enteen thousand guineas. A Greek mer
chant obtained it next ; who sold it at Am
sterdam, to Prince OrlofF, through whom
it came to the Empress Catherine, who
placed it in her sceptre. It weighs seven
hundred and seventy-nine carats. It cost
above one hundred and thirty-six thousand
pounds, and is valued at four millions.

37. To ascertain whether any specimen
is a true diamond or not, a fine file may
be used ; and if the surface of the stone
be the least scratched by its action, it is
not a diamond. Brazil now furnishes the
greatest number of diamonds to the world.

CORNELIAN.

38. The cornelian is a precious stone,
of which there are three kinds, a red, a
yellow and a white. It is found in round
or oval lumps, much like our common
pebbles. It is tolerably hard, and sus-
ceptible of a very fine polish. It is used
principally by jewellers in the manufacture
of beads, watch-seals, &c. The finest cor-
nelians are those of the East Indies ; but
very good ones are found in some parts
of Germany as well as of Great Britain.

EMERALD.

39. Emerald is a precious stone of a
beautiful green color of various depths.
The purest specimens come from the East

of diamonds .' 35. What is the largest diamond
on record .? 36. Who has the one next in size .'

PEARLS AND PRECIOUS STONES.

Indies and Peru. It is of different sizes,
but usually small. Crystal tinged with
green is very often substituted for the in-
ferior sort of emeralds.

JASPER.

40. This stone, which is usually found
in the East Indies and China, is an ingre-
dient in the composition of many moun-
tains. Its colors are various, and often
mingled together. It is mostly employed
by jewellers in the formation of seals, and
when well polished is a very beautiful
istone.

RUBY.

41. The ruby is a precious stone very
highly esteemed when pure. But under this
name minerals have sometimes been sold,
which are essentially different. The ori-
ental ruby is, in fact, a red variety of the
sapphire. When perfect, its color is a
deep red, presenting an exquisite richness
of hue. It is, however, in general, more
or less pale, and often mixed with blue.
It is harder than any mineral, except the
diamond. Rubies are found in Pegu, the
island of Ceylon, and Brazil.

SAPPHIRE.

42. Sapphire is a precious stone, usu-
ally of a blue color, and the hardest of
all, except the ruby and diamond. It is
found in the same countries with the ruby,
and also in Siberia and some parts of Eu-
rope. Sapphire is found of a gray, white,
green and yellow color, and usually of the
form of common pebbles.

AMETHYST.

43. The amethyst is a gem of a purple
^olor, and is scarcely inferior to any of the
gems in beauty and hardness. It is found
of various sizes, and the best come from
the East Indies. It is also met with in the
West Indies, and in different parts of Eu-
rope.

38. What of cornelian ? 39. Emerald ? 40. Jas-
per ? 41. Ruby.? 42. Sapphire .? 43. Amethyst?

TOPAZ.

44. The word topaz, derived from an
island in the Red Sea, where the ancients
used to find topazes, was applied by them
to a mineral very different from ours. The
topaz is found in several parts of the East
Indies, in Ethiopia, Arabia, Peru and some
parts of Europe. The colors are various,
and it often occurs, red, blue, green, yellow
and white.

AGATES.

45. The agate is a gem, which takes its
name from the river Achates in Sicily, on
the banks of which it is found. It is va-
riegated with veins and clouds, and seems
to be composed of crystal, colored by a
large quantity of earth. Its colors are yel-
lowish, reddish, bluish, orange, green, &c.
Agates are found in Great Britain, and
many parts of America. The German
agates are the largest. Some very fine
ones have been brought from Siberia and
Ceylon. They are found in great plenty
at the eastern extremity of the settlement
of the Cape of Good Hope, and are still
met with in Italy.

JET.

46. Jet is a black, inflammable and bitu-
minous substance, which is susceptible of
a fine polish. It occurs in France, Spain
and many other parts of Europe, and is
found at Soutli Hadley, in Massachusetts,
in the coal formation. Jet is chiefly con-
verted into beads, bracelets, buttons, and
other small ornaments. In Prussia it is
called black amber, and is cut into rosaries
and necklaces.

CHAP. XXI.

PRECIOUS METALS.

GOLD.
1. Gold has always been a metal highly
prized ; partly for its scarcity, partly for

44. Topaz.? 45. Agates.' Whence is the word
Agates derived .' 46. What of jet .?

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

its brilliancy, and much on account of its
durability. It is not liable to rust, evapo-
ration, or to any destruction of its essential
substance. If, indeed, any metal were to
be prized for its usefulness, iron would
deserve man's highest esteem. Many na-
} tions have been happy without gold ; but
no comforts or conveniences, no arts or
sciences, could be attained, or prosecuted,
without iron.

2. We read of gold in Scripture, in very
«arly days. In the description of Paradise,
one of the four rivers flowing out of it en-
compased, we are told, the ' land of Havi-
lah, where there is gold,' [Genesis, ii. II.)
A chain of gold was put upon the neck of
Joseph, at his exaltation. It became so
plentiful, and was esteemed so highly, that
Israel in the wilderness was cautioned
against making gods of gold, to worship
them.

iS. Gold seems to be very generally
found, though Europe has been less favor-
ed with it than other parts of the earth.
Asia has been rich in this precious metal ;
the river Pactolus, in Lydia, yielded much
to king Croesus ; and to this day Sumatra,
Pegu, China, and Japan, yield considerable
quantities. In Europe, though gold mines
have been found in many places, yet the
principal one now worked is that of Chrem-
nitz, in Hungary, which has yielded gold
for a thousand years. Spain once afforded
much to the Romans ; but the mines are
not now worth working.

4. Africa yields gold in considerable
quantities, chiefly in small grains, called
gold-dust. In Solomon's time, Ophir, on
the eastern coast, was famous for it. But
since the discovery of America, the great-
est supply has been obtained from thence ;
from Mexico, in the Northern Continent ;
and from Chile, Peru, and Brazil, in South
America ; and more recently from North

1. What is said of gold? 2. Do we read of gold
in Scriptuie '' 3. 4. In what countries is gold

Carolina, Georgia and other parts of tha
United States.

5. Gold is sometimes found in minea,
but it must be digged for. It is also found
more frequently in particular rivers, min
gled with the sands. These sands are
sifted and washed. Those employed in
searching for them, have a long trough^
which they place sloping ; this is lined at
the bottom with flannel ; and the sand put
into this is well mingled with water and
kept stirring. The gold by its weight
sinks, and is entangled in the flannel ; but
the water and sand pass away. The gold,
thus separated, is easily melted into a lump,
or ingot.

6. In Guinea, the gold is chiefly found
in the, sand and mud of rivers. Between
two and three thousand ounces of gold-
dust annually come from thence ; and
several hundred ounces from the Gambia
Much is brought from the interior, into
Egypt, in this form, secured in the hollows
of ostrich quills.

7. In the streams which drain from the
mountains of Chile, a peculiar sort of gold
is found, and it is separated from the
earth in which it is imbedded by washing,
at places called lavaderos. When the na-
tives have discovered a place proper, they
dig about six feet deep ; and endeavor
to turn some rivulet into the pit, to wash
away the upper soil, and lay bare the stra-
tum of golden earth. They then dig, load
their mules with the earth, and carry it
to be washed.

8. In Brazil, the invading soldiery of the
Spaniards perceived that the fish-hooks of
the Indians were made of gold. On iif-
quiring, they found this was obtained from
the sands of the rivers, after violent floods ;
since then, gold has been sought for with
great care, and is found almost in every
stream.

found ? 5. How is it obtained ? 6. Where is it
found in Guinea ? 7. Chile ? 8. What did the

PRECIOUS METALS.

9. Gold found in mines is sometimes
ia small lumps ; seldom any piece weighs
more than an ounce, although pieces have
been found of thirty-six ounces, and even
of several pounds' weight. Some pieces
of this sort were sent to Spain, by Colum-
bus, to convince the court of the treasm-es
iikely to be obtained in his newly-discov-
ered world.

10. In other places, gold is found in a
lort of stony lump, or clods, which usually
i'le at great depths in the mine. These
lumps are very hard, and generally con-
tain silver, or some other metal, mingled
mth the gold. The precious substance is
found but in small quantities ; five thou-
sand pounds' weight of the mineral yield-
ing only a few ounces of gold.

11. Native gold is not usually found,
except deep in primitive mountains, and
in the crevices of rocks.

12. The obtaining of gold from the ore,
*s a troublesome and an expensive opera-
tion. They first break the stone with
neavy iron mallets ; then they grind it in
a mill, and sift it through many sieves,
the latter sort finer than those used at
first. This fine powder is soaked in salt
and water, in open troughs. They then
squeeze among it, in a sort of dew, some
quicksilver, which having an amazing af-
finity for gold, seizes on it, and intermin-
gles, or amalgamates, with it in a short
time. All the earthy matter, and the salt,
are easily washed away with hot water ;
so that nothing remains but this metallic
mixture. The mercury is then driven
away by heat, and the pure or virgin gold
remains. It is then melted, and cast into
ingots.

13. In some places, they lay sheepskins,
with the wool on, in the waters where
they expect to find gold ; and the grains

Spaniards perceive in Brazil? 9. 10. Is gold ever
found in lumps? 11. Native gold — ? 12. How is
gold obtained from the ore ? 13. In some places — ?

of gold are entangled in the wool, while
the earthy parts are washed away.

14. The gold mines in the United States
are annually proving a source of con-
siderable profit to the proprietors. These
mines abound chiefly in the Carolinas and
Georgia. The most lucrative diggings ia
North Carolina have been made in the

counties of Mecklenburg and Cabarras.
In the latter county, a single lump of gold
was found weighing twenty -eight pounds.
A part of this gold is sent to Europe ; and
a considerable portion of it is coined in
this country.

15. The method of extending gold used
by the gold-beaters, consists in hammering
a number of thin rolled plates between
skins or animal membranes. It may be
beaten out into leaves so thin, that one
grain of gold will cover 56 3-4 square
inches. An ounce of gold upon silver is
capable of being extended more than 1,300
miles in length.

SILVER.

17. Silver is a metal of a fine white
color, without either taste or smell. It
was well known to the ancients, and has
for ages been used as money. It may be
beaten out into leaves nearly as thin as
gold. Its ductility is very remarkable ; it
may be drawn out into wire much finer

14. What of the gold mines in the United States -

15. The method of extending gold ? 16. What
of silver? 17. What is meant by native silver ?

BOOK OF COMME&CE.

than a human hair. Its tenacity is such I
that a very slender wire is capable of sup-
porting a heavy weiglit. Silver is much I
more plentiful than gold, and it is a more
useful though less precious metal.

17. Silver is sometimes found nearly
pure, or as metal ; in that state it is called
native. But it is more commonly mingled
with other substances, especially with an-
timony. It is purified by different means,
acording to the nature of its combina-
tion. The native silver is amalgamated
with mercury, which is afterwards driven
off, and the silver is left pure. When
mingled with antimony or sulphur, the
heating of it will drive them off, in fumes.

18. Norway possesses considerable sil-
ver mines, especially at Kongsberg, in the
southern part of the kingdom. Here sil-
ver is found in greater abundance, and in
larger masses, than in any other spot in
Europe. The veins of ore extend to a
considerable distance, and in several di-
rections ; so that new mines are opened
continually. Out of one of these some-
times several hundred weights of rich
ore have been obtained in a single week.
This mine sinks perpendicularly above a
thousand feet, having a very large width
at bottom.

19. Thirty, or more, fires are seen blaz-
ing in different parts, which are kindled in
order to soften the rock, and render the

working of it more easy. These fires, in
such a deep pit, with swarms of miners,
black and oddly habited, give it the ap-
pearance usually ascribed to the infernal
regions. The similitude is aided by the
general cry, when they are about to blow
up a part, ' Take care of your lives.' A
few years ago, four thousand persons
found employment in these mines. The
ore is usually obtained in lumps of a few
pounds' weight ; yet one m/iss was found
worth six hundred pounds sterling ; it is
in the king's cabinet, at Copenhagen.

20. But the mines most famous, because
most productive, are found in the moun-
tain of Potosi, one of the high ridges of
the Andes. The discovery of a mine is
frequently owing to what is called chance,
and the account of it usually interests us
much. On this principle, the history of
these mines may be given : An Indian,
named Hualpa, pursuing some wild goats,
in climbing after them, laid hold of a
shrub on the side of the steep, in order to
assist him. The shrub gave way, and to
his surprise, discovered to his view a mass
of silver.

21. This he secured, washed, and ap-
propriated to his own benefit. He came

i again and again, to the same spot, for
more, and found plenty. A friend observ-
ing him to grow rich, at last sifted the
secret" from him. For awhile they be-
came partners of the treasure ; but the
friend was not able to refine his silver fit
for use, and Hualpa, thinking he had re-
vealed too much already, refused to show
him the process. The other was so of-
fended with this refusal, that he went and
gave information of the mine ; which was
then seized for the king's use.

22. This mountain of Potosi may be
said to consist of a mass of silver ore.
The labors of man for three hundred
years, have hollowed it out, almost like a

18. 19. What of the silver mines of Norway ? }] 20. 21. What are the most famous silver mines

PRECIOUS METALS.

■^8

honeycomb, but not exhausted it. The
mountain resembles, in some degree, a
BUgar-Ioaf in shape. It is about eighteen
miles in circumference, and chiefly com-
posed of an argillaceous slate, full of irony
quartz, in which the silver ore is intermin-
gled. Above three hundred mines or pits
have been wrought, but not with regular-
ity ; for the miners leave one for awhile,
lo seek for a new one, in hopes of finding
nnore sudden wealth ; neither have they
»roper machinery to clear off the water,
ivhich soon rushes in, and stops their
■)perations.

23. Their ignorance in refining, too,
ivas very great ; for they could not obtain
10 much silver from the ore as might have
been had ; and what they did obtain, they
got at an expense of quicksilver, which
greatly reduced the profits. The miners'
tools also were bad ; and the whole pro-
cess, from first to last, was managed with-
out any science, in a clumsy and wasteful
manner.

24. The city of Potosi, however, which
owes its origin to the mines, is large
and splendid, containing many noble and
wealthy families. About thirty or forty
thousand dollars are produced weekly from
these mines, although they have been
worked for so many years. Six thousand
Indians are sent every six months, and
compelled to dig in them. Some of the
inhabitants of this city are said to be so
rich, that their domestic utensils, their
shovels, tongs, &c. are made of pure
silver.

25. Between Potosi and the Southern
Ocean, large lumps of silver are often
found, by digging in the sandy soil. Sev-
eral years ago, a new mine was discovered
at a distance from the mountains, and
within ten miles of the sea, called Huanta^

Mention the story of their discovery. 22. What

of the mountain of Potosi ? 23. The ignorance

of the miners .-' 24. The city of Potosi ? 25. Are

7 ^

jaya ; so rich that the metal was dug out
with a chisel.

26. The uses of silver are well known
It is chiefly applied to the formation of
various utensils for domestic use, for
watches, and as the medium of exchange
in money. A solution of silver in nitric
acid, diluted with water, will stain the
skin and other animal substances of an in-
delible black. It is thus employed for
dying human hair, for staining marbles,
jaspers, &c., and for silvering ornamental
work.

QUICKSILVER.

27. Quicksilver, or, as the chemists call
it mercury, is a substance of very great
importance in the arts. By it our mirrors
are-silvered ; it is the basis of several pig-
ments, or colors for painting ; it is used
in various shapes in medicine ; and its
importance in the working of metals, by
amalgamating with them, is very great.

28. The word amalgamation refers to
that intimate union which is effected be-
tween quicksilver and several other metals,
by grinding them together. The whole,
thus united, is called an amalgam. Now,
as we have spoken of this, and shown its
use in refining gold and silver from all
extraneous substances, we 'may as well
pass on to the consideration of mercury.

29. It would be difl^cult to tell, with
precision, why the old chemists gave the
name of mercury to this substance. It is
probable that the extreme fluidity, which
seems to make it all alive, or as we say,
quick-silver, which renders it so apt to run
about, and so difiicult to lay hold of and
confine, may have suggested a resemblance
to that active deity, who was feigned to be
the messenger of Jupiter, always in mo-
tion, with wings to his cap and his heels ;
who was moreover with the ancients the

lumps of silver ever found ? 26. What of the
uses of silver ? 27. Quicksilver ? 28. What do
you understand by amalgamation.' 29. Whv is

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

god of travelling merchants and of thieves ;
himself being extremely subtile and slip-
pery.

30. Quicksilver is sometimes found in
its fluid state, in the crevices of those slaty
substances from w^hich it is extracted.
When found in a fluid state, it is in small
quantities, and seldom more than a few
drops together, exuding from the roofs or
sides of the mines ; though sometimes a
hollow in the rock has been so situated as
to catch a large quantity ; this is very pure,
and is called virgin mercury. They are
sometimes gladdened with the bursting out
of a drop or two, which increases to a
stream, like a packthread in size, and
which will run for several days together.

31. The principal mines of quicksilver
are in Hungary, Friuli, in the Venetian
part of Italy, and in Spain. But it hap-
pens conveniently for the gold mines of
South America, that there is a considera-
ble store of it in Peru.

32. The most usual form in which it is
found, would not show what it is to the
unpractised eye. It is intimately combin-
ed with sulphur, and has then the appear-
ance of a reddish stone ; in this state it
is called Cinnabar. This is pounded and
washed.

33. The entrance to the quicksilver
mines of Friuli is on a level with the
streets of the town, from which the de-
scent is by ladders, into pits, ninety fath-
oms, or a hundred and eighty yards deep.
Being so low, they are hable to inunda-
tions of water : powerful engines are con-
stantly at work, to keep them fit for the
miners. But the chief evil attendant upon
the wretched people employed in them,
arises from the mercury itself, which in-
sinuates itself into the very substance of
their bodies, especially by its eflluvia, and

quicksilver called mercury ? 30. Is it ever found
in its fluid state? 31. Where are the principal
quicksilver mines ? 32. What is meant by cinna-

produces diseases of a dreadful naturft,
which are often very fatal.

24. Some of the people employed in
these mines are condemned to work there
for their crimes ; and others are hired by
the lure of high wages. When the mer-
cury first gains power over their constitu-
tion, they are affected with nervous trem-
blings ; then their teeth drop out, for
mercury loosens every thing it touches;
violent pains, especially in the bones, suc-
ceed, for the quicksilver penetrates their
very substance ; and then they soon die.

35. As it is chiefly from the vapors
and fumes of the quicksilver that these ef-
fects proceed, the workmen take the pre-
caution of holding in their mouths a piece
of gold, which attracts the effluvia, and
prevents the noxious matter from passing
into the stomach. Yet cases have occur-
red, in which the metal had so completely
saturated the body, that a piece of brass
rubbed with the finger only, would become
white, from the quicksilver oosing out of
the man's flesh !

36. The ore in the mine of Juan Ca-
belaca, in Peru, resembles a brick half
burned. This is broken and exposed to a
considerable heat, which drives the mer-
cury off", sublimed in smoke ; this smoke
passes through several pipes, into cucur-
bites or vessels filled with water. The wa-
ter condenses the smoke, the particles of
quicksilver in it sink to the bottom, and
are taken out pure. Even here, the work
men become paralytic, and do not live
long.

37. It has been matter of much dis-
pute, whether quicksilver ought to be
called a metal, a semimetal, or an imper-
fect metal. Its fluidity is a principal
reason for doubting ; now, you know all
metals become fluid, if there be but heat

bar ? 33. 34. What of the quicksilver mines of
Friuli.' 35. What precaution do the workmen
take ' 36. What of the ore in the mine of Juan

PRECIOUS METALS.

enough to melt them. Those who main-
tain quicksilver to be a metal, say, it only
requires less heat to melt it than any of
the others. Indeed, when its heat is taken
away by the application of powerful freez-
ing mixtures, it becomes hard, and is mal-
leable, like lead.

38. Mercury is the heaviest body in
nature, next to gold and platina. It is
very fluid, separating with the utmost ease.
It is also extremely volatile, passing into
smoky fumes with a heat just above boil-
ing water ; yet then its metallic nature is
not changed ; its particles are only com-
minuted ; for, if this vapor be caught in
cold water, its heat is thereby abstracted,
the mercury then falls to the bottom of the
vessel, and unites in one fluid brilliant
mass, as before.

39. As quicksilver is so necessary in
the refining of gold from the ore, it must
have been of great importance to Spain,
when she had the mines of Mexico. At
Almaden, in the province of La Mancha,
in Spain, is the principal mine ; which
was wrought only on account of the king,
to send over to ximerica, to assist in work-
ing his gold and silver mines there.

40. In 1784, a great inundation took
place, owing to something amiss in the
machinery, which should have carried off
the water. You may judge of the impor-
tance of this substance, when you learn,
diat Spain was then obliged to apply to
Austria, for no less a quantity of quick-
silver than six thousand hundred weight
every year, for six years, till the Spanish
mines could be cleared, and got into
proper order for working a^in.

41. One considerable mine of quicksil-
ver is at Idria, a town of Carniola, a pro-
vince of Austria ; not far from the upper
part of the Adriatic or Gulf of Venice.

42. This mine was not known till 1497,

Cabelaca ? 37. Ought quicksilver to be called a
metal? 38 Is mercury or quicksilver a heavy

when the mode of its discovery was rather
curious. A few coopers inhabited that
part of the country, for the convenience
of being near the woods. One day, one
of them having made a new tub, and
being desirous to prove its soundness,
placed it where the water dripping from

^j^^Mpi

■MHB^Hj

^^wW

l^^fiH

^yma

IBhB

wSm

immm

%m^ii\

R-—^

^===-_^

J\ - ^-— -j5£^s

ltt

^^ffl^MftirfeiT^-

the rock might fall into it ; in the morning,
it seemed to stick to the ground ; and at
first he, in his superstition, thought it was
bewitched ; however, examining it more
closely, he found something fluid, but
shining, and very heavy, was at the bottom
of the water in his tub.

43. Not knowing what it was, he took
some of it to a neighboring apothecary,
who shrewdly gave the man a trifle, and
bade him bring all he could find of that
odd stuflT. The story, however, soon
became public ; and a company was formed
for searching the mountain, and working
the mine.

44. We will conclude this account by
quoting an interesting description by a
traveller, of a descent into this quicksilver
mine of Idria in Germany.

45. *I thought I would visit those
dreadful subterraneous caverns where thou-
sands are condemned to reside, shut out
from all hopes of ever seeing the light of
the sun, and obliged to toil out a miser-
able life under the whips of imperious

body ? 39. 40. What is said of the quicksilver

mines of Mexico ? 41. Idria ? 42. 43. The disco-

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

task-masters. Imagine, to yourself, a hole
in the side of a mountain, about five yards
over: down this you are lowered, in a
kind of bucket, to more than a hundred
fathoms, the prospect growing still more
gloomy, yet still widening, as you descend.
At length, after swinging in terrible sus-
pense for some time in this precarious
situation, you reach the bottom, and tread
on the ground, which, by its hollow sound
cinder your feet, and the reverberations of
the echo, seems thundering at every step
you lake.

46. * In this gloomy and frightful soli-
tude, you are enlightened by the feeble
gleam of lamps, here and there dispersed,
so that the wretched inhabitants of these
mansions can go from one place to another
without a guide ; yet I could scarcely dis-
cern for some time any thing, not even
the person who came to show me these
scenes of horror.

47. * From this description, I suppose
you have but a disagreeable idea of the
place ; yet let me assure you it is a palace,
if the habitation be compared with the in-
habitants ; such wretches my eyes never
beheld. The blackness of their visages
only serves to cover a horrid paleness,
caused by the noxious qualities of the
mineral they are employed in procuring.

48. 'As they in general consist of male-
factors, condemned for life to this task,
they are fed at the public expense ; but
they seldom consume much provision, as
they lose their appetites in a short time,
and commonly, in about two years, expire
through a total contraction of the joints.

49. * In this horrid mansion, I walked
after my guide for some time, pondering
on the strange tyranny and avarice of
mankind, when I was accosted by a voice
behind me, calling me by name. I turned.

very of this mine ? 44 — 51. Give the traveller's
account of a visit to this mine. 52. What of pla-
tina? 53. Is it a metal of recent discovery?

and saw a creature, black and hideou
who approached, and, with a piteous ac-
cent, said, * Do you not know me ?' What
was my surprise to discover the features
of a dear friend ! It seems he had fough^
a duel with an officer, against the empe-
ror's command, and left him for dead
and he had been punished by banishmen;
for life, to labor in these mines.

50. 'While he was speaking, a young
woman came up to him, whose air showed
her to have been born to better fortune !■
even this dreary situation could not destro^
all her beauty. She was his wife ! She
was daughter of a high family in Ger-
many. Being unable to procure her hus-
band's pardon, she had atlectionately de-
termined to share his bondage with him.

51. 'It is proper to add, that the ofiicer
did not die. When he recovered of his
wounds, he, with great magnanimity, soli-
cited pardon for his antagonist, and ob-
tained it. So that in a few months the
lady's brother came to enjoy the most
affecting scene of delivering them both
from the mines ; and restoring them to the
favor and fortune to which they were en-
titled by birth and mental endowments.'

PLATINA.

52. Platina is the heaviest of all metals.
Its color is that of the purest silver. It is
very difficult of fusion, and has been kept
in the most violent heat of a glass furnace,
for several days, without undergoing any
alteration.

53. Platina is a metal of comparatively
recent discovery. It appears to have beei'
first mentioned in 1735; and a quantit}
was carried to England from Jamaica it
1741.

54. The part of the world where pla-
tina is found in the greatest abundance, al
the present day, is South America. Santa

When is it first mentioned ? 54. Where is pla-
tina found ? 55. Where has it been coined into
money ?

USEFUL METALS.

Fe, near Carthagena, is the only place in
South America where it is to be met with,
and hence the Spaniards have been in the
habit of procuring it since the year 1750,
or thereabouts.

55. Platina has lately been discovered
in Spain ; and there are said to be two
ancient candlesticks in a cathedral in
Germany, apparently made of it, before
America was discovered. More recently
platina has been discovered in Russia and
Siberia ; and in the former place it has
been coined into a beautiful piece of
money, assuming a value next to gold.

CHAP. XXII.

USEFUL METALS.

IRON.

1. Iron is the most abundant and useful
of all metals. It is found almost every
where ; at least, in all mountainous coun-
tries. Possibly it might be found in val-
leys also, if men would dig deep enough ;
or rather, if they could do so ; for the
waters would rush in, and prevent their
operation, in low situations.

2. Iron is so generally diffu-sed, that
there is scarcely a stone, or even a cab-
bage-stalk, but what, properly treated,
would yield it ; though not in such quan-
tities as would pay the expense of the sci-
entific management.

3. Norway exports several hundred
thousand quintals of iron, chiefly wrought
into bars. A few miles from Christian-
sandt are several iron mines, the ore of
which is fused with less difficulty than
usual. They therefore mix it with ores
which are more refractory, which by its
=iid are managed with greater ease.

4. Wood is extremely scarce there-
abouts ; but, being near the sea, the ore is
shipped off to places more convenient for

1 . What of iron ? 2 Is it generally diffused ?
3. 4. What of the iron mines of Norway ? 5.

the founderies. The principal iron-works
are at Moss. There, three or four hun-
dred tons are melted at a time, in each
kiln. The furnace is kept in constant heat
and action, day and night, for about ten
months together in every year. A cannon
foundery is closely connected with the
furnace.

5. Russia is one of the principal places
from which we obtain tron ; and our use
of that metal is so great, and so constantly
increasing, that our own stores are found to
be insufficient. At Katherineburgh, in Si-
beria, are the principal iron-works, belong-
ing to the government. Here the river Is-
set has a dam across it, two hundred yards
long, six yards high, and forty broad, by
which the water is raised to a sufficient
height to work the several 'mills, and pow-
erful engines, requisite for working the
mines advantageously.

6. Iron appears to exist in plenty
through many parts of North America.
Some mines have been opened, and are
wrought to considerable advantage, on
James River. As the same plot seems to
be well stored with coal, no doubt the
produce of these mines will, some day,
yield great emolument to the proprietors.

7. England abounds in mines of iron.
When these are adjacent to coal mines,
the benefit is very great, as the ore can be
worked at a trifling expense. These
mines are found chiefly in the northern
counties ; Durham, Yorkshire, Lancashire,
and Shropshire, have many forges and
smelting-houses. The forest of Dean, in
Gloucestershire, has long been famous both
for its oak -timber above ground, and its
iron mines beneath.

8. Swedish iron is reckoned among
the best found any where, especially for
small wares and cutlery, as is well known
at Sheffield and at Birmingham. Great

Russia? 6. Iron in North America? 7. England?
8. Sweden ? 9—13. What is Mr. Wraxali's de

BOOK OP COMMERCE.

quantities are smelted in Dalecarlia, where
Gustavus Vasa hid himself. If we should
like to descend into an iron mine, we had
best take our description from a famous
one in Sweden. 3Ir. Wraxall's visit to
that at Danmora, is quite to our purpose.
In most mines, the ore is dug out ; but in
this, the whole is loosened by gunpowder;
and the subterraneous explosions caused
by this operation are most terrific.

9. The stones are thrown up, by the
violence of the powder, to a vast height
above the surface of the earth ; and the
concussion is so great, as to shake the sur-
rounding rock on every side.

10. Mr. Wraxall arrived at the mouth
of the great mine, which is half a mile
in circumference, just in time to witness

^ one of these explosions, which take place
iwery day at noon. As soon as the explo-
sions had ceased, he determined to de-
scend into the mine. The inspector of
the mines remonstrated against it very
strongly, but finding him determined, a
clean bucket was provided, and he got
into it, with two men to accompany him :
this bucket was fastened to a rope ; and
he almost repented of his temerity when
he had descended about half way, for he
could but just see the sky over his head,
and in the deep dark abyss below he
could discern nothing; neither could he
touch the sides.

11. Had the rope broke, all the three
must have been dashed to pieces. He
continued suspended in this manner nine
minutes, slowly descending, before he
louched the bottom ; for the mine was
four hundred and eighty feet deep; ex-
ceeding the height of St. Paul's Cathedral,
as much as if half the Monument were to
be placed on the top of it.

12. When safely at the bottom, the
view around him was awfully sublime.

scription of a visit to the mine at Danmora

Daylight was very feeble at that great
depth ; in many places it could not pene-
trate, and flambeaux were used. There
were huge frames of wood stretching
across from one part of the rock to an-
other, on which tlie miners sat, with great
unconcern, boring holes for the powder,
against the next day's explosion. Yet af
such heights were the men at work, thai
on any false balancing, they must hav«
fallen, and been dashed to pieces. Tht
fragments torn up by the explosion which
had taken place just before his descent, laj
about in wild confusion, which made tha
scene the more appalling.

13. He remained three-quarters of an~
hour in these gloomy caverns, traversing
every part of them with his guides. Thir-l
teen hundred workmen are employed inj
them. Ice and cold surrounded him here,
although, above, the weather was quite
warm. In one of these remote caverna
were eight miserable wretches, warming
themselves at a charcoal fire, eating their
scanty pittance, and resting awhile from
their dreadful occupation.

14. We may add to this a quotation
from Mr. Coxe, who travelled thitlier.

15. 'I stepped into a bucket, and hung
suspended in the open air, in the same
manner as if a person were placed in a
basket at the top of a high spire, and
gradually let down to the ground, by a
rope and pulley. While I hung suspended
in mid air, and so giddy that I could not
venture to look down, I observed three
girls standing on the edge of the bucket
which was ascending, and knitting, with
as much unconcern as if they had been on
firm ground. My curiosity was soon sat-
isfied ; I was drawn up again in the same
manner, and to prevent giddiness, I closed
my eyes.'

16. The iron mines of Sweden employ

14. 15 Mr. Coxe's description.? 16. How man?

USEFUL METALS.

twenty-five thousand persons; and fifty-
seven thousand tons of metal are produced
every year.

17. Iron is not often found in a metallic
state, but most commonly in reddish-
hrown stony lumps ; sometimes fibrous.

18. The first operation is, by violent
fire, to reduce these stones to a state of
fusion. This is done in vast furnaces,
where the heat is excited, and kept up for
months together ; fresh fuel and fresh ore
being laid on the top in alternate layers.
As the metal melts, it drips down through
the bars of the grate, into a channel, which
conveys it into hollows made 'in sand,
where it hisses, boils, and eventually sink-
ing, cools, in the shape provided for it.
The larger masses of iron thus obtained,

J, are called sotvs, and the smaller sort are
^ called pigs.

19. This cast-iron is harsh and un-
manageable ; being very brittle, it flies and

, cracks under the hammer. Its parts are

^ globular like so many iron peas, just adher-
ing together, and separating with a blow.
Cast iron must therefore be wrought, with
hammers of great weight, lifted by mill-
work. This immense power, while the

- iron is in a melted state, forces these round
globules into a longer shape, till they be-
come threads ; and by being frequently
wrought, these threads become intertwist-

*^^d, so as to produce great toughness, al-
though there is great })liability also. Or,
the iron is made excellently malleable by
passing it, while in a state of fusion, be-
tween immense rollers. Although Swed-
ish iron is reckoned the most pliable, yet
English iron becomes equal to it, when it
is wrought with sufficient labor. Spanish
iron is apt to crack ; and German iron is
too coarse, except for ordinary purposes.

persons are employed in the Swedish mines ? 17.
How is iron generally found ? 18. What is the
first operation with it ? What is meant by smps
and pigs of iron.' 19 What of cast-iron .' 20.

20. Steel is iron highly wrought, and
refined by a process in which, being
heated, but not fused, with charcoal, bones,
leather, and such matters, it imbibes some
sulphureous principle, which renders its
grain finer, the fibres more elastic, and the
whole surface more susceptible of a polish.
It thus becomes admirable for all finer
wares, and all cutting tools, where the
edge must be extremely thin, and yet very
strong ; as knives, razors, lancets, &c.

21. There are two places in Great
Britain well worthy of mention, for the
extent of their iron works. One is Cole-
hi'ook-Dale, in Shropshire. The other is
in Scotland, called, from the river on
which it stands, the ' Carron iron-works ;*
just above where the river enters the
Frith of Forth.

22. At the latter place, above a hundred
acres of land have been converted into
reservoirs, to supply the machinery with
the continual power of water; by which
eighteen large wheels are turned. Sixteen
hundred men are in constant employ,
whose weekly wages amount to almost
seven hundred pounds. Six thousand five
hundred tons of iron are smelted every
year.

23. At these most extensive works, are
cast five thousand pieces of cannon annu-
ally ; some of them are ship's guns, carrying
balls of thirty-two pounds' weight, the gun
itself weighing forty-two hundred weight.
Huge cylinders are also cast here, for
steam-engines, and various other machine^
ry. Also kitchen cooking machines, ovens,
stove-grates, &c. down to articles of di-
minutive size, and great nicety of work-
manship.

24. Iron ore is abundantly scattered
throughout North America; and the re-

What is steel .' 21. What are the two places in
Great Britain worthy of mention for their iron-
works ? 22. 23. What of the Carron iron- works ?
24. What of iron in the U. States ?. 25. What of

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

Bources of the United States with respect
to this metal, are very considerable. The
manufactories of iron are numerous ; and
all the various articles from cannons and
heavy machinery to spikes and nails,
which are formed of this useful metal, are
now made, in an ingenious and excellent
manner, in this country.
COPPER.

25. Copper is a well known metal, so
called from its having been first discovered,
or at least wrought to any extent, in the
island of Cyprus. It is of a fine red color,
and has a great deal of briUiancy. It has
a sensible odor, especially when rubbed
or heated, and is of an unpleasant taste.
Copper, in point of usefulness, yields only
to iron ; it is widely dispersed, being
found pure, and also combined with vari-
ous mineral substances. It is much used
for alloying gold and silver.

26. Copper is usually found in mines
deep down in the earth ; though some few
mines are open to the air, as the mine in
the Pary's mountain, in Anglesea, in Wales.

27. It is generally the case, that when
a country is rich in ores underneath the
surface, it has no rural beauties. This is
especially the case where mines of copper
are found, for the fumes of it are destruc-
tive to vegetation. As you come near to
Pary's mine, you see nothing but rough
shapeless rocks, piled one upon another,
till you approach a large basin, or wide
pit, having on one side a small lake, which
no bird ever sips at. The fumes which
rise all around from the burning heaps of
copper, are enough to suffocate one, if in-
cautiously inhaled. Mosses and lichens,
which grow on every other rock, cannot
live here.

28. The ore is abundant in sulphur.

copper ? 26. How is it usually found ? 27. What
of the rural appearance of a country, which is
rich in ores ? 28. Does the ore abound in sul-
phur ? How is it purified from that substance '

from which it is purified by baminf.
After being broken into lumps about thu
size of an egg, it is placed between two
very long walls, twenty or even fifty yards
in length, equally distant in every part,
and about four feet high. The ore is pileif
up, not only to the height of those walla,
but much above them. The top is theu
roofed over with flat stones and clay, so
closely, that the fumes cannot escape ,
or the walls are sometimes completely
arched over, with bricks for this purpose

29. At regular distances flues are formed
at the top of these arches, which stride to
a considerable distance, bending over like
a Gothic arch. The fumes of the sulphur,
which rise from the ore when it is set on
fire, rise up these flues, and being cooled
by the length through which they pass,
they strike against the top of the arch, and
fall down in a very fine dust of sulphur.
This is gathered, melted, and run into
moulds, when it becomes the Stone-hnm
stone of the shops. These vast mounds of
ore take several months to burn ; four, six,
or even ten months.

30. This loss of the sulphur reduces
the ore to one-fourth of its original bulk,
but it is now good copper. It is then
pressed and washed, to fit it for the mar-
ket. The water used on this occasion i
becomes strongly impregnated with cop-
per, which the acid of the sulphur had
dissolved. This water is carefully stored

in proper pits, as is all the water they find
in the mines ; because, from this, some of
the finest metal is extracted, by a very
curious process.

31. The pits are thirty or forty feet
long, half as much broad, and nearly two
feet deep. Into these pits, full of the im-
pregnated water, they put a considerable

29. How is the stone-brimstone of the shops ob-
tained.? 30. What is done with the ore when
purified ? What of the water used on this occa-
sion? 31. What are put into these pits ? 32. 33 34

USEFUL METALS.

quantity of iron ; old iron bits, bars, or
broken anchors, will do ; but it is found
best to procure new plates of iron, four
feet long, half a yard broad, and almost an
inch thick. The particles of copper float-
ing in the water precipitate • themselves
upon the iron ; which is in the mean
while dissolved by the acid liquor, into a
yellowish ochre. The iron pieces are fre-
quently taken out, and the copper on them
scraped off. This is repeated till the iron
is wholly consumed ; and the copper thus
obtained is the purest of any.

32. The appearance of this Pary's mine
is uncommon, because it is in a manner
open to the day ; being a large pit, a hun-
dred yards long, about forty yards wide,
and twenty-four yards, or above seventy
feet deep. The copper ore is cut out, as
stone from a quarry, in large lumps. At
the ends of this pit are deep hollows cut,
penetrating into the mountain ; the roofs
of which are supported by pillars of metal-
lic ore, left untouched. These caverns
wind a considerable way under ground,
but the whole mass over them, sides, and
roof, will disappear, as they proceed in
cutting the ore away.

33. The sides of this open pit are almost
perpendicular. The descent into it is only
by rugged steps, cut in the rocky ore, in a
few places, assisted by several ladders, and
a rope to hold by. The most surprising
part of the operation, is the obtaining the
ore from the sides of this pit. Wooden
platforms are projected from the top of
the opening.

34. A windlass on each serves to lower
and raise the baskets which convey the
miners ; who thus descend down the steep
sides to the part where they work, on the
upright face of the precipice. There they
get out the ore with pickaxes, or blast
it with gunpowder; tumbling down the

What is said of Pary's mine ? 'if). Copper in

Cornwall ? 36. May copper be obtained from tlie

masses of ore, with a thundering noise, to
the bottom of the pit.

35. Vast mines of copper are wrought
in the county of Cornwall in England.
That couiity is chiefly famous for tin ; but
the copper is also in abundance, and of
great importance. Large lumps of native
copper, of considerable purity, are found
there, not very deep in the soil. But the
ore is plentiful, and in constant working.

36. Much copper, and of the purest
kind, is obtained from the lumps of mun-
dic, or marcasite, found in the tin mines.
These lumps were, for years, regarded as
of no value, and were thrown away ; but
science has now discovered a mode of ex-
tracting copper from them, to the amount
of a hundred and fifty thousand pounds
sterling per annum ; and it is equal in
goodness to the Swedish.

37. There, is a peculiar copper mine at
Ecton Hill, near the river Dove, in Derby-
shire. Thirteen thousand pounds were
spent in searching before any ore could be
found ; then, at two hundred yards' depth^
vast quantities were discovered. The pe-
culiarity of this mine is, that the ore does
not spread in veins, hither and thither, as
is commonly the case, but sinks down per-
pendicularly, widening as it deepens, in
the shape of a huge bell. It is the deep-
est mine in Great Britain.

38. Sweden abounds in copper, which
is in high esteem : this is principally found
in the province of Dalecarlia, whence also
comes their iron. These mines have been
wrought for ages. On approaching them,
one is amazed by the huge machines con-
structed to draw up the ore, some of the
water-wheels being above forty feet in di-
ameter. A great chasm appears, of extra-
ordinary depth ; for the caverns dug out
not being properly supported at first, the
whole fell in.

lumps of marcasite found in the tin mine? 37.
What is said of the copper mine at Ecton Hill ?

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

39. You pass into this great mouth by
wooden stairs, which are carried over the
wild mass of fallen rocks. After this deep
descent, you proceed horizontally. The
day-light is soon lost, and the close vapors
become offensive, especially as you descend
still lower down these winding steps.
The pestilential fumes, the darkness, and
the rocks, give a dreadful appearance to
the whole. The workmen seem like un-
substantial spectres, rather tlian living in-
habitants of the earth. At one part, the
Bteam is so hot as to scorch ; and the sul-
))hureous stench is intolerable.

40. In long winding galleries, and liigh-
roofod caverns, the workmen, almost na-
ked, are seen hewing out the rich ore, and
wheeling it in barrows, towards the spot
where the buckets hang, which are to raise
it above ground.

41. It takes an hour to go down to the
bottom of this pit, as it is twelve hundred
feet deep : five hundred men are employed
in it ; and it was here that the great Gus-
tavus Vasa hid himself, as a common la-
borer, before he was raised to the throne.

42. A Laplander, travelling with his
rein-deer, near Drontheim, in Norway,

discovered copper; which, on examina-
tion, led to the opening of a considerable
and productive mine. This has been

38 — 41. Describe the copper mines of Dalecarlia
in Sweden. 42. What is said of the Laplander's
discovery of copper in Norway ? 43. Is copoer

wrought almost two hundred years. Some
of the veins are almost worn out, but th*
eastern division is still productive. The
foulness of the air makes the work very
oppressive ; and sometimes a sugary taste
upon the lips, warns the workmen to flee.
Gunpowder is used to split the rocks and
loosen the ore, which is principally of a
gravelly nature.

43. Very fine copper is found in Japan ;
some of it, indeed, is mixed with gold,

i which they separate. They cast it into
Ismail cylinders, the size of one's finger,
and something longer than one's hand.

44. Copper is indeed distributed wide-
ly; scarcely a mountainous country but
has its copper mines. Ireland, Hungary,
Spain, may be added to those named in
Europe ; while the south of Africa, Hud-
son's Bay, in North America, and especial-
ly Peru and Chile in South America, are
plentifully stored with this valuable ore.

45. One of the largest masses of native
copper ever noticed, was discovered by
Mr. Schoolcraft, in the North West Terri-
tory, about thirty miles from lake Supe-
rior. It weighs, by estimation, 2200
pounds. Copper is met with in consider-
able quantities in several parts of the
United States ; but it is not wrought yet to
a great extent.

46. Copper is applied to many useful
purposes. It is formed into thin sheets by
being heated in a furnace, and subjected
to pressure between iron rollers. These
sheets are used for the sheathing of the
bottoms of ships, the covering of roofs
and domes, the constructing of boilers and
stills of a large size &c. The use of cop-
per in engraving is also very considerable ;
although steel is now preferred as being
harder and more durable.

47. Copper may be drawn into wn-e of

found in Japan.? 44. In what other countries
does it abound ? 45. Where was founa one of
the largest masses of native copper ever known '

USEFUL METALS.

great tenacity, or beaten into very thin
leaves, though not so thin as gold may be
beaten. Verdegrisy an article of consider-
able use in the arts, and in dying, is made
trom copper ; it is the rust of the metal,
and exhibits a beautiful green. It is a
deadly poison.

BRASS.

48. One of the most brilliant and useful
productions obtained from copper, is brass.
This is formed by the addition of zinc.
\ brown stone called calamine, is an ore
of zinc ; if layers of copper are intermin-
|led with layers of calamine in powder,
und charcoal, the application of a strong
heat will drive out the zinc in vapor which
will penetrate the copper, and change it
into brass, which is very different in color,
and much harder. By this process, cop-
per loses its malleability, and is less liable
to rust.

49. The manufacturing of brass seems
to have been very anciently discovered, as
vre read of its being known before the
flood {Genesis, iv. 22.) The earliest ac-
counts we have, represent many weapons
of war as being made of it, as well as most
of the money.

50. The best brass consists of four parts
of copper to one of zinc ; and when the
latter is in greater proportion, compounds
are formed called tombac, Dutch gold, and
pinchbeck. Brass is much used in the
small wheels and other nicer parts of
watch -making.

BELL-METAL.

51. Bell-metal is composed of eighty
parts of copper and twenty of tin. Its
color is grayish white ; it is very hard, so-
norous, and elastic. Less tin is used for
church bells than for clock bells ; and in
very small bells, a little zinc is added to
the alloy.

46. To what purposes may copper be applied.?

47. What of verdegris.? 48. Brass ^ 49. Was its
manufacture known to the ancients .' 50. Of

CHAP. xxin.

USEFUL METALS.— CoNTiHU ED.

TIN.

1. Tin is a metal, which has a fine
white color like silver. When fresh its
brilliancy is very great. It has a slightly
disagreeable taste, and emits a peculiar
smell when rubbed. It seems to have
been one of the earliest articles of com-
merce in Britain ; for the Phenicians trad-
ed to England for tin, five hundred years
before the Christian era. ^

2. They called Britain, Baratanac, or
the land of tin; and some have even
thought that to be the origin of the pre-
sent name of the Island. It is an arti-
cle of considerable exportation to this day.
Some countries in Germany have mines
of tin ; but the supply is not in any quan-
tity beyond what is sufficient for their own
use. It is England which affords to most
other nations this simple and useful ma-
terial. The tin mines are situated iu
Cornwall and Devonshire, where are also
many productive mines of copper.

3. In some places, the ore of tin bears
so much the appearance of common
stones, that it is only by their great weight
that the presence of tin is discovered. In
other parts, tin and earthy substances are
so intimately mingled, that they seem like
a stone, of a bluish-gray color.

4. The ore is usually found in veins,
called by the miners a lode. These veins
penetrate the hardest rocks. Small veins
are first discovered, not more, perhaps,
than half an inch in diameter ; but they
increase in substance as they are followed.
The direction of these veins is usually east
and west. Frequently, masses of ore of
twenty pounds' weight, are found ; some-
times the vein, or lode, breaks off sudden-

what does the best brass consist .? 51. What of
bell-metal ?

1. What of tin.' 2. What was Britain called by

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

ly, and they have to huDt for the continua-
tion ; miners who are accustomed to this,
are aware, that a little on one side they
shall find the broken vein ; they dig, there-
fore, and in general soon discover it.

5. They follow thus the lode, or vein,
let it wind which way it will, through the
flinty rock. When the waters become
troublesome, they are pumped up by ma-
chinery, kept constantly in motion by
steam-engines. Sometimes it is more con-
venient to cut a drain, called an adit, slo-
ping downwards, to let them off; when
this can be made, it saves, when once
constructed, much expense.

6. To raise the ore to the surface, they
frequently sink a shaft, just over the spot
in which they want it. Herein, the
geometrical knowledge of the captain of
the mine appears to advantage ; whatever
may be the windings of the mine below,
he traces similar windings on the surface
above, and tells the workmen where to
begin sinking the shaft, or well, at the
same time those below begin working up-
wards ; and both work on till they meet.

7. In this case, if those above should be
Dut half a yard perpendicularly away from
those below, it would be thought a bung-
ling job. The rope to descend through
the shaft must hang perpendicularly; if it
press against the sides, it will not work.

8. At the top of this shaft is placed a
windlass, by means of which the kibbuts,
or baskets of ore, are wound up.

9. Near St. Austle, in Cornwall, is a
tin mine, which has not less than fifty
shafts, half of which are still in use.
Some of these veins have been worked a
full mile in lengh. The depth of the
shaft is nearly seven hundred feet.

10. At St. Austle's Moor, there is an-
other mine of stream tin. Into a narrow
valley, about three miles long, many small

the Phenicians ? 3. 4. What is said of the ore ? 5.
How do they follow this vein ? 6. 7. 8. How do

streams from the hills empty themselves.
Almost stagnating, they have formed a
collection of soil, nearly twenty feet deep;
and the several materials of which this is
composed, have settled, the heaviest at
bottom, of course, into several stra' 4.

11. The first strata are earth, c\ay, and
gravel ; then comes a stratum of more
stony substances, and firmer consistence ;
these reach to the depth of ten or twelve
feet. Beneath these comes a layer of tin
stones, some as big as an apple, some
small almost as sand. The tin found in
these stones is very pure. At the depth of
eighteen or twenty feet, you come to the
solid rock, in which is no tin. They wash
off the earth, sand, and gravel, by conduct-
ing narrow streams of water through the
most promising parts, and thereby they
lay bare the tin stones with tolerable ease.

12. The ore, when raised out of the
mine, is broken in stamping mills, the lift-
ers of which are kept in action by water-
wheels, and are shod with iron. They
continue stamping till the ore is small
enough to pass away through an iron gra-
ting beneath. A run of water in the mean
time helps to cleanse it.

13. The next process is to melt it,
which is done in furnaces built on pur-
pose ; the melter having about one-third
of the produce for his trouble. It is then
assayed, to examine its fineness. When
it has been run into large blocks, it must
be coined, before it can be marketable.
This is done by the proper officer, who
cuts off from one corner a small part, and
then stamps it with the seal of the Dutchy
of Cornwall, and the name of the smelter.
A duty of four shillings on every hundred
weight is paid to the Prince of Wales, as
Duke of Cornwall. This brings in from
ten to thirty thousand pounds per annum.

14. The substance of pewter is tin; the .

they raise the ore to the surface ? 9. What of the
Cornwall tin mine? 10. II. St. Austle's Moor ?

USEFUL METALS.

ovher metals mingled to make it pewter, are
lead and brass, in small quantities. When
pewter plates, &c. were displaced by the
introduction of earthenware, one consider-
able market for tin was destroyed.

15. In the operation of making tin-plate,
very thin plates of iron are covered with
a coat of tin ; which gives to the tin more
solidity and firmness tlian it possesses nat-
»rally. These tin-plates are then wrought
into utensils of great variety, for domestic
service, being very cleanly and whole-
jome.

16. The process is as follows: Thin
plates of iron, perfectly clean and bright,
Are dipped into melted tin ; which is kept
in its metallic state by a covering of melted
tallow, by which it is defended from the
air. The affinity between the two metals
is such, that the iron is instantly, and firm-
ly, covered with a thin layer of tin. This
tin covering keeps the iron from rusting,
and also renders it very pliable under the
hammer ; so that it is easily formed into
many culinary articles. The surface of
this tin-plate is rendered peculiarly smooth,
by being passed between powerful rollers.

17. The inside of copper and iron ves-
sels can also be covered with a coating of
tin. To perform this, the inside of the
vessel must be well cleaned, by rubbing
it with an acid or with sal-ammoniac.
The tin is then melted in the vessel, and
by the help of old rags doubled up, is
spread all over the surface, wherever it is
wished that it should adhere.

18. Tin makes part of the cargoes sent
out to China. The Dutch made great
profit, by supplying the Chinese from some
mines of tin in Sumatra. The East-India
Company, therefore, determined to share
with them in this trade, by sending out

12. What is done with the ore ? 13. The next
process? 14. What of pewter .' 15.16. How is
tin plate made ? 17. The inside of copper — ? 18.
Is tin sent to China .=> 19- What of lead.? 20. How
8

annually many tons of tin, from the En-
glish mines in Cornwall.
LEAD.

19. Lead is of a bluish gray color; it is
upwards of eleven times heavier than wa-
ter. Next to iron, lead is the most exten-
sively dispersed, and is one of the most
abundant of metals: it has never b.een
found pure, but mostly combined with
iron, manganese, antimony, silver, or their
ores. The lead used for common pur-
poses is obtained from an ore called galena,
or sulphurate of lead.

20. About seven or eight hundred
pounds weight of lead are obtained from a
ton, that is, twenty hundred weight of
ore ; there is commonly a mixture of silver
with lead ; and a ton of the metal will
yield nearly fifty ounces of silver.

21. Lead is one of the softest of metals;
it may be cut with a knife, yet it is not
very ductile ; for it cannot be drawn into
wire, nor can it well stand the pressure
v/hich might make it into a thin leaf; it so
easily cracks. Yet the closeness of its
particles is such, that it is the heaviest
metal, next to gold and silver.

22. All mechanics who work in lead,
suffer more or less from its poisonous
efHuvia. Even when transformed into
white lead for painting, the artificers are
afflicted with a peculiar, and very terrible
sort of colic.

23. Lead is easily calcined by fire, or
converted into a fine powder. And this
powder is made to take a variety of beau-
tiful colors, according as the heat is man-
aged, from yellow called massicot, to a
fiery red called minium, or more com-
monly, red lead. It may even be convert
ed into glass, opaque as it is ; and much
of it is used in making that transparent

many pounds may be obtained from a ton of the
ore ? How much silver ? 21. What of the proper-
ties of lead ? 22. The poisonous effluvia? 23. May
lead be calcined ? What is massicot ? Minium .'

d«

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

body. Sugar of lead, which is a salt
drawn from it by vinegar, is extremely
sweet ; but it is one of the rankest poisons
we know of.

24. Lead is forced through a mill of
peculiar construction, by the glaziers, so

J as to produce a groove on each side, for
holding the small squares of glass in case-
ments. It is also, by wooden rollers,
made into flat sheets, three or four feet
wide, and of still greater length; in which
state it is used for sinks and cisterns, or
for covering houses.

25. Melted lead is poured through re-
volving sieves, raised to a great height,
over a cistern of water, to form shot ; the
revolving sieves let it through in small
drops while liquid ; and in that liquid state
the pressure of the atmosj)liere makes
every single drop perfectly round ; it how-
ever cools in falling from so great a height,
and, dropping into water, it is not flat-
tened, but retains its roundness. In this
manner shot is formed, for sportsmen.
Different sized sieves make the shot larger
or smaller, by letting through more or less
of the melted lead.

26. The ore of lead is sometimes dug
out with a pickaxe, and sometimes the
mine is blasted with gunpowder. But I
have found a story which may amuse you,
while it shows the manner of the opera-
tion. It is taken from Gilpin's Picturesque
Tour in Scotland :

27. 'A gentleman, of the name of
Lothian, had long sought ore, in the hills
near Cory-lin, but in vain. Many a time
he resolved to desist, but the workmen
raised his spirits with fresh hopes : some-
times, they said the rock was just cut
through, which had occasioned so much
delay ; or the soil was manifestly marked
with signs of ore; or springs were found
which had the true mineral tinge. They

Sugar of lead? 24. For what is lead used?
85 Describe the orocess of manufacturing shot.

thus deluded him with false hopes, till he
was almost ruined.

28. At this crisis, a boy came secretly
to him, and told him that the men were
deceiving him ; that ore had been found,
and was hid up from him. Mr. Lothian
perceived the depth of their roguery; they
intended to ruin him, and then hoped to
take the affair on themselves, at a low
rate. Tlie boy declared he should be mur-
dered if it were found out that he had
given this information.

29. Lothian encouraged the boy, and
told liiin, that the next morning he would
come into the mine as usual, and finding
the boy idle, he would scold him. It was
agreed that the boy should feign to be in
a passion at being scolded, and should, as
in anger, throw down his tools as near
the place where the ore had been found
as possibl"*: this was done accordingly.
He strucl the boy for his idleness, and
the boy, ii apparent anger, threw down
his tools, an J declared he would work for
him no longer.

30. Lothian marked the spot, without
seeming to notice it. He began talking
with the men as usual, and received the
usual answers. At length, he took up
a pickaxe, and began striking here and
there, carelessly, till by degrees he cam9

to the proper place ; when he soon dis-
covered the ore, and, as if greatly sur-

; 26. What of the ore of lead ? 27—30. What
: is the story about Lothian and the workmen •'

USEFUL METALS.

prised, called all the men to examine if
this were not the right place to work at.
They were loth to own it ; but, as he con-
tiniU3d picking, they were obliged to see,
and at his command they dug deeper.
When they could resist the discovery no
longer, they affected to wonder how they
could have worked so near, and not
found it before. The ore proved to be
very rich, and he soon recovered his
finances.'

31. The lead mines of the Mississippi are
very productive. The tract is more than
200 miles in extent, and contains inex-
haustible quantities of lead ore. The
chief mines are in the neighborhood of
Galena in the northwestern part of Illinois.
Here are the richest lead mines on the
globe. There are very productive lead
mines in the neighborhood of Potosi, in
Missouri. The ore is found not in veins,
but in detached masses from two to twenty
feet below the surface of the ground.
About 3,000,000 pounds are annually
smelted.

NICKEL.

32. Nickel is found in different parts of
Germany. When perfectly pure, it is of a
fine white color, resembling silver. It is
more malleable than iron. It is attracted
by the magnet as strongly as iron, and
may be converted into a magnet. Nickel
is employed in potteries, and in the manu-
facturing of porcelain. A beautiful green
color may be obtained from it.

ZINC.

33. Zinc is a metal of a brilliant white
color, with a shade of blue, and is com-
posed of a number, of thin plates adhering
together. The ore is often found in great
quantities, in lead mines.

MANGANESE.

34. Manganese is about seyen times
heavier than water. Its color is a rusty

31. What of the lead mines of the Mississippi.'
How is the ore found .' 32. Nickel .' 33. Ziitc ?

gray. It is brittle, in a slight degree mal-
leable, and is never found pure. It is
used in glass-making, and a beautiful violet
color is obtained from it, which is employ-
ed in painting porcelain.

ARSENIC.

35. Arsenic is a metal of a light lead-
blue color. It is a substance of very fre-
quent occurrence, being found in combina-
tion with almost every other metal, as well
as with sulphur and lime. Arsenic is one
of the most active of mineral poisons, and
a very small quantity of it is able to de-
stroy life. It is also sometimes used as a
medicine, and, when judiciously employed,
is capable of producing the most powerful
and beneficial effects. Arsenic is much
employed in the arts. It is used in glaz-
ing porcelain, and the manufacture of
glass. It is also much used in the com-
position of paint.

ANTIMONY.

36. Antimony is a substance separated
by fusion from a very hard and heavy
lead-colored metal, which has a sparkling
appearance when freshly broken. It is
employed in medicine and in coloring
glass. It is also used in the composition
of type-metal.

COBALT.

37. The weight of this metal is about
eight times that of water : its color is gray
with a tinge of red, and it is very difficult
of fusion. It is attracted by the magnet,
and a beautiful blue color may be obtain-
ed from it. The solution of muriate of
cobalt affords a celebrated sympathetic
ink. When much diluted, if letters are
traced with it on paper, and allowed to
dry, they are invisible ; but when the
paper is exposed to a moderate heat, they
appear of a lively green. They disappear
again \when cold, but by a very strong hea»
they may be rendered permanent.

34. Manganese
S7. Cobalt?

35 Arsenic .' 36. Antimony '

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

CHAP. XXIV.

COAL.

1. Coal appears, in some cases, to have
been originally vegetable matter, and, by
long burial in the earth, to have been
soaked with bitumen, till its very sub-
stance has been changed ; for sometimes
it has been found but partially changed,
with the fibrous formation yet discernible.
More commonly, however, it seems to
have been some earthy substance, thus
impregnated and changed, by petroleum,
or some oily matter.

2. England is highly favored by this
kind provision of fuel, suited to her cold
climate, and especially necessary for a
manufacturing country. For ages, in-
deed, wood was the only kind of firing in
use ; and as the island was anciently so
much covered with timber, the commodity
did not become scarce. As, however, pop-
ulation increased, and corn was wanted,
the forests were cut down, and the land
brought into culture, so that in some dis-
tricts fuel became scarce and dear.

3. In countries where coal abounds, it
was impossible but some particles, at least,
must have been washed out of the earth
by the floods. This takes place to the
present day. That these black stones
would burn was the next discovery, and
searching for them was as natural, when
wood became difficult to procure.

4. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in Northum-
berland, is a principal coal country. Hen-
ry III. gave the inhabitants the first char-
ter for digging coal, about the year 1239.
They were, however, forbidden to be
brought to London at one time, till the
destruction of the woods about the city
rendered some other supply of fuel neces-
sary. At present, the quantity is very
great : in the year 1800, eight hundred

1. What of coal ? 2. What country particular
jy abounds in this substance ? 4. What of New- j

and sixty-six thousand eight hundred and
ten chaldrons were brought to London.
A chaldron contains thirty-six bushels.
The quantity increases every year, and
fully keeps pace with the great increase
of houses.

5. That the various substances under-
neath the soil lie all in strata, has fre-
quently been stated. Coal is found in this
mannir. Sometimes the stratum is many
feet thick, sometimes not more than six
inches. When lOund, it is followed, and
though thin at first, it soon becomes more
profitable. In following the vein of coal,
the miners are obliged to go far into the
bowels of the earth, and sometimes to
great depths.

6. The coal mjnes at Whitehaven in
England are very wonderful. You enter
at the bottom of a hill, and pass an
amazingly long way among huge galle-
ries, where the roof is propped up by vast
pillars of coal, left for that purpose, nine
leet high, and thirty-six feet thick. The
mines sink to the depth of seven or eight
hundred feet. They run under the sea to
a great extent ; so that large ships sail
over the miners' heads. The stratum of
coal is always inclined, or dips as they call
it ; and frequently the miners have to sink,
or to rise, a hundred feet, or more, to find
the remainder of a broken vein. These
breaks appear to be the consequence of
some violent concussion of the earth, by
which the vein of coal is cast up, or down,
out of the regular course ; such a break is?
called a dyke.

7. One of the most remarkable coal-
works was at Borrowstoness, in Scotland.
The vein of coal went under an arm of
the sea, till it reached a spot half a mila
from the shore; this was formed into a
quay, for an entrance, as coming more

castle-upon-Tyne .? 5. How is coal found.? 6.
The coal mines at Whitehaven .=• 7. Borrow

\:^^^B

^^^M

J^P^

Wl^^m

i^^B

■aasiS^'^^^a^'^ -^- . L^ii±:'.- ^

^S^^^'^'.^f'^^^^^A^'' ' ■•--~-

[ :' ' ?^^K^^ ^ • <^^

light passed through this wire work readi-
ly, the fire damp lodged on the outside
and was perfectly harmless. This is a
very important safeguard to the miners ;

immediately upon the works ; the coal
was laid there, and shipping could come
close, and take them in. Fresh water
sprang from the bottom of the mine, and
was pumped out, from a depth of 240
feet. It was a wonderful work, and was
wrought to great advantage for many
years. At last, an extraordinarily high
tide rose above the mouth of the coal-
pit, and drowned the whole concern, with
all who were then at work in it.

8. Besides the general gloominess of
working so far under ground, the miners
are liable to several dangerous accidents.
Foul air, which suffocates and kills ; and
the fire damp, which catches, if any flame
comes near it, and explodes like a volcano,
and burns for a long while, even for many
months or years. As this foulness takes
fire only from flame, a machine was in-
vented which produced a stream of sparks,
by a wheel of flints striking against steel ;
which glimmering light sufficed for the
workmen.

9. Sir Humphrey Davy afterwards dis-
covered, that the foul air was too thick to
pass between close iron wires ; he there-
fore invented a lamp to be enclosed in a
case of wire gauze ; so that although the

for the accidents have been tremendous
and destructive. Yet, because the light is
not so strong when enclosed in this kind
of wire lantern as without, they will fre-
quently lay the safety screen aside, at the
hazard of their lives ; and dreadful conse-
quences have ensued.

10. After the coal has been brought to
the surface in baskets, it must then be con-
veyed to the water-side for shipping. Fre-
quently, therefore, railroads are construct-
ed, from the mouth of the pit, to the edge
of the water. These consist of grooves
of wood or of iron, in which the wagon
wheels move so easily, that one horse will
draw as much as six without such a con
trivance ; and, if the slope be sufficient,
the loaded wagons will run down by

themselves, till they come to the appointed
place. Then, a pin opens a trap door in
the bottom of the wagon, and lets the
coals fall out, through a tunnel, into the
ship itself. The empty wagons are drawn
up another railroad, by the side of the de-
scending one, by the weight and force of
other loaded wagons, which are coming
down.

11. Sometimes large barges, called feceZ^,
are employed to take the coals from the
wagons to the ships, when the ships draw
too much water to come far enough up
the river, to meet the wagons.

12. Cokt is coal burnt, or rather baked,

Fioiiess.'' 8. To what accidents are the miners j] liable .'' 9. What did Sir Humphrey Davy invent ?

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

in a sort of oven ; it thus becomes charred,
and will burn afterwards without smoke,
but fiercely. In the burning of coke, a
sort of tar arises, which is carefully pre-
served, and is very useful. Also, the hy-
drogen gas, disengaged in the process,
may be caught ; and when purified, it
feeds the lamps which burn so brilliantly.

13. Some coal is so compact, that it is
turned into toys, snuff-boxes, &c. This
is called Cannel coal ; and is found in
England and different parts of Scotland.

14. Anthracite is the name of one of
the most useful kinds of coal. It has been
found in several European countries, but
occurs in the greatest abundance in the
United States, where it has become an ar-
ticle of great importance. This coal is in-
flammable with some difficulty, and burns
without smell or smoke.

15. In Pennsylvania, the anthracite coal
formation covers a tract of country many
miles in width. Mauch Chunk, upon the
Lehigh, Pottsville, at the head of the
Schuylkill canal, and Wilkesbarre, upon
the Susquehannah, have afforded the chief
supply of coal from this region, as well as
the greatest proportion consumed in the
United States. Much of this coal is trans-

t^^-^-^l

ported from the mines by means of rail-
roads.

10. 11. How is the coal sometimes shipped? 12.
What is coke ? 13. Cannel coal? 14. What of
anthracite ? 15. Pennsylvania coal ? 16. Mention^,

16. At Portsmouth, in Rhode Island
an extensive bed of this coal exists ; and
a mine of anthracite has been opened at
W^orcester, in Massachusetts, at the head
of the Blackstone canal.

17. The names given to coal are various,
and are generally taken from the placen
where it is found. Most of the bitumin
ous coal consumed in the eastern states,
is exported from Liverpool ; although con
siderable quantities are brought from Nova
Scotia, called Pictou and Sydney coal.

CHAP. XXV.

GRANITE, MARBLE, &c.

GRANITE.

1. Granite is a very hard rough kind
of stone, so called from being sprinkled
over with a great many little stains, that
resemble grains of sand. It is considered
as the foundation rock of the globe, or
that upon which all secondary rocks repose.
Granite occurs in masses of vast thickness,
which are commonly divided, by fissures,
into blocks.

2. There are various kinds of granite,
and it occurs of different degrees of hard-
ness. In Russia may be seen immense
pillars of solid granite, which have re-
ceived a polish nearly equal to that which
may be imparted to fine marble.

3. Granite is found abundantly distri-
buted through New England and other
parts of the United States. The most
celebrated quarries in Massachusetts, are
those of Chelmsford and Quincy, which
have supplied the materials for the finest
structures in Boston and the neighbor-
hood.

4. The Portland stone of England is in
high repute. It is sometimes called free-
stone, because it works freely, cuts any

some other places where coal exists. 17. What
of the names given to coal .''

1. What of granite ? 2. Are there various kind*

GRANITE, MARBLE, &C.

way, and is not apt to split, as many other
stones do.

5. The Isle of Portland, as it is called,
is a long narrow peninsula, on the coast
of Dorsetshire. The whole slip of land
is, as it were, one single rock, surrounded
with a vast ledge of rocks, stretching into
the sea, and making the place as impreg-
nable as any fortification could do. Here
are quarries, which have been dug for
many years, and have been famous even

^bwifeiiiiM

A^^M

-Mfa^^l

fi^

t^lKS^^^H

i^^^^^^^^H^iE™i.i!l ^

i^9

^S^^^

since the reign of James I. The finest
structures are built with this stone ; and it
is calculated, that nine thousand tons of
it are used every year. It is remarkable
for its whiteness and durability. The
blocks are frequently very large, and the
removal of them is very difficult.
MARBLE.

6. Marble is a kind of stone composed
chiefly of lime. It is found of a great
variety of colors, and is of so hard, com-
pact and fine a texture, as readily to take
a beautiful polish.

7. The marble most esteemed by statu-
aries is that which is brought from the
island of Paros, situate in the Archipelago ;
this was the species of marble employed
by the prince of sculptors, Praxiteles, and
by Phidias, both of whom were natives of
that island. The Parian marble hardens
by exposure to the air, which enables it to

of this substance ? 3. Where is it found ? 4.5.
What of Portland stone ? 6. Marble ? 7. What

resist decomposition for ages. Its color is
snow-white ; and when polished, it has
something of a waxy appearance. It
receives with great accuracy the most
delicate touches of the chisel.

8. Although the United States are
known to be rich in marbles, hitherto
very little pains have been taken to ex-
plore them. The quarries of Pennsyl-
vania, which are distant about 20 miles
from Philadelphia, afford a handsome mar-
ble. A similar variety is also quarried
in Thomaston, Maine. Beautiful white
marble is abundant in Massachusetts ; it
is extensively wrought at Lanesborough,
Lenox and Stockbridge. The verd antique
of New Haven is said to be the rarest and
most beautiful marble yet discovered in
the United States. The quarries, though
believed to be inexhaustible, are not
wrought at present.

SLATE.

9. Slate is a fossil or compact stone that
may be split into plates. There are sev
eral varieties of this mineral, chiefly dis-
tinguished by their color, which is in gen-
eral gray, intermixed with blue, green or
black streaks. There are very valuable
slate quarries in Maine, and other parts of
the United States. The principal use of
slates is in the covering of houses, for
which they are well adapted. Slate is)
also extensively employed for the purpose
of writing, after its surface has been prop-
erly smoothed. \

SOAPSTONE.

10. Soapstone, or steatite, as it is called
in science, is a substance so soft that it
may be easily cut by a knife, and in most
cases scratched by the nail. It is a com-
pound of silica, magnesia, alumina, oxide
of iron, and water. It is somewhat oily
to the touch, and is often mixed with talc,
asbestos &c. Common steatite occurs in

is the most esteemed marble ? 8. What of mar-
ble in the United States ? 9. What of slate ?
r2

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

masses or veins, or small beds. The soap-
etone of Springfield, in Massachusetts, and
Francistown in New Hampshire, appears
to be composed chiefly of talc.

11. Steatite is not susceptible of a very
fine polish, but its softness and its property
of becoming hard by heat, render it a use-
ful mineral in the arts. It is employed for
the hearths of furnaces, the sides of fire-
places and stoves &c. It has even been
used for the purpose of engraving ; for
being easily cut when soft, it may be made
to assume any form, and afterwards ren-
dered hard by heat. Steatite may be used
in the manufacture of porcelain. It also
forms the basis of some preparations of
paint, and enters into the composition of
the greater number of the balls which are
employed for cleaning silks and woollen
cloths.

LIME.

12. Lime is one of those earthy sub-
stances which exist in every part of the
known world. It is found purest in lime-
stone, marble, and chalk. No one of these
substances is lime, but they become so
when burned in a severe heat. Lime is
employed principally as mortar in build-
ing, and as a manure to fertilize lands.
Vast quantities of it are used for these pur-
poses. It is also much used by tanners in
the preparation of their leather ; by soap-
makers for dissolving the oil, and by
sugar-bakers, for refining their sugar. It
is likewise of some medicinal use.

13. Various parts of the United States
produce lime in great abundance. It is
very plentiful at Thomaston and Camden
in Maiije, wliere it is burnt in great quan-
tities for exportation. The limestone ca-
verns of the western states contain a
profusion of this substance. Chloride of
lime may be obtained from common lime
by a very simple chemical process.

10. 11. Soapstone? 12. What of lime.? 13. Lime
in the United States ?

. CHAP. XXVI.

WOODS.

OAK.

1. In point of strength, durability, auA
general use, oak claims precedence of al
timber. More than eighty species of thi.
tree are known, of which one half inhabi
North America, either within the territor)
of the United States, or on the mountains
of Mexico.

2. The white oak is one of the mosJ
valuable of our forest trees. It attains
the height of seventy or eighty feet, wit!
a trunk six or seven feet in diameter. It
abounds in the New England States, bu(
is most plentiful in Virginia and the mid-
dle States. Among the great variety of
uses to which this wood is api)lied, the
most important is ship-building. It is also
extensively employed by the wheelwright,
and is used for the hoops of sieves, whip-
handles, &c. White oak' timber is export-
ed in immense quantities from the ports
of the northern and middle states.

3. The European oak is said to be
tougher and more lasting than that of
America. The knotty oak of England,
the ' unwedgeable and gnarled oak,' as
Shakspeare called it, affords superior tim-
ber. England seems to have abounded in
oak forests, although they have now be-
come scarce. Oaks have been dug up in
some places, buried a hundred feet deep
in the earth ; their branches were all on
them, and the wood had become so hard
that no tool could cut it.

4. The live oak is a tree of great im-
portance to the United States. The leaves
are evergreen ; and the wood is admira-
bly calculated for ship-building. Its dura-
bility surpasses that of the European oak.
The live oak is found along the coast of
the United States from latitude 37° to the

1. What of oak ? 2. The white oak ? 3. Europe
an oak ? 4. The live oak .' 5. The uses of oak

shores of the gulf of Mexico. Measures
have been taken by government for the
preservation and improvement of live oak
plantations.

5. Besides the uses of oak in building
either ships or houses, much use is made
of every part of it. In Europe, the bark
by its astringent qualities, is the main de-
pendence of the tanner. To the dyer, the
saw-dust affords the means of tinging his
cloths ; and the acorns fatten pigs.

FINE.

6. About thirty species of pine are
known, of which nearly one-half inhabit
North America. Norway furnishes im-
mense quantities of this wood, and the
whole country, especially the bleak moun-
tainous parts, may be called one forest,
chiefly of the fir or pine-tree.

7. Norway has some mines, but the
forests afford its chief riches. Immense
sums are obtained from other nations, to
purchase this convenient and useful tree, m
its various shapes. Some straight whole
trees are useful as masts for shipping, or
for beams in houses. Young straight trees

are called halks, and are split to malte
ladders. What are called deals^ are large
planks, perhaps twenty feet long, from
nine inches to a foot broad, and three
inches thick. If not above five inches
wide, they are called battens.

6. What of pine? 7. Norway? 8. The fir-trees of
Norway? 9. Saw mills? 10. By what facilities is

8. The soil of Norway seems to suit
the fir tribes. The seeds, scattered every
where, fall into chinks and crevices in the
rocks, where they appear to grow more
luxuriantly than in any plainer spot. It is
well it is so ; otherwise, the amazing de-
struction which takes place in felling tim-
ber every year, must have cut up the
whole country long ago. Were you to
visit some of the ports of Norway, you
would see such mountainous piles of deals,
that you would suppose it could never all
be used.

9. An immense number of saw-mills
are kept in motion. The tree is brought
to the saw, by machinery, and kept in its
place ; so that it is cut with great accuracy
and expedition. Many families are em-
ployed in the different branches of this
national concern ; as felling the timber
floating it down to the places of exporta
tion, and sawing it out into deals.

10. Norway is much intersected with
lakes, and long arms of the sea. By these
assistances the timber is floated, with com-
parative ease, to its destination. These
streams also supply the sawmills, and keep
them in motion by their various falls of
water.

11. Christiana is a principal port, from
which the timber is exported ; it is seated
at the bottom of a gulf, opposite the north-
ern point of Denmark, and is a beautiful
spot in the summer time. Drontheim also
has a considerable export trade in timber ;
this port is situated on the coast of the
Northern Sea.

12. The red Canadian pine inhabits the
whole of Canada from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, and is also found in the northern
and eastern parts of the United States,
The trunk rises to the height of 70 or 80
feet, and is chiefly remarkable for its uni-
form size for two thirds of its length.

the timber floated? 11. Christiana? 12. The red
Canadian pine ? 13. The yellow pine? 14. The

BOUK OF COMMERCE.

The wood is compact and fine-grained,
rendered heavy by resinous matter, and is
highly esteemed for its strength and dura-
bility. In the British provinces and in
Maine, it is frequently employed in naval
architecture, especially for the decks of
vessels, furnishing j)lanks free from knots,
of forty feet in length. It is exported to
Great Britain both .from Maine and the St.
Lawrence.

13. The true yellow pine is widely
spread over the United States. On the
south-western part of the Alleghany
mountains, and the surrounding country,
it enters into the composition of the forests,
abounding on the most barren soil. The
trunk rises to the height of fifty or sixty
feet. Immense quantities are used in
the building of ships, and in some districts
houses are entirely constructed of it. The
boards are exported to Great Britain and
the West Indies.

14. The pitch pine inhabits the northern
and middle sections of the Union, and does
not appear to exist in the western or lower
parts of the Southern States. It is most
abundant along the Atlantic coast; where
the soil is diversified, but generally meagre.

15. The loblolly, or old field pine is found
throughout the lower parts of the Southern
States. It often exceeds 80 feet in height
and has a wide spreading summit. The
long-leaved pine is, perhaps, the most im-
portant of all our forest trees. Not only
does it furnish all the resin, tar, pitch and
turpentine consumed in the United States,
but the timber is valuable and enduring.
The resinous products are of six sorts ;
turpentine, scrapings, spirits of turpentine,
resin, tar and pitch. The two first are de-
livered in their natural state, but the others
are modified by the agency of fire.

16. The turpentine is the sap obtained
by snaking incisions into the trunk, and

the scrapings consist merely of the turpec
tine which becomes hardened before i*

1 ""< k/

pitch pine ? 15. The loblolly ? The long-leaved
pine > 16. What of turpentine ? Its exportation ?

reaches the boxes placed to receive it. In
general 3000 trees yield annually about
75 barrels of turpentine and 25 of scrap-
ings. Nearly 100,000 barrels are exported
annually to the Northern States and to
Great Britain. Throughout the United
States, it is employed in the manufacture
of yellow soap.

17. Great quantities of spirits of turpen-
tine are made in North Carolina, and
about 20,000 gallons are exported annual-
ly to other parts of the United States, to
England and to France. All the tar is
made from the dead wood ; and this ia
supposed to be the cause of its inferiority
to the tar of the north of Europe, which
is made from trees reoently felled. Pitch
is tar reduced by evaporation.

18. The white pine is the loftiest tree
in the United States, and its timber is
used in much greater quantities, and for a
greater variety of purposes than any other.
Throughout the Northern States, three
fourths of the houses are almost wholly
of white pine. It is also much used for
masts of vessels, and much of it is export-
ed for that purpose.

19. The persons engaged in procuring
white pine lumber, after having previously
ascertained where the trees abound, enter

17. Spirits of turpentine ? 18. What of the whita
pine .' 19. The persons engaged in procuring it

WOODS.

the forests in the beginning of winter, and
establish themselves in huts covered usu-
ally with birch bark, although the cold is
frequently most intense. When the trees
fire felled and cut into logs, they drag them,
by means of their cattle, to the nearest
fiver, after fixing upon them a mark of pro-
jperty. At the breaking up of the ice, the
k)gs float down the current till they arrive
*r. their destination. If stripped of their
(bark, logs will remain uninjured for many
years ; otherwise they are liable to decay.

20. Maine furnishes nearly three fourths
4)f all the white pine lumber exported
from the United States; and next to Maine
the shores of lake Champlain seem most to
abound in it. The wood is formed into
clapboards, shingles &c., which are sent
in great quantities to the West Indies.

21. Pine forests are extremely liable
to be frequently ravaged by fire ; and it
is very difficult to arrest the flames
when they have once seized upon them.
In some parts of France, the following
method is practised with success: — If a
fire break out in the forest, a second is
kindled at a point directly opposite, when
a current of air sets from the first to the
second, which carries the flames to a com-
mon centre, leaving the surrounding woods
uninjured.

CORK-TREE.

22. The cork-tree is a species of oak,
which flourishes in Spain. There is a
large wood of cork trees near the top of
mount Etna, in Sicily. Indeed, in France,
and in all the south of Europe, it abounds.

23. The trees must be fifteen years old,
before their bark is fit to be peeled. They,
may then yield it six or eight years suc-
cessively. The bark is cut lengthwise
from the trees, from top to bottom, and all
around it also. The bark is stripped from

20. What does Maine furnish ? 21. What of the
liability of pine forests to be destroyed by fire .■'
22. What of thecoi;k-tree ■ 23. How old must the

the tree ; yet the tree does not die, be
cause the new bark, which comes every
year, would push the former one off, were
it not stripped in this manner. The
sheets of bark are put under water, and
made flat by heavy weights put on them
while soaking. It is afterwards dried, and
then becomes fit for use.

24. It comes over to us in broad pieces,
four or five feet long, and eighteen or
twenty inches wide. The cork cutters,
(for it is n business by itself,) with very
sharp knives, cut it into proper lengths,
and round it fit for use. The best sort,
which are tolerably free from veins and
cracks, are soft and pliable, and are called
velvet corks. Good cork is very compres-
sible, being very porous ; yet, by its elas-
ticity, it swells again, and fills up the place
into which it has been forced, so complete-
ly, that neither water nor air can pass
through it.

25. The ancient Romans and Greeks
knew the tree, and the bark was used as
floats to fishermen's nets. It was used
also by the ladies, as soles to keep their
feet from the wet, and to raise such as
wished to appear taller than their natural
height. It was used sometimes to stop
vessels ; but not generally, for the Ro-
man wine-vessels had larger mouths than
a piece of cork coudd conveniently fill.
Wax, clay, pitch, and gypsum, were pre-
ferred ; or the upper part of the vessel was
filled with oil, or honey, to prevent the
air from having access to the Hquor ; a
practice still common in Italy.

26. The invention of glass bottlea
brought cork into general use ; their necks
being small, the cork suits them, and be-
comes the best sort of stopper. This was
not till the fifteenth century. The French
cork-wood is the best we import.

trees be before their bark is peeled? 24. How
does the cork come .'' 25. Was it known by the
ancient Romans and Greeks ? 26. By what in-

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

CEDAR.

27. The cedar of mount Lebanon, men-
tioned in scripture, is reckoned one of the
finest and largest trees in the world. Its
wood is very hard, beautiful, solid, inclin-
ing to a reddish color, and incorruptible.
It is used in the manufacture of black lead
pencils, and affords an excellent material
for posts. Many of the West India is-
lands, particularly Jamaica, are well stored
with cedars. They are likewise very
plentiful in North America.

WALNUT.

28. The common walnut is a very hand-
, some and a very useful tree. The young

trees are often made into hoops, and the
wood is made into axe-handles, and a
variety of agricultural instruments. The
white walnut^ or hickory, is a native of
North America, where it grows to be a
timber of considerable dimensions. It af-
fords excellent fuel.

CHESTNUT.

29. The chestnut-tree is met with in
great abundance throughout most of the
United States. It is very ornamental
when growing, and it makes very good
timber. Posts made of chestnut are said
to be far more durable than those of oaK.

MAPLE.

30. Of the maple there are about thirty-
six species, natives of various countries.
Six are indigenous to Europe, about twelve
to America, and the rest to various parts
of Asia. The Great Maple, called also
the sycamore and the plane-iree, is hardy,
and grows rapidly, and to a great height.
The timber is very close and compact,
easily cut, and of a handsome color. As
it often takes a fine polish, and bears var-
nishing well, it is much used for certain
parts of musical instruments. Before the
general introduction of pottery ware, it
was the common material for bowls and

vention was cork brought into use ? 27. What
3f cedar? 28. Walnut .' 29. Chestnut.? 30. Ma-

platters of all sorts ; and many are stiP.
made of it.

3L The sugar maple grows plentifully
in the United States ; and from the sap
of it, a considerable quantity of sugar is
made. The method of obtaining this sugar
has been already described.
TEAK-TREE.

32. The teak-tree is a native of India.
It is used in ship-building like the oak.
and has some resemblance to it in its tim-
ber. It is a tree of uncommon size, and
bears a hard nut. On the banks of the
river Irawaddy, in the Birman empire, tho
teak forests are unrivalled ; and they rise
so far over the jungle or brushwood, by
which tropical forests are usually encum-
bered, that they seem almost as if one
forest were raised on gigantic poles over
the top of another. Efforts are about to
be made to raise this tree in Florida.

33. There are numerous other kinds of
trees useful either for their timber or their
peculiar qualities, which our limits pre-
vent us from enumerating. In the suc-
ceeding chapter a description of the prin-
cipal ornamental woods will be given.

CHAP. XXVIL

WOODS — Continued.

MAHOGANY.
1. The common mahogany is one of
the most majestic trees in the world. In
Cuba and Honduras, this tree, during a
growth of two centuries, expands to such a
gigantic size, throws out such massive
arms, and spreads the shade of its shining
green leaves over such a vast surface, that
even the proudest oaks of our forest ap-
pear insignificant in comparison with it.
A single log has oflen weighed six or
seven tons, and been sold for more than
one thousand dollars.

pie? 31. Sugar maple? 32. The teak -tree .
1, What of mahogany? 2. Its discovery J*

WOODS.

2. The discovery of this beautiful tim-
ber was accidental, and its introduction
into notice was slow. A physician of the
name of Gibbons, who resided in London,
received in 1724 a present of some ma-
hogany planks from his brother, a West
India captain. The Doctor was erecting
a house, and gave the planks to the work-
men, who rejected them as being too hard.
The Doctor's cabinet-maker was employed
to make a candle-box of it, and as he was
sawing up the plank he also complained
of the hardness of the timber. But when
the candle-box was finished, it outshone
in beauty all the Doctor's other furniture,
and became an object of curiosity and ex-
hibition. The wood was then taken into
favor ; and the despised mahogany became
a prominent article of luxury among the
rich.

3. The mahogany tree is found in great
quantities on the low and woody lands,
and even upon the rocks in the countries
on the western shores of the Caribbean
sea, about Honduras and Campeachy. It
is also abundant in the islands of Cuba
and Hayti, and it used to be plentiful in
Jamaica, where it was of excellent quality ;
but most of the larger trees have been cut
down.

4. The season for cutting the mahogany
in Honduras usually commences about the
month of August. The gangs of laborers
employed in this work consist of from
twenty to fifty each, but few exceed the
latter number. They are composed of
slaves and free persons, and each gang has
one person belonging to it termed the
huntsman. His chief occupation is to
search the woods, or, as it is called, the
bush, to find labor for the whole.

5. Accordingly, about the beginning
of August, the huntsman is despatched on
his important mission. He cuts his way

3. Where is it found ? 4. When is the season
for cutting ? 5. How are the trees selected ? 6.

through the thickest of the woods to some
elevated situation, and climbs the tallest
tree he finds, from which he minutely sur-
veys the surrounding country. At this
season the leaves of the mahogany tree
are invariably of a yellow reddish hue, and
an eye accustomed to this kind of exer-
cise can, at a great distance, discern the
places where the wood is most abundant.

6. He now descends, and directs his
steps to the spot which he may have se-
lected. Having reached it with his party,
the next operation is the felling of a suf-
ficient number of trees to employ the
gang during the season. The mahogany
tree is commonly cut about ten or twelve
feet from the ground, a stage being erected
for the axe-man employed in levelling it.
The trunk of the tree, from the dimensions
of the wood, is generally preferred ; but, for
ornamental purposes, the limbs or branches
are generally preferred.

7. A sufficient number of trees being
felled to occupy the gang during the sea-
son, they commence cutting the roads upon
which they are to be transported. This
may fairly be estimated at two-thirds of
the labor and expense of mahogany cut-
ting. Each mahogany work forms in it-
self a small village on the banks of a river,
and the nearer the trees grow to the river,
the less difficulty there is in their trans-
portation.

8. If the mahogany trees are much dis-
persed or scattered, the labor and extent
of road-cutting are of course greatly in-
creased. It not unfrequently occurs that
miles of road and many bridges are made
to a single tree, that may ultimately yield
but one log. When roads are cleared of
brush-wood, they still require the labor
of hoes, pickaxes, and sledge-hammers, to
level down the hillocks, to break th-e rocks,
and to cut such of the remaining stumps

What is then done
trees being felled—

7. A sufficient number of
8. What of road-cutting ?

BOOK OF COMBIERCE.

as might impede the wheels that are here-
after to pass over them.

9. The roads being now in a state of
readiness, which may generally be effected
by the month of December, the mahogany
tree is cut into logs, which are squared by
means of the axe. In March, the season
being dry, it is time to draw down the logs
from their place of growth. A gang of
forty men is generally capable of working
six trucks. Each truck requires seven
pair of oxen and tw6 drivers : sixteen to
cut food for tlie cattle, and twelve to load'
or put the logs on the carriages.

10. From the intense heat of the sun,
the cattle, especially, would be unable to
work during its influence ; and, conse-
quently the loading and carriage of the
timber are performed in the night. Pieces
of wood split from the trunk of the pitch-
})ine are used as torches by the workmen.
The river-side is generally reached by
the wearied drivers and cattle before
the sun is at its highest power ; and the
logs, marked with the owner's initials, are
thrown into the river.

11. About the end of May the periodical
rains again commence. The torrents of
water discharged from the clouds are so
great as to render the roads impassable in
the course of a few hours, when all truck-
ing ceases. About the middle of June,
the rivers are swollen to an immense
height. The logs then float down a dis-
tance of two hundred miles, being follow-
ed by the gang in canoes, to disengage
them from the branches of the overhang-
ing trees, until they are stopped in some
convenient situation at the mouth of the
river. Each gang then separates its own
cuttings, which are recognised by the marks
on the ends of the logs, and forms them
into large rafts; in this state they are
brought down to the wharves of the pro-

I prietors, where they are taken out of the
water, and smoothed on their sides by the
axe. The ends, which frequently get split
and rent by being dashed against rocks in
the river, are also sawed off. They are
now ready for shipping. Belize is the
principal port for this purpose.
BOX-WOOD.

12. The box-tree is a native of all the
middle and southern parts of Europe. It
is a shrubby evergreen, twelve or fifteen
feet high, and with bright, myrtle-shaped
leaves. It has been remarked that this
tree was formerly so common in several
parts of England as to have given name to
several places, particularly to Boxhill in
Surry, and Boxley in Kent; and in 1815,
there were cut down at Boxhill, as many
trees of this sort as produced upwards
of £10,000. This tree was much ad-

i mired by the ancient Romans, and has
! been much cultivated, in latter times, on
I account of its being easily clipped into
the forms of animals and other fantastic
I shapes.

13. The wood is of a yellowish color,
closely grained, very hard and heavy, and
admits of a beautiful polish. On these
accounts, it is much used by turners, by
engravers on wood, carvers, and mathe-
matical instrument makers. Flutes and
other w^ind instruments are formed of it ;
and furniture made of box-wood, would
be valuable were it not too heavy, as it
would not only be very beautiful, but its
better quality would secure it from the at-
tacks of insects. In France it is in much
demand for comb^, knife handles and but-
ton moulds : and it has been stated that
the quantity annually sent from Spain to
Paris is alone estimated at more than ten
thousand livres. An oil distilled from the
shavings of box-wood has been found to
relieve the tooth-ache, and to be useful in

9. How is tlie mahogany transported ? 10. When
is the operation of loading performed ? 11. What

of the swelling of the rivers.' 12. What of box-
wood ? 13. Its color &c. ? 14. What of enjjrav-

WOODS.

other complaints: and the powdered
leaves destroy worms.

14. There is one purpose for which
box, and box alone, is properly adapted,
and that is the forming of wood cuts, for
illustrations in books. These reduce the
price considerably in the first engraving,
and also in the printing ; while the wood-
cut in box admits of as fine and sharp a
finish as any metal, and takes the ink much
better. It is remarkably durable too ; for,
if the cut be not exposed to alternate
moisture or heat, so as to warp or crush it,
the numbers of thousands that it will print
is almost incredible. The illustrations of
this book are engravings on box-wood.

EBONY.

15. Ebony- wood is brought from the
Indies. It is exceedingly hard and heavy,
susceptible of a very fine polish, and on
that account used in mosaic and inlaid
works. There a^'e many kinds of ebony :
the most usual are black, red, and green.
Black ebony is much preferred to that of
any other color. It is now much less
used than formerly; since the discovery
of so many ways of imparting to other
woods a black color.

LIGNUM VITAE.

16. The Lignumvitae of commerce is a
dark-looking evergreen, and grows to a
gi'eat size in the West India islands, of
which it is a native. It is a very hardy
tree, and retains its greenness in the dryest
weather. It strikes its root deep into the
ground, and thus defies the hurricane as
well as the drought. The bark is hard,
smooth and brittle ; and the wood is of a
yellowish, or, rather, olive color.

17. Lignumvitae is the weightiest tim-
ber with which we are acquainted, and it
is the most difiicult to work. It can hard-
ly be split, but breaks into pieces like a
stone or crystallized metal. It is full of

ing on wood ? 15. What of ebony ? 16. Lignum-
vitsB ? 17. Its weight .' 18. Of what size is it when

resinous juice, which prevents oil or water
from working into it ; and it is, therefore
proof against decay. Its weight and
hardness make it the very best timber for
stampers and mallets of all sorts ; and its
resinous matter fits it the best for the
sheaves or pulleys of blocks, and for fric-
tion rollers and castors.

IS. When full grown, the largest lig-
numvitae trees are from forty to fifty feet
in height, and from fourteen to eighteen
inches in diameter. The resin of the lig-
numvitae, Gum Guaicum of the shops,
may be obtained by tapping the live tree,
and also by boiling the chips and sawdust
of the wood. It is aromatic, slightly
bitter, and prescribed in chronic rheuma-
tisms and other diseases.

ROSEWOOD, &c.

19. The wood most in use for cabinet
works, next to mahogany is rosewood.
*rhe name of this species of wood is de-
rived from its fragrance ; and it has long
been known to cabinet-makers. It was
first introduced, it is said, from the island
of Cyprus ; though the great supply now
comes from Brazil. The width of the
logs imported into this country averages
twenty-two inches, so that it must be the
produce- of a considerable tree. The
wood is usually cut into veneers of nine
to an inch ; and is employed in this way
for all the larger furniture, such as tables ;
but solid for the legs of chairs, tables and
cabinets.

20. There are many other varieties of
fancy wood, as the calamander wood of
the island of Ceylon, zebra wood, sandal
wood, satin wood, Coromandel wood &c
These are less used than those which we
have described, but perhaps they are not
much inferior to them in beauty. Brazil
furnishes an endless variety of useful and
ornamental wood.

full grown ? What is gum guaicum ? 19. Rose
wood ? 20. What of other kinds of wood ?

100

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

CHAP. XXVIII.

DRUGS, MEDICINES, DYE-STUFFS &c.

LOGWOOD.

1. This is the wood of a tree, a native
of America, and which attains the greatest
perfection at Campeachy and in the West
Indies. The tree grows very high. Its
seeds are known by the name of Jamaica
pepper or allspice. Logwood is so heavy
as to sink in water : it is hard, compact, cf
a fine grain, capable of being polished, and
scarcely susceptible of decay.

2. The chief use of logwood is for
dying. For this purpose its juice, as it is
commonly called, may be extracted by
decoction with water. Alcohol extracts
it more readily and copiously than water.
The color of its dyes is a fine red, inclin-
ing a little to violet or purple. Acids turn
it yellow : alkalies deepen its color. Log-
wood is an article of great commercial
importance. It is imported in logs, which
are afterwards chipped.

BRAZIL-WOOD.

3. This wood is so called from the
province whence it was brought ; although
it has been contested that the name and
the wood were common before the dis-
covery of America, and that the province
received its name from the wood. The
tree is large, crooked and knotty. The
leaves are of a beautiful red, and exhale
an agreeable odor. The principal use of
the wood is in dying red ; and though the
color is liable to decay, yet, by mixing it
with alum and tartar, it is easily made
permanent. There is also made of it, by
means of acids, a sort of liquid lake or
carmine, for painting in minjature.

FUSTIC.

4. Fustic is the wood of a species of
mulberry, growing in most parts of South
America, in the United States, and the
West India islands. It is a large and

I. What of logwood ? 2. Its use ? 3. Brazil

handsome tree ; and the timber, though
like most other dye-woods, brittle, is hard
and close-grained. It is very extensively
used as an ingredient in the dying of yel-
low, and is largely imported for that pur-
pose.

ANNOTTO.
5. Annotto, or Arnatto, is a kind of
buflT-colored dye, which has acquired with
us the name of J^ankeen, from Nanking
in China, whence the calico so colored
first came. It is procured from the seed
capsules of the Bixa, a tree of South
America. The seeds are contained in a
pod similar to a chestnut. This article is
extensively used in dying and painting.
COCHINEAL.
6. Cochineal is found in Mexico,
Georgia, South Carolina, and some of the
West India islands, but it is in Mexico
only that it is reared with care and forms
an important article of commerce. It is a
small insect, seldom exceeding the size of
a grain of barley ; and was generally be
lieved, for a considerable time after it
began to be imported into Europe, to be a
sort of vegetable grain or seed. It is prin-
cipally used in the dying of scarlet, crim-
son, and other bright colors. It is impor-
ted in bags, each containing about 200 lbs.

7. The two sexes of this insect are ex-
ceedingly dissimilar in their appearance.
The female, which alone is valuable for its
color, is ill-shaped, awkward and stupid.
The male is very scarce, and one is suffi-
cient for 300 females. It is small, slender
and active in comparison with the female.

8. The cochineal insect may, in some
respects, be compared to the silk-worm,
particularly in the manner of depositing its
eggs. The insects destined for this pur-
pose are taken at a proper time of their
growth, and put into a box well closed,
and lined with a coarse cloth, lest any of
them should be lost ; an d in this confine-
wood? 4. Fustic.'' 5. Annotto.^ From what is

DRUGS, MEDICINES, DYE-STUFFS, &C.

101

ment they lay their eggs and die. At
Oaxaca, cochineal insects are gathered in
lai-ge quantities, and form an extensive
branch of commerce ; tlie cultivation of
these little creatures being there the chief
employment of the Indians. Cochineal is
sometimes used in medicine.
INDIGO.

9. Indigo is the drug which yields the
beautiful dye of that name. It is obtained
from certain tropical plants, which are
cultivated both in India and America. It
is probable that the culture of the indigo I
plant has been practised in India from ai
remote period. As it is found in com-
merce, indigo presents the form of little
square or oblong cakes, of a deep blue
color. It is brittle, rather light, and with-
out taste or odor. Sulphuric acid is the
only single agent that dissolves indigo
without destroying its color.

10. The indigo plant requires a light,
rich soil, and a warm exposure. It suc-
ceeds best on newly cleared lands, on ac-
count of their moisture. The seed, which,
as to figure and color, resembles gunpow-
der, is sown in little furrows, at a foot
distant from each other. Though it may
be sown in all seasons, the spring is com-
monly preferred. When the plant has
been cut down, it is placed in layers in a
large wooden vessel, and covered with
water. In this situation it cannot remain
long in warm climates without undergoing
some change. A blue sediment is finally
obtained in this manner, which when
dried is formed into small lumps, and
packed for exportation.

11. The value of the indigo consumed
in the United States in 1829, was estima-
ted at two millions of dollars. Of this,
about one tenth part only, or 200,000
pounds was raised in the country. It is
computed that British India supplies three

it procured ? Its use ? C. Where is cochineal
found? 9. What of Indigo? ]0. What of its cul- j

fourths of all the indigo brought into
European markets.

MADDER.

12. Madder is the root of a plant of
which there are several varieties. It is
very much used in dying red ; and though
the color which it imparts be less bright
and beautiful than that of cochineal, it has
the advantage of being cheaper and more
durable. It is a native of the South of
Europe, Asia Minor, and India.

BARILLA.

13. Barilla is the name of a sea-plant
which grows very plentifully on the coast
of Spain. It abounds with soda ; and the
impure ashes of the plant, containing that
salt in great abundance, form an important
article of commerce. The ashes them-
selves are commonly called barilla.

GUM ARABIC.

14. This gum exudes from the Egyptian
acacia or thorn-tree, whose fruit affords
the inspissated juice of that name. It is
brought to this country principally from
the Levant. It is employed by dyers,
calico-printers «fec., and is of some use in
medicine.

ASSA-FOETIDA.

15. This substance is brought in large
masses from Persia and the East Indies.
It is a compact, gummy, resinous sub-
stance, and soft and pliable like wax when
new. It smells like garlic, but much
stronger, and has a bitter, biting taste. It
is used in medicine as a powerful stimu-
lant, particularly of the nervous system.

COPAL.

16. This gum-resin is obtained from
a tree, which is a native of North Ameri-
ca. It is transparent, and of a bright
brown color. • It forms an excellent var-
nish, which, when properly applied and
slowly dried, is very hard and durable. It
is applied to snuffboxes, tea-boards, &c.

ture ? 11. What of the quantity consumed in the
United States? 12. What of n.adder ? 13. Ba

t02

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

CAOUTCHOUC.

17. This substance, usually termed In-
dian rubber, is prepared from the juice of
a tree growing in Cayenne, and other parts
of South America. The trunk of the tree
is wounded by a sharp instrument, and
the juice which flows from it applied in
successive coatings on a mould of clay,
and dried by the fire or the sun. When
it is of a sufficient thickness, the mould is
removed.

18. Besides its use for removing the
marks of black lead from paper, it is now
employed in the manufacture of shoes,
surgical instruments and a variety of other
articles. India rubber s^oes are exported
from Para in South America, and have
become a very important article of com-
merce. This valuable product was first
made known to Europeans in 1736. Va-
rious attempts have been made to trans-
port it to Europe in its fluid state, but
without success. Its application to the
arts is various, but, until recently, no ad-
vantage has been taken of one of its most
remarkable properties, its elasticity. Two
ingenious chemists of Paris, by a new pro-
cess, have succeeded in spinning it into
threads of various sizes, and it is now wo-
ven into suspenders, garters, surgical ban-
dages for ruptures, fractured or dislocated
limbs.

GAMBOGE.

19. Gamboge is a resinous gum of a
firm and compact texture, and of a beauti-
ful yellow color. It is chiefly brought
from Cambaja, or Cambogia, in the East
Indies, whence it has obtained its name.
The best sort is of a deep yellow or orange
color. It has no smell and very little
taste. It is used in medicine as a strong
purgative, but itg principal use is as a pig-
ment in water colors, though it does not
stand.

rillar 14. Gum Arabic ? 15. Assa-foetida ? 16.
Copal? 17. Caoutchouc? 18. Its uses.-' 19. What

GUM-LAC.

20. Lac or gum-lac is the produce oi
an insect, which deposits its eggs on the
branches of a tree called Bihar, in Assam,
and elsewhere in India. Lac possesses
the properties of a resin, and is the basis
of many varnishes, and of the finest kinds
of sealing-wax. It is used in painting,
and imparts a fine red color to silk and
cotton. In India, lac is formed into rings^
beads, and other trinkets.

MYRRH.

21. Myrrh is brought from the East In-
dies, and likewise from Alexandria, Smyr-
na, and Ale})po. It is hard, dry, glossy,
and of various colors, and is the i)roduce
of a tree, of which very little is known.
Myrrh has a peculiar and rather fragrant
odor, and a bitter aromatic taste. It is
used chiefly in medicine.

TRAGACANTH.

22. Tragacanth is obtained from a small
plant of the same name growing in Syria
and other eastern parts. It is brought to
us chiefly from Turkey. It is usually
dearer than other gums. This article is
of great use in medicine. Skinners and
curriers likewise use considerable quan-'
titles of it in the preparation of their
leather.

CAMPHOR.

23. Camphor, as we have it, looks
something like white sugar-candy. It is
of the nature of rosin. It tastes very bit-

'ter; and Avill not dissolve in water, bul
only in spirits of wine.

24. The camphor tree is a species of
laurel, which grows in. the East Indies
chiefly in the islands of Borneo and
Ceylon. It is procured by distillation, ir
Japan. Great quantities are used in me-
dicine ; and Eastern princes burn it, as il
is very inflammable, gives a great light, an(*
vields a considerable degree of fragrance.

of gamboge? 20. Gum-lac? 21. Myrrh? ^. Tra
gacanth ? 23 24. Camphor ? 35. How is it ob

RUGS, MEDICINES, DYE-STUFFS, 6cC'.

103

25. Camphor is imported in chests,
drums and casks. When pure, it has a
strong, fragrant, penetrating odor, and a
bitter, pungent, aromatic taste. Camphor
is obtained in Sumatra in concrete masses
from the heart of the tree ; but not above
one tree in three hundred contains this
valuable substance, which is daily becom-
ing scarcer. China and Japan camphor is
obtained by boiling the roots and smaller
branches of the tree, cut into small pieces,
in large iron kettles, on the top of which
the camphor rises. When refined, cam-
phor is in thin hollow cakes of a virgin
whiteness, and, if exposed to the air, total-
ly evaporates. It is so inflammable as to
preserve its liame in water.

OPIUM.

26. Opium is obtained from the white
poppy, a plant which is cuhivated in great
abundance in India and other parts of the
East. The poppy is planted in a fertile
soil and well watered. When at its full
growth an incision is made in the top of
the plant, from which there issues a white
milky juice, which soon hardens, and is
scraped off the plants, and wrought into
cakes. In this state it is exported. Opi-
um thus prepared is a tough, brown sub-
stance, has a pecuHar smell, and a bitter
taste. It burns very readily when held to
a flame.

27. The Turkish opium is in most es-
teem, and large quantities of it are expor-
ted to China. An excessive fondness for
opium prevails in all parts of Turkey, and
the East Indies. In vain have the laws
of China condemned to the flames every
vessel that imports, and every house that
receives it ; its use is not less consider-
able. It is still greater at Malacca, Borneo,
Sumatra &c. These islanders smoke it
ivith their tobacco ; those who are desir-
ous of attempting some desperate action
intoxicate themselves with the fume. The

Turks, likewise, smoke and chew opium
just before they go into battiC.

28. The efl'ects of opium on those who
are accustomed to take it in considerable
quantities, are highly exhilarating. It pro-
duces a kind of pleasing delirium, in which
the imagination is vividly employed in
contemplating the most delightful images,
and forming the most extravagant com-
binations of ideas. But the depression
which ensues, when its effects have subsi-
ded, is proportionally great. The ill con-
sequences which arise from the use of
opium are more serious than those from
the immoderate drinking of wine. The
most dreadful nervous irritation and de-
bility are experienced, and the strength of
the body, and the powers of the mind are
soon destroyed. Laudanum, a powerful
poison, is obtained from opium.

GINSENG.

29. The root of tliis plant has been
celebrated for a long time among the Chi-
nese ; and indeed so highly is it prized as
to have received the appellations of " pure
spirit of the earth," and " plant that gives
immortality." Volumes have been written
on its virtues, and recourse is had to it in
every difficulty. The plant is said to be a
native of Tartary, growing wild in a
mountainous and wooded region, where it
is collected with many precautions by the
Chinese and Tartars, at the commence-
ment of spring and in the latter part of
autumn, and is so rare as to bring three
times its weight in silver. An early
traveller relates that the emperor of China
employed, in one year, 10,000 Tartars in
procuring this root. From China it was
imported into Japan, where it was obtained
by the Dutch, who first brought it to Eu-
rope.

30. Notwithstanding the extravagant
price an* high reputation of ginseng in
China, it appears to be, really, a plant

tiined.' 26. What of opium .' 27. Turkish opium.? 23. Its effects.' 29. What of ginseng .^ 30. Does

104

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

of very little efficacy ; the taste is sweet
and mucilaginous, accompanied with some
bitterness, and also slightly aromatic. The
same plant inhabits the United States,
chiefly in the vicinity or upon the Alleg-
hany mountains, and has been exported to
China in such quantities as to reduce the
price very much.

LIQUORICE.

31. This root grows wild in many parts
of France, Italy, Spain, and Germany.
The plant which affords liquorice-root sel-
dom exceeds a foot in height ; its leaves
are of a dark glossy green color ; the blos-
soms are red, and produce small pods,
which contain the seed. The inspissated
juice of the common liquorice-root is
brought to us in rolls, or cakes, usually
covered with bay-leaves, from Spain and
Holland. Refined liquorice, or that de-
scription of the article which is vended in
thin, rounded, and glazed pieces, about the
thickness of a crow's quill, is prepared in
England and in this country. The whole
process consists m evaporating the liquor-
ice-ball anew, and purifying it with the
help of isinglass &c.

RHUBARB.

32. There are several species of the
rhubarb-plant. Two sorts of rhubarb are
met with in the shops. The first is im-
ported from Turkey and Russia. The
other, which is less esteemed, comes im-
mediately from the East Indies. The
mountains of Thibet abound with rhu-
barb ; and it is produced in great abun-
dance on the confines of China and Tar-
tary. Rhubarb is much used in medicine.
Its yellow color is remarkably less destruc-
tible than any other vegetable yellows.

.MANNA.

33. Several vegetables afford manna.
It is extracted from the pine, the fir, the
maple, the oak, the fig, the olive, and a

It grow in the United States? 31, What of h-
Suorice? 32. Rhubarb .' .33. 34. What of manna.?

1 variety of other trees; but the ash, the
I larch, and the alhagi afford it in the larg •
lest quantities. Tlie ash which affords
I manna grows naturally in all temperate
. climates ; but Calabria and Sicily appear
jito be the most congenial countries to this
tree ; or at least, it is only in these coun
tries that it abundantly furnishes the juice
called manna in commerce.

34. The manna flows naturally from
this tree, and attaches itself to its sides in
the form of white trans})arent drops ; but
incisions are made in the tree in summer
to facilitate the extraction. The manna
flows through these apertures upon the
trunk of the tree, from whence it is de-
tached with wooden instruments. The
alhagi is a tree which grows in Persia. A
juice transudes from its leaves in the form
of drops of various sizes, which the sun
hardens. The manna most frequently
used is that which is brought from Cala-
bria. The best sort of manna comes from
Sicily.

ALUM.

35. Alum is a mineral substance com-
posed of a peculiar earth termed alumine
and sulphuric acid. Alum is sometimes
found native, but by far the greater part
of that which is met with in commerce is
artificially prepared. The best alum is
that which is made in Italy. It is shipped
in considerable quantities from Smyrna,
and some is brought from England. The
principal use of alum is in the process of
dying — as it gives permanency to colors
which otherwise would not adhere at all,
or but for a very short time. It is also
used in medicine, and for a variety of
purposes. The ancients are supposed to
have been unacquainted with alum. It
was first discovered by the Orientals, who
established alum works in Syria in the
thirteenth or fourteenth centnrv.

35 Alum ? For what is it used .' Was it known
by the ancients ?

WHALE FISHERY.

10^

CHAP. XXIX.
WHALE FISHERY.

1. The whale is the largest fish that
swims, of which we have any certain
knowledge. Those which are now found
do not seem to rise to the vast dimensions
of which we read in former times, when
tljey have been found ninety, and even a
hundred feet long. It is rather a clumsy
iish, for its head is one third of its whole
size.

2. The whale has, in the upper part of
its head, two openings from its mouth.
Through these it spouts out water, as if
for its amusement; though often to its
ruin, as the whalers discern by that where-
abouts the fish are swimming. This water
is spouted out not only in great quantities,
but frequently with a thundering noise.
Its eyes seem very small ; not larger than
those of a bull.

3. It does not seem fond of our warmer
climates. It rather chooses the cold re-
gions of the poles, both northern and
southern. There, for ages, it played about

undisturbed ; but of later years it has been
j|iuch interrupted in its sports.

4. So early as the time of Alfred, the
people of Norway had begun to catch
whales. But this knowledge seems to
have been lost or useless, for seven hun-

1. 2. :J. What of the whale? 4. When did
people begin to catch whales? 5. When were

dred years. The people of Biscay, a prov-
ince of Spain, were eminent in this fishery,
and first followed the whales into their
Polar recesses. They were once common
in the ocean, before they were hunted
thus. So that, in the time of Elizabeth,
when the English began to prosecute that
business, it was advised to procure from
' Biscaye men skilful in catching the whale,
and orderinge of the oyle.'

5. The oil indeed was the only mate-
rial sought by the English for a long time.
But a vessel which had been unsuccess-
fully endeavoring to fish near Cape Bre-
ton, in North America, met with the re •
mains of a ship of Biscay, which had
been wrecked on that coast the year be-
fore ; and on board were found eight hun-
dred pieces of whalebone, which were
brought home. This was the first time
any of that commodity appeared in Eng-
land.

6. The jaw-bones of the whale are very
large ; a foot thick, and fifteen or twenty
feet long: they are sometimes set up as
gate posts: but what is called whalebone,
is not the bones of the whale, but rather
some very large gristly substances which
it has inside its mouth, by means of which
it strains off the snails it feeds upon, so
that when it forces out the water, it still
retains them. Instead of teeth, the whale
has five hundred horny substances, lami-
nated, or formed of thin plates laid one
over another. These are attached to the
upper jaw, and make a sort of cage of the
mouth. Some of them are five feet long,
ending in fine hairs ; and they diminish in
size, till some are quite small.

7. The skin of the whale is not covered
with scales ; it is an inch thick, and under
it is a lining of fat, called bluhber, almost
half a yard thick. In so large a creature,
this makes a vast quantity ; a single whale

they 'caught for their bones? 6. What of
whalebone ? 7. The skin of the whale ? Blub-

106

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

yielding sometimes a hundred and fifty
tons of oil.

8. The flesh of the whale is eaten by
the Greenlanders, either raw or baked, or
dried in the sun. The skin, the tail, and
the fins, are accounted delicacies without
any cooking. The intestines are formed
into a transparent skin, for their windows ;
and the tendons are split into threads, for
twine for their nets, or for sewing.

9. It may be supposed, that the catch-
ing of a creature of such an enormous
bulk, must be attended with considerable
hazard. When a whale is angry, it will
sometimes dash the boat apd all in it to
destruction, with one stroke of its huge
tail. The ship itself is hardly able to re-
sist its fury, when attacked by it. In
some cases, the mariners throw out an
empty barrel to the enraged animal : if
the whale attacks this, the boats row away
in safety ; while he teases himself, in beat-
ing about this supposed enemy.

10. Every ship carries with it six boats,
with hands enough to put a harpooner
and six men into each. When they come
to that part of the sea where they expect
to find the fish, they keep two boats con-
stantly on the watch, and the others in
readiness. When one of these watching
boats descries a whale, they both row af-

'.er it. The harpooner who first comes
aear enough, darts his harpoon into it,

S)er? 8. The flesh? 9—12 The whale fishery

with all his force. As soon as a whale 1»^
struck, aji oar is set upright in the boat, aa
a signal ; and immediately all the others
row thither, to assist in securing the prize.

11. To the harpoon is attached a long
line, so coiled up as to run out without
hindrance. Should it get entangled with
the boat, the boat would be dragged under
water instantly ; for the wounded fish
swims off with great rapidity, and often
dives in a perpendicular direction. To
prevent such a danger, one man stands '
over the line, as it passes the edge of the
boat, with a hatchet raised ready to strike,
that he might cut the rope in an instant.
Indeed, the velocity of the creature is so
great, that the men continually wet the
edge of thel*ii>oat where the line runs, lest
it should, by the intense friction, catch
fire. .1

12. The whale cannot continue im- *
mersed in the .water for any great length of
time ; he must come up to breathe. When
they see him rising, they row after him,
and strike him with another harpoon, in
order to ensure and expedite his dying.
Becoming exhausted, he cannot now con-
tinue under water so long as before ; and
when he comes up again, he is little able

to make a third descent. The boats
therefore gather around him, and the men
kill him with long lances.

13. The harpoon is a long staff, at one
end of which is a ring for the line, at the
other a triangular iron, or sharp barbed
spear-head, for penetrating deeply into the
creature's body. An instrument more ef-
fectual, and which is now coming into use,
is the gun harpoon ; a contrivance for
darting the instrument from a blunderbuss,
or swivel gun. This will effect the pur-
pose more certainly, and at a greater dis-
tance. This also is more merciful ; as,
by entering more deeply, the fish is killed
at once, or does not live above a quarter

13. Describe the harpoon. The gunharpooa

WHALE FISHERY.

107

of an liour. He is known to be near dy-
ing, when the water he spouts out becomes
ringed with blood.

14. When they have conquered him, he
is fastened with ropes to the side of the
ship, and the men begin, standing upon
him, to cut out his fat, in large lumps ;
and to cut off, with hatchets, the whale-
bone from his upper jaw. The substance
of the carcass they leave for the bears or
birds of prey. A fish so obtained will be
worth a thousand pounds, or less, accord-
»ng to its size ; and produces about seven-
iy butts of blubber.

15. These fish, at first, came into all
the bays, and shallower arms of the sea ;
but having been so much disturbed, they
now frequent only the deeper waters.
Davis's Straits seem of late to be their
favorite haunt. Yet in November, they
are found in great numbers about the
mouth of the river St. Lawrence to
which the females retire to bring forth
their young.

16. Another product of the whale is
SpermaceiL There is one species of
whale so named, because it yields this
matter in greater abundance. This is a
white, flaky, half-greasy substance, of
much use in medicine, for its oily quali-
ties. Taken inwardly, it softens and lu-
bricates; and by the same qualities, when
used externally, it renders the skin soft
and delicate. The ladies use it in their
cosmetics ; and excellent candles are made
of it.

17. The real nature of spermaceti was
not known for a long time ; but it is now
agreed to be the brain of the whale ; some
tons are yielded by a single fish. This is
cut, and melted, and strained repeatedly ;
by which means it becomes delicately
white.

18. Something like it may be manufac-
tured from whale oil, and the coarser parts

la — 17. What of spermaceti -' 13. Ambergris ?

of the fish, as the tail, &c. But this is not
so good, nor will it keep its color.

19. Another substance, having been
found in the bowels of the whale, is sup-
posed to be an animal concretion ; this is
Ambergris ; valued chiefly as a perfume,
although the Asiatics use it as a spice, to
flavor their dishes. It has often been
found floating in the sea, and its true
source was not known till lately. It is
chiefly in the spermaceti whale that it has
been met with. One lucky fisherman
found in a whale a mass so large and fine,
that he sold it for five hundred pounds.

20. Although Greenland, and its neigh-
boring seas in the North, have been fre
quented most for whale catching, yet these
fishes have been discovered in the Antarc-
tic seas ; and the Southern whale fishery
has proved very lucrative ; although the
distance being greater, it becomes a much
longer and more expensive voyage. The
season in the Northern seas is in May,
June, and July ; and, whether successful
or not, the ships must come away by Au-
gust, or they would be frozen up in the
ice.

21. Man is the greatest enemy the
whale has ; yet he has others. ^The black
spermaceti whale attacks and tears to
pieces the smaller white whales. The
unicorn fish never meets the great whale
without a battle. The white bear sits on
the ice watching his movements, and,
plunging after him, by repeated wounds
overcomes the unwieldy prize. Some-
times two or more saw-fish attack the
whale. The only weapon the whale has
is its tail ; if he can strike his enemy with
that, he dashes him to pieces. The saw-
fish very nimbly avoids this by bounding
out of the water, and, returning, strikes
his saw into the back of the whale.

22. In 1822, two boats belonging to the
ship Baffin went in pursuit of a whale.

19. The southern whale-fishery ? 20. The ena-
g2

108

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

John Can* was harpooner and commander
of one of them. The whale they pursued
led them into a va^^t shoal of his own
species ; they were so numerous that their
blowing was incessant, and they believed
that they did not see fewer than an hun-
dred. Fearful of alarming them without
striking any, they remained for awhile
motionless. At last, one rose near Carr's
boat, and he approached, and fatally for
himself, harpooned it. When he struck,
the fish was approaching the boat ; and,
passing very rapidly, jerked the line out
of its place over the stern, and threw it
upon the gunwale. Its pressure in this
unfavorable position so careened the boat,
that the side was pulled under water, and
it began to fill.

23. In this emergency, Carr, who was a
brave, active man, siezed the line, and en-
deavored to relieve the boat by restoring it
to its place ; but, by some circumstance
which was never accounted for, a turn of
the line flew over his arm, dragged him
overboard in an instant, and drew him
under the water, never more to rise. So
sudden was the accident, that only bne
man, who was watching him, saw what
had happened; so that when the boat
righted, which it immediately did, though
half full of water, the whole crew on look-
ing round inquired what had become of
Carr.

24. It is impossible to imagine a death
more awfully sudden and unexpected.
The invisible bullet could not have effected
more instantaneous destruction. The ve-
locity of the whale at its first descent is
from thirteen to fifteen feet per second.
Now as this imfortunate man was adjust-
ing the line at the water's very edge, where
it must have been perfectly tight, owing to
its obstruction in running out of the boat,
the interrval between the fastening the
line about him and his disappearance

mies of the whale ? 21—23. Carr's adventure ?

could not have exceeded the third part of
a second of time, for in one second only
he must have been dragged ten or twelve
feet deep. Indeed he had not time for
the least exclamation ; and the person who
saw his removal, observed that it was so
exceeding quick, that though his eye
was upon him at the moment, he could
scarcely distinguish his figure as he disap-
peared.

25. A harpooner once succeeded
striking a whale, at the distance of three
hundred and fifty yards. It dragged oul
ten lines, (2400 yards,) and was supposed
to be seen blowing in different holes ia
the ice. After some time it made its ap-
pearance on the exterior, and was again
struck, at the moment it was about to g<
under the second time. About an hun-
dred yards from the edge, it broke the icd
where it was a foot thick, with its headj
and respired through the opening. It then
pushed forward, breaking the ice as it ad*
vanced, in spite of the lances constantly
directed against it. At last it reached a
kind of basin in the field, where it floated
on the surface without any incumbrance
from ice.

26. Its back being fairly exposed, thi
harpoon struck from the boat on the out^
side, was observed to be so slightly entaui
gled, that it was ready to drop out. Soma
of the officers lamented this circumstance^
and wished that the harpoon might be bet-"
ter fast; at the same time observing that
if it should slip out, either the fish would
be lost, or they would be under the neces-f
sity of .flinching it where it lay, and of
dragging the blubber over the ice to the
ship ; a kind and degree of labor every
one was anxious to avoid.

27. No sooner was the wish expressed^
and its importance explained, than a youn^
and daring sailor stepped forward, and
offered to strike the harpoon deeper. No!

24—^7. The sailor who jumped on a whale'

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTIONS.

109

at all intimidated by the surprise manifest-
ed on every countenance at such a bold
proposal, he leaped on the back of the liv-
ing whale, and cut the harpoon out with
his pocket knife. Stimulated by his gal-
lant example, one of his companions pro-
ceeded to his assistance. While one of
them hauled upon the line and held it in
his hands, the other set his shoulder
against the end of the harpoon, and though
it was without a stock, contrived to strike
it again into the fish more effectually than
at first !

28. The whale was in motion before
they had finished. After they got off its
back, it advanced a considerable distance,
breaking the ice all the way, and survived
this novel treatment ten or fifteen minutes.
This daring deed was of essential service.
The whale fortunately sunk spontaneously
after it expired ; on which it was hauled
out under the ice by the line and secured
without farther trouble. It proved a
mighty whale ; a very considerable prize.

29. Captain Lyons Avhile prosecuting
the whale-fishery on the Labrador coast,
in the season of 1802, discovered a large
whale at a short distance from the ship.
Four boats were despatched in pursuit,
and two of them succeeded in approaching
it so closely together, that two harpoons
were struck at the same moment. The
fish descended a few fathoms in the direc-
tion of another of the boats, which was on
the advance, rose accidentally beneath it,
struck it with its head, and threw the boat,
men, and apparatus, about fifteen feet into
the air. It was inverted by the stroke,
and fell into the water with its keel up-
wards. All the people were picked up
alive by the fourth boat, which was just at
hand, excepting one man, who having got
entangled in the boat, fell beneath it, and
was unfortunately drowned.

back ? 28. The boat upset by a whale ? 29. What
_, of the American whale fishery.? 30. What places
10

30. The whale-fishery is an important
branch of American industry and enter-
prise. Nothwithstanding the imposing
dangers and severe hardships which it in
volves, there are many who become at-
tached to the pursuit. The inhabitants of
Nantucket are extensively engaged in the
whale-fishery, and their ships penetrate to
the most distant seas on the globe. The
town of New Bedford also sends forth
many vessels in pursuit of the whale. It
employs more than 40,000 tons of ship-
ping in the business.

CHAP. XXX.

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTIONS.

TOBACCO.

1. Our first knowledge of this plant,
now so valuable, was through the Span-
iards, about the year 1560. They brought
it from Tabaco, in the province of Yuca-
tan, from which place it obtains its name.
Sir Walter Ralegh introduced it into Eng-
land. The first time he smoked it was
in orivate ; he had called his servant for a
juf^of water ; when the man brought it
in, he saw the smoke coming out of his
master's mouth, and naturally supposing
he was on fire, he as naturally threw the
jug of water over him, to put it out.

2. Virginia has been famous for the
successful cultivation of the tobacco-plant.
It has become the staple of the province ;
though it is said to be now giving way to
a much wider cultivation of wheat. The
tobacco-plant, when full grown, will rise
to six feet in height. The stem is pretty
straight, rather hairy and clammy. The
leaves are of considerable length, of a yel
low green ; those nearest the ground are
the largest, but they make the coarsest to
bacco.

3. As the plants grow, they require

in the U. States are extensively engaged in it .'
1. What of tobacco .? 2—4. Describe the plant

in'

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

much attention, to keep the ground be-
tween the rows clear from weeds ; and to
pull off all the lowest and coarsest leaves
iVom the plant itself, in order to feed more

fully the upper ones. This laborious work
is done by negro slaves. When the leaf
turns brown, the plant is ripe. The plants,
as they ripen, are cut down, and are laid
in a heap to heat; after which they are
hung up separately to dry, in houses built
on purpose.

4. When thus prepared, the leaves are
stripped off the stalks, and sorted out ; the
liner ones, or those growing towards the
top, being kept by themselves. They fia*e
then packed up in hogsheads, and shipped
off for Europe. The lands, however fer-
tile, are soon impoverished by the plant.
Virginia has, in some years, exported sev-
enty thousand hogsheads of tobacco.

5. Cuba is celebrated for its tobacco,
particularly its cigars. These consist of
the leaves formed into small rolls for the
purpose of smoking. Havannah cigars
are usually reckoned the best. Recently,
the exportation of cigars from Cuba is
said to have amounted to 200,000 boxes a
year. The tobacco used in Cuba by the
lower classes is chiefly imported from the
United States.

6. In some countries, as England, to-
bacco is principally used in the form of
snuff; in others it is principally chewed;

but in one form or other it is every where
made use of. So early as- 1624, Popo
Urban VIII. issued a bull excommunicat-
ing those who smoked in churches. In
Spain, France, and Germany, in Holland,
Sweden, Denmark, and Russia, the prac-
tice of smoking tobacco prevails among
the rich and poor, the learned and the gay.
In our own country, smoking is often car-
ried to excess. The effects of this practice
are often highly injurious, and the longer
a person refrains from it the better.

7. For a long time smoking was forbid-
den in many parts of New England under
severe penalties. In Russia it was pro-
hibited under pain of having the nose cut
off. James the First, king of England,;
did not think it beneath the royal dignity
to take up his pen upon the subject. H<
accordingly in 1603, published his famous

' Counterblaste to Tobacco,' in which the
following remarkable passage occurs: —
"It is a custom loathesome to the eye,
hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain,;
dangerous to the lungs, and in the black
fume thereof nearest resembling the horri-
ble Stygian smoke of the pit that is bot-
tomless."

HEMP.

8. Hemp is a valuable plant which
grows wild in the East Indies and some
parts of America. In the United States,
the hemp has become naturalized in many
spots, and is common in waste places
along road-sides &c. Though cultivated
to some extent in the United States, it still
forms a large article of import from Eu-!
rope, and particularly from Russia.

9. Only the coarser kinds of hemp are
employed in making cordage ; the better
sorts being used for linen, which, though it
can never be made so fine as that from
flax, is yet much stronger, and equally
susceptible of bleaching. Cloths made of'
hemp have also this property, that their

And its culture. 5. What of Cuba tobacco ? The 1 uses of tobacco ? 7. The prohibitions of its use ?

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTIONS.

Ill

color improves by wearing, while that of
flax linen decays.

10. The hemp plant, grows usually to
the height of from five to six feet. It is
gown in April, and becomes fit for gather-
ing in, after harvest. It bears a blue
flower, and the plant is valuable both for
its seeds, which are given to birds kept in
cages, as also for its bark, which, when
properly treated, becomes a tissue of tough
long fibres ; of which thread, twine, cord-
age, and huge ropes, are made.

11. When the hemp-seed is ripe, is the
proper time to gather the plants ; which is
done by plucking them up by the roots, in
small bundles. When the plants have
been sufficiently dried, they are threshed
with a flail, to loosen the rind in some de-
gree. There is an outward husk, which,
being of no use, is cleaned off". Then the
whole plant is put into water to soak, till
the proper bark begins to separate from
the stem. It is then taken out, cut into
suitable lengths, and dried. The fibrous
bark becoming a parcel of strings.

12. It must now be reduced into tow.
This is done by a sort of combing, which
is called hackling. The comb in this case
consists of several rows of strong steel
pins, eight or nine inches long. This is
fixed on the bench. A handful of these
fibres is struck among the pins, and drawn
out quickly, first one end of them, then
the other. This is often repeated, and re-
peated with hackling pins still finer and
closer; till the whole is brought into its
separate threads. In this mass of regular,
distinct, and slender threads, it is called
tow.

13. The tow is then spun into threads,
finer or coarser, according to the work for
which it is intended. If intended for fine
work, as cloth for shirts, &c. the opera-
tion is much the same as for flax.

8 What of hemp ? 9. The making of cordage ?
10. The hemp-plant? 11—13. How is the Tow

14. In spinning tow for twine, or cord-
age, the workman winds a wisp of it round
his waist ; so as the two ends of it may
meet before him. With the fingers of the
left hand, he unites a few of these two
ends of tow together, and with the thumb
and finger of the right hand, he draws out
a sort of thread from these united ends,
and slightly twists it. On the adroitness of
his right hand much depends. But the
principal operation of the t\visting is per-
formed by a wheel which is turned very
fast : this turns a hook, which is made to
revolve with considerable rapidity ; and by
this the thread he produces is strongly
twisted. As the thread becomes longer,
he walks backward, spinning as he goes,
till he comes to the end of the walk.

15. Much hemp is spun for thread, to
weave into sailcloth. As a large ship
takes thirteen or fourteen thousand yards
of canvass, it is no little quantity that will
suffice for our navy. Then all sorts of
cordage, from the stout shrouds and cables
down to the slenderest clew line, are made
of hemp. Also netting of many diflferent
sorts and sizes, are manufactured from the
same plant.

16. We may just observe, that hempen
cloth bears a high price, being exceedingly
strong and durable. Though a dozen
hempen shirts may cost more at the first
purchase, yet they will last twice as long
as Irish linen.

17. The utility of hemp is not yet con-
cluded ; for after it is completely worn out
as cloth, the remnants and rags become of
great importance in the manufacture of
paper. We have farther to add, that the
seeds of hemp are not only given to birds
in cages, but a very valuable oil is pressed
from them, in a mill, (called rape oil,) of
great use in many manufactures. When
this is done, the refuse forms a glutinous

prepared ? 14. How spun ? 15. Is it wove into
Milclotb] IP. What of hempen cloth? 17. The

112

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

cake ; which, broken in pieces, fattens cat-
tle very fast.

LEATHER, &c.

18. All leather is made of skins. The
raw skins are worn by savago nations, who
do not know how to tan it ; but it soon
gets very stiff and hard, more likely to
hurt the feet than to save them. Besides,
raw skins when dry are but thin, and
rather brittle than tough. It has been dis-
covered, that soaking them in certain veg-
etable liquors seems to fill them up, and to
give them thickness, firmness, and tough-
ness. It also takes away their tendency to
putrify and rot. This requires a long time,
and is a very troublesome process, though
very useful. It makes the skin quite a
different thing from what it was.

19. The vegetable hquors, which hold
what is called the tannin, are all very as-
tringent ; they seem to shrivel and bind
up all they act upon. Oak bark yields
this substance in the greatest plenty, as
well as hemlock and a few other trees.
You may see by the sides of a wood,
where they have been cutting down many
trees, long piles of this bark, which are of
considerable value, as sold to the tanners.

20. Skins are tough membranes, full,
as it were, of jelly: if long boiled, they be-
come jelly and are so made into glue.
Galls, oak bark and such strong astrin-
gents, act upon this jelly called gelatine,
and harden and fix it in the skin, which
imbibes a gummy substance from the bark,
and so forms the whole into leather.

21. The first part of the process of tan-
ning is to steep the skins in water, to wash
from them all the blood and dirt ; then
the horns, ears, and tail are cut off. They
are next to be freed from the hair: this is
done by laying them in water with lime
for a few days. They are then taken out
and drained ; then put in again to fresh
lime-pits, and so on, twice a week, for sev-

utility of hemp? 18. 19. What of leather:

eral weeks. The skins are then laid
across a beam of wood, when the hair is
scraped off with a proper knife.

22. The skins are then iaid in other
pits carefully, one over the other, with a
layer of tan (which is the bark coarsely
ground to powder) between each skin.
Here they lie for months, only being
changed into fresh pits, with stronger de-
grees of tan, till it is incorporated through
the whole substance of the skin : it then
becomes leather. It is of the hides of
bullocks we have been speaking ; and the
leather so made is for the soles of shoes.

23. The skins, when sufficiently tanned,
are dried, stretched, and cleaned. Cows'
and calves' skins are taimed on the same
principles ; but do not lie so long in the
tan.

24. This process takes many months:
but some tanners accomplish the work in
a few weeks, by suspending the skins in
pits of tan, so that the liquor gets at them
more easily than when they lie one upon
another.

25. Softer leathers are not imbued with
tan ; but the thickening effect is produced
by repeatedly soaking them in water, in
which salt and alum have been dissolved.

26. The currier's business follows the
tanner's, in all skins intended for upper
leathers of shoes or the legs of boots.
This consists in shaving or scraping the

20. Skins? 21—23. The process of tanning'

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTIONS.

113

inside of the skin, with a peculiar kind of
knife, to reduce its substance, and make it
of an even tiiickness ail over ; it is then
rubbed witli train oil, or with oil and tal-
low, to make it quite soft; or the flesh
side is well waxed. Oil and lamp black
give it a color ; or copperas water black-
ens it, if not oiled.

27. Parchment is not manufactured at
the tanner's ; but, as it is made of skins,
you may as well learn something of it
here.

28. The skin, either of a sheep or a
goat, will do for parchment. It must be
soaked in the lime-pit, as before ; it is then
stretched on a frame, that it may be con-
veniently scraped with an iron, to get off
the fleshy parts ; it is then sprinkled with
chalk dust, and rubbed with pumice stone.
This scraping and chalking are done fre-
quently to get it quite thin, and the chalk
is well rubbed into its substance ; it is
then cut square, and the edges neat, and
is fit to write upon. Parchment will last
for a very long time ; it is, therefore, use-
ful for deeds, records, and any writing in-
tended for those who come long after us.
It was invented at Pergamos, and from
thence it was callen pergamenta, now
parchment.

29. Vellum is the skin of very young
calves, treated in the same manner ; this is
finer and neater, and fit, not only for writ-
ing, but for drawing on.

30. All the edges and cuttings of parch-
ment are useful to make glue. The skins
of any animals become a jelly with long
boihng; which jelly, when cold, is quite
hard. But the whole skins are too valu-
able ; therefore, all the odd bits and cut-
tings which come off, and all about the
head and feet, which are not worth mak-
ing into leather, are boiled into glue.

31. Skins, when well tanned and quite

25. What of softer leathers ? 26. What is the
carrier's business ? 27. 28. What of parchment ?
8

clean, are dyed of many beautiful colors.
Kid gloves for the ladies must be all man-
ner of delicate colors, straw, pink, light
blue, &c. Gentlemen's gloves are either
plain yellow, or various greenish shades.
Then Morocco leather is a bright scarlet.
The dying of skins is conducted on much
the same principles as the dying of wool-
len. The skin must first be prepared by
a proper mordant, and then it will imbibe
the coloring material from the liquid, as
desired.

32. The uses of leather are well known.
Besides being manufactured into shoes,
boots, &c., it is used for a great variety of
other purposes. There are few trades
more useful than that of the shoe-maker,
and perhaps not many that are more profit-
able, when it is carried on to a consider-
able extent. The town of Lynn in Massa-
chusetts is celebrated for its manufacture
of shoes. Great numbers are annually
exported to the West Indies.

HIDES.

33. Hides signify, generally, the skins
of beasts ; but the term is more particular
ly applied to those of large cattle ; such as
bullocks, cows, horses &c. Hides are
either raw or green; that is, the same as
when taken off the carcass, or salted and
seasoned, in which case they are dressed
with salt, alum and saltpetre, to prevent
them from putrefying ; or they are cured
or tanned. The hides of South America
are in the highest repute, and vast quanti-
ties of them are annually imported into
this country and sent to Europe.

CHAP. XXXI.

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTIONS.— Co ntinueo

PAPER.
1. The manufacture of })aper was not
known by the ancients. The Egyptians

29. Vellum.? 30. Glue.? 31. The coloring of
skins.? 32. Shoes.? 33. Hides.?

114

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

wrote upon rolls of linen, and we have
gome of them about their mummies, at
this very day, on which the inscriptions
are very legible. A later invention of the
Egyptians spread for many years over the
literary world : this was forming the inner
bark of the rush papyrus into a smooth
sheet. From the term papyrus comes our
modern name, paper.

2. Paper from this plant was in use till
about the tenth century, when cotton w-as
beaten into a pulp, and spread out for pa-
per.

3. Who it was that- first applied linen
rags to the making of paper we do not
know. In the thirteenth century it began
to come into use ; but we are to this day
under great obligation to the inventor.
The art of printing would have been of
little avail, had not a material for printing
on been discovered, sufficiently plentiful,
cheap, and neat, for the purpose.

4. The material of which paper is now
made, is only the rags and worn-out
shreds of linen ; what were of no use ;
what every tidy housewife used to burn
out of the way, that they might not make
a litter. These rags are now bought up
by pedlers, who travel all over the coun-
try, and collect them in small quantities.
They then come into the hands of the rag
merchant, who is a considerable dealer,
and he sells them to the paper-maker.

5. The first process is to sort these rags,
according to their fineness or coarseness ;
this is done in a room where are a number
of women seated, with each a parcel of
divisions before her, five or six, into which
she casts each separate piece, as she sorts
them.

6. They are then to be cleansed, which
is done by washing them well with hot
water, by a mill.

1. Was the manufacture of paper known by
the ancients ? What of the Egyptian papyrus ?
2. When was paper made from cotton ? 3. From

7. The reducing them to shreds, and a
pulp, used to be by pounding them ; it is
now done by cutting them. A large roll
er, full of knives, turns round in a trough
which trough is also stuck full of similar
blades, facing the other way ; the rags arc
put in, with a proper quantity of water.
As the roller, or cylinder, turns with great
rapidity, it cuts every thing minutely fine,
to a pulp, in a very little time. This is
called half stuff.

8. Frequently, in this stage of the pro-
cess, the rags are bleached, to take out all
stains and color from them, and make
them perfectly white ; this bleaching con
sists in exposing them to the action of a
sulphuric gas, which quickly discharges all

color.

The rags must be taken out as

ed, else this same gas would destroy the
rags themselves.

9. When the pulp is thoroughly com
minuted and bleached, it is put into a cis-
tern or vat, mingled with such a quantity
of water as will suit for dipping out.

10. The next process is called couching.
A mould, as it is termed, is a sort of
sieve ; consisting of a square frame, about
an inch deep, with a bottom of brass wires
very closely placed. This is dipped into
the vat, and becomes filled with pulp.
The water drains away through the inter-
stices of the wires, and leaves a flat thin
layer of pulp. The marks of the wires
may be seen, if paper is held up to the
light. This layer is carefully taken out,
and placed on a square of felt, or coarse
cloth. Another sheet, and another piece
of felt are placed on, and on, till the heap
contains six quires, or 144 sheets of paper,
which is called a post. The weight of tho
heap presses the sheets a little ; but when
a post is made, the whole is smartly press-

linen ? 4. What is the material of which paper
is now made ? 6. 7. When cleansed how are
the rags reduced to shreds ? 8. How bleached f

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTIONS.

115

ed, felts and all, which squeezes out most
of the superfluous water. Sheet by sheet
IS then separated from the felts and laid
one on another. They are pressed again,
and then hung up to dry.

11. The next operation is sizing, that is,
saturating them with a weak sort of glue,
mixed with alum, into which, as hot as the
liand can bear, each sheet is dipped. This
makes it hold ink ; otherwise the ink
would run, just as it does if you try to
write on blotting paper.

12. The' sheets are hung up to dry
again. They are frequently pressed, and
at last with great violence, to make them
flat and smooth. The damaged sheets are
then picked out, which make the two out-
side quires. Twenty-four sheets make a
quire ; and twenty quires, which make a
ream, are tied up together, in wrappers, for
sale.

13. This is the process for fine writing-
paper. It is made of various sizes, and of
various qualities, for printing, writing, or
drawing. It is also made of various de-
grees of fineness : as, white, brown, blue,
and common brown paper.. The coarser
sorts are made of coarser materials, even
of old ropes, and sacking.

14. Papers are dyed of various colors,
for the covers of magazines and pamph-
lets. Marbled paper is very beautiful:
the manner of making it is as follows : a
trough is provided, of the size of the paper
to be marbled; this is filled with water
strongly saturated with gum arable. Dif-
ferent colors are then sprinkled on the

^surface of this gum water, according to
the taste of the operator. These colors
spread of themselves on the flat surface
of the liquor; the sheet of paper is then
adroitly laid on the flat surface, when it
absorbs all the colors spread there. It is

10. What is the process of couching ? 11., Sizing ?
12. How many sheets make a quire ? How many
quires a ream ? 14. What of the coloring of pa-

taken off carefully, hung up to dry, and
pohshed with a rubber.
BOOKS.

15. Books are divided into the follow-
ing classes, according to the mode in
which the sheets of the paper on which
they are printed, are folded : namely,/oZio,
when the sheet is folded into two leaves;
quai'to, when folded into four ; octavo Avhen
folded into eight ; duodecimo, when the
sheet is folded into twelve &c. In mak-
ing these classifications, no attention is
paid to the size of the sheet.

16. Copy-right is the right which the
authors or compilers of books, or treatises
claim to the exclusive privilege of printing
and publishing them. Musical compo-
sitions, engravings, maps, sculptures, mod-
els, &c. enjoy a similar protection.

17. The principal marts for books in
the United States are New York, Boston
and Philadelphia. The number of new
publications that issue from the presses of
these three cities is far greater than that
which appears in all the rest of the country.

18. London is the great centre of the
British book trade. It has been estimated
that about 1,500 volumes of new publica-
tions are annually produced in Great Bri-
tain.

SPONGE.

19. Sponge is a soft, light, very porous
and compressible substance, readily im-
bibing water -and as readily giving it out
again. It was formerly supposed to be a
vegetable production, but it has lately been
found to be an animal substance. The
inhabitants in several of the Greek islands
have been trained from their infancy to
dive for sponges. They adhere firmly to
the bottom; and are not detatched without
a good deal of trouble. The extraordina-
ry clearness of the waters aids the divers.

pers? 15. Into what classes are books divided.'
16. What of copy -right? 17. Books in the U.
States ? 18. The British book-trade ? 19. Sponge ?

116

BOOK or C0M3IERCE.

CHAP. XXXII.

MISCELLANEOUS.— CONTINUED.

PINS.

1. The pins most in esteem are those
of England. Pins are made of brass,
drawn out" into wire. Do you know iiow
that is done ? The bar of metal is drawn
through a hole in an iron plate, which is
rather too small for it ; but the force em-
ployed by turning a wheel with great velo-
city, drags it through, especially as it is
but a little smaller. It is then dragged
through another hole, a little smaller than
it now is ; and so on, till the wire becomes
small enough. What it thus loses in
thickness, it gains in length, sq that noth-
mg is lost by the operation, and it is done
with great rapidity.

2. It must • then be rendered quite
straight : to effect this, it is drawn again
between iron pins, firmly fixed, so as to
leave a straight path between the rows.

3 It is then cut into proper lengths,
each sufficient to make six pins.

4. They must now be sharpened to
their points. Boys sit, with each a couple
of grindstones before him, one coarse and
one fine, which are turned by a wheel.
The boy takes up a handful of these
lengths of wire, and claps all their ends
flat against the coarse grindstone ; taking
care to keep them all turning round the
while between his fingers. •> He then puts
them to the finer stone, and afterwards
serves the other ends the same : this is
done quicker than one can tell you about
it ; for a lad can point thus, 16,000 pins
in an hour's time.

5. The length of a pin is then taken oflT
each end by another hand ; when the re- 1
maining lengths are ground again to points,
and shortened again, till the six pin lengths
are taken off.

1. — 5. Describe the manufacture of pins. 6.
How is the heading of pins performed .'' 7. How

6. But the heading of pins is one of the
most curious parts of the business: it is
called head spinning. Suppose yourself in
a pin manufactory and observe that girl :
you see a straigiit wire ; by a twirl of the
wheel she twists another wire around it,
to a considerable length, with the turns
quite close together, so that you do not see
the straight wire. When that straight
wire is drawn out, the twisted part is hol-
low ; so that you might see through it.
This long string of wire is cut, two twists
at a time, into bits ; these are to make
heads for the pins ; but they must be soft-
ened, this is done by heating them red
hot ; they* are then cooled. And now,
you sec, a heap of them in a dish is placed
before each of these children. Now, mind
what tools they have. Each has a little
anvil before him, and a hammer which he
works — that is, causes to strike upon the
anvil — with his foot. Now watch him ;
see how cleverly he thrusts the blunt end
of his pin into one of these hollow twists,
which lie before him. And there, with a
blow of his hammer, he has fastened it
on ; and has got another ready, quicker
than you can discern. You are only afraid
he should bruise his own fingers, by hit-
ting so quick.

7. When a pin is made, it is still only
yellow brass ; and does not look nice and
neat, fit for a lady's use. To give it
whiteness, a solution of tin is prepared
with wine lees. After a while the tin
leaves the liquid, and fastens upon tho
brass. Still it looks very dull. To polish
it therefore, they put numbers of them in-
to a vessel of bran, which is turned
round with great' velocity. This rubs
them, and they are found perfectly bright.
The pins must now be regularly and neat-
ly stuck in papers ; so many in a row, and
in this state they are ready for sale.

are pins polished ? What is the last operation to
be performed ?

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTIONS.

117

GUNPOWDER.

8. Before gunpowder was invented, or
ut least brought into military use, the
sword, and the spear, and the arrow, deci-
ded every battle : the arrow slew at a dis-
tance, but the sword and spear brought
men hand to hand ; in tliis case the fight
was not ended till one or both of the com-
batants was killed. Such battles were al-
ways very bloody. It was not till the
middle of the fourteenth century, that
gunpowder was applied to war. It was
loudly cried out against at first, as contrary
to fair fighting. However, the use of it
gained ground : it is now universal, and its
use has changed the nature of all warfare,
almost always confining it to a distance ;
by which war is rendered less destructive,
not one bullet in 10,000 taking effect. It
has changed too the nature of all fortifica-
tion ; for a high tower is now no defence,
but an incumbrance. All fortifications at
this time are flat, and almost level with
the ground.

9. Gunpowder is a mixture of sulphur
and charcoal, with nitre, or saltpetre.
The sulphur easily takes fire with a spark ;
the charcoal holds the fire, and makes it
very fierce ; and the saltpetre, being de-
composed by the fire, explodes. The gases
generated hereby, having an amazing ex-
pansive force, will rend any thing to pieces
in which they are enclosed. Now, a gun
made very strong to bear this explosion,
except towards the muzzle, where there is
no opposition ; finding vent that way, its
explosion comes out at the mouth, and
drives every thing before it. The ball,
being placed there on purpose, is violently
driven out ; and passing through so long a
tube, it takes the direction thus given to
it, and strikes against what it hits with
great violence ; so that a bullet will enter
d man's body, and make a grievous wound,
and if it cuts any vital part, it kills him in-

8. What of gunpowder ? 9. Its manufacture ;

stantly. The ball from a cannon, striking
against a wall, will batter it down. A
musket, it is said, will carry a mile. Ships,
which have long guns, sometimes begin to
fire at three miles' distance.

10. The three ingredients, sulphur,
charcoal, and nitre, must be separately
pounded into a very fine powder ; they
must then be mixed thoroughly together ;
in doing which they are kept wet, that
they may not take fire, with water, or
vinegar, or brandy, &c. When mixed,
and the composition is a sort of paste, it is
forced through a coarse sieve, by which it
is brought into grains, which is the best
state for explosion.

11. It happens every now and then, that
the powder mills blow up ; as all who are
are in them perish, we can never tell how
it happened ; we only know, that if by a
nail in the mixture, or any how else, a
spark of fire comes in among the powder,
the explosion is instantaneous and irresis-
tible.

12. Children who are very fond of play-
ing with gunpowder, should not be suffered
to do it, without some older person to take
care. Many have had their eyes blown
out, and been even killed, by accidents, of
which they cannot be aware. To leave
guns or pistols within their reach, is very
wrong; children should never touch them;
many a little boy has killed himself or his
sister, by touching fire arms which were
loaded, and went off by accident.

ISINGLASS.

13. Isinglass is one of the purest and
finest of the animal glues. It is a product,
the preparation of which is almost peculiar
to Russia. It is made of the air-biadders
and sounds of different kinds offish which
are found in the large rivers which fall in-
to the North Sea and the Caspian. The
best isinglass is usually rolled in little
ringlets ; the second sort is laid together

11. Accidents by gunpowder .' 12. The danger

xl8

BOOK or COMMERCE.

like the leaves of a book ; and the com-
mon sort is dried without any care.
When fine, it is of a white color, ahnost
transparent and dry. It dissolves readily
in boiling water, and is much used in
cookery. It is also used in fining liquors
of the fermented kind, and in making
mock pearls, stiffening linens, silks, gauzes,
&c. Boiled in milk it forms a mild, nutri-
tious jelly, and is thus sometimes employed
medicinally. This, when flavored by the art
of the cook, is the blanc mange of our tables.
HOPS.

14. The hop is a perennial plant of
which there are several varieties. When
the hops are picked, they must be well
dried in a kiln, on a hair cloth. They are
laid nearly a foot thick, and will take ten
or twelve hours to dry them. When they
grow pretty warm, it is a good way to let
down a tin cover over the whole mass,
which reflects the heat back again on the
tops, and helps to dry the upper part more
equally. W^hen they have been dried
about three weeks, they should be put up
in bags, and this is done as follows: a
hole is cut in a floor, and a bag is fiisteued
to its opening ; a man then gets into the
bag, and treads the hops down very close,
while another man keeps putting in, by
little and little, as many as it will hold.
They are now ready for the market ; yet if
vvell prepared, they will keep some years,
and be as good as ever.

15. When hops were first used in brew-
ing, there was a great outcry against them ;
and in many places people were forbidden
to use that poisonous weed, the hop.
However, it has been found by experience,
that the hop not only gives a pleasant bit-
ter to ale, but, by breaking its viscidity,
makes it more wholesome ; and, also, by
preventing its turning sour, enables it to
keep longer.

of playing with it? 13. What of isinglass.
14. Hops ? 15. Their first use ? 16. What of

BRICKS.

16. Besides the wonderful productions
of which the land is the fruitful source,
the very substance of the soil itself is ,
formed, by the ingenuity of man, into
many important and useful articles. One
of the coarsest, and perhaps the most ear-
ly inventions of this nature, was to make

it into bricks. At first, by reason of the
little knowledge among mankind, and also
possibly by the nature of the climate,
bricks were only dried in the sun. In the
Babylonian regions, where the invention
began, and, indeed, all around, in those
warm countries, they form their bricks in
that manner to this day ; yet the burning
them is also very ancient.

17. We read, Gen. xi. 1 — 4, that when,
after the flood, the tribes of men journey-
ed eastward, they found the plains of Shi-
mar fertile and convenient ; and they said,
"Go to now, let us build a city, and a
tower whose top may reach to heaven.
They had brick for stone, which they
burnt thoroughly, and slime (that is bitu-
men) had they for mortar." This was the
famous Tower of Babel. And although
the tribes and families of Noah's sons were
scattered by God for their profane at-
tempt, yet the spot was still preferred by
some, and it became afterwards the grand
city, Babylon. This city has indeed long
been destroyed, according to prophecy;
yet among the heaps of ruins, which are
all that now remain of it, are found bricks
of considerable size, and in a state of
hardness and preservation.

18. The children of Israel, too, Avere in
Egypt kept at hard labour in this same
occupation ; and by the tyranny of Pha-
raoh were obliged to make bricks without
straw.

19. In many countries, stone is scarce
and dear, so that bricks are made use of,

bricks ? 1 7—19. Are they mentioned in the bible .-
20 Of what are they composed ? 21. How aro

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTIONS.

119

not only for common habitations, but for
some grand and costly buildings.

20. Bricks are composed of earth made
into squarish lumps, and, by burning, half
vitrified and made hard. — The best earth
for this purpose is a clay rather red in its
color, and soft to the touch ; a little sandy,
but not too much so. Almost any earth
that is free from stones will do very well ;
though some sorts are far preferable to
others.

21. Although bricks may be manufac-
tured from almost any kind of earth, yet
there is much preparation necessary to
make them good and durable. One of the
first and most important operations is to
knead, cr mix up, and work the clay into
an uniform and pliable mass : such as will
have no lumps, but is quite smooth. This
kneading, too, makes the clay tough- and
gluey. This is done in small quantities,
by riding a horse round and round in it,
who treads it with his feet. But some-
times, a mill is erected, which is turned
by a horse, and grinds and mixes the ma-
terials thoroughly.

22. The clay should be dug, or cast,
before the winter sets in ; and, after en-
during the frosts, it will in the spring be
fit for tempering and making up : indeed,
if dug two years before used, it is better
still.

23. Bricks are shaped in a wooden
mould, an inch larger than the brick is
wanted to be, as it shrinks in burning.
The man takes a lump of clay, and forci-
bly thrusts it into the mould, so as to
make it fill the corners. He presses it in
with his knuckles, and then, by the
straight edge of a board, he strikes it over
the top, and scrapes off all the clay which
was more than enough to fill the mould.
This done, he shakes it out, and forms
another. One is made in less time than

they prepared ? 22. How should the clay be ?
23. How are they shaped ? 24. What precautions

we have taken to tell how it is done ; for
a good workman, who works early and
late, will mould five thousand in one day's
work.

24. Boys then, on latticed barrows,
wheel a parcel of them away, to that part
of the field where they are to dry. They
are placed so as not to touch each other,
in long ranges, called hacks, which are
loosely covered with straw, that neither
the sun may dry them too fast, nor the
rain prevent them from drying. After a
few days drying they are placed afresh
and turned, so tJiat all sides may get the
wind equally.

25. When the bricks are pretty well
dried, they are ready for burning. The
burning is done in the country chiefly in
kilns M'^hich are composed of four walls,
open at top. In the hollow within the
bricks are placed, each at a distance from
its neighbors, so that when a fire is kin-
dled at bottom it rises through all these
interstices, and bakes the whole in about
two days and nights ; often 20,000 at
once.

26. Tiles are thin bricks, made in mucli
the same way, only the earth should be
better. Some are flat, and some twisted,
called pantiles. As bricks are used for
building the walls of houses, tiles are used
for covering their roofs.

STARCH.

27. Starch is a substance obtained from
vegetables. It is generally of a fine white
color, has scarcely any smell, and very
little taste. When kej)t dry, it continues
for a long time uninjured, though exposed
to the air. It is insoluble in cold water ;
but combines with boiling water — forming
with it a kind of jelly. Potatoe starch
goes a good deal further than wheat starch
— a less quantity of it sufficing to form a
paste of equal thickness, with water.

are used in drying them? 25. How are they
burned ? What are tiles ? 27. What of starch ?

120

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

PEARL ASHES.

28. Pearl aslius are prepared by mix-
ing the ashes of burnt wood with water,
evaporating the clear ley, and calcining
them for a considerable time in an oven
moderately hot. The goodness of pearl-
ashes is distinguished by their strong
body, and an uniform white appearance :
and t'heir value decreases in proportion as
they assume a blue cast. Pearl-ashes are
chiefly prepared in North America, Hun-
gary, Poland and Russia. TJiey are much
used in the manufacture of glass, as also
for bleaching.

HORSES.

29. The horse is known to most na-
tions as the most useful and manageable
of those animals which live under the
sway of man. Besides his invaluable ser-
vices whilst alive, after death his skin is
used for a variety of purposes. The hair
of his mane and tail is employed for
chair-bottoms, mattrasses, &c. His flesh
although rejected among civilized nations,
is much used among several rude tribes.
The life of the horse, when not shortened
by ill-usage, extends from twenty-five to
thirty years. The Arabian horses are the
most esteemed for beauty and speed.

30. Wild horses are found in various
parts of Texas and South America. They
are supposed to be descendants of those
which were originally introduced by the
Spaniards. The herds of wild horses
present a beautiful spectacle when they
are alarmed in their native wilds by the
intrusion of an army. Instead of flying,
as the deer and other timid animals, they
gallop round in compact masses of many
thousands, apparently for the purpose
of reconnoitring the strangers; and fre-
quently advance boldly to within a few
yards of the line of march, where they
halt to gaze at the troops, snorting and

28. Pearl-ashes.? 29, What of horses .? 30. Wild
aotBQa? 31. The ass?

showing every sign of astonishment and
di.spleasure, especially at sight of the ca-
valry. These droves are always headed
by some fine looking old bashaws, whose
flowing manes and tails plainly show that
they have never been subject to man's
control ; and in the rear the mares and
colts follow.

THE ASS.
31. We may as well here speak of that
much despised and much abused animal
— the ass. Could we see him in his na-
tive state, in the warm climates of Africa
we should find him all life and spirit ; but
in a cold country, he is rather dull and
heavy. As his lot is to be the property of
the poor, he partakes with them in their
wants, and sufl^ers under their ignorance
and brutality. It is true, he will feed upon
plants which horses refuse, esteeming a m
thistle, with its prickles, much as we do a 1
sallad, when heightened with mustard and
vinegar. But he does not always get his
fill, ev,en of such homely fare : and in win-
ter, when the hedges fail him, he is but
poorly provided with hay ; as to corn, he
never thinks of it. Though easily fed,
yet the ass is peculiarly dainty in drink-
ing ; none but the clearest waters will he
touch. He is as careful too, not to wet
feet, but will go round a puddle rather
than through it, even when loaded. It
has been said, that were a higher class to
take him in hand, and rear him with gen-
tleness and care, the ass would be more
docile and more serviceable.

CHAP. XXXIII. '

MODES OF CONVEYANCE.

1. The most ancient mode of conducting
the traffic of distant nations, was by cara-
vans. Of this nation was the company of
Midianites or Ishmaelites, to whom Joseph

1. What was the most ancient mode of con-
ducting the traffic of distant nations .' 2. What

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTIONS.

121

was sold, {Genesis xxxvil'. 28.) Such ca-
ravans are in use at the present day, and
consist sometimes of forty thousand per-
sons, sometimes almost double that num-
ber, besides six or seven thousand camels,
and some hundred horses. Those, which
are called heavy caravans, have in them
elephants also.

2. Any one who wishes to travel, may
collect a caravan; but they are seldom
gathered by private persons. Most com-
monly they are public concerns, gathered
and regulated by authority ; they set off
on a fixed day, and are under a sort
of military discipline. Four caravans go
every year to Mecca, with the Mohamme-
dan pilgrims, to the tomb of the Prophet.
One from tlie European provinces, which
sets out from Damascus; one from the
Barbary States and Egypt ; a third from
Arabia ; and a fourth from the parts
about Babylon, with which come the
Persian devotees.

3. There are four officers to such a
company. One has supreme command ;
a second is the guide, who regulates the
march ; a third rules when the caravan
stops to rest ; and the fourth regulates the
distribution of the provisions. Almost all
the commerce of those countries is con-
ducted thus. Merchants take the oppor-
tunity of so large a body, many of whom
are regular troops, to travel in safety,
through the Deserts especially, where the
wandering Arabs think they have a right
to plunder all whom they can overcome.
In the history of commerce appended, is
an account of a caravan taken by Ricliard
I., of England, with all its varied and rich
commodities.

4. The camels, which journey to Mecca,
have rich furniture ; those which carry the
presents made by the princes to the tomb of
Mohammed, are magnificently accoutred.

of caravans? 3. How are they conducted ? 4.

How are the camels accoutred on such journeys r

1 1

Their various stages in the journey are
regulated, as they must arrive at Mecca
by a certain day. They continue only
twelve days there ; during which short
period, a very large and profitable trade
is carried on, in the exchange of the
most precious productions of India, Per-
sia, Egypt, Barbary, and Europe.

5. As they have not roads like ours, in
those Eastern countries, nor any inns to
accommodate travellers, they must take
with them all they want. Yet in many
places are buildings erected, for their
use, called caravanserais. These, how-
ever, only aflTord shelter; for neither food,
nor beds, nor servants, can be had.

6. The Caffila is somewhat similar to
the caravan. In the East Indies, it al-
ways belongs to some prince ; whereas, a
caravan is an association of various per-
sons. But in Africa, the term intimates
generally, a company of dealers, who thus
convey their slaves for sale, with gold-
dust, salt, and other valuable commodities ;
travelling together for greater security and
mutual assistance. They go from the
centre of Negroland, sometimes eastward
towards Egypt, and sometimes westward
towards Senegal. In those countries, it is
frequently called a coffle.

7. Something akin to this coffle, once
was common in England ; when whole
trains of pack-horses used to travel, load-
ed with woollen goods, over the hills and
moors of Yorkshire ; led by the foremost
horse, old, steady, and well accustomed
to the road ; and regulated by only one
man, who brought up the rear.

8. Even now too, in Spain, strings of
mules are employed in the same way ; and
the arricaos or muleteers form a numerous
and rather conspicuous part of the Span
ish population. Mules are preferred in
Spain for driving, as being more sure-

5. What are caravanserais ? 6, What of the caf-
fila r 7. The coffle ? 8. What of mules in Spam '

122

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

footed aiid hardier of living tiian horses.
Besides whicli, there are caravans of
mules, with loads on their backs, con-
stantly crossing Si)ain on the various
roads, carrying corn, rice, flour, pulse,
wine, and oil in skins, as well as goods
from the seaports to the interior. The
muleteer is a jovial being ; he wanders
all over the country ; his home is every
where : light-hearted and happy, he is also
honest, and his punctuality may in general
be depended upon. He is very kind to
his mules, calls them by their names, talks
to them, scolds them, and his first care on
arriving at the inn is to see them comfort-
ably provided for, and then, and not till
then, he thinks of himself

9. Mules are much used for travelling
in South America. Travellers in the
United States can have but a faint idea
of the labor and danger of crossing the
Andes, that immense mountain chain by

^^^^^■'

W: .

^^4B

fc ,, _^^^^V

^^i^JHIi

ilwmff^^^^^^^*'

jfl^^^g/fl

mifw^W '-^^^' ' ^ -

* — ■'■-^^^^^^'i'

l^tt

which the continent of South America is
intersected, from its southern to its most
northern extremity, dividing Peru and
Chile, on the western coasts from Colom-
bia and Brazil on the eastern. Many of
the passes are upwards of 18,000 feet, or
nearly four miles, above the level of the
sea. In some parts, men, who have made
it their sole occupation, carry the pas-
senger up the most steep and dangerous
paths, in a kind of chair fastened to their

9 Travelling in South America? 10— IC. What

backs ; but In general, the journey is
made by travellers mounted on the patient
and sure-footed mule. The following de-
scription of a journey with mules is from
the account of a recent traveller in South
America.

10 "As I was looking up at the region
of snow, and as my mule was scrambling
along the steep of rock, the captain over-
took me, and asked me if I chose to come
on, as he wa-; going to look at a very dan-
gerous part of the road, which we were
approaching, to see if it were passable,
before the nniles came to it. In half an
hour we arrived at the spot. It is the
worst pass in the whole road over the
Andes. The mountain above appears al-
most perpendicular, and in one continued
slope down to a rapid torrent that is rag-
ing underneath. The surface is covered
with loose earth and stones, which have
been brought down by the waters. The
path goes across this slope, and is very
bad for about seventy yards, being only a
few inches broad ; but the point of danger
is a spot, where the water, which comes
down from the top of the mountain, either
washes the path away, or covers it over
with loose stones. In some places, tln^
rock almost touches one's shoulder, while
the precipice is immediately under the
opposite foot, and high overhead are a
number of loose stones, which appear as
if the slightest touch would send thein
i rolling into the torrent beneath, which is
foaming and running with great violence.

11. "As soon as we had crossed tlie
pass, which is only seventy yards long
the captain told me it was a very bad
place for baggage-mules ; that four hun-
dred had been lost there ; and that we
should probably lose one.

12. " The drove of mules now came in
sight, one following another : a few were
carrying no burdens, but the rest were

is the traveller's story of travelling over the An-

MODES OF CONVETANCE.

123

either mounted or heavily laden. As soon
as the leading mule came to the com-
mencement of the pass, he stopped, evi-
dently unwilling to proceed, and of course
ail the rest stopped also.

13. " He was the finest mule we had,
and, on that account, had twice as much
to carry as any of the others. With his
nose to the ground, literally smelling his
way, he walked gently on, oTten changing
the position of his feet, if he found the
ground would not bear, until he came to
the bad part of the pass, when he stopped ;
but the drivers threw stones at him, and
lie continued his path in safety, and sev-
eral others followed.

14. "At length, a young mule, carrying
a portmanteau, with two large sacks of
provisions, and many other things, in pass-
ing the bad point, struck his load against
the rock, which knocked his two hind
legs over the precipice, and the loose
stones immediately began to roll away
from under them : however, his fore legs
were still upon the narrow path : he had
no room to put his head there, but he
placed his nose on the path to his left,
and appeared to hold on by his mouth :
his perilous fate was soon decided by a
loose mule, who, in walking along after
him, knocked his comrade's nose off the
path, destroyed his balance, and head over
heels the poor creature instantly com-
menced a fall, which was really quite ter-
rific.

15. "With all his baggage firmly lash-
ed to him, he rolled down t^e steep slope,
until he came to the part v^^hich was per-
pendicular, and then he seemed to bound
off, and turning round in the air, fell into
the deep torrent, on his back, and upon
his baggage, and instantly disappeared.

16. "To any other animal but a mule
this fall must have been fatal ; he was car-
ried down by the stream in spite of all his

dei ' 1". What of the large wagons of the Alle-

efforts, and, turning the corner of a rock,
was given up for lost. At length I saw
at a distance a solitary mule walking to-
wards us ! We instantly perceived that he
was the Phaeton whose fall we had just
witnessed, and in a few moments he came
up to us to join his comrades. He was,
of course dripping wet, his eye looked
dull, and his whole countenance was de-
jected, but none of his bones were broken:
he was very little cut, and his sound ap-
pearance was actually incredible."

17. The large, lieavy wagons, which
cross the Alleghany mountains, in the
United States, are well worthy of mention.
The exchange of goods between the east-
ern and western parts of Pennsylvania is
mostly effected by means of these wagons.
They are drawn by five or six horses,
and are built very stout for travelling the
rough roads across the mountains. They
have coverings of cloth, supported by strong
wooden hoops, and carry very heavy loads.
The horses have small bells attached to the
liames, as they are called, and the merry
jingle of tjiese, when passing through the
woods, is very pleasant. These bells serve
as music to the tired teamster, but they
also answer a more important purpose;
being heard at a distance, they give in-
formation in season, that no accident may
happen by two teams coming in contact,
by meeting unexpectedly in the night
Sixty or more of these large wagons may
often be seen in a line.

18. There is a traffic carried on be-
tween St. Louis in Missouri and Santa
Fe in Mexico, by caravans of mules and
horse wagons. They carry to Santa Je
manufactured goods, tobacco, spirits, &.c.
and receive specie, or gold and silver ore
in return. Herds of wild buffaloes are
sometimes met on this route. These roam

j in thousands over the far western prai-
ries, and swim large rivers in nearly the

j ffhanies ? 18 What of the trade between St
h2

124

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

same order, in which they traverse the
plains.

19. In winter when tlie ground is cov-
ered with snow, travellini? in sleighs is a
rapid and favorite mode of conveyance.
Bells are usually attached to some part of
the harness, in order to give warning to

the foot-passenger. The sledge of the
Laplander may be mentioned in this place.
It is shaped somewhat like a small boat,
and is usually drawn by the reindeer, who
glides with incredible swiftness over the
snow and ice. This animal, it is said, can
run with ease two hundred miles a day.

20. The invention of rai7-roac?5 promises
to increase the facility of communication
between distant places to a wonderful de-
gree. Iron grooves are sunk in wooden

frames, on the ground ; and the wagons
are furnished with iron wheels, which run
in these grooves with very little friction.

21. Gravity, horse-power and steam-
power have been used on rail-roads.
Where the road is sufficiently sloping in
one direction, the force of gravity may
move the carriage in that direction. Lo-
comotive or sjeam engines are much used
in England, and there are several in tJiis
country. It has been computed that one
of these locomotive engines will perform

'the work of 240 horses travelhng at the
rate of ten miles per hour upon a turnpike
I road, the velocity of the locomotive being
I fifteen miles per hour.

22. The Quincy rail-road was the first
I work of the kind attempted in the United
j States. It was constructed solely for the
I transportation of granite, and commences

at the granite quarry in Quincy, and ter-
minates at the Neponset River, which
flows into Boston harbor. It is three
miles in length. Many other rail-roads
are in the course of construction through
different parts of Massachusetts. The
principal of these are the Boston and
Lowell rail-road, and the Boston and
Worcester rail-road.

23. The Mohawk and Hudson rail-road
in New York was begun in 1830, and is
to extend from the Hudson at Albany, to
the Erie canal at Schenectady. Steam
cars have travelled upon it with a load of

1 eight tons, at the rate of thirty miles per
hour. The Camden and Amboy rail-road
commences at Camden on the Delaware,
opposite to Philadelphia, and terminates at
Amboy. The whole distance in a direct
line is sixty miles.

24. The Baltimore and Ohio rail-road
is intended to unite the city of Baltimore
with the great Ohio River. A considera-

Louis and Santa Fe ? 19. Travelling in sleighs ij Quincy rail-road ? Other rail-roads in Massachu-
&c. 20. The invention of rail -roads ? 21. The |[ setts? 23. The Mohawk and Hudson rail-road ?
powers used upon rail-roads ? 22. What of the L Camden and Amboy .? 24. The Baltimore and

MODES OF CONVEYANCE.

125

ble part of it is already completed, and cars
now in operation upon it. Passengers

are

are conveyed in these cars with great ra-
j)idity to different points on the road. The
length of this rail-road when completed
will be one hundred and eighty miles, and
there will be but one summit in the whole
line requiring stationary power. The esti-
mated expense is twenty thousand dollars
per mile. The bridges are all built of
stone. One, over Gwynn's Falls, consists
of a single arch of eighty feet span, with
an elevation of fifty-eight feet to the
top of the parapet, and three hundred
feet in length. Another, across the Pe-
lapsco has two arches of fifty-five feet
span each, and two of twenty feet span.
It rises forty-six feet high, and is three
hundred and seventy-five feet long. The
deepest cut will be seventy-nine feet, and
the highest embankment fifty-seven feet.
In one place the road has been carried
through a solid mass of rock rising fifty-
eight feet above its surface.

25. We have mentioned but a few
of the principal rail-roads in the United
States. These means of conveyance are
fast multiplying throughout our vast coun-
try and can hardly fail to produce the
most beneficial results. In England rail-
roads have increased amazingly within the
last twelve years ; and throughout Europe

Ohio ? 25. The increase of this means of trans-
porration ?

an awakened attention seems to have been
turned to the subject.

CHAP. XXXIV.
MODES OF CONVEYANCE.— Continued.

1. The most wonderful, and at the
same time most convenient method of
transporting goods from one country to
another, is by means of a ship. That a
body so large and so heavily laden, should
float on the water; that it should be so
well-balanced as not to tilt over ; that ma-
riners should be able to guide its move-
ments to any quarter of the globe, and in
any manner they please, are all circum-
stances of great importance, and exhibit
in a striking light the power and ingenuity
of man. «

2. A single ship is a beautiful object ;
when in full sail she glides majestically
along, cutting the waves with her sharp
prow, and dashing them behind in her
foaming wake. The eye is never weary in
watching her steady and graceful motions.

%►

3. A fleet of ships coming into port,
to the amount of one hundred and fifty
sail perhaps of merchantmen, is certainly
a grand sight ; all under regulated move-
ments, and bearing treasures to the amount
of some millions of money. The commu-
nication is mutually beneficial ; the inter-

1. 2. What is said of the ship? 3. A fleet of
ships ? 4. The EngUsh East India ships ? 5. The

126

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

change of commodities is advantageous;
the comforts of both regions are more
than doubled by the traffic.

4. The English East India ships are
often of. one thousand two hundred tons
burden. Their value, w^hen richly laden,
is immense. Galleons, are very large
ships, employed by the Spaniards, to con-
vey the treasures of the East Indies across
the great Pacific, to Acupulco; or, in
the Atlantic, to bring the produce of the
American mines of gold and silver, to
Europe, to the mother country. Those
w^hich come to Europe, are collectively
called the Flota.

5. Ships from their size are, in many
cases, unable to approach near the shore.
There is a need of smaller vessels, to con-
vey their merchandise or their passengers
to and from the land : such as boats,
which are moved with oars ; or hoys,
smacks, cutters, &c. which have masts and
sails.

6. The Chinese vessels are called junks ;

they are but small, compared with ours ;
but they may be seen in great numbers on
their canals.

7. By canoe is meant a sort of boat, not
built up with ribs and planks, but hollow-
ed out of one single trunk of a tree, and
shaped for the purpose : so they are often
constructed in the tropical part of the At-
lantic and by the North American Indians.

In the more northern and southern parts,
they are formed with pieces of bark sew-
ed together. The Grecnlander's canoe is
made with very slender laths joined with
wlialebone, and covered with seal skins.

8. The proas, used among the Ladrone
Isles, have always excited surprise ; as
they will sail at the rate of twenty miles
an hour, owing to their peculiar con-
struction. One side of these canoes, that
which is on the lee side, or away from
the wind, is entirely straight, the other is
bowed out, in the usual shape. The ends
are by this means made very sharp, to cut
the water, especially as they are made
narrower hereby. Both ends are equally
sharp ; so that the navigators have no
need to turn, but can come back again
with ease. Canoes thus formed woifld
be very liable to turn over ; indeed, they
could hardly live in a rough sea. To pre-
vent this, the Ladrones have an out-rigger,
consisting of a frame projecting on the
windward side, with a log (jf wood, shaped
like a boat, at its end. The weight of this
frame keeps the balance, for the wind can
hardly tilt the canoe so as to raise the
frame out of the water ; while the hollow-
ness of the little boat prevents its sinking
on that side. The planks of this proa are
sewed together with strips of bark: no
iron being used in it. The sails consist
of mats; and the masts, yards, and out-
rigger, are made of the bamboo, which is
extremely light.

9. Inland commerce is carried on by
water in a great measure, in many coun-
tries. Our own country is now well sup-
plied with canals ; Holland has long been
famous for such conveniences ; and China
is intersected to a very great degree by
them. It is said, that as many inhabit-
ants of that country live and die on the
water, as on land.

10. Canal boats are generally of peculiar

names of eome smaller vessels ? 6. The Chinese

junks ? 7. The canoe? 8. The proas? 9. Canals'

MODES OF CONVEYANCE.

127

dimensions, suited to their particular pur-
pose, and to nothing else. They are some-

times seventy feet long, and only six feet
wide ; that they may be able to pass each
other without requiring the canal to be of
an inconvenient width. They will con-
tain a very large quantity of goods, and
yet may be drawn by a single horse with
tolerable ease. There is a towing-path
on the side of the canal, for the horses.

11. One of the most remarkable disco-
veries of modern times is the art of pro-
pelling vessels by steam. The principle is,
by a steam engine of considerable power,
to work a large wheel, or rather two
wheels, one on each side, which, by pad-
dles, push against the water, and thus
shove the vessel forward. For the first
successful application of this discovery,
the world is indebted to Robert Fulton,
an American. His account of the con-
struction of his first steamboat is well wor-
thy the perusal of my young readers : it
is taken from Judge Story's Discourse be-
fore the Boston Mechanics' Institution.

12. "When," said Fulton, " I was build-
ing my first steamboat at New York, the
project was viewed by the public either
with indifference, or with contempt as
a visionary scheme. My friends indeed
were civil, but they were shy. They list-
ened with patience to my explanations, but
with a settled cast of incredulity on their

10. Canal-boats ? 11. The steamboat? To whom

countenances. I felt the full force of tha

lamentation of the poet,

" Truths would you teach to save a sinking land,
All shun, none aid you, and few understand.-'

As I had occasion to pass daily to and
from the building yard, while my boat was
in progress, I have often loitered unknown
near the idle groups of strangers, gather-
ing in little circles, and heard various in-
quiries as to the object of this new vehi-
cle. The language was uniformly that
of scorn, or sneer, or ridicule. The loud
laugh often rose at my expense ; the dry
jest ; the wise calculation of losses and
expenditures ; the dull but endless repeti-
tion of the Fulton Folly.

13. "Never did a single encouraging
remark, a bright hope, or a warm wish,
cross my path. Silence itself was but po-
liteness, veiling its doubts, or hiding its
reproaches. At length the day 'arrived
when the experiment was to be put in
operation. To me it was a most tryina^
and interesting occasion. I invited many
friends to go on board to witness the first
successful trip. Many of them did me the
favor to attend, as a matter of personal
respect ; but it was manifest that they did
it with reluctance, fearing to be the part-
ners of my mortification, and not of my
triumph. I was well aware, that in my
case there were many reasons to doubt
of my own success. The machinery was
new and ill made ; many parts of it were
constructed by mechanics unaccustomed
to such work ; and unexpected diflficultieH
might reasonably be presumed to present
themselves from other causes.

14. "The moment arrived, in which the
word was to be given for the vessel to
move. My friends were in groups on the
deck. There was anxiety mixed with fear
among them. They were silent, and .ead,
and weary. I read in their looks nothing
but disaster, and almost repented of my

are we indebted for this invention .' 12 — 15. What

i28

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

efforts The signal was given, and the
boat moved on a short distance, and then
stopped and became immovable. To the
silence of the preceding moment nov<r suc-
ceeded murmurs of discontent and agita-
tions, and whispers and shrugs. I could
hear distinctly repeated, * I told you it
would be so — it is a foolish scheme — I
wish we \*rere well out of it.' I elevated
myself upon a platform, and addressed
the assembly. I stated, that I knew not
what was tbe matter ; but if they would
be quiet, and indulge me for a half hour, I
would either go on, or abandon the voy-
age for that time.

15. "This short respite was conceded
without objection. I went below, exam-
ined the machinery, and discovered that
the cause was a slight mal-adjustment of
some of the work. In a short period it
was obviated. The boat was again put in
motion. She continued to move on. All
were still incredulous. None seemed wil-
ling to trust the evidence of their own
senses. We left the fair city of New
York; we passed through the romantic
and ever-varying scenery of the highlands ;
we descried the clustering houses of Al-
bany ; we reached its shores ; and then,
even then, when all seemed achieved, I
was the victim of disappointment. Imag-
ination superseded the influence of fact.
It was then doubted, if it could be done
again ; or if done, it was doubted if it
could be made of any great value."

16. Since the death of Fulton, steam-
boats have multiplied to an incredible ex-
tent in all parts of the world ; but no-
where to such an extent as on the broad
Mississippi and other mighty rivers of the
west. Some of the steamboats of the
Mississippi are fitted up in an uncommon
Btjile of elegance, and may almost merit the
designation of " floating palaces." Steam-

is Fulton's account of the trial of his first steam-
boat ? 15. What of the increase of steam-boats ?

boats pass between Providence and New
York, through Long Island Sound, during
all the open season. Nearly the whole of
the summer travelling from Boston to the
south passes by this route.

17. On the canals, and river navigation
of England, steamboats are very frequent ;
yet, at present, they are rather used for
conveying passengers than goods. They
venture out to sea, cross the Atlantic,
and even go to the East Indies. They use

masts and sails when the wind suits ; but
as they can go by steam only, without
sails, if the wind be against them, which
totally prevents a ship from proceeding, it
is no great impediment to the steam ves-
sel : it makes its way in spite of contrary
winds and adverse tides.

18. We have one sort of water convey
ance not yet noted, although it is very an-

Steamboats on the Mississippi ? 17. In England ?
18. Whatofthetimber-float? 19. Timber cut in

MODES OF CONVEYANCE.

129

cient, and in some places, even now, of
great use ; that is, the timber Jloat. The
timber from Lebanon, intended for Solo-
mon's temple, was floated in the sea to
Joppa, from whence it was taken by land
carriage to Jerusalem.

19. Much of the timber cut in Norway
is floated down the rivers, to the cities,
from whence it is to be exported to other
countries. A considerable proportion of
this is split, shivered to pieces, or otherwise
.damaged, in its adventurous voyage. Yet
iipon the whole, this is the cheapest mode
of transit ; and in some cases, owing to the
ruggedness of the country, the only method
by which such bulky materials could be
conveyed to the place of sale.

20. But the grand floatage of the pre-
sent day in Europe takes place on the
Rhine. On its broad stream, floats of
timber trees, to the value of thirty thou-
sand pounds, in one mass, proceed every
year, from the forests near its source, to
the cities of the Netherlands, where th6y
are broken up for sale. The mass is
often a thousand feet long, and nearly a
hundred in width, and of a thickness suf-
ficient to raise the upper part seven feet
out of the water. These trees are all firm-

y pinned and bound together. It requires

several hundred men to navigate such
an unwieldy concern ; and these 4ive on
the float, in two rows of huts formed on

Norway ? 20. The timber-floats of the Rhine ?
21 . What is a raft .-' 22. What of timber in Maine '
9

it, with a regular street between them.
Several smaller floats go in front, by
means of which the great body is towed
along, clear from obstructions.

21. .^ raft is a small flooring of limber,
such as comes to hand, in case of ship-
wreck ; which, being fastened together
will float passengers and goods, though
with much inconvenience, yet safely, to
the shore. A raft, too, is the form in
which timbers are, in the Baltic, conveyed
to the shipping, which wait to transport
them to foreign countries.

22. The northern parts of Maine fur-
nish vast quantities of timber. The trees
are felled in the depth of winter by parties
which go into tfiie woods in autumn for
that purpose, and cut down the trees after
the ground is covered with snowsufficieErf;-
ly to enable them to drag the timber by
oxen to the rivers where they are rolled
upon the ice. When the ice melts in the
spring, the logs are floated down to the
sea. Where the rivers are wide and un

interrupted by falls, the logs are fastened
together in rafts.

23. Immense timber rafts may often be
seen upon Lake Champlain, floating down
on their way to Albany and the towns on
the Hudson. These rafts contain houses
for lodging the crews ; and when the
wind is fair, sails are fixed up to assist
their course.

When are the trees felled
Lake Champlain?

23. Timber-rafls on

130

BpOK

OF COMMERCE.

CHAP. XXXV.

FACILITIES FOH PROSECUTING COMMERCE.

1. Of all the discoveries made by man,
thai of communicating thoughts, and es-
pecially of rendering them permanent, by
means of letters, is certainly the most
wonderful and important. By this means
have all the great inventions and sublime
productions of human genius been com-
municated from one nation to another, and
with successive improvements transmitted
from generation to generation. The sci-
entific and literary acquirements of the
ancients have thus become the property
of the moderns. They still live in their
literary labors ; their thoughts exist in
their writings, and after the lapse of above
two thousand years, we enjoy their con-
versation, and are enlightened by their in-
structions. The knowledge of the pre-
ceding is, thus, the foundation of that of
the present century, which, still improved
and extended, will illuminate posterity.

2. The opinions of authors concerning
the origin of letters are various. The
Indians, the Chinese, the Chaldeans, the
Arabians, the Egyptians, the Plieniciuns,
have respectively their pretensions to that
honor. Memnon, the Egyptian, is by
some supposed to have invented letters
in the year 1822 before Christ. Letters
were first brought into Greece by Cad-
mus, the Phenician, who was contempo-
rary with David. His alphabet consisted
of sixteen letters, and the rest were added
afterwards, as signs for proper sounds
were needed.

3. To write, or, in other words, to ex-
jn-ess the thoughts to the eye, was early
attempted in Egypt, by means of hiero-
glyphics: these were figures of animals,
] tarts of the human body, and even me-
ehanical instruments ; as the former were
made choice of on account of the pecu-

1. What of the invention of letters? 2. To
whom is the discovery attributed ? 3. What of

liar properties or qualities of the animals^
so they are said to have represented simi-
lar qualities in the gods, heroes, or others
to whom they were applied.

4. But these were not confined to Egypt :
figures, composed of feathers, were em-
ployed to express ideas, in Peru; and
Montezuma received intelligence of the
invasion of his kingdom by the Spaniards,
in this way. In Peru, arithmetic was
composed only of diflTerent colored knots.

5. The next step in the progress of
writing, appears to be the expression of a
word by a single mark or letter, which is
the Chinese method of writing. They
have upwards of sixty thousand of these
marks, which they employ in aflairs of
science. Instead of using marks to re-
present words, which are infinite, we em-
ploy letters to represent articulate sounds,
which compose words. Their inferior
and inconvenient mode of writing readily
accounts for the state of literature among
the Chinese, and their relative superiority
in respect to the arts, being imitative, may
be acquired by practice or oral instruc-
tion.

6. The art of writing seems to have
been known in Greece when Homer com-
posed the Iliad, and Odyssey ; and ciphers,
invented in Hindoostan, were brought into
France from Arabia about the end of the
tenth century.

7. The ancient order of writing was
from right to left, and this method pre-
vailed even among the Greeks. They
used, afterwards, to write alternately from

11 right to left, and from left to right; this
continued to the time of Solon, the fa-
mous Athenian legislator. The motion
from the left to the right being found
more natural and convenient, this method
was adopted by all the European nations.

8. Writing was first exhibited on pillars
and tables of stone; afterwards on lead,

t hieroglyphics? Writing in Peru and Mexico?
i 5. Chinese writing? 6. The Iliad ? 7. What was

FACILITIES FOR PROSECUTING COMMERCE.

131

and on plates of the softer metals. When
t became more extensively practised, in
some countries, the leaves of plants and
the bark of trees were used ; in others,
tablets of w^ood covered with a thin coat
of soft wax, on which the impression was
made with a stylus, or pen of iron. After
this, parchment made of the hides of ani-
mals was used.

THE MAIL SYSTEM, «fec.

9. The establishment of posts, by which
letters and packets may be regularly con-
veyed from one place to another, has prov-
ed one of the most effective instruments
of civilisation. "We find the first posts
in the Persian empire. Darius I, son of
Hystaspes, caused couriers, with saddled
horses, to stand ready at different stations
throughout the empire, situated one day's
journey from each other, in order to re-
ceive reports from the provinces without
delay.

10. "The name of posts is said to be
derived from the Latin posiliis^ which
)neans placed, because horses were put at
certain distances, to transport letters or
travellers. In the ninth century, there
'xisted in Germany, France and Italy,
messengers who travelled on liorseback,
destined, however only for the service of
government ; and this establishment, be-
sides, was of little duration.

11. "Carrier pigeons are used in the
east, and became known in Europe
through the Crusaders, but seem never to
have been introduced in the latter part
of the world to any extent. The pigeons
chosen for this service are called, in Ara-
bic, hamahn. They build their nests in
the neighborhood of human habitations.
The first pigeon used as a messenger,
some consider to be that which Noah sent
from the ark, and which returned with

the ancient order of writing ? 8. How was writ-
ing first exhibited ? 9. What is said of the esta-
Bl^hment of posts ? 10. Whence is the name de-

the leaf of the olive. An actual post
system, in which pigeons were the mes-
sengers, was established by the sultan
Noureddin Mahmood, who died in 1174.
It was improved and extended by the ca-
liph of Bagdad, who died in 1225. The
price of a well-trained pair of such pigeons
was, at that time, one thousand Arabian
ducats. This flying post lasted till 1258,
when Bagdad fell into the hands of the
Mongols, and was destroyed by them. At
present, only a few wealthy individuals in
the east keep these pigeons. It requires
much time and patience to train them.

12. "As soon as the young are fledged,
they are made as tame as possible, and ac-
customed to each other's society. They
are then sent in an uncovered cage to the
place whither they are usually to carry
messages. If one of them is carried
away, after having been well treated for
some time, it will certainly return to its
mate. A small letter is written on the
finest silk-paper, sometimes on a partic-
ular kind called bird-paper. This is plac-
ed lengthwise under one wing, and fasten-
ed with a pin to a feather. A pigeon of
this kind can go a distance of more than
2700 miles in a day. It is well known,
that some merchants in Paris and Am-
sterdam employ carrier pigeons, in order
that the prices of stocks &.c. in Paris, may
be known as soon as possible in Amster-
dam.

13. "When commerce began to flourish,
the larger commercial cities, particularly
of Germany, began to establish mounted
messengers and stage-coaches. Travelling
merchants and butchers, who rode about
the country to buy cattle, used to take
charge of letters.

14. "In the year 1654, a regular poet
office was estabhshed in England, by

rived? 11. 12. What of carrier-pigeons? 13. How
were letters conveyed of old in Germany ? 14.
When was a regular post-office established is

132

BOOK OF COMBtERCE.

Cromwell, and since that time the system
has been JmprovedHfejy various acts of par-
liament. About the year 1784, a great
improvement was made in the mode of
conveying the mails. Instead of send-
ing the mails by a boy on horseback, or
in carts, it was proposed that govern-
ment should contract with the masters
of coaches to carry the mail, along with a
guard, for its protection. The plan was
finally established, and met with complete
success. The regularity with which the
post now comes and goes, and the letters
are received and distributed in England,
is remarkable. Nowhere is the inviolabil-
ity of letters more respected than in Eng-
land and the United States.

15. "In the English colonies in North
America, a post-office was projected as
early as 1692. The first office in the co-
lonies was established in 1710, by an act
of parliament, ' for establishing a general
post-office for all her majesty's dominions.'
The postmaster general was to be *at
liberty to keep one chief letter-office in
New York, and other chief offices at
some convenient place or places in each
of her majesty's provinces or colonies in
America.'

16. "After the breaking out of the re-
volution, this department came of course
under the control of the congress of the
confederacy. The constitution of the
United States, adopted in 1789, gave the
exclusive power of establishing post-offices
and post-roads to congress, thus preventing
the difficulties which would have resulted
from leaving this department to the several
states.

17. " There is at the seat of govern-
ment of the United States a general post-
office, under the direction of the post-mas-
ter general, who is appointed by the pre-

England ? What improvement was made in the
system in 1784 ? 15. When was a post-office pro-
'ected in the North American colonies r When

sident, and appoints two assistants, and
such clerks as may be njecessary for the
performance of the business of his office.
He establishes post-offices, and appoints
post-masters at all such places as appear
to him expedient on post-roads establish-
ed by law. He instructs the post-masters,
provides for the carriage of the mail, and
directs the routes. " No stage, or other
vehicle which regularly performs trips on
a post-road, or a road parallel to it, shall
convey letters, nor any packet-boat or
other vessel which regularly plies on a
water declared to be a post-road, except it
relates to some part of the cargo, under
the penalty of fifty dollars."

18. Robbery of the mail is punishable
with imprisonment from five to ten years,
and a second offence with death. Dead
letters, or such as have remained in the
post-office for a long time, without being
called for, must be sent to the post-master
general, at Washington, who opens them,
and if they contain any thing valuable en-
deavors to return them to the owners.

19. The privilege of franking is an im-
munity from postage, which is enjoyed
by certain officers of government and by
members of congress. A letter is said to
be franked when the name of the indi-
vidual possessed of such privilege writes
his name upon the envelope.

20. We have already mentioned that the
mails are usually transported in coaches
on the land route. Difficulties are often
encountered by stage-drivers in the more
unfrequented parts of the country on ac-
count of the badness of the roads or the
swelling of rivers. Sometimes a heavy
fall of snow obstructs the way, and some-
times a bridge has been broken by the ice
and carried away. When these obstacles
are finally overcome, the mail-bags are

established ? 16. After the breaking out of the
revolution — ? 17. What of the general post-of-
fice? 18. The punishment for robbery of the

FACILITIES FOR PROSECUTING COMMERCE.

139

safely delivered at the post-office and the
letters and newspapers distributed.

21. The mode in which letters are car-
ried in some parts of South America is
curious. The postman who is the medi-
um of communication between the coasts
of the Pacific Ocean and the provinces
which are situated on the east of the
Andes, swims for two days down the
river Chamaya, and through a part of the
Amazon, carrying his bag of letters wrap-
ped about his head, like a turban. There
is scarcely an instance of the letters hav-
ing been lost or even wetted.

22. " Great numbers of letters pass be-
tween America and Europe in the lines
of packets, particularly those which run
between New York and Liverpool and
Havre, and are supported by the enterjjrise
of private individuals in the United States.
The number of letters delivered by these
packets into the New York post-office,
sometimes amounts, (when several arrive
together in consequence of a continuance
of contrary winds on the coast,) to many
thousands in one day."

BOOK-KEEPING.

23. Book-keeping is the art of teaching
how to dispose the accounts of business,
so that the true state of every part and
of the whole, may be easily and distinctly

mail? 19. The privilege of franking ? 20. The
difficulties of transporting the mail.? 21. What
curious mode of carryint^ letters is mentioned .-*
JS. What of the transportation of letters between
12

known. Merchants' books are kept either
by single or by double entry ; the former
method is used by retailers of merchan-
dise, and the latter by merchants, wholesale
dealers, &c.

24. The most considerable books, ac-
cording to the Italian method of double
entry, are the waste-book, the journal and
the ledger; but besides these three, which
are absolutely necessary, there are several
others, called auxiliary books, which are
used in proportion to the business a man
transacts. These books are the cash-book,
the bill-book, the invoice-book, the ac-
count-current book, the commission, or
order, or advice-book, the letter-book, &c.
all of which are more or less in use.

25. The Waste-Book contains a distinct
record of all transactions and dealings, in
the way of trade, related in a plain, sim-
ple style, and in order of time, as they
succeed one another. It is ruled with
two columns on the right hand, for dol-
lars and cents. The several transactions
are separated from each other by a line,
in the middle of which, or on the left
margin, the date is placed. The waste
book should contain a record of all the
merchant's pecuniary affairs ; and every
occurrence that affects his stock, so as
to impair or increase it, should be noted
down. In it should be written under the
date of each day, every transaction, whe-
ther of buying or seUing, giving or re-
ceiving ; noting well the persons, quanti-
ties, and prices.

26. The Journal is the book in which
the transactions recorded in the waste-
book are prepared to be carried to the
ledger. It is in fact only the waste-book
copied out, but the matters are stated dif
ferently. In the Waste-book, the severa.
transactions are simply noted down, as

Europe and America.' 23. What is said of book-
keeping.? 24. What books are used according to
the Italian method of double entry .? 25. What
is the waste-book.? 26. The journal? 27. The

c34

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

you might enter them yourselves ; but in
the Journal, they are told in the mer-
chants' peculiar linguage; such as you
would hardly understand, till you should
come to be accustomed to it. But it is so
stated in Debtor and Creditor as to be the
more readily transferred to the several dis-
tinct accounts in the Ledger ; and in such
a manner as to render the detection of
errors more easy.

27. The Ledger is the principal book,
wherein all the several articles of each
particular account that lie scattered in
other books, according to their dates, are
collected and placed together in spaces
allotted for them, in such a maimer that
the opposite parts of every account are
directly set fronting one another, on oppo-
site sides of the same page or folio.

28. The ledger's folios are divided into
spaces tor containing the accounts, on the
head of which are written the titles of the
accounts, marked Dr. on the left hand
page, and Cr. on the right ; below which
stand the articles, with the word To pre-
fixed on the Dr. side, and the word By on
the Cr. side ; and upon the margin are re-
corded the dates of the articles, in two
small columns allotted for that purpose.
The person who owes me any thing is
called my debtor : the person whom I owe
is called my creditor: the balance is the
overplus or difference — so much as one
side of the account exceeds the other.

29. I will now endeavor to explain to
you some of those mercantile terms which
you must often hear, bui may not always
understand. A bill of exchange is a secu-
rity, originally invented among merchants
in different countries for the more easy
remittance of money from the one to the
other. It is an open letter of request,
from one man to another desiring him to
pay a sum mentioned therein, either to

ledger ? 28. How is the ledger arranged ? 29.
What is a bill of exchange .-' 30. What is meant

his own order, or to a third person, on his
account ; by which means a man at the
most distant part of the world may have
money remitted to him from any trading
country. In comnion speech, such a bill
is often called a draft. The following
may be the form of a bill of exchange.

"A'ety York, March 11, 1832.
$500.

" Twelve moiiths after date, pay to Mr
Francis Freeport, or his order, Jive hundred
dollars, for value received, and as advised
by Laurence Long.

To Messrs. John and }Villiam Bull,
London, England.''^

30. This expression, " as advised," inti-
mates that Mr. Long would write them
word concerning this settlement, and that
they would be expected to honor, or, in
other words, to pay the bill exactly at
the time appointed. When a bill is pre-
sented at the j)roper time, and the money
is not paid, it is said to be dishonored.

31. To use this bill, Mr. Freeport must
find somebody who owes as much money
in London. Instead of sending that cash
across the Atlantic, he will pay him $500 ;
Freeport will then give him this bill ; and
the latter will send it to London, to the
person to whom he owed the money, who
will present it at the proper time to Messrs.
Bull, and will receive the amount. So
all parties will be accommodated, without
running the hazard of losing the cash
itself in the voyage, although some differ-
ence may exist by the value of money
being greater in one place than in the
other.

32. Transactions of this kind are gener-
ally managed by persons called exchange
brokers, who, being acquainted with the
different merchants abroad and at home,
can give the information which may be

by the honoring or dishonoring of a bill ? 31. To
use this bill what must be done .' 32. By whom

BANKS, &C.

135

wanted, for which they are paid at a re-
gular rate.

33. An invoice is an account of goods
or merchandise shipped by merchants for
their correspondents abroad, in which the
pecuhar marks of each package, with
other particulars, are set forth. Tlie
prices, duties, and charges of every kind
upon them are recorded, and a book is
kept into which they are duly copied.

34. A foreign agent or factor, is a per-
son in some foreign land, employed by a
merchant to transact business for him,
whether buying or selling. For this trou-.
ble he has his commission ; that is, so
much per cent, on the amount of the busi-
ness done.

35. The people who insure shipping
and their cargoes are called Underwriters,
and they make it their business to know
what the hazards are in every sort of voy-
age. Now, if they know, by long experi-
ence, that in the trade to Europe, for in-
stance, not above one ship in a hundred is
lost ; then, if they receive one dollar in
the hundred for all they insure, they v/ill,
unless peculiar losses occur, be safe. And
if they charge rather more than the aver-
age loss, they will gain a profit. Each
man uses his wisdom and experience in
such cases, and many gain great wealth
thereby. In some cases, the insurance is
much less ; in others, it is more.

36. Insurance may be effected on many
different kinds of property. Several insur-
ance-offices have been established against
loss by fire, losses at sea, and even against
loss of life. The instrument, by which
the contract of insurance is made, is call-
ed a policy. Policies of insurance on lives
usually make an exception of death by
suicide.

are transactions of this kind generally managed?
33. What is an invoice ? 34. A foreign agent or
factor ? '35. What of underwriters ? 36. What is
a policy of insurance .' 37. What of promissory

37. Promissory notes or notes of hand,
are merely written promises to pay within
a certain time the sums therein stated,
either to a particular person, or to any
person who may be the bearer of the note.
A note is said to be endorsed when the
name of some individual, who must be
responsible for its payment, is written
upon the back of it. The following is the
form of a promissory note.

'^Boston, I7th February, 1833.
$150.

Two months after date, I promise to pay
to John Johnson, Esq. or order, the sum of
one hundred and fifty dollars, for value re-
ceived. George Bale.^^

CHAP. XXXVI.

BANKS, &c.

1. A bank is a common repository,
where many persons agree to keep their
money, that it may always be at their call or
direction. Banks are of three kinds, viz :
of deposit, of discount, and of circulation.

2. A bank of deposit receives money to
keep for the depositor, until he draws it
out. Another branch of the banking busi-
ness is the discounting of promissory notes
and bills of exchange, or loaning money
upon security.

3. A bank of circulation issues bills or
notes of its own, intended to be the
circulating currency or medium of ex-
changes, instead of gold and silver. Bank.s
are also divided into public and private.
In England, tliere is but one ]>ul)lic bank,
namely, the bank of Engl.nnd ; whereas,
in the United States, most of the banks
are public, and, in some of the states, pri-
vate banks of circulation are prohibited by
law.

4. Banks are generally formed by a

notes ?

1 . What is a bank .' How many kinds of baiiks
are there ? 2. What is a bank of deposit ? Of
discount .' A bank of circulation ? 4. How are

136

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

number of moneyed individuals, who, for
carrying on the business of exchanging or
dealing in bullion, money and bills, advance
a considerable sum as a joint capital, which
also forms a security to those who deposit
money with them. The convenience of
such institutions in facilitating commercial
transactions, has caused them to be estab-
lished in almost every city of Europe and
the United States.

5. The bank of Venice was established
about the year 1157, the bank of Genoa
in 1345, the bank of Amsterdam in 1609,
the bank of Hamburgh in 1619, the bank
of Rotterdam in 1635, the bank of Eng-
land in 1694, the bank of Scotland in 1695,
and the bank of France in 1716.

6. The old bank of the United States
was incorporated by an act of Congress,
in 1791. Its charter expired in 1811.
The new United States bank at Philadel-
phia was chartered in 1816, with a capital
of $35,000,000. Branches, or smaller
banks connected with it, have been estab-
lished in the most considerable cities of
the Union.

EXCHANGES.

7. An exchange signifies a place in most
considerable cities wherein the merchants,
agents, bankers, brokers, and other persons
concerned in commerce, meet at certain
times, to confer on matters of business.
The most considerable exchanges in Eu-
rope are those of London, Amsterdam,
Dublin, Bourdeaux and St. Petersburg.

8. The Royal Exchange of London
was founded by Sir Thomas Gresham, in
1566. It was destroyed by fire precisely
a century after its erection. The present
magnificent structure was built in 1668,
and cost 80,000 pounds sterling. There
is an area, where the merchants meet every
day at change, hours ; and, for the more

banks generally formed ? 5. What of the banks
of Europe ? 6. The United States Bank ? 7.
What is an exchange ? 8. What of the Royal

regular despatch of business, they dispose
of themselves in separate walks, each of
which has its appropriate name. The
Exchange is open every day from eight in

the morning, till half past four in the after-
noon ; but it is most frequented between
one and three o'clock. The assembly is
then very great, and the mixture of color,
dresses, and language, is very amusing to
one disposed to listen and observe.

9. The chambers over the area are oc-
cupied by Lloyd's Cofi*ee-house and several
public companies. Lloyd's CoflTee-house
deserves some description. It is the place
where gentlemen who are called under-
writers assemble ; who agree to insure
shipping from all the dangers of the seas,
or rather to make good the loss, should
any occur, on being paid a certain premium,
in proportion to the value of the cargo,
and the risk of the v oyage. The principal
merchants of the city belong to it. They
usually have the first intelligence of every
event which regards the shipping interest ,
all which is entered regularly in their
books. The committee have often given
rewards, with a liberal hand, to soldiers
and sailors, and to their widows and orphans.

10. There are large vaults beneath, which
are used by the East-India Company, aa
storehouses for their pepper.

Exchange of London ? 9. Lloyd's Coffee-house ?
10. For what purpose are the vaults of the build
ing used ? 11. What of the New York Exchange

DOCKS, WHARVES, &C

137

11. The New York Exchange is hand-
somely built of white marble. It has four
marble columns in front, made of single
shafts. The exchange room is large, and
resorted to by merchants between one and
three o'clock. There is a telegraph on
the top of the building, which communi-
cates with another on Sandy Hook, and
by this means the merchants receive early
intelligence of the approach of their ves-
sels. From the exchange are doors and
passages leading to a commercial reading-
room, and there are numerous newspaper
and other offices within the edifice.

12. The Merchant's Exchange of Balti-
more, built by private subscription, is a
very large edifice, in form somewhat re-
sembling the letter H. It has four wings
— one for the United States Branch Bank,
one for the custom-house, and one for a
coffee-house. In the centre is the great
hall, lighted from the dome, which is ninety
feet from the floor.

13. It may not be inappropriate to'
mention here the bazaars of Asia. The
word is Arabic originally denotes sale or
exchange. Some are open, some covered
with lofty ceilings or domes. At the ba-
zaars, or in the neighborhood of them, are
the coffee-houses, so much frequented in
Persia, and other Eastern countries. As
the Orientals live almost entirely out of
doors, the bazaars of populous cities, be-
sides their mercantile importance, are of
consequence as places of social intercourse.
The bazaar of Ispahan is one of the finest
in Persia. At Constantinople are two ba-
zaars — the old and new one. *• In the Ori-
ental tales, — for instance, in the Arabian
Nights, — the bazaars occupy a very con-
spicuous' place. The word bazaar has
been recently used in Europe ; and there
is one in London, which is large and well-
frequented.

The Merchant's Exchange of Baltimore
What of the bazaars of Asia ?

CHAP. XXXVII.

DOCKS, WHARVES, TELEGRAPHS, &c.

1. A dock is an artificial basin, by the
side of a harbor, made convenient either
for the building or repairing of vessels
In America the spaces between the wharves
are called docks.

2. A dry dock is a place where the water
is kept out by great flood-gates, till the
ship is built or repaired, when the gates
are opened, and the water let in to float
and launch her. A ivet dock is a place
into which the ship may be hauled, out of
the tide's way, and so dock herself, or sink
for herself a place to lie in.

3. The docks of Liverpool were the first
constructed in England ; and many other
seaport towns have been induced to follow
her example. It is scarcely thirty years,
since the whole of the vessels which en-
tered the port of London were obliged to
remain moored in the open stream of the
Thames. The London docks were begun
in 1800, and completed in 1805. Before

these docks were formed, all the cargoes
of the shipping were exposed to the dep-
redations of pilferers, to an immense ex-
tent. These goods were, of necessity, left
on the various quays, when taken out of
the ships ; and it was not always possible
to take them away immediately.

4. When it is considered, that more

1. What is a dock? 2. A dry dock? A wet
dock ; 3. What of the docks of Liverpool and

138

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

than thirteen thousand vessels come loaded
to London every year, which discharge
three millions of packages, some of them of
great value, we may suppose the vast confu-
sion of such traffic, which may give oppor
tunity to the idle and dishonest to purloin,
without the possibility of detection, to a
very great amount. River pirates came
in boats, and broke into the ships in the
night ; and some thousand pilferers were
strolling among the landed goods upon the
quays.

5. By unloading the shipping in these
docks, the greatest part of this plundering
is prevented : the docks arc surrounded
with high walls ; they have no house ad-
joining, and are locked up every night, and
well watched. It has been calculated that,
by this means, goods have been saved to
the value of 161,162Z. in a single year.

6. There is also a marine police, estab-
lished in 1798, which patrols the river
with great care, whose vigilance cannot
easily be evaded. Depredators are in-
stantly apprehended, and magistr.ates con-
stantly attend at the marine police-offices,
to render speedy justice.

7. Many of the commercial cities of the
United States give evidence of the enter-
prise and liberality of their merchants, in
the neatness of their docks and the extent
and regularity of their wharves. The
United States Dry Dock, recently con-
structed at the Navy Yard, Charlestown,
Mass., is an object deserving some atten-
tion. The Dock is 341 feet in length, by
80 in width, and 30 feet deep. It is ca-
pable of admitting the largest ship in our
navy — viz. the Pennsylvania, the entrance
of the dock being 60 feet across, and the
width of that ship being 55 feet. Besides
these, there is what is denominated the float-

Ijondon ? 4. Before the construction of the Lon-
don docks, were vessels liable to be robbed ? 5.
How is the plundering now prevented ? 6. What
of the marine police ? 7. What of the docks of

ing gate, which weighs 300 tons. It is built
like a vessel, is 60 feet long, 15 wide, and
30 in height — requiring about 19 feet of
water to float it. This is set in a groove
outside of the other gates, filled with iron
and sunk.

8. For emptying the dock of water, a
powerful hydraulic apparatus is employed
wrought by a steam-engine of 60 horse
power. There are 8 lift pumps, each 2
feet 6 inches in diameter, and discharging
altogether, at every stroke, 12 hogsheads:
there are also 8 chain pumps, 1 foot in
diameter. The water is first forced from
the dock into wells, then into a large reser-
voir, whence it runs into the sea. The
weight of the steam-engine and machinery
is about 122 tons.

9. The floating gate is said to contain
timber enough to build a ship of 300 or
400 tons; and some 3 or 4,000 dollars'
worth of sheathing and bolt copper have
already been used upon it. The turning
gates, at high water, sustain a pressure
equal to about 800 tons.

THE TELEGRAPH. ^

10. The telegraph is a contrivance by
which intelligence may be conveyed a great
distance by means of visible signals. The
art of conversing, between parties remote
from each other, by certain signs, previously
agreed upon, is very ancient. To make
known that some expected event had actu-
ally happened, it was only necessary to kindle
a fire on a high hill, and the intelligence was
rapidly spread : but this sign must have
been before agreed upon, or those who
saw it might be uncertain what it meant
Now, by the telegraph, whole sentences
can be rapidly conveyed, and a regula;
conversation can be kept up.

11. The telegraph used in Boston con

the United States? The Charlestown dry dock '
8. How is it emptied ? 9. What of the gates .-'
10. What of the telegraph? 11. The telegraph
used in Boston ? 12. Is a telegraphic dictionarv

DOCKS, WHARVES, &C.

139

sists of an upright post or mast, about forty
feet in height, having a small movable
arm about six feet long and twelve inches
broa.d, caWed the indicator ; and two longer
arms made of plank, each about ten feet
long, and one foot broad, which are placed
at different and convenient distances below
the indicator, to carr)' on the communica-
tions. The indicator, and arms are colored
black in order to be the better seen by day-
light. — They may be placed, each in six
different positions. The several positions
denote the numerals from one to six, so
that the two arms together may take twelve
positions ; and this number of positions
by the familiar principles of change and
combination, affords sufficient signs to ex-
press any numeral from one to many hun-
dred thousands.

12. 'With the telegraph are used three
books like dictionaries containing sets of
numerals arranged in order, with the words
denoted by these numerals placed by the
side of them, exactly upon the principle
of a dictionary of any language. The
telegraphic dictionary only differs from
any other, in having a list of numerals in-
stead of words under each letter of the
alphabet, with the meanings following the
numerals ; just as in a French dictionary,
for example, the French word would be
put first, and then the English signification
following it. Now the arms of the tele-
graph being placed in certain positions,
express particular numbers, the observer
then looks for the number in his telegraphic
dictionary, and by the side of it, he finds
the word signified by it.'

13. There is another kind of telegraph
which is used at sea, and which is of great
use in conveying intelligence from one
ship to another, or from the ship to the
shore. A telegraph of flags has been in-
vented, and called the ' Marine Telegraph.'

used ? 13. What of the marine telegraph ? 14.
How many changes or combinations can be made ?

The use of these flags rests upon the same
principle with the signal arms of the land
telegraph. They are six in number, and
correspond to the six positions of the arms
of the land telegraph denoting the nume-
rals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 : they are blue and
white, and all of the same size, with du-
plicate nuuibers of each flag. To them is
added a conversation flag, which like the in-
dicator of the land telegraph, shows that the
ship making this signal desires to converse.

14. Nearly ten thousand changes or
combinations can be made, designating
words and phrases. By this means ships
at sea can communicate with each other,
even at the distance of several miles, and
when they approach the coast, can hold
correspondence with the land telegraph.

LIGHT-HOUSES.

15. A light-house is a building erected
upon a cape or promontory on the sea-
coast, or upon some rock in the sea, and
having on its top, in the night time, a
great fire, or light, which is constantly
attended by some careful person, so as
to be seen at a great distance from the
land. It is used to direct the shipping
on the coast, that might otherwise run
ashore, or steer an improper course,
when the darkness of the night and the
uncertainty of currents &c., might render
their situation with regard to the shore
extremely doubtful.

16. Lamp lights are, on many accounts,
preferable to either coal fires or candles ;
and the eflTect of these may be increased
by placing them either behind glass hemis-
pheres, or before properly disposed glass
or metal reflectors, which last method is
now very generally adopted.

17. The most remarkable light-house
ever erected is perhaps the famous Eddy-
stone Light-house. It is built on one of
the rocks of that name, which lie in the

15, What is a light-house ? 16. What kind ot
lights are used . 17. What is the most remarka-
l8

140

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

English Channel, about 14 miles south-
west from Plymouth. As these rocks
were not very much elevated above the
sea at any time, and at high water were
quite covered by it, they formed a most
dangerous obstacle to navigation, and sev-
eral vessels were every season lost upon
them»

18. Many a gallant ship, which had
voyaged in safety across the whole breadth
of the Atlantic, was shattered to pieces on
this hidden source of destruction, as it was
Hearing port, and went down with its crew
in sight of their native shores. It was
therefore very desirable that the spot
should, if possible, be pointed out by a
warning light. But the same circumstan-
ces which made the Eddystone rocks so
formidable to the mariner, rendered the
attempt to erect a light-house upon them
a peculiarly difficult enterprise.

19. The first attempt to erect a light-
house on the Eddystone rocks was made
in 1696 ; and it took four years to com-
plete the structure. The architect felt so
confident in the strength of the building,
that he frequently declared, his only wish
was to be in it during the greatest storm
that ever blew under the face of the hea-
vens, that he might see what would be the
effect. On the 26th of November, 1703,
he was in the light-house superintending
some repairs, when there came on the
greatest tempest that was ever known in
England. Next morning not a vestige of
the light-house was to be seen. It had
been swept into the deep from the founda-
tion ; not a stone, or beam, or iron-bar re-
maining on the rock. The single thing
left was a piece of iron chain, which had
got so wedged into a deep cleft that it

ble light-house yet erected ? 18. What of the
danger of the Eddystone rocks ? 19. What of
the first attempt to build a light-house on these
rocks ? 20. Did any more shipwrecks occur .''
21. What was the fate of the second light-house ^

stuck there till it was cut out more than
fifty years afterwards.

20. Such was the end of the first Eddy
stone Light-house. Soon after, a vessel
returning from Virginia, was lost on the
rocks, when the greater part of her crew
perished.

21. In 1709, another light-house was
completed ; and this building, notwith-
standing some severe storms which it en-
countered, stood till J)ecember, 1755
when it was destroyed by fire.

22. In 1759, another light-house was
erected by a celebrated mechanic, named
Smeaton. This light-house is made of
stone, and is a round building, gradually
decreasing in circumference from the base
up to a certain height, like the trunk of an
oak, from which the architect states that
he took the idea of it.

23. Among many other tempests which
it has endured unshaken, was one of ex-
traordinary fury, which occurred in the
beginning of the year 1762. One individ-
ual, Smeaton tells us, who was fond of
predicting its fate, declared, on that occa-
sion, that if it still stood it would stand
forever.

24. On the morning after the storm had
spent its chief fury, many anxious observ-
ers pointed their glasses to the spot, where
they scarcely expected ever again to dis-
cern it, and a feeling almost of wonder
mixed itself with the joy and thankfulness
of the architect's friends, as they with
difficulty descried its form through the
still dark and troubled air. It was unin-
jured even to a pane of glass in the lantern.
In a letter from Plymouth upon this oc-
casion the writer says, ' it is now my most
steady belief, as well as every-body's here
that its inhabitants are rather more secure

22. When and by whom was the present one
erected.? 23. Of what is it built.? 24. Has it
withstood any violent storms.? Is there now
much doubt of its security ? >l

CUSTOMS, TA

RIFF, &<

141

in a storm, under the united force of wind
and water, tlian we are in our houses from
the former only.'

CHAP. XXXVIII.

CUSTOMS, TARIFF, &c.

1. The customs or duties are the taxes
customarily paid to the Government, upon
the merchandise brought into the country
or sent out of it. These vary according
as distinct acts of Congress have given the
right to take more or less upon the various
articles of commerce. When goods are
brought into the country they are said to
be imported ; when they are sent away,
they are exported.

2. There is a custom-house in every p<brt
in the country, to which vessels come,
to unload their cargoes. The customs are
not gathered without a great number of
officers to assist in the collection. As soon
as a vessel enters the harbor from abroad,
it is visited by a Custom-house officer, call-
ed a Tide Waiter, who continues on board
till the ship arrives at its moorings. His
business is, to see that no commodities are
parted with, till all has been properly en-
tered at the Custom-house, in order to
have the duty paid on all the goods.

3. The endeavors to prevent smuggling,
as it is called, occasions great numbers of
officers, sailors, cutters, &c., to be kept on
the constant look-out. This is sometimes
called the Preventive Service. They have
fast-sailing cutters, in which they go to
pursue the vessels which they suspect to
be loaded with contraband goods ; and
sometimes they have a battle on land with
the smugglers.

4. Perhaps you do not know what
smuggling may be. Goods are said to be
smuggled when they are brought into the

1. What of the customs or duties

When are

goods said to be imported ? When exported
2. Is there a custom-house in every port, which

country, without the lawful duty being
paid upon them. People sometimes man-
age to smuggle goods of considerable
value ; and they usually land them in the

night time on some desolate and solitary
coast.

5. The history of customs is a little cu-
rious, when we compare modern times
with those of ancient days. In the time
of Henry the Third, the customs of Eng-
land on foreign merchandise did not
amount to more than 75/., for the whole
of the summer of the year 1268. During
the reign of Elizabeth, great exertions
were made upon the seas ; and the cus-
toms amounted to 50,000Z. per annum. In
1641, in the middle of the reign of Charles
I. they were increased tenfold, even to
500,000Z, At the beginning of the reign
of George III. their produce at all the
ports of England was 1,969,933Z. And in
the year 1808, we find the customs and
excise bringing in 27,787,000?.

6. The history of the building, too, may
be noticed. In early times, the customs
were taken on the quay, chiefly at Billings-
gate, amid all the hurry and bustle of that
noisy place. A custom-house was at length
reared, for this increasingly important pur-
pose. This was destroyed by the great
fire in 1666 ; and the building which was

vessels frequent? 3. What of smuggling? 4
When are goods said to be smuggled ? 5. What
is said of the increase of customs in England *

142

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

erected in its place perished by fire in
1814, when great confusion was occasion-
ed by the burning of books and papers ;
and much loss sustained by the destruction
of valuable property therein deposited,
consisting of pearls and other costly ar-
ticles.

7. A new and much larger building was
then raised. Many houses were purchas-
ed to obtain room, at the expense of more
than 40,000Z., the whole expense of the
building being 255,0001. The front mea-
sures about four hundred and eighty-eight
feet, and its depth is one hundred and
seven feet. This building was opened for
business in May 1817. But in 1825, the
central part of the building gave way, not
having been properly supported, and the
Long Room, as it is called, fell in.

8. The Long Room is the principal
public room for business ; it is one hun-
dred and ninety feet long, fifty-six feet
wide, and fifty -five feet high. The floors
are now of stone, and the doors which
separate the apartments are of iron, to
prevent, in future, accidents by fire.

9. Entering by the grand staircase at
the end, you come through the lobbies, to
this busy Long Room. Here the nume-
rous clerks are employed with their huge
books, keeping account of every vessel
coming in or going out of the port ; reck-
oning up the amount of the various duties
to be paid, and signing and delivering the
documents to authorise the landing, and
examining the cargoes of the ships which
have made a due report of them, in order
to distribute their contents to the various
merchants ; or of such ships outward-
bound as are clearing outwards, having
paid all their dues, and intending to de-
part for their several foreign destinations.

10. The total value of imports into the

6. The history of the building ? 7. The new
one? 8. The Long Room ? 9. What of the em-
ployment of the clerks ? 10. What was the total

United States for the year 1832 waa
$101,029,266, of which $10,731,037, were
in foreign vessels. For the year preced-
ing, the total value of imports was $103,
191,124.

11. The total value of the exports for
the year ending September 1832, was
$76,176,943 : that of those of the preced-
ing year was $81,310,583. The domestic
articles exported amounted to $63,137,172,
and the foreign to $24,1039,473.

12. A tariffis a table or catalogue, con-
taining the names of different sorts of mer-
chandise, with the duties to be paid, as
settled by authority amongst trading na-
tions. The tariff of the United States has
begin subjected to alterations from time to
time, as the wants of the people de-
manded.

13. I will now undertake to explain to
you some of those terms connected with
custom-house matters, which you may
often hear, but may not always understand.
A drawback in commerce, is an allowance
made to merchants, on the re-exportation
of certain goods, which in some cases con-
sists of the whole, in others of a part, of
the duties v^hich had been paid upon the
importation.

14. Debenture is the certificate deliver
ed at the custom-house, when the exporter
of any goods or merchandise has complied
with the regulations, in consequence of
which he is entitled to a bounty or draw-
back on the exportation. This certificate
is signed by the officer of the customs
when the goods are regularly entered and
shipped, and the vessel is cleared out for
her intended voyage.

15. An embargo is an arrest on ships or
merchandise, by public authority; or a
prohibition of state, commonly on foreign
ships, in time of war, to prevent their go-
value of imports into the U. S. for the year 1832 '
11. Of exports .=* 12. What is the meaning of tariff ?
13. A drawback.? 14. Debenture ? 15. Embargo-'

CUSTOMS, TARIFF, &C.

148

ing out of port, and sometimes to prevent
their coming in.

16. Quarantine is the period during
which a ship, coming from a port suspect-
ed of contagion, or having a contagious
sickness on board, is forbidden intercourse
with the place where she arrives. The
term is derived from the Italian quarantina,
a space of forty days, because originally
that was the fixed period for all ships un-
der such circumstances. But the time of
a ship's detention is now very various ac-
cording to the exigencies of the case.

17. Privateers are fighting vessels fitted
out by private persons, during war, where-
in, at their own hazard, they plunder the
enemy, chiefly attacking merchant vessels.
They must have a commission jfrom gov-
ernment, and must conform to all the rules
of war, and the laws of nations. They
pay a part of their prizes to government for
this permission, and the remainder the
owners divide among themselves, in such
proportions as have been agreed upon.

18. ''The public debt is a debt contracted
by Congress in behalf of the United States.
This is done by an act of Congress, which
authorizes the secretary of the treasury (or
any other person, as the act may express)
to borrow money, and issue certificates for
the sum borrowed. The act expresses the
whole sum to be borrowed, the amount of
interest to be paid, and the time when the

; principal is to«be paid. Books of subscrip
tion are opened in the principal cities, and
iny person who chooses to lend, subscribes.
Each lender receives a certificate that he
is a creditor of the United States for the
sum by him loaned, which certificate con
forms to the act authorizing the loan.

19. <Of these certificates a registry is
made at some of the branch banks of the

). Bie. What of quarantine? 17. Of Privateers?
- lis. What of the public debt ? 19. How are the
01 liertificates issued to the lenders ? 20. Can such
\\ p-ransfers be made as often as the owner chooses ?

United States, as the practice now is ; for-
merly there were loan -offices. Any per-
son, who is the owner of a certificate can
sell it; and in such case, he assigns his
certificate to the purchaser. That certifi-
cate is produced at the bank, and a new
certificate is issued to the purchaser.

20. ' Such transfers are made whenever,
and as often as the owner chooses to trans-
fer, and without any expense to the owner.
The interest is paid quarterly at the bank
to the person there registered as owner.
This public debt is known by the general
name of stocks. It always has a market
value, sometimes above, and sometimes be-
low, the nominal value. It is a subject of
speculation, as any thing else may be, which
is bought to be sold, on the expectation of
profit.

21. Most of the nations of Europe have
such stocks. Speculations are carried on
in them to a surprising amount. Fortunes
are won and lost in a day. The present
public debt of the United States is less than
four cents to each inhabitant of the United
States; while the public debt of Great
Britain, at present, is something more than
twenty-five cents to each inhabitant of the
whole world ! '

22. My young readers may frequently
have heard persons talking about trading
in the funds. The funding system is a
method by which modern governments
have sought to give security to public
loans, and thereby strengthen the public
credit. It was first used in England, and
afterwards followed by all the other states,
which paid attention to their credit. It
provides that on the creation of a public
loan, funds shall immediately be formed,
and secured by law, for the redemption of
the capital itself. This gradual redeeming

By what name is the public debt generally known-*
21, Have most of the nations of Europe such
stocks ? What of the public debt of the United
States? Of Great Britain? 22. What of the

144

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

of the capital is called the sinking of the
debt, and the fund appropriated for this
purpose is called the sinking fund.

23. Variations in the saleable value of
the public funds at first were caused chiefly
by political events, w^hich were supposed to
affect either the authority of those by whom
the debts were contracted, or the means
of paying them ; but since their great in-
crease has induced many persons to make
buying, and selling shares therein a regular
trade, the fluctuations of the current price
in general depends principally on the pro-
portion of buyers and sellers, and on the
schemes and combinations in which they
engage in support of their respective spec-
ulations.

24. The chief part of the public funds
in England consists of perpetual annuities,
or those debts on which a stipulated rate
of interest is to continue to be paid, unless
the principal should be redeemed ; the oth-
er parts consist of annuities for a certain
number of years, and life annuities.

25. The perpetual annuities are distin-
guished by different titles, according to the
rate of interest they pay, or the time and
purpose of their creation ; and when gov-
ernment, by a new loan, contracts an ad-
ditional debt, bearing a certain fixed in-
terest, it is usual to add the capital thus
created, to the amount of that part of the
public debt which bears the same interest ;
hence we hear of 3 per cent., 4 per cent.,
and 5 per cent., consolidated annuities.

26. The practice of stock-johbing is a
kind of traffic carried on amongst persons
who possess but little or no property in any
of the funds, yet who contract for the sale
or transfer of stock at some future period,
the latter part of the day, or the next set-
tling day, at a price agreed on at the time.

funding system ? 23. What were the variations
in the funds produced by ? 24. Of what does the
chief part of the funds in England consist ? 25.
By what titles are the perpetual annuities distin-

Such bargains are called tiyne hctrgains,
and are contrary to law ; and this practice
is gambling in every sense of the word.
It is, however, carried on to a great extent.

27. The terms, bulls and bears originated
in the London Stock Exchange ; as they
are often in the mouths of people, it may
be well enough to know their signification.
Bulls are buyers, and bears sellers. In
New York, a traffic in Bank Stock is often
carried on, in which these words are used.

28. A Mint is a place where money is
coined by the authority of government.
The word coin is from the French lan-
guage, and signifies a stamp. Our gold,
silver and copper money is thus derived.
Congress establishes the proportions of
pure metal, and of alloy, and the weight
of the mixture, which makes any piece of
money.

29. The treasury of the United States
buys the metal, causes it to be tried at the
mint, and prepared in the circular form in
which we see it. The pieces are then
placed under the action of powerful ma-
chinery to be coined or stamped The
money is paid out by the treasury and so
gets into circulation. Banks and individ-
uals may have bullion coined at the mint.
The United States mint is at Philadelphia.

30. Congress have the power of securing
to the authors of new and useful inventions,
or improvements, an exclusive right of
making, using or selling them for the tenn
of fourteen years. This object is effected
by petitioning for a patent, and sending
with the petition a description of the in- j
vention or improvement. . f

31. A patent, unless it be for a frivolous j
or useless object, is always granted when [
applied for ; and an infringement of it may
be prosecuted by the patentee.

guished ? 26. What is said of the practice of ^
stock-jobbing.? 27. Of the terms, bulls and
bears.? 28. What is a mint.? 29. How is the
coin issued ? 30. What of patents ?

HISTORY OF COMMERCE.

145

A CONCISE HISTORY OF COMMERCE.

CHAP. XXXIX.

1. I have drawn up a History of Com-
merce, that you may see the course it has
taken among the nations, the vast bene-
fits it confers, and how much better a me-
dium of power it is than conquest and the
Bword.

2. The first hii»it we have of distant na-
tions trading together, appears in the book
of GenesiSf chap, xxxvii. 25, when the
cruel brethren of Joseph sold him to a
caravan of Ishmaelites, who were convey-
ing their precious commodities into Egypt,
as spicery, balm, and myrrh. They are
called MidianiteSj v. 36. The country of
Midian is part of Arabia, south-east of the
Dead Sea. They were going through the
land of Canaan to Egypt, which was then
a highly cultivated kingdom. The myrrh
was the produce of^ Arabia, and the balm
was of Gilead, through which they hadj
travelled. But the spices intimate that
the Arabians had, very early, nautical
connexion with the country we call India,
where chiefly the finer spices grow; if
so, commerce, in its widest meaning, must
have been better cultivated than we are

j apt to suppose. Certainly the shores of
,^ Arabia, on the Indian Ocean and Red Sea,
must have given great facilities to mercan-
tile enterprises.

3. The central situation of Egypt has
made it always the emporium of com-

9 merce. By caravans the treasures of Asia
and Africa were brought thither. Trade
was at all times in esteem, because of the
wealth it brought. But of the maritime
trade of the Egyptians we have no regular
account ; for they neglected the sea super-
stitiously for many ages. Their own pro-
ductions, among which corn was in great

2. What is tlie first hint we have of the traffic
13

abundance, their numerous arts and man-
ufactures, enabled them to purchase from
neighboring nations, and by making tiie
commerce reciprocal, they made it also
gainful. The advantage of navigation by
the Nile was not neglected by them ; their
internal trade, which distributed the lux-
uries thus obtained, gained great facility
for transporting them from Rameses to
Syene, by means of this lordly river.
The riches and power once enjoyed in
Egypt, have left imperishable testimonials
to the present day, in its massy buildings,
and splendid ruins of temples and tombs.
Commerce furnishes wealth in the most
quiet, honorable, and abundant manner ;
and wherever wealth abounds, the country
will be adorned presently. Convenience,
pride, patriotism, will contrive many last-
ing modes of storing up this wealth, in
comforts for the people, splendor for their
rulers, and sacred edifices for their religion.
4. Tyre and Sidon, cities of Phoenice,
washed by the Mediterranean, are next
found rising into notice. Their country
was nothing as to produce ; industry alone
made their rocks productive ; and com-
merce, by feeding industry, was itself en-
riched. These people possessed but a
small territory, a narrow and unproductive
strip of land, and at length only a small
island. They were beset on the land side
by powerful nations, and could not enlarge
their borders by conquest. The sea was
open to them, and they achieved their
victories on the briny wave. The ocean
carried them to many countries bordering
upon its shores, and gave them security
from robbers in conveying their mer-
chandise from port to port ; for there was
scarcely any other people wiio ventured

of distant nations ? 3. What of the trade of

146

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

upon the open seas. Sidon is called great,
iind Tyre a strong city, so early as the
time of Joshua. (Chap. xix. 28, 29.)

5. Commerce is the mother of many in-
ventions, and affords the means of bring-
ing them to maturity. The Phoenicians
were obliged to count, in order to value
tlieir riches ; they are said to liave been
the inventors of arithmetic. No mercan-
tile concern can be conducted without this
.simple but wonderful science.

6. Joshua, in his conquest of Canaan,
disturbed the Phoenicians, many of whom
fled, finding they were not able to resist
liim. Tyre and Sidon could not contain
all the refugees; numerous colonies were
went out by the Phoenician merchants, to
various places, on both sides of the Me-
(literranean; by which means their own
traffic was extended and secured. Two
pillars, erected in Africa, near the straits,
had on them inscriptions in Phoenician
letters, intimating, that the people who
rame there had fled from 'Joshua the
robber,' as they called him. This was in
the twenty-sixth century of the world's
age, or fifteenth before Christ.

7. About eleven hundred years before
Christ, in the time of David, the Phoeni-
cians, in the true spirit of commerce, con-
tinually extended their voyages ; not con-
tent with the Mediterranean Sea, they
passed the pillars of Hercules, two moun-
tains so called, one on the shore of Spain,
tiie other in Africa, and ventured into the
Atlantic Ocean, and established peaceful
settlements for trade, wherever they went.
They found the inhabitants of what is
now Andalusia, in a fruitful country, with
plenty of gold, of which, indeed, their com-
mon utensils were made ; and one of their
ships was so overloaded with silver, that
they had a dangerous voyage home. The

Egypt ? 4. Tyre and Sidon ? 5. The Phoenicians?
0. Joshua ? The inscription on the two pillars ?
7. Where did the Phoenicians extend their corn-

Phoenicians formed a 'settlement on an
island called by them Gadir : the city is
now called Cadiz.

8. The Israelites were an inland peo-
ple, and never famous for maritime affairs.
David raised his kingdom by conquests.
When he wanted cedar to build him a
house, he applied to Hiram, king of Tyre,
with whom he lived in amity, and who
sent it by sea. From the same king he
obtained workmen also, for his buildings.

9. Solomon saw the advantage of com-
merce, and employed his wealth in endea-
voring to obtain a share of it. Hiram,
king of Tyre, assisted him with ship-
builders and seamen. They built their
fleets at a port on the Red Sea. The
ships sailed to Ophir, which seems to have
been on the eastern coast of Africa ; and
they brought back gold, silver, ivory, cu-
rious woods, apes, and peacocks. They
were three years on their voyage ; and
many have thought they sailed all round
Africa, and returned home by the Medi-
terranean. One voyage to Ophir brought
him in two millions of our money, in gold
only. Solomon had also great traffic with
Egypt, from whence was brought mer-
chandise not only for his own supply, but
also for the king of the Hittites, and the
kings of Syria. (1 Kings, x. 29.) Chariots,
horses, and fine linen were the chief com-
modities thus obtained. His wealth and
splendor, as much as his wisdom, raised
his fame, and spread it far and wide ; so
that the queen of Sheba was drawn to
visit him. The gold she gave him was
worth above £600,000 sterling ; besides
which, she brought him precious stones,
and such spices as had never before been
known ; perhaps, nutmegs and cloves from
the Eastern Isles.

10. The grandeur to which Israel rose.

merce ? What setttlement did they form ? What
is it now called ? 8. What of the Israelites ? 9
Solomon ? Ophir ? The visit of the queen of

BISTORT OP COMMERCE.

147

during the long and peaceful reign of
Solomon, sank as rapidly under his son
Rehoboam. The loss of ten tribes reduc-
ed the kingdom of Judah greatly, although
it continued respectable a long while. As
concerns commerce, we see Jehoshaphat,
eight hundred and ninety-seven years be-
fore Christ, endeavoring to revive it, but
his ships were wrecked, and the design
totally failed.

11. About eight hundred and sixty-nine
years before Christ, we have reason to
place the arrival of Elissa, called also
Dido, in Africa, and the building of Car-
thage, w^hose commercial transactions be-
came famous throughout the civilized
world, and whose prosperity was long il-
lustrious. This was a Phoenician colony ;
and we may remark, that those whom they
sent out came peaceably, as merchants,
with property for trade, and became bene-
ficial to the several countries where they
settled. Colonies sent out by other na-
tions were armed bands of robbers, who
went to plunder and destroy, and were
therefore the terror and ruin of the subju-
gated inhabitants.

12. Carthage rose to great wealth, and
flourished for seven hundred and twenty-
four years. She planted many colonies ;
till changing her mercantile character for
a military one, she wrought her own ruin.
All around her in Africa, in Spain, at New
Carthage now Carthagena, in Sicily, and
the neighboring islands, her dominion was
owned : but it was an iron sceptre she
wielded, which, by oppressing, irritated
her subjects, who applied to Rome for
assistance. Rome was then beginning to
domineer, and was glad of an invitation to
carry her arms beyond Italy. The conse-
quence was long and desperate wars with
Carthage, called the three Punic wars ; in
the last of which, Carthage was complete-

Sheba ? 10. What of Israel ? 11. Carthage ? 12. Its
wealth ? 13. Commerce .' 14. Tyre ? 15. What of

ly destroyed, B. C. 146. During the first
Punic war, Carthage contained seven hun-
dred thousand inhabitants : at its destruc
tion, scarcely five thousand were found in
it.

13. They had traded through the Straits
northward to Tartessus, or Cadiz, and to
the Scilly Islands, adjacent to Cornwall, in
England, called then the Cassiterides, for
tin ; and southwards, along the coast of Afri-
ca, to a considerable distance : Kerne, now
Mogador, being a central emporium for
them. Their most flourishing time was
about four hundred and thirty years be-
fore Christ.

14. The account of Carthage is, in-
deed, but a branch of the history of Tyre
and Sidon, from which the Carthaginians
were a colony. The power of Tyre was
so great, that when the city was attacked
by Salmanasar, king of Assyria, with a
vast army, and also a fleet of seventy ves-
sels, the Tynans, with only twelve ships,
defeated them entirely, and took five hun-
dred prisoners.

15. The ships of that period seem to
have been little better than open boats.
Corinth, about the year 700 B. C. distin-
guished itself as a maritime power, and
built ships with triple the numbers of
rowers in three ranks or tiers.

16. We may notice here a circumstance
which was then thought dreadful, a storm
in the Mediterranean, which drove Colaeus
of Samos (who was steering for Egypt)
along its whole length, and throdgh the
Straits, presenting to his astonished eyes
the wide Atlantic. He came then to Tar-
tessus, on the western coast of Spain.
Here he traded to great advantage, and
returned to Greece inmiensely rich.

17. In 6*07, Necos, king of Egypt, sent
a fleet down the Red Sea, which, coast-
ing the whole of Africa, returned by the

Corinth.? 16. Colseus of Samos? 17. Necos, king
of Egypt.' 18 Trre' 19. What did Alexander

148

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

Mediterranean. Those voyagers report-
ed, that they had seen the noonday sun at
their right hand, or north of them. This,
which proves to us that they actually sail-
ed round the whole of Africa, seemed at
that time so unaccountable, that Herodo-
tus, who tells us of the voyage, says he
cannot believe it.

18. It is about the year 588, B. C. that
we may place the great splendor of Tyre,
of which we have an account extreme-
ly interesting, in the 26th, 27th, and 28th
chapters of Ezekiel's prophecy ; where we
find the rich supply brought to that fa-
mous city, whose merchants were princes,
whose pride made her say, " I sit as a
queen, and shall never see adversity." The
whole is extremely interesting, and worth
reading, as a correct display of the com-
merce of that period and of that region ; al-
though its length makes it unfit to be here
transcribed. We find the common con-
sequences of great wealth, luxury, pride,
and sins of the grossest names resulting to
the Tyrians. These will draw down the
vengeance of God upon any nation ; and
we need not wonder at the threatenings
which accompany this description. The
judgments here denounced came upon
them partly by the overwhelming invasion
of Nebuchadnezzar, from 585 to 572, and
more completely by the arms of Alexan-
der in 332, B. C. We see at this day the
fulfilment of it ; for Tyre is now bald as
the top of a rock, a place for fishermen to
dry their nets. — [Ezekiel, xxvi. 14.)

19. The Phoenicians, by Tyre, kept the
command of commerce, till Alexander de-
stroyed it, about 332 years before Christ;
and it was stili the Phoenicians, who, by
Carthage, commanded a^ul enlarged the
sphere of commerce, till its final destruc-
tion by the Romans. During the declen-
sion of these maritime cities, several of

<lo? 20. What of Alexander!' 21 Ptolemy? 22

the Grecian states increased in their at-
tentions to the sea ; but it was more as a
theatre for warlike dominion, than for the
peaceful purposes of commerce. Athena
held this power long ; and, after her, Spar-
ta : in both cases, their tyranny provoked
resistance, and entailed ruin.

20. The next grand movement which
gave a new turn to commerce, arose from
the wise foresight of Alexander ; whose
aim seems to have been not more to con-
quer by land than by sea. Wherever he
gained a footing, he made provisions for
trade. He also planned voyages of dis-
covery ; and with the view of giving a
centre to commerce, easy of access to
the whole known world, he built the city,
called, after himself, Alexandria ; having
connexion with the west by the Mediter-
ranean, and with the richer provinces of
the East by the Red Sea, wliile caravans
from the central countries of Asia could
reach it by the isthmus of Suez.

21. Ptolemy, one of Alexander's gen-
erals, obtained Egypt as his share of the
conqueror's spoils. He with eager assi-
duity carried into eflfect his master's plans
for commerce, and drew great numbers to
settle in Alexandria. He built another
city, called Berenice, far towards the
south, on the Red Sea ; at which all the
precious commodities of the East obtained
in Arabia were landed. He formed a road
from thence to the Nile, down which river,
all was brought to Alexandria. He kept
also large fleets, both in the Red Sea, and
in the Mediterranean, which gave his sub-
jects a great superiority over the decaying
citizens of Tyre. His revenues produced
by this wise policy were not only im-
mense, ■ but peacefully gained ; and they
promoted happiness on all hands.

22. We may mention the Sabseans in
the south of Arabia, with whom the carry-

VVhat of the Sabajaiis > 23. The destruction of

HISTORY OF COMMERCE.

149

mg-trade between India and Egypt seems
to have flourished for ages ; for only with
them did the Egyptians trade, even under
the Ptolemies. They were settled in a
happy land, fertile, and well-stored with
cattle, abundant in fragrant gums, myrrh,
frankincense, &c. Their ships went to
India and the island ; and their caravans
to Syria and the ports of the Phoenicians ;
while their country, by its situation out of
the reach of hostile armies, enjoyed con-
tinual peace.

23. We have noticed the pitiable fall of
Carthage under the unrelenting Romans,
about one hundred and forty-six years be-
fore Christ. The Romans were ignorant
©f the value and merits of commerce ; and,
as if they were determined to root it out,
ihey, about the same period, destroyed
Corinth the wealthy, which had been one
of the most commercial cities of Greece.
It was the very centre of Grecian art ; and
the statues and pictures carried thence to
Rome gave that barbarian people their
first notions of refinement. The total
stagnation given to commerce, produced
by the ruin of those two states, was felt
all around ; the labors of the industrious
and the ingenious were useless, for there
was no market for their productions ; and
the mariners, deprived of their legitimate
employment, became pirates. They soon
were masters of the sea; and the Romans
were obliged to fit out great armaments,
under Pompey, who, attacking them at
once in their different stations, reduced
them with great slaughter.

24. The adorning of Rome with stat-
ues and pictures, the visits of its generals
to scenes of Asiatic splendor, with the
wealthy and curious spoils they brought
home, had the effect of rendering the
liardy Romans luxurious. Another effect

Corinth? 24. What tended to render the Ro-
mans luxurious? 25. What of Julius Caesar?
2C. The Roman dominion ? 27. What articles of

of the wealth obtained, and the influence
gained thereby, was to put away, in a great
measure, the desire to have their country
rule over all nations, and to rouse in their
generals a wish to rule over their country.

25. The first who succeeded completely
in this endeavor was Julius Csesar. As
a conqueror, he has had his full share of
fame ; his influence oh commerce may be
noticed, as he, in one year, restored both
the ruined cities of Corinth and Canhage,
which in time regained considerable im
portance.

26. The Roman emperors soon reduc-
ed Egypt to the state of a mere province
of the empire ; and, now that the whole
world around the Mediterranean, and fat
into Asia, was under their dominion, they,
for their own sake, began to favor com-
merce. Corn was the grand object of their
solicitude, that their metropolis might be in
no danger of starving.

27. Italy itself produced great supplies ;
Cisalpine Gaul sent them pork salted ;
tapestry and woollen goods came from
Padua, and marble was fetched from the
Alps, for their sumptuous buildings. Ice,
to cool their liquors, became almost a
necessary of life. Liguria sent them large
timbers, hides, and honey. Pisa furnished
them with huge blocks of marble, cheeses
of vast size, and wines of exquisite flavor.
The islands supplied them with timber ;
and Sicily sent immense stores of corn.
Melita sent fine clothing ; Greece furnish-
ed them with honey, the purple dye, and
a fine stuff called Byssinus. Paros had
marble for statues ; Samos, fine earthen-
ware ; Lemnos, vermilion ; and Cos, an
extremely transparent drapery.

28. Thrace sent them corn, and the
salted tunny-fish ; and from Colchis they
received fine wool, and linen of Egyptian

luxury did they receive from the different coun-
tries under their sway ? 28. What was sent them
from Thrace ? Asia Mmor ? Tyre and Sidon ?

150

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

fabric. East India commodities came
overland to Phocis, on the Euxine Sea,
from whence they were shipped to Rome.
From the southern provinces of Asia Mi-
nor came curious marble, wine, wool,
vermilion, and cheese. Tyre and Sidon,
once so famous, now only furnished glass,
which had been there invented. Egypt
wias long called the granary of the world,
and Rome almost depended on a regular
supply of corn from thence. Its famous
linens and flax were in high request, as
were its cotton goods, perfumed ointments,
gums, and papyrus. Also, large quantities
of Indian goods came through Alexandria,
which was carefully fostered, and grew
rapidly in importance and in splendor.
Africa Proper, that is, the Roman province
on the northern coast, supplied them with
corn, drugs, and ostrich feathers ; as also
with elephants, lions, and other wild beasts,
for their savage spectacles.

29. From Mauritania came a wood of
great price, somewhat like our mahogany.
Their provinces in Spain, especially the
southern, were like on© gay garden, adorn-
ed with elegant buildings. The mines of
gold beneath the soil, and the excellent
productions above, supplied the imperial
city with many of its choicest luxuries.
Gadir, Gades, or Cadiz, was a grand store-
house to the west, almost rivalling Alex-
andria in the East ; while the vast pro-
vinces of Gaul, furnished by inland navi-
gation to the ports of Narbo and Massilia,
(now Marseilles,) on the south, and Burdi-
gala, (now Bourdeaux,) on the west, great
quantities of provisions, metals, linens, and
plaid garments, besides an extensive vari-
ety of minor articles.

30. This influx of every article to Rome
csui hardly be called cominerce, as the Ro-
mans exported nothing in return, except
money; the gold and silver which they

Egypt ? 29. What came from Mauritania ? 30. commerce much cultivated by the Romans .-' 32
What did the Romans export in return .^ 31. Was IWhen, and by whom, was the seat of govern

had exacted as tribute, or obtained by
plunder, were thus returned to the various
provinces. Indeed, with the Romans, the
character of a merchant was in no esteem ;
they left it to their enslaved subjects, think-
ing nothing honorable but the sword.

31. In this manner did all the provinces
pour into Rome their choicest productions ;
ruining, by the luxuries tliey afforded, that
domineering power which had ruined them
by the sword. A few particulars may be
remarked, before we come to any change,
which can deserve to be noted in this
sketch of the history of commerce. Com-
merce was never cultivated by the Ro-
mans; it lived by its own energies, in
spite of them ; they only, for their own
advantage, seized on the precious fruits
obtained by it, and brought within their
reach.

32. The next great change was in the
empire itself, which wsank under its own
weight. The removal of the seat of go-
vernment from Rome to Byzantium, by
Constantino, in A. D. 328, however favor-
able or necessary to keep up the dominion
of the eastern provinces, was fatal to the
security of the western parts. It issued in
there being often two or more emperors ;
and at last, in weakening these parts, dis-
tant from the head-quarters so much, that
the tribes from the northern nations, gen-
erally called Goths, by frequent and in-
cessant irruptions, at last prevailed. Odo
acer removed Augustulus, the last who
bore the title of emperor in Italy. Soon
after, Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths,
defeated Odoacer, and became king of
Italy. He was a wise and excellent
prince, under whom peace and plenty
again spread over the desolated plains of
Italy, and arts and commerce began again
to rear their smiling heads.

33. Africa had been rent from the Ro-

HISTORT OF COMMERCE.

151

man power, by the Vandal king, Genseric,
who became master of the sea ; and from
Carthage issued forth with his barbarian
hordes, sacked Rome itself for fourteen
days, and carried off to his own city the
spoils of all the earth, which had for ages
been accumulating at Rome. Spain was
almost occupied by two Gothic tribes.
Gaul was overrun by the Franks, a Ger-
man nation ; and Britain had been treach-
erously gained by the Saxons.

34. The Eastern empire itself soon be-
gan to decay, although it continued a wax-
ing and waning existence for some centu-
ries. Commerce still flowed through some
of its old channels in Asia and Egypt to
Constantinople, but in a very reduced
state.

35. Commerce, which had risen to a
broad and deep river, under the Phoeni-
cians and their descendants at Carthage,
had become stagnant under the military
oppression of the Roman republic ; it had
flowed in a gentle stream at the command
of imperial luxury ; then it was, by the
Gothic irruptions, dispersed and lost as
the Rhine vanishes in the sands. We
may now begin to trace its reappearance ;
small indeed at first, but gradually rising,
spreading, and fertilizing every land on
which it touched.

36. Before, however, we trace its rise
in these western parts, let us give another
glance at it, in the decaying empire of the
East. The commerce of the Egyptians
with India was totally failing, the Indians
themselves becoming the chief merchants.

' These, in their voyage from India, usually
called in their way at the Persian ports ;
where frequently they sold the whole of
their cargoes. This brought on a de-
ficiency of trade to the Red Sea, or
rather to the king of Abyssinia's domin-

ment removed ? 33. What of Africa ? 34. The
eastern empire? 35. Commerce under the Ro-
mans ? 36. The commerce of the Egyptians .'

ions, through which the Romans had
been accustomed to obtain Indian com-
modities ; and, at the same time, it threw
into the hands of the Persians this im-
portant and enriching commerce. The
Persians knew well how to make their
advantage of this monopoly. That luxury
which was fast bringing the Roman em-
pire to ruin, was insatiable in its demands.
Silk was one grand article of display ;
and the price it bore in coming through
the hands of the Persians, caused great
distress and puerile lamentations at Con-
stantinople.

37 It was at this time that a couple
j of monks, who had travelled to China,
! and staid there long enough to learn the
I whole business of managing the silk-
worms, brought to Constantinople a num-
ber of the eggs of these valuable insects,
concealed in the hollow of their canes ;
and thereby stocked the West with a ma-
terial, now of incalculable value, both to
the rich who wear, and to the poor who
manufacture it.

CHAP. XL.

1. In the middle of the fifth century,
the Turkish power began to rise, and in-
terrupted the caravans which were accus-
tomed to pass between China and Persia:
thus, in the issue, producing a trade from
China to Constantinople, passing north of
the Caspian Sea.

2. In A. D. 616, Chosroes, king of
Persia, took Alexandria from the Eastern
Empire. As Constantinople hafl^J^een fed
from Egypt, this event tended to starve
the imperial city, and the distress it occa-
sioned roused the emperor Heraclius to
something like old Roman vigor ; he de-
feated Chosroes in 621, and recovered
Alexandria. The Persians, during their

37. The introduction of the culture of silk ?

1. When did the Turkish power begin to rise ?

2. What was the consequence of the capture

152

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

victories, had discovered that the Euphra-
tes would form a more conveniem medi-
um of traffic to India ; and they therefore
built Bassora, which soon rose to great
opulence.

3. The impostor Mohammed, with his fu-
rious Arabs, since called Saracens, or horse-
men, began to spread desolation through the
Eastern Empire, and to diminish its do-
mains, by seizing province after province.
Mohammed's successors carried on a war
of extermination ; impelled by religious
zeal, and allured by the rich spoils and
the feeble resistance of the Eastern Em-
pire. They took Alexandria, and turned
its vast supplies towards their own coun-
try of Medina. Their armies conquered
from almost the borders of China, to the
Atlantic Ocean ; of course, all the trade
of the world fell into their power. Cy-
prus, Rhodes, and many Grecian islands,
submitted to their fury, and Carthage they
utterly destroyed in 698. In 713 they
established themselves in Spain.

4. The hatred between the Christians
and these followers of Mohammed was so
bitter, that it was thought to be . heretical
even to trade to Alexandria. But the Sa-
racens, having so vast an extent of empire,
and being undisputed masters of the Medi-
terranean, carried on a very considerable
traffic among their own connected pro-
vinces.

5. Constantinople, it has been stated,
carried on an inland caravan traffic even
with China, distant as it was ; and im-
menseljj^ear must have been the silk thus
obtained.

6. The first European power which
rose to eminence in commerce was Venice.
We must go back to state the rise of this
important city. In 452, when Attila and
his Huns descended like a torrent over

I the northern plains of Italy, the distressed
inhabitants fled every way for their lives.
The Veneti, a people of one of those pro-
vinces, fled to a cluster of muddy islands,
about five miles distant, in the Adriatic.
The water between them and the conti-
nent they had left, was too deep to be
forded, and too shallow for ships to reach
them. Here they raised such huts of mud
and weeds as they were able ; they betook

j themselves to fishing for their subsistence ,
and to their ])overty they owed the tran-
quillity and safety they enjoyed. The con
tinned wars in Italy drove great numbers
to take refuge in the same shelter.

7. In less than a century, that is, in
523, we find them formed into a state,
with a regular government, and their tiny
fishing-boats enlarged to mercantile crafts,
which enabled them to carry goods up the
several rivers" around, when a season of
peace would allow them to do so with
safety. A writer of that day compares
their city to a collection of nests of water-
fowls. The distinction of rich and poor
was not known ; for all lived on the same
fish-diet, and in houses alike poor; and
they tied their boats to their walls, as
landsmen would tie up their cattle.

8. In 732, we find the Venetians ven
turing in ships beyond the Adriatic, into
the Slediterranean, and even as far as
Constantinople. As they had no land, all
their energies were directed to the sea.
As those who had settled among them had
fled for liberty from their native soil, they
were a people of spirit, activity, and en
terprise ; of course, they soon became
wealthy and powerful. From Constanti-
nople they brought cargoes of silks, pur-
ple draperies from Tyre, spices, and all
the luxuries of the East. These were
highly acceptable to the rising states of

of Alexandria ? 3. What of Mohammed and his
Arabs? 4. The hostility between the Christians
and this Beet ? 5. The traffic of Constantinople

with China? 6. What European power first rose
to eminence in commerce. 7. In 523, to whal
had they risen .? 8. In 732, whither did they ven-

HISTORY OF COMMERCE.

153

Italy, and to all the European powers, as
far as they could find means to transport
them to the northern and western parts.

9. In 813, some of the subjects of Char-
lemagne joined, to send ships to Alexan-
dria ; being the first Christians who ven-
tured thither, after the Saracens had taken
it. The Indian varieties tliey procured,
were sent by the great rivers, into the
heart of Germany, and all around.

10. For about a hundred and fifty years,
the Saracens had pushed their conquests
every way ; and they now began to settle.
The Cahph Almanzor, in 762, built Bag-
dad, as the seat of his empire, and called
it the city of peace. As soon as these ma-
rauders had sheathed the sword, their
active and intelligent minds made excur-
sion^ into science and arts ; by which
some of the most important parts of our
present knowledge were ascertained. They
invented the arithmetical figures now in
use ; produced the alembic, for distillation ;
discovered the nature of acids and alka-
lies, and laid the ground-work for many
of the sciences of the present age.

11. Their occupation of Spain was
splendid. At a time that gross darkness
obscured the faculties of the other parts
of Europe, literature, science, and refine-
ment, flourished in the Moorish cities
of Spain. So that the European youth
who were desirous of obtaining knowledge,
went to their schools, and flourishing uni-
versities, to study. To their hardihood in
thus venturing among Mussulmen, Europe
owes the faint dawnings of science when
it first began to rise.

12. The conduct of France, in 813, was
imitated by Venice in 828 ; ten ships being
sent to Alexandria, to trade, in spite of all
laws to the contrary. In 1084, we find

ture ? 9. What of the subjects of Charlemagne ?
10. When was Bagdad built ? What was it call-
ed ^ What did the Saracens invent? 11. Did
science flourish in the Moorish cities of Spam ?

the Venetians so powerfbl in shipping,
that their assistance was earnestly request-
ed by the Grecian emperor.

13. In 969, we find the inhabitants of
Amalfi, in the kingdom of Naples, rival-
ling Venice, and obtaining great wealth,
by trading all about the Mediterranean
Sea, even to Constantinople. They after-
wards obtained favor with the Saracen
rulers ; and, in 1020, had leave to build
houses in the cjty of Jerusalem.

14. The notices of any thing like com-
merce in these ages, especially in Europe,
are extremely scanty. V^e may suppose,
that when any lucrative trafiic was begun,
its own importance gave it continuance ;
and this is indeed demonstrated ; for, after
awhile, we find it there still ; and especial-
ly if it becomes much improved.

15. We may notice, because it is the
beginning of an immense trade, that in
960 the manufacture of woollen cloths in
Flanders seems to have been establish-
ed. And Baldwin, Earl of Flanders, with
great wisdom, set up weekly fairs in
several of his cities, and exempted from
duty all goods brought to them. The con-
venience of fairs obtained their establish-
ment in many of the German cities.

16. We may also notice, because of its
importance to commerce, that, in 970, Ger-
bert, overcoming every prejudice, went
from France to the Moorish city of Seville,
to study science at its purest source. From
thence he brought the Arabic figures now
in use, with the system and rules of arith-
metic, at that time unknown in the Chris-
tian part of Europe. He became after-
wards Pope, under the title of Sylvester II.

17. The Venetian republic continued
to rise in power. In 993, they extirpated
a nest of pirates on the coast of Dalmatia ;

12. What of the Venetians in 1084.? 13. The in
habitants of Amalfi. in 969 and 1020 .? 14, What
of the manufacture of woollen cloth in Flan
ders? 16. WhatofGerbert.? 17. Did the Vene-

154

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

and, seizing the country, obtained some
considerable extent of territory.

18. In 1063, Pisa flourished as a com-
mercial republic, trading even with tlie
Saracens of Sicily. The people of Genoa
were also trading largely in the Levant, or
eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea.

19. In 1066, William the Norman, by
the accidental death of Harold in battle,
obtained possession of the crown of Eng-
land. Whatever belongs to the history of
English commerce will be more readily
obtained from this period. During the
Saxon reigns, war, and resistance to the
Danes, was almost the sole occupation
of the English. Agriculture had fallen
greatly into disuse ; many large territo-
ries, which in the Roman times had been
cultivated, had become mere forests, or
were overgrown with thick woods, har-
boring wild beasts and robbers, some even
close to London. If little beyond neces-
sary sustenance was raised, there could
not be much to send to foreign countries.

20. That the people sold their own chil-
dren, is known, by their being found and
admired in the slave market at Rome ;
which was the occasion of Gregory's
sending Augustine the monk to convert
the Saxons, who were then all pagan idol-
aters. That fact alone will go far to prove
their poverty, and that they had nothing
else to sell. Yet the art of jewellery was
so well practised, as to makeJEnglish or-
naments to be in high esteem, as early
as the time of Alfred. And the work
of small embroiderers in various colored
silks, with gold and silver threads, was
known abroad as English produce.

21. Great quantities of shipping were
needed by William, to bring over his Nor-
man army : it is most likely, that when he

tian power continue to rise ? 18. What of Pisa :•
19. When did William the Norman obtain pos-
session of the English crown ? 20. What of their
Belhng their children.^ 21. What was needed by

was settled upon the English throne, much
commercial intercourse took place between
his Norman and Anglican domains. Yet
it appears that most of the sea-ports had
gone into decay.

22. The next principal spur to com-
merce arose out of the Crusades, or Holy
Wars, as they were called, which began
thus : From the time that the Saracens
obtained possession of Palestine, Jerusa
lem, and all the places rendered famous in
Scripture story, were almost shut up from
the Christians. Much of the religion of
that period consisted in a superstitious
veneration for holy places ; and when this
difficulty came in the way, and Moham-
medans ruled in that part of the country,
the desire of going a pilgrimage to visit
those places, and to kiss the relics there,
became very strong. Much honor re-
dounded to such as had been there ; their
devoutness was taken for granted ; and
much merit attached to the successful pil-
grims. J

23. The merchants of Amalfi had ob- {
tained leave from the Sultan of Egypt to
build houses for their countrymen, and
their religion, in Jerusalem itself; but '
still Christians, as such, were so despised
and hated by the Mussulmans, that it was •
thought no crime, but rather meritorious, [\
to insult, rob, and murder them, in their
journey from the sea-porte where they
landed, to the Holy City. An Order of
Knights had been instituted on purpose for
their protection ; yet their sufferings were
desperate, notwithstanding their aid.

24. In 1095, Peter the Hermit, as he
was called, having been on this pilgrimage,
and witnessed their sufferings, obtained
leave from the Pope to preach up, through
Europe, a holy war, the object of which

William to bring over his Norman army ? 22.
What other spur to commerce was there .'' 23.
What of the hatred of the Mussulmans towards
the Christians ? 24. What was done bv Peter

HISTORY OF COMMERCE.

155

was, to rescue these sacred places from the
hands of the infidels. Every soldier engag-
ing in this service, had, as an ornament, a
red cross upon the shoulder of his gar-
ment. The enterprise was said to be the
war for the Cross ; or, in a shorter term, a
Croisade, or Crusade.

25. The Pope saw his advantage in it ;
*s it tended to estabhsh his authority in the
East, where he had never been able to rule.
He found it also hkely to fill his coffers,
as all who engaged in the crusade wanted
pardons for all the sins they had commit-
ted before they went, indulgences for all
they might feel inclined to commit in their
sanguinary undertaking, and passports to
Heaven for every one who should fall in
the contest. All these things had their
price, and brought him in vast wealth.
The darkness of those ages, which had
obscured the true nature of religion, and
introduced superstitious works of merit in
its stead, made every one, rich and poor,
want to go, when the danger was no great-
er than in any other war, and the rich re-
ward was Heaven itself Add to this, as
at that time there was in Europe but little
commerce, and no manufactures, except
in a few places, to employ the bulk of the
population, the mass of the people, idle,
and in want of employment, was turbu-
lent, and ready for any mischief.

26. Most of the princes of Europe,
therefore, were glad, by this means, to
send out of their dominions multitudes of
restless spirits, whom they with difficulty
ke})t within bounds at home.

27. These hints may suffice to show
how so strange a scheme as carrying all
Europe eastwards, to war upon the Sara-
cens, could ever obtain hold on the public
mind, as it did for nearly two centuries.

28. This movement affected commerce

the Hermit ? What was the enterprise called i
25. Was it favorably received by the Pope ? 26
Why were the princes of Europe pleased with

in many ways. It brought vast wealth
to the few commercial cities existing, who
alone had shipping sufficient to transpor^
such immense armies to so great a distance,
and supply them with subsistence when
there. It was exactly the land of Indian
and Asiatic luxuries and curiosities, and
they came back laden with treasures, for
which they found a ready market among
the wealthy, all over Europe. Such of the
Crusaders as returned, had seen a style of
elegant accommodation among the Saracens,
and the citizens of Constantinople, such as
Europe had never known ; but such as, for
splendour and convenience, needed only to
be seen to be desired.
, 29. A taste for things never before pos-
sessed, was thus generated ; commerce
was employed to fetch them, with the cer-
tainty of a ready market ; and many man-
ufactures in imitation, were set up in dif-
ferent cities. From this period, therefore,
commerce took a spirited start, and aimed
at a wider range ; mere necessaries no
longer bounded men's wishes, but con-
veniences, elegances, and novelties, were
every where sought after ; and this desire
is the moving spring of commerce.

30. Another important change in favor
of commerce was occasioned by the Cru-
sades ; hitherto all towns were under some
lord, whose tyrannical sway and galling
extortions crushed the energies of the
human mind, which never can act freely,
except when it can ensure to itself the
benefit of its exertions. Now, at this time,
the eagerness of the feudal lords to distin-
guish themselves was cramped in most
cases by their poverty.

31. They therefore sold to the citizens
of their towns this right of domination
and spoUation, for sums of immediate use
to fit them out for their voyage. Cities

the enterprise ? 27. What do these hints show f
28. Did this movement affect commerce ? 29
What were its consequences ? 30. What other
K2

156

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

and tutjzens began, therefore, to rise from
their abject condition. The wealth they
now could procure was their own, and be-
came not only the means, but a stimulus, to
greater exertions.

32. It may be added, that some of the
great commercial cities, Pisa, and espe-
cially Venice, obtained from the Crusaders,
during the time of their success in Pales-
tine, streets in some cities, and even whole
towns as colonies, as rewards for the assist-
ance rendered by their shipping.

33. Pisa and Genoa contended for the
sovereignty of the seas, and for the pos-
session of the islands, by interminable
wars. Genoa obtained by force, or pur-
chase, much territory from, the nobles, in
the countries around their city.

CHAP. XLI.

1. In 1189, during the long reign of
Henry II., of England, weaving was car-
ried on to a considerable extent in Eng-
land. The English goldworkers, and
female embroiderers, kept up their repu-
tation all over Europe.

2. The nature of the caravan trade in
Asia may be seen by the account of one,
taken by Richard I., when on his cru-
sade. It was coming from Babylon to
Palestine ; both Saracen countries. Four
thousand seven hundred camels, and an
innumerable herd of mules and asses,
were taken ; and many others effected
their escape ; so that it was said, never
was so much booty captured in one battle.
It consisted of silk robes, cloaks, purple
dye, and many personal ornaments ; with
money, and gold and silver in ingots, and
candlesticks ; coats of mail, arms, and
weapons of all soats ; richly embroidered

change was effected ? 31. What did the feudal
lords do ? 32. How were Pisa and Venice bene-
fited ? 33. What cities contended for the sove-
reignty of the sea ?

1. What bran<:h of manufactures flourished in

cushions, tents, and pavilions ; with purses,
medicines, wax, sugar, and spices.

3. As the discovery of the polarity of
the loadstone has given new wings te
commerce, by which she is enabled to
fly across wide and trackless oceans, it is
right to notice, that about the year 1200, it
was first applied to navigation. The mode
of discovering land, when out of sight.

used to be by birds carried on board for
this purpose. Crows were then found
very useful. If the bird returned to the
ship, they were certain no land was near
but if the sailors saw it dart off, they fol-
lowed in the same direction, and were sure
of land.

4. But when the use of the magnetic
needle was discovered, the mode of using
it was, to let the needle float on a piece of
straw, in a basin of water ; they then set
up a candle, so that this needle should
point towards it ; and esteeming that part
the north, they steered accordingly. At.
the present day, this needle, kept in a box,
is fastened to a card, which, being nicely
balanced on a point, turns with great ease,
by the mere power of the magnet ; and
shows the north, and all the other points
of the compass, either by day or night.

England during the reign of Henry II. ? 2. What
of the caravan trade in Asia ? 3. What was the
earliest mode of discovering land, when out of
sight ? 4. What was the mode of using the ma
netic needle? 5. By whom was it invente*

HISTORr OK Cf>MI\IERCE.

157

5. it is not accurately known, by whom
the compass was invented. The English
first suspended the compass, so as to ena-
ble it to retain always a horizontal position,
and the Dutch gave names to the divisions
of the card. The earliest missionaries to
China found the magnetic needle in use
in that country. Some land compasses are
of the size of a watch-seal, and actually
fixed in such seals ; others are of the
size and external form of a pocket watch.
Sometimes a sun-dial is affixed to com-
pass-boxes. The box, of whatever mate-
rial it is made, must have no particle of
iron in its construction.

6. In 1203, the Venetians transported a
great army, chiefly French, to the Holy
Land. They all stopped by the way to
assist the Emperor of Constantinople.
Some disagreements about the pay arising,
they took the city, and made one of their
leaders emperor.

7. The Venetians seized for themselves,
as their reward, the whole of the Pelopo-
nessus, or Morea, with all its islands, rich-
es, and silk manufactories, and part of the
city of Constantinople itself. They pur-
chased too, from one of the Crusaders, the
whole island of Crete, or Candia. But
they weakened their commercial power,
by spreading it over so much territory.
They obtained, however, entire command
of all that Eastern commerce, of which
Constantinople had been long the centre
and storehouse.

8. Candia was, not long after, in 1206,
taken by the Genoese : it was, indeed,
soon recovered by the Venetians ; but an
incessant war between their rival republics
was the consequence ; so that all the wealth
they gained in commerce, was lost in vain
ambition. This war of merchants con-
tinued for nearly two centuries.

e. What did the Venetians do in 1203 ? 7. What
did Ihey take as their reward ? 8. When, and by
whom was Candia taken ? 9. What took place
14

9. In 1216, died John king of England,
whose wars with his nobles had induced
him to court the towns and cities, by grant-
ing them many privileges. The towns
flourished, and became populous and rich
by trade ; John obtained soldiers and
wealth, and the people rose into liberty
and independence.

10. We have been engaged hitherto,
chiefly among the Southern parts of
Europe, in countries bordering upon the
Mediterranean Sea. We may now travel
Northward, and observe a grand mercantile
exertion in the heart of Germany, whose
cities, upon or near the sea, confederated
for mutual defence, under the name of
Hanse Toivns.

11. It seems, that even the nobles of
Germany, having no regular employment,
became banditti ; robbing all whom they
were able to overcome, to the great injury
of the mercliants trading from place to
place. The citizens of Hamburgh and
Lubeck, by mutual agreement, established
a guard to protect their commodities in
passing from either of those cities to the
other, in 1241. The convenience of this
joint defence was soon manifest ; so that
it was adopted by other cities, who joined
in the association, of which commerce was
the only bond.

12. One after another, the maritime
-ities, not of Germany only, but of all the
neighboring seas, entered into the con-
federacy ; and in the issue, nearly all the
commercial towns, even of France, Spain,
and the South of Europe, joined this Ger-
man league for mutual defence.

13. The confederates formed laws among
themselves, and exercised a jurisdiction
over all who belonged to it. They had a
common stock, or treasury, at Lubeck;
and kept warehouses in many principal

in 1216? 10. What were the Hanse Towns?
11. What of the nobles of Germany? 12. What
other cities entered into the confederacy? 13

16b

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

cities, as London, Bruges, Antwerp, Berg
in Norway, and Novogorod in Russia.

1 4. This common feeling and common
stock made them very powerful. As they
were rich in shipping, princes hired their
assistance, and made treaties with them.
The same power enabled them to make
war with such princes and states as gave
them offence. They raised armies as well
as fleets ; took possession of provinces,
and exercised sovereignty ; though always
with a strict view to the protection of their
commerce. The kings of Denmark were
repeatedly defeated by them. In 1428,
they brought against the Danes two hundred
and fifty ships, carrying twelve thousand
soldiers ; and dictated their own terms of
peace.

15. This wealth enabled them to oblige
crowned heads with considerable loans of
money ; and in return, they obtained
many important privileges in their com-
mercial transactions with the states of those
princes, some of whom even declared
themselves protectors of the Hanseatic
confederation. Their deeds, their ^^on,
their wisdom, and their success, were
viewed by all parties with great admiration.
Though princes, in whose realms they
had establishments, were at war with each
other, yet the members of this league
continued in peace, and their ships were
unmolested. Their cities, though widely
remote and under different governments,
were yet held in strict and brotherly union,
on the simple principle of commerce.

16. During the crusades, the Hanse
Towns were of important service, both as
to money, and shipping to transport the
numerous armies towards the Holy Land.

17. That the power they had obtained
should make them insolent, is only the
natural effect of all power, when it rises

What did the confederates do? 14. What of
their power? 15. How did they obtain many
jooportant privileges? 16. Were tb© Hanse

beyond control. Nor should it be wonder-
ed at, if such conduct, in process of time,
awakened the jealousy even of those sove-
reigns who had once, for their own conve-
nience, fostered the confederation. Greal
privileges had been allowed them in Eng- ;
land, by Edward I., and which were of
service for awhile ; but as they produced
almost a monopoly of the English trade,
their immunities were curtailed under Ed-
ward VI.

18. A great blow was Also struck at
them, by Sir Francis Drake, in the time
of Elizabeth : in 1589, he found sixty of
their ships in the Tagus, loaded with corn
for Spain, which was projecting the grand
armada against England; and he took it
all away as contraband, though he did no
damage to their vessels. They complained 1
of this to the Empire as an outrage ; but|
the queen justified the conduct of her ad-
miral, though the German states resented
it.

19. So flourishing were they, and, in
the course of two centuries, so formidable
had they become, that a powerful league
against them began to be negotiated. In
1518, the governments of several states
commanded all their cities to withdraw
from the connexion. The union then with- .
drew from several others, and confined the
association to the limits of Germany and
its immediate vicinity. This made them
no longer the objects of fear or of envy ;
but they thus became weakened, and event-
ually sunk, about 1622. The league has
long ceased to exist ; and the towns, once
so famous, carry on their trade, each sep-
arately, independent of the rest.

20. That we might give the account of
the Hanse Towns in one view, we have
brought it down much below the general
course of our history; and we must go

Towns of service in forwarding the crusades'

17. Were privileges allowed them in England

18. What of Sir Francis Drake? 19. What of the

BISTORT OF COMMERCE.

back a little, in the order of time, to watch
the progress of commerce in another
quarter.

21. Venice, Genoa, Pisa, &c. were great
trading cities ; and by bringing the precious
commodities into Europe, obtained vast
wealth by the sale of them. Some of the
Lombard cities, Florence eminently, set
up manufactures, and laid all Europe under
contribution, by the excellency of their
fal)rics.

22. We find them, in 1251, establishing
houses for trade in various parts of Italy,
and even in several foreign nations of
Europe. Many of the merchants of Flo-
rence, who had amassed great wealth, were
applied to by needy princes and nobles, to
whom they lent their money at considera-
ble interest. This business they could
transact with ease, by reason of their
houses and establishments, in so many
countries.

23. They introduced the mode of re-
mitting money by bills of exchange, and
got nearly the whole of the money business
into their hands. They became thus the
bankers of Europe. Milan, Vienna, and
several other cities, followed their exam-
ple ; and as these were all cities of Lom-
bardy, the name of Lombard Merchants
became attached to dealers in money.
The remains of this are in Lombard-
.street, in London, where, to this day,
many bankers carry on their business.

24. Florence having purchased the port
of Leghorn, we find them, in 1425, en-
deavoring to obtain a share of that Indian
commerce, by which Venice had become
wealthy. They sent ambassadors to the
Sultan of Egypt, who received them gra-
ciously, and gave them leave to form set-
tlements, build warehouses, a church, &c.

league formed against the Hanse Towns ? 21.
What great trading cities then existed ? 22. What
did they establish in 1251 ? 2:?. What mode of
Itemitting money did they introduce ? 24. What

and to have a consul to manage their con-
cerns.

25. In 1464, died Cosmo de Medicis,
of Florence, who received from his grate-
ful citizens, the honorable title of Father
of his country. He was the first magis-
trate of the city, and had sustained that
distinguished character for thirty-four years.
He was the greatest merchant of his time,
having commercial houses in every part
of Europe, and accommodating all who
had occasion either to remit or to borrow.

26. Yet, with a mind noble and Hberal,
he spent his vast wealth in conferring ben-
efits on his country ; by great works of
architecture, fostering the arts, rewarding
learned men, and buying up all the trea-
sures of ancient literature which could
any where be found. When Naples and
Venice made war with Florence, he de-
prived them of the means of continuing
the contest, by calling in the vast sums of
money owing to him, in those countries.
It was by money borrowed of him, that
Edward IV. supported his wars against
the house of Lancaster.

27. In about a dozen years, we find Lo-
renzo de Medicis, grandson of the former,
sustaining similar honors, and obtaining,
by the application of his vast wealth, the
title of Magnificent.

28. Perhaps there is no period more
splendid in the history of Florence, than
about 1490, under Lorenzo's administra-
tion : a wise system of peace had enabled
the citizens to give all their energies to
trade ; and they had succeeded according
ly. Through Egypt, they procured the
most precious commodities of the East, to
a great extent ; these found a ready market
in every country of Europe. Their fine
linens were fabricated from the flax grown

did they do in 1425 ? 25, When did Cosmo de
Medicis die ? 26. What of his wealth and lib-
eral. -y ? 27. His grandson.? 28 What is the
most splendid period in the history of commerce ?

160

BOOK or COMMERCE.

in their own fields. Silkworms were plen-
tiful, and well managed among them ; the
produce was wrought up into the finest silk
and richest velvets. The material for their
woollen manufactures was procured part-
ly from Spain, but chiefly from English
fleeces. Although the English paid dearly,
when they took back their own wools
woven into cloths, yet the trade was very
lucrative to both parties.

29. We find too, in 1546, King Henry
VIII. agreed with some Florentine mer-
chants, to import ' for our pleasure, and
our dearest wife the Queen, goldsmiths'
work, tissue of gold and silver, tinsel,
velvet, silk, cloths, and tapestry, fringes,
and lace ;' upon condition that he was to
have the first sight, and the refusal.

30. At one time, and for some centuries
indeed, the principal manufactories of
Europe were in Flanders. The indefati-
gable industry of the Flemings, joined with
a considerable portion of shrewd ingenui-
ty, produced to them wealth in an eminent
Jegree. Their chief business lay in the
clothing trade ; and their principal material
was the English wool.

31. If we go back so far as the year 960,
we shall find them trading to great advan-
tage, chiefly with the French, who were
able, by the fertility of their soil, to carry
goods for barter, equally desirable with
their well-labored cloths. Money was too
scarce then, (in the time of Alfred,) to be-
come the medium of commerce. Bald-
win, Earl of Flanders, saw the importance
of this exchange of merchandise : and,
very wisely, established weekly fairs, in
four of his principal cities, for this purpose.
And for the encouragement of trade, he
exempted from taxation all goods brought
thither at those times.

32. We have reason to think, that long

29. What do we find in 1546 ? 30. Where were
the principal manufactories of Europe? 31.
How far back did they trade with the French ?

before the Normans settled in England
under William, the English wools were
well prized in Flanders, and bought up, to
supply the manufactures there. In 1198,
the trade must have been considerable to
the Flemings, as forty-five sacks of wool,
intended for them, were seized at the port
of Hull only. It was esteemed superior
to Spanish wool, at that time. King John
gave them the privilege of freely trading
here for wool ; and for ages, the finest
cloths were sent from Flanders, all over
Europe.

33. In 1253, we find the Flemings fa-
mous for their linens also : none so perfect,
nor so fine, as theirs. The beneficial ef-
fect of these manufactures was felt by all
ranks. The Earl of Flanders became ex-
ceedingly opulent, as did also many of the
merchants.

34. This prosperity received a check
frotn that curse upon all success, war. — A
civil war arose, in which thirty thousand
Flemings fell in one battle ; and half a
century elapsed before the peaceful arts
could recover from this obstruction ; but
the native industry of the people at last
triumphed, and well repaid them. They
still greatly de})ended on England for wool ;
and, in 1337, Edward III. sent off six
thousand sacks to Brabant : he bought
them of his subjects, at 61. per sack, and
sold them at 20/. each. He depended on
the sale of wool, for money to support his
army in his wars with France. It was
under his patronage, that wool -staplers and
weavers were invited to come over and
settle in England, a few years before, in .
1331.

35. The Netherlands continued eminen
for their manufactures, and in the com-
merce thence resulting, till, in 1584, the
beautiful city of Antwerp was besieged

32. Were tlie English wools prized in Fland<>rs *

33. For what were the Flemings famous in 1253 '

34 . What check did this prosperity receive '

HISTOET OF COMMERCE

161

and taken by the Duke of Parma, the

Spanish Governor. For three days his

soldiers plundered the city, from which

they carried off immense wealth, and de-

^.stroyed still more by fire : three thousand

j.-of the inhabitants fell by the sword, and

^ 3 .as many more were burnt, trodden to death,

oi drowned.

3b. The ruin of this city destroyed the
pros-verity of the country ; and all its noble
manufactures were dispersed among other
nations. The fisheries were removed to
Holland; the woollen manufacture was
settled mostly at Leyden ; the linen went
(to Haerlem and Amsterdam. One-third
of the merchants, and artisans in silks,
damasks, serges, and lighter woollens, stock-
ings, &c. settled in England. Some of
the refugees went to Sweden, and taught
the natives to cast cannon, and work in
iron, brass, and copper, extracted from
their own mines ; and which they had be-
fore sent to Prussia, to be forged and
wrought up.

37. Thus the cruel, persecuting spirit
of Popery paused the ruin of those once
happy and flourishing provinces.

CHAP. XLII.

1. Hitherto, the trade to India, whoever
possessed it, was carried on through Persia
by land, or by sea, through Egypt, subject
to the dominations and extortions of the
Saracens. It had enriched Amalfi, Venice,
Genoa, Pisa, Florence, Barcelona, all cities
on the Mediterranean, and had raised a
spirit of jealousy in other powers, because
they were unable to procure the precious
commodities of the East, otherwise than
at exorbitant prices, laid upon tliem by
these monopolizers.

2. But the time was fast approaching

35. Did the Netherlands continue eminent for
their manufactures ? 36. Did the ruin of this city
destroy the prosperity of the country .'

1 . How was the trade to India hitherto carried
11

when enterprise, animated by some scat-
tered rays of science, was destined to dis-
cover a new way to that land of gold and
diamonds. The whole trade then took a
different channel, and poured its supera-
bundant wealth upon other nations.

3. In 1415, John, king of Portugal,
took Ceuta, on the coast of Africa, from
the Moors ; and by conversing with some
of the Saracen captives, his son, Prince
Henry, began to conceive the practicabili-
ty of sailing round Africa, and passing
over an open sea the whole way to India.

4. He was a prince whose mind was
enlightened and cultivated beyond the gen-
eral attainments of the age ; and when he
came to the throne, he spread a love of
science through his small kingdom, where-
by he raised it to considerable emmence
and power. He encouraged learned and
ingenious men, in every branch of know-
ledge. 'He erected an observatory, and
endowed schools. He employed the most
skilful geographers to construct maps ; and
although these were extremely incorrect,
being composed chiefly from report, they
served to show in what direction the un-
known parts should be sought for. And
he became very desirous of making dis-
coveries, when he saw so plainly which
way such endeavors should be directed.

5. His first voyagers crept cautiously
along, the coast of Africa, till they came
to Cape Bojador, in lat. 27. N., a little
more soutlierly than the Canary Islands.
Their first voyages were disgraced by hos-
tile attacks on the negroes, and the kid-
napping of slaves. Yet the advantages
they obtained served to sanction subse-
quent attempts at discovery, which other-
wise had appeared wild and useless
schemes. In 1481, a castle was built

on ? 2. Did it take a different channel ? 3. 4
What of John.king of Portugal ? 5. Where did the
first voyagers go ? 6. Whither did he send per
sons? What of Bartholomew Diaz? What nam©

162

BOOK or COMMERCE.

and the king of Portugal assumed the title
of <Lord of Guinea.'

6. John II. sent persons overland to In-
dia, to gain information, by whom he was
encouraged to hope, that, by perseverance,
a way by sea to India would certainly be
discovered. But before he received this
information, Bartholomew Diaz returned
from a long voyage, of above a thousand
miles. He had gone to the soutliern ex-
tremity of Africa ; but had been beaten
back by the storms he met with there.
John, delighted with the expectation of
80on accomplishing his wishes, called the
stormy point the 'Cape of Good Hope,'
which name it bears to the present day.
This was in 1487.

7. Ten years elapsed before any farther
attempts were made. Then, in 1497, Em-
manuel, king of Portugal, sent out A'asco
de Gama, with three ships, to prosecute
the long-desired discovery. He succeeded
in passing the Cape, and steered up the
eastern side of Africa : he was surprised
to find numerous nations much more civi-
lized than the negroes of the western coast.
At Quiloa and Mombaza he found large
s^ips, charts, instruments, and a direct
trade to India. He procured an Indian
pilot, and sailed straight across the ocean,
for Calicut.

8. The way was now open to India, and
thereby to wealth and luxury. All the
power or machinations of V'enice could
not stop up this passage : nor could they,
in their old tedious course, compete wuth j
this direct, easy, and expeditious mode of
procuring the commodities so much desir-
ed by all the European nations.

9. In 1500, Emmanuel, encouraged by
De Gama's success, sent out De Cabral,
with thirteen ships, and twelve hundred

was given to the stormy point ? 7. How many
years elapsed before any farther discoveries were
made ? What was then done ? 8. Was the way
fww open to India? 9. In 1500, what was done ?

men, for India. Driven far to the west,
by a storm, he came upon the South
American continent, at the part now called
Brazil ; of this he took possession ; and it
has been an excellent fund of wealth to
the Portuguese ever since. As De Cabral
went out to make settlements, he took pos-
session of Sofala, Mozambique, &c., on the
eastern coast of Africa. Thence he sailed
to Cochin and Cananore, on the Malabar
coast of Hindoostan. On his return, he
brought to Lisbon treasures of immense
value.

10. Portugal now became the centre of
commerce ; and this small kingdom was,
by a succession of wise princes, raised to
great eminence, prosperity, and power.

11. Vasco de Gama went out again, in
1501. He then built a fort at Cochin,
subdued some petty kings on the coast of
Africa, and sent ships against the Moors,
about the mouth of the Red Sea. These
were the greatest enemies of the Portu-
guese in India; being stimulated by the
Venetians, who hoped to crush the Portu-
guese commerce in its infancy.

12. This commerce, however, flourished
splendidly, till the kingdom was seized, in
1580, by Philip II., king of Spain. Spain
was not enriched by this conquest; because
nothing can enrich the indolent. But Por-
tugal sank under her oppression ; till she
revived again, on the House of Braganza
obtaining the throne, in 1640.

13. Thus we have seen the Portuguese
pressing on southwards, till they doubled
or turned round the Cape of Good Hope ;
and then they found a ready way to India.
In so doing, they only persevered in a
track which was strongly supposed, nay
almost known, to be practicable. But we
are about to contemplate exertions made

10. Did Portugal increase in power? 11. Did
Vasco de Gama make another voyage ? 12. How
long did this commerce flourish ? 13. Did Por-
tugal revive again? 14. What of Columbus'

HISTORY OF COMMERCE.

163

m another direction, concerviing which
experience said nothing, and science only
ventured to guess and to hope.

14. Christopher Colon, or, as he is usu-
ally called, Columbus, conceived the strange
project of searching out a way to India by
sailing directly west ; although going, ap-
parently, quite away from the object sought
after. That the earth was a Urge plain,
had been the ignorant notion of many phi-
losophers ; but he had imbibed the opinion
of its being a globe. As the account of
India represented it as stretching to an
unknown extent eastwards, he supposed
that its eastern extremity might be sooner
found by sailing directly westward.

15. His project was treated as a wild
chimera ; and he had to endure rebuffs
and contumely for several years : but with
the perseverance which accompanies a
great mind, he continued his applications
to different states for patronage, till at last,
Isabella, queen of Castile, and consort of
Ferdinand, king of Arragon, furnished him
with three small vessels, for the fitting out
of which she was obliged to pledge her
jewels. With astonishing hardihood, Co-
lumbus sailed through those unknown
deeps, and at last received the reward of
genius in the discovery, not indeed of In-
dia, but of large and well-peopled coun-
tries.

16. In subsequent voyages, he discover-
ed the main continent of America ; future
navigators quickly followed his course, till
the double continent of the Western hem-
isphere was completely explored, and a
new world was opened to Europe. Amer-
icus Vespucius, a native of Florence, sail-
ed in his track, and, by a singular injustice,
succeeded in giving his name to the newly-
discovered land. New scenes of barba-

15. How was his project received ? Who fur-
nished him with vessels? J 6. Did other navi-
gators follow? Who succeeded in giving his
name to the new world? 17. Was Spain enrich-

rism and of civilisation rose in view, with
new opportunities for commerce.

17. Spain found gold in plenty there,
but was not enriched ; for the wealth so
obtained, made her people idle ; and it is
not gold, but science and industry which
make a nation wealthy. It was in 1492,
that Columbus discovered this Western
world; and, still imagining that India
stretched thus far, he gave to his discove-
ries the name of JVest Indies^ which still
adheres to those fruitful islands.

18. The whole stream of commerce was
now diverted, or rather split, into two di-
rections, east and west ; and the old chan-
nels of trade became almost dried up.
We will now glance a moment to the pro-
gress of commerce in Great Britain.

19. The trading to England of the
Phoenicians for tin, in ages far remote, is
well authenticated. It is known, too, that
in the time of the Romans, there was con-
tinual intercourse with Rome and its de-
pendent provinces ; yet neither of these
could well be called the trade of Britain.
When the Romans left the island, wars
and devastations succeeded for ages ; and
we must come down to the time of Al-
fred, before we can discern any thing like
trade.

20. He built a great navy, well aware
that no effectual resistance could be madte
against the Danes, but by meeting them at
sea, and not suffering them to land. He
built also ships for trade ; and as he had
jewels, silk, &c. there must have been
some commerce. Indeed, he is said to
have sent the Bishop of Shirebourn with
relief to the Christians in India, and en-
deavored to settle some regular intercourse
with those distant parts.

21. Athelstan, in 938, in order to en-

ed by the gold she obtained? 18. Was com-
merce now diverted ? 19. What people traded
to England for tin ? 20. What did Alfred do ?
21 . Athelstan ? 22. What of the dominion of

164

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

courage commerce, conferred by law the
high rank of Thaue, or Lord, upon any
merchant who had made three voyages
over the sea with his own vessel and cargo.
That there was some commerce in horses,
appears by his making a law against their
exportation, except as presents.

22. The dominion of the Danes in En-
gland had one good effect, as then all the
Northern nations being under one head,
trade was free, and there were no pirates.

23. The manufactures of those times
were but few ; yet the English goldsmiiiis
were famous for their jewellery work, for-
eigners coming over to procure them ; and
the females were celebrated for their rich
and exquisite embroideries, even so early
as the time of Alfred. The green pastures
of England had always supported innume-
rable flocks and herds, and there is reason
to suppose that the wool was, even then,
bought up by the Flemings, as we well
know it was afterwards.

24. From the period of the Normans
settling in England, the whole aspect of
the times and manners, as well as of the
history of them, is changed. The con-
queror's gleanings from the oppressed coun-
try, after all his wars, amounted to sixty
thousand pounds weight of silver ; besides
gold, gems, and brilliant jewels. Internal
trade must have been insecure, as a law
was made forbidding markets to be held,
except in cities, and borough towns, where
they could be protected. The importance
of such places appears in another law,
that if any slave escaped from his lord,
and lived one year in a city or borough
town, he should continue free for ever:
this was an excellent means of refuge
against oppression, and tended to raise the
towns, and increase the number of free-
men.

Iht Danes in England r 23. What were the
manufactures of those times? 24. When was
the aspect of things changed ? 25. In 1156, what

25. In 1156, when Henry II. reigned,
most of the houses in London were thatch-
ed ; yet bishops, and nobles, and some of
the richer citizens, had houses of stone.
A writer of that date tells us, the citizens
were eminent for the elegance of their
dress and manners. He says, no city in
the world exported merchandise to such
great distance3. He mentions goods of
Egypt, Bagdad, and India, as imported ;
but whether direct from those places, or
from Venice, or Genoa, he does not say.

26. A market was held every Friday,
in Smithfield, for horses and cattle. The
King's palace at Westminster was two
miles from the city ; and all the space be-
tween was occupied with houses and gar-
dens, belonging to the citizens. On the
north were open fields, and a lake, (now
Moorfields,) and beyond these a forest
wherein the citizens diverted themselves
with hunting.

27. The commerce at this time was
chiefly in the hands of foreigners, who
brought-their choice commodities to a good
market. Bristol, Chester, and Norwich,
were famous for commerce ; ships coming
to them from Ireland, Aquitoine, Norway,
and Germany.

28. The long reign of Henry II. seems
to have been favorable to English industry
and commerce. He ordained that no ship
built in England should be sold to foreign
ers. The produce of the mines of copper,
iron, lead, and tin, was exported. The
English had no mines of silver ; but they
obtained that metal from Germany, in ex-
change for fish, wool, cattle, butter, and
cheese. The author says, too, that all the
nations of the werld were kept warm by
English wool, mar^e- into clothing by the
Flemings*

29. The tumultuous reign of John be-

was the state of society ? 25 What of the Smith-
field market .=" W. /m w?ioy. hands principally
was commerce lu tha time «* f^. Was the reigrt

HISTORY OF COMMEftCE.

165

came favorable to English liberty, as it
obliged the Barons to force Magna Charta
from him, and as his disputes with them
obliged him in his turn to court and favor
the towns, whereby trade received consid-
erable benefit. Yet, in 1236, Henry III.
and his nobles possessed the utmost con-
tempt for citizens and merchants ; and the
King oppressed those of London, by griev-
ous extortions.

30. At the coronation of Edward I. in
1274, a gorgeous display was made of silks
and gold stuffs. These came from abroad ;
and we may see, by the quantity, there
must have been some considerable com-
merce of exports, by which to obtain them.

31. It belongs to this history to state,
that the Jews, who followed commerce
wherever it went, were every where dread-
fully oppressed, robbed, and murdered.
Some of the English kings have been in-
famously eminent in these unjust proceed-
ings. Such oppression had its usual effect,
in making the objects of it cunning, servile,
and extortionate in their own defence, and
to avenge the injuries they sustained. Ed-
ward I. imprisoned them all over England :
in one day he hanged two hundred and
eighty in London, besides great numbers
in other places, and confiscated all their
wealth.

32. A circumstance, which appears
strange to us, was very frequent during
these unsettled times. Some one or more
cities, of one nation, would be at war with
some of the cities of another nation ; al-
though the chiefs, or kings, were mutually
at peace. In 1317, the quarrels between
the English and Flemings became so fierce,
that all commercial intercourse was sus-
pended.

33. The Earl of Flanders, and the King

of Henry H. favorable to Enjrlish commerce ?
29. The reign of John ? 30. What display was
made at the coronation of Edward 1. ? 31. Were
tlie Jews oppressed in England ? 32. What of

of England were obliged to interfere, and
negotiate a peace between their respective
subjects. On account of these disturban-
ces, merchants never knew, when they set
out upon a voyage, whether they should
be treated as friends, or have their proper-
ty seized, as enemies, and be themselves
imprisoned, when they reached their des-
tined port.

34. It was in 1331, under the invitation
of Edward III., that John Kempe, a weaver
of woollen cloth, was encouraged to come
over to England, with his servants, appren-
tices, and all his goods. Edward had
observed the wealth accumulated by the
manufacturers of Enghsh wool in Flan-
ders ; and wishing to keep that money in
England, he endeavored to obtain weavers,
who might teach the English this impor-
tant art, and thus prevent so much treasure
from going out of the kingdom.

35. The wisdom of his policy is felt at
the present day ; the woollen manufacture
being one of the most important branches
of their trade. The reign of Edward was
long ; and, in spite of wars and difficulties,
the English applied themselves to com-
merce with great perseverance and success.

36. The profusion of young Richard II.
brought into the country all sorts of fine-
ries, to supply the costly magnificence of
his taste. But his dethronement by Henry
IV. occasioned incessant wars between the
houses of York and Lai /'.aster; so that
the kingdom was depopulated, and com-
merce and manufactures were almost
ruined.

37. During this reign, however, before
those wars began, the commerce of Eng-
land had arisen so much, as to rouse the
jealousy of the Hanse Confederacy ; and,
according to the fashion of those times,

the quarrels between the English and Flemings ?
33. What were the consequences of these distur-
bances ? 34. What of John Kempe .' 35. Was
the policy of Edward a wise one ? 36. What

lee

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

this resentment broke out into piracy ; the
Genoese Government seizing rich vessels
of the English and openly selling their
cargoes, in hopes of crushing the mer-
chants entirely.

38. For a long season, the commerce
of England was in the hands of foreign-
ers, who brought their commodities, and
took back hers. But we find the English
beginning to trade on their own account,
as early as the time of Henry VI. to Por-
tugal, and, under Henry VII., into the
Levant. It was in the latter reign, that
Columbus made his discovery of America.

39. During his long negotiation with
Spain, for the means of carrying his pro-
ject into effect, and wh^n he despaired of
success, he sent his brother Bartholomew
to England, to make an offer of his ser-
vices to Henry VII. On his way, he was
taken by pirates, robbed, and imprisoned
for years : so that, before he could make
his proposals here, his brother had suc-
ceeded with Spain.

40. Henry, vexed at having lost the
golden opportunity, commissioned Sebas-
tian Cabot, a native of Bristol, to make a
voyage of discovery ; he reached the con-
tinent, now called North America, and
traced its whole line of coast from Labra-
dor to Florida, and even sailed to Cuba.
On his return, Henry was at war with
Scotland, and had neither time nor money
to make a right use of such an opportunity.

41. During his reign, and by his policy,
however, commerce reaped great advan-
tages from the leave he gave to the land-
holders to sell their estates ; and from the
restraint he put upon the nobility, against
attaching to themselves great numbers of
retainers. Both laws enfeebled the nobles ;
and, by making the commons of much

were the consequences of the profusion of Rich-
ard II. ? 37. Was the prosperity of England as-
sailed ? 38. When did the English begin to trade
«n their own account ? 39. What of Bartholo-

greater importance than they before po«
sessed, raised the reputation of trade.

CHAP. XLin.

1. In the time of Henry VIIL, the re-
formation from popery took place ; which'^^
was of great service to commerce, as it
stopped that absorption of activity, which
occurred by every monkish institution,
which shut up great numbers of men in
idleness ; and that loss of money, which
had been drained every year, by the Pope
and clerical men, out of every nation, where
the influence of Rome had penetrated.

2. In the reign of Edward VI., a north-
ern voyager discovered Archangel, and
negotiated a trade with Russia. We find
also, during his reign, and long after, the
famous Sir Thomas Gresham, one of the
greatest merchants at that time in Europe.

3. Queen Elizabeth gave continual en-
couragement to commerce ; and her atten-
tion to her navy gave animation to all
maritime concerns. The spirit of bravery
and of enterprise prevailing at this time,
exalted the national character.

4. It was in her time, too, that the cruel
persecutions of the protestants in the Ne-
therlands, under the Duke of Alva, took
place. The expectation of his arrival in
that country occasioned so much terror,
that one hundred thousand persons emi-
grated with all their property ; and manu-
fjictures, whicli had for ages been the source
of immense wealth to the Flemings, were
dispersed on every hand.

5. England had its full share, as Eliza-
beth gave the poor refugees shelter and
encouragement, whenever they came over^
Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester, and many
other places, became well furnished with
weavers of woollens, linens, and silks ; as

mew Columbus? 40. Sebastian Cabot ? 41. Did
commerce flourish during the reign of Henry ?

1 . What event took place in the reign of Henry
VIH. ? 2. Of Edward VI. ? 3. Did Queen Eiiz-

BISTORT or COMMERCE.

also with dyers, dressers, and throwsters,
whose ingenuity enriched the country, and
continues so to do, even at the present day.

6. Under Elizabeth were formed several
.trading companies ; wlio, by a consolida-
tion of interests and property, were able to
make greater ventures, and sustain greater
losses, without ruin, than any individual
merchant was capable of. The frequent
piracies, which could not be repressed,
made such associations necessary ; and
they may be regarded as the nurseries of
all the great commercial transactions.

7. Companies, with exclusive privileges,
are now looked upon with a jealous eye,
and are considered as injurious. That
free trade which tries its own resources,
finds its own channel, and pushes its exer-
tions wherever it is found to be most pro-
fitable, is beginning now to be regarded as
the wisest policy in all cases ; but in the
infancy of commerce, this mode was not
safe.

8. A company trading to Russia had all
Elizabeth's influence ; it struggled with
many difficulties, but, in some shape, con-
tinues still. Another company associated
for trading to Turkey and the Levant.
This commerce became very considerable ;
and still is the source of much wealth,
both by its exports and imports.

9. Even the East-India Company, now
BO vast in its possessions, so strong in its
domination, and so important in its com-
merce, had its beginnings, though feeble,
in her reign.

10. It was under her patronage, also,
that settlements were first made in North
America. Sir Walter Raleigh obtained a
rharter for planting what he called Virgin-
ia, in 1584. Sebastian Cabot had discov-
ered the whole coast in 1496, but no at-

abeth encourage commerce ? 4. What persecu-
tion took place in her time ? 5. Did many of the
refugees come to England ? 6. What companies
were formed under Elizabeth r 7. How are com-

tempt had yet been made to send a colony
thither, or to establish a trade.

11. In the reign of Elizabeth, the spirit
of enterprise was pushing in every direc-
tion, and this way was fair and open, es-
pecially as settlers went on the princi-
ple of purchasing the ground of the former
inhabitants. Several expeditions failed;
James Town was built, and the colony
began to settle ; but it perished, or return-
ed ; and it was not till about 1610, in the
reign of James I. that, under Lord Dela-
ware, something like stability was effected.
In 1609, Henry Hudson discovered Long
Island, with the continent adjacent ; and in
1614, the Dutch effected a settlement there.

12. In 1617, Mr. Robinson and his con-
gregation, who fled from, persecution in
their native country, landed, and establish-
ed themselves in what was then a dreary
wilderness, and thus began the settlement
which ultimately became the New England
States.

13. It was not till 1682, that William
Penn obtained the grant of Pennsylvania,

l^^^^'- •'' ■■ ^"-'g.. V l^/'l^B

gpg^r:'^ ;:-'•.•- -1

Is^W^^T^

which he also purchased of the Indians.
There he founded an asylum for his per
secuted brethren, the Quakers ; built the
city of Philadelphia, and established the
whole as a wise legislator.

panics

with exclusive privileges now looked
upon r" 8. What of a company tradinor to Ru*
sia ? To Turkey and the Levant ? 9. The East-
India Company ? 10. Wliat of the settlements in

I6B

BOOK OF COMDIERCE.

14. These settlements soon became new
channels for commerce, new outlets for
the manufactures of England ; while Spain,
by her conquests in the West Indies, Mex-
ico, Peru, &c., to the South, obtained the
gold and the silver, which were of no use
till they were spent in the purchase of
manufactures. She was too indolent to
labor when thus enriched, and the more
industrious nations became the ultimate
gainers, as she gave them her gold in ex-
change for articles of necessity, of use, or
of splendor. The northern parts which
possessed no precious metals fell into the
hands of the English ; but they had a fertile
soil, noble rivers, dense tracts of wood,
and broad savannas ; all which afforded
a wide scope for industry, that truest of
riches, not debasing, but ennobling, those
who are most laborious.

15. As about the time of Elizabeth, the
Dutch provinces rose into' a commercial
commonwealth, and became rich and pow-
erful, we may as well turn aside awhile,
to contemplate an interesting series of
events.

16. We will go back a little in point of
time, and trace the rise of this Republic.
We need not ascend farther than the year
1205, when a small village was built on a
marshy piece of ground, near a dam on
the river Amstel, which obtained the name
of Amsteldam, and was known afterwards,
as a most important and flourishing port
of commerce, under the present designa-
tion of Amsterdam. The Earl of Holland
favored the inhabitants, and endeavored
to promote the trade of his province.

17. Coasted by the sea, the people nat-
urally addicted themselves to fishing ; and
we find them, in 1317, supplying the Lon-
don market with fish. In 1407, the Fle-

America ? 11 . By whom was Long Island dis-
covered? When did the Dutch settle there?
12. What happened in 1617? 13. When did
Penn obtain the grant of Pennsylvania? 14.

mings endeavored to confine the weaving
of cloth to the cities. The inhabitants of
the open villages therefore, removed and
took refuge, some in England, but many
more in Holland, which was much nearer^
this, moreover, laid the foundation for the
subsequent prosperity of the Dutch pro-
vinces.

18. The herring fishery has always been
I a favorite ein])ioyment with the Dutch. In
I it they first began to use large vessels, call-
ed busses, in 1416; and in 1547, we find
them fitting out siiips of war, for its pro-
tection. This was in the lime of Edward
VI. of England.

19. In 1579, the people of Holland,
with six neighboring provinces, being har-
assed grievously by the Spanish govern-
ment, and especially by the religious per-
secutions of the furious Duke of Alva,
determined, under the guidance of the
Prince of Orange, to throw off the alle-
giance to their tyrannical masters, and to
associate for their mutual defence. Thus
arose the powerful state, denominated the
Seven United Provinces. A grand principle
with them was to maintain liberty of con-
science, as well as all their civil rights.
They began this league under the heavy
pressure of a cruel war, during which
they were many times reduced to the brink
of ruin ; yet, by perseverance, they con-
quered ; and by addressing themselves in-
dustriously to commerce, they not only
supported their expenses, but became rich
and powerful beyond example.

20. During thirty years, their war in
Spain continued ; and as they fought ob-
stinately on the ocean, they brought the
Spanish Monarch into considerable diffi-
culties ; almost ruining his trade with the
East Indies, and capturing his rich galleons,

What did these settlements soon become ? 16.
What of the rise of the Dutch provinces ? 17. To
what did the people addict themselves ? 18. What
of the herring fishery ? 19. What did the peopla

HISTORY OF COMMERCiE.

which were bringing his golden treasures
from the West. A truce was negotiated
in 1609.

21. It was in 1584, as has been stated,
that the beautiful city of Antwerp was
taken and pillaged by the tyrannizing
Spaniards, under the Duke of Parma.
This impolitic vengeance ruined the com-
merce of the Netherlands, and raised that
of neighboring countries, especially of
Holland. To Haerlem, and to Amsterdam,
the inhabitants fled, the linen weavers es-
pecially, in vast numbers; whereby they
increased the industry, wealth, and power
of that trading republic.

22. In 1595, the Hollanders began to
send ships round the Cape of Good Hope,
to India ; where, as the Portuguese were
growing feeble, the Dutch found it easy
to dispossess them. The year after, we
find them taking Amboyna, and entirely
subduing both the Spanish and Portuguese
settlements, in the Moluccas, or Spice
Islands. They also formed settlements at
Balsora, on the Tigris ; on the coasts of
India, Cochin, &c., and on the islands,
even to Japan ; making Batavia, in the
island of Java, their grand emporium,
and the seat of their Asiatic Govern-
ment.

23. The prosperity of the United Pro-
vinces grew with great rapidity ; following
every commercial nation into every sea,
and to every city, where trade could be
carried on. Portugal was subject to Spain
till 1640. The continual wars of the Dutch
with Spain gave them opportunities of at-
tacking their eastern possessions ; the decay
of Spain, from the expulsion of the Moors,
and the exportation of her natives to Ame-
rica, rendered the contest unequal. The
Dutch obtained firm footing in India, and

of Holland do in 1579 ? 20. How long did their
war in Spain continue ? 21. When and by whom
was Antwerp taken ? 22. When did the Hollan-
ders begin to send ships round the Cape of G^od
15

at the peace, in 1647, all they had thug
gained was confirmed to them.

24. Their trade seems to have been at
its height about the year 1560. Other
nations have, by strenuous exertions, ob-
tained considerable shares with them, since
that period ; yet the Dutch have usually
had a very great commerce, which enabled
them to resist the encroachments of France,
under Louis XIV. ; although they were at
one time so near ruin, as to contemplate
the removal of the whole nation to Bata-
via. In despair, they cut their dykes, and
drowned their country, to drive the enemy
away ; and, by great exertions, both by
sea and land, they maintained their inde-
pendence.

25. In our own days, we see, that, in
consequence of the French revolution,
and the wars arising out of it, several of
the principal foreign stations of the Dutch
have fallen into the hands of the English ;
and their dissensions at home have para-
lyzed their exertions ; so as to reduce their
domestic industry and their foreign com-
merce to a much smaller compass tiian it
had half a century ago. Antwerp has been
occupied by foreign troops, and the Dutch
king has been forced to submit to the Uni-
ted forces of France and England.

26. We have given a detail of the com-
merce of England till the time of Eliza
beth ; when activity on the wide seas be-
came fashionable for all ranks.

27. We have hinted at the beginning
of the East-India Company; Elizabeth
gave it the first charter, in 1600. The
Company did not form a common stock,
but each merchant traded separately. The
consequence was, that they conducted their
affairs but feebly, and made no settlements,
till, in 1620, they built a fort at Madras.

Hope ? 23. Did the prosperity of the United
Provinces increase ? 24. When was their trade
at its height ? What did they once do to drive
away the enemy ? 25. What have we seen iH

170

BOOK OF COMMERCE.

In 1622, we find them driven from Am-
boyna, in a murderous manner, by the
Dutch, who were determined to have the
whole of the spice trade to themselves.

28. In the West Indies, sugar is the
staple commodity. Hitherto, England and
Europe had been supplied from Brazil, by
the Portuguese ; but now, Barbadoes, the
first of the British sugar colonies, began to
send some to England.

29. The East-India Company was dis-
solved in 1655 ; but the injury to com-
merce was so great, that it was re-estab-
lished two years afterwards. In 1655,
under the government of Oliver Cromwell,
the island of Jamaica was taken from the
Spaniards; and as Cromwell wanted to
have Hispaniola and Cuba, he treated this
conquest with scorn ; yet it has proved of
immense advantage to England. Spain
was fast decaying in power, which it had
used haughtily ; and, by tha* means, had
forced other nations to make great exer-
tions, in order to contest with her. Hol-
land had risen with astonishing rapidity ;
and her people had become the common
carriers of Europe.

30. England had also entered with great
spirit into commerce ; and the Navigation
Act, made during the commonwealth, had
great influence in forcing up her resources;
as it forbade the bringing any foreign com-
modities hither in any but English vessels,
unless they were the produce of the people
who brought them. This act half ruined
the trade of the Dutch, as they could no
longer be carriers for England.

31. In 1685, England, Holland, and all
the Protestant states of Europe, received
a great accession of inhabitants, wealth,
manufacturing skill, and commercial ener-

our own day ? 27. What of the East India Com-
pany ? What happened to them in 1622 ? 28.
Whence did England begin to obtain her sugar ?
29. When was the East-India Company dissolved
and re-estabUshed ? 30. When and under whose

gy, by the folly and bigotry of Louis XIV.,
who revoked the edict of Nantes, by which
the Protestants of France had held th<}
privileges of their religion and worship.
In a cruel manner was his will executed :
he sent dragoons into all the Protestant
towns and villages; and they committed
every sort of outrage and insult upon the
unoffending and most honorable merchants,
artisans, and manufacturers of his kingdom
It is said, that nearly a million of his best
subjects, men, women, and children, with
immense riches, were thus lost to France*
without any gain or compensation, excej)t
the gratification of a superstitious and de-
praved priesthood.

32. The English East-India Company
were at this period forming settlements,
and increasing their trade. In 1689, we
find them settled on the river Hooghly,
and founding Calcutta, now the principal
of their three presidencies in Hindoostan ;
the others are, Madras, on the eastern coast,
and Bombay, on the western.

33. By the accession to the British
throne of the Royal Family of Brunswick,
the stability of the government becoming
every year more apparent, commerce in-
creased with great rapidity. Many i)lace8,
which had been but villages, sprang up,
and became rich, and important as well
for size as for mercantile dealings. Liver-
pool, Manchester, &c. are instances of this
prosperity.

34. Commerce, during the last century,
has spread so widely, and ramified itself
into so many branches, that to trace them
minutely, or even to name them all, would
overload the memory, and defeat the pur-
pose of this sketch. It may be worth
while, however, to say something concern

government was the island of Jamaica taken from
the Spaniards? 31. What of the Protestant per-
secution in France ? 32. The English East-In-
dia Company at this period ? 33. The accession
of the family of Brunswick to the throne ? 34

HISTORY OF COMMERCE.

ing the East-India trade ; because its pros-
perity has been great, and its importance
to the nation is prominent.

35. The English had traded with con-
siderable success, notwithstanding much
opposition from the Dutch and the Portu-
j^uese. They formed a settlement at Surat,
which languished till an unexpected cir-
cumstance brought them into favor. An
English physician had restored a daughter
of the Great Mogul to health ; and, as a
reward, he received permission for a free
trade. A similar kind of success with the
Nabob of Bengal, enlarged this privilege
in that quarter. The ebbings and flowings
of this stream of commerce were greatly
influenced by struggles at home, between
two rival companies ; which were at last
imited into one, in 1708 ; and this union
contmues to the present day.

36. But a principal occasion of this
great accession of territory and power,
appears in a contention for the Mogul
throne. A second son succeeded to the
royalty, and the French took part with
him ; while the English espoused the cause
of the elder son, as rightful heir. In the
wars which took place during this quarrel,
we find Mr. Chve, afterwards Lord Clive,
gaining great renown. By secrecy and
expedition, he obtained possession of the
enemy's city, before his coming was known ;
and, soon after, he defeated him and his
French allies, in an open battle, in 1752.

37. In 1756, the Nabob of Bengal took
Calcutta, and brutally confined a hundred
and forty-six prisoners in so small a dun-
geon, that only twenty-two were found
alive in the morning, the others being suf-
focated. Clive repeatedly defeated him,
with only a handful of troops, especially
at Plassey, in 1757. The consequence

What of commerce during the last century?
3^. How was the trade of the English assisted ?
36. What of the contention for the Mogul
throne ? Lord CUve ? 37. What did the Nabob

was, the reduction of l considerable part
of the province of Bengal, and an acces-
sion of reputation and influence to the
Company, all over Hindoostan.

38. A new enemy soon arose, who en
deavored to extirpate the Company ; this
was Hyder Ally, assisted by French offi-
cers. In 1780, he fell unexpectedly on
their possessions, with an army one hun-
dred thousand strong, and gained several
advantages ; but he was defeated next year,
by Sir Eyre Coote. Tippoo Saib, the son
of Hyder Ally, strengthened himself, and
endeavored to carry on the contest; but
Lord Cornwallis penetrated into the heart
of his dominions, invested and took his
capital, Seringapatam, and Tippoo himself
was slain in its defence.

39. The Company have not only great
mercantile transactions, but they also pos-
sess actual territory as large as half Europe.
Their trade also is great with the Spice
Islands; and with China especially, for
tea, which is become a necessary of life
for almost every individual in England, as
well as the United States.

40. I come now to a mention of the
progress of commerce in our own country.
Scarcely were we freed from our allegi-
ance to Great Britain, than our commercial
enterprise and resources began to develope
themselves. Our ships began to penetrate
to the most distant seas, and to bring home
with them the produce of every clime. It
soon became a common thing for an Ameri-
can merchantman to make a voyage round
the world, starting from some port in the
United States, going round Cape Horn to
the north-west coast of America, taking in
furs, sailing to China, and going thence
with tea, &c. to the ports of Europe.

41. Various causes have contributed to

of Bengal do in 1756 ? Was he defeated by Clive ?
What was the consequence.? What of Hyder
Ally ? Tippoo Saib ? Was he slain ? 39. What
is the state of the Company ? 40. What of com

172

B00& OF COMMERCE.

direct the attention of a large portion of
our population to commercial pursuits.
With a sea-coast two thousand miles in
extent, and indented with many fine har-
bors, it was natural that many of the in-
habitants should betake themselves to the
sea for a subsistence. Excellent timber
for ship-building being likewise abundant,
seemed to hold out another temptation to
a great portion of the people.

42. Near the shores of the northern
states, and on the adjacent banks of New-
foundland, are fishing stations, unsurpassed
by any in the world. Fishing is conse-
quently a lucrative employment, in propor-
tion to the capital invested, and constitutes
the occupation of many of the inhabitants
of those states. The fishermen having

merce in our own country? 41. What causes
have contributed to direct the attention of our
population to commercial pursuits? 42. What

become accustomed to a seafaring life, and
acquired the requisite skill and knowledge,
soon pass into larger vessels, destined for
more distant and perilous voyages.

43. The state of the world, for several
years subsequent to the commencement of
the French revolution, offered great en-
couragement to the commercial enterprise
of the country. While almost every other
power was engaged in war, the United
States were neutral ; their vessels navigat-
ed the ocean in safety, and were employed
to carry, from port to port, the commodi-
ties of those nations which were at war.
Our commercial prosperity is now estab-
lished on an enduring basis. The blow
that destroys it, can be given alone by oui
own hands.

of our fishing statioi^' 43. Our commercial pro»
perity ?

173

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

Admiralty, courts of, erected in England, 1837,in-
corporated 1768.

Africa, one of the great land sections of the earth,
the ancient Lybia, received its modern name from
that of a small province on its northern coast, of
which Carthage was the capital. Area about elev-
en millions of square miles ; and in proportion to
extent and geographic position, the least habitable
part of the earth.

Air Balloons, invented by Gusmac, a Jesuit, in 1729,
and revived m France, by Montgolfier, 1782, and
first sent up at Paris, August 27th ; introduced into
England by Mr. Lunardi, who ascended from Moor-
fields, September 15th, 1784. Mr. Blanchard and
Mr. Jefferies went from Dover to Calais in about
two hours, January 7th, 1785. Since the first as-
cension m France, Garneriii, Blanchard, and otliers,
have made familiar the phenomena of this once as-
tonishing performance.

Air Guns, invf jted 1646.

Air Pumps, invented by Otto Gnirick, m 1654.

Albany, city of the United States, and seat of govern-
ment of N. York ; founded by the Dutch about 1612.

Alexandria, city of the United States, in the District
of Columbia ; taken by the British on the 30th of
, August, and evacuated by tiiem on the 6th of Sep-
tember, 1814.

Algebra, or the Arithmetic of Symols, invented, it is
supposed, in India, was introduced into Europe
about A. D. 1300, by the Saracens of Spain. Had
gained extensive use in 1500.

Alliance, Holy, a treaty called the Holy League, form-
ed at Paris, September 26th, 1815,' between Alex-
ander, emi>eror of. Russia, Francis I. emperor of
Austria, and Frederick William HI. king of Prus-
sia, as the contracting parties avowed, " for the !
protection of religion, [)eace,and justice, &c." In '
1817, the kings of Denmark, Sweden and Norway, j
the Nether hind.-, and the Swiss Cantons, acceded \
to t.!ns compact. !

Alum, fir&t discovered at Rocha in Syria, A. I). 1300; j
in 'I'uscany, 1460; first made to perfection in Eng- |
land, 1608, discovered in Ireland, October 22d, i
1757; in Anglesia, 1790. j

America, or as called relatively to the Atlantic Ocean, \
and to the western coasts of Africa and Europe, \
•' Western Continent," was supposed to have been j
first discovered from Europe, by the Normans who i
reached some of the shores of Labrador or New- ■
foundland, about A. D. 1000. Those early discov- i
eries were, however, forgotten, and left the glory j
undiminished, to Columbus, who reached the West
Indian Archipelago, in consequence of a persevering j
determination to solve a problem, previously and |
profoundly laid down. This event took place Oc-
tober 11, 1492. i

Annapolis, city of, capital of Maryland, founded 1692; I
made the seat of the General Assembly of Maryland,
1699.

Antwerp, city of, or as the French write the name,
Anvers, first noticed in history, A. D. 517. This
city affords a most remarkable instance of the vi-
cissitudes of commerce. In the middle ages, Ant-
werp became the great emporium of the trade and
manufactmres of the Netherlands, and as late as
1568, was supposed to contain 200,000 inhabitants,
but as manufactures became encouraged in Great
Britain, the consequence of Antwerp declined, and
it does not contain at present above 60,000 people.

Archangel, in Russia, the most important seaport in
the world in so high latitude. The English first
reached it round the North Cape of Europe in 1553.
It was then the only port of Russia.

Arithmetic, by the Arabian figures, introduced into
Europe by the Saracens of Spain, in the ninth and
tenth centuries of the christian era.

Baffin's Bay, separating Greenland from North Ameri-
ca, discovered by captain Baffin, in 1622.

Bahama, islands of, discovered, 1629; taken posses-
sion of by the British, 1718; much injured by a
storm, October, 1796; and again, July 22d, 1801.

Baize manufacture first introduced into England, at
Colchester, 1660.

Baltimore, city of the United States, in Maryland, on
a small bay of Patapsco river, founded 1729, is ex-
tremely well situated for commercial connexions
with the valley of Ohio ; it commands the trade of
Maryland ; more than one half of that of Pennsylva-
nia, and a part of New York.

Bark, Jesuit, virtue of discovered 1500; brought to
Europe 1650.

Barometers invented 1626; wheel barometers con-
trived, 1668; phosphoric, 1675; pendant, 1695;
marine, 1700.

Bermuda Isles, discovered 1527; settled 1612; most
destructive hurricane swept over, July 26th, 1813.

Blankets first made in England 1340.

Bombs, first invented at Venloo, and used in the siege
of Wachtendonch, 1588; first used in the service
of France, 1634.

Bomb-vessels, first invented in France, 1681.

Bombay, taken from the Portuguese by the English,
1661 ; nearly destroyed by fire, and many lives lost,
February 27th, 1803.

Books, in the present form, were invented by Attains,
king of Pergamus, 887; the first supposed to be
written in Job's time; 30,000 burnt by order of
Leo, 761 ; a very large estate given for one on Cos-
mography, by king Alfred; were sold from 10/. to
30/. a piece, about 1400; the first printed one was
tlie A'^ulgate edition of the Bible, 1462; the second
was Cicero de Officiis, 1466; Cornelius Nepos pub-
lished at Moscow, being the first classical book
printed in Russia, April 29th, 1762; books to the
number of 200,000, burnt at Constantinople, by dia
order of Leo I., 476 ; above 4,194,412 volumes were
in the suppressed monasteries of France, in 1790,
2,000,000 were on Theology, the manuscripts were

174

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

26,000; in the city of Paris alone were 808,120
volumes. *

Boston, in Massachusetts, founded 1630 ; port of, shut
()y order of the British government, the first act of
violence which led to the subsequent revolution,
1774; besieged by the Americans 1775; evacuated
by the British array March 17th, 1776.

Botany-bay, on the eastern coast of New Holland.
Here the first vessel laden with colonists from Great
Britain arrived 20th January, 1788, and made the
depot of convicts from that country.

Brazil, ea.stern and central part of South America,
discovered by Cabral, 24th April, 1.500 ; 1504, first
civilized settlement on, made by Amerigo Vespucci.

Bread, made from the flower of gramineous fruits, dis-
covered in very early ages, but not made with yeast
by the English, until 1650.

Bread, fruit, first introduced into the West-Indies, by
Capt. Bligh, January, 1793.

Buckles were invented about 1680.

Cables, a method of making them invented, by which
20 men are enabled to do the work of 200. The
machine is set in motion by sixteen horses, for the
cable is of the dimensions of the largest ships, 1792.

Calcutta, city of Indostan, on the Hoogly, outlet of the
Ganges, formerly an insignificant place, was taken
by the English, 1689; besieged in it 1757, and tak-
en ; when 146 persons were enclosed in a prison,
called "The Black Hole," of whom 123 perished
in a few hours. It is now the first city in Asia,
containing at least 80,000 houses, and 500,000 in-
habitants, composed of Europeans, Hindoos, Chi-
nese, &c.

Calico, first imported into England, 1631 ; first made
in Lancashire, 1772 ; calico-printing and the Dutch
loom, first used in England, 1676.

California, discovered by Cortes, 1543 ; explored more
extensively, 1684 ; coast of, explored bv la Perouse,
1786.

Canada, discovered by Cabot, 1499 ; explored by the
French, 1508, 1594', and 1534; settled, 1540; Que-
bec built, 1603; taken first by England, 1628, but
restored to France by the treaty of St. Germain ;
invaded and conquered by Great Britain, in 1759;
formally ceded by France, 1763. This country has
Ijeen twice unsuccessfully invaded from the United
States since the revolution of 1775.

Canals. — The first regular chain of artificial water in-
ter-communication, of which history has transmitted
to us the record, was that between the Nile and the
Red Sea. This canal route was examined with
great care by the French engineers, and several por-
tions found in 1798, in such a state of preservation
as only to demand cleansing.

Canals in tlie United States commenced in Massachu-
setts. The company formed to construct, what is
now called the Middlesex canal, was incorporated
1709; commenced the work, 1790, length, 29 3-4
miles, and entire fall, 107, by locks; 24 feet wide,
witli four feet water.

The greatest, however, of all works of this nature, yet

exftcuted m'Smenca, are the two great canals
New York. The western canal from the Hudson
river to Lake Erie, was first suggested by Mr. Gou
verneur Morris, about 1803 ; surveys were directed
by a resolution of the legislature of New York, in
furtherance of this project, 1808; first board of
commissioners organised, 1810, consisting of Gou-
verneur Morris, Stephen Van Rens*ialaer, De Witl
Clinton, Simeon De Witt, William North, Thomas
Eddy, and Peter B. Porter. Law authorising tlie
actual survey of the ground, pas.<ed April 17th, 1816:
this great work was cominenred, July 4th, 1817,
rompletcd, and tlu; water of Lake Erie let into it,
October 26tli, 182.'}, employing 8 years and 141
days. Tlic coinpleiion of the Northern, or Lake
Chainplain Canal, preceded that of Erie, and both
taken togcdifr ronsuinniates tlio inland communica-
tion betucffi tlio (ircat Bay of Hudson, and tiia
Bui^iri of St. Lawrence.

Canary Isles discovered, 1344 ; explored 1393.

Candles, of tallow, so great a luxury in England, that
splinters of wood were used for light, A. D. 1300 —
no idea of wax candles until long afterwards.

Candle-light introduced into churches on the continent
of Europe, 274.

Cape de Verd Islands discovered, 1447.

Cape of Good Hope discovered, 1487; planted by
Holland, 1651 ; taken by the British, 1795; again
January 8th, 1806, and definitely ceded to Great
Britain, 1814.

Cape Horn first sailed round, 1616: Straits discover-
ed, 1643.

Carriages first introduced into Vienna, 1515; inti>
London, 1580.

Charlestown, (Massachusetts) burnt by the British ^
June 17, 1775.

Charleston, South Carolina, surrendered to the Brit-
ish forces, May 4, 1780.

Charleston, South Carolina, founded and made the
seat of government of Carolina, 1680.

Cherries brought to Rome, by Luculhis, 70; apricots
were first introduced into England, from Epirus;
peaches from Persia; the finest plums from Damas-
cus and Armenia; pears and figs from Greece and
Egypt; citrons from Media; pomegranates firoiu
Carthage, about 114 years before Christ.

Chimnies first inU'oduced into buildings in England,
1200; only in the kitchen, or large hall, smoky;
where the family sat round a large stove, the funnel
of which passed tln-ough the ceiling, 1300.

Chinaware, made in England, at Chelsea, in 1752;
and in several parts of England, in 1760 ; by Mr
Wedgewood, 1762; at Dresden, in Saxony, 1706.

China, first voyage to, from the United States, 1784;
China porcelain first s^ken of in history, 1591.

Chocolate, introduced into Europe^ from Mexico,
1520.

Cinnamon trade first began by the Dutch, 1506; but
had been known in the time of Augustus Caesar, and
long before.

Circumnavigatois — ^The first was Magellan, or rather

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

175

by his fleet, as he was himself slain on the voyage,
lo20; Groalva, 1527; Alvaradt, 1537; Mendana,
1567; Su Francis Drake, 1577; Cavendish, 1586;
Lemaire, 1615; Quires, 1625; Tasman, 1642;
Cowley, 1683; Dampier, 1689; Cooke, 1708;
-Clipperton and Sherlock, 1719; Anson, 1740; By-
ron, 1764; Wallis, 1766; Cook, 1768, 1772, 1776;
continued by King, 1780 ; and since by Fortlocke,
1788; Bougainville, 1766; La Peyrouse, 1782;
D'Entrecasteux, 1791.

[ Copper, first imported from Virginia, October, 1730.
I Copper money first coined in Scotland by order of par*
j liament, 1466; in Ireland, 1399; in France, 1580;
j in England, the first legal, 1689. Tradesmen's
I tokens, or half pence, were coined in 1672; penny
I pieces first issued July 26, 1797 ; half pence on the
! same principle, issued January, 1800.
j Copper is found native in the United States, near the
1 south side of Lake Superior, and in some other
jj _ places.

Circumnavigators of the United States, the first ship Cow-pox, inoculation by, as a security against the

with which this was performed, returned to Boston, i
in December, 1790. I

G)als discovered near New-Castle, 1234; first dug at i
New-Castle, by a charter granted the town, by
Henry III.; first used, 1280; dyers, brewers, &c. '
in the reign of Edward I. Ijegan to use sea-coal for j
fire, in 1350. i

Coal, in the United States, is found in great abun- !
dance on both sides of the Appalachian mountains. •
A coal-mine near Pittsburg, took fire, and burned
many years; the fire was finally extinguished by the
incumbent earth and rocks falling into the cavity.

Coffee, first brought into England by Nathaniel Cono-
pius, a Cretan, who made it his common beverage,
at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641 ; first brought to
Marseilles, 1644.

Coffee-trees were conveyed from Mocha to Holland, in
1616 ; and carried to the West-Indies in the year
1726; first cultivated at Surinam by the Dutch,
1718; its culture encouraged in the plantations, 1732.

Coin — silver, coined at Rome, 269 before Christ; be-
fore then brass money was only used ; coin first used
in Britain, 25 years before Christ.

The Mint of the United States of America,
established 1793, issued gold and silver coin;
the cop|)er had been delivered before. The gold
coins are eagles, half eagles, and quarter eagles.
The first is exactly five and forty shillings, English
money, or ten dollars, American coin. The dollars
are coined in the same divisions of half and quarter
dollai's, which makes the course of exchange simple ;
•.IS ten quarter dollars make the quarter eagle, ten
half dollars the half eagle, and ten dollars the eagle, j
■ There is, besides, one more silver coin, which is
called a dime, and is the tenth part of a dollar.
The copper coin is called a cent, and is the tenth
part of a dime.

Colossus of Rhodes, a gigantic brazen statue set up at
Rhodes, about ate. C. 300; thrown by an earth-
quake, 234 ; lay on the ground nearly 900 years,
and was finally sold by the Saracens when they took
the island of 'Rhodes, A. D. 672. The metal was
supposed to have weighed 720,000 lbs.

Compass, or the polarity of magnetised iron, one of the
greatest, and as to the date of its discovery, most
uncertain of human improvements. There is, how-
ever, good evidence to prove that the mariner's
compass was in use in Europe as early as A. D.
1180; variation first observed by Columbus and hia
companions, 1492 ; its dip, about 1576.

small-pox, introduced into England, by Dr. Jenner,

Croisade, or crusade, expeditions undertaken from
' Europe with the avowed intention to recover the
i Holy Land from the Mahometans. The first was
! undertaken from France, 1096. The second was
I undertaken in 1147; the third in 1188; the fourth
' in 1203; the fifth in 1227; the sixth in 1248, and
i seventh in 1270.

i Cronstadt, city of Russia, at the mouth of the Neva,
j built by Peter the Great, 1704.
I Cuba was discovered by Columbus in 1492 ; taken
I possession of by the Spaniards, 1511 ; invaded by
i the British, 1762, and Havana taken; given up to

Spain 1763.
Custom-house, London, first built, 1559; burnt down
1814; rebuilt, and opened for business, 1817.
j Cypher, or the Arabic numerical figures, introduced

into Europe by the Moors of Spain, in 813.
Dartmoor, England, depot at for prisoners, at which,
April 8th, 1815, seven American prisoners vi^ere
massacred and thirty wounded.
Davis's Straits, discovered 1585.
Delft earthenware first made at Faenza 1450.
Diamonds first polished and cut at Bruges, 1489.
Diamond mines discovered in Brazil, 1730; that at
Coulour in the East-Indies, 1640 ; that at Golcon-
da, in 1584; one sent from Brazil for the court of
Portugal, weighed 1680 carats, or twelve ounces
and a half, valued at 224 millions sterling. Gover-
nor Pitt's weighed 127 carats, and 106 after cutting,
and sold for 135,000/. to tlie king of France. Timt
which belonged to Aureng Zebe weighed 793 caratB.
The Mogul's weighed 279 carats, worth 779,244/
The grand duke of Tuscany's weighed 13.9 carats.
Dieu et mon droit, first used as a motto by Richard I.

on a victory over the French, 1194.
Distaff" spinning first introduced into England by Bo-

navera, an Italian, 1505.
Distilling first practised in Spain by the Moors, 1150.
Distillation of spirituous liquors began in the 12th

century. In Ireland in 1590.
Docks, London, the first stone of, laid June 26, 1802;

opened January 30, 1805.
Earthen vessels first made by the Romans 715 before
Christ; the first made in Italy 1710; the present
improved kind began in 1763, by Mr. Wedgewood.
Eddystone light-hr.use, near Plymouth, England, first
built, 1696; blown down, November 26, 1703; re-
built, 1706; burnt down, Deceml)er, 1755; rebuilt

176

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

October, 1759; again burnt down, 1770; rebuilt
1774.

Electricity, first idea of, given by two globes of brim-
stone, 1467; electric spark discovered at Leyden,
1746; first known it would fire spirits, 1756; that
of the aurora borealis and of lightning in 1769.

Engraving on metal plates, first known in Europe ate.

C. 504, by a map on brass brought from Qonia by
Anaxagoras of Samos; and yet it was not until A.

D. 1423, that impressions were taken on paper from
engraved plates; the art of taking impressions from
engravings on copper as now used, 1511 ; in mezzo-
tinto, and improved by prince Rupert, of Palatine,
1648; to represent wash, invented by Barable, a

. > Frenchman, 1761; crayon engraving invented at
Paris by Bonnet, 1769.

Engraving on wood invented in Flanders, 1423; re-
vived by Alb. Durer, 151 1 ; on glass invented 1799,
at Paris, by Boudier.

Etching on copper invented with aqua fortis, 1512.

Excise, the first used in England, 1643.

Fairs and nmrkets first instituted in England by Al-
fred, about 886. The first fairs took their rise from
wakes ; when the number of people then assembled
brought together a variety of traders annually on
these days. From these holidays they were called
feria, or fair.

Falmouth, seaport of Massachusetts, taken and burnt
by the British, October 18th, 1775.

Fish, the increase of, is said to be in the following
proportion: — a flounder of two ounces contains
133,407 eggs or spawn; herrings weighing from
four ounces to five and three-fourths, from 21,285
to 36,960; lobsters, from fourteen to thirty-six
ounces, contain 21,699; mackerel, twenty ounces
454,061; shrimps, from 2,849 to 6,897; smelts,
from 14,411 to 38,278; soal of five ounces, 38,772;
one of fourteen ounces and a half contains 100,362;
to which may be added the cod, which produces
3,686,706.

Florida, discovered by Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard, m
1512.

Formosa, in the Chinese seas, shook off the Cliinese
yoke, and massacred 10,000 Chinese, driving the
remainder into the woods and rocks of the island,
1788.

Fruits of foreign countries first brought into Italy, 70
before Christ, and flowers, sundry sorts before un-
known, were brought into England in the reigns of
Henry VII. and VIII. from about 1500 to 1578.
Among others of less note, the musk and damask
roses, of great use in medicine, and tulips. Several
sorts of plum-trees and currant-plants; also safiron,
woad, and other drugs for dying, attempted to be
cultivated, but without success.

Gardening introduced into England from the Nether-
lands, Ifrom whence vegetables were imported, till
1509; the pale gooseberry, with salads, garden
roots, cabbages, &c. brought from Flanders, and
iiops from Artois, 1520.
Rye and wheat, from Tartary and Siberia, where

they are yet indigenous ; barley and oats uniuiown,
but certainly not indigenous in England ; rice from
Ethiopia; buckwheat, Asia; borage, Syria; cress-
es, Crete; cauliflower, Cyprus; asparagus, Asia;
chervil, Italy; fennel, Canary Islands; annise and
parsley, Egypt ; garlick, the East; shallots, Sibe-
ria; horseradish, China; kidney-beans. East Indies;
gourds, Astracan ; lentils, France; potatoes, Brazil ;
tobacco, America; cabbage, lettuce, &c., Holland.
Jassamine comes from the East Indies ; the elder
tree, from Persia ; tlie tulip, from Cappadocia; tlie
daffodil, from Italy; the lily, from Syria; the tul>e-
rose, from Java and Ceylon; the carnation and pink,
from Italy, &c.; rananculus, from the Alps; apples,
from Syria; apricots, from Epirus; artichokes,
from Holland; celery, from Flanders; cherries,
from Pontus; currants, from Zant; damask and
musk roses, from Damascus, as well as plums; hops,
from Artois and France ; gooseberries, from Flan-
ders; gilliflowers, carnations, the Provence rose,
&c. from Thoulouse, in France; oranges and lem-
ons from Spain; lieans and peas from Spain.

Gas, use of, introduced in London, for lighting shops
and streets, 1814; first into the United States, at
Baltimore, 1821.

Gazettes, of Venetian origin, and so called from the
price being gazetta, a small piece of money; the
first published in England, was at Oxford, JNovcn-
ber 7, 1665.

Georgium Sidus discovered by Herschel, 1781.

Gibraltar was taken from the Moors by the Castiliana
in 1463 ; taken by Sir George Rooke, July 23, 1704 ;
besieged by the Spaniards, September 13, 1782,

• when their floating batteries were burnt l)y red-hot
balls from the garrison, commanded by Gen. Elliott.

Gilding witii leaf gold on bole ammoniac, art of, in-
vented by Margaritime, 1273; on wood, 1680.

Gipsies quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks in
1515, and wandered over almost all Europe.

Glass, the art of making it, known to the Romans at
least before 79; known to the Chinese about 200;
introduced into England by Benedict, a monk, 674 j
glass windows began to be used in private houses in
England, 1180; glass first made in England into
bottles and vessels, 1557; the first plate glass for
looking glasses and coach-windows, made at Lam-
Ijeth, 1673;, in Lancashire, 1773; window glass
first made in England, 1557.

Grapes brought to England and planted first at Blax-
hall, in Suffolk, 1552; cultivated in Flanders, 1276.

Guinea coast discovered by the Portuguese, 1482;
slave trade commenced here by Capt. Hawkins, ao
Englishman, 1563. He was assisted with a sub-
scription by sundry of his countrymen — sailed from
England with three ships, purchased negroes, sold
them at Hispaniola, and returned home, richly la-
den with hides, sugar, and ginger.

Guineas were first coined, 1673, from gold brought
from the coast of Guinea.

Gunpowder invented, 1330; first made m England,
1418; first used in Spain, 1344.

IHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

177

Guns, great, invented, j.'LSO; iised by the Moors at the
siege of Algesiras, in Spain, in 1344; used at the
battle of Cressy, in 1346; when Edward liad four
pieces of cannon, which gained him the battle; they
were used at the siege of Calais, in 1347; in Den-
mark, 1354; at sea by Venice against Genoa, 1377;
first used in Spain, 1406; first made in England of
brass, 1635; of iron, 1547; invented to shoot whales,
1731 ; first used in England, at the siege of Berwick,
1405 ; bombs and mortars invented, 1634.
Hackney coaches first used, twenty in number, in

London, 1625.
Handkerchiefs first manufactured at Paisley, in Scot-
land, 1748, when 15,886/. worth were made: in 1784
the manufacture yielded above 164,385/.
Hats invented at Paris, 1404: first made in London,

1510.

hemp and flax first planted in England, 1533. There

are 180,0001b. of rough hemp used in the cordage

and sails of a first-rate man of war. |

Herring fishery, first practised by the Hollanders,

1164: herring pickling first invented, 1397.
Hour Glasses were invented in Alexandria, 240, and

introduced at Rome, 158 years before Christ.
Hudson's Bay discovered by Capt. Hudson, 1607.
Indigo, first produced in Carolina, 1747: cultivated in

the open air at Vaucluse, in France, 1808.
Insurance on shipping began in England, 1560.
Insurance offices established in London, and its vicini-
ty, 1696.
Insurance policies were first used in Florence in 1523:
first society established at Hanover, 1530: that at
Paris, 1740.
Interest first mentioned as legal, 1199, at 10 per cent. :
in 1300, at 20 per cent. : in 1558, at 12 per cent. :
in 1571, at 10 per cent. : in 1625, at 8 per cent. : in
1749, the funds were reduced from 4 to 3 1-2 and 3
per cent.
Iron discovered by the burning of mount Ida, 1406
before Christ: first cast in England at Backstead,
Sussex, 1544: first discovered in America, in Vir-
ginia, 1715: bullets first used in England, 1550.
Italian method of book-keeping, published in Enjrland,

1569. "

Jamaica discovered by Columbus, 1494: settled by
the Spaniards, 1509: plundered, 1595: pillaged by
the English, 1635: taken by the English, May 7,
1655.
Jamestown, first capital of Virginia, founded 1607.
Japan discovered, 1542: visited by the English,

1612.
Jenite, a new mineral discovered in the island of Elba.

1808.
Kamtschatka discovered by the Russians, 173ft
Knitting stockings invented in Spain, about 1550.
Knives first made in England, 1563.
Lace, Flanders, more valuable tiian gold — one ounce
of fine Flanders thread has been sold in London, for
41. Such an ounce made into lace may be sold for
40/., which is ten times the price of standard gold,
iveight for weight. jj

Lamp for preventing explosions by fire-damp in coal
mines, invented by Sir Humphrey Davy, 1815.

Lanterns invented by king Alfred, 890.

Lawns and thread gauze were in 1784, manufactured
at Paisley to the value of 164,385/. 16s. 6.5d.

Leaden pipes for conveying water invented, 1236.

Letters invented by Memnon, the Egyptian, 1822 <je-
fore Christ.

Linen first made in England, 1253: the luxurious wore
linen, but the generality woollen shirts. Table linen
very scarce in England, 1386.

Lithographic printing, art of, first brought into Eng-
land, 1801.

Loadstone, polar attraction of, known in France be-
fore 1180.

Log-line in navigation used, 1570.

Logvv^ood first cut in the bay of Honduras and Cam-
peachy by tlie English, 1662.

Looking-glasses made only at Venice, 1300.

Looms, the power-loom invented by the Rev. Mr. Cart-
wright, a clergyman of Kent, in England, 1787.

Lotteries, the first mentioned by historians for sums of
money, 1630: established 1693.

Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese, 1500.

Madeira, island of, discovered 1344 and 1418.

Magellan, straits of, discovered 1520.

Magnifying glasses invented by Roger Bacon, 1260.

Malt liquor used in Egypt 450 before Christ.

Mercator's charts invented 1556.

Microscopes first used, 1621: the double ones, 1624:
solar microscopes invented, 1740.

Money, first mentioned as a medium of commerce in
the 23d chapter of Genesis, when Abraham purchas-
ed a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the year of the
world, 2139: fiist made at Argos, 894 before Christ:
has increased eighteen times its value from 1290 to
1640: and twelve times its value from 1530 to
1800.

Mortars for bombs first made in England, 1543.

Moscow founded 1156: entered by the French, Sep-
tember 14, 1812: set on fire in 500 different places
at once, by order of the Russian governor, and three
fourths of the city destroyed two days after : evacu-
ated bv the French, and re-entered by the Russia-ns,
October 22, 1812.

Mtilberry trees first planted in England, 1609: in the
English provinces of North America, about 1750,
for cultivating silk.
Musical notes as now used, 1330.
Muskets first used in France at the siege of Arra.*,

1414: in general use, 1521.
Muslins from India, first in England, 1670: first man-
ufactured tliere, 1781.
Needles were first made in England by a native of In-
dia, 1545, tlie art lost at his death: recovered by
Christopher Greening, in 1560, who was settlecl
with Ws three children, Elizabeth, Johr , and
Thomas, by Mr. Damer, ancestor of tlie present ear.
of Dorchester, at Long Gredon, in Bucks, where
the manufactory has been carried on from that time
to tliis present day.

178

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

New style first introduced into Europe, 1582: into
Holland and the protestant states, 1700: in Eng-
land, 1752.

Newspaper, first published in England, titled the En-
glish Mercury, July 28, 1588. The present num-
ber in the United States amounts to more than a
thousand

North cast passage to Russia discovered, 1553.

Notes and bills fu'st stamped, 1782.

Nova Zembla discovered, 1553.

Organs brought to Europe from the Greek empire,
were first invented and applied to religious devotion
in chui'ches, 758.

Otaheite, or George III.'s island, discovered June 18,
1765.

Owhy-he island discovered 1778, where Capt. Cooke
was killed.

Oxford university, founded by Alfred, 886.

Paper currency established in America, May 15,
1775.

Paper money first used in America, 1740.

Paper made of cotton was in use in 1000: that of lin-
en rags, in 1319: the manufacture of, introduced
into England at Dartford, in Kent, 1588 : scarcely
any but brown paper made in England, till 1690:
white paper first made in England, in 1690.

Parchment invented by king Attains, 887.

Patent granted for titles, first used, 1844: first grant-
ed for the exclusive privilege of publishing books,
1591.

Pearl-ashes manufactory first set up in Ireland, 1783.

Pearls, artificial, were invented, 1686.

Pendulmns for clocks invented, 1656.

Pens for writing were first made from quills in 635.

Peru conquered by Pizarro, 1533.

Pistols fii'st used by the cavalry, 1544.

Pitch and tar made from pit-coal, discovered at Bris-
tol, 1779.

Plaster of Paris, the way first fonnd out for taking a
likeness in, 1470.

Plate-glass manufactory established at Lancashire, in
1773: first in France, 1688.

Policy of insiurance in writing first used at Florence,
1569.

Potatoes first brought to England from America, by
Hawkins, in 1563: introduced mto Ireland by Sir
Walter Raleigh, in 1586, and were not known in
Flanders till 1650.

Poiterv, great discoveiies made in it bv Mr. Wedge-
wood, 1763.

Printing invented by J. Faust, 1441: first made public
by John Gottenburgh, of Mentz, 1458: wooden
types first used, 1470: brought into England by
William Caxton, 1471, who had a press in West-
minster Abbey till 1494: first patent granted for it,
1591: first introduced into Scotland, 1509: first
used at Lyons, 1488: first set up at Constantinople,
in 1784 : printing in colors invented, 1626.

Pumps invented, 1425.

Quicksilver, use of, discovered in refininff silver ore,
1540.

Rail Roads, first used near Newcastle upon Tyne,
about 1650.

Rice was cultivated in Ireland in 1585: in England,
1600 : had its first cultivation in Soutli Carolina, br
chance, 1702.

Rum imported into England in 1789, was 3,300,000
gallons: in 1796 there were imported 4,196,198
gallons.

Sail-cloth first made in England, 1590: cotton sail-
cloth made at Baltimore and at Patterson, N. J.
and brought into use in the United States, 1824.

Saint Helena first possessed by the English, 1600.

Saint Lawrence river discovered and explored by tl>c
French, 1508.

Salem, in New England, settled, 1628.

Salt mines in Staftbrdshire discovered, 1670: rock
salt was discovered about 950: in Poland, in 1289.

Saltpetre first made in England, 1625,

Savannah, in Georgia, settled 1732.

Sextant invented by Tycho Bralie, in 1550.

Sheep, the number in England is from 20 to 25 mil-
lions. The value of their wool, 3,200,000/.

Ship. — The first seen in Greece arri\4d at Rhodes
from Eg}'pt, 1485 before Christ; the first double-
decked one built in England was of 1000 tons bur-
den, by order of Henry VII. 1509; it was called
tlie Great Harry, and cost 14,000/.; Jaefore this,
twenty-four gun ships were tlie largest in the navy,
and these had no port-holes, the guns being on the
upper decks only. Port-holes and other improve-
ments were invented by Decharges, a French build-
er at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., 1500; there
were not above four merchant ships of 120 tons
burden, before 1551.

Ship-building, the art of, attributed to the Egyptians,
as the first inventors, the first ship being brought
from Egypt to Greece by Danaus, 1485 B. C. The
first ship of the burden of 800 tons was built in
England in 1597.

Shoeing of horses first introduced, 481.

Shoes of the present fashion first worn m Ei/gland,
1633.

Signals at sea first devised by James II. 1665.

Silk, wrought, brought from Persia to Greece, 325 B.
C.

Soap first made at London and Bristol, 1524

Speaking trumpets invented by Kircher, u Jesuit,
1652.

Spectacles invented by Spina, a monk of Pisa, 1299.

Steam applied to the pm-pose of inland navigation in
America, 1810.

Steel may be made three hundred times dearer than
standard gold, weight for weight; six steel wire
springs for watch pendulums weigh one grain, to
the artists, Is. 6d. each, equal to 21. 5s. i one graia
of gold only 2d.

Stereotype printing invented by William Ged, a gold-
smith, of Edinburgh, 1725.

Stops in Literature, introduced 1520 ; Uie colon 1580 ;
semicolon 1599.

Stucco work revived by D'Udine, about 1500

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

179

Sugar first mentioned by Paul Eginetta, a physician,
625; produced in Sicily, 1148; first produced in
Madeira, 1419; in tlie Canary Islands, 1503; car-
ried to tlie West-Indies, by tlie Portuguese and
Spaniards, 1510; cultivated at Barbadoes, 1641;
sugar refining first discovered by a Venetian, 1503;
practised first in England, in 1569.

Tanning leather, a new and expeditious method in-
vented, 1795.

Tea first brought into Europe by the Dutch East India
Company, early in 1591.

Tea destroyed at Boston by the inhabitants, 1773.

Telegraphs invented, 1687; put into practice by the
French, in 1794; by the English, Jan. 28, 1796.

Telescopes invented by Z. Jansen, a spectacle maker
at Middleburgh, 1590 ; the first reflecting one made
on the principles of Sir Isaac Newton, 1692.

Thermometers first invented by Drebel, a Dutchman,
1620 ; improved by Reaumur, 1730, and by Fahren-
heit, 1749.

Thread first made at Paisley, in Scotland, in 1722.

Ticonderoga taken by the English, 1759 ; by the Pro-
vincials, May 13, 1775.

Tides, the first theory of, by Kepler, 1596.

Tiles first used in England, 1246.

Time first computed from the Christian era, 516; in
history, 784; in Spain, 1258; in Ai'ragon and Cas-
tile, 1383; in Portugal, 1415.

Time-measure barometer introduced by Scipio Nasi-
ca, 159 ; king Alfred's time-keeper was six large
wax tapers, each twelve inches long ; as tliey burnt
unequally, owing to the Avind, he invented a lantern
made of wood and thin-scraped plates of ox-horns,
glass being a great rarity, 887. T!ie ancients had
Uiree sorts of time measures, hour-glasses, sun-dials,
and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom.

Tin found in Germany, 1241 ; in no place before but
in Devonshire and Cornwall, in Barbai7, 1640; in
India, 1740; in New Spain. 1782.

Toad, a live oncfound in a block of stone, at New-
arK, April 15, 1806; another found alive, in the
heart of an oak tree, about thirty inches in diame-
ter, at Rainford, Lancashire, January, 1810.

Tobacco first discovered in St. Domingo, in 1496;
afterwards by the Spaniards in Yutacan, 1520; first
brought into England, 1583; allowed to be cultivat-
ed in Ireland, 1779.

Torture abolished in Sweden, by order of the king,
1786; in Poland, 1776; abolished in France by
edict, August 25, 1780; abolished in Spain, Au-
gust, 1814.

Tournaments began in 170; instituted by Henry, em-
peror of Germany, 919.

Tragedy, the first acted at Athens, on a wagon, by
Thespis, 585 before Christ.

Trajan's pillar erected in Rome, 114.

Trinidad, the isle of, discovered, 1498; taken by the
English, with four ships of the line, 1797.

Tripoli reduced by admiral Blake, 1655; attacked
four times by the United States squadron, under
commodore Preble, in the year 1804.

Troy built, 1480 ; the kingdom of, began 1446 before
Christ; destruction of, June 11, 1184 before Christ.

Trumpets first sounded before the kings of England,
by order of Offa, king of Mercia, 790.

Tulips first brought into England, 1578.

Tunis reduced by admiral Blake, 1665; taken by the
emperor Charles V. and restored to its king thai
had been banished, 1535.

Tunnel of the Tavistock canal, a mile and a half in
length, and in some parts of it, more than four bun
dred feet below the surface, completely holed, afte^
thirteen years' labor, August 24, 1816.

Turkeys came into England, 1523.

Turnpikes first legally erected in England, 1663,
yielded in 1783, about 508,000/.

Types of wood for printing used, 1470.

Union of the crowns of England and Scotland, 1603;
of the two kingdoms attempted, 1604, but failed ;
again ditto, 1670; carried into effect. May 1, 1707,
and thence the island is called Great-Britain ; union
of Britain and Ireland took place, Jan. 1, 1801.

United States. — Summary statement of the value of
the Exports af the Growth, Produce, and Manufac-
tures of the United States, during the year com-
mencing on the 1st day of October, 1831, and end-
ing on the 30th day of September, 1832.
THE SEA.

Fisheries —

Dried fish or cod fisheries $749,909
Pickled fish, or river fisheries,
herring, shad, salmon, mack-
erel 306,812
Whale and other fish oil 1,009,728
Spermaceti oil 38,161
Whalebone 186,595
Spermaceti candles 267,332

$2,558,533

THE FOREST.

Skins and furs 691,909

Ginseng 99,545

Product of wood —

Staves, shingles, boards

and hewn timber $1,522,053
Other timber 188,608

Masts and spars 73,368

Oak bark & other dye 52,944
All manufactures of

wood 312,678

Naval stores, tar, pitch,
rosin, & turpentine 476,291

Ashes, pot and pearl 930,398

3,556,340

AGRICULTURE.

Product of animals —
Beef, tallow, hides,

horned cattle 774,087

Butter and cheese 290,820
Pork, pickled bacon,

lard, live hogs 1,928,196
Horses and mules 164,034

4,347,794

180

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

Sheep 22,385

Leather and morocco skins

Vegetable food— 3,179,522

not sold per pound 42,565

Wheat 93,500

Printing presses and type 22,558

Flour 4,880,623

Musical instruments 4,952

Indian corn 278,740

Books and maps 29,892

Indian meal 480,035

Paper and other stationary 64,847

Rye meal 75,392

Paints and vai'nish 24,611

Rye, oats, and otlier

Vinegar 4,677

small grain and

Earthen and stone ware 6,833

pulse 78,447

Fire engines and apparatus 7,758

Biscuit or ship bread 255,735

Manufactures of glass 106,855

Potatoes 42,077

tin 3,157

Apples 15,314

pewter and lead 983

Rice 2,152,631

marble and stone 8,454

8,352,494

gold and silver and gold leaf 653

11,532,016

Gold and silver coin 1,410,941

Toljacco

5,999,759

Artificial flowers and jewelrj 14,852

Cotton

31,724,682

Molasses 2,493

All other agricultural products —

Trunks 5,314

Flaxseed

123,036

Brick and lime 3,502

Hops

25,448

Domestic salt 27,914

Rfnwn SiiOTfif

11 232

XJiVJWil KPU^Cll

IKft PS-I/?

Manufactured 477,267
Odier 358,181

MANUFACTURES. "'""^"

Soap and tallow candles

701,184

830,448

T ^otVlfki* V\rkrttc on/1 aVlrwia

277,388
169,039

jLjeainer, doois ana snoes
Household furniture

^63,137,470

Coaches and other carriages

45,277

Vines planted in Germany and North Gaul, 276.

Hats

310,912

Violins invented about 1477; and introduced by

Saddlery

29,572

Charles II.

Wax

62,444

Watches invented at Nuremberg, in Germany, 1477;

Spirits from grain, beer, ale

first used in astronomical observations, 1500. — The

and porter

127,583

emperor Charles V. was the first who had any thing

Snuff and tobacco

295,771

that might be called a watch, though come call it a

Lead

5,483

small table clock, 1530; watches first brought to

Linseed or and spirits of

England fi-om Germany, 1577; spring pocket ones

tiu-pent ne

33,304

invented by Hooke, 1658

Cordage

13,863

Water-mills for grinding corn were invented by Beli-

Iron, pig, bar, and nails

65,979

sarius, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, 555.

castings

26,629

The ancients parched their corn, and pounded it in

manufactm-es of

120,222

mortars ; afterwards mills were invented, which were

Spirits from molasses

38,221

turned by men and beasts with great labor ; and yet

Sugar, refined

74,673

Pliny mentions wheels turned by water.

Chocolate

2,255

Weights and measures invented, 869 l)efore Christ;

Gunpowder

96,023

fixed to a standard in England, 1257; regulated.

Copper and brass

105,774

1492.

Medicinal drugs

130,5^38

Whale fishery, the first by the Dutch, 1596; by the

Cotton piece goods

2,730,833

English at Spitsbergen, 1598.

Printed or colored 104,870

Whalebone found by the English ships at Cape Bre-

White 1,052,891

ton, 1521; first mentioned brought home with oil.

Nankeens 341

1617.

Twist yarn and thread 12,618

Whales killed at Newfoundland and Iceland for their

All manufacnires of 58,854

oil only, 1578; the use of their bones and fins not

,229,574

then known, consequently no stays worn hy ladies.

Cloth and thread

1,570

Woollen-cloth, manufactures of, in all civilized coun-

Bags and all manufactures of

2,685

tries, and in very remote ages, and probably of linen

Wearing apparel

80,803

also.

Coml)s and buttons

124,305

York, Upper Canada, capitulated to the Americans,

Brushes

4,754

April 27, 1813.

Billiard tables

1,310

Zodiac, signs of the, invented by Anaximander, 547

Umbrellas and parasols

20,361

B C

INDEX.

A.gates

Alabaster

Alcohol

Ale - -

Allspice

Almonds

Alum -

Amber

Ambergris

Amethyst

Amsterdam

Anchovies -

Annotto

Anthracite Coal

Antimony

Antwerp

Apples

Arrack

Arsenic -

Artificial Pearls

Assafcetida

Axminster Carpets -

Baltimore Exchange

Banks

Barilla -

Barley

Bazaars -

Beans

Bears

Beaver Skins

Beef

Bell-Metal

Beer

Bill of Exchange

Blankets

Boats

Bombazine

Bone-lace

Bonnets -

Bucks

Page

Book-keepmg -" - .

133

Box-wood - - .

- 98

Borrowstoness Coal Mine

Brandy - . - ,

Brass - - - -

-83

iBrazUWood

100

104

Bricks - - - .

118

Brimstone - - - .

107

Bristles - - - -

British National Debt

143

168

! Brocade - - - .

-46

j Brussels Carpeting

100

Buckram - - - -

- 43

Buffaloes ...

- 124

Burgundy Wine - - -

- 34

169

Butter -

. 13

Caffila - - - ' -

121

Calamine - - -

- 83

Calcutta founded

170

101

Calicoes - - -

- 42

Cambrics . - -

-42

Camel's Hair - - -

. 52

137

Camlets - - - -

135

Camphor - - - .

. 102

101

Canada Fur Trade

Canals - - -

. 127

137

Canoes - - . -

126

Cannel Coal - - -

- 90

144

Caoutchouc . - -

102

Caravans

- 120

Carrier Pigeons -

131

Carpets - - -

- 47

Carron Iron Works

134

Carthage - - - .

. 147

Cassia - - - • -

126

Catching Whales

- 106

■ 39

Cedar - - - -

Ceylon Pearl Fishery -

- 64

Champagne Wine

115

Charlestown Dry Dock

- 138

183

INDEX.

Cheese - - - - 13

Chestnut - - - - 96

China Ware - - - 55

Chinese Junks - - - . 126

Chintz - . - - 42

Chocolate - - - - 30

Chrysalisof the Silkworm - - 96

Cider . . - . 31

Cigars - - - - 110

Cinnabar - - . - 74

Cinnamon - - - - 25

Citrons - - - - 19

Civet - - - - 54

Claret Wine - - - 34

Cloves - - - - 25

Coal ... . 88

Cobalt - - - - 87

Cochineal - - - - 100

Cocoa-Nuts - - - - 20

Cocoons of the Silkworm - - 45

Cod-fish - - - - 13

Cod-fishery - - - - 14

CoflTee - - - - 29

Coin - - - - 144

Coke 89

Color of Wine . - - 35

Columbus - - - - 163

Combs - - - - 61

Commerce, importance of - - 9

History of - - 145

neglected by Romans - 149

ruined by Goths - - 150

in the East - - - 151

desolated by Mohammed 152

rises at Venice - - 152

flourishes among the Sara-
cens _ - -

revived by the Crusades

aided by Henry II.

by John - - -

by Henry VIII. -

by Elizabeth

by Discovery of America

Commerce of England
of the United States

Compass, the Mariner's

Constantinople

Conveyance, modes of

Copal

Copper

Copy-right -

Coral

Coriath

153
154
156
157
160
160
163
164

- 171
- 157
157

- 125

101

- 80

115

147, 149

Corks - - . 95

Cosmetics - - - - 54

Cosmo de Medicis - 159

Cotton - - - 39

Cotton Thread - - 42
Coxe's Descent into the Mine at Danmora 78

Crape - - - - 46

Crusades - - - - 154

Custom-house - - - 141

Dates - - - -

Davy, Sir Humphrey, his Safety Lamp
Deals - -

Delll-ware - - -

Diamonds - -

and the Jew - - -

thrown away

mill for

Mines - - -

value of - -

Discoveries by Portuguese

by Spaniards -

Distillation - - - -

Docks - - - -

Drawback - - - -

Duties on Goods - - -

Early Mode of Discovering Land

East India Company

Ebony - - - -

Eddystone Lighthouse

Edict of Nantes, Repeal of - -

Egypt, Commerce of -

Eider Down - - .

Embargo - - - -

Emerald

Ermines - . - -

Exchange, London

New York

Baltimore - - -

Feathers

Figs

Filberts

Fire-damp

Firs

Fish - '

Fishery, Cod

Coral

Pearl

Whale

Flanders
Flax .

161

163

137

142

141

156
169

99
139
170
145

52
142

50
136
137
137

52
19
20
89
93
13
14
63
64
105
160
42

INDEX.

183

Float of Timber
Florence, Commerce of
Flour ...

Formation of Coral Islands -
Fulton, his account of his invention
Funds, the . - -

Fustic . - - -

Furs - - - -

Galena Lead Mines

Galleons > - -

Gama, Vasco De, doubles the Cape

Good Hope
Gamboge - - -

Gauze . - - -

Genoa, Commerce of
Gin - - -

Ginger ...

Ginseng - - - -

Glass - -

Gloves - . . -

Golconda Diamond Mines -
Gold ....

in North Carolina

Goose Feathers - -

Granite - -

Grapes - -

Gum Arabic

Lac ...

Gunpowder

Hanse Towns

Hats - - - -

Hemp - - .

Herring . . -

Hides - - -

Hock

Honey - - - -

Hops - - - -

Horn - . - .

Hudson, Henry

Hungary Water - - -

Idol's Eye Stolen

Idria, Mines of -

India, Trade to - -

Indigo - - - -

Insurance of Ships

Invention of Lace

Invoices ...

Irish Linen - - -

Iron - - - -

Isinglass - - - -

129

159

127

142

100

• 87
126

355

- 102

. 159

103

101

102

117

157

- 48
110

- 16
113

- 35
24

118

167, 50

152

171

101

136

135

117

Ivory

Jaconots

Jamestown, Settlement of

Jasper

Jet ...

Jewelry

Lace - - -

Lavender Water

Lead - - .

Leather

Lemons

Light-houses

Lignumvitae

Lime

Linen - - -

Liquorice -

Lloyd's Coffee-house -

Loadstone, Polarity of the

Lobsters

Logwood -

London Exchange

Docks

Lorenzo de Medicis

Lothian's Story - - -

Lustrings - - .

Mackerel - - - .

Madder - - - .

Madeira Wine - - -

Mahogany - - - -

Mail . . . -

Malaga Raisins - - -

Manganese - - -

Manna - -

Maple - - - -

Maple Sugar - - .

Marble - - - - '

Mariner's Compass

Mercury, the Chemical name for quick-
silver - - -
Merino Sheep . . -
Mines, Cornwall Tin

ditto. Copper - -

Danmora, Iron

Dalecarlia . - -

Idria, Quicksilver

Pary's Mountain, Copper -

Potosi, SUver

Mint - - - -

Mississippi, Lead Mines of the

. 61

. 167
69

- 69
€2

- 47
54

- 85
112

- 19
139

- 99
92

- 42
104

- 136
156

17
100

- 136
137
159

- 46

- 15

101
. 39

96
131

- 87
104

- 96
23

' - 91
157

38
84
81
78
81
75
88
81
72
144
87

184

Modes - - - -

Port Wine

Molasses - ...

Porter

Monkeys gather tea

Portland Stone -

Mosaics - - - -

Post Office -

Mother of Pearl - - -

Potatoes -

Mountain Wine

Potosi, Lead Mines ■

Mules - - - .
Musk

122

mivpr

Pottery

Muslin - - - -

Privateers

Myrrh . - - -

102

Promissory Notes
Prunes

New York Exchange

137

Public Debt -

Nickel - - . .

Nootka Sound Fur Trade

Quarantine

Norway Deals - . -

Quays, London

Nutmegs - - - -

Queen's Ware
Quicksilver -

Oak - - . .

Quincy Granite -

Oil of Almonds . - -

Olives - - - •

Rafts

Opium - - - -

103

Railroads

Oranges - - -

- 19

Raisins

Ostrich Feathers - - -

Resin

Ottar of Roses - - -

- 54

Rhubarb

Oysters - - - -

Ribbons -
Rice -

Pack-horses - - -

121

Roman Commerce

Paper - . . -

113

Roses, Ottar of -

Pai'chment - - -

- 113

Rosewood

Patent - - - -

144

Royal Exchange

Pearls - - . -

Ruby -

' Artificial

- 65

Ruggs

Pearl Ashes - - -

120

Rum

Peas

Russia Duck

Penn, William - - -

167

Pepper - - - -

- 25

Sables -

Perfumes - - -

Sago

Persian Carpets - - -

Salmon -

Peter the Hermit - - -

154

Sapphire

Phoenicians - . -

146

Salt

Pinchbeck -

Saracens

Pine-apple ...

Sarcenet -

Pine - - - - -

Satin

Pins ....

116

Shad - - ■

Pisa

154

Shawls

Pitch . - - -

Sherry Wine

Platina - - - -

Ships

Police, Marine - - -

138

Shot, Manufacture of

Policy of Insurance
Polish Wheat

135

Shrimps

Silk

Polishing Diamonds - - -

Silkworms -

Porcelain ...

Silver

Pork

Slate

33
32

131

143

135

143

137

129

124
18
94

104
46
10

149
54
99

136
69
47
36
42

50
12
14
69
24

152
46
46
14
39
33

125
86
16
43
44
71
91

INDEX.

185

Sledges -

Sleighing

Smuggling

Soap

Soapstone -

Soles -

Solomon's Commerce

Spanish Wines

Spar Ornaments -

Spermaceti -

Spices

Spirit of Wine

Sponge -

Starch

Steamboats

Steel -

Stocks

Stock-jobbing

Stone ware

Sugar

Sulphur -

Tamarinds
Tapestry -
Tariff -
Tar
Tea -
Teak-tree -
Teneriffe Wine
Tent Wine
Tidewaiters -
Tiffany -
Tin -
Tobacco -
Tokay Wine -

124

Topaz - -

124

Tortoise Shell

141

Tragacanth - - -
Turbot

102

- 15

Turkish Power, Rise of -

151

Turpentine - - -

- 94

146

Turtles - . . -

58
107

Tyre ... -

- 148

Underwriters - - .

135

United States Bank -

- 136

.S5

PiihKr Drht

143
172, 179

11Q

127

Velvets

- 46

Venice, Bank of -

136

143

- 152

xto
144

Verdegris - - .

Vintage in France

- 35

Virginia planted

- 167

Wabauts - - - -

Walnut Tree - - -

- 96

141

Watches - - - -

Whale Fishery

. 105

Oil ...

107

Whalebone - . -

- 105

Wheat -

Whiskey

. 37

141

Wines ... -

Wool . - - -

Wraxall's descent into a mine

- 78

109

Writmg, Art of - - ^

- 130

Zinc ....

14 DAY USE

RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED
LOAN DEPT.

This book is due on the last date stamped below, or

on the date to which renewed.

Renewed books are subjert to immediate recall.

tW^«"^

RFr'p 7 n

hr\*\ 2i /"'•'■■^

K?^ *1 ^i- >

General Library
LD 21A-50m-8.'57 University of California ,
(C8481sl0)476B Berkeley

re ^loio

BOOKS PUBLISHED BY URIAH HUNT & SON,

A:iD FOR SALE AT THEIR CIIEAl* BOOKSTORK,

NO. 44, NOHTH FOURTH STREET, PHlLAl^ELPHIA.

School T.'ucher.e, nnd those having care of children, are particularly invited to examine
th" ^'st, as It includes many booKs unequalled for educational purposes.

Cou. ' Merchants and' Booksellers are supplied on the most liberal terms with every-
thi) the market affords in the book line.

' ■ . i'

A'he \ *k of Commerce l>y Sea and J Gntnmcrr's Progjrcssivc SpelHnsj-

Liaiid) .jxliibilifi" its connexion with Agricul

ture, ihe Arts, and .NJaiiufactures. 12mo. 185 pp.

Ill this work "ic U-nniPv is mniV- nrqiiMiiited with

Mie oris;:

abides

oi' food.

ware, ! '

rcf, \o It IS usoii in the
:*vi, the city of Philadelphia, and other parts
aoh.

Dpvvnport's History of the United
states; containing all the events necessary
to be (;<)inniitied to memory ; with tho Declaration of
Indopeiideiice, the ( (institution of the United 3tates,
and :i 'I'alile of riironology. ISnio. li'l pp.

Jack Halyard, the Sailor Boy; or,

THK MHTLois (■AMIIY. DesigiicMl for American
cliildreii in luniiiies and schools, iiy W. S. Cardell.
:8nio..231 p|).

Till- H U h<:: "-1 :- — --'. > ■

s > ib uiraiiii^d Oil ihb liui>ib uf DuUcr'i
SpellUig-By>k. 12mo. 216 pp.
This bonk (vn<; wr'tt.n l.i- s.imii.l R
hools^n ^ a long lime a '••
"' ""-*- T\; j^ and om^ '
rieiice as a teiu
write siinh a svorK

l^lyinoiotfR'al

Jacobus Latin Reader^ First Part, with a
Vocabulary nnd KiiRlish notes, for the use of schools
■ind acadetmos. Edited by George Baucroft. 12nio.
339 pp.

K'Si»"-<l*-i'»a T'noltiia rnniaininrf tlin five

lid

,luir .sr J,-;. It i,-- 1 .>;'. ri
|invate scLocls of '^ml;
ilid'erent s, rtiousof thr-

■ vijiy Lis^d !u Iht; public und ^
lelohni, as wd! as m those of '
i-uuntry. \

nioaruphy for Schools; or, GOOD EX-

'OR yoUNG Pt:KSUNS. By Mrs. Rob-
*ojericjn Popuiar Lessons. Ibmo.

ins a biostraphy of a number of

written in the wtjlUknown

Willi,- it tpHches to read, it

I'liful mind such

Wilhum l'hi[)ps,

' I" ird. Italsocou-

'. ;i.!iior.i hiuaie characters.

Guiut

Siirvf

.>! or.^ 1

ooUi sex.;

md Political

:, ;o!ai.!.,i to the

2yd pp.

pcller and IJicfiner ; or, CLASS-

■-', desi^i.ed to answer the purposes of a

uiui to supersede the necessity of the

ouitrv as a class-book. By Edward

.21.5 pp.

tei/sively usod in both the public and

I'hiladelplija anJ New York. The

ds of 20,(KX) copies annually.

.tin Tittor; or, EXERCISES

i', SYN'l'AX. AND PROSODY.

^ Latin Dictionary* 8vo. I

w iiTered at a price much lower than )
- naiiufactnrod m a superior manner. ;

'ij:nientof Ain«'worih'8 :

vryj for the use of granamar- \

i-m of Fenmair* i

•^asoT of Writing in i
' ' ■ ^O numbers, s

!\iiit;biey,

I. :d various

IVepos* for the use of classical

,.:l,-iri;rv. T'J-no 19^ n-.

itlU III'IS-

xaniples,
By John

This i'^e now m

use in' voosition,

is uneq;!:: 'C-

Key to (inmniere's Treatistt on Snr» I
v€ying»

Boniiy<Astle's ]*I- ' . i =. ". "
duction to Mensura'
.Tohn Br ;nyc-astlp: ;.-

'■ ' .Am tliu MKisi, iiupoi'Uiv iiui..jriiia in

JpmesKyan.

lie chief text-book aov. this science

lU :. . . /

Ivcy to Bonnycastle's MeAsnration*
Grjvca Majora. 2 vols. Svrl

This work is particularly recommMided to the higher
Greek classes, Ps it is tho only me'lium through wlucu
extracts from the principal Gree-V authurs run be ob-
tained. The first vulume is devote' ' "r-- 'le
second to Verse.
Comly's Primer*
Comly.'s Spelling-Boolt ( T.alaigcd). A |

New Sue! ing^ook, coiiinded with a view to render

the arts of .Spelling and Reading easy and pleasant 10

children. By John Conily.
Comly's Grammar*

made easy to the "learher md

The ^eneril use of ti
in the United States, i.-^
the cheapest, and is >
en<»d teachers, the besi i .. uui;

English Gr^j^mar

jp:l. r.yJoir.^l "" - ^