BLVM ENTH B ALB UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES AUG 2 7 1991 ENGINEERING & MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES LIBRARY FENCES, GATES BRIDGES. A PRACTICAL MANUAL. EDITED BY GEORGE A. MARTIN. XZiX/0-STXB^.TXOaTS. NEW YORK: ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 1892. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, by the O. JUDD CO., In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. EMS LIB fft PREFATORY. It is authoritatively stated that the building and main- tenance of the farm fences in the United States have cost more than the construction of the farm buildings. Be. this as it may, while large numbers of works have . been written upon rural architecture we believe this is the first publication specially devoted to Fences, Gates and Bridges. It aims to be a practical work, showing the "evolution" of the fence from the road barrier of logs, brush or sods to the latest improved forms of barbed wire. The numerous illustrations are mainly representations of fences, gates, etc., in actual use. The chapter on fence law is necessarily condensed. The various judicial decisions upon the subject alone would fill a large volume. This little work, the first and only one of its char- acter, is given to the public in the confident hope that it will prove specially useful to farmers and village residents. (3) TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Rail and other Primitive Fences 7- 17 Virginia Eail Fence ; Laying a Rail Fence ; Staking and Wiring ; A Fence of Stakes aud Riders ; A Pole Fence ; Fences for Soil Liable to Heave ; Other Primi- tive Fences. CHAPTER II. Stone and Sod Fences - 18-23 How a Stone Wall Should be Built ; Building a Stone Fence ; Truck for Moving Stones ; Re-inforcing a Stone WaU ; A Composite Fence ; A Prairie Sod Fence. CHAPTER III. BoardFences - --- 24- 30 Building Board Fences ; Fences for Land Subject to Overflow ; A Fence-Board Holder ; Re-inforcing a Board Fence. CHAPTER IV. Picket Fences -... 31- 42 A Good Garden Fence ; A Southern Picket Fence ; Fences of Split Pickets ; Ornamental Picket Fences ; Rustic Picket Fences ; Light Picket Fences ; Hand- made Wire and Picket Fences ; Fence of Wire and Pickets. CHAPTER V. Barb-Wire Fence - 43- 61 Statistics and Forms of Barb Wire ; How to Set Barb Wire Fence ; Unreeling and Stretching Barb Wire ; Wire Stretchers ; Building Wire Fence on Uneven Ground. CHAPTER VI. Fences of Barb Wire and Boards 62- 67 Combined Wire and Board Fence ; A Bracketed Fence ; Dog-Proof Fence. CHAPTER VII. Hedges 67- 75 The Best Hedge Plants ; Planting and Care of Osage Hedges ; Hedges for the South ; Ornamental Hedges and Screens. VI TABLi; OF i :(.) MENTis. CHAPTER VIII. Portable Fences and Hurdles Portable Board Fences ; Portable Fences of Poles and Wire : Portable Fences for Windbreaks, Portable Poultry Fences : Portable Folding Fence ; Temporary Wire and Iron Fences. CHAPTEB IX. Fences for Streams and Gullies 85- 95 Flood Fences ; Portable Wire Fence ; Watering Place in a Creek. CHAPTER X. Making and Setting Posts.. - 95-117 Making Fence Posts ; A Post Holder ; Driving Fence Posts by Hand ; To Drive Posts Without Splitting ; A Powerful Post Driver ; Setting a Gate Post ; Live Posts; Mending a Split Post ; Hook for Wiring Posts : Draw- ing Fence Posts; Lifting Posts bv Hand; Splicing Fence Posts ; Application of Wood Preservatives ; Iron, Fence Posts. CHAPTER XL Gates and Fastenings 117-164 Wooden Gates ; A Very Substantial Farm Gate ; A Strong and Neat Gate ; Light Iron Gates ; Self-closing Gates ; Gate for a Village Lot ; A Chinese Door or Gate Spring ; Lifting Gates : Rustic Gates ; Balance Gates ; Gate for Snowy Weather ; West India Farm Gates ; Gate Hinges of Wood ; Double Gates : Double Latched Gates; Improved Slide Gate; A Combined Hinge and Sliding Gate : Gates of Wood and Wire ; A Good and Cheap' Farm Gate; An Improved Wire Gate; Taking up the Sag in Gates ; Good Gate Latches ; Top Hinge of Farm Gate ; Gateways in Wire Fence. CHAPTER XII. Wickets and Stiles 164-170 Iron Wickets; Wooden Wickets; Stiles for Wire Fences. CHAPTER XTQ. Fence Law __ 169-176 Fencing Out or Fencing In : Division Fences ; High- way Fences ; What is a Legal Fence ? Railroad Fences. CHAPTER XIV. Country Bridges and Culverts.. 176-188 Strength of Bridges ; Braces and Trusses ; Abut- ments, Piers and Railings ; Bridges for Gullies ; Road Culverts. FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. CHAPTER I. RAIL AND OTHER PRIMITIVE WOOD FENCES. VIRGINIA KAIL FENCE. The zigzag rail fence was almost universally adopted by the settlers in the heavily timbered portions of the country, and countless thousands of miles of it still ex- ist, though the increasing scarcity of timber has brought other styles of fencing largely into use. Properly built, of good material, on a clear, solid bed, kept free from bushes and other growth to shade it and cause it to rot, the rail fence is as cheap as any, and as effective and dur- able as can reasonably be desired. Good chestnut, oak, cedar, or juniper rails, or original growth heart pine, will last from fifty to a hundred years, so that material of this sort, once in hand, will serve one or two genera- tions. This fence, ten rails high, and propped with two rails at each corner, requires twelve rails to the panel. If the fence bed is five feet wide, and the rails are eleven feet long, and are lapped about a foot at the locks, one panel will extend about eight feet in direct line. This takes seven thousand nine hundred and twenty rails, or about eight thousand rails to the mile. For a tempo- rary fence, one that can be put up and taken down in a 8 FEXCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. short time, for making stock pens and division fences, not intended to remain long in place, nothing is cheaper, or better. The bed for a fence of this kind should not be less than five feet across, to enable it to stand before the wind. The rails are best cut eleven feet long, as this makes a lock neither too long nor too short ; and the forward end of each rail should come under the next one that is laid. The corners, or locks, as they are called, should also be well propped with strong, whole rails, not with pieces of rails, as is often done. The props should be set firmly on the ground about two feet from the panel, and crossed at the lock so as to hold each other, and the top course of tbe fence firmly in place. They thus act as braces to the fence, supporting it Fig. 1. VIRGINIA ZIGZAG FENCE COMPLETE. against the wind. Both sides of the fence should be propped. The top course of rails should be the strong- est and heaviest of any, for the double purpose of weight- ing the fence down, and to prevent breaking of rails by persons getting upon it. The four courses of rails near- est the ground should be of the smallest pieces, to pre- vent making the cracks, or spaces between the rails, too large. They should also be straight, and of nearly even sizes at both ends. This last precaution is only necessary where small pigs have to be fenced out or in, as the case may be. The fence, after it is finished, will have the ap- pearance of figure 1, will be six rails high, two props at each lock, and the worm will be crooked enough to stand any wind, that will not prostrate crops, fruit trees, etc. A straighter worm than this will be easy to blow down or push over. The stability of this sort of fence RAIL AND OTHER PRIMITIVE WOOD FENCES. 9 depends very largely on the manner of placing the props, both as to the distance of the foot of the prop rail from the fence panel, and the way it is locked at the corner. LAYING A RAIL FENCE. It is much better, both for good looks and economy, to have the corners of a rail fence on each side in line with each other. This may be accomplished by means of a very simple implement, shown in figure 2. It consists of- a small pole, eight feet long, sharpened at the lower end. A horizontal arm .of a length equal to half the width of the fence from ex- treme outside of corners, is fastened to the long pole at right angles, near the lower end. Sometimes a sapling may be found with a limb growing nearly at right angles, which will serve the pur- pose. Before beginning the i'ence, stakes are set at intervals along the middle of the line it is to occupy. To begin, the gauge, as shown in figure 2, is set in line with the stakes, and the horizontal arm is swung outwardly at Fig. 3. THE FENCE BEGUN. right angles to the line of fence. A stone or block to support the first corner is laid directly under the end of the horizontal arm, and the first rail laid with one end 10 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. resting on the support. In the same way the next corner and all others are laid, the gauge being moved from corner to corner, set in the line of fence, and the arm swung alternately to the right and left. STAKING AND WIRING. A neater and more substantial method of securing the corners of a worm fence is by vertical stakes and wires, as shown in the accompanying illustrations. When the lower three rails are laid, the stakes are driven in the Fig. 4. STAKES IN " LOCK." Fig. 5. STAKES IN ANGLES. angles close to the rails, and secured by a band of an- nealed wire. The work of laying the rails proceeds, and when within one rail of the top, a second wire band is put in place. Or the upper wire may be put on above, the top rail. Annealed wire is plentiful and cheap. KAIL AND OTHER PRIMITIVE WOOD FEX about three inches apart. It takes two persons to build this fence successfully, but it can be built more rapidly by three; one to spread the wires, one to place the picket in position, and one to drive it home. This is especially adapted for a line or other fence which is not required to be often moved. It is fastened to the post by nailing one of the pickets to it with common fencing nails. Fences of this kind are also made with straight, round limbs of willow or other trees in place of the split pickets. Several different machines have been patented for mak- ing this style of fence. CHAPTER V. BARB-WIRE FENCE, The invention of barb wire was the mo*it important event in the solution of the fence problem. The question of providing fencing material had become serious, even in the timbered portions of the country, while the great prairie region was almost wholly without resou^e, save the slow and expensive process of hedging. At this juncture came barb wire, which was at once seen to make a cheap, effective, and durable fence, rapidly built and easily moved. The original patent for barb wire was taken out in 1868, but it was not until six years J T>. weather, or when the frost is coming out, lifts them and causes the Avire to sag, and they cease to be an effective parrier. Posts should not be used in the lowest depres- FENCES OF BARB WIRE AND BOARDS. 61 eions, but in their place at the lowest spots a heavy stone should be partially sunk into the ground, about which a smooth fence wire has been wrapped, as seen in figure 96. When the fence is built, the fence wires are brought down to their place and the wire about the stone is twisted first about the lower wire, then the next, and so on to the top. This prevents the wire from raising, and does away with all trouble of the posts being pulled out by the wires. In fencing across small streams the same plan is successful. CHAPTER VI. FENCES OF BARB WIRE AND BOARDS. COMBINED WIRE AND BOARD FENCE. A very cheap fence is made of two boards below and three strands of barb wire. To make the fence pig- proof without the boards, five strands of wire, three inches Fig. 97. MANNEB OP BKACrNG ENJ>-POST. apart, would be required at the bottom. Two common fencing boards will occupy the same space, when placed three inches apart, and cost less. But for the upper part of the fence, wire is much cheaper than boards. The most considerable item in this greater economy is the saving of posts. The wire requires a post every sixteen feet ; hence half the posts are saved. A stout stake, 62 FEXCES, GATES AJ^D BRIDGES. driven midway between the posts, holds the center 1 of the boards in place. These stakes need extend only eighteen inches above ground. Posts that have rotted off in the ground will be long enough for these stakes. Some say that the posts can be set thirty faet apart, but sixteen feet is better. The posts should be at least thirty inches in the ground and well tamped. It is easy to stretch the wire. Its durability depends upon the quality of the wire and posts, and the proper setting of them. K"ail on the two boards, three inches apart ; the first strand is six inches above the top board, the second strand is twelve inches above the first, and the third sixteen in- ches above the second. When banked up, as hereafter described, this fence will turn all farm stock. An im- Fig. 98. SECTION OF FENCE COMPLETED. portant point is the bracing of the end-posts. If this be neglected or improperly done, the fence will be a failure. Figure 97 shows how the end-post should be braced. It should be a large post and set at least three feet in the ground. The short post which holds the lower end of the brace, should also be well set. "Wrap the wire around the end-post several times, and drive staples to hold it on all sides. If the line of fence is more than forty rods long, at least two posts at each end should be braced. After the posts are set, and before at- taching the boards or wire, plow a deep furrow along each side, throwing the earth inward. This makes a bank along the line, allowing the fence to be several inches higher ; and the furrow drains the water away FENCES OF BAKB WIRE AND BOARDS. 63 from the posts, and also restrains an animal that may be tempted to jump the fence. A section of the completed fence is shown in figure 98. Do not hang pieces of tin, etc., upon the top strands of wire, as often recommended, that the animals may see the fence, and be able to avoid it, because it is never necessary. A modification of this combined fence is shown in fig- ure 99. It is made of one rail along the top, and three wires below. After setting the posts plow a fur- Fig. 99. A CHEAP AND GOOD FENCE. row two feet from the posts on each side, throwing the furrow slice towards the fence, and forming up the ridge neatly with a spade ; then stretch the three wires, and nail a two by four scantling edgewise. To prevent an unpleasant sagging of the rails, the posts should be eight feet apart, and the rails sixteen feet long. For common fencing, good straight poles will answer well. A BRACKETED FENCE. The features shown in figure 100 are : first, in having two six-inch boards at the bottom. Second, in placing the wires very close together. It being necessary to have barbs only on one side of each space between the wires, plain galvanised 'wire may be used for every alternate strand, thus greatly lessening the expense. Third,* by the use of strips and short stakes, the posts may be placed sixteen feet apart, and the fence remain as perfect as if there were posts every eight feet. Fourth, to make the 64 FENCES, GATES AND BEIDGES. fence man-proof, make use of a bracket of three-eighth- inch iron, or of one by two-inch wooden strips. The form of the brackets is shown in figures 101, 102 and 103. A barb-wire is attached to the short arm of the brackets, which are fastened to the posts in such a manner as to Fig. 100. ONE PANEL OF IMPROVED WIRE FENCE. stretch two wires on the same horizontal plane, and fif- teen inches apart. The material required for each panel of the fence shown in figure 100, are: Two posts, three barb-wires, two plain wires of No. 12 galvanized iron, two six-inch boards, sixteen feet long, three stakes about three feet long, and sharpened at one end, four strips, four feet long and one and one-half-inch square. To build the fence: Lay off the ground by setting small pegs eight feet apart, then dig the holes, and set the posts at Fig. 101. IRON BRACKET. every fourth peg. Drive the sharpened stakes into the ground at the three pegs between the posts, so that the top of the stakes will be nineteen inches above the pronnd. Nail the boards on the first stake near the FEKCES OF BARB WIRE AND BOARDS. 65 ground, and the second one three inches above the first. Then mark off the place for each wire on the first post, fasten the bottom wire, and put up as far as the first stretching post; then add the other wires, using first a barb-wire, and then a smooth one. The wires should be fastened to the posts with long staples. The strips are to go in the middle of the eight foot spaces; they should not quite touch the ground; fasten them to the boards Fig. 103. ATTACHED BRACKET. Fig. 103. WOODEH BBACKET. with nails and to the wire with short staples. These strips can be made of poles or saplings, and the stakes of short or crooked pieces from the posts. To attach the man-proof part: If the brackets are of wood, nail them to the posts, sawing off the horizontal arm to fifteen inches from the top wire, as in figure 103 ; stretch the wire and fasten to the end. If the brackets are of iron figure 102, spike the horizontal arm to the top of the post, then put up the barb-wire loose under the oblique arm, and stretch it. Then spike the foot of the oblique 66 FENCES, GATES AND BKIDGES. arm to the post, and slip the wire into the angle, and close the bracket by closing the arms on the wire. Figure 102 shows the method of attaching the iron bracket to the post. DOG-PROOF FENCES. Figure 104 shows a sheep-yard fence, built of wire and boards, as a safeguard against vicious dogs. It consists of Kg. KM. A FENCE AGAINST BOOS. ordinary posts, and three lengths of boards, with an equal number of barb-wires for the upper portion, and a single strand placed near the ground. The sheep are in no danger of injuring themselves with such a fence, and it is an effective barrier to blood-thirsty dogs. Figure 105 shows a cheaper fence for the same pur- pose. It has one strand of barb wire below the boards, Fig. 105. A CHEAPER FENCE. which prevents attempts of dogs to dig under it. For fencing sheep against dogs, the " thick-set " barb wire is the most effective of any. CHAPTEE VIL HEDGES. THE BEST HEDGE PLANTS. The first emigrants from England to the American shores brought .with them memories of green hedge-rows, like those which still adorn the motherland. But they found the country whither they had come covered with a dense growth of timber, which furnished abundant material "for fences. Hedges were almost unknown in this country until after civilization had reached the tree- less prairies. Then, the want of fencing material turned attention to hedges, and they became so popular that many miles of them were planted, not only in the prairie region, but also in the more eastern States, where cheaper fencing material was plenty. Now the invention of barbed wire supplies a material so cheap an'd easily put in place," that hedges have ceased to be regarded as economical for general farm purposes. But they have by no means gone wholly out of use. As a boundary fence, especially upon the roadside, there is much to be said in favor of the hedge. Nothing gives a neighbor- hood such a finished rural aspect, as to have the roads bordered by hedges. The grounds around the summer cottages on the New Jersey coast, and other popular sum- mer resorts, are lai'gely enclosed with hedges. For in- terior divisions, as they cannot be removed, they are not to be commended. An orchard, the most permanenb of all the plantations upon the farm, may be appropriately enclosed by a live fence. Hedges are either protective barriers, really live fences, or merely ornamental. In properly regulated communities, where cattle are not al- (67) 68 JE3TCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. lowed to run at large, the roadside hedge may be orna- mental, while one around an orchard should be able to keep out animals and other intruders. After many ex- periments and failures, the Osage Orange (Madura aurantiaca), has been found to make the best hedges. Being a native of Arkansas, it has been found to be hardy much farther Xorth, and may be regarded as the most useful hedge plant in all localities where the winter is not severe. "Where the Osage Orange is not hardy, Buckthorn, Japan Quince and Honey Locust are the best substitutes. Honey Locust is a most useful hedge-plant, as it is readily raised from seed, grows rapidly, bears cutting well, and in a few years will make a barrier that will turn the most violent animal. PLANTING AND CARE OF OSAGE HEDGES. The first requisite for a hedge of any kind is to secure thrifty plants of uniform size. Osage Orange plants are raised from seeds by nurserymen, and when of the right Fig. 106. BADLY PLOWED GROUND. size, should be taken up in autumn and "heeled in." The ground, which it is proposed to occupy by the hedge, should be broken up in autumn and then re- plowed in spring, unless it is a raw prairie sod, which should be broken a year before the hedge is planted. It is a very usual, but very bad practice, to plow a ridge with a back-furrow, as shown in figure 106. This leaves an unplowed strip of hard soil directly under the line upon which the hedge is to stand. "When harrowed, it appears very fair on the surface, but it is useless to ex- HEDGES. 09 pect young plants to thrive on such a bed of hard soil, and its result will be as seen in figure 107. The first growth is feeble, irregular, and many vacant spots ap- Fig. 107. HEDGE PLANT ON HARD RIDGE. pear. The land should be plowed as in figure 108. When the sod is rotted, the land should be harrowed lengthwise of the furrows, and the dead furrow left in the first Fig. 108. PROPERLY PLOWED GROUND. plowing closed by twice turning back the ridge. There is then a deep, mellow, well-drained bed for the plants in which the roots have room to grow and gather ample nutrition. Figure 109 shows the effect of this kind of Fig. 109. HEDGE PLANT IN MELLOW SOIL. cultivation. As a barrier against stock, or a windbreak, it is best to plant in double rows, each row being set oppo- site the spaces in the other, thus : * * * * * * # * * * It is highly desirable that the hedge should be in true, uniform rows, either straight or in regular curves. This can be done only by setting closely to a line. Osage Orange plants may be raised from seed, but as this is a 70 FENCES, GATES AND BUI DOES. difficult operation, it is usually best to buy young plants from a reliable nurseryman. They are best cut down to about six inches high, and the roots partially trimmed. It is an advantage to "puddle" the roots, which is done by dipping them in a mixture composed of one-half earth and half fresh manure from the cow stable, wet to the consistency of a thin paste. There are various methods of setting the plants. Some use a trowel with a blade about ten inches long ; others a dibble, and a larger number than either of the others, a spade. For setting long lines, in situations where appearances are of Fig. 110. EFFECT OF CULTIVATION. secondary importance, young Osage plants are set very rapidly by running a furrow where the rows are to stand, laying the plants with their roots spread on the mellow soil, one side of the furrow. A furrow is next turned upon the roots, and the plants which may have been dis- arranged are restored by hand. A tread of the foot will consolidate the earth around each plant. Unless the subsoil is naturally very porous, the ground must be thoroughly underd rained. A line of tiles should be laid six or eight feet from the line of the hedge. The ground for four or five feet on either side of the hedge, should be kept thoroughly cultivated the first three or four years after planting. This cultivation is to be done early each season and cease the first of July, to give the HEDGES. 71 new wood a chance to ripen. The plants should be per- mitted to grow the first year undisturbed. The following spring, the hedge should be cut off close to the ground with a scythe or mowing machine, and all vacancies where plants have died out or been thrown out by frost, should be filled. The ground on both sides of the ridge is to be kept well cultivated. Figure 110 shows the dif- ference in root growth in cultivated and uncultivated ground. A thick growth of young shoots will appear, and these are to be cut back to four inches high, the middle of summer and again in September. The object is to obtain a dense growth close to the ground. The third year the pruning is to be repeated, only the shoots must be left four to six inches above the last previous cutting. The lateral shoots which are near the ground, are to be left undisturbed. The trimming should be such as to leave the hedge broad at the base, with a regular slope to the summit like a double-span roof. Another method is to permit the hedge to grow un- trimmed for four or five years. It is then plashed, or Fig. 111. HEDGE " PLASHED." laid over sidewise. This is done by cutting the plants about half through on one side with a sharp axe, and bending them over as shown in figure 111. The hedge is first headed back and trimmed up to reduce the top. In a short time new shoots will spring from the stubs and stems, making a dense growth of interlacing stems and 72 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. branches. Another method of laying a hedge, is to dig away a few inches of earth on one side of each plant to loosen the roots, then lay the plant over to the desired angle and fasten it there. The earth is then replaced around the roots, and tread down firmly. We believe that a patent is claimed for this process, but its validity is seriously questioned. It is essential that hedges, whether planted for orna- ment or utility, shall be kept in shape by trimming every year. It is less labor to trim a hedge three times during the year, when the branches are small and soft, than once when the branches have made a full season's growth. If the hedge is trimmed once in June and again in August, it will be kept in good shape, and the labor will be less than if the trimming was put off until spring. In August the branches can be cut with shears or a sharp corn knife. The foliage on them will aid in their burning, when they have dried a few days in the sun. The thorns are not so hard as in the spring. The brush will be less, and on account of their pliability and greater weight, will pack into the heap much better. If trimmed in August, the hedge will not make any con- siderable growth during the fall. August trimming does not injure the hedge, rather helps it, as it tends to ripen the wood, preventing a late Autumn growth to be injured by the winter. The loss of sap is less than when the trimming is done in the early spring, as then the wounds are larger, and do not heal before the sap flows. Do not neglect to burn the brush as soon as it has dried suffi- ciently. If allowed to remain on the ground, it will har- bor mice and other vermin. Trim the hedge in August and burn the brush. The trimming should be done in such a manner as to expose the greater amount of foliage to the direct action of the light, air, rain and dew. This is attained by keeping the sides at every trimming in the form of sloping walls from the broad base to the summit HEDGES. 73 like a double-span roof. They are sometimes trimmed with vertical sides and broad, flat top, but this is not a favorable plan for permanency. The lower leaves and stems die outj leaving an unsightly open bottom of naked stems, with a broad roof of foliage above. Such trim- ming and its results have done much to bring hedges into disrepute. HEDGES FOR THE SOUTH. The Osage Orange is a native of the Southwestern States, and flourishes on good soil anywhere in the South. Yet there are certain succulent plants which grow so rapidly in the South, and require so little care, that they are very successfully employed for hedges in the Gulf States. One of these if the Yucca yloriosa, or Fig. 112. CACTUS HEDGE. Spanish Bayonet. Its natural habit of growth is to pro- duce a dense mass of leaves on a long stem. But by cut- ting back the growth of the stiff, armed leaves is pro- duced low down, and a hedge of this soon becomes an impassable barrier. Large panicles of beautiful white blossoms are produced at the summit, making such a hedge very ornamental during the flowering season. Various species of cactus are also employed in the South- west for hedges. In some of the Middle- Western States may be seen a hedge like figure 112. At some distance from the highway, a field had been enclosed with the tree cactus, which there grows only from four to ten feet 74 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. high. The plants that were in the line of the fence were left growing, and those cleared from the field were woven into a formidable barrier to anything larger than a rab- bit. While no two rods in this fence are alike, its general appearance is like that shown in the engraving. ORNAMENTAL HEDGES AND SCREENS. Hedges and screens for ornamental purposes alone, do not come strictly within the scope of this work, but we will briefly mention a few desirable plants for the pur- Fig. 113. BRANCH OF JAPAN QUINCE. Fig. 114. FRUIT AND FLOWER. pose. The Japan Quince, Cydonia Japonica, of which figures 113 and 114 show a branch, flower and fruit, is one of the best deciduous plants for an ornamental hedge. It will grow in almost any soil; if left to itself it forms a dense, strong bush, but it may be clipped or trained into any desired form. Its leaves are of dark glossy green, they come early in spring and remain until late in Autumn, This is one of the earliest shrubs to PORTABLE FENCES AND HUEDLES. 75 bloom in spring ; its flowers are generally intense scarlet, though there are varieties with white, rose-colored, or salmon-colored flowers. A hedge of this plant is not only highly ornamental, but its abundant thorns make a good barrier. Privet, Ligustrum vulgare, makes a very neat screen, but will not bear severe cutting back, and is therefore suitable only for grounds of sufficient extent to admit of its being allowed to make unre- strained growth. The common Barberry, Berleris vul- garis, also makes an exceedingly pretty screen in time, but it is of slow growth. The Buffalo Berry, Sheperdid argentea, has been tried for hedges, but for some reason it has never attained any popularity. In the Southern States, the Cherokee Rose has been found quite success- ful for the purpose, and nothing in the shape of a hedge can exceed, in striking effect, one of these in full bloom. For evergreen screens nothing is better than the Hemlock, Tsuga Canadensis. The Norway Spruce is of rapid growth and bears cutting well. The Arbor Vitae, Thuja occidentalis, is also very successfully employed for the purpose. CHAPTER VIII. PORTABLE FENCES AND HURDLES. PORTABLE BOARD FENCES. Figure 118 shows a very strong and secure board fence, composed entirely of ordinary fence boards. The trian- gular frames, which serve as posts, are each of two pieces of inch boards, crossed and braced as shown in figure 115. The panels, figure 117, are sixteen feet long, each com- posed of four boards, six inches wide. The space between ,G FEXCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. the lower two boards is two and a half inches, second space three and a half inches. A convenient way of making the panels is to use three horses, like that shown in figure 116, the length of each being equal to the total Fig. 115.-THE POSTS. width of the panel, and the three short upright strips marking the respective spaces between the boards. The top is covered with iron to clinch the nails used in put- ting the panel together. The boards are laid on these horses, and the upright cross-pieces nailed on. The second board from the top of each panel is notched at both ends, as shown in figure 117. A good way to make the trian- Flg. 116." HORSES " FOR MAKETO THE FENCE. gular frames alike, is to cut the pieces by a uniform pat- tern. Then make one frame of the size and form de- sired, and at each of the three places where they are nailed together, fasten a plate of iron, thick enough to prevent the penetration of a common wrought nail driven against it. Now lay this pattern frame on the floor with PORTABLE FEHCES AtfD HURDLES. 7? the iron bolts uppermost. Then lay three pieces on this in exactly the right position, drive wrought nails through the two pieces and against the iron plates, which will clinch the nails firmly as fast as they are driven. This will enable the man to nail the frames together quite Fig. 117. A SINGLE PANEL. rapidly. In setting up the fence, each triangular frame supports the ends of two panels. The upper and lower boards of each panel interlock with the frame, as shown in figure 118, making a very strong fence. On open prairie or other wind-swept situations, it may be neces- sary to stake down some of the frames, to prevent their blowing over. This is quickly done by sharpening pieces Fig. 118. THE FENCE IN POSITION. of inch boards, twelve inches long, and one inch wide, and driving one beside the foot of the triangle, where it rests on the ground, and putting an eight-penny nail through both. PORTABLE FENCES OF POLES OR WIBE. Figures 119 and 120 show styles of portable fences, which are used to some extent m the territories. The 70 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. base of each is the half of a small log, split through the center. For the fence shown in figure 119, two augur holes are bored a few inches apart, and small poles driven to serve as posts. Rails or round poles of the usual length are laid to the desired height, and the top Fig. 119. PORTABLE POLE FENCE. of the posts tied together with wire. In situations where timber is less plentiful, a single stake is set into the base, as in figure 120, braced, and barbed or plain wire attached by staples. Besides the advantage of being Fig. 130. PORTABLE WIRE FENCE. easily moved, these fences can be prepared in winter, whn there is little else to do, and rapidly set in place at any time when the ground is clear of snow. Figure 121 is a fence made of either sawed stuff, or of rails or poles, having their ends flattened and bored. An iron rod, or piece of gas-pipe, any where from half an inch to an inch in diameter, is run through the holes, and through a base block into the ground as far as nee- PORTABLE FEKCES AND HURDLES. 79 essary. A round stick of tough durable wood, an inch or more in diameter, will answer. The size of this rod and its strength will depend upon the amount of zigzag Fig. 121. PORTABLE FENCE OF POLES OK BAILS. that is given to the lengths. If the corners are one foot on each side of a central line, the fence firmly held to- gether by the rods, will in effect stand on a two feet wide base. Less than this would perhaps sometimes answer, and there are no sharp corners, or deep recesses for weeds and rubbish. PORTABLE FEKCES FOR WINDBREAKS. A fence that can be easily moved and quickly set up is shown in figure 122. It consists of panels made of strips Fig. 122. PORTABLE FENCE. 80 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. eight or ten feet long, nailed to two by four posts, which are beveled to a sharp corner at the lower end. These panels are supported by posts, placed as shown in the en- graving, and pinned to the fence posts by wooden pins, driven in by a light mallet. The panels are light and can be loaded upon a wagon from which the sides and ends of the box are removed. A box of pins and the mallet are all the tools required to set up the fence. This fence is not easily overthrown by the wind, which holds it down firmly when blowing on the face of it. For this reason in windy localities, the fence should be set facing the windy quarter. Another good form of movable fence is seen in fig- ure 123. It is made of common fence-boards, securely Fig. 123. KAIUtOAD nailed on very light posts or on the edge of narrow boards and braced as shown in the engraving. This style of panel is largely employed by railroads as windbreaks i i winter to keep the tracks from becoming covered with drifted snow. It is equally convenient on the farm, when a temporary inclosure is needed. PORTABLE POULTRY FENCES. It is often very convenient when poultry are inclosed during the growing season, to have a fence for the hen- yard which can be readily moved from place to place. The illustration, Figure 124, shows one of these. Cut the posts the same length as the pickets, and to the inner POKTABLE FEXCES AXD HURDLES. 81 side of each attach two strong iron hoops bent into a semi-circle, one near the bottom and the other half way up. Through these hoops drive stakes fitted to fill them n n n n n n n n Fig. 124. PORTABLE POULTRY FENCE. closely, with sharpened points for 'easily entering the ground. When removing the fence the posts can be slipped off. Turkeys, even when they have attained a considerable size, should be shut up until after the dew is off the grass, and other fowls must be confined in limited runs, Fig. 125. MOVABLE FENCE FOE TUBKETS. while the young are small. It is quite an advantage if these runs can be changed easily, and this can be accom- plished only when they are enclosed in a light movable 82 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. fence. Such a fence is shown in figure 125, on preceding page. It is made in twelve or sixteen feet sections by nailing laths to light pieces of the proper length. The upper end of the laths is sharpened ; the end ones are of Fig. 126. CROSS-SECTION OF MOVABLE 'FENCE. double thickness. The sections are placed with the end- laths intercrossing at the top, and about six inches apart at the bottom, as in cross-section, figure 126. They are held apart by blocks, figure 127, which rest on the upper edges of the cross-pieces and against the laths. They are held together, and to the ground, by stakes driven against the outer side of the end laths. As these stakes have the same angle as the laths, they hold the sections together, and also the fence in its place and down to the ground. The triangular space where the sections join is Fig. 127. CROSS-BLOCK FOR FENCE. closed by a lath driven in the ground or tacked to the block between the cross-pieces. Corners must be formed of two sections inclined inward, and in the same way that sections are joined. The stakes are readily with- PORTABLE FENCES AND HURDLES. 83 drawn, and the sections are so light that they are easily handled. PORTABLE FOLDING FENCE. A very convenient form of portable fence or hurdle is illustrated in figures 128, 129 and 180, which was Fig. 130. AS A SIDE HILL FENCE. brought out some tive or six years ago. It may be constructed with two or three -upright pieces of two- 4 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. by-four-inch scantling, and four bars, figure 128, held together by carriage bolts in such a manner, that each panel can be closed when desired, as a parallel ruler is folded together. As the bars are on alternate sides, the panel, when closed, takes up the space of two bars only, figure 129. The fence may easily be re- moved, and fits itself to rolling ground or side -hill, as shown in figure 130. When in position it may be sup- ported by stakes of the same thickness as the upright bars, and driven close beside them. TEMPORARY WIRE AND IRON FENCES. Several Kinds of wire and iron fences are used in France to make temporary enclosures for exhibition pur- poses. Two forms are illustrated herewith. Figure 131 Fig. 131. TEMPORARY WIRE FENCE. is made of plain iron wire with cast or wrought iron posts. Each post has a plate on its lower end, which is set eighteen inches below the surface of the ground, and the earth filled in compactly about it. The front of the en- graving shows the holes in section, with the plates. The top strand is a wire rope made by twisting several strands together. The fence seejiat figure 132 is made of narrow FENCES FOR STREAMS AND GULLIES. 85 strips of sheet iron attached to iron posts driven into the ground. The gate, like that of the other form, is pro- vided with small wheels, which run on a track. The two fences may be modified by using wooden posts sharpened Fig. 132, TEMPOBABY IEON FENCE. at the lower end, and driven into the ground, then fas- tening to them with suitable staples strips of rather broad hoop iron at the top, with plain wire below. CHAPTER IX. FENCES FOR STREAMS AND GULLIES. FLOOD FENCES. In a situation where a line of fence crosses a stream or a gully liable to be flooded, it is necessary to make special provision for it. A fence extending down near the sur- face and sufficiently rigid to withstand the current, would arrest the drift wood and other objects floated down on the flood, and soon become a dam. The right kind of a fence must therefore yield to the force of the flood, and renew its position, or be easily re- 86 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. placed after it has subsided. Figure 133 is a very ef- fectual flood-gate for a running stream. The posts, B, B, are firmly set on the bank, and a stick of timber, A, mor- Fig. 133. STBONG FLOOD-GATE. tised on the top of them. The three uprights, 0, C, C, are hinged to the cross-timber, and the boards, F, fas- tened in place by tenpenny steel fence nails. The gate easily swings with the current, D. Figure 134 shows a form which operates in a similar manner like the other. Fig. 134. A CHEAPER FLOOD-GATE. It consists of two stout posts, five feet high, bearing a heavy cross-bar, rounded at each end, and fitted into FENCES FOR STREAMS A^D GULLIES. 87 sockets, in -which the bar with gate attached can swing. The construction of the gate is easily seen from the engraving. The above forms are .self-acting, and swing back to their places as the water subsides. For larger streams, it is necessary to construct fences that give way before the flood, and can be brought into position again when it is over. One of these, for a stream which is liable to bring down much drift wood, is shown in figure 135. Fig. 135. FENCE FOB A FOREST STREAM. The logs are the tranks of straight trees, about eighteen inches in diameter, which are hewed on two sides ; posts are mortised in each of these logs, and on them planks are firmly nailed. The logs are then linked together with inch iron rods, and the first one connected by means of a long link to a tree or 'post firmly set in the ground upon the banks of the stream. The links must all work freely. When high water occurs, the fence is washed around and left on the bank ; after the water has sub- sided sufficiently, the logs may be dragged back to their places, as shown in the engraving, by means of a horse, 88 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. hitched to a staple in the end of the log. Figure 136 shows a lighter fence made of poles or rails, held by in- terlinking staples to the posts on the side of the stream. As the floods come down, the rails are washed from the Fig. 136. FENCE OF MOVABLE BAILS. center, and float freely at either side of the stream. They can be laid up in place again when the water subsides. The fence shown in figure 137, though rather rude and primitive, has the advantage of being cheaply con- structed and permanent. Two strong posts are driven into the banks on the margin of the stream, to which a log, a foot or more in diameter, is fastened by pins, spikes or withes, about twenty inches above low water mark. Then . 137. AN EXTEMPORISED FLOOD-FENCE. fence rails are sharpened at one end, driven into the stream above the log, upon which the other ends rest, projecting about a foot. They are then securely spiked or pinned to the log, and the work is done. The pointed PEACES FOB STREAMS AXD GULLIES. 89 ends of the rails are up the stream, and in case of flood, the water pours over the obstruction, .carrying with it brush, driftwood, etc. The flood-gate, figure 138, is designed to prevent small stock from passing from one field to another through a water-course under a fence where there islow water, while in time of high water the gate will ris^tufficiently Fig. 138. AUTOMATIC FLOOD-GATE. to allow the floating trash to pass through, but not higher, as it is self-fastening. The invention con- sists of a gate constructed of perpendicular slats hinged above, and moving. This hangs across a stream or ditch. On the down-stream side of the gate a swing paddle is fixed, which hangs in the water. This, marked a in the illustration, is attached to an angular bar, 5, which is moved when the flow of water presses with force against the paddle. Two notched pieces, c c, attached to the gate, rest upon the angular bar, b, at low water; when both the paddle and the gate hang at rest, perpendicu- larly, these notched pieces, c, c, hold the gate firmly shut; when, however, the water rises and the paddle is moved 90 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. sufficiently to disengage the notches, the gate will be moved by the force of the water, and if sticks or rubbish of any kind float down against it they will be swept under it by the water. When the water subsides, the paddle swings back, the pieces, c c, catch and keep the gate closed at any height it may fall to. Let the cross- piece, d, tl&t is halved into the posts, be about one foot above the banks of the ditch. The pieces, ////, repre- sent the fence above the ditch, the small posts, g g, with the pieces nailed to them, are to prevent the stock from passing when the gate is partly closed, at the same time bracing the posts, e e; the holes at h are to raise and lower the paddle a; if small, a cleat on one of the arms upon which the piece B is hung, prevents the paddle from swinging towards the gate. Figure 139 shows a kind of fence used in Missouri to put across sloughs. It is in effect two panels of Fig. 139. A MIS8OUBI FLOOD-FENCE. portable fence. The posts are .set three to four feet deep, with the tops about one foot above ground ; the other posts, to which the planks are nailed, are bolted FENCES FOR STBEAMS AND GULLIES. 91 to the top of the inserted posts. The ends of the panel that connect with the post on the bank are slightly nailed with cross-strips near the top, so as to be easily broken loose when the flood comes. There are also temporary braces bearing upstream, put in to prevent the fence from falling, but are easily washed out, when the fence falls down stream, and logs and other obstructions pass by readily. As soon as. the flood goes down, the fence is easily raised, a panel at a time, to a proper place. Figure 140 shows a cheap and effective form of flood fence. The material used are square-hewn timbers, seven Fig. 140. FBESHBT FENCE. or eight inches for sills, stone pillars, split rails about ten feet long. The rails are driven in the ground about two feet deep ; the upper ends project above the sill two or three feet, and are spiked down to the sill with large spikes ; when the freshet comes, logs and drift-wood are carried over, and the fence will be left in as good order as before the high water. Figure 141 represents a gulch fence or gate which is in common use in some parts of the Pacific Slope. It Fig. 141. CALIFORNIA GULCH FENCE. is particularly adapted to the gulches of the foot hills and the irrigating ditches of the plains. The whole 92 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. gate swings freely by the upper pole, tlie ends of which rest in large holes in posts on either bank, or in the cross of stakes. The upright pieces may be of split pickets or sawed lumber, as may be the most convenient. If the stream is likely to carry floating brush, logs, etc., the slats should be of heavier material than is necessary \vhen this is not the case. "When constructed properly the gate will give, allowing rubbish and freshets to pass, and then resume its proper position. The principal advantage claimed for this gate is that it is not apt to gather the passing debris. A gully is sometimes difficult to fence properly, but by hanging a frame over it, as is seen in figure 142, Fig. 143. FENCE FOB A DBT GULLY. the object may be quickly accomplished. The frame can be spiked together in a short time, or framed together if a more elaborate one is desired. To make it serve its purpose completely, the rails must be closer together near the bottom than at the top of the frame, in order to prevent small animals from going through it. A modification of this last named device, seen at fig- ure 143, gives greater space for the passage of brush wood or other large objects, which may be swept down on the flood. The width, strength and size of the bases sup- porting the side posts, and of the braces, will depend upon the width and depth of the channel. The base FEHCES FOR STREAMS AND GULLIES. 93 pieces can te firmly anchored by stakes driven slanting over the ends and outsides, or by stones piled on. For wide, shallow streams, three or even more braced up- rights can be anchored eight or ten feet apart in the bed with heavy stones, with two or more swinging sections. Fig. 143. A FRESHET FENCE. If small trees or long timbers are likely to float down, the swinging gate may be twelve or fifteen feet wide. For smaller streams, with strong high banks, five or six feet will suffice. PORTABLE TIDE FENCE. Figure 144 represents a fence for tide-creeks. It is made usually of pine, the larger pieces, those which lie Fig. 144. SECTION OF A TIDE FENCE. 94 FENCES, GATES AND BKIDGES. on the ground and parallel with the run of the fence, are three by four-inch pieces, hemlock or pine, and con- nected by three cross-bars, of three by four-inch pieces, mortised in three feet apart. Into the middle of these three cross-pieces, the upright or posts are securely mortised, while two common boards are nailed under- neath the long pieces, to afford a better rest for the struc- ture, when floating on the water or resting on the ground. Barbed or plain wires are stretched along the posts, which are four feet high. WATEBTNG PLACE IN A CEEEK. Cattle naturally select a certain place in a water-course to drink at, where the bank is not precipitous. During a good part of the year this bank is muddy, on account Fig. 145. A CLEAN WATERING PLACE. of its moisture and trampling of the animals. As a re- sult, the horses get the scratches, the cows come to the milking pen with muddy udders, and frequently animals are injured by the crowding in the mud. Hogs are often seriously injured, because the mud becomes so deep and tough, that they are well nigh helpless in it. Another objection is that the animals wade to the middle of the creek, and soon make its bottom as muddy as the bank, and the water becomes unfit for drinking. The arrange- ment shown in our illustration, which may be built of heavy plank, brick, or flat stones, prevents all this. It MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 5 is constructed by first making an incline to a level plat- form for the animals to stand on while drinking. This plane terminates in an abrupt descent, forming a trough for the water to flow through. The trough should not be more than two feet wide, that the animals may easily get across it. The level floor permits the animals to drink at their ease, often a matter of importance. Such a drinking place should be made at the upper end, of the creek, where it passes through a field to prevent the ani- mals from soiling the water by standing in it above where they drink. CHAPTER X. MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. MAKING FENCE POSTS. There is quite an art in splitting logs into posts. Every post should have some heart wood, which lasts the longer, for two reasons : That there may be durable wood into which to drive the nails, and without it some of the posts, composed entirely of sap-wood, will rot off long before others, making the most annoying of all repairing necessary. If the log is of a size to make twelve posts, split along the lines of figure 146, which will give each post a share of heart wood. This will make a cross section .of the posts triangular, the curved base be- ing somewhat more than half of either side. This is a fairly well shaped post, and much better than a square one having little or no heart wood. Although the log may be large enough to make sixteen or eighteen posts, it is better to split it the same way. It should first be cut into halves, then quarters, then twelfths. If it is at- 96 fEXCES, GATES AKD BRIDGES. tempted to split one post off the side of a half, the wood will "draw out," making the post larger at one end than the other not a good shape, for there will be little heart wood at the small end. When the log is too large to ad- mit of it being split in that way, each post may never- theless be given enough heart wood by splitting along the Fig. 146. Fig. 147. lines, shown in figure 147. First cut the logs into halves, then quarters, then eighths. Then split off the edge of each eighth, enough for a post about one-fourth only of the wood, as it is all heart wood, and then halve the balance. A good post can be taken off the edge, and yet enough heart wood for the remaining two posts remain. A POST HOLDEE. A simple arrangement for holding a post while it is being bored or mortised, is shown in figure 148. It con- Fig. 148. A POST HOLDEB. sists of two long pieces of round or square timber, lying parallel upon the ground, and two shorter sticks resting MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 97 upon them at right angles. The upper pieces have sad- dles cut out for the posts to fit into. A staple with a large iron hook or "dog," is fastened into one end of each cross-piece, as shown in the engraving. When the post is laid in position, the hooks are driven into it holding it firmly. DRIVING FENCE POSTS BY HAND. Where the soil is soft, loose, and free from stone, posts may be driven more easily and firmly than if set in holes Fig. 149. DRIVING PENCE POSTS. dug for the purpose. An easy method of driving is shown in figure 149. A wagon is loaded with posts and fur- nished with a stage in the rear end of the box, upon which a person can stand to give the posts the first start. Another man holds the posts upright while they are 98 FENCES, GATES AKD BRIDGES. driven. When one post is driven to its place, the wagon is moved to the next place, and this operation repeated. To drive posts, a wooden maul should be used. This is made of a section of an elm trunk or branch, eight or nine inches in diameter, figure 150. An iron ring is driven on each end, and wedged all around, the wood at the edge being beaten down over the rings with a hammer or the poll of an axe. To prevent the posts from splitting or being battered too much, the ends of the maul should be hollowed a little, and never rounded out, and Fig. 150. MAUL FOB DRIVING POSTS. the ends of the posts should be beveled all around. The hole in the maul for the handle should be made larger on one side, and lengthwise of the maul, and the han- dle spread by two wedges driven in such a way as not to split the maul. TO DEIVE POSTS WITHOUT SPLITTING. Posts are very liable to split in driving, unless some precaution is used. This damage and loss can be avoided in a great measure by proper preparation of the posts be- fore they are driven. The tops of sawed posts should have the sides cut off, as in figure 151, or simply cut off each corner, as in figure 153, while a round post should be shaped as in figure 152. The part of the post re- moved need not be more than half an inch in thickness, but when the corners only are cut away, the chip should be thicker. In driving, it is very important to strike the post squarely on the top, and not at one corner or MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 99 side. In most soils at the North, the frosts heave posts mere or less each season, and they need to be driven down to the usual depth. To do this with little in- jury to the post, the device shown in figure 154 may Fig. 151. 152. Fig. 153. be used. It is a piece of tough hard wood scantling, e, eighteen inches in length, with tapering ends. It is provided with a handle, h, three feet in length, of quite small size, and if possible, of green timber. In using it, let one person (a boy will do) lay the bit of scantling on top of the post to be re-driven, when, with the beetle or Fig. 154. SCANTLING WITH HANDLE IN POSITION. sledge, the scantling, instead of the post is struck, thus preventing the splitting of the post. When the top of a fence is surmounted by a stringer, as in the engraving, the effect of the blow is distributed over a large space, 100 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. and both stringer and post escape injury. The attend- ant should keep hold of the handle, h, while the posts are being driven, and move the scantling from post to post as required. A POWERFUL POST DRIVER. For a farmer who has a large number of posts to set, a special apparatus for driving them will be found useful. Fig. 155. THE POST-DRIVER. The accompanying illustrations show a machine of this kind. An axle, , figure 155, of hard wood, eight and one-half feet long ; a hickory sapling will do. It has spindles shaved to fit the hind wheels of a wagon, which are fastened by linch-pins, leaving about six feet space be- tween the hubs. A coupling-pole, b, thirteen feet long, MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 101 is framed in and strongly braced at right angles with the axle, and connects in front with the forward axle of a common wagon. The main sill, d, figure 156, is one stick of timber, six by eight inches, by fourteen feet long and has a cross-piece, e, framed in the end. Two side-pieces, f, two by four inches by five feet long, are pinned or bolted to the main sill at g, and cross-pieces framed into them, as shown in figure 156, so framed that the lower edges of the side-pieces will be two inches from the axle, when the main sill rests on the axle. The side- pieces, /, should be twenty-two inches apart at the ends. The front end of the main sill rests on the front axle, in place of a bolster, and the "king-bolt" passes through it at li the upright guides, i, are two by four inches by fourteen feet long, bolted to the side-pieces, /, with a space of fourteen inches between ; a cap, /, two by three by twenty-six inches long, is framed on top. Two braces, &, two by four inches by sixteen feet long, are bolted to the upright guides, two feet below the cap, and connect at the bottom with a cross-piece, I, two by eight by twenty- two inches long, between the braces. It has rounded ends passing through two-inch holes in the braces, and fastened by a pin outside, to form a loose joint. This cross-piece, I, is held down on the main sill by a strip, m, and steadied by cleats; it is free to slide back or forward, and is held in place by a short pin. By moving this cross-piece, the upright guides, i, are kept perpendicular when going up or down hill. A small windlass, o, figure 155, is placed under the axle, a, between hangers framed into the axle, close to the hubs. Two brace-ropes, or wires, p, are fastened to this windlass at the extreme ends, and wound around it a turn or two in opposite di- rections, drawn tight and fastened to the main braces near the top. By turning the windlass, o, slightly, by means of a short bar, the machine may lean to either side, to con- form to sliding ground, thus being adjustable in all di- 102 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. rections. The maul, r, figure 157, of tough oak, fourteen by eighteen inches, by two feet long, weighs about two hundred pounds, is grooved to fit smoothly between the guides ; the follower, s, is more plainly shown in the en- graving, also the simple latch, by which the follower and maul are connected and disconnected. The square clev- is, t, is of three-quarter inch iron, suspended from the Fig. 156. BOTTOM OF DRIVES. Fig. 157. TOP OF UPRIGHT. same iron pin, u, on which the pulley, v, is placed. It is partly imbedded in the wooden casing, w, which is eight by eighteen inches ; this casing serves to inclose the pulley, v, and also to trip the latch when brought to- gether ; the clevis, t, is caught under the hook fastened in the maul, is pressed into place by a small hickory spring, y, acting on a small iron pin, z ; when it reaches the top, the crotch, 1, suspended from the top, comes in contact with the pin, 2, and the clevis, t, is pressed MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 103 back, and releases the hook, x, when the maul drops. The windlass, 3, figure 155, has two cranks, and a ratchet for convenience. The rope passes from the wind- lass over the pulley at the top, down and under the pul- ley, v, then up, and is fastened at 7 , on the cap, j, wire braces at 8. By releasing the cranks and ratchet, the follower will run down the guides, and, striking the maul, will " click" the latch into place, ready for an- other hoist. For two men it is easy work, and can be handled quite rapidly. Drive astride the proposed line of fence ; lay a measuring-pole on the ground to mark the spot for the next post ; drive forward with the post- driver, having the maul partly raised, set up a post, and proceed to drive it. SETTING A GATE POST. No matter how strong or how well braced a gate may be, it will soon begin to sag and catch on the ground, if Fig. 158. A GATE POST SET IN CEMENT. the gate post is not firmly planted. Sometimes, owing to the soft nature of the ground, it is almost impossible 104 FENCES, GATES AND BEIDGES. to plant the post firmly, but in such cases the work can generally be done satisfactorily by packing medium-sized stones around the post, in the hole, as shown in figure 158. If it is thought that this will not insure suffi- cient firmness, add good cement. Place in a layer of stones, then cement enough to imbed the next layer of stones, and so on, until the hole is full and the post planted. Do not cover up the stones with earth or dis- turb the post for a few days, until the cement has "set." Eemember that the post must be set plumb while the work is going on, as it can never be straightened after the cement has "set." Only durable posts should be used, and this method of setting should only be followed with gate posts which are supposed to be permanent, and not with posts liable to be changed. A still better method is shown in figure 159. Before the post is set into the hole, a flat stone is laid edgewise Fig. 159. GATE POST BEACED WITH STONES. in the bottom, on the side which is to receive the great- est pressure from the foot of the post. When the post is set, and the hole half filled with earth, a second stone is placed against the post on the side to which it will be drawn by the weight of the gate. The stones receive the pressure and hold the post firmly in position. MA.KIXG AX1) SETTING POSTS. 105 FENCE POSTS FOR WET LANDS. Low meadow and other marsh land is subject to heaving by the frost, and much difficulty is experienced in securing firm fences upon such ground, as the posts are drawn up by the freezing of the surface. To avoid this, much may be done in the way of selecting posts that Fig. 160. DIFFERENT METHODS OF TREATING POSTS. are larger at one end than the other. It will help very much to put a strong, durable pin through the bottom end of the post, or to notch it at each side, as in figure 160, and to brace the bottom with a flat stone, driven well into the side of the hole with the rammer. When the soil is very soft and mucky, it is best to drive the posts and to make them hold well in the ground, to spike wedge-shaped pieces to them on either side, by which they are held firmly in their places. LIVE POSTS. A living tree which stands in the right place, makes a very durable and substantial fence-post. In the great 106 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. treeless regions of the Mississippi Valley, where it is dif- ficult to obtain timber for posts, it is not an unusual prac- tice to plant trees for the purpose on street boundaries, and other places where the fence is to be permanent. White willow is well adapted for the purpose on suitable soils, as it grows rapidly and bears close pruning. In situations where the soil is even moderately damp, white willow posts, four inches in diameter, cut green and set Fig. 161. Fig. 162. in spring, will take root and grow. The new branches soon form a bushy head, which may be cut back from time to time. It is not advisable to nail boards or drive staples directly into the tree. With a board fence, the swaying of the tree loosens the nails, and if barbed wire is stapled to the tree, the bark and wood will in time grow over them as in figure 161. To obviate this, a stick is nailed to the tree as in figure 162, and to this the fence is attached. A still better method is to secure the MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 107 strip of wood to the tree by two or three pairs of inter- locking staples. MENDING A SPLIT POST. Fence posts split from a variety of causes, and when they are in this condition they make a very insecure Fig. 163. MENDIXG A SPLIT POST. fence. The usual way is to merely nail an old horseshoe or two across the split part, just below the holes in the posts. This answers fairly well, but does not draw the cleft together, and horseshoes are not always on hand. A better method of doing this is shown in figure 163. A short, stout chain is put around the top of the post, just tight enough to admit of a strong lever. The parts of the posts are then brought together by a heavy downward pressure of the lever and held there, while a strip of good tin, such as can be cut from the bodies of tin cans, is put around and securely nailed. If the post 108 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. is a heavy one and the cleft large, it is well to take the entire body of a can and double it, to give it additional strength before nailing it on. The dotted lines show where the tin is nailed. HOOK FOR WIRING POSTS. Figure 164 shows a modified cant-hook for drawing to- gether the upper extremeties of fence stakes that are to be Fig. 164. A STAKE DBA WEB USED IN WIRING FENCES. wired, as in the engraving. The half-moon shaped iron, a, is riveted fast to the top end of the lever, and is to pre- vent the end of the lever from slipping off the stake when in use. The second iron from the top, b, is twenty-five inches long, with two hooks at the end, though one will do ; this is to catch the stake on the opposite side of the fence. This iron is fastened in the lever by a bolt in a MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 109 long mortise, in the same way, as the hook in an ordinary cant-hook. The iron rod, c, has a hole in one end, and is drawn out to a point at the other this is fastened to the lever by a bolt in a long mortise, and serves to catch in the stake or rail, and hold the stakes together, while the man adjusts the iron around the stakes. When the stakes are drawn tightly to the fence, this rod is drawn up until it strikes^he stake or one of the rails, when the man can let go of the "drawer," and it holds itself. The lever is four feet and three inches long, and two inches square, with the corners taken off part of the way down, the lower end being rounded for a handle, as shown in the engraving. DRAWING FENCE POSTS. Figure 165 shows a practicable method of drawing out fence posts by the aid of an ox team. A stout piece Fig. 165. DBAWING FENCE POSTS. of timber with a large flat " foot" is placed under the chain to change the direction of the draft. Two men and a steady yoke of oxen can extract fence posts very 110 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. quickly and easily by this method. A good steady team of horses will do quite as well as oxen. LIFTING POSTS BY HAND. A convenient and sensible implement, for taking up fence posts without the aid of a team, is shown at figure 166. It consists of a stout pole of the size and shape of Fig. 166. A CCWrVKMEXT POST LEFTEB. a wagon tongue. The thicker part of this pole, for about fifteen inches from the end, is shaped into a wedge. This is sheathed with a frame made of iron, half an inch thick and two and a half inches wide, and securely fast- ened with screws or bolts. The end should be pointed and slightly bent upwards. The manner of using this convenient implement is shown in the illustration. Frequently a farmer has occasion to lift posts, and has not time to wait for the construction of an iron-shod lev- er. Figure 167 shows a very simple, inexpensive con- trivance for such cases. A spadeful of earth is taken from each side of the post, and a short, strong chain loosely fastened around the lower end of the post, as far MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. Ill down as it can be placed. A strong lever a stout rail will answer the purpose is passed through the chain, as shown in the engraving, until the end of the rail catches firm soil. By lifting at the other end of the lever the post is raised several inches, when both chain and lever are pushed down again for a second hold, which general - Fig. 167. LIFTING A POST. ly brings the post out. The chain is furnished with a stout hook at one end, made to fit the links, so that it can be quickly adjusted to any ordinary post. SPLICING FENCE POSTS. There are places, as crossing over gullies, etc., where unusually long posts are desirable, though not always easy to obtain. In such cases properly spliced posts are almost as durable as entire ones. The engraving of the front and side views, figure 168, shows how the splice may be made to secure strength and durability. The splices should be made with a shoulder at the lower 112 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. end, and well nailed together, after which one or two bands of hoop-iron may be passed around the splice and Fig. 168. SPLICING FE^CE POSTS. securely fastened. The hoop-iron band is one of the most important points in a splice of this kind. APPLICATION OF WOOD PRESERVATIVES. To prevent decay at the center, as well as of all that part of the post placed below ground, by use of wood preserving solutions, the following system is both novel and valuable : It is to have a hole in the center of the post, from the bottom upward, to a point that shall be above the ground when the post is in position. Then bore another hole in the side of the post with a slight in- clination downward, making an opening in the center hole, as shown in figure 169. A wooden plug, two or three inches long, should be driven snugly into the hole at the bottom of the post, in order to prevent the escape of any liquid that may be used in the operation. "When the posts are set in an upright position, a preserv- MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 113 ative solution may be introduced into the hole in' the side and the centre one filled with it, after which a cork plug of some kind should be inserted in the side hole, to prevent evaporation, as well as to keep out dust and in- sects. The solutions thus introduced will gradually be absorbed by the surrounding wood, until all parts along the entire length of the central cavity must become com- pletely saturated. When the solutions used have been taken up by the surrounding wood, it will only be nec- Fig. 169. SECTIONAL VIEW OF BOBED POST. essary to withdraw the cork or plug, and apply more, if it is thought desirable. A common watering pot with a slender spout will be a handy vessel to use in distribut- ing the solutions. Petroleum, creosote, corrosive sublimate, or any other of the well known wood preservatives may be used in this way. Telegraph posts might be prepared in the same way, and if the central reservoirs were kept filled with petroleum, they would last a hundred years or more. Where a large number of posts or poles are to be pre- pared, it would be cheaper to have the holes bored by steam or horse power than by hand. With very open 114 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. and porous wood it is quite probable that a hole bored in the side of the post and above the ground, and deep enough to hold a half pint or more of creosote or some other similar solution, would answer, but a central cav- ity reaching to the bottom, would perhaps, be best. IRON FENCE POSTS. The advent of wire fences was followed by a call for posts in the prairie regions, where timber is scarce. Sey- Fig. 170. POST. Fig. 171. DISC. eral forms of iron posts have been devised, of which the leading ones are illustrated herewith. Figure 170 is of iron, one quarter of an inch thick and two and a half inches wide, rolled to a curve and pierced at the proper intervals for the staples, which are to be clinched on the concave side. The disc, figure 171, is swedged out of one fourth inch iron. It is sunken a little below the ground, and the post driven through the curved opening, into MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 115 which it fits closely. Figure 172 is a flat iron bar, with slots cut diagonally into one side to receive the wire. The post is supported by two tiles A\ ith holes to fit the post, which is thrust through them. Figure 173 is made of angle iron braced at the surface of the ground, with an angular iron plate rolled for the purpose, and driven to its place. Figure 174 shows an Fig. 172. POST WITH TILES. Fig. 173. iron post, with the ground-piece and driving tube to the left of it. The post is a round iron bar or tube, with notches for the wires, which are held in place with short pieces of binding-wire, wound around the post. The ground piece, which is shown in the middle of the en- graving, is of cast iron, eleven inches long, and five inches across the top, with two loops for inserting the iron post. This is driven into the ground, and the iron post driven through it. At the left of the engraving is shown the device for driving the post. It is a piece of common gas-pipe, just large enough to slip easily over the top of the post, and provided on the top with an iron cap to receive the blow of the large hammer or maul used in driving. Figure 175 shows a cast iron ground piece, and at the right is the lower end of a post resting in one of 11 G FENCES, GATES AND BBIDGES. them. The three flanges are cast in one solid piece, with a hole through the centre of any desired form and Fig. 174. POST WITH IBON GROTTND PIECE. size. The wings or flanges are three inch plates, running to sharp edges on the bottom, so that they can easily be driven into the ground. They may be of any desired size, larger sizes being required for a light yielding soil Fig. 175. CAST-IKON GKOUm>-PIECE. than for a stiff one. Figure 176 is an iron post on a wooden base, for situations where the ground is soft and wet. The base is preferably of cedar, three to four feet long, four inches thick, and four to six inches wide. It GATES AND FASTENINGS. 11? is to be sunken in the ground cross-wise with the line of fence. The post is of iron, set and stapled into the end- piece, as shown in the engraving. Before being put in place, the whole is saturated with hot coal tar, as a pre- servative. There is less call for iron posts than was an- Fig. 176. ticipated when wire fences first came into general use. It is found that wooden posts can be delivered in any lo- cation reached by railway at less cost than iron posts. CHAPTER XI. GATES AND FASTENINGS. WOODEN GATES. As board and picket fences have gradually replaced rail and other primitive fences, useful but inconvenient " bars" have begun to disappear, and tidy gates are seen. The saving in time required to take down and put up bars, rather than open and close gates, amounts to a good deal. A good wooden gate will last a long time. Gate-ways should be at least fourteen feet wide. All the wood used in the construction of the gate should be well seasoned. It is best to plane all the wood-work, though this is not absolutely necessary. Cover each tenon with 118 FENCES, GATES AND BKIDGES. thick paint before it is placed in its mortise. Fasten the brace to the cross-piece with small bolts or wrought nails well clinched. Mortise the ends of the boards into the end posts, and secure them in place with wooden pins wedged at both ends, or iron bolts. The best are 1 made of pine fence-boards six inches wide ; the ends should be Fig. 177. Fig. 178. four by twenty-four inch scantling, although the one at the latch may be lighter. Five cross-pieces are enough. The lighter f he gate in proportion to strength, the better it is. There is but one right way to brace a gate, and many wrong ones. The object of bracing is to strengthen the gate, and also to prevent its sagging. Gates sag in two ways ; by the moving to the one side of the posts Fig. 179. Fig. 180. upon which the gates are hung, and the settling of the gates themselves. Unless braced the only thing to hold the gate square is the perfect rigidity of the tenons in the mortises ; but the weight of the gate will loosen these, and allow the end of the gate opposite the hinges to sag. It is plain thai a brace placed like that shown in figure 177 will not prevent this settling down. The only opposition it can give is the resistance of the nails, and these will GATES AND FASTENINGS. 119 draw loose in the holes as readily as the tenons in the mortises. A brace set as shown at figure 178 is not much better, as the resistance must depend upon the rigidity of the upright piece in the middle, and the bolts or nails holding it will give way enough to allow the gate to sag. Fig. 181. Fig. 183. The method shown in figure 179 is fully as faulty, while the form shown in figure 180 is even worse. It seems strange that any one should brace a gate in these ways, but it is quite frequently seen attempted. The only right way to brace agate is shown in figure 181. The gate may be further strengthened as shown in figure 182. Be- fore the gate can sag, the brace must be shortened ; for Fig. 183. Fig. 184. as the gate settles, the points a and b must come closer together, and this the brace effectually prevents. The posts should be set in such a way that they will not be pulled to one side and allow the gate to sag. The post should be put below the line of frost, or else it will be heaved out of position ; three feet in the ground is none too deep. Have a large post and 120 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. make a big hole for it. Be careful to set the post plumb and stamp the earth firmly in the hole it cannot be stamped .too hard. While stamping, keep walking around the post, so that the earth will be firmed on all sides. Blocks may be arranged as shown in figure 183 ; Fig. 185. Fig. 186. but this is not really necessary, when the posts have been rightly set, although it may be advisable to take this further precaution. To remove the pulling weight of the gate when closed, the swinging end may rest upon a block ; or a pin in- JJi Fig. 187. Fig. 188. serted in the end piece of the gate may rest in a slot sawed in the post, or on a shoulder of the post. Figure 184 shows one end of a combination of two plans the iron rod from near the top of the high post holds the gate while the strain upon the post is lessened by the oppo- site end of the closed gate being supported on the other post. GATES AND FASTENIXGS. 121 For hanging the gate the best hinges are doubtless those shown in figure 185. One part passes through the end-piece of the gate, and is secured by a nut on the end. The other piece is heated and driven into the post, following the path of a small augur-hole. Next to this comes the strap hinge, which should be fastened with bolts or screws. Three easy, cheap ways of support- ing the gate are shown in figures 186, 187, and 188. In figure 186, a stout band of wood, or one of iron, may be used in place of the chain. And in place of the stool for the reception of the lower end of the end-piece, a block resting on the ground, or"a shoulder on the post, may be substituted. The mode shown in figure 187 is common in the West. Its construction needs no explan- ation. By sliding the gate back until it almost balances it may be carried around with ease. In figure 188, the fastening, or latch, must be so arranged as to hold the lower part of the gate in position. The box of stone ren- ders it easier to move the gate. A heavy block of wood serves the same purpose. A VERY SUBSTANTIAL FARM GATE. Figure 189 shows a gate which combines great dura- bility with much rustic beauty. The cedar posts, A A, should be four feet in the ground, and at least ten feet out of the ground. B represents a piece of 2 by 6 hard pine, into which the posts are mortised. C is a 4 by 4 clear pine, turned at both ends and mortised as shown in figure 191. D EF are 1 by 4 pine strips. G is a 1 by 6 pine strip, a sectional view being given in figure 190. It is best to use one piece each of D and E, letting F come between them, as it gives more stiffness to the gate. His a block of cedar with a hole bored or dug large enough to receive the post, C, and to make it more lasting, a small hole 122 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. should be bored through the block, so as to let whatever water collects in it pass away; the block should not be less than eighteen inches long four inches above ground. / shows wire fence connected. J is a strong wire carried Fig. 189. A SUBSTANTIAL GATE. Fig. 190. Fig. 191. and secured to the bottom of the first fence post. K K are cleats attached to posts to keep them more firmly in the ground. L are stones for posts, A A, to stand on. M shows the hinge, made so as to take up the sag after the gate settles, and as the wood wears out. A STRONG AND NEAT GATE. The posts, a, a, figure 192, of oak or other durable wood, are eight inches square, and stand five and one half feet above the ground. The posts, b, b, three and one third inches thick, four and three quarter feet long, are mor- tised to receive the slats, c, c, which are of inch stuff, three inches wide and ten feet four and three-quarter- inches long. They are let into posts, b, b, at the dis- GATES AND FASTENINGS. 123 tance marked in the engraving. The slats, d, are three inches wide, and one inch thick, and are placed opposite each other on front and back of the gate as braces ; e, e, are simply battens to make a straight surface for the hinges, /, /; all except the upper and lower ones are very short and carried back to the post. The hinges, made by a blacksmith from an old wagon tire, are one and one-half inch wide, three-sixteenth inch thick, and are fastened by light iron bolts through the battens at e, and to the rear post. Fig. 192. A WELL-MADE GATE. The above describes a cheap, light, durable gate, which in over twenty-three years' use has never sagged, though standing in the thoroughfare of three farms, and also, for years past, used for access to a sawmill. It is made of the best pine. The hinge is an important point. It is not only cheap and easily made, but acts as a brace for the gate at every point, and thus permits the gate to be lightly made. With this hinge sagging is impossible. A gate of this kind will rot down first. LIGHT IRON GATES. The gate shown in figure 193 may be made of wrought iron an inch and a half wide and half an inch thick, or 124 FENCES, GATES AND BKIDGES. preferably of iron gas-pipe of any diameter from half an inch to an inch. In the vicinity of the oil-regions, pipe can be bought very cheaply, which is in condition good Fig. 193. A LIGHT IKON GATE. enough for this purpose. For guarding against hogs, it should be hung near the ground, and have one or two more horizontal pipes near the bottom. Figure 194 shows the construction of a gate intended for situations much exposed to trespassers. It is made Fig. 194. A WROUGHT IKON GATE. of upright strips of flat iron, pointed at the top, and fastened by rivets to a stout frame-work of iron. The "pickets" are placed two to three inches apart, as de- sired, for the appearance of the gate, or according to the size of the poultry or animals to be kept from passing. GATES AND FASTENINGS. 125 SELF-CLOSING GATES. Every self-closing gate should be provided with a drop or spring catch, a suitable bevel for it to strike against and notch to hold it. Gates opening into the garden or out upon the street, should be so hung that they will swing either way. Figure 195 shows a hinge and slide for such a gate. In opening the gate from either side, the arm of the upper hinge slides upon the iron bar, raising the gate a little as it swings around. When loosed, it Fig. 195. HINGE AXD SLIDE FOR GATE. Fig. 196. slides down without help, and closes by its own weight. Figure 196 shows another form of the iron slide, suitable for a wide gate post, and more ornamental than the plain slide in figure 195. Figure 1 97 shows a very good and common hanging. The upper hinge consists of a hook in the post and a corresponding eye in the hinge-stile of the gate. The lower hinge is made of two semi-circular pieces of iron, each with a shank, one of which is shown above the gate 126 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. in the engraving. They are made to play one into the other. This style of hanging may be used on any ordi- Fig. 197. nary kind of gate, but is specially useful for a small street gate opening into a door-yard. There is a style of gate for foot-paths, which is not un- common, that keeps itself always closed and latched, by means of a single upper and double lower hinge, which Fig. 198. SELF-CLOSING FAKM GATE. are to be obtained at most hardware stores. The lower hinge has two " thumbs," which are embraced by two open sockets. When the gate is opened, it swings upon one socket and its thumb, and being thrown off the cen- GATES AXD FASTEXIXGS. 127 ter, the weight of the gate draws it back, and swinging too, it latches. A farm gate, entirely home-made, may be constructed, of which figures 198 a.nd 199 show the gate and the hinge. The gate is braced and supported by a stay-strip, extending to the top of the upright, which forms the upper hinge, / being attached to the top of the gate-post, by an oak board with a smooth hole in it. The lower hinge is separately shown at figure 199. It consists of an oak board, c, an inch and a half thick, into Fig. 199. LOWER HINGE OF GATE. which the upright, e, is mortised. In this, two sockets are cut, a foot from center to center. The sockets in this case are three inches in diameter, and when the gate is in place and shut, they fit against two stakes of hard- wood (locust), two and a half inches in diameter, d, which being curved, are nailed to the gate-post, a. A smooth stone, laid across in front of these stakes, takes the weight of the gate, and relieves in a measure the pres- sure on the top of the post. The hinges mast be kept well greased, and it is well to black-lead them also, to prevent creaking. 128 FEXCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. GATE FOR VILLAGE LOT. Figure 200 shows a light, strong gate made of wood and wire. The top wire is barbed to prevent stock from pressing against it, and beaux and belles from hanging Fig. 200. CONVENIENT GATE. over it. The bottom wires are also barbed to prevent cats, dogs, and fowls from creeping under. This gate is cheap, may be easily constructed, and is suitable for either front or back yard. A CHINESE DOOR OR GATE SPRING. Figure 201 shows the manner in which the Chinese use a bow as a spring for closing the light doors and gates. The bow is fastened to the gate by a cord or chain. Another cord or chain is attached to the middle of the bow-string by one end, and the other end is made fast to the gate post, in such a manner that when the GATES AND FASTENINGS. 129 gate is opened, the bow will be drawn, and its elasticity will serve to shut the gate when released. Our artist has Fig. 201. CHINESE DOOB OB GATE SPBING. shown the Chinese invention attached to a gate of Yan- kee pattern. LIFTING GATES. There are various forms of gates not hung on hinges at all, but either suspended from above to lift, and pro- Fig. 202. GATE SHUT. vided with counterweights, or made in the form of mov- able panels. Figure 202 represents a gate for general use, 130 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. which is peculiarly well adapted to a region visited by deep snows in winter. The post, firmly set, extends a little higher than- the length of the gate. In front of this and firmly fastened to it at bottom and top, is a board at sufficient distance from the post for the gate to move easily between them. An iron bolt through the large post and the lower end of the tall, upright gate bar, serves as a balance for the gate to turn on. A rope attached to the bottom of the gate runs over the Fig. 203. GATE OPEN. pulley and has a weight of iron or stone that nearly bal- ances the gate. The opened gate is shown in figure 203. Figure 204 shows a gate balanced in a similar manner, and arranged so it can be opened by a person desiring to drive through, without leaving the vehicle. It is sus- pended by ropes which pass over pulleys near the top of long posts, and counterpoised by weights upon the other ends of the ropes. Small wheels are placed in the ends of the gate to move along the inside of the posts, and thus reduce the friction. The gate is raised by maans of ropes attached to the center of the upper side of the gate, from which they pass up to pulleys in the center of GATES AND FASTENINGS. 131 the archway, and then out along horizontal arms at right angles to the bars which connect the tops of the posts. By pulling on the rope, the gate, which is but a trifle heavier than the balancing weights, is raised, and after the vehicle has passed, the gate falls of itself. In passing Fig. 204. A " SELF-OPENING " GATE. in the opposite direction, another rope is pulled, when the gate is raised as before. Figures 206 and 207 show a gate specially designed for snowy regions. The latch-post, figure 205, is fixed in the ground and connected with the fence. It is an ordinary square fence-post, to the side of which a strip of board is nailed, with a space of an inch between the board and the post. At the opposite extremity of the gate a heel- post is set slanting, as shown in figures 206 and 207. The gate is made by laying the five horizontal bars on a barn floor or other level place, with one of the sloping cross- bars under them and the other above them. Half inch 132 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. holes are bored through the three thicknesses, carriage bolts inserted from below, and the nuts screwed on. The gate, thus secured at one end, is carried to the place Fig. 305. LATCH-POST. Fig. 206. THE GATE OPEN. where it is to remain and the other ends of the horizon- tal bars secured to the heel-post by similar bolts. These should work freely in the holes. The lower bar is four ":. 207. THE GATE CLOSED. feet long and the upper bar seven feet. To the heel of the upper bar is hung a weight nearly heavy enough to balance the gate, so that it may easily be swung up, as shown in figure 206, and the weight will keep it raised. GATES AND FASTENINGS. 133 Figures 208 and 209 illustrate a very cheap way of making a hole through a picket fence in a place where there is not sufficiently frequent occasion for passing, to call for a more elaborate gate. Strips of inch board, as Fig. 208. THE GATE IN POSITION. wide as the rails of the fence, and five or six feet long, are nailed to the upper side of the rails and three pickets are nailed to the strips. The pieces are then sawed off, beveling, and the pickets detached from the fence-bars Fig. 209. THE GATE OPEN. by drawing or cutting the nails. The gate can be lifted up and set at one side, but can not be pushed in or pulled out. No rope or other fastening is required, besides it is almost invisible, which is many times an advantage. The gate, as lifted out of the fence and set on one side, is shown in figure 209. 134 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. Figure 210 shows an improved form of this gate with- out posts. In this case the small board strips are cut only as long as the gate is to be made wide, and a diago- nal cross-brace running between them, as shown in the wuUi Fig. 210. A SMALL GATE IX A PICKET FENCE. engraving. The hinges are fastened to the horizontal bars of the fence by wooden pins shown at a and b. A piece of rope or a short wire passing over the ends of two of the pickets serves to keep the gate securely fastened. These openings are not designed for a regular gate, and Fig. 211. MOVABLE PANEL. could not be used for the passage of any vehicle, as the horizontal bars would be in the way. For a back gate to the garden such an opening would frequently be found convenient and save many steps. Figure 211 shows a lifting-gate, or rather, a movable GATES AND FASTENINGS. 135 panel, wide enough to permit the passage of a team and vehicle. This might be useful in places where it was not desired to pass frequently. Figure 212 shows another very convenient form of gate for use in a country where the snow is deep. It is fitted Fig. 212. A GATE NOT CLOGGED WITH SNOW. in a strong frame, and is balanced by weights, so that it can be easily raised. The engraving sufficiently explains how this very useful gate is made and hung in the frame. RUSTIC GATES. A picturesque rustic gate is shown in figure 213. The fence and posts are made to correspond. Its manner of construction is clearly shown in the illustration. The vases on the top of the posts may be omitted, unless time can be taken to keep them properly watered. A very neat, cheap, and strong rustic gate is shown in figure 214. The large post and the two uprights of the gate are of red cedar. The horizontal bars may be of the same or other wood. The longer upright is five and a half feet long, the shorter one four and a half feet. 136 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. The ends of the former are cut down to serve as hinges, as shown in the engraving. Five holes are bored ihrough . 213. ORNAMENTAL GATE. each of the upright pieces, two inches in diameter, into which the ends of the horizontal bars are inserted and Fig. 211 LIGHT BUSTIC GATE. wedged securely. For the upper hinge a piece of plank is bored to receive the gate, and the other end reduced GATES ANI> FASTENINGS. 137 and driven into a hole in the post, or nailed securely to its top. A cedar block, into which a two-inch hole has been bored, is partially sunk in the ground to receive the lower end of the upright piece. A wooden latch is in better keeping with the gate than an iron one. BALANCE GATES. Figure 215 is a modernized form of a gate which has for generations been popular in New England and the Middle States. In the primitive method of construction, the top bar consisted of the smoothly trimmed trunk of Fig. 215. BALANCE GATE. a straight young tree, with the butt end projecting like a "heel" beyond the post upon which it turned. Upon its extremity a heavy boulder, or box of smaller stones, served as a counterweight. In the gate represented here- with the top stick is of sawn timber, upon the heel of which the large stone is held by an iron dowel. The other end of the top bar rests, when the gate is closed, upon an iron pin, driven diagonally into the post, as shown in the illustration. A smaller iron pin is pushed into the post immediately above the end of the top bar, to secure the gate against being opened by unruly ani- mals, which may attempt to get in, 138 FENCES, GATES AXD BRIDGES. Figure 216 shows a balance gate which is used in some parts of North Carolina. It is a picket gate framed into Fig. 216. CABOLINA BALANCE GATE. the lower side of a long pole, which is hung near its middle to a pivot driven into the top of the gate-post. Fig. 217. A TIDY BALANCE GATE. Figure 217 shows a more elegant form, the "heel" of the gate remaining on a level with the top line of the fence. GATE FOE SNOWY WEATHER. The gate shown in figure 218 is suitable for all weather, but especially useful when there is a deep snow; for it is easily lifted up above the snow, and kept in place by put- ting a pin through holes in the hinge-bar, \\hich is firmly fastened to the gate post. The hinge-bar should be of GATES AND FASTENINGS. 139 good, tough wood, and made round and smooth, so that the gate can swing and slide easily. Boards can be used in place of pickets if preferable. The latch-post to the Fig. 218. GATE FOR SNOWY WEATHER. right, has a long slot for the latch to work in, instead of a hasp, so that it can be fastened when the gate is at any height. WEST INDIA FARM GATES. The illustrations, figures 219 and 220, show two forms of gates used on the island of Jamaica. These gates are Fig. 219. WIDE FARM GATE, 140 , FEKCES, GATES AND BBIDGES. twenty-one feet long, each, and cannot possibly sag, even if any number of small boys swing on them. In gate figure 220 the main post is nine by six inches; the bars marked 2, 3, 5 and 7 are let in the wood three inches on the upper side and one and a half inches on the lower. The tenons, indicated by the dotted lines, go entirely through the posts, and are fastened with pins. Brace 6 is attached to the upper bar eighteen inches beyond the center, F; D is a stout fence wire Fig. 220. ANOTHER WIDE FARM GATE. fastened by a screw nut at E; the wire, B, is held tightly by the screw hook, A; the iron band, 9, is an inch thick and is bolted to the post. It works on a pivot one and a quarter inches in diameter, and which turns on a flat piece of iron at the bottom of a piece of a one and a half inch iron pipe, which is soldered with molten lead in the stone, 10. Only hard wood is used in the construction. In the gate shown in figure 219, the construction differs from the one just described in that it has a light chain fastened in the shackle, C, and is screwed firmly at A. It is attached to the post, ff, by a pivot, as seen in our illustration. GATES AND FASTENINGS. 141 GATE HINGES OF WOOD. It is often convenient and economical, especially in newly settled regions, where blacksmiths and hardware stores are not at hand, to supply hinges for gates, to make them of wood. The simplest and most primitive form is shown in figure 221. A post is selected having a large limb standing out nearly at right angles. A perpendicu- lar hole in this secures the top of the rear gate standard. The foot rests in a stout short post, set against the main Fig. 221. Fig. 222. post. A small gimlet hole should extend outward and downward from the lowest side or point in the hole in the short post, to act as a drain, or the water collecting in it would be likely to soon rot both the standard and the short post itself. Another form is to hold the top by a strong wooden withe. A third form is illustrated in figure 222, in which the top of the standard passes through a short piece of sawed or split plank, spiked or pinned upon the top of the post. FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. The form shown at figure 223 is made of a stout lithe sapling or limb of beech, hickory or other tough hard wood or, if it is attainable, a piece of iron rod. Fig. 223. A WITHE HINGE. A gate can be made without hinges by having the hanging stile somewhat longer than the front stile, and making both ends rounded. The lower one is to work Fig. 224. GATE WITHOUT HINGES. in a hole in the end of a short post raised BO that the soil will not readily get in, and the upper one works in a hole made in an oak piece attached to the top of the gate post. Gates of this kind can be made and hung with but little more expense than bars, and will be found far more convenient and saving of time than the latter. GATES AND FASTENINGS. 143 Figure 225 represents a small hand-gate hung upon an iron pin driven into a hole bored in the bottom of the hinge-post, and one of similar size and material bent to a Fig. 225. SOCKET HINGES. sharp angle, and fitted in the top. The lower pin rests in the sill and the upper one extends through the post to which the gate is hung. DOUBLE GATES. Figure 226 shows a substantial method of hanging two gates to the same post. The post may be of masonry Fig. 2:26. A DOUBLE GATE. 144 FEXCES, GATES AXD BRIDGES. and the hinge bolts pass through the post, thus prevent- ing any sagging. It is frequently convenient to have gates in the barnyard hung in this manner, then yards Fig. 227. DOUBLE BALANCE GATE. may be shut off one way or the other by simply swinging the gates. Figure 227 represents a balanced gate for a double drive- way. The total length is thirty feet sixteen feet on one Fig. 228. DOUBLE BALANCE GATE WITH STONE POST. side of the supporting post and fourteen feet on the other. The horizontal top-piece may be of sawn timber, or better still, of a round pole cut from a straight young tree, the larger end being on the short side, its additional thickness serving to counterbalance the longer extremity GATES AND FASTENINGS. 145 of the gate. The vertical strips of the original gate, from which the sketch was made, were lag-sticks from an old tread horse-power, and the chain was a part of the re- mains of a worn-out chain pump. It is held in place by staples driven into the vertical pieces, as shown in the illustra- tion. A pin pushed into the post at either end of the large top bar | fastens it securely when closed. Figure 228 is a gate which com- bines some of the features of the preceding two. The stone pillar is round, three feet across and four and a half feet high. A post is placed in the center, upon the end of which the bar rests, bearing the two gates. The fence is arranged in a sweeping curve, so that only one passage- way can be open at once. Figure 230 shows a style of double gate, which has Fig. 229. THE GATE LATCH. Fig. 230. A DOUBLE HINGELESS GATE. been found very useful on large stock farms, where it is necessary to drive herds of cattle through it. Two high posts are set in the ground about twenty feet apart, and a scantling is put on, which extends from the top of one post to that of the other. A two-inch hole is bored in the center of this scantling, and a similar hole in a block 146 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. of wood, planted firmly in the ground in the center of the gateway. The middle post of the gate frame is rounded at each end to fit these holes, and this post is the pivot on which the gate turns. With this gate one cow cannot block the passage, besides there is no sagging of gate posts, as the weight of the gate is wholly upon the block in the center. To make the latch, figure 229, a bar of iron one and a half inch wide and eighteen inches long is bolted to one of the end uprights of the gate, and a similar bar to one of the posts of the gateway. For a catch, a rod of three-eighth inch iron passes through a half-inch hole near the end of the bar upon the gateway. This rod is bent in the form shown in the engraving, and welded. It will be seen that the lifting of this bent rod will allow the two bars to come together, and when dropped it will hold them firmly. DOUBLE-LATCHED GATES. Figure 231 represents a substantial farm gate with two latches. This is a very useful precaution against the Fig. 231. A DOUBLE-LATCIIED FARM GATE. wiles of such cattle as have learned to unfasten ordinary gate-latches. The latches work independently of each other, the wires, b, 5, being fastened to the hand lever a, GATES AND FASTEXIXGS. 147 and then to the latches e, e. A roguish animal will sometimes open a gate by raising the latch with its nose, but if one attempt it with this, it can only raise one latch at a time, always the upper one, while the lower one re- mains fastened. As soon as the animal lets go, the latch springs back and catches again. A hog cannot get through, for the lower latch prevents the gate from open- ing sufficiently to allow it to pass. A cow will find it difficult to open the gate, because she cannot raise the gate high enough to unlatch it. The latches e, e, work up and down in the slides c, c, and when the gate is fastened they are about half-way between the top and bottom of the slides. Figure 232 shows another form of double latches, which are closed by absolute motion, instead of depend- . 232. A GATE FOB ALL LIVE STOCK. ing upon their own weight. There are two latches fast- ened to a jointed lever, so that when the upper end or handle is pushed backward or foward, the latches both move in the same direction. The construction of the gate, and the form and arrangement of the latches and lever, are plainly shown. IMPROVED SLIDE GATE. The old style slide gate is an un wieldly contrivance, and the only excuse for its use is its simplicity and cheapness. Numerous devices have been invented and 148 FENCES, GATES AND BE! DOES. patented to make it slide easier and swing easier, but their cost has prevented them from coming into general use, and the old gate still requires the same amount of tugging and heaving to open and close it. Figure 233 shows the attachment. The blocks at top and bottom are hard wood, one inch and a quarter thick. - The two boards should also be of hard wood. Between the boards are one or two small iron or hard wood wheels, turning upon half inch bolts, which pass through both boards. The bars of the gate run on these wheels. The Fig. 333. Fig. 234. THE GATE COMPLETE. gate complete, with attachment, is shown in figure 234, the gate being closed. To open the gate, run it back nearly to the middle bar, then swing open. As the attachment turns with the gate, the lower pivot should be greased occasionally. It is well to fasten a barbed wire along the upper edge of the top bar, to prevent stock from reach- ing over and bearing down on the gate. Where hogs are enclosed, it is advisable to fasten a barbed wire along the lower edge of the bottom bar, as it keeps small pigs from passing under, and prevents large ones from lifting the gate up, or trying to root under. A COMBINED HINGE AND SLIDING GATE. The illustrations, figures 235 and 236, show a gate very handy for barnyards. It is fourteen feet wide for ordi- GATES AND FASTENINGS. 149 nary use, and has three short posts. The middle one is movable. A box of two inch boards made to fit the post is planted in the ground ; in this the post is set, and can be removed at pleasure. This post is placed three feet from the outside one. The hinge is made of hard wood, Fig. 235. THE GATE OPEN. with a wheel six inches in diameter, as shown in the en- graving. It should be so constructed that the gate will move freely, but not too loosely. It is supported at the top by a cap, placed diagonally across, and at the bottom by a block of locust or cedar under it. The middle up- Fig. 236. THE GATE CLOSED. rights of the gate should be placed a little to one side of the center, so that the gate can be balanced under the roller. Wooden catches are placed in the middle post, upon which the gate rests. To open the gate, push it back to the middle post, elevate the gate slightly, and it will roll down to- the center, where it can be readily opened. Figure 235 shows the gate open, and in figure 150 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. 236 it is seen closed. This gate has no latch. A barn- yard gate is not usually opened wide. A space large enough to admit a man or horse is all that is necessary in most cases. It is more easily opened than the ordinary gate, and it will stay where it is placed. By cutting a notch in the third board, and elevating it to the upper catch on the middle post, a passage is made for hogs and sheep, excluding larger animals. GATES OF WOOD AND WIEB. One of the cheapest and most popular styles of farm gate is made of plain or barbed wire, supported by Fig. 237. A NEAT GATE OF SCANTLING AND WIHE. wooden frames. Figure 237 shows a very neat form of combination gate. To make it, obtain three uprights, three inches by one and a half inches, five and a half feet long, and four strips, three inches by one inch, eleven feet long. Cut shoulders in the ends of the strips, and saw out corresponding notches in the uprights; GATES AXD FASTEXIXGS. 151 make these one and a half inch, or half the width of the strips. The bottom notch is two and a half inches from the end of the upright, and the upper one nine and a half inches from the top end. Fit the strips into the notches. There is then a space of one inch between the strips, into which put inch strips, so as to make all solid, and fasten together with carriage bolts. Braces three by one and a half inches are inserted, and held in place by bolts or wrought nails. Bore as many holes in the end- pieces for one-quarter inch eye-bolts, as it is desired to have wires. Twist the wire firmly into the bolts on one upright, and secure the other end to the corresponding bolts on the upright at the opposite end. In stretching the wires, pass them alternately on opposite sides of the c*enter piece, and fasten in place by staples. This will, in a measure, prevent warping. By screwing down the bolts with a wrench, the wires may be drawn as tightly as desired. The hinges are to be put on with bolts, and any sort of fastening may be used that is most conven- ient. Barbed or smooth wire may be used. A GOOD AND CHEAP FARM GATE. Figure 238 shows a gate of common fence boards and wire, which can be made by any farmer. The longer upright piece, seven feet long, may be made of a round stick, flattened a little on one side. The horizontal bars are of common fence boards cut to the desired length, and the shorter, vertical piece may be made of scantling, two by four inches. Three wires, either plain or barbed, are stretched at equal intervals between the upper and lower bar. A double length of wire is extended from the top of the long upright to the opposite lower corner of the 152 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. gate. A stout stick is inserted between the two strands of this diagonal brace, by which it is twisted until it is Fig. 238. GOOD AND CHEAP FARM GATE. sufficiently taut. If the gate should at any time begin to sag, a few turns brings it back. AN IMPROVED WIRE GATE. Figure 239 shows an improved form of wire farm gate, in which the wires can be made tight at pleas- Fig. 239. IMPBOVED WISE GATE. ure. Instead of attaching the wires to both of the end standards of the gate, a sliding standard is put on GATES AND FASTENINGS. - 153 near the end, to which the wires are fastened. This is secured to the main standard by two long screw bolts, leaving a space between the two of five or six inches. The wires are tightened by turning up the nuts. A plainer but very effective gate is shown in figure 240 The uprights are three and one quarter by two inches, the horizontals twelve or thirteen feet long, by three and a half by two inches, all of pine. The horizontals are mortised into the uprights, the bolts of the hinges strengthening the joints. The barbed wires prevent ani- Fig. 240. GATE OF WOOD AND WIBB. mals from reaching over and through the gate. To put, in and tighten the wires, bore a three-eighth inch hole in the upright, pass the wires through, one or two inches projecting, plug up tightly with a wooden pin, and bend down the ends of the wire, Measure the distance to the other upright, and cut the wire two inches longer. Pass the wire through the whole and tighten with pincers. When the wire is stretched, plug up with a wooden pin, and then bend down the wire. If the wire stretches, it can be tightened very easily. Figure 241 represents a light gate, that a child can handle, which does not sag or get out of repair, and is cattle proof. The materials are two boards, twelve or fourteen feet long, three uprights, the end piece three 154 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. and one-half feet and the center four and one-half feet, two strands of barbed wire, one between the boards, and 341. BARBED WIRE IN A GATE. the other at the top of the uprights. It is hung the same as the common form of gate. TAKING UP THE SAG IN GATES. Various means have been devised for overcoming the sagging of gates. In figure 242 the hinge-post of the Fig. 242. REMEDY FOR A SAGGING GATE. gate-frame extends somewhat above the upper bar of the gate. A board is fastened to the top of this post, a, GATES AND FASTENINGS. 155 which runs downward to b, near the middle of the upper cross-bar, and then connects with a short double band one on each side of the long board which is provided with a bolt fitting into notches, c, cut in the under side of the upper bar of the gate. The form of the double- latch piece, with its bolts, and its attachment to the board is shown at d. Figure 243 represents an arrangement which not only provides for taking up the sag, but also for raising the gate above encumbering snow. The gate is made of or- dinary inch boards put together with carriage bolts, upon which the joints play freely. The end of the gate, a, is made of two boards, and the post, b, is four by six inches. Fig. 343. A LIFT-BAR FOR A GATE. One board of the end, a, is notched. The diagonal piece, c, is fastened at d, by means of a bolt through it and the lower board. The end, a, of the diagonal piece, is shaped to fit the notches, by means of which the gate can be raised and lowered. It can also be used as a passage for pigs between fields, by simply raising the gate suffi- ciently to let them go through. A board, not shown in the engraving, is tacked to the notched board, to prevent the diagonal piece from slipping out of its place. A much firmer gate is shown in figure 244. The hinge-post is about twice the height of the gate, and has a cap-piece, , near the top. This cap is of 2 by 6 hard- 156 FENCES, GATES AND BEIDGES. wood, strengthened by two bolts, e, e, and held in place by two wooden pins, driven just above it and through c SNAP HOOK FOB CHAIN GATE. just the right length, and a snap-hook at the other. These are both shown of larger size in figures 257 and 258. GATES AHD FASTENIHGS. 163 The chains are attached by screw-eyes to the posts, and should correspond in number, as well as in position, with the wires. Thus they appear to be a continuation of the same, and as they are larger, they appear to the animals to be stronger, and even more dangerous than barbed Fie:. 259. THE GATE CLOSED. wire hence are avoided. A short rod of iron may be made to connect them at the hook-ends, and so in open- ing and closing the way, they may all be moved at once. A cheaper and simpler form of wire gate is shown in figures 259 and 260. It consists of the same number of strands as in the adjoining fence, attached to a post in the ordinary way at one end, while the other wire ends are secured to an iron rod. This rod is pointed at the lower end, and when the gate is closed, as seen in figure Fig. 260. THE GATE OPEN, ' 259, this end passes down through a loop, and the upper end is secured to a hook. In opening the gate, the rod is loosened and swings out, when the sharp end is thrust into the earth, or a hole in a wooden block set in the ground at the proper place to receive it. 164 FENCES, GATES AKD BRIDGES. Figure 261 show* a somewhat similar arrangement. The gate wires are fastened to one post with staples, and attach the loose ends to a five-foot pole. To shut the gate, take this pole or gate-head and put the lower end Fig. 261. A WIRE GATE. back of the lower pin, and spring the upper end behind the one above. If the wires are all of the right length, they will be taut and firm. Two slats fastened to the gate wires will keep them from tangling. A short post set at one side of the gateway may be found convenient to hold the gate when open. CHAPTEE XII. WICKETS AND STILES. IRON WICKETS. Wickets and stiles are convenient passageways through or over fences crossing foot-paths. The bow wicket has the advantage of providing a gate " always open and always shut," and not apt to get out of repair. A wrought iron bow wicket, with short vertical bars, is shown in figure 262. Figure 263 has the bars horizon- WICKETS AND STILES. 165 tal, and folds in the middle for a wheel-barrow or small animals to pass. To go through it, a person simply steps Fig. 262. WICKET WITH HINGE. into the bow, swings the gate away from him, and swings it back in passing out. There is no latch to fasten, and Fig. 263. WICKET WITH UPRIGHT BARS. no fear of the entry of live stock. Similar wickets may be constructed of wood for board fences. WOODEN WICKETS. Figure 264 shows a wicket gate common in England, where it is much used in foot-paths across fields, etc. It 166 FEXCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. is an ordinary small gate, which swings between two posts, set far enough apart to permit the passage of a person. These two posts are thevtwo ends of a V-shaped Fig. 264. A GATE FOR FOOT-PATH. end in the fence. The engraving shows the construction of the end of the fence, with the two posts, between which the gate swings. Figure 265 is another form of gate, which consists of a V-shaped panel, filling the opening in the fence the open Figs. 265 and 266. COMMON A?TD IMPROVED WICKETS. ends of the V being fixed to posts equally distant from and in a line with one of the posts in the fence, and at right angles to it, This is improved by using bent WICKETS AND STILES. 167 wheel-rims, figure 266, instead of the straight pieces form- ing the V-shaped panel. Kept well painted, the hickory rims will bear the exposure to the weather perfectly. The palings should be of oak, an inch wide and half an inch thick, fastened on with screws. The opening in these stiles must be sufficient to allow a corpulent person to pass easily, even if a frisky bull is in uncomfortable prox- ft Fig. 367. A CONVENIENT STILE. imity, and for this figure 266 is really the most conven- ient form. The objection to both of these stiles is, that there is no actual closing of the passage.- Calves, sheep and pigs, not to mention dogs, work their way through. To prevent this, the gate-stile, figure 267, was invented. It has a small gate swinging on the middle post, but stopped in its movement by the end posts of the V. A Fig. 268. A GATE STILE. person can pass by stepping well into the V and moving the gate by him, where he has free exit. This form is efficient, but inconvenient. A' fourth form, the best of all, is the swinging A-stile, figures 268 and 269. In this there are two light gates, made upon the same hinge- post, spreading like the letter A, and braced with a cross- piece between the rails of each side, like the center part 1G8 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. of the A. This gate is set to swing on each side of the center-post, as shown. It is so much narrower than the V-stiles, that it is almost impossible for small animals to pass, but it is easily hung so that it will always remain Fig. 269. SWINGING STILE. closed, and so offer no temptation to animals. on the out- side. At night, or when not in use, a wire ring or withe- hoop thrown over the top of the post and the upright part of the gate frame, will securely fasten it. To make Fig. 270. A NEAT GATE. the gate swing shut, all that is necessary is to set the eye of the lower hinge of the gate well out towards the out- side. In figure 270 we give a neat A-gate, made of pine or any strong and light wood. STILES FOR WIRE-FENCES. The extensive use of wire-fences calls for a farm conve- nience, heretofore but little known in this country the WICKETS AND STILES. 169 stile. The manner of constructing one suitable for barb- wire fence is shown so plainly in the engraving, figure 271, that no description is necessary. The cross piece, upon Fig. 271. STILE FOR BARB WIRE FENCE. which one passes from one flight of steps to the other, may be of any desired width. Stiles of convenient forms for wire fences are shown in Fig. 272. FENCE STLLE. Fig. 273. ANOTHER STILE. figures 272 and 273. The one seen in figure 272 takes less space on each side of the fence, but it is not so sim- ple as that shown in figure 273. Figure 274 shows a passageway in a wire fence, which 170 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. requires no climbing, and while it presents an effectual barrier to large animals, is readily passed by any but very ^ AWW Fig. 274. WISE FEXCE PASSAGE. corpulent persons. It originated and was patented in England, but we believe there is no restriction on its construction and use in this country. CHAPTER XIII. FENCE LAW. FENCING OUT OB FENCING IN. The common law of England, which to a large extent became the law of the original States, bound no one to fence his land at all. Every person is bound under that law to fence his own cattle in, but not bound to fence other cattle out. Every owner of domestic animals is liable for injury committed by them on the lands of others, even though the land was wholly unfenced. But this feature of the English common law was not suited FENCE LAW. 171 to the conditions which surrounded the early settlers in , any part of this country. So long as any region is sparsely settled, the amount of unoccupied land is so much greater than the occupied, that it is cheaper to fence stock out, than to fence it in. Hence the English common law in regard to fencing has been superseded by statute in many of the States. In others it has always remained in force, or has been revived by later statutes. There is such great diversity on this point in the statutes of the several States, that, to quote from Henry A. Haigh's excellent " Manual of Farm Law, " " every one having occasion to look up any point of law, should as- certain the statutory provisions concerning it from some official source. Do not depend upon this book or any other book for them, because they are liable to change, and do change from year to year ; but go to your town clerk or justice of the peace, and examine the statutes themselves. " DIVISION FENCES. The legal obligations of adjoining owners to build and maintain division fences, rests entirely upon the statutes of the respective States, save in cases where long usage has created prescriptive rights, or special agreement ex- ists. Such fences are to be built on the boundary line, the expense to be borne equally by the parties, or each one shall make and maintain half the fence. If they cannot agree, or either refuses or neglects to do his share, the statutes provide methods by which the matter may be determined. In some of the States, two or more pub- lic officers, called fence- viewers, are elected annually in each township, whose duties, as prescribed by statute, are, when called upon, to hear and decide questions re- lating to fences .in their respective towns. In other States, these duties are performed by overseers of high- ways or selectmen, ex-ojftcio. ' Whenever any owner or 172 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. occupant of land refuses to build or maintain half the di- vision fence, or cannot agree, with his adjoining neighbor as to which portion they shall respectively maintain, the fence-viewer may be called. Upon being so called, the fence-viewer shall upon reasonable notice, and after viewing the premises, determine and assign the respective portions of the fence to be maintained by each. The as- signment when so made and recorded by the proper of- ficer, becomes binding upon the present and all subse- quent owners of the land. (2 Wis. 14). When by rea- son of a brook, watercourse, or natural impediment, it is impracticable or unreasonably expensive to build a fence on the true line between adjacent lands, and the owners thereof disagree respecting its position, the fence viewers may, upon application of either party, determine on which side of the true line, or whether partly on one side and partly on the other, and at what distances, the fence shall be built and maintained, and what portions by either party, and if either party refuses or neglects to build and maintain his part of the fence, the other shall have the same remedy as if the fence were on the true line. When a division fence shall be suddenly destroyed or prostrated by fire, winds or floods, the person who ought to repair or rebuild the same should do so in ten days after being notified for that purpose, and in the meantime he will be liable for damages d.one by estrays. There is no legal obligation in any of the States, upon any proprietor of uncultivated, unimproved and un- occupied land, to keep up division fences. When a pro- prietor improves his land, or encloses land already im- proved, the land adjoining being unimproved, he must make the whole division fence, and if the adjoining pro- prietor afterward improves his land, he is required to pay for one half the division fence, according to the value thereof at that time. The laws of the respective States are not uniform touching the obligations to maintain one FEXCE LAW. 173 half a division fence after the owner of the land ceases to improve tt. In Rhode Island and some other States, the proprietors are required to maintain these respective pro- portions, whether they continue to improve their land or not. In Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont and several other States, it is provided that if one party lays his lands common, and determines not to improve them, he may, upon giving due notice, cease to support such fences. But in most of the States, he must not take away any part of the division fence belonging to him and adjoining the next enclosure, provided the other party will allow and pay for his part of such fence. If the parties cannot agree as to its value, it may be decided by two or more fence-viewers. "Where adjacent land is owned in severalty and occupied in common, and either party desires to occupy his in severalty, and the parties disagree, either party may have the line divided by the fence-viewers, as in other cases. Owners of adjoining lands may agree between them- selves as to the building and maintenance of division fences, and such agreements are valid, whether they are in accordance with the law or not. In some States such an agreement, if in writing, and filed with the clerk of the township, becomes binding upon all subsequent hold- ers of the land. If not in writing, however, such an agreement may be terminated by either of the parties at pleasure. HIGHWAY FENCES. Under the common law, the land owner is under no obligation to fence his land along a public highway. Bnt in Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Oregon, and some other Western and Southern States, the common law rule has been modified by statutes depriving the land-holder of his action for trespass, unless he maintains sufficient fences around his land. In these States, the owner of 174 FENCES, GATES AKD BEIDGES. land must enclose it with sufficient fences if he would cultivate it. Even where there is no such statutory pro- visions, it is practically necessary to maintain highway fences, as a protection against cattle which are driven along the highway. The use of barb wire for fencing along the public roads has given rise to questions for which there were no precedents. A case was decided in the United States Circuit Court, at "Watertown, Xew York, December 17, 1885. The action was brought by a horse breeder to recover damages from his neighbor for injuries sustained by the plaintiff's horse from a barbed wire fence, stretched along the roadside in front of the defendant's premises. A non-suit was granted on the ground that the animal received the injuries through the contributory negligence of its owner. Among the rul- ings of the court was one permitting the plaintiff to be questioned, to show the fact that he had on his own farm a similar fence, but of sharper form of barb. The court further held that it might be a question whether it would not be competent testimony to show the common employment of barb wire fence in that region, and held that for the purpose of this case, a barbed wire fence, if properly constructed upon the highway, must be deemed a legal fence. It may be said in a general way, that though there is no legal obligation resting on the land holder to maintain fences along the public highway, he neglects to do so at his own risk and peril. WHAT IS A LEGAL FENCE ? What shall be necessary to constitute a legal and suf- ficient fence is specifically defined by the statutes of the several States, but there is no uniform rule among all. In Elaine, K"ew Hampshire, Massachusetts and many other States, it is provided that all, fences four feet high, FEXCE LAW. 175 and in good repair, consisting of rails, timber, boards, or etone wall, and all brooks, riv.ers,' ponds, creeks, ditches, hedges, and other things deemed by the fence viewers to be equivalent thereto, shall be accounted legal and suffi- cient fences. In Vermont, Connecticut, Michigan, and some other States, a legal fence must be four and a half feet high. In Missouri post fences must be four and one half feet high, hedges four feet high, turf fences four feet high, with ditches on each side three feet deep in the middle and three feet wide ; worm fences must be five and one-half feet high to the top of the rider, or if not ridered, five feet to the top of the top rail, and must be rocked with strong rails, poles or stakes ; stone or brick fences must be four and one-half feet high. In New York the electors of each town may, by vote, decide for themselves how fences shall be made, and what shall be deemed sufficient. No part of the fence law is so defi- nitely regulated by the statutes of the respective States as the requirements of a legal fence. In all cases where practical questions arise involving this point, it is best to consult the statutes, which will be found in the office of the township clerk. KAILROAD FENCES. In nearly every State, railroad companies are required by statute to construct and maintain legal and sufficient fences on both sides of their roads, except at crossings of public highways, in front of mills, depots, and other places where the public convenience requires that they shall be left open. The legal obligations of railroad com- panies to fence their roads rest wholly upon such statutes. In New Hampshire it is provided that if any railroad company shall neglect to maintain such fences, the owner of adjoining land may build them, and recover double the cost thereof of the company. It is generally held by the courts in all the States that, in the absence of such fences 176 l-ESCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. the railroad company is liable for all resulting damage to live stock, and no proof of contributory negligence on the part of the owner of live stock is allowed as a plea in de- fence, the statute requiring such fences being a police regulation. When the railroad company has built a suffi- cient fence on both sides of its road, it is not liable for injuries which may occur without negligence on its part. If the fence is overthrown by wind or storms, the com- pany is entitled to reasonable time in which to repair it, and if cattle enter and are injured, without fault on the company's part, it is not liable. If cattle stray upon the track at a crossing of a public road, and are killed, the owners cannot recover damages, unless the railroad com- pany is guilty of gross negligence or, intentional wrong. A law in Alabama making railroad companies absolutely liable for all stock killed on the tracks, was held to be uncon sti tutional. CHAPTEE XIV. COUNTRY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS. STRENGTH OF BRIDGES. Bridge building is a profession of itself, and some of the great bridges of the world are justly regarded as among the highest achievements of mechanical science and skill. But it is proposed to speak in this work only of the cheap and simple structures for spanning small streams. The measure of the strength of a bridge is that of its weakest part. Hence, the strength of a plain wooden bridge resting upon timber stringers or chords, is equivalent to COUXTRY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS, 177 the sustaining power of the timbers in the middle of the span. The longer the span, other things being equal, the less its strength. The following table shows the sus- taining power of sound spruce timber, of the dimensions given, at a point midway between the supports: LENGTH OF SPAN. WIDTH AND THICKNESS OP TIMBEB. 6 by 8 inches. 6 by 9 inches. 6 by 10 inches. 6 by 12 inches. Feet. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 10 2,800 2,692 4,500 6,480 12 2,400 3,042 3,750 5,400 14 2,058 2",604 3,216 4,632 16 1,800 2,280 2,808 4,050 A stick of timber twenty feet between supports, will bear a load in its center only one half as great as a timber of the same dimensions, ten feet between supports. Thus four timbers six by twelve inches, in a span of sixteen feet, would bear a load of eight tons ; in a twelve foot span, the same timbers would support a weight of nearly twelve tons. BRACES AND TRUSSES. The above is the initial strength of the timbers which support the weight of the superstructure, and any load that it may have to sustain. But in bridge building these timbers are reinforced by trusses or braces, which add greatly to the sustaining power of the bridge. Figure 275 shows the simplest form of a self-support- ing bridge, which will answer for spans of from ten to fifteen feet in length. The braces, c, c, reach from near 178 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. the end of the sill to about four feet above the center. The truss rod, d, is one inch in diameter for short bridges Fig. 275. A SIMPLE FORM OF BRIDGE SPAN. up to two inches for longer spans; it is provided with an iron washer at the top. The rod passes through the sill, Fig. 276. A STRONGER SPAN. and a cross sill, e, which passes under the main sills, thus adding firmness to the whole structure. Logs, /, /, are Fig. 277. A SHORT BRIDGE. placed against the ends of the sills to keep them in place, and where the wheels will first strike them instead of the COUNTRY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS. 179 floor plank, thus greatly equalizing the pressure. Figure 276 represents a modification of the above. The two trass rods and braces give the structure greater strength and solidity, adapting it for spans eighteen feet in length. For the latter length, sills should be of good Fig. 278. A BOLT TBCSS. material, ten inches wide and fourteen inches deep, with three middle sills of about the same size. Figure 277 is a more improved style of bridge, the truss serving both to support the structure, and as a parapet. The top railing is of the same width as the sill, about one foot. The lower side may be cut away, giving the bridge a more finished appearance. The railing at the center is six inches thick, and three inches at the ends. The tie, li, is full width and four inches thick. A bridge of this kind will answer for heavy traffic, even if twenty Fig. 279 BRIDGE BRACED FROM BELOW. feet in length. The bolt truss, in figure 278, is adapted for a span of twenty-five feet. This makes a bridge of great firmness. Each set of truss-rods support a cross- sill. The road planks are laid crosswise of the bridge. The middle sills are sometimes half an inch lower than 180 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. those along the sides, and should be foar or five in num- ber. The ends of the planks fit closely against the in- side of the truss sills, thereby keeping the planks securely iu place. A common method of bracing is from below as shown in figure 279. 'This is not usually a good practice, as the braces are liable to be earned away by ice or floods. ABUTMENTS, PIERS AND RAILINGS. If the sills of a bridge are laid directly upon the dry walls of an abutment, or upon a heavy plank, the jar of passing teams soon displaces some of the stones, and brings undue strain upon certain portions of the wall. Fig. 280. BSD OF A BRIDGE. To avoid this, abutments are best made of cut stones, and laid in cement. A wooden bent for the support of the ends of the bridge may be made as shown in figure 280. The whole should be constructed of heavy timber, pinned together. A coat of white lead should cover the interior surface of all joints. The number and position of the posts of the wooden abutment are seen in the en- graving. A log should be laid upon the wall at m, to re- COUNTRY BEIDGES AND CULVEKTS. 181 Fig. 281. FKAMED PIER. Fig. 382. BRIDGE SUPPORTED BY PILES. Fig. 283. RAILING OF BRIDGE. Fig. 284. lieve the bridge from the shock of the passing wagons. A center pier should be avoided as much as possible, as it offers serious obstruction in floods, and ice, drift 182 FENCES, GATES AND BKIDGES. wood and other floating matter become piled against it, seriously imperiling the entire structure. But in cases where the length of the bridge is so great as to require one or more piers, they may be constructed on the plan Fig. 285. PLANK FLOOR OF BRIDGE. shown in figure 281, or in case the bottom is so soft as to render the mudsill insecure, a line of piles supporting a cross-timber, as in figure 282. A strong, reliable para- pet or railing should always be provided. The want of one may be the cause of fatal accidents to persons and horses. Figure 283 gives a side view of a good railing, and figure 284 shows the manner of bracing the posts to the ends of the cross-beams. They should be thus braced at every alternate post of the railing. The floor should be double, as shown in figure 285, the lower planks laid diagonally, and the upper layer crosswise. BEIDGES FOE GULLIES. For small gullies which cross roadways or lanes in farms, and are not the beds of constant streams, but are occasionally filled with surface water, a very simple bridge is sufficient. One like that shown in figure 286 is as good as any. The sills, a, a, are sunk in a trench dug against the bank and at least to the level of the bed of the creek. The cross-sills, I, b, are not mortised into them, but simply laid between them. The pressure is COUNTRY BRIDGES AXD CULVERTS. 183 all from the outside, hence it will force a, a, tighter against the ends b, b, which must be sunk a little into the bed of the creek at its lowest point. The posts are mor- tised into the sills, a, a, and plates, c, c, and d, d, upon Fig. 286. FRAME FOR BRIDGE. which the planks are laid. Props may be put against the lower sides of the posts to hold the bridge against the stream. A cheap but practicable bridge is shown in figure 287. Two logs are laid across the gully, their ends resting on the banks, and to them puncheons or planks are spiked to form the bridge. Stout posts, well propped and reach- ing above the highest water mark, are placed against the lower side of the logs. If the creek rises, the bridge, Fig. 387. CONVENIENT FARM BRIDGE. being free, will be raised on the surface of the water, while the posts will prevent its being carried away. Should it not rise with the water, it -opposes so little sur- face to the current that the posts will hold it fast. 184 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. ORNAMENTAL BRIDGES. No feature adds more to the appearance of ornamental grounds than tasteful bridges. A .stream or narrow channel connecting two parts of a small sheet of water, affords an opportunity for the introduction of a bridge. Fig, 288. RUSTIC BBIBGB, In the absence of such features a bridge may be thrown across -a dry ravine. Whatever style may be adopted, should harmonize with the general character of the sur- roundings. An elaborate bridge of woo.d or masonry would be as much out of place on grounds unadorned by other structures, as a rude rustic one would be near highly BEIDGE OF BOCKS. finished summer-houses and other architectural features. On most grounds a neat rustic bridge, something like the one shown in figure 288, would be in good keeping with its environments. Such bridges may be made of red COUNTRY BKIDGES AND CULVERTS. 185 cedar logs and branches, resting upon stone abutments. Where boulders are abundant, a stone bridge, something like figure 289, may be built at very little cost, and will last for generations. The pleasing effect of rustic or other ornamental bridges is enhanced by training Vir- ginia creeper or other climbing plants upon them. ROAD CULVERTS. A culvert under a road is, in effect, a short bridge. The simplest form of plank culvert, resting upon stone abutments, is shown in figure 290. Such a structure is cheaply built, and serves a good purpose while the wood- work remains sound. But the planks wear out and the timbers decay, requiring frequent renewing. Where stone is abundant it is much cheaper in the end to build wholly of stone, as in figure 291. After the 'abutments Fig. 290. CULVERT WITH PLANK FLOOB. are built, a course of flat stone, along each side, projects inward from six to ten inches, as at a, a, which are covered with a broad stone, b. Where the stream to be crossed is so narrow that a row of single stones is sufficient to cover the opening, a culvert like that seen in figure 292 is cheaply made. Such structures will remain serviceable for a generation, if the foiindations are not undermined by the action of the water. 186 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. Where flat stones enough cannot be easily procured, culverts may be built of concrete. The abutments are first made, as in other cases ; then empty barrels or sugar Fig. 291. STONE CULVERT. hogsheads, according to the capacity of the opening, are fitted in, or better still, a temporary arch is made of rough, narrow boards. The concrete of cement, sand Fig. 292. CHEAPER STONE CULVERT. and gravel, is then prepared and poured in, temporary supports of lumber having been fixed across each end of the culvert to keep the concrete in place until it hardens. COUNTRY BRIDGES AXD CULVERTS. 187 Small stones may be mixed with the concrete as it is poured into place, and the whole topped off with a row of them. This protection of stones on the top is valu- able, in case the covering of earth is worn or wasted away Fig. 293. ARCHED CONCRETE CULVERT. at any time while it is in use. For a longer culvert a flattened arch is made of concrete, as shown in figure 293. Light timbers are laid across, the ends resting lightly on the abutments. Across the middle of these a round log is placed to support the crown of the arch. Elastic split poles are sprung over all, and upon these are Fig. 294. ANGULAR CONCRETE CULVERT. nailed thin narrow boards, extending lengthwise of the culvert. The ends being temporarily protected, the con- crete is mixed and poured on, as before. As soon as the concrete has become thoroughly well " set," the light 188 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES. cross-sticks are cut in two and the temporary work re- moved. A cross-section, showing another form of con- crete culvert, and the method of construction, are shown in figure 294. Such a culvert is more easily built than the last, but is not as strong. The best and most dur- able culvert is of stone, with a regular half-round arch. Such work can only be done properly by a regular mason, -but in the end it is cheaper, where the stone can be ob- tained, than any kind of make-shift. University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY A 001 128620 o