LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. GIFT OF 1: CVrfSS SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT OF NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY REPORT OF THE METROPOLITAN SEWERAGE COMMISSION OF NEW YORK Appointed under Chapter 639, Laws of 1906, as amended by Chapter 422, Laws of 1908 of New York State APRIL 3O, 191O GEORGE A. SOPER. JAMES H. FUERTES. Secretary, H. DE B. PARSONS. CHARLES SOOYSMITH, LINSLY R. WILLIAMS, MARTIN B. ^ * PRESS* NEW ^ 152 10J -10 (B) 600 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL NEW YOKK. April 30, 1910 Honorable WILLIAM J. GAYNOR, Mayor of The City of New York, Executive Chamber, City Hall. New York City. SIR: We submit herewith the report of the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission of New York, which was created to study the conditions of sewerage and sewage disposal in the metropolitan district of New York and formulate a general plan or policy for protecting and improving the sanitary condition of New York harbor and neighboring waters in accordance with an Act of the State Legislature, Chapter 639, Laws of 1906, amended by Chapter 422, Laws of 1908. Most of the work here reported was accomplished after the membership of the Com- mission was reconstituted in January, 1908, although care has been taken to utilize all useful information collected prior to that date by members of this Commission and others. Upon its reconstitution the Commission estimated that it would take about two years of time and an expenditure of $75,000 to complete the investigation for which it had been created. It is a source of gratification to report that the work has been finished in accordance with this estimate, notwithstanding delays, aggregating thirteen months, before an appropriation could be obtained and salaries paid to the assistants whom it was necessary to employ for clerical and professional work. Part of the success of the investigation has been due to co-operation received from various departments of The City of New York and the United States Government. The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey aided in studies of tides; the Corps of Engi- neers United States Army furnished data concerning solid deposits and dredging opera- tions in the harbor; the Lighthouse Board permitted tests of the water to be made at their stations; the Department of Docks and Ferries of The City of New York gave the use of laboratory space; the Department of Health of The City of New York fur- nished statistical information and made special bacteriological analyses; the Depart- ment of Street Cleaning of The City of New York supplied information concerning the quantities of garbage dumped at sea; the New York Zoological Society furnished laboratory space and tanks for experimental purposes in the New York Aquarium. The Borough Presidents of New York and the chiefs of sewer bureaus in the many cities and towns in the metropolitan district courteously afforded opportunities to collect valu- able data. Respectfully submitted, METROPOLITAN SEWERAGE COMMISSION OF NEW YORK, GEORGE A. SOPER, JAMES H. FUERTES, H. DE B. PARSONS, CHARLES SOOYSMITH, LINSLY R. WILLIAMS. .3755 FOREWORD The following report is divided into three sections designated respectively Part I, Part II and Part III. Part I is a summary of the whole report. It contains a brief statement of the nature and extent of the investigations conducted by the Commission, the principal results of the investigations and the more important of the Commission's recommendations. Part II is a summary of the investigations. It gives the main facts and results in convenient form for reading and reference. Part III contains a classified digest of the data collected during the Commission's investigations. It has been found impracticable to publish full tabulations of the analyses and ob- servations; these would have occupied several hundred pages. It is believed that the summaries presented in the various chapters of Part III will prove sufficient for most purposes; officials who desire to study the observations and analyses in detail may have access to the original data upon request. The report does not contain a full index. An extensive table of contents, combined with the free use of italic subheads throughout the text, will enable ready reference to be made to the different subjects dealt with in the report. Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I SUMMARY OF REPORT DESCRIPTION OF THE INVESTIGATIONS PAGE Plan of Investigations 41 Analytical Work 41 Population and Sewerage 42 Kxperlments and Tests 42 Studies of Tidal Phenomena 42 Action with Respect to Trunk Sewers 42 Co-operation Invited from New Jersey 43 RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS Dangers from Bathing and from Shellfish 43 Local Nuisances 43 Condition of Water in Main Channels 43 Additional Pollution from Trunk Sewers 44 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS RAISED BY THE LEGISLATURE 44 RECOMMENDATIONS 46 IN CONCLUSION 48 PART II SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS CHAPTER I REPLIES TO THE SPECIFIC QUESTIONS IN THE ACT CREATING THE METROPOLITAN SEWERAGE COMMISSION SECTION I THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT LAND AND WATER AREAS PAGE Extent of the District 51 WATERS OF THE DISTRICT Hudson River 51 Kast River 52 Harlem River 52 Outer Harbor, Jamaica Bay aud Atlantic Ocean 52 The Kills 52 Newark Bay 52 Small Estuaries 52 Depth of Waters 54 Areas of Water Surfaces 54 DISTINCTIVE TOPOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS ">4 POPULATION 50 PBINCIPAL INDUSTRIES 57 GRADUAL AND INCREASING POLLUTION OF THE HARBOR WATERS 58 SECTION II FEASIBLE METHODS OF DISPOSING OF SEWAGE. Collecting Systems 60 Disposal Through Dilution 00 Methods of Partial Purification eratioii of Other Departments of the City of New York 70 Co-operation of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey 70 Assistance from Many Sources 71 Investigations 71 Digest of Early Data 71 Analytical Work 71 Laboratory 71 Volume of Analytical Work 71 Special Investigations 72 Ex isting Sewerage Works 72 Inspection of Sewerage System of Manhattan 72 Sewer Outlets 71.' Street Refuse Entering Harbor 72 Population Estimates 72 Future Sewerage Needs 72 Pollution of Beaches and Bathiug Establishments 72 Transportation of Sewage by Currents 72 Diffusion and Digestion 72 Tidal Phenomena ; 72 Float Studies Typhoid Outbreak Digestion of Sewage Solids 72 SECTION 1 1 FLOW OF TIDAL WATER Net Discharge Seaward Through the Narrows 73 Total Flow Through the Narrows in Both Directions 73 Net Flow Seaward of Hudson and East Rivers and Kill van Kull 73 Velocities of Tidal Flows 73 Ranges of Tides 73 Effects of Winds on Tides 7.1 12 PART II. SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS PAGE Salinity of Harbor Waters ...................................................... ":: ImiKM-fect Conditions of Assimilation ............................................ 7o Oscillatory Movement of Harbor Waters .......................................... 75 SECTION III. POPULATION AND SEWAGE Population .................................................................... 70 Quantities of Sewage Discharged into the Harbor ................................ 70 Points of Discharge ............................................................ 70 Purification Works .............................................................. 77 Extension of Outfalls ........................................................... 77 Joint Outlet Sewer ............................................................. 77 Bronx Valley Sewer ............................................................ 77 i'assaic Valley Sewer ........................................................... 77 Effects on Harbor .............................................................. 77 General Plan for Conservancy Needed ........................................... 7S Future Pollution ............................................................... 78 Establishment of Plan for Conservancy .......................................... 78 SECTION IV CAPACITY OF NEW YORK HARBOR FOR SEWAGE Self Purification of Harbor Waters .............................................. 78 Oxidation ..................................................................... 79 Dilution ....................................................................... 79 Liquefaction ................................................................... 79 Reduction of Dissolved Oxygen .................................................. 79 Sources of Dissolved Oxygen .................................................... 79 Present Deficiencies ............................................................ 79 Sewage Deposits ................................................................ 79 Deposits near Sewer Outlets .................................................... SO SECTION V EFFECTS ON HEALTH Infection of Harbor Waters ..................................................... 80 Life of Bacteria in Harbor Waters .............................................. 80 Methods of Acquiring Infection .................................................. SI Obscure Relation Between Polluted Harbor and Sickness .......................... 81 Shellfish and Infected Harbor Waters ............................................ 8.' Typhoid Fever from Oysters .................................................... 82 Bathing in Harbor Waters ...................................................... 82 Abolishment of Floating Bathing Establishments .................................. 82 SECTION VI MAIN FACTS AND OPINIONS DERIVED FROM THE INVESTIGATIONS AS TO THE INTENSITY OF POLLUTION OF THE HARBOR WATERS ..... 8,'! CHAPTER III SUMMARY OF EXISTING CONDITIONS WITH COM MENTS AND SUGGESTIONS SECTION I METHODS OF SEWERAGE IN USB Separate and Combined Systems ........................................... 85 Relief Sewers ............................................................ 85 Pumping Plants .............................................. 88 TABLE OF CONTENTS 13 SECTION II METHODS OF DESIGN EMPLOYED PAGB Determination of Quantity of Sewage and Storm Water 88 Quantity of Water Reaching Sewers 80 Sizes 90 Shapes and Materials - 0- Veutilatiou 93 Flushing Arrangements 94 Outlets 94 SECTION III MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERS Inspection and Cleaning 95 SECTION IV METHODS OF DISPOSING OF THE SEWAGE Purification Plants 90 Disposal into Adjacent Waters 98 SECTION V FAULTS OF THE SEWEBAGE SYSTEMS Tide-locked Sewers 99 Improper Sizes 100 Condition of the Sewers 102 Recent Inspection 10'J Deposits on Bottoms and Sides of Sewers 10- Administrative Difficulties 10S Improper Methods of Discharging Sewage into the Harbor 104 SECTION VI FUTURE PLANS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES Disposal 105 Improvement in Sewerage Systems 108 SECTION VII HATIO OF VOLUMES OF HARBOR WATERS AND SEWAGE Continuous Sewage Discharge 110 Intermittent Tidal Flows Ill Future Conditions 11 2 More Information Needed 11- Advantages of Additional Gauging Stations 11- SECTION VIII LACK OF CO-OPERATION BETWEEN THE MUNICIPALITIES Sewage Disposal 113 Condition of Harbor Waters 114 Plans for Conservation 115 SECTION IX LACK OF CO-OPERATION BETWEEN DEPARTMENTS Between Sewer, Highway, Dock and Magisterial Departments 110 With Respect to Construction and Maintenance 117 The Public 'Service Commission and the Bureau of Sewers 117 Right of Entry for Inspectors 118 SECTION X LACK OF UNIFORMITY' IN DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION Storm Water Allowances 118 Designs 119 Ventilation 119 Street Washing 120 PART III DATA COLLECTED CHAPTER I MOVEMENT FOR A CLEAN HARBOR NKW YORK BAY POLLUTION COMMISSION PAGE First Report 1123 Final Report 124 METROPOLITAN SEWERAGE COMMISSION OF NEW YORK Appointment 125 Appropriations 12S Work Undertaken 128 Increased Appropriation and Extension of Time 129 Unavoidable Delays 130 Payment of Employees 131 Fixing of Salaries 131 Case of Allen vs. Metz 131 Civil Service Requirements 131 Conclusion of Work Required under the Act 132 CHAPTER II POPULATION OF THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT AND THE VOLUME OF SEWAGE DISCHARGED INTO NEW YORK HARBOR POPULATION Introduction 133 Estimates : John R. Freeman 133 Dr. Walter Laidlaw 135 Board of Water Supply 135 New York Telephone Company 133 Miscellaneous 137 Growth of New York Compared with that of the Whole Country and of Other Cities 137 Kffect of Migration 137 Possible Reduction of Congestion 13'J Analysis of Previous Estimates 139 Methods of Estimating Employed 141 Summary of Results 141 Table of Population 144 VOLUME OF SEWAGE DISCHARGED INTO NEW YORK HARBOR General Considerations 145 Table of Volumes 140 CHAPTER III TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT SECTION I PRINCIPAL PHYSICAL AND HYDRAULIC FEATURES GENERAL CONDITIONS Introduction 14j Flow of Laud Water into the Harbor 150 Volumes of Water in Harbor 150 Tidal Ranges 152 Lunar Day 15;; Interference Tides 153 TABLE OF CONTENTS 15 EI-TECT OF TIDAL RANGE PAGE East River 154 Hudson River 154 The Kills 154 The Narrows 154 The Harlem 154 Strength of Current 154 Current Velocities 1 55 Tidal Prisms 155 SECTION II PRINCIPAL CURRENT PHENOMENA THE NARROWS AND OTHER PARTS OF THE HARBOR Uuderrun 150 Tidal Velocities ]57 Paths of Floating Bodies 157 CURRENT CONDITIONS IN HARBOR AT EACH LUNAR HOUB 1 Lunar Hour 158 2 Lunar Hour 158 3 Lunar Hour 158 4 Lunar Hour 158 5 Lunar Hour 158 G Lunar Hour 158 7 Lunar Hour 171 8 Lunar Hour 171 9 Lunar Hour 171 10 Lunar Hour 171 11 Lunar Hour 171 12 Lunar Hour 171 PRINCIPAL TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE ESTUARIES OF THE HARBOR Tidal Rivers 171 Jamaica Bay 171 Shrewsbury River 172 Gowanus Canal and Newtown Creek 172 SECTION III PHENOMENA OF DISCHARGE VOLUME OF DISCHARGE Through the Narrows 172 Of the Hudson River 174 Of the East River 174 Of the Kill van Kull and Arthur Kill 170 Of Harlem River 178 VOLUMES OF FLOW INTO AND OUT OF UPPEB BAY General Conditions 179 Methods of Estimating 179 DISCHARGE THROUGH NEW YORK UABBOB TO SEA Net Flow into Bay from Sound 180 Net Flow Seaward through the Narrows 180 16 PART III. DATA COLLECTED CONTROLLING FACTORS IN THE FLOW, AND EFFECT OF WIND PAGE Land Water Discharge 1S1 Variation in Heights of Tides 181 Effects of Winds 181 EFFECTS OF DREDGING, OBSTRUCTIONS AND BULKHEADS Reclamations 181 Pier Extensions 181 Dredged Channels 181 EBB AND FLOOD VELOCITIES IN THE HARBOR Mean, Maximum and Minimum 182 CHAPTER IV HARBOR CURRENTS AS SHOWN BY FLOATS SECTION I FLOAT EXPERIMENTS METHODS OF WORK EMPLOYED Can Floats 184 Spar Floats 184 Methods of Observing Floats 18." Experiments of 1907 18T> Experiments of 1908 185 Experiments of 1909 18o RESULTS OF FLOAT EXPERIMENTS Hudson River ISO Harlem River 188 Upper East River 192 Lower East River 194 Upper Bay 200 Records Made on Flood Currents 204 Records Made on Ebl> Currents 204 Newark Bay, Kill van Kull and Arthur Kill 20r. Lower Bay 209 Jamaica Bay 210 RELIABILITY OF RESULTS 211 SECTION II CURRENT OBSERVATIONS METHODS AND RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS Robbins Reef 212 Jersey Flats 214 Rockaway Inlet 215 TABLE OF CONTENTS 17 CHAPTER V SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS OF THE MUNICIPALITIES IN THE METRO- POLITAN DISTRICT SECTION I SEWERAGE WORKS OF NEW YORK CITY BOROUGH op MANHATTAN GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS PACE Principal Topographical Characteristics 217 Account of Growth of Sewerage System 218 SEWERAGE WOBKS Sewers 220 Outfalls 221 Ventilation 228 Growth of System 228 Unsewered Streets 229 Effect of Subway Construction on Sewerage System 22U Changes in System Suggested to Facilitate Street Washing 230 Desirability of Reconstruction of Certain of the Sewers on the Separate Plan 231 Public Service Commission and the Sewers 231 Recommendations 232 MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWEKAOE SVSTEIF Cleaning Basins 232 Cleaning Sewers 232 Condition of the Sewers 234 Ordinance Against Steam, Acids, etc 234 Reconstruction 235 Troubles and Complaints 235 DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE Discharge into Harbor 230 Sewage Deposits along Water Front 23ti Nuisances 237 The Crowding of Sewage Shoreward by Currents 237 Effect on Public Bathing Establishments 238 Future Conditions 238 BOROUGH OF BROOKLYN GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Characteristics 239 Distribution of Population 240 General Conditions 241 Bureau of Sewers 242 SEWERAGE WORKS Design 243 The Sewers 245 Catch Basins 24G Ventilation 24(5 House Connections 248 Outfalls 24t! Growth of the System 249 Sewers and Subway Construction 251 18 PART III. DATA COLLECTED RELIEF SEWEBS PAGE Greene Avenue Relief Sewer 252 Additional Relief Sewers - i> - Division No. 1, Main Relief Sewers 2o2 Division No. 2, Main Relief Sewers 2o:J Gowanus Canal 2atJ Gowanus Flushing Tunnel ~~ )4 Third Avenue Relief Sewer 255 Brooklyn-Queens Interborough Sewer 255 Wallabout Channel Relief Sewer 255 MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE SYSTEM Inspection 253 Basin Cleaning 25(i Washing Street Sweepings into Basins 250 Disposal of Basin Deposits 250 Store Yards 250 DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE TIDAL DISCHARGE 257 Newtown Creek 257 Wallabout Bay 257 Gowanus Canal 2oS Coney Island Creek 258 Paerdegat Creek 258 Effect on Shell Fisheries 258 Pollution of Harbor Waters '. 25'J Pollution of Jamaica Bay 25!) SKWACE PURIFICATION PI-ANTS Coney Island Plants 200 East New York Plant 201 Quality of Effluent 202 PLANS OF THE BUREAU OF SEWF.RS FOR THE FUTURE Proposed Coney Island Plant 20:.! Proposed Xew Twenty-sixth Ward Plant . .'. 205 Proposed Paerdegat Plant 205 Proposed Shellbank Creek Plant 20j BOROUGH OF THE BRONX GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Characteristics 205 Distribution of Population 200 General Conditions 200 Proposed Unionport Sewers 207 Relief Sewers 2(W Bureau of Sewers 208 SEWERAGE WORKS Design 208 Sewers 200 Brook Avenue Sewer 260 Broadway Outlet Sewer 270 Farragnt Street Sewer 271 Tiffany Avenue Sewer 271 Jerome Avenue Sewer 271 East One Hundred and Forty-ninth Street Sewer 272 TABLE OF CONTENTS 19 The Sewers of Uniouport. PAGE 272 City Island Sewers 272 Catch Basins 273 Ventilation 273 Flushing 273 Outfalls 27;i Growth of the System 270 Construction Difficulties 27G Plans of Local Authorities for Future Work 277 RELIEF SEWERS Webster Avenue Relief Tunnel 277 Truxton Street Relief Sewer 277 MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE WORKS Inspections 277 Cleaning Sewers 278 Cleaning Catch Basins 27S Steam in Sewers 278 DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE Tidal Discharge 278 BOROUGH or QUEENS GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Characteristics 279 Municipalities in the Borough 279 Bureau of Sewers 281 SEWERAGE WORKS Old Sewers 282 Design 282 Location and Sizes of the Sewer Outlets 283 Elevation of Outlets 284 Materials 284 Ventilation 284 Flush Tanks 284 \KW SEWERS Area North of Newtown Creek 284 Ridgewood Area 284 Flushing , 284 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF .SEWERAGE First Ward Existing Sewers 285 Proposed Sewers 285 Second Ward 955 Third Ward 28 5 Fourth Ward 280 Fifth Ward Extent of the System 286 MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE WORKS Inspections 287 Cleaning 287 Disposal of Cleanings 287 l'(J PART III. DATA COLLECTED DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE TIDAL DISCHARGE Long Island City 2S ? Ridgewood 28S Elmhurst 288 Flushing District -88 DISPOSAL PLANTS Jamaica -88 Far Rockaway 2SS Elmhurst 289 Supervision -"JO COMPLAINTS AND NUISANCES Whitestone 290 Newtown Creek 290 FUTURE PLANS or LOCAL AUTHORITIES Waterfront of Queens -'JO General Sewerage Plans -00 Suggestions by Board of Estimate and Apportionment 291 Long Island City 291 Richmond Hill and Woodhaven 2'.M The Rockaways 202 Jamaica Bay Improvement 292 Recommendations 292 BOROUGH OF RICHMOND GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Characteristics 202 Distribution of Population 293 The Bureau of Sewers 29;; SKWEHAGE WOBKS Design 204 Sewers 29-1 Catch Basins 29o Ventilation 293 Flush Tanks 2UD Outfalls 295 Growth of the System 297 MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE SYSTEM Inspection 297 Cleaning Basins 207 Disposal of Cleanings 208 DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE Tidal Discharge 29S Complaints 208 Burning of Sludge 298 SECTION II SEWERAGE OF THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT IN NEW YORK STATE EXCLUSIVE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK SEWERAGE OF THE BRONX VALLEY Historical 298 Trunk Sewer 299 TABLE OF CONTENTS 21 PAGE Topography 300 Towns within the District 300 Opposition 301 Approval of Plans 301 Ontfall 301 SEWEBAOK OF WHITE PLAINS Sowers 302 Sewage Flow 302 PurlHcation Works 302 Defects 303 SEWERAGE OF TUCKAHOE Sewers 304 Purification Works 304 Complaints 304 SEWERAGE OF BBONXVILLE Sewers 300 Purification Works 305 SEWERAGE OF MT. VEBNON, PELHAM AND PELHAJI MANOR Pollution of Ilutchinsou River 305 Sewers of Jit. Vernoii 305 Sewers of Pel ha in 305 Sewers of Peihaiu Manor 305 Mr. Vernoii Purification Works 305 SEWERAGE OF NEW ROCHELLE Sewers 306 Purification Works 306 SECTION III SEWERAGE OF THE NEW JERSEY METROPOLITAN DISTRICT GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Characteristics of the District 307 SEWERAGE OF NEWARK, N. J. GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Drainage Areas 308 Board of Street and Water Commissioners 300 Department of Sewers 30!) Department of Works 309 SEWKBAGE WORKS Design 300 Velocities 310 Materials 310 Outlets 310 Ventilation 310 Basin Design 311 Flush Tanks 311 Principal Sewers 311 Interceptor 312 22 PART 111. DATA COLLECTED PAGE East Branch Intercepting Sewer 313 East Orange Outlet Sewer 313 Vailsburg Sewers 314 Relief Sewers 314 Meadowbrook Sewer System 314 Passaic Interceptor 314 . Sewage Flow 314 Growth of System 314 MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE SYSTEM Cleaning 31G Disposal of Cleanings 310 Steam in Sewers 310 Street Cleaning 310 Cost of Sewer Maintenance 31(5 DISPOSAL or THE SEWAGE Into the Passaic River 31(> Into Newark Bay 316 Outlet Nuisances 3] 6 Future Plans 316 SEWERAGE OF PATERSON General Conditions 317 The Sewers 317 Population Served With Sewers 319 Outlets 3J9 Quantity of Sewage 319 MAINTENANCE or THE SEWER SYSTEM Inspections ail) DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE Into Passaic River 320 Complaints 320 Attempts to Stop Pollution of River 320 IMPROVED SEWAGE DISPOSAL Mr. Gray's Report 320 Mr. Hazen's Report 321 Works Proposed 321 Future Plans of Local Authorities 322 SEWERAGE OF PASSAIC, N. J. General Topographical Features 322 Sewerage 300 Sewage Disposal 390 SEWERAGE OF THE CITY OF OBANGE, THE TOWNS OF MONTCLAIR AND BLOOMIIELD, AND THE BOROUGH OF GLENHIDGE UNION OUTLET SEWEB General Topographical Features 323 Sewerage 303 Disposal of the Sewage 323 SEWERAGE OF EAST ORANGE, N. J. General Topographical Features 323 Sewerage 324 TABLE OF CONTENTS 23 PAGK Original Sewage Disposal Plant 324 Present Disposal 325 Future Plans 325 SEWERAGE OF CLINTON, GARFIELD, LODI, HASBKOUCK HEIGHTS, DELA WANNA, FBANKLIN, NUTLEY, AVONDALE, BELLEVILLE, WOOUKIDGE, C'AKLSTADT, WALLINGTON, EAST RUTHEEFOKl), RUTHERFOBU, LYNDIIUBST, ARLINGTON, KEARNEY, EAST NEWABK AND HAKRISON Sewerage 320 Future Plans 326 PROPOSED PASSAIC VALLEY SEWER Origin of Project 32G The First Report 326 Subsequent Reports 327 Present Commission's Plan 327 Opposition 327 Investigations and Government Control 328 Extent of the Proposed Works 32S Recommendation 330 Future Prospects 330 JOINT OUTLET SEWEB FOR THE SEWERAGE OF IBVINGTON, VAILSBURG, SOUTH ORANGE, WEST ORANGE, SUMMIT, MILBURN AND PARTS OF ELIZABETH, NEWABK, ORANGE AND UNION TOWNSHIP GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Characteristics 331 South Orange's Need for Sewerage 332 First Joint Action 332 Legislation 333 Contract with Elizabeth and Other Municipalities 333 Execution of Project 333 ORGANIZATION OF MUNICIPALITIES For Construction 334 For Maintenance 334 SEWERAGE WORKS Design 334 Separate System 334 Velocity of Flow 334 Recording Gauges 334 Equalizing Tanks 334 The Sewer 334 West Branch 335 East Branch 335 Outlet 335 Extent of System 335 MAINTENANCE OF THE SYSTEM Inspections 336 Cleaning 336 Entrance of Ground Water 330 24 PART III. DATA COLLECTED I JIM-US.M, OF HIE SEWAGE Tidal Discharge > :!( > Investigations 336 Effects of Discharge 330 Future Conditions 3 37 FUTURE PLANS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES For Disposal *" For Extension 337 SEWERAGE OF ELIZABETH, X. J. GENERAL FEATUBES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Characteristics 337 SEWERAGE WORKS Organization for Construction and Maintenance 33S THE OLD SYSTEM The Sewers 338 Old River Outlets 338 Elevation of Outlets 338 NEW SYSTEM Design 33U Sizes 3:50 Capacity 3:50 Ventilation 33U Interceptor 330 Pumping Station 339 Discharge Outlet 340 Extent of System 340 MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE WORKS Cleaning 340 Disposal of Cleanings 310 DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE Tidal Discharge 340 Meadow Outlets 341 River Outlets 341 Nuisances 341 Complaints 341 FUTURE PLANS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES Ultimate Disposal 341 SEWERAGE OF THE HACKENSACK VALLEY SEWERAGE OF HACKENSACK 342 SKWEBAOE OF BOGOTA 343 SEWERAGE OF RIDGEFIELD PARK 343 SEWERAGE OF THE OTHER TOWNS ON THE WEST SIDE OF THE HACKENSACK VALLEY 343 SEWERAGE OF THE TOWNS ON THE EAST SIDE OF THE HACKENSACK VALLEY 343 SEWERAGE OF ENGLEWOOD 344 FUTURE PLANS FOR THE HACKENSACK VALLEY 344 SEWERAGE OF BAYONNE, N. J. GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Characteristics 345 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1>.~> SEWERAGE WORKS PAGE Organization for Construction ai'd Maintenance 345 Old System 345 New System 345 Ventilation 340 Outlets 340 Extent of System 347 MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWEBAGE SYSTEM Cleaning 347 Disposal of Cleanings 347 DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE Tidal Discharge 347 Sanitary Outlets 347 Nuisances 348 Future Plans 34S SEWERAGE OF JERSEY CITY, N. J. GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Characteristics 348 Si'WEHAGE WORKS Old Sewers 348 Organization for Construction and Maintenance 348 Design 340 Formula 349 Materials 340 Outlets 340 Grades 300 Difficulties 351 RELIEF SEWERS Division Street 351 Jackson and Claremont Avenue Relief 351 Grant Avenue Relief 352 Van Winkle Avenue 35:2 OTHER RECENT CONSTRUCTIONS Clendenin Avenue 352 Jersey City-Bergen Joint Sewer 352 Extent of System 352 MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE WORKS Inspection 353 Cleaning 353 Disposal of Cleanings 353 Ventilation 353 DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE Tidal Discharge 353 Ilackensack River 353 Penhorn Creek 353 Newark Bay 354 Hudson River "* 354 Mill Creek 354 Future Plans 354 Greenville 354 Grand Avenue 354 20 PART III. DATA COLLECTED SEWEKAGE or HOBOKEN, X. J. GKNEBAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS PAGE Principal Topographical Characteristics 355 SEWEBAGE WORKS Design of Sewers 335 Old System 355 Outfalls 335 Extent of the System 300 MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWLBAGE WORKS Inspection 350 Gleaning 350 Disposal of Cleanings 350 DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE Tidal Discharge 350 Tide-Locked Sewers 357 Xuisances 357 Future Plans 357 SEWEBAGE OF THE RAHWAY RIVER VALLEY GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Characteristics 357 Municipalities on the Watershed 35S SEWERAGE WORKS OF THE MUNICIPALITIES Rahway 35S Rahway Reformatory 359 Cranford 350 Garwood 350 Westfleld 359 Milburn Township 300 Summit 300 Orange 300 West Orange 300 Union Township 300 South Orange Township 300 South Orange 301 Factories 3d CHAPTER VI FOULING OF THE BEACHES OF LONG ISLAND AND NEW JERSEY BY GARBAGE WASHED UP FROM THE SEA DURING THE SUMMER OF 1906 SECTION I RESULTS OF INSPECTIONS * COLLECTION OF INFORMATION Purpose of Investigation 333 Usefulness of Data 363 Organization for Inspection 363 TABLE OF CONTENTS 27 SUMMARY OF INFORMATION COLLECTED PAGE Dumping Grounds and Effect of Changing Their Location 364 Effects of Winds on Travel of Garbage 364 Fields of Floating Garbage 364 Rate of Travel of Garbage towards Beaches 364 Return of Floating Garbage to New York Harbor 364 Distances Traveled by Garbage 304 Pollution of Long Island and New Jersey Beaches with Garbage 365 Quantity of Garbage on the Beaches 365 Winds During Summer of 1006 Favorable to Small Deposits 365 Loss of Offensiveness Due to Immersion 365 Control of Future Sea Disposal when again Necessary 365 SECTION II INSPECTIONS BY METROPOLITAN SEWERAGE COMMISSION THE SHORES OF LONO ISLAND WESTHAMPTON AND SMITHS POINT BEACHES Westhampton Beach 366 Smiths Point Beach 366 Summary 360 OPPOSITE PATCHOGUF, Water Island 366 Summary 366 OAK ISLAND Oak Island 366 Oak Beach 366 Life Saving Station 360 FIRE ISLAND AND OAK ISLAND Fire Island 367 Oak Island 367 Summary 367 LONG BEACH Long Beach Bathing Beach 367 LONG BEACH, July 30, 1906 Long Beach Bathing Beach 367 Shore to West of Inn 367 Shore to Point Lookout Life Saving Station 368 Summary 368 ROCKAWAY BEACH TO CONEY ISLAND, July 11, 1906 Rockaway Beach 368 Seaside Boat Landing 368 Far Rockaway 368 Manhattan Beach 368 Brighton Beach 369 Bathing Place, Brighton Beach 369 Coney Island, Bathing Beach 369 Summary 369 ROCKAWAY POINT TO HOLLAND, July IS. 1906 Rockaway Park 369 Belle Harbor 369 28 PART III. DATA COLLECTED PAGE Rockaway Park Bathing Beach 3t>y Sea Beach House to Iron Pier 369 Rockaway Beach 3UU Hotel Holland ; '- ti:) Summary 370 HAMMKLS TO SEASIDE, July 24, 1900 Hainmels " ' " Hauiinels to Arverue 370 Arverne Beach 370 Arverne to Edgemere 370 Beach near Club 370 Edgemere to Far Rockaway 370 Far Rockaway Beach 370 Seaside 370 Summary , 370 BBTCIITON BEACH TO MANHATTAN BEACH, July 10, 1906 Brighton Beach 371 Shore near Manhattan Beach 371 Manhattan Beach 371 Manhattan Beach beyond Oriental Hotel 371 Summary 371 CONEY ISLAND, SEA GATE TO WEST BBIGHTOK, July 14, 1906 Sea Gate 371 Beach to Xortons Point 371 Hotel near Sea Gate 372 Sea Gate Beach near West Brighton 372 Coney Island 372 Amusement Center, Coney Island 372 Coney Island Beach 372 Summary 372 CONEY ISLAND AND MANHATTAN BEACHES Coney Island 372 Brighton Beach 372 Manhattan Beach 372 Along Neckwater beyond Oriental Hotel 372 Summary 372 THE SHORES OF STATFN ISLAND, July 13, 1900 SOUTH BEACH AND MIDLAND BEACH South Beach 372 Shore to Midland Beach 373 Midland Beach 373 Shore to Great Kills 373 Summary 373 SOUTH BEACH AND MIDLAND BEACH, July 25, 1906 Fort Wadsworth 373 Millers Beach 373 Beach to Midland Beach 373 Ocean View Beach 373 Midland Beach 373 Summary '. 373 TABLE OF CONTENTS 29 FORT WADSWORTH TO MIDLAND BEACH, August 20, 1000 PAGE South Beach to Fort Wadsworth 373 Bathing Beaches, South Beach 373 Midland Beach 374 Bathing Beaches, Midland Beach , 374 Summary 374 THE SHORES OF NEW JERSEY ATLANTIC HIGHLANDS TO OCKAN GROVE, July 10, 1900 Atlantic Highlands 374 Xormandie, near Life Saving Station 374 Seabright 374 Long Branch 374 Asbury Park 374 Ocean Grove 374 Summary 374 SANDY HOOK, August 17, 1900 Summary 375 LONG BRANCH TO SEABRIGHT, July 27, 1900 Long Branch 375 Seabright 375 Summary 370 SEABRIGHT TO POINT PLEASANT, August 13, 1900 Seabright 370 Asbury Park 370 Bradley Beach 370 Summary 370 SEADRIGHT TO BET/MAR. August 0, 1900 Seabright 377 West End Bathing Beach 377 Asbury Park 377 Beach between Ocenn Grove and Belmnr 377 Summary 377 POINT PLEASANT TO ASBURY PARK, July 28, 1900 Point Pleasant 377 Asbury Park 377 Ocean Grove 378 Shore North of Belmnr 378 Summary 378 ASBTJRY PARK TO POINT PLEASANT, August 7, 1900 Asbury Park 378 Bradley Beach 378 Spring Lake 373 Sea Girt 378 Point Pleasant 378 Summary 379 ASBURY PARK TO SEASIDE PARK, August 14, 1900 Asbury Park 379 Bradley Beach 379 Point Pleasant 379 Seaside Park 379, Summary . 879 30 PART III. DATA COLLECTED ATLANTIC CITY, August 10, 1906 PAGE Inlet to Heinze's Pier 380 Heinze's Pier, South Along Shore 380 Summary 380 THE SURFACE OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN BETWEEN LONG BEACH, L. I., AND BBADI.EY BEACH, N. J., August 17 and IS, 1900 Large Garbage Fields 380 Float Observations 381 Fields of Garbage Off Long Branch 381 Garbage Fields 17 Miles at Sea 382 Velocity of Travel of Garbage Fields 382 Garbage Fields in Lower New York Bay 3S2 Summary 382 SECTION III INSPECTIONS BY LIFE SAVINGS SERVICE OF THE NEW JERSEY AND LONG ISLAND COASTS COAST OF NEW JERSEY Sandy Hook 383 Spermaceti Cove 383 Seabright 383 Monmouth Beach 383 Long Branch 383 Deal 383 Shark River 384 Spring Lake 384 Squan Beach 384 Bayhead 384 Mantoloking 384 Chadwick 384 Toms River 384 Island Beach 334 Cedar Creek 384 Forked River ;>S-i Barnegat 385 Loveladies Island 385 Harvey Cedars 335 Ship Bottom 335 Long Beach 335 Bonds 385 Little Egg Harbor 335 Little Beach 335 Brigantine 335 Atlantic City 335 Absecon 35 Great Egg Harbor 335 Ocean City 335 Pecks Beach 335 Corsons Inlet 335 Sea Isle City 385 TABLE OF CONTENTS 31 PAQK Avalon 385 Tatbatns 385 Two Mile Beach 385 Cold Spring 385 Cape May 385 COAST OF LONG ISLAND Rockaway Point 385 Rockaway v 385 Long Beach 386 Point Lookout , 386 Short Beach 386 Zachs Inlet 386 Jones Beach 386 Gilgo 386 Oak Island 386 Fire Island 386 Point o'Woods 386 Lone Hill 386 Blue Point 380 Bellport 386 Smiths Point 386 Forge River 380 Moriches 386 Potunk 386 Qnogue 386 SECTION IV QUANTITIES OF GARBAGE DUMPED AT SEA DURING JULY AND AUGUST, ]OOC New York Garbage Dumped at Sea 387 CHAPTER VII BACTERIAL CONTENT OF THE HARBOR WATERS COLLECTION AND EXAMINATION or SAMPLES Collection of Samples 389 Plating of Samples 389 Locating Samples 389 GENERAL RESULTS OF EXAMINATIONS Maximum aud Minimum Counts 390 Upper Bay 391 Hudson River 391 East River 391 Long Island Sound 392 Harlem River 392 Kill van Hull 390 Newark Bay 392 Pussalc River 892 Arthur Kill 392 32 PART III. DATA COLLECTED PAGE Narrows 393 Gravesend Bay 393 Lower Bay 303 Rockaway Inlet 393 Jamaica Bay 393 Atlantic Ocean 303 CHAPTER VIII EVIDENCE OF POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE EXHAUSTION OF THE DISSOLVED OXYGEN ANALYTICAL MKTHODS Albert Levy Method Used 399 Testing of Method by Professor Meizger 400 Opinion of Professor (Jill on Method 400 Reagents Used 401 Collection of Samples 402 Method of Making Test 403 Computation of Results 403 Standard Units 403 Locating Sampling Points 404 Tabular Summary of Data 404 DISSOLVED OXYGEN IN THE WATERS OF THE UPPEB P.AY Surface and Bottom 404 Ebb and Flood Tides 404 Ix)cal Deficiencies 405 EAST RIVEB (From Governors Island to Hell Gate) Surface and Bottom 405 Ebb and Flood Tides 405 Local Deficiencies 405 EAST RIVEB (From Hell Gate to Throggs Neck) Surface and Bottom 405 On Ebb and Flood Tides 405 HrnsoN RIVEB (From its Mouth to Spuyteu Duyvil Creek) Surface and Bottom 400 On Ebb and Flood Tides 40G HUDSON RIVEB (From Spuyten Duyvil to Yonkers) Surface and Bottom 400 On Ebb and Flood Tides 400 HARLEM RIVER Surface and Bottom 400 On Average of Tides 40G Eastern End of River 406 KILL VAN KULL Surface and Bottom 407 On Ebb and Flood Tides 407 NEWARK BAY On Ebb and Flood Tides 407 TABLE OF CONTENTS 33 PASSAIC RIVEB PAGE Exhausted at Lower Limits of Newark 407 At Mouth 407 Effects of Water oil Paints 407 ARTHUR KILL Surface and Bottom 408 On Ebb aud Flood Tides 408 THE NARROWS Surface and Bottom 408 On Ebb and Flood Tides 408 GRAVESEND BAY Surface 408 LOWER BAY Surface and Bottom 408 Deep Samples 409 SUMMARY 409 CHAPTER IX EVIDENCE OF POLLUTION IN THE DEPOSITS ON THE BOTTOM OF THE HARBOR METHODS OF IDENTIFYING MATTERS OF SEWAGE ORIGIN Bacterial Evidence of Pollution 415 Identification of Soap, Fats and Animal Debris 415 Microscopic Examinations 417 Methods of Microscopic Analysis 417 SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF KIVKR AND HARBOR SEDI- MENTS BY DE. J. H. STEBBINS Harlem River between Third and Fourth Avenues 4VJ West Sixty-ninth Street 419 Wallabout Canal 420 Center of Hudson River Opposite Pier A 420 East River 150 feet from Pier Line, Center Broad Street 420 East River 50 feet from Pier Line, Center Broad Street 420 Off Erie Basin 421 Kill van Hull 421 Great Kills 421 EXAMINATIONS BY THE METROPOLITAN SEWERAGE COMMISSION Method Adopted by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission 422 Collection of Samples 422 Surface Samples 422 Sub-surface Samples 423 Preparation of Samples for Examination 423 Methods of Examination 404 Evidences of Pollution 424 General Condition of Harbor Bottom 425 34 PART III. DATA COLLECTED CHAPTER X DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWAGE IN NEW YORK HARBOR SECTION I COMPOSITION OF THE POLLUTING WASTES Quantity of Fecal Matter Produced 427 Composition of Sewage of American Cities 428 Composition of New York Sewage 428 Weight and Bulk of Sewage Solids 429 Appearance of Sewage 43i Bacteria in Sewage 432 SECTION II THE SOLIDS OF SEWAGE THE SOUDS WHICH SINK Extent of Bottom Pollution 433 Power of a Current to Move Sewage Particles 434 Disintegrating Effect of Water on Sewage Solids 434 Hydrolysis of Sewage Solids 434 Odors from Deposits 433 THE SOLIDS WHICH FLOAT Composition of tlie Floating Matters 430 Appearance of the Discharging Sewage 437 Transporting Power of the Currents 437 Effect of Winds 438 Movement of Solid Particles Toward the Shore 43.3 New York Harbor Sewage Traps 43S THE SUSPENDED SOLIDS Nature of the Suspended Solids 430 Effect of the Velocity of the Water on Transporting Power 43!i Velocity of Flow In Sewers In the New York District 439 Velocity of Tidal Currents 440 Changes in Velocity of Currents 441 Current Velocity Necessary to Move Solids 442 Lack of Uniformity in Currents 442 Relative Capacity of Land Water and Sea Water to Transport Sewage Par- ticles 444 Experiments to Show Relative Rate of Deposit of Solid Matters in Sea Water and Land Water 444 Distribution of Hard and Soft Material 4-Jo Condition of Channels Now and Formerly 445 Normal Solid Matter Carried by the Hudson 44i TABLE OF CONTENTS 35 SECTION III THE LIQUIDS OF SEWAGE OIL AND GREASE PAGE Grease of Industrial Origin 447 Grease from Dwellings 447 LIQUID ORGANIC MATTERS OF SEWAGE The Phenomena of Oxidation 447 Source of Oxygen 448 Kate of Oxidation Dependent on Living Organisms 448 The Two Stages of Decomposition 440 Normal Quantity of Oxygen in Harbor Water 449 Theoretically Permissible Draft Upon the Oxygen 450 Amount of Oxygen in the Water of New York Harbor 450 Zones Where Oxygen is Depleted 451 The Supply of Oxygen 453 Sewage Saturation and the Production of Odors 453 Relation Between Diffusion and Digestion of Sewage 453 SECTION IV EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF THE DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWAGE IN NEW YORK HARBOR DIFFUSION OF SEWAGE IN NEW YORK HARBOR Definition of Terms 455 Effect of Discharge of Sewage at the Surface 455 Effect of Discharge of Sewage below the Surface 455 Conditions at Boston Outlets 450 Ascent of Sewage in New York Harbor 456 Flotation Experiments With Solid Objects 457 Ascent and Diffusion of One Liquid in Another 457 Facts and Opinions Drawn From the Experiments 459 DIGESTION OF SEWAGE IN NEW YORK HARBOR Conditions Under Which the Experiments Were Made 461 Facts and Opinions Drawn From the Experiments 461 CHAPTER XI RELATION BETWEEN THE POLLUTION OF THE HARBOR WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH SECTION I INFECTION OF THE HARBOR WATERS INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT Greater New York 463 Westchester County 465 Nassau County, New York 466 New Jersey 466 36 PART III. DATA COLLECTED TUBERCULOSIS AND TYPHOID FEVER PAGE Means of Disinfection 407 Longevity of Tubercle and Typhoid Bacilli 470 Difficulties of Disinfection 471 Pollution of Harbor Waters Through Uwlisinfected Sewage Wastes 471 Genito-Urinary Diseases 472 SECTION II INFLUENCE OF THE POLLUTED HARBOR WATERS ON PUBLIC HEALTH THROUGH THE CONSUMPTION OF SHELLFISH In New York State 472 In New Jersey 474 Oysters and Clams from the Metropolitan Waters 474 Oysters and Clams in Polluted Waters 470 THE SHAD FISHERIES Value of the Catch 478 Effect of the Harbor Waters Upon Fish Life 480 UNCOOKED OYSTEBS AND TYPHOID FEVEB Wesleyau University Epidemic 481 Investigations by the Local Government Board 482 South-end-on-Sea and Yare 483 Brighton 483 Manchester 483 London 483 Conclusions of the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal 483 New York Harbor 483 Lawrence, L. 1 484 Narragansett Bay 484 Investigations of New York State Department of Health 485 SECTION III INFLUENCE OF THE POLLUTED WATERS ON PUBLIC HEALTH THROUGH BATHING BATHING ESTABLISHMENTS AND BATHING BEACHES Floating Bathing Establishments 480 Inland Bathing Establishments 486 Location of Floating Bathing Establishments 487 CONTAMINATION OF WATER OF BATHING ESTABLISHMENTS Manhattan-Hudson River 494 Manhattan-East River 495 Brooklyn 49(1 DANGER OF BATHING IN THE HARBOB Typhoid Fever 497 Diseases of the Eye 497 SECTION IV FLIES, INSECTS, VERMIN AND OTHER AGENCIES AS CARRIERS OF DIS- EASE GERMS FROM THE POLLUTED HARBOR FLIES AS CARRIERS OF DISEASE GEBMS Jackson's Report 498 TABLE OF CONTENTS ;17 OTHKH A<;KNI IKS IN THE SPREAD < INFECTIOUS DISEASES PAOK. Rats and Vermin 498 Driftwood 499 SECTION V IXFLVEXCK OF ODORS OX HEALTH Hospitals Along the Waterfront 499 CHAPTER XII LEGAL JURISDICTION OVER SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT OF NEW YORK JURISDICTION BY THE UNITED STATES Origin of Government Control 301 Power and Jurisdiction of the Supervisor of the Harbor 502 The Harbor Line Board and Suits Against New Jersey 502 JURISDICTION UNDEB INTERSTATE LAW Terms of Agreement Between Xew York and New Jersey 504 Application of Agreement to Disposal of Xew Jersey Sewage 504 JURISDICTION BY THE STATE OF XEW JERSEY Jurisdiction of State Board of Health and Passaic Valley Sewerage Commis- sion 505 Principal Laws of New Jersey with Kespect to Sewage Disposal 500 Practical Results of Xew Jersey's Jurisdiction 507 JURISDICTION BY THE STATE OF XEW YORK General Powers and Duties of the Health Commissioner 507 Specific Powers of the Health Commissioner with Respect to Sewage Dis- posal 508 Compulsory Reports from Municipalities 508 Penalties 509 Regulations Other than the Health Law Applicable 509 Practical Results 509 JURISDICTION BY THE CITY OF XEW YORK Duties of Borough Presidents 510 Discharge of Sewage 511 Temporary and Private Sewers 511 Sewage Disposal Works 312 Local Board of Health Control 512 Sanitary Code 513 Practical Work of the City Department of Health 513 Board of Aldermen 514 JURISDICTION PROPOSED BY THE XEW YORK CHARTER COMMISSION or 1900 Bureau of Public Improvements and Engineering of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment 515 Bureau of Sewers of the Department of Street Control 510 38 PART III. DATA COLLECTED CHAFFER XIII SALINITY OF THE WATERS SECTION I ROUTINE OBSERVATIONS PAGE Method Adopted 517 Standards 51S Location of the Saliuouieter Stations 510 Data Collected 521 Comments on the Results 522 SECTION II MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS OF SALINITY Lower Bay 524 The Narrows '<->'< Kobblus Reef 52ti Upper Bay, Kill van Kull and Arthur Kill 528 IMer A, North River r,2s Hudson River from the Battery to Tarrytown 52'J Harlem River 531 East River aud Long Island Sound 5.'! 1 CHAPTER XIV CONDITION OF THE SEWERS OF MANHATTAN AS SHOWN BY INSPECTIONS Equipment aud Method of Inspectiou 535 Erosion 5::i; Steam 5.'!7 Deposits 537 Odors 540 Obstructions 542 Cracks 54." Defective Brickwork 544 Distortion 54<> Catch Basins 54ii Sewer Outlets 547 CHAPTER XV ORGANIZATION OF THE FORCE EMPLOYED Acknowledgments 549 Technical Assistants 54!) Saliuometer Observers 550 PART I Summary of Report PART I SUMMARY OF REPORT In 1906 the Legislature directed The City of New York to appoint the Metropoli- tan Sewerage Commission of New York, specified the qualifications which the members must possess and the work which the Commission was to perform. In 1908 the Com- mission was reconstituted and its life continued to May 1, 1910. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVESTIGATIONS PLAN OF INVESTIGATIONS After considering how the sewage disposal problems of other cities had been met, the Commission laid out the line of investigation which was to be pursued. The immediate objects of the programme were: First. To establish the facts attending the discharge of the sewage; Second. To determine the extent to which these conditions were injurious to the public health and welfare; and, Third. To ascertain the way in which it would be necessary to improve the condi- tions of disposal in order to meet the reasonable requirements of the present and future. ANALYTICAL WOEK The capacity of the waters for harmlessly assimilating sewage was a subject which had to be taken carefully into account in view of the great cost of the works which would be necessary if all sewage was to be kept from entering the harbor. For this rea- son there had to be undertaken extensive analytical studies to show the conditions of assimilation under various circumstances. The studies made included over 5,000 analy- ses of water or solid deposits. Samples from all parts of the harbor were examined chemically, bacteriologically and microscopically. All stages of tide and all seasons of year are represented in the results. 42 REPORT AND RECOMMENDATIONS POPULATION AND SEWERAGE A study was made of the sewerage systems of New York and the other cities within twenty miles of New York City Hall with estimates of the quantities of sewage dis- charged from the houses and streets by the human and animal populations. Estimates of future populations were compiled for the several municipalities in the metropolitan district, including a critical review of estimates by other authorities. EXPERIMENTS AND TESTS Experimental studies were made to determine the possibility of diffusing and dis- posing of sewage through the waters of the harbor without offense or danger to the pub- lic welfare. These experiments were begun in the Commission's laboratory, were fol- lowed on a larger scale in tanks in the New York Aquarium, and were concluded in the open waters of the harbor by the aid of tank steamers, pontoons, pumps and other ap- paratus. To determine the extent to which public bathing places and shellfish beds were pol- luted by sewage, powerful dyes were placed in the sewers, and the course subsequently taken by the discolored sewage was then traced. STUDIES OF TIDAL PHENOMENA A theoretical and practical investigation of the tidal phenomena of New York har- bor was carried on in co-operation with the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. In this study especially constructed floats were set adrift and note was made of the courses which they took under the influence of the tidal currents. The conditions were studied in all parts of the harbor. The floats were followed by boats, sometimes for sev- eral days in succession. ACTION WITH RESPECT TO TRUNK SEWERS The Commission endeavored to ascertain the essential details of the trunk sewerage projects which had been proposed by various authorities to collect the sewage of inland municipalities for discharge into New York harbor. As a result of these studies the Metropolitan Commission registered a protest with the State Commissioner of Health and State Engineer and Surveyor against the Bronx valley project, and repeatedly ex- pressed an adverse opinion on the discharge of untreated sewage from the Passaic val- ley sewerage district into New York bay. An examination into the legal jurisdiction now exercised over the harbor waters was undertaken in order to aid in determining the best form of administration for a comprehensive system of sanitary conservancy. RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS 43 CO-OPERATION INVITED FROM NEW JERSEY At the instance of this Commission, and in accordance with the legislative Act which provided for its creation, an invitation was sent in 1908 by the Secretary of State of New York to the Governor of New Jersey inviting New Jersey to co-operate in the work which the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission of New York was performing, but this invitation was without result. RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATION Briefly stated, the Commission has found that the methods by which sewage is disposed of in the metropolitan district of New York and New Jersey call for immediate and far reaching improvement. The problem of disposing of the sewage of this metropolitan district has taken on a new aspect in recent years owing to the large increase of population which has occurred. The waters within fifteen miles of Manhattan Island, which formerly were of ample capacity to receive and dispose of the sewage which was discharged into them, are rapidly becoming overburdened with the wastes. DANGERS FROM BATHING AND FROM SHELLFISH Bathing in New York harbor above the Narrows is dangerous to health, and the oyster industry, already driven to the outer limits of the district, must soon be entirely given up. LOCAL NriSANCES The Passaic river, the Railway river, the Bronx river, Gowanus and Newtown creeks, and the Harlem river have become little else than open sewers. Innumerable local nuisances exist along the waterfronts of New York and New Jersey where the sewage of the cities located about the harbor is discharged. Unless prevented by a proper system of regulation, these nuisances must inevitably increase with the increase in the quantity of sewage. CONDITION OF WATER IN MAIN CHANNELS Not only does the discharge of sewage now produce objectionable conditions near the points of outfall, but the water which flows in the main channels of the harbor above the Narrows and in the East and Hudson rivers is more polluted than considerations of public health and welfare should allow. The studies made by this Commission show that the digestive capacity of this water for sewage is so reduced by pollution that restrictions should at once be placed upon the discharge of sewage therein to prevent the harbor from becoming positively offensive. 44 REPORT AND RECOMMENDATIONS It has been proved that, contrary to popular belief, the tidal currents do not flush out the harbor satisfactorily, but cause the sewage to oscillate back and forth near its points of origin. ADDITIONAL POLLUTION FROM TRUNK SEWERS In addition to the objectionable conditions produced by the discharge of sewage from the cities surrounding the harbor, a number of extensive trunk sewerage projects have lately been constructed or designed to carry the sewage of inland municipalities for disposal into the waters in the immediate vicinity of The City of New York. These projects include the Joint outlet sewer of New Jersey, which drains an area of 37 square miles and discharges at Elizabethport opposite the Borough of Richmond ; the Passaic valley sewerage project, which will drain 103 square miles and discharge at Robbins reef within a few hundred feet of New York city line, and the Bronx valley sewer, which will drain 35 square miles and discharge into the Hudson immediately above the New York city line. These trunk sewers ultimately would add greatly to the polluting matter entering the harbor. The total capacity of the works mentioned is seven hundred million gallons of sewage per day. By the time these sewers are running at their full capacity the quantity of sewage from The City of New York will be at least twice what it is to-day, or, approximately, one thousand million gallons. It should be unnecessary to sound a clearer warning of the future condition of the harbor than these facts indicate. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS RAISED BY THE LEGISLATURE The following are the specific questions raised by the Legislature in the act which provided for the creation of the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission of New York and the Commission's answers to these questions: Question 1. Is it desirable and feasible for The City of New York and the municipalities in its vicinity to agree upon a general plan or policy of sewerage and sewage disposal which will protect the waters of New York bay and vicinity against unnecessary and injurious pollution by sewage and other wastes? Answer. It is not possible to protect the waters of New York bay and vicinity by intercity agreement. There are about eighty municipalities con- cerned, and the subject would be beyond their capacity to regulate properly. Question 2. What methods of collecting and disposing of the sewage and other wastes which pollute, or may eventually pollute, the waters contemplated in this act are most worthy of consideration? Answer. The methods of collecting and disposing of sewage in the metro- politan district most worthy of consideration are district collecting sewers leading to local works for purifying the sewage to a greater or lesser degree, depending upon the facility with which the effluent can then be disposed of HESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS 45 without injury to the public welfare. The principles of purification most worthy of consideration are sedimentation, screening, filtration and sterilization applied with such modifications as experience in other places and local circumstances indicate. Qiti'xtion 3. Is it desirable to establish a sewerage district in order properly to dispose of the wastes, and adequately protect the purity of the waters, con- templated in this act, and, if so, what should be the limits and boundaries of this sewerage district? Answer. It is desirable to establish a sewerage district in order properly to dispose of the wastes, and the Commission believes that this would be the best way in which the sanitary condition of the harbor could be conserved. The most desirable limits for the sewerage district would include a territory of about seven hundred square miles, about half of which would be in New York and half in New Jersey. If it is not possible at the present time to create an interstate sewerage dis- trict, a metropolitan sewerage district and commission for New York State should be created without delay. The limits and boundaries of this district should include The City of New York and those parts of Nassau and West- Chester counties the sewage of which flows, or might be made to flow, into the harbor. Question 4. What would be the best system of administrative control for the inception, execution and operation of a plan for sewerage, and ultimate sew- age disposal, of a metropolitan sewerage district; whether by the action of already existing departments and provisions of government, by the establishment of separate and distinct sewerage districts and permanent commissions in each State, by one interstate metropolitan sewerage district and commission to be es- tablished by agreement between the two States, this agreement if necessary to be ratified by Congress, or by other means? Ansiccr. The best system of administrative control would be an interstate sewerage commission, established by Acts of the Legislatures of New York and New Jersey, these Acts to be confirmed by Congress. If this joint action be- tween the two States cannot be brought about, or is not considered to be feasible at the present time, the duty of carrying out this policy of conservancy, as far as it is possible to do so, should be placed in the hands of a commission for the metropolitan territory of New York, the expectation being that New Jersey will later create a similar commission to co-operate in regulating the conditions of sewage disposal in the interest of the common welfare. Existing departments and provisions of government could not ap- propriately nor adequately deal with this question. The problems to be confronted are of unusual difficulty and complexity, owing to the great extent of territory (approximately seven hundred square miles), the large population (ap- proximately five million inhabitants to-day, and more than twice this number by 1940), and the many liydrographic, sanitary and economic questions which must be considered and adjusted between the several localities concerned. A separate and distinct sewerage district and a permanent commission in each State would be an effective instrument toward the accomplishment of the end desired, and it would probably be more feasible at this time to create two separate commissions than a single metropolitan commission having jurisdic- tion over both States. If two commissions could be so formed as to act in har- mony, the effect would be nearly that of one interstate commission. 46 REPORT AND RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS The remedy which the Commission recommends is the result of careful considera- tion of various plans of conservancy which have been adopted in other populous cen- ters in Europe and America. The Commission is of opinion that the metropolitan territory should be divided into sections, with boundaries to be determined partly by the quantities of sewage produced, partly by the facilities which are open in the several localities for dispos- ing of the wastes in a sanitary manner and partly by considerations of cost. No system of conduits designed to collect the sewage of the whole metropolitan district and carry it to a single point for disposal is practicable. To a considerable extent purification works, embodying the principles of sedimentation, screening and filtration should be employed. There should be prepared an outline plan to which all future sewerage work should conform so far as that work relates to the ultimate disposal of sewage. There should also be plans, drawn in some detail, for the disposal of the sewage of individual districts, beginning with those where the need for improvement is greatest. This programme involves for the immediate future no expenditure or commitment of City or State beyond the expenses of the commission for the preparation of plans. In addition to the preparation of a general plan for conservancy, the Metropoli- tan Sewerage Commission makes the following specific recommendations: A large portion of the sewage now discharged into the Harlem river and into the upper part of the East river should be intercepted and taken elsewhere for disposal in order to do away with the nuisances now existing in these streams. A special detailed study should be made immediately of improved sewerage and sewage disposal for the portions of the Boroughs of Queens and Brooklyn bordering on Jamaica bay and the East river at its entrance to Long Island Sound, with a special reference to plans for the interception of the sewage and the determination of the kind and degree of purification required in each locality. Plans should be prepared as soon as practicable, in conjunction with the Bureau of Sewers and the sewer division of the Public Service Commission for the re- construction of the sewers of Manhattan on the separate plan, the desirability of fol- lowing this recommendation being dependent on the construction of additional rapid transit subways on streets and avenues traversing the city from north to south, the new plans to preserve for use the existing sewers to as great an extent as possible. With respect to large trunk sewer projects designed to discharge into New York harbor, such as the Passaic valley and Bronx valley sewers, this Commission RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS 47 recommends that an adequate degree of purification of the sewage be insisted on under a form of agreement which can be practically and legally enforced. The agreement entered into in 1910 between the United States Government and the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commissioners contains provisions inimical to the in- terests of the City of New York and the other cities bordering on New York harbor in New York State as well as in New Jersey and it is recommended that the State of New York continue to press the suit, from which the United States Government has withdrawn, against the State of New Jersey and the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission, and that the City of New York apply to the Supreme Court of the United States for permission to intervene and become a party to this suit to the end that proper provision may be made to protect the public interests and the health and welfare of the population of the entire metropolitan district. The Commission recommends that great care be exercised in the location of pub- lic bathing establishments to avoid unsafe localities, and that the free floating bath- ing establishments around the water front be gradually abolished, properly planned interior bathing establishments, supplied with pure water, being substituted therefor. A study of the methods used in designing, as well as in constructing sewers in the metropolitan district has shown the Commission that considerable confusion and waste of public funds results from the diversity of practice which now exists in dif- ferent sections of the district. It is recommended that these matters be systema- tized as much as practicable, and sewer designs reduced to standard forms, where feasible. It has also been found that there is lack of co-operation between the different departments of the City which results in high maintenance costs for sewers. This is particularly true with respect to the relations between the Bureaus of Sewers, the Department of Docks and Ferries, the Department of Street Cleaning, the Depart- ment of Water Supply, Gas and Electricity, and the Department of Finance and the Public Service Commission. Closer co-operation between these departments and bureaus should be established. The Commission recommends that proper legal steps be taken to give the inspec- tors of the Bureaus of Sewers the right of entry for the purpose of inspecting house and sewer connections in private buildings where these are connected with public sewers. This right would make possible the protection of the public sewers against the discharge therein of acids, hot liquids, steam and strong solutions which tend to destroy the materials of which the sewers are constructed. The data upon which the foregoing recommendations are based will be found in Parts II and III of this report. 48 REPORT AND RECOMMENDATIONS IN CONCLUSION In accordance with the requirements of the Legislature, the Metropolitan Sewer- age Commission has made a thorough investigation into the present and probable future condition of the waters of New York bay and vicinity and has formulated a general plan or policy by which the sanitary condition of the harbor can be permanently protected and improved. It is recommended that the duty of carrying out the policy of conservation here pro- pc-sed be placed in the hands of a special board of commissioners. The first duty of the commission proposed would be to utilize the information which has been collected and plan the work necessary to carry out the general recommenda- tions here made. In conclusion, the Commission desires to state with all possible clearness its sense of the importance of putting a stop to the unrelated and unsanitary methods of sewage disposal which are being followed in the metropolitan territory of New York and New Jersey and to urge that prompt action be taken to establish an effective system of con- servancy to protect and improve the condition of the harbor. PART II Summary of Investigations PART II SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS CHAPTER I REPLIES TO THE SPECIFIC QUESTIONS IN THE ACT CREATING THE METROPOLITAN SEWERAGE COMMISSION SECTION I THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT LAND AND WATER AREAS The legislative Acts under which the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission of New York was created required that the Commission should investigate whether it was de- sirable to establish a sewerage district in order properly to dispose of the wastes and adequately protect the purity of the waters contemplated in this Act, and if so, what should be the limits and boundaries of the district. K. i- tent of the District. The Commission's studies indicate that a single sew- erage district is desirable and that it should include about 700 square miles in the States of New York and New Jersey, all within about 20 miles of the City Hall in Manhattan. The boundary should be established with reference to natural water- sheds and with regard to the distribution of population rather than with respect to municipal or State limits. The boundaries which were established for the pur- poses of the Commission's studies include the village of White Plains on the north, and the mouth of the Raritan river on the south, and from the limits of the City of New York on the east to the municipalities of Paterson, Summit aud Perth Am- boy on the west. This territory lies within a distance which ranges between 15 and HO miles of the City Hall on Manhattan Island. The territory included within this boundary is called in this report the metropolitan district. WATERS OF THE DISTRICT Jltlison River. The district is divided into two nearly equal parts by the Hudson river. The Hudson averages one mile in width and flows in a southerly direction to the Upper bay and thence, through the Narrows, to the Lower bay and the Atlantic ocean. The current in the Hudson river oscillates back and forth under tidal influence, the flow past Manhattan not being continuously toward the sea. Sea water, mingled with more or less land water, flows up the Hudson many miles above the limits of the metropolitan district. 52 SUMMAKY OF INVESTIGATIONS East lih-vr. Passing along the east side of Manhattan Island, and separating it from the end of Long Island, is the East river which connects the waters of the Upper bay and Long Island Sound. Between the Manhattan and the Brooklyn shores this river varies from about 1,500 feet to more than three-fourths of a mile in width. After passing Hell Gate it attains, at Flushing bay, a width of over two miles, and flows into Long Island Sound at Throgs Neck and Willets Point. The water in the East river is kept in motion by tidal influences in Long Island Sound and New York harbor. The water oscillates back and forth in accordance with the differences in elevation between the waters in the Sound and those in the bay. The East river is not strictly speaking a river, but a strait. Harlem River. Joining the East and Hudson rivers is the Harlem, a stream similar in some respects to the East river, the motion of the water through it depend- ing upon the differences in elevation between the East river and the Hudson river at different times. The differences in elevation between the Hudson river where the Harlem river enters it, the East river where it enters Long Island Sound, and the Upper bay, are due to the fact that high or low tides are not readied at these three points at the same time, and also to the fact that the amplitudes of the tides at the three points are different. Outer Harbor, Jamaica Bay and Atlantic Ocean. The southern shores of the Bor- oughs of Brooklyn and Queens lie along the waters of the outer harbor, Jamaica bay, and the Atlantic ocean, Jamaica bay being a large, relatively shallow inland tidal basiii covering, with its tributaries, some 19.27 square miles. The Kills. The Borough of Richmond is entirely surrounded by water, Newark bay, Kill van Kull and Upper bay bounding it upon the north, the Lower bay bound- ing it upon the east and south and the Arthur Kill bounding it upon the west. Newark Bay. The New Jersey district is traversed by three comparatively small streams, two of which empty into the head of Newark bay. Newark bay is some six miles long and averages nearly one mile and a half wide. It lies parallel to and is separated from the Upper New York bay by the peninsula of Bayonne, which, north of Constable Hook, its southern terminus, is about three-fourths of a mile in Avidth. The principal cities and towns in the New Jersey district, excluding Jersey City, Hoboken, Weehawken and a few small settlements along the Hudson river, lie in the valleys of the Hackeusack and Passaic rivers. The Hackeusack and the Passaic flow through the district in a direction somewhat westerly of south, and within the metro- politan district lie but a few feet above sea level. Small Estuaries. The shores of Long Island. New Jersey, The Bronx and the main land to the east of The Bronx are deeply indented by bays and small estuaries, such WATERS OF THE DISTRICT 53 cr o CD cr S s x 5 o to 1 to g CE 12 IL- 0= cc UJ 54 SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS as Xewtown creek, Flushing creek, the Rahway river and Eastchester river. Some of these streams have been canalized, as Gowanus, for example. Depths of Waters, In the Narrows, where the Upper bay joins the Lower bar, I lie depth of the main channel is in places as great as 120 feet; in the Hudson the channel varies from 00 to 75 feet in depth far up the river. The main channel, though broad, is fairly well defined through the Upper bay, the western edge being prac- tically a continuation of the river bank between the piers of the Central Railroad of New Jersey in Jersey City and Tompkinsville on Staten Island. The flats to the west of this channel, which are extensive in area, are as a rule submerged less than 12 feet below low water. The width of the main channel through the Upper bay is fixed in a general way by a line approximately parallel to the western limit starting from the western end of Governors Island and extending to the east side of the Narrows. The East river is generally less than 60 feet deep, but in places, particularly at Hell Gate, some parts of the narrow channels are 150 feet in depth. In the Harlem river and Spuyten Duyvil creek the water is but 12 to 20 feet in depth. Newark bay has a depth of 12 feet, or less, excepting at the outlet connecting with Kill A'aii Kull, where the water is 25 to 30 feet deep, as is also the Kill van Kull. The Arthur Kill is generally shallow. Areas of Water Surfaces. Of the 700 square miles included within the bound- aries of the metropolitan district, the water surfaces cover an area of 180 square miles, or 26 per cent. The principal areas are: Lower bay and Atlantic ocean 83.00 square miles Upper bay 20.74 square miles Jamaica bay 19.27 square miles East river 14.80 square miles Hudson river 14.50 square miles Long Island Sound 12.80 square miles Newark bay 8.35 square miles Arthur Kill 4 .93 gq uape m ii es Kill van Kull 1.12 square miles Harlem river 49 S(lua re miles 180.00 DISTINCTIVE TOPOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS Where the Hudson river enters the metropolitan district it is flanked on the west side by the Palisades which reach at the northern limit of the district a height of over 400 feet above the river. The height of these cliffs gradually decreases to about 200 TOPOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS 55 feet opposite Forty-second street, Manhattan, from which point it gradually dimin- ishes to a few feet above sea level at Jersey City. In the Borough of Manhattan the most extensive heights extend from Riverside Park to Tubby Hook just below the place where the Harlem river joins the Hudson. These heights extend to the southwest with a gradually reducing elevation ; the back- bone of Manhattan is practically along the line of Broadway. The district lying to the north of the Harlem, OH the east bank of the Hudson in- cluding The Bronx is of a rolling nature reaching to heights of a little over 300 feet above sea level. The balance of the metropolitan district in The Bronx is character- ized by four nearly parallel valleys which extend north and south. Tibbetts brook lies in the valley nearest to and one and a half miles east of the Hudson; it empties into Spuyteii Duyvil creek. The Bronx river lies in the next valley, about three miles cast of the Hudson, and empties into the East river between Hunts Point and Classou Point. Hutchinson creek lies in a valley five miles east of the Hudson river passing be- tween Mt. Vernoii and New Rochelle and emptying into Eastchester bay and Long Island Sound; Sheldrake river emptying into Long Island Sound near Larchmont, oc- cupie.s the fourth valley. The ridges between these valleys rise gradually from Long Island Sound to an elevation of about 300 feet in the region of Scarsdale and White Plains. In Brooklyn and Queens Boroughs the ridge of the terminal moraine reaches an elevation of about ISO feet above sea level and follows a line stretching from Bay Ridge through Ridgewood and Richmond Hill to a point about one-half a mile uortli of Jamaica. The southerly or southeasterly face of this moraine is steep, the elevations at its fool, a distance of one-half mile or so from the ridge crest being less than 100 feet above sea level. From the southerly foot of the ridge the ground slopes gently down to tide level at Jamaica bay, Sheepshead bay aud Gravesend bay. To the north of the ridge the ground, as a rule, slopes gradually and uniformly toward the northwest to East river and Long Island Sound. In the center of the Borough of Richmond there are many points that reach a height of 300 feet above sea level. From these the ground slopes regularly toward the marshes and tidewater ou the west and north and abruptly down to sea level on the east side. In the New Jersey territory the most prominent topographical feature, outside of the Palisades and the Bergen Hills, is First Watt-hung Mountain, -which, back of Montclair, reaches a height of about 650 feet. It is broken through by a pass at Great Notch and also by the valley in which the Passaic river swings to the east around the city of Paterson. Between Watchung Mountain and the Bergen Hills the 56 SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS country is comparatively Hat, seldom rising to a greater height than 200 feet and lying generally at an elevation of not over 100 feet above sea level between the edge of the salt marshes and the mountains to the west. The City of New York and the other cities along the tidal waters in the metro- politan district form the greatest commercial center in the United States. In 1900 this district had about 46 per cent, of the import and export trade of the nation. The cities on the lower Hudson are connected with distant cities to the north, south, east and west by trunk lines of railroads of which the largest number terminate on the New Jersey side of the Hudson. Within a short time, however, the Pennsylvania Railroad tunnels extending across the Hudson from their New Jersey terminal to New York and thence under the East river to Long Island will be in operation. In addition to this ocean and railway traffic the Hudson river has tide water connection to Albany and Troy and a prospective connection thence by means of the barge canal with the Great Lakes for boats of considerable tonnage. POPULATION Within the confines of the district, and on lauds draining to the contiguous waters, resides a population which, in 1905, reached 5,332,186.' The principal centers of settle- ment were concentrated around New York harbor and Newark bay. The New York State part, with a population in 1905 of 4,128,799, includes the whole of the City of New York, together with additional territory lying north of the Bronx and stretch- ing out along Long Island Sound beyond New Kochelle and embracing the valley of the Bronx and the city of Yonkers. The New Jersey part, with a population in 1905 of 1,203,389, comprises the lower portions of the valleys of the Hackensack, Passaic and Railway rivers, together with the territory tributary to the Hudson river from the west 'below Mt. St. Vincent. It includes, at the northern limit of the metropolitan district, the city of Paterson in the Passaic valley and Hackensack and Euglewood in the Hackensack valley. Within the limits of the district are represented practically all types of industry, manufacture, commerce and occupation prevailing in this latitude, as well as resi- dential sections of all classes, including tenement districts, cheap, moderate and high class residential sections, suburban villages and spacious estates. The population is cosmopolitan, there being large districts where different nationalities congregate and follow the customs of their native lands. Nearly every known language is represented by colonies sometimes of considerable size, and the habits of their denizens arc as vari- ous as the different nationalities represented. POPULATION 57 The relative density of population of the different sections varies from less than 150 persons per square mile in rural districts to more than 200,000 per square mile in the densely settled sections of the east side of Manhattan. Averages for the differ- ent portions follow : RELATIVE DENSITY OF POPULATION IN TUB CITY OF NEW YORK Borough of Manhattan 90,000 per square mile Borough of Brooklyn 19,300 per square mile Borough of Bronx 5,300 per square mile Borough of Richmond 1,400 per square mile Borough of Queens 1,230 per square mile RELATIVE DENSITY OF POPULATION IN NEW JERSEY Iii the Passaic A^alley 5,800 persons per square mile In the Joint outlet sewer district 1,700 persons per square mile Iii the Rahway river territory 253 persons per square mile PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES In New York the southerly third of Manhattan is, with the exception of a portion of the tenement district on the east side, given up to business and commercial pur- suits. Above Thirty-fourth street, from the Hudson river to about Third avenue and extending nearly to the Harlem river the territory is essentially residential. The principal manufacturing district is on the east side of Manhattan bordering along the East and Harlem rivers. Of the 30 miles of waterfront of Manhattan at least 17 miles, comprising the whole of that along the East river, a portion of that along the Harlem river, and of that of the Hudson river as far up as Eightieth street, is devoted to the interests of navigation and freight. The lower end of Manhattan, particularly the financial district, has during the day a very large, and during the night a small population, owing to the establish- ment there in recent years of many tall office buildings. In Brooklyn the manufacturing and maritime business is largely confined to the waterfront on the Upper bay and East river between the Erie basin on the south and Newtown creek on the north. The district devoted exclusively to business is small as compared with that of Manhattan, the residential section, on the other hand, being very much greater in area than that of Manhattan; Brooklyn is essentially a city of homes, and with the improvement of rapid transit facilities in recent years has extended almost to the sea by the absorption of a large portion of the territory south 58 SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS of Prospect Park, which only a few years ago was extensively devoted to small farm- iug aiid truck gardeiiiug. The Bronx, like Brooklyn, is essentially a residence section ; its manufacturing and maritime interests are centered near the confluence of the Harlem and East rivers. In the Borough of Queens, outside of the manufacturing enterprises at Long Island City, Raveuswood, Astoria and Steiuway, the settlement is largely commer- cial and residential, yet there is still a considerable area devoted to agriculture. Ill the Borough of Richmond the manufacturing and maritime interests are cen- tered along the waterfront at the northern end of the borough, the remainder of the territory being devoted to residential and agricultural purposes. Of the interests in the New Jersey district those of Paterson, Passaic, Newark, Jersey City, Hoboken and Bayonne are largely manufacturing: the balance of the New Jersey territory is occupied by residences and small farms. The chief industries of the metropolitan district are manufacturing, commercial and agricultural, the agricultural interests being largely confined to the raising of garden truck. Among the leading articles of manufacture in The City of New York are: clothing, $228,008,835; refined sugar, f 88,598,113; books and periodicals, $77,882,- 237; foundry products, $11,089,574, and manufactured tobacco, $37,998,201. This latter figure exceeds the bread and bakery products which amounted to $32,239,307. These statistics are for the year 1900. In the New Jersey district Paterson is the lead- ing silk manufacturing city in the United States, the value of the product in 1900 being $26,000,000. Bayonue is a center for petroleum refining, the value of the product in 1900 being $28,861,000. At Newark the principal industries are the manufacture of jewelry and leather goods, while at Passaic is situated one of the largest woolen mills in the world. GKADUAL AND INCREASING POLLUTION OF THE HARUOU The growth of this enormous population, with its manufactories, markets and in- dustries along the borders of the harbor, has gradually resulted in polluting the har- bor water sufficiently to attract public notice. The situation is not unique nor exceptional. Large centers of population in other parts of the world have had similar histories, and many have been forced to find remedies. London has her main drainage works; Chicago has diverted her sewage from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi river through an artificial channel of size comparable with a ship canal; Marseilles takes her sewage to the sea through a large tunnel ; the City of Mexico has extensive works to conduct her sewage and drainage away from centers of population ; Boston has her metropolitan main drainage works to abate nuisances in her harbor and inland waters; Baltimore is POLLUTION OF HARBOR 59 building extensive works for sewage purification; and Hamburg, Glasgow, Dublin and Belfast have elaborate systems to secure the satisfactory disposal of their sewage. Numerous other cities in both hemispheres have undergone the experience which the cities around New York harbor are now facing. Owing to the difference in the sizes of the various populous communities in the New York district and to the nature and volume of flow of the different water courses receiving their wastes the extent to which the waters are polluted varies in degree with each locality. Some of the waters, as for instance the Passaic river in New Jersey, Newtown creek and Gowanus canal in Brooklyn, as well as the Harlem river and parts of the East river are now so badly polluted as to constitute public nuisances against which a popular outcry lias been directed for a long time. Some sections of this district not immediately centered on the tidal waters have taken joint action to improve the conditions. These sections have been the first to see the necessity for action owing to the relatively intense pollution of their small local water courses, and have come to the belief that joint action of the several communities suffering from each other's putrescent wastes would be more effectual than single-handed efforts by each. The Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission and the Bronx Valley Sewerage Commission, and the Commission for the Joint Outlet at Bayway, are the outgrowth of such conditions in their respective territories. Other localities, such as exist on Long Island and the Bronx, have had to solve their difficulties. Among these are Jamaica, Far Rockaway, Elmhurst, Coney Island, Sheepshead Bay, East New York, New Rochelle, Mt. Vernon and White Plains. These places have established local plants for dealing with their sewage. Still others, as for example East Orange and Summit, have small local and antiquated disposal plants which have been abandoned to join with other communities for simpler and more satisfactory means of removing the sources of trouble. The more important communities which lie about the larger bodies of water, such as the five boroughs of New York, Newark and Jersey City, have heretofore given lit- tle thought to the question of the ultimate disposal of their sewage except in the man- ner practiced since the earliest times; that of dumping it into the harbors and rivers. The larger communities, however, are now approaching the time when their local waters are becoming overpolluted just as the smaller districts above mentioned reached this situation some years ago. For a more comprehensive statement of the sewerage works of the municipalities in the district and their relation to the harbor Avaters reference should be made to the descriptions of these works in Chapter V, Part III, of this report. CO SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS SECTION II FEASIBLE METHODS OF DISPOSING OF SEWAGE The act under which the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission was appointed asks what methods of collecting and disposing of the sewage and other wastes Avhicli pol- lute or may eventually pollute the waters contemplated in this act are most worthy of consideration. The first necessity is for better sewerage and better methods of sewage disposal than exist at the present time. As far as practicable, the sewers should be so built as to permit of continuous and uninterrupted flow and not be, as too frequently hap- pens now, tide-locked and flooded with harbor water during the greater part of the time. Collection Systems. The sewage should be collected by sewerage sys- tems which will promptly remove, without stagnation or interruption, the wastes from their points of origin to suitable points for final disposition. The points for disposition should be as numerous, and be located in as many parts of the metropolitan district as efficiency, convenience and econ- omy require. The requirements to be met in the various parts of the metropoli- tan district differ materially. The method of disposal for each situation should be carefully adapted to the circumstances surrounding that situation. The method need not, and should not, be the same in all cases. Disposal Through Dilution. Much of the sewage which under ordinary circum- stances would flow into the harbor should be kept out of it, and the sewage which it is not feasible to dispose of otherwise must be emptied into it in such condition and under such circumstances as will provide satisfactory assimilation with the harbor water and the best chance for seaward carriage. Methods of Partial Purification. Among the practical methods which are available for removing impurities from sewage so that the residue can be discharged into the harbor waters without injury to the public welfare, are grit chambers, settling basins, precipitation tanks, screens and filters. tint Chambers. Grit chambers are necessary as a preliminary to pumping sewage and are usually employed as a first step in purifying sewage by any process. Their func- tion is to remove sand and other heavy solid particles which easily and quickly settle when, for some reason, the velocity of the sewage current is checked. Sewage is usually passed rapidly through grit chambers. SEWAGE DISPOSAL METHODS (il Settling Basins. Settling basins are larger than grit chambers. Their function is to permit solids less heavy than grit to subside while the sewage passes through. Sewage is usually allowed to take several hours in passing through a settling basin. Precipitating Tanks. A precipitating tank is essentially a settling tank in which the deposit of solids is accelerated by the use of chemicals. Screens. Screens are used to remove floating solid matters from sewage. They are of great diversity of form, but may be divided into two general classes, coarse and fine, depending upon the size of the openings. Coarse screens, with openings of half an inch, or so, are used to intercept large particles such as fragments of gar- bage, rags, sticks and cloth. Like grit chambers, they are usually employed to pro- tect pump valves when sewage is pumped. Fine screens sometimes have openings of less than one-tenth inch. Screens are often of ingenious design and are capable of materially improving sewage. Filters. Filters for sewage are of various kinds. They are capable of remov- ing solids from sewage, but they are most useful and most often used to oxidize dis- solved organic matters where a high degree of purification is demanded. Irrigation. Under some circumstances sewage can be utilized for the cultivation of crops, but the land in the vicinity of New York is not generally suitable for this purpose, and the expense of pumping to distant points would be very large. Sea Disposal. Owing to engineering difficulties and the great cost involved the collection to a central station and the dumping of all the sewage of the metropolitan district at sea would be impracticable. Slight Man it rial Value of Sewage. Contrary to general belief, the mammal in- gredients of sewage cannot be recovered so as materially to reduce the expense of handling it. Theoretically the manurial value of sewage amounts to $1 to fl.25 per capita per year, but there seems to be no city in the world which is handling its sew- age at a profit. It is true that some large cities, notably Paris and Berlin, utilize their sewage by irrigating farm land, but this requires large areas of territory and is prac- ticable only where the soil is suitable, the land cheap, the sewage useful for the water which it contains, and where a ready market for the irrigated crops exists. The conditions about The City of New York are unsuited for the profitable exploitation of such a project. A part of the manurial ingredients of sewage can be extracted by passing the sewage through tanks in which the solid particles will settle out with or without the aid of chemicals. But this process requires the handling of large volumes of a bulky sludge, containing 90 to 95 per cent, of water. This sludge cannot be utilized without drying or pressing, and these procedures are expensive. If the present quan- tity of sewage produced by New York was to be treated by precipitation with chem- 02 SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS icals it is estimated that about 14,000 tons of sludge would be produced each day. The cost of disposing of this sludge would be large, yet the technical difficulties in the way of handling it would not be insurmountable; it could be shipped to sea, for instance. Bacterial Processes. Various so-called bacterial processes of purifying sewage have been developed in the last ten years. Their object is to dispose of the impurities in a harmless and inoffensive manner and with the least expenditure of time and money. Some of these bacterial processes are of much scientific and practical interest. They are particularly useful where a high degree of purification is desired. Fine Screening. If sewage is screened and passed through suitably constructed settling tanks, the visible particles may nearly all be removed. Screens have been brought to a high state of perfection in Europe, where they have been employed to remove particles as small as one-twenty-fifth of an inch. Grease Removal. Grease may be removed in connection with screening. Screen- ing, settling and the removing of grease are extensively practiced in Germany as a suitable procedure preliminary to discharging sewage into rivers which are not used for drinking purposes and where the proportion of sewage to river water is small. The cost of this treatment is not great as compared with the cost of the more refined bacterial processes. Land Required. It is to be remembered that all methods for the purification of sewage require works which must occupy land, and that land is expensive in the met- ropolitan district. Grit removing, screening, settling and precipitating take less land than other processes. Sewage farming takes the most land. Works for purifying sewage are becoming increasingly common for inland cities, and there are many cities in Europe and America which have found it necessary to protect their harbors in this way against pollution. Protection of Harbors Abroad. London partly purifies its sewage with chemicals and ships to sea 7,500 tons of resultant sludge per day. The city of Glasgow treats its sewage in the same way as does London. Dublin, Belfast, Hamburg, Marseilles and Amsterdam all protect their harbors by public works which have cost large sums of money. Harbor Protection in the United States. In the United States the city of Bos- ton and many municipalities in its vicinity have built sewerage systems which carry their sewage far out into the harbor. The city of Providence, Rhode Island, purifies its sewage after the London principle. Baltimore, the latest large American seaport to devise a comprehensive sewerage system, has adopted a plan of sewage purification including sedimentation and filtration. FEASIBILITY OF CONSERVATION 63 New York is the largest seaport which lias no definite plan or policy with respect to sewage disposal. Extent of Existing Purification. Works. Of the 26 cities of Europe and America which have populations of over 500,000 about one-half purify their sewage or follow some other carefully devised plan for disposing of it. Of the nine cities of over 1,000,000 inhabitants three purify their sewerage, one carries it away a long distance by an especially built canal, and the remainder discharge it into great bodies of water with- out any plan or concern as to its ultimate fate. Statistics are not available to show how large is the aggregate sum of money invested in all the sewage disposal plants which exist in various parts of the world, but some idea of the number and extent of these undertakings can be had from the fact that works are now in operation which purify the sewage of not less than 18,000,000 people. SECTION III FEASIBILITY OF ADOPTING A GENERAL PLAN FOR PROTECTING THE HARBOR WATERS FROM POLLUTION The second paragraph of the Act which provided for the creation of the Metro- politan Sewerage Commission specifies, as one of the duties of this Commission, the consideration and investigation of the most effective and feasible means of perma- nently improving and protecting the purity of the waters of New York bay and neighboring waters, giving attention particularly to the desirability and feasibility of The City of New York and the municipalities in its vicinity agreeing upon a general plan or policy of sewerage and sewage disposal which will protect the waters of New York bay and vicinity against unnecessary and injurious pollution by sewage and other wastes. Desirability of Interstate Agreement. A careful consideration of the sewage dis- posal problem of the metropolitan district leads to the opinion that the sewage of The City of New York and the municipalities in its vicinity should, for a perfect so- lution of the problem, be dealt with in accordance with a general policy which should be made the subject of agreement between the two States of New York and New Jersey. The middle of the harbor is the dividing line between the States of New York and New Jersey, and unless an agreement can be entered into the waters in their en- tirety can not be protected as effectively as would be desirable, there being no single interested authority having jurisdiction over its sanitary condition. In the absence of control by a central body or by either State, the cities of the 64 SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS two States may be expected to go on as now, each adding to the defilement to the mutual injury of the other until drastic measures are necessary to relieve the waters of their offensive condition. Future Conditions. The present condition of the harbor and the rapidly increas- ing quantities of sewage which are being discharged into it make it evident that the time is approaching when the two States will be compelled to place the protection of the harbor against sewage in the hands of a single authority as they have been forced to arrange for the management of quarantine by New York State and the disposal of solid refuse by the United States Government. Quarantine Regulations Under Interstate Agreement. In early times questions of quarantine were continually arising between the States of New York and New Jersey, each State asserting its sovereignty over its part of the waters, to mutual inconven- ience and injury of public health and welfare. This led the two States in 1832 to form an agreement whereby the State of New York took charge of the quarantine and police regulation of the harbor to the New Jersey shores. Dumping of Garbage Into Harbor Stopped. Until recent years, New York harbor was considered to be a suitable place for the dumping of all the garbage and other refuse which was produced by the cities and towns in its vicinity. In the course of time the dumping of solid matters into the harbor had to be given up and a form of police jurisdiction was established by. the United States Government to keep solid refuse out of these waters. The justification of the general government for tak- ing control of this matter lay in the belief that injury was being done to the navigable channels. Community of Interests Should Secure Unity of Action. The community of inter- ests which exists among the people of the States should lead to a common effort to protect the harbor against unnecessary and injurious defilement. It will be regret- table and expensive, not to say dangerous, if the existence of State boundary lines is to prevent the centralization of sanitary authority where public health is concerned. Plan for Conservancy by New York in the Absence of a General Plan for the Whole District. Until such time as a general plan of conservancy can be agreed upon between New York and New Jersey The City of New York should, for her own protection, and in the interests of economy and public health, proceed to formulate a general plan to which future sewerage and sewage disposal works in the New York territory should be adapted. There is much to be done to improve conditions which are local in New York, to provide for a proper development and extension of the ex- isting sewerage systems and to protect and improve those parts of the harbor which lie completely within the limits of New York State. '"" rm UNIVERSITY ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL 65 SECTION IV FEASIBLE METHODS OF ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL FOR A METROPOLI- TAN SEWERAGE DISTRICT The legislative Acts which provided for the creation of the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission of New York finally ask what would be the best system of administrative con- trol for the inception, execution and operation of a plan for sewerage and sewage disposal of the metropolitan sewerage district ; whether by the action of already existing depart- ments and provisions of government; by the establishment of separate and distinct sewerage districts and permanent commissions in each State; by the creation of one interstate metropolitan district and commission to be established by agreement between the two States, this agreement, if necessary, to be ratified by Congress; or whether by other means. The only governmental authority which is common to the two States of New York and New Jersey is the United States Government, and this has not attempted to specify the method or supervise the construction of works for the discharge of sewage into State or interstate waters. Existing departments of government in the States of New York and New Jersey would be prevented from uniting to devise and execute a plan of sewerage and sewage disposal for the metropolitan district, for the reason that in New York such questions are left to the State Department of Health and that Department does not attempt to exercise jurisdiction within the limits of The City of New York. Where questions affecting public comfort and well being are so largely concerned some other form of jurisdiction is more appropriate than that of a public health de- partment. Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal of Great Britain. The main authority which is responsible for the sanitary protection of the river Thames is not a public health body. The Royal Commissions on Sewage Disposal of Great Britain, with one exception, have not been health boards, nor have the various Rivers Boards of England, which are doing good work for the sanitary protection of water courses. The last report of the (temporary) British Royal Commission on Sewage Dis- posal recommends the creation of a permanent central sewage authority which shall carry on suitable investigations and be ready to give expert advice to local authorities as to methods for the sanitary disposition of sewage and act as a court of last resort 66 SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS in all matters of dispute concerning the disposal of sewage in the several localities of England. German Imperial Board of Health. In Germany the Imperial Board of Health exercises jurisdiction over streams only in so far as health is surely and directly con- cerned. The sanitary improvement and protection of the rivers so far as they may be maintained in a condition suitable for the business and enjoyment of the public de- volves upon other authorities. Special Commissions. In America, where there is no central health authority, the protection of the water courses is left to the care of the individual States. Some States require that all plans for sewerage, as well as sewage purification, shall be passed upon by the State Board of Health before they are carried out. American harbors are pro- tected, where any protection exists, chiefly through works constructed by sanitary authorities such as sewerage commissions, which have no jurisdiction over other mat- ters of public health. The need and nature of such work are often determined by a special board of commissioners. This has been true of Boston and Baltimore. Intercity Agreements Impracticable. The remaining form of co-operation which remains to be considered between existing forms or departments of government, would be one reached through an agreement between the several municipalities concerned. When the multiplicity of places is considered (there are 189 municipalities in the metropolitan district) the impracticability of forming and maintaining a cohesive and useful co-operation among them becomes manifest. Commission for New York State Recommended. The two States can not be ex- pected to co-operate in this work at once but may be expected to do so later. There- fore a commission should be created for New York State, with instructions to co- operate with New Jersey, if possible, to the end that an adequate settlement of the problems of sewage disposal can be secured. Duties of Proposed Commission. This central board should propose, but not nec- essarily build, such works of main drainage as are required to permanently improve and protect the purity of the water of New York bay and neighboring waters. The commission should not be charged with the duty of executing local sewerage works but should have advisory authority over their design at least in so far as they would relate to the general plan for main drainage. The sewers needed for purely local purposes should be designed by the several municipalities. The central board should be required to examine and pass judgment upon all new projects for sewerage within the territory under their jurisdiction when requested to do so by the local authorities hav- ing these projects in hand. ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL 67 The commission should have power to employ such technical and other assistants as would be required for the work, and fix their salaries, and should be authorized to pur- chase supplies and do all other necessary things for the execution of the work for which it is created. Appointment of Commission. The commission, so far as it represents the State of New York, should be appointed by the Mayor of New York in accordance with a special Act of the Legislature and should report to him. CHAPTER II DIGEST OF COMMISSION'S INVESTIGATIONS SECTION I BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE WORK ACCOMPLISHED BY THE METROPOLITAN SEWERAGE COMMISSION Meetings. The Commission has held regular weekly and many special meetings at which all the Commissioners have usually been present. Up to April 30, 1910, the Commission, since it was reconstituted, has held 120 meetings, at which all phases of the Commission's investigations have been planned and discussed. Routine and special reports from the employees have been presented at the meetings and all ex- penditures have been authorized, and bills audited. Collection of Data. The detailed work of collecting data has been done partly by the members of the Commission and partly by employees under the immediate direc- tion of the president who has acted as the presiding officer of the Commission and as the executive head of the board. Study Trips. The Commissioners have made numerous trips, by land and water, through the metropolitan district to study the conditions attending the discharge of sewage and obtain information concerning the topography, distribution of population and other facts necessary to form an intelligent opinion as to future requirements of sewerage and sewage disposal. A trip was taken by the Commissioners to Boston and the sewerage and sewage disposal works of that city and of the metropolitan district of Boston, including about 23 cities and towns were studied. Exhibition. At the request of the Mayor, an exhibit of the main features of the Commission's work was held in connection with a public exhibit on congestion of population and town planning at the Twenty-second Regiment Armory in May, 1909. The Commission's exhibit consisted of maps, charts, diagrams and photographs pre- pared to show the present conditions and consequences attending the discharge of sewage into the harbor and the ways in which other, both American and foreign, cities have protected their harbors against pollution. The exhibit occupied a wall space of 560 square feet and was viewed by about 200,000 people. Hearing on Passaic Valley Seicer Before Harbor Line Board. At a hearing be- fore the United States Harbor Line Board held to collect information concerning the 70 SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS possible effects which the discharge of the proposed Passaic valley sewer at Kobbins Keef might have upou the depth of water iu the navigable channels of the harbor, the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission, at the request of the Mayor, presented a brief statement of its views on the project. The district over which the Commissioners' investigations have extended has covered metropolitan New Jersey as well as metropolitan New York. About the same extent of territory has been included in each State. Invitation to New Jersey to Co-operate. Although the investigations have covered conditions in New Jersey, the Commission has had no official co-operation from that State. The State of New York by letters addressed by the Secretary of State to the Governor of New Jersey twice invited the State of New Jersey to co-operate in the Metropolitan Commission's investigations, but without result. The last invitation ex- tended at the request of the Metropolitan Commission was dated November 12, 1908. Co-operation of Other Departments of The City of New York. Co-operation by the permanent departments of the government of The City of New York has con- tributed materially to the success of the Commission's work. The Commissioner of Docks set aside an uuusued space on Pier A at the mouth of the Hudson river, where the Commission established a laboratory. The New York Zoological Society through the Director of the Aquarium at the Battery permitted experiments to be made from time to time in tanks of harbor water and sea water on a scale and under conditions which it would have been difficult to obtain elsewhere. The Department of Health and the Department of Water Supply, Gas and Electricity and the Board of Water Supply of The City of New York furnished useful data of several kinds. The Bureau of Sewers of the Department of Public Works for Manhattan, as well as the Bureaus of Sewers in the other boroughs, have given information which has been of material help. The sewer authorities throughout the metropolitan district have facilitated the Commission's studies of their several sewerage systems. Co-operation of United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Assistance in study- ing the tidal phenomena of the harbor was received from the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, as a result of a visit which members of the Metropolitan Commis- sion made to the Department of Commerce and Labor to request the co-operation of the United States Government in its work. At the request of this Commission, an exhaustive research and report were made by the officials of the United States Coast and Goedetic Survey covering an examination of reports, documents and unpublished rec- ords in their official archives to determine with the greatest practicable accuracy the quantities of water flowing in and out of the harbor, the direction and force of the cur- rents, and other facts. WORK ACCOMPLISHED 71 Assistance from Many Sources. A large number of engineers in official and pri- vate life in New York and in other cities contributed information which has been of value in preparing this report. To all who have helped in this way full acknowledg- ment is here made of the assistance received and the thanks of the Commission are ex- tended. Investigations. Investigations of the conditions of the waters have been a promi- nent feature of the Commission's work. In general, their object has been, (a) to show the extent to which the waters were polluted, and (b) to study the circumstances under which the waters could be utilized in disposing of sewage in future in case further investigation showed that it would be too expensive to keep all sewage out of the water. Diyc*t of Early Data. Before undertaking new examinations of the water, efforts were made to obtain every analysis of consequence which had been made of the waters of the harbor prior to the reorganization of the Commission. A careful review and digest of data concerning the quality of New York harbor waters prior to January, 1908, was published by the Commission in August, 1909. This investigation was sup- plemented by further analyses after the need of additional information became ap- parent. Analytical Work. The analytical work has been done in the Commission's own laboratory by assistants of recognized skill in this kind of work. From time to time the services of well known consulting experts have been employed to advise with re- spect to various phases of the investigations. Laboratory. The laboratory has been located on Pier A, which is situated at the mouth of the Hudson river near the centre of the metropolitan district, The samples for analysis have been collected by means of boats chartered by the Commission. One of these boats was fitted up as a floating laboratory for analyses which it was desir- able to make as soon after collection as possible. Volume of Analytical Work. The Commission since its first organization has made, roundly, 4,000 chemical or physical analyses of the water of New York harbor and 2,000 bacteriological examinations of these waters. These figures include analyses of deposits found upon the harbor bottom. Of the total number of analyses 1,135 have been made since March 3, 1909 for bacteria in the water. There have been 844 deter- minations of the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water to measure the effects of the existing pollution. Deposits from the harbor bottom have been analyzed micro- scopically to the number of 806 samples. In addition, continuous tests of the salinity of the water have been made for the entire year 1909 at all stations situated in differ- ent parts of the harbor. 72 SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS Special Investigations. Beside the analytical work, a number of special investi- gations have been made bearing on (a) the present and probable future sanitary condition of the water, and (&) the capacity of the harbor for harmlessly and inof- fensively absorbing sewage. Among these investigations, the following may be men- tioned : Existing Sewerage Works. Study of the present sewerage conditions in the several boroughs of New York and of the other cities and municipalities within 20 miles of New York City Hall. Inspection of the Sewer System of Manhattan. With the co-operation of the Borough President and Chief Engineer of the Department of Sewers, the sewers of Manhattan were inspected by the employees of this Commission to ascertain their general condition and state of repair. Sewer Outlets. Determination of the location, size and volumes of discharge of the principal sewer outlets in the metropolitan district. Street Refuse Entering Harbor. Estimates of the quantities of refuse which enter the harbor from the streets of the principal cities bordering upon the harbor. Population Estimates. Estimates of future population for every five years until 1940, including a review of estimates by other authorities. Future Sewerage Needs. Inspections of the harbor and of the outlying districts with respect to future needs of sewerage and sewage disposal. Pollution of Beaches and Bathing Establishments. Experiments to determine the extent to which bathing places are polluted by sewage. Transportation of Sewage by Currents. Experiments to determine the extent of transportation of sewage by the tidal currents of the harbor. Diffusion and Digestion. Experimental studies to show the possibilities of dif- fusing and dispersing sewage matters through the waters of the harbor. Tidal Phenomena. Theoretical study of the principal tidal phenomena of New York harbor supplementary to a report by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Float Studies. Practical study of tidal phenomena as shown by the course taken by specially constructed floats. Typhoid Outbreak. Investigation into the cause of an outbreak of typhoid fever at Bath Beach. Digestion of Sewage Solids. Experiments on the digestion of sewage solids in the harbor water. The details of these and other studies will be found in the various chapters of Part III of this Report. TIDAL PHENOMENA 73 SECTION II FLOW OF TIDAL WATER Net Discharge Seaward Through the Narrows. The volume of water discharged sou-ward through the Narrows in excess of the volume which returns is about 15 per cent, of the total movement in either direction. It is 1,750 million cubic feet each tide under usual conditions, and 950 million cubic feet under conditions un- favorable to a large net outflow. Total Flow Through the Narrows in Both Directions. During average conditions the total volume of water which flows in either direction through the Narrows is 12,540 million cubic feet on ebb tides and 10,790 million cubic feet on flood tides. Under conditions unfavorable to a large ebb outflow the quantities are 6,775 million cubic feet during each ebb and 5,825 million cubic feet during each flood tide. Net Flotv Seaward of Hudson and East Rivers and Kill van Kull. The average net ebb flow from the Hudson at each tide is 1,170 million cubic feet. From the East river it is 450 million cubic feet. From the Kill van Kull it is 78 million cubic feet. Velocities of Tidal Flows. The tides run most swiftly in the East river. The strongest currents in the East river attain a velocity of two to four knots per hour. The currents in the Hudson usually range between two and three knots per hour, and the velocities at the Narrows usually range between 1.5 and two knots per hour. These rates represent the speed of the currents after they have attained practically their full velocity and are not averages made by dividing the total movement of water in one direction by the period of time that the water flows in that direction. For about two-thirds of the time the current is slacking, reversing and regaining its ordinary velocity. Ranges of Tide. The rise and fall of tide varies in different parts of the harbor. At Governors Island in Upper New York bay the mean is 4.4 feet. At Sandy Hook the usual range is 4.7. At Throgs Neck, 7.2. Effects of Winds on Tides. The range in Upper New York bay is not uncom- monly increased or diminished to the extent of 50 per cent, by the wind. Salinity of Harbor Waters. The water of New York harbor is composed of a mixture of sea water and land water in constantly varying proportions. The fol- lowing ratios will give an idea of the composition as indicated by approximately average figures covering one year's continuous observations: East river, east end 20 per cent, land water and 80 per cent, sea water. East river, midway between ends 40 per cent, land water. SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS AVERAGE CONDITIONS FLOOD cat DRY WEATHER CONDITIONS PROPORTIONS OF LAND WATER AND SEA WATER AT THE NARROWS TIDAL PHENOMENA 75 East river, south end 48 per cent, land water. The Hudson contains 75 per cent, of land water at Tarrytown and 40 per cent, of land water at its mouth. Upper New York bay and the Karitau bay contain about 25 per cent, land water. At the outer limits of New York harbor, that is, at Ambrose Light Vessel, the water usually contains about 10 per cent, of land water and 90 per cent, sea water. Imperfect Conditions for Assimilation. The quantity of water which flows in and out of New York harbor, although large, is not a measure of the capacity of the har- bor to transport or assimilate sewage. The idea of transportation involves the as- sumption that the matters which are carried away are not brought back again. The oscillation of the tide carries the sewage back and forth indefinitely. The idea of as- similation involves the assumption that the sewage becomes so mingled with the water as properly to be considered part of it. Again, investigation shows that this condi- tion is not always fulfilled. The movement of the tides produces a refreshing effect upon the harbor but this benefit is restricted because (a) tidal action is usually least in those places which need it most, (6) thorough mixture of the sewage with the water does not always occur promptly, (c) the currents are intermittent, and not continuous, as are those of a river flowing in one direction, (d) the action of the tidal currents carries some sewage matters on the surface and some toward shore, (e) the force and direction of the tidal currents are materially influenced by the wind (/) excepting near the sea and sound entrances the same water flows back and forth and is not pure sea water by any means. Oscillatory Movement of Harbor Waters. Contrary to popular belief, the move- ment of river and tidal water to sea does not proceed in a regular and reliable man- ner. Studies of the course followed by objects so constructed as to float just below the surface of the harbor have shown that the water oscillates back and forth, some- times to an indefinite extent, before escaping to sea. In the more open parts of the Hudson river and Upper and Lower New York bays there is a generally northward and southward oscillation, the southward move- ment being in excess. The waters which pass out of the harbor by way of the Narrows go to sea, for the most part, by the northerly channels of the Lower bay. The water of Newark bay oscillates between the head of the bay and the eastern end of the Kill van Kull, eventually escaping chiefly to New York bay and so to the ocean. 76 SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS The water flows more rapidly in the East river than in any other arm of the harbor, but most of the water moves back and forth, like the pendulum of a clock, without escaping to the ocean or to Long Island Sound. A buoy which was made to float, except for a small tell tale, just below the surface of the water, was followed back and forth for three and a half days in the East river. At the end of this time it had traveled 108 miles without passing out of this stream. It returned several times to the locality where it had been set adrift. SECTION III POPULATION AND SEWAGE Population. The total population in the metropolitan district in 1905 was 5,332,000. It will probably be at least doubled by 1940, as will the population of The City of New York, which in 1905 was approximately 4,000,000. Outside of The City of New York in the metropolitan district of New York State the population in 1905 was 128,000. The rural districts of metropolitan New Jersey had more than twice this population, or 293,000. There were ten cities in metropolitan New Jersey which had populations of over 25,000 in 1905. The largest of these were Newark and Jersey City, each of which had a population exceeding 230,000. The total population of these ten cities was 910,000 in 1905, and will probably be at least 1,700,000 by 1940. The sewage produced in the metropolitan district is discharged into the harbor either (a) directly, near open navigable channels, as is the case with New York, Yonkers, Jersey City, Hoboken, Bayonne and Elizabeth or (&) indirectly into these channels by way of the rivers, as is the case with White Plains, Mt. Vernon, Pater- son and Passaic. Quantities of Sewage Discharged into the Harbor. The total quantities of sewage discharged into New York harbor per day at the present time are approxi- mately as follows: Into the East and Harlem rivers 335,600,000 gallons, into the Hudson river 164,200,000 gallons, into Upper New York bay 104,100,000 gallons. Points of Discharge. The sewers discharge at or near the shore line at mean low water. The point of discharge for the sewers has been selected in practically each case with the object of getting rid of the sewage at the least cost for sewers and with little or no consideration of the consequences to the public welfare through a con- tamination of the water into which the sewage is emptied. Want of care in protecting the purity of the streams has produced intolerable conditions in some parts of the metropolitan district and to remedy these, trunk POPULATION AND SEWAGE 77 sewers have been built or are projected to carry the sewage to more open parts of the harbor. Purification Works. In a few cases works to purify the sewage have been built, but for the most part these plants have not been designed or operated in accordance with good engineering or economic principles and the results are generally unsatis- factory. Extension of Outfalls. The usual plau followed to abate nuisances which have occurred from the discharge of sewage into tributaries of the harbor is to carry the sewage to some other point for disposal. This has generally been done by building the sewer further out toward the more open waters of the harbor. Joint Outlet Sewer. A number of towns in the Counties of Essex and Union in New Jersey have constructed the Joint outlet sewer, which empties its contents into the Arthur Kill near the south end of Newark bay. The territory included by this drainage system is 37 square miles. The ultimate population provided for is 150,000 and the quantity of sewage which can be accommodated is 21,000,000 gallons per day. Bronx Valley Sewer. A trunk sewer is being built to carry the sewage which now flows into the Bronx river in New York State from White Plains to the New York city line to the Hudson river at Mt. St. Vincent. The territory drained will be 34.8 square miles. The present population is 32,700, and the ultimate quantity of sewage provided for is 90,000,000 gallons per day. Passaic Valley Sewer. It is proposed by citizens of New Jersey to relieve the Passaic river of the sewage which flows into it by constructing a trunk sewer which will run from Paterson to the middle of Upper New York bay. The territory to be included in this project is 103 square miles. The ultimate population to be pro- vided for is 1,650,000, and the quantity of sewage 630,000,000 gallons per day. Effects on the Harbor. The effects upon the harbor which trunk sewer projects may produce cannot all be foretold with accuracy, although some of the principal con- sequences may be anticipated. It is certain that the transfer of many million gallons of crude sewage from inland places to points nearer the centre of the harbor cannot take place without injury to the latter. The measure of improvement to the locality benefited and the injury to the har- bor will depend upon the completeness with which the sewage is transferred from the one place to the other. The risk is twofold. First, there is the chance that the sewage will produce a nuisance before it becomes thoroughly mixed with the water, and, Second, there is risk that the sewage, after mixing, will overburden the capacity of the water to digest it. 78 SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS General Plan for Conservancy Needed. Within the metropolitan district condi- tions of sewerage and sewage disposal now require, and always will demand, un- usually careful and skillful management if the evil consequences of sewage pollution are to be prevented. The topographical, residential and industrial conditions in this territory are varied in the extreme. For many of the municipalities what may be termed natural facilities for sewage disposal are wholly lacking; for others oppor- tunities which once existed have been taken away by the growth of neighboring municipalities. For practically all the cities and towns in the metropolitan district the problem of disposing of sewage without danger or offense has become impossible to solve as a local question. Sewage in crude form is discharged scarcely anywhere on land or in water within this area at the present time without creating a nuisance or serious risk of nuisance. If it is not a nuisance to the town which produces it it is likely to create one at some other place. Whether poured directly into a river, canal or other tribu- tary of the harbor, or carried by a trunk sewer to the open water of the harbor for discharge, it is practically certain sometime or other to make its presence felt. Future Pollution. It is not difficult to anticipate the result which this lack of pru- dence will ultimately produce if allowed to continue. If the discharge of sewage is not restricted the waters will become more and more polluted, for the quantity of sewage will increase with the population while the quantity of water into which it is discharged will remain the same. Establishment of Plan for Conservancy. The proposal that a comprehensive system of conservancy be established by law for New York harbor is not without prece- dent. In fact it is the natural and usual remedy where water courses have become overburdened with sewage. It has already been successfully employed in Europe and America for the protection of rivers and harbors. The system proposed for New York harbor corresponds with that of the Rivers Boards of England and with that of the Metropolitan Sewerage Board of Boston and the 25 municipalities in its vicinity. SECTION IV CAPACITY OF NEW YORK HARBOR FOR SEWAGE Self -Purification of Harbor Waters. It has been clearly shown that the sewage and other wastes which are discharged into New York harbor would create much more offensive conditions than now exist were it not that the water possesses a certain power of purifying itself. Through the action of this power a large part of the waste matters are destroyed and rendered inert before they can produce the full amount of harm of which they are capable. CAPACITY OF IIARP.OK FOR SEWAGE 79 There is a limit to this purifying power, or digestive capacity, as it is called. When this limit is exceeded the organic matters in the water putrefy and produce offensive odors. Oxidation. The purifying power of the water is essentially one of oxidation. All offensive and potentially olTensivo organic substances, including the liquid and solid ingredients of sewage, must become oxidized to be destroyed. Dilution. The first stage in the process of self-purification is dilution. By dilu- tion the solids of the sewage become dispersed and the liquids diffused through the water. Without diluting the sewage there would not be enough oxygen present to per- mit digestion to proceed far without the production of foul gases. It could never pro- ceed to a natural and necessary termination without, an adequate supply of oxygen. Liquefaction. The second stage in the process of self-purification consists in the liquefaction of the solids and the resolution of the liquids into stable, inert forms. These changes involve chemical combination between the organic substances of the sewage and the dissolved oxygen of the water. They take place largely through the action of living animal and vegetable organisms, chiefly bacteria. Reduction of Dissolved Oxygen. The result of the process of self-purification is to reduce the quantity of oxygen present in solution considerably below the normal amount. Sources of Dissolved Ojrygen. The oxygen which is absorbed is replenished as it was at first derived, in part from the atmosphere and in part from the sea water and land water which enter the harbor. The maintenance of fish life, as well as the prevention of odors from putrefaction, require that the oxygen be not too far exhausted. Present Deficiencies. It has been shown by numerous analyses of water taken from the harbor at many places and at different depths that the sewage and other wastes which are discharged into the harbor cause a material reduction in the amount of dis- solved oxygen present. The main channels of the Upper bay, Hudson river, East river and Kill van Kull contain from GO to 75 per cent, of the oxygen which should be present. The oxygen is entirely exhausted in the waters of the metropolitan district where pollution is greatest, as for example, in the Passaic river, Newtown creek, Gowanus and Wallabout canals and scores of docks and shipping basins. Sewage Deposits. Sewage solids accumulate to some extent upon the harbor bottom. Practically the whole of the bottom of Upper New York bay is covered with black, ill-smelling mud in which particles of sewage origin are distinguishable. In 80 SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS places these deposits have been found to attain a depth of over ten feet. In the lower bay deposits occur more often in the main channels than elsewhere. Deposits Near Seicer Outlets. Deposits from sewers have not, apparently, caused serious shoaling in the navigable channels of the harbor, although the total quantity of solids which the combined household and storm water sewers of the metropolitan district empty into the harbor annually is very large. Filling does undoubtedly occur near outlets, and sewage solids are a conspicuous ingredient of harbor deposits where- ever deposits of any kind occur. The dredging between docks and piers, which is con- tinually necessary for the accommodation of ships along a large part of the waterfront of New York, removes black, ill-smelling mud in which sewage solids exist. SECTION V EFFECTS ON HEALTH It has not been proved that the discharge of sewage into the harbor has had any appreciable effect on the general healthfulness of the metropolis or its suburbs, al- though it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that bathing in this water, collecting driftwood from it for fuel and eating shellfish grown in it is attended by risk of sick- ness. Infection of Harbor Waters. The capacity of the water to produce, disease de- pends chiefly upon the chance that pathogenic microbes are present and that these may in some way get from the water into the bodies of persons susceptible to the dis- eases of which these microbes are the product. There is no question that the sewage of New York, and consequently, mixtures of the sewage and water, are dangerous, for they contain the germs of every infectious disease which occurs there. It remains to consider how long disease germs are capable of living in the water and how the water may become a means of transference of poisonous matter to the people of the metro- politan district. Life of Bacteria in Harbor Waters. Bacteriologists have not determined how long germs of disease are able to live in harbor water, but interesting work has been done in connection with this subject. Useful results have been obtained in studying the cir- cumstances under which the germs of typhoid fever may persist. As far as this in- formation goes it appears that when typhoid germs are mixed with harbor water a rapid reduction in numbers generally occurs at once. At the end of two or three days only a small percentage of the original number of bacteria are pi-esent. At the end of about a week a further slight reduction has occurred. Some survive for two or three weeks, and under exceptional circumstances it would seem that the vitality of some typhoid germs might persist for months. EFFECT OF POLLUTION OF HARBOR ON HEALTH 81 Evidence is on record to show that germs of typhoid have traveled 80 miles or more in water from I heir point of origin before being destroyed. There is believed to be no reduction in the virulence of typhoid germs or other mi- crobes because of their existence in water. The most resistant survive, and these are, apparently, well qualified to multiply and produce disease in any susceptible person. It seems a well-established fact that no pathogenic microbes are capable of multiply- ing in harbor waters under circumstances which are likely to exist, Methods of Acquiring Infection. The water may convey the germs of disease to susceptible persons in many ways. Chief among these are by bathing, eating shell- fish, handling driftwood and by fishing. Obscure Relation Between Polluted Harbor and Sickness. Contrary to what might be expected, there is little statistical evidence to show bow much sickness is pro- duced by polluted harbors. Repeated attempts to collect such evidence have been made, but without success. When the river Thames at London was giving off its worst stenches, prior to the construction of the sewerage system which was built to protect the river, the vital statistics of the city showed no increase in the prevalence of any disease which the sanitarians of that day could ascribe to the odors. Inquiries indi- cated that the health of wharfmen and boatmen was not visibly affected. When the river Liffey was being described by British experts as the most abominable nuisance in Ireland, efforts were made to ascertain the amount of sickness near the waterfront of Dublin, but no excess of illness could be found. Failure to discover an increase in disease does not, of course, prove that harm is iiot done to public health by such conditions. The methods of inquiry available are too crude to detect all the harm. Only the most conspicuous evils, such as cases of specific intestinal diseases can be hopefully looked for. The paths of infection are often too complicated to be followed. Subtle effects upon health similar to those produced by insufficient air, food, sunlight, exercise and rest, cannot readily be detected, measured and traced. It is possible that such effects may be produced by the condition of har- bor waters. Assuming it to be a fact that a polluted harbor produces no effect upon the death rate, this does not remove the necessity for keeping the water reasonably clean. The requirements of decency and order which now obtain and which will become more ex- acting as time proceeds are sufficient reasons for maintaining a sanitary harbor. Nevertheless, the careless discharge of sewage into harbors does produce sickness and death, and for those who wish positive proof of this fact there is some conclusive evidence. 82 SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS Shellfish various bureaus under the general supervision of one head would be comparatively slight, and the results of far-reaching benefit. Designs. In the matter of designs, also, the work should be standardized as much as possible to secure uniform bidding and fair prices. In the existing works are to be seen examples of every known type and condi- tion. Some of the outfall sewers end at the bulkhead line, some at the pierhead, some out into the open water, discharging on the surface of the water; some are submerged with the ends of the sewers tide-locked practically all the time; some discharge upon salt marshes or into the small canals and channels dug through the marshes for drainage purposes; some have storm water outfalls at the shore line with submerged sewage outfalls leading out to deep water and some discharge under the piers back of the pierhead line. From some of the outfalls dispersion of the sewage seems to be complete and satisfactory; from others it is the reverse. This whole question should be investigated in a practical way in co-operation with the bureaus of sewers and a policy adopted for varying conditions that would insure, where tidal discharge proves proper, the satisfactory disposition of the sewage. Ventilation. Another matter of importance relates to a uniform and more satis- factory system of ventilation for the sewers, where necessarily placed at so low an elevation as sometimes to be tide-locked. The offensive odors around the manholes in such locations should be done away with by proper ventilation systems. In New York, where troubles of this nature are more prevalent than in the other municipalities in the district, it is the uniform practice to use disconnecting traps on all house con- nections so that the air from the sewers can not enter the pipes within the buildings. The ventilation of the house pipes is accomplished by the use of an air vent on the house side of the disconnecting trap whereby a current of air is permitted to circulate down into the house sewer and then up to the air above the building through the soil pipe. The adoption of this plan for plumbing confines the ventilation of the public sewers with tide-locked outlets to the ingress and egress of air through the perfora- tions in the manhole covers; it does not insure a circulation of air through the sewers, and hence the air that goes into the sewer comes out again through the same holes into the street, impregnated to a greater or lesser extent with sewer air which, even though not always necessarily objectionable as to odor, usually contains a high propor- tion of carbon dioxide, a gas which unmixed with air will not support life. As many of the tall office buildings in lower New York have ventilation systems, particularly for the stories below street level, and as the inlets for air are in areaways beneath the sidewalks, the blowers drive through the buildings air of not as good quality as 120 SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS should be available. This matter should receive attention; the remedy is simple and inexpensive. Street Washing. Numerous suggestions have appeared iu the press within the past year regarding the washing of the streets with water to aid in cleaning in summer and to remove snow in winter. These practices are followed abroad to some extent, and with conspicuous success where the sewers are built upon steep enough grades to permit the solids to be carried through them by the flowing sewage, and when catch basins are omitted from the street inlets; but if followed indiscriminately in New York, and without strict supervision, much complaint and probably suits for damages would result. At the upper ends of the sewers probably no inconvenience would be felt; but in the flat portions near the waterfront, where the rising tide backs into the sewers, the solids washed in from the streets would deposit in the quiet water and cause obstruc- tions which would be costly of removal or cause the gorging of the sewer and the con- sequent flooding of cellars and streets. For street washing to be successfully employed there should be no catch basius on the sewers, the sewer grades should be steep enough to insure self-cleansing velocities of flow, and a screen and grit chamber should be arranged at the outlet end of the sewer whence the retained materials could be eco- nomically removed. Where applicable this plan is meritorious from a sanitary stand- point, as well as on the score of economical operation. PART III Data Collected CHAPTER I MOVEMENT FOR A CLEAN HARBOR In the year 1903 the Governor of The State of New York appointed a board of ex- perts in accordance with a special Act of Legislature entitled " An Act to authorize the appointment by the Governor of a commission to investigate certain threatened pollu- tion of the waters of New York." (Chapter 539, Laws of 1903). The commission so brought into existence consisted of Daniel Lewis, Chairman, Olin H. Landreth, George A. Soper, Myron S. Folk and Louis L. Tribus, Secretary. Dr. Lewis was at the time Commissioner of Health of the State. THE NEW YORK BAY POLLUTION COMMISSION The reason for creating the New York Bay Pollution Commission is stated in the first report of the commission, dated March 31, 1905, (Senate Document 39, 1905), as follows : " The State Department of Health, having for years noted with anxiety the increasing pollution of New York harbor, due to the discharge into its waters, of sewage and factory wastes of all kinds from the different boroughs of the city of New York, the city of Yonkers, and the cities and towns in the State of New Jersey, situated along the banks of the Hudson river, New York bay and their tributaries and estuaries, and this pollution having culminated in the proposed construction of an immense sewer to discharge the wastes from a large territory in New Jersey, not contiguous to the waters of New York bay, brought the mat- ter to the attention of Governor Odell, who thereupon invited legislative action." The Pollution Commission held its first meeting on June 30, 1903, at which time an outline of procedure was prepared and assignments made to the different members of subjects for special investigation. Each Commissioner reported upon the topic assigned him and these reports were ultimately published as appendices to the Commission's for- mal reports. In addition to the work done 'by special assignment, the Commission held frequent meetings, took testimony at public hearings and held joint conferences with the Passaic Valley District Sewerage Commission to learn the details of the Passaic valley project. First Report. Briefly stated, the commission found the harbor to be seriously pol- luted ; it pointed out that the relation of the waters to climatic and sanitary conditions, as well as to commerce, was " of value beyond computation," and recommended that the waters be protected from pollution by sewage as far as practicable. Two systems of final disposal were considered to be feasible for the district as a whole : First, sewage 124 DATA COLLECTED purification plants for each local district or municipality; at such works the sewage would be so treated as to make it innocuous and inoffensive when it reached the waters of the harbor. Second, a comprehensive scheme for carrying the crude sewage of the whole metropolitan district lying in New York and New Jersey to sea, either by one or by several great trunk sewers or tunnels. lu either case the work suggested would be of such great magnitude that the Pollution Commission felt able to propose it only in barest outline. As far as the Pollution Commission could determine, the idea of disposal at sea offered the more promising solution of the question. To control the disposal of sewage in future, the Pollution Commission suggested the establishment of a metropolitan district " to include all sections in both New York State and New Jersey which now or in future might sewer into the bay and its tribu- taries." The Commission advised that, " Such a district, when authorized by joint State and Federal legislation. should be under the direction and control of a permanent interstate commission, with plenary power to control the discharge of all sewers hereafter constructed, as well as the evolving of a comprehensive plan for ultimately rendering the present chaotic, systemless method of sewage disposal sanitary and suitable for all future requirements." The Commission declared that necessity already existed for a central authority to not only direct, but to initiate such great public works as were required. In conclusion, the Pollution Commission protested against the consummation of the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission's project as then proposed. It recom- mended that the Legislature authorize the appointment of a Metropolitan District Sewerage Commission to thoroughly investigate the practicability of a comprehensive system for ocean disposal of the sewage of the metropolitan district of New York and New Jersey, advised that the Attorney General of the State of New York be authorized and directed to bring action in the Supreme Court of the United States against the State of New Jersey and the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission upon his attention being called to any act of the State of New Jersey or the Passaic commission toward carry- ing into effect the construction of the trunk sewer which had been proposed. Final Report. The presentation of the report of the New York Bay Pollution Com- mission was unavoidably delayed until nearly the close of the Legislature of 1905, and action looking to the carrying out of the Pollution Commission's recommendations could not be taken that year. The Legislature continued the life of the Commission for another year, at the end of which time the Pollution Commission made a second and final report. (Assembly Document 76, 1906). When the first report was submitted technical journals and the daily press of New York gave much publicity to the matters which had been reported upon and commended MOVEMENT FOE A CLEAN HARBOR 125 fully the work already done and that proposed. Representative bodies gave evidence of being alive to the necessity of action, especially the Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York, the Merchants' Association of New York, the Board of Trade and Transporta- tion, the Maritime Association of the Port of New York, the Produce Exchange, the City Club, the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society and the Municipal Engi- neers of The City of New York. In 1905-6 the Pollution Commission's further studies confirmed the conclusions which had been arrived at in the earlier investigations. The Commission stated that this additional work " Demonstrated still more clearly the need for full study and the earliest possible consideration of the whole question of preventing the further pollution of the waters in question and the ultimate doing away with even the present causes of contamination." THE METROPOLITAN SEWERAGE COMMISSION OF NEW YORK Appointment. Action in accordance with the recommendations of the New York Bay Pollution Commission was taken in 1906. By an Act (Chapter 639, Laws of 1906) which became law May 25, 1906, the New York Legislature provided for a com- mission " to investigate and consider means for protecting the waters of New York bay and vicinity against pollution and authorizing The City of New York to pay the ex- penses thereof." (Chapter 639, Laws of 1900). This Act required that the Mayor of the City of New York should appoint five per- sons, three of whom, at least, should be of recognized skill in sanitary engineering and each a resident of the State of New York, to be a board of commissioners to continue the work of the New York Bay Pollution Commission and extend that work so as to in- clude a number of specific duties. The following persons were appointed members of this new commission : Daniel Lewis, President, Matthew C. Fleming, Olin H. Landreth, George A. Soper and Andrew J. Provost, Jr., Secretary. It was decided to call the board the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission of New York. On October 5, 1906, Mr. Fleming resigned and Mr. James H. Fuertes was appointed in his place. In January, 1908, the membership of the com- mission was reconstituted. The reorganized board has remained without change to the present time. The members are : George A. Soper, President, James H. Fuertes, Secre- tary, H. de B. Parsons, Charles Sooysmith, Linsly R. Williams. 1L'<> DATA COLLECTED The Act in full follows: CHAPTER 639, NEW YORK STATE LAWS OF 1906 An Act to provide for a commission to investigate and consider means for protecting the waters of New York bay and vicinity against pollution and authorizing the city of New York to pay the expenses thereof. Became a law, May 25, 1906, with the approval of the Governor. Passed, three-fifths being present. Accepted by the city. The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly. do enact as follows: Section 1. The mayor of the city of New York shall appoint five persons, three of whom, at least, shall be of recognized skill in sanitary engineering, to become a board of commissioners for the purposes hereinafter specified. Each of the persons so appointed shall be a resident of New York state. The board shall have power to appoint a president and a secretary from among its mem- bers and to engage such engineers, chemists, bacteriologists, inspectors, drafts- men, stenographers, clerks and other employees, and to incur such other expenses in executing the purposes of this act, as may be necessary. The cor- poration counsel of the city of New York shall be the attorney at law for, and legal adviser of, the board, and shall, upon its request, either personally or through such of his assistants, or other counsel as he may designate, furnish it with advice and aid, in a similar manner as he is required by law to do in the case of the departments, boards and officers of the city of New York. Sec. 2. It shall be the duty of the board to continue the work of the New York bay pollution commission established by chapter five hundred and thirty- nine of the laws of nineteen hundred and three, and to extend the work of that commission so as to include the following duties : (1) To make further investigations into the present and probable future sanitary condition of the waters of New York bay and other bodies of water with- in or adjacent to the several boroughs of New York city and neighboring dis- tricts. (2) To consider and investigate the most effective and feasible means of permanently improving and protecting the purity of the waters of New York bay and neighboring waters, giving attention particularly to the following subjects: (a) Whether it is desirable and feasible for New York city and the munici- palities in its vicinity to agree upon a general plan or policy of sewerage and sewage disposal which will protect the waters of New York bay and vicinity against unnecessary and injurious pollution by sewage and other wastes ; (b) What methods of collecting and disposing of the sewage and other wastes which pollute, or may eventually pollute, the waters contemplated in this act are most worthy of consideration ; (c) Whether it is desirable to establish a sewerage district in order properly to dispose of the wastes, and adequately protect the purity of the waters, con- MOVEMENT FOR A CLEAN HARBOR 127 templated in this act, and, if so, what should be the limits and boundaries of this .sewerage district; (d) What would be the best system of administrative control for the incep- tion, execution and operation of a plan for sewerage, and ultimate sewage dis- posal, of a metropolitan sewerage district; whether by the action of already ex- isting departments and provisions of government, by the establishment of sepa- rate and distinct sewerage districts and permanent commissions in each state, by one interstate metropolitan sewerage district and commission to bfc estab- lished by agreement between the two states, this agreement if necessary to be ratified by congress, or by other means. (3) To co-operate with any duly authorized body or commission having similar authority in the state of New Jersey, in the joint investigation and con- sideration of the various subjects specified in this act. (4) To submit to the mayor of the city of New York in writing on or before February first, nineteen hundred and nine, a full and complete report of its in- vestigations, conclusions and recommendations. Also to submit such definite conclusions and recommendations as may have been reached conjointly by the commission herein established, acting in conjunction with any similar body hav- ing similar authority from the state of New Jersey, relating to the most effective and feasible means or plan for permanently improving and protecting the waters of New York bay and the rivers and other bodies of water within or adja- cent to the several municipalities in the metropolitan district. Sec. 3. The members of the commission herein provided for shall, before entering upon the discharge of their duties, take and subscribe the constitu- tional oath of office. Sec. 4. Each member of the commission shall have the power to admin- ister oaths and the commission- shall have the power to subpoena witnesses and take testimony, and, in addition, shall have all the powers of legislative commit- tees as provided by article three of the legislative law. The members of the commission, and all persons duly authorized by the commission, shall have the right of entry and passage to any place or property on land or water within the state, or under the state's jurisdiction, for the purpose of making surveys, ex- aminations or investigations. Sec. 5. The commission shall terminate on May first, nineteen hundred and nine, and all maps, results or surveys and examinations, estimates and other papers and matter acquired by the New York commission shall be properly in- dexed and labeled and turned over to the board of estimate and apportionment of New York city. Sec. 6. The members of the commission shall receive no salary, but shall be paid their reasonable and necessary expenses actually incurred in the prose- cution of their duties, and shall each be paid a just and reasonable per diem com- pensation, to be determined by the mayor of the city of New York for the time actually and necessarily employed on the work of the commission. 128 DATA COLLECTED Sec. 7. The comptroller of the city of New York is hereby authorized and directed to raise from time to time, by issuance of corporate stock of the city of New York, fifteen thousand dollars, or such part of this sum as shall be suffi- cient to pay the expenses of the commission herein provided for. Such corpo- rate stock shall be issued by the comptroller when thereto authorized as provided in section one hundred and sixty-nine of the Greater New York charter. All payments from the sale of such corporate stock shall be made upon proper vouchers, having the authorization of the chairman and secretary or by signa- tures of a majority of the commission herein provided for, and in accordance with the laws, regulations and practice now in force for the payment of money by the comptroller of the city of New York. Sec. 8. The secretary of state is hereby directed to communicate to the governor of the state of New Jersey, transmitting a copy of this act and to ex- tend through him an invitation to the state of New Jersey to co-operate with the state and city of New York in carrying out the purposes to be attained by this act. Sec. 9. This act shall take effect immediately. Appropriations. This Act of Legislature which provided for the creation of the Metropolitan Commission specified that the life of the board should terminate May 1, 1909. By an amending Act (Chapter 422, Laws of 1908) the life of the Commission was extended to May 1, 1910. At first the Commissioners received no salary ; the Act specified that they were to be paid a per diem compensation to be determined by the Mayor of The City of New York. This compensation was eventually fixed at five dollars per day. By the amending act a compensation of f 3,000 per year was allowed each commissioner, but no allowance was to be made for personal expenses. Work Undertaken. The Metropolitan Commission as at first constituted extended the work of the Pollution Commission in the following directions : (1) Analytical investigations of the harbor waters were begun. The object of this work was to ascertain the intensity of sewage pollution in various parts of the harbor and obtain a knowledge of the little understood phenomena of digestion of sewage by these waters. A laboratory was established in the New York Aquarium and a number of analytical experts with boats and other ap- paratus were employed. This work continued for several months at the end of which time the appropriation of $10,000 which had been granted to the Com- mission was exhausted. (2) Meetings were held with members of the New Jersey State Sewerage Commission looking to co-operation from New Jersey in the studies which New York had undertaken. These negotiations were discontinued after it was found that the State Sewerage Commission was a moribund body and without juris- diction over a large part of the New Jersey territory. (3) The Bronx valley sewer project was investigated, and communica- tions, wherein the Commission protested against the discharge of crude sewage into the Hudson river from the Bronx valley district and recommended that MOVEMENT FOE A CLEAN HARBOE 129 provision be made for purifying this sewage, were addressed to the Bronx Valley Sewerage Commission, the State Engineer and Surveyor, and the State Commissioner of Health. Soon after the Metropolitan Commission was reorganized a report wag sent to the Mayor in which the Commissioners expressed their view of the importance of the work to be done and the time and money required to complete it in accordance with the speci- fications of the Act of Legislature which had provided for the creation of the Commis- sion in 1906. The reorganized Commission reported on March 16, 1908, that, in their opinion, the objects to be accomplished were important to the people of New York, but that the Commission was without funds and could do little unless more money and time were provided. Increased Appropriation and Extension of Time. The original legislative Act per- mitted the city to appropriate f 15,000 for the Commission's use. The reorganized com- mission found that, of this sum, $10,000 had been spent and $5,000 remained to be appropriated by concurrent action of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment and Board of Aldermen. The Commission reported that if the final $5,000 was appropri- ated there would be enough funds to meet the outstanding obligations, but there would not be sufficient means with which to complete the work. It was estimated that the sum necessary to finish the investigation would be $75,000, and that the time required would be about two years. Soon after this report was made a legislative bill providing for an additional ap- propriation and extending the life of the commission to May, 1910, was drafted by the Corporation Counsel and introduced into the Legislature by request of the Mayor. This bill was passed by the Legislature April 23, and is Chapter 422 of the Laws of 1908. It follows: CHAPTER 422, NEW YORK STATE LAWS OF 1908 An Act to amend chapter six hundred and thirty-nine of the laws of nine- teen hundred and six, entitled " An act to provide for a commission to investi- gate and consider means for protecting the waters of New York bay and vicinity against pollution and authorizing the city of New York to pay the expenses thereof," in relation to the term of said commission, compensation for its mem- bers and funds to be raised in said city for the purposes of said act. Became a law, May 20, 1908, with the approval of the Governor. Passed, three-fifths being present. Accepted by the City. The People of the State of New York represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows: Section 1. Sections five, six and seven of chapter six hundred and thirty- nine of the laws of nineteen hundred and six, entitled "An act to provide for a 130 DATA COLLECTED commission to investigate and consider means for protecting the waters of New York bay and vicinity against pollution and authorizing the city of New York to pay the expenses thereof," are hereby amended to read respectively as follows : Sec. 5. The commission shall terminate on May first, nineteen hundred and ten, and all maps, results or surveys and examinations, estimates and other papers and matter acquired by the New York commission shall be properly in- dexed and labeled and turned over to the board of estimate and apportionment of New York city. Sec. 6. The members of the commission shall receive a compensation of three thousand dollars per annum for their personal services and expenses. Sec. 7. Corporate stock of the city of New York may be authorized to be issued by the board of estimate and apportionment without the concurrence or approval of any other board or public body in accordance with section one hun- dred and sixty-nine of the Greater New York charter, in order to provide the means for carrying out the provisions of this act, but not to exceed the sum of seventy-five thousand dollars in any one year. All payments from the sale of such corporate stock shall be made upon proper vouchers, having the authoriza- tion of the chairman and secretary or by the signatures of a majority of the commission herein provided for, and in accordance with the laws, regulations and practice now in force for the payment of money by the comptroller of the city of New York. Sec. 2. This act shall take effect immediately. The new Act gave the Board of Estimate and Apportionment power to appropriate, without the concurrence of any other board or public body, $75,000 a year for the use of the Commission. A single appropriation, which it was estimated by the commissioners would be sufficient to pay for the entire work, was granted by the Board of Estimate and Apportionment June 15, 1908, when $75,000 was set aside for the use of the Com- mission. Unavoidable Delays. Although seriously handicapped by difficulties some of which were apparently unavoidable in the conduct of a temporary commission, especially the necessity of employing the elaborate machinery designed by the City for the admin- istration of its great permanent departments, by delays inseparable from civil service jurisdiction, and by the fact that its period of existence was nearly half gone before a way could be found to pay employees, the work for which the Commission was created has been completed within the period of time and for the sum of money which had originally been estimated by them to be sufficient. In April, 1908, the Commissioners undertook to meet the obligations of the Com- mission as at first constituted, including the payment of salaries, office rent, boat hire, etc., by seeking a final appropriation of $5,000 from the $15,000 which the Board of Es- timate and Apportionment and the Board of Aldermen were authorized by the first leg- islative Act to set aside for the Commission's use. This undertaking was practically MOVEMENT FOR A CLEAN HARBOR 131 completed six months later. Delay was caused by the Aldermen in granting the money. The Board of Estimate gave consent to the appropriation at once, but the Board of Aldermen did not concur in the matter until September 29, 1908. No claims against the City on account of the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission are now known to exist. Payment of Employees. The granting of the appropriation of $75,000 by the Board of Estimate and Apportionment in June did not at once permit an active prosecution of the Commission's work. It was seven months later before the Commissioners were able to ascertain from the legal department of the City and the courts how they could law- fully employ the assistants required to do the work of investigation and pay their sal- aries. Fixing of Salaries. Question as to the right of the Commission to fix the salaries of employees was raised by the Comptroller in a letter which he addressed to the Corpora- tion Counsel under date of August 20, 1908. The Comptroller stated that the money to pay salaries had been duly provided and that a payroll containing the names of three employees had received the required certificate of the Municipal Civil Service Commis- sion, but the salaries of the positions had not been fixed by the Board of Aldermen, as the Comptroller thought perhaps they should be, in accordance with Section 56 of the City Charter. This section provides that the salaries of all City officers paid out of the City treasury shall be fixed by the Board of Aldermen. Answer to the Comptroller's letter was made by the Corporation Counsel October 26, 1908, to the effect that several members of the Law Department had been considering the question and that they could not agree upon an answer to the question raised. In the opinion of the Corporation Counsel, the correct answer should be left to the deter- mination of the courts. Upon advice from the Corporation Counsel, the matter was then placed before the courts in an action for a writ of mandamus to compel the Comptroller to pay the salary of one of the employees. This was a test case. Case of Allen vs. Metz. The case was known as Allen versus Metz. Decision was rendered December 29, 1908, by Justice Seabury, Part I, Special Term, Supreme Court. The decision was to the effect that the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission was a State Commission and that the provision of Section 56 of the City Charter, was consequently inapplicable. An order and writ of mandamus were therefore granted by the court and \\cre in due form served upon the Comptroller. The salaries of the Commission's em- ployees were first paid by the Comptroller out of the appropriation of $75,000 January 11, 1909. Civil Service Requirements. Question was then raised as to the proper civil service jurisdiction which should be exercised over the Commission's employees. If the Com- 132 DATA COLLECTED mission was a State board, should its employees be obtained through the State Civil Ser- vice Commission or through the Municipal Civil Service Commission? In a communi- cation transmitted to the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission February 1, 1909, the Cor- poration Counsel expressed the opinion that the employees of the commission should continue to be, as they had been, under the jurisdiction of the Municipal Civil Service Commission. This opinion removed the last obstacle to the employment of the technical and clerical help required and made possible a vigorous prosecution of the Commis- sion's work. The delay and uncertainty concerning the ability of the Commission to pay the salaries of employees had produced an embarrassing situation. Of the 28 months originally allotted for the completion of the Commission's work, 13 had been lost in as- certaining how the appropriation could lawfully be spent. The Commissioners had not, however, passed the long delay in idleness. Work had been undertaken and was being prosecuted as rapidly as circumstances permitted. A few faithful employees were attending to duties assigned them with courage and loyalty. Conclusion of Work Required Under the Act. A preliminary report, embodying the principal findings and recommendations of the Commission was made to the Mayor under date of March 1st, 1910. The present volume is submitted as the full and com- plete report called for by the legislative Acts under which this Commission has existed. CHAPTER II PRESENT AND FUTURE POPULATION OF THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT AND THE VOLUME OF SEWAGE DISCHARGED INTO NEW YORK HARBOR POPULATION Introduction. The object of this study was to forecast as nearly as practicable the future population of the metropolitan district of New York and New Jersey and the distribution of population within the several municipalities and rural districts in that territory. The furthest date for which a forecast could be made which would seem likely to prove reasonably correct appeared to be about 30 years. The estimates were accordingly prepared to cover that period. The metropolitan district referred to comprises the whole or part of 84 cities and towns in New York and New Jersey situated within a boundary line fixed in April, 1909, by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission of New York for the purposes of its investigations. This boundary varies in distance from the New York City Hall between 14 and 28 miles and lies at an average distance of about 20 miles. The limits were drawn so as to include the territory whose drainage flows directly into New York harbor and within which the density of population was such as to make a compre- hensive treatment of the sewage problem necessary. Before making original estimates a study and comparison of the growth of New York and vicinity as forecast by different authorities was made. Estimates of John K. Frccwan (Jontained in a Report on New York's Water 8uj)- l>ly, 1900. Mr. Freeman's figures have proved to be remarkably accurate up to the present time, in spite of the fact that they were made at a time when the last report of a complete census was for the year 1890. Mr. Freeman's detailed estimates for The City of New York for 1905 of 3,980,000 was only one-half of one per cent, below the cor- rected figure obtained by the actual enumerators of the State. Added interest attaches to these figures because they are the lowest of all the esti- mates examined. The author's evident object was to give a conservative opinion con- cerning the City's growth. His estimates appear to be based to a considerable extent on the past growth of the citv of London, whose increase for the last century has been about 19V., per cent per 134 DATA COLLECTED ( < < ^ 1 a. S 3 .0 to o Z 1 2< I 1 5*1 | m z2 j O OO < O Oo ^ u>_ o oo o ao t~a> u> uo OJ, N-,>.U>. J. O CM en in en m in i ' k I 1 i en cc < u > ESTIMATED POPULATIONS OF NEW YORK CITY \ \ \ s, \ s \ \\ \ \ v \ \ k ^ \ \ \ \ \ ^ \ \ \ V V ^ \ \ \ \ \ V \ \ \ > \ \ Vy V s \ s ^ ^ \ ^ \\ V ^ \V ^ S Joooooo gooc JOOOOOOOO OOC )OoooooOoOooc ; g g g g g g > S o 5 o, S q w q in o B c jm">oo'ooh-"' v ->"u>irt'*l NO 1 JLVTfldOd POPULATION AND SEWAGE OF METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 135 decade. A prospective growth of metropolitan New York of from 36 per cent, per decade decreasing to 15 per cent per decade by 1940 has been assumed. It is possible that Mr. Freeman's estimate for 1940 may prove somewhat low. Estimates of Dr. Walter Laidlaw Published in " Federation," May, 1908. Dr. Laid- huv's figures for The City of New York are slightly larger than those of Mr. Freeman, his minimum being two and one-half per cent, above what Mr. Freeman terms the greatest probable population. Dr. Laidlaw attaches considerable importance to the relative growth of New York compared with the entire United States, the probable distribution of future Immigrants * and an increasing trend of population westward due to the development of transporta- tion facilities. From a consideration of these influences he believes that the future in- crease of the city will be arithmetical, not geometrical ; and to get a minimum for 1940 which he also considers the most probable figure, he simply multiplies the increase found for 1900 to 1905 by seven and adds the product to the 1905 population. To get a maximum figure for 1940 he adds to the minimum estimates three and one-half times what he calls the decade surplus, which is twice the increase from 1900 to 1905 over the increase from 1890 to 1900. Dr. Laidlaw's maximum and minimum figures have been considered conservative by some, but they are the result of 15 years' impartial study of population and are based upon an unusually broad knowledge of the subject. Estimates of the Board of Water Supply of the City of New York. The Board for an additional water supply for The City of New York has compiled estimates upon a somewhat unique and interesting basis. Manhattan Island is presumed to cease growth after a total of 3,000,000 inhabitants has been reached. The future rate of growth of Brooklyn is based upon the rate which has obtained in Manhattan. The future rate of growth for The Bronx is based upon the rate of growth which obtained in Brooklyn when the latter's transit facilities were at a similar stage of development to those in The Bronx. The rate of growth of Queens is expected to resemble the rate of The Bronx beginning with the opening of transit lines in The Bronx. Estimates of the New York Telephone Company. The engineers of the New York Telephone Company have estimated future growth by first estimating the future popu- lation of the whole country and then projecting into the future the past percentage of this total found in The City of New York and other parts of the metropolitan district, determining last the figures for the smallest subdivisions. The method followed was similar to that employed by Dr. Laidlaw but assuming a more rapid growth for the United States and a larger proportion of this growth taking place in New York and vicinity. The results are therefore in excess of Dr. Laidlaw's. 136 DATA COLLECTED POPULATION AND SEWAGE OF METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 137 Miscellaneous Estimates for Parts of the Metropolitan District. The report of the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission for 1908 contains estimates of population for 30 localities within the Passaic valley sewer district for the years 1911 and 1940. Of these places, 15 were divided into from two to 35 sewer districts, each of whose population was, apparently, estimated separately and these were then added together for the whole city or town. The 1911 estimates appear to be based on past growth, but those for 1940 are in most cases so large that they would seem to represent the ultimate population of the district to be provided for in designing the sewers. The estimates of future population in the Bronx valley sewer district and in the drainage area of the joint outlet sewer of Essex and Union Counties of New Jersey are ultimate figures and do not necessarily represent the populations which may exist in these areas in 1940. None of the preceding estimates is suitable for use by the Metropolitan Commis- sion : some are not detailed enough ; others do not cover the entire territory. Growth of New York City Compared with that of the Whole Country and of Other Cities. No growth should be assumed which requires too large a percentage of the population of the whole country to be located in New York. Chicago and the 23 cities west of it having over 50,000 inhabitants each in 1900, had, taken alto- gether, 2,015,208 inhabitants in 1890, while the five boroughs of The City of New York, as at present constituted, had 1,911.689. In the 20 years following 1880 New York gained 1,525,504, while the 24 western cities just mentioned gained 3,078,806. In other words, the western gain was twice the gain of The City of New York. The cities of the country may be divided into groups, each section containing about the same population as The City of New York in 1880. The first group comprises the four largest cities. The following group the next ten largest and the third group the next 34. In the 20 years from 1880 to 1900 the first and third of these groups grew faster than The City of New York and only the second group grew slower. Effect of Migration. Migration has always played an important part in the in- crease in population of New York and is practically certain to do so hereafter. Being the leading port of entry for the United States changes in the population of the whole country, so far as they are affected by immigration from Europe, are reflected with much certainty in the population statistics of New York. The number of immigrants landed at New York in the past has reached one million in a single year, or about ten times the increase of population; but this high figure does not seem likely to recur. Movements of population from one part of the metropolitan district to another pro- duce marked variations between the resident and non-resident population. From all 138 DATA COLLECTED tr o CO O o CD CO POPULATION AND SEWAGE OF METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 139 points of the compass steam and electric railways bring business people to the com- mercial centres in the morning and carry them back to the residence sections at night. Statistics have been furnished the Commission by the various transportation com- panies showing the passengers brought into Manhattan from outlying territory daily, as follows: From Long Island 413,500 From New Jersey 203,800 From Staten Island 17,200 From North of The Bronx 42,900 677,400 This is seen to add one-third to the resident population of Manhattan daily. The present increase of transient population is estimated at four per cent, annually. Possible Reduction of Congestion of Population. A movement against congestion of population exists but it is still of unknown strength. It may in time have a visible effect, though a spreading out of population may not change the total of the metropol- itan district, but only tend to distribute people more evenly throughout the district. Recent rapid transit developments around New York are important to the differ- ent localities, but they do not seem likely to materially affect the ratio of the city popu- lation to that of the surrounding territory as a whole, as is popularly believed. The electrification of steam lines of railways is going on in all directions in the metropolitan district, and there may be a very rapid accretion of population from this or other causes in particular districts; such, for instance, as in the vicinity of the proposed Jamaica bay improvements and the area directly tributary to the Queensboro Bridge in Long Island City. Analysis of Previous Estimates. Most of the estimates made by other authorities which were considered in the studies of the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission relate particularly to the growth of The City of New York. A feature of some of the esti- mates was that no account was taken of the New York and New Jersey State cen- suses, the results being based wholly, or chiefly, on Federal enumerations. There seems to have been a feeling that the State enumerations were not as carefully made as those of the general government. For the year 1905, however, the New York State census was made under the direction of an expert who later became Chief Statistician for Population of the United States Census Bureau. In the Metropolitan Commission's estimates it has seemed desirable to use the latest State data. In fact, they have been indispensable for about 25 New Jersey towns, for these places have come into existence since the United States Census of 1890. 140 DATA COLLECTED LJ ul 100 90 80 70 60 50 30 10 JL A YEARS-1800 I8ZO 1840 I860 1880 1900 1320 1940 PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION OF NEW YORK CITY IN EACH BOROUGH POPULATION AND SEWAGE OF METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 141 Methods of Estimating Population Employed by the Metropolitan Sewerage Com- mission. Preliminary estimates of future population were based mainly on United States Census figures on the ground that, being made on the same basis, they furnished a fair comparison between the growths of municipalities in the two States of New York and New Jersey. State census figures were used for the 20 recently formed New Jersey towns. Where towns have been formed since the New York and New Jersey State cen- suses of 1905 were made no estimates were obtainable. Where towns were formed be- tween 1900 and 1905 the future growth of the original undivided area was calculated, after which the percentage for each division of the area as found for 1905 was taken for succeeding five-year periods and was used as the population of each place. Estimates were first made based upon a geometrical increase that is, an in- crease of a uniform percentage every five or ten years. As growth in a geometrical ratio is not supported by the growth of Manhattan, New York or the metropolitan district in the past, figures for which were obtained and plotted, this method was re- jected. Allowing for a gradual decrease in the percentage of annual growth as found in the past, the forecast population for 1940 came so near to that obtained by adopt- ing the arithmetical increase for each five-year interval found for the interval 1900 to 1905, that the revised figures were determined in this way. It was observed that the average rate of growth of a town bore a certain rela- tion to the density of population. When a certain neighborhood reaches a point where the population will be too dense for that class of neighborhood the rate of in- crease decreases. In certain parts of Manhattan, indeed, it is probable that there will be no further increase. The final estimates were based upon the known increases in past years as shown by the census enumerations of the United States Government, and the States of New York and New Jersey by projecting into the future rates which have occurred in the past in communities of similar size. The method of applying this was as follows: The rate of increase was ascertained for towns of different sizes and for assembly districts and wards of different density of population. This was done in order to find the proper percentage of increase to use in each interval of five years for each of the subdivisions (town, ward, etc.) of the metropolitan district. This increase, it was assumed, would be similar for towns of approximately the same size. The re- sults so obtained were plotted and are shown in a graphic way by diagrams which accompany this report, by Table I, and by the following general summary: Summary of Results. The total population in the metropolitan district in 1905 was 5,332,000. By 1940 it will probably reach 11,800,000. 142 DATA COLLECTED 600,000 500,000 400,000 300,000 200,000 100,000 1900 1910 1320 YEARS 1930 NEWARK JERSEY CITY YONKERS BAYONNE ELIZABETH PATERSON PASSAIC PERTH AMBOY 1940 POPULATIONS OF CERTAIN CITIES IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT POPULATION AND SEWAGE OF METROPOLITAN DISTRICT U3 It is probable that the population of the metropolitan district will increase for the next 30 years as rapidly as if the present population of Indianapolis were added annually. In 1903 the population of the metropolitan district was equivalent to that of the cities of Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Boston, Baltimore and Columbus com- bined, or to that of Paris and Berlin united. That part of the metropolitan district lying in Ne\v York, in 1905 contained 51 per cent, of the entire population of the State. That part of the metropolitan district lying in New Jersey, in 1905 contained 56 per cent, of the entire population of that State. The population of The City of New York, which was 4,000,000 in 1905, will probably reach 8,600,000 by 1940. Outside of The City of New York, but in the metropolitan district of this State, the population in 1905 was 128,000 and will probably reach 400,000 by 1940. The metropolitan district of New Jersey, including all municipalities, contained 1,200,000 in 1905, and will probably contain 2,800,000 by 1940. There were, in 1905, ten cities in the metropolitan district o'f New Jersey hav- ing populations in excess of 25,000. By 1940 these will probably contain about 1,900,000 persons. The largest of these ten cities were Newark and Jersey City, whose populations were 283,000 and 232,000 respectively in 1905. By 1940 there will probably be nine cities in Hudson County, seven towns in Essex County, three in Passaic County and one each in Middlesex and Union Coun- ties, or 21 New Jersey cities having populations of over 25,000. Of these Newark, Jersey City, Bayonne, Paterson, Passaic, Elizabeth and Perth Amboy will have over 100,000 each. In addition to the resident population of about two and one-fourth millions, Man- hattan receives from outside about three-fourths of a million non-residents daily. 144 DATA COLLECTED TABLE I SUMMARY OF POPULATION 1905 194 New York Manhattan 2 102 928 4 143 200 The Bronx 271 592 979 000 Brooklyn 1,355 106 2 730 100 Queens 197 838 682 400 Richmond 72,939 131 400 The City of New York 4,000,403 8,666,100 Mt Vernon 24 930 80 300 New Rochelle 20 387 65 700 Yonkers 61 414 193 500 Part of Westchester County and Nassau County 21 665 69 400 Metropolitan New York, exclusive of City of New York. . . 128,396 408,900 Metropolitan New York 4 128 799 9 075 000 New Jersey Bayonne ... . 42 262 157 000 East Orange 25 175 63 460 Elizabeth 60 509 155 479 Hoboken . . 65468 92 500 Jersey City ... 232 699 396 000 Newark 283,289 597,600 Orange 26,101 37,035 37837 128 500 Paterson 111,529 135,500 Perth Amboy 25,895 117534 Cities of over 25 000 in 1905 910 764 1 880 608 Metropolitan New Jersey, exclusive of cities of over 25,000\ 292,623 910,792 in 1905 / 1 203 387 2,791,400 Metropolitan district 5,332,186 11,866,400 POPULATION AND SEWAGE OF METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 145 VOLUME OF SEWAGE DISCHARGED INTO NEAV YORK HARBOR The volume of sewage produced in any district depends primarily on the water consumption, including that obtained from wells or other private supplies. In some towns, such as Patersoii, these private supplies furnishing artesian water for manu- facturing purposes, such as dye works, silk mills, rolling mills, breweries, etc., consti- tute an important proportion of the total amount of water used. If discharged into the sewers as is customary, it adds to the volume of sewage, although it may not in- crease the total amount of the organic constituents of the sewage. Aside from the water supply the flow of sewage may be materially increased by the infiltration of ground water through leaky sewers, or of surface waters through manhole covers. In the case of combined sewers the flow is enormously increased for short periods during storms. On the other hand the volume of sewage carried by the sewers is diminished, first, by the fact that suburban or rural areas are not provided with sewers, their liquid wastes going either to cesspools or on to the land; second, because in many instances manufacturing wastes are discharged directly to the nearest stream with- out passing through a sewer; third, by leakage from defective sewers into the soil, and fourth, on account of water used for street sprinkling and street cleaning pur- poses. In a combination of towns such as is represented by those of the metropolitan district it is believed a fair general estimate of the volume of sewage may be de- termined with the following assumptions: 1st. That the infiltration of surface and ground water to some sewers and the water used from private supplies will about offset that lost by leakage or by the ordinary direct disposal to streams and by street sprinkling. 2nd. That where an unusual discharge directly to streams is made from mills, etc., due allowance be made for this. 3rd. That the run-off directly due to storms be disregarded by assuming the dry-weather flow only of combined sewerg. 4th. That districts without sewerage facilities be omitted from consideration. From these assumptions it follows that for the general purposes of this estimate the volume of sewage may be taken as equivalent to the water supply, corrected for any excessive discharge from other sources, or diversion to other outlets, by mills, etc. In this way fluctuations due to non-resident population are accounted for without determining the number of people, the water supply being known. Applying this method to the metropolitan district the figures given in Table II are obtained. 146 DATA COLLECTED TABLE II VOLUMES OF SEWAGE PRODUCED IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT Million gallons per day 1910 1940 New York State- Manhattan 343 The Bronx 45 Brooklyn 160 Queens 27 Richmond 8 The City of New York 583 1 Mt. Vernon 3 3 New Rochelle 1 3 Yonkers 9* Bronx Valley 3 s 599 New Jersey Bergen County : New Barbadoes (Hackensack) 1.0' Passaic valley sewer district 5.7* Balance of Bergen County in metropolitan district. Union County : Elizabeth Rahway Westfield and Cranford. Joint outlet sewer Essex County : Passaic valley sewer district. Newark Orange East Orange Balance of Passaic valley district in Essex County. 6.0 4 l.O 1 l.O 1 8.0 7 52.0* 4.5 1 4. 1 1 14.7' 650 195 560' 145 30 1,580.0 9.7 3.2 27.4 9.1 1,629.4 1.4 1 41.3* 3.7 1 2.0 1 13. 9 l 93. 7 1 10. 8 1 12. 1 1 42.4' Based on the consumption of water. Eng. News, Apr. 29, 1909. N. Y. State Btf Hlth., 1907. U. S. Census Bui. 105, 1907. Letter G. R. Byrne, Ch. Engr., May 5, 1909. Rep. Passaic Valley Sewerage Com., 1908. Letter from Alexander Potter, Nov. 16, 1908. POPULATION AND SEWAGE OF METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 147 TABLE IlV 1^ 1 CO C-^ 1 <0 CO O> ^* Oi i ^* ^ . C0~ oT CN s CM IN . O to oo oo > t I s - O t^ IN S 2 S X i-t OS IN t^ O* Oi Q T i I CO" W CN CN IN o pi 00 IN -H r- 10 CO CD (N tO t-- i 00 *-< 8 " C-J 1 CN_ CO_ o> 1 ej to * f-H CD CD 00^ CN" o CN cs "S. CO CO CO 1"- S 2 00 3 * t s i ^ ts -s i OS O O . i OO O O5 00 00 t^ CO I 3 ^ CO " >> CO -^ O CO CO i-t co e* ^f CO !> 1-5 ^s in i i V tO O to CS co b- I-H t- CN 00 to a> n fl co oo CO CD ^^ P of ' r ^ M CN IN IN 5? r- in 10 Oi co oo eo oo CN CO CO TP CO CO oo to S CO s S " CN c* CO *C j 1 *O CD *H t- CO W t- 0 o CO i-t P 52 rt 2 OS O b- CN 03 ^H" ^" to CO S 10 iO 1 CO ^* CO CO O 10 -^ S -H I co as 1 .0 2 12 " " 1 CO !> IN 00 iO 1^ O CO IN CN <3> IO CO 10 CO CN IN 00 r-f oT pj CN >-3 .S-* O5 CO CO 1^- CO CO IO CO g CO O 00 CO CO 0) CO CO ^ ^ JoT CO 2 *^ *"* : "a " a 1 * _g *- -M o ^ ^ ^ o.'g _ * " fe \ 3 2 o a i * " s 4 g e|. = i CO a I c ^* n W ' ^i^ ' * C B 00 J t>0 d ti 3 Ja * '"''^ = "S'S> " fc Si Sgs S ^ |g 2 ?Ja "^ 1 o. M""" .2 a |J o -g " D, Lower bay, Upper bay. 1 ^ = c a, * U a =^ . be ta .s.s a 1 -8 lyjl &l s i" | - 5- Total enteri Narrows . *& 1 S^'x 1 J5 S C8 'C gJ S < *Total enter that enter S >V^^^I O 5 U M fcM*H d O II 5S i? U]CO 5 : VI . U C U : sl 5S a'S &I 5=! c| feliil- sPl 152 DATA COLLECTED The shape of the harbor is shown on the various outs in this report. The areas of the several main divisions of the harbor and an estimate of the quantity of water in each division below the level of mean low water are given in Table II. TABLE II HARBOR OF NEW YORK WATER AREAS, DEPTHS AND VOLUMES OF WATER Division Area in Square Miles Average Depth in Feet Water Volume Below M. L. W. in Cubic Feet 20 74 22 43 12 970 000 000 Hudson river, from the Battery to Mt. St. Vincent 14.49 30 70 12 330 000 000 East river from the Battery to Throgs Neck . 14 80 27 03 11 160 000 000 Harlem river 0.49 13 58 187 700 000 Newark bay 8 35 6 63 1 542 000 000 Kill van Hull 1.12 23.40 728,000,000 Arthur Kill 4.93 12 62 1 735 000 000 Total water surface . ... 64 92 Total volume of water below mean low water 40,652 700 000 Tidal Ranges. The mean range, or rise and fall of the tide is not the same at all points in the harbor; and the hours at which high and low water occur at different points vary considerably. These differences in both range and time sometimes cause the tidal currents to flow in a direction contrary to that which would naturally be expected from the stage of the tide. That is, there are places in the harbor where tho flood current continues to run after the water level begins to fall, and where tho ebb current continues to run after the water level begins to rise. These differences are given in Table III. TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 153 TABLE III MEAN RANGE OF TIDE, AND TIMES OF HIGH AND Low WATER IN NEW YORK HARBOR.* Station Tidal Range Times f Differences in Times Mean Feet H. W. L.W. H. W. L.W. 4.7 4.2 5.6 4.6 4.7 4.6 4.4 5.3 7.3 4.0 7:35 8:34 7:55 8:20 8:41 7:41 8:04 9:54 11:09 8:49 1:27 2:35 1:59 2:28 2:59 1:38 2:05 3:39 5:14 2:51 0:29 0:30 0:09 0:17 0:38 0:23 0:00 1:50 3:05 0:45 0:38 0:30 0:06 0:23 0:54 0:28 0:00 1:33 3:09 0:46 Tottenville Arthur Kill Passaic Light " " Blackwells Id Light * Tide Tables, United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, t Solar time in hours and minutes after transit of moon. The Lunar Day. A lunar day is the period between the major transits of the moon, or in other words the interval between consecutive overhead passages of the moon across the meridian. It is similar to a solar day except that it is determined by the position of the moon instead of by that of the sun. A lunar day is longer than a solar day by 50 minutes and 28 seconds. In other words, one lunar hour is equal to 1.03505 solar hours. When separate tidal waves enter a strait from opposite ends there results in the strait an interference tide, or overlapping of the tidal waves. This does not mean that such a meeting and overlapping results in a superposition of one wave over another, but that the resulting tide is due partly to the influence of each wave. The East river is such a strait. Interference Tides. Interference tides of this kind occur in New York harbor be- cause separate tidal waves enter, one from the sea, past Sandy Hook, and the other from Long Island Sound, past Throgs Neck. These separate tidal waves are not synchronous, i. e., their periods of high water or low water do not occur at the same time. The Sound tide entering the East river is traceable as far as Governors Island where, by counteracting and in part neutralizing the tidal wave entering by the Nar- rows, the resultant range of the tide is less than at either Throgs Neck or Sandy DATA COLLECTED Hook. It should be said, however, that this diminution of range in the Upper bay is in part attributable to the throttling effect of passing through the East river of the one wave and through the Narrows of the other. At the southern end of the East river the range is 4.4 feet, while at the other end it is 7.2 feet. Where the higher ranges occur (Tlirogs Neck) the tidal wave enters 3 hours and 5 minutes later than the tidal wave from the ocean at the other end (Gov- ernors Island). The violent currents at Hell Gate are due to these differences in level, aug- mented by the difference in the stage of the two tides and their occurrence at a point where the channel is so contracted as to prevent the free flow of water in its effort to restore a uniform elevation of the surface. EFFECT OF TIDAL RANGE East River. In the East river the tidal currents are nearly hydraulic, i. e., they flow from the body having temporarily the higher water surface level to the one hav- ing temporarily the lower. In other words, the flow is caused by the difference in height which temporarily exists between the bodies connected. In consequence, the velocities in the East river vary very closely as the square root of the range of tide, in accordance with well known laws of hydraulics. Hudson River. In the Hudson river the tidal currents are due chiefly to the progressive wave motion, as is shown by the fact that the greatest flood and ebb velocities occur at nearly the times of local high and IOAV water. In the Hudson river the velocities vary directly as the range of tide. The Kills. In the Kill van Kull and in the Arthur Kill the tidal currents are nearly hydraulic, and in them, as in the East river, the velocities vary closely as the square root of the range of tide. The Narrows. In the Narrows the tidal currents are partly hydraulic and partly due to the progressive wave motion. In consequence, the velocities in the Nar- rows vary approximately midway between the square root of and directly as the range of tide. The Harlem. In the Harlem river the tidal currents are nearly hydraulic, and are due to a temporary difference in water level between the East river and the Hud- son river. In the Harlem river the velocities vary approximately as the square root of the range of the tide. The velocities of the current are variable and depend on the conditions existing at the times of observation. Strength of Current. The strength of a tidal cui'rent is that which obtains when the velocity is a maximum. The strength of the current at the surface does not bear TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 155 a constant relation to the mean strength of the current for any particular section of the channel. There is an average relationship between the surface and mean strengths of the current for each part of the harbor under normal conditions, but this is affected: 1. By the underrun ; 2. By the inertia of the moving mass of water, and 3. By the reversal of the tidal current which takes place at different parts of the same cross section at different times. Current Velocities. Velocities that may be expected at or just below the surface under normal conditions when the tidal currents are flowing at a maximum and the mean velocities for the entire duration of a tide are given ia Table IV. TABLE IV VELOCITIES ix KNOTS PER HOUIJ ix NEW YOKK HAUBOK At Strength Mean for Tide Ebb Flood Ebb Flood Hudson river, off 30th street 3.0 3.8 3.0 2.0 2.9 2.2 2.0 1.0 1.9 2.0 2.0 3.6 2.9 2.3 2.6 1.8 1.8 1.0 1.8 1.6 1.86 2.42 2.00 1.99 1.90 1.48 1.17 0.71 1.30 1.22 1.27 2.22 1.98 1.81 1.73 1.24 1.04 0.69 1.22 0.95 East river, Brooklyn Bridge East river, 1 1th street East river, 19th street East river, 31st street Kill van Hull, Port Richmond Kill van Hull, Bergen Point Harlem river, 144th street Harlem river, High Bridge The Narrows These velocities were obtained from the records of the Coast and Geodetic Survey and from the float observations made by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission. Tidal Prisms. The tidal prism of a body of water is that part which lies above the level of mean low tide at the time of high tide. In other words, it is the volume of water that flows in from below between low tide and high tide. The ratio of the tidal prisms to the water lying below mean water level is given in Table V. 156 DATA COLLECTED TABLE V RATIO OF TIDAL PRISMS TO WATER VOLUMES ix NEW YORK HARBOR Division of Harbor Area Square Miles Average Depth Feet Average Tide Range Feet Volume below M. L. W. Cubic Feet* Tidal Prism Cubic Feet* Percentage Upper bay 20.74 22.4 4 4 12970 2,541 19 6 Hudson river, Battery to Mt St Vincent 14 49 30 7 4 2 12330 1 697 13 7 East river Battery to East 88th street 3 31 29 2 4 7 2700 434 16 1 East river, East 88th. street to Old Ferry Point . . . East river Old Ferry Point to Throgs Neck 8.98 2 51 22.3 41 6.2 7 1 5590. 2870 1,552. 497 27.8 17 3 Harlem river 0.49 13.6 5.3 185 7 72 5 39 Newark bay 8.35 6.6 4.6 1542. 1,071. 69.6 Kill van Kull 1.12 23.4 4.8 728. 149 8 20.6 Arthur Kill 4.93 12.6 5 4 1735. 743 42 8 * In millions of cubic feet. For equal ranges of tide the percentage will increase inversely as the average depth; therefore, the shallower the water the greater will be the ratio of change of volume during each tide. The least ratio of change is in the Hudson river, and the greatest in NeAvark bay. SECTION II PRINCIPAL CURRENT PHENOMENA IN THE NARROWS AND AT OTHER POINTS IN THE HARBOU Inertia is that property of matter Avhich causes a body to remain in a condition of rest or motion. When the tidal currents turn from flood to ebb or from ebb to flood, the inertia of the moving stream plan's a very important part. The turn of the tide takes place first along the shore. In the Narrows the first change of current ap- pears on the east side of the channel. As the specific gravity of the sea outside of New York bar is about 1.024, the sea water is approximately 2y 2 per cent, heavier than the land water discharged from the rivers. As the tide turns there is a tendency for this lighter laud water to flow out over the top of the incoming heavier salt water. Underrun. There also results an incoming flow of sea water at or near the bot- tom, already described as the underrun. The reversal in direction of the surface cur- rent ordinarily takes place in the shallower waters near the shore, where it is less influenced by the inertia of the greater volume flowing in the channel. TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 157 The underruu of sea water up the Hudson river extends at times as far as Car- thage,* 64 miles above the Battery, brackish water having been observed as far as Poughkeepsie, 75 miles from the Battery.f Tidal Velocities. Pure tidal motion is harmonic in character, i. e., the velocities caused by a tidal wave are rhythmic, varying in degree by regular periods. The veloc- ity at any part of the tide is proportional to the sine of an arc representing the time elapsed since slack water, in which the entire circle represents a complete cycle of the tide, or 12 lunar hours, one lunar hour being represented, therefore, by 30 degrees of arc. Variations from this law occur, however, from the following causes: 1. The underrun at the times of tidal change. 2. The currents are not always in the same direction as the channel currents. 3. The inertia of the flowing stream at the time when it would otherwise reverse its direction from flood to ebb or vice versa. 4. The effect of wind. 5. Variation in the volume of land water brought down the rivers from drainage areas above. Paths of Floating Bodies. In consequence of these causes, it is not possible to predict with great accuracy the path which will be followed by a floating particle. It is possible, however, to predict the path if the conditions stay approximately normal, as follows : Suppose a particle to be set adrift at a point where the maximum velocity or " strength " of the tidal current is known. Then, according to the law of sines, the velocity of the current at any time would be A. cosine 30 t in which A denotes the velocity of the tidal current at time of strength and t the num- ber of lunar hours after the time of strength. If solar hours are used, then the veloc- ity at any time would be A.cosine 29.98 t By computing and plotting a number of these velocities at different stations in the locality it is possible to predict the motion that would normally be taken by a floating particle carried along by the current. Owing to the variation in channel sections and directions which cause side cur- rents or eddies, it is not safe to calculate the predicted course which a floating par- ticle will take. It is safer to rely upon observations made with floats, many of which were made by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission. *Rep. U. S. C. & G. S. 1887 App. 15 p.304. tRep. Com. on Add. Water Sup. N. Y. 1903 p. 523. 158 DATA COLLECTED Iii this connection it must be remembered that surface velocities do iiot ordi- narily indicate the mean velocities of tidal streams. While the surface particles may have a known velocity in one direction the velocity of the particles beneath the sur- face often differ materially. To determine accurately the mean velocity of a tidal current, it would be neces- sary to take simultaneous observations at many points across a stream and at many points in depth below the surface. These observations should cover a considerable period of time in order to obtain fair averages. Owing to the expense involved, which would be very great, and to the obstruction of the waterway by anchoring observing boats at close intervals across the stream, this method was not undertaken by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission. THE CURRENTS WHICH EXIST IN THE HARBOR AT EACH LUNAR HOUR OF A TIDAL CYCLE As shown by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commissions' float experiments and by a study of the currents, the hourly conditions are as follows: I Lunar Hour. The water is flowing out of the Upper bay through the Nar- rows, toward the sea ; into the Upper bay through the Kill van Kull, the East river and the Hudson river; and the water level in the Upper bay is falling. // Lunar Hour. The water is flowing out of the Upper bay, through the Nar- rows, toward the sea, flowing into the Upper bay through the Kill van Kull, East river and Hudson river; and the water in the Upper bay is rising. /// Lunar Hour. The water is flowing out of the Upper bay, through the Nar- rows, toward the sea; flowing into the Upper bay through the East river and the Hudson river; the Kill van Kull is nearly slack; and the water in the Upper bay is rising. IV Lunar Hour. The water is flowing into the Upper bay, through the Nar- rows,* from the sea; into the Upper bay from the Hudson river; out of the Upper bay and Hudson river into the East river; out of the Upper bay into the Kill van Kull; and the water in the bay is rising. V Lunar Hour. The water is flowing into the Upper bay, through the Narrows, from the sea; the Hudson river is nearly slack; flowing out of the Upper bay through the East river and the Kill van Kull; and the water in the bay is rising. VI Lunar Hour. The water is flowing into the Upper bay, through the Nar- rows, from the sea; out of the Upper bay through the Hudson river, East river and Kill van Kull ; and the water in the bay is rising. *In the Narrows the surface currents are nearly slack. TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 159 Surface Currents as Shown by Floats, First Lunar Hour 160 DATA COLLECTED Surface Current* at Shown by Floats Second Lunar Hour TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 161 Surface Currents aa Shown by Floats, Third Lunar Hour 102 DATA COLLECTED Surface Currents as Shown by Floats, Fourth Lunar Hour TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METEOPOL1TAN DISTRICT 163 Surface Currents as Shown by Floats, Fifth Lunar Hour 164 DATA COLLECTED i'-O ^ , *fc "<*.\ p Surface Currents as Shown by Floats, Sixth Lunar Hour TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 165 Surface Currents as Shown by Floats, Seventh Lunar Hour DATA COLLECTED Surface Currents as Shown by P'loats, Eighth Lunar Hour TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 167 Surface Currents as Shown by Floats, Ninth Lunar Hour 168 DATA COLLECTED ? / yi&/> j v-ysvf Surface Currents as Shown by Floats, Tenth Lunar Hour TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 1(59 Surface Currents as Shown by Floats, Eleventh Lunar Hour 170 DATA COLLECTED Surface Currents as Shown by Floats, Twelfth Lunar Hour TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 171 VII Lunar Hour. The water is flowing into the Upper bay, through the Nar- rows from the sea; flowing out of the Upper bay through the Hudson river, East river and Kill van Kull; and the water in the bay is rising. VIII Lunar Hour. The water is flowing into the Upper bay, through the Nar- rows, from the sea; flowing out of the Upper bay through the Hudson river, East river and Kill van Kull; and the water in the bay is falling. IX Lunar Hour. The water is flowing into the Upper bay, through the Nar- rows, from the sea, and through the Kill van Kull; flowing out of the Upper bay through the Hudson river and the East river; and the water in the bay is falling. X Lunar Hour. The water is flowing out of the Upper bay, through the Nar- rows, toward the sea; out of the Upper bay and East river through the Hudson River; into the Upper bay and Hudson river through the East river; into the Upper bay through the Kill van Kull ; and the water in the bay is falling. XI Lunar Hour. The water is flowing out of the Upper bay, through the Nar- rows, toward the sea; into the Upper bay through the Hudson river, East river and Kill van Kull; and the water in the bay is falling. XII Lunar Hour. The water is flowing out of the Upper bay, through the Nar- rows, toward the sea; into the Upper bay through the Hudson river, East river and Kill van Kull; and the water in the bay is falling. PRINCIPAL TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE ESTUARIES OF THE HARBOR Tidal Rivers. The Passaic river, Newtown creek, Bronx river, Rahway river and Raritan river are imperfect examples of tidal rivers with estuaries. In such rivers there is a tendency for the maximum flood velocity to occur less than three hours before the time of local low water. In such streams the range of tide may increase somewhat in going upstream, provided the cross section diminishes gradually, but if piers or bridges interfere seriously with the flow the range of tide above such obstructions will be de- creased. Jamaica Bay. Jamaica bay is a tidal basin connected with the ocean through Rock- away inlet. The tidal currents through this inlet are hydraulic and, therefore, their greatest velocities occur when the bay is being filled or emptied most rapidly, or about three hours before high or low water in the bay. As the area of Jamaica bay and its tidal tributaries is about 25. 1 / 4* square statute miles, the tidal currents through the inlet will be strong, and the resulting erosion the cause of the great depth of water just west of Rockaway Beach. "Hep. Jamaica Bay Improvement Com., 1009, p. 33 172 DATA COLLECTED Shrewsbury River. In the Shrewsbury river the range of tide in the broad portion is considerably smaller than the range around Sandy Hook on account of the narrow connecting water-way. If this water-way were made deeper, a greater rise and fall of the water would be caused in the broad portion of the river, and the tidal volume enter- ing and leaving the river would be increased. A deepening of the water-way would ac- celerate the times of the occurrences of the tides. Gowanus Canal. Gowanus canal is so situated that the tidal flow must be very small, since the volume of water which enters upon a flood tide or leaves upon an ebb tide will be the area of the canal multiplied by the range of tide. At the head of the canal, or at the head of any of its branches, the velocity from the tide is practically zero. Newtown Creek. Newtown creek is similar to Gowanus canal, and the same phe- nomena exist in the former as in the latter. SECTION III PHENOMENA OF DISCHARGE VOLUMES OF DISCHARGE The volume of water discharged on each tidal current can be estimated in accord- ance with the principles deduced for calculating the flow of rivers. The estimates will be approximately correct; and, considering the daily variations, will be sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. These estimates are based on the area of a selected section below the mean level of the water surface, the mean velocity of the current and the time during which the current flows. The volume of water discharged on the ebb currents exceeds that on the flood cur- rents, so that there is a resultant flow during each tidal period through the harbor toward the sea. Under conditions of minimum net outflow toward the sea this resultant is about one-half of that under normal conditions. The Narrows. By ebb flow is meant the southerly flow toward the sea; and by flood the northerly flow into the Upper bay. The Commission has estimated the average of the ebb and flood flows through the Narrows, and obtained 11,665 million cubic feet per six lunar hours. The resultant flow, or the excess of ebb over flood, is the land-water from the drainage areas above the Nar- rows and the excess of flow through the East river from the Sound. The land water is 1,182.3 million cubic feet and the resultant through the East river may be taken as 100 million cubic feet per tidal cycle, or a total of 1282.3 million cubic feet. TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 173 THE NARROWS HUDSON RIVER EAST RIVER KILL VAN KULL EBB rim 176 155* MILLION CD CT. HARLEM RIVER VOLUMES OF WATER FLOWING INTO AND OUT OF NEW YORK HARBOR EACH TIDE 213 10.4 9.6 7.3 6.2 Liverpool London Antwerp Dublin Boston Belfast Hamburg Philadelphia NewYork RISE AND FALL OF TIDE IN VARIOUS HARBORS Liverpool London (London Bridge) Antwerp Dublin 21.3 feet/ 17.6 - 11.5 - 10.4 - NewYork 4.4 feet. Boston Belfast Hamburg Philadelphia 9.6 feet 7.9 - 6.2 - 5.3 174 DATA COLLECTED Therefore, the estimate is : For Ebb 12,306,150,000 cubic feet For Flood 11,023,850,000 " " Excess or Eesultant 1,282,300,000 " " The Coast and Geodetic Survey estimated the average of ebb and flood flows at 11,613 million cubic feet, on the basis of a maximum surface velocity of 2 knots per hour. They also made a computation on the basis of tidal volumes and land water discharges, neglecting the resultant flow of the East river as being too small to effect a material dif- ference and obtained the following: For Ebb 12,213,029,000 cubic feet For Flood 11,030,695,000 " " Excess or Eesultant 1,182,334,000 " " Both these estimates are based on the same fundamental data, which accounts for the closeness of the results. Hudson River. By ebb flow is meant the southerly flow into the Upper bay; and by flood the northerly flow from the Upper bay. The Commission lias estimated the volumes discharged per tidal cycle past a section opposite West Thirty-ninth street, Manhattan, and obtained : For Ebb 6,910,000,000 cubic feet For Flood 5,740,000,000 " " Excess or Eesultant 1,170,000,000 " " The Coast and Geodetic Survey estimated the average of ebb and flood flows past a section between Battery place and Comrnunipaw ferry at 6,166 million cubic feet; and computed the flows on the basis of tidal and non-tidal discharges, with the following results : For Ebb 6,722,246,000 cubic feet For Flood '. 5,635,070,000 " Excess or Eesultant 1,087,176,000 " East River. The East river, so called, is a strait, not a river, connecting Upper New York bay and Long Island Sound. Tidal waves enter at both ends, the Sound wave being approximately twice as high as the bay wave. There is a decided interfer- ence of these waves traceable to the southerly end of Blackwells Island. The two tides ordinarily meet at a point between Throgs Neck and Stepping Stones Light, so that, strictly speaking, the flood (or ebb) currents on each side of this meet- ing point flow in opposite directions. The ebb current may therefore be considered as flowing the entire length of the East river from Throgs Neck to the Battery and a flood current as flowing from the Battery to Throgs Neck. The tidal currents in the river are peculiar. During flood currents there is a ten- dency for the surface water to flow from the channel towards the shores, which is es- TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 175 pecially noticeable along the lower reaches of the river. The opposite tendency is noted during ebb currents. This tendency appears- 1 to be created by the higher velocity in the channel over that along the bulkheads. The currents along the bulkheads are restricted by the fractional resistance of the docks, walls and irregularities so that during flood currents the water surface along the bulkheads does not rise as rapidly as that in mid- stream. During ebb currents there is a tendency to produce a reversal of these condi- tions. This tendency was made apparent by the action of the dyes* which were put into the waters and by the floats* working their way into the slips duriug the flood and out during the ebb. Floats set adrift near Throgs Neck had a tendency to work their way into the Sound, while from Hell Gate the general tendency of the drift was southerly, passing into the Upper bay either by way of Buttermilk channel or, in some cases, to the west of Governors Island. One float (No. 65) set adrift off College Point continued for over three days to oscillate between Whites tone Point and Brooklyn Bridge, and never left the limits of the East river. It was finally taken out near North Brother Island. Although the ranges of the tide at the Battery and at Throgs Neck are different and occur at different times, the slopes of the surface in both directions are equal. There is not a great difference in the observed velocities between the flood and ebb currents but there is probably a greater velocity on the flood current east of Hell Gate and a greater velocity on the ebb current south of Blackwells Island ;f but as the average cross sec- tional area of the stream is greater during the ebb east of Hell Gate and on the flood south of that point, it is the opinion of the Coast and Geodetic Survey that the net or re- sultant flow from the Sound into the Upper bay is small, and that under normal condi- tions the volume transmitted during the ebb current could not be more than one or two per cent, greater than the volume transmitted during the flood current. The Sur- vey estimates that the average of the ebb and flood volumes is 4,028 million cubic feet for each six lunar hours. The Commission lias estimated the volumes discharged past sections between Brook- lyn Bridge and East Thirty-first street, Manhattan, principally using the float observa- tions made by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission, and obtained the average for the ebb and flood volumes as 4,018 million cubic feet for each six lunar hours. These calcu- lations showed an excess of ebb over flood of about 12 per cent, of the average volume transmitted. As surface velocities were considered, and as there are not sufficient ob- servations of velocities below the surface to make it clear what the mean velocity really is. it is probable that this average resultant flow is too great, *Experiments of Metropolitan Sewerage Commission. t Letter of O. H. TiUman, Supt. U. S. C. & G. S. Feb. 6, 1009. 176 DATA COLLECTED Taking the larger of the Survey estimates, namely, two per cent., the resultant flow would be 80 million cubic feet. In order to be conservative for the purposes of this in- vestigation, and give the river as great a resultant flow as is consistent with the evi- dence, a net or resultant flow from the Sound into the Upper bay of 100 million cubic feet for each tidal cycle of 12 lunar hours has been assumed. The results, therefore, are: For Ebb 4,068,000,000 cubic feet For Flood 3,968,000,000 " Excess or Kesultaut 100,000,000 " Kill van Kull and Arthur Kill. The Kill van Kull is a strait joining the Upper bay with Newark bay, and the Arthur Kill is a strait joining Raritau bay and the Lower bay with Newark bay. As the water falls in Newark bay the ebb current flows through the Kill van Kull into the Upper bay and through the Arthur Kill into the Lower bay. As the water rises in Newark bay the flood current flows through the Kill van Kull from the Upper bay and through the Arthur Kill from the Lower bay. The Coast and Geodetic Survey estimates that of the waters entering and leaving Newark bay and tributaries, about 84 per cent, passes through the Kill van Kull and 16 per cent, passes through the Arthur Kill. The Survey estimated the volumes of flow through the Kill van Kull and Arthur Kill by computing the volume of the tidal prism in Newark bay and its tributaries, and then dividing this flow in the ratio of the percentages just given. The results thus obtained are averages of ebb and flood volumes transmitted dur- ing six lunar hours, and are : For Kill van Kull 1,600,000,000 cubic feet For Arthur Kill 319,000,000 " The Survey also made a computation on the basis of tidal and non-tidal dis- charges, which, for the Kill van Kull gives the following results : For Ebb 1,639,934,000 cubic feet For Flood 1,551,658,000 " " Excess or Resultant 88,276,000 " The Commission has estimated the volumes discharged past sections off Port Rich- mond and near Bergen Point, using current velocities as given in Tide Tables, and ob- tained : For Ebb 1,479,000,000 cubic feet For Flood 1,391,000,000 " Excess or Resultant 88,000,000 TIDAL 1'llENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 177 DISCHARGE: < N MILLIONS or, CUBIC FCE;T L_! i s i 1* 1 : i 1 I 1 i E i ! f :1_- . THE NAFtnO' rs i , H OSONj RIVE8 - '^ ^ _ , at JO _ _ E *ST RIVE _ .- ^ ' a 8 - Fiona Kl LL V; N K LL , -^ tt i-5i E.3B i iiinnrvrai!iY3irxnEi LUNAR HOURS VOLUMES OF WATER FLOWING IN DIFFERENT CHANNELS DURING EACH LUNAR HOUR THE NARROWS HUDSON RIVER T THE BATTERY RARITAN RIVER AND ARTHUR KILL AVERAGE DISCHARGE OF LAND WATER IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 178 DATA COLLECTED llurlvm h'iicr. The Harlem river is a .strait joining the so-called East river and the Hudson river. By ebb current is meant the northerly How of the river or the volume of water discharged into the Hudson river. By flood current is meant the southerly flow of the river or the volume of water discharged into the East river. The Commission has estimated the quantity of water transmitted on bolh ebb and flood currents, using the current velocities from the float observations made by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission. Two sections were taken one opposite 144th street, Manhattan, and one 600 feet north of High Bridge. The results as computed for these two sections were averaged with the following results : For Ebb 176,100,000 cubic feet For Flood 153,500,000 " Excess or Resultant 22,600,000 " TABLE VI VOLUMES OF FLOW IN MILLIONS OF CUBIC FKKT I-KK LUNAK HOUR IN Nio\v VOKK UAIHSOU Lunar Hour Hudson River East River Kill van Hull The Narrows Water in Upper Bay Into Upper Bay Out of Upper Bay Into Upper Bay Out of Upper Bay Into Upper Bay Out of Upper Bay Into Upper Bay Out of Upper Bay Decreasing Increasing I 1,600 1,730 1,430 710 155 860 1,360 1,460 1,200 600 1,010 730 260 290 750 1,030 270 730 1,010 990 710 260 340 160 70 260 390 420 55 250 380 400 320 150 .... 430 1,820 2,690 2,840 2,230 1,020 .... 3,160 2,490 1,120 480 2,060 3,000 290 70 400 600 650 540 70 400 600 650 540 290 II Ill IV v VI VII VIII IX x XI 200 1,050 XII Ebb flow 6,720 5,635 4,070 3,970 1,640 1,555 11,030 12,310 2,550 2,550 Flood flow TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 17!) VOLUMES OF TIDAL FLOW INTO AND OUT OF THE UPPER BAY General Conditions. Taking the Upper bay as a central basin, the entrances and exits are the East river, Hudson river, Kill van Kull, and the Narrows. Into the Upper bay there is a discharge of water from the Hudson river and a proportion of the discharge of the Hackeusack and Passaic rivers as well as the re- sultant How from the Sound through the East river. This resultant flow through the East river toward the Upper bay may or may not be great, but under normal condi- tions there is a small resultant discharge into the bay. In consequence, there is a net How of water seaward through the Narrows and the effect of this seaward flow is felt possibly some sixty miles off Sandy Hook.* While the water is flowing into and out of the Upper bay during a full tidal cycle the volume of water in the Upper bay is changing, as is shown by the rise and fall of its water surface. In order to create this rise more water must flow into the Upper bay during approximately six lunar hours than runs out during the same hours. The converse is also true. As the water surface of the Upper bay is nearly twenty-one square miles, and the mean range of tide is 4.4 feet, the tidal prism and also the vol- ume of tidal change between any two periods of time can be estimated. Method of Estimating. The rates or volumes of flow, in millions of cubic feet per lunar hour, are shown graphically on page 177. To determine the volumes of flow through any one of the entrances to the Upper bay at any given lunar hour, measure the ordinate, or vertical distance from the horizontal base line to the proper curve in accordance with the scale marked on the diagram. These rates of flow are those under mean conditions and are sufficiently accu- rate for all practical purposes. Fig. 3 was constructed by assuming that the rates of flow vary as the ordi- nates of a curve of sines. Therefore, for each tidal flow a sine curve was drawn to scale, so that its horizontal length would represent the number of lunar hours that the current would flow on either ebb or flood and its area between the curve and the base line would represent the volumes of flow transmitted, as estimated above. Dividing any volume of tidal discharge, as given, by six will give the average flow for one lunar hour. Multiplying this result by it -f-2, which is the ratio that the maximum ordinate of a sine curve bears to its average ordinate, will give the maximum flow for the current selected. This point was plotted to scale and a sine curve drawn through it. This work was repeated for each division of the harbor. By scaling the curves given in Fig. 3 at each lunar hour, the volumes of flow for each lunar hour were obtained and tabulated in Table VI. *U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Vol. Ill, 1859-60, Appendix 20. 180 DATA COLLECTED In drawing the curves on Fig. 3, the lunar times were advanced by the num- ber of minutes that the tidal waves required to progress from the Upper bay to the sections selected for estimating the volumes of flow. DISCHARGE OF WATER THROUGH NEW YORK HARBOR TO THE SEA There is a resultant flow or discharge of water through the East river and New York bay from Long Island Sound to the ocean. The net discharge through the East river is, however, according to the Coast and Geodetic Survey, small and not in excess of one or two per cent, of the flood flow. Xct Flow into Bay from Sound. According to an estimate made by the Commis- sion, the volume transmitted on the ebb is about 12 per cent, greater than the volume transmitted on the flood, but it must be admitted that there are not sufficient data, properly taken over a sufficiently long period of time, to warrant a positive statement as 'to what is the net resultant flow under normal conditions. Based on the behavior of the floats set adrift by the Metropolitan Sewerage Com- mission, and on the figures given above, the resultant flow from the Sound into the Upper bay does not play as important a part in flushing out New York harbor as the high currents would indicate. In the light of our present knowledge this resultant flow can be conservatively taken at 100,000,000 cubic feet per tidal cycle of 12 lunar hours. Net Flow Seaward through Narrows. The net or resultant flow through the Nar- rows to the sea, is the sum of the resultant flow through the East river and the dis- charge of land waters from the watersheds draining into the Upper bay. This land-water, it is estimated, amounts to 2G,442 cubic feet per second. As there are 44,714 seconds in 12 lunar hours, the discharge of land-water is 1,182.3 million cubic feet. To this should be added the resultant flow from Long Island Sound through the East river, or 100 million cubic feet. The mean resultant flow through the Narrows is, therefore, 1,282.3 million cubic feet per tidal cycle of 12 lunar hours. Under ordinary conditions favorable to a large flow through the Narrows, the re- sultant flow may be 41 per cent, greater than the mean; and under conditions unfavor- able to a large flow, the resultant may be 46 per cent, less than the mean. TIDAL PHENOMENA IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 181 CONTROLLING FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE FLOW OF WATER INTO AND OUT OF NEW YORK HARBOR AND EFFECT PRODUCED BY WIND The controlling factors which affect the flow of the water into and out of the har- bor are: 1. Land Water Discharge. The variability of the drainage discharge from month to month from the watersheds drained by the various rivers and creeks entering the harbor, as has been mentioned above. 2. Variation in Heights of Tides. The variability of the quantity of water enter- ing or leaving the harbor, depending upon the irregular rise and fall of the tide, which is due to the perigean and the apogean ranges, or those in which the influences of the moon and sun act in the same or opposite directions. 3. Effects of Winds. The variability of the quantity of water entering or leaving the harbor, due to the effect of the wind, which is very irregular. The ordinary ex- treme value of the annual fluctuation of the surface of the Upper bay, due to the wind, is about four feet; and on two or three days of each year it is usual for the winds to produce an extreme variation in the water surface of about two feet below or of about two feet above the regular tidal height. EFFECT OF CHANGES IN DEPTH, WIDTH AND LOCATION OF CHANNELS AND OF CONSTRUCTION OF ISLANDS AND BULKHEADS ON THE DISCHARGE OF WATER THROUGH THE HARBOR Reclamation. The area of the Upper bay is about 20.7 square miles; of Newark bay about 8.3 square miles; of the Hudson river to Mt. St. Vincent 14.5 square miles, and of the East river 14.8 square miles. The total area is, therefore, 58.3 square miles, and is so large in comparison with any of the reclaimed areas that the flow into and out of the harbor can scarcely be sensibly affected because of the tidal areas lost through the construction of islands and bulkheads. Pier Extensions. The extension of piers into the rivers, especially the Hudson river, would reduce the amount of tide water passing up and down. However, neither the reclamation of shore areas nor the extension of piers into the Hudson seem, up to the present time, to have sensibly interfered with the tide. For instance, the mean range of tide at Dobbs Ferry, determined from observations made in the years 1856, 1858, 1885, 1886 and 1900, has the values of 3.71, 3.69, 3.58, 3.60 and 3.66 feet respectively, and these figures are apparently sufficiently close to cover the yearly variations. Dredged Channels. The flow out of and into the harbor is controlled by the Nar- rows; and the dredging of the channels in the Lower bay will probably produce no sens- ible alteration in the general circulation of the water in the harbor. 182 DATA COLLECTED AVERAGE,, MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VELOCITY, IN EACH DIRECTION. OF CURRENTS AT THE PRINCIPAL POINTS IN NEW YORK HARBOR, AT THE TIME WHEN EACH CURRENT is STRONGEST The velocity of the strongest surface currents for various points in the harbor is given iu Table VII. These velocities are surface velocities or the velocity of the water just below the surface. TABLE VII VELOCITIES OF CURRENTS IN THE CHANNELS OF NEW YORK HARBOR When conditions are Mean Maximum Minimum Ebb Flood Ebb Flood Ebb Flood The Narrows 2.0 3.0 3.8 3.0 2.6 2.9 2.2 2.0 1.0 1.9 1.6 2.0 3.6 2.9 2.3 2.0 1.8 1.8 1.0 1.8 2.8 4.7 4.6 3.7 3.2 3.5 2.7 2.4 1.2 2.3 2.3 3.0 4.4 3.5 2.8 3.2 2.2 2.2 1.2 2.2 1.1 1.4 2.6 2.1 1.8 2.0 1.5 1.4 0.7 1.3 0.9 1.2 2.5 2.0 1.0 1.8 1.2 1.2 07 1.2 Hudson river, 39th street East river Brooklyn Bridge East river, 1 1th street East river. 19th street - Kill van Kull Port Richmond . . . . Kill van Kull, Bergen Point The velocities vary even more widely than is shown in the table, and the variations are caused by the variability of the flow from the drainage areas, by the perigean and the apogean range of the tide, by the winds, and by the obstruction of the flow caused by ice. CHAPTER IV HARBOR CURRENTS AS SHOWN BY FLOATS SECTION I FLOAT EXPERIMENTS Float experiments were first undertaken in 1907 by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission to show the direction and velocity of the tidal currents in New York harbor. A second series of experiments was made in 1908 and a third in 1909. The immediate object of these experiments was to gain information as to the probable drift of sewnge and other wastes discharged at different points in the harbor at different stages of tide. It was particularly desired to learn how long it would fake such material to pass out to sea. Some information on this subject was available in publications of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, but most of it related to movements in the main channel of the Upper bay and Hudson and East rivers. There is little definite knowl- edge regal-ding the currents in the ITarlem river, Kill van Kull and other small bodies of water or of currents near shore. The information which was lacking was particularly needed in connection with the questions of sewage disposal which the commission had to study. The conditions at the proposed outlet of the Passaic valley sower near Bobbins Reef were of special interest. METHODS OF WOKK EMPLOYED From the well-known fact that sewage discharged into salt or brackish water tends to rise and flow off at the surface it was believed that floats of moderate depth would indicate the path likely to be taken by sewage if discharged either at or below the surface. It was evident that floats, however designed, would be affected to some extent by wind. The effect of wind is twofold: First, it acts on the area of the float exposed above the water surface, and, second, it produces a general movement of the water near the surface to leeward. This movement of the surface water is a conspic- uous phenomenon. By reducing the size of that part of the float which projected above the surface of the water and making the flags which it was necessary for the floats to carry as small as practicable the direct effect of the wind was reduced to a point which was considered negligible. As for the drift of the water itself, it was con- 184 DATA COLLECTED sidered that this movement would convey sewage or other floating material quite as readily as a float, so that the value of the record in indicating what would become ,if sewage would not be impaired by this effect of the wind. Points which were considered desirable in selecting the type of float, to be used included the following: (a) minimum area of float exposed to the wind; (b) maxi- mum area of the submerged portion exposed to the currents; (<) ability of the float to resist destruction from passing vessels ;(d) ease with which the float could be handled from the attending boats, especially in stormy weather. Three types of floats were used at different times in the course of the different series of experiments. Can Floats. The first consisted of two tin cylinders, an upper and a lower one connected by a wire. The upper cylinder was 5% inches in diameter by 5 inches in length; it was empty and sealed and carried a small red flag on a staff set in a socket on the upper end of the cylinder. From this upper can, which in action was partly submerged, a larger can G 1 ^ inches in diameter by 14 inches in length was suspended by a copper wire of such length as to permit the larger can to float in the current whose velocity was to be determined. This larger can was weighted with sand until the top of the upper can was nearly level with the surface of the water. This type of float had the advantages of ease of handling, ease of preparation for use, a small area exposed to wind and small cost. On the other hand, where traffic was congested as in the East river they were destroyed by the paddles and propellers of steamers. When required for night work they were unable to carry a lantern. Spar Floats. A second type consisted in a stick of timber 2 inches by 2 inches by 5 feet buoyed by a cork float at the top and carrying four vanes of sheet iron, 12 inches by 24 inches in size. The vanes were nailed to the stick and stayed by a wire which connected their outer edges. This float was readily made and proved to be effective in use. Its chief defect was that the plates were too easily bent when the float was out of water. A third type was like the second except that it was more substantial. Tt was made of a 3-inch by 3-inch by 6-foot stick buoyed at one end by being built up to 12 inches by 12 inches for 24 inches from the top and weighted at the other by four vanes of No. 14 gauge iron 18 inches by 21 inches in size, secured by bolts. A %-inch rod projected about four feet above the top and was provided with two arms from which were suspended red and white lanterns at night. As this float was heavy and difficult to handle and as the rod was easily bent, a light stiffening frame of %-inch by 2-inch iron was attached to the head of the float and supported the rod just below the lan- tern. To this frame was welded a hook to be grappled in removing the float from the Small Can Floats Used in Studying Tidal Currents. These floats could easily he followed by observers on a boat in the daytime Small Can Float in Use. The larger can was filled with water and sand, so that the smaller can was nearly submerged when put in use HARBOR CURRENTS AS SHOWN BY FLOATS 185 water. This design proved satisfactory for the rough seas experienced in December, 1909, in the Lower bay and among the tugs, car floats and ferries of the East river. Method ft of Observing Floats. In studying the currents a float was cast overboard and followed by an observer in a boat. The observer determined the float's position at frequent intervals, generally by means of a sextant, but often, when near shore, by cslimating the bearing and distance of the float from a known point, such as a pier or bridge. In some cases, where the distances were not too great, an azimuth compass was used in fixing the bearing. The positions of the floats were plotted on tracings of United States Coast and Geodetic Survey charts on a scale of - --, - - or - '. depending on the total -Ll/.t/Uw "ii/jvwi/ oUjl/Ul/ distance covered. The velocities of the currents were calculated from the times of observation and the distances scaled from the charts. E.rpcrlmcnts of 1907. Twenty-seven experiments were made in 1907. Of these six were mainly in the Hudson river, two in the lower East river, ten in the Upper bay, two in Kill van Kull and seven in the Lower bay or both Upper and Lower bays. Seven floats were set adrift in the vicinity of Robbing Reef. The floats were followed with a gasolene boat in the months of February, March, April, June and July. The floats used were of the second type described, i. e./a 2-mch by 2-inch by 5-foot stick with sheet-iron vanes. The floats were usually followed dur- ing the continuance of a single ebb or flood current. K-rperimcnts of 1908. Thirty-nine experiments were made in 1908. Of these 13 were mainly in the Harlem river, one in the Hudson river, seven in the East river east of Hell Gate, six in the East river south of Hell Gate, one in New town creek, ten in the Upper bay and one in the Lower bay. Nine floats were set adrift from the pro- posed location of the Passaic valley sewer outlet near Robbins Reef. These experiments were made in August, September and October from gasolene launches of 30 and 4G feet in length. Double can floats were used throughout. The path taken by a float during the continuance of a single tide was usually studied. Experiments of 1909. In 1909, 25 experiments were made; they were in two series. The first series comprised six experiments made in the Arthur Kill and Newark bay in September, October and November. A gasolene launch and double can floats were used as in 1908. The second series consisted of 19 experiments, carried on night and day between November 8 and December 30. Of these, two were mainly in the Hudson river, ten in 186 DATA COLLECTED the East river and Long Island Sound, five in the Upper and Lower bays, one in the Kill van Kull and one in the Arthur Kill. The type of float used was generally a modification of that employed in 1907, the design finally adopted being that described as the third type. In following the floats a 62-foot steamboat and a 54-foot gasolene oyster boat were first used, with double crews in 12-hour shifts. Owing to the long distances travelled, the hard service, amounting to 14 or 15 hours per day, was found too arduous. A small launch was then engaged for day use and the men were worked in throe shifts per day. A term of bad weather with high winds and fog then set in, making it difficult for the boats to relieve each other. At times the work was so dangerous that it could not be continued successfully by this plan. It was finally decided to carry on the work from one properly equipped boat. The 80-foot tugboat Joseph H. Moran was secured with a double crew and provisioned for a week. This boat was put into commission November 29 and was used through- out the rest of the work with satisfactory results. RESULTS OF FLOAT EXPERIMENTS Hudson River. The records of six floats set out in 1907, five set out in 1908 and three set out in 1909, were wholly or in part in the Hudson river. Those covering an entire run of tide were the following: A float set adrift July 19, 1907, opposite Fernbrook street, Yonkers, traveled to Thirty-fifth street, Manhattan a distance of 12% miles in 6 hours 28 minutes. The float followed the middle of the river to Spuyten Dnyvil and then varied from near the middle, opposite One Hundred and Fifty-fifth street, to one-sixth the distance across opposite Grant's Tomb. There was a light north wind. The average velocity was about two statute miles per hour and the maximum velocity about three miles per hour opposite Fort Washington Point. Float No. 34 was set adrift September 9, 1908, in the Harlem river ship canal at Spuyten Duyvil at the end of the flood current. It then went 0.4 mile eastward. At 8.30 A. M. it reversed its direction with the tide. Passing out to the Hudson at 8.46 A. M. it encountered the flood current still running in that stream. This car- ried it northerly about one and two-third miles and to about one-fourth the widtli of the stream from the western shore. Here the current remained slack 52 minutes and then turned to ebb at 10.19 A. M. carrying the float down stream. It was ap- ]H)site West Forty-fifth street, 11 miles, in 5 hours 44 minutes. The mean velocity I>arge Float Used in Day and Night Studies of Tidal Currents. This large, strongly con- structed float was followed continuously, lighted lanterns showing its location at night Large Float Used in Current Studies Showing Appearance when Submerged. The lights could lie followed without difficulty at night 1-IAUJJOK (MUUiENTS AS SHOWN UV FLOATS Path of a Float in the Lower bay and the Upper bay and the Hudson river 188 DATA COLLECTED was 1.92 miles per hour and the maximum velocity 2.97 miles per hour. The course followed was generally near the middle of the river but it approached to 0.1 mile of the east side at the mouth of the Harlem river and within 0.2 mile of the west side opposite Inwood. The wind was southerly, increasing from light to strong. Float 46 was set adrift at the proposed outlet of the Bronx valley sewer off Mt. St. Vincent November 8, 1909, at 11.03 P. M. soon after slack water. It passed down stream 10.81 miles to a point opposite West Sixty-seventh street. It reached there at 3.45 A. M. and remained stationary 25 minutes during slack water. The flood current carried the float to One Hundred and Tenth street and the next ebb took it to Communipaw, where it arrived at 1.40 P. M. Float 47 was set adrift off Mt. St. Vincent November 9, 1909, at 9.52 P. M. at the turn of the tide. It was taken out November 12, at 2.20 A. M., 2 ] ,{. miles south-south- west of Norton Point near the end of the ebb current. The float had been in the water five ebb tides and four flood tides and the net progression had been 28^ miles. The average progression toward the sea per tidal cycle of 12 lunar hours was five miles. The average progression per tide while in the Harlem river was about five and one-half miles. It is noteworthy that floats which entered the Hudson from the Harlem river generally hugged the easterly shore in passing down stream. From the work done in the Hudson river the mean and maximum velocities on ebb currents were found to be about two and three miles per hour respectively and those on the flood current one mile and two miles per hour respectively. These figures vary to a considerable degree depending on the amount of land water flowing down the river. Harlem River. The Harlem river extends from Hell Gate to Spuyten Duyvil, a distance of seven and five-eighth miles. Thirteen float records were obtained in this stream, all in the series of 1908. Float No. 5, set out August 7, traversed G.05 miles in I hours r>2 minutes. The mean velocity was 1.24 and the maximum 2.35 miles per hour. Float No. 7,* set out August 19, made 4.70 miles in 6 hours 2 minutes. The mean velocity was 0.78 mile per hour. The maximum velocity was 1.93 miles per hour. Float No. 8, set out August 20, covered 4.05 miles in 4 hours 51 minutes. The mean velocity was 0.89 mile per hour and the maximum velocity 1.31 miles per hour. Of the foregoing the paths of floats Nos. 5, 7 and 8 represented entire flood cur- rents. This record was interrupted for 20 minutes, during which time the boat drifted with the current. UAKBOll CUKItENTS AH SHOWN BY FLOATS 189 START OF FLOAT 8--23 A.M. AUG. 20-1908 FLOAT TAKEN UP 4 : 4Z P.M Path of a Kloat in the Harlem River 190 DATA COLLECTED Of the other experiments float No. 6, August 18, showed the existence of a strong current toward the Sound through Bronx Kills and Little Hell Gate. Of the floats observed on ebb currents Nos. 11, 12 and 13, August 25, 2(i and 27, passed into and down the Hudson river. No. 13 covered the entire length north of Bronx Kills, 6.95 miles. Its mean velocity was 1.30 and its maximum 2.36 miles per hour. Eddies which may favor deposition of sediment occur at certain stages of the tide at each end of the Harlem river and last for a considerable interval, as illus- trated by the following examples: Float No. 2, set out August 15, drifted in an ellipse about 1,100 feet in length west of Randalls Island from 16 minutes to 3 hours 22 minutes after the time of high water at Governors Island, when it was removed from the water. Float No. 6, set out August 18, drifted to the west shore of Randalls Island 2 hours 57 minutes after the time of low water at Governors Island. This float was reset three times in midstream and each time drifted southeasterly toward the Randalls Island shore, being finally removed 5 hours 2 minutes after low water at Governors Island. A strong current was setting to the east at this time through Little Hell Gate. The wind was westerly but not strong. Float No. 9 was set adrift August 21 at East One Hundred and Twelfth street, just- south of Little Hell Gate 5 hours 6 minutes after high water at Governors Island. It drifted to East One Hundred and Fourth street by Oh. 53 minutes after the time of low water at Governors Island, then northerly to above One Hundred and Seven- teenth street in 3 hours, and then wandered between this point and One Hundred and Fifteenth street for two hours, when it was removed. In seven hours the ex- treme limits of its path did not exceed 0.7 mile. Float No. 12, set out August 26, passed under the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad bridge at Spuyten Duyvil into the Hudson river 52 minutes before low water at Governors Island, made two circuits within 450 feet to the south of this point and was taken out about 140 feet southwest of the point, where it passed under the bridge 50 minutes later, when its course was northwesterly. The general conclusions or inferences which it seems fair to draw from the float records in the Harlem may be summed up as follows : 1. The flood current sets in about one and one-half hour after the time of low water of Governors Island. 2. The ebb current sets in at : One Hundred and Twenty-second street, 1 hour 15 minutes after high water at Governors Island. One Hundred and Thirty-first street, 1 hour 20 minutes after high water at Governors Island. HARBOR CURRENTS AS SHOWN BY FLOATS 191 1309 4--IOAM.DEC.2I- START OF FLOA COLLEGE POINT I -.45 P. M. DEC 21.- FLOAT TAKEN UP FLUSHING BAY RIKERS ISLAND 10.45 A.M. DEC.2I. SCALt OF MILES Path of a Float in the East River 192 DATA COLLECTED One Hundred and Thirty-seventh street, 1 hour 23 minutes after high water at Governors Island. One Hundred and Forty-second street, 1 hour 30 minutes after high water at Governors Island. Two Hundred and Nineteenth street, 1 hour 45 minutes after high water at Governors Island. 3. The mean velocity is about 1.4 miles per hour. 4. The maximum velocity is about 2.3.") miles per hour on the ebb current, that on the flood being somewhat less. 5. The duration of slack water is brief, usually not more than 1~> minutes. 6. There is a preponderance of flow toward the Hudson, the rate of progres- sion being about two miles per tide. 7. The flood tides in the Harlem and lower East rivers meet and the ebb cur- rents part in the vicinity of Randalls and Wards Islands, causing variable currents of small velocity at these times. Upper East River. As the characteristics of the upper East river, or that part- lying east of Hell Gate, are quite different from those of the lower portion, the float records made in these two parts of the river will be considered separately. Eight floats were observed in the upper East river in 1908 and seven in 1909. The length of this part of the stream, extending from Hallets Point to Tlirogs Neck, is eight and three-fourth miles. The presence of islands near the western end and the in- fluence of currents to and from the Harlem river render the hydraulic phenomena in that vicinity complicated, while the tortuous paths of floats indicate the absence of any one main channel which conveys at all times the greater part of the flow. An inspection of the Coast Survey charts show no well defined channel, but a waterway varying from about 30 to 100 feet in depth, extending nearly from shore to shore be- tween Throgs Neck and College Point. Here shoals to the east of Rikers Island split the westward current, which becomes further divided in its approach to the Manhattan shore, and the contracted and shallow channels through Hell Gate, Little Hell Gate and Bronx Kills cause an increase in the velocity of the tidal flow. A tendency to drift about some time near Throgs Neck is shown in the following rec- ords: Float 62 was set out at 1.25 P. M December 20, 1909, between Whitestone Point and Willets Point and was taken up 13 hours 45 minutes later off Throgs Neck. In the meantime it had grounded on the south shore five times, due, probably, to a strong northwest wind. The total record covered but about four miles along the channel in this time. HARBOR CURRENTS AS SHOWN BY FLOATS 3:40 P.M. DEC. 23-FLOAT TAKEN UP *\\- 30 P. M.DEC. 22 FLOAT STARTED 7:ZO A DEC. 22 FLUSHING lhl5A.M.DEC.22 BAY Path of a Fln.it in Hio Kost 'River 194 DATA OOLLEOTED Float (54 was set out off Wliitostone Point, at 7.20 A. M. December 22, 1909. By 11.15 A. M. it reversed its direction \vhenjusteastofKikersIsland. From 2.15 P.M. to 11.30 P. M. it wandered about within three-fourth mile of Throgs Neck. By 2.45 A. M. December 23 it had progressed eastward to Hewlett Point, by 10.20 A. M. it had returned to a point off Willets Point and at 3.40 P. M. it went aground and was taken up off Hewlett Point. Floats set adrift near Throgs Neck may pass out through Hell (late or they may travel in an easterly direction through the Sound. Float No. 00 illustrates (lie lat lei- case. Float No. 60 was set out December 14, 1909, just west of Throgs Neck at 2.30 P. M. It started to the west, swung around by Little Neck bay and then traveled east- ward. Between 11.25 P. M. and 4.40 the next morning it remained within a mile of Barker Point. It then continued easterly until 9.15 A. M. Here, a mile east of Sands Point, it made a double spiral within a diameter of three-eighth mile during the time of the westerly running tide, and then at 2.25 P. M. proceeded on the easterly tide some three and one-half miles, when it was taken up one and one-fourth mile west of Matinicock Point at 6.45 P. M. December 15. .Maximum velocities were observed in the upper East river of 5.0 miles per hour in the narrow channel east of Wards Island on the ebb, and 4.0 miles per hour just east of Little Hell Gate, and 3.6 miles per hour north of Hikers Island on the flood. To the east of this point from 1.5 to 2.0 miles per hour would probably be more nearly correct. A net progression of the current from the Sound toward Hell Gate appeared probable from the experiments but the results were quite variable and the record of float No. 65, covering three days, indicates that at times this progression is insignifi- cant or altogether absent. From the courses taken by the majority of the floats in that vicinity the main current to and from the lower East river appears to run through Hell Gate, between North and South Brother Islands and north of Bikers Island. Lower East River. The length of this part of the river is about seven and three- quarter miles. Two floats were observed in the lower East river in 1907, eight in 1908* and nine in 1909. Owing to the swift currents which prevail, the number of records embracing a complete tide within the limits of this part of the river are few. 'Including one In Newtown creek. HAKBOK CUKKENTS AS SlIOWN BY FLOATS 195 4=18 P.M. OCT. 3 FLOAT TAKEN UP. Path of a Float in the Upper IBay and in the East River 196 DATA COLLECTED FLOAT STARTED >. 2--ISP.M.DEC.6-I903 lO'ASA.M.DEC.S FLOAT TAKEN UP Path of a Float in the Lower Bay, Upper Bay and the East River HARBOR CURRENTS AS SHOWN BY FLOATS 197 A float .set out March 7, 1907, opposite Tier 8 on the Hood current traveled eight miles in 4 hours 47 minutes. A float cast overboard March 29, 1907, east of Wards Island on the ebb reached the mouth of the river, 8.8 miles distant, in 2 hours 50 minutes. Float No. 10, set out August 24, 1008, traveled the length of the lower East river on the ebb in 2 hours 20 minutes. Float No. 23, set out September 8, 1908, traversed on the ebb from the north end of Black\vells Island to the Battery, 7.4 miles, in 1 hour 55 minutes. Float No. 36, set out September 30, 1908, covered on the flood from the Battery to Hell Gate, 7.7 miles, in 3 hours 10 minutes. Float No. 38, .set out October 3, 1908, traveled on the flood from the Battery to Hell Gate, 7.7 miles, in 3 hours 8 minutes. Float No. 57, set out December 6, 1909, traversed on the ebb from north of Black- wells Island, 7.5 miles, in 4 hours 10 minutes. The records of two floats, chiefly in the East river, are of particular interest. Float No. 36 was set out near the mouth of the East river at 7.42 A. M. September 30, 1908. Following the eastern shore as far as JSTewtown creek, it passed up the west channel by Blackwells Island, through Hell Gate to North Brother Island. Here the tide turned at 12.34 P. M. and the float returned by about the same course on the ebb current to near the Queensboro Bridge, where it was taken out. The total distance traveled on the flood was 9.69 miles in 4 hours 52 minutes. The mean velocity was 2.09 and the maximum 4.30 miles per hour. On the ebb current a velocity of 6 miles per hour was reached west of Blackwells Island. Float No. 38 was set adrift October 3, 1908, at 3.02 A. M. west of the north end of Blackwells Island. By 3.55 A. M. it had drifted three-fourths of a mile into Hell Gate, when the current reversed carrying it to Mill Rocks by 4.07 A. M. The float proceeded southward with velocities increasing to four and a half miles per hour west of I.lackwells Island. From Wallabout bay it kept on the eastern side of the river to the Manhatan Bridge, at one time covering 1,000 feet in two minutes (5.7 miles per hour) and at another 3,100 feet in eight minutes. From this point the path swerved to the middle of the stream and at 7.12 A. M. was 1,000 feet northeast of Governors Island, having traversed the last 2.62 miles in 40 minutes (3.93 miles per hour). Pass- ing down the west side of the Buttermilk channel the float reached a point 1.2 miles south of Governors Island and about a mile west of the pierhead line at 8.44 A. M. Here, due to a strong west wind and slack tide the float drifted three-fourths of a mile easterly at a rate of about two miles per hour and at 9.37 A. M. turned northerly, passing througli the Buttermilk channel and reaching Brooklyn Bridge at 12.47 P. M., 1U8 DATA COLLECTED DEC.Z9 IM45A.M WHITESTONE IZ'ISPM DEC. 30 START OF FLOAT DEC.27-I303/MO : OOA.M I2-35A M DEC. 30 COLLEGE POINT II-.45 A.M.DEC.28 FLOAT TAKEN UP OEC.30- 4-30 P.M. FLUSHING BAY PIKERS ISLAND DEC. 23. DEC.Z9-6:30P.M SCALE, OF MILES DEC J8-5-10P.M 4 30P.M. t)EC. 27. :4nSA.'M DEC. 28 Path of a Float in the East River 11 ARBOR CUKKENTS AS SHOWN BY FLOATS 199 having run ashore five times after leaving the Atlantic basin. At Brooklyn Bridge it was reset TOO feet from the east pier, traveled northerly 1.43 mile in 20 minutes (4.35 miles per hour). The maximum velocity attained was 6.8 miles per hour for a distance of one-third mile when opposite Wai labout bay. Passing to the east of Blackwells Island the float reversed direction sharply with the turn of the tide at 3.34 P. M. 1.35 mile below its position at the beginning of the previous ebb. It was followed till 4.18 P. M. A distance of 10.39 miles were traversed on one ebb in 5 hours 42 minutes at a mean velocity of 1.82 mile per hour, and 9.11 miles on the flood in 5 hours 54 minutes at a mean velocity of 1.54 mile per hour. Float No. 65 was set out in midstream off College Point in the upper East river December 27, 1909, at 10.00 A. M. Its record follows : 11.23 miles on the ebb current to near the Manhattan Bridge; 11.34 miles on the flood current to near College Point; 12.17 miles on the ebb current to near the Brooklyn Bridge; 11.59 miles on the flood current to near College Point; 10.49 miles on the ebb current to near East Third street, Manhattan; 10.22 miles on the flood current to 1,500 feet off Classon Point; o.G9 miles on the ebb current to near the south end of North Brother Island; 4.86 miles on the flood current to near Whitestone Point; 5.54 miles on the ebb current to near the Sunken Meadow; 4.37 miles on the flood current to near Tallman Island; 8.93 miles on the ebb current to near East Forty-second street, Manhattan; 9.48 miles on the flood current to near Old Ferry Point; 3.88 miles on the ebb current to near the northeast of North Brother Island. It was taken up at North Brother Island, having traveled 107.79 miles in 3 days G 1 /^ hours at an average rate of 1.4 mile per hour. The greatest mean velocity for any one tide was 2.24 miles per hour between College Point and Brooklyn Bridge, and the maximum velocity observed at any one time was 5.37 miles per hour, between the Wil- liamsburg Bridge and Second street, Brooklyn, December 28. From the observations made in the lower East river the following inferences and conclusions seem justified: 1. The mean velocity of the flood current was two miles per hour and of the ebb current two and three-quarter miles per hour, but the velocity varied in different parts of the channel. 2. The maximum flood velocity was 6.8 miles per hour and the maximum ebb cur- rent 8.6 miles per hour for short periods only. 3. The periods of slack water are brief. 200 DATA COLLECTED 4. The main ebb current passes west of Blackwells Island. The main flood cur- rent passes sometimes to the west and sometimes to the east of the Island.* 5. There seems to be a tendency for floating matter to drift toward the Brooklyn shore on the flood current. In spite of a " moderate " to " strong " northeast wind, Float No. 36 drifted into three slips between Wallabout bay and Newtown creek and had to be reset. Upper Bay. In 1907 there were 19 float experiments made in whole or in part in the Upper bay; in 1908 there were 14 and in 1909 six. Of these 39 experiments 15 were with floats set adrift near the proposed Passaic valley sewer outlet east of Bobbins Keef. This point is 3.8 miles from the Battery, one mile from St. George ferry slip and 1.5 miles from Constable Hook. The extreme points reached in a single tide were : In the Kill van Kull, Shooters Island, 5.27 miles in 4 hours 38 minutes. In the Hudson river, Sixtieth street, Manhattan, 9.14 miles in 6 hours 18 min- utes. In the Upper bay (east side), Red Hook, 2.78 miles in 3 hours 23 minutes. In the Lower bay, 2% miles southeast of West Bank, 11.50 miles in 6 hours min- utes; and 2 miles southwest of West Bank, 11.25 miles in 6 hours 30 minutes. An examination of the records of the above 15 floats indicates that many passing out with the ebb current hug the shore of Staten Island. The float of February 26, 1907, stranded at Quarantine, that of July 8, 1907, at Clifton, and again at Fort Wadsworth. Nos. 29 and 30 stranded at Stapleton and No. 31 went ashore near South Beach. Of those passing upstream on the flood, that of July 16, 1907, stranded on Liberty Island, No. 28 south of Shooters Island, and No. 35 near Sixty-seventh street. Brooklyn. This is confirmed by experiments made with 12 foot and 18 foot rod floats by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1874. In the west channel there were twelve experiments on the flood and eight on the ebb current. In the east channel there were seven on the flood and eighteen on the ebb, with the following results: West Channel East Channel Flood 4.89 5.77 Ebb 6.26 6.63 28 per cent. Flood 4.42 5.44 Kbb 3.41J 4.04 Excess of mean velocity 23 per cent. HARBOK CUKUENTS AS SHOWN J'.Y FLOATS 201 NEW J E R S EY FLOAT STARTED APR.IZ- 1307- 3^00 A.M = 00 P.M. FLOAT TAKEN UP S T A T E N IS AND LOWER BAY SCALE OF MILES I'atli of a Float in the Lower Bay, Upper Bay and Hudson River 202 DATA COLLECTED Most of the floats set out in the Upper bay and followed for over four hours passed into one of the adjoining rivers or the Lower bay. The records of most value follow: A float of February 25, 1907, was set out in the mouth of the Hudson at 10.15 A. M. on the ebb. It reversed its direction when near Norton Point, having traveled nine and a half miles in 5 hours 30 minutes, with a mean velocity of 1.75 mile per hour. Another float was set out in the mouth of the Hudson, Marcli 25, 1907, on the ebb at 9.30 A. M. After traveling eight and one-fourth miles in 4 hours 50 minutes, it reversed its direction off Gravesend bay. The mean velocity was 1.75 miles per hour. March 27, 1907, a float was set adrift east of Governors Island at 9.30 A. M. on the ebb. It passed down Buttermilk channel and through the Narrows to a point off Norton Point, where it was taken up as the tide was turning at 3 1'. M. It had traveled nine miles in 5 hours 30 minutes at an average rate of 1.6 mile per hour. April 12, 1907, a float was set out at the mouth of the Hudson near the end of the flood at 9 A. M. At 10.40 A. M. it reversed direction about one and one-eighth mile upstream and then passed down through the Lower bay, reversing its direction just south of Norton Point at 3.40 P. M., having traveled 12 miles in five hours. The average velocity was 2.4 miles per hour. Float No. 39 was set adrift off the outlet of the Sixty-fourth street, Brooklyn, sewer October 5, 1908, at 11.35 A. M. It drifted on the flood current near the pier- heads, through Buttermilk channel and up the East river to Man-of-War Keef, between Newtown creek and Blackwells Island, where it reversed its direction at 5.45 P. M., having traveled 8.97 miles in 6 hours 10 minutes with an average velocity of 1.43 mile per hour. Float No. 49 was set adrift November 16, 1909, in the mouth of the East river at 1.54 P. M. Passing through Buttermilk channel it reached a point about a mile from the Narrows at 6.25 P. M. Keturning on the flood it reversed its direction again east of Governors Island at 12.20 A. M. November 17. By the next turn of tide, which occurred at 5.22 A. M., it had only reached a point off Bay Ridge one and one-half mile from the Narrows. From here the flood current took it to the south end of Black- wells Island, a distance of 9.78 miles, in 7 hours 28 minutes. It was taken up off the Atlantic basin at 3.35 P. M. Float No. 57 was set out at the Brooklyn Bridge December 6, 1909, at 2.15 P. M. It went up the west channel and rounded lUackwells Island at 5.20 P. M. The ebb current then carried it to Bay Eidge, the flood took it to Gowanus bay, the next ebb took it to Hoffman Island, the flood carried it to a point off St. George, and on the HARKOR CURRENTS AS SHOWN BY FLOATS 203 FLOAT STARTED 54P.M. NOV. 16-1909 FLOAT TAKEN UP 3'35 P.M. NOV. 17. Path of a Float in the Tipper Bay and East River 204 DATA COLLECTED next ebb it reached Norton Point. It remained within a mile of this point during the next flood current and then passed out to sea by Kockaway Point. FLOAT RECORDS IN THE UPPER BAY OF AT LEAST FIVE HOURS' DURATION Records Made on Flood Currents. The float of March 5, 1907, drifted from near Bobbins Eeef to West Fifty-fourth street, Manhattan, or 8 miles, in 6 hours 45 min- utes. The float of March 22, 1907, drifted from near Fort Lafayette to Sixty-sixth street, Brooklyn, or 2% miles, in 5 hours minutes. Float No. 34 drifted from near Bobbins Beef to West Sixtieth street, Manhattan, or 9.14 miles, in 6 hours 18 minutes. Float No. 37 drifted from near Bobbins Beef to Bank street, Manhattan, or 6.85 miles, in 6 hours 20 minutes. Float No. 39 drifted from near Sixty-fourth street, Brooklyn, to East Fortieth street, Manhattan, or 8.97 miles, in 6 hours 20 minutes. Records Made on Ebb Currents. The float of February 23, 1907, drifted from f5n- wanus bay to one-half mile south of Bonier Shoal, or 12 miles, in 7 hours minutes. The float of February 25, 1907, drifted from the mouth of the Hudson to a point off Norton Point, or 9.5 miles, in 5 hours 30 minutes. The float of February 26, 1907, drifted from one mile northeast of Bobbins Beef to two and three-eighths miles southeast of West Bank, or 11.5 miles, in 6 hours min- utes. The float of March 27, 1907, drifted from Irving street, Brooklyn, to off Norton Point, or 9 miles, in 5 hours 30 minutes. The float of April 12, 1907, drifted from one and one-fourth mile above the mouth of the Hudson to a point off Norton Point, or 12 miles, in 5 hours minutes. The float of July 9, 1907, drifted from one and one-half mile east of Bobbins Beef to two miles southwest of West Bank, or 11.25 miles, in 6 hours 30 minutes. Float No. 32 drifted from one mile northeast of Bobbins Beef to a point off Hoff- man Island, or 7.53 miles, in 5 hours 12 minutes. A consideration of the results obtained in the Upper bay leads to following con- clusions : 1. Floating matter starting in the channel near Bobbins Beef may within one tidal period reach the shores of the Hudson as far as Sixtieth street, Manhattan, or of Staten Island at any point in the Kill van Kull, Upper bay or Lower bay as far as South Beach. It may strand on the Brooklyn shore at any point south of Bed Hook with a westerly wind, but a strong ebb current may carry it out as far as Bonier Shoal. 2. There is a probability that much will reach the shores of the Kill van Kull or Upper hay before passing out through the Narrows. HAEBOK CUBBENTS AS SHOWN BY FLOATS 205 o. Floating matter starting in the channel at the Narrows on the beginning of the current might be carried up the Hudson as far as Warren street, and on the return ebb current pass out nearly to Coney Island Light. But these distances depend largely on the land water flowing down the Hudson, the wind and the tide due to the phase of the moon. 4. Ordinary velocities encountered in the Upper bay on the flood are: Mean, 1.2 mile per hour. Maximum, 1.8 mile per hour. 5. Ordinary velocities encountered in the Upper bay on the ebb are : Mean, 1.6 mile per hour. Maximum, 2.5 to 3.1 miles per hour. Newark Bay, Kill van Kull and Arthur Kill. In 1907 two float records were ob- tained in the Kill van Kull; in 1908 one float record was obtained in the Kill van Kull and in 1909 one record was obtained in the Kill van Kull and Newark bay and seven in the Arthur Kill and Newark bay. April 3, 1907, a float set out in Newark bay three-fourth mile north of Bergen Point traveled through the Narrows to a point off Norton Point in 5 hours 25 min- utes. It passed through the Kill van Kull in 1 hour 20 minutes. April 8, 1907, a float traveled from the east end of the Kill van Kull 5.1 miles westerly on the flood current in five hours at a mean velocity of one mile per hour. Float No. 28 traveled from near Bobbins Beef westerly through the Kill van Kull 5.27 miles in 4 hours 38 minutes at a mean velocity of 1.'68 mile per hour. Float No. 40 traveled from the mouth of the Joint outlet sewer in Elizabethport up the Arthur Kill to a point one-half mile above the Central Bailroad of New Jersey bridge across Newark bay and about 500 feet from the west shore, a distance of two and three-fourth miles, in three and one-half hours. Float No. 41 traveled from the mouth of the Joint outlet sewer in the Arthur Kill to a point one-half mile above the Central Bailroad of New Jersey bridge across Newark bay about 1,500 feet from the west shore, a distance of 3.5 miles, in 3 hours 55 minutes. Float No. 42 traveled in the Arthur Kill on the ebb current from the mouth of the Joint outlet sewer, passing east of Frail's Island to a point opposite the Bahway river, a distance of 3.1 miles, in 2 hours 55 minutes. Float No. 43 was set adrift at the bridge near the mouth of the Passaic river just before the beginning of the ebb current. It drifted toward the east shore of Newark bay, where it went ashore and was reset near the bell buoy. It reached Ber- gen Point 5 hours 20 minutes after starting, having traveled 6.1 miles in 6 hours 15 minutes. 206 DATA COLLECTED Path of a Float in the Lower Bay and the Upper Bay and the Kill van Kull and Newark Bay HARBOR CURRENTS AS SHOWN BY FLOATS 207 Float No. 44 was sot adrift at the mouth of the Joint outlet sewer just before the beginning of the ebb current. It went north nearly to the railroad bridge and then southerly to Tufts Point, when the tide turned. A strong northwest wind blew it ashore, so that it had to be reset seven times. The distance covered during the ebb current was 5.75 miles in (> hours 10 minutes. Float No. 45 was set adrift at the mouth of the Joint outlet sewer at slack low water. It traveled across the mouth of Newark bay to Bergen Point, where it ran ashore, having drifted 3.05 miles in 4 hours 50 minutes. Float No. 50 was set out in Newark bay near Passaic Light December 1, 1909, at 1.10 P. M. It passed Shooters Island at 5 P. M. and at G.45 P. M. reversed its direction opposite Starin's shipyard, Port Richmond. It oscillated between this point and Passaic Light until 5.15 P. M., December 2, when it passed down stream and out of the mouth of the Kill van Kull, reversing its course at 7.50 P. M. to a westerly direction. The flood current carried it to the Central Railroad of New Jersey bridge by 1.50 A. M., December 3, and by the end of the next ebb, 9.55 A. M., it had passed through the Narrows to Norton Point. Float No. Gl was set out opposite the outlet of the Joint trunk sewer at 11.55 A. M., December 1C, 1909, near the end of the flood current. Reversing just north of the railroad bridge it drifted to Smoking Point, six and one-half miles, by 6.40 P. M., thence on the flood to the north end of Frail's Island by 12.55 A. M. December 17; thence to Tufts Point by 5.55 A. M. and from here eight miles to a point beyond Corner Stake Light at the mouth of Newark bay at 1.30 P. M. It remained within a mile of this point until 1.30 A. M. December 18, when it entered the Kill van Kull and was picked up at West New Brighton at 2 A. M. From these experiments it seems fair to infer that: 1. Floating material may remain during several tidal cycles in Newark bay or in the Arthur Kill. 2. The distance traveled on one tide was about six miles at a mean rate of one mile per hour. 3. During certain conditions of tide and wind the resultant flow of the Arthur Kill is toward the Kill van Kull. 4. The distance traveled during a single tide in Newark bay may be taken as four or five miles, with a mean velocity of about 0.8 mile per hour. 5. Floating matter will be carried in the channel through the Kill van Kull in from one and one-fourth to three hours, depending on the stage of tide, at a mean velocity of from one to two miles per hour. Maximum velocities of three miles per hour may be expected. 208 DATA COLLECTED X KJ f LOAT STARTED II '55 .M. OEC.1S 2 OCA M DEC. 18 FLOAT TAhtN UP Path of a Float in Arthur Kill and Newark Bay and Kill van Hull HARBOR CURRENTS AS SHOWN BY FLOATS 209 Loirer Bay. Tliero were eight float experiments made in (lie Lower IKIV in 1907, one in 1908 and four in 1909. A float on February 23, 1907, passed out through the Narrows at 10.45 A. M. and at 2 P. M. arrived at slack water just, south of Rorner Shoal. It covered seven and one-half miles in three and one-fourth hours at a mean rate of 2.3 miles per hour. A float on February 26, 1907, passed through the Narrows at 12.50 P. M. After traveling six and one-half miles it reversed its direction in the Ambrose channel at 4 P. M., having drifted at the rate of two miles per hour. A float on March 4, 1907, passed the Narrows at 3.45 P. M. It drifted six and one- half miles in two hours at a rate of three and one-fourth miles per hour and arrived at slack water close to the point reached by the float of February 26 in the Ambrose channel. A float on April 13, 1907, was set out in Ambrose channel east of West Bank at 7.45 A. M. In 2 hours 45 minutes it reversed its direction in the Narrows, hav- ing gone five and one-fourth miles at an average speed of 1.9 mile per hour. A float on July 9, 1907, passed the Narrows at 12.55 P. M., passed to the east of West Bank Light at 3.05 P. M. and then drifted four and one-fourth miles southwest in spite of a westerly wind. It had traveled six and three-fourth miles in four hours 5 minutes at a mean rate of one and two-third miles per hour. Float No. 55 passed the Narrows November 29, 1909, at 3.25 P. M. It reversed its direction near West Bank at 7.40 P. M., drifted northerly three and one-half miles with the flood and then six and one-fourth miles down the Ambrose channel. From there the flood tide carried it westerly six and one-half miles in about 6 hours 20 min- utes. Then it was taken up and 46 minutes later set adrift one and one-half mile southwest of Romer Shoal at slack tide. From there it drifted southeasterly past Sandy Hook and around Scotland Lightship and then four miles southerly. In all it had traveled eleven and three-fourth miles in 7 hours 24 minutes at an average rate of 1.6 mile per hoiir. Float 56 passed the Narrows December 3, 1909, at 7.35 A. M. At 9.55 the tide turned when the float was a mile northwest of Norton Point. The flood carried the float but one and one-half mile up Gravesend bay. On the following ebb it drifted six miles in 7 hours 20 minutes in a southeasterly direction to a point off Rockaway Point: It was then taken up and reset in 47 minutes five-eighth mile to the south, after which it drifted five and three-fourth miles further in 2 hours 18 minutes. Here the current reversed its course and the float traveled on the flood three and one- fourth miles in four hours. It then drifted eight miles southerly and then easterly 210 DATA COLLECTED for 5 hours 25 minutes. It was taken up three and one-half miles south of Rock- away Beach. Float 57 was set out in the Narrows December 7, 1909, at 10.55 A. M. It drifted southerly two miles, then northerly to a point off St. George ferry, about four and one-half miles in six and one-half hours. It then drifted to Norton Point, six and one-fourth miles, in 4 hours 20 minutes. The float remained within a mile of Norton Point during the following flood current and then drifted six miles in six and one- half hours toward Rockaway Point. These experiments were taken to indicate that: 1. Floating matter is not likely to drift back into the Upper bay if it has passed six or eight miles below the Narrows. 2. Under certain conditions it may travel westerly toward Raritan bay to a point south of Great Kills, but ordinarily it will pass out to sea in a southeasterly direc- tion. 3. Floating matter passing out through the Narrows frequently passes close to Norton Point and may be diverted into Gravesend bay during the period of the flood current. 4. The velocities of the currents in the Lower bay are very variable, but the mean velocity for a tidal period does not often exceed two miles per hour. Jamaica Bay. No experiments with floats were made by the Metropolitan Sewer- age Commission in Jamaica bay, although the drift of the material carried by the cur- rent at certain sewer outlets was studied by following small packages of excelsior im- mersed in the water. Two sets of float observations were made in the vicinity of Rockaway Inlet, the first in December, 1906, and January, 1907, by the Jamaica Bay Improvement Com- mission and the second in December, 1908, by the Corps of Engineers, United States Army. The Jamaica Bay Improvement Commission set out two floats on the flood cur- rent near Rockaway Point December 27 and December 28, 1906, each of which was followed about two and one-fourth miles, one toward Beach channel and the other toward Big Fishkill channel. A third was set out January 7, 1907, just northeast of Barren Island and was followed for 1.34 mile in a northerly direction. Three floats were set out in Beach channel December 29, 1906, and January 2 and January 3, 1907, just north of Rockaway Beach, and followed 3.54, 3.57 and 4.80 miles, respectively, to Rockaway inlet on the ebb current. A fourth was set out west of Nestepol Island January 7, 1907, and drifted southerly 1.25 miles. The United States Corps of Engineers set out five floats December 17, 1907, on the flood current about two miles from Rockawav Point and within a mile of Rock- HARBOR CURRENTS AS SHOWN BY FLOATS 211 away Beach. Those all rounded close to Rockaway Point and drifted eastward near the shore. Five more were set out just off Rockaway Point and were followed about three miles toward Beach channel. Three were set adrift on the ebb current just north of Rockaway I 'each and about one and one-half miles east of the point. These rounded the point and con- tinued in a southwesterly direction. These experiments were taken to indicate that: 1. The main tidal current enters and leaves Jamaica bay close to Rockaway Point. 2. The Hood current running westerly along the south shore of Rockaway Beach and after rounding the point generally keeps close to the northerly shore of the beach, running toward Beach channel. Material entering on the flood current may, however, pass northerly to the east of Barren Island and up Big channel or across Nova Scotia bar and up Big Fishkill channel. 3. The ebb currents from these channels meet near Barren Island and in passing the inlet are diverted in a southerly direction. 4. The maximum flood currents noted outside Rockaway Point were from 1 to 1.2 miles per hour. 5. The maximum flood currents noted in Jamaica bay were from 2.7 to 3.4* miles per hour. (>. The maximum ebb currents noted in Jamaica bay were about three miles per hour.** RELIABILITY OF RESULTS Remembering that the motion of a surface float in the channel represents a maxi- mum rather than a mean velocity of the water, and taking into consideration the effect of wind, which was always noted, the calculated velocities here reported are believed to be correct for the conditions of tide and land water which was flowing down the rivers at the time of the experiments. In narrow streams, such as the Harlem river, the float sometimes drifted ashore or had its course interrupted by bridge piers, docks or passing vessels. In other cases eddies or a winding channel increased the length of the float's path. To obtain the true maximum velocity of the stream it would be necessary to in- crease the observed velocity because its path is more winding than the main thread of the current. On the other hand it should be decreased on account of local devia- tions due to piers, vessels, etc. But with the observed data, taken in connection with the plotted courses, the results arrived at are probably reliable for the conditions which existed. The value of the records in deducing general conclusions depends large! v on their number. *East of Barren Island. **Soutliwest of Barren Island and In Rockaway inlet. I'll' DATA COLLECTED SECTION II riTKRENT OBSERVATIONS Several sets of current observations were made in order to ascertain whether the velocities which prevailed at certain points were adequate to prevent deposition of detritus or sludge. The points selected were at the proposed Passaic valley sewer out- let near Bobbins Beef, at three points on the Jersey Flats, in the Upper bay and at Uockaway inlet. METHODS AND BESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS To determine the velocity a double can float was set adrift from a boat anchored at the chosen location and the period of time was observed during which the iloat was carried 100 feet by the current. This was done for different depths by adjusting I lie length of wire connecting the two cans. The velocity so determined was assumed to be that of the water at the depth of the top of the lower can. Determinations of velocity at depths of 20 feet or more were subject to error in timing of perhaps two or three seconds when taken for velocities of over two feet per second, as it was not practicable to start both floats in a vertical line. The consequence was, that when the top float was set adrift its motion was accelerated by a pull forward of the lower float, which had already reached an advanced position. This tendency was in part avoided by allowing the pair of cans to drift a short distance before timing, so that the recorded results are believed to be substantially correct, even at depths of 40 feet. The direction of the current was observed by sighting to the float with an azimuth compass. Robbing Reef. Before taking up these experiments the surface velocity had been observed in connection with the float experiments at the location at different stages of the tide, as shown in Table I. TABLE I VELOCITIES OF SURFACE CURRENTS AT IJoitp.ixs Time after high water at Governors Island Date Current Velocity feet per second 1 hour, 20 minutes September 25 1 908 Flood 1 2 2 hours, 30 minutes September 22, 1908 Ebb 0.6 2 hours, 50 minutes . . March 4, 1907 Ebb 2 2 3 hours, minutes . . June 26, 1907 Ebb 3 7 3 hours, 20 minutes October 1 1908 Ebb 2 3 hours, 40 minutes . . . July 8, 1907 Ebb 2 6 3 hours, 50 minutes February 26, 1907 Ebb 2 2 3 hours, 50 minutes July 9, 1907 Ebb 2 2 5 hours, 45 minutes. . . September 18. 1908 Ebb 2.8 HARBOR CURRENTS AS SHOWN BY FLOATS TABLE I Continued 213 Time after low water Governors Island Date Current Velocity feet per second September 17, 1908 Ebb 2 6 September 16, 1908 Ebb 2 1 March 5, 1907 Flood 1 5 September 28, 1908 Flood 1.9 October 1, 1908 Flood 3 September 29, 1908 Flood 0.7 September 26, 1908 Flood 1.7 Being taken on different days these fail to show relative velocities on any one lidal cycle, but they do show velocities that may occur at the times specified. The velocity at times is seen to be very low, but this may in part be offset by the proba- bility that at such times higher velocities may exist at lower depths. The depth at Robbius Reef, which is on the edge of the main channel, is about 50 feet at low water. Two series of velocity observations were taken, each covering practically the 12 lunar hours of the tide one at or near the time of spring tides and one at or near the time of neap tides with the intention of showing the differences in velocity to be expected from the phase of the moon. As it was impracticable to take most of the observations on the exact day of springs or neaps the range observed is probably somewhat less than the extreme due to this cause. The velocities observed each day have been plotted with reference to the time of high water at Governors Island, and the result of each series shown complete in one diagram. Where the same period of the tide has been observed on different days the mean velocity for the observations at this period has been taken. Velocities were observed near the surface, mid-depth and bottom generally 4, 20 and 10 feet from the surface. From an examination of the resultant diagrams we find that the velocities shown in Tables II and III may be expected at this location. TABLE II VELOCITIES OF CURRENTS AT SI-KINK TIDES AT ROBBINS REEF a. Slack High Water b. Ebb Current Depth in feet 4 2 0.6 20 2 0.4 40 2 0.6 4 5 3.6 20 4.o 3.8 40 4 to 6 3.4 to 3. 5 Hours after high water, Governors Island Velocity in feet per second ... 214 DATA COLLECTED TABLE II Continued c. Slack Low Water d. Flood Current Depth in feet 4 9.5 0.8 20 9.5 0.0 40 9.5 0.4 4 12.0 3.3* 20 2.8* 40 2.6* Hours after high water, Governors Island Velocity in feet per second TABLE III VELOCITIES OF CURRENTS AT NEAP TIDES AT BOBBINS REEF a. Slack High Water b. Ebb Current 4 2.5 0.4 20 3.0 0.3 40 3.0 0.2 4 6.0 2.3 20 5.5 2.5 40 6.0 2.3 Hours after high water, Governors Island Velocity in feet per second c. Slack Low Water rf. Flood Current 4 9.0 0.4 20 9.0 0.4 40 8.0 0.0 4 1.0 1.3 . 0.5 1.7 40 0.5 1.8 Hours after high water, Governors Island * Interpolated. Record incomplete. On the Jersey Flats. The method used on the Jersey Flats was the same as that followed at Robbing Reef, the particular object being to determine the velocities near the bottom that may produce erosion. South of the Pennsylvania Railroad terminal the velocities were observed two feet from the surface and about two feet from the bottom, the depth at low water being about seven feet. The resultant curve was plotted from the work of several days, irrespective of the phase of the moon. The results are given in Table IV. TABLE IV MID-DEPTH VELOCITIES OF CURRENTS IN FEET PER SECOND SOUTH OF THE PENNSYL- VANIA TERMINAL, UPPER NEW YORK BAY Hours after high water Governors Island Velocity Hours after high water Governors Island Velocity Hours after high water Governors Island Velocity Hours after high water Governors Island Velocity Slack low water Flood current Slack high water Ebb current 2.0 .40 4.5 .80 7.0 .15 12.0 1.15 IIARBOE CURRENTS AS SHOWN BY FLOATS 215 Northeast of the Pennsylvania Railroad terminal the observations were taken in a similar manner and the depth was about the same, but the work extended over but about six hours. The results are shown in Table V. TABLE V MID-DEPTH VELOCITIES OF CURRENTS IN FEET PER SECOND NORTHEAST OF THE PENN- SYLVANIA TERMINAL, UITEK XE\V YOUK BAY Hours after high water Governors Island Velocity Hours after high water Governors Island Velocity Hours after high water Governors Island Velocity Hours after high water Governors Island Velocity .Slack low water Flood current Slack high water Ebb current U 0.05 7.0 0.10 11.0 1.10* * Record incomplete. The maximum velocity probably occured later than this. Off Black Tom Island velocities were observed about three feet below the surface only, the depth at low water being but about six feet. See Table VI. TABLE VI VELOCITIES OF CUKUENTS AT A DEPTH OF THREE FEET UNDER THE SURFACE IN FEET PER SECOND OFF BLACK TOM ISLAND, UPPER NEW YORK BAY Hours after high water Governors Island Velocity Hours after high water Governors Island Velocity Hours after high water Governors Island Velocity Hours after high water Governors Island Velocity Slack high water Ebb current Slack low water Flood current 11.7 0.00 2.50 1.15 7.7 0.00 8.5 0.80 Rockaicay Inlet. Velocities were observed at Rockaway Inlet in the channel be- tween Rockaway Point and Plum Island at about 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth, which was ordinarily between 40 and 45 feet, with the results shown in Table VII. TABLE VII MEAN VELOCITY OF CURRENTS IN FEET PER SECOND IN ROCKAWAY INLET Hours after high water, Governors Island 5 3 7 9 Tidal current Slack Ebb Slack Flood Mean velocity .... 3 4 2 1 CHAPTER V SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS OF THE MUNICI- PALITIES WITHIN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT The natural growth of a great population around the waters of New York harbor has resulted in their defilement by sewage and manufacturing wastes sufficiently to attract public attention. In order to present an accurate picture of these conditions the sewerage works and conditions surrounding the disposal of the sewage of all the important cities and towns in the metropolitan district will be described in the following pages. SECTION I SEWERAGE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK BOROUGH OF MANHATTAN GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS I'rincipul Topographical Characteristics. The Borough of Manhattan is an island having an average width of nearly 1% miles, an extreme length of 13% miles and a total area of a little more than 22 square miles. Its main topographical feature is a ridge following approximately the line of Broadway from the Battery to Central Park, and thence parallel to and about one-half mile east of the Hudson river to the northern line of the city. This ridge is broken through at Manhattan street, but runs thence con- tinuously to Spuyten Duyvil creek. Generally speaking, all the district lying east of the dividing ridge, except that portion which drains out through Manhattan street, drains into the East and Harlem rivers and all the territory lying west of the ridge drains into the Hudson river. In most places the slopes toward the surrounding waters are relatively steep and few serious difficulties have been encountered with re- spect to securing proper grades for the sewers excepting in certain localities along the water-front. Originally the topography of Manhattan Island was more or less irregular, the ground rising gradually, except in a few localities, towards the central ridge above described. With the development of the city the irregularities of the shore line have been straightened out by the filling up of bays, and by extending the dock line to deep water, and there lias thus been formed a strip of land from 300 to 500 feet wide, with its surface about 8 to 10 feet above mean tide around a considerable part of the island. 218 DATA COLLECTED ACCOM H* of Growth of Sewerage System. From 1G7G until 18-19 the sewers and drains of New York were built without definite plan, the larger and more important by the Street Commissioner, the smaller ones, usually rectangular culverts with stone sides and tops, ; by property owners to drain their lots. Up to 1849 some 70 miles of sewers had been built; these have now (11)09) been mostly replaced by more modern structures. The sewer in Canal street, built between 1805 and 1810, is the principal one belonging to this early period still in use; it is in bad repair, however, and should be rebuilt. When a new water supply was furnished the City from the Croton watershed in 1842 improved plumbing and greater sanitary conveniences were extensively intro- duced; the effect of this is seen in the greater care given in the construction of sewers dating from that time. The Croton Aqueduct Department, organized under Act of the Legislature of April 11, 1849, superseded the Board of Water Supply Commissioners and the Croton Aque- duct Board, who until then had been charged with furnishing the City with water. Under the Aqueduct Department was placed a Bureau of Pipes and Sewers, in charge of a Water Purveyor, the Bureau having complete control over the construction of sewers after the authorization of their construction by the Board of Aldermen. Two years later the title of the Bureau was changed to the Bureau of Sewers and Drains, the Water Purveyor still remaining the executive head. In 1865 the State Legislature passed a general sewerage Act which required plans for each sewerage district to be filed before the sewers were constructed and their cost assessed in the district; and under the influence of this Act attention was more gen- erally given to the matter of sizes, grades and proper materials of construction. This law is still in force. Under its provisions plans were made for proper sewerage for the territory south of One Hundred and Fifty-fifth street by Alfred Craven, Chief Engineer of the Croton Aqueduct Board, and in later years by the Department of Public Works for the territory north of One Hundred and Fifty-fifth street. Owing to the many changes which have been made, the plans for the sewerage of one district having been altered more than 150 times, no correct plans of any of the older sewerage districts are obtainable. Up to 18G5, the time when the sewerage Act went into effect, there were aoout 200 miles of sewers in use in the city. Most of these were built without any definite plan by private individuals, or by the City; the records of their locations, sixes and grades are consequently incomplete and unreliable. The sewers are often of improper sizes and materials, on bad foundations and out of line and grade. Mr. Craven had charge of the sewers and originated many improvements in details of construction between 1805 and 1808, at which time he was succeeded by Gen. Geo. S. SEWERAGE OF MANHATTAN 219 Greene, who remained in charge until April 10, 1870, when by Legislative action the control of the sewers was taken from the Croton Aqueduct Department and given to the newly organized Department of Public Works, with Mr. Stevenson Towle as en- gineer in charge of the sewer department. At that time there were about 261 miles of sewers in the city. Mr. Towle began immediately an examination of the sewers and pushed it as rapidly as circumstances permitted. In 1873 he surveyed and examined about 100 miles of the old sewers, finding many completely unserviceable, generally too large, filled with deposits which generated acids and destroyed the materials of construction. Many also had settled with their tops below low water and every rise of tide would cause foul gases to be driven back through the traps into the houses. Many of the earlier brick sewers built about 1850 were circular in section, about 4 feet in diameter, and laid with lime mortar. Frequently no mortar was used in the invert, or lower portion, in order that the sewage might soak away into the ground as much as possible. About 1860 the Department adopted an egg-shaped section for the sewers, most of those built during that period being about 4 feet high and 3 feet or 2 feet 8 inches wide. This proved to be an advantageous change, as the greater concentration of flow made stoppages from deposits less frequent. The first vitrified pipe sewers were laid in 1864, about 60 miles having been laid prior to 1869. The earlier sewers usually terminated at the shore line, but were extended from time to time as the streets were graded out to the 'bulkhead line, the almost invariable result being the settlement of this filling and consequent breaking and disrupting of the sewers. In 1888 Mr. Rudolph Hering was engaged by Gen. John Newton to report on the condition of New York's sewers. The final unpublished report, addressed to Mr. Thos. F. Gilroy, Commissioner of Public Works, was dated May 31, 1889. It con- tained much original data regarding the choice of proper sizes for storm water sew- ers in New York, the diagrams being based on continuous discharge measurements of the Sixth avenue sewer at Third street, which drained 221 acres of the Minetta lane district. These data form the basis of present estimates of quantities of storm water to be taken care of by sewers in Manhattan. The report covered also, among other things, recommendations for increasing the efficiency and lowering the cost of the work of cleaning the sewers. Under the authority of Chapter 378 of the Laws of 1897, the Department of Pub- lic Works was changed, and the charge of the sewers placed under a Commissioner of Sewers, Mr. Horace Loomis being appointed Chief Engineer. 220 DATA COLLECTED Later, under the Greater New York Charter, the sewers were placed under the supervision of the Borough Presidents, with a Superintendent of Sewers and Chief Engineer of Sewers in each borough; Mi*. Horace Loomis was further retained as the Chief Engineer of the Bureau for the Borough of Manhattan. Under Mr. Loomis' direction, much good work lias been done towards improving and remodeling the sew- ers of New York, though some of his recommendations have not been acted upon. Practically all the old sewers built prior to 1849 have been replaced with new ones, or put in repair, and the sewer outlets have, where piers exist, with but few exceptions, been extended from the bulkhead to near the pierhead line. The present policy of the Bureau favors, instead of the construction of intercepting sewers dis- charging at a few large outlets, the discharge, as far as practicable, of each small sewer through a separate outfall. The intercepting sewers, owing to the light grades obtainable along the level river front, are regarded as elongated cesspools and deposit sewers. SEWERAGE WORKS Sewers. The sewers are, as a rule, of brick, and egg-shaped in section, the most common size being about 4 feet high and 3 feet wide. Some of the newer sewers built in recent years, however, are of concrete. Manholes with perforated covers, for ventilation, are provided at frequent in- tervals, and catch basins are built at the corners of the blocks, where needed to divert the water from the street gutters into the sewers. The simplicity of the drainage problem has led naturally to the development of a sewerage system upon the combined plan; that is, upon a plan in which house sewage and storm water are carried in the same sewers. All the drainage districts are practically independent The outfalls number about 172, and provide sewerage for the entire borough, which has an area of 14,000 acres. The Hudson river receives, through 53 outlets, the drainage from 5,600 acres ; the East river, through 68 outlets, the drainage from 3,900 acres, and the Harlem river, through 51 outlets, the drainage from 2,600 acres. Sixty per cent, of the total city sewage is discharged from 29 outlets, the three largest being the East One Hundred and Tenth street sewer, which drains 700 acres into the Harlem river, the Manhattan street sewer discharging the sewage from 723 acres into the Hudson river, and the East Forty-ninth street sewer discharging the sewage from 616 acres into the East river. Thirteen of the 29 large outlets discharge into the Hudson, 10 into the East river and fi into the Harlem river. SEWERAGE OF MANHATTAN 221 Roughly speaking, of the sewage of Manhattan, that from about 650,000 people is discharged into the Hudson river, that from about 1,087,000 into the East river, and that from 366,000 into the Harlem river. Outfalls. Most of the sewer outfalls are placed under piers, the discharge taking place usually about 20 or 30 feet back of the end of the pier. Little trouble has, in the past, been experienced from the drifting or blowing of floating matter from the harbor into the sewers. Many of these outfalls consist of steel-banded wooden flumes carried out on the cross timbers under the piers or wharves, and strapped thereto with bands or rods. The outlets of the Manhattan sewers, with their locations, sizes, points of dis- charge, areas drained and date of construction, reconstruction or repair, are as given in Table I. TABLE I OUTLETS OF THE SEWERS OF MANHATTAN Size When i. oration Point of discharge Actual Equivalent circular section drained Acres built, rebuilt or repaired Dyckman street j'\7' A' n" 0^4 1QQC West 171st street K H 5'x4' 4' 6" 217 1899 West 158th street a tt 3' 6" 135 75 1884 West 155th street a it ]' g" 10 West 152d street H (1 3' 0" 4 75 1876 West 149th street tl H V 4" K K 18Q7 West 148th street It tl 1' 4" 5K. 1807 West 147th street It It 1' 4" 5 5 1009 West 146th street It tl 1' 4" 5 5 1893 West 145th street tt 11 1' d" c e IftQd West 144th street u * V 4" 5 5 1899 West 143d street I. 1' 4" 5 5 1897 West 142d street tl fl 4' 0" 83 5 lQ7r. West 138th street . . tl If l' V K OC West 130th street ft tl pipe (o / x4')-f-(5 / 6"x7') T 8" West 129th street II tt 2(4 / 3"x5'10") bbl 7 0" 633 5 1891 West 115th street ft It 4'x3' 3' 6" 82 75 J882 West 108th street tt 4' 0" 65 75 1901 West 96th street I. With 2 outlets ' 6' '0" 416 ion 1 ! lk u DATA COLLECTED TABLE I Continued Location Point of discharge Size Area drained Acres When built, rebuilt or repaired Actual Equivalent circular section West 91st street Hudson river. . . u it tt n tt tt 14 41 tl tt tt tt It II 41 it 11 11 14 44 4t tl 44 14 II 41 14 tt 14 tl 44 tt 44 tt 44 It 41 14 tt 41 41 tt tl II It tt tt tt tt tt tt tt tt tt tt 41 14 It tl 41 4' 0" 0' 3" 4' 0" 4' 0" 4' 0" 3' 0" 2' 10" 4' 0" 4' 0" 3' 3" 3' 3" 4' 0' 3' 3" 11' 0" 5' 8" 4' 0" 1' 0" 4' 0" 4' 0" 5' 0" 6' 4" 5' 8" 6' 4" 2' 11" 4' 0" 6' 6" 5' 8" 10' 8" 13' 0" 4' 2" 4' 0" 4' 0" 21.5 339.5 49 505.5 00.25 44.5 19.5 62.75 33.5 11.25 11.25 11.25 11.25 434.25 99 8.5 11.25 48 56.5 270.25 152.25 118 169.25 10.75 23 53 18.75 468 242 42.5 69.25 46.75 1883 1873 1903 1868 1876 1891 1897 1902 1902 1867 1879 1904 1863 1904 1907 1891 1904 1900 1908 1907 1908 1892 1901 1901 1901 1882 1896 1888 1891 West 80th street 5'7i"*5' bbl. West 72d street West 66th street Weet 59th street bbl. West 56th street West 54th street 36"x2'4" bbl. bbl. 4'x2'8" 4'x2'8" 4'x3' box. rep. 4'x2'8" / 7'G" eir. + G'xO' \ \ 5'6"x4'9" box / 5'xo' box bbl. pipe bbl. West 50th street Weet 48th street West 46th street West 45th street West 44th street West 43d street West 42d street ... . West 40th street West 39th street West 38th street West 36th street West 30th street . . ... West 26th street Twin 4' 3" ell. bbl. Twin 4' 6" bbl. rep. 2 (4' bbl.) rep. 5'x4'6"+5'.\3'6" bbl. 3'6"x2'4" West 23d street West 20th street West 17th street Little West 12th street 4' cir.+4' cir. + 4'x2'8" 4'cir.+4'cir.5'x5'+5'x5' 5'6"x9'6" 8'xl6'+2 (4'x2'8") 5'x3'6" Ell. rep. Clarkson street Vestry street Dey street SEWERAGE OF MANHATTAN 223 TABLE I Continued Size When Location Point of discharge Actual Equivalent circular section drained Acres built, rebuilt or repaired Carlisle street Hudson river . . . bbl. 3' 0" 25.25 1891 ti ti bbl. 3' 0" 21 1886 tt n bbl 4' 0" 14.25 1905 Twin 4' bbl 5' 8" 61.5 1906 ft tt 4'6"x3' 8" Ell bbl 4' 0" 15.75 1892 tt tt bbl 4' 0" 58 1893 tl ti bbl 4' 0" 134.75 1886 It tt 2 outlets 5' 8'' 172.75 tl tt 2 (3' bbl ) 4' 3' 34 1892 ft tl 5'x5' 5' 0" 128 tt It bbl 4' 0" 25.5 1898 ft ft 4'x3" Ell bbl 3' 6" 10 ft 5'x4' bbl 4' G" 14.25 1898 tt tt 5'x4' Ell 4' 6" GO 1898 tt tt 4' bbl + 5'4" G' 0" 109 25 1898 tt tl 4' 0" 45 75 1895 It ft 4' 0" 88 25 1880 East 3d street ll (I 5' 0" 33.75 1893 East 4th street tl tl nine 2' 6" 6 It ll 4'x2'8" 3' 4" 7.25 1850 East 6th street tl 11 4'x2'8" egg 3' 4" G 1895 tt tt 4'x2'8" 3' 4" 4 75 1855 East 8th street it It 4'x4' 4' 0" 12.75 1867 East 10th street tl tt 3'6"x2'4" 2' 11" 1907 East llth street 11 tt 3' box 3' 5" 7 1890 East 14th street ll ll 2 (6'x7') 9' 2'' 273.5 1872 tt a 3' 6" 14.75 1858 East 16th street it it 5'x3' 4' 0" 15.75 1859 East 18th street it tt 4'x2'8" egg~f 6'x8' "' 9" 188.5 1892 East 21st street ti it 5'x4' ell bbl 4' 6" 142 1905 East 23d street ti it bbl. 4' 0" 64.5 1902 East 24th street tt ti 4' 0" 17. 1892 224 DATA COLLECTED TABLE I Continued Size Location Point of discharge Actual Equivalent circular section Areas drained Acres built icbuilt or repaired East 26th street 3'9"x4'6" bbl rep 4' 1" 13 25 1903 East 28th street . . . it n 4' 0" 23 1901 East 29th street a tt 3V egg 2' 6" 2 25 1886 East 31st street tt tt 1' 3" 2 25 1888 East 33d street tt tt 5'6"x8' 6' 9" 220 . 25 1894 East 36th street tt tt 3'G"x2'4" 2' 11'' 1 75 1899 East 37th street tt tt bbl. 3' 0" 1.75 1898 East 38th street tt tt 4'x2'8" eg" 3' 4" 2.25 East 42d street tt tt 6' 0" 93.5 1878 East 43d street a tt 3'6"x2'6" 3' 0" 4. 1880 East 44th street tt tt 3'6"x2'4" 2' 11" 8. 1902 East 45th street tt tt 4'x2'8" 3' 4" 7.75 1861 East 46th street tt tt pipe r 3" 7.75 1868 East 47th street tt tt 4'\2'8" 3' 4" 7.75 1861 East 48th street a a 4'x2'8" rep. 3' 4" 9.25 1889 East 49th street i it 9'x2'6" 8' 9" 616. 1854 East 53d street it tt 3'6"x2'4" 2' 8" 4 25 1875 East 64th street a tt 4'x2'8" 3' 4" 27.25 1873 East 57th street a a 2' 0" 14. 1994 East 62d street a a 3'6" box 3' 6" 138.5 1894 East 63d street n it 3'6"x2'4" egg 2' 11" 1.75 1897 East 64th street a it 3'6''x2'0" egg 2' 9" 2.5 1887 East 70th street tt tt 3'x2' box 2' 6" 4. 1882 East 71st street a a 3'x2' 2' 6" 4.25 1883 East 73d street n n 3'6"x2'0'' egg 2' 9" 4.25 1890 East 74th street . . . it it rep 6' 0" 332. 1907 East 75th street a tt 3'6"x2'0" 2' 9" 4.5 1888 East 76th street a it 3'6"x2'0" 2' 9" 4.5 1887 East 77th street tt a 3'6"x2'4" 2' 9" 4.75 1894 East 78th street it a 3'x2' 2' 6" 4.75 1893 East 79th street a tt 44'x4'7" box rep. 5' 0" 302. 1899 East 83d street . a it pipe 1' 3" 2. 1905 SEWERAGE OF MANHATTAN 225 TABLE I Continued Size When Location Point of discharge Actual Equivalent circular section drained Acres built, rebuilt or repaired East 84th street 1' 4" loon East 86th street 4' fi" 04 K loqr East 89th street ti tt 5' 0" 57 1871 East 90th street it tt 1' S" 4 1804 East 91st street tt a V V 2 25 1892 Ave A tt bbl 4' 0" 9' 1903 East 95th street ff ft 4' 0" 92 5 1891 East 100th street tt it 3'6"x*2'4" 2' 10" 3 5 1896 East 101st street 3'6"x2'G" ego- 0' Q" 4 25 1S94 East 102d street 3'6"\ 9/ 0" effe 2' 8" 4 5 1889 East 103d street 14 tt 3'6"\2'0" ee2 2' 8" 4 5 1891 East 104th street ft tt 3'6"x2'G" ees 2' 8" 4 5 1891 East 105th street tt tt 3'6"x2'0" eee 2' 8" 4 5 1886 East 106th street tt H 5'6"x7'0" 6' 6" 286 1875 East 1 10th street tt (I 8'0"xl2'0" 10' 0" 700 1871 East 1 llth street ft tt 3'6"x2'0" 2' 8" 3 75 1SQ3 East 115th street. . . tt tt 1' 3" 3 75 1892 East 1 16th street ft tt nine 1' 3" 4 1892 East 117th street t> tt 1' 0" 4 75 1867 East 1 18th street tt tt 4' 6" 50 75 1872 East 119th street t tt 1' 3" 6 5 1869 East 120th street ft tt 4' 0" 38 75 1867 East 121st street tt tt 1' 3" 3 189 9 East 122d street tt -t 4' 0" 26 75 East 124th street tt tt 3'6"x2'4" 3' 0" (3 1876 East 125th street tt tt 4'0"\2'S" 3' 6" 61 75 1892 2d avenue tt ff 3'7"x2'5" 3' 1" 9 5 1871 3d avenue tt ft 4'0"x2'8" 3' 5" 63 1861 East 135th street tt ff 4'9"x5'0" 5' 0" 184 75 1880 East 13Gth street ft tt j' o" 1 5 1894 East 140th street (t tt 3'6"\2'4" etrii -,' jo" 21 75 1896 East 141st street (t ft 1' 3" 7 75 1894 220 DATA COLLECTED TABLE IContinued Size When Location Point of discharge Actual Kquivalent circular section drained Acres built rebuilt or repaired East 142d street 1 1 irlcm river 4'0"v2'S" 3' 5" 1!) 11103 East 143d street it a 3'6"x2'4" 2' 10" 4.25 1907 East 144th street .... H It 3'6"\"''" 2' )0" 4 25 1907 East 145th street it it 1' 0" 2 5 1901 East 145th street II II 6'0"x"/u" 5' G" 9 5 1901 East 147th street If ft 4'0"x2'8" 3' 5" 4 75 1905 Lenox (6th) avenue H f( 2 42" pij>es into outlet 5' 0" 47. 1903 East 151st street It tf 9' G" 330 1903 7th avenue II 14 4'0"x2'S" 3' 5" 18.75 1900 East 155th street II H 1' 3" G 1888 8th avenue . It II 4'0"x2'8" 3' 5" 42. 1887 East 167th street II II 4' 0" 94 7;"i 1893 East 178th street It II 4' 0" 117 1890 East 201st street II It 4' 0" 196. 1900 East 203d street II II 3'6"x2'4" 2' 10" 8 1907 East 204th street it II WxJW 2' JO" 2 1907 East 205th street ... II 11 4' 0" 14 1901 East 206th street . ... If It 3'b"x2'4" 2' 10" 3 1908 East 207th street II II 3'6"x2'4" 2' JO" 12.5 1907 East 209th street It II 4' 0" 14.75 1902 East 211th street It II 4' G" 30 1907 East 213th street It It 4'0"x2'S" 3' 4" 8 1906 East 214th street It If 3'ii"x2'4" egg 2' 10" 8 1907 East 215th street It II 3'6'x2'4" egg 2' 10" 4 1908 East 216th street It It 5'0"x'40" 4' G" 13 1906 Broadway . . Ship canal .... 4' 0'- 43.75 1902 SEWERAGE OF MANHATTAN 227 The following outlet sewers were reconstructed, or were in progress, in 1909 : 1. Outlet sewer under Pier 15, East river. 2. Outlet sewer overflows and connections at Forty-second and Forty-third streets, North river. 3. Outlet sewers in Twenty-eighth and Twenty-ninth streets, East river. 4. Outlet sewer between One Hundred and Thirty-fourth and One Hun- dred and Thirty-fifth streets, Harlem river. The following were under construction at the end of that year : 1 . A sewer under Pier 40, Hudson river. 2. A barrel sewer under pier at foot of Twenty-sixth street, East river. 3. The extension of the outlet sewer at the foot of One Hundred and Eighteenth street, Harlem river. Of the older outfalls the greater part are at so low an elevation as to be sub- merged at high tide, thus sealing up the end of the sewer and interfering with ventilation as well as favoring the formation of deposits by checking the velocity of the flow in the sewer. The present method of discharging sewage into the harbor along the Manhattan water front is unsatisfactory; it creates nuisances along the water front; it pollutes the public bathing establishments; it surrounds the City's recreation piers and the slips and docks whence steamers sail for foreign and domestic ports with disagree- able odors; and it produces unsanitary conditions in the vicinity of market places where vegetables, fruits and other infectable food products are exposed for sale, and where, as a matter of course, flies, rats and other infection spreading vermin abound. At present the discharge of sewage takes place practically at the surface of the harbor water, with an imperfect admixture with incoming tidal streams. The sewage floats around on the surface of the harbor, in the slips, under docks, piers and buildings; coats the surfaces of walls, piles and piers with grease and filth; finally it is carried away by the ebbing currents, still upon the surface, but much diluted and scattered. This is a primitive method unsuited to a large city with many miles of water front on a tidal harbor. The physical aspects of the problem are simple and the selection of the proper details of construction to avoid such results is a matter of local expediency and cost in each case. 228 DATA COLLECTED Ventilation. The ventilation of the sexvers is accomplished through the perfor- ations in the manhole covers in the streets. The air within the sewer is changed and refreshed largely by the changing volume of flow in the sewer which, when increasing. drives out some of the air through the perforations, and when decreasing, draws in fresh air from the street. Traps are used on all house connections. In some portions of the city, notably in the older parts near the water front, the ventilation is very de- fective as a result of the settlement of the sewers, the entrance of tide water, and sub- mergence of the outlets. Nuisances frequently result in many districts where steam and hot water are discharged into the sewers, hot vapors rising to the upper sections and issuing through the manhole covers disseminating odors of cooked sewage through the neighborhood. Improvements in this direction are imperatively needed. Growth of System. The growth of Manhattan's sewerage system since 1849, year by year, is exhibited in Table II. TABLE II GKOWTH OF MANHATTAN'S SEWER SYSTEM Year Miles of Sewers Built Each Year Total Miles of Sewers Year Miles of Sewers Built Each Year Total Miles of Sewers Before 1849 69 7 69 7 December 1866 7.0 209 December 1849 3 3 73 1867 19 9 228 9 " 1850 11 7 84 7 " 1868 15 6 244 5 << 1851 11 9 96 6 " 1869 16 3 260 8 " 1852 12 4 109 April 1871 . 15 I 275 9 " 1853 13 9 122 9 " J872 12 1 288 1854 13 9 136 8 < 1873 17 3 309.3 " 1855 .... 7 3 144 1 December 1873 13 7 322 " 1856 9 3 153 4 " 1874 17 339 1857 2 155 4 " 1875 12 7 351.7 " 1858 6 8 162 2 " 1876 . 4 9 356 6 " 1859 7 9 170 1 1877 5 8 362 4 " i860 7 177 1 " J878 6.8 369.2 " 1861 5 5 182 6 " 1879 . 2.4 371.6 " 1862 " 1863 3.7 3 8 186.3 190 i 1880 " 1881 6.1 5 4 377.7 383.1 1864 4 5 194 6 " 1882 8.0 391.1 " 1865 7 4 202 " 1883 7.0 398.1 SEWERAGE OF MANHATTAN TABLE II Continued 229 Year Miles of Sewers Built Each Year Total Miles of Sewers Year Miles of Sewers Built Each Year Total Miles of Sewers December 1884 . . . 10.3 408.4 December 1897 10.9 483.1 " 18S5 2.0 4J0.4 1898 1 484 1 " 1886 3 8 414 2 1899 4 9 489 1887 7.3 421.5 1900 5.6 494.6 1888 7.0 429.1 1901 2.3 496.9 " 1889 4 433 7 1902 3 7 500 6 1890 4.2 437.9 1903 4.5 505.1 1891.. 6.4 444.3 1904.. 2.5 507.6 1892 5 1 449 4 1905 3 8 511 4 1893 6.4 455.8 1906 2.4 513.8 1894 6.2 462.0 1907 4.2 518.0 1895 6.0 468.0 1908 2.7 521.7 1896 4.2 472.2 The sewerage system is estimated to have cost upwards of $26,000,000, but no rec- ords are available showing the actual amounts laid out, particularly in the earlier years. The following sewers were built during 1909 by private parties and corporations hav- ing underground interests and by the Sewer Bureau: Feet. 1,922 711 86 705 8,423 7,022 1. By private parties under Sewer Bureau supervision '2. By the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad Company 3. By the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad Company. . 4. By the Pennsylvania Tunnel and Terminal Company 5. By the Public Service Commission 0. By the Bureau of Sewers From this it appears that the Sewer Bureau built and supervised the construction of less than one-half the total mileage constructed during this year. Unscicered Streets. Mr. Loomis, Chief Engineer of the Bureau of Sewers, estimates that at the end of 1909 there Avere 23 miles of unsewercd streets in the borough, many of these being single blocks in built-up territory. Effect of Subway Construction on Sewer Hi/stem-. Until the commencement of the construction of the rapid transit subways no particularly difficult problems had arisen with regard to the alignment and grades of the sewers of Manhattan, but as nearly all the principal sewers lie in streets which cross the subway streets at right angles many 230 DATA COLLECTED serious interferences have since been encountered. There is now a prospect of addi- tional subways north and south on First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth, Ninth and Eleventh avenues, as well as on Broadway and West Broadway, and of crosstown subways on Canal, Fourteenth, Thirty-fourth and Forty-second streets. Parts of some of these lines have now 'been built and parts of others are under construction. The borough is thus facing the necessity of reconstructing the entire sewer system as possibly a cheaper and better plan than the remodeling of each sewer when interfered with. The latter plan involves the probable employment of inverted siphons for the large storm water sewers. As it w r ould be impossible to provide overflows or reliefs for inverted siphons in many of these locations, restrictions of the cross sections by deposits occurring in the low-level, horizontal portions during dry weather would tend to cause inundations and flooding by back water. Such structures could be cleaned out only with difficulty unless special large submerged pumps, for emergency use, were installed and kept ready for service at each siphon. Another serious complication due to subway construction arises from the fact that many of the streets are so narrow that in building the subways the sewers have been crowded off to one side into spaces too small to permit of their proper care and repair; in some places they have been crowded entirely off of the streets upon private property. In all the sewer reconstruction work which has been undertaken so far, as a result of subway construction, the object has been simply to restore the existing sewers with- out regard to the future requirements of districts which now have no sewers. Changes in System Suggested to Facilitate Street Washing. Still another compli- cation is gradually coming to the front due to the modern tendency towards washing the streets with water and flushing into the sewers the street dirt and detritus not re- moved by the Street Cleaning Department, thus gradually filling up the lower compara- tively flat sewers near the outfall at the river front, as well as the sewers whose grades have been flattened by reason of the construction of the subways. To adapt the sewers to the purposes of street flushing, the gradients should be as steep as practicable, and catch basins should be omitted. This in turn would require the separation of the house sewage from the water reaching the sewers from the streets and roofs of houses, for the reason that the house sewage must necessarily be collected at a great enough depth to drain basements and cellars, while the storm water drains should be placed as high as the requirements of traffic on the streets will permit in order to take advantage of all the slope available. SEWERAGE OF MANHATTAN 231 Desirability of Reconstruction of Some of the Seiccrs on tlic Separate Plan. The reconstruction of Manhattan's sewers would involve great expense and inconvenience, and yet in the long run, if the projected lines of subways should be built, it would be cheaper to rebuild the entire sewerage system on the separate plan, where interfered with by the subways, than to try to remodel the connections and restore the existing system as a repair job. Their reconstruction would necessitate reconnecting all the buildings to the new sanitary sewers and installing in each building pipes to convey the roof water to the new storm water drains. Possibly the lowering of some of the future subways at critical points would avoid the need for the reconstruction of some of the sewers. Public Service Coin-mission and the Sewers. A more effective co-operation should be established between the Bureau of Sewers and the Public Service Corporation. The Bureau of Sewers is frequently embarrassed by the authority conferred by Act of Legislature on the Public Service Commission under which it has the right to remove out of the way all sewers and other conduits interfering with subway construction, subject only to the " reasonable requirements " of the Borough President. Under such conditions, it being impossible for the Public Service Commission to plan for the future sewerage of the whole borough, much money is wasted in alterations, removals and the rebuilding of sewers without reference to a general plan or policy. Chief Engineer Looinis, recognizing the necessity of reform in this direction has repeatedly recommended that an exhaustive investigation be undertaken to establish a policy with respect to future sewerage that shall be conformable to the requirements of the rapid development of this great metropolitan area. Under existing conditions the Public Service Commission assumes that it has the right to design and execute the necessary changes in the sewerage system. In several instances changes of considerable extent have been completed before official notifica- tion of their necessity has been given the Bureau of Sewers. The largest sewer under construction in the city at the present time (1909), the Duuiic street outlet, is being built by the Public Service Commission in connection with the Williamsburg loop subway. The Chief Engineer of the Bureau of Sewers states in his annual report for the year 1909 that the Commission " ignores the city authorities, claiming the right to do such work without supervision." The reconstruction of the sewerage of the lower part of the city upon the sepa- rate system has been advocated by the Bureau of Sewers, using deep pipe sewers for house sewerage and shallow sewers for storm water removal, to reduce stoppages, 232 DATA COLLECTED facilitate inspections, save in maintenance charges and simplify the problems con- nected with subway construction. Recommendation. In view of all the circumstances the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission recommends that a detailed study be undertaken, in co-operation with the Bureau of Sewers and the Public Service Commission to devise a comprehensive scheme for the rebuilding of Manhattan's sewerage system, laying out the new plan so as to utilize the existing sewers to as great an extent as possible. The new storm water sewers should be located near the surface of the streets and the sewers for house drainage should pass beneath the subways, or over them, as circumstances warrant. House sewage should be intercepted for conveyance to suitable points for screen- ing, or subsidence, or both, as necessary in each case, or for crude discharge. Proper methods of discharge should be devised for all localities whether the entire system he rebuilt or not. In connection with the storm water sewers it may be advantageous to construct the storm water inlets without catch basins so as to permit the washings from the street surfaces, as well as the snow in winter, to be carried away by the sewers. MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE SYSTEM The entire sewer maintenance force in Manhattan comprises but GO carts and from 200 to about 300 men and consequently the 522 miles of sewers and (5,300 catch basins in the system are seldom examined, except during the routine work of cleaning, until trouble is reported. The sewers are not flushed. Being generally of ample size for their respective drainage areas, it is the practice to let deposits accumulate to a depth of from 10 to 20 inches, whence they are removed through the nearest manhole by hand labor. Cleaning the sewers by contract has been tried several times, but has not been found satisfactory. Cleaning Basins. During 1909, 11,381 basins were cleaned, and 5,886 examined, so that each one of the 6,318 should, on the average, have been cleaned every 5.3 months, and examined every 13 months. Cleaning Scicers. The percentage of total mileage of the sewers cleaned and the costs of cleaning, per foot, since 1885, are given in Table III. STRUCTURES BENEATH THE STREETS OF NEW YORK In addition to sewers the structures beneath the 'streets of New York include-. Drink i no water supply pipes Sa 1 1 wat e r fi re serv i ce p i pe s, Gas pipes, Steam pipes, 'Electric- light conduits, 'Dec-trie power conduits, Telephone conduits, Telegraph conduits, Pneumatic mail tubes, Subway railroads. OF THE UNIVERSITY OF SEWEKAGE OF MANHATTAN TABLE III COST OF CLEANING SEWERS IN MANHATTAN 233 Year Per cent, of total mileage of sewers cleaned Costs per foot to clean 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909.. 2.6 3.6 4.5 7.0 10.4 5.7 3.3 3.9 3.2 2.6 7.7 9.8 9.1 9.1 11.5 13.3 17.1 24.7 26.0 19.5 28.2 39.8 41.0 47.5 $0.0054 .39 .23 .26 .19 .15 .13 .14 .142 .121 .118 .148 .134 .122 .296 .185 .185 .130 .090 .090 .126 .097 .095 .084 .069 A very substantial reduction in cost per foot for cleaning is to be noted. Nearly half the total mileage of sewers was cleaned during 1909, but this is only relative, as no doubt some sewers are rarely, if ever, cleaned, while others are cleaned many times per year. It is interesting to note that in the last 10 years the percentage of sewers cleaned has increased from about 10 per cent, to nearly 50 per cent. The street cleaning and sewer maintenance bureaus being entirely separate and distinct, considerable additional expense is thrown upon the Bureau of Sewers by the 234 DATA COLLECTED pushing and washing of street dirt into the catch basins by the street cleaners. The expense of removing the dirt from the 6,300 catch basins is manifestly much greater than would be the cost of removing it from the street surfaces by the street clean- ers. If, however, there were no catch basins, and if the sewers were laid on self- cleansing gradients, it would be possible to flush the street dirt, including a large part of the snow, into the sewers. If cateh basins were to be done away with entirely, grit or deposit chambers and mechanically cleaned screens would be desirable at each sewer outlet. Condition of Seicers. Many of the old sewers are still in good condition, al- though most of those built with lime mortar, are, from disappearance of the mortar, so badly distorted by settlement as to render inspections dangerous or impossible. Ordinance Against Steam, Acids, etc. In some cases steam, very hot liquors and acids have disintegrated the mortar joints to such an extent as to cause the longitu- dinal splitting of the sewer and the lowering of its crown. The discharge of steam and other objectionable things into the sewers is pro- hibited under the provisions of the City ordinances. The ordinances relating to the discharge of steam, fats, iron or stone refuse, and chemicals into the sewers are as follows: CHAPTER 6, ARTICLE 9, SECTION 174, REVISED ORDINANCE OF 1880 No connection with or opening into any sewer or drain shall be used for the conveyance or discharge into said sewer or drain, of steam from any steam boiler or engine, or from any manufactory or building in which steam is either used or generated, under the penalty of $50 for each and every day during any part of which such connection or opening may have been used for that purpose. This penalty shall be imposed upon and recovered from the owner and occupants severally and respectively, of such manufactory or building. Sec. 163. And any manufacturer, brewer, distiller or the like, permitting any substance to flow into any sewer, drain or receiving basin, which shall form a deposit that tends to fill said sewer, drain or basin, shall be subject to a penalty of $50 for each offence. Sec. 165. No butcher's offal or garbage, dead animals or substance of any kind whatsoever shall be placed therein or deposited in any receiving basin or sewer; and any person so offending or causing any such obstruction or sub- stance to be placed so as to be carried into such basin or sewer shall be subject to a penalty of flO for each offense; any person injuring, breaking or removing any portion of any receiving basin, covering, flag, manhole, vent or any part of any sewer or drain, or obstructing the mouth of any sewer or drain shall be sub- ject to a penalty of $20 for each offense. Nor shall any quantity of marble, or other stone, iron, lead, timber or any other substance exceeding one ton in weight, be placed or deposited upon any wharf or bulkhead through which any sewer or drain may run. SEWERAGE OF MANHATTAN 235 Sec. 167. It shall be the duty of every person having charge of the sweep- ing and cleaning of the streets in the several wards, to see that the gutters are properly scraped out before the water is suffered to flow from any hydrant for the purpose of washing the same, in order that no substance or obstruction be carried into any of the receiving basins. Every person violating this section shall be subject to a penalty of |5 for each offense. To secure a conviction, under the section relating to discharging steam into the sewer, however, the courts require that steam found issuing into a street sewer from a connection be traced back to its source, in some way leaving no doubt as to whence it came. This, in many cases, is impossible. The difficulties are increased by the fact that the Bureau of Sewers has no right of entry in the private properties connected with the sewers and hence can not send in mechanics and steam titters to examine the pipe connections and trace the discharges from hot pipes. In several instances steam has entirely disintegrated the mortar joints of the sewers. Further, it frequently boils the sewage, thus causing the evolution of foul odors at manholes and making ingress to the sewer for inspections impossible. The compulsory introduction of condensers or steam traps on the house connections of all buildings where steam or hot water is used, or the extensions of exhaust pipes to the tops of the buildings, coupled with the right, to the Bureau of Sewers, to enter pri- vate properties for purposes of inspection, together with the right to correct the evils at the expense of the offending parties, on their failure to make the necessary changes after due notice, would put an end to the violation of the terms of the present unenforcable ordinance. Reconstruction. In the 1909 annual report of the Chief Engineer it is stated that about 55 miles of sewers in Manhattan are much out of repair, cost large sums to keep in order and are liable to frequent stoppages, resulting some times in great damage to adjacent property. Most of these sewers were laid in 1868 to 1873. Some 24 different sewers are specifically mentioned as being in need of repairs or of reconstruction. Of these, three outlet sewers at the following points are mentioned : 1. At Albany street and Hudson river. 2. At foot of Seventy-ninth street, East river. 3. In Market street. Troubles and Complaints. Most of the complaints against the sewerage work arise from flooded cellars due to back water caused by stoppages in the sewers, and floods from the streets due to the occurrence of extremely heavy rains at times when the sewers may have become partly choked with deposits. Considerable sums of money are col- lected from the City, annually, for damages from back water and flooding, under a court decision to the effect that unless the sewer in question had been inspected and left clean 23G DATA COLLECTED and in good repair within the previous six mouths, the City was liable for the damages shown. Difficulties of this nature are most common in the portion of the city served by old sewers along the low lying streets near the water-front, where, from the tide- locking of the sewers and the flat slopes caused in many instances by the settlement of the sewer, deposits accumulate to considerable depths. DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE Discharge Into Harbor. All the sewers of Manhattan discharge into the tidal water surrounding the Borough. The discharge usually takes place at the pier- head line, although some of the sewers discharge at the bulkhead line. No attempt is made to purify the sewage. The storm water from the street surfaces receives a very insignificant amount of coarse screening and subsidence in passing into and through the catch basins at street corners, but otherwise everything that enters the sewers is free to pass out into the harbor waters unless deposited in the sewers in places where the velocities are too slight to keep the bottom scoured clean. Sewage Deposits Along Water-front. In spite of the catch basins at present in use, large quantities of solid materials are discharged into the harbor from the sewers, and these deposits, and those occurring as the result of scour by the tidal currents, and freshets on the water-sheds of the stream tributary to the harbor, require the continuous dredg- ing of mud from the bottoms of the slips and docks along the river frontage of Manhat- tan. The quantities of mud dredged by the Department of Docks during the years 1903 to 1907, inclusive, from the slips and along the shore line of Manhattan, exclusive of the dredging done on the Brooklyn and Staten Island shores or of that done by pri- vate parties or in connection with new construction works, are shown in Table IV. TABLE IV CUBIC YARDS OF MUD DRF.DGED BY THE DOCK DEPARTMENT ALONG THE SHORES OF MANHATTAN ISLAND Year From the North River From the East River From the Harlem River 1903 377,765 129,502 11,187 1904 291,320 88,263 32,490 1905 214,566 159,601 37,255 1906 244 967 144,418 18,328 1907 189,643 117,957 35,375 SEWERAGE OF MANHATTAN 237 Niiisances. The increasing discharges of sewage into the harbor at the pierhead line, unless improved methods of disposal are put in force, will in time bring about an unbearable condition. Even at the present time local nuisances exist along practically the entire water-front. The situation is complicated by the movement of the water in the various rivers under tidal influences, and by the tendency of the sewage, which is usually warmer and of less specific gravity than the harbor waters, to spread out upon the surface instead of becoming immediately mixed therewith. On the numerous trips of inspection made by members of the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission fragments of human feces have been seen in the water at practically every point from the Battery to Spuyten Uuyvil creek in the Hudson, East and Harlem rivers, and at all stages of tide. Further than this, distinct nuisances exist at many points. In the majority of cases the tops of the outlet sewers at the pierhead lines are about at the level of mean high tide, though some are lower. In the larger sewers such as that discharging at Oliver street, East Forty-ninth street, East One Hundred and Tenth street, and Canal street, the rising tide backs water into the sewers to great distances, frequently preventing the discharge of the sewage until nearly time for the tide to turn. In some of these tide-locked sewers deposits form rapidly and their removal by hand is a laborious and expensive process. Particularly offensive conditions exist at Piers 25, 31, 32, 40, 51, 54, 59 and 61, at Twenty-third street and Thirty-eighth street along the North river; at Oliver street, East Forty-ninth street, East One Hundred and Tenth street, and the East river from Hell Gate to the Harlem river, as well as the Harlem river for the greater part of its length. Crowding of Sewage Shoreward by Currents. It is commonly observed that during the prevalence of flood currents the discharges from the sewers are driven back into the slips and under the wharves instead of being carried out into mid-stream and lost by dispersion and dilution. During these periods when enormous quantities of clean sea water are entering the harbor through the Narrows, and from Long Island Sound, the concentration of sewage along the shore line and in slips and docks is greatest. On ebb currents the sewage that has not been dispersed passes out into the rivers and is more or less mixed with the land water on the surface of the outgoing sea water as well as witli the sea water itself, but the grease, excreta and other floating matters that adhere to the piles, dock walls, piers, and harbor bottom exposed at low tide, slowly putrefy and give off offensive odors. Practically all of the mud deposits removed from the slips and docks along the Manhattan shores, averaging annually over 250,000 cubic yards along the Hudson river front, 130,000 cubic yards from the East river and 27,000 cubic yards from the 238 DATA COLLECTED Harlem, have their origin in the discharges from the sewers, the deposits taking place as the velocities of the flood currents decrease. Various chemical and bacteriological tests, and tests made with floats, as well as with dyed sewage, confirm the general statements as to the tide-locking of the sewers, the forcing of sewage back into the slips on flood currents, the holding of sewage for hours in docks and unused slips and the very unsatisfactory condition as to dilution and dispersion that obtains along the whole water front. Effect on Public Bathing Establishments. The location of public bathing estab- p lishrnents at places where the discharges from the sewers can pass through them, the surrounding of recreation piers with sewage, the fouling of the docks and slips where ocean, sound and river steamers berth and receive passengers, the location of market places in neighborhoods when food stuffs may become infected by flies, rats, insects and vermin that hunt their food along the polluted water fronts should not be tol- erated. Future Conditions. It is impossible to predict with accuracy to what limits the population of Manhattan or the ultimate quantity of sewage from Manhattan may reach in the distant future. In certain wards the population is already considered to be greater per acre than on any other equal area in the world. Whether the multiplication and improvement of rapid transit facilities and the opening of suburban territory to cheap homes accessible for one fare will retard fur- ther excessive congestion, whether the constant advance of business into the uptown districts will increase or decrease the resident population in this district, are ques- tions which do not permit of precise answers. That the day population in this dis- trict will continue to increase for many years there can be no doubt; it is equally certain that the character of the resident population will change as business houses and office buildings advance uptown. It is probable that the quantity of sewage dis- charged into the harbor from this district will increase as these changes take place, and about in proportion to the changes in population unless measures are taken to prevent it. So far as the capacity of existing sewers to receive house sewage is concerned this question is not of importance for the reason that, being built large enough to dispose of the storm water from the streets and roofs of buildings, their capacity is ten to twenty times greater than would be required for sewage alone, so that no complica- tions are likely to result until the population has increased to many times its present figures. So far as the effect on the quality of the harbor waters is concerned, however, the question is one of great importance. With increasing population will come increas- SEWERAGE OF BROOKLYN 239 ing pollution without a corresponding increase in tlie quantity of tidal water for di- gesting and dispersing the sewage. The inevitable result, unless intelligent over- sight and revision are given to the future sewerage plans of the district, will be the aggravation of local and the creation of general nuisances. BOROUGH OF BROOKLYN GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Characteristics. The Borough of Brooklyn lies on the western end of Long Island. Its built-up territory is the largest in area, by far, of the boroughs of The City of New York, although it is second in population to Man- hattan. Brooklyn has grown into a large city by the gradual amalgamation of sev- eral separate towns, including Brooklyn, Flatbush, Parkville, Blythebourue, New Utrecht, New Lots, Gravesend, Williamsburg, Bushwick, East New York, Sheepshead Bay, Bay Ridge, Fort Hamilton, Ben son hurst, Bath Beach, Flatlands, Coney Island, Bergen Beach and Canarsie, and the subsequent obliteration of the boundary lines between these separate towns by the building up of the intervening territory. This borough has an area of 57 square miles and a total water frontage on the East river, Upper bay, Narrows, Gravesend bay, Sheepshead bay, Atlantic ocean and Jamaica bay of upwards of 30 miles. Unlike Manhattan, there are no rock outcroppings in Brooklyn, the end of Long Island being the southern terminus of the great terminal moraine. The borough, therefore, lies upon a gravel formation interspersed with strata of sand, clay and alluvium, and containing sometimes boulders of considerable size. The main topographical feature of the borough is the ridge of the moraine, which rises to a height of about 200 feet above sea level at several points within the borough, and follows a nearly straight line from Fort Hamilton through Bay Ridge, Greenwood Cemetery, Prospect Park and Ridgewood in Brooklyn, and Forest Park and Richmond Hill in Queens, passing about one-half mile to the north of Jamaica. The edge of the crest of this ridge, which drops off very steeply on its southerly face, divides the borough into two nearly equal parts, the southerly of which drains to Jamaica, Sheepshead and Gravesend bays on the Atlantic side, and the northerly to the Narrows, Upper bay, East river and Ncwtown creek. A typical north and south section through Brooklyn, drawn from Brighton Beach to the mouth of Newtown creek, would show a gradual rise from the ocean, at an average rate of about 10 feet per mile to the foot of the south slope of the terminal moraine, near Prospect Park, a distance of G miles; then in less than half a mile, a rise of some 80 feet, followed by 240 DATA COLLECTED a rather gradual descent towards the north to sea level again at the mouth of New- town creek, a distance of 5 miles. All the laud lying southeast of the foot of the south face of the moraine crest is of the same general character as to slope, being very tint and broken only by slight rolling variations in the surface. At the extreme easlern end of the borough the distance from the foot of the slope to tide water is less than two miles. In this great flat plain there are few well defined drainage districts anil problems of much difficulty have arisen in providing adequate sewerage facilities. The main division of the territory for sewerage purposes may be described as follows: The East New York district is drained to a sewage purification plant lying at the southerly edge of the town, about half way between its east and west lines, the effluent being discharged into a tributary of Jamaica bay. In Canarsie a few sewers discharge into nearby waters. The Flatbush district drains to Paerdegat basin, about half-way between Flatlamls and Canarsie. A large sewer has recently been completed to take the sewage of a large part of Flatbush to an outlet into the Upper bay at Sixty-fourth street. The sewage of Sheepshead Bay and vicinity is taken to a sewage disposal plant on Shellbank creek, at the east end of the district. Coney Island and Brighton Beach also drain to sewage disposal plants back of each district and discharging into Coney Island ereek. The sewage of Bath Beach, Ulmer Park and Bensonhurst, except a small district in the eastern part of Bensonhurst, is intercepted for the most part and discharged into the Narrows at the Ninety-second street outlet. There are two or three outlets, from this district, however, which discharge into Gravesend bay. With the exception of a few sewers discharging into Gowamis canal, including the large Greene avenue relief sewer, the balance of the Brooklyn area drains naturally to the Narrows, Upper bay, East river and Newtown creek with relatively steep slopes. Owing to the small sizes of the older sewers much trouble has been had in the last- mentioned districts owing to their gradual change from suburban to urban settlements. To ameliorate conditions many large and expensive relief sewers have been built, to be followed later in some cases by the building of additional intercepting storm water sewers to relieve the already overburdened relief sewers. Distribution of Population. The population of Brooklyn in 1905 was 1,355,100. The older section of the city which drains towards Buttermilk channel, East river and Wallabout bay, is quite densely populated, but the remainder of the area, although housing a very large population, partakes more of the nature of groups of suburban villages separated in some cases by extensive areas of undeveloped lands. The East River Looking Northeast from near the Battery. The bottoms of the slips for docking vessels are covered with deposits of sewage sludge The East River near Hell Gate Showing a Sewer Discharging from Manhattan. Many sewer outlets are at the bulkhead line as in this case SEWERAGE OF BROOKLYN 241 Some of the difficulties that face the Bureau of Sewers in the not distant future may be appreciated from the topographical features of the southerly half of the bor- ough, where an area of some thirty square miles lies in a plain with an average inclina- tion towards tidewater of not over about two feet in a thousand, and having at places areas of considerable extent lower than the surrounding lands. (Icnerul Conditions. The following description of the general conditions surround- ing the sewerage of the borough is quoted from the 1907 annual report of Mr. E. J. Fort, Chief Engineer of the Bureau. " The topography of the borough is such that, in order to provide proper drainage for the whole area, it must be divided into numerous drainage districts, each one of which, in nearly all cases, has its own separate and independent outlet. Each drain- age district, therefore, contains an independent and complete system of sewers. Tide water can be reached on three sides of the borough. The older portion of the borough, where the sewer systems are nearly completely built and have been so in most cases for .some years is divided into thirty-nine drainage districts. Drainage plans have never been designed for some- of the low lying land along the shores of the East river and New- town creek. At least two more drainage districts will be added to the above number when plans now under way for these lands are completed. The territory is to be im- proved in the near future and there is immediate need for drainage plans. These plans are now far advanced and will be completed during the coming summer. For the dis- trict along Newtown creek a ' separate system ' of sewers will be necessary, because of the slight elevation of legal grades above tidewater and because the discharge of house sewage into Newtown creek is prohibited by law. It will be necessary to pump the house sewage into existing sewers. " The suburban portions of the borough, where by far the greater part of the sewers are not yet built, has been only partially provided with drainage plans. Sewers have never been designed for the low land along nearly the whole southern boundary of the borough, extending in places some distance inland and comprising an area of several thousand acres. The design of sewers for this territory is more difficult than for any other portion of the borough, and is proceeding rather slowly on that account. " The suburban area, for which sewers were designed some years ago, was divided into eleven drainage districts, in a number of which no sewers have been built, and in some of which only the outlets have been built. Where outlet sewers have not been built the drainage plan will be, or has been, entirely redesigned, and in nearly all cases a ' separate system ' of sewerage provided. To do this work thoroughly well is a large undertaking. It should be understood that some of these drainage districts are of suffi- cient extent to support, and will in the near future support, a population of several 242 DATA COLLECTED hundred thousand people. The drainage system is as extensive and its design (outside of the problem of the proper disposal of the sewage) much more difficult than that of the average city of equal population. A population of 100 people per acre, for which the sewers are calculated, represents a purely residential development, about such as can be found in parts of the Twenty-third and Twenty-sixth Wards, and is as dense a population as can reasonably be expected for years to come. " Several pumping plants must be built within the next few years, or before out- lets can be provided for large drainage areas. Requests will no doubt be made within the next year for the acquisition of small pieces of land upon which to locate these pumping plants. The first ones to be built should be those at Flatlands and Paerdegat avenues and at Avenue V and West Eleventh street. A number of auxiliary pumping plants will also be required to enable house sewage to be delivered at disposal works where surface elevations are so slight that sewers cannot otherwise be laid at self-cleans- ing grades. These auxiliary plants can be placed at street intersections entirely un- der the surface of the street, and it will be necessary to acquire no land upon which to locate them. " I wish to call attention again to the necessity of outlets for storm sewers at tide water level at Avenue V between West Tenth and West Eleventh streets, and at vari- ous points along the line of the projected Gravesend Ship canal. Stryker basin, Still- well basin and Gravesend basin, as at present shown on the map of the city, may be dispensed with as storm water outlets, but Gravesend basin should be replaced by a drainage canal, between West Tenth street and West Eleventh street, and extending between Avenue V and the Gravesend Ship canal. The Gravesend Ship canal itself, or at least a large portion of it, is also necessary for this purpose, and title to the prop- erty necessary should be acquired in advance of the construction of outlet sewers. The property required will undoubtedly increase in value hereafter, and there is every reason for proceeding with the matter now. " The old sewers in the developed portion of the borough, as well as those still to be designed or built in suburbs, will continue to present hydraulic and sanitary prob- lems for solution for some years to come. As the system increases in extent and com- plexity and methods of sewage disposal are changed, and as new pumping stations are placed in operation, the maintenance of the system will become a more difficult and expensive undertaking, and will require more skill and care to produce satisfactory results." Bureau of Sewers. The Brooklyn Bureau of Sewers, one of the departments under the Borough President, is administered by a Superintendent of Sewers. The Bureau has two distinct and separate divisions, a maintenance department and an engineer- SEWERAGE OF BROOKLYN 243 ing department, under the direction of the Chief Engineer. With the exception of the Superintendent of Maintenance all the employees are civil service men. The Maintenance Department has charge of inspection of connections, basins and small sewers (24-inch and under), of cleaning basins, manholes and sewers, of repair- ing basins, manholes and small sewers and of the disposal plants. The Chief Engineer has charge of the design, construction and inspection of new work, and to act in an advisory capacity to the Maintenance Department in important matters. The work of these two departments is so adjusted as to avoid mu- tual interference and at the same time place at the service of the Maintenance De- partment, if needed, the Engineering Department's knowledge and advice. Under the Chief Engineer the force is separated into five divisions, the principal ones being in charge of an Engineer of Design and an Engineer of Construction. Prior to constructing sewers, the Bureau must receive proper authorization from the Board of Estimate and Apportionment. Sewers can be built, however, by a com- bination of private citizens, in which case the plans must be prepared and the work, during construction, must be inspected by the Bureau. In such cases a charge is made against the properties benefited, the amount being sufficient to cover the cost of the office and field expenses. Compliance with these rules relieves the properties from future sewer assessments. Responsibility for proper design and adequacy rests with the City after the bureau has approved and accepted privately built sewers. SEWERAGE WORKS Deslyn. The earlier sewers of Brooklyn were designed to carry off very moderate rainfalls and, while perhaps satisfactory in a degree in those days, have proven sadly deficient in capacity as the streets in their districts have become covered with imper- vious pavements and the areas of roofs and paved courtyards have increased. In 1880 the late Julius W. Adams wrote of this, in " Sewers and Drains for Pop- ulous Districts," that when in 185G he was projecting the sewer system of Brooklyn the only rainfall records to be had of individual rainstorms were those of a Dr. Minor, of Brooklyn, covering only the years from 1849 to 1856; from these it ap- peared that an allowance of one inch of rainfall per hour running off from the district would be ample. He recognized that great rainfalls might be anticipated at long in- tervals, but reasoned that the resulting damage would be insignificant. He also re- fers, in commenting on these conditions, to the Report of the Engineer to the Com- mission of Drainage, Brooklyn, 1859, from which he quotes " No system of sewage yet proposed in any city contemplates the removal of excessive storm water by means of sewers alone, such storms, for instance, as discharge for short intervals two inches or 244 DATA COLLECTED three inches of rain in one hour. These occur at long intervals and are of short duration and the damage is usually confined to limited areas, whilst the construction of sewers to meet the contingency would be attended with an enormous expense over the whole city, both in construction and repairs, and prove of doubtful efficacy when suddenly called upon and extremely objectionable as conduits for the ordinary flow of sewage." The old standards and methods remained in force in the department for manv years, even so late as 1890, when the Greene avenue Relief Sewer was designed, then called "The Main Relief Sewer of Brooklyn.'' Its capacity was based on the removal of 1,313 cubic feet per second from an area of 1,325 acres, corresponding substantially to a rate of run-off of one inch of rainfall per hour. Until the spring of 1907, the legal plans for the sewers in nearly all the outlying districts of the borough were prepared by using the invert grade or slopes of the bot- toms of the sewers for calculating capacities instead of the hydraulic grades or slopes of the water surface in the sewers. The result of this mistaken policy was to produce sewers that would overflow at manholes and be, so to speak, drowned out whenever the flow approximated the maxi- mum capacity. These plans are now being revised and adapted to modern require- ments while utilizing to as great extent as practicable the works and outfalls already existing in such districts. The sewers in Brooklyn are now designed on the basis of a schedule prepared under the direction of E. J. Fort, the present Chief Engineer. In the 1900 report of the Bureau of Sewers a full history of the old methods is given, together with rea- sons for adopting present formulas and methods. The detail work of design is done under the direction of Mr. G. T. Hammond, Engineer of Design. The following is an abstract of the rules laid down for future designs : 1. Sewers taking house sewage only are to be called sanitary sewers and those taking rainfall, storm sewers or drains. 2. The combined system is to be used wherever practicable. a) The combined system is to be used on upper and high portions of dis- tricts. &) The limit is the lowest point where storm water overflows can be used. Below this point the storm water sewers are to run at higher level than house sewers, so as to get free outlet to tide water. c) The house sewage is to be pumped from lower levels to points of dis- posal. 3. Storm water is to be excluded from sanitary sewers in all combined systems by designing overflows unless necessary to pump the storm flow. SEWERAGE OF BROOKLYN 245 4. Disposal works shall be provided for areas draining naturally into Jamaica bay, Sheepshead bay and Coney Island creek. 5. The quantity of flow is to be provided for on the following assumptions : ) A population of not less than 100 per acre is to be provided for; more if conditions warrant it on investigation. 1)) 100 gallons of sewage per capita is assumed to reach the sewers m 16 hours. c) Sizes and flows : 8-inch to 18-inch sewers are to run one-half full. 18-inch to continue in line of sewers till 0.7 full. All larger sewers to run 0.7 full. (>. Hydraulic gradient: ) All sewers are to be designed on hydraulic gradient. l>) A sewer may change in size and shape, but shall still preserve the hy- draulic grade line and it shall lie within the sewer. c) Changes of shape are to be made by dropping invert or widening. 7. Formula for flow : Kutters n=.013 for pipe sewers. n=.015 for brick and concrete sewers. 8. Quantities of storm flow to be determined by McMath's formula for run-off in conjunction with rainfall records and rainfall intensity curve from the automatic rain- fall gauge in Water Department, The sewers are assumed to run full, and to be egg-shaped when possible. The Setters. The sewers in Brooklyn are of many types, sizes and conditions as to age and state of repair. Among the older sewers are many stone drains whose courses are not known, as well as many cement, vitrified pipe, brick and concrete sewers and drains. As a rule the sewers are built on the combined plan; that is, to carry both house sewage and storm water. They discharge into the nearby tidal waters, or lead to a purification plant, whence the effluent is discharged into tide water. The sewers are generally circular in shape, and, for sizes above 24 inches diameter, of brick or concrete. Vitrified clay and cement pipe sewers have been extensively used for the smaller sizes. The sizes and courses of the Brooklyn sewers are shown on a map of the borough, published with the 1907 Annual Report of the Bureau of Sewers. The sewers have, in many districts, proven too small, having been designed on in- complete data, and such extensive street and cellar floodings have resulted therefrom that a comprehensive system of relief sewers has been planned and partly constructed for relieving the flooded districts, as hereinafter described. 246 DATA COLLECTED Catch Basins. Catch basins are provided at street corners to intercept and retain the heavier particles carried into the sewers from the street surfaces. It has not been considered feasible, to oinit the basins owing to the flat grades of many of the sewers, which act much as sewers of deposit when the flow through the sewer is not rapid. The Bureau considers that the cost of removing deposits from the catch basins is less than the cost of removing them from the sewers would be. Ventilation. Manholes, with perforated covers, are built at frequent intervals along the sewers, and ventilation takes place in the sewers by the ingress and egress of air, from the street, owing to the varying volume of flow and relative differences of temperature between the sewer air and the outer air. House Connections. House connections are made in unpaved streets in conjunc- tion with contracts for sewers. The connections are usually put at intervals of 20 feet on each side of the street and lead to a point 2 feet back of the curb line where, if the elevation of the street surface will permit, they are laid 9.5 feet deep. Outfalls. The sewers discharging into tide water are in recent plans arranged with the elevation of the outlet high enough to avoid tide-locking. The older outfalls are in most cases placed so low that high tides completely submerge them. Nearly all the older sewers discharge at the bulkhead line in the docks and slips; the newer ones, especially the modern district relief sewers, are extended out to the pierhead line. A few of the older sewers, the Fulton street sewer, tor instance, have been extended to the pierhead line to ameliorate the nuisance resulting from discharg- ing into the boat slips, but improvements in this matter are still greatly needed. The troubles arising from the tide-locking of the outlets of the sewers have been experienced and recognized for a generation, and yet until recently little effort has been made to better these conditions. Evidence of the appreciation of these evils years ago is found in the following comment : " From a mistaken view of the purpose to be secured by a proper system of drainage, the tendency appears to be constantly towards placing the outlets of the sewers at too low a level, and the only defect in the system of sewers in the city of Brooklyn grows out of the mistaken effort to drain below tide level, and the consequent sealing of the outlets of some of the sewers by the high tides which usually accompany severe storms." (Julius W. Adams, Sewers and Drains for Populous Districts, 1880.) The outlets of the Brooklyn sewers are given in Table V. SEWERAGE OF BROOKLYN 247 TABLE V OUTLETS OF BROOKLYN SEWEUS Into Xcwtoicn Creek. DIAMETER. Scott avenue; Brooklyn-Queens Iiiterborough Sewer 15 ft. in. Oakland avenue 3 ft. in. Pink street 1 ft. 6 in. Into the East River, between Newtown Creek and \\'allal>out Channel. Freeman street 2 ft. G in. Green street 2 ft. in. Huron street 7 ft. in. Grecnpoint avenue 2 ft. in. Quay street 5 ft. G in. North Twelfth street 6 ft. 6 in. North Fifth street 2 ft. G in. Metropolitan avenue 5 ft. in. Grand avenue 2 ft. in. South Fifth street 12 ft. in. Broadway 4 ft. in. Into Wallaltout Channel. Kent avenue 9 ft. in. Wallabout place 3 ft. 6 in. Clinton avenue 4 ft. in. Carlton avenue (through Navy Yard ) 5 ft. in. Raymond street (through Navy Yard ) 5 ft. 10 in. Navy street (through Navy Yard) 6 ft. in. Into East Rlccr between WaUaluut Channel and Buttermilk Channel. Hudson street 1 ft. 3 in. Hudson street 6 ft. () in. Hudson street 1 ft, 3 in. Gold street 1 ft. 6 in. Gold street relief sewer 14 ft. in. Bridge street 1 ft. G in. Pearl street 1 ft. 8 in. AVashington street 3 ft. in. Main street 3 ft. in. Fulton street G f t. in. Pierrepont street 2 ft. in. Remsen street 2 ft. in. Joralemon street 1 ft 6 in Atlantic avenue 3 ft. Q in Amity street 1 ft. o in. Congress street 1 ft. o in. Warren street (Old sewer) Harrison street . 4 ft. 6 in. 248 DATA COLLECTED TABLE V Continued Into Buttermilk Channel. DIAMETER. Degraw street 1 ft. 6 in. Degraw street (Gowauus canal flushing tunnel) 12 ft. in. Hamilton avenue ( Old sewer) , Sullivan street 1 ft. 3 in. Wolcott street ( f t. in. Into Atlantic Basin. Bonne street 2 ft. in. Commerce street 2 ft. in. Verona street 2 ft. U in. William street 2 ft. in. Clinton street 2 ft. in. I Into Gowanus Canal. Butler street (Greene avenue relief) 15 ft. (I in. Douglass street (Storm) 3 ft. (! in. Degraw street (Storm) 2 ft. in. Sackett street 1 ft. 3 1874 3 648 45 901 250 DATA COLLECTED TABLE VI Continued Year House Connec- tions Made Total House Connec- tions to Date Miles of Sewers Built* Total Miles of Sewers to Date* 1875 2,786 48,687 290 . 72 1876 2,237 50,924 6 64 297 36 1877 2,110 53,034 3.49 300.85 1878 1,999 55,033 62 301 47 1879 1,908 56,941 .17 301.64 1880 1,664 58,605 2 08 303 . 72 1881 1,872 00,477 2.31 306.03 1882 2,058 62,535 .76 306.79 1883 2,626 65,161 3.03 309.82 1884 3,079 68,240 5.47 315.29 1885 3,162 71,402 13.96 329.25 1886 3,093 74,495 14.23 343 . 48 1887 3,295 77,790 11.74 355.22 1888 3,302 81,092 16.91 372.13 1889 3,937 85,029 7.96 380.09 1890 3,168 88,195 10.84 390.93 1891 3,137 91,334 16.24 407.17 1892 3,068 94,402 21.32 428.49 1893 2,245 96,647 5.78 434.29 1894 2,174 98,821 24.86 459.13 1895 3,440 102,261 59.17 518.30 1896 3,696 105,957 18.60 536.90 1897 . . 3,300 109,257 62.48** 11.09 599.38** 610.47 1898 2,562 111,829 6.20 616.67 1899 . .... 2,608 114,437 16.03 633.30 1900 2,478 116,917 16.80 650.10 1901 2,244 119,159 14.76 664.86 1902 2,093 121,242 18.37 683.23 1903 . 2,444 123,686 20.02 703.30 1904 4,526 128,212 31.53 734.83 1905 5,888 134,100 31.67 766 50 1906 . 5,884 139,984 17.76 784.26 1907 5,238 145,222 19.00 803.32 1908 3,894 149,116 11.04 814.36 1909 * Note There may be some small errors due to the fact that the actual miles built and net miles added, i. e., miles built less miles abandoned, are not always clear; e. g., 0.05 mi. added in 1903. ** Wards 29, 30, 31 added. SEWERAGE OF BROOKLYN 251 Savers and Subway Construction. In Brooklyn the construction of the Rapid Transit Subways has necessitated several important changes in sewers already con- structed as well as in the plans for projected sewers. Thf. storm relief sewers are de- signed to render the main relief sewer system adequate and to rearrange the mains so as to take them out of the way of proposed subway construction. The Public Service Commission has authority to change the existing and to build new sewers, but before undertaking any changes notification must be given to the Bureau of Sewers, upon receipt of which an Inspector will be detailed to make an ex- amination and report thereon. Changes can only be made with the approval of the Bureau, and under the inspection of the Bureau's representative. No friction results from this arrangement, the co-operation being mutual and harmonious. Upon completion, the new or altered work is placed under the jurisdic- tion of the maintenance department of the Bureau of Sewers, prior to which time all complaints of inadequacy are referred to the Subway Sewer Department. RELIEF SEWERS The first of the large relief sewers to be constructed was the Greene avenue re- lief sewer, completed in 1892 as far as Marcy avenue, and extended in later years to Halsey street and Evergreen avenue. Other large sewers are as follows: South Fifth street sewer, extending from the East river at the north side of the Williamsburg Bridge, 12 feet in diameter, to Union avenue; thence on Johnson ave- nue, 12 feet in diameter, to Morgan avenue, where it is joined by three large branches 6 feet 6 inches, 4 feet 6 inches and 11 feet in diameter, draining a large area adjoin- the Borough of Queens, and diverting, through the Johnson avenue branch, the dry weather flow of the Scott avenue sewer (Brooklyn-Queens Interborough sewer) to the East river. The Sixty-fourth street sewer, 15 feet in diameter, from the Upper bay to Third avenue ; thence on Sixty-second street, 14 feet in diameter, to Fort Hamilton avenue ; thence 13 feet 6 inches on Sixtieth street to Fourteenth avenue; thence 13 feet on Sixtieth street to Nineteenth avenue ; thence 12 feet on Nineteenth avenue to Fifty- third street; thence on Nineteenth avenue and Foster avenue, 11 feet 6 inches in diam- eter, to Ocean parkway; thence 11 feet to Coney Island avenue; thence 10 feet to Flatbush avenue ; thence on Bedford avenue, reducing from 9 feet to 5 feet, by steps, at Martense street, and to 4 feet at Malbone street. This sewer, recently completed, af- fords an outlet for the Flatbush sewage to the Upper bay. A storm water relief sewer for this territory will be required in the not far distant future. 252 DATA COLLECTED The Ninety-second street sewer, 11 feet in diameter from the Narrows, on Ninety-second street, to Fort Hamilton avenue; 10 feet in diameter, to Fourteenth avenue, where a 7-foot 6-inch branch extending out Bath avenue, and an 8-foot 6-inch branch extending out Fourteenth avenue afford outlets for the storm water and sewage of the Bath Beach, Bensonhurst and Dyker Heights districts. Greene Avenue Relief Sewer. The Greene avenue relief sewer was intended orig- inally to afford relief from flooding in a territory of about 1,300 acres lying west of the ridge of the terminal moraine and south of Greene avenue. Starting with a diameter of 15 feet at the head of Gowanus canal, it traverses Sterling place to Fourth avenue; thence to Hanson place and Raymond street, where the diameter reduces to 14 feet. From Hanson place the sewer is in Greene avenue, maintaining 14 feet diameter to Grand avenue, where it reduces to 12 feet, and to Marcy avenue, where it reduces to 10 feet 10 inches at the terminus of the portion first built. The cost of this portion, including the outlet works at Gowanus canal, was about $1,000,000. The sewer was subsequently extended, 10 feet 8 inches in diameter, to Patchen ave- nue, then 6 feet 6 inches to Bushwick avenue, then on Bushwick to Weirfield and on Evergreen to Halsey. A 7-foot 6-inch branch was also extended on Patchen to Hancock, branching there into 6-foot 6-inch and 4-foot 6-inch drains to relieve districts near Broadway and Fulton street, respectively. The extension of the main sewer to give relief to additional territory greatly over- taxed its capacity, and produced floods and damage at many points. Additional Relief Sewers. In 1904, owing to the past inconveniences from sewer floods, Mr. John C. Breckenridge, Commissioner of Public Works, was directed to devise a plan to end the causes of the complaints, and Mr. H. E. Asserson, the Chief Engineer of the Bureau, laid out a scheme for relieving the various districts on the following general plan : 1. The admission of one-half of the rainfall, of the district to be relieved, into new sewers. 2. The prevention, by means of intercepting sewers, of the entrance of storm waters into valleys of depression. 3. The construction of sewer outfalls at high enough elevations not to be ob- structed during high tides. Division No. 1 Relief Sewers. The sewers first recommended for construction were what are known as Divisions Nos. 1 and 2, of the main line relief sewers. Di- vision No. 1 included a sewer having its outlet into the Wallabout canal at Classon avenue, and extending 15 feet 6 inches in diameter in Classon avenue, to Park avenue, in Park avenue to Skillman street, in Skill man street to Myrtle avenue, and in Myrtle SEWERAGE OF BROOKLYN 253 avenue to a point east of Bedford avenue. From this point it extended 15 feet in diameter in Myrtle avenue, to Nostrand avenue, in Nostrand avenue to Vernou avenue, in Vernon avenue to Tom pkins avenue, and in Tompkins avenue, from Vernon to Greene avenue, where it connects with the Greene avenue relief sewer, which at that place is 10 feet in diameter. This sewer will divert practically Hie entire storm water flow from the old Greene avenue relief sewer, and discharge it into the Wallabout baj'; it has not yet been built. Division No. 2, Relief Sewers. Division No. 2 comprises a relief sewer having an outlet in the East river at the foot of Gold street, and extending in Gold street 14 feet, to 12 feet (5 inches in diameter from the outlet to Johnson street, and in Johnson street, from Gold street to Hudson avenue; thence 12 feet in diameter in Johnson street, from Hudson avenue to Raymond street; from Raymond street to DeKalb avenue, and in DeKalb avenue, from Raymond street to South Portland ave- nue. From here it extends 11 feet G inches in diameter, in South Portland avenue from DeKalb avenue to Hanson place. This sewer diverts the entire storm flow as well as the dry weather flow from the Greene avenue relief sewer, thus discharg- ing the house sewage, which formerly emptied into Gowanus canal, into the deep water of East river at the foot of Gold street. A 48 to 54-inch branch extends to Myrtle avenue, from Carlton avenue to Raymond street. Relief sewers estimated to cost |7,500,000 were planned at that time, and the Board of Estimate was requested to appropriate $2,000,000 to start the work. This appropriation was granted in July, 1905, and the Gold street sewer, with a capacity of about 1,000 cubic feet per second, providing relief for a drainage area of about 1,033 acres, has been completed. Division No. 1, which provided for relief for an area of 3.7 square miles of drainage area, has not been completed, owing to the withholding by the Board of Estimate and Apportionment of a portion of the money originally authorized for the work. With the completion of these two relief sewers and their branches, it is felt by the Bureau of Sewfers that the territory penetrated will be properly protected against further damage from sewer floods. In this connection, it may be well to mention the tunnel now under construc- tion for the relief of the objectionable condition of Gowanus canal. Gowanus Canal. Gowanus canal is a tidal estuary of the Upper bay, and lies in a north and south direction parallel with Buttermilk channel, and about one mile to the east, its upper limit being about 12,000 feet north of the breakwater at Erie basin. The canal is a dredged creek channel; it is in general about 12 feet deep and 100 feet wide, and has several dredged basins and arms connecting wtith it that 254 DATA COLLECTED serve buildings not on the line with the main canal. It affords dock facilities for manufacturing establishments and warehouses in the part of the city that it trav- erses, and in annual tonnage ranks high among the waterways of the country. There being no definite movement of water in the canal, other than that caused by tides, the condition has been for many years unsanitary, and offensive odors therefrom have been complained of for many blocks away from the canal. Qowanus Flushing Tunnel. The conditions have gradually been getting worse, until finally it became necessary to provide relief. The plan adopted and now in course of execution, is. the construction of a tunnel leading from the head of the canal under Degraw street, to an outlet in Buttermilk channel in the Upper bay, and providing for a circulation of water in the canal and through the tunnel. It is planned to establish a pumping station and pump the water out of the canal into the tunnel, whence it will escape to Buttermilk channel, 0,270 feet away. The tunnel is now (1910) completed, and plans have been prepared for the pump- ing station and pumping machinery. Its course is west in Butler street for a thousand feet to Hoyt street, south 500 feet in Hoyt street to Degraw street, and west 4,770 feet in Degraw street to the outlet. The tunnel is circular, with an inside diameter of 12 feet built of four rings of brickwork of a total thickness of 1C inches. The in- vert is at an elevation IS 1 /* feet below mean high water; this will bring the top 6% feet below at the outlet. The pumping plant is to consist of a 9-foot propeller type of pump driven by a 400 horsepower motor. The water of the canal will flow to the pump, so that there will be no lift required further than that sufficient to overcome the friction head in the tunnel which is estimated to be S 1 /^ feet. Con- tracts have been let for the machinery, and it is expected that the plant will be put in operation during the summer of 1910. It was originally intended to pump from the river into the canal, but for the fol- lowing reasons it was concluded better to pump in the reverse direction : 1. The principal sources of pollution being at the head of the canal, pumping river water therein would tend to drive these polluted waters out of the canal with the deposition of suspended matter upon the bottom of the canal all the way to its mouth. If, on the other hand, water is pumped from the canal, the polluted waters will be forced out of the tunnel to the river direct at a good velocity, and cleaner water will enter the canal at its mouth to replace that which is pumped out at the head. 2. Loaded boats travel, as a rule, toward the head of the canal and go back empty. A current created in the canal toward its head would materially assist traffic, whereas a current in the reverse direction would be a disadvantage. SEWERAGE OF BROOKLYN 255 3. The top of the tunnel being submerged only 2 feet at low tide at the river end, and the hydraulic slope of the water in the tunnel to the pump being 31/2 t 3% feet, the top of the pump would very likely be exposed at low tide and its effi- ciency reduced thereby. With a current from the canal to the river through the tun- nel, this would not be the case. 4. The tunnel could be used hereafter as an outlet for sewers if it discharges into the river. It could not be so used if it discharged into> the canal. Third Avenue Relief Sewer. A small relief sewer was constructed in Carroll street for the relief of the Third avenue main sewer. This is one block in length and 48 inches in diameter. Brooklyn-Queens Interborouyh Sewer. Among the important sewers recently constructed is the sewer in Scott avenue called the Brooklyn and Queens interborough sewer. This sewer provides an outlet for a large drainage area of several thousand acres, the greater part of which lies in the Borough of Queens. It is arranged so that the dry weather flow, or house sewage, will be diverted to the sewer on Johnson avenue, which empties into the sewer discharging into the East river at the foot of South Fifth street. A storm water overflow is provided in Scott avenue, 15 feet 6 inches in diameter, discharging into the head of Newtown creek. Although not the largest sewer in the borough its capacity is greater than that of any other owing to the steep grades. The velocities of flow would have been so great if the sewer had taken the natural slope of the ground south of Flushing avenue, that it was necessary to put in drop-manholes in order to prevent the rapid wear of the masonry and possible damage to the sewer and adjacent property. The outlet at Newtown creek and Metropolitan avenue has been made broad so that the current will not be great enough to prevent boats from lying at the bulkheads when the sewer is discharging at its maximum rate. Wallabout Channel Relief Sewer, Other relief sewers are planned and it is ex- pected will be put into execution in the near future. Among these is one planned to oc- cupy Flushing avenue and to provide for the abandonment of the three sewers now discharging through the United States Navy Yard into the Wallabout channel. MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE SYSTEM Inspection. The sewers of Brooklyn are not inspected, except as to catch basins, unless in response to filed complaints. As in Manhattan, steam exhaust pipes are commonly connected to the sewers in the business parts of the city, and although against the law, efforts to have them dis- connected have failed, 256 DATA COLLECTED The cleaning force is adequate to take care of all the small sewers, but more men are needed to properly care for the larger ones. In 1907 a thorough inspection of the sewers was made and the amount of deposits determined. These were not in all cases as great as had been anticipated, although in several localities they were great enough seriously to reduce the capacity of the sewers. Designs have been perfected for sewer cleaning machines consisting of steel trav- eling derricks with gasoline engines and other appurtenances to remove, at one oper- ation, deposited material and load it in carts for disposal. A careful record of costs of all operations is kept. Basin Cleaning. In 1907, 42,327 basins were examined and 24,389 cleaned. This would indicate an average cleaning of each of the 9,979 basins about 2y 2 times each year, with an inspection about 4 times each year. The basins in the closely built up and business sections receive attention much more frequently than those in the out- lying districts. The appropriation for the payment of wages of men and purchase of the necessary equipment for cleaning sewers of such faulty design that they require periodical clean- ing to keep them in operation was $55,000 for the year 1908. Washing of Street Sweepings into Basins. The men of the Street Cleaning De- partment wash some of the paved streets in certain sections of the city and during this operation much detritus is carried into the catch basins. The custom of pushing street sweepings into the basins appears to be quite general ; and, in fact, the basins seem to be popularly considered proper receptacles for anything that will enter the opening, including snow in winter. The report of the Bureau of Sewers for 1907 states that 9,674 basins were cleaned of snow. Although there is an ordinance against put- ting snow and street sweepings into the basins, the magistrates have invariably dis- missed the cases when the street cleaners have been arrested on complaints of the Bureau of Sewers for violation of the ordinances. Disposal of Basin Deposits. The deposits removed from the catch basins and sew- ers are carted to public dumps located in sections remote from habitations. In 1907 the deposits removed from basins aggregated 35,272 cubic yards, at an average cost of |1.63 per basin or $1.12 per cubic yard. Store Yards. The Maintenance Department has been much inconvenienced in the past by lack of proper and conveniently located store yards. At present the only yards are the one at North Portland avenue, 50 feet by 100 feet, and the grounds around the disposal plants, miles away from the places where supplies are most frequently and most urgently needed. Recommendations have annually been made by the Superinten- dent of Sewers, that steps should be taken to secure properly located yards so that Example of a Sewer Outlet in Jersey City M Bewer Discharging into Gowamis C'anal. Conditions in this canal have offensive that works have been constructed to pump out the water as the only means of relief SEWERAGE OF BROOKLYN 257 adequate equipment could be provided and a suitable force of men be employed to clean the basins and sewers and property attend to the general work of the system. At present much time is lost going back and forth after supplies and tools. DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE The sewage of the territory draining to Newtown creek, the East river, Gowanus canal, Upper bay and the Narrows is discharged into these waters without treatment, dependence being placed on dilution to render the sewage inoffensive and inodorous. The sewage of the territory draining towards Jamaica bay and the Atlantic sea- board is, for the most part, conducted to plants intended for its purification. TIDAL DISCHARGE The disposal into tide water, at certain points, has been attended by the creation of offensive conditions owing to the relatively great quantity of sewage as compared with the flow of water into which it is discharged. In some cases no ill effects have been apparent. The worst conditions are to be found in Newtown creek, Wallabout channel, Gowanus canal and bay, Coney Island creek and the Paerdegat basin. All these are tidal estuaries, or artificially dredged channels in which the movement of water is only that of the rise and fall of the tides. There is no circulation. Newtown Creek. The condition of Newtown creek needs no minute description. The creek penetrates important manufacturing districts of both Brooklyn and Long Island City, and is lined on both banks with warehouses, elevators and factories of vari- ous kinds. Its importance is attested by the fact that the tonnage of the traffic on its sur- face is greater annually than that of any other single tidal estuary of equal length in this country. Into it is discharged a considerable quantity of manufacturing wastes and the flow of a few sewers. Further discharge of sewage into it is prohibted by law. But in spite of this legal restriction is is to-day in a very objectionable condition. The outlet of the 15-foot Brooklyn-Queens interborough sewer into the head of the creek at Scott avenue is for storm water only, the dry weather flow of this sewer being diverted into the Johnson avenue sewer which discharges into the East river at the north side of the Williamsburg Bridge in South Fifth street. Wallabout Bay. The condition of Wallabout bay and channel, particularly where the 9-foot Kent avenue sewer empties into it, is exceedingly offensive at all stages of tide, the bottom of the channel being covered with putrefying sewage sludge and ill-smelling sewage. The objectionable conditions in Wallabout bay, in front of the Navy Yard, will to some extent be remedied by the interception of the flow of three sewers now discharging 258 DATA COLLECTED therein and its conveyance into the swift current of the East river at a favorable point of outfall. The work is not yet authorized, although the plans are completed. As soon as the details of the apportionment of the cost as between the borough and the United States Government can be agreed upon, authorization may be expected. Goicanus Canal. The condition of Gowanus canal, into Avhich the 15-foot Greene avenue relief sewer, as well as some eight other sewers ranging from 1 foot 6 inches to 6 feet 6 inches in diameter discharge has been for some years very offensive. The water is black and foul smelling at all times, and the sides of the piers, bulkheads and masonry structures are darkly discolored. Coney Island Creek. Coney Island creek receives the effluents of the sewage puri- fication plants back of Luna Park and Manhattan Beach, and the effects of the sewage pollution of the water are decidedly evident. Paerdegat Creek. Paerdegat creek receives the raw sewage from an area of 4,700 acres in the Flatbush district through four large sewers; one 10-foot sewer from Flat- lands avenue; one 7-foot 6-inch sewer from Avenue F; one 3-foot sewer known as the old Kings County sewer; and one 6-foot sewer at Thirty-seventh street and Avenue E. The water of the creek is turbid and discolored and sewage particles can be seen at all times floating about in the water; the creek is in fact an open sewer winding about through a narrow channel between low meadow banks for a mile and a half t<> discharge into Jamaica bay at a point about half way between Canarsie and Bergen Beach. Inspections made at the mouth of Paerdegat creek by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission during the summer of 1909 showed that sewage from the creek sometimes flowed in a visible stream immediately past Bergen Beach. Extensive oyster beds lie in this vicinity. Effect on Shell Fisheries. Canarsie is one of the principal oyster depots in Ja- maica bay. It is said that Jamaica bay produces annually not far from 600,000 bushels of oysters. A large business is done at Canarsie in preparing for market oysters sold in shell and in bulk. The oysters are dredged from the bay, where they have been planted and allowed to grow to marketable size. On arrival at the Canarsie depot they are taken into shanties which line both sides of a small creek to the south of the settled part of the town. Here the oysters are sorted, counted and put into barrels for the half-shell trade or opened and packed into tubs if to be shipped in bulk. It appears that no oysters are drinked in shell here at the present time, although those which are shipped in bulk are immersed in land water after they are opened and before they are put into the receptacles for transportation. This immersion causes the meat to swell and the oysters to look fat. SEWERAGE OF BROOKLYN 259 Pollution of Harbor Waters. From all the large sewer outlets along the water frontage of Brooklyn the sewage discharged can be noted by the discoloration of the water, by solid masses of feces and by the grease on the surface, over extensive areas. In some cases this can hardly be called very offensive, though not pleasant to contem- plate, but in others i! is both offensive and a menace to health. Flood tide currents prevent the sewage from flowing out freely and becoming dispersed. As a consequence, at some of the ferry slips, notably at Fulton Ferry, the sewage accumulates to such an extent that the water appears to be all sewage. Some of the outlets are in the immediate neighborhood of bathing beaches and pub- lic floating bathing establishments. At Fort Hamilton the Ninety-second street outlet sewer for the Dyker Heights district is carried out a long distance from the shore, the top of the sewer being above high tide from the shore to its mouth. The sewage dis- charged therefrom is consequently carried behind the obstruction formed by the outlet as the water flows into and out of the harbor. Bathers are frequently observed swim- ming in the water at this place surrounded with visible particles of sewage. The same is true of Gravesend bay, of Bath Beach and U liner Park, the conditions being unsanitary and dangerous. On the beach at Norton's Point, near Sea Gate, large quantities of driftwood, gar- bage and other floating matter collect; these are disposed of by burning on days when the wind blows from the east. Pollution of JaiiKiica Hay. In Jamaica bay the outlet of one of the larger Arverne sewers is upon the sloping beach about half way between high and low tide. Men and boys dig in the slimy mud in front of this sewer for soft clams. A little further out, in the direct line of the discharge of the canal carrying the Arverne sewage, is a favorite place for clamming with tongs. On both sides of the causeway at Rockaway, and on both banks, can be seen stakes indicating oyster beds. Shellfish from these places are dangerous to eat or handle. SEWAGE PURIFICATION PLANTS In Brooklyn thorv are four sewage purification plants in operation, as follows: Plant Location Put in service Caisson No 2 Back of Luna Park, Coney Island May, 1886 October 1887 1899 26th Ward Plant South of East New York May, 1897 260 DATA COLLECTED Coney Island Plants. Caissons No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4 receive the sewage from an area of 1,215 acres, with an average population of about 11,000 and a transient summer population averaging about 350,000. The quantity of sewage treated at Cais- sons No. 2 and No. 3 averages about 2,500,000 gallons daily, 1,800,000 gallons at the Coney Island, and 700,000 gallons daily at the Manhattan Beach plant. Caisson No. 4 receives the sewage from Sheepshead bay, averaging about 1,750,000 gallons daily. These three plants are operated as a unit and the costs of purification at each can not be separately ascertained from the reports of the Bufreau. The works were built under the patents of J. J. Powers. The sewage is treated with lime to hasten the subsidence of the suspended matters in settling tanks. Chlorine gas, manufactured from sulphuric acid, oxide of manganese and salt, is supposed to be used to disinfect the sludge removed from the settling tanks. The effluents from the two Coney Island plants are discharged through the same pipe into Coney Island creek. The cost of operating these three plants in 1907 was about |26,000. The process is not efficient, and numerous complaints have been made of offen- sive odors arising from the discharge into the creek of the ill-smelling effluents, par- ticularly at low tide and when the atmosphere was humid. Eegular analyses have not been made of the sewage at these plants. A report by D. D. Jackson, on samples taken during the week ending December 21, 1907, is as follows: " The study of the results is somewhat complicated because of the amount of sea water mixed with the sewage. As salt water is used in the high pressure system only in case of emergency, the introduction of sea water into the sewage must be direct. Samples taken on the 15th and the raw sewage on the 16th are very high in chlorine, probably as a result of the high tide following the severe storm on the 14th. The chlorine for the remainder of the samples is still too high, and not explained by the amount of chlorine in the water supply of this section. Two stations, New Utrecht Pumping Sta- tion and the Gravesend Pumping Station, supply the water for this district, and this water is also somewhat mixed with water from Kidgewood reservoirs. Probably 100 parts per million is the greatest amount of chlorine which could be obtained from the water supply and the sewage. The remainder must come from sea water. The amount of nitrates present is also low in the first three samples, due to dilution with sea water, and the nitrates in the rest of the samples come from the water supply. The appearance of some of the treated samples indicated that putresci- bility had set in during treatment. The bacteria were somewhat reduced in number, and the intestinal germs in about the same proportion. The inspec- tion of the plant indicated that the chlorine generators had probably not been used for months. The amount of sea water present in the sewage ren- ders it impossible to tell from the analyses whether this is so. SEWERAGE OF BROOKLYN 261 The turbidity is sometimes considerably higher in the treated sewage than in the raw sewage, indicating that the sedimentation basins are quite inef- fective." East New York Plant. The 26th Ward plant, like the two at Coney Island, was built under the Powers patents. This plant receives a larger amount of sewage than any other in the metropolitan district. The territory tributary is at present 3,200 acres, supporting a population of about 100,000, contributing in 1907 some 12,000,000 gallons of sewage daily. The cost of operation for that year was $32,000 ; its cost of construction was $309,000, of which |255,000 represents the cost of the building. The building containing the works is circular in plan, and has a diameter of 140 feet. As the sewage enters, it passes through coarse hand-cleaned screens and then enters one of the two semi-circular sets of sedimentation tanks, each tank hav- ing a width of 16 feet and a depth of 7 feet. The sewage traverses a distance of 350 feet before reaching the collecting well at the center of the building. The collect- ing well is 40 feet in diameter, and the bottom is 16 feet below mean high tide. At present it is necessary to keep both sets of chambers in use, and the sewage oc- cupies less than an hour in passing through the plant. From the collecting w of Local Authorities for Future Work. Plans for future work contemplate, in general, the detailed designing and working up of details of sewerage for Drainage District No. 43, with its 7,500 acres outletting at Classon point, and Drainage Districts Nos. 44 and 45, having 2,560 and 1,350 acres respectively and outletting at Old Ferry Point and Throgs Neck. BELIEF SBWEUS For a number of years trouble has been experienced in various of The Bronx sewers, owing to congestion and consequent floods. In 1901 two particularly heavy storms caused a good deal of damage by flooding. As a consequence, steps were taken to relieve the Brook avenue sewer, as well as the territory in Bungay creek, Leggetts creek and Mill brook watersheds. Webster Avenue Relief Tunnel. The plan for the relief of the Brook avenue sewer, which has been put into execution and is now (1910) about three-fourths finished, is to divert the entire flow of the Webster avenue sewer into a tunnel at Webster and Wend- over avenues, passing westward and discharging into the Harlem river a short distance above High Bridge. The tunnel is to be about 6,800 feet long and have a cross section equivalent to that of a circle 13 feet 6 inches in diameter. It is planned to close up the section of the old Brook avenue just below Wendover street when the tunnel is ready to use. Even with the relief provided by this tunnel it is stated that before many years it will be necessary to construct still another sewer parallel with the Brook avenue sewer. When the Brook avenue sewer was stripped of covering to make connection with the new Webster avenue relief tunnel a very heavy flow, due to a rainstorm, occurred coincidently with high tide, the sewer became overtaxed, and the added pressure blew off the arch ring and flooded the tunnel work. This is the first time the sewer has broken, the discharge into the streets through the manholes heretofore hav- ing given sufficient relief. Tru.rton Street Relief Seiccr. The Truxton street relief sewer is a reinforced con- crete structure of a horseshoe section 7 feet 3 inches by 11 feet 6 inches. It was built to afford relief to the sewers of the Leggetts creek and Bungay creek watersheds. MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE SYSTEM Inspections. The organization of the maintenance force does not include regular- ly appointed inspectors of basins and sewers; the foremen in charge of the cleaning gangs, however, inspect basins where cleaning operations are going on and investigate immediately the causes of such complaints. 278 DATA COLLECTED Cleaning Sewers. Sufficient funds are allowed for cleaning basins and smaller sewers, but for large sewers, such as the Brook avenue sewer, special appropriations are much needed. The work of cleaning is done by day labor rather than by contract, and by hand, no sewer cleaning machines being in use. In 1907 the force examined 76,170 lineal feet and cleaned 32,467 lineal feet of sewers, and examined 37 and cleaned 1,053 basins. There being then 2,891 basins, each was cleaned about three times during the year. Cleaning Catch Basins. In the various reports no basins are credited to the ter- ritory east of Bronx river. Quite a number, however, have been built by the Bureau of Highways, and are or will be connected to the sewers. Recently the same design as used by Bureau of Sewers has been used by Bureau of Highways. The basins are turned over to the Bureau of Sewers to maintain when connected. Everything goes into the basins just the same as in the other boroughs. The law against this seems to be a dead letter, as the Magistrates discharge all such cases. The cleanings from catch basins, which consist very largely of sand and earth, are used for filling. The sewer cleanings in many cases are hauled to the garbage barges. Steam in Sewers. Connecting steam exhaust pipes to the sewers is practiced, but there is not enough going into sewers at present to cause any complaint. It does not show to any extent from manholes in winter. DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE Tidal Discharge. The sewage of The Bronx is discharged into the tidal waters surrounding the borough without treatment of any sort. At the present time there are no purification plants within the limits of the borough, although there are some few small ones in the valley of the Bronx river above the city limits. No definite plans for sewage disposal other than as at present, into the Harlem and East rivers, has been proposed. The Harlem river waterfront is occupied largely by railroads; and the East river and Sound front has not been developed, so that com- plaints are very rarely, if ever, heard against the present method of disposal, although sleek from the Farargut street outlet has been noted in the East river flowing pasl Classon point. The condition of the Harlem and East rivers as described in connection with the sewerage of Manhattan, is so unsatisfactory that a plan for their protection is an im- mediate necessity. A recent communication from the Board of Estimate and Apportionment to the Bureau of Sewers of The Bronx asked for information as to the feasibility and costs of building screening devices at the end of each outlet sewer, but no money was appro- SEWERAGE OF QUEENS 279 printed for the investigation and report, and it \vas impossible to supply the infor- mation, although it is believed by the Bureau of Sewers that some other disposition or treatment of The Bronx sewage than is now practiced will ultimately be needed. BOROUGH OF QUEENS GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Toi>uyrhical Characteristics. The Borough of Queens is approximately trapezoidal in shape, the smaller end bordering on Jamaica bay. The borough, which has an area of 117 square miles, and had in 1905 a population of 197,838, includes a number of small towns. The high ridge of the terminal moraine, rising from 100 to 180 feet above sea level, extends across Queens from Forest Park to a point about a mile north of the town of Queens. The only exposure of crystalline rocks on Long Island occurs in Long Island City and in the immediate vicinity of Hell Gate. Flushing bay creek indents the northern portion of the borough and New town creek forms the southern boundary of Long Island City. There are three main populated districts: 1. Long Island City and the territory as far to the east and south as Flushing creek and Forest Park ; 2. Flushing and all the territory north of the ridge of hills; 3. Woodhaven, Richmond Hill, Jamaica and all territory to the south of the ridge of hills. One portion of the Long Island City area drains into East river; a second portion southwest of the line of cemeteries drains into Newtown creek, and the third, including Elmhurst and Newtown and contiguous areas drains into Flushing creek. Of the Flushing territory, one portion drains into Flushing creek or the bay; a sec- ond, at College Point, drains into the bay and East river; a third, at Whitestone, drains into the East river, and a fourth and last, at Bayside, drains into Little Neck bay. All of the Jamaica territory drains into Jamaica bay. Municipalities in the Borough. Little information can be had regarding the earlier Queens borough sewers for the reason that no comprehensive plans have yet been outlined, each small territory having been heretofore considered by itself. Numerous small systems have been independently built, each of which presented its own special difficulties. Statistical data of some twenty-nine towns in the five wards which make up the Borough of Queens, together with their areas and the status of street surveys, at time of consolidation, are given in Table XI. 280 DATA COLLECTED TABLE XI STATISTICAL DATA, BOROUGH OF QUEENS Ward Location Towns Area in square miles Condition of surveys at time of consolidation First . . . Long Island City .... Hunters Point Street systems and grades established Blissville Dutch Kills Ravenswood Astoria Steinway Total of Ward.. 7.4 Second. . Newtown Township. . Ridgewood Nothing Melvina Woodside Newtown Corona Middle Village Maspeth Laurel Hill Glendale Total of Ward.. 22.0 Third.. . . Flushing Township. . Flushing Few inefficient maps of little engineering value College Point Whitestone Bayside Total of Ward.. 30.5 Fourth . . Jamaica Township. . . Jamaica Contour and grade map of Jamaica village only Woodhavcn Queens Richmond Hill Hollis Springfield Total of Ward.. 48.1 The East River Entrance to the Harlem River. A 10-foot sewer discharges under the pier on the left. To the right is one of the City's recreation piers The Harlem River By the year 1940 this river will receive the sewage of more than one and one-third million people SEWERAGE OF QUEENS TABLE XI Continued 281 Ward Location Towns Area in square miles Condition of surveys at time of consolidation Fifth. . . . Rockaway Park Arverne Edgemere Far Rockaway Total of Ward.. 9.3 Nothing Grand Total 117.3 Dry land 104.9 12.4 Land under wat< jr Froru 1902 to 1904 a number of trunk combined systems were planned in re- sponse to popular demands; but as it soon became evident that the construction of sewers of the enormous size required for some of the sparsely settled suburban dis- tricts would involve expenditures so large as to be all but prohibitive, the Board of Estimate and Apportionment urged that expert studio's be made of the whole territory. Consequently, in June, 1907, Mr. Rudolph Hering was asked to advise the Board of Estimate and Apportionment on various sewerage plans, and his ser- vices in similar connections were also made available to the Borough Presidents and to their sewerage engineers. Investigations and recommendcitions were made by Mr. Hering regarding the existing sewage disposal plants and the drainage plans in Queens. Bureau, of Sewers. The Bureau of Sewers is organized similarly to that of Brooklyn. The Superintendent of the Bureau has direct supervision of the main- tenance of the sewers and the disposal plants. The Chief Engineer or Engineer in Charge, as he is technically called, has charge of the design, construction and inspec- tion of all new work and the making up of the assessment rolls. The maintenance de- partment consults the engineers for repair work of any magnitude. A movement is planned to reorganize and unify the departments by having the heads of the various bureaus report directly and frequently to the Commissioner of Public Works. The Superintendent of Sewers and his foremen are appointed; the engineering corps is under civil service regulations. It consisted in 1908 of the following: 1 Chief Engineer, 7 Assistant Engineers, 2 Transitmen, 6 Draftsmen, 1 Draftsman's Helper, 2 Rodmen. 282 DATA COLLECTED Au appropriation of $17,000 was apportioned for studying various drainage prob- lems in 1909, but heretofore the force has been too small to do more than keep up with local problems. In consequence the records of the system in Queeus are incomplete. SEWERAGE WORKS Old Sewers. All the old sewers were designed as combined sewers except those in the towns of Jamaica, Elmhurst and Far Rockaway. Many of the smaller ones were privately built by plumbers and have all kinds of grades and alignments. The larger sewers were generally built of brick and the smaller ones of vitrified pipe. In recent years private construction under the special provision of the Charter has been car- ried on in the Ridgewood territory. Some of these plans do not conform to the ac- cepted drainage plans and at some future time the property owners will be called on for further assessments to duplicate lines they are now using. Complete records of all sewers and basins do not exist, but the Bureau is securing the location of old ones as fast as possible with the limited force available. It is reported that in White- stone and Bayside a number of sewer manhole heads were buried when the roads were graded and improved and as no records or plans of these sewers are in the pos- session of the Bureau of Sewers the full extent of these systems is unknown. Design. The formulae used for determining the sizes of the sewers are given on pages 89 and 90, but they are not adhered to strictly in working out the various problems as other local factors are usually also considered. It is the intention to take up a study of the rainfall and run-off this season to determine the variations due to the high ridge of hills running through the the borough. It has been necessary to rely upon the records in the other boroughs and in other cities heretofore. The Brooklyn-Queens interborough sewer in Myrtle and St. Nich- olas avenues is said to have been designed to take care of its whole drainage area at its maximum rate of run-off. A number of maps in the Bureau's keeping show the various drainage districts on a scale of 200 feet to the inch, but one map showing the whole borough is not avail- able. The layout of streets and street grades has been carried forward without re- gard, in many cases, to drainage necessities. SEWERAGE OF QUEENS 283 TABLE XII THE LOCATION AND SIZES OF THE SEWER OUTLETS IN THE BOROUGH OF QUEENS Location Point of Discharge Size, or Equiv. Circular Diameter Remarks Newtown creek ' . . . IG'O" Greenpoint avenue .... it it 24" Storm water Pearsall street tt n 24" tt n n tt 4'2i"x3'3" ft a 24" 8th street East river 4'2j"x3'3" tt n 4'2|"x3'3" n tt 7'8"x7'7" tt tt 2'30" Webster avenue tt tt 14'0" tt tt 16'0"\7'0" Main street ft tt f 3'0" Wardell street Hell Gate { 3'6"x2'8" 12" Hoyt avenue tt tt 8'0"xl2'0" tt n 18" Potter avenue tt n 15" ft tt 18" Wolcott avenue tt tt ]5" Hoffman boulevard Elmhurst Disposal Plant 5'0" West street and Jamaica road 9'0" Broadway tt tt f 18" Grove street tt tt 1 24" 5'0" Myrtle avenue tt tt 24" 5th avenue 5'0" College Point 24" N. 28th street 18" 14th avenue 24" Broadway Little Neck bay Leland avenue and Remsen avenue Far Rockaway 10" Old (So.) road and road to Bergen Island. . . . Jamaica 2'9" 284 DATA COLLECTED Elevation of Outlets. Almost without exception the outlets of the Queens sewers are submerged at high tide. If the grades are flat the tide may back up a mile ; e. g., the Webster avenue 14-foot combined trunk sewer, which, in consequence of its flat grade, has about 2 feet to 3 feet of sediment on the bottom ; but as this is not taxed to prob- ably half its capacity no flooding has occurred. Submerged sewers are designed for the pressures they must withstand. At College Point a 30-inch wooden barrel sewer out- lets 1,100 feet from shore and 16 feet below mean low tide. Materials. In the last three years all the large sewers have been built of reinforced concrete. The Queens-Brooklyn interborough sewer, draining the Ridgewood area, is of reinforced concrete in Queens and concrete invert and brick arch in Brooklyn. Ventilation. It is the intention to use perforated manhole covers and to build all sewers with the roof in an unbroken line, so that air may sweep through from manhole to manhole. Flush Tanks. There is one flush tank in the system, but it is now shut off. The use of flush tanks is not advocated by the local authorities in Queens. NEW SKWERS Area North of Newtown Creek. The area north of Newtown creek between the Long Island Railroad and the cemeteries used to drain into Newtown creek prior to the regu- lations prohibiting the emptying of house sewage into that stream. A new sewer to carry up to four times the dry weather flow of this section has been built under the Long Island Railroad tracks and carried to the East river. Ridgewood Area. The Ridgewood area and adjoining areas of about 4,600 acres, are drained by the so-called Brooklyn and Queens interborough sewer. It has an outlet diameter of 15 feet 6 inches, emptying at the head of Newtown creek in Brooklyn. The dry weather flow of this sewer is carried througli the Brooklyn sewers to an outlet into the East river at South Fifth street. The estimated cost of the 5,700 feet of tliis sewer in Brooklyn was over half a million dollars. Flushing. A large 9-foot 6-inch trunk combined sewer draining the Ingleside area of about 1,200 acres was constructed with a storm water outlet into a tributary of Flushing creek, but provision for a disposal plant was not carried out as originally intended and a temporary outlet into the creek was proposed and rejected. It has been proposed that a trunk sewer be constructed to take the whole of Flushing's sani- tary sewage and discharge it into Flushing bay at the foot of Myrtle street for a limited period, carrying it ultimately into deep water off College Point. There is now on foot a plan to treat the dry weather flow near Flushing creek at the foot of Fowler street, the storm water to overflow at other points, further back, into the creek. 8EWEEAGE OF QUEENS 285 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF SEWERAGE The following is a brief statement, extracted from an article by Alberto Schreiner, C. E., in the 1908 Proceedings of the Municipal Engineers of The City of New York, respecting the sewerage systems in Queens. FIRST WARD, LOXG ISLAND CITY EXISTING SEWERS Hunters Point System. Was largely built in 1876; its capacity is now becoming insufficient. Harris Avenue Trunk Sewer. Built in 1896, it is 7 feet 8 inches by 7 feet 7 inches in size; half of the drainage system is still undeveloped. Webster Avenut Trunk Sewer. Completed in 1903, this sewer has a twin horseshoe section equivalent to a circular section 14 feet in diameter. Numbers of its lateral branches have been built. Broadway System. Trunk outlet built in 1896; size, 16 feet by 7 feet. The sewer is in poor condition. The system of laterals or collecting sewers is nearly complete. Hoyt Avenue Scircr. Size, 8 feet by 12 feet; system nearly complete. PROPOSED SEWERS Theodore Street. Size, 12 feet 6 inches; trunk sewer to discharge at the bulkhead line, 3-foot 6-inch dry weather outlet to discharge at pierhead, 1,400 feet distant, in Bowery bay. Blissville Section. The sewage will require pumping to East river under Dutch Kills. SECOND WARD, NEWTOWN Few sewers hare been built in this section. The following are the most im- portant : Queens-Brooklyn Iiitcrborough Sewer. Size, 15 feet 6 inches at outlet. Receives the sewage from 4,500 acres ; dry weather flow to be diverted, at Scott avenue, into Brooklyn sewer discharging into East river at South Fifth street. Storm water to overflow into Newtown creek. Hoffman Boulevard to Elmhurst Disposal Plant. Size, 5 feet, Will need to pump the effluent at some future date. THIRD WARD, FLUSHING Sewers in old section of Flushing inadequate and should be rebuilt. Inglcside Section. Area, 1,200 acres. Trunk sewer, 9 feet 6 inches diameter, building. Dry weather flow to be treated. College Point. Efficient combined system. Thirty-inch wooden flume out- let extends 1,100 feet out from shore in 16 feet of water at mean tide. Several smaller sewers discharge on flats and produce nuisances. Several new sewers are planned at College Point with outlets to deep water; certain existing outlets to be extended to deep water. 286 DATA COLLECTED Whitestone and Bayside. Have a few small sewers ; manhole heads, in most cases, buried by street grading. FOURTH WARD, JAMAICA Separate system of sewers covers about 10 per cent, of whole- area. Dry weather flow treated at antiquated disposal plant. FIFTH WARD, THE EOCKAWAYS SEPARATE SYSTEM Far Rockaway. Sewage is pumped up from sewers to disposal plant, anti- quated and inefficient. Arverne. Outlet sewer ending on beach about half way between high and low water. Sewage also discharged into canal heading out from harbor. Remaining Towns. No systems of sewerage yet. Sewage will require pump- ing as ground is but 5 feet or 6 feet above mean high water. Winter population of district 10,000, summer population 150,000. Extent of the System The number of miles of sewers built in Queens, each year, the number of catch basins built and of permits issued for connections are shown in Table XIII. TABLE XIII GROWTH OF SEWER SYSTEM IN QUEENS Year Sewer Mileage Number of Basing Permits For Connections Built During Year Total to Date Built During Year Total to Date 1897 9.125 3.51 6.64 8.50 3.90 142 48 19 88 100 1,302 1,492 1,700* 149 779 975 1898 133.000 1899 1900 145.635 1901 J902 ions 1904 100 ^ IQAA 1QO7 1908 191.* * The Board of Estimate report. SEWERAGE OF QUEENS 287 The following table shows the number and estimated costs of sewers authorized to be built annually in 1902 to 1908, inclusive : Date Number Costs District Shown on Drainage Maps j902 16 $45,932 50 1 J903 28 122,421 00 2 1904 24 196,670 00 2 1905 28 406,500 00 6 1906 29 648,800 00 2 1907 29 129,400 00 16 1908 20 91,600 00 13 MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE WORKS Inspections. The inspections of sewers and basins is done by the foremen of the cleaning and other maintenance gangs. Eegular systematic inspections are not made. Cleaning. The frequency with which basins are cleaned varies from every two weeks to every two years. There are about 1,700 reported by the Board of Estimate, but no records exist of the exact number. In 1907 6,141 basins were cleaned, which corresponds to an average of over 31/2 times per year per basin. The costs are neces- sarily high in Queens on account of the distances to be covered. No machines or pumps are used or thought feasible to aid in cleaning basins. Steam pipes do not exhaust generally into the sewers, although a cloud of it was noticed on November 4 coming from the manholes over a sewer in Freeman avenue, between Vernon avenue and the river. This would prevent the inspection and cleaning of this particular sewer. Street cleanings, to some extent, go into the basins. No attempt is made to enforce the ordinance against the practice. The streets in Long Island City are kept reason- ably well cleaned. As snow is not cleared off, as a general thing, very little goes into the basins. Disposal of Cleanings. The grit and other materials removed from the basins and sewers are generally dumped on vacant lots. No attempt is made to bury or cover with lime, or to treat it otherwise to prevent nuisance. DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE TIDAL DISCHARGE Long Island City. The sewage of the Long Island City district all discharges into East river and Newtown creek. It is stated that all the dry weather flow of sewage 288 DATA COLLECTED is diverted from the sewers draining into Newtown creek; under the law no sewage can be discharged therein. Ridgeivood. The sewage of the Ridgewood district, which is drained by the large sewer on Myrtle avenue, with an outlet into the head of Newtown creek, is diverted into the South Fifth street sewer of Brooklyn and discharged into the East river near the Williamsburg Bridge. The storm water from this district goes into Newtown creek. Elmhurst. The sewage of the Elmhurst district back of Long Island City, goes to a badly located disposal plant, inefficiently operated, the effluent from which dis- charges into a small branch of Flushing creek. Flushing District. The sewage of Flushing, College Point and Bayside is dis- charged into tide water. Jamaica. The Jamaica sewage goes to a point south of that city for treatment, and thence into Bergen creek and Jamaica bay. DISPOSAL PLANTS Jamaica. The Jamaica disposal plant, put in operation in 1903, is of the Powers chemical precipitation type, similar in principle to those of Brooklyn. After receiving its dose of lime and chemicals the sewage travels some 1,500 feet through the six settling channels. Sludge, amounting to about 40 tons monthly, is removed to a de- pression near the plant, from which it flows over on private property and causes more or less nuisance. The effluent from the precipitation tanks, according to 1907 Board of Health re- port, showed putrescence in less than 12 hours. The plant, was examined by Mr. Rudolph Hering in 1908, who, from analyses of the raw and treated sewage, found that about one-third of the organic matter and two- thirds of the inorganic and suspended matters were being removed. Too litle lime was being used and the use of perchloride of iron had largely been discontinued on ac- count of cost. It was suggested that lime and copperas be used in warm weather, dis- pensing with chemicals in winter, as the process of purification was largely due to sedimentation. The capacity of the plant is supposed to be 1,000,000 gallons daily, but from the pump records an average of 1,500,000 gallons daily was being treated during the year of 1907. Fourteen men are reported as being employed at this plant. Far Rockaway. The Far Rockaway chemical precipitation plant is of the Powers type and similar in design to the Jamaica plant. It was put in operation in 1890. In the summer time the plant is very much overloaded and is both antiquated and in- efficient. The average amounts pumped are recorded as about 600,000 gallons daily. Lime is mixed with the entering sewage, which must traverse through four chambers having a combined length of 300 feet. The sludge is disinfected and used A Sewer Discharging from New York City, Borough of Queens. Many New York sewers discharge their contents above low water mark Sewer Outlet in the Harlem River. With the growth of population, rapidly increasing quantities of sewage are being discharged into the Harlem river SEWERAGE OF QUEENS 289 for filling low land near the plant. The disposal of the sludge here creates more or less nuisance and it has been recommended that a channel be dredged to the bay so that it may be removed to sea in barges. In 1907 the State Board of Health found the effluent discharged color from methylene blue in 52 hours. Undoubtedly this good showing is not the usual summer condition. Analyses made on November 30, 1904, by George A. Soper showed that the treatment was unsatisfactory. There were 40 per cent, more bacteria in the effluent than in the raw sewage, the number in the latter being 5,240,000. The imperfectly gurified sewage from this plant, discharged into Jamaica bay, contaminated oysters and clams and produced a number of cases of ty- phoid fever. See Soper, Medical News, N. Y., February 11, 1905. The following table gives data concerning the chemicals used and the number of gallons of sewage pumped during the years 1906 and 1907 at the Far Rockaway and Jamaica disposal plants. TABLE XIV CHEMICALS USED AT FAB ROCKAWAY AND JAMAICA DISPOSAL PLANTS Far Rockaway Jamaica 1906 1907 1906 1907 Vitriol (H, S0 4 ) pounds 1,600 6,405 2.1 1,520 .51 1,690 .56 692 4.6 211 .58 1,680 6,953 1.7 1,440 .35 1,600 .39 827 4.1 285 .78 650 3,244 .61 700 .13 700 .13 257 .96 375 1.03 635 3,521 .45 500 .06 500 .06 249 .6 542 1.48 Perchloride of iron, pounds Perchloride of iron grs. per gal Manganese, pounds.. Manganese, grs per gal Salt, pounds Salt, grs. per gal Limp, harrfilp, , . , , , Lime, grs. per gal Total million gals, pumped Average million gals, daily Elmhurst. The Elmhurst plant was located at a topographically unsuitable place for the reason that this site was dedicated to the City by owners of property in the town of Elmhurst, a section perhaps 10 blocks square. The Elmhurst plant, which has a rated capacity of 1,000,000 gallons daily was built in 1905 from the plans of Mr. Chas. Hart after the process of the International Sewage Disposal Co. of Boston. It consists of a pump, pump well, four concrete settling tanks, a flush tank and three open sand filters with a combined area of one 290 DATA COLLECTED acre. The State Board of Health found the filters out of service at the time of two visits to the plant, the tanks only being used. The effluent customarily flows away from the plant through accidental cracks in the cement flooring. The question of payment for the plant is still under litigation. In connection with the testimony taken meas- urements were made of the actual amounts of sewage and of ground water flowing to the plant and there was found so much of the latter that the dilution is said to give practically sufficient purification without further treatment. Supervision. The three disposal plants are operated by the Maintenance Depart- ment of the Bureau of Sewers under the direction of the Superintendent; to be tech- nically and properly operated they should be under the Chief Engineer's supervision. No doubt the lack of a technical head may account for much of the adverse criticism against all of these plants. COMPLAINTS AND NUISANCES FROM THE DISPOSAL METHODS IN USE Whitestone. Emphatic complaints from the people of Whitestone endorsed by the Board of Health, have been made against the discharging of sewage into a small fresh water stream in the vicinity of Powells cove. A plan for the extension of the sewer into the shallow waters of the cove was not approved as a nuisance would surely be caused thereby. Newtown Creek. While it is admitted that Newtown creek is an open sewer it is said that the pollution is due quite largely to manufacturing wastes rather than house sewage. FUTURE PLANS OF THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES Waterfront of Queens. Queens has relatively but a small water-frontage from which either by legal restrictions or by reason of the creating of local nuisances it is permitted to discharge raw sewage. This available shore line, covering some 21 miles, extends along the East river from Newtown creek to Berrian Island and from College Point to Whitestone Point, excluding Powells cove. The State Board of Health has ruled that the sewage going into Jamaica bay must be treated ; it is thought to treat to a non-putrescible stage is sufficient. To discharge untreated sewage into Newtown creek is prohibited and the Board of Estimate and Apportionment has refused to adopt plans for discharging into Bowery bay and Flushing creek. The discharge into Powells cove now causes a nuisance. Little Neck bay is too shallow to consider any outlets there and no discharge would be tolerated off Rockaway Beach. General Sewerage Plans. Comprehensive plans have not been made for Queens, though sadly needed by the Bureau of Sewers in order to permit properly designing the independent works of rapidly growing sections in a manner to conform to future growth and construction work for the borough in general. SEWERAGE OF QUEENS 291 Suggestions by Board of Estimate and Apportionment. The reports of the Chief Engineer of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment for 1906 and 1908 show in the following extracts and notes the general policy in his mind concerning the sewer sys- tem of Queens : " This office has consistently urged the preparation of plans which will avoid the necessity of additional plants for sewage treatment by carrying the raw sewage to points Avhere it can be discharged into the deep waters of the East river. In districts on the south side of Long Island, where the outlets must necessarily be in the shal- low water of Jamaica bay, treatment is necessary and is required by the State Board of Health, but on the north side it is possible to secure outlets in the East river which will be unobjectionable for years to come." Long Island City. An intercepting trunk sewer to discharge into Hell Gate at the foot of Winthrop street is suggested for the sewerage of the area between Long Island City and Flushing creek, as well as for a portion of Long Island City for which lias been planned a sewer to empty into Bowery bay east of Berrian Island at the foot of Theodore street. The Elmliurst disposal plant would be abandoned under this plan. The Bureau of Sewers contends that this intercepting trunk sewer plan is too ex- pensive to lie carried out at the present time. While agreeing that discharging sewage into Bowery bay may possibly cause a nuisance in the future it is believed by the Bureau of Sewers that the territory drained will be developed at a much more rapid rate if not burdened with too great expense for sewerage at present, and that when more fully occupied the improvements can be more easily carried out. Richmond Hill and Woodhaven. A separate system of sewers delivering to the Jamaica disposal plant has been authorized for a 400-acre section of Richmond Hill. A similar plan for 1,700 acres in the Woodhaven district, extending from Richmond Hill to the Brooklyn borough line has also been approved. A disposal plant was pro- posed at the head of Willow creek. Later developments respecting the treatment of Jamaica bay water-front indicate that it is by no means certain that any of these im- provements would fit in with waterfront plans. Plans are now being made to keep down present expenditures by designing combined sewers for present needs only, dis- charging the dry weather flow through Stanley street in a 6-foot sewer to the Jamaica disposal plant, and bypassing the storm water flow down Panama street through a twin sewer with equivalent diameter of 12 feet. This will empty into a ditch 8 feet by 36 feet, 5,600 feet long. One of the difficult engineering features will be a syphon under the water supply aqueduct, which must be carried over the ditch on girders. 292 DATA COLLECTED The Rockaways. The whole sewer system of the Rockaways must be reconstructed in the near future. Trunk sewers extending from end to end of the shore line, with pumping stations to lift the sewage disposal plants is the only solution proposed by the local authorities. Jamaica Bay Improvement. One of the most important public improvements planned by the City of New York is the creation of a great harbor in Jamaica bay, the navigation interests of the city demanding greater dockage facilities than can be pro- vided in the waters around the present harbor. The project has passed the preliminary stage and the way appears open for its execution, the Commissioner of Docks and Ferries having been directed by the Board of Estimate and Apportionment to prepare plans therefor. It is recommended that a channel 1,500 feet wide and 30 feet deep be dredged through Eockaway inlet with a main channel following the western and northern sec- tions of the bay for a width of 1,000 feet and a depth of 30 feet. The report of Col. John G. D. Knight, United States Corps of Engineers, under date of January 30, 1909, gives the estimated cost of deepening the Rockaway inlet and the main channels, with the necessary protection works as $8,610,050 ; the cost of development as a harbor will be in addition to this. The creation of an important harbor at Jamaica bay increases the difficulties of providing' adequate sewerage and sewage disposal facilities for the portions of the Boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens having water frontage along the bay. Recommendation The Metropolitan Sewerage Commission recommends that im- mediate consideration be given to improved sewerage and sewage disposal for this dis- trict in conjunction with the elaboration of the harbor plans, so that when the latter improvements are carried out the sewerage works will be suitable for the future de- velopments. RICHMOND GBNKEAL FEATURKS AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Characteristics. The Borough of Richmond includes the whole of Staten Island which has an area of 57.2 square miles. Its greatest length is 13.6 miles and greatest width 7.5 miles. It lies about 5 miles to the southwest of Man- hattan and is separated from the New Jersey shore by the Arthur Kill. Its northern edge forms the southern limit of the Upper bay and bounds the Narrows, or entrance to the Upper and the Lower bays. The Arthur Kill has a minimum depth of 13 feet and minimum width of about 500 feet; the Kill von Kull has a 24-foot channel into Newark bay and a total width between piers of about 1,500 feet. The island is kite shaped with a backbone of serpentine extending from St. George southwest about one-half the length of the island. Approximately 80 per cent, of the SEWERAGE OF RICHMOND 293 wbole surface of the island is covered by the terminal moraine of the continental glacier rising in hills and ridges from 200 to nearly 400 feet above the sea and com- posed of the typical boulder clay, soft and sandy, with rather more sand than clay. The surface is impervious and a number of small lakes are scattered over the high lauds. The drainage districts as a consequence of the topography are of various sizes extending from the shore line back to the ridge, and in general the limits are the limits of the natural watersheds of the small streams originally draining this territory. The more thickly settled portion of the island occupies a belt about a mile wide along the north and east shores from Holland Hook to Fort Wadsworth. Distribution of Population. The population of the borough in 1905 was 72,939; the principal center being on a strip about a mile wide, more or less, extending from Fort Wadsworth to Holland Hook. The remainder of the island is rather sparsely populated with the exception of a few villages and towns ; the average population for the whole borough is about 2 persons per acre. The principal towns and villages are New Brighton, Tompkiusville, Stapleton, Rosebank, West New Brighton, Port Richmond, Mariners Harbor, Morgan Hills, Grant City, New Dorp and Tottenville. The manufacturing interests, which are extensive, are located mainly along the shores of Kill van Kull and Arthur Kill. The shellfish interests, which are large, are principally along the south shore, between Great Kills and Tottenville. The borough is essentially a residential district. South Beach and Midland Beach are popular re- sorts in summer. The Bureau of Sciccrs. Under the Borough President is a Commissioner of Public Works and an Assistant Commissioner of Public Works. The subordinate departments are a Bureau of Accounts, Bureau of Highways, Bureau of Engineering, Bureau of Street Cleaning, Bureau of Sewers and Bureau of Public Offices and Buildings. The Bureau of Engineering has two divisions, one of Construction and one of Topography. The following extract from the 1907 report of the Borough President describes the operation of the organization with reference to sewers : "The topographical engineers survey districts and plan streets; the local Board of Aldermen initiates the improvements and the Board of Estimate authorizes them. The construction engineers plan the improvements and handle their execution; the Bureau of Highways maintains the finished road surfaces; the Bureau of Sewers maintains the sewers and drains; the Bureau of Street Cleaning removes and disposes of the refuse, house and street; * * * the Bureau of Accounts handles all the different financial matters connected with these operations; and the general administration supervises the whole." 294 DATA COLLECTED . There are about 100 technically trained men employed in the various bureaus. These men are so assigned as to keep up the work in each division without surplusage in some and insufficiency in others. Sufficient appropriations are made to pay for ade- quate designs, supervision and inspection of all works undertaken. SEWERAGE WORKS Design. The general policy now being worked out is the provision of trunk inter- cepting combined sewers about one-half mile apart around the island. The trunk sewers are designed with overflows for storm water at the bulkhead line, the sanitary or dry weather flow being carried out in a smaller pipe to the pierhead line. This plan has been carried out in districts Nos. 2, 6, 8, 17, 18 and 19. Combined sewers with many frequently cleaned basins are considered best for the thickly built up portions of the borough; sanitary sewers are expected to answer in less compact districts for many years to come, as the storm water can travel on the roads and find outlets through natural drainage channels, c. g., in Port Kichmond and New Brighton. The formulae used in designing the sewers are given on pages 89 and 90. The sewers are designed to take storms of the so-called second magnitude. Just how much floAv the sewers would carry if a slight head was put upon them has not been con- sidered, so that flooding due to the extraordinary storms coming once in five years may or may not occur. A continuous automatic rain gage has been in use since September, 1902. This record shows that conditions on Staten Island are somewhat different from those found in Brooklyn by the Department of Water Supply. Velocity measurements of flow have been made in street gutters having smooth and rough pavements. From the 1908 Board of Estimate report " The determination of the elapsed time for the surface flow to reach the sewer and as required for applying the rational formulae * * * is taken to be that required to traverse the gutters with an additional allowance of five minutes." Sewers. The older swers, built before Staten Island became one of the boroughs of New York, were all of vitrified pipe. Each small district or town put in its own sys- tem and practically no attempt was made to care for anything but sanitary sewage. The watersheds are comparatively small and the need to carry off storm water flows other than by natural channels or the street gutters was not so necessary. The outlets of all of these sewers was at or very near the shore line, which became in time the bulk- head line. SEWERAGE OF RICHMOND 295 All of the larger trunk outlet sewers are being built of reinforced concrete. A number are flattened out in order to keep the hydraulic gradient within the sewer. There is now under construction a reinforced concrete twin sewer in Canal street, Stapleton, which occupies practically the whole street. Vitrified pipe is used for all sewers 20 inches and less in diameter, while above this size brick or concrete may be used. Concrete pipes have not been used. By the use of stone dust and screenings it has been found feasible to construct basins that are water- tight under outside pressure heads up to four feet. Much of the new work has been carried on during the last three years, so that the system as it now exists is of very recent construction. Mention may be made here of the Tompkins avenue combined sewer in District No. 1, which has 29 drop manholes in a distance of 7,883 feet, to prevent high velocities wearing out the sewer bottom. Catch Basins. Catch basins to divert storm water into the sewers are built at street intersections. Ventilation. The sewers are very well ventilated, as there are a great many man- holes, all of which have perforated covers; most of the sewer outlets discharge above ion- tide level. Flush Tanks. Flush tanks arc employed and as a rule give good service. They are placed on sanitary sewers only. The 1908 report records the cleaning of 145 at an average cost of 61 cents each. Outfalls. All the sewers in the borough discharge into tidewater. Such new out- let sewers as have been built since Staten Island became a borough of New York, have been so constructed that they may at some future time be connected with a large inter- ceptor skirting the shore line and carrying its contents to various sewage disposal plants or to a tunnel leading out to sea. No definite disposal areas have been picked out and no plans have been drawn embodying any of these ideas. The principal sewer outlets, with their respective watersheds, diameters, capac- ities, lengths and costs are given in Table XV. 296 DATA COLLECTED TABLE XV OUTLETS OF SEWEES OF RICHMOND Street Description No. of Bist. Acres in Dist. Equivalent Diam. Outlet Capacity Outlet c. f. p. s. Length in Feet Total Cost For Length Reported Comb with san. outlet . 19 79 4'4" 108 8,580 $57,219.12 Comb, with san. outlet . 18 40 3'10" 67 4,761 34,776.28 Houseman avenue . . Comb, with san. outlet. 17 9 123 48 / 6'0" \ \ 12" san./ 2'6" 188 85 10,173 2,126 69,575.38 13,099.35 Hamilton avenue . . . Comb, with san. outlet. Comb, with san. outlet. '} 8j 34 fl2" san.] { 3' 10" \ [12" san.J 76 5,876 37,906.61 Comb 1 257 6'0" 265 10,130 78,046.69 Elizabeth street Comb, with san. outlet . Storm water only 2 3 154 / e'o" i 1 15" san./ 9'3" 259 895 8,386 under 101,671.90 construction 3 1216 4'6" x 6' 6" 461 3 2'4"x3'6" old sewer 4 85 3"6" 108 1,805 5,458.70 Combined 5) f3'0"x4'0"1 264 334 proposed Maple avenue 1 6'9"* j Nautilus street Comb, with Ban. outlet. 6 367 6'6" 494 5,717 95,684.41 3,340 Proposed SEWERAGE OF RICHMOND 297 Growth of System. The growth of the sewerage system in Richmond, year by year, is exhibited in Table XVI. TABLE XVI GROWTH OF SEWER SYSTEM IN RICHMOND Year Mileage Sewers Built each Year Total Mileage Sewers Built to Date Costs of Sewers Built During Year Sanitary Combined Total Sanitary Combined Total 1897 .095 .177 .030 .055 .007 .013 .438 .733 .278 .130 .020 .150 .208 .200 .140 .020 .037 .524 1.005 59.466 59.744 59.874 59.894 59.949 59.980 60.150 60.235 60.248 60.272 60.358 60.63 73.388 73.666 73.796 73.816 73.966 74.174 74.374 74.514 74.534 74.571 75.095 76.10 $3,832 1,670 2,052 36,205 54,072 27,164 19,748 2,702 31,137 164,094 306,787 1898 .278 .130 .020 .055 .031 .170 .085 .013 .024 .086 .272 1899 1900 13.922 14.017 14.194 14.224 14.279 14.286 14.299 14.737 15.47 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 . 1907 . 1908 From the above table giving the mileage of sewers built and costs since 1898 it is readily seen that much work has been done in recent years, with construction costs in 1907 and 1908 in excess of anything before recorded. MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE SYSTEM Inspection. It is said that every basin and manhole cover in the borough is raised probably once a week throughout the year. This rigid inspection enables the Bureau to be the first to find stoppages, and, therefore, has prevented complaints. No suits for flooding have been brought for over five years. It is claimed that this inspec- tion system is the most efficient of any in this country. Cleaning Basins. The basins are cleaned very often and as a time saver a port- able centrifugal pump driven by a five horsepower gasolene engine is used to pump out the water from the basins to the nearest sewer manhole. This very greatly in- creases the efficiency of the basin cleaning force. No steam pipes exhaust into any of the sewers and no trade wastes or gases pre- vent the inspectors from going down into the manholes to inspect or clean the sewers. 298 DATA COLLECTED The street cleaners do not make a practice of putting street sweepings or snow into the basins. Violations of ordinances covering these matters are reported to the Com- missioner of Public Works, who puts a stop to such practices by orders to the Street Cleaning Bureau. This is one of the advantages of Richmond's centralized organiza- tion. In 1907 there were 10,339 basins cleaned; 2.05 miles of sewers hand flushed, and 1.10 miles culverts, drains, etc., cleaned. There are but (183 basins, so that each basin was cleaned on an average of fifteen times during the year. Disposal of Cleanings. In that territory within economical hauling distance of the New Brighton Incinerator sewer and basin cleanings are put through the furnace at a temperature of from 1,250 to 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit, with regular garbage col- lections. The cleanings in other parts of Richmond are hauled to public dumps, covered with lime or buried to prevent causing any nuisance. The dumping grounds are usually at a low elevation, so that the cleanings serve as fill. DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE. Tidal Discharge. All the sewage of Richmond borough is discharged into the neighboring tidal waters without treatment or purification. The policy with respect to the newer sewers has been to provide storm water overflows at the bulkhead line, and to carry the outfall for the dry weather flow out to the pierhead line. Complaints. It is said that no complaints have been received that the sewer out- lets caused a nuisance either from being open and unsightly at the end or by reason of odors arising from the discharges. Nevertheless both of these conditions occasion- ally occur. Burning Sludge. It is believed that the sludge can be passed through incine- rators together with ordinary garbage and that, by installing sewage and garbage disposal plants at frequent intervals around the water-front the problem can be economically solved without creating a nuisance even within thickly settled districts. SECTION II SEWERAGE OF THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT IN NEW YORK STATE, EXCLUSIVE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK SEWERAGE OF THE BRONX VALLEY Historical. The most important sewerage project in the New York State metro- politan district, excluding the sewerage of The City of New York, is that which is known as the Bronx valley sewer. Its purpose, as its name implies, is to pro- SEWERAGE OF BRONX VALLEY 299 vide a means of sewerage and sewage disposal for the towns in the valley of the Bronx river north of the limits of the Borough of The Bronx of The City of New York. The matter of constructing an outlet sewer for this district was under considera- tion for several years before reaching definite shape. It was investigated carefully and reported upon in 1895 by the late J. J. R. Croes, Past President, Am. Soc. C. E., and by J. J. Fairchild, C. E., who recommended the construction of a trunk sewer from the upper limits of White Plains to a point some miles below Mount Vernon in the Bronx valley and thence easterly across the marshes to Long Island Sound. This plan was defeated and the matter was dropped until the commission known officially as the Bronx Valley Sewerage Commission, appointed in 1904, took it up. The Com- mission's work was made effective by Chapter 646 of the Laws of 1905 of the State of New York which provided for " the construction and maintenance of a sanitary trunk sewer in the County of Westchester " and provided " means for the payment thereof." This act is specific in defining the area within the different townships included in the districts to be sewered, in establishing the route of the sewer and providng that the sewage shall be discharged into the Hudson river. Trunk Sewer. The plans provided for the construction of a concrete trunk sewer of circular cross section some 14 miles in length extending down the valley of the Bronx river from the northern limits of White Plains to within 300 feet of the bound- ary line between The Bronx and Westchester County, turning thence west, parallel to this boundary line and passing under the intervening land in a tunnel to the Hudson river where it is to terminate in two lines of 54-inch cast iron pipe extending from the portal of the tunnel to a point in the river 500 feet from the shore and about 40 feet below the surface of the river. At its upper end, above White Plains, it is to be 3 feet 4 inches and, at its lower end, below Mt. Vernon, 6 feet in diameter. The tunnel section is to have a diameter of 6 feet 6 inches at Washingtonville, the point of deflection, increasing to 8 feet at the Hudson river end, 200 feet east of the tracks of the New York Central and Hud- son River Railroad. The sewer is intended to take only house and factory sewage, to the exclusion of storm water, and is to intercept and convey to the Hudson river the sewage of White Plains, Scarsdale, Tuckahoe, Bronxville and parts of Mt. Vernon and Yonkers, as well as the sewage due to natural increase in population in these towns and the develop- ment of new territory in the vicinity, for many years. No provision was made in the plans for the purification of the sewage, or for screening it, or reducing the quantity of solids in suspension by settlement; it is now stated that a partial purification, by screening and subsidence is contemplated. 300 DATA COLLECTED Topography. The valley of the river is a narrow strip about 25 miles long having a width of iy 2 to 2y 2 miles, and lying in Westchester County and the Borough of The Bronx, with its axis parallel to the Hudson river. The northerly 18 miles of the valley is in Westchester County. The watershed in Westchester County is about 48 square miles, of which 12 square miles have been appropriated by The City of New York and 4!/2 square miles by Yonkers for their respective water supplies. The use by these cities of all but the surplus rainfall from this appropriated territory reduces the summer flow of the stream at the Westchester County line to not over two cubic feet per second, a quantity too small to permit the discharge of the sewage of the towns on the watershed therein without causing great offensiveness. The river is a tidal estuary as far as the tannery dam at West Farms. Towns within the District. The estimated population of the villages and towns within the district was (1909) approximately: White Plains 12,800 Hartsdale 1,700 Scarsdale 1,800 Yonkers 5,600 Tuckahoe 2,300 Bronxville 1,500 Mt. Vernon 4,300 30,000 White Plains is completely sewered, the sewage passing through a plant intended for its purification by chemical precipitation, with disinfection of the sludge. Harts- dale has no sewers, nor has Scarsdale or Yonkers Park. Tuckahoe has sewers and a small purification plant put in operation September 1st, 1907, the effluent from which discharges into the Bronx. Bronxville also has a sewer system and a small plant for treating the sewage. Mt. Vernon is completely sewered; 25,000 people, or 95 per cent. of the total population is served by the public sewer system discharging through three separate outlets into the Hutchinson canal, or Hutchinson river, which flows into the canal. About 85 per cent, of the sewage of the city is discharged into the main out- let sewer which empties into the upper end of the canal at the foot of Fulton avenue. The sewage from possibly 4,000 to 5,000 people in Mt. Vernon will be diverted to the Bronx valley sewer. This population resides in a district from which the sewage is now pumped across the divide for discharge into Eastchester creek. Over 50 per cent, of the population which the Bronx valley sewer is designed to serve resides in White Plains, Tuckahoe and Bronxville, the sewage of which is now subjected to partial, although not satisfactory purification. SEWERAGE OF BRONX VALLEY 301 Opposition. After the publication of the plans for the construction of this sewer application was made by the Bronx Valley Sewerage Commission to the State Board of Health for permission to construct the sewer. In order to become acquainted with the nature of the proposed works the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission, in August, 1906, examined the plans on file at the office of the Commission at White Plains. On November 30th, 1906, word was received from the State Department of Health that a hearing would be held on the Bronx Valley Sewerage Commissioners' application on December 7th, 1906, at the office of the Commissioner of Health in Albany. Two mem- bers of the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission, as well as several representatives of other interests were present. Active opposition was manifested against the project. Following this meeting the Merchants Association of New York through Mr. Edward Hatch, Jr., Chairman of the Committee on Pollution of Water of that association, ad- dressed a protest to the Secretary of War against the construction of the Bronx valley sewer. The question as to the authority of the State Department of Health and the State Engineer and Surveyor to attach their approval to the plans for the sewer as then drawn, was submitted by the Commissioner of Health to the Attorney General on De- cember 10th for an opinion. Under date of December 13th, 1906, Assistant Attorney General Danforth replied that in his opinion " the State Commissioner of Health can not travel outside of the provisions of this act (Chapter 646 of the Laws of 1905) and impose a condition not provided for in the act itself. It is the positive mandate of the Legislature that a sewer of the character described in the act, constructed for the purpose specified in the act, on the route mentioned therein and terminating into the waters of the Hudson river shall be constructed, and the province of the State Com- missioner of Health in affixing his official approval to the map and plans thereof, is to certify that such a sewer will accomplish the purposes stated in the act." Approval of Plans. Acting in accordance with this decision which passed upon other questions relating to the construction of the sewer the Commissioner of Health on December 31st, 1906, returned to the Bronx Valley Sewerage Commission at White Plains the plans for the Bronx vallew sewer with his approval attached thereto. Various protests have been made since the filing of this decision, but to no avail, as the Bronx Valley Sewerage Commission has proceeded with the construction of the sewer in accordance with the plans which were approved by the Commissioner of Health. Outfall. In the plans for the discharge of the sewage into the Hudson river at Mt. St. Vincent, the outfall sewer instead of terminating at the bulkhead line and dis- charging at approximately tide level as is the custom along this section of the Hud- son river shore, will be carried out to the pierhead line and be discharged through two 302 DATA COLLECTED outfall sewers at an elevation some 35 feet below tide level, by which it is hoped to ob- tain complete diffusion of the sewage, its rapid digestion by the river water and the prevention of visual pollution along the river shore. It is estimated that a population of 680,000 will be tributary to the sewer some years hence. The work of construction is now (1909) under way at various points in the Bronx valley and the tunnel to the Hudson river has been started. The population sewered in the Bronx valley district in the year 1908 is estimated to have been 32,700 and the quantity of sewage now produced is estimated to be 2,000,000 gallons per day. By the time the outfall and the sewer are completed the sewage discharge will probably amount to 3,000,000 gallons per day. SEWERAGE OF WHITE PLAINS Several of the towns in the valley of the Bronx river in Westchester County are provided with plants for the purification, or at least partial purification, of the sewage. The first of these to be constructed was the plant at White Plains. Sewers. The construction of a system of sewerage works for the reception of sewage only to the exclusion of storm water was commenced in 1893. At the present time there are some 30 miles of pipe from 8 to 24 inches in diameter and 50 flush tanks. An ejector station at Westchester avenue and North street lifts from 100,000 to 300,000 gallons of sewage per day to a higher level sewer from that portion of the city which is too low to discharge by gravity to the sewage purification plant. Sewage Flow. The population connected with the system of sewers is about 12,000. No manufacturing wastes enter the sewers, but there is a considerable amount of leak- age into them of ground water. The average flow of sewage is possibly a little less than a million gallons per day. Purification Works. The sewage flows to a sewage purification plant built under the patents of J. J. Powers. As it enters the works the sewage receives a stream of milk of lime, and another of a solution of perchloride of iron, flowing thence 150 to 200 feet through mixing tanks and passing through a screen of %-inch mesh, and under two baffle boards to a siphon chamber. From the siphon chamber it passes into a sedimen- tation basin 45 feet long and 24 feet wide, from which it again siphons into a well and passes through an effluent pipe some 2,000 feet long to the Bronx river. The bottom of the river is usually covered with sediment deposited from the partially purified effluent. Five to six barrels of lime are used at the plant daily. The lime solution ia agitated by pumping the water through a perforated pipe in the bottom of the mixing troughs. The iron solution is mixed in an 1,800-gallon iron vat, the quantity used SEWERAGE OF BRONX VALLEY 303 daily frequently reaching a carboy. The iron solution is agitated by blowing compressed air through it. The sludge is pumped from the tanks weekly upon adjacent sludge beds of which there are two having a combined area of 3,000 square feet. Sludge accumulates to a depth of three or four indies at each cleaning, and is left on the beds for about a week, or until dry enough to be winrowed to hasten the drying. Some 35 cubic yards of ma- terial are removed at each cleaning. About 24 hours previous to cleaning the sedimen- tation chamber it is the practice to treat the sludge with chlorine prepared by mixing oxide of manganese, salt and sulphuric acid. The mixture is made in a lead lined iron tank having a gauge indicating the pressure in the generator; sufficient acid is added to the salt and oxide of manganese to produce the required pressure, on reach- ing which the gas is fed to the tanks to be cleaned through 2-inch lead pipes perfor- ated with i/4-inch holes 12 inches apart and fastened to the sides of the sedimentation chamber six inches above the bottom. One of the attendants in charge of the work maintains on one of the sludge de- posits a small garden in which vegetables are successfully cultivated notwithstanding the visible presence of lime and many particles of the more indestructible ingredients of sewage. The annual cost of operating the plant in 1907, including the cost of operating the ejector at Westchester avenue and North street, is given as about |8,700. Defects. The sewage disposal plant at White Plains has for a number of years failed to purify the sewage sufficiently to prevent the objectionable pollution of the Bronx river. The late J. J. R. Croes gave an opinion in December, 1905, after an in- vestigation of the plant and the character of the effluent, that "the interests to pub- lic health demand that the village of White Plains should be required to take steps at once to improve the character of the effluent either by more efficient management or the substitution of another system." In March, 190G, it was again inspected and re- ported upon by Mr. E. T. King, Inspecting Engineer of W 7 ater Supply of the State Department of Health, and in October of the same year, by Mr. Theo. Horton, Con- sulting Engineer of the State Department of Health, and on September 27th, 1907, by Mr. H. B. Cleveland, Assistant Engineer, State Department of Health, and again on October 28th, 1907, by Mr. Theo. Horton. All these examinations indicated that the purification at the White Plains sewage disposal plant, from lack of proper manage- ment, mainly in overworking the plant, was inefficient; and that decomposing deposits along the bottom and shore of the stream, resulting from this inefficient operation, produced offensive odors amounting io a public nuisance to the residents of Hartsdale, Scarsdale and other villages residing along and in the vicinity of the river below 304 DATA COLLECTED these works. These latter investigations were made on the complaints of the citizens of the towns down the valley below White Plains. Having in mind the probability of the ultimate construction of the Bronx valley sewer the authorities of White Plains have resisted making further investments for changes and improvements of the sewerage works. When the Bronx valley sewer is completed the sewage of White Plains will be discharged into the Hudson river. SEWERAGE OF TUCKAHOE Sewers. A system of sewers, for house sewage only, and a small purification plant were put in operation in Tuckahoe about September 1st, 1907. Tuckahoe which has a population of 2,000 is situated a mile north of Bronxville. The sewerage system in- cludes 23,000 feet of pipe ranging from 8 to 15 inches in diameter, a settling tank with a maximum daily capacity of 226,000 gallons, and two aerating beds. Sewage was first allowed to flow into the sewers on June 1st, 1907. The cost of the sewers was $39,000 and the cost of the settling tank and contact beds $10,000 including the cost of engineering. Purification Works. The sewage enters one of the two grit chambers 5 feet wide, 15 feet long and about 4 feet deep from which it enters a shallow semi-circular cham- ber through which it passes to pipes leading to one of the five settling chambers. These chambers are baffled in a manner to cause the sewage to descend to the bottom, then over a concrete weir and concrete surface from which it passes to two openings in the chamber wall discharging below the the sewage surface in the main channel ex- tending along the entrance to the two aeration beds. The tank effluent may be turned upon either or both of the beds. The aeration beds are 100 feet square and the crushed marble varies in depth from nine inches in the inlet end to six inches in the outlet end. The stones average about two inches in diameter. Three brick baffles have been placed in the areatiou beds to retard the flow of the sewage. From the beds the sewer enters an effluent channel through which it flows into the Bronx river about 30 feet distant. At the present time the plant apparently is operated without any attention, and as a rule the sewage passes from the settling tanks direct to the Bronx river. Complaints. Complaint has been made in regard to the condition of this plant, although the examination made in September, 1907, by the State Department of Health seems to indicate that the plant was capable of producing satisfactory results if properly operated.' SEWERAGE OF MT. VERNON 305 SEWERAGE OF BROXXVILLE Sewers. The sewerage system of Bronxville comprises a little less than six miles of pipe lines to which 160 connections, including those of two or three large hotels, have been made. The sewage flows to a well 12 feet square and 15 feet deep from which it is pumped to settling chambers by electrically driven pumps in duplicate. Purification Works. From the pumps the sewage enters a grit chamber 12 feet wide, 20 feet long and 10 feet deep, across which is placed a vertical screen having one-half inch rods placed one inch, center to center. From the grit chamber the sew- age enters the settling chamber in which it flows a distance of 40 feet, returning parallel to itself to a dosing chamber. From this chamber 250 to 300 feet of 10-inch outfall pipe leads the settled sewage to the Bronx river. A sludge pipe is provided for conducting the sludge to neighboring low land. No storm water enters the sewers. In 1908 about 1,200 persons were residing in Bronxville. SEWERAGE OF MT. VERNON., PELHAM AND PELHAM MANOR Pollution of Hutchinson River. Hutchinson river, in Westchester County, has, for a number of years, been grossly polluted with the sewage of Mt. Vernon, Pelham Manor and North Pelham, and numerous complaints have been made to the State Board of Health to cause the nuisance to be abated. Mt, Vernon has had numerous examinations and reports made for sewerage and sewage disposal, but has deferred the adoption of these for one reason or another until in 1909. Seicers of Mt. Ycrnon. The city is provided with a complete system of sewers, and about 28,000 of its 30,000 population (1908), are served with the system which, prior to its interception, discharged through three separate outlets into Hutchinson river. Eighty-five per cent, of the entire sewage of the city is taken to the outfall near the foot of Fulton avenue for purification. Sewers of Pelham. The Village of Pelliam, lying on the east side of the Hutchin- son river, opposite Mt. Vernon, has a population of 300 or 400 who are served by the sewer system. Sewers of Pelham Manor. Pelham Manor has a population of 650 and practically every house in the village is connected with the sewer system. At North Pelham a small amount of sewage is discharged into the river from a few houses ; no sewer sys- tem has been constructed in this village. Mt. Vernon Purification Works. It is estimated that somewhat more than 2,000,000 gallons of sewage per day originates in this group of municipalities, 1,800,000 gallons per day being the estimated quantity that will be delivered to the Mt. Vernon sewage 30G DATA COLLECTED purification works. The process of purification adopted includes settlement and sub- sidence in covered settling basins, filti'ation through covered sprinkling filters and final settlement of the effluent in open basins. The effluent is to be discharged into a .small tidal tributary of Hutchinson river at a point about three miles from the head of East- chester bay, one of the most indented of the many long narrow tidal arms of the Sound in this vicinity. Provisions are made for the prevention of the escaping odors from the purification works by connecting the settling basins and sprinkling filters with t\vo tall ventilating towers intended to contain beds of oxide of iron through which the gases and vapors given off in the process of purifying the sewage may be passed to become neutralized. The works are practically complete but are not yet in operation. SEWERAGE OF NEW ROCHELLE Sewers. The sewerage system of New Rochelle contains upwards of 55 miles of sewers, but only the sewage of about one-third of the city on the side adjoining the town of Pelham and approximating 700,000 gallons per day for a population of 7,000 people goes to the purification plant situated at the foot of Morgan street. The effluent is dis- charged into Long Island Sound opposite to Glen Island, about 5,100 feet from the plant. The purification works were put in operation in the fall of 1898. Purification Works. As the sewage enters it first passes through a screen with bars spaced one-half inch apart, thence through a baffle chamber 30 feet long and 2 feet wide, at the entrance to which the lime and copperas are introduced and subsequently mixed through the sewage by the agitation caused in passing around the baffles. From the mixing channel the sewage flows through a conduit into one of five sedimentation tanks, each 66 feet long and 22 feet wide. From these five tanks it passes into an effluent pipe and out into the Sound. The sludge from the sedimentation tanks is drained into a cistern 12 feet in diam- eter in front of the building, from which it is pumped to three sludge beds each having a total length of 71 feet and a width of 25.5 feet, the three having a combined area of 1/10 acre. Around the inside of each bed and two feet below the top of the exterior walls is built a concrete shelf two feet wide, and within the area enclosed by this shelf there are 24 concrete piers two feet high with their tops on the same level as the 2-foot concrete shelf. The filtering materials in the sludge beds consist of six inches of cinders on top of 18 inches of broken stone. The liquid pumped with the sludge filters down through the cinders and enters the 3-inch undcrdram tiles leading to the two sludge wells at the center of each bed. The six sludge wells are connected by a pipe and discharge into a manhole near the sedimentation chamber from whence the filtrate flows into the effluent pipe through a total length of about 200 feet of 12- SEWERAGE OF NEW ROCHELLE 307 inch pipe. When the sludge on the sludge beds is dry enough to handle it is collected in piles and wheeled to a point about 150 feet distant. The total amount of sludge collected annually averages 1,240 cubic yards, or about 17 cubic yards at each clean- ing. The sedimentation tanks are cleaned every five or six days, and the sludge from cue of the three beds at the same time. Annual operating expenses. Fuel f 78 00 Engineer and 2 laborers 2,860 00 43 tons copperas 720 00 400 Ibs. lime daily at flG per ton 1,168 00 Chloride of lime, 400 tons at 45 cents per ton 180 00 $4,806 00 Cost of the plant, as estimated by the New York State Board of Health, was $3,194. SECTION III SEWERAGE OF THE NEW JERSEY METROPOLITAN DISTRICT GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Characteristics of the District. Within the boundaries of the New Jersey part of the metropolitan district, lie several important centers of population. Some of these are situated upon relatively small bodies of water, and the discharge therein of sewage and manufacturing wastes has led to co-operative efforts to correct present and prevent future nuisances. Among the efforts made may be mentioned : a. The Union outlet sewer, constructed under an agreement entered into between Montclair, Orange, Bloomfield and Glen Ridge for the discharge of the sewage of these communities into the Passaic river near the upper end of Newark. ft. The Joint outlet sewer, so-called, which diverts the sewage of Soutli Orange, Vailsburg, Irvington, and a portion of Newark to the Kill van Kull at Elizabeth. c. The proposed Passaic valley sewer. Several of the cities in the district have investigated methods and constructed works for disposing of their sewage, among these being East Orange, where a puri- fication plant was built and operated for a number of years, but put out of serv- ice in 1896 when arrangements were made to discharge into the Newark system, Sum- mit, N. J., which had a purification plant in use until the joint outlet sewer was con- structed, and Newark, where extensive intercepting sewers have been built leading to a pumping station from which the sewage is pumped out to Newark bay. Several re- ports have been made on the disposal of Paterson's sewage independently of the other communities in the Passaic valley; in Elizabeth it has been necessary to construct in- 308 DATA COLLECTED terceptors and a pumping station to deliver the city's sewage into the Joint outlet and relieve the intolerable condition of the Elizabeth river. Cranford and Rahway have also joint interest in an outlet sewer discharging into the river below Eahway. Newark bay, which lies parallel to and is separated from Upper New York bay by the Bayonne peninsula, receives at its head the waters of the Passaic and Hackensack rivers. All the sewage and liquid manufacturing wastes from the com- munities in the watersheds of these two streams find their way ultimately into the bay, and thence into the ocean through Kill van Kull and the Arthur Kill. It is estimated that about 83 per cent, of the discharge from Newark bay goes to sea through the Kill van Kull and Narrows, and about 17 per cent through Arthur Kill. Newark bay is shallow and broad, which is one of the factors that may have prevented its becoming exceedingly offensive. Its shallowness and great area insure the replacement of a large percentage of its total volume during each tide, and the consequent extensive diffusion of the sewage through the water. The population of the entire area within the limits of the New Jersey metropolitan district in 1905 was 1,203,387; the population of the cities and towns of over 25,000 population was 910,764, and of the small villages and rural districts, 292,623. Two- thirds of the population of the district was centered in Newark, Jersey City and Paterson. SEWERAGE OF NEWAEK, N. J. GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Newark with a population in 1905 of 283,289 is the largest city in the metropolitan district in New Jersey, and is situated on the west side of the Passaic river just north of Elizabeth, east of the Oranges and south of Belleville, from which it is separated by Second river. From the Market street Station, Newark, to City Hall in Manhattan in a straight line is 8.5 miles. That portion of Newark west of the Passaic river and Broad street, about 14 square miles in extent, is characterized by a line of hills parallel with the river. To the east and south of Broad street lie some six square miles of meadow laud but a few feet above tide level. The summits of the hills in Newark rise from about 170 feet in the Riverside district to 235 feet above sea level in the West Park district. Rock outcrops do not interfere to any extent with the construction of sewers, probably less than 10 per cent, of the trenches having required blasting. Quicksand exists to a large extent in the lower levels and water bearing drift in many places. Drainage Areas. The natural drainage areas of the northern portion of the city empty into the Passaic river, Second river and Branch brook ; the southern portion into the Meadows and the western or Vailsburg section into two small creeks flowing south SEWERAGE OF NEWARK 309 into the Elizabeth river. The storm water drainage in most cases follows quite closely the natural routes. Board of Street and Water Commissioners. A board, known as The Board of Street and Water Commissioners has charge of all public works in Newark. Reporting to the board is a Chief Engineer under whom are the engineers in charge of the design and construction of structures relating to water, streets, sewers and lighting, and a gen- eral Superintendent of Works who has charge of maintenance of streets, sewers and lights. One of the assistants to the Chief Engineer has charge, as one of his duties, of the correlation of one department with another, and the adjustment of differences which may arise with respect to conflicts of authority. Department of Sewers. The engineer in charge of the department of sewers and drainage has under him a field and office force of eight trained engineers and three helpers; and in the house sewer connection department one engineer and various clerks. The engineers are all under State Civil Service regulation. Fifteen inspectors for con- struction work are permanently on the list, but are paid by the day when work is being carried on. Department of Works. Under the General Superintendent of Works is a superin- tendent of sewers, appointed under Civil Service regulations. The foremen act as in- spectors and are assigned to certain subdivisions of territory which they go over regu- larly making inspections and cleaning basins and sewers. SEWERAGE WORKS Design. The original sewerage of Newark was on the combined system but since the construction of the interceptor and pumping station in 1887 house drainage and ground water have been separated from the storm water over an ever increasing portion of the city. In 1908 there were 57.7 miles of house drainage sewers, 5 miles of drains for storm water only and 200 miles of combined sewers. The necessity for the disposal of house sewage at some future time, either through the Passaic valley sewer or through a local interceptor, requires that separate systems be used as extensively as possible. For calculating the quantity of water expected to reach the sewers the formula de- duced by Rudolph Hering, C. E., from guagiugs of sewers in The City of New York in 1888 has been used. This is : Q = C R A- 83 x S- 2T For Newark conditions C = 1.00 in suburbs 1.25 in half built up portions 1.50 in down town districts R = Rainfall intensity, in inches per hour. A = Area in acres. S = Slope in feet per 1000. Q Cubic feet per second of water expected to reach the sewers. 310 DATA COLLECTED The sewers designed by this formula have been found to take ,all but the very heaviest of storms. Various allowances have been made for the capacities of the house drainage sewers. In making a recalculation of the capacity of the main interceptor in 1893 it was assumed that the population would be 90 persons per acre using 75 gallons of water per diem each. TAVo-thirds of this quantity was to be carried off by the sewers in eight hours. For the East Branch sewer a population of 100 per acre was assumed, using 75 gallons of water per day, the sewer to run one-half full and to take two-thirds the flow off in eight hours. Later separate systems have been built using a population of 60 and even as low as 30 per acre. An allowance for the leakage of 30,000 gallons of ground water into the sewers per day per mile of sewer is customary in designing sewers. Guagings of the Union out- let sewer which drains Orange, Montclair, Glen Ridge, and Bloomfield, indicated to the consulting engineers of the Passaic Valley Sewage Commission that the average leakage would be about 350,000 gallons per square mile per day for the area between the moun- tain and the river. Provision was made at one time, prior to 1900, for the entrance of ground water into the combined sewers by laying several courses of brick in the bottom of the sew r ers without mortar joints. The carrying capacity of the sewers is calculated from Kutter's formula using 11 = .013 for pipes and .015 for brick and concrete sewers. All concrete sewers have inverts lined with vitrified brick so that the same coefficient is used for both brick and concrete sewers. Velocities. It is the intention wherever possible to have the velocity in the sewers at least three feet per second. Materials. Practically all of the older sewers above 24 inches in size have been constructed of brick. Experience with vitrified pipe of larger sizes than 21 inches diameter has :iot always been satisfactory in Newark. Eecently reinforced concrete has been used both in place and for pipes made on the bank. In 1908 about one-third of total mileage of public sewers was either brick or concrete. A note of replacing a brick sewer in Nutria street built over 40 years ago says that it " was found to be in such dangerous condition that it was torn out and replaced by an 18-inch pipe." Outlets. In general the elevation of the inverts of the various outlets is at low water. A few are above or below but none are above high water. It is probable that at times of high water the flow in the Jackson street and the City Dock sewers backs up half a mile or more. Ventilation. The manhole covers are perforated and a circulation of air from man- hole to manhole provided in this way. SEWERAGE OF NEWARK 311 Basin Design. Standard forms of manholes and catch basins are in general ad- hered to; but there are a few basins much shallower than the standard, and also a few have been built of concrete blocks and of reinforced concrete. The standard brick manhole is considered the cheapest in most cases. It is not thought practicable to elimin- ate the basins from much of the territory, particularly on those sewers which do not have good grades. Flush Tanks. Flush tanks are used on the separate systems ; 103 are reported as being in use in 1908. Principal Sewers. The earlier sewers were built of pipe and brick with little re- gard to requirements as to size; in most cases they were made too large. Instances have been noted of the same size and grade being used from the outlet to a dead end where there was no possible chance for any further development. The drainage areas and sizes of the various Newark sewers are given in Table XVII. TABLE XVII DRAINAGE AREAS OF NEWARK SEWERS Acres Size of Outlet Material Shape Verona avenue 687 5'3"x6'0" Brick Delaware avenue 90 (not built) Herbert place 255 3'6"x4'0" Brick Third avenue 13 15" Pine Fourth avenue 190 4'0"x4'0" Brick Clark street 39 3'0" Brick Millbrook 1 762 Two-6'9"x9'3' Orange street 13 2'0"x3'0" Bridge street 12 15" Pipe Rector street 132 5'0"x6'0" Brick Central relief 302 6'0"x6'0" City dock 354 5'6"x6'6" Jackson street 84 4'10"x5'3" Polk street 188 7'0"x8'0" Freeman street 143 4'0" Brown street 92 24" Pipe East branch (N. of St. Charles street) . . Interceptor (excl. of above) 256 3,342 3'0"x4'6" 6'6" Brick and concrete. Brick 312 DATA COLLECTED Of the foregoing the Millbrook twin outlet (each 6 feet 9 inches by 9 feet 3 inches) sewer at the foot of Clay street drains an area of 1,762 acres in the Roseville district and also relieves the Fourth avenue sewer. The Central relief sewer, emptying at the foot of Saybrooke place was built to re- lieve the Rector avenue sewer which was overtaxed at its outlet during heavy storms. The City Dock sewer, 5 feet 6 inches by 6 feet 6 inches, drains 354 acres in the heart of the city. The house sewage from about one-third of the whole city discharges through the in- tercepting sewer into Newark bay at the foot of Bay avenue, the storm water outlet for this southern territory being into Peddie street canal and the meadows. Interceptor. An intercepting sewer was built in 1887 to take care of the house sew- age from a section in the southern portion of the city. Its capacity is stated to be 70,000,000 gallons daily, but the pumping capacity is only 30 million gallons daily. The sewer was obliged to take the house drainage and one-quarter-inch to three-eighths-inch of rainfall per 21 hours from about 7,400 acres. About 3,600 acres, or less than half of this area, is now connected. Pumping records show a great increase of flow during storms so that a good deal of surface drainage or ground water must find its way into the sewer. A yearly fluctuation is noted, but this is explained in part by the correction for slip being calculated uniformly at 8 per cent., without regard to the condition of the pumps. Just why there should be so much daily variation is not known although it is possible to shut down sewer gates controlling the discharge into the Peddie street canal and divert much or little to the interceptor. The average, maximum and minimum pumpage rates per day as measured by the plunger displacement together with other pumping station data are given in Table XVIII. SEWERAGE OF NEWARK TABLE XVIII PUMPING STATION DATA, NEWARK^ N. J. 313 Year Putnpage in million gallons daily Total annual cost for pumping station Average Maximum Minimum Coal consumed Ibs. 1888. . 7.6 6.7 9.7 7.8 8.5 9.6 10.1 10.3 9.8 10.8 13.3 12.5 13.1 12.8 13.0 12.9 13.3 13.6 13.2 12.4 13.1 19.5 20.1 26.7 30.4 31.4 31.9 31.6 23.5 30.3 5.0 4.0 6.6 4.7 5.0 5.6 2.6 4.3 5.7 998,852 1,430,288 1,470,899 1,495,604 1,697,331 1,672,992 1,691,993 1,670,637 $10,889.77 12,458.06 (Eat.) 17,301.73 12,961.29 13,884.51 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893. . . . 1894 . I J895 ... 1896 1897. . . . . 1898 . 1899 1900 1901 1902 . . 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 East Branch Intercepting Sewer. The so-called east branch of the intercepting sewer was part of the project reported upon by Mr. Rudolph Hering in 1895. The alignment is substantially the same as recommended by Mr. Alphonse Fteley in 1884. At the present time the east branch sewer has been practically completed; it drains an area of 256 acres south of the Pennsylavnia railroad and east to the Morris canal. It joins the old intercepting sewer about 2,000 feet from the pumping station. East Orange Outlet Seiver. The East Orange outlet sewer delivers house sewage into the Mill brook sewer at Newbold avenue in Newark from practically the whole of East Orange a territory of about four square miles. 314 DATA COLLECTED Vailsburg Seicers. The entire area of the Vailsburg section, containing 806 acres, arid of about 265 acres in Newark, lying between Thirteenth avenue and Lyons avenue and approximately as far east as South Fourteenth street, discharges through the Joint outlet sewer. This sewer is under the control of a separate commission which has charge of its maintenance; Newark pays for her share in the maintenance ex- pense $1,200 annually. Some sections of this sewer are at times overcharged and great care, therefore, must be taken to exclude surface and roof water from the main line and branches. Relief Setcers. Various relief sewers have been built from time to time as troubles from storm water floods in closely built up sections have appeared. The Adams street sewer project was one of these, house sewage only going to the intercep- tor therefrom, the storm flow being diverted to Dead creek. Meadowbrook Sciccr System. Separate systems have been provided for the house drainage and storm water run off in the valley lying west of Roseville avenue and ex- tending from Springdale avenue to the Old Bloomfield road. The surface water sys- tem extends south as far as Park avenue. The house drainage system extends botli north and south of Bloomfield avenue and delivers to a pumping station at North Sixth street near the old Bloomfield road from which it is to be pumped into the Forest Hill system. Passaic Interceptor. In 1884 Mr. Alphouse Fteley proposed an interceptor to skirt the Passaic and take house drainage to the present interceptor through a branch on Sauford street. This scheme is still feasible and might be put through except for the possibility of the Passaic valley sewer being constructed. Sewage Flow. Newark consumes about 35,000,000 gallons of water daily with an estimated population of 311,000, or 114 gallons per capita per day. In 1905 it was estimated that the quantity of sewage discharged through tiie 41,907 sewer connec- tions was 46,500,000 gallons daily. Growth of the System. The mileage of sewers, number of basins and cost of sew- ers built during various years are given in Table XIX. It i.s to be noted that the mileage constructed is diminishing rather than increasing. The city of Newark is practically covered by the present sewer system and very little if any new systems, at least of any magnitude, are called for. Practically all of the outlets are of sufficient size now to care for the ultimate development of the city. SEWERAGE OF NEWARK TABLE XIX GROWTH OF SEWER SYSTEM IN NEWARK 315 Year Milage of Sewers No. of Basins Flush tanks, Total Total cost (public sewers only) Built during year Total Built during year Total 1894 13.20 15.90 5.35 3.54 11.60 13.05 10.32 10.28* 10.46 10.46 9.34 5.80 105.87 128.07 133 155 65 63 109f 42 100{ 23 26 96 2,165 2,298 2,579 2,734 2,799 2,862 2,964f 3,056 3.152J 3,225 3,251 3,347 22 39 49 49 49 51 93 93 100 103 $3,278,827 82 3,486,594 39 3,631,164 25 3,721,324 09 3,829,914 98 4,300,636 97 4,451,257 25 4,734,910 02 4,916,125 78 1895 1896 1897 1898 162.30 178.20 183.55 187.09 198.69 211.74 1899 1900 1901 1902 . . 1903 1904 1905 1906 232.36T1 242.82 253.30 262.65 268.45 1907 1908 1009 "Vailsburg added this year. t4 basins abandoned, 3 replaced, 3 already in. t Probably 4 abandoned. 1 Error 0.02 mile. The sower outlets of Newark are considered adequate to drain the terri- tory allotted to them in all cases excepting the City Dock, 5 feet 6 inches by G feet 6 inches, Freeman street, 4 feet, and Brown street, 24-inch sewers. There are, however, certain sections of the city, back from the outlets, where relief sewers are needed to pre- vent flooding during heavy storms. On the whole, Newark appears to be very completely provided with sewers. The policy of laying sewers and house connections ahead of paving has been inaugurated. An ordinance prohibits the use of cesspools after sewers are provided so that there are not many cesspools left. The annexation of Belleville to the north is now contem- plated. This area is not sewered at all and will probably require separate sewers. 316 DATA COLLECTED MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE SYSTEM Cleaning. In the business section of the city the department is able to clean all catch basins about every two weeks, but in the outlying districts perhaps not more than once or twice per year. In 1908, when there were 3,349 catch basins, 4,732 were reported as cleaned; each was, therefore, cleaned on the average 14 times per year; men are specially detailed to investigate and remedy all causes of complaint. Disposal of Cleanings. The materials in the basins are said to be not generally putrefactive and are disposed of on public dumps approved by the Board of Health. These dumps are usually on meadow land far removed from houses. No special pro- vision for disinfecting, covering or other treatment is made. Steam in Sewers. Connecting steam exhaust pipes to the sewers is prohibited by ordinance and is not done to any extent. Street Cleaning. Newark takes great pride in clean streets, but the sweepings are not allowed to be pushed into the catch basins; the rule is observed rigidly, although occasionally a limited amount of snow is crowded in. Cast of Sewer Maintenance. The cost of maintenance in 1908 was |63,003.49 of which $13,884.51 was chargeable to the pumping station. There were 4,732 basins cleaned at a cost of $1.06 each and 3.94 miles of sewers at a cost of 37 cents per foot. There will be about $70,000 expended this year (1909) for maintenance of sewers and drains. DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE Into Passaic River. The sewage of all that portion of Newark not draining to the intercepting sewer and its branches is discharged by gravity through outlets, without purification or treatment, into the Passaic river. Into Newark Bay. The sewage that is received by the interceptor goes to a pump- ing station at Avenue J and Mills street, at the southern limits of the built up por- tion of the city, and is pumped thence through an outfall pipe to a point in Newark bay about 2,000 feet from shore and opposite the mouth of Bound creek. Outlet Nitisances. The pollution of the Passaic river has been the subject of much attention and legislation for the last 15 years. It is the most important river in New Jersey and is polluted far beyond permissible limits from any point of view. The dry weather flow of the river is at times not over four times the quantity of sewage and manufacturing wastes discharged into it; the latter are putrescible in some cases. Fish have long since ceased to inhabit the stream, and property along its banks has depre- ciated in value from the unsanitary and unpleasant surroundings. Future Plans. It is the intention of the city to discharge all dry weather sewage SEWERAGE OF NEWARK 317 flow from the entire city, excepting the portion now going to the Joint outlet sewer, into the Passaic valley sewer if it is ever constructed. This sower, if built, will skirt the west bank of the Passaic river through Newark, extending in a southeasterly direction across the meadows to a screen chamber and pumping station near Newark bay. From the pumping station the sewage will flow by tunnel under Newark bay and Bayoune to a point of discharge in Upper New York bay about one-fourth mile east of Robbing Reef. In case the Passaic valley sewer is not built it will be feasible to extend the pres- ent Newark interceptor area to connect with it the same sewers that would be relieved by the proposed Passaic valley sewer. This would not be of advantage to any of the cities above Newark. No other plans for the disposal of Newark's sewerage have been made and there is not a great deal of extension work planned. THE SEWERAGE OF PATERSON, N. J. General Conditions. Paterson, with a population in 1905 of 111,529, lies at the Falls of the Passaic river where it breaks through First Mountain and sweeps to the east and south in an irregular semi-circular bend about 2% miles across. The site of the city is undulating, with hills rising from 100 to 180 feet high. The conditions in Paterson are favorable to satisfactory and economical drainage, the slopes being steep and the distances to the river not great from any point owing to the bend in the river. In the down-town district there is a sewer outlet at the foot of nearly every street. The total drainage area in the city of Paterson is about 8 square miles, of which a little more than half is now sewered. The total ultimate drainage area of sewers built is about 83 per cent, of the whole area. The Sewers. The early records of the sewers of Paterson were lost in a fire some years ago and new maps had to be made from an old report which gave only the sizes and the streets in which sewers had been built. The grades could not be obtained ex- cept by making entirely new underground surveys. The sewers are on the combined system, designed to take both storm water and house sewage. In 1906 there were, from 35 drainage districts, about 29 public sewer outlets emptying into the Passaic, 22 from the south side and 7 from the north side. In addition there are many sewers from factories discharging probably 10,000,000 gal- lons of sewage a day into the river. Of the larger sewers on the south side may be mentioned a 54-inch egg-shaped sewer in Prospect street, draining 441 acres, which is said to be adequate for storm 318 DATA COLLECTED flow, a twin sewer outlet, each barrel being 54 inches diameter, draining 319 acres, in Montgomery street, which is not adequate for storm water; a GO-inch egg-shaped sewer in Thirty-third street, draining 571 acres, adequate for storm water, and a 91-inch cir- cular sewer in Market street, draining 1,504 acres, adequate for the area drained, which is mainly through the 84-inch circular Vreeland avenue branch. There are two main sewers entering from the north side; a 72-inch circular sewer in Hamburg avenue, draining 2GO acres, entirely adequate, and a 36-inch egg-shaped sewer in North Straight street, draining 108 acres, which is not adequate. The Market street sewer is the larg- est and most important in the city. The size, location, drainage areas and capacities of the sewers of Paterson are given in Table XX. TABLE XX. SEWER OUTFALLS OF PATERSON Street Size and Shape of Sewer Present Drainage Area in Acres Ultimate Drainage Area in Acres Discharge Cu. ft. per Sec. Discharge in Inches of Rainfall per Hour Side entering River On present Area On ultimate Area Prospect 54" Egg 18" Ore. 18" Circ. 24" CSrc. 18" Ore. 105.8 3.0 3.0 3.5 16.5 47.7 348.8 107.5 2.0 23.6 44.6 4.6 4.0 3.5 102.9 29.2 22.0 52.3 552.7 440.8 3.0 3.0 3.5 16.5 47.7 348.8 107.5 2.0 23.6 162.9 8.0 8.3 3.5 102.9 29.2 22.0 82.5 571.3 173.0 14.2 8.2 20.5 5.1 109.2 14.0 5.2 9.2 45.6 19.1 54.9 24.5 27.4 24.2 272.5 1.63 4.73 2.72 5.81 0.31 0.31 0.13 2.56 0.39 1.02 5.43 0.53 0.83 1.24 0.46 0.49 0.44 4.73 2 72 5.81 0.31 0.31 0.13 2.56 0.39 0.28 5.43 0.53 0.83 1.24 0.29 0.47 South South South South South South South South South South South South South South South South Mulberry West Bank Main Bridge Montgomery Twin Sewer 54" Ore. 36" Egg 12" Ore. 15" Ore. 30" Egg Straight Franklin Keen Warren Lowe Wood East 5th, Private 24" Ore. 38" Egg 30" Egg 30" Egg 30" Egg 60" Egg East llth 4th avenue 2d avenue 3d avenue 33d street SEWERAGE OF PATERSON TABLE XX Continued 319 Street Size and Shape of Sewer Present Drainage Area in Acres Ultimate Drainage Area in Acres Discharge Cu. ft. per Sec. Discharge in Inches of Rainfall per Hour Side entering River On present Area On ultimate Area 20th avenue . 42" Egg 84" Circ. 94" Circ. 18.1 820.0 56.0 223.0 13.0 30.0 34.0 54.0 5.6 21.6 136.0 1504.5 56.0 260.0 13.0 30.0 34.0 68.0 5.6 21.6 74.0 335.0 960.0 4.05 0.403 1.15 1.29 1.16 0.67 0.49 0.83 1.05 0.53 0.22 0.63 1.10 1.16 0.67 0.49 0.67 1.05 South South South North North North North North North Market street on Vreelandl Market street . 36" Iron Pipe Northwest and Hamburg ave-\ 72" Ore. 30" Egg 30" Egg 24" Egg 36" Egg 18" Circ. 289.0 15.2 20.1 17.0 45.3 5.9 North Main and Temple Arch N Straight Bergen Short Population Served with Sewers. The residences of eighty-nine per cent, of the population or about 99,000 were, it is estimated, connected with the city sewers in 1905. Outlets. All the sewers discharge into the Passaic river. Many of the outlets in ihe upper part of the city are below the river level causing the sewers to be flooded for some distance back. On account of this there are sludge deposits varying from a few inches to over a foot in depth in these sewers. Quantity of Sewage. In 1906 two gagings were made showing an average daily flow, after certain corrections were applied, of 20,900,000 gallons per day on April 17-19, and 12,600,000 gallons per day on June 11-12. The first gaging was made at the time of year when the ground water flow is the greatest. In 1900 there were 71.72 miles of sewers and 1,500 catch basins in the system. In 1906 the City Engineer estimated there was about 80 miles of sewers. In 1906 there were 8,000 house and 500 factory connections. There are a great many factories sewer- ing directly into the river of which there is no record. In 1900 the discharge into the river was estimated at 24,000,000 gallons daily, of which 7,000,000 gallons daily origi- nated in the factories. MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWER SYSTEM Inspection. It is stated in a tabulation in a report of the New Jersey State Sewer- age Commission (to the 1900 Legislature, p. 108) that there was at that time a com- plete system of inspection, care and maintenance and that the sewers were " kept care- 320 DATA COLLECTED fully clean." Later reports (Hazen's report, June, 1906, p. 74) indicate that the in- spection and cleaning was not regular and in fact in some cases could not be done at all because many of the manhole heads had been covered over in grading and paving the streets. DISPOSAL OP THE SEWAGE Into Passaic River. All the Paterson sewage is discharged into the Passaic river at the sewer outfalls, without treatment of any kind. The result has been the creation of continually increasing pollution and consequent nuisances. Complaints. Complaints were first brought to the notice of the State Board of Health in 1892, since which time there has been one continual round of condemnation of the condition of the river, which has become a nuisance to residents along (lie stream. has caused depreciation of property values and is objectionable for manufacturing pur- poses. Boating, bathing and other ordinarily pleasurable uses are no longer possible. Attempts to Stop Pollution of River. Numerous bills have been introduced into the New Jersey Legislature to prevent the pollution of the Passaic river from Pater- son to Newark bay. Much of the attempted legislation has been very sweeping in its requirements and not always fair to all interests; nor has consideration always been given the participants on points which vitally concerned them. The last bill, and the one under which the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission is now working for the inter- ests of the whole district, was approved March 18, 1907. This bill requires the various cities to cease polluting the Passaic after December 12, 1912, and provides the neces- sary authority to allow the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission to undertake the work for all or any number of the various municipalities in the district. IMPROVED SEWAGE DISPOSAL Mr. dray's Report. Many plans have been suggested and investigated for the im- provement of the sewage disposal of Paterson. Two reports of prominence are those of Samuel M. Gray, C. E., of Providence, and Allen Hazen, C. E., New York. Mr. Gray's report, dated January loth, 1903, was made to the Citizen's Association and was on the subject of the feasibility of disposing of the sewage of Paterson inde- pendently of any other municipality. His findings were that Paterson could dispose of its sewage independently from that of any other community, and in such a man- ner as not to cause a nuisance to anyone. His recommendations were, in brief, to locate a plant consisting of septic tanks and sprinkling filters upon land in Bergen County, on the east side of the river, a short distance northerly of the city of Passaic, the sewage to be collected by an inter- cepting sewer in Paterson flowing to the purification works by gravity and being pumped thence into the septic tanks. The estimated cost, for a daily capacity of SEWERAGE OF PATERSON 321 25,000,000 gallons, together with the interceptor, was f 2,070,185; the annual cost of operation not over f 180,4 :->5. Mr. 1/dzcn's Report. On January 1, 1906, Allen Hazen, C. E., was engaged by the Joint Committee on Sewage Disposal, the membership being representatives of the Tax- payers' Association and of the Hoard of Aldermen, to report on all phases and possi- bilities of the disposal of Paterson's sewage in the most economical way. The proposi- lion finally narrowed itself down to a comparison between the cost of disposing of the sewage on land not far away, or of joining the trunk sewer movement proposed for the Passaic valley district. Mr. Hazen made a careful study of the whole problem and finally recommended that Paterson enter into the trunk sewer project only if the raw sewage could be dis- charged into tide water without treatment; if purification were required then it would be cheaper to treat the sewage near Paterson and allow the purified effluent to flow to the sea through the channel of the Passaic instead of a trunk sewer. Works Proposed. The estimates were based on an intercepting sewer 5.6 miles long, from Prospect street to Market street, varying in size from 4 feet to 6 feet 6 inches, and costing $724,900. From a small receiving reservoir and screen chamber centrifugal pumps were de- signed to deliver the sewage through G,300 feet of G()-inch steel pipe to a filter plant across the river. The purification plant was laid out on the same general lines as the works at i'nlumbus and Baltimore. The sludge was to be used on land for filling or perhaps taken to sea in sludge boats. A 72-inch outlet from the purification plant to the river was to discharge the effluent into the Passaic. About 35 miles of new sewers would be needed in order to change from the com- bined to the separate system, which could be extended over a period of 25 to 30 years. The above system was compared, as to cost of construction and operation, with dis- posal at sea through a trunk sewer in conjunction with other cities. The following is the comparison for both systems. Trunk sewer project Separate Works Average capital invested per capita $12 40 $16 00 Interest and sinking fund at 5^ per capita per annum $ 62 $ 80 Operating expenses per capita per annum 23 48 Storm water separation per capita per annum 10 10 Total annual cost per capita $0.95 $1 38 322 DATA COLLECTED The above figures for the trunk sewer project are estimated for a sewer discharg- ing raw sewage into New York bay. If a purification plant is necessary it would cost at least $0.50 per capita per annum, which, added to f 0.95, would be more than would be required for Paterson to treat her own sewage at home. Future Plans of the Local Authorities. It is reported that the city of Paterson plans to discharge her sewage into the proposed Passaic valley sewer providing that project is carried out without the necessity of purifying the sewage before discharge into New York harbor. No other definite plan is under consideration. SEWERAGE OF PASSAIC, N. J. General Topographical Features. The city of Passaic with a population in 1905 of 37,837, lies on the west bank of the Passaic river one and one-half miles below Pat- erson. Passaic has grown very rapidly, its population having been, according to United States Census Reports, 6,532 in 1880; 13,028 in 1890, and according to the State Census, 17,894 in 1895 and 37,873 in 1905. Its rapid growtli has been induced by the factory facilities afforded by the Dundee Land and Power Co. and by the fact that the city is located at the upper limits of tide water in the Passaic. It is essentially a manufacturing city, although the residential population is large and increasing. Seuxrage. The area of the city is a little over three square miles and has 12 drainage districts of which the largest are 622 acres draining to Lafayette street, 377 acres draining to Brook avenue, 355 acres draining to Aycrigg avenue and 341 acres draining to Hope avenue. The Brook avenue area drains to the river near the southern limits of the city. The sewers are mostly small and the total quantity of sewage discharged daily not over about 3,500,000 gallons. The trade wastes discharged into the river daily di- rectly from the factories and mills amount to more than twice the city sewage in quantity. Ventilation is secured through perforations in the manhole covers and cleanliness by the relatively steep grades and the use of flush tanks at summits. The sewers are designed on the separate system although there are several com- bined sewers in use, taking both sewage and storm water. Sewage Disposal. Two of the sewer outlets are on the island (factory section) and discharge into the river above the tail race ; two discharge into the main tail race at Washington avenue and Passaic street and several into the river below the tail race. All the sewage and manufacturing wastes go into the river without treatment of anj' kind. SEWERAGE OF PASSAIC 323 The river as it reaches Passaic is very foul in summer from the Paterson sewage, and the added sewage from Passaic, of course, increases its objectionable qualities, although the predominating ingredients of the Passaic trade wastes are not of a putrescible nature. SEWERAGE OF THE CITY OF ORANGE, THE TOWNS OF MONTCLAIR AND BLOOMFIELD AND THE BOROUGH OF GLEN RIDGE UNION OUTLET SBWEU General Topographical Features. Orange, Montclair, Bloomfield and Glen Ridge are high class residential sections in the Passaic valley. Orange lies west of and ad- joins East Orange which, in turn lies west of and adjoins Newark. Montclair lies north of Orange while Bloomfield and Glen Ridge lie north of East Orange. Orange, Montclair, Glen Ridge and Bloomfield drain naturally to the branches and main valley of Second river, which empties into the Passaic at the boundary line between Newark and Belleville. Montclair Drainage Area in Acres. 3 900 Population in 1905. 16 370 Glen Ridge 825 2362 Bloomfield 3 223 11 668 Orange City . 1 410 26 101 Totals ^ 9,358 56,501 These total areas and populations are not fully served by sewers. Sewerage. The sewerage in each of these communities is on the separate system and discharges into the Union outlet sewer which follows the valley of Second river. This sewer was built several years ago, and the cost apportioned among the different municipalities in proportion to the estimated populations in the year 1930, these pop- ulations being based on second differences of the five-year census returns for the 20 years preceding the construction of the sewer. The annual cost of operation is appor- tioned on the basis of actual use, the sewage flow from each town being gauged by suitable devices. Disposal of the Sewage. The Union outlet sewer discharges the sewage from the territory it serves into the Passaic river at Verona avenue in Newark ; no purification is effected. SEWERAGE OF EAST ORANGE, N. J. General Topographical Features. East Orange, with a population of 25,175 in 1905 adjoins Newark on the west and includes within its boundaries 3.91 square 324 DATA COLLECTED miles of gently rolling country. While there are numerous commercial houses iu the city it is essentially a residential district containing many fine homes. The town is underlaid with gravel and sand deposits interspersed with layers of clay. Much difficulty was experienced in laying the sewer from the large quantities of ground water encountered; in fact the contractor for this part of the work failed and threw the burden of finishing it on the township authorities. Sewerage. The separate system of sewerage is employed in East Orange, storm water being excluded from the sewers. When the plant was first constructed a puri- fication plant, embodying chemical precipitation followed by filtration, was installed and the main outlet sewer led to this plant. There were upwards of 55 miles of sewers in this district in 1905, mostly small col- lecting pipes leading to larger mains which in turn join the outfall sewer. The sewers are provided with automatic flush tanks supplied with water from the street mains. Ventilation of the sewers is afforded through the perforated manhole covers. A great deal of ground water enters the sewers, 700,000 gallons daily being tin- figures estimated in 1890 by a committee of investigation; this quantity was about equal to the domestic flow from the house connections. Oriyinal Sewage Disposal Plant. The original method of disposal was, as above indicated, by chemical precipitation followed by filtration through specially prepared and underdrained areas of land. The sewage entered the works through a baflled channel at the head of which the dose of lime and alum were added to promote the precipi- tation of the solid matters in the sedimentation tanks. The average dose in the early years of its operation was one barrel of lime and 300 pounds of alum per day at an average expense of about $6 per day for chemicals. From the precipitation tanks the effluent was conducted, after coarse screening through coke strainers, to the disposal fields covering an area of some 20 acres. The beds were underdrained by lines of tiles at a depth of five or six feet which discharged into Parrow brook. The soil in the fields proved too retentive and failed to pass the sewage through freely enough, to rectify which three coke beds 6 feet wide, 5 feet deep and 50 feet long were added. It was found, particularly in winter, that the natural filter beds froze up so that the sewage could not pass through; the coke beds, on the other hand, could be worked under all conditions of weather. This plant was put in operation in July, 1888, and was the first of its kind in the country. Its operation was not sat- isfactory, however, almost from the start, and on July 30, 1890, a committee was ap- pointed by the Town Improvement Society of East Orange to investigate the seweragi- system and report on its condition and efficiency. This committee reported February SEWERAGE OF EAST ORANGE 325 21, 1891, that the flow to the plant from the 1,200 house connections and 21 Hush tanks was averaging somewhat over 1,330,000 gallons daily of which 700,000 gallons daily represented ground water leaking into the sewers. An examination of the effluent from the plant by Prof. Albert R. Leeds showed a satisfactory degree of puri- fication. The cost of the plant was f 95,847.80 and of the sewers, etc., $322,020.64, a total of f 417,868.44. The average cost of operation was about $9,000 per year. The committee considered that the system was a success and could handle the sewage from a larger population, but expressed the opinion that ultimately it would be found economic;!! to dispose of the sewage by gravity to tide water through united action with adjacent towns. Present Disposal. Shortly after this, however, the town of Bloomfield brought suit to compel the city of East Orange to cease polluting the brook, and after pass- ing through one stage of trouble to another, an arrangement was finally made whereby the use of the purification plant was discontinued and the sewage dis- charged into the Newark sewer system at Newbold avenue, the cost of the necessary sewer connections and changes being borne by the two communities in accordance with the terms of the agreement entered into for the building and operating of the sewer. Under this contract the city of East Orange was allowed to discharge a maxi- mum of 4,000,000 gallons of sewage into the Millbrook sewer, it having been esti- mated that the average flow was then in the neighborhood of 2,500,000 gallons daily. The connection with the Newark sewers was made in 1896 since which time the purification plant has not been used. Hourly gaugings of the flow in 1908 for four successive days showed that the dry weather flow exceeded the amount called for in the contract. On rainy days the sewer sometimes runs full under pressure and discharges into the Newark sew- ers twice the amount called for by the contract. The night flow was found to be 3,500,000 gallons, indicating considerable ground water flow in the sewer. In 1905 there were in the district sewered some 4,935 homes. It was estimated that a population of about 20,000 was connected witli the sewers. Future Plans. East Orange has the alternative, in the matter of sewage disposal, of joining in the 1'ussaic valley sewer project, purifying her sewage along modern lines, or constructing an independent outlet sewer to a tidal outlet. No definite ar- rangement lias yet been decided upon in this matter. 326 DATA COLLECTED SEWERAGE OF CLINTON, GAEFIELD, LODI, HASBROUCK HEIGHTS, DELA- WANNA, FRANKLIN, NUTLEY, AVONDALE, BELLEVILLE, WOOD- RIDGE, CARLSTADT, WALLINGfTON, EAST RUTHERFORD, RUTHER- FORD, LYNDHURST, KEARNEY, EAST NEWARK AND HARRISON. Setverage. The towns of Clinton, Garfield, Lodi, Hasbrouck Heights, Delawauna, Franklin, Nutley, Avondale, Belleville, AVoodridge, Lyndhurst, Walliugton and East Rutherford have no sewers. Sewers on the separate plan are now under construction at Carlstadt, and Ruth- erford with three outlets to the Passaic and one or more towards the Hackensack meadows, has a separate system of sewers. The quantity of sewage is small. Arlington (Kearney) and East Newark, with a combined area of about four square miles have the combined system of sewers. Arlington has three outlets into the Passaic, East Newark one, and Harrison two. Arlington has one outlet toward the Hackensack meadows. The quantity of sewage discharged into the river by the Arlington area is said to be in excess of 7,000,000 gallons daily. Future Plans. All the above named towns lie in whole or in part in the valley of the Passaic river and are expected to join with Paterson, Passaic and Newark and the other cities in the construction of the proposed Passaic valley sewers, providing the project is carried forward to completion. THE PROPOSED PASSAIC VALLEY SEWER Origin of Project. Until about 1893 the condition of the Passaic, while not unbearable, had been growing noticeably offensive; in 1894 it was worse, and in 1895 it had reached a point that demanded attention. Growing out of the agitation over these conditions an Act was introduced into the State Legislature, which was approved February 26, 1896, appointing a commission to consider the subject of the pollution of the Passaic river, and of a general system of sewage disposal for the relief of the Passaic, an appropriation in the sum of $10,000 being made to meet the expenses of the investigations. First Report. The Commission's engineers, Mr. Alphonse Fteley, of New York, and Mr. Charles E. A. Jacobsen, of Newark, completed their investigations on February 2, 1897, six months after their appointment, and the Commission forwarded its report to the Legislature during the same month. Briefly stated, the recommendations were, to establish a sewerage district including the whole of the country tributary to the Passaic below the great falls at Paterson and construct an intercepting sewer along the river to collect all the sewage discharged therein and conduct it to a pumping sta- tion south of Newark, and deliver it thence, without purification to a terminus into SEWERAGE OF THE PASSAIC VALLEY 327 Newark bay. The further recommendation was made that if experience should show that a more complete system of disposal should become necessary, the outfall should be extended across Staten Island to the outer New York harbor. Subsequent Reports. Since that report was made to the Legislature the subject has been investigated and reinvestigated and reported upon a number of times, the mat- ter eventually taking definite form by the establishment of the limits of the proposed district by Legislative Act in 1902. The plan recommended to the Legislature of 1903 by this Commission proposed an intercepting sewer along the west bank of the Passaic river from the great falls at Paterson to a pumping station 011 the Newark meadows, the sewage to be pumped thence through steel force mains under Newark bay into a main sewer across Bayonne to an outfall in New York bay near Bobbins Reef Light. Tli is project was thoroughly investigated by the New York Bay Pollution Commission and reported upon adversely in 1905 and 1906. J'rasent Commission's Plan. The present Passaic Valley Sewerage Commissioners are proceeding under Chapter 10, Laws of New Jersey, Session of 1907. Their report to the municipalities lying in whole or in part within the Passaic valley sewerage dis- trict is dated April 20th, 1908, and recommends the construction of an intercepting sewer of greater capacity than the earlier reports, following essentially the same course from Paterson to a pumping station at Newark bay. At this point the main sewer will be 13 feet 6 inches in diameter and at a depth of 26 feet below high water; and pumps are to lift the sewage to a height of 15 feet above high water to a well which is to be connected with a tunnel 12 feet in diameter extending under Newark bay, Bayonne and New York bay to the outfall at the edge of the deep channel near Robbins Reef Light. The plans provide for the passage of the sewage through a grit chamber to " remove all gravel, sand and other heavy matter and through a screen chamber where all floating matter will be removed." The outlet sewer is to be "extended by a number of smaller outlet pipes at right angles to the current of sea water so as to get the greatest possible dispersion over a large area." The outfall pipes are to " discharge at a depth not less than 40 feet below mean high water." " They will be extended in different directions and in varying lengths across the channel, and will be provided with discharge openings, venting the sewage in small units horizontally in the direction of the tidal current over a sufficient area, and by such number of vents as will produce a rapid assimilation of the discharge with a very large volume of bay water." Opposition. When the report suggesting the discharge of the sewage from this large and rapidly growing district into New York bay was made public, adverse criticism was aroused concerning the discharge of the sewage in its raw or unpurified form into the 328 DATA COLLECTED harbor. A public hearing was held to discuss the matter before the Harbor Line Board in New York, following application to the War Department by the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission for permission to construct the outlet sewer into the harbor. At this meeting the views of many associations and individuals were expressed and the matter taken under advisement by the Harbor Line Board. Application was then made by New York State to file an injunction to prevent the discharge of the Passaic valley sewage into the harbor. The hearing on this application was set for January 6th, 1909, before the United States Supreme Court at Washington, 1). C. After the suit had been brought the United States Government intervened in the suit in order to become a co-plaintiff. Investigations and Government Control. In the meantime Col. Win. M. Black, Chief Engineer Officer, Department of the East, reported to the Adjutant General of the East that, as a result of the hearings before the Harbor Line Board and personal examinations, if local nuisances could " be avoided and the quantity of sewage limited to an amount which the body of water in question could care for, no evil effects were to be anticipated." Working on these premises an agreement was reached between the War Department and the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commissioners under which per- mission was granted for the discharge of the sewage into the harbor. The terms of the agreement are in effect that the sewage must be screened through coarse screens, passed through a grit chamber, screened through screens having openings of four- tenths of an inch and settled for an hour; that it must be discharged into the harbor in deep water through multiple outlets in a manner to prevent serious local nuisances and that the discharge shall not injuriously affect major fish life. The agreement also provides that the works shall at all times be subject to the inspection of proper Gov- ernment officers, shall be capable of producing the results called for and be operated in a manner to live up to the terms of the agreement. Extent of the Proposed Works. This project, as proposed, is intended to give relief to the Passaic river by diverting therefrom the sewage of all the cities and towns now draining into it. These municipalities and suburban districts had a total population in 1905 of 601,817, residing on an area of 103.23 square miles tributary to the sewer, 76.62 square miles being included under the terms of the Law of 1902. The sewer is designed with capacity estimated to be sufficient to take the sewage of a population in 1940, of 1,649,440 people, amounting to 357,365,200 gallons per 21 hours, of which 247,416,000 represents house sewage, 47,467,100 ground water leakage into the sewers, and 62,482,100 gallons the sewage from manufacturing and trades uses. Thirty munic- ipalities are included within the territory to be served, 50 per cent, of the total popula- tion iii the district residing in Newark and East Orange. The Hudson River looking North from the Battery. The sewers generally discharge under the ends of the piers Upper New York Bay Looking South from the Battery. Ice is flowing down the Hudson, around the Battery and up the East river SEWERAGE OF THE PASSAIC VALLEY 329 The volume of sewage that will be discharged from the Passaic valley sewer, as soon as it is constructed, will be about one-half of the present quantity of domestic sewage discharged by all the sewers of Brooklyn. The sewage as it will reach the pumping station, south of Newark, will be stale. Substantially all the floating solids excepting the resistant ones, such as sticks and corks, will be ground up and practically reduced to a state of solution during the long time required for passage through the sewer. It is probable that but a very small percent- age of the decomposable matters in the sewage will be arrested by the screens before discharge into the harbor. Although there may be relatively few visible particles in the discharged sewage, the organic matter therein will be in a putrefying condition, and will have great avidity for the already deficient supply of oxygen in the harbor wa ter. It has been contended that the sewage which it is proposed to discharge into New York harbor through the Passaic valley sewer already reaches these waters by its passage through Newark bay and Kill van Kull. It must be remembered, however, that before the New Jersey sewage can reach New York harbor under present condi- tions it will have been exposed to the influences of subsidence, bacterial decomposi- tion, oxidation and dispersion. l>y the time it reaches the Upper bay it is much changed and in a greatly diluted condition. The Passaic valley plan is to discharge the sewage in a crude state, though freed from visible suspended matters, into the cen- ter of the Upper bay, thereby relieving Newark bay at the expense of New York harbor. The waters of the Upper bay and the Hudson river are at present heavily charged with sewage; they contain on ebb tides about sixty-five per cent, and on the average of ebb and flood tides about seventy-one per cent, of the amount of dissolved oxygen necessary for saturation. As fish will not thrive in waters containing less than 50 per cent, of the normal quantity of dissolved oxygen, the waters of the Upper bay and the Hudson river be- tween Spuyten Duyvil and the Battery on ebb tides have a margin of safety only one- third in excess of the amount necessary to support fish. The discharge into the Upper bay of the sewage from the Passaic valley sewer district, the amount of which would be about one-tenth of the quantity of domestic sewage from the entire metro- politan district as soon as the Passaic valley sewer shall have been put in operation, would cut down the safe margin of dissolved oxygen required for the support of finh life in the Upper bay and Hudson river on ebb tides. The discharge of so large a quantity of sewage into the harbor in one locality, eveJi though the outlets be scattered over an area of several acres, would reduce the dis- 330 DATA COLLECTED solved oxygen, at times of imperfect dispersion, to so low a point as to lead to danger of putrefaction and the consequent evolution of foul odors. In the suit which was brought against the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission and the State of New Jersey by the State of New York, the United States Government became a party to the suit by intervention and the agreement which was entered into between the United States Government and the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission does not terminate the suit as between the State of New York and the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission. The interests of the United States Government are mainly in the prevention of the shoaling of the waters which might interfere with uavi- gation. The government is not essentially interested in the pollution of the waters as affecting the health conditions surrounding the City of New York; its interest in this connection concerns the health of the troops and government employees. The inter- ests of the City of New York in the effect of harbor pollution are vastly greater than those of the United States Government. Recommendation. As the Government has reached an agreement which is appar- ently satisfactory for the protection of its interests the Metropolitan Sewerage Com- mission recommends that the City of New York apply to the Supreme Court of the United States for permission to intervene in the suit now pending between the State of New York and the State of New Jersey and the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commis- sion, in order to protect the public health and welfare of its citizens. Future Prospects. Considerable uneasiness has been felt by some of the New Jersey communities comprised in this project owing to the possibility of increased cost due to the necessity of partially purifying the sewage before discharging it, the project being of advantage only if less expensive to maintain than independent purifi- cation plants would be. SEWERAGE OP THE PASSAIC VALLEY 331 JOINT OUTLET SEWER FOR THE SEWAGE OF IRVINGTON, VAILSBURGH, SOUTH ORANGE, WEST ORANGE, SUMMIT, MILLBURN, AND PARTS OF ELIZABETH, NEWARK, ORANGE AND UNION TOWN- SHIP GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Conditions. The district served by the Joint outlet sewer, which is directly west of Newark, East Orange, Bloomfield and Montclair, lies along the small tributaries and upper valleys of the Rahway and Elizabeth rivers. The areas drained may be characterized, in general, as non-uniform, hilly slopes, underlaid with all varieties of formations from solid rock to quicksand and water- bearing drift. Vailsburg and Irvington drain into the Elizabeth river; Summit into the Passaic and Rahway and all the remaining territory into the Rahway river. The tributary areas, populations and main features of the topography are given in Table XXI. 332 DATA COLLECTED TABLE XXI JOINT OUTLET SKWKR DISTRICTS Municipality Population Area Features 1900 1905 Sq. Miles Elizabeth 4,500 4,500 7,000 3,000 3,500 5,500 8,200 3,500 6,500 2,500 2,500 1.08 2.03 1.26 .47 2.46 3.63 4.38 6.01 5.86 3.90 Lies very flat Hilly rock Hilly little rock Non-uniform hill slopes Non-uniform hill slopes In old bed Passaic river Must reverse direction of flow from Pussaic and tunnel Roselle Park 2,000 5,255 2,000 2,200 4,608 6,899 2,500 5,580 1,800 2,000 South Orange West Orange South Orange Township Union Township Totals 34,842 51,200 31.08 South Orange's Need for Sewerage. The first need for a system to care for the sewage of any of the towns of this district was felt about: 1895, when suggestions by engineers for South Orange favored a disposal plant instead of a joint outlet sewer. A farm in Milburu Township was purchased for a disposal field but protests and n permanent injunction brought the project to an end. The conrl held Mint one munici- pality could not purchase land in another for sewage disposal without consent, and this Millburn refused to give. In 1896 F. T. Crane recommended discharging the South Orange sewage into Newark bay north of Elizabeth ; Alexander Potter recommended its discharge into tide water south of Elizabeth. Mr. Crane's plans were accepted, and Rudolph Ifering and James Owen retained as Consulting Engineers to review the plans. When protests were made against the emptying of the sewage into Newark bay it was suggested to discharge it into one of the tributaries of llround creek. Newark protested against this and a change in administration stopped all independent action by South Orange. First Joint Action. A meeting of the representatives of South Orange, \Vcsi Orange, Irvington, Vailsburg and Newark was held and on August 10th, 1898, Alex- ander Potter was instructed to make plans, surveys and estimates " for a trunk sewer to tide water capable of accommodating the present and prospective future population JOINT OUTLET SEWER 333 of these towns, or portions of tliese towns, draining towards the Eahway and Eliza- beth rivers." Mr. Potter's first preliminary report was made on September 29th, 1898, and contained the following recommendations: (1) The adoption of an outlet into Kill van Kull, south of Elizabeth. (2) The sewer to be 27 inches in diameter. (3) The adoption of a high level sewer, keeping out of river bottoms. (4) Provision for a population of 106,000. (5) Provision for storage tanks where necessary to equalize flow. (6) Provision for underdrainage where necessary. Legislation. There was some doubt whether the existing New Jersey Laws would permit a collection of municipalities to act together in the desired manner and a Law was, therefore, prepared and enacted to permit two or more municipalities in that State to construct a joint outlet sewer. A permanent organization under this Law was affected March 27, 1901. The State Sewerage Commission gave consent to the outlet, at the foot of Bayway, into Staten Island Sound " with the proviso that should future exigencies make treatment necessary, it would be required," and the United States authorities were consulted iii regard to the discharge of this sewage into navigable waters, which point the govern- ment held to be outside of its jurisdiction. Contract with Elizabeth and other Municipalities. In lieu of payment for right of way through Elizabeth the following concessions were agreed upon : (a) The granting to Elizabeth of 100,000 cubic feet per diem of capacity in the trunk sewer along the length of Bayway. (&) The increasing of the size of the sewer from Staten Island Sound to Woodbridge avenue from 42 inches to 66 and 72 inches in diameter to provide for storm water sewerage facilities for the lower portion of Elizabeth. (c) The construction of a wharf and bulkhead at the outlet on the Sound. Legislation was secured to allow the admission into the organization of Morris- town, Morris Plains, Chatham and Madison, which lay outside of the line of the sewer. Roselle Park and Union Township were also admitted upon payment of a fixed sum. Execution of Project. Work of construction was formally started on the first contract March 27th, 1902, one year from the date of the organization, and in October, 1903, Irvington was allowed to connect to and to use the sewer. This use put the Joint outlet project on the same footing as all other cities and towns maintaining outlets at tide water in the vicinity of New York and the possibility of the work being held up by injunction from any source was at an end. The whole work was finally completed and accepted June 16, 1904. At this time a permanent organization for the maintenance of the sewer was effected. 334 DATA COLLECTED ORGANIZATION OP MUNICIPALITIES For Construction. The first meeting was attended by the governing bodies of the municipalities concerned. Various executive officers and an engineer were elected by ballot. Later a bill was proposed and enacted, enabling one representative from each municipality " to legally transact the business of the joint meeting for his munici- pality." For Maintenance. Practically the same organization was effected for the maintenance as for the construction, with the addition of inspectors reporting to the Chief Engineer. SEWERAGE WORKS Design. The Joint outlet is designed for an ultimate population of 150,000. It has a capacity of 21,000,000 gallons daily, or 140 gallons per capita per day for the ultimate population. Separate System. The Joint outlet sewer was designed to take house drainage only, but the municipalities are not restricted as to the use they may make of their allotment of capacity. Each city pays for its maintenance on the basis of the quantity discharged by it, so that it would not seem to be good business policy to include roof drainage and street wash. It is undoubtedly true that more or less storm water does enter the sewers as several reports mention the fact of the sewer being overtaxed during storms. Velocity of Flow. It was the intention to have the velocity at least 2.5 feet per second when running half full, but in most cases three feet per second has been secured. Recording Gauges. Thirteen recording gauges to register the depth of flow in the sewers were installed. From these records the amount of sewage delivered by each municipality is determined. Equalizing Tank. Provision was made in the plans of both the east and west branches for storage tanks to equalize the 24-hour flow, as it was assumed that 50 per cent, of the total flow would be concentrated in eight hours' time. By means of these reservoirs it was hoped to double the capacity of the main line, at a cost not to exceed 25 per cent, of the cost of duplicating it. The Sewer. The main sewer extends up Bayway and parallel to the Elizabeth river to Union avenue, making provision for admission of 750,000 gallons daily of Elizabeth sewage along Bayway and for receiving the sewage from the Elizabeth in- terceptor at Woodbridge avenue. The diameter of the sewer is 72 inches up to Bur- lington avenue, 66 inches to Woodbridge avenue, and 42 inches to Union avenue, where the east and west branches come together. The main sewer was built of brick except that cast iron pipe was used in crossing under streams. It was aimed to keep JOINT OUTLET SEWER 335 the line as high as possible to avoid seepage of ground water into the sewer but even then about two-thirds of the trenches were wet and much quicksand was en- countered. West Branch. The west branch of the sewer extends in a northwesterly direc- tion under the divide between the Elizabeth and Railway rivers. The 3,000 feet of tunnel was a difficult and expensive piece of work. Just north of the Rahway river crossing the line branches to the right up the river valley to receive the South and \\Vst Orange and South Orange Township sewage and to the left for that of Milburn and Summit. Provision was made in the design for storage tanks to be located at Jefferson avenue, in Orange Township, to equalize the night and day flow when the day flow should equal the carrying capacity of the sewers. East Branch. The east branch of the sewer extends up the Elizabeth river into Irvington and Vailsburg and drains also a part of Newark lying within this water- shed. A second storage reservoir was designed for this branch ; it was to be located below the ice ponds on Union avenue. The following extract from the 1908 report of the State Board of Health would indicate that the time had arrived for the construc- tion of the reservoir: "The trunk sewer .supplying Irvington and Vailsburg and emptying at Bay way below Elizabeth, is apparently of insufficient size to take care of an extra amount of sewage, especially at times of heavy rains. To remedy this two outlets of 15-inch terra cotta pipe have been attached to the trunk sewer at Irvington, emptying into the Elizabeth river at a point opposite the Irvington Cemetery." Notice was served to cease polluting the river, but was not complied with. Outlet. The outlet is situated at the foot of Bayway, Elizabeth. A special bulk- head and wharf were constructed Avith the sewer terminating at the dock line in- stead of in the center of the channel as originally designed. The State Board of Health gave permission for this rearrangement. The 72-inch brick sewer terminates at the upper end of the wharf in a 7y 2 -foot square chamber from which three lengths of 36- inch cast iron pipe lead to the dock line. Extent of System. About 45 miles of main sewers and laterals had been con- structed up to 1905, about 55 miles since then have 'been put in and it is estimated that some GO miles more will be added in the next ten years. 336 DATA COLLECTED MAINTENANCE OF THE SYSTEM Inspections. Two regular inspectors under the Chief Engineer were allotted ;i portion of the sewer to patrol and report upon each week; they also look after the re- cording gauges. Frequent trips of inspection are made by the Chief Engineer or one of his assistants. Cleaning. Apparatus for cleaning and Hushing and making repairs arc stored at convenient points to be used in emergencies. Leakage of surface water into the sewer, through perforated manhole covers has been found to be a large item. An average of 1.1 gallons per minute per manhole was estimated to enter the system during a warm rain storm on top of 5 to G inches of snow. The remedy was to raise the manhole heads in some cases and to plug the holes in the covers in others. Entrance of Ground Water. Provision was made in the design of the sewer for the entrance of ground Avater in an amount equal to one-half of the sewage flow; less than 10 per cent., it is estimated, is actually found. It was believed that the leakage might in that district be kept down to 25,000 gallons per mile with rigorous inspection, using cement joints, and to 5,000 gallons per mile using sulphur sand joints. DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE. Tidal Discharges. The joint outfall sewer discharges its contents into the waters of Kill van Kull at the face of the wharf at the foot of Bayway, Elizabeth, through three 36-inch cast iron pipes with their inverts placed 5.5 feet below low tide eleva- tion. Investigations. Experiments were made during the preliminary investigation to determine the limits of dispersion of the sewage by casting floats adrift off the point of discharge at all stages of the tide. From these it was concluded that the sewage, or what was left of it, would pass out of the Kills on the subsequent tide without reach- ing the shore at any point. Effects of Dlscliarge. Some eighteen months after the completion of the sewer, Mr. Potter states in his report that " no injurious effects can be detected, although the average flow of sewage now exceeds 4,000,000 gallons in twenty-four hours. * * * It is the opinion of the writer that this outlet will afford a satisfactory means for the disposal of the sewage of the territory benefited for all time." In 1908 upwards of 6,000,000 gallons daily discharged into Kill van Kull through the Joint outlet, and that conditions may have changed somewhat is gathered from the following extract from the report of the State Board of Health for 1908 (p. 438). JOINT OUTLET SEWER 337 " This sewer empties into the Staten Island Bound below Elizabeth and causes con- siderable nuisance and pollution in that body of water." Future Condition. There is now being constructed in Elizabeth a trunk sewer and interceptor to take practically all of the dry weather flow emptying into the Elizabeth river and discharge it into the Joint outlet. This sewer is 42 inches in diameter and designed to ultimately carry away the sewage of 100,000 people with an allowance of 50 gallons of sewage per capita per day. It is thus seen that ultimately L'50,000 people are expected to be tributary to the Joint outlet and to deliver 26,- 000,000 gallons of sewage daily into the Sound where the State Board of Health has already called attention to the considerable nuisance and pollution caused by less than one-fourth of this amount. FUTURE PLANS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES Disposal. In Elizabeth it is recognized that in the future it may be necessary to purify the sewage; and when that time arrives the Joint outlet organization will co- operate in taking care of the sewage in such manner as may prove the most economical and efficient. Ej-tcnaions. It is estimated that about 00 miles of sewer extensions in unde- veloped territory will be built during the next ten years. The town of Morristown has not gone into the Joint outlet although capacity was provided for it. SEWERAGE OF ELIZABETH GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Features. Elizabeth with a population in 1905 of 60,509, is situated to the northwest of Staten Island and to the west of Newark bay. It has a waterfront of nearly one mile on Kill van Kull and three miles on Newark bay, and extends back from the water-front about three miles. The northeastern portion, from the Central Railroad of New Jersey to Bound creek and east to Division street is uninhabited meadows but a few feet above sea level. Another swamp area extends along the Elizabeth river from Summer street and Third street southwest to the boundary line of the city. The whole surface of Elizabeth is comparatively flat, the highest knolls rising to but 50 feet above sea level. The east side has a rather poorly defined ridge starting from North Elizabeth and running to Elizabethport parallel to and about one-half mile distant from the river. The slopes on the west side are somewhat steeper, par- ticularly near the river and in the neighborhood of Grand street. 338 DATA COLLECTED Elizabethport drains into the Kill van Kull and Newark bay. A portion of North Elizabeth east of the Pennsylvania Kailroad drains into small creeks in the meadows. The remainder of the city drains into the Elizabeth river. SEWERAGE WORKS Organisation for Construction and Maintenance. The City Engineer has charge of designing and constructing the sewers; they are maintained by the Street Commis- sioner's department. Inspectors for construction work are named by the Street Com- missioner, but as the inspectors are not as a rule trained for such duties the Engineer looks after the work with his own men whom he has the power to employ and dismiss. Civil service rules are not adopted in Elizabeth. Sufficient funds are allotted the Engineer for carrying on his work, but the funds for maintaining the sewers are, on the other hand deficient. THE OLD SYSTEM Sewers. The old sewers in Elizabeth were built to carry botli storm water and house drainage. They were not designed of sufficient size to carry the heavier rain storms from fully developed areas and are inadequate, particularly iu Elizabethport where at times the manhole covers are thrown off by the pressure from the Hoods within as the excess water escapes and floods the streets. The larger sewers are all made of brick and are egg-shaped or circular. Concrete, as a material of construction for sewers, is not favored in Elizabeth. Very little ground water enters the sewers of Elizabeth. A portion of the ex- cavation for the new interceptor was through solid rock, which was shattered by the blasting and it is thought that ground water may follow along the outside of the sewer barrel and a small amount leak into the sewer; serious trouble, however, is not antici- pated. Old River Outlets. There are twenty-one outlets of various sizes emptying into the Elizabeth river; one of the largest being the 7-foot Mill lane or Westfield avenue sewer. This sewer drains a residential area of some 1,200 acres north of the Pennsyl- vania Kailroad and east of the river, where the houses are far apart and the proper- ties are not yet fully developed. For a mile south of Westfield avenue sewers dis- charge into the river at the foot of nearly every street, A 42-inch brick sewer down Third street empties into the river near its mouth; this sewer is laid on a plank grill- age across the swamp and has given good service. Elevation of Outlets. Most of the sewers discharge under water at high tide, the invert being in the neighborhood of low water. SEWERAGE OP ELIZABETH 339 NEW SYSTEM Design. The Elizabeth interceptor is circular in shape, with a vitrified brick invert and common brick arch. The carrying capacity was calculated using Kutter's formula with n .013. The slope is uniformly one foot in 1,000, and running half full the maximum velocity is estimated at 3.2, and the minimum at 2.5 feet per second. Sizes. The Joint outlet sewer, from South Orange is 66 inches in diameter, from Woodbridge avenue to Burlington avenue and the 72 inches in diameter to the outlet. The agreement by which this sewer was permitted to pass through Elizabeth gave to her unlimited capacity from Woodbridge avenue south and 100,000 cubic feet capacity per day north of this point. The Elizabeth interceptor is 42 inches in diameter from the pumping station to the Joint outlet and 40 inches from the; pumping station north, diminishing in size ac- cording to the territory drained into it by the various sewers. Capacity. A population of 100,000 some 100 years hence has been provided for. This is equivalent to five persons on a lot 25 feet wide and 100 feet deep, or eighty- seven people per acre. The amount of sewage per capita was estimated at 50 gallons per day with half flowing off in six hours; or at the rate of 100 gallons per capita per day. By deducting the water used by the factories from the total metered consumption, 60 gallons per capita per day was found to be the amount used for domestic consump- tion, including waste. Ventilation. Ventilation of the sewers is accomplished by using perforated man- hole covers through which the air circulates. Interceptor. At the present time an interceptor is being constructed to collect the dry weather flow from all of those sewers now emptying into the Elizabeth river from Westfield avenue south to Summer street; this interceptor has two branches on the east side which cross the river at South street and Pearl street respectively. Pumping Station. A pumping station is provided at Summer street and Clark- son avenue to raise the sewage some 16 feet, which is sufficient to discharge it into the Joint outlet sewer at Woodbridge avenue and Bayway. Three 8-inch, centrifugal pumps direct connected by vertical shafts to 16 horse- power motors are being installed at the pumping station. The motors will be auto- matically started and stopped by a large float resting on the sewage in the pump well ; this float makes and breaks the electrical connection at certain fixed levels. An at- tendant is expected to visit the float two or three times a day in addition to looking 340 DATA COLLECTED after the various tide and intercepting valves at the points of connection with the combined sewers. Discharge Outlet. The discharge of the Joint outlet is at the foot of Bayway into the Kill van Kull. This point is looked upon at Elizabeth as one of the most favorable obtainable, and as satisfactory, the water being deep and the currents swift enough to carry the sewage away. Extent of System. The number of miles of sewers, number of outlets and house connections, the estimated population served by the sewers, and data on the amount of water consumed are given in Table XXV. TABLE XXV GROWTH OF SEWER SYSTEM OF ELIZABETH Miles of sewers Number of outlets Estimated number of house connections Estimated population served Water Consumption per capita Total Domestic 1900 29 42 69.7 13 29 50,000 150 60 1905 1908 1909 . 10,000 60,000 It Is estimated that half this population Is tributary to the new Interceptor. MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE WORKS Cleaning. The streets of Elizabeth are kept fairly clean and the sewer catch basins are cleaned at varying intervals. The Street Commissioner does not allow the street sweepers to push sweepings into the sewers; the rule is thoroughly enforced. There is not sufficient appropriation to clean the sewers and basins as often as desir- able. The basins are comparatively small and trapped with a flagstone. The sewers and basins are cleaned by hand. Disposal of Cleanings. The cleanings from sewers and basins are dumped upon meadow lands together with the garbage. The dumps are too far from houses to cause any nuisance ; it is realized, however, that the time will come when this will not be permitted and some other system of disposition will have to be devised. DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE Tidal Discharge. The Joint outlet sewer empties into Kill van Kull at the foot of Bayway, Elizabeth, in addition to which there are four other large sewers emptying SEWERAGE OF ELIZABETH 341 into the Kill van Kull and Newark bay. The Elizabeth street sewer has a branch in- terceptor along Front street draining the sewers in four streets to the east of Eliza- beth street. A 4-foot by 5-foot 6-inch sewer running down Truinbull street drains the eastern portion of Elizabethport; the lower end of this sewer running through the property of the Singer Manufacturing Company was built by that company in consid- eration of which they were allowed to close the street. M endow Outlets. A combined sewer in Alina street and a storm water sewer in Fairmount avenue, taking a small portion of house drainage, empty into small tidal creeks in the meadows. River Outlets. The 21 outlets into the Elizabeth river will be done away with, except for storm water overflow, when the new interceptor is completed and put in service. Nuisances. The river outlets have been very offensive and have caused extensive filling in, particularly by the Mill lane sewer. Mr. W. If. Luster, Jr., City Engineer of Elizabeth, describes the condition* of the river, thus : " Sewage has made deposits along its sides and bed and has caused it not only to be an unsightly and forbidding spectacle to travellers over the bridges, but we have its odor whenever the weather is warm enough to cause fermenta- tion of the deposited filth." Complaints. No suits have been instituted on account of the condition of the river, but efforts to have the offensive conditions abated were begun in the early nineties. In 189(5 Mr. Francis Collingwood reported on the situation and suggested means for taking the dry weather flow out of the river and pumping it to the Kill van Kull through Bayway. No complaint is made of conditions at the outlets of the Elizabethport sewers al- though these all empty at the bulkhead. FUTURE PLANS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES Ultimate Disposal. It is recognized that at some future date it will be necessary to purify the sewage of Elizabeth before discharging it into a stream or body of tidal water. Looking forward to this time, a tract of meadow land to the south of the pump- ing station has been suggested as the proper point to treat not only the sewage of Elizabeth but probably that coming down the Joint outlet sewer. No study has been given to the type of purification required nor to general plans for collecting the sewage of Elizabethport. *New Jersey State Sewerage Commission's Report for 1909, p. 128 342 DATA COLLECTED SEWEKAGE OF THE HACKENSACK VALLEY The Hackensack river lies between the Passaic and the Hudson, and flows nearly south into the head of Newark bay. The principal towns in the Hackensack valley, within the limits of the metropolitan district, are Tenafly, Englewood, Hackensack, Kidgefield Park, Kidgefield, Mossmere, Palisades Park and Leonia. Several of these towns have sewerage systems which discharge into the Hackensack river or its tribu- taries. To the north of the metropolitan district are a few other small towns draining into the river. SEWERAGE OF HACKENSACK Hackensack, with a population of between 12,000 and 14,000, lies four and one- half miles east of Paterson and Passaic. The sewerage problem of Hackensack has been comparatively simple, except for the complications arising from the necessity of dis- charging the sewage at a low elevation and also those involved in the construction of combined sewers with sufficient capacity to provide for the future growth of the borough. Of the four main outfall sewers, the most northerly is the Anderson street sewer, an old 5-foot brick sewer of circular section, built 35 years ago, the invert of which was laid in a wooden cradle without mortar joints to allow it to serve to some extent as an underdrain for the soil. One branch of this sewer extends about a mile to the north through Fairmount; the other principal branch swings over slight- ly to the south and runs out the main street leading through Maywood to Paterson and Eidgewood. This branch is about three-fourths of a mile in length. Both branches of this sewer reduce in size as higher elevations are reached. The next sewer to the south is also a 5-foot sewer, known as the Main-Bridge street sewer. This discharges into the Hackensack river north of the bridge across that stream. The tributaries of this sewer extend up Main street and other streets parallel thereto to beyond the tracks of the New York, Susquehanna & Western Railroad, and drain the greater part of the city south of the territory that is tributary to the Ander- son street sewer. Just to the south of the bridge, and below the discharge outlet of the Main street sewer, is a reinforced concrete sewer 4 feet by 9 feet in section, known as the creek sewer. This has a storm water outlet to the creek, and also a pipe exten- sion to carry the dry Aveather flow out to the Hackensack river. It extends back to near the New Jersey and New York Railroad tracks with a branch extending north- erly and draining a considerable territory to the west of the tracks. It serves to re- lieve the Main street sewer from some of the storm water which originally was tribu- tary thereto and caused serious sewer floods. SEWERAGE OF HACKENSACK VALLEY 343 One-quarter of a mile south of the outlet of the creek sewer a 3-foot brick sewer discharges into a small estuary of the Hackensack river and takes the sewage of the balance of the Hackensack territory. SEWERAGE OF BOGOTA Across the river from Hackensack lies a small settlement called Bogota which has three sewers discharging into the Hackensack river; a 2-foot brick sewer which empties into the river about one-fourth of a mile above the New York, Susquehanna & Western Railroad bridge, a 12-inch sewer emptying into the river at the Bogota rail- road station and another small pipe sewer emptying in about one-eighth of a mile below the last mentioned sewer. SEWERAGE OF UIDGEFIELD PARK Ridgefield Park, which has a population of between 2,000 and 3,000, lies upon a narrow strip of ground rising to a height of a little over 100 feet above the Hacken- sack meadows. The most northerly sewer in Ridgefield Park is three feet in diameter and empties into the Hackensack river about one-half mile above the railroad station. A 3-foot 6-inch brick sewer enters the river at Mt. Vernon street, near the railroad station, another of the same size enters at Brinckerhoff avenue, a third sewer of the same size at the Tea Neck road and a 3-foot sewer at Ridgefield avenue, near the draw- bridge. The sewers of Hackensack and Ridgefield Park are all on the combined plan. THE SEWERAGE OF THE OTHER TOWNS ON THE WEST SIDE OF THE HACKENSACK VALLEY Of the other towns on the west side of the Hackensack valley below Hackensack, Hasbrouck Heights and Woodbridge have no sewers, but Carlstadt has a system of separate sewers just installed, but not yet in operation; the sewage is to be pumped to settling basins from which it is to be discharged into a canal or small stream tributary to Berry creek. SEWERAGE OF THE TOWNS ON THE EAST SIDE OF THE HACKENSACK VALLEY Ridgefield. Ridgefield is a settlement of about 750 people, on the road leading from Ridgefield park to Edgewater. The sewerage works consist of one outlet pipe discharging into a drainage channel leading to the Hackensack river from near the Ridgefield railroad station. Mossmere and Leonia, the next settlements north of Ridgefield, have a population of about 1,500 and are sewered through one 12-inch pipe to Overpeck creek. 344 DATA COLLECTED Palisades park, with a population of 911 in 1905, is served by two 12-inch pipes leading to Overpeck creek, one being located at the end of Central boulevard and the other at the end of Edsall boulevard. At Leonia which is the next town above Palisades pai'k a 12-inch pipe leads to Overpeck creek from about the center of thp town. SEWERAGE OF EXOLEWOOD Englewood is one of the most attractive suburban towns, topographically, in the neighborhood of The City of New York. It is justly celebrated for its beautiful trees and homes; its population in 1903 was 7,922. Englewood is completely sewered on the separate plan, the sewerage works being controlled by a company operating under a franchise. Sewage is collected from the various small laterals to a main outfall pipe leading to a canal which discharges through the marshes into Peapack creek at the head of its tidal channel. This canal has been the subject of much complaint, and many threats have been made by property owners to compel the sewerage company to abate the nuisance created by its works. The extent of the changes and improvements that have been made appear to have consisted usually of cleaning out the canal when the complaints have been so persistent as to make it impossible to ignore them. FUTURE PLANS FOR THE IIACKENSACK VALLEY Owing to the considerable growth of the villages, principally on the Peapack and Tienekill creeks, much concern has been felt as to the necessity for improved methods of dealing with the municipal wastes from these communities. This has lately brought together several of the prominent citizens of the district for the purpose of discussing the feasibility of starting a movement for the construction of a joint sewer from Tenafly to a purification plant to be located near the confluence of the Peapack and Hackensack rivers. This plan would be in consonance with the action that has been taken by the citizens of other portions of the metropolitan territory in that vicinity. The only important source of pollution of the Hackensack, above the town of Hackensack is at the village of Delford, with a population of 841, where the Hacken- sock Water Company has its main supply dam and water filtration plant. New Mil- ford and Oradell together are known as Delford, and are sewered on the separate plan, one outlet being an 18-inch pipe discharging into the river from the west below the water company's dam, the other being a 12-inch pipe emptying into the tail race. SEWERAGE OF BAYONNE 345 SEWERAGE OF BAYONNE, N. J. GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS T(>ix>uniii1ii<-2, is situated on a peninsula directly south of Jersey City, from which it is separated by the Morris canal. The city is about three miles long and, as far south as Constable Hook, about three-fourths of a mile wide. It has a water frontage of over ten miles, Newark bay being on the west, Kill van Knll on south and New York bay on the east. Bayonne is an extension of Bergen Hill, which here is fairly steep on the west side and comparatively gradual in slope on the east side; this is particularly true from about Thirtieth street north. The natural drainage is down the streets running east and west, either way from the summits, into the bay and southeast into Kill van Kull. There are one or two exceptions to this system as laid out in the plan many years ago. The Ingram avenue and Sixteenth street sewers drain territory ,from some distance to 'the north. The land area of Bayonne is about four square miles, the water area about 2.13 square miles. SEWERAGE WORKS Organisation for Construction and Maintenance. The City Engineer designs and constructs new sewers, which, after completion are turned over to the Street Commis- sioner for maintenance. The City Engineer has five civil service assistants engaged on sewer, water pipe and street improvement work. The Street Commissioner has only special appropriations for sewer work, and must ordinarily use men from the street cleaning force to clean basins and sewers. Old Hyxtem. The present combined system was designed and adopted some ten years or more ago. It is not known to-day upon just what basis the sizes were de- termined. It is said that many of the sewers are entirely too large for the require- ments, and in consequence are not flushed at any time except during the heaviest storms. New System. The plans for the whole peninsula are laid out on this old plan and many of the later sewers are put in larger than really necessary in conformity with the adopted plan, because it requires a good deal of time to get an amendment or ordi- nance of change through the Board of Aldermen, and they are loth to consider any de- partures from the accepted map. The general scheme is to start at the outlet with a 30-inch to 48-inch brick sewer diminishing in size to 10-inch or 12-inch vitrified pipes at the summits. 346 DATA COLLECTED Ventilation. Manhole covers are perforated to allow free ventilation from man- hole to manhole. Outlets. The outlets for the sewers are 26 in number, 3 being into New York bay, 11 into Kill van Kull and 12 into Newark bay, located as given in Table XXVI. TABLE XXVI OUTLETS OF SEWERS OF BAYONNE Location Diameter Drainage area acres Disposal East 47th street. . . . East 34th street Avenue F East 16th street Ingraham avenue. . . Hobart avenue Lexington avenue . . Lord avenue Avenue D Avenue C Humphreys avenue . Trask avenue Rathburn avenue. . . Hudson boulevard. . West 3d street West 5th street North street West 16th street. . . West 22d street West 24th street... West 25th street . . . West 29th street . . . West 30th street . . . West 33d street West 39th street... West 59th street . . 0" 0" 6" 6" 0" 6" 6" 6" 0" 0" 0" 0" 6" 0" 0" 0" 6" 0" 0" 6" 0" 6" 6" 0" 6" 0" 150 235 31 350 245 13 8 10 12 24 9 11 8 28 30 35 9 18 72 13 75 8 8 100 30 65 New York bay U It Kill van Kull II tl II II It II II It tl II II II II tt II II It It II II Newark bay SEWERAGE OF BAYONNE 347 Extent of the System. The exteiit of the sewer system is indicated in Table XXVII. TABLE XXVII GROWTH OF SEWER SYSTEM OF BAYONNE Mileage of Sewers Number of Outlets Number of Basins Number of House Connections Built during year Total 1900 5.31 .69 .62 .00 2.38 21. 26.31 27.90 28.52 29.12 31.50 9 10 25 380 500 4,750 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERS. Cleaning. The work of maintenance covers principally the spring cleaning of the basins down to the trap so that the water may flow out; other cleanings are given after severe storms, or upon complaint. The sewers are cleaned by hand by the maintenance force when clogged up. Contracts for cleaning certain sewers have been let at various times. Disposal of Cleanings. The cleanings are carted to public garbage dumps on the salt meadows and covered with ashes or earth in order that no nuisance may be created. DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE Tidal Discharge. All the sewers discharge into the tide waters of New York bay, Newark bay or Kill van Kull, many of them at the bulkhead line, but some few are extended out to deep water. Kanitary Outlets. Following complaints of nuisance there were installed at two different points house drainage outlets of 10-inch cast iron pipe carried out to deep water. A new sewer in Avenue F has also provided for the dry weather flow in the same way. Trouble has been experienced from the choking of the inlet into the cast iron pipe with sticks. 348 DATA COLLECTED Nuisances. The residents living on the Newark bay water-front object very strenuously to the further pollution of its waters and are likely to oppose any legisla- tion having such an object. Future Plans. No plans have been made or studied to dispose of Bayonnc's sewage otherwise than at present. As previously mentioned, the drainage plan for Bayonne has all been worked out, accepted and the greater part of it built. Disposal plants or pumping the sewage to sea are not under consideration. SEWERAGE OF JERSEY CITY, N. J. GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Features. Jersey City, with a population in 1903 of 232,099, is situated between the waters of Newark bay, the Ifackensack river and Ten- horn creek on the west and New York bay and Hudson river on the east; it has an area of about ten square miles provided with sewerage, and is the terminus of numerous railroads, its whole Hudson river water-front being appropriated for docks. The striking geological feature of Jersey City is the central ridge of trap about SO feet high extending from north to south. The eastern slope drops quite sharply about one mile inland from the Hudson. The western slope breaks down somewhat less abruptly to the meadows. The ridge itself is approximately a mile in width. The topography of Jersey City naturally requires a great many relatively short sewers emptying either side of Bergen Hill. There are no large natural water courses to indicate where best to locate the main sewers. HEWEUAGK WORKS Old Sewers. The older sewers of Jersey City were constructed of cast iron, steel, vitrified pipe and brick. In many cases the brick sewers have had to be replaced on account of inadequacy and, in some cases, from poor construction. In the report of the State Sewerage Commission for 1900 four sewers were mentioned as being in- adequate for storm service. Three of the four have since then been relieved. The cast iron and riveted steel sewers were adopted to take care of the pressure under which many of the sewers draining the hill sections are subjected. Ten years ago there were 8.1 miles of these pressure sewers ranging from 10-inch to 06-inch diameter. Organization for Construction and Maintenance. The Chief Engineer to the Board of Street and Water Commissioners of Jersey City has an organization of 14 men, an Assistant Chief Engineer, three assistant engineers and ten "rodmen, in- SEWERAGE OF JERSEY CITY 349 specters, etc. These are all under city civil service regulations. It is said that tlie constitutionality of the civil service laws for cities of New Jersey is now under legal investigation. Design. The engineering department of the board has charge of the design, con- struction and maintenance of sewers as well as of street work and water supply. The engineers and inspectors are assigned to whatever work may be on hand. All of the public Avork is thus correlated through the Chief Engineer. It is the general policy to carry the combined sewage out to the water-front through numerous outlets; nearly every street running to the river has its sewer. The sections back on the hills deliver sewage to the water-front under head so that the low level sewers cannot be connected to them in many cases. Formula,. Kutter's formula for discharge is used, Avith u=.013 and a rainfall of V/2 inches per hour is allowed for. It is apparent that this will not provide for storms of great intensity. The rains of last spring gorged practically all of the Jersey City sewers. Materials. A great deal of the recent work has been of riveted steel and rein- forced concrete construction. Vitrified tile are used in sizes up to 21-inch. Outlets. In general the outlets discharge below low water at the bulkhead line. Practically all of the sewers emptying into the Hudson river must cross railroad property. The Carteret avenue outlet will be built out to the pierhead when the rail- road fills in the land out to the established pierhead line. The outlets of the Jersey City sewers are located as given in Table XXVIII. TABLE XXVIII OUTLETS OF SEWERS OF JEUSEY CITY Location Equivalent Diameter Size Remarks 15th street, Hudson river 4' 6" Riveted Steel 14th street, Hudson river 3' 5" 3' 0"x4' 0" Egg 13th street, Hudson river 5' 0" r / (i"x f -! fl" Firrr 12th street, Hudson river 8' 0" Riveted Steel Pavonia, Hudson river. . . 3' 6" 3' 0"x4' 0" Egg 8th street, Hudson river . . 3' 6" 3' 0"x4' 0" Fgg 6th street, Hudson river 3' 3" 3' 0"x3' 6" Egg 2d street, Hudson river 4' 0" 350 DATA COLLECTED TABLE XXVIII Continued Location Equivalent Diameter Size Remarks 3' 5" 3' 0"x4' 0" Effz Pearl street, Hudson river 3' 5" 3' 0"x4' 0" Egg York street, Hudson river 4' 6" 4' 0"xo' 0" Egg Grand street, Hudson river 7' 0" Essex street, Hudson river 3' 0" Grand street, Mill creek 4' 0" Grand street, Mill creek 6' 0" Riveted Steel Pine street, Mill creek 4' 6" Communipaw Pine street, New York bay .... ... 2' 6" Carteret street, New York bay t wo 8' 9" Richard street, New York bay 4' 0" Brown place, New York bay 5' 0" Neptune avenue, Newark bay 6' 0" Steel pipe Danfort avenue, Newark bay 4' 0" Swampy creek, Newark bay 6' 0" South Newark & N. Y. R. R., Hackensack\ 6' 0" Not built; held up by State Board of Heajth. Hatch avenue, Hackensack river 4' 0" Clendenin avenue, Hackensack river 5' 0" Steel pipe. Communipaw avenue, Hackensack river. . . 5' 0" Duncan avenue, Hackensack river 3' 6" Sip avenue, Hackensack river 4' 6" Newark avenue, Hackensack river 4' 6" Newark avenue, Hackensack river 2' 6" Van Winkle avenue, Hackensack river 7' C" Steel pipe. St Pauls avenue, Hackensack river 2' 6" Manhattan avenue, Hackensack river 5' 0" North Bergen Jersey City Joint, Penhorn\ 4' 6" Size of inlet into joint sewer at Ton nr lie street creek / Grades. The grades in the lower part of city are so flat that the sewage backs up some times as much as one and one-half miles. It is said that sediment does not de- posit in these sewers to any extent because of the high velocities. The hydraulic grade and the grade of the invert in these sewers may not coincide. SEWERAGE OF JERSEY CITY 351 Difficulties. The Morris canal skirts the shores of Newark bay and New York bay thereby requiring great expense for inverted siphons for all of the outlets in this terri- tory. The canal is in a very unsanitary condition. An inspection was made of it by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission's inspectors from Henderson street to Mill creek on November 16th, 1909, and numerous dead animals, dead fish and quantities of garbage and ashes were observed. Bubbles were noticed rising to the surface in pro- fusion, and green algae and slime covered the various objects on the bottom. Many out- houses overhang the canal and a small amount of sewage flow was noted near Hender- son street. The canal is said to be leased to a railroad company and used only enough to hold the franchise or charter. If the canal were done away with it would clean up one of the worst appearing of Jersey City's unsanitary surroundings, and would aid the sewerage system very materially by eliminating the necessity of inverted siphons. RELIEF SEWERS During the last few years a number of so-called relief sewers, designed to relieve the older sewers in districts in which the old system has become inadequate, have been con- structed. The following are some of these: Division Street. The Division street relief sewer is an 8-foot riveted steel construc- tion extending in Twelfth street from Division street to the Hudson river across the lauds of the Erie Railroad Company. The cost was about $207,500, for no portion of which was an assessment levied. The elevation of the invert is 5.9 feet below ordin- ary high tide so that at practically all times the top of this sewer will be exposed. The sewer serves a large low level district and there was at first connected to it a sewer draining the hill section through the New York avenue sewer. This was found to over- tax the Division street sewer at times of flood and a 54-inch steel line was built across lands of the Lackawanna Railroad Company, through Monmouth and Thirteenth streets to the Hudson river. This line runs under pressure and receives no sewage from the lower levels. Jackson and Claremont Avenue Relief. The Bergen section, although it is situated on the hill, was subjected to flooding of streets and cellars and the Jackson and Claremont avenue relief sewer is being built to relieve it. This system outlets through an extension of Carteret avenue t with expensive crossings under the Morris canal and a great number of railroad tracks. From the foot of the hill there is an 8-foot steel pipe under the tracks; a second 8-foot concrete steel conduit has been placed alongside of the riveted steel pipe to take care of low level districts tributary north to Communi- paw avenue when it shall have become built up. 352 DATA COLLECTED Grant Avenue Relief. A 6-foot riveted steel relief sewer for the district 011 the hill north of Communipaw avenue has been built starting at Summit street and running down Fairmouut and Grand streets to Mill creek. Van Winkle Avenue. A 7-foot steel outlet sewer emptying into the Hackensack river at the foot of Van Winkle avenue was built to relieve the high level flow of the Newark avenue sewer. OTHER RECENT CONSTRUCTIONS Clendenin Avenue. A 60-inch riveted steel sewer empties into the mouth of the Hackensack river at the foot of Clendenin avenue. This drains the west side of the hill district between Communipaw and Virginia avenues. Jersey City-Bergen Joint Hewer. A 54-inch brick sewer emptying into the joint sewer at Tonnelle street has just been completed. The joint sewer will need to be re- constructed within a comparatively short time and the expense thereof borne by both cities. Extent of the System. Table XXIX gives some statistical data relating to the extent of the sewerage system and other matters of general interest: TABLE XXIX DATA RELATING TO THE SEWERAGE OF JERSEY CITY Year Miles of Sewers built During intervening years Total 1900 99.5 1901 1902 . 1903 . . 14.52 1904 1905 114.02 190(j 1907 6.27 2.60 120.29 122.89 1908 Number of basins in 1900 1,300 Number of house connections in 1905 27,000 Number of factory connections in 1905 809 Population in 1900 210,000 Population in 1905 230,000 Number of outlets in 1905 23 Number of outlets in 1909 30 Annual expense for care, 1905 f 20,000 SEWERAGE OF JEESEY CITY 353 Annual expense for care, 1907 $27,000 Annual expense for care, 1908 $26,000 Area drained, 1905, square inili-s 10 Estimated dry weather flow, 1905, cubic feet per second 50 Estimated stormy weather How, 1905, cubic feet per second 5,000 Area of city, upland, square miles 13.2 Area of city, under water, square miles 6.0 Area of city, total, square miles 19.2 Paved streets, 1900, miles 100 Paved streets, 1907, miles 121.6 Paved streets, 1908, miles 124.9 Unpaved streets, 1900, miles 101 . Unpaved streets, 1907, miles 80 . 9 Unpaved streets, 1908, miles 77 . 8 MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWERAGE WORKS Inspection. All inspections of sewers and basins are made by a foreman and two assistants, there being no regular inspectors for the work. Cleaning. The down town basins are cleaned about every two weeks and up town about every two months. No machines are used in the work. The cleaning of large sewers in down town districts must generally be done at low water. The street cleaning force does not make a practice of pushing sweepings into the catch basin ; nevertheless much garbage finds its way into them. Officers are instructed to arrest persons found putting anything of this sort into the basins. The streets are said to be kept quite clean. Disposal of Cleanings. The cleanings from basins and sewers are hauled out of town to the meadows and used as filling on private holdings. No nuisance is caused as there are no houses near the dumping grounds. Ventilation. Ventilation is accomplished through perforated manhole covers. DISPOSAL OP THE SEWAGE Tidal Discharge. Of the 34 sewer outfalls in Jersey City 13 discharge into the Hudson river, 3 into Mill creek, 4 into New York bay, 3 into Newark bay, 10 into the Hackensack river and 1 into Penhorn creek. All empty into the water without screening or purification of any kind; nuisances are common. The following are the general conditions attending the discharge at different localities: Hackensack River. There is said to be no nuisance caused by sewers emptying into the Hackensack river at Jersey City because of the swift current and deep water. Penhorn Creek. Penhoru creek is badly polluted by the Jersey City-North Bergen joint sewer. Notice from the State Sewerage Commission to Jersey City and West 354 DATA COLLECTED Hoboken to cease polluting Penhorn creek prior to May 1, 190S, was disregarded. The Attorney General was requested to bring proceedings against these two municipalities to enforce the notice. Newark Hay. Bayonne complains that the sewers emptying into Newark bay from Jersey City pollute her shores. Hudson River. The sewage emptying into the Hudson river at the bulkhead line between the various piers of the railroad companies may easily be noted. It has not the chance to be diluted, digested and carried away that it would have were it delivered to the ends of the piers. Mill Creek. An inspection was made of this creek from the Morris canal to Grand street on November 16, 1909. The creek is an open sewer. The odor was quite noticeable. A 6-foot riveted steel pipe and two 4-foot cast-iron outlets were each running about half full of sewage of a comparatively fresh character. The current in the creek is fairly rapid and the channel well defined, so that the sewage is carried away rapidly. Mill creek also receives sewage from a 4-foot 6-inch sewer emptying at the foot of Pine street. Future Plans. No future plans for the disposal of the Jersey City sewage have been formulated, or even talked of, except in a general way; it is conceded, however, that a system different from the present one of draining into the nearest available water must be devised at no distant date. Mr. Emil Kuichling, M. Am. Soc. C. E., has, at various times, passed on plans and advised in a general way on the design and construction features of various projects as they have been developed. Greenville. A district of about 150 acres in the Greenville section is now needing sewers. A system has been designed with an outlet into Newark bay, just south of the Newark and New York railroad, but the State Board of Health has refused to allow it to be built, or in fact any other to discharge into Newark bay, without first removing " the solid material " therefrom. The Board of Street and Water Com- missioners is now considering what to do to comply with these regulations. No de- signs for a purification plant are being studied. Grand Avenue. It is proposed to build an extension of the Grand avenue sewer up Grand avenue from Pairmount avenue to Park avenue to relieve the tributary dis- trict; there is also a plan to build an extension of the outlet in the bed of Mill creek to the basin and fill up Mill creek its entire length. SEWERAGE OF HOBOKEN 355 SEWERAGE OF HOBOKEN, N. J. GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Features. Hoboken city, with a population in 1905 of 65,468 has an area of about 720 acres served with sewers, and lies just north of Jersey City; various railroad lines bound it on the south, east and north, and the Hudson river on the west. The main topographical feature of Hoboken is Stevens Point rising to a height of 100 feet quite near to the Hudson river and sloping landward in all directions. The northeastern portion of the city is still unfilled swamp. Practically all of the sewers are built on piles. No rock is encountered in making excavations. Naturally, since the surface drains away from Stevens Point in all directions, but tAvo general drainage districts are possible. The first drains practically all the streets from about Ninth street to the south into interceptors running down Third, Newark and Ferry streets to the river. The second general system drains a smaller area to the north of Eighth and Ninth streets in a similar way through Eleventh and Fourteenth streets to the river. SEWERAGE WORKS Desiyn of Sewers. The design and construction of new sewers is done by a civil engineer designated by the Board of Aldermen, for the particular work in question. Very little information is obtainable regarding the design and construction of the Hoboken sewers. There has been no work of magnitude carried on in recent years. Old tiystvm. All the sewers in Hobokeu are on the combined system. An official map is on record in the City Clerk's office showing the sewers. On this map three wooden box sewers, said to be 8 feet square, are shown emptying into the canal in the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western R. R. yards. A 4-foot wooden box sewer is shown emptying into a small basin near the foot of Fifteenth street. The outlet of the sewer and also that of the basin are shown with automatic gates. One of these old box drains, which has been replaced within the last few years, was found in an excellent state of preser- vation as it had been completely submerged at all times. The remaining sewer outlets shown on the official map are of brick construction. Outfalls. The sewer outfalls are given in Table XXX. 356 DATA COLLECTED TABLE XXX OUTFALLS OF HOBOKEN, N. J., SEWERS Description Size Elevation Outlet Invert Feet Area Drained; Acres Remarks 8'x8' 15 Park avenue 8'x8' 5 8 Bloonafield street ... 8'x8' 7 67 Ferry street 4'x8' 110 Newark street 2'6"x4'0" Egg 8 9 Brick Newark street 5'0" 45 3rd street ' 5'0" diam. 6.1 225 Brick llth street 4'0"x2'6" oval 1.5 125 Brick 14th street ^"xS'e" Egg. 3.3 50 Brick 15th street 4'0"x4'0" square NoUt. Elevations refer to mean high water. The Provost street. Park avenue and Bloomfield street outlets discharge into a long ship canal extending inland from the Hudson river. All the other sewers discharge into the Hudson river either in ferry or steamer slips or at the bulkhead line. Extent of the System. In 1905 there were about 15 miles of sewers in Hoboken, with 4,300 house connections. There were 1,300 catch basins connected with the sys- tem in 1900. The total area drained by the sewers is 1.1 square miles. MAINTENANCE OF THE SEWEEAGE WOEKS The Street Commissioner has charge of the maintenance of the sewers, fur which purpose he has two gangs consisting of three men and a cart each. Inspection. No regular inspections are made of basins and sewers. Cleaning. It is said that the basins are cleaned three or four times per year, and the sewers when they fail to work. Rods are pushed through from manhole to man- hole and then a rope with buckets attached to it is drawn through by means of a wind- lass. This method can be used when the sewer is full of water. Disposal of Cleanings. The basin and sewer cleanings are taken to the meadows and used as filling. The dumping places are too far from houses to give rise to com- plaints. DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE Tidal Discharges. All the sewers discharge into tide water of the Hudson river without treatment or purification. SEWERAGE OF HOBOKEX 357 Tide-locked Sewers. The inverts of the outlets, with the exception of those of the Eleventh and Fourteenth street sewers, are all tide-locked at high water. The following extract from the 1905 State Sewerage Commission Report, page 182, describes this condition. " The sewerage system for the lower meadow section is based on the tidal sys- tem. The outlets are provided with sluice gates, which are raised and lowered at the change of the tides by a service gate keeper. A few of the sewers coming from the higher section do not require sluice gates; a system of drainage by pumping has been under consideration for some time, but no definite action has been taken towards its establishment." Nuisances. Complaints have been made to the State Board of Health of New Jersey of a nuisance caused by the Newark street sewer outletting into a basin formed by the piers of the Hamburg-American Steamship Company and the Lackawanna Railroad. An inspection made by Board of Health found " that the sewage had a tendency to re- main near the end of the pipe until putrefied and became a nuisance to the neighbor- hood." At an inspection by an inspector of the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission on November 19th, 1909, practically the same conditions were observed. Bubbles of gas were noted rising to the surface, through the grayish colored water which gave off a distinctly sewage odor. The Hamburg-American Steamship Company has lodged complaint with the city Board of Health and the Mayor of Hoboken but no action has been taken. Owing to the fact that the city's sewers discharge into the Hudson over private property " It was stated that there is a legal question involved as to who shall remedy conditions existing at present." Future Plans. There have been a number of plans and studies made of the sew- erage problem in Hoboken by Mr. T. H. McCann, as well as other consulting engi- neers, but no definite action has been taken with respect to further improvements in sewerage. An installation of pumps to drain the tide-locked sewers and do away with the intermittent discharge has been proposed. SEWERAGE OF THE RAHWAY RIVER VALLEY GENERAL FEATURES AND CONDITIONS Principal Topographical Characteristics. The watershed of the Rahway river and its tributaries lies to the east and southeast of the Elizabeth and Morse creek water- sheds, and to the south of the Passaic watershed. It, covers an area of 250 square miles and drains a large tract of swampy land to the east of Rahway characterized by numerous small lakes. The land drained 358 DATA COLLECTED up to about 12 miles from its mouth is comparatively flat. At this point it branches either side of First Watchung Mountain whose slopes are very steep. Municipalities on the Watershed. A list of the various municipalities, with a total population in 1905 of over 45.000 people living on this watershed, is given in Table XXXI. TABLE XXXI MUNICIPALITIES IN KAH\VAY RIVER WATERSHED City 1905 Population Remarks 8 649 538 Clark 387 Fanwood Township 1 341 Cranford Township 3,600 Must cease polluting by November 1, 1911 564 West field 5265 Springfield Township 1,123 Millburn Township 3,182 Drain into Joint outlet 6,845 West Orange 7,872 Drain into Joint outlet South Orange 4,932 Drain into Joint outlet South Orange Township 1,946 Drain into Joint outlet 46,244 24,777 Total Drain into Joint outlet 21,467 Drain into Rahway SEWERAGE WORKS OF THE MUNICIPALITIES Rahway. Rahway, with an estimated population in 1905 of 8,649, is the largest city on the watershed. Its sewage is discharged into the Cranford-Rahway trunk sewer, which in turn discharges into the Rahway river below the city of Rahway. This sewer is the only one noted as polluting the Rahway river below the water works intake, but the stream is small and consequently is badly polluted. In 1906 Rahway complained to the State Sewerage Commission that the trunk sewer from Cranford was overflowing in the streets of Rahway. Cranford replied that by agreement Rahway was to care for that portion of the sewer lying in Rahway, and SEWERAGE OF THE RAHWAY VALLEY 359 the outlet, aiid that therefore Cranford was not responsible. It would sseeiu from this that the sewer was not of sufficient size at this time or else the capacity has become reduced from sediment. Rahway was notified by the State Board of Health to cease polluting the river by November 1, 1911. /{.alt-way Itcformatury. in 1901 plans for a 50,000 gallon disposal plant were drawn and the work partly constructed. They have never been completed and dur- ing all this time raw sewage has been discharged down Woodbridge road through a 10-inch pipe into the river. In 1908 Waring, Chapman and Farquahar drew plans for this plant and included an electric pump, screen chamber and sand filter beds. The first design was not acceptable to the State Sewerage Commission and after revision the bids submitted for its construction were higher than the appropriation. The Commission then requested Prof. E. B. Phelps to devise a plan and he recommended chemical disinfection and septic action. Owing to the danger of the pollution of shellfish this method of treatment was considered the only one available. A 10-inch pipe was considered ample for house sewage for a great many years to come and an 18-iiicli pipe recommended to care for storm water. The adoption of separate systems was urged by Prof. Phelps. Cranford. Cranford township has a population of about 3,600 and, as above stated, it sewers into the trunk emptying below Rahway. It has about ten miles of sewers on the separate system. In 1902 and 1905 a citizen of Cranford complained of various factories on the river above. Inspections were made and notices to cease pollution were served by the State Sewerage Commission, but it was not considered possible to make the water potable. In 1900 there was reported a water consump- tion of but six gallons per capita per day and with a population of 2,800 there was estimated a daily sewage discharge of but 20,000 gallons. Ten per cent, of the sewage was estimated to be ground water. Garwood. A plan to extend the Cranford system out through Garwood has been made and was in the process of construction in 1908. A private sewer 6,000 feet long draining the overflow of cesspools is to be connected up with the new system. Westfield. Westfield's system was built in 1895. At that time 12 miles of sewers were laid, but the system has since been extended to about 15 miles. The present sys- tem had 974 connections in 1908 and cared for about 6,000 people. The volume of sewage was estimated at 400,000 gallons daily. The sewers leak badly and in rainy weather the quantity may be doubled on this account. There is a sewage disposal farm of 108 acres about two miles from town. Twelve acres are available for the disposal plant, which consists of a double screen chamber. 360 DATA COLLECTED three sludge beds, a spetic tank, five intermittent filter beds and four irrigation tracts. The effluent runs into a small stream which is caught by a large irou main and conducted about" two miles and emptied below the intake of the Kahway water- works. Millburn Toionship. Millburn Township had 15 miles of sewers in 1905, with about four miles planned. It is connected with the Joint outlet sewer emptying into Staten Island Sound. The territory of 2,800 acres drained had in 1905 a population of 3,500 living in 350 houses. There Avere three paper mills using 6,000,000 gallons of water daily. The separate system is cleaned by automatic flush tanks. It costs $500 per year to care for the system. This township, it is to be noted, does not pol- lute the Rahway river. Summit. Summit lies on the ridge between the Rahway and Passaic rivers. It had an estimated population in 1908 of 8,000. It produces about 500,000 gallons of sewage daily, all emptying into the Joint outlet sewer. The whole town is sew- ered. About half of the sewage runs by gravity and the remainder must be pumped over the ridge. There is an abandoned sewage disposal plant for the portion now pumped. The sewage of Summit is taken out of its natural watershed into that of the Elizabeth river. Orange. In 1900 about 500,000 gallons of sewage daily produced in the city of Orange from 230 acres in the Rahway valley was pumped over into the Passaic valley. There still exists an old sewer discharging into the Rahway, used for storm overflow, into which house connections were made; complaints have been made of this by South Orange. The State Sewerage Commission found in 1906 it had no jurisdiction over cities within the district of the Passaic Valley Commission. In 1907 the overflows from the regular sewers of Orange to the storm water outlet into the Rahway were discon- nected and the private connections into the storm water drain also cut off. Factory wastes still discharge into the sewer to some extent. A number of private sewers from hat factories and others still discharge into the stream, and notices were sent to some dozen different parties to cease polluting the river. West Orange. West Orange lies to the east of the First mountain at the head waters of the east branch of Rahway river and the Second river. Practically all of its area, 2,325 acres tributary to the Rahway is sewered into the Joint outlet sewer. Union Township. A portion of the area of Union Township lies in the Rahway watershed, but there are no towns of any size within its limits. South Orange Toumship. Plans for the township of South Orange to dischcirge its sewage into the Joint outlet sewer were approved September 12, 1907. South SEWERAGE OF THE EAHWAY VALLEY 361 Orange Township through an arrangement with South Orange village has a right to use the Joint outlet. It has a territory of about 3,754 acres. South Orange. South Orange is situated on both sides of the river just to the east of First mountain. It has an area of 1,575 acres and a population of about 5, 000. Its sewers drain into the Joint outlet. Factories. A large n umber of various kinds of factories pollute the Rahway river; these have been served many times with notices to cease the pollution and promises to stop were freely given each time, but little was done. It is probable that the injury to fish and shellfish is due to the factory pollution to a much larger ex- tent than the house sewage proper. CHAPTER VI FOULING OF THE BEACHES OF LONG ISLAND AND NEW JERSEY BY GARBAGE WASHED UP FROM THE SEA DURING THE SUMMER OF 1906. SECTION I RESULTS OF INSPECTIONS COLLECTION OF INFORMATION Purpose of Investigation. Following is Hie substance of a report sent to Mayor Mc- Clellaii in answer to a request from Acting Mayor McGowan in July, 1906, that the fouling of the Long Island and New Jersey shores with garbage be investigated. The presence of so much garbage was exceptional. It was found to be due to the fact that the garbage of the City of New York was being dumped at sea in order to dispose of it until the Barren Island disposal works, which had recently been destroyed by fire, could be rebuilt. The information contained herein relates to the circumstances under which garbage was found on the beaches with respect to the places where it was washed up, the force and direction of the wind, stage of the tide, quantity of garbage, the compo- sition and condition of the garbage with reference to decomposition, the measures which it was necessary to take to remove the garbage from the beaches, the location of the places at sea where the garbage was dumped, the quantities of garbage dumped each day, and the rate at which the garbage was driven by the wind through the sea. Usefulness of Data. These data are of interest not only because sea dumping may at some time again be necessary, but because the behavior of this garbage gives an idea of the course which sewage might take if emptied under similar conditions at the mouth of the harbor. Organization of Inspection. The inspection of the shores of Long Island and New Jersey began July 10, 1906, and were continued until the 15th of August of the same year. A large part of the work was done by a Chief Inspector of the Metropolitan Sew- erage Commission assisted by six or eight volunteer inspectors at carefully selected points on the two lines of coast. Most of these volunteer inspectors were bathing mast- ers or life guards, whose occupations kept them on the beaches continually. At the beginning all were shown how to keep systematic records of their ob- servations. In this way it was found feasible to watch the Long Island shore as far east as Westhampton, about 80 miles from New York, and the New Jersey coast as 364 DATA COLLECTED far south as Atlantic City, about 90 miles from New York. These inspections were supplemented by observations made by members of the United States Life Saving Ser- vice. In order to observe the behavior of the garbage in the sea and to make observations concerning the speed at which it was carried by currents two days were spent by one of the members of the Metropolitan Commission on the ocean, the distance cov- ered in these two days having been about 160 nautical miles. Records of the force and direction of the principal prevailing winds since the be- ginning of the investigations were supplied by the United States Weather Bureau. The Department of Street Cleaning of the City of New York furnished records of the amount of garbage, in loads and tons, dumped at sea each day, and indicated the points where it directed that the dumping be done. The Supervisor of the Harbor ex- plained the system by which lie sought to prevent the dumping of garbage inside the three-mile limit. SUMMARY OF INFORMATION COLLECTED The information collected may be summarized as follows : Dumping Grounds and the Effect of Changing their Location. At first the dumping grounds were at a point about 17 miles from Seabright, N. J., and 18 miles from Long Beach, L. I. ; their removal to a point about 25 miles from Seabright and about 17 miles from Long Branch on August 17 lessened, but did not remove, the risk of foul- ing the New Jersey beaches. Effects of Winds on Travel of Garbage. During the periods when garbage was dumped at sea the New Jersey and Long Island beaches were befouled whenever a brisk wind blew shoreward from the ocean. When calms or light winds occurred the garbage accumulated until a favorable wind occurred to carry it to shore. Fields of Floating Garbage. Inspections of the sea in all directions to a distance of about 35 miles from the Narrows showed in calm weather the presence of fields of many acres of garbage, even after dumping had been entirely suspended for two days. Rate of Travel of Garbage toward Beaches. Accurate observations at sea showed the garbage traveling toward shore at a rate of over one-half a mile per hour when the tide was favorable and the wind blowing landward at a rate of about five miles per hour. Return of Floating Garbage to New York Harbor. Under the action of continued easterly winds some garbage originally dumped at sea about 15 miles beyond the en- trance to the Gedney channel returned to New York and was .thrown upon the Staten Island beaches about 29 miles away. A small amount actually entered the Narrows and was driven into Upper New York bay. Distances Traveled by Garbage. Garbage was at times found on the Long Island beaches as far east as Smiths Point, near Center Moriches, 50 miles from the dumping FOULING OF BEACHES LONG ISLAND AND NEW JERSEY 365 grounds; on the New Jersey shore as far south as Atlantic City, 76 miles from the dumping ground; and on the Staten Island shore, about 25 miles from the dumping ground. All the seaside resorts between these points and New York were inconven- ienced to a greater or lesser extent by the dumping of New York City garbage at sea. Pollution of Long Island and New Jersey Beaches with Garbage. Most of the gar- bage which polluted the beaches of Long Island and New Jersey was unquestionably garbage from the City of New York which was dumped at sea. Steamers and other vessels were capable of furnishing but a very small part of the total amount of gar- bage which polluted the ocean shore. Quantity of Garbage on Beaches. The quantity of garbage deposited on the beaches varied from an amount which scarcely caused objection to an amount which drove bathers from the water. There was found, on one occasion, on the New Jersey beach below Ocean Grove, one cubic foot of garbage on each 100 square feet of beach for a considerable distance. Winds of Summer of 1906 Favorable to Small Deposits. Meteorological records showed that July, 1906, was an unusually favorable month for the disposal of garbage in the manner followed because of the comparative infrequency of landward breezes of considerable velocity. Had normal winds prevailed the beaches would have been in a more objectionable condition. Loss of Offensivcness Due to Immersion. The garbage which was washed ashore after many hours was not of the same composition nor in the same condition as when dumped at sea. It was, for the most part, less offensive. Much of the heavier solid matters had sunk. The vegetable matter, from its immersion, was deprived of its most objectionable qualities and was offensive chiefly to the eye. Of that portion of the garbage which was carried to shore, the most offensive elements were dead and decomposing animals, such as dogs, cats, rats and fowls. Grease, which was washed upon the beaches in lumps varying in size from par- ticles as large as peas to pieces of a pound or more in weight, was particularly objec- tionable to bathers, but did not give rise to offensive odors. Wood, which was often washed upon the beaches in quantity and was mostly from other sources, was carefully distinguished from garbage in this investigation. Control of Future Sea Disposal When Again Necessary. For the proper protection of the New Jersey and Long Island beaches in future, it is recommended that the dumping of garbage from passing ships be restricted as far as practicable especially in the months of June, July and August. 366 DATA COLLECTED If necessity ever again requires that the garbage of New York be dumped at sea it should be transported in sea-going ships and carried at least 100 miles from the Gedney channel whistling buoy. SECTION II INSPECTIONS BY METEOPOLITAN SEWERAGE COMMISSION THE SHORES OF LONG ISLAND WESTHAMPTON AND SMITH POINT BEACHES Wcsthampton Beach, Long Island. August 3rd, 11.30 a. m. Wind, southeast, I fresh. Tide, high, rising. Shore very clean. Some seaweed and driftwood. A few corks and bottles. No garbage along shore. Local observer states that no garbage came ashore there July 29 or 30 and that he has seen none there this season. Smiths Point Beach near Center Moriches. August 3rd, 4.00 p. m. Wind south- east, fresh. Tide low, falling. Small amount of garbage along the shore. The local observer on this beach states that he had noticed very little garbage on this beach this season, but that some had come up on July 29 and 30. There had not been so much this summer as in former seasons. Summary. The southwest wind on July 29 and 30 washed garbage on Smiths Point beach off Center Moriches but no further east, so far as could be learned by personal investigations and report. OPPOSITE PATCHOGUB Water Island off Patchogue, L. I. August 4th, 1906, 11.00 a. m. Wind southwest, fresh. Tide high. About the same quantity of garbage here as at Smiths Point beach. Easily distinguished but hardly enough to estimate. Bathing master reports no trouble from garbage this season. Did not see this come ashore, he said. Summary. Small quantity of garbage on beach of Water Island ; probably there since July 29 and 30 southwest winds. OAK ISLAND Oak Island, West of Fire Island. July 17, 1906, 3.00 p. m. Wind, southwest, strong. Tide, three-fourths full, rising. Oak Beach. Shore opposite first steamboat landing toward Fire Island. Consider able seaweed and some driftwood on the shore. One-half cubic yard seaweed in 400 square feet. No garbage on shore or in water. Shore never cleaned except of driftwood for fuel. Observer said he had seen no garbage on the shore this season. Shore of Oak Island at United States Life Saving Station. Near western end of Island. July 17, 4.00 p. m. No garbage. Seaweed and driftwood only. FOULING OF BEACHES LONG ISLAND AND NEW JERSEY 367 FIRE ISLAND AND OAK ISLAND Fire Ixhnid from bathing beach opposite hotel west to Life Saving Station and east toward Point o' Woods. July 31, 11.00 a. m. to 3.00 p. m. The wind, light from the west. Tide full at 4.00 p. ui. ; rising. Garbage all along this beach which came ashore Sunday and Monday with south- west wind. The decayed vegetables comprised apples, oranges, lemons, pineapples, onions, turnips, potatoes, banana skins, corn, watermelon, squashes and cabbages. Also many pieces of fat meat and grease, pieces of bread, seaweed and driftwood. Also dead animals. Observer stated that beach was cleaned Sunday morning and that Sunday afternoon and Monday a large quantity of garbage came ashore. Estimated quantity of garbage on shore, one-half cubic foot on 400 square feet of beach. Oak Island. A good deal of garbage came ashore on Oak Island on Sunday and Monday, July 29 and 30; also many crates of fresh lemons. Summitry. Considerable amount of garbage on Fire Island and Oak Island shores blown there with southwest winds on July 29 and 30. LONG BEACH Long Beach Bathing Beach. July 12, 1906, 11.45 a. m. Wind, southeast, light. Tide, high, rising. In 400 square feet of shore was one-half cubic yard of vegetable matter, mainly seaweed with some driftwood and shells. Quantity was estimated from one side of bathing beach as beach was cleaned. No garbage on shore or in water. Observer says he has seen no garbage on shore since July 1st, and that during the last week in June the beach was filthy with decayed vegetables, presumably from New York dumping scow. None seen since then, even after south winds. Long Beach Bathing Beach. July 30, 190G, 11.15 a. m. Wind, southwest, fresh. Tide, one-half high, rising. Large amount of garbage, driftwood and seaweed came ashore on this 'beach yesterday during strong northeast wind and considerable is com- ing ashore to-day, although less than yesterday, as wind not so strong. Observer said more garbage came ashore yesterday than at any time since June. Said that considerable came ashore about the 18th or 19th with a southwest wind. Be- sides garbage he buried two dead cats and several rats yesterday. Said that fifteen or twenty crates of good lemons were picked up on the beach yesterday P. M. Shore to West of Inn. July 30, 1906, 12.25 p. m. Wind, southwest, fresh. Tide, high, rising. All along shore a large quantity of decayed vegetables of various sorts, pieces of fat meat, of bread, besides driftwood, seaweed, bottles, tin cans, straw, paper, corks, feathers, etc. Amount of garbage about l'/2 cubic feet 368 DATA COLLECTED in 400 square feet. Amount of seaweed and driftwood about 2 cubic yards in 400 square feet. Shore to Pt. Lookout Life Saving Station. July 30, 1906, 2-4.15 p. m. Wind, south- west, fresh. Tide, full about 3. Large quantity of decayed vegetables, many pieces of fat meat, bread, a dead fowl, seaweed, driftwood, mattress, bed, tin cans, straw paper, horse dung, bottles and brushes. About one and one-half cubic feet gar- bage in 400 square feet. About two cubic yards seaweed and driftwood in 400 square feet. Summary. Large amount of garbage all along South Beach shore, blown ashore by southwest winds yesterday and to-day. BOCKAWAY BEACH TO CONEY ISLAND Rockaway Beach. July 11, 1906, 9.40 a. m. Wind, northeast, light. Tide, high, rising. In 400 square feet of shore was one-half cubic yard vegetable matter, prac- tically all seaweed with some driftwood. No odor. No garbage or sewage seen in water or on shore except as noted above. Guard says there has been no trouble this season from garbage coming ashore even after strong south winds. Said that people who live along the shore dump their garbage on the shore at night, which would account for what is found. Seaside Boat Landing on Rockaway Inlet. July 11, 1906, 10.30 a. m. Wind, north- east, light. Tide, high, rising. Guard on beach above reported complaints of garbage coming up into inlet, during south wind. Men interviewed, said garbage floated up into Jamaica bay after a south wind. Saw none myself. Only seaweed. Far Rockaway. A leading bathing place. July 11, 1906, 11.45 a. m. Wind, north- east. Tide, high, full. In 400 square feet shore one-fourth cubic yard vegetable mat- ter; mainly seaweed, some driftwood. No odor. No garbage in water or on shore ex- cept as above noted. Guard says there has been no trouble this season from garbage coming ashore even after strong south winds. Manhattan Beach. July 11, 1906, 2.30 p. m. Wind, south, light. Tide, high, fall- ing. In 400 square feet of shore one-eightli cubic yard vegetable matter. No garbage on beach or in water. Heard reports in Rockaway that this beach was polluted with garbage but found that the seaweed only caused the trouble. No garbage has been seen on the shore this season to speak of, even after several days of southerly winds, according to the life guards at the bathing beach. They said it was not so bad as in former years. FOULING OF BEACHES LONG ISLAND AND NEW JEKSEY 369 Brighton Beach. Bathing shore east of Brighton Beach Hotel. July 11, 1906, 3.30 p. m. Wind, south, light. Tide, half high, falling. Shore clean except for sea- weed. No garbage seen on shore or in water. One guard says there was a good deal of garbage on the shore after south winds in June. Had not seen it since, ex- ccp! on Saturday last, when there was some in the water. A Leading Bathing Place. July 11, 1906, 3.50 p. m. Wind, south, light. Tide, half high, falling. Shore quite clean. No complaint of garbage in water this season accord- ing to guards. Coney Island. A principal bathing point. July 11, 1906, 4.30 p. m. Wind, south, light. Tide, low, falling. Shore clean. No garbage to any extent this season. Banana skins and orange peels thrown on beach by bathers. Shore cleaned every morning, as are other shores noted above, and scarcely anything but seaweed and driftwood found in rakings; even after strong south winds. Summary. Practically no garbage on Rockaway or Coney Island shores. EOCKAWAY POINT TO HOLLAND Rockaway Park. Shore of Eockaway inlet, foot of Fifth avenue. July 18, 1906, 10.20 a. m. Wind, southwest by south. Tide, low, rising. No garbage on shore nor in water. Sewage on water and shore from sewers emptying nearby. Belle Harbor. Rockaway Park near Life Saving Station. South shore. July 18, 1906, 11.30 a. m. Wind, southwest by south. Tide, low, rising. In 400 square feet of shore 8 cubic feet vegetable matter, mainly wood and seaweed. Rockaway Park. Popular bathing beach. July 18, 1906, 1.10 p. m. Wind, south- west by south. Tide, half high, rising. In 400 square feet of shore 4 cubic feet vege- table matter, mainly driftwood and seaweed. From Sea Beach House, Seaside to Iron Pier. July 18, 1906, 2.20 p. m. Wind, southwest by south. Tide, half full, rising. Large quantity of corn husks and imper- fect ears of corn. Averaged 1 cubic foot in 400 square feet of shore. Undoubtedly thrown into water at this beach early this morning as they were not much decayed nor much water soaked, and practically no other garbage seen with them except a few decayed vegetables. Rockaway Beach. July 18, 1906, 3.45 p. m. Wind southwest by south, light. Tide, three-fourth full, rising. No garbage on shore. Shore kept clean. Observer says no garbage worth mentioning has come ashore this season. Large Hotel, Holland, Rockaway Beach. July 18, 1906, 4.20 p. m. Wind, south- west by south. Tide, three-fourth full, rising. Seaweed and driftwood seen on bath- ing beach to slight extent. 370 DATA COLLECTED Summary. Shore of Kockaway Beach shows little evidence of decayed garbage. The history is practically negative. Wind was light. It would have been more favor- able for garbage on shore if south. HAMMELS TO SEASIDE Hammels Station, Rockairay Beach. July 24, 190G, 10.15 a. m. Wind, north- east, light. Tide, full, falling. Along 200 feet of shore in space 20 feet back from water, decayed vegetables, pieces fat meat, corks, paper, cloth and straw. Seaweed and driftwood. In 400 square feet (20 x 20) about one-half cubic foot garbage. Shore Between Hammels and Arverne. July 24, 1906, 11.10 a. m. Wind, north- east, light. Tide, high, falling. Same as above, average one-half cubic foot garbage in 400 square feet up to beach controlled by Arverne Association. This cleaned every morning by Italians. Near Hammel was cigar store Indian, a bed and a trunk. Arverne Beach. July 24, 1906, 11.30 a. m. Wind, northeast, light. Tide, high, falling. Shore kept clean by guard. Observer says garbage in considerable amount comes ashore after south wind of a day or two. Shore Between Arverne and Edgemere. July 24, 1906, 1.10 a. m. Wind, north- east, light. Tide, half low, falling. Considerable garbage all along shore. All sorts of decayed vegetables and pieces of fat meat. In 400 square feet ( 20 x 20 ) . Average, 1 cubic foot. Garbage, all decayed and evidently from dumping scows. Also bottles, tin cans, mattresses, seaweed, driftwood, corks, etc. Bathing Beach Near a Much Frequented Club. July 24, 1906, 2.05 p. in. Wind, northeast, light. Tide, low, falling. Shore kept clean by guard. Beach Between Edgemere and Far Rockaicay. July 24, 1906, 3.15 p. m. Wind, northeast, light. Tide, low, ebb. Considerable garbage along shore. In 400 square feet about one cubic yard. A Bathing Beach, Far Rockaway. July 24, 1906, 4 p. m. Wind, northeast, light. Tide, low, rising. Beach kept clean. Very little garbage seen. Bathing Beach, Seaside, Rockaway Beach. July 24, 1906, 5.05 p. in. Wind, north- east, light. Tide, low, rising. Found man dumping garbage on top of pile of refuse to be burned. Said it was the customary thing here. Good deal of fresh garbage between sea and boardwalk. Had not been in water. Summary. Considerable garbage where shore is not kept clean for bathing. De- cayed vegetables, bread, fat meat, etc., brought in by the southerly winds of the past few days. Odor not objectionable. FOULING OF BEACHES LONG ISLAND AND NEW JERSEY 371 lUtKJHTON BEACH TO MANHATTAN BKACH Brighton Beach. July 1C, 1906, 1.35 p. m. Wind, south by southeast, fresh. Tide, half full, rising. In 400 square feet of shore 16 square feet of vegetable matter, mainly seaweed, very little driftwood. Considerable garbage constantly being depos- ited on shore and cleaned off every 15 or 20 minutes. Shore Xcar Manhattan Beach. July 16, 1906, 2.40 p. in. Wind, south by south- east. Tide, half full, rising. Water noticeably full of garbage for some distance east of Brighton Beach. Manhattan Beach. July 16, 1906, 3.25 p. in. Wind, south by southeast. Tide, nearly full, rising. Shore not so much polluted as at Brighton as tide carries it toward that point and wind not so favorable. In 400 square feet of shore six square feet seaweed and some driftwood and decayed vegetables. This beach also partly pro- tected by sand bar just east of Oriental Hotel. Guard says that 011 Saturday with a southeast wind there came ashore in addition to some garbage the following dead animals: 1 black cat, 1 (51b.) chicken and 3 rats. Manhattan Beach, Baths to end of Point beyond Oriental Hotel. July 16, 1906, 4.40 p. m. Wind, south by southeast. Tide, full, falling. Less garbage noted in water along bulkhead than west of Manhattan Beach, apparently because of direction of wind, the tide and the sand bar. Summary. Shores of Brighton Beach and Manhattan Beach, with the wind south by southeast and rather fresh, favorable for garbage being carried to these shores from alleged point of discharge; arc in rather bad condition. Considerable garbage found on shore, although beaches were being constantly cleaned. All vegetables much decayed and water soaked. SKA GATE TO WEST BBIGI1TON Sea Gate. Nortons Point. July 14, 1906, 10.15 a. in. Wind, southeast, fresh. Tide, half full, rising. In 400 square feet of shore one-eighth cubic yard vegetable matter, mainly driftwood, with some seaweed. No decayed vegetable matter or sew- age on shore or in water. Sea Gate Beach. Nortons Point to Entrance of Sea Gate Association. July 14, 1906, 11.20 a. m. Wind, southeast, fresh. Tide, half full, rising. Less driftwood than at the point. More seaweed. No garbage or sewage on shore or in water. Observer said since July 1 the shore has been quite free from garbage, even after south winds; llmt during June same came ashore, being especially bad on foggy day; 17 dead ani- mals landed. 372 DATA COLLECTED A Popular Hotel Near Sea Gate, Coney Island. July 14, 1906, 1.05 p. in. Wind, southeast, fresh. Tide, nearly full, rising. Shore clean except for shells; some seaweed and driftwood. No garbage seen. Sea Gate Beach Near West Brighton. July 14, 1906, 1.50 p. m. Wind, southeast, fresh. Tide, nearly full, rising. Only seaweed and driftwood, one-eighth cubic yard in 400 square feet of shore. Coney Island. July 14, 1906, 2.45 p. m. Wind, southeast, fresh. Tide, full, falling. Seaweed and driftwood. Shore very clean. Observer says he has noticed very little garbage on shore this season. A Leading Amusement Center, Coney Island. July 14, 1906, 3.35 p. m. Wind, southeast, fresh. Tide, full, falling. Shore clean; no trouble since July 1. A Popular Bathing Beach, Coney Island. July 14, 1906, 4.20 p. m. Wind, south- east, fresh. Tide, half full, falling. Banana peels, orange peels, etc. (not decayed), thrown by bathers on shore. No trouble except from seaweed and sea shells. Summary. No garbage to be seen on shores of Sea Gate or Coney Island. CONEY ISLAND AND MANHATTAN BEACHES Coney Island. August 1, 1906, 10.20 a. m. Wind, southeast, light. Tide, low, rising. No garbage on beach except few pieces of grease and bread. A Popular Bathing Beach. August 1, 1906, 11.15 a. m. Wind, southeast, light. Tide, low, rising. As above. Brighton Beach. August 1, 1906, 1.10 p. m. Wind, northeast, very light, Tide, low, rising. Few pieces of grease, 1 decayed tomato, 1 apple. Nothing else but sea- weed and a little driftwood. Local observer says that they have had no garbage on this beach worth mentioning for some time, that on July 29 and 30 a very little came ashore. Manhattan Beach. August 1, 1906, 2.35 p. m. Wind, northeast, light. Tide, one- half high, rising. No garbage on shore except few pieces of grease in the sand. Along Neckuxiter Beyond Oriental Hotel. August 1, 1906, 3.20 p. m. Wind, north- east, light. Tide, three-fourths high, rising, full 5 p. m. No garbage seen in water. Summary. Coney Island shore very free from garbage. THE SHOEES OF STATEN ISLAND SOUTH BEACH AND MIDLAND BEACH South Beach, Staten Island. July 13, 1906, 10.10 a. in. Wind, east, moderate. Tide, half full, rising. In 400 square feet of shore one cubic yard vegetable matter, mainly driftwood with some seaweed and decayed vegetables. Quite a quantity of FOULING OF BEACHES LONG ISLAND AND NEW JERSEY 373 decayed vegetable matter brought ashore by east wiiid, evidently from dumping scows. Guard says it was worse last Friday and Saturday. No particular odor, ex- cept from dead turkey and fish. Along Shore from South Beach to Midland Beach. July 13, 1906, 11.30 a. m. Wind, east. Tide, half full, rising. Practically the same as above except a great amount of driftwood as beach not cleaned as are bathing beaches. Midland Beach, a Leading Bathing Beach. July 13, 1906, 2.25 p. in. Wind, east, moderate. Tide, full at 1.30, falling. In 400 square feet of shore one cubic yard vegetable matter mainly driftwood and seaweed. Guard says beach was bad last Sat- urday and Sunday after east wind. Shore South of Midland Beach to the Great Kills. July 13, 1906, 4.15 p. m. Wind, east. Tide, half full, falling. About the same but large amount of driftwood, as beaches not cleaned. Summary. Shore of Staten Island polluted with garbage blown ashore by the southeast wind yesterday. SOUTH BEACH AND MIDLAND BEACH Fort Wadsworth to Millers Beach. July 25, 1906, 10.15 a. m. Wind, east, light. Tide, full. Very little garbage along shore. Some seaweed and driftwood. Slight evi- dence of garbage in the shape of decayed vegetables and particles of bread and fat meat. Millers Bathing Beach. July 25, 1906, 11.20 a. m. Wind, east, light, Tide, high, falling. Shore clean. No garbage now and none seen recently as winds unfavorable. South to Midland Beach. July 25, 1906, 1.15 p. m. Wind, east, light. Tide, half low, falling. Not much garbage. Some seaweed and driftwood. Ocean View Beach. Midland Beach. July 25, 1906, 3.20 p. m. Wind, east, light. Tide, low, falling. Shore kept very clean. Reports indicate no trouble lately. Midland Beach South of Ocean View Bathing Beach. July 25, 1906, 3.50 p. m. Wind, east, light. Tide, low, falling. Not much garbage on shore. Summary. No evidence of garbage pollution of late, as no long continued southeast winds of sufficient force to bring it to this shore. FORT WADSWORTH TO MIDLAND BEACH Soutli Beach, Staten Island Shore Next to Fort Wadsworth. August 20, 1906, 10.20 a. m. Wind, southeast, light. Tide, one-half low, falling. Along 200 feet of shore at high water mark decayed fruit and vegetables. This probably came ashore within past day or so. South Beach Bathing Beaches. August 20, 1906, 11.30 a. m. Wind, southeast. Tide, low, falling. Cleaned this morning at 10. Observer reports that some garbage comes ashore after several days of southeast winds. 374 DATA COLLECTED Midland Beach North of Bathing Beaches to Small Inlet. August 20, 1906, 2.20 p. m. Wind, southeast. Tide, low, falling. Estimated about one-tenth cubic foot garbage in 400 square feet. Midland Beach Bathing Beaches. August 20, 1906, 4.10 p. in. Wind, southeast. Tide, low, rising. Cleaned this morning. A few pieces of garbage on beaches. Summary. Garbage comes ashore here after two or three days of southeast wind. THE SHORES OF NEW JERSEY ATLANTIC HIGHLANDS TO OCEAN GROVE Atlantic Highlands. July 10, 1906, 10.30 a. in. Wind, west, light. Tide, high, rising. Shore clean except for seaweed and occasional driftwood. Normandie, near Life Saving Station. July 10, 1906, 10.50 a. m. Wind, west, light. Tide, high, rising. In 400 square feet of shore, lVi> cubic yards vegetable matter, 1)5 per cent, or more seaweed or driftwood, remainder decayed vegetables and refuse. No odor noticeable. No garbage or sewage seen in water. Seabright. Shore just north of Seabright Beach Club House. (Beach back of Club House cleaned every morning.) July 10, 1906, 1J.10 a. in. Wind, west, light. Tide, high, falling. In 400 square feet of shore, 1 cubic yard vegetable matter, 95 per cent, seaweed and driftwood. Rest, decayed vegetables and refuse. No odor except from dead fish and pig skin nearby. No garbage or sewage seen in water. Long Branch, West End Bathing Beach. July 10, 1906. 1.10 p. m. W T ind, west, light. Tide, high, falling. In 400 square feet of shore, one-half cubic yard vegetable matter, mainly seaweed, some driftwood. No garbage or sewage noted in water. Asbury Park, Fourth Avenue Bathing Beach. July 10, 1906, 3.15 p. m. Wind, west, light. Tide, half high, falling. Shore very clean except for seaweed mixed with sand. Slight scum of sewage on water noted at one point from sewers which empty 400 or 500 feet out from shore all along the beach. No garbage in the water. No odor. Ocean Grove, Ross's Bathing Beach. July 10, 1906, 4.10 p. in. Wind, west, light. Tide, low, falling. Shore very clean except for seaweed in the sand. Sewers empty about 400 feet out from low water mark. No sewage or garbage noted in water. No odor. Summary. The beaches from Normandie to Ocean Grove are polluted with de- cayed vegetables, dead animals and particles of grease, when the wind lias blown from the east or northeast for any length of time. An observer at Seabright said that when the scows dump at 10 or 11 a. m. near the Scotland Light, the decayed vege- tables come ashore that evening, if there is an east or northeast wind. Said there had FOULING OF BEACHES LONG ISLAND AND NEW JERSEY 375 been no trouble lately. An observer at Long Branch (West End) said that during the last half of June the water was filled with decayed vegetables, grease and dead animals. Since July 1 he had not noticed anything very objectionable. An observer at Asbury Park (Fourth avenue) said that decayed vegetables, grease and dead ani- mals came ashore after an east or northeast wind. Was worse during last of June and Thursday, Friday and Saturday of last week. An observer at Ocean Grove said that the water was full of decayed vegetables during the latter half of June after an east wind, also last Saturday. Said the bathers did not mind the sewage in the water, but disliked the large prominent evidences of decay, such as bad vegetables and dead animals. To-day with a west wind blowing the beaches were very clean, not enough garbage or refuse of any sort to be objectionable. The bathing masters at Asbury said that all the beaches there and at Ocean Grove are cleaned every morning at 7. On a day like this when the wind is west, it takes them one-half hour to do the work. When the wind is east or northeast it requires two to three hours to get the beach free from seaweed, driftwood, decayed vegetable matter, dead animals, etc. SANDY HOOK Sandy Hook, N. J, Ocean Shore. August 17, 1906, 6.15 p. m. Wind, southeast, light. Tide, high, falling. Some garbage along shore still wet which came ashore to- day. No great quantity. Summary. Much garbage on this shore, which is never cleaned. LONG BRANCH TO SEABKIGHT Long Branch, a Frequented Bathing Beach. July 27, 1906, 3 p. m. Wind, south. Tide, one-half low, falling. No garbage on this shore, which is kept clean and very little on shore to north which is not cleaned daily. Local observer said they had experi- enced very little trouble from garbage since last June. Some oranges and lemons Avere found thrown on beach evidently by bathers or from passing boats ; not much de- cayed and no other vegetables. Some driftwod and seaweed. Scalright Club House Beach. July 27, 1906, 4.20 p. m. Wind, south. Tide, low, falling. No garbage on this shore, which is kept clean. On shore to the north found some garbage but hardly worth mentioning. This shore cleaned twice a week, not to-day. Some driftwood and seaweed. A life guard will keep daily report. He said garbage came ashore after any strong east wind and that the northeast winds yester- day and day before carried great quantities of garbage from dumping grounds down past his beach. He saw it going by and much of it was caught in the fish nets set off the Club House, about 700 feet from shore. Very little came ashore. 376 DATA COLLECTED Nummary. Long Branch and Seabright shores not polluted by garbage. North- east winds, of late, took garbage further down the coast, according to reports. Sea- bright observer reports trouble every lime fresh east wind blows. Local observer says he has not seen much garbage since June. SEAliRIGHT TO POINT PLEASANT Seabright, N. J. August 13, 1906, 11.00 a. in. Wind, northeast, fresh. Tide, high, rising. On a line 10 feet wide, about 30 feet back from water, and 40 feet long, i. e., in 400 square feet, was about one cubic foot garbage which came ashore last Thurs- day and Friday, August 9 and 10. Decayed fruits and vegetables. Good many pieces of fat meat and grease. Great qiiantity of burned or over-roasted coffee. Some gar- bage is coming ashore this morning. Not much collected so far. A bathing master burned a large quantity of garbage and one dead dog on Friday. Asbury Park, N. J., Fourth Avenue Baths. August 13, 1906, 2.20 p. m. Wind., northeast, fresh. Tide, high, falling, full at 1.30 p. m. Some garbage coming ashore now. Various sorts of decayed fruit and vegetables, pieces of fat meat and grease, corks and tin boxes. No great quantity. Noticed that considerable was washed up on steep beach and then carried out again with receding tide. S. here reports great quantities garbage, also dead cats, dogs, fowls, etc., as coming ashore August 9 and 10. Bradley Beach, N. J., from Ocean Grove line to bathing pavilion. August 13, 1906, 4.25 p. m. Wind, northeast, fresh. Tide, one-half low, falling. Along this one- fourth mile of shore an immense quantity of garbage has come ashore since the beach was cleaned this morning, and is still coming in. Most of it is at to-day's high water mark. Observer said he thought more garbage came ashore last Friday, August 10, than at any time since June. Observer said that on Friday a great many people put on their clothes and left the water in disgust after a few minutes, as it was so full of vegetables and grease. One woman decided to leave after a dead dog had come in contact with her face. He said it was twice as bad as to-day. If so, it must have been very filthy. The only way to account for the much greater amount here than along the Asbury and Ocean Grove beaches seems to be on the theory that currents exist here along the shore. The more gradual slope of the beach also prevents the refuse from being washed off again. It is carried far ashore. Summary. Great quantity of garbage lias come ashore to-day on Bradley Beach. A less quantity on Asbury Park, Ocean Grove. Seabright was visited earlier before full tide. Large quantities of garbage came ashore on all these beaches August 9 and 10. STAKE BOAT FOR DUMPING 1100 CAAT LOADS OF GARBAGE A DUMPED HEBE PER DAY &. jf Pollution of Beaches by Garbage Noted by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission SUMAAER OF OO6 FOULING OF BEACHES LONG ISLAND AND NEW JERSEY 377 SBABRIGHT TO BELMAR Scab-right, N. J. August 6, 1906, 10.50 a. m. Wind, south, light. Tide, high, fall- ing. Good deal of garbage on shore. On a line 20 feet wide, about 50 feet back from water, decayed fruit and vegetables. Estimated quantity of garbage:.! cubic foot in 400 square feet. This came up Thursday and Friday, August 2 and 3, with wind northeast. Good deal of driftwood and seaweed. Good many dead fish came up this morning but very little else. West End Bathing Beach, Loin/ Branch, U-n cleaned Beach to the North. August 6, 1906, 1.20 p. in. Wind, south, light. Tide, one-half high, falling. About one-half cubic foot garbage in 400 square feet. Less than at Seabright but noticeable. About the same variety of fruit and vegetables, considerable grease. Observer says the only thing that gave trouble on Thursday and Friday was the grease which came ashore. Asbury 1'ark. August 6, 1906, 3.10 p. in. Wind, south, light. Tide, low, falling. Observer reports great deal of garbage coming ashore August 2 and 3 Avith northeast wind. The beach has been thoroughly cleaned since then. ISwtcli Between Ocean Grove and Bel mar. August 6, 1906, 4.40 p. m. Wind, south, light. Tide, low. About one-half cubic foot garbage on shore in 400 square feet. All the fruit and vegetables enumerated above. Good deal of grease on the shore. This shore not cleaned since August 2. Xiuninary. Jersey beaches from Seabright to Beluiar show by their present con- dition that a good deal of garbage came ashore Thursday and Friday, August 2 and 3, with northeast wind. Decayed fruit and vegetables, fat meat, grease, etc., evi- dently from the New York dumping scows. POINT PLEASANT TO ASBURY PARK I'oint I'lciixant.N.J. Casino Beach. July 28, 1906, 10.20 a. in. Wind, south, light. Tide, high, rising. Bathing bead) kept clean, but to the north, Avhere beach not cleaned, was large quantity of garbage. Also bottles, driftwood, seaweed, corks and tin cans. Guard said large quantity of garbage came ashore Wednesday and Thursday, July 25 and 26, with fresh northeast winds and that they frequently were troubled with it after strong northeast winds. Asbury Park. Fourth Avenue. July 28, 1906, 12.15 p. m. Wind, south, light. Tide, full, nearly rising. Beach kept clean, very little garbage now. Life guard here said large quantity of garbage came ashore Wednesday and Thursday, July 25 and 26, with northeast wind and that it took him one and one-half hours to bury the decayed vegetables, fat meat and three dead cats on Thursday. 378 DATA COLLECTED Ocean Grove. Bathing Beach. July 28, 1906, 2.05 p. m. Wind, south, light. Tide, high, falling. Beach kept clean. No garbage to be seen. Observer says good deal came ashore Thursday and some Wednesday, July 26 and 25. Shore to the North of Belmar. July 28, 1906, 4.20 p. m. Wind, south, light. Tide, low, falling. Shore not cleaned here often. A good deal of garbage present which probably came ashore Wednesday and Thursday, July 25 and 26, with northeast wind. In 400 square feet about one and one-half cubic feet garbage, decayed vege- tables and pieces of fat meat. Also seaweed and driftwood. Slight odor nearby from decayed meat, very little from decayed vegetables, which had not been on shore long after being washed with the salt water. Summary. The Jersey coast between Asbury Park and Point Pleasant (inclu- sive) received a good deal of garbage from the ocean on July 25 and 26, when the wind was northeast. This is favorable for driving it there from the dumping grounds. ASBUEY PARK TO POINT PLEASANT Asbury Park. August 7, 1906, 8.30 a. m. Wind, southeast, light. Tide, high, rising. Very little garbage this morning. Bradley Beach, opposite Station New Jersey Central Railroad. August 7th, 1906, 9.40 a. m. Wind, southeast, light. Tide, high, rising. Garbage which came ashore August 2 and 3 pretty well cleaned off. None came up during night. Spring Lake. August 7, 1906, 11.40 a. m. Wind, southeast, light. Tide, high, fall- ing. Shore kept clean. Some pieces of grease in the sand which the rakes of the cleaners missed. Sea Girt, opposite State Camp. August 7, 1906, 1.25 p. m. Wind, southeast. Tide, high, falling. About J /i cubic foot garbage in 400 square feet, estimating on a line about 50 feet back from water. Probably came up August 2 and 3. Variety of decayed fruit and vegetables, pieces of grease and fat meat. Tin boxes, tooth powder, corks, bottles, bicycle tire, seaweed and driftwood. Point Pleasant, N. J. August 7, 1906, 3.35 p. m. Wind, southeast, light, Tide, one-half low, falling. Along 1,000 feet of shore to the north on line 50 feet back from the water, small quantity decayed fruit and vegetables. Not enough garbage to esti- mate. FOULING OF BEACHES LONG ISLAND AND NEW JERSEY 37!) Point Pleasant, about one-half mile south of above. August 7, 1906, 4.20 p. m. Wiml, southeast, light. Tide, low, falling. Shore clean now. Observer said garbage in considerable quantity came ashore August 2 and 3, and that a good deal came in on the ebb tide and was washed out at the next high tide. Good deal was raked up. Summary. Some garbage on Jersey shore between Asbury Park and Point Pleas- ant thrown up August 2 and 3 by northeast wind. Garbage includes great variety of decayed fruit arid vegetables, grease and fat meat, corks, tin cans, etc. ASBURY PARK TO SEA SIDE PARK Asbury Park. August 14th, 6.30 a. m. Wind, southwest, light. Tide, low, rising. Very little garbage came ashore here during night or since last observation at 2.20 p. m. yesterday, because of decrease in wind movement in afternoon and change in direction of wind to southwest in evening. Bradley Beach. August 14, 1906, 7.15 a. in. Wind, southwest, light. Tide, low, rising. Very little addition to amount of garbage noted in last observation of this shore at 4.23 p. m. yesterday, owing to decreased velocity of wind and later change in its direction. Point Pleasant. August 14, 1906, 10.30 a. m. Wind, southwest, light. Tide, one-half high, rising. About one-fourth cubic foot of garbage in 400 square feet of shore, which came ashore last Friday, August 10th, according to report of local observer. Beach reported rather filthy on Friday, but not so bad as in June. Sea- Side Park, N. J. August 14, 1906, 3.00 p. m. Wind, southwest, light. Tide, high, falling. Quantity of garbage on this shore estimated at a little less than % cubic foot in 400 square feet. Summary. Bradley Beach seems to have received more garbage of late than any spot on the New Jersey beaches. This was on account of the wind direction or the cur- rents along shore or the gradual slope of thebeach, or because of all three. A considerable quantity of garbage is reported to have come ashore at Seabright and Asbury Park on August 10. Not much with northeast winds August 13. At Point Pleasant and Sea Side Park hardly enough garbage of late to cause any complaint. 380 DATA COLLECTED ATLANTIC CITY Shore from Inlet to Heinze's Pier. Auguse 10, 1906, 8.00 a. in. Wind, east north- east, fresh. Tide, low, rising. Along this one-third mile of shore at the north end of Atlantic City a careful search was made for garbage, as this part is not cleaned, as are the bathing beaches. The two life-savers (United States) seen here said they had seen no garbage on the shore this season. (They were not on duty in June and July.) Heinze's Pier, South Along the Shore. August 10, 1906, 9.30 a. ni. to 12.30 p. m. Wind, east northeast. Tide, high, falling. Eight men were interviewed who were clean- ing up the bathing beaches. All agreed that they had seen considerable garbage come ashore here in the latter part of June, but none since. Only one had seen any since July 1, and he referred to ears of corn, which were evidently thrown over from a pier here, as they looked fresh. Summary. Garbage evidently came ashore at Atlantic City during June. On a certain line were found corks, bottles and tin boxes similar to those acompanying gar- bage found on other shores. The three pieces of decayed fruit found were on the same line, well dried, and may have come from local sources or from passing steamers, also the one piece of grease. SURFACE OF ATLANTIC OCEAN BETWEEN LONG BEACH AND BRADLEY BEACH, N. J., AUGUST 17 AND 18, 1906. The wind was southeast, and of scarcely perceptible velocity. According to the Superintendent of Final Disposition of the Department of Street Cleaning of The City of New York, no garbage had been dumped at sea since August 15th. From the Fairway buoy at the entrance to Geduey channel the course followed was southeast by one-half south for fifteen miles, measured by a tafrail log. At this point the schooner was found which marks the point for dumping garbage which is car- ried to sea by tugs from The City of New York. Large Garbage Fields. Between the Gedney channel and the schooner there were encountered two large fields of floating garbage probably aggregating, so far as could be seen, several hundred acres in extent. The garbage in this field was so thick that there was no square yard of water without some particle of garbage visible from the deck. FOULING OF BEACHES LONG ISLAND AND NEW JERSEY 381 At 12 M. the schooner was about to be towed to a new location which lay north by one-half east about seven and one-third miles. From the schoner the tug proceeded westerly to within about a mile or so of the beach at Long Branch, New Jersey. On the way a garbage field like the one already described but smaller in extent was passed. The tug turned southward at Long Branch, and followed the New Jersey coast as far as Bradley Beach. Float Observations. Opposite Bradley Beach, the wind being south and toward the shore, observations were undertaken with floats. Two floats were cast overboard, one with an anchor and the other without. Each float consisted of two two-inch planks six feet long, bolted together in the form of a cross. A small flag raised on a flagpole five feet long indicated the location of the float. The wind was south-south- east, and blowing about five or six knots per hour. The tide was rising. The free float was followed for 1 hour and 13 minutes. It was then taken on hoard, and the distance logged to the float which was anchored. The distance was three-fourths of a nautical mile. The rate traveled was 0.62 nautical mile per hour, or one mile in 1 hour and 37 minutes. The direction taken by the float was almost di- rectly down the wind toward the New Jersey shore. The distance from the shore was about three miles. Fields of Garbage off Long Branch. From a point opposite Bradley Beach the tug took a northerly direction, following the beach at a distance of between two and three miles, to Sandy Hook. An extensive field of garbage was encountered near Long Branch. It extended from North Long Branch to Sandy Hook. Sometimes this float- ing garbage was so thick that every square foot of water contained at least some particle; sometimes only one piece could be seen in 400 square feet. An inspection of the shore of Sandy Hook, which was visited later, showed that large quantities of garbage had come ashore on this and previous days. The Hook was rounded by the tug and the night was spent at the government wharf at Sandy Hook. On August 18th at 7 A. M. the tug proceeded to sea by way of Gedney channel and the Sandy Hook lightship. The weather was calm, no movement of air being per- ceptible. The course was southeast by east. After logging 17 miles from Sandy Hook lightship the schooner which marked the new location of the dumping ground was reached. 382 DATA COLLECTED Garbage-fields 17 Miles at Sea. Between Sandy Hook lightship and the new loca- tion of the schooner the tug passed through two extensive fields of garbage. One of these was near the lightship; the second was about three miles west of the schooner. No garbage had been dumped at the schooner since she had been towed to her present loca- tion, the day before in the early afternoon. From the schooner the tug proceeded north by west toward Long Beach, L. I. A field of several acres of garbage was found about three miles from the shore. When within about two miles of the Long Island beach the tug turned westerly and followed the shore line to a point opposite Kockaway Point. An extensive field of garbage was passed opposite Arverne. \ Velocity of Travel of Garbage Field. At a point about two miles southwest of Rockaway bell buoy observations were made with floats. As in the experiment of the previous day one float was anchored and the other was allowed to drift. The wind was south by west about seven miles per hour. The tide was rising. The free float was taken on board 1 hour and 15 minutes after it had been set adrift. By logging the distance from the point where it was picked up to the point where it was launched, beside the anchored buoy, it was found that it had drifted fifteen-sixteenths of a mile. This was at the rate of one mile in 1 hour and 25 minutes, or about 0.62 miles per hour. A small field of garbage at the edge of which the float had been launched trav- eled as rapidly as did the float itself. From opposite Eockaway bell buoy the tug proceeded toward Coney Island, fol- lowing the Coney Island channel to the Narrows, and thence to the Battery. Garbage Fields in Lower Bay. Garbage fields were passed on the way opposite Coney Island, Gravesend bay, the Narrows and the lower end of the Upper bay. Summary. In summarizing the observations made on this trip it is to be noted that garbage was found floating on the water along the shores of Long Island and New Jersey, and on two lines nearly midway between these shores, about as far as the point where the garbage is believed to be dumped. In fact garbage was found floating on the water at every and all points visited. In some cases the fields were many acres in extent, and so thickly strewn with refuse that no square foot of water could be found without some particle of garbage in it. Floating barrels, tin cans, bottles and other solid articles commonly mixed with city garbage were frequently seen where no par- ticles of garbage could be found. In two cases the surface currents were driving ref- use toward the beaches at a rate of one-half a nautical mile per hour. The amount of garbage found, its location, distribution, and to some extent, its composition, made it appear practically certain that the garbage found was garbage FOULING OF BEACHES LONG ISLAND AND NEW JERSEY 383 from New York which had been dumped some days previously at sea. Although it had been announced that a scow load of garbage would be carried to sea on August 18th, no trace of it or of the boats which were to convey it could be discovered. SECTION III INSPECTIONS BY THE LIFE-SAVING SERVICE OF THE NEW JERSEY AND LONG ISLAND COASTS Following is the substance of reports received from keepers of life-saving stations on the New Jersey and Long Island coasts concerning the condition of the beaches with respect to garbage washed up from the sea, during the summer of 1906, furnished by the United States Life-Saving Service, Washington, D. C. COAST OF NEW JERSEY Sandy HooJc. Aug. 12-18th, no garbage. Spermaceti Cove. Aug. 9th, found about ten dead cats, some pineapples, bread and lemons; Aug. 10th and llth, same, nothing new noticed; Aug. 13th, small quan- tity fruit; Aug. 15th, three dead cats and some lemons; Aug. 16th, dead chicken and chicken entrails; week 19th to 25th, garbage washed ashore very light ; Friday, 24th, two cats and some fruit. Seabriyht. Aug. 9th, small quantities, principally burnt coffee and wood; Aug. 10th, large quantity of driftwood; Aug. 11 to 17th, no garbage; Aug. 18th, large quantity of table refuse and dead animals; Aug. 19th to 23rd, no garbage; Aug. 24th and 25th, small quantities of garbage. llonmoiiih Bench. Aug. 9th, large quantity of garbage and driftwood; Aug. 10th and llth, very little garbage; Aug. 12th, no garbage; Aug. 13th and 14th, very little; Aug. loth, large quantity of driftwood; Aug. 16th and 17th, very little garbage; Aug. 18th, small quantity; Aug. 19th to 24th, very little; Aug. 25th, small quantity of gar- bage but much driftwood; 27th and 28th, very little garbage; 29th, small lot of gar- bage, large quantity driftwood; 30th, little garbage; 31st, no garbage. Long Branch. Aug. 9th, no garbage; 10th, small lots; llth and 12th, none; 13th, small lots; 14th, none; 15th, small lots; 16th to 23rd, no garbage; 24th, small quantity; 25th, none. Deal. Aug. 9th to 12th, large quantities of garbage, consisting of meats, grease, fruits of all kinds; 13th to 16th, wind off shore, so no garbage coming in; beach cleared of old deposits by the 16th; 17th, wind shifted to light south and southwest; nothing coming in up to 25th; wind shifted to north and northeast. 384 DATA COLLECTED Shark River. Aug. 5th and 6th, beach strewn with decayed fruit and vegetables; 7th, beach mostly clear, washed off on high water; 8th, light lots of garbage coming in; 9th to llth, beach strewn with fruit, vegetables and grease; 12th, no more coining in; 13th, none coming in; deposits rapidly being covered with sand by heavy surf; 14th to 25th, none coming, beach clean. Spring Lake. Aug. 9th to llth, large quantities coming in ; 12th to 13th, consid- erable garbage on beach; 14th to 16th, very little; 17th, beach practically clear; 18th, small lots; 19th and 20th, very little; 21st to 23rd, no garbage coming in; 24th and 25th, considerable drift on beach. Squan Beach. Beach in deplorable condition since July 25th, very offensive odor, quantities of greasy tallow. People living along shore had to rake and bury it; shoes covered with grease after walking beach; patrolmen obliged to clean shoes thoroughly after each trip before entering station; deposits consist of decayed vege- table matter, green corn, onions, pumpkins, apples, bananas and pineapples ; also bar- rels, boxes and lumber; dead cats, dogs, chickens, decayed meat and "lights" of dead animals. It comes in with northeast and east winds and current running from north. Aug. 9th and 10th, beach in bad condition; 12th to 15th, same; 15th, wind southwest to east; quantities of grease and decayed vegetables; 17th to 23rd, no drift; 24th, wind northeast to east-northeast, strong; sticks, logs, barrels, boxes and vege- tables coming in; 25th, no drift. Bayhead. Week Aug. 5th to llth, slight drift, consisting of leaves and tops of vegetables; week Aug. 12th to 18th, some fish and dog carcasses; week 19th to 25th, no garbage. Mantoloking. Aug. Gth, very little garbage; 7th, little; 8th to llth, considerable driftwood and garbage; some grease; 12th to 18th, very little garbage and driftwood; 20th, some driftwood; 21st and 22nd, none; 23rd to 25th, some driftwood. Chadwick. Aug. 9th, small lots of garbage, fruit and meat; 10th, considerable driftwood; llth, some wood and fruit; 12th, wood; 13th, wood and apples; 14th to 18th, no garbage. Toms River. Aug. 8th to 21st, no garbage; 22nd, barrels and driftwood, small lots; 23rd to 25th, same. Island Beach. Keeper reports large quantities of garbage on beach, but intimates that most of it was dumped there by local residents; some decayed vegetable and ani- mal matter washed up by sea; also fish thrown along beach by local fishermen; local dumping of garbage has been stopped. Cedar Creek. Aug. 10th to 25th, clean beach, no garbage. Forked River. Aug. 5th to 18th, no garbage. FOULING OF BEACHES LONG ISLAND AND NEW JERSEY 385 Harncr/at. Aug. 9th to 25t1i, no garbage. Loveladics Island. Beach in good condition from Aug. 1st to 9th; 10th and llth, light drift of garbage; 12th to 18th, none. Harvey Cedars. Aug. 8th to 25th, beach clear of garbage. Ship Bottom. Aug. 12th to 14th, light drift of vegetables, apples, onions and cabbages ; 15th to 25th, none. Long Beach. Aug. 9th, no garbage; 10th, few pineapples; llth to 18th, none. Bonds. Aug. 9th to 25th, no garbage. Little Egg. Aug. 1st to llth, no garbage. Little Beach. Aug. llth to 25th, no garbage. Brigantinc. Aug. llth to 25th, no garbage. Atlantic City. No garbage; city scavengers look after beach. Absecon. Aug. 6th to 19th, no garbage noticed. Great Egg. Aug. 12th to 18th, beach perfectly clean. Ocean City. Aug. 5th to 16th, no garbage; 17th and 18th, small quantities; 19th, none; 20th, small quantity; 21st to 25th, none. Pecks Beach. Aug. 9th, small quantities; 10th, considerable driftwood; llth, large quantities grass, with few decaying vegetables; 12th and 13th, more grass with occasional vegetables; 14th, none; 15th, little decaying matter; 16th, none; 17th, some little drift; 18th, wood, bottles and general refuse; 19th, considerable garbage; 20th, little garbage coming in; 23rd, none; 24th and 25th, small lot of refuse landing. Corsons Inlet. Aug. 10th to 17th, clean beach ; 18th, light miscellaneous drift, evidently from garbage heap; 19th, same; 20th to 25th, clean beach, except for eel grass. Sea Isle City. No garbage on beach Aug. 5th to 25th. Avalon. No garbage, Aug. 5th to 18th. Tathams. Aug. 8th to llth, no garbage; 12th to 18th, no report; 19th to 25th, no garbage. Two Mile Beach. Aug. 12th to 18th, no garbage. Cold Spring. No garbage from Aug. 9th to 25th. Cape May. Beach patrolled by this station clean. COAST OF LONG ISLAND Rockaway Point. Aug. 1st to 25th, no garbage; 26th to Sept. 1, some ashes. Rockaway. Aug. 1st to 18th, no garbage; 19th, few decayed lemons; 20th, little garbage, old; 21st, considerable, in decomposed condition; 22nd to Sept. 2nd, no gar- bage. 386 DATA COLLECTED Long Beach. Aug. 1st to Sept. 2nd, no garbage and little driftwood. Point Lookout. Aug. 6th to Sept. 2nd, no garbage. Short Beach. Aug. 12th to Sept. 1st, no garbage. Zachs Inlet. Aug. 1st to Sept. 3rd, no garbage. Jones Beach. Aug. 1st, decayed vegetables and driftwood; 2nd and 3rd, same; 4th to 28th, no garbage ; Aug. 29th to Sept. 1st, decayed fruit and vegetables. Gilgo. Aug. 1st, fresh garbage coming ashore; 2nd to 21st, no garbage; Aug. 22nd, old garbage coining in; 23rd to Sept. 3rd, no garbage. Oak Island. Aug. 1st, some old garbage coming in ; 2nd to Sept. 1st, no garbage. Fire Island. Aug. 5th to 19th, no garbage coming in; 20th, 21st, some old gar- bage coming in; 22nd to 25th, no garbage. Point of Woods. Aug. 1st to 4th, no garbage; 5th, some old boards; 6th to 19th, no garbage; 20th, some garbage coming in fresh; 21st, old garbage coming in; 22nd, fresh garbage coming in; 23rd to 25th, no garbage; 26th to 30th, no garbage. Lone Hill. Aug. 1st to 20th, no garbage; 21st to 23rd, small lots of old garbage coming in ; 24th to Sept. 1st, no garbage. Blue Point. Aug. 1st to 20th, beach clear, no garbage; 21st, considerable refuse, consisting of decayed fruits and vegetables, washed up by fresli southwest wind, re- maining 22nd and 23rd; 24th to Sept, 2nd, beach clear of garbage. Bellport. No garbage; 27th to 30th, slight deposit; 31st and Sept, 1st, beach clean. Smiths Point. Aug. 1st to 19th, beach clear; 20th, 21st and 24th, small lots of decayed vegetables and fruit; 22nd, 23rd and 25th to Sept. 2nd, no garbage. Forge River. Aug. 1st to 21st, no garbage on beach; 22nd, small quantity old garbage washed in; 23rd, 24th, none; 25th, very small quantity old garbage; 26th to Sept. 1, none. Moriches. Aug. 1st to 21st, no garbage on beach; 22ud, some decayed fruit, long time in water; 23rd to Sept. 3rd, no garbage. Potunk. Aug. 1st to 21st, no garbage; 22nd, a very little garbage, long time in water ; 23rd to Sept. 3rd, no garbage. Quogne. Aug. 1st to 22nd, no garbage; 23rd, decayed vegetables, one cat, and some bottles; 24th to Sept. 2nd, no garbage. FOULING OF BEACHES LONG ISLAND AND NEW JERSEY 387 SECTION IV QUANTITIES OF NEW YORK GARBAGE DUMPED AT SEA DURING JULY AND AUGUST, 1906 The number of loads of garbage dumped at sea, according to records supplied by the New York Street Cleaning Department, and the force and direction of the wind at New York, according to the records of the United States Weather Bureau, are given in Table I. Until August 17th the garbage was dumped at a stake boat located fifteen nautical miles southeast by one-half south of the Fairway buoy at the entrance of Gedney channel. On August 17th this stake boat was moved to a new location, north by one-half east, about seven and one-third miles from the original position of the stake boat. This placed the stake boat about seventeen miles southeast by east of the Sandy Hook lightship, as logged by the tug Nichols on August 18. It was twenty-two miles to the Jersey shore and fifteen to Long Island. TABLE 1 NEW YORK GARBAGE DUMPED AT SEA. Wind Miles Pe r 24 Hours Date Garbage in Cart Loads Direction Miles July 6, 1900 1,228 Northeast 352 " 7 857 Northeast 349 " g North 176 " 9 1.852J West 174 " 10 983J Northwest 193 " 11 2,069J Northeast 170 < 12 1,265J Southeast 130 " 13 746J Southeast 142 " 14 1,500 Northeast 215 " 15 596 i West 137 " 16 1,134 South 174 " 17 1,640 West 221 " 18 1,810J West 170 " 19 1,3911 Northeast 176 " 20 836 Southeast 157 " 21 l,300i Northwest 148 " 22 1 0331 South 142 "23 1 47U South 262 388 DATA COLLECTED TABLE I Continued Date Garbage in Cart Loads Wind Miles Per 24 Hours Direction Miles July 24 North North Northeast Southeast South South West West Northeast Northeast East West Southwest West Northeast Northeast Northeast East West North Northeast Northwest North South Southeast South Soutli South South South AVest Northeast East Southeast Northwest 244 248 268 144 214 258 296 128 231 351 221 163 138 209 143 170 225 171 174 197 260 252 205 131 136 136 172 234 180 163 193 396 338 239 276 " 25 1,5352 2,264 " 26 " 27 " 28 2,592 363} 1,0081 964 1,4571 279J l,146i l,435i 760J 3611 1,577 476 1,025} 1,272 " 29 " 30 " 31 August 1 " 2 " 8. ....... 4 " 5 " 6 " 7 "8 . " 9 " 10 " 11 " 12 1,3911 5331 485| 1,502 " 13 " 14 '< 15 " 16 " 17 571i 966 9581 551} 6371 1,9561 " 18 " 19 " 20 " 21. . . . " 22 " 23 "24 " 25.. " 26 1,3021 804} " 27 CHAPTER VII BACTERIAL CONTENT OF THE HARBOR WATERS COLLECTION AND EXAMINATION OF SAMPLES Previous investigations had shown that the numbers of bacteria in the harbor water might serve as a useful index of the concentration of sewage pollution. The an- alyses recorded in this chapter were made with this fact in miud and SUOAV how the quality of the water varied in different places. Collection of Samples. The samples of water for the bacterial determinations were collected in glass vacuum tubes. These were lowered to the required depth in a weighted sampling apparatus and the samples were plated out at once on the boat which was properly equipped for the purpose. Plating Samples. The culture medium used was 10 per cent, gelatin, made from fresh meat, with a reaction of +1.0 per cent. Phenolphthalein was used as an indi- cator. Ten cubic centimeters of gelatin were used in pouring. The culture plates were hardened on the slate shelves of a refrigerator fitted up on the boat for this purpose. On reaching shore the plates were transferred to the incubator and after incubation for 48 hours at 20 C. the colonies were counted. Locating Samples. The places from which samples of water, or of mud deposits, were obtained were sometimes located by observing the distance from one or more points on shore, or from fixed buoys or lighthouses, and sometimes by means of compass observations of the directions of three or more of these points. The location was determined in narrow streams, or when near shore in other sec- tions, by estimating the distance from the points on shore and finding the directions from these points by the compass. When at a long distance from shore, after the boat had anchored and had swung about with the tide, angles were read with a sex- tant to prominent points on shore such as chimneys, towers and buildings or light- houses. Three angles were read in every case, an effort being made to get angles be- tween 20 and 180. The locations were plotted from these readings on charts in the Commission's office by the use of a three-arm protractor. When the samples were collected observations were made of the exact time of col- lection, of the directions of the tidal currents, the depths of the water, the depths at which the samples were taken, the temperature and specific gravity of the water and the direction and velocity of the wind ; any fact of unusual interest was also recorded. Care was taken to get representative samples in each case; few samples were taken in slips and at points near sewer outfalls. In Gravesend and Jamaica bays, 390 DATA COLLECTED where a special study was made of the conditions along the shores, the samples taken near the sewer outlets were excluded in computing the averages. Surface samples were collected one foot below the surface and bottom samples one foot above the bottom of the water. GENERAL RESULT OF EXAMINATIONS The average numbers of bacteria in the water during ebb and during flood tides were determined for the period from March 26th to October 5th, 1909, in the various sections of New York harbor from 1,082 analyses. The average numbers at the sur- face and at the bottom during the same period in the various sections were determ- ined from 863 analyses. Larger numbers of bacteria were found during ebb than during flood tides except in the case of the East river betAveeu Throgs Neck and Hell Gate where less polluted water from Long Island Sound flowed in during ebb tides. Higher numbers of bac- teria were found near the surface than at the bottom. The decrease in numbers at the bottom was quite marked, especially at points where the depth was very great, as at the Narrows and in the Atlantic ocean. Maximum and Minimum Counts. The smallest numbers were in samples taken in the Atlantic ocean off Long Branch. The smallest number of bacteria in any sam- ple was 35 at a depth of 150 feet in the ocean ten miles off Long Branch. The next smallest numbers were found in the water of Long Island Sound, in which section the average of all samples was 375. The highest numbers were in samples taken in the Passaic river at Newark, where the average for all samples was 92,000. The greatest numbers in the harbor proper were in samples taken in the Upper bay, the lower parts of the East and Hudson rivers and in the Harlem river. The average for the Upper bay was 14,500. The average for the Harlem river was 15,000. The numbers in the Upper bay decreased at the Narrows and were decidedly smaller in the Lower bay ; in the ocean comparatively few bacteria were found. The numbers in the East river Avere less in the region just below Hell Gate and were small in the East river between Hell Gate and Throgs Neck; in Long Island Sound the numbers were quite small. The numbers in the Hudson river were much smaller in the part above Spuyten Duyvil than in the portion to the south thereof. The greatest numbers were in samples taken near the sewer outlets or in badly polluted streams such as the Passaic river. BACTERIAL CONTENT OF THE HARBOR WATERS 391 Gowanus canal, Newtown creek and Wallabout canal did not receive much at- tention because of their manifestly offensive condition. The Arthur Kill showed quite low numbers of bacteria after the flow of flood currents from Raritan bay. Jamaica bay showed large numbers of bacteria along the Brooklyn shore near Second creek and along the Arverne shore. In the Harlem river near the East river the numbers ran particularly high, one sample giving a count of 120,000. The numbers were lower as the Hudson river was approached. Upper Bay. In the Upper bay the average number of bacteria during the ebb tide was 16,000. During flood tide there were 10,000 per cubic centimetre. The average number at the surface was 22,000; at the bottom there were 12,000 per cubic centi- metres. The average number at all tides and all depths was 14,500 per cubic centi- metre. Hudson Rico: In the Hudson river from its mouth to Spuyten Duyvil the average number of bacteria during ebb tide was 7,700 and during flood tide 4,800 per cubic centimetre. The average number at the surface was 8,200 and at the bot- tom 4,600 per cubic centimetre. The average number for all tides and all depths was (5,000 per cubic centimetre. In the Hudson river from Spuyten Duyvil to the upper end of Yonkers the average number of bacteria during ebb tide was 6,500. During the flood tide there were (i,000 per cubic centimetre. The average number at the surface was 7,500 and at the bottom 6,000 per cubic centimetre. The average number for all tides and all depths was 5,300 per cubic centimetre. East River. In the East river from the mouth to Hell Gate the average number of bacteria during ebb tide was 10,000. During flood tide there were 5,600 per cubic centimetre. The average number at the surface was 11,500 and at the bottom 6,100 per cubic centimetre. The average number for all tides and all depths was 8,700 per cubic centimetre. In the East river from Hell Gate to the entrance of Long Island Sound at Throgs Neck the average number of bacteria during ebb tide Avas 1,800. During flood tide there were 4,700 per cubic centimetre. During ebb tide the currents in this sec- tion run from Long Island Sound westward and during the flood tide from Hell Gate toward the Sound. The average number at the surface was 3,700 and at the bottom 2,700 per cubic- centimetre. The average number for all tides and all depths was 3,400 per cubic cen- timetre. 392 DATA COLLECTED Long Island Sound. In Long Island Sound the average number of bacteria dur- ing ebb tide was 540. During flood tide the number was 255 per cubic centimetre. The average number at the surface was 950 and at the bottom 370 per cubic cen- timetre. The average number for all depths and all tides was 375 per cubic centimetre. These averages were based on a series of samples taken about every six miles from Orient Point to Throgs Neck on a trip of the Commission's boat. Harlem Rivet: In the Harlem river average number of bacteria during ebb tide was 16,000. During flood tide there were 15,000 per cubic centimetre. During ebb tide the currents in the ll'arlciu river were from the East river toward the Hudson river and during the flood tide from the Hudson river toward the East river. The average number at the surface was 23,000 and at the bottom 11,000 per cubic centimetre. The average number for all tides and all depths was 15,500 per cubic centimetre. Kill van Kull. In the Kill van Kull the average number of bacteria during ebb tide was 0,700 and during flood tide 5,400 per cubic centimetre. The average number at the surface was 7,700 and at the bottom 4,900. The average number for all tides and all depths was 0,000 per cubic centimetre. Newark Bay. In Newark bay the average number of bacteria during ebb tide was 9,000 and during flood tide G,000 per cubic centimetre. The average number at the surface was 9,000 and at the bottom 6,700 per cubic centimetre. The average number for all tides and all depths was 7,400 per cubic centi- metre. Passaiu River. In the Passaic river at Newark the average number of bacteria during ebb tide was 141,000. During flood tide the number was (55,000 per cubic cen- timetre. The average number at the surface was 111,000 and at the bottom 75,000 per cubic centimetre. The average number for all tides and all depths was 92,000 per cubic centimetre. Arthur Kill. In the Arthur Kill the average number of bacteria during the ebb tide was 7,400, and during the flood tide after the comparatively unpolluted water from Earitan bay had entered the Kill, 350 per cubic centimetre. Bacterial Water Sampler. The neck of the glass vacuum tube was broken off when the apparatus was lowered to the depths at which a sample was to be taken The Floating Laboratory. This boat was especially equipped for laboratory work. Water samples were plated and dissolved oxygen analyses were made on this boat BACTERIAL CONTENT OF THE HARBOR WATERS 393 The average number at the surface was 5,400 and at the bottom 4,100 per cubic centimetre. The average number for all tides and all depths was 4,700 per cubic centimetre. The Narrows. In the Narrows the average number of bacteria during ebb tide was 6,700 and during flood tide 2,500 per cubic centimetre. The average number at the surface was 8,300. At the bottom the number was 1,900 per cubic centimetre. The average number for all tides and all depths was 4,900 per cubic centimetre. Gruccucnd Hay. In Gravesend bay the average number of bacteria during flood tide was 4,500 per cubic centimetre. Too few samples were taken during ebb tides to yield a fair average. The average number at the surface was 4,500 per cubic centimetre. No bottom samples were taken on account of the shallowness of the bay. The average number for all samples, excluding those samples taken near sewer outlets, was 4,500 per cubic centimetre. Lower Bay. In the Lower bay the average number of bacteria during ebb tide was 1,400 and during flood tide 1,200 per cubic centimetre. The average number at the surface was 1,900 and at the bottom 1,100 per cubic centimetre. The average number for all tides and all depths Avas 1,300 per cubic centimetre. Rockaway Inlet. In Rockaway inlet the average number of bacteria during ebb tide was 2,900 and during flood tide 1,200 per cubic centimetre. The average number at the surface was 2,000. No deep samples were taken. The average number for all tides and all depths was 2,000 per cubic centimetre. Jamaica Bay. In Jamaica bay the average number of bacteria during ebb tide was 6,600 and during flood tide the number was 3,400 per cubic centimetre. The average number at the surface was 8,600 and at the bottom 3,800 per cubic centimetre. The average number for all tides and all depths was 7,400 per cubic centimetre, excluding those samples taken near sewer outlets. Atlantic Ocean. In the Atlantic ocean, ten miles off Long Branch, the average number of bacteria during flood tide was 120 per cubic centimetre. No samples were taken during ebb tide. The average number at the surface was 200 and at the bottom 33 per cubic centi- metre. The average number for all the samples taken was 120 per cubic centimetre. 394 DATA COLLECTED The average number of bacteria at the surface and at the bottom are shown in Table I. The average number of bacteria in the ebb and flood tides are shown in Table II. The relation between average numbers of bacteria and the dissolved oxygen con- tent of the harbor waters is shown in Table III. TABLE I AVERAGE NUMBER OF BACTERIA IN THE WATER AT THE SURFACE AND AT THE BOTTOM. MARCH 26 TO OCTOBER 5, 1909 Location of Samples Depths Surface Bottom Number of Analyses Bacteria per c. c. Number of Analyses Bacteria per c. c. Upper bay 43 62 20 48 13 22 28 40 19 4 10 15 9 105 6 23 2 22,000 8,200 7,500 11,500 3,700 950 23,000 7,700 9,000 111,000 5,400 8,300 4,500 1,900 2,000 8,600 200 30 59 20 48 13 22 18 36 19 4 9 12 90 . - 6 2 12,000 4,600 6,000 6,100 2,700 370 11,000 4,900 6,700 75,000 4,100 1,900 1,100 3,800 35 Cast river below Hell Gate Kill van Kull Newark bay Arthur Kill Note. In figuring the above averages, all the samples collected one foot under the surface and those collected one foot above the bottom were included, except that in the cases of Gravesend and Jamaica bays those samples collected near sewer outlets were not included. Those samples collected at depths between the surface and bottom were not included. BACTERIAL CONTENT OF THE HARBOR WATERS 395 TABLE II AVERAGE NUMBER OF BACTERIA IN THE WATER DURING EBB AND FLOOD TIDES, MARCH 26 TO OCTOBER 5, 1909 Location of Samples Tides Ebb Number of Analyses Bacteria per c. c. Flood Number of Analyses Bacteria per c. c. Upper bay 73 Hudson river, below Spuy ten Duyvil 85 Hudson river, above Spuy ten Duyvil 23 East river, below Hell Gate 67 East river. Hell Gate to Long Island Sound 15 Long Island Sound 21 Harlem river 31 Kill van Kull 63 Newark bay 21 Passaic river at Newark 4 Arthur Kill 12 Narrows 27 Gravesend bay Lower bay 119 Rockaway inlet 3 Jamaica bay 19 Atlantic ocean, ten miles off Long Branch 16,000 7,700 6,500 10,000 1,800 540 16,000 6,700 9,000 141,000 7,400 6,700 1,400 2,900 6,600 19 79 32 65 18 25 27 38 24 4 7 22 9 111 3 6 4 10,000 4,800 6,000 5,600 4,700 255 15,000 5,400 6,000 65,000 350 2,500 4,500 1,200 1,200 3,400 120 Note. In figuring the above averages, all the samples collected in the various sections were Included, except that in the cases of Gravesend and Jamaica buys, those samples collected near sewer outlets were not used. 396 DATA COLLECTED The Figures in Circles Show the Number of Bacteria per Cubic Centimetre in the Water in the Localities Indicated by Shading BACTERIAL CONTENT OF THE HARBOR WATERS 397 TABLE III AVERAGE NUMBER OF BACTERIA AND AVERAGE PER CENT. OF SATURATION WITH OXYGEN IN THE WATER OF THE VARIOUS SECTIONS OF NEW YORK HARBOR FOR ALL DEPTHS AND TIDES FROM MARCH 2G TO OCTOBER 5, 1909 Averages of 800 Oxygen and 1,082 Bacterial Analyses Location of Samples Number of bacteria per c. c. Per cent, of saturation with oxygen Upper bay Hudson river, below Spuyten Duyvil Hudson river, above Spuyten Duyvil East river, below Hell Gate East river, Hell Gate to L. I. Sound Long Island Sound Harlem river Kill van Kull Newark bay Passaic river at Newark Arthur Kill Narrows Gravesend bay Lower bay Rockaway inlet Jamaica bay Atlantic ocean ten miles off Long Branch . 14,500 6,600 5,300 8,700 3,400 375 15,500 6,600 7,400 92,000 4,700 4,900 4,500 1,300 2,000 5,800 120 67 72 83 65 86 99 55 79 76 6 82 83 90 97 97 76 100 Note. In figuring the above averages all the samples collected in the various sections were included, except that in the cases of Gravesend and Jamaica bays those samples collected near sewer outlets were not used. CHAPTER VIII EVIDENCE OF POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE EXHAUSTION OF THE DISSOLVED OXYGEN ANALYTICAL METHODS The investigations which are described in the following pages were made to ascer- tain the extent of the pollution of New York harbor and its tributary waters in the metropolitan district as shown by the amount of dissolved oxygen which they con- tain as compared with the normal amount which should be present in the absence of decomposing organic matter. Unpolluted waters, both land waters and sea waters, have power to absorb atmos- pheric oxygen, the quantities absorbed being dependent upon temperature and pres- sure and a number of other conditions, The laws which govern these phenomena are complex, but nuich experimental study has been given the subject with the result that the rate of absorption and the quantities of oxygen which can be held in solution have been determined for both land and sea waters as well as for mixtures of these at various temperatures. When decomposing organic matter is discharged into either land or sea water a certain amount of the dissolved oxygen in the water is used up by processes of nature in converting these matters into gases and mineral salts, leaving the water, while the processes are going on, deficient in dissolved oxygen. The amount of this deficiency is a measure of the activity of the processes of decomposition and of the capacity of the water in question to receive and oxidize additional quantities of decomposable organic matter. When the dissolved oxygen is all consumed by processes of oxidation the further addition of decomposable organic matter will, under most conditions, re- sult in putrefaction and the consequent evolution of foul odors. Albert Levy Method Used. In considering tests for the determination of the oxygen dissolved in the harbor waters, choice was made of the Albert Levy method. This is the process employed by Professors Letts and Adeney and described in the fifth report of the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal. Professors Letts and Adeney had made a large number of examinations of the waters of tidal estuaries on the 400 DATA COLLECTED British coast and had done a large amount of work in determining the capacity of tidal waters for digesting sewage. Testing of Method. Before putting the test into execution it was thought well for the Commission to request Professor Floyd J. Metzger, Ph. D., of Columbia Uni- versity, to examine the method and make suggestions which would adapt it to the Commission's use. A large number of determinations were to be made and the time available for each should be as short as was consistent with accuracy. The method as reported by the Royal Commission, required a long time for the precipitated oxides of iron to dissolve in the acid, this process taking apparently about three hours. Ac- cordingly, Professor Metzger made some experiments to shorten this period and in March, 1909, reported that he had been successful in reducing the time to five minutes. The time required from the beginning to the end of an analysis was about 30 minutes. The Commission then proceeded to have the necessary apparatus made. Through- out the work the standard solutions were prepared" by Professor Metzger and delivered to the Commission's laboratory for use. The samples for analysis were collected from one of the Commission's boats which was especially equipped for this purpose. The analyses were made on board imme- diately after the sample was collected. Opinion of Professor- Gill on Method. In order to be as certain as possible con- cerning the accuracy of the results, Professor Augustus H. Gill, Ph. D., of the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology, was requested to examine the work performed by the Commission and express "an opinion concerning the accuracy of the results. Pro- fessor Gill reported on November 15, 1909, that he had carefully examined the method for determining dissolved oxygen used by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission. He said : " The method that I saw carried out in your laboratory by Dr. Parsons would seem to leave nothing to be desired in the point of technique, either as regards sampling or treatment of samples thereafter. The results obtained seemed to me to be what might be well expected, considering the extensive pollu- tion of New York Harbor. While the method followed Albert Levy Method may on theoretical grounds be open to question and possibly some determi- nations be now and then affected, I am of the opinion that the work done rep- resents the true condition of the harbor and any determination affected would not be material. " I have said that the method may be open to question on theoretical grounds. They are as follows : " The method is based upon the fact that ferrous hydrate takes up the dis- solved oxygen from the water, becoming ferric; the amount of ferrous hydrate not so changed is determined with potassium permanganate. Anything then, which uses up this permanganate lowers the per cent, of dissolved oxygen found. L Siphon Water Collector for Dissolved Oxygen. A heavy piece of lead pipe was used in the construction of this apparatus in order to keep it plumb in strong currents Apparatus Used in Determining the Amount of Dissolved Oxygen in Water. Permanent supports were used on the boat to hold the separatory funnels and a large number of analyses were made daily EVIDENCE OF POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS 401 This is corrected by a 'blank test,' as it is called: if, however, there are pieces of solid, easily putrescible matter, as for example, fecal matter, in the sample in which the oxygen was determined and uot in the blank, these would use up the permanganate and give rise to low results for the dissolved oxygen. " To ascertain the reliability of the Albert Levy method as well as to disarm any criticism, I would suggest that it be compared with the Winkler method as described in Richards & Woodmaii, ' Air, Water and Food,' page 123, which I have found accurate, and with the results obtained by actually boiling out the oxygen from the samples obtained and determining the amount of oxygen thus extracted by processes of gas analyses. From the results of this investigation it can be determined if any correction of the results already obtained is neces- sary and if it is advisable to replace the Albert Levy method by the Winkler." In consequence of this report Professor Gill was requested to compare the method exactly as it was employed by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission with the Winkler method and with the results of gas analyses made after extracting the oxygen from the samples by boiling. Samples of water were collected by the Metro- politan Commission and sent to Professor Gill in Boston, and Professor Gill collected samples himself and analyzed them. Professor Gill's final opinion with respect to this subject is contained in a report, dated March 19, 1910; the report reads as follows: " At your request I have made a careful study of the Albert Levy method which you employed for the determination of oxygen in the waters of New York harbor. The investigation was conducted with the idea of determining in par- ticular the reliability of this method when compared with the results obtained by the absolute method of boiling out the oxygen dissolved in the water, and also with the results obtained by the Winkler process. From the results which I have obtained and from a critical examination of the methods as pursued by your investigators I am convinced that the Levy method as practiced by you does give the actual amount of oxygen dissolved in the sea water. It appears to me, however, that the method does not give in the hands of an unexperienced observer as concordant results as the Winkler method. However, when the Levy method is once mastered the results are thoroughly reliable." Reagents Used. The reagents used in the analytical method employed by the Com- mission for the determination of dissolved oxygen* in the harbor waters were as fol- lows : Standard Ferrous SulpJiate. This is prepared by dissolving 144 grams of Kahlbaum's crystallized ferrous sulphate in water, adding 15 cubic centimetres of II 2 SO 4 and diluting the whole to three litres. Standard Sodium Carbonate. Prepared by dissolving 30 grams of sodium carbonate crystals in one litre of water. Standard Sulphuric Acid. Prepared by mixing equal parts of concentrated H 2 S0 4 and water. See 5th Report Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal, Appendix VI, pp. 221-226, also Prof. W. P. Mason's volume on Water Analysis. 402 DATA COLLECTED Standard Potassium Permanganate. Prepared by dissolving; 25.1 grams of KMnO 4 in water and diluting to 4.5 litres. To he standardized against espe- cially prepared Molir's salt. Collection of Samples. Samples for examination were collected in the following manner : Water is drawn up from the required depth through a three-qnarter-inch wire- bound hose by a suction pump operated by steam in the boiler room of the boat. A check valve is placed at the lower nd of the rubber hose in the water to prevent an escape of water after the suction is stopped. The water passes through a glass apparatus, a, having a capacity of one litre, and then into the pump, b. After running for a few minutes the pump is stopped. A separatory funnel is filled from a rubber tube leading from the opening, c, in the collecting flask. The stop-cock at the lower end of the separatory funnel is opened slightly in order to allow the funnel to fill from the collecting flask. For the collection of samples at points where the rubber hose could not be kept plumb, on account of the velocity of the currents, and for the collection of deep samples the apparatus shown opposite page 400 was used. A piece of heavy lead pipe, five inches in diameter and 12 inches long, was pro- vided with a wooden bottom. Inside of this a one-gallon glass bottle was placed and held by a wire around the neck. The bottle had a rubber stopper, perforated for two brass tubes, one tube extending one inch below the stopper and two inches above. The other tube extended to the bottom of the bottle and was connected at the top with the short tube of the separatory funnel by heavy rubber tubing. A strip of wood one inch thick was fastened to the side of the lead pipe and to this strip was bolted a galvanized iron can four inches in diameter and ten inches high. In this can was placed the separatory funnel, into which the sample of water was collected and later analyzed. The separatory funnel rested on a wooden support or ring, fast- ened on the inside of the can. The end of the funnel emerged through a small opening in the cover of the can. When this wooden cover, which worked on hinges, was fastened down by the clamp at the outer side, the funnel was held firmly in place. The rubber stopper of the funnel was perforated by two brass tubes, one extending to the bottom of the funnel and one inch above the stopper, and the other one inch below the stopper and connected above with the gallon bottle by a heavy rubber tubing. In collecting the samples the apparatus was rapidly lowered to the required depth by a one-half-inch Manila rope, marked off in feet. The water entered through the long tube of the separatory funnel and flowed through the funnel into the gallon bottle, so that when the gallon bottle was full, as indicated by bubbles of air ceasing to rise, the KYIDENCE OF POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS 403 separatory fuimel would have been filled and emptied several times, the fuuiiels aver- aging about 350 cubic centimetres in capacity. Each funnel was accurately calibrated. Method of Making Test. The separatory funnel, after being completely filled with (lie water and the ground glass stopper replaced, is set up in a ring support and the contents immediately tested. Six cubic centimetres of FeSO 4 and four cubic centi- metres of Na 2 CO 3 are first added, both being delivered by a pipette near the bottom of the funnel. The stopper is then replaced and the contents are shaken. The dissolved oxygen, in the presence of the alkali, immediately oxidizes a portion of the dissolved salt from the ferrous to the ferric state. The ferric iron precipitates and settles to the bottom. After a wait of five minutes the funnel is inverted and ten cubic centimetres of standard ll^SOj are introduced through the stem of the funnel, the stop-cock being opened. After the acid has mixed thoroughly with the other contents the funnel is allowed to stand until the mixture is nearly colorless (usually about five minutes). The contents of the funnel are then emptied into an Ehrlenmeyer flask and titrated with standard KMnO 4 . A blank sample which has been collected iu a similar manner is now analyzed. In tli is case the separatory funnel is filled as in the previous test and ten cubic centi- metres of the standard H 2 SO 4 are added and shaken. The six cubic centimetres of the standard FeSO 4 and four cubic centimetres of the standard Na 2 CO 3 are added and shaken. The mixture is then titrated with standard KMnO 4 . In this case the acid reaction prevents the dissolved oxygen from oxidizing any of the ferrous salt to ferric with the result that the whole of the ferrous salt present is oxidized to the ferric con- dition by the permanganate. By subtracting the result of titrating the first sample from that of the second the amount of ferrous salt oxidized by the dissolved oxygen in the water is obtained. Computing Results. Results are expressed in terms of cubic centimetres of dissolved oxygen per litre of water. Suppose one cubic centimetre of permanganate equals 1.009 cubic centimetres of oxygen at degrees centigrade and 760 millimetres pressure: The amount of the difference between the two titratious is multiplied by 1.009 and by 1,000 (i.e., 1,009) and divided by the number of cubic centimetres of water contained in the funnel. Standard Units. The quantity of dissolved oxygen in the different samples col- lected was determined in terms of cubic centimetres per litre and the percentage of saturation of each sample was calculated from a diagram for sea and land waters, issued by the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal of Great Britain, showing the sat- uration figures at different temperatures and percentages of sea-water. 404 DATA COLLECTED Locating Sampling Points. When a sample was collected the point of collection was noted with reference to points on shore, or readings were made with the sextant to locate the exact position when the collecting point was at a distance from the shore. At the same time observations were made of the time of taking the sample, the direction of the tidal currents, the direction and velocity of the wind, the depth of the water, the depth at which the sample was taken, the temperature and the specific gravity of the water from which the percentage of land water was computed. The average percentage of saturation with oxygen and the average number of cubic centimetres of oxygen per litre during the period from June 1 to October 5, 1909, in the various sections of New York harbor were computed to show the difference be- tween the amount during ebb and flood tides. There were 787 analyses included in these averages. The average percentage of saturation \\'ith oxygen and the average number of cubic centimetres of oxygen per litre during the same period in the various sections were computed to show the difference between the number at the surface and at the bottom. There were 722 analyses included in these averages. Tubular Summary of Data. For convenience the tidal waters about New York were divided into several separate sections and the average percentages of saturation for each section are given in Tables II and III, which contain, for the different depths and for the flood and ebb currents, the amount of dissolved oxygen in cubic centimetres per litre and the percentage of saturation, with the number of analyses upon which the averages were based. In calculating the averages for any section all the samples taken in that section were used, except that in the cases of Gravesend and Jamaica bays those samples col- lected near sewer outlets were not used. Representative samples were taken at all parts of a section. Samples taken near shore were obtained outside the pierhead line, not in the slips. DISSOLVED OXYGEN IN TIIE WATERS OF THE UPPER BAY Surface and Bottom. The difference between the amount of oxygen at the surface and at the bottom of the Upper bay was very small, but there was a decided difference between the amount in the samples taken during flood and those taken during ebb cur- rents. Ebb and Flood Tides. Taking an average of all the samples collected during the flow of the ebb currents, the water of the Upper bay showed a deficiency in oxygen amounting to 36 per cent. An average of all the samples taken during the flow of the EVIDENCE OF POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS 405 flood currents showed a deficiency of 22 per cent. The waters of the Upper bay at no time averaged more than 78 per cent, of the oxj-gen which they should have had even after receiving the large quantities of sea water from the Lower bay. During the half of the 21 hours of each day when the Hudson and East rivers were emptying their con- tents into the bay, the amount of oxygen was only 64 per cent, of what it should have been. Local Deficiencies. There was a decided reduction below the average in the amount of oxygen in the water of the bay opposite the outlet of Gowauus canal and near the outfall of the large trunk sewer at the foot of Sixty-fifth street, Brooklyn, showing the effect of the sewage contamination at these points. EAST UIVER (FROM GOVERNOR'S ISLAND TO HELL GATE) Surface and Bottom. The difference between the amount of oxygen at the surface and at the bottom of the East river below Hell Gate was small. The surface samples usually contained a slightly smaller amount of oxygen than those taken lower down. Ebb and Flood Tides. An average of all the samples taken during the flood com- pared with those taken during the ebb currents showed that there was a greater de- ficiency in the oxygen of the East river during the ebb than during the flood. During the flood the water contained (it) per cent, while the water flowing out toward the bay contained only CO per cent, of the oxygen which it should have had. Local Deficiencies. There was a considerable reduction below the average in the amount of oxygen in the river at certain points, notably opposite the mouth of New- town creek and off Wallabont bay. EAST RIVER (FROM HELL GATE TO THROGS NECK) Surface and Bottom. The difference between the amount of oxygen at the surface and at the bottom of the East river above Hell Gate was very small. On Ebb and Flood Tides. The entrance of the comparatively unpolluted water of Long Island Sound into the East river on the ebb currents is shown by the high aver- age percentage of oxygen saturation 92 per cent. The water coming from the lower section of the East river toward the Sound on the flood currents contained 80 per cent, of the amount of oxygen which it should have had. 406 DATA COLLECTED HUDSON KIVER (FROM ITS MOUTH TO SPUYTEN DUYVIL CREEK) Surface and Bottom. The difference between the amount of dissolved oxygen at the surface and at the bottom of the Hudson river below Spuyten Duyvil creek was slight. The samples taken near the surface usually contained a somewhat smaller amount of oxygen than those taken at the bottom. On Ebb and Flood Tides. An average of all the samples taken during the flood compared with those taken during the flow of the ebb currents, showed that there was a greater deficiency iu the oxygen of the Hudson river below Spuyten Duyvil during the ebb than during the flood. During the flood the water contained 70 per cent, while the water passing down toward the bay contained only 66 per cent, of the oxygen which it should have had. HUDSON KIVER (FROM SPUYTEN DUYVIL TO YONKERS) Surface and Bottom. In the section of the Hudson above Spuyten Duyvil there was slightly more oxygen at the surface than at the bottom, possibly because the more polluted sea water had a tendency to remain at the bottom. On Ebb and Flowl Tides. The samples taken on the ebb current showed about tlio same deficiency in oxygen as those taken on the flood, or about 16 per cent. The ebb currents carried much of the Yonkers sewage down the river near the east- ern shore and the path of this sewage could be traced as far down as Inwood, about four miles, by the dissolved oxygen tests. As some of the samples taken on the ebb tide were from this polluted field, the average per cent, of oxygen saturation for this upper section of the Hudson on the ebb is probably a little too low. HARLEM RIVER Surface and Bottom. There was very little difference between the amount of oxygen at the surface and at the bottom of the Harlem river and the general average of oxygen for the flood tide agreed pretty closely with that for the ebb. On Average of Tides. The average for all tides and all depths showed that the oxygen in the Harlem river was nearly 50 per cent, exhausted. Eastern End of River. There was a decided reduction below the average in the amount of oxygen at the eastern end of the river between Hell Gate and the Third Avenue Bridge. Here the water often contained only 20 per cent, of the amount of oxygen which it should have had. EVIDENCE OF POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS 407 This part of the river does not seem to be flushed out thoroughly by the flow from the East river on the ebb tide. In fact the water contains more oxygen, as a rule, after the flow of the flood currents from the Hudson. The average of a series of samples showed a deficiency in oxygen of 73 per cent, on the ebb tide and of 57 per cent, on the flood. KILL VAN KULL Surface and Bottom. A comparison of the amount of oxygen at the surface and at the bottom of the Kill van Kull showed a somewhat larger amount at the bottom. On Ebb and Flood Tides. The amount of oxygen present in the water during the flow of the flood currents was 82 per cent, of what it should have been, as compared with 78 per cent, on the ebb. The larger amount of oxygen at the bottom is probably explained by the less polluted and heavier sea water remaining at the bottom. NEWARK BAY On Ebb and Flood Tides. The water of Newark bay contained rather more oxygen on the flood tide, after the water from the Kill van Kull and the Arthur Kill had mixed with it, than on the ebb when it received the waters of the very polluted Pas- saic river. The water in the bay is very shallow and not much difference was found 'between the amount of oxygen at the surface and at the botom. PASSAIC RIVER At Lower Limits of Xcirark. The amount of oxygen in the Passaic river varied greatly according to the point where the samples were taken. At a point just below the Pennsylvania Railroad bridge, near the foot of New Jersey Railroad avenue, New- ark, the water on one day was found to contain no oxygen at all, either during the flood or the ebb currents. On another day it was 90 per cent, exhausted during the ebb and 80 per cent, during the flood. At Month. The water at the mouth where the river was flushed by the flood cur- rents from Newark bay had a better supply of oxygen, so that the average for all the samples taken showed that the river had about 27 per cent, of the oxygen which it should have had. K/fa-ts of Water on Paints. The water of the Passaic at Newark was black and had a strong odor of hydrogen sulphide. The white paint on boats which had tied up here had turned a dark gray or black, from the formation of sulphide of lead. 408 DATA COLLECTED ARTHUR KILL Surface and Bottom. During the flood tide the water from Raritan bay partly flushes out the Arthur Kill and no deficiency was found in the oxygon present in the water during this period. The influence of the heavier and purer .sea water was also seen in the higher per- centage of oxygen in the deep samples than in tho.se taken at the surface. On Ebb and Flood Tides. During the flow of the ebb currents the Avater from the Eahway river and the polluted water from Newark bay and Kill van Kull, con- taining the Orange sewage, which is discharged into the Kills at Elizabethport, entered the Arthur Kill and reduced the amount of oxygen present to 73. per cent, of what it should have been. THE NARROWS Surface and Bottom. At the Narrows the samples of water taken at the bottom, in most cases at the depth of 60 feet, contained less oxygon than those taken at the sur- face. On Ebb and Flood Tides. The difference between the water at this point on the flood and ebb tides was very marked. The sea water entering from the Lower bay raised the percentage of oxygen here, so that it averaged 92 per cent, of what it should have been. The polluted water from the Upper bay passing out lowered the percentage of oxygen, so that the water contained only 74 per cent, of the amount which it should have had. GRAVESEN 7 D BAY Surface. Owing to the shallowness of Gravesend bay none but surface samples were taken. The average of these oxygen figures showed a deficiency of 10 per cent. Those samples taken near the outlet of the effluent pipe from the Coney Island sewage disposal plant were not included in the averages. The average amount of oxygen in the water during the flow of the Hood currents was 85 per cent, of what should have been present. LOWER BAY Surface and Bottom. The difference between the amount of oxygen in the water at the surface and at the bottom of the Lower bay was quite marked. The polluted water from the Upper bay, of a lower specific gravity, had a tendency to keep near the EVIDENCE OF POLLUTION OF 1IAK1IOK WATERS 409 surface as it passed into the Lower bay so that while the water at the bottom of the Lower bay was saturated with oxygen, the water at the surface had a slight deficiency, averaging about ten per cent. Deep Sample*. Samples taken in very deep spots in the ocean, in the so-called mud gorge, ten miles off Long Branch, were saturated witli oxygen, while surface sam- ples taken at the same points were also found to be saturated. SUMMARY As a rule there was not much difference between the amount of oxygen in the water at the surface and in that at the bottom. In sections where the water was badly polluted the surface samples usually contained a slightly smaller amount of oxygen than did the deep samples, due, perhaps, to the presence of bacteria of decomposition, in the surface water, which consumed a proportionately larger amount of its oxygen. Often, too, the purer sea water, which had a tendency to remain at the bottom by reason of its higher specific gravity, increased the quantity of dissolved oxygen at the bottom above that at the surface by dilution. Where the water was comparatively pure the very deep samples usually contained a smaller amount of oxygen than those taken at the surface. When comparatively unpolluted water such as that from the Lower bay and the Sound entered a polluted section of water the percentage of oxygen was raised by the dilution. When sewage or a polluted water entered a comparatively unpolluted section of water, the percentage of oxygen saturation was lowered by dilution, by the addition of easily oxidizable substances which caused a more or less rapid loss of its dissolved oxygen and by the addition of organic constituents of sewage, not readily oxidizable, which were oxidized by the bacteria present in the water and which indirectly caused a loss of the dissolved oxygen. The amount of oxygen was less in the water near shore than in the water nearer the middle of the river or bay, and there was a decided reduction below the average amount \\hen the outfall of a sewer was approached. 410 DATA COLLECTED TABLE I VOLUMES OF OXYGEN ABSORBED FROM THE Am BY DISTILLED WATER AND BY SEA WATER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES CENTIGRADE AND AT A PRESSURE OF 7(50 M. M. FROM THE FIFTH REPORT OF THE ROYAL COMMISSION ON SEWAGE DISPOSAL, VOL. 18, 1908. Temperatures in Degrees Centigrade Percentages of Distilled Water to Sea Water 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 52 l>4 72 100 17 18 19 20 5 6 5 6 5 7 5 7 5 8 5 9 5 9 6 6 60 6 1 6 2 6 3 G 4 6 5 6 9 5.5 5.5 5.6 5.6 5 7 5 8 5 9 5 9 5.9 6 6 6 6.2 6 3 G.4 fi 8 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 9 6 6 6 2 6 3 6 7 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.5 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.7 5.8 5.8 5.8 .-,.'.) 0.0 6.2 6.5 21 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.5 5.5 5.6 5.6 5.7 5.7 5.8 6.0 6.1 8.4 22 5.1 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.5 5.5 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.3 23 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.8 5.9 6.2 24 4.9 4.9 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 6.1 25 4.9 4.9 5.0 5 5.1 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 6.0 26 4.8 4.9 4.9 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.9 EVIDENCE OF POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS 411 The Figures in Circles Show the Per Cent, of Dissolved Oxygen in the Waters in the Localities Shown by Shading 412 DATA COLLECTED TABLE II AVERAGE AMOUNT OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN ix THE WATER DURING EBP, AND FLOOD CURRENTS, JUNE 1 TO OCTOBER 5, 1909. Ti des Location of Samples Ebb Currents Flood Current 8 Number of Analyses C. C. Per Litre Per Cent, of Saturation Number of Analyses C. C. Per Litre Per Cent, of Saturation Unoer bav. . . 42 3 60 64 24 4 m 78 Hudson river, below Spuyten Duyvil Hudson river, above Spuyten Duyvil East river, below Hell Gate 29 10 77 3.67 5.13 3 46 66 83 60 68 22 78 4.63 5.01 A ft 1 * 76 84 69 East river, Hell Gate to Longl Island Sound / 18 5.38 92 21 4.66 80 Long Island Sound, near Throgs\ Neck / 3 5.90 100 5 5.78 98 Harlem river 30 3 28 56 22 3 21 55 Kill van Kull 40 4 49 78 24 4 76 82 Newark bay 12 4.21 74 13 4 41 78 Passaic river at Newark 4 30 5 4 42 7 Arthur Kill 16 4.31 73 8 5 61 100 Narrows 17 4 16 74 15 5 18 92 Gravesend bay 10 5 00 90 Lower bay 59 5.29 95 44 5 56 100 Rockaway inlet 6 5 10 93 6 6 14 100 18 4 06 73 11 4 26 81 Atlantic ocean, ten miles off Long\ 4 6.05 100 Gowanus canal 2 00 3 00 Wallabout canal 1 0.30 6 Note. In calculating the above averages, all the samples collected in the various sections were included, except that in the cases of Qravesend and Jamaica bays, those samples collected near sawer outlets were not used. EVIDENCE OF POLLUTION OF ITARBOR WATERS 413 TABLE III AVERAGE AMOUNT OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN IN THE WATER AT THE SURFACE AND AT THE BOTTOM, JUNE 1 TO OCTOBER 5, 1909. Location of Samples Upper bay Hudson river, below Spuyten Duyvil Hudson river, above Spuyten Duyvil East river, below Hell Gate East river, Hell Gate to Long Island \ Sound ; Long Island Sound Harlem river Kill van Kull Newark bay Passaic river at Newark Arthur Kill Narrows Gravesend bay Lower bay Roekaway inlet Jamaica bay Atlantic ocean, ten miles off Long\ Branch < Gowanus canal Newtown creek Wallabout canal.. . Depths Number of Analyses 28 41 15 65 19 3 26 28 12 4 12 16 10 56 6 20 2 2 3 1 Surface C. C. Per Litre 3.76 4.17 5.11 3.63 5.01 5.69 3.21 4.37 4.29 0.33 4.52 4.86 5.00 5.23 5.58 3.96 6.21 0.00 0.00 0.30 Per Cent, of Saturation 66 71 84 64 86 97 55 78 76 6 80 87 90 90 96 74 100 6 Bottom Number of Analyses 28 38 15 65 19 3 26 28 12 4 12 16 46 6 9 2 C. C. Per Litre 4.15 4.30 4.96 3.83 4.99 5.92 3.28 4.74 4.37 0.40 4.81 4.55 5.61 5.68 4.52 5.89 Per Cent, of Saturation 69 73 82 66 85 100 56 81 77 7 84 80 100 98 82 100 Note. In calculating the above averages, all the samples collected one foot under the surface and those collected one foot above the bottom were included except that in the cases of Gravesend and Jamaica bays those samples collected near sewer outlets were not used. Those samples collected at depths between the surface and the bottom were not Included. CHAPTER IX EVIDENCE OF POLLUTION IN THE DEPOSITS ON THE BOTTOM OF THE HARBOR METHODS OF IDENTIFYING MATTERS OF SEWAGE ORIGIN liactcriaJ Eridcncc of Pollution. Prior to 1908 bacterial and chemical analyses had been made of deposits upon the bottom of New York harbor, but the information which these examinations furnished lacked definiteness as to the presence or absence of sewage matter. The work here described was undertaken in order to make this in- formation more definite and complete. About 700 samples of solid matter were examined by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission before 1908 for the number of bacteria which were contained the results ranging from 7,500 to 26,000,000 bacteria per gram. In one case 400,000 bacteria were found in a sample close to another sample which contained 19,000,000. Com- paring one section with another, the bacteria in the material at the harbor bottom were numerous in the Upper bay and in that section immediately west of the Brook- lyn shore, and it is to be noted that they were usually most numerous where the pol- lution was most intense. But it was impossible to say how many bacteria would have been present in the absence of sewage matters. Colon determinations to the number of 322 had been made of material from the bot- tom. In nearly all these cases the organism was found according to the presump- tive test. But this test is no longer regarded as conclusive, nor is the presence of colon bacilli looked upon as certain proof of the presence of sewage. There had been 506 samples of solid matter in the harbor bottom analyzed for loss on ignition. But this test did little to make it plain whether the deposits were composed of sewage matters or not. No examinations had been made of mud from the uncontaminated places. Identification of Soap, Fats and Animal Debris. In seeking more definite information concerning the condition of the harbor bottom with reference to pollution by sewage, the Metropolitan Commission after 1907, considered the impossibility of placing im- plicit faith in chemical and bacterial analyses as ordinarily made, and sought to sup- plant this work by examinations which would not be so easily influenced by the pres- ence of such substances as sea weed, the bodies of marine animals and other unwhole- some forms or remains of life. On October 7, 1908, a letter was sent by the Commission to James EL Stebbins, Ph. D., a well known microscopist and chemist, requesting him to advise with the Commission as to methods and analytical technique. The Com- mission was particularly interested to know whether it could be made profitable to 416 DATA COLLECTED i i ,v The Shaded Areas Indicate Where the Bottom Mud was Found to be Most Heavily Polluted with Sewage Solids POLLUTION IN DEPOSITS IN THE HARBOR 417 examine water and solid deposits from the harbor for soap and grease, fibres of paper and debris of animal origin peculiar to human occupation. At the same time a num- ber of samples of solid matters dredged from the harbor bottom were sent to Dr. Stebbins for study. Dr. Stebbins' reply was to the effect that the only manner of detecting small quantities of soap or grease which would be practicable to employ upon the large scale required in the Commission's work, would be to first extract the fats from the sample with ether and identify their presence under the microscope, then acidify with hydrochloric acid and extract the fatty residue with ether and note the result under the microscope. The test could not be made quantitative without involving a regular chemical examination, but a fair idea of the fats and fatty acids present could be formed by observing the quantity or residue left upon the microscopic slide after evaporation of the ether. Microscopic Examinations. In Dr. Stebbins' opinion it would not be a difficult matter, after a little practice, to identify the various fibres of paper, etc., by means of microscopic examinations. Such debris as animal muscle, fibres and connective and elastic tissues, ova of animal parasites and hairs promised to furnish valuable diagnostic factors. A scheme for examining harbor sediments was worked out by Dr. Stebbins and employed by him for the examination of a number of samples of deposits which the Commission collected especially for his use. The method is given here in full, for, although it was not found feasible to employ it in the large number of routine exami- nations made necessary by the nature of the Commission's work, the scheme may be of service to other investigators. Methods of Microscopic Analysis; First Operation. Shake up a small portion of the sediment in a test tube with water. Allow the coarser and heavier particles to settle, and decant the fine and light matter into another test tube before it has time to subside. Examine a few drops of the decanted liquid upon a slide micro- scopically with one-half and one-eighth inch objectives and No. 3 ocular. If contamination by sewage is suspected, look for any of the following: Ciliated infusoria such as paramaeciuin, trachelocera, fungous forms such as mold hyphae Saprolegnia, Leptothrix, Beggiatoa ( Sulphur- forming organism), and miscellaneous objects such as starch grains, yeast cells, pollen, fibres of wood, paper, muscle, elastic and connective tissue fibres, epithelial cells, threads of silk, wool, cotton and linen; insect scales, feather barbs, the eggs of certain parasitic worms, such as Taenia solium, Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichocephalus dispar, Uncinaria americana, etc., seeds of wheat, oats, etc. 418 DATA COLLECTED It may, furthermore, be well to look for Euglena viridis, which though not regu- larly occurring in sewage, nevertheless feeds upon decaying vegetable matter, and consequently may be associated with it in polluted water and its sediments. Second Operation. Add ether to the test tube containing the light decanted mat- ter, warm gently, shake up well, and allow to settle into two layers. Evaporate a few drops of the ethereal layer upon a slide, and note whether any residue is left upon the same. Any oily, semi-solid, or solid residue remaining will represent neu- tral fat present in the original river sediment, and according to its nature it may have been derived from lard, butter, cocoamit oil, tallow, etc., and hence would indicate contamination by organic animal or vegetable mater, or perhaps both. Acidify the ethereal solution remaining in the test tube strongly with hydro- chloric acid. Warm gently, shake well, and allow the mixture to separate into two layers. Pipette off a few drops of the ethereal layer, place the same upon a slide, and allow to evaporate to dryness, and examine any residue remaining microscopically with one-half and one-eighth-inch objectives, and No. 3 ocular. If a crystalline or semi-crystalline residue remains upon the slide, it is likely to consist of fatty acids derived from the decomposition of soaps present in the orig- inal river, or harbor sediment. Treat the residue upon the slide with a few drops of alcohol, warm gently, and note whether the residue dissolves. If soluble, test the alcoholic solution with blue litmus paper. If the paper turns reddish, either while wet or after the alcohol has evaporated, the presence of fatty acids is clearly indicated. As a further evidence of their presence, allow the alcoholic solution to evaporate upon the slide, and examine the residue under the microscope, when usually either a crystalline, or semi-crystal- line white, to whitish residue will be left upon the slide. Occasionally oily fatty acids such as oleic acid may be obtained according to the nature of the soap from which they were derived, and in such cases the residue will be oily instead of crystalline. Hence the presence of fatty acids will clearly indicate the presence of insoluble soaps in the river or harbor sediment, and consequently contamination by sewage. Place a small quantity of the heavier matter separated by decantation from the lighter matter upon a slide, cover it with a cover glass, and examine it microscop- ically for any of the vegetable or animal matter, etc., previously alluded to. If any of the organisms, fibres, seeds, etc., previously mentioned are found, con- tamination by sewage is clearly indicated. POLLUTION IN DEPOSITS IN THE HARBOR 419 To the test tube containing the heavy material add ether, heat gently and shake up well, and allow to cool, and separate into two layers. Note whether the ethereal solution has changed color; if it has, it may contain neutral fats. Pipette off a few drops of the ethereal solution, place them upon a slide, and ex- amine them under the microscope. If a residue consisting of white, or slightly col- ored warty concretions, nacreous plates, or fern-shaped crystals, is obtained, neutral animal or vegetable fats, or both, are present, and clearly indicate contamination by sewage. The heavy residue may also contain soaps which were not entirely removed by the first treatment by decautation. To ascertain whether soap is present, treat the residue remaining as follows: Decant or pipette off the ethereal neutral fat solution, add excess of hydrochloric acid, and treat as in second operation. A white or slightly colored crystalline, or semi-crystalline residue remaining would indicate fatty acids and hence soap in the original sediment under examination. A number of samples were examined by Dr. Stebbins, a statement of the results of which are given below. The conclusious drawn from the examinations were ap- parently fully justified by other information in possession of the Commission. SUMMARY 01-' RESULTS OF MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATIONS OF RIVER AND HARBOR SEDI- MENTS,, BY Du. J. H. STEBBINS tiuntplc No. 657, from Harlem River Between Third and Fourth Avenues. Found: Much argillaceous matter, and sand. A few dead diatoms. Particles of wood, vege- table epidermis, some trie-homes, a little muscle tissue, two eggs of Taeuia solium, a few pollen grains, fibres of cotton, wool and flax (toilet paper), several Creuothrix fila- ments, and some small particles of mica. The specimen also contains an appreciable quantity of neutral fat, and fatty acids (soap). Conclusions. This sample is clearly contaminated with fecal matter, house wash- ings, etc., in other words, sewage. Sample No. 319, from Went Sixty-ninth Street, Hudson Kicer. Large Sewer at Sixty-sixth Street. Found : Much argillaceous matter, humus, numerous diatoms, one Rhizopod, spicules, considerable vegetable epidermis, bast fibres, and fibro-vascular bundles, threads, a little cotton, wool, and linen fibre (toilet paper), wheat hairs, Creno- thrix filaments, and considerable muscle tissue, and fibres (meat). Some neutral fat, and fatty acids (soap) are also present. Conclusions. This sample is markedly contaminated with sewage. 420 DATA COLLECTED Sample No. 491,, from Wallabout Canal, East River, With Sewer at Head of CanuL Found : Much argillaceous matter, humus, numerous diatoms, some spicules, consider- able linen, and straw fibre, vegetable epidermis, wheat hairs, and Conferva filaments, the skeleton of a Crustacean, probably Cypris, or Daphnia, a few bits of thread, and filaments, considerable muscle tissue, and fibres (meat). Considerable neutral fat, and a small quantity of fatty acids (soap). Conclusions. This sample is also clearly contaminated with sewage. Sample No. 3, Marked from Intersection of Center Line of Pier A and Center Line of Hudson River. Considerable argillaceous matter, humus, moderate number of linen, and straw fibres, vegetable epidermis, and other portions of vegetable matter, Creno- thrix, a few diatoms, particles of shell, sand, and some muscle fibre, and one elastic fibre. Small quantity of neutral and fatty acids. Conclusions. This sample is contaminated with sewage, but to a lesser degree than the samples previously examined. Sample No. 3, Marked from Intersection of Center Line of Broad Street, East River, and 150 Feet from End of Pier. Found : Meat, woolen, and linen fibres are ab- sent, but, on the other hand, the sediment was found to consist almost wholly of living and dead algae, numerous protozoa, and a few Crustacea, as follows: Protozoa Col- pidium, one; Enchelys, numerous; Vorticella, a few; Rotifera, Asplauchmi, and Masti- gocera, a few; Crustacea, Cypris, and Bosrnina, a few; Diatoms, quite numerous; Con- ferva, Ulothrix, and Cladothrix, quite plentiful; Rhizocloniurn salinum, abundant; Uro- coccus hookeranius, abundant; Schizonieris leibleinii, abundant; Oogonia of Vaucheria thurettii, numerous; Eudoriua stagnate, moderate number; Plant epidermis, consider- able, and numerous other unidentified algae, and several unidentified infusoria. Sand, slag, and some argillaceous matter. Neutral fats, and fatty acids (soap) present in very small quantity. Conclusions. This sample seems to be only slightly contaminated with sewage. The contamination seems to be more in the nature of house washings, etc., than fecal matter (absence of muscle). Water Sample No. 3, Marked from Intersection of Center Line of Broad Street and 50 Feet Beyond End of Pier. Found: Enchelys, and numerous unidentifiable in- fusoria. Considerable vegetable epidermis, Oogonia of Vaucheria thurettii, several Con- ferva filaments, a few cotton and linen fibres, one trichome, and numerous small fat globules; a little sand, and argillaceous matter, but no fecal matter (muscle). The amount of sediment was so small that no test for the presence of soap could be made. POLLUTION IN DEPOSITS IN THE HAKBOR 421 Conclusion*. This sample does not seem to be contaminated by fecal matter, but the presence of the fat globules would point to a slight contamination with sewage other than fecal matter. Sain pie No. 2, Marked from off Erie Basin. Found: Numerous small worms re- sembling round worms, or Nematodes. Numerous diatoms, Oogonia, Conferva fila- ments, bits of wood, considerable plant epidermis. Ulothrix, Botryoeoccus braunii, Schizomeris leibleiuii, Enteromorpho intestinalis, Grass glumes, Urococcus hooker - anius, a little muscle tissue (meat), a few spicules, and linen fibres. Sand, argillace- ous matter, bits of shell, humus considerable, and a few human hairs. The sample also contains a small quantity of neutral fat, and fatty acids (soap). The sample .smells very foul, the smell strongly resembling carrion. Coiiclttxionx. This specimen is evidently contaminated with fecal, decaying animal and vegetable matter, wash-water, etc. Sample No. 2, Marked from Kill van Kull. Found: A few diatoms, some plant epidermis, and bits of wood, Conferva filaments, Oogouia, a little muscle fibre, spicules, and much sand and argillaceous matter, and humus. There is also present a small quantity of neutral fat, and a trace of fatty acids. Conclusions. This sample is somewhat contaminated with sewage, but more par- ticularly with fecal, and animal matter, than Avith soap. Sample No. 2, Marked from Great Kills. Found: Much sand and argillaceous matter, and humus. A few minute stems of plants, diatoms, Conferva filaments, plant epidermis, Leptothrix, grass glumes, and a few cotton, and linen fibres. Neutral fats, and fatty acids, are absent. Conclusions. From the above, it does not appear that the sample is contaminated with sewage. The examination of eighteen other samples collected in December, 1908, led Dr. Stebbins to modify his opinion as to the importance of neutral fats as a diagnostic factor in the examination of sediments for sewage matters. The later samples were collected from uncontaminated places and upon examination showed no pollution with fecal matter, yet they all contained neutral fats in some amount. From this fact Dr. Stebbius inferred that a very small amount of neutral fats was a normal constituent of all salt and brackish water sediments. EXAMINATIONS BY THE METROPOLITAN SEWERAGE COMMISSION Owing to uncertainties connected with the determination of fats and grease in the deposits, and particularly in making such tests quantitative, the Commission decided 422 DATA COLLECTED to confine its examinations to the microscope. The method employed was somewhat similar to that reported in 1883 by Dr. H. J. Sorby to the British Royal Commission on Metropolitan Sewage Disposal, as a result of an exhaustive miscroscopic study of Thames river mud for evidence of pollution. Dr. Sorby's method consisted in straining out the suspended mud in a known volume of river water and counting the number of muscle fibres, hairs and spiral vessels. These small particles he considered to have come from domestic sewage or street sweepings. The number which occurred in a given volume of water was taken to indicate the degree of pollution. Dr. Sorby decided it was useless to examine the very fine particles, or the coarser fragments for evidence of pollution and confined his attention to the few kinds of particles intermediate in size, easily recognized and of known composition. Method of Examination Adopted by Metropolitan Sewerage Commission. The procedure adopted by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission of New York consisted of two parts : (1) Observation of the color, odor and composition of the sample when collected; and (2) A search for microscopic debris which had probably come from sewage. Collection of Samples. The samples were collected from one of the Commission's boats. An oyster boat with a large roomy deck, low freeboard and ample beam to give steadiness having been found especially suitable for this purpose. The samples were collected in accordance with a prearranged scheme by which it was intended to cover practically the Avhole area of the harbor bottom. Samples were located by means of sextant observations, upon previously established laud marks, or, where very near the shore, convenient ranges were employed. Surface Samples. The mud samples from the surface of the harbor bottom were collected by means of small iron dredges, shaped like a mushroom. The dredge con- sisted of an iron rod, two feet three inches long, set firmly in the apex of a plate-iron cone which was six inches deep and 12 inches across the open base, shown opposite page This mushroom dredge was dragged over the surface of the mud until the cone Avas partly filled. It was then raised and a pint sample of mud was spooned out into a glass fruit jar. Before washing the remaining mud out of the dredge, notes of the color, odor and composition of the dredged material were made. Frequently a thin, light brown color was observed overlying a dark brown or black sub-soil, showing, as POLLUTION IN DEPOSITS IN THE IlAltliOB 4L':; cxpericiioo taught, that the surface of the mud had been well supplied with oxygen while the interior was in a putrefying condition. Subsurface Samples. Subsurface samples of mud were obtained by a pipe mud borer. The mud borer consisted of an iron half-pipe, two inches in internal diameter and 11 feet long. There was a reducer at one end into which lengths of one-inch pipe could be screwed to serve as a handle. Mud borings were obtained by pressing down on the handle of the borer until the half-pipe was thrust to the desired depth in the mud. The borer was then hoisted up aboard the ship from which it was being operated and samples of the boring were spooned out of the half-pipe. It was necessary to scrape off and discard the outer layer of mud along the entire length of the mud, to prevent the contamina- tion of subsurface mud with the surface mud, through which it had been withdrawn. I' reparation of Samples for Examination. The examination of mud samples in the laboratory was carried on as follows: (1) The microscopic particles or debris were washed free from mud. (2) The debris was placed in a large petri dish over a white porcelain slab. (3) The particles which seemed likely to prove of interest were picked out and identified. In polluted samples the debris was generally so black with ferrous sulphide that it was necessary to decolorize the particles in ten per cent hydrochloric acid. Mounts for microscopic examination were made in glycerine. To wash the debris free from mud the analyst filled the glass jar containing the mud samples, stirred with a glass rod and poured the suspended mud out upon a per- forated porcelain plate fitting snugly in an agateware fruit-jar funnel. The mud was washed out through the perforations and the clean debris was washed off of the plate into a small glass pitcher. This process was repeated until the required amount of debris had been obtained. The analyst then proceeded to examine the debris and write out his report before beginning a second analysis. The porcelain plate used was two and three-fourths inches in diameter, and the perforations were between one-twentieth and one-fortieth of an inch in diameter. Later faster progress was made by washing out ten to fifteen samples in succession and then setting aside the washing apparatus and examining the debris. Also, to some extent, the method of washing out the sample was changed. The entire contents of the jar in which the sample had been collected was washed out upon a copper sieve with meshes one-twentieth of an inch apart; all but the coarsest particles of sand and debris of a size suitable for examination passing through. Then the sieve was inverted DATA COLLECTED over the jar funnel and the debris washed into a large glass pitcher. By agitating the pitcher and pouring out quickly upon the porcelain plate the useful debris were ob- tained free from mud. By this method a sample could be made ready for examination in less than eight minutes. The number of samples which could be examined in a day by one operator was 23. The debris selected for examination, if the sample was from a polluted place, con- tained such substances as bits of paper, glumes, straw, small roots, animal hairs, coal, pieces of twine, tufts of wool or of cotton. These objects were transferred to a watch crystal containing ten per cent, hydrochloric acid. In a short time the objects became clear enough to be mounted upon a glass slide for identification by means of a microscope. Glycerine diluted with 50 per cent, alcohol was used as a mounting fluid for rapid work, it being found that objects cleared quickly in it. Clinging to the microscopic objects just mentioned were other objects of much significance. Thus, muscle fibres could be found, bits of starch parenchyma, fragments of seed coats, ani- mal tissues, etc. Methods of Examination. The identification of the debris required less and less use of the microscope, as the microscopic appearance of the particles of diagnostic value became more and more familiar, but in practically every case the diagnosis of pollution was supplemented by a microscopic examination. The microscope used was a Spencer with a one and one-quarter inch eye piece and three objectives of one-sixth, one-third and two-thirds focal length, giving magnifying powers of 530, 250 and 118 diameters respectively. A dozen permanent mounts of debris from various parts of the harbor were made for study and comparison. Study was also made of a collection of vegetable and ani- mal fibres, debris from feces and manure and city sewage. The objects found, together with the data which were collected when the samples were gathered and observations made during the washing process, constituted the basis for a conclusion as to the pollution of a sample When, as a result of the straining, no debris was found, and if the sample looked clean when collected and did not become foul before examination, it was considered to be an unpolluted sample. Whether pollution could be detected by other methods such as chemical or bacterial tests was not considered in drawing a conclusion. Evidence of Pollution. The most persistent evidences of pollution were bits of paper and glumes. These came to be regarded as prima facie evidence of pollution. They were almost invariably associated with polluted samples and absent from the samples which were from their evidence judged to be unpolluted. In the samples com- ing from the region of a sewer outfall, or where sewage debris tended to collect in Ooze Collector. The escape of soft material is prevented by valves in top and bottom Dredge Used to Obtain Samples of Harbor Bottom for Analysis POLLUTION IN DEPOSITS IN THE HAKBOK 425 quantity, the presence of small seeds was expected. Small roots and root fragments were to be found in most samples. Starch parenchyma came, as a rule, from plant organs, such as fleshy roots, stems, seeds, fruits, etc. It was taken to indicate garbage or undigested plant substances and food. In some samples what was termed natural debris was abundant. This represents the remains of various plant organs, such as fragments of roots, stems, leaves, bark, which come from vegetation growing perhaps near where these samples were col- lected. The presence or absence of other indications of pollution helped the decision as to whether the debris was natural or not. The location of the sample and observations taken at the time of collection were all a part of the evidence which was weighed in coming to a conclusion as to the pollution of the mud. General Condition of Harlot- Bottom. The mud examinations made, of which there were altogether 1,100, showed that a large part of the bottom of New York harbor was polluted with deposits of solid matter from sewage. The bottom of the Upper bay was generally polluted, although the Jersey flats west of a line from Constable Hook to Black Tom Island were found to be singularly free from sewage deposits. The bottom near Manhattan Island, near the Jersey shore opposite Manhattan, and the bottom near the Long Island shore in the East river, were polluted almost every- where, at least to the pierhead line. Midstream in the Hudson and East rivers the bottom was fairly free from de- posits of sewage solids, and was generally so hard that the samples could be obtained only with difficulty. The Lower bay was polluted, particularly iu the principal ship channels. Frequent foul deposits were found in the Kill van Kull and in the Newark bay, especially near Elizabethport and Newark. The deepest deposits were found at the pierhead line off Elizabethport, Port Richmond, Hoboken and at the mouth of (jowanus canal. CHAPTER X DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWAGE IN NEW YORK HARBOR SECTION I Freedom from evil consequences attending the discharge of sewage and other wastes into New York harbor depends upon the bodily transportation of the refuse matters from the harbor to sea by means of tidal currents and the assimilation of the remainder by the water itself. It has been found that, owing to a backward and forward oscillation of the tidal currents the sewage is not carried promptly to sea, and it is evident that the ultimate disposal of the impurities must depend largely upon the phenomenon of assimilation. COMPOSITION OF THE POLLUTING WASTES The term sewage is used in this chapter to mean the wastes which flow from dwell- ing houses, factories and streets through the municipal drainage systems of New York and neighboring municipalities. In a general way, sewage may be considered to contain about 998 parts of water and two parts of foreign matter; the last being about equally divided between animal and vegetable refuse. Sewage contains, beside human feces, numberless solid and liquid wastes of human and animal origin. Among the visible ingredients are garbage, matches, corks, bits of paper and cloth, and particles of human excrement. Quantity of Fecal Matter Produced. The quantity of solid excrement produced by an average human adult has been taken by Roechling ("Passage of Excreta Through House Drains," Journal of tlic Royal Sanitary Institute, July, 1909, p. 216) to be one-quarter of a pound for each discharge. The specific gravity of feces this author takes at 1.0(57, and from this he estimates that the bulk of a human discharge is about 0.0234 imperial gallons. This is diluted with from 100 gallons to 200 gallons 428 DATA COLLECTED of water. Estimating the present population of New York at 4,500,000 people there is discharged every day about 560 tons of fecal matter. To transport this material away by rail would require a trainload of about 28 ordinary freight cars. Sewage is never constant in quality or quantity. The sewage from a residence section differs from that from a manufacturing district. The sewage produced in any locality varies both in quality and quantity at different hours of the day, different sea- sons of the year and with the weather. Being of such changing composition it is obviously impossible to give figures which will carry an exact idea of the chemical or physical properties of the sewage of New York and its neighboring municipalities. A sufficient knowledge of the composition of the sewage can be had from figures which have been compiled for other cities. Composition of Sewage. Winslow & Phelps 1 consider that 800 parts per million of total solids is a liberal figure for American cities and is exceeded by few. These authors state that, of the total solids, it may be said roughly that from 60 per cent, to 70 per cent, are in solution either liquid or colloidal, the remainder being insoluble matter in suspension. As to the nature of the solids, about one-half is matter which can be driven off by ignition in the laboratory, and is consequently assumed to be chiefly organic matter. The remaining non-volatile residue is mineral matter. About 50 per cent, of the organic solid matter in sewage is dissolved and the re- mainder is held in suspension. Of the mineral solids in sewage 75 per cent, are present in a dissolved state. In a sewage containing total solids to the extent of about 800 parts per million, Winslow and Phelps estimate that 500 parts per million of solids are in solution and 300 parts are in suspension. Of the organic solids, amounting to 400 parts per million, 200 parts are in solution and 200 parts in suspension. Of the organic matters present, either in solid or liquid state, 150 parts per million are nitrogenous and 250 parts are not nitrogenous. The total carbon amounts to 200 parts, the total nitrogen to 15 parts, and the fats, etc., to 50 parts per million. This sewage is supposed to represent the liquid wastes of a population which uses an average of 100 gallons of water per capita per 24 hours. Composition of New York Sewage. The composition of New York's sewage is shown by Table I which has been made up by assuming New York's water consump- tion at 120 gallons per capita per day and prorating on this basis the various figures given by Winslow and Phelps above mentioned. i" Investigations of the Purification of Boston Sewage," United States Geological Survey Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 185, p. 13. DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWAGE 429 TABLE I COMPOSITION OF NEW YORK SEWAGE (Parts per Million) Determination Total In solution In suspension 670 420 250 330 250 80 340 170 170 120 210 Fata etc 42 170 12 Weight and Bulk of Sewage Solids. It is not necessary that the composition of the sewage which is discharged into New York harbor should be accurately known in order to form a conception of the burden of pollution which is put upon these waters. The aggregate quantity of the impurities constitutes the chief matter of interest. The quantity of sewage impurities can be estimated in several ways. Accord- ing to figures brought together by George W. Fuller, before the International Engi- neering Congress held at St. Louis, 1905, Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. LIX, p. ICG, the average result of analyses of the sewage of ten cities for which figures are avail- able indicates that the impurities are equivalent to 42.3 tons of dry solid material per year for every 1,000 inhabitants. Winslow and Phelps's figures prorated for New York conditions of 120 gallons per capita per day and reduced to Mr. Fuller's basis represent 4G tons of dry solid material per year per 1,000 inhabitants. The 1905 population in the metropolitan district was found by census to be 4,128,- 39G for New York and 1,203,387 for New Jersey. According to the estimates of this Commission the total number in 1910 is 6,150,000. Assuming 90 per cent, of the popu- lation is connected with the sewers, the total number of persons whose sewage enters the harbor or its tributaries is 5,540,000. The aggregate quantity of sewage material discharged per year is equivalent to 255,000 tons. About one-half of this is capable of putrefaction or already advanced to some extent toward that condition. One ton of dry suspended matter is equivalent to about 50 tons or about 55 cubic yards of wet sludge. On this basis the population of the metropolitan district empties 4.30 DATA COLLECTED into the harbor each year the equivalent of 12,800,000 tons of sludge, having a bulk of 14,000,000 cubic yards. The area of the various tidal waters in the vicinity of New York above the Narrows is about 50 square miles. The sludge formed each year if spread out over this area would cause a deposit of about three and one-half inches. The suspended matters in sewage consist of bits of feoes, toilet paper, news- paper, coagulated soap, street wastes, kitchen refuse, floor sweepings, etc. Feces, as ordinarily discharged contain about 35 grams, or .077 pound, per per- son per day of matter which will remain suspended in sewage. This amounts to 14 tons per 1,000 persons per year. Toilet and newspaper entering the sewers may be estimated at 8 tons per 1,000 in- habitants per year. Each person may be assumed to use .01 pound of soap per day and in doing so to remove at least four times this amount of suspended matter with grease and other ma- terial. On this basis about 11 tons of suspended matter are produced per 1,000 per- sons per year and emptied into the sewers. i The street wastes which enter the sewers, consist of organic and inorganic dirt derived largely from feces and urine and an almost infinite number of comminuted solid matters. Table II shows the amounts of these matters which may be estimated to enter the waters of New York harbor through the sewers. TABLE II ESTIMATES OF THE QUANTITIES OF STREET WASTES WHICH ENTER NEW YORK UARBOR ANNUALLY FROM THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT Material Inorganic street dirt. Organic street dirt. . . Total . Tons 18,300 26,200 44,500 Prorating the above amount of street dirt among the 5,540,000 inhabitants in the metropolitan district assumed to be connected with the sewers, there are obtained 8.3 tons per 1,000 persons annually. Table III summarizes these figures. DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWAGE 431 TABLE III SUSPENDED SOLIDS IN SEWAGE Material Tons Per 1,000 Inhab- itants Annually Tons Entering New York Harbor Annually Feces 14 77,600 Toilet paper and newspaper 8 44,300 11 60,900 Street wastes . ... 8 44,300 4 22,200 Total 45 249,300 Appearance of Sewage. When a sample of sewage is taken from a New York sewer and put into a clear bottle, the sewage has a dirty gray color, with an unpleas- ant, rather musty odor. It contains small pieces of newspaper and toilet paper and finer particles of suspended matter ranging- in size much as do the grains of ordinary building sand. Most of the particles will pass through a screen having a mesh of one- eightli of au inch, the largest particles at the surface being excluded. The small solid particles are composed of fecal matter and paper broken up by friction within the walls of the sewers and small pieces of h'bre, cloth, a few glumes and mineral detritus. Upon standing, many of the particles settle out, causing a dirty, grayish, slimy sludge to accumulate upon the bottom of the bottle. After all the particles have set- tled out, the liquid which remains in the bottle looks like water which has been used for washing where a good deal of soap has been employed. If allowed to stand for a few hours at ordinary summer temperature, the sewage becomes putrfd. If greatly diluted or put upon a sufficient area of land sewage does not putrify nor give off offensive odors. In either case the decomposable organic substances are gradually converted into harmless and inoffensive compounds. The offensive odors of putrefaction are produced only when the natural purifying agencies are overtaxed. All methods of purifying sewage aim to resolve the substances which are capable of putrefaction into such shape that they may be dealt with separately, under condi- tions which are within control. It is popularly supposed that the presence of human excrement forms a prominent ingredient of sewage, but this is not the case. It is a subject of frequent remark among visitors to sewage disposal works that comparatively little human excrement is visible. The reason for this is that particles of solid excrement large enough to be 432 DATA COLLECTED easily distinguished are broken up in passing through the plumbing of the houses and the sewers and diluted to such an extent that they are no longer recognizable. The Bacteria in Seitxige. Sewage contains large numbers of bacteria. One of the principal sources of these germs is the excreta of human origin which the sewage contains. Saprophytic germs, that is micro-organisms concerned in the decomposi- tion of organic wastes, are also very numerous. The number found in one cubic cen- timetre of sewage averages from a few hundred thousand to many millions. As pointed out by Friedenwald & Leitz, 1 the germs contained in the human intestine are of comparatively few species. Strasburger 2 found that the total numbers of bac- teria produced by a normal person on an average diet was one thousand million per day. One-third of the dry substance of feces is bacteria. On this basis the number of bacteria produced each day by the inhabitants of the metropolitan district would be about six thousand million million. SECTION II THE SOLIDS OF SEWAGE The solid matters which are carried by the sewage may be divided into three classes: First, the solids which sink soon after the sewage is discharged into the har- bor; Second, those -which continue to float for some time on the surface of the water; and, Third, those which are long carried in suspension in the body of the tidal streams. It is evident that particles do not always remain in one or another of these divi- sions. Many which at first float gradually become broken up or watersoaked and sink beneath the surface of the water, and thus pass from the second to the first division or to the third. In the third class are the colloids and finely divided particles of suspended mat- ters. The colloids may be precipitated by sea water. When allowed to settle from sewage the precipitated colloids and solid matters form sludge or, as usually termed in the investigations of the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission, black mud. Accumulations of sewage deposits are exceedingly difficult to handle except by pumping. When raised in the bucket of a dredging machine much of it flows back into the water from which it was taken. The United States Government in dredging Am- brose channel, now the principal entrance to New York harbor from the sea, made ' " Bacterial Content of Feces," American Journal of the Medical Sciences, November, 1909, p. 653. 'Zelt. f. Klin. Med., 1902, Band XLIV, S. 413. h V < c, o 3. S a I s I 5 n Q S ."" .*"$ 3 ii OF THE UNIVERSITY OF DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWAGE 433 use of suction dredges and pumped large quantities of sludge which had accumulated there, into seagoing vessels Avhich transported the black and often offensive mud to the open ocean. THE SOLIDS WHICH SINK The sewage particles Avhich sink as soon as the sewage is discharged into the harbor water find a lodgment on the bottom which is. permanent or temporary ac- cording to a number of circumstances. Among these circumstances the weight of the particles, the velocity of the tidal current into which they are discharged and the smoothness or roughness of the bottom are the most important factors. Extent of Bottom Pollution. Analyses which the Metropolitan Com- mission has made of New York harbor have shown that deposits of sewage solids exist not only in the immediate neighborhood of sewer outfalls but at considerable distances from the sources of contamination in New York harbor. The bottom of the inner harbor is, for the most part, covered wdth a slimy, black, offensive mixture of detritus in which sewage solids are a prominent ingredient. The only parts of the harbor which are not contaminated by sewage sludge are those where the tidal currents are too swift to permit deposits of any sort to form. Most of the bottom of the Lower bay, the upper Hudson ami the Long Island Sound approaches to New York are covered with sand, silt and unpolluted mud; the inves- tigations upon which these statements are made have been extensive. Over 1,500 samples have been collected from the bottom and carefully analyzed to determine the extent of the pollution of the harbor bottom by sewage. The bottom has been pene- trated to a depth of ten feet and samples have been collected which showed that sewage solids had been deposited to at least that depth. It is not too much to say that wherever tidal conditions permit sediment of any kind to accumulate pollution with solid sewage particles takes place. In some places extensive banks of black sludge containing sewage refuse occur. So far as known these banks have not yet seriously impaired the use of the main har- bor channels for navigation, although it seems probable that if a careful estimate of the nature and quantities of material dredged every year could be made it would show than an appreciable amount of expense is chargeable to sewage sludge. The dredging which is done to keep open the slips, ships' basins, canals and creeks in the metropolitan district is partly attributable to sewage deposits. The cost of re- moving this material is large. About 350,000 cubic yards are yearly dredged from the water of Manhattan Island by the Dock Department of The City of New York alone. A part of the material removed from the Ambrose channel in the Lower bay during the 434 DATA COLLECTED construction of that entrance from the sea consisted of sewage sludge. Considerable doubt existed at one time concerning the origin of this material, but investigation has led to the opinion that the material was of sewage origin and that it was carried to its place of deposit by the waters from the Upper bay. Power of a Current to Mocc Scicuyc Particles. A slight current has sufficient force to move the light sewage particles which settle upon the bottom. This is well illustrated by the fact that deposits do not take place in the main tidal channels of the large rivers nor upon a large part of the flats in Upper New York bay although sus- pended matters are undoubtedly present in the water. The currents over the flats attain a velocity of about one foot per second at ordinary tides and this apparently is sufficient to keep them free of sewage debris. As is well known, the capacity of water to move solid matter from a condition of rest on the bottom of a stream varies with the sixth power of the velocity of the stream. If the velocity is doubled the increase in the force which is capable of moving a particle from a condition of rest on the bottom is multiplied 64 times. This power of a stream to move or roll solid mat- ters along the bottom accounts, in part for the formation of sand bars at the mouths of rivers, as well as for the movement of gravel and other heavy solids along the beds of streams. The solid material carried by sewage which accumulates near the mouths of sewers and forms sludge banks where the currents are weak is con- tinually being moved from place to place by stronger currents sufficient to set in mo- tion solid sewage particles. It is equally clear that the currents are capable of keep- ing in motion many of the particles which are so moved. Disintegrating Effect of Water on Sewage Solids. In addition to the mechanical effect of currents other forces are at work which prevent the accumulation of larger deposits than now take place in the immediate vicinity of sewer outfalls. Among the substances which subside are masses of solid, organic particles which are broken up by the mere lubricating or dissolving power of the water. A slight movement is sufficient when applied at the right place and moment to separate the loosely bound aggregates of sewage solids into their constituent parts. Hydrolyalx of Sciniye Solids. Once solid matters have accumulated upon the bottom to a depth of a few inches, changes in their constitution take place through the action of bacteria. The essential action here is the breaking down of solids to form liquids. This action proceeds rapidly beneath the surface of the bottom. It takes place chiefly in the absence of oxygen. It is due in part to bacterial activity and in part to the action of enzymes. DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWAGE 435 The liquefaction of solids in the absence of oxygen is a phenomenon of putrefac- tion and is attended by the production of offensive-smelling gases. The gases take the shape of bubbles and rise to the surface. In so doing the bubbles break open the ac- cumulations of solid matter and carry black masses of deposits to the surface. Bub- bling is a constant phenomenon between the slips of Manhattan Island. So active is it in places that the water sometimes takes on the appearance of effervescence, with a sound like rain falling upon the water. Actively assisting in the mechanical disintegration of sewage sludge at the bottom of the harbor are a multitude of minute animals and plants including the infusoria. These propagate in vast numbers in the sludge and by their activities tear apart and render still more minute particles of solid matter which contain enough organic ma- terial to serve them as food. Some of these organisms require a considerable supply of oxygen and live at the surface of the deposits while others are able to exist with a very small supply of it and do their work beneath the surface. Odors from Deposits. The odors caused by the putrefaction of deposits upon the iKittom of New York harbor are the most intense and offensive of any odors pro- duced by the discharge of sewage into the harbor. These odors are capable of impart- ing a peculiar offensiveness to the water. Offensive, also, and more prevalent, is a peculiar greasy, nauseating odor. This greasy odor is noticeable along the whole shore line of the inner harbor, particularly near beaches. The odor of fresh sewage is generally musty and not unlike that sometimes noted in damp cellars and other enclosed places which are in need of proper ventilation. This musty odor is doubtless produced by molds, enormous growths of which have been found by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission in some of the sewers of Manhattan. Sewage air is usually warm and saturated with moisture, for which reason the odors present arc especially apparent. Tin; odor of sewage should be familiar to the people of New York for the sewers are ventilated through manholes and catch basins in the streets and some of these streets are daily crowded from curb to curb with people. Many large buildings discharge spent steam into the sewers with the result that clouds of vapor possessing the nauseating odor of cooking sewage are discharged into the streets. Where for any reason the sewage is not promptly discharged from the sewers but stands either in contact with harbor waters, as in the case of tide-locked outfalls, or because the sewers have not proper grades to cause the sewage matters to run out promptly, pronounced and offensive odors of putrefaction are often given off. If a sewer is of moderate length, as are most of those in the metropolitan district of New York, and of proper grade, the sewage does not become putrid in the sewer for it is dis- 436 DATA COLLECTED charged too soon after it is produced to enable the fermentative changes involved in putrefaction to advance far. Substances exist in the sewage which are capable of putrefaction and are actually offensive, but the offensive properties of these sub- stances are not transmitted to the whole mass of sewage unless the latter becomes stagnant. In fact they are diluted and rendered less obnoxious for the time being. It is after the sewage solids have been deposited upon the harbor bottom and decom- position has set in that the putrefactive changes become most pronounced and the most offensive odors are given off. The quiet arms of the harbor, such as the creeks and spaces between the long piers, most of which are veritable sewage traps, are the principal places where offensive odors are produced. THE SOLIDS WHICH FLOAT Referring now to the second class of solid sewage particles, we will consider the matters which float upon the surface. These impurities are objectionable because they add to the total organic content of the water and on account of their appearance. During calm weather fields of grease, floating sewage matters and wood may be seen in New York harbor. These fields are often many acres in extent and sometimes a mile or more long. They preserve their integrity with remarkable persistence and are not easily broken up by ordinary winds or waves or the movements of passing vessels. There is usually little difficulty in detecting solid human excrement in these floating masses. Composition of the Floating Matters. The floating particles of sewage are not necessarily composed solely of matters which are lighter than water. Sewage solids are often made up of aggregates, most of whose ingredients are heavier than water but which contain enough gas to keep them at the surface. There is a more or less constant deposit of solid matter from sewage particles at the surface, some of the disintegrating particles joining the mass of material which flows in the body of the current and some descending to the bottom. The ceaseless mechanical action of the waves, the attrition which the floating particles experience in contact with other floating solids, the impact of the water against piers and other obstructions and the destructive effects produced by vessels, all help to disintegrate the solids and resolve them into smaller masses. The effect of these forces is plainly discernible in New York harbor. While large pieces of excrement are nearly every- where observable, by far the greatest number of solid matters are of comparatively small size. Although solid matters are 'broken up into smaller particles by mechanical action, actual liquefaction of solid matters does not take place so much at the surface, as at DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWAGE 437 the bottom of the water. Fermentative action occurs only in the deposits which settle at the bottom and in water whose oxygen is entirely exhausted. The water within a few feet of the surface is usually more heavily charged with bacteria and offensive matter than the water at greater depths. This, apparently, is due to the fact that polluting matter enters near the surface and to some extent re- mains there. Appearance of the Discharging Sewage. Where a sewer discharges into the har- bor a marked discoloration of the water usually occurs. The water contains a great number of visible particles of paper, feces, and other solid matters. The size of these particles varies from scarcely distinguishable objects up to solid masses six inches or more in length and several inches in diameter. The water, which is generally of an olive, slightly turbid appearance, becomes a brownish gray and decidedly turbid. The surface which is discolored is sharply separated from the surrounding water. As the current of harbor water carries the sewage away from the outfall, this discolored area expands. To all appearances it keeps its integrity well but it eventually loses its characteristic- ally turbid hue by intermixture with the water beneath. Some mixture between the sewage and harbor water takes place from the outside edges of the discolored area, but diffusion proceeds chiefly, apparently, from the bottom of the mass of sewage. The surface of the discolored area is covered with a film of grease. This greasy film is persistent; it lasts much longer than the discolored area with which it is at first associated. Eventually the grease becomes broken up by the waves and eddies, but it remains upon the surface in detached films varying from a few square inches to many acres in extent. Beneath the surface of the water long after the brownish turbidity has disap- peared are small particles of paper and great numbers of minute white flakes. These flakes consist largely of insoluble soaps which have been produced by the chemical combination of soluble soaps from the sewage with the calcium and magnesium salts of the sea water. Transporting Power of the Currents. Sewage particles which float upon the sur- face are carried from point to point by the tidal currents and by the action of wind. The currents cause a dispersion of the floating solids to a certain extent, but it is re- markable how long a mass of sewage matters may remain intact upon the surface. The solids may be carried several miles without losing their characteristics. Some re- mains of fruits and vegetables, as well as well as matches, cigar ends, and other large light solid matters from the sewage float on the surface indefinitely. Large quantities of driftwood come to the shores, carried there apparently by the action of the tidal currents and by the wind. Much driftwood is collected 438 DATA COLLECTED by poor persons and used for fuel. There are places on the shores of New York harbor where this supply of fuel is practically inexhaustible. On the south shore of Staten Island and on the west end of Coney Island the drift- wood is collected into piles and burned at the water's edge in order to get rid of it. There is often a peculiarly disagreeable greasy odor to these accumulations. Effect of Winds. The wind, which exercises an important influence upon the rise and fall of tide in New York harbor has a decided effect upon the movement of float- ing objects. A strong westerly wind causes floating matters to flow to and along the easterly shores, and conversely, when the wind blows from the east a concentration of floating sewage matters is cast upon the western shores of the harbor. A moment's reflection Avill show that the solid matters which are cast ashore or brought near it 'by the wind are likely to remain there owing to the fact that they become sheltered from all winds except those which are capable of forcing the floating matters nearer to the land. The effect of wind upon floating objects is twofold: First, The wind exercises a direct propelling effect upon objects which lie in part above the surrounding water, as a ship is moved under sail ; Second, The wind causes a general movement of the whole surface of the water, which, in turn, carries floating solid matters along with it. This second effect is as pronounced as the first. Movement of Solid Particles Toward the Shore. It has frequently been noted in the studies of the movement of floats set adrift by the Metropolitan Commission that floating solid matters sometimes go ashore. The cause of this shoreward movement was at first thought to be due to wind. Thix was found to be an insufficient explana- tion to account for all the strandings and it was then for a time believed to be caused by the movements of vessels. Vessels, it will be noted, cause a movement of water toward shore both when they approach and when they leave a dock. Later it was observed that the floats went ashore on flood more often than on ebb currents, and from this it has gradually come to be suspected that, aside from the winds, a principle of general application is at work to strand the floats. It is probably by virtue of this principle that the movement of floating matters shoreward is observable in all rivers which are subject to freshet. During rising stages logs and driftwood float to the shore, and during falling stages they move to the centre of the stream. New York Harbor's Seicaye Traps. When floating solids reach the shores of New York harbor the piers and shipping basins catch them and hold them as in a trap. These places, protected as they are from the direct force of the tidal currents, afford DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWAGE 439 excellent opportunities for sedimentation. They catch (lie solids which float into them through the action of wind, rising stages of tide anil the action of vessels and remain there, for there is no counter action to any of these forces to carry the solids away. The sewage traps of New York are of much interest when studied in connection with the diffusion and digestion of the sewage which is emptied into these waters. Knowledge of their behavior makes it easy to understand why it is that the slips con- tinually require to be dredged in order that a proper depth of water may be pre- served for navigation, why the dredged material is so foul and why it is that sewage solids accumulate between the piers even when the bottoms of the main tidal currents beyond the pierhead line are relatively free from deposits of sewage origin. Knowl- edge of their action makes it easier to understand why the extension of the sewer out- falls a little further out toward the center of the tidal currents produces only a partial improvement. THE SUSPENDED SOLIDS Nature of the Suspended Solids. The specific gravity of the solid sewage matters which flow through the body of the tidal currents is nearly that of the water itself. These particles in collected form make sludge, which is a mixture of solid and semi- solid debris. Even after long standing to remove the water, sludge contains from 60 to 90 per cent, water. Effect of the Velocity of Current on Transporting Power. The transporting power of water for suspended sewage solids varies as the square of the velocity of the moving current. Therefore if the velocity is reduced by one-half the capacity of the water to carry solid particles in suspension will be reduced to one-quarter. If the stream is loaded to its carrying capacity three-quarters of its load will be deposited when the velocity is reduced by one-half. Velocity of Won- in the Sewers in the New York District. The velocity of the cur- rents into which the sewage of New York and neighboring municipalities is dis- charged is often less than the velocity which occurs in the sewers. When harbor Avater backs into them by reason of the rising tide their flow is retarded or stopped. The flow is often impeded by tidal water and deposits in the sewers take place. These deposits are eventually flushed out by the accelerated flow when the tide recedes, so that the final effect is that about the same amount of solid matter is discharged as would be discharged if an average rate of flow was maintained. The velocity neces- sary in order for sewers to be self-cleansing is usually taken to be two to three feet per second, and this may be assumed to be the average velocity which is maintained in the sewers of the metropolitan district. 440 DATA COLLECTED The velocity of the water into which the sewage is discharged varies considerably according to the location of the outlet and the stage of the tide. The velocity in the main tidal currents is also different in different parts of the harbor. Sometimes the sewers discharge well out from shore, but for the most part the points where they empty are not in the main currents. It is safe to say that the full force of the tidal currents never occurs at a sewer outfall. It not infrequently happens that there is a complete absence of current where the sewers discharge. Velocity of Tidal Currents. The extensive studies of tidal phenomena in New York harbor made by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey and by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission have given results from which the following data have been derived : There is a point in the tidal period when the velocity of the current is at a maxi- mum, or strongest. The maximum, minimum and average velocities given in Table IV refer to this strongest current. TABLE IV VELOCITIES OP STRONGEST CURRENT IN FEET PER SECOND Channel Maximum Minimum Average Hudson 7.9 2.0 4.1 East 7.8 2.7 5.0 3.9 1.2 2.4 Narrows 4.7 1.5 3.0 The least strong velocities occur in tke Harlem river and the greatest in the East river. The velocities in the Narrows exceed those in the Harlem river but little, while those in the Hudson and East rivers are, roughly, twice as great. The velocities of the currents in the more open parts of the harbor are much less than in the more restricted localities where the cross sections are smaller. The velocities in the Upper and Lower bays are variable, depending on the location. Over the extensive flats in the western part of Upper New York bay the currents seldom exceed 1.5 feet per second in velocity. To fully grasp the meaning of these figures it should be understood that the veloci- ties given represent the movement of water at the time the tide is producing its great- est effect. DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWAGE 441 in Velocity of Currents. Inasmuch as the currents stop and reverse four times a day it is evident that the figures show more the currents which are available for moving for short periods of time particles which have settled upon the bottom rather than currents which are capable of preventing deposits. Such high velocities exist for but brief periods. During most of the time the conditions are more favor- able for the deposition of sewage solids than during those brief periods. The figures given for the velocities of currents must also be understood to rep- resent surface conditions. The velocities at the bottom of the tidal currents are less than those stated. The mean velocities are approximately four-fifths of the surface velocities and the bottom velocities still lower. So that the lower down a particle has fallen the less chance it has of being again picked up and carried along, unless it has come to a con- dition of actual rest. The Commission's studies show that much more deposition may be expected to take place in the Harlem river than elsewhere. Table V shows the percentage of time during which deposition may be expected to take place at the points noted. TABLE V PERIOD OF TIME DURING WHICH SEWAGE SOLIDS MAY BE DEPOSITED Place Per cent, of time velocity is less than 2 feet per second in Flood Currents Ebb Currents Total Cycle of Tide Narrows .... 59 39 29 70 40 25 25 72 50 32 27 71 Hudson river East river Harlem river 442 DATA COLLECTED ( 'tin-cuts Necessary to More Rolitls. The current necessary lo nuivo solid particles along the bottom is very slight. Table VI gives (lie required velocities lo move vari- ous kinds of materials. TABLE VI VELOCITIES EEQUIRED TO MOVE SOLID PARTICLES Kind of Material Velocity required to move on bottom Inches per second Miles per hour 3 6 12 24 about J about J about J about 1J It is well to remember that these figures relate to the movement of solid matters along the bottom and especially to the initiation of movement. The power of streams to lift and transport solid particles in suspension is not nearly so great. Lack of Uniformity in Currents. It may at first appear that solid particles should settle as rapidly in a uniformly moving stream as in a quiet body of water. The fact is, however, that large streams of water do not move uniformly throughout their depth and breadth ; there are always some eddies which have an upward motion sufficient to counteract the downward movement of the particles. This upward force of the eddies together with the downward movement of the solids accounts for the fact that the rel- ative position of the solid particles is continually changing. The upward movements of currents are greatest in shallow streams and where the onward velocity is great, but it exists to some extent in all streams. Conditions which affect it are the shape and size of the channel through which the stream is moving, impediments of various kinds which the water encounters and lack of uni- formity in the velocity. Irregularities in the bottom do not occur to a conspicuous extent in the harbor of New York, but the movements of vessels and the obstructions offered by piers on the waterfront must be taken into account. The chief effect of these influences appears to be restricted to the currents which flow along the shores and to the upper part of the waters. It has been well established by the investigations of the Metropolitan Commis- sion, that a lively and complete inter-mixture of water does not occur in the harbor DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWAGE 443 VELOCITIES OF TIDAL CURRENTS UNDER AVERAGE COMOITIOMS LUNAR HOURS X^- ^ , Q / \ 4 z , \ i"V" " 7 " % \ i, 12.5% EAS1 Rl /ER J UJ \I2.5 */a HUDS( IN Rl VER 1- , ui \ >- u , ^ / El 3B \ \ FL )OD / \ 61 l 7 13.5% ^x^. X 3.S % ' "^ _ " ^r - ,2.0 / ^x^ S oZ _. ^^ zo % , THE NARR ows 5 z / \ / El 38 \ \ FLC OD X 41 r- ^X s^ * 29.5 % ^*- -,^_^ _^*~ *^" Jo s " i6 ' i 36' 'o x"""' 28 ^T^~ HARL LM RIVER y- / EE B X h X FLC OD / o p \^^ 3 >% ^s 13 , UJ C 35 ! ^-___ __ -"^ V % y 444 DATA COLLECTED of New York. The water is of different quality at different depths below the surface and of different composition at different distances from shore. At most places there is usually a larger proportion of sea water at the bottom than at the surface, more intense pollution near land than in midstream, and more intense pollution at the top than in the waters below. That tidal harbors are often lacking in vertical circulation is well known. The phenomenon of the underrun, which is a current of sea water flowing inland close to the bottom of a channel, affords an illustration of this point. The outflow of land water on the surface of rivers where they join the sea is another example of the same phenomenon. Relative Capacity of Land Water and Sea Water to Transport Sewage Particles. It is a fact of great importance, but one generally overlooked, that the transporting power of a river for solid particles in suspension is diminished by the presence of sea water. Water which is strongly saline will not transport as much solid matter in suspension as will water which is Avithout salt. This means that rivers which dis- charge into the sea deposit solid matters not alone because the velocity of their cur- rent is checked by the waters of the ocean but because they become more salty. Sewage which is discharged into a tidal harbor will deposit more solids than would be deposited if the discharge took place into a land water stream flowing at the same velocity. The capacity of a harbor for carrying sewage matters to sea, therefore, cannot be estimated safely from information obtained merely from a study of inland rivers. Experiments to Show Relative Rate of Deposit of Solid Matters in Sea Water and Land Water. In order to compare the relative rate at which sewage sludge de- posits in land and sea water the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission made a number of experiments, the result of which was to show that deposits took place much more rapidly in sea water than in land water. Two bottles, alike in all respects, were nearly filled, with sea water in one case and land water in the other. An equal quantity of sludge which had been deposited from sewage was then added to the water in each bottle. The bottles were thoroughly shaken and set upon a table to enable the deposit to settle out. At the end of one-half hour the water in the bottle containing sea water was notice- ably clearer than the water in the other. At the end of one hour the difference was very marked. A heavy deposit had settled upon the bottom of the bottle containing sea water and the supernatant Avater was clearing rapidly. There was little change in the bottle containing land water. At the end of two hours there was little differ- DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWAGE 445 ence in the appearance of the land water. Most of the sludge had settled upon the bottom of the bottle containing sea water and the water was clearer than it had been. At the end of three hours some deposit was visible at the bottom of the land water, but the water itself was not as clear as the sea Avater had been at the end of the first half hour. The bottle containing sea water had deposited practically all the sludge which had been put into it. As nearly as could be estimated from mere inspec- tion the sea water had deposited its suspended matter more than twelve times as rapidly as had the land water. Distribution of Hard and Soft Materials. The material at the surface of the bottom of New York harbor varies considerably in composition at different places. Taking a standard United States Government chart of the harbor as a basis, areas de- scribed as " soft," " sticky," " niud " and " ooze " w r ere outlined and colored by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission. These colored areas showed interesting results. Above the Narrows the hard areas were found to be all situated well out toward the centre of the waterways, and the softer areas near the shores. Below the Narrows this order was reversed. Condition of Cliniinclx, Xoir and Formerly. Interesting comparisons were made by the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission between the most recent charts issued by the Government and the earliest charts, with a view to determine the extent to which the harbor has been filling with sewage sludge. One of the earliest charts for which any precision can be claimed is the well- known work which was published in 1780 by J. F. W. Des Barres, from surveys and observations made by officers of the British navy. This chart was less accurately made than the charts of the present day, but it is correct enough to show that the most important channels and shallows which exist at the present time existed one hundred and twenty-three years ago. In Upper New York bay what is now called the east anchorage was termed " Mud Flatt," while the shallows on the Jersey shore opposite were known as " West Flatt." The main channel to sea was, as nearly as can be seen, in about the location of the main channel to-day. The depths in the chan- nels have increased rather than diminished ; a result which has been accomplished by dredging. The earliest chart of New York bay and harbor which was issued by the United States Government was made under the direction of Thomas E. Gedney, Lieutenant, U. S. N., and published in 1844-5. This chart, like its predecessor just mentioned, seems to confirm the belief that the channels and shallow parts of the harbor have not suffered serious impairment in recent times. 446 DATA COLLECTED This is somewhat surprising iii view of the quantity of sewage entering these waters and the fact that the amount of sediment due to natural causes carried by the rivers of the metropolitan district into New York harbor each year is very great, not to mention the drift of sand toward the mouth of the harbor along the Long Island and New Jersey beaches. Normal Solid- Matter Carried by the Hudson. As compared with streams which empty into the Atlantic south of New York the Hudson and other rivers which discharge in the metropolitan district carry but little solid matter derived by natural agencies from the land. The Hudson for 60 miles above New York has but few tribu- taries. The westward slope of the Catskills carries much natural drainage away from the Hudson. The main body of water collected by the Hudson river is from mountain sources. The principal tributary which flows through fertile land is the Mohawk, which empties into the Hudson 150 miles from New York. From this point to the ocean the Hudson may be considered to be a tidal basin in which opportunities for sedimentation everywhere occur. The amount and composition of the suspended matter derived from natural sources probably varies considerably at different seasons of year, according to the amount of rainfall and similar .conditions. In considering the question of river sediment, it must be remembered that a large portion of the material which is carried by the river is not transported as matter actually in suspension, but is pushed and rolled along the bottom. This bottom drift, as it is termed, may be an important element in the total amount of material moved. There are, apparently, no reliable observations of the amount of this material carried by any river except the Mississippi, and in this case the observations are not as exact as could be desired. SECTION III THE LIQUIDS OF SEWAGE Reference has been made to the action of bacteria and minute animals in breaking up the solid particles of sewage and liquefying them. The liquid so produced, as well as the liquid natural to the sewage, passes through certain chemical changes while under- going assimilation. Nature requires that all organic matters be resolved into stable mineral forms. In this final shape matters of sewage origin are quite inoffensive and incapable of becoming so. The sewage solids must be liquefied before they can be oxidized. OIL AND GREASE Sewage contains nothing which is more characteristic or which alters more slowly in composition when discharged into harbor waters than oil and grease. The quantities DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWAGE 447 of the greasy matters are not large, but the effects which they produce are unmistakable. Mention has been made elsewhere of the greasy sleek which sewage produces upon the surface of the water into which it is discharged. This sleek is not conspicuous in New York harbor, but at times large patches of it are distinctly visible. This sleek floats upon the shores and imparts a strong, unpleasant greasy smell. The driftwood smells of it. Balls of grease formed in the sewers of New York have been found on the sea beaches of New York and New Jersey many miles from the city. Grease of Industrial Origin. There are many industries situated on the shores of New York harbor which produce oil and grease and discharge it as waste into these waters. Of these oil refineries are the most prominent. It is probable that oil tank vessels entering the harbor in ballast sometimes pump their greasy water overboard before taking on a new load of oil. Manufacturing establishments, slaughter houses and, in fact, most factories, refineries, gas houses and industrial establishments empty their liquid wastes into these waters. Grease from Dwellings. The aggregate quantity of grease wasted from private dwellings, hotels and restaurants is large, although figures are not available to show the exact amount. Grease enters the sewers in most concentrated condition when poured in liquid and semi-liquid form from cooking utensils through kitchen sinks, but a continuous stream of greasy matter is contributed in the soapy water which is an invariable and prominent constituent of sewage. THE LIQUID ORGANIC MATTERS OF SEWAGE We have seen that 50 per cent, of the organic matter of sewage is present in liquid form. Besides the amount of liquid organic matter which the sewage carries, it is to 'be noted that all solid organic matters must assume the liquid form before they can be assimilated. The whole process of assimilation then becomes essentially one of oxidation. The Phenomena of Oxidation. The oxidation of sewage takes place in several ways : First, a small amount of direct oxidation of certain liquid chemicals in the sewage occurs. The oxygen for this reaction is that contained in all natural water which is the liquid earner portion of the sewage. Second, bacterial action may oxidize directly another portion of the liquid organic matter and abstract more of the dissolved oxygen. If sufficient oxy- gen is present, the process takes place without producing foul odors. Third, liquid and solid organic matters broken down by putrefactive action produce unstable compounds which must later become oxidized by fer- mentation. If there is an insufficient amount of dissolved oxygen present it will be abstracted from compounds containing oxygen. 448 DATA COLLECTED The oxidation of organic matters is essentially a process of combustion. Oxygen is required and carbon dioxide is produced, as are ammonia and water. Finally the ammonia is oxidized to nitrous and nitric acids, and these, uniting with alkaline su'bstances natural to the water, form nitrates. Source of Oxygen. The oxygen which is available for the oxidation of the im- purities is that which is dissolved in the water and in dissolved chemical compounds containing oxygen. The principal source of the dissolved oxygen is the atmospheric air with which the water is in contact. The depletion and replenishment of the amount of oxygen available for oxida- tion purposes is taking place continually. The original water or carrier portion of the sewage is originally saturated with oxygen. As the sewage flows towards its dis- charging point the dilution may be so small and the time so long that a large part of the original oxygen may have been consumed. The discharge into the harbor of a sewage deficient in oxygen dilutes, so to speak, the dissolved oxygen of the receiving water. This operates to deplete the amount of oxygen per unit available. The demand for oxygen of those products of putrefactive decomposition which are formed in the sludge at the bottom of the harbor causes a further depletion of the dissolved oxygen. Rate of Oxidation Largely Dependent on Lirinrj Organisms. The chemical changes, and particularly the absorption of oxygen, which occnr during digestion of sewage by water has been investigated in England by Letts and Adeney and made the subject of an exhaustive report to the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal of Great Britain. 1 The work of these investigators was based on the well-known researches of Frankland, which showed that the essential cause of change was one of oxidation, and that of Dupre, who proved that the rate of oxidation Avas greater in the presence of 'bacteria than in their absence. It appears from the opinions reached by Letts and Adeney that the significance of the presence of sewage matters in water depends not alone on the exact quantity and chemical composition of those wastes, but rather upon the fermentative prop- erties of the mixture of water and sewage. The rate at which sewage matters under- go change depends largely upon the influence of the organisms present. Letts and Adeney were convinced that the purification of sewage in sea water was chiefly a physiological process analogous to the respiratory process of higher vegetable organ- isms, and they recognized that enzymic action is intimately associated with the process. See Appendix No. 6, Fifth Report of the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal, 1908. Sewage Sludge and Water Immediately after Mixing Sewage Sludge and Water two Hours after Mixing Experiment Showing that Sewage Sludge Settles more Rapidly in Sea Water than in Land Water. After two hours the mixture of sludge with sea water showed a black deposit on the bottom and a comparatively clear super- natent fluid. The appearance of the land water with which an equal quantity of sludge had been mixed was practically unchanged Dredging Sewage Sludge from between Docks in Manhattan. Dredges are constantly needed to remove black, foul-smelling deposits from the slips along the waterfront DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWACE 440 The Tiro Httiyrx of Decomposition. There are two stages of decomposition when sewage is discharged into water, according to Letts and Adeney. In the first the organic matters are first fermented completely. The products of this fermentative change arc carbonic acid and ammonia and organic substances pos- sessing the clipmic.nl and physical properties of the humus of cultivated soils. In (lie second stage of decomposition the humus matters and the ammonia com- pounds are further fermented, the resulting products being carbonic acid, nitrous and nitric acids and water. The central feature of the first stage is the oxidation of organic carbon to carbon dioxide and the central feature of the second stage is the oxidation of the ammoniacal nitrogen to nitrous and nitric acids. Since the self-purification of sewage polluted harbor water is so largely a matter of oxidation it is desirable to consider the extent to which the dissolved oxygen can lie exhausted without serious consequences. This inquiry involves a consideration of the rate at which the oxygen is replenished from the atmosphere, for it is evident that after reducing the amount of dissolved oxygen to a certain point the rate of draft must not exceed the rate of replenishment '\ornwl Quantity of Oxygen in Harbor Water. The amount of dissolved oxygen present in the water of a tidal harbor consisting of half sea water and half land water is 0 DATA COLLECTED ing water. Some diffusion takes place from the outside edges of the discharging stream but intermixture proceeds chiefly after the discharging stream has lost its initial velocity. In other words, time is an important factor in the mixing process. If directed vertically upward, the discharging stream flows toward the top in a gradually enlarging column. At the top the sewage spreads out thinly upon the sur- face. Diffusion gradually takes place downward from the surface. If discharged horizontally, the inflowing sewage at first preserves its integrity for a considerable distance, depending upon the initial velocity at the orifice, and then rising upward spreads out in a layer at the surface. Diffusion takes place in this case downward from the gradually enlarged column and from the surface layer. Sewage discharged into a quiet body of harbor water consisting of 40 per cent, land water and 60 per cent, sea water rises toward the surface, irrespective of the direction of discharge from the orifice, and spreads out upon the surface in a large thin layer. Discharged in a horizontal direction, at a velocity of one and one-third feet per second, the upward motion is not retarded perceptibly. The inflowing volume is larger and longer when the discharge is horizontal than when the discharge is upward or downward, and for this reason a horizontal dis- charge of sewage facilitates diffusion. Of the 60 large-scale experiments about one-half were successful in showing con- ditions which should be avoided in discharging sewage beneath the surface of harbor water. In 29 cases the sewage came at once to the surface; in 31 cases no effect was visible; in six cases the result was doubtful. The sewage was discharged at depths varying between five and 62 feet below the surface of the water. In one case, at Bobbins Reef, when 000 gallons of water were discharged at a depth of 40 feet into a current of one foot per second it came to the surface. In another instance when 15,600 gallons were discharged at the same place and under what seemed to be similar conditions it did not appear at the surface. The sewage used in the experiments just described was obtained at the month of one of the principal sewers of New York. The water in all but the large-scale experi- ments was taken from the City of New York public water supply; that used in the experiments where boatloads were employed was from the public drinking water sup- plies of Communipaw, N. J., and Stapleton, 8. I. There was nothing unusual about the sewage employed to distinguish it from other samples of fresh, normal sewage which might have been obtained in this or any other American city. Such differences as might exist between the sewage and clean water, which was sometimes used in the experiments in place of sewage, could affect the results only in so far as they altered the specific gravity of the fluids considered. DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION OF SEWAGE 461 The specific gravity of the samples of sewage and water experimented with as sewage was the same in every case. The grease and gas which would help carry sewage to the surface and the solid and semi-solid matters which would help take it down were not taken into account in these experiments. These substances were too variable and uncertain in composition and ert'ect to reckon with. At the same time it is evident that in some cases the gas produced or entrained in sewage may exert a decided effect in carrying sewage to the top of a natural body of water below whose surface the sewage is discharged, while the grease, not being miscible with the water or entering into chemical combination with any of its ingredients, would rise to the surface and remain there. In so far as these conditions would be likely to affect the result of the experiments they would make diffusion more unsatisfactory than the experiments indicated. DIGESTION Digestion experiments were undertaken in order to show the rate at which sewage solids became liquefied in the harbor water. They showed, among other things, that the rate depends upon the condition of the water into which the solids are placed. The solids disappear more rapidly in polluted water than in clean water. Conditions Under Which the Experiments Were Made. The most instructive ex- periments, and the only ones which need be mentioned here, Avere carried on by put- ting various organic solid substances in receptacles which were then placed in trays, with suitable weights, and sunk in the water. The receptacles were several inches in diameter, made of glass or metal, and were covered with wire netting in order to prevent the bodily removal of the solid substances by fishes. The recep- tacles, and the trays which contained them, had sides high enough to prevent active currents from meeting the solid matters and yet not so high as to prevent a proper circulation of water. The solid objects were allowed to remain submerged for varying periods of time in order to give them a sufficient opportunity to disappear by diges- tion. The experiments were carried on in the New York Aquarium and in the open harbor water at the Battery. /'iicls and Opinions Drawn from the Experiments on Digestion. The experiments carried on in the relatively clean waters of the Aquarium and in the' polluted water of the harbor gave different results. Objects of solid organic composition that would rapidly decompose in sewage, sewage sludge or water badly polluted by sewage, when placed in comparatively pure water remained almost unattacked. A period of time which was sufficient for the solids to entirely disappear in polluted water or sludge was insufficient to produce visible effect when placed in clean water. 402 DATA COLLECTED Much of the organic matter placed in (lie water at the Battery became com- pletely decomposed in three or four weeks. Part of the residue showed signs of begin- ning decomposition. Proteid and albuminous substances were most easily decomposed and carbohydrates disappeared almost as readily. Fats were not much changed and bones and eggshells were unchanged. Glumes and fibrous matters seemed to be in almost the same condition as when put into the water and the same was true of hair. Hemp, cotton and wool fibres were broken up into liner pieces, but otherwise un- changed. Human feces entirely disappeared as such. Tissue toilet paper was com- pletely dissolved in three weeks. Newspaper proved very resistant and could plainly be distinguished at the end of three months. During the course of the experiments it was found that sewage sludge deposited from the water into the receptacles which were placed in the harbor water at the Battery. The sludge was soft and oozy at the surface and more concentrated as the depth increased. The top layer was of a dirty, grayish brown color. Below the surface the sludge was black. The difference in color between the surface and the sludge beneath the surface has frequently been noticed in the Commission's studies of the deposits on the bottom of New York harbor. The black coloration is due, ap- parently, to the formation of sulphide of iron brought about by the deoxidation of iron compounds by anaerobic bacteria. The grayish surface layer is probably produced by an oxidation of the inorganic matters and of the iron sulphide. This oxidation is caused by the activities of bacteria which have the power to abstract dissolved oxygen from the water and unite it to partly mineralized substances. CHAPTER XI RELATION BETWEEN THE POLLUTION OF THE HARBOR WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH SECTION I INFECTION OF THE HARBOR WATERS In the following pages are given data to show the probability of a connection be- tween the pollution of the waters in the metropolitan district and the spread of infec- tious diseases. Owing to the fact that it is usually very difficult to establish proof of the development of an individual case of infectious disease from its cause much reli- ance must be placed on observations of a general nature. INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT In the metropolitan district, with its large and cosmopolitan population, many forms of transmissible disease are always present. These are classified by The City of New York Department of Health into contagious and communicable diseases. The former are directly acquired by contact and the latter more indirectly by the contamination with specific germs of various objects and of articles of food and drink. Through these agencies the germs may be introduced into the human organ- ism and thereby cause disease. Greater New York. During the year 1908 there were reported to The City of New York Department of Health 87,161 cases of contagious diseases, including diph- theria and croup, measles, scarlet fever, whooping cough, chickenpox, German measles and mumps. The records of the cases for that year are shown in Table I. 464 DATA COLLECTED TABLE I NUMBER OF CASES OF CONTAGIOUS DISEASES KEPORTED IN 1908 IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK* Borough Manhattan Brooklyn The Bronx Queens Richmond Total Population, 1900 1,850,093 1,166,582 175,422 152,999 21,441 3,847,557 Diphtheria and croup 10,263 18,264 6 12,057 467 2,781 544 1,372 5,451 8,707 6 8,121 414 2,045 152 489 1,648 4,612 2 2,529 133 710 53 40 885 1,897 3 1,296 36 297 43 16 284 696 417 122 158 31 114 18,531 34,176 17 24,420 1,172 5,991 823 2,031 Scarlet fever Whooping cough Totals 45,754 25,385 9,727 4,473 1,822 87,161 * Quarterly reports of the Department of Health of The City of New York, 1908. Of these, the causative germ of diphtheria only has been discovered and no evidence has yet been published of water borne epidemics of any of the other diseases mentioned, although it is known that both scarlet fever and diphtheria have been transmitted by milk. There were also reported 26,224 cases of communicable diseases, including 21,782 of tuberculosis of all varieties, 3,014 of typhoid fever, 402 of meningitis, 287 of malaria, 609 of erysipelas, and 130 of septicaemia. The reports of typhoid were not complete. The detailed data are given in Table II. Bath ing Beaches and Hospitals. BATHING BEACHES SHOWN THUS . HOSPITALS -.- " " SEWER OUTLETS i. -s Bathing Beaches and Hospitals. Many hospitals are located on the waterfront and feel injurious effects from the sewage discharged into the nearby waters POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 465 TABLE II CASES OP COMMUNICABLE DISEASES REPORTED AS TREATED AT HOSPITALS AND AT HOME, IN 1908, IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK Tuberculosis Home cases 12,034 Hospital cases 3,260 Typhoid Fever Home cases 695 Hospital cases 760 Meningitis Home cases 129 Hospital cases 94 Malarial Fever Home cases 93 Hospital cases 49 Erysipelas Home cases 225 Hospital cases 118 Septicaemia Home cases 7 Hospital cases 51 Total Home cases 13,183 Total Hospital cases 4,332 Total All cases 17,515 Borough Manhattan Brooklyn 3,748 811 596 408 94 36 34 26 80 140 18 23 4,570 1,444 6,014 The Bronx 1,188 203 176 114 16 10 38 6 8 9 10 11 1,436 353 1,789 Queens 168 34 99 101 10 2 12 23 15 1 7 304 168 472 Richmond 200 136 26 39 8 3 6 8 5 3 248 186 434 Total 17,338 4,444 1,592 1,422 257 145 183 104 336 273 35 95 19,741 6,483 26,224 Westchester Comity. The sewage from that portion of Westchester County lying within the metropolitan district, the population of which was 126,985 in 1905, drains directly or indirectly into the harbor waters of New York. Records of all the cases of contagious and communicable diseases in this district are not available, but may be estimated from the number of deaths for the year 1908, as given in the report of the New York State Department of Health for that year. Assuming the mortality from typhoid as 8 per cent, of the cases, scarlet fever as 5.5 per cent., measles as 2.8 per cent, diphtheria 10 per cent., and pulmonary tnberculosis as each case living at least three years, there should have been in Westchester County approximately 987 cases 466 DATA COLLECTED of typhoid, 1,463 of scarlet fever, 1,643 of measles, 909 of diphtheria and 1,857 of pulmonary tuberculosis. The detailed data are given in Table III. TABLE III NUMBER OP DEATHS AND ESTIMATED NUMBER OF CASES OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IN WESTCHESTER COUNTY,, NEW YORK IN 1908 Population State Census, 1905 Typhoid fever Scarlet fever Measles Whooping Cough Diarrhoea Tuberculosis Total Westchester County 28,950 3,986 1,863 25,006 20,480 1,840 1,018 12,129 69,503 60 1 2 7 2 7 45 4 4 1 1 24 28 4 5 6 1 2 13 4 3 332 8 2 39 21 3 1 12 147 410 4 10 35 24 2 18 116 888 17 17 90 57 4 3 33 299 Kastchester Greenburgh Mt Vernon New Rochelle Pelham Scarsdale White Plains Yonkers Total 164,775 79 79 46 20 565 619 1,408 Percentage Mortality, the City of Newl York, 1908 1 8* 987 5.42 1,463 2.8* 1,643 2.6* 769 32 1,857 Estimated Number of cases i tioned county and town n above men-1 j. . . . 1 Nassau County, New York. There is a small part of Nassau County, includ- ing the town of North Hempstead, which had a population of 1,411 in 1905, the sewage of which also drains into the metropolitan waters. New Jersey. That portion of New Jersey which lies within the limits of the met- ropolitan district, including an area of approximately 350 square miles in the coun- ties of Bergen, Essex, Hudson, Middlesex, Passaic and Union, had in 1905 a popula- tion of 1,203,387. In these counties, in which are situated Jersey City, Hoboken, Newark, Paterson, Passaic, Orange, Elizabeth and Kahway, and numerous small towns and villages, only the number of deaths during the year 1907 could be ob- tained. But based on the mortality of the various diseases assumed for New York for that year there should have been in these counties approximately 2,925 cases of typhoid, 5,318 of measles, 4,777 of scarlet fever, 4,440 of diphtheria and 8,904 of tuber- culosis. The detailed data are given in Table IV. POLLUTION OF HAEBOK WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 467 TABLE IV DEATHS AND ESTIMATED NUMBER OF CASES OF CONTAGIOUS AND COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IN COUNTIES IN NEW JERSEY, OF THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT IN 1907 Population by State Census, 1905 Deaths, 1907 Typhoid fever Measles Scarlet fever Whooping cough Diphtheria Tuberculosis Total Bergen County 100,003 409,928 449,679 97,030 175,038 117,211 14 86 75 20 22 17 8 19 63 4 18 5 5 52 146 9 25 21 17 46 46 15 9 20 19 119 167 30 44 65 132 1,059 1,113 141 302 221 195 1,381 1,610 219 420 349 Essex County Middlesex County Total 1,348,915 234 117 258 153 444 2,968 4,174 Mortality, County of New York, 1907 Number of cases in New Jersey Counties . 8 2,925 2.2 5,318 5A% 4,777 2.6% 5,884 10* 4,440 X3 8,904 TUBERCULOSIS AND TYPHOID FEVER Means of Disinfection. Although the discharges from patients suffering from any of the various contagious diseases may be capable of transmitting their disease, yet little is knoAvn about the mode of transmission apart from contact. In considering the effect of the harbor waters on health the two most impor- tant communicable diseases are tuberculosis and typhoid fever. Of the 26,224 cases of communicable diseases reported to the New York Department of Health in 1908, 24,796, or 94 per cent., were tuberculosis and typhoid fever, tuberculosis comprising 87 per cent, of the number. A large amount of accurate knowledge is available as to the method of trans- mission of these diseases. Tuberculosis is caused by the inhalation of tubercle bacilli, which come from the sputum of individuals suffering from tuberculosis and from the iugestion of food contaminated with tubercle bacilli. The tubercle bacilli are found in the sputum of patients who have pulmonary tuberculosis, in the ft'ccs of those who have intestinal tuberculosis and frequently in the feces of those who have pulmonary tuberculosis. Tubercle bacilli exist in the urine of patients suffering from tubercu- losis of the genito-urinary tract. Typhoid bacilli occur in the stools and urine of patients who have typhoid fever, in the stools and urine of convalescents from this disease and in the excretions of some persons who are apparently in good health. 468 DATA COLLECTED Typhoid Fever Death Rates 444 Berlin Pans London New York Berlin 5.0 per 100.000 population 1901-1905 Paris 12.0 - London 14. 3 - New York 17.8 - General Death Rates flYI London Paris Berlin NewYork London 16.9 per 1.000 population 1900-1904 Paris 18.2 - Berlin 18.3 . NewYork 13.4 POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 469 Typhoid fever is always present in the City of New York. The death rate per 100,000 inhabitants from typhoid during the last eighteen years has averaged 18.5. While this figure is lower than that for many other American cities, it does not com- pare favorably with the rate for well-regulated foreign cities as shown in Table V. TABLE V. TYPHOID FEVER DEATHS IN 17 CITIES PER 100,000 LIVING Year American Cities Foreign Cities Baltimore a 2 33. 29.4 25.6 23.8 22.1 20.5 23.6 20.8 21.6 10.5 & 1 2a o Cleveland x \ Indianapolis * 1 Louisville New York Philadelphia Pittsburg .3 3 O h-) oa => Washington 3S San Francisco d | J | a 1 OS a J Dresden 1898 37.1 30.1 37.1 28.7 42. 35. 37.5 35.7 34.3 41.3 37.6 26. 19.9 29.8 45.1 32.1 20.2 16.5 18.3 17.7 31.8 57.7 20.7 49.4 68 16 5 16 7 13 9 9 4 3 6 8 4 3 1899 28.6 37 8 59 8 16 3 73 4 106 9 22 8 60 7 51 2 17 8 29 4 1 4 1 7 1 1900 53.8 34.9 35.5 115. 49.6 14.9 20.2 18.9 43.7 33.1 44.5 51.1 68.4 30.2 39.2 29.4 57.8 46. 60.3 59.8 61.6 49.4 67.7 67.9 20.8 20.6 20.3 17.1 16.8 16. 15.4 17.5 34.7 34.6 47.3 72.6 55. 51. 74.8 60.7 144.2 123.8 140.6 136.5 139.4 107.9 141.3 130.8 29.2 33.4 40. 52.4 37.9 22.6 18.3 16.3 77.8 61.4 79.1 48.8 47. 48.2 52.3 35.5 41.3 25.1 29.6 25. 31.4 23.9 16.5 12.1 12.8 8.6 6.2 5.2 6. 4. 34.6 13.7 10.4 12.2 11. 10. 5.8 4.7 2.7 3.2 3.7 5.3 4. 4. 8.3 4.5 3. 3.9 3.4 4.4 5. 3. 4.1 6.4 4. 5.3 2.8 3.7 7. 2. 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1900 1907 If New York's typhoid death rate seems low as compared with the rates of other American cities, it appears high when compared with the rates of cities in northern Europe, as, for example, London, where the average rate from typhoid fever from 1898 to 1907 was 11.5, Berlin 4.2, Vienna 4.8 and Dresden 4.7. In Munich, Hamburg, Bremen and other German cities the rates were also far below that of New York. In many European cities where typhoid formerly existed as it does to-day in America it has become a rarity. A case of typhoid fever admitted to the large city hospital in Munich in May, 1909, the first case of its kind since the previous Septem- ber, was looked upon as a curiosity. The low typhoid rates of foreign cities means better sanitary conditions than exist in the United States, especially better water supplies and better methods of sewage disposal. 470 DATA COLLECTED The 4,176 cases of typhoid fever reported to the Health Department of The City of New York in 1907 were considered by the Department to be due to the following causes : CAUSES OF TYPHOID FEVER IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK ACCORDING TO THE CITY DEPART- MENT OF HEALTH Cases due to water 169 Cases due to milk 570 Cases due to oysters 113 Cases due to exposure to other cases 294 Cases due to out of town 966 . Cases due to unknown causes 2,06 1 Total 4,176 Nearly 50 per cent, of the cases were acknowledged to have been caused by un- known agencies. It is not known where the oysters came from that caused the 113 cases, nor whether any of the 2,064 cases were among persons who had bathed in the harbor waters or were otherwise exposed to the polluted harbor. Were all the facts in these cases known it is possible that many might have been traced to the harbor water. Longevity of Tubercle and Typhoid Bacilli. Tubercle bacilli have been found to remain virulent for from two to ten months according to Schill and Fischer, 1 Sormani, 2 Toma 3 and Savitzky. 4 In fluids the bacilli retain their virulence a shorter time. Schill and Fischer found that bacilli retained their virulence in decomposing sputum for 43 days. Galtier 5 found them virulent after being two months in water. It has also been found that where there is a large growth of sapropliytic bacteria the tubercle bacilli rapidly disappear. Cornet 6 also found that under a covering of snow, and at times with a temperature as low as 10 C., tubercle bacilli retained their vital- ity as long as six weeks. A large number of experiments have been made to test the longevity of typhoid bacilli in drinking water, but as there have also been a number of observations made upon the viability of typhoid bacilli in sewage and sea water, only these will be con- sidered here. Giaxa 7 found that typhoid bacilli lived for many days in sea water. Boyce and Herdman 8 found that typhoid bacilli would live for a month in sea water. Foster 9 and Freytag state that " Typhoid germs will live for a long time in sea water." M. Kais, G. A. Bd. II, 1884. Italien d'Igiene, Anno VIII, No. 56. Annale de Medicin Vols. CCLXXV, p. 3, and CCLXXVII, p. 39, 1886. Med. Chron., Nov. 1890, p. 877, ibid. Bd. XI, p. 153, 1892. Compte rendre de 1' Acad de Sc. Tome CV, p. 231. Nothnagel's Encycl. of Medicine, Volume on Tuberculosis, 1904. British Medical Journal, 1895, Vol. I, p. 390. Quoted by Conn. Med. Record, 1894, Vol. LXVI, p. 743. Quoted by Klein, see note 5. POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 471 Lawes and Audrewes 10 found that typhoid bacilli at 20 C. would live in sterile sewage about a fortnight. Klein 11 found that they would remain in sterile sewage three weeks, and if nitrates were added they existed in enormous numbers for eight weeks. Jordan, Russell and Zeit 12 found .that typhoid bacilli lived in Chicago drain- age canal water for two days and once for ten days. Russell and Fuller 1S found them alive in water in which sewage was added from three to five days. McConkey 14 found that typhoid bacilli coiild be recovered, after being introduced into crude sewage, for six days, but that they did not multiply and died more or less rapidly. There is unanimous opinion that typhoid bacilli will live in sewage whether or not the sewage be sterilized before these germs are added; that typhoid bacilli do not usually multiply in crude sewage, but retain their vitality for some days, and that typhoid bacilli may live a considerable time in sea water. Difficulties of Disinfection. Attempts are usually made in hospital practice to disinfect the discharges of all patients suffering from contagious and communicable diseases, but it is probable that these attempts are not universally successful. The methods of disinfection used in private homes are generally inadequate. An- drewes states that " stools should be thoroughly mixed with the disinfecting solution until no visible lumps remain and allowed to stand for three hours before being emptied into the sewer." 15 In one of the large hospitals of Boston all the stools and urine from cases of in- fectious diseases are thoroughly mixed with a disinfecting solution and boiled before being discharged into the sewer. Only by such thorough measures can the infectious nature of the dejecta be destroyed. Pollution of Harbor Waters ilvroutfh Undisinfected Sewage Wastes. Of the tuber- culosis patients reported in the City of New York during the year 1908, 17,338, or 80 per cent., were treated at home. It is not probable, except in isolated cases, that the urine or feces of these patients were disinfected. To some extent, however, the sputum was disinfected as the result of the recent educational campaign for the pre- vention of tuberculosis. Unfortunately many persons have tuberculosis without being aware of the fact and eject bacilli unconsciously, no attempt being made to disinfect the sputum, urine or feces. Similarly, in typhoid fever, before the patient is ill enough to be in bed, the discharges become dangerous and are emptied into the sewers without disinfection. In 190S there were treated 1,582 cases, or 52 per cent, of the total number reported, in 1 Report to London County Council, 1900. 1 24th Report of Local Government Board of England Oyster Culture, 1894. 1 Journal of Infectious Diseases, 1904, 1, p. 641. 1 Journal of Infectious Diseases, 1906, Suppl. No. 2. 1 Report British Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal 1902. Lessons in Disinfection and Sterilization, Andrewes, 1907 472 DATA COLLECTED hospitals, and it may be assumed that at the hospitals the discharges were sometimes well disinfected. The other 48 per cent, were treated at home, and with the difficulties and extra labor needed for the disinfection of the discharges, disinfection was prac- tised either in a partial and perfunctory manner or not at all. Further, during con- valescence, virulent typhoid bacilli may be discharged in the urine and feces and this condition may persist after the return to health of the individual. In 1905 and 1906 it was pointed out by a number of German investigators that virulent typhoid bacilli could be carried in the intestinal and urinary tract of numer- ous healthy individuals. In 1907 Soper reported in the Journal of the American Medical Association J the now famous case of a household servant who had been the cause of 20 cases of typhoid fever, one of which resulted fatally. Graham, Overlander and Dealy reported in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 2 that they had found in the discharges of 65 convalescent typhoid fever patients about to be released from the Boston City Hospital, active bacilli in 15 cases, or 23 per cent, of the whole number. It is probable that more typhoid germs are produced by bacillus carriers than by persons sick in bed. These bacillus producers add to the quantity of infectious material which the sewers discharge into the harbor. Genito-Urinary Diseases. Besides the diseases mentioned in the foregoing para- graphs there are a large number of persons in New York afflicted with Inflammations of the genito-nrinary tract; 30,000 such cases yearly would be a low estimate. In such inflammations there is a chronic discharge of pus in the urine accompanied with the ordinary pyogenic bacteria, the streptococci and staphylococci, and also with the or- ganisms which cause the specific venereal diseases. Almost all the people with these infections are up and about during the course of the disease, and the disinfection of the urine being accompanied with some trouble it is generally not attempted. SECTION II INFLUENCE OF THE POLLUTED HAKBOR WATERS ON PUBLIC HEALTH THROUGH THE CONSUMPTION OF SHELLFISH In New York State. In 1904 3 there was invested in the fish industry in New York State the sum of $10,621,616. The catch amounted to 277,649,747 pounds, having a sale value of $6,230,558 and giving employment to 11,493 men. The shellfish industry in New York amounted to 3,843,846 bushels, composed of oysters, clams, mussels, scallops and empty shells. These products brought $4,310,819, or 69 per cent, of the total value of the fishing industry in this State. 1 Vol. 48, J). 2019. Vol. CLX, p. 38. Dept. Commerce aud Labor, Statistics of Fish for the Middle Atlantic States. Bathing in Lower Xew York Bay. Large numbers of people bathe in the waters of New York in the summer A Bathing Beach in L'pper New York Bay. Many people, especially children, use the polluted teaches near home for shore baths POLLUTION OF HAHBOK WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 473 The Shaded Areas Indicate the Principal Sources of Oysters POLLUTION OF HAKBOK WATEHS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 473 v v\ ^v> The Shaded Areas Indicate the Principal Sources of Oysters 474 DATA COLLECTED In 1908 1 there were produced 2,647,500 bushels of clams and oysters which brought a revenue to their owners of $2,844,070. 2 For the same year, according to the report of the Bureau of Marine Fisheries, 3 there were 1,794,077 bushels of clams and oysters sent to New York markets. The total value of the shellfish including seed oysters amounted to $2,205,540.62. Taking the figures of the Census Bureau the total value of the catch for 1908 was $4,592,440. The value of the shellfish was $2,844,070 or 60 per cent, of the total. The shellfish business was by far the most most important branch of the industry. In New Jersey* The amount of capital invested in the fish industry in New Jersey in 1904 was $2,695,796, and the total value of the catch was $3,385,415. The total amount of fish was 90,108,068 pounds. The shellfish industry amounted to 2,541,- 793 bushels valued at $2,122,296, or 60 per cent, of the total. In 1908 5 the total value was $3,068,590, the shellfish amounting to 2,892,200 bushels valued at $1,705,000, 55 per cent, of the total. The shellfish industry of New York and New Jersey is of peculiar interest because of the great value of the industry in these two states and on account of the dissemi- nation of disease by the handling and eating of sewage polluted shellfish. Oysters and Clams from the Metropolitan Waters. By far the greater part of the shellfish industry, 95 per cent, in New York and New Jersey, consists of the oyster trade, and what is true of the ways in which oysters may produce disease is, to a lesser extent, true of other shellfish. Oysters only will be considered here. In a report to the New York Bay Pollution Commission is the following state- ment : e "The upper part of New York bay once supported oyster beds which extended from Staten Island to above Newburgh. Bedloes Island, now called Liberty Island, was known as Oyster Island, and two small reefs just south of it were called the Little Oyster Islands. The oysters occurred here naturally and were reckoned a consider- able source of wealth. They were so plentiful that the public was allowed to gather them with little or no restriction, until to-day these extensive grounds have become exhausted." Other natural oyster grounds exist on the Jersey Flats, Raritan and Princess bays, Jamaica bay, the mouth of the Shrewsbury, Arthur Kill, Newark bay, Eastches- ter and Pelhani bays and in most other salt water estuaries in the metropolitan dis- trict. 1 Dept. Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Census, Preliminary Report. * Includes scallops. 1 Forest, Fish and Game Commission, New York, Bureau of Marine Fisheries. 4 Statistics Middle Atlantic States. Bureau of Census, Preliminary Reports. Soper, New York Bay Pollution Commission Report, March, 31, 1903. POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 475 Comparatively few oysters are now taken from the natural reefs, there having been gathered but 20,805 bushels in 1904 while 2,847,702 bushels were taken in the same year from private areas. These private areas are State land under water leased for a term of years at a nominal sum per acre. Such growth of the oyster business as has recently occurred has been mainly on the eastern end of Long Island. Of the 1,794,077 bushels of shellfish received at the New York markets during 1908 747,127 bushels came from beds within the metropolitan district; 160,400 bushels came from within the limits of The City of New York. From the Raritan and Prin- cess bays, south of Staten Island, came 33,200 bushels, and from Jamaica bay came 127,000 bushels. According to estimates made by the New York Bureau of Marine Fisheries these 747,127 bushels had a value of f 965,000. This is 34 per cent, of the total value of the shellfish industry in New York for 1908. The total value of the catch of the shellfish industry for New Jersey for 1908 was $2,122,296. The value of the clams and oysters produced in the New Jersey counties of the metropolitan district in 1908 were as given in Table VI. TABLE VI VALUE or SHELLFISH PRODUCED IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT County Clams Oysters Total Bergen Hudson $20,300 $20,300 Middlesex $13,750 49,340 63,090 Monmoutli 211,785 69,858 281,643 Union 6,240 6,240 Total $225 535 $145 738 $371 273* *StatlstiC3 of the fisheries of the Middle Atlantic States for 1904, Department of Commerce and Labor. Thus the value of the shellfish produced in 1908 in the harbor waters of the metropolitan district amounted to New York f 965,600 84 New Jersey 371,273 00 A total of 11,336,873 84 This does not include the value of the shore properties, boats and implements in- vested in the business. 470 DATA COLLECTED Some oysters and large numbers of clams are taken from natural grounds by individuals for their own consumption. The number of shellfish taken and the num- ber of persons so engaged is not mentioned in any of the reports. These persons take clams and oysters from natural grounds apparently not under the surveillance of the Bureau of Marine Fisheries. Oysters and Clams in Polluted Waters. The Bureau 1 of Marine Fisheries of New York State in its report for 1908 states " that it is now unlawful to place or allow to run into waters in the vicinity of oyster beds any sewage, sludge, acid or refuse, or any substance injurious to oyster culture, and upon it appearing that oyster beds have become polluted from one or more of these causes it becomes the duty of this Bureau to cause complaint to be made in a criminal action against the person or per- sons so offending. Such person is also liable in damages to the persons injured. It will at once be appreciated that the vast amount of sewage, said to be five hundred millions of gallons every 24 hours, emptied into our tidal waters by The City of New York is the most serious existing cause of pollution. In consequence of this situa- tion, no oysters for use as food are taken from Neic York bay, nor have any oysters for the markets been taken from these icaters during the history of the Shellfisheries Department of the Forest, Fish and Game Commission." In spite of this official declaration, during 1908 and 1909 oysters were taken from natural beds off Bobbins Keef. This was seen by members of the Metropolitan Sewerage Commission. Oysters in large numbers are still taken from the south shore of Staten Island in the Lower bay. The limits of New York bay in the report of the Bureau of Marine Fisheries are not defined; presumably the Upper bay only is meant. Nevertheless, the Bureau should be aware of the fact that oysters have been, until very recent years at least, not only grown in New York bay but drinked in that grossly polluted part of New York harbor known as the Kill van Kull and in the worse polluted waters of the Rahway river before being brought to the city markets. Soft clams abound along the shores of Jamaica bay, the waters of which have been shown to be sewage polluted. For the most part these soft clams are taken by various persons for their home use. In the summer, at low tide, dozens of people can be seen clam digging in Jamaica bay. It is obvious that many of the clams so taken may be given or sold to friends in the neighborhood. Soft clams are also taken in Newark bay, Arthur Kill, the Rahway river and off City Island and sold. Hard clams are gathered just outside the Narrows near Sandy Hook and in the East river between Throgg Neck and Hell Gate. 1 Report of Bureau of Marine Fisheries, 1908. POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 477 ANNUAL CATCH OF SHAD IN POUNDS NEW YORK I J6.250.558 14.532.440 $4,510.819 12,844.070 TOTAL FISHERIES SHELL FISHERIES NEW YORK J3.38S.4IS 1 1061590 TOTAL FISHERIES SHELL FISHERIES NEW JERSEY DECREASE IN VALUE OF TOTAL CATCH OF FISH AND SHELL FISH 478 DATA COLLECTED All of these regions have been shown to be polluted, although the Sandy Hook grounds are the cleanest. THE SHAD FISHERIES Value of the Catch. The shad fishing industry in the metropolitan district de- pends upon the annual migration of the shad, clupia sapidissima, from the sea up the Hudson river to spawn. This industry has been of considerable value to the counties of New York and New Jersey which have shores upon the Hudson river. The stake gill net is used for catching shad, but owing to the alleged menace of the nets to navigation the Government has placed some restriction upon these operations. The value of the shad catch in New Jersey in 1904 was $238,517 and in 1908 f 229,490. The amount of the catch in 1908 was 25 per cent, less than in 1904. In New York there has also been a diminution in the amount and value of the shad catch. In the '80's and '90's the shad catch averaged from three to five million pounds; in 1901 it was 3,432,472; in 1904, 498,119, and in 1908, 359,900. In 1901 the value was $110,682; in 1904, $38,826, and in 1908, $27,410. See Table VII. TABLE VII ANNUAL CATCH OF SHAD IN NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY Year New York New Jersey Number of Fish Weight in Pounds Value Weight in Pounds Value 1880 639,000* 1,174,835* 1,200,949* 1,155,610* 588,898* 2,236,500f 4,lll,922t 4,553,321f 4,044,635t 2,011,143t 3,432,472$ 498,1 19J 359,900 $136,680 749,997 $35,000* 1885 1888 1895 1896 83,237 110,682$ 38,826t 27,410 ll,684,480t 13,993,233$ 4,337,9071 3,004,200 340,056* 769,450} 238,517t 229,490 1901 1904 1908 * Figures given by C. H. Stevenson, U. S. Fish Commission Report, 1898. t Number of fish times average weight 'A% Ibs. (Stevenson's figures, i t Statistics of Fisheries of the Middle Atlantic States, 1904. 5 Preliminary Reports, Bureau of Census, Department of Commerce and Labor, 1908. POLLUTION OP HARBOR WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 479 The shad catch in the counties of The City of New York in 1901 and 1904 was as given in Table VIII. TABLE VIII CATCH OF SHAD BY COUNTIES OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 1901 Pounds 1904 Pounds 1901 Value 1904 Value New York County. Kings County .... Richmond County . 5,600 45,975 118,700 2,840 17,260 62,840 $250 2,715 6,360 $280 1,384 5,051 170,275 82,940 $9,325 $6,715 * Fisheries Middle Atlantic States, 1904, Dept. Commerce and Labor. The value and amount of the shad catch in the counties of New York State was as given in Table IX. TABLE IX CATCH OF SHAD BY COUNTIES IN NEW YORK STATE IN 1904 1904 Pounds Value Albany Columbia. . . . Dutchess Greene Kings New York . . . Orange Putnam Rensselaer. .. Richmond . . . Rockland. . . . Suffolk Ulster Westchester . Total. 296 21,194 140,843 6,400 17,260 2,840 21,844 1,500 1,712 62,840 30,794 12,684 109,842 68,070 $29 1,595 9,835 440 1,384 280 1,538 110 135 5,051 2,434 1,235 7,738 5,042 498,119 $36,846 The New Jersey catch is given because about 15 per cent, of the catch is obtained in Hudson and Bergen counties from the Hudson river. About two-thirds of the 480 DATA COLLECTED catcli for 1904 in Bergen County was taken by men from Monmouth and Ocean counties, who move up on the Hudson during the shad season. TABLE X CATCH OF SHAD BY COUNTIES IN NEW JERSFA- IN 1904 Pounds Value Hudson County 69,200 $8,860 201,800 17,758 Total 271,000 $26,618 From the table referring to the shad catcli it is readily observed that although an important industry, its total value in the Hudson river in 1908, $63,444, is com- paratively small compared to the value of the oyster industry. Writers on the subject, and official statements, speak of the variability of the size of the catch, but it is to be noted that although there has been a very marked diminu- tion in the total number of fish caught this has been more noticeable in the Hudson than in the Delaware river. This is no doubt due, among other causes, to government restriction of the use of the stake gill net, natural decrease in the number of fish, the num'ber caught in other rivers being kept up by the shad hatcheries of the United States Government, and to sewage pollution of the waters. Even if the latter cause be not an important one, it is commonly considered that Hudson river shad is far less palatable than formerly and less palatable than shad caught in waters further south. Effect of the Harbor Waters Upon Fish Life. Mr. Charles H. Townsend, Director of the New York City Aquarium of the New York Zoological Society, was asked to answer a number of questions which would bear on the effect of the harbor waters on fish life. The questions and the replies, which Mr. Townsend gives permission to pub- lish, are as follows : Question. What, in general, is your opinion of the effect of the waters of New York harbor upon fishes which normally live in them? Answer. My opinion is that the water imparts an unpleasant flavor to shad passing up the river. It tends to reduce the kinds and numbers of brackish- water forms of life which ought naturally to be found there, and which must have 'been more abundant fifty years ago when the waters were clean just as they are still abundant in clean brackish-water in other bays. As a collecting ground for brackish-water forms for an aquarium the locality is a poor one and the only reason is the polluted water. (lathering Driftwood for Fuel at the Battery, Manhattan. Driftwood sometimes coated an inch thick with grease and other material from the sewage-polluted harbor is taken into many homes daily Fishermen (lathering Oysters at Kobbins Reef in Upper New York Bay. Oysters and other shellfish are frequently gathered at places which are heavily polluted with sewage OF THE UNIVERSITY OF POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 481 Question. What effect has the water upon fishes which do not normally live in it; such effects as you would see upon deep-sea or other fishes brought from a distance to the Aquarium? Answer. When collections of fishes from the outside coasts were kept in water pumped from the harbor, constant restocking of the tanks was necessary to keep up the marine exhibits of the Aquarium. Since the new system of pure stored sea water became available a year and a half ago, the loss of specimens from impure water has been eliminated. Our losses are now no greater than those occurring in other public aquariums, being limited to " natural causes." Question. Would you be willing to express an opinion that the diminution of shad, crabs, oysters, etc., in the harbor had any relation to sewage pollution, or pollution by trade wastes? Answer. I am certain that many kinds of fishes and crustaceans, formerly abundant near the city and now no longer common there, have been dispersed by sewage and trade wastes. I have no opinion as to the effects upon oysters under such conditions, but should unhesitatingly condemn the practice of keep- ing them in waters affected in any degree by sewage. UNCOOKED OYSTERS AND TYPHOID FEVER As early as 1879 oysters were considered a cause of typhoid fever and gastro-in- (estinal disorders. Cammeron, 1 in 1880, read a paper before the British Medical Asso- ciation entitled, " Oysters and Typhoid," in which he suggested that contaminated oysters might be the cause of outbreaks of typhoid fever and cholera. This was sug- gested again in England in 1893 by Thorne-Thorne 2 and in 1894 was published a report by Conn 3 on an outbreak of typhoid fever at Wesleyan University. As this report is of much importance in showing the relation between shellfish and disease a short de- scription of this epidemic is given. Wesleyan University Epidemic. There were 25 cases of fever, 23 of which were pronounced typhoid. The condition of the water was first investigated and it was found that the students affected had drunk the same water that others in the town had taken with no ill effects. Similarly ice, milk and ice cream were all found to be used by others than the students diseased. It was found that of the 23 students all be- longed to three different fraternities, that about three weeks previous to the onset of the illness these three fraternities had had a banquet. It was also found that of five Yale students who had attended this banquet two had developed typhoid fever. There were no other cases of typhoid fever in the town so it became evident that there must have been one single, common cause of infection. The other articles of diet used at the banquet were investigated (celery, lettuce, chicken, lobster, ham and other articles), but it was found that these were procured by the three different fraternities at 1 British Medical Journal, 1880, Vol. II, p. 471. 1 24th Report, Local Government Board for England. ' Medical Record, 1884, Vol. 46 p. 743. 482 DATA COLLECTED different places. Four fraternities had had suppers the same night and all had re- ceived oysters from the same source. One fraternity had used them cooked and no case of typhoid had developed in this fraternity. The other three fraternities ate the oysters raw. All of the students who fell sick ate raw oysters. It was found that the oysters were shipped from Fairhaven, Connecticut. The oysters were taken from deep water in Long Island Sound and had been allowed to " drink " in the brackish water of the Quinnipiac river for " fattening," i. c., bloating, before being sent to the consumer. Close to the oyster beds where the fattening oc- curred was the outlet of a private sewer, 300 feet from the beds. In a private house which drained into this sewer were two severe cases of typhoid fever. These two discs were critically ill during the time that the oysters were " drinking " in the river. It was then found by Foote, 1 of New Haven, that the bacillus typhosus would live in oysters for at least 48 hours. Since this report by Conn a number of other epidemics have been reported where the chain of evidence seemed positive that typhoid fever resulted from the eating of oysters and other shellfish. Chantemesse, 2 in Paris, 1896; Plowwright, 3 in 1900; Thresh, 4 in 1902. Two epidemics in Winchester and Southampton, England, were investigated by Bulstrode 5 in 1903. Investigations by the Local Government Board. An investigation was made under the direction of the Local Government Board of England by Bulstrode and Klein, the results of which have been summarized by Thorue-Thorne as follows : " First, The chol- era vibrio, and still more, the typhoid bacillus are difficult of demonstration in sewage known to have received them. Second, Both these organisms may persist in sea water tanks for two or more weeks, the typhoid bacillus retaining its characteristics unim- paired, whilst the cholera vibrio tends to lose them. Third, Oysters from sources which appeared to be free from risk of sewage contamination exhibited none of the bacteria, specific or otherwise, which are commonly regarded as being concerned with sewage. Fourth, Oysters from a few out of numerous batches derived from sources where they did appear to be exposed to risk of sewage contamination were found to exhibit colon bacilli; a circumstance which, notwithstanding the comparative uni- versality of this intestinal organism, may be regarded as having some significance by reason of the absence of this bacillus from oysters which appeared to have been ex- posed to no such risk. Fifth, in one case, where the circumstances were especially Medical News, 1895, Vol. 66, p. 320. Bulletin de 1'Academi de Medicin, 1896, p. 534. British Medical Journal, 1900, Vol. II, p. 681. Lancet, 1902, p. 1567. Special Report Local Government Board, England, May 1903. Report (24th) Local Government Board, England, 1894. POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 483 suspicious, Eberth's typhoid bacillus was found in the mingled body and liquor of the oyster." This report was published in 1894. Since that time there has been little change of opinion though a mass of information on this subject has been acquired by the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal of Great Britain. 1 Southcnd-on-Sea and Yare. In reports to this British Commission Marsh 1 reported that of 105 cases of typhoid fever in Southend-on-Sea at least 50 per cent, were due to the consumption of shellfish contaminated by sewage. He further reported that in the town of Yare where typhoid was endemic the cases diminished in number 30 per cent, in 1901, after the sale of mussels had been prohibited. liriyliton. A. Newsholme 1 reported that of the 643 cases of typhoid fever in Brigh- ton from 1894 to 1902, 37 per cent, were ascribed to shellfish. The shellfish were traced to particular layings which were proved to be exposed to sewage contamination and typhoid fever was found to exist among the population draining to the vicinity of the layings. Manchester. Niven 1 also reported that a number of the cases of typhoid fever in Manchester were also ascribable to shellfish. London. Shirley Murphy 1 thought that at least eight per cent, of the cases of typhoid fever in London in 1902 were due to the eating of shellfish. Conclusions of the Royal Commission on Seicage Disposal 2 " After care- fully considering the whole of the evidence on this point, we are satisfied that a considerable number of cases of enteric fever and other illness are caused by the consumption of shellfish which have been exposed to sewage contamination ; but in the present state of knowledge, we do not think it possible to make an accurate numerical statement. " Moreover, an examination of the figures which have been placed before us as regards those towns in which the subject has been most carefully studied shows that there may be occasional errors. Indeed, the witnesses themselves recognized that absolutely accurate figures are not obtainable. " We are far from denying that isolated cases may have been due to con- taminated shellfish, but we must remember that the possibility of some of them being due to other causes cannot be altogether excluded." Considerable work of importance has also been done in this country since the first report by Conn in 1894. New York Harbor. Soper, in the report of the New York Bay Pollution Commis- sion, 3 states that Jackson Avorking for the Commission, found the colon bacillus in samples of oysters from Gravesend 'bay, off Elm Tree Beacon, Swash channel, Great Kills and Princess bay. Samples were also examined by the Bender Hygienic Labora- ' Report of the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal, Vol. I, II, III, 1904. * British Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal, Vol. I, p. 29, 1904. Report, 1905, p. 56. 484 DATA COLLECTED tory at Albany and 33 per cent, of the Gravesend bay oysters contained colon bacilli as did 80 per cent, of the oysters taken off Elni Tree Beacon. Samples of oysters taken from the Upper and Lower bays showed evidence of fecal contamination. Lmvrence, L. I. During the same year (1905) Soper 1 reported the results of his investigation as to the cause of a typhoid fever epidemic at Lawrence, L. I. In this investigation it was found that 21 out of the 31 cases of typhoid fever which had occurred in the epidemic were the result of eating oysters contaminated with sew- age. In some cases typhoid was produced by handling the polluted shells. It was found that most of the oysters were taken from layings in Grass Hassock channel, itself polluted by the entire sewage of Arverne, a summer city of 15,000 in- habitants. Oysters from these beds were eaten by most of those persons who subse- quently contracted typhoid fever. It was also found that some other oysters which produced typhoid had been placed in floats in an arm of Jamaica bay near Inwood at a point where the bay re- ceived the effluent from the Far Rockaway sewage disposal works. Analyses proved that the effluent from these works contained a greater number of bacteria than the raw sewage. The water about the oyster floats was found to contain colon bacilli to the extent of at least one of these germs to each 0.1 c. c. of the water. Oysters from Grass Hassock channel and from the floats at Inwood in 25 per cent, of the samples examined showed colon bacilli in 0.1 c. c. of the shell water and in 60 per cent, of samples in 1.0 c. c. of the shell water. Narragansett Bay. Caleb Fuller, 2 in a report on the contamination of oysters of Narragansett bay, made bacteriological analyses of a large number of samples of water taken from oyster beds and also made similar analyses of 200 oysters. Fuller found that the water for five miles below the outlet of the Providence sewer outfalls contained colon bacilli, and that the waters of Providence river and Narragansett bay, eight miles or more distant from the principal sewers that discharge into these waters, contain sewage matters or colon bacilli. One hundred oysters were taken from layings widely removed from any possible source of sewage contamination and were examined with the idea of determining the normal bacteria in the oyster. In none of these samples was the colon bacillus found. This agrees with the reports of the British Eoyal Commission that the colon bacillus is not normally found in the shell water or the intestine of oysters. 1 Medical News, February 11, 1905. The Distribution of Sewage in the Waters of Narragansett Bay, with especial reference to the contamination of the oyster beds. Bulletin No. 569, Bureau of Fisheries, Department of Commerce and Labor, 1905. POLLUTION OF HARBOE WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 485 lu the 200 oysters examined, Fuller found bacillus coli in oysters taken from beds that were six and a half miles from the source of pollution. Fuller concludes that in those waters there is a distinct relation between the bacillus coli in the water and in the shellfish living in those waters. " When bacillus coli is entirely absent from the water it can not be found in the shellfish, but when the surrounding waters are infected with it it is almost certain to be found in the shellfish. " Examination of the shellfish from the lower river and bay demonstrate that the bacteria usually occurring in oysters taken from uncontaminated waters are such forms as are commonly found in water. " No organisms of the colon group were isolated from these oysters." Investigations of New York State Department of Health. During the summer of 1908 an investigation was made by the New York State Department of Health of the sanitary condition of the shellfish grounds in this State. The report made by the Department also goes into the relation between sewage-contaminated oysters and disease, and gives a review of the work done in this direction. An important feature of the investigation was the sanitary inspection and bac- teriological examination of the leased and private oyster grounds in the State. Of the oyster grounds within the metropolitan district, the Jamaica bay, Princess bay, East- chester and Pelham bay and Raritan bay districts were investigated. The data collected describe the public and private sewer outlets, the overflow pipes from cesspools and the outside privies located near the banks of streams and bays. The location of all leased oyster beds was noted on maps on which were also charted the location of sewer outlets, cesspools, etc. Bacteriological examinations were made of both oysters and water which were examined at the State Hygienic Laboratory. The results of these examinations were tabulated and show that oysters taken from Jamaica from the following beds, Flatlands bay, Big channel, near Richardson and trestle, Ruffle bay, Big Fishkill channel, Pumpkin Patch channel, Goosekill creek, Raunt, Big channel (Old Swale marsh) Island, all showed sewage pollution, accord- ing to standards used by the Massachusetts State Board of Health (that is, the pres- ence of colon bacilli in 1 c. c. volume of shell water in 50 per cent, of samples). The sanitary survey made showed that many oyster beds were obviously polluted by public and private sewers and private cesspools and privies. The bacteriological examinations showed that water and oysters taken from these oyster beds contained evidence of sewage pollution. 486 DATA COLLECTED SECTION III INFLUENCE OF THE POLLUTED WATERS ON PUBLIC HEALTH THROUGH BATHING BATHING ESTABLISHMENTS AND BATHING BEACHES Floating Bathing Establishments. The free floating bathing establishments, of which there were 12 during the summer of 1909, are constructed of wood. They are rectangular in plan, from 30 to 40 feet wide and 80 to 100 feet long. They have an uncovered swimming pool in the centre; around the sides are rows of small dressing rooms, with a narrow platform in front bordering upon the pool. Below the dressing compartments are floats which give the structure buoyancy. Around the outside, planks and slats project below the surface of the water to a distance of six or eight feet to keep out large floating debris. The floor of the pool is made of wood and is sufficiently open to allow the water to flow freely in and out. A few days each week the bathing establishments are reserved for female bathers, the remaining days being reserved for males. During the summer there is great de- mand for the bathing accommodations, but only as many bathers are allowed in at a time as can be comfortably accommodated. It is a common sight on a warm day to see hundreds of boys, waiting their turn, held in check by policemen. The bath is undoubtedly enjoyable to these boys and young men. Swimming is common and on the first plunge the mouths of many are filled with water. Diving, though prohibited, is frequent. Boys below puberty go into the baths nude; older boys and men wear trunks. Women wear bathing suits. The floating bathing establishments are situated with but one exception either adjacent to Manhattan or in the East river, moored to docks made available for this purpose. The baths are used from about the first of July to the first week in October. In 1908, during a season of 102 days, there were taken 1,479,025 baths by males and 934,936 by females, a total of 2,413,961. The average was 1,007 baths daily. No records are kept of the identity of the bathers. Besides these free public bathing houses there were several private bath houses and bathing beaches open to the general public during the summer of 1909. Inland Bathing Establishments. In addition to the floating bathing establish- ments there are 11 so-called interior bath houses in the Borough of Manhattan. Of these the Cherry and Oliver street bath was opened November 15 and the Rutgers place bath on December 28, 1909. In East Fifty-fourth street a bathing establishment POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 487 will be opened during 1910. There is one interior bathing establishment in the Bor- ough of The Bronx and there are eight in the Borough of Brooklyn. These interior bathing establishments have been erected to provide opportunities for free bathing. They are arranged with tubs and showers for both men and women. Towels and soap are not furnished because the loss of towels was found, upon experi- ment, to be very great, and there was a constant danger of infection from their use; soap was found to be wastefully used when given free. The interior public bath houses are of much more value to the public than the floating bathing establishments because, for one reason, they are open daily through- out the year for men, women and children. They are both cleansing and wholesome and there is no danger of the transmission of disease. The newer interior baths have been built in localities where the population is densest and in neighborhoods where the floating bathing establishments would neces- sarily have to be placed in harbor waters more or less intensely polluted. In the year 1908 there were 7,907,230 baths taken in the public interior bath houses in the City of New York. Of this number 5,271,422 were taken in Manhattan, 2,405,890 in Brooklyn, and 239,918 in The Bronx. In the latter borough the figures include baths taken from May 17th only, the date of opening, to December 11, 1909. In the same year there were also taken, in private interior bathing establishments, 64,502 baths at the Riverside House, 55,367 at Center Market place, 201,290 at the Milbank Memorial bath and 37,012 at the Demilt Dispensary. Location of the Floating Bathing Establishments. To secure a site for a free float- ing bathing establishment application is made by the Department of Public Works to the Department of Docks and Ferries which designates the docks available for the pur- pose. The site is not finally decided upon, however, until after an inspection is made by the Department of Health which has authority to refuse permits to the site. There is a State law which has some bearing on this subject. It reads :* " Regulating the Sanitary Condition of Bathing Establishments and the Preservation of Life at Bathing Places. It shall be unlawful for any person to maintain, either as owner or lessee, any bathing establishment of any kind, in this state, for the accommodation of persons, for pay, or any consideration, at a point less than five hundred feet from any sewer connection emptying therein or thereat, so as to pollute, in any way, the waters used by those using or hiring bathing houses at such bathing establishments; it shall be the duty of such owner or lessee to provide separate toilet rooms, with waterclosets properly provided with sanitary plumbing, constructed in a manner approved by the local board of health and in such a way as not to contaminate the waters used by the bathers ; it shall be the duty of such owner or lessee to thor- oughly wash and disinfect or cause to be thoroughly washed and disinfected, 1 Chapter 454, Laws of New York, 1905, (Extract). 488 DATA COLLECTED > * 1 I ~t ^\ *> ~* ^^. \. -t CHERRY ^\ '. ST. * * V- 1 r ^ 1 r 1 PA fi K 1 J JD -,* in in FLOATING BATHS CAST Floating Bathing Establishments in Relation to Sewer Outfalls POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 489 JLJ crrc MANHAITTAIN CAST a i vcn I H T AoN H A - T T A 3 N *VE , ? * o. S o> *; ?! Floating Bathing Establishments in^Relation to Sewer Outfalls 490 DATA COLLECTED B R H L y f\i f /? /V K B A Floating Bathing Establishments in Relation to Sewer Outfalls POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 491 in a manner approved by the local board of health, all bathing suits that have been hired or used, before rehiring or permitting the use of the same again." This law, although prohibiting the establishment of a floating bath or bathing place does not apply to free floating baths or free bathing beaches. It is also quali- fied by the statement " so as not to contaminate the waters used by the bathers." These regulations show that legislative precautions were taken, though whether the law was intended to overlook free floating bathing establishments and bathing beaches is not known. The outer sides of the bathing establishments, which project as a rule from six to eight feet below water, are usually made of slats several inches apart. These have been found inadequate to keep out floating debris and the larger particles of sewage with which the harbor waters abound. In some of the establishments boards have been nailed close together (in one sand bags have been piled up) to keep out the larger particles, and in many a small net on a pole, similar to a crab net, is kept to remove feces when they become too numerous. The sewer outlets of Manhattan are so near together that it hardly seems pos- sible to pick out locations for floating bathing establishments free from danger of intense sewage contamination. The free floating bathing establishments were moored during the summer of 1909 in the situations given in Table XI. TABLE XI TABLE SHOWING LOCATION OF FLOATING BATHING ESTABLISHMENTS IN RELATION TO SEWER OUTLETS Location of Bathing Establishment Nearest Sewer Outlet Size of Sewer Distance of Sewer from Bathing Establishment East river Jefferson street 5' 15" 4' 3" 5' 8" g bathing e 4' 6" 3' 6" 662. 5 feet north. 225 feet north. 1,062.4 feet south. 1,875 feet south, stablishments in the summer of 1909 situated at Corlears Egan's private bath, 100 feet north ; free floating bath, 212 . 5 feet north ; private salt bath, 312.5 feet north. Egan's private bath, 462 . 5 feet north ; free floating bath, 375 feet north ; private salt bath, 275 feet north. Corlears Park Rutgers street Market street Oliver street There were three floatin Park. Corlears street Jackson street 492 DATA COLLECTED TABLE XI Continued Location of Bathing Establishment Nearest Sewer Outlet Size of Sewer Distance of Sewer from Bathing Establishment East 5th street East Houston street . . . 4' 700 feet south East 3d street 5' 576 4 feet south East 4th street . . . 2' 6" 323 5 feet south East 5th street 3' 4" 94 i feet east East 6th street 3' 4" 229 4 feet northwest East 7th street . . 3' 4' 453 feet north-northwest. East 51st street. . . This establishment was situated within 500 feet of four sewer outlets. At East 51st street a free floating bathing establishment was maintained in 1908 but not in 1909. It is interesting to note that a new bathing establishment supplied from the city drinking water supply is (1909) nearly completed in 54th street between 1st and 2d avenues, where a cleansing bath may be obtained without danger of pollution from sewage. East 96th street Hudson river Battery Baths . . East 95th street 4' H 10" 5 bathing es 4' 5' 8" 2' 10" 4' 5' 3" 4' 5' 3" 4' 6' 4' 7' 8" 4' 15' 10' 15' W 5' 6" 2' 6' 3? 323. 5 feet south. 1,029.4 feet north. tablishments at the Battery. 1,400 feet northwest. 2,100 feet southeast. 252.9 feet south. 670.5 feet north. 764. 7 feet south. 2,200 feet north. 970. 5 feet south. 2,000 feet north. 323.5 feet south. 3,000 feet north. 1,558.8 feet south. 300 feet north. 1,400 feet south. 2,399. 9 feet north. 1,500 feet south. 4,000 feet north and west. 788 feet south. 517 feet north. 882 feet southwest. 488 feet west. East 100th street There were three floatin Morris street West 51st street... . West 83d street West 84th street.... West 97th street.... West 135th street... Brooklyn 58th street Broad street West 50th street West 54th street West 80th street West 9 1st street West 80th street West 91st street West 96th street West 108th street West 130th street West 138th street . 64th street Stein's Beach 49th street 64th street Noble street 49th street Quay street Dock street Greenpoint avenue Fulton street Main street POLLUTION OF HARBOR WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 493 CONTAMINATION OF WATER OF BATHING ESTABLISHMENTS A number of experiments were made in order to learn, by the use of strong dyes discharged into sewers, whether water polluted with sewage could be traced directly from a sewer outlet to the waters within the bathing establishments. Thirty-two ex- periments were made covering conditions at 14 bathing establishments. The dye was introduced into the water at a sewer outlet when the current was flowing from the sewer toward the bathing place. At six bathing establishments the water inside the establishment became colored with the dye within a few minutes and in two other cases the dye was seen staining the water on the outside. The dyes used were uranine and special scarlet. The following description shows the character of the information collected in the experiments: July 9, 1909. Weather fair; tidal current running strongly up stream; wind southwest. Low water at Governors Island at 7.58 A. M. 10.45 A. M. Put one pound special scarlet in outlet of sewer on Eightieth street pier. Color flowed upstream at the rate of about half a mile per hour. 11.00 A. M. The color had reached the bathing establishment and surrounded it. The observer went inside. 11.01 A. M. The color was very strongly visible in the swimming pool. The boys bathing noticed it. 11.05 A. M. A policeman and bath house keeper went on the roof of the bath house to see where the color was coming from. 11.12 A. M. Observer left vicinity. Addenda. The swimming pool, on inspection before the arrival of the color con- tained bits of floating sewage, but no large pieces of feces were visible. This establishment is 764 feet from the sewer outlet. The color reached it from the sewer outlet in 16 minutes. The inference was irresistible that sewage discharged from the West Eightieth street sewer during the flood current would pollute the water in the West Eighty-third street bathing establishment. This pollution would probably last through the entire duration of this current. 494 DATA COLLECTED H 02 H W 0} 3 (Q ^ /. r"^ S M w w B H .. ^ 55 I H I H W i cu M HA POLLUTION OF HARBOK WATERS AND PUBLIC HEALTH 495 M g B 496 DATA COLLECTED S S X a PQ Inspection of Water Within Bathing Establishments S d. 1 o # * * - o * It: * Color about bath, but did not enter it. t Bath removed. Water at site of bath contained fecal matter, sewage and experimental dye. ! + - .a & ll : *^ ^ * ( t $ j 1 a ti (N a O CO o 1M o ?" I t i-H a p.' 1 tC o> CO o : if 1 O 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t-> 1 1 f 1 1 i! Q . CO O . 55 co M 5 1 1 .a 1 i 1 I . CS N 5 55 III Sewer in Which Dye was Placed Metropolitan avenue. i QQ a S B 00 | 79th street 64th street { 64th street CO + y> I DO q Fulton street . . . Fulton street. . . Nearest Sewer Outlet '^^ , " , " , x -^- , ' . - ^ i 64th street . . . 49th street. . . 64 th street. . . 49th street. . . V E W _M F-, 50 (H CO oo Q DO fl c 5 c llll Main street. . . Fulton street. Metropolitan Huron street . m O B CJ OJ "** S g t*. cD I s * Situation of Bath or Beach > v ' 1 58th street bath j I 00 1 Foot of Dock street . . 1 00 *M 3 J I DO O 1 Metropolitan, foot ) 1st street Noble street bath .... Noble street bath .... Crescent Athletic Club 58th street 2 O, oi ai ai CQ ai ol ol fa ' . fa fa al al Oi al ol al al *j 1-5 " 1-9 >-9 | Q S 1 1 0> 1 1 1 1 Ol Ci IN IN" ^4 T t 55 bib 9 (N CO 2 8 CO 06 DATA COLLECTED as they do to a population which amounts to 28 per cent, of the entire population of the State, are wholly within the jurisdiction of the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commis- sion and cannot be regulated by any other body, except the Legislature itself. So far as ascertained, the New Jersey Law has never been invoked to protect the harbor of New York against pollution, although it lia.s been used to stop local nuisances due to sewage along the Hoboken docks, and is in force to prevent excessive pollution of the waters of the New Jersey metropolitan district outside of the jurisdic- tion of the Passaic Valley Commission. The Passaic Valley Commission is charged with the duty of protecting the Passaic river against sewage pollution and has no responsibility with respect to the pollution of New York harbor. The original Act which created a Passaic valley commission was enacted February 26, 1896. The original Act under which the Passaic valley sewerage district was created was approved March 27, 1902. This Act was amended April 22, 1903. Principal Lairs of New Jersey with Respect to tfeicaye Disposal. Following is the text of the principal law of the State of New Jersey with respect to the disposal of sewage, outside of the Passaic valley, except the Law of 1899 which provides for the formation of sewerage districts and under which the Passaic Valley Commission was organized. It is Chapter 135 of the Laws of 1907: 1. The State Sewerage Commission is hereby authorized and empowered to inspect any of the waters of this State, and if it finds any of the waters of this State are being polluted in such manner as to cause or threaten injury to any of the inhabitants of this State, either in health, comfort or property, it shall be its duty to notify, in writing, any person, municipal or private corporation found to be polluting said waters that prior to a time to be fixed by said com- mission, which time shall not be more than five years from the date of said notice, said person or corporation must cease to pollute said waters and make such other disposition of the sewage or other polluting matter as shall be ap- proved by said commission; any person or corporation aggrieved by any such finding may appeal therefrom to the Court of Chancery at any time within three months after being notified thereof; and the said Court is hereby authorized and empowered to hear and determine such appeal in a summary manner, according to its course and practice in other cases, and thereupon to affirm, reverse or modify the finding of said commission in such manner as it may deem just and reasonable. 2. The State Sewerage Commission is hereby authorized to apply to the Court of Chancery for writ of injunction to prevent any violation of or enforce the provisions of this act and the act to which this is a supplement, and it shall be the duty of the said court, in a summary way, to hear and determine the merits of said application; and in all such cases to restrain violation of or en- force the provisions of the said acts. JURISDICTION IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 507 3. " Waters of this State," as used in this act and the act to which this is a supplement, shall include the ocean and its estuaries, all springs, streams and bodies of surface or ground water, whether natural or artificial, within the boundaries of this State or subject to its jurisdiction. 4. All acts or parts of acts inconsistent with this act are hereby repealed, and this act shall take effect immediately; provided, that this act shall not re-" peal or in any way affect or modify the provisions of any act conferring power and authority upon the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission in relation to the purification of the Passaic river and the streams tributary thereto, and particu- larly shall not be deemed taken or held to modify or affect the provisions of an act relating to the purification of the waters of the Passaic river, within the Passaic valley sewerage district, approved March eighteenth, one thosuand nine hundred and seven. Practical Results of Neto Jersey's Jurisdiction. In the administration of its laws tlie New Jersey Sewerage Commission and the New Jersey State Board of Health have made inspections, given advice, served formal notices to abate pollution, super- vised upwards of 70 disposal plants and ordered a number of suits for injunctions to enforce its orders with respect to sewage disposal. Since the jurisdiction of the com- mission over the ocean shores of the State was restored, progress has been made in bringing about a sanitary disposal of the sewage wastes which formerly in large quantity fouled the beaches and bathing places of the crowded summer resorts of Monmouth County. The commission has also done much to call attention to the unsanitary and dangerous conditions of sewage pollution connected with the extensive shellfish industries of New Jersey. Nothing has been done to suppress the evils of pollution of Xew York harbor, except in strictly local circumstances. The project of the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission, for the benefit of whose plans much of the Legislation regulating the State's jurisdiction over sewage disposal has been passed, docs not require comment here. JURISDICTION BY THE STATE OF NEW YORK Jurisdiction by the State of New York over the disposal of sewage is exercised under the Public Health Law by the State Commissioner of Health. General Powers and Duties of the Health Commissioner. The general duties and powers of the Commissioner require that he shall take cognizance of the interests of health and life of the people of the State in all matters pertaining thereto. The Law states that he shall obtain, collate and preserve such information referring to mortal- ity, disease and health as may be useful in the discharge of his duties, or may contrib- ute to the promotion of health or the security of life in the state. He may reverse OP modify any order, regulation, by-law or ordinance of a local board of health concern- 508 DATA COLLECTED ing a matter which, in his judgment, affects the public health beyond the territory over which such local board has jurisdiction. The Commissioner has all necessary powers to make examinations into nuisances or questions affecting the security of life and health in any locality. The Governor of the State may require the Commissioner of Health to make examinations and report, and these reports, when approved by the Governor, enable the latter to declare matters public nuisances which may be found and certified in such reports to be nuisances and the Governor may order them to be changed, abated or removed, as he may think proper. It is customary for the Governor to follow this course of action when circumstances require. Specific Powers of the Health Commissioner with Respect to Sewage Disposal. Article 5, Section 75, of the Public Health Law, states that no person, corporation or municipality shall place or cause to be placed or discharged into any waters of the State, unless permitted by the State Commissioner of Health, any decomposable or putrescible matter of any kind or any substance injurious to the public health. Ex- ception is made of such wastes as come from drains or sewers already in operation or from extensions or modifications of the same, provided the refuse or waste matter discharged therefrom is not materially changed or increased. It is to be noted that this exception does not permit any material increase in the discharge of sewage, nor does it permit the discharge of sewage from a sewer system which has been extended, modified or constructed subsequent to the passage of this act. Compulsory Reports from Municipalities. Provision for reports as to conditions of sewerage and sewage disposal is made in Section 79 of Article 5 of the Public Health Law. This section states that it is the duty of the public authorities having by law charge of the sewer system of any municipality in the State from which sewage is discharged into the waters of the State to file with the board of health of the munici- pality in which an outlet is located a report of each sewerage system having an out- let within the municipality concerned. This report must comprise such facts and in- formation as the State Commissioner of Health may require and is to be placed on blanks or forms to be furnished by him on application. The local board of health being satisfied as to the correctness and completeness of the report, the board shall within 30 days after its receipt certify the same and transmit it to the State Commissioner of Health. Such report, when satisfactory to the State Commissioner of Health, shall be filed by him in his office and shall constitute evidence of exemption from the pro- hibtion of the Public Health Law. No sewerage system is exempt from prohibition for which a satisfactory report has not been filed in the office of the State Commis- sioner of Health in accordance with this section. JURISDICTION IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 509 Penalties. Section 79d, Article 5, of the Public Health Law, specifies the penalty which may be imposed for failure to comply with the requirements of the Health Commissioner. The penalty for the discharge of sewage from any public sewer system into any of the waters of the State without filing a report is $50. The penalty for the discharge of sewage from any new or extended public sewer system into any of the waters of the State without a duly issued permit is $500, and the further pen- alty of $50 per day for each day the offense is maintained. The penalty for discharg- ing refuse or waste matter from any industrial establisment without a permit is $100 and $10 per day for each day the offense is continued. The penalty for discharging into any waters of the State any other matter prohibited by the Public Health Law beside that specified above is $25 and $5 a day for each day the offense is main- tained. Regulations other than the Health Law Applicable to Prevent Pollution by Sew- aye. In addition to the foregoing health laws, the State of New York prohibits the pollution of water through the forest, fish and game laws and through the penal code. Section 52 of the Forest, Fish and Game Laws of New York State prohibits the dis- charge of dyestuffs, coal tar, refuse or other deleterious or poisonous substances from being thrown or being allowed to run into waters of the State in quantities destruc- tive of fish inhabiting the same. Section 390 of the Penal Code prohibits the throwing or discharging of gas tar or the refuse of a gas house or gas factory, or offal, refuse or other noxious or pois- onous substances into any public waters or into any sewer or stream entering or run- ning into such public waters and specifies that any person who permits these offenses is guilty of a misdemeanor. Practical Results. Within recent years the State Department of Health has added materially to its former usefulness in the matter of regulating the conditions of sewage disposal. It maintains a bureau of sanitary engineering to assist it in exer- cising proper jurisdiction over the pollution of waters and the disposal of sewage. This bureau examines plans for sewerage and sewage disposal, makes investigations rela- tive to sewerage and sewage disposal problems, and prepares plans for sewerage and sewage disposal for the State institutions. Investigations are also made of com- plaints relating to stream pollution and of various other technical subjects. The net result of this work has been beneficial to the State and has led to a better general understanding of the question of pollution of water by sewage and its danger to the public health and welfare. The State Department of Health exercises jurisdiction over sewerage and sewage disposal in the metropolitan sewerage district up to, but not including, the limits of 510 DATA COLLECTED tbe City of New York. It has, however, made inspections of the sewage disposal plants in the City of New York and printed descriptions of them in the 1907 annual report of the Commissioner of Health. The Department has taken no positive attitude with respect to the discharge of sewage into the harbor of New York although it was expected to take a definite posi- tion with regard to it in connection with the Bronx valley sewerage project. A re- port was made by the sanitary engineering bureau of the State Department of Health, which was favorable to the enterprise. The Commissioner was preparing to give the plans his official sanction or disapproval Avhen he was relieved of the duty of taking action upon them by the Attorney General of the State, who, upon request, furnished the State Commissioner of Health and the State Engineer and Surveyor with an opin- ion to the effect that the Bronx valley project had been taken by special legislation out of their respective jurisdictions. The Bronx Valley Commission, like the Passaic Valley Commission, exists for the specific purpose of sanitating a river valley by the construction of a trunk sewer which is to discharge into New York harbor. The Bronx Valley Commission is not charged with the duty of protecting the purity of the harbor waters. JURISDICTION BY THE CITY OF NEW YORK Local authority over systems of sewerage and sewage disposal \vithin the limits of The City of New York is divided between the Borough Presidents, the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, the Board of Health and the Board of Aldermen. Duties of Borough Presidents. When the Charter of the City was adopted all powers and duties which had been conferred upon any of the officers of The City 01 New York, or any of the other municipalities consolidated, which in any way related to public sewers were vested in The City of New York and as a matter of administra- tion devolved upon the Presidents of the Boroughs. It is the duty of the Borough President of each borough to devise and prepare, subject to the approval of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, a plan for the proper sewerage and drainage of the borough over which he presides, so far as the same has not already been done. This is clearly stated in Section 444 of the Greater New York Charter. The President of each borough must, subject to the same approval, lay out in his borough as many sewerage districts as may be necessary and he must determine and show on suitable maps the location, course, size and grade of each sewer and drain proposed for each district and prepare a complete plan of the proposed sewerage for the whole territory over which he has jurisdiction. JURISDICTION IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 511 Upon the completion of the map for the drainage of any district and its approval by the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, such plan is to be regarded as the permanent plan for the sewerage district. It is subject, however, to such subsequent modifications as may, in the opinion of the Borough President and the Board of Esti- mate and Apportionment, become necessary in consequence of alterations made in the location or grade of any street, or for other reasons. Copies of the formally approved map or plan and of any maps showing necessary modifications must be certified by the Mayor and the Secretary of the Board of Esti- mate and Apportionment, whereupon they are to be filed, one copy in the office of the Corporation Counsel, one in the office of the President of the Borough, and one in the office in which conveyances of real estate are required to be recorded. This description of the method of planning and constructing sewers shows clearly that the Board of Estimate and Apportionment was intended to be a controlling cen- tral body, which would exercise jurisdiction over the construction of all sewers in the different boroughs of the city. It also shows that the need of a plan of sewers made long in advance of actual requirements was recognized, and that this plan, once made, should be altered as little as practicable. There is no indication that a compre- hensive general plan was thought necessary. In order to assist him in devising proper sewerage facilities the President of each borough may at any time employ, when authorized by the Board of Estimate and Ap- portionment and the Board of Aldermen, a consulting engineer, who shall be an ex- pert in all matters regarding sewers and highways. This engineer must have had 15 years experience. Discharge of Sewafjc. There is no statement in the Charter as to where the sewage of New York may be discharged in order to avoid nuisance or injury to the public health. On the contrary it is stated in Section 392 that any overflow sewers which may be deemed necessary for the relief of any sewers now constructed or which may hereafter be constructed in the city shall be discharged into the waters ad- jacent to the city or into the Gowanus canal or into any other canal or inlet at such points as, in the judgment of the President of the Borough, may be most convenient. It was in accordance with this section, that so-called overflow sewers were constructed so as to discharge into Gowanus canal, with the result of polluting the waters of that canal beyond permissible limits. Temporary and Private Seicers. Provision is made in Sections 394 and 395 of the City Charter for the construction of temporary sewers by the City and private sewers by individuals. 512 DATA COLLECTED A borough president may construct a sewer or drain for the purpose of prevent- ing damage to property or to avoid a nuisance or when it becomes impracticable to proceed immediately to the construction of a sewer in accordance with a plan pre- viously adopted. Construction of temporary sewers, also, requires the approval of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment. Private sewers can be constructed without the consent of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, provided they conform to the general plan of sewerage for the district in which they are to be located and certain other formalities are complied with. These private sewers become the property of The City of New York and are deemed to be fully dedicated to the City when their total cost is fully paid by the owners of the abutting property. Sewage Disposal Works. Power to construct and maintain sewage disposal plants and their necessary appurtenances is granted with the authority to construct sewers, and this work is done in compliance with the same laws and regulations which apply to the construction and maintenance of sewers, it being the intent and meaning of Section 401 of the Charter that sewage disposal works shall be construed as part and parcel of a sewer. Inasmuch as the sewage of New York is, for the most part, discharged into the harbor and its tributaries without regard for consequences, the number of sewage disposal works which have been built is small. A half-dozen plants have been con- structed to purify sewage before discharging it upon low-lying meadow lands through which it would otherwise flow for a considerable distance before reaching the ocean and these plants have been built and maintained by the Borougli Presidents without permission, advice or regard for the opinions or regulations of any health authority. Local Board of Health Control. It is specified in Section 1168 of the City Char- ter that the duties and powers of the Board of Health shall extend over The City of New York and the waters adjacent thereto within the jurisdiction of the City and over the waters of the bay within the quarantine limits established by law, but shall not be held to interfere with the powers and duties of the Commissioners of Quaran- tine or the Health Officer of the Port. The Commissioners of Quarantine, now abolished, and the Health Officer of the Port, their executive officer who now remains in office, have never had anything to do with sewerage or sewage. Their concern has exclusively been in managing the quar- antine of the Port of New York for the State. The head of the Department of Health is called the Board of Health. This Board consists of one Commissioner, the Police Commissioner of the City and the Health JURISDICTION IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 513 Officer of the Port. The Commissioner of Health is the executive officer of the Health Department. Section 1169 of the Charter states that it is the duty of the Board of Health to aid the enforcement and, so far as practicable, to enforce the laws of the State ap- plicable in The City of New York to the care, promotion and protection of human life. The Law under which the Board acts is intended to include all necessary laws rel- ative to cleanliness and sanitary supervision. The City Charter specifies that care shall be exercised by the Board of Health over the public water supply, but says noth- ing about the discharge of sewage into the harbor. The Sanitary Code. The Board of Health is authorized by the Charter to pass on and publish such regulations for the security of life and health in The City of New York as may be required and to this end to make certain regulations. The reg- ulations of the Board constitute what is known as the Sanitary Code. They may be enforced by such tines, penalties and imprisonment as are prescribed for the enforce- ment of the ordinances of the City. The Board of Health may include in the Sanitary Code all matters and subjects over which the power and authority of the Department extend, not limiting their ap- plication to the subject of health only. The Board is not required to confine itself to the abilities of its staff of regular employees. It is permitted from time to time by Section 1186 of the Charter to employ a suitable person or persons to render sanitary engineering service and to make or supervise practical scientific investigations and examinations in the city re- quiring engineering skill and to prepare plans and reports relative thereto. The De- partment has a sanitary engineer regularly employed on its staff. Practical Work of the City Department of Health. The Sanitary Code contains several regulations with respect to the disposal of sewage. It is stated in Section 38 that no person or persons or corporation shall permit sewage or drainage, factory refuse or foul or offensive liquid or other material to discharge into the waters of any river, stream, canal, harbor, bay or estuary or into the sea within the city limits, except under low water mark and in such manner and under such conditions that no nuisance can be caused thereby. The discharge of gas tar and other offensive wastes from gas houses into the pub- lic waters or sewers connected therewith is prohibited by Section 89 of the Sanitary Code. Prompt removal of sewage from the sewers is provided for in Section 28. It is the duty of the boards, departments and officers having the power to do so to cause 514 DATA COLLECTED sufficient water to be used and other adequate means taken so that whatever sub- stances may enter any sewer "shall pass speedily along and from the same and suf- ficiently far into some water or proper reservoir, so that no accumulation shall take place and no exhalation proceed therefrom dangerous or prejudicial to life or health." The Code provides in Section 26, that no bathing establishment shall be main- tained in The City of New York or along the waterfront of the city without a per- mit from the Board of Health. By a recent provision of the Code, Section 185, it is unlawful to hold, keep and offer oysters for sale without a permit in writing from the Board of Health and sub- ject to the rules and regulations of said Board. Other sections of the Sanitary Code relate to the proper management of plumb- ing, cesspools and privies. The Department exercises its jurisdiction to prevent the pollution of drinking water, but not to prevent insanitary conditions at the sewer out- falls. In the year 1907 over 1,000 inspections, resulting in about 500 orders, were made by 'the Department of Health to abate the pollution of the water supplies of Staten Island. Eventually the Department ordered that the water company supply- ing the water discontinue the use of the surface water complained of until the com- pany could provide itself with filter beds. The Department of Health causes systematic inspections to be made of the shores of the Boroughs of Brooklyn and Richmond and collects and disposes of much offal which has been carried to the shores by the harbor waters. In the year 1907 the num- ber of inspections was 4,941; the number of bodies of men and animals found and disposed of was 4,421, and the number of parts of animals and of clothing and bed- ding was much greater. A perusal of the foregoing statements concerning the powers and duties and work of the Department of Health shows that authority is not lacking, that good is accomplished by it, but that the Board of Health exercises no jurisdic- tion over the discharge of sewage into the waters of New York harbor. The Board does not prevent accumulations of solid matters in the sewers nor the escape of exhala- tions from them. Board of Aldermen. In addition to the powers of the Board of Health the Board of Aldermen have power to make regulations concerning the public bathing establish- ments which are situated along the waterfront, often close to sewer outfalls. Para- graph 12 of Section 9 of the Charter gives the Board of Aldermen power to regulate swimming and bathing in the waters of the city, to establish and maintain such public baths and public comfort stations as may be necessary and to establish suitable rules and regulations for the management of the same. JURISDICTION IN THE METROPOLITAN DISTRICT 515 LEGAL JURISDICTION PROPOSED BY THE NEW YORK CHARTER COMMISSION OF 1909 By changes proposed by the Charter Commission relative to sewerage and sewage disposal in The City of New York the duty of making plans for improvements in The City of New York are placed within the province of a bureau of public improve- ments and engineering under the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, while the ex- ecutive work of building sewers and sewage disposal works will fall to a bureau of sewers under the department of street control. Careful study of the plan of reorganization fails to reveal specific mention of a comprehensive plan of sewage disposal and the question of sewerage itself receives scant attention. The Bureau of I'ulilie Improvements and Engineering' of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment. The Borough Presidents would be relieved of administrative duties such as they now perform and would give their undivided time and attention to the work of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, which would then become the great financial executive committee of the City. For the more perfect co-ordination of the City business, greater protection of its rights, better preservation of its property, the establishment of large economies in its purchases, and a comprehensive and system- atic plan for its growth, a number of new bureaus would be created in the Board of Estimate and Apportionment. One of the many subdivisions would be a bureau of Public Improvements and Engineering. The head of this bureau would be an engineer resident in the city and of at least 10 years' professional experience. He would be known as City Engineer. Among its manifold duties the new Board of Estimate and Apportionment would have charge of the mapping and planning of the city and would lay out new streets, parks, bridges and tunnels, widen, straighten, extend, alter and close existing streets, and fix, establish and change the grades of streets. It would select the sources for the supply of drinking water and buy property needed for the same. The powers and duties of the Department of Health would remain practically the same as the}" now exist. It is specified that there shall be in the Department, in addi- tion to such other bureaus and offices as may be established therein by the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, a bureau of sanitation, the chief officer of which shall be called the sanitary superintendent, who, at the time of his appointment, shall have been for at least 10 years a practising physician and for three years a resident of the city. No reference to sewerage or the disposal of sewage is made in that part of the pro- posed Charter which relates to the duties and powers of the Department of Health. 516 DATA COLLECTED The Bureau of Sewers of the Department of Street Control. The department of street control would be presided over by a commissioner who would have charge of the sweeping and cleaning of streets, removing or otherwise disposing of ashes, street sweepings, garbage, dead animals, offal, light refuse and rubbish, the removal of snow and ice, regulating, curbing, flagging and guttering streets and laying crosswalks, fill- ing sunken lots, issuing permits to use and open streets, constructing, maintaining, re- pairing and cleaning sewers and drains, the location, establishment, care, erection and maintenance of baths, public urinals and public comfort stations and preparing a map of all existing underground pipes, mains, sewers and other subsurface structures, and performing a large number of other duties. Under the commissioner of street control would be a number of bureaus, and among them a bureau of sewers, the head of which would be known as the chief of the sewer bureau. The commissioner could, when authorized by the Board of Estimate and Appor- tionment, employ a consulting engineer, who should be expert in all matters relating to sewers and highways. This engineer should have had 10 years' professional experi- ence. The power of constructing sewers and drains would include the power to con- struct, operate and maintain sewage disposal works and their necessary appurtenances. The cost of conducting sewage disposal works would, in the discretion of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, be in Avhole or in part an assessment upon the property benefited. CHAPTER XIII SALINITY OF THE WATERS The investigations described in this chapter were made in order to determine the proportions of land water and sea water in New York harbor throughout the year. The results show the conditions observed at 11 different points, mostly at light-vessels and lighthouses, including Ambrose Light at the sea entrance to the harbor, Passaic Light in Newark bay, Governors Island in Upper New York bay, Throgs Neck at the Sound entrance of the East river, and Tarrytown in the Hudson river. The data corroborate in an interesting manner many of the facts brought out in the tidal studies described in Part III, Chapter III of this report. Among further de- tails the information is of service in showing how large is the normal amount of sea water in the harbor and how variable is the flushing action which the rivers produce upon the harbor at different seasons of year. In addition to the routine examinations which were made at the light-vessels and lighthouses numerous observations were made from time to time for special purposes at other points. The method of examination was in all cases the same. SECTION I KOUTINE OBSERVATIONS The tests of salinity were made by noting the specific gravity of the water by means of simple, yet accurate, apparatus. When suitably interpreted, these gave the salinity of the water. By assuming that the salinity was due to sodium chloride, an assumption which was a sufficiently close approximation to the truth, the amount of chlorine, which is a familiar term in water analysis, could be determined. Method Adopted. Specific gravity determinations were employed because they could be rapidly and easily made by men who were neither trained chemists nor expert in the handling of delicate apparatus and who were, nevertheless, capable of making regular observations with a simple outfit. The Hilgard Ocean Salinometer, which is a standard instrument for such work, was found to be too fragile for the use proposed, and it, moreover, required that the water to be tested should be brought to a standard temperature. A salinometer was, therefore, designed especially for this work. It consisted of a specific gravity float or hydrometer with a thermometer in its centre. 518 DATA COLLECTED By this arrangement the thermometer and hydrometer could be read almost simultan- eously with small chance of error. The height of the hydrometer was about 30.5 cm. The range of the hydrometer scale was from 1.000 to 1.030, and the range of the ther- mometer scale was from 20 degrees to 110 degrees Fahrenheit. The readings of the ther- mometer and hydrometer were recorded by the observers in notebooks prepared for the purpose, and these records were subsequently transcribed and reduced to an equivalent of the specific gravity readings at GO degrees Fahrenheit. Standards. Before the tests were begun it became necessary to establish stand- ards for what is here termed land water and sea water, in order that a clear and defi- nite idea might be conveyed Avhen using either expression and in order to calculate the relative salinity present. Laud water is the term used by the Commission to designate the water of inland rivers and streams and is distinguished from sea water, which is the \vater of the ocean beyond appreciable influence of water from the land. The term fresh water lias not been used in connection with this work, since the quality of freshness may be possessed by any water irrespective of its saline character. The salinity of sea water varies in different parts of the ocean according to the quantity of salts present in solution, but in the vicinity of New York it may be taken to contain 18,000 parts of chlorine per million parts of water. The specific gravity of water of this salinity is 1.025. The salinometers were graduated to differences of 0.0005, corresponding to 3GO parts of chlorine. Errors of reading were probably not over one per cent. Analytical determinations of the amount of chlorine present in samples of water were made for comparison with the amounts calculated to be present by the use of the salinometer, with the results shown in Table I. SALINITY OF THE WATEKS TABLE I 519 COMPARISON BETWEEN CHLORINE IN WATER AS ESTIMATED BY SALINOMETERS AND BY ANALYSIS Salinometer readings Number of tests Estimated Chlorine Actual Chlorine Average of tests 1.007 6 5,040 4,946 1.0105 1 7,560 7,432 1.011 2 7,920 7,888 1.0113 1 8,136 7,923 1.012 5 8,640 8,659 1.0125 1 9,000 8,772 1.0128 1 9,216 9-125 1.013 1 9,360 9,550 1.0135 1 9720 9,125 1.014 1 10,080 9,479 From these results the method adopted is believed to be sufficiently accurate to secure results correct within about two per cent, after allowing for errors of observa- tion. In determining the correction to be applied to reduce the ratings of the salino- meter and thermometer to the reading which would occur at the standard temperature of GO degrees Fahrenheit the instruments were immersed and read in solutions of vary- ing salinity raised to 80 degrees Fahrenheit and lowered to 32 degrees Fahrenheit, read- ings being taken at each degree. The average of a number of these observations taken for each temperature was then plotted and a diagram showing the temperature correction to be applied to the readings as made by the observers at the several stations was pre- pared. Location of the Salinometer Stations. In order to obtain the percentage of land water in the main divisions of the harbor and at various stages of tide, observations were made with the co-operation of the United States Lighthouse Board at 11 stations during the year 1909, as shown in Table II. 520 DATA COLLECTED TARRYTOWN FORT WASHINGTON PT PAfiBAIC LIGHT AMBROSE LIGHT Location of SaKnometer Stations Testing the Salinity of the Water at Ambrose Light Vessel. In this way the relative amount of land and sea water at eleven points in the harbor was determined three times each day for a full year Salinometer Station. This was one of the eleven stations where tests were made every day for a year to show the amount of salt in the water SALINITY OF THE WATERS TABLE II LOCATION OF SALINOMETER STATIONS 521 Ambrose Lightship West Bank Light (Jreat Beds Light Fort Wadsworth Bobbins Beef Passaic Light Two parallel cracks in arch, width J-iuch to 1J inch A J-ineh crack in arch, length 10 feet Crack in top of 15-inch vitrified pipe sewer A J-inch crack in arch, length about 20 feet A J-inch crack in arch over 20 feet of section inspected Crack in centre of arch, 1 inch wide, 30 feet long Most all joints of arch opened for J-inch to J-inch Cracks up to }-inch wide Cracks up to J-ineh Cracks J-inch to J-inch over most of section inspected Crack J to J-inch wide, length 20 feet Bad cracks J-inch to 1 inch wide over whole section J-inch crack in arch J-inch crack in arch, length 30 feet 79th street East of Second avenue. . . East of Park avenue 106th street 145th street 147th street Eighth avenue Sherman avenue Broadway Dyckman street Amsterdam avenue Amsterdam avenue Park avenue 105th street 100th street 87th street Between 89th and 90th streets West End avenue 85th street South of 46th street /100 feet west of Eleventh 26th street West of Seventh avenue. Opposite Pier 53 West street . . . Charles street Franklin street West of Church street . . . West of Broadway Worth street . . Worth street West of Broadway 8th street Avenue C 8th street East of Avenue D . . . Slh street East of Lewis street East of Fifth avenue Avenue B 15th street 15th street Second avenue Fulton street South of 85th street William street. . . Defective Brickwork. In many oases the cracks previously mentioned have re- sulted in such an excessive spreading of the joints that a strip two or three bricks Avide of the inner ring of the arch has dropped out. Several cases were observed, as, for example, at Avenue C and Ninth street, in which both rings of the brickwork have fallen in as well as has the material of the street above, at the location mentioned, exposing the granite paving blocks. Location of the sewer shown in the cut below Interior of a sewer showing dangerous condition of brick work. A number calling for extensive and costly repairs if such cases exist Spent steam escaping from a sewer manhole in Manhattan. On one day's inspection 4fi such cases were noted south of Chambers street ^ Accumulations of grease and mold in a sewer. This condition occurs in certain tide-locked sewers which drain thickly populated tenement districts OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CONDITION OF THE SEWERS OF MANHATTAN 545 Ou Eighth avenue at Eighty-ninth street a break with an area of about two square feet in the side of the sewer was found; leading from it were tunnels about three inches in diameter, presumably made by sewer rats. Several other eases were observed where the side of the sewer was pierced by rat holes thus forming the be- ginning of a still larger break. Table VII gives the location and extent of places where defective brickwork was found. TABLE VII DEFECTIVE BRICKWORK Inspection No. Location Conditions found On At 27 33 39 56 71 73 81 93 101 130 145 154 163 167 173 177 181 197 206 210 221 222 229 234 236 241 242 246 Hivington street 14th street West of Suffolk street .... East of First avenue About 10 bricks fallen out of sewer 1 3 bricks out of side of sewer, rat holes leading from \ break 4 square feet of bricks gone from side of sewer Patches 15 square feet in area out of arch and sides 2 or 3 bricks out of side, rat holes leading from break Defective brickwork at junction of sewers /Inner ring of arch fallen out of place, 1 foot wide and \ 30 feet long 1 square foot gone from side of sewer Rough brickwork \Break in side of sewer 2 square feet in area, section / distorted \4 square feet of inner ring gone above manhole, 3 / square feet gone below \Inner ring of arch gone, place 2 feet wide and 40 feet j long |4 square feet gone in one place, J square foot in \ another 4 square feet of bricks out at junction of sewers (3 or 4 bricks have dropped out of arch, 415-pound blocks \ from side of sewer have fallen out and lie on invert [Areas of about 1 square foot where bricks are gone i from arch /Both rings gone in two places ; combined area about \ 15 square feet. Inner ring gone in many places 1 In places (2 or 3) bricks have dropped out of inner \ ring of arch Bricks out of arch Bricks dropped out of inner arch ring in 5 places /2 square feet of invert gone (both rings). Bricks \ gone from arch /Inner ring of brick gone in many places. Both rings \ in one case Brickwork uneven /Bricks uneven, one course sticks out J-inch above \ lower 3 square feet of brick in inner ring of arch gone /In 4 places bricks have dropped out of inner ring of \ arch [Both rings gone in 2 places, inner ring gone in many \ instances In several places bricks gone from inner ring of arch 4 square feet of brick in crown of arch gone 14th street 34th street West of First avenue First avenue 64th street 63d street 79th street 106th street Avenue A East of Third avenue. . . . East of Third avenue. . . . Fifth avenne 131st street / Eighth avenue i 80th street , Between 89th and 90th streets New York Central Rail- road tracks 42d street j 23d street ... 100 feet west of Eleventh avenue East of Seventh avenue. . West 3d street Greenwich street Sixth avenue Canal street 20th street East of Irving place West of Broadway . . . . 26th street Worth street West of Broadway . West street Between Rector and Morris East of 6th avenue Third avenue 13th street 7th street 8th street Avenue C South street North side Old slip West of Union Square. . . . Avenue B 15th street 15th street Avenue C South of 9th street 2d street Fulton street ... William street 546 DATA COLLECTED Distortion. Distortions of the original form of the sewers were numerous. The circular brick sewers were more distorted than those with an egg-shaped cross sec- tion. The circular brick sewer on Twenty-sixth street near Eighth avenue is a fair example of distortion of an old circular sewer. Two measurements of the sewer about 20 feet apart were made as shown in the following table : 1st 2nd Height 42 inches 45 inches Width 52 inches 52 inches Width greater than height due to distortion 10 inches 7 inches In many cases the distortion has apparently been caused by putting a new arch on an old invert, the result oftentimes being a cross section that is not symmetrical or as regular in outline as it should be. The distortion sometimes exists without any cracks of noticeable size and seems to be the result of a small amount of spreading or compression at all joints. Catch Basins. Some catch basins were found to contain deposits of black mud and street sweepings up to depths of five feet. Other basins Avere clean and contained no deposits. One catch basin at One Hundred and Sixth street east of First avenue was found to be completely full of pieces of stone from a stone Avorking plant nearby. Table VIII gives the location and deposits found in the catch basins inspected. TABLE VIII CONDITION OK CATCH BASINS Inspection No. Location Depth of Deposit On At 2 12 14 22 2) 36 47 53 68 62 Roosevelt street New Bowery 5 feet Recently cleaned out 18 inches Slight, recently cleaned Slight 21 feet Clean 3 feet 6 inches Clean Mulberry street Park street ... . Division street Gouverneur street Goerck street Rivington street Rivington street Suffolk street 14th street Avenue C. . 22d street Avenue A 22d street 34th street West of Third avenue. . . . Third avenue. . 42d street.. CONDITION OP THE SEWERS OF MANHATTAN TABLE VIII Continued 547 Inspection No. Location Conditions Found On At 66 74 76 84 87 90 94 94 95 99 102 105 109 117 123 126 129 144 148 153 157 162 168 172 174 49th street . . Second avenue 16 inches 3J feet 12 inches 18 inches 2J feet 2 feet 6 inches Full of pieces of stone from stone yard opposite 3 feet 18 inches 2 feet Clean 2 feet 8 inches 3 feet 2 feet 4 feet 2J feet 2 feet 2 feet 2 feet 12 inches 4 inches Basin clean 2 feet 62d street Avenue A 74th street Lexington avenue 79th street 95th street .... 95th street First avenue 106th street 106th street East of First avenue Madison avenue 1 10th street 125th street Fifth avenue 135th street 145th street . . . Nagle avenue Dyckman street Broadway Dyckman street 130th street Old Broadway 129th street Amsterdam avenue 104th street 80th street Riverside drive 66th street Amsterdam avenue 42d street Tenth avenue 26th street Tenth avenue. ... .... 23d street Ninth avenue . . . Clarkson street Varick street Canal street 17th street Tenth avenue Sewer Outlets. Most of the trunk sewers inspected discharge near the pierhead line through wood stave pipe. At Tenth street there is no adequate outlet provided, the sewage finding its way out from behind a bulkhead as best it can. At Dyckman street the outlet is through a 20-inch vitrified pipe beneath a building used in the summer as a restaurant, with a bath house adjoining. CHAPTER XV ORGANIZATION OF FORCE EMPLOYED Acknowledgments. The Metropolitan Sewerage Commission, having completed the work required by the Act under which it was created, desires to express its hearty appre- ciation of the ability, faithfulness and industry of the various technical assistants who have been engaged under its direction in the collection of the data contained in the foregoing pages. The amount of work accomplished has been large, and the conditions under which it was prosecuted, in many cases, difficult. It is with pleasure that the Commission records here its unqualified commendation of the loyalty and devotion of the members of the staff to their respective duties. The organization of the force employed since January, 1908, was as follows: TECHNICAL ASSISTANTS Names Titles under Civil Service Classifications Period of Service Beginning Ending Kenneth Allen Engineer July 27, 1908 February . 4, 1909 September 20, 1909 August 10, 1908 September 1, 1909 May 28, 1908 November 18, 1908 February 1, 1910 February 23, 1909 November 27, 1909 November 27, 1909 November 17, 1909 March 1, 1909 August 17, 1908 June 20, 1909 August 24, 1909 July 27, 1908 April 30, 1910 June 12, 1909 March 31, 1910 October 9, 1908 April 14, 1910 December 12, 1909 January 15, 1910 March 3, 1910 April 30, 1910 April 30, 1910 January 15, 1910 November 18, 1909 April 30, 1910 July 31, 1909 January 12, 1910 November 27, 1909 April 30, 1910 Wm B. Fuller '. . Engineer \V W DeBerard Assistant Engineer J E Hill Assistant Engineer Geo H Shaw John P. Fox Statistician ' D S Merritt George Perrine Statistician Max L. Berrey Draughtsman P. F. McClellan Engineering Assistant Harold A. Brown Engineering Assistant R. M. Merriman Engineering Assistant Payn B. Parsons Bacteriologist Raymond H. Pond Biologist . R. N. Hoyt Biologist David Morey Chemist . . , S. R. Keif Stenographer . - 550 DATA COLLECTED SALINOMETER OBSERVEES Names Locations of Stations Period of Service Beginning Ending Nelson L Ackenuun Fort Wadsworth December 1, 1908 September 26, 1908 December 12, 1908 December 1, 1908 January 7, 1909 December 11, 1908 December 1, 1908 January 6, 1909 November 27, 1908 January 1, 1909 September 18, 1908 January 15, 1909 December 31, 1009 December 31, 1909 December 31, 1909 December 31, 1909 December 31, 1909 December 31, 1909 December 31, 1909 December 31, 1909 December 31, 1909 December 31, 1909 December 31, 1909 December 31, 1909 Sven G Berglund Ambrose Light W W Byrne Fort Washington Edmond Delattre Governors Island Thiogs Neck August Kjelberg Tarrytown John Osterdahl Great Beds John Stone .- Blackwells Island West Bank Chas Swift Governors Island ... . Jacob Walker Robbins Reef Mrs Eliza McCashin Passaic Light BOOB CAU*0 NU IjTBBA 1 ' T BI D " STAMP*" "^ 8uW ect t". T^g :.ty) i in SF \verage sewage clispuE al IT6A5 1910 h 1012 6 5 L UNI,