UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 BERKELEY. CALIFORNIA 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 B. H. CROCHERON and W. J. NORTON 
 
 BULLETIN 493 
 
 April, 1930 
 
 CONTRIBUTION FROM THE 
 GIANNINI FOUNDATION OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRINTING OFFICE 
 
 BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA 
 
 1930 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2012 with funding from 
 
 University of California, Davis Libraries 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/fruitmarketsinea493croc 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introductory 7 
 
 The Quest for Larger Markets 14 
 
 Present Exports to Asia 18 
 
 The Investigation 27 
 
 Methods of Work 28 
 
 Fruit Markets in Japan 39 
 
 Fruit in the Japanese Diet 41 
 
 Fresh Fruits 44 
 
 Canned Fruits 49 
 
 Dried Fruits 54 
 
 Trade Promotion Method^ .... 58 
 
 Fruit Markets in Korea 61 
 
 Fruit in the Korean Diet 62 
 
 Fresh Fruits 62 
 
 Canned Fruits 63 
 
 Dried Fruits 64 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods... 64 
 
 Fruit Markets in China 67 
 
 Manchuria 75 
 
 Fruit in the Manchurian Diet. 76 
 
 Fresh Fruits 77 
 
 Canned Fruits 81 
 
 Dried P>uits 84 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods... 86 
 
 Northern China 88 
 
 Fruit in the Northern China 
 
 Diet 89 
 
 Fresh Fruits 93 
 
 Canned Fruits 95 
 
 Dried Fruits 98 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods... 100 
 
 Central China 103 
 
 Fruit in the Central China 
 
 Diet 106 
 
 Fresh Fruits 107 
 
 Canned Fruits 115 
 
 Dried Fruits 120 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods... 124 
 
 Southern China 127 
 
 Fruit in the Southern China 
 
 Diet 130 
 
 Fresh Fruits 131 
 
 Canned P'ruits 136 
 
 Dried Fruits 140 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods... 144 
 Fruit Markets in the Philippine 
 
 Islands 149 
 
 Fruit in the Philippine Diet... 152 
 
 Fresh Fruits 153 
 
 Canned Fruits 158 
 
 Dried Fruits 161 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods ... 163 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fruit Markets in French Indo- 
 
 China 169 
 
 Fruit in the Indo-Chinese 
 
 Diet 171 
 
 Fresh Fruits 172 
 
 Canned Fruits 174 
 
 Dried Fruits 176 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods... 178 
 
 Fruit Markets in Siam 181 
 
 Fruit in the Siamese Diet 184 
 
 Fresh Fruits 185 
 
 Canned Fruits 187 
 
 Dried Fruits 189 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods .... 192 
 
 Fruit Markets in British Malaya.. 197 
 Fruit in the Diet of British 
 
 Malaya 200 
 
 Fresh Fruits 202 
 
 Canned Fruits 206 
 
 Dried Fruits 210 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods... 212 
 
 Fruit Markets in the Netherland 
 
 East Indies 217 
 
 Fruit in the Diet of the Neth- 
 erland East Indies 223 
 
 Fresh Fruits 226 
 
 Canned Fruits 232 
 
 Dried Fruits 236 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods... 243 
 
 Fruit Markets in the Indian Em- 
 pire and Ceylon 249 
 
 Burma 252 
 
 Fruit in the Diet of Burma ... 254 
 
 Fresh Fruits 255 
 
 Canned Fruits 258 
 
 Dried Fruits 260 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods... 262 
 
 India (proper) 265 
 
 Fruit in the Indian Diet 269 
 
 Fresh Fruits 273 
 
 Canned Fruits 279 
 
 Dried Fruits 285 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods .... 290 
 
 Ceylon 299 
 
 Fruit in the Diet of Ceylon ... 301 
 
 Fresh Fruits 302 
 
 Canned Fruits 305 
 
 Dried Fruits 308 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods .... 310 
 
 Conclusions 313 
 
 Acknowledgments 335 
 
LIST OF FIGURES 
 
 FIGURES PAGE 
 
 1. Clingstone Peaches: Forecast of Trend of Production 12 
 
 2. Population of the World. From "Geography of the World's Agriculture," 
 
 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 16 
 
 3. Area and Population of Certain Countries. Data from U. S. D. C. Year- 
 
 book of Commerce, 1928, 2:678-9, 1928 17 
 
 4. United States Exports of Canned Fruits to Asia, Europe and All Countries, 
 
 1922-1928 17 
 
 5. United States Exports of Dried Fruits to Asia, Europe and All Countries, 
 
 1922-1928 18 
 
 6. United States Exports of Fresh Fruits to Asia, Europe and All Countries, 
 
 1922-1928 19 
 
 7. United States Exports of Certain Fruits to Asia, Average 1924-1928 (fresh 
 
 equivalent) 21 
 
 8. United States Exports of Certain Dried Fruits to Asia, 1910-1928 22 
 
 9. Total Exports of Fruit from the United States to Oriental Countries, 
 
 Average 1924-1928 (fresh equivalent) 23 
 
 10. United States Exports of Dried Fruits to Oriental Countries, Average 
 
 1924-1928 24 
 
 11. United States Exports of Certain Dried Fruits to Asia, Average 1924-1928 . 24 
 
 12. United States Exports of Canned Fruit to Oriental Countries, Average 
 
 1924-1928 25 
 
 13. United States Exports of Certain Canned Fruits to Asia, Average 1924-1928 26 
 
 14. United States Exports of Fresh Fruit to Oriental Countries, Average 
 
 1924-1928 26 
 
 15. United States Exports of Certain Fresh Fruits to Asia, Average 1924-1928.. 27 
 
 16. Route of the Investigation in Eastern Asia 30 
 
 17. Foreign Trade and Population of Certain Countries, 1923-1927 Average... 68 
 
 18. The Economic Structure of an Eastern Society. The annual incomes of over 
 
 3,000,000 natives of the Netherland East Indies who paid an income tax 
 in 1925. Note the very large number of small incomes and the few large 
 incomes. Reproduced from Bulletin 69 of the Central Bureau of Statis- 
 tics, government of the Netherland East Indies 220 
 
 19. Average Relation between California Price of Prunes and United States 
 
 Production of Prunes 314 
 
 20. Average Relation between California f.o.b. price of Grapes and United 
 
 States Carlot Shipment of Grapes 316 
 
 LIST OF TABLES 
 
 TABLE PAGE 
 
 1 Percentage change in the acreage of certain field crops in California 
 
 between 1919-1920 and 1924-1925 8 
 
 2 Percentage change in total acreage of California fruits between 1920 
 
 and 1925 9 
 
 3 Production of certain fruits, United States and California, average 
 
 1924-1928 (fresh equivalent) 10 
 
 4 Deciduous fruit production, California, average 1919-1920 and 1927-1928.. 11 
 
 5 Percentage change in prices of California fruits between 1921-1922 and 
 
 1926-1927 11 
 
 6 United States exports of fresh, canned and dried fruits, 1922-1928 19 
 
 7 Percentage of United States production of certain fruits exported to all 
 
 countries, Europe and Asia, average 1924-1928 20 
 
 8 United States exports of fruit to the Oriental countries, average 1924-1928 20 
 
 9 United States exports of certain fruits to Asia, average 1924-1928 (fresh 
 
 equivalent) 23 
 
 10 Group conferences of importers and dealers 34 
 
 11 Direct fruit exports from California to Japan (including Korea) 38 
 
 12 Fruit production, 1927, Japan 44 
 
 13 Canning industry in Japan, reported value of products canned 50 
 
 14 Current retail prices, August 1929, American canned fruits, Japan 52 
 
 15 Current retail prices, August 1929, American canned fruits, Seoul, Korea . 63 
 
LIST OF TABLES— (Continued) 
 
 TABLE PAGE 
 
 16 Direct fruit exports from California to China 66 
 
 17 China's imports of fruit by countries of origin, 1924 69 
 
 18 China's imports of canned fruits (table and pie), by countries of origin, 
 
 1925-1927 . 70 
 
 19 China's imports of currants and raisins, by countries of origin, 1925-1927... 71 
 
 20 China's imports of oranges, by countries of origin, 1925-1927 72 
 
 21 China's imports of lemons, by countries of origin, 1925-1927 72 
 
 22 China's imports of apples, by countries of origin, 1925-1927 73 
 
 23 Direct fruit exports from California to Kwantung 74 
 
 24 Net imports of apples and oranges into Manchuria 79 
 
 25 Current retail prices, Manchuria, September 1929, American canned 
 
 fruits 83 
 
 [26 Dietaries, composition in percentages by weight 91 
 
 [27 Dietaries, percentage distribution of protein and energy among different 
 
 groups of food materials 91 
 
 28 Average expenditure for food and proportion of total devoted to different 
 
 kinds of food by 16 Chinese (Peking) families 92 
 
 29 Apples, importations through Tientsin 95 
 
 30 Current prices, September, 1929, American canned fruits, Tientsin and 
 
 Peking 97 
 
 31 Current retail prices, September 1929, American and Chinese canned 
 
 fruits, Tientsin and Peking 97 
 
 32 Chinese fresh fruits, prices in Shanghai, September 1929 109 
 
 33 Fresh fruit importations, port of Shanghai, 1928 110 
 
 34 Current retail prices, October 1929, American canned fruits 116 
 
 35 Canned fruits, importations into Shanghai 117 
 
 36 Current retail prices, October 1929, American dried fruits 121 
 
 37 Importation of raisins and currants into Shanghai 122 
 
 38 Re-exports of raisins from Shanghai to other China ports 122 
 
 39 Direct fruit exports from California to Hongkong 126 
 
 40 Native fresh fruits, southern China 133 
 
 41 Current prices, American fresh fruits, October 1929, southern China 135 
 
 42 Current prices, November 1929, Chinese canned fruits, southern China... 137 
 
 43 Current retail prices, November 1929, American canned fruits, southern 
 
 China 138 
 
 44 Current retail prices, November 1929, American dried fruits, southern 
 
 China 141 
 
 45 Direct fruit exports from California to Philippine Islands 148 
 
 46 Native fresh fruits, seasons and retail prices, November 1929, Manila, 
 
 Philippine Islands 154 
 
 47 Current retail prices, Manila, November 1929, American canned fruits .... 159 
 
 48 Direct fruit exports from California to French Indo-China 168 
 
 49 Native fresh fruits, French Indo-China 172 
 
 50 Current prices, French Indo-China, November 1929, American canned 
 
 fruits 175 
 
 51 Direct fruit exports from California to Siam 180 
 
 52 Current retail prices, November 1929, American canned fruits, Bangkok, 
 
 Siam 187 
 
 53 Direct fruit exports from California to British Malaya 198 
 
 54 Native fruits in British Malaya 203 
 
 55 Fresh fruit imports, British Malaya 204 
 
 56 Current prices, British Malaya, November-December 1929, American 
 
 canned fruits 208 
 
 57 Direct fruit exports from California to Java and Madura 215 
 
 58 Direct fruit exports from California to other Netherland East Indies 216 
 
 59 Certain exports, Netherland East Indies 219 
 
 60 Native fresh fruits, Netherland East Indies 226 
 
 61 Direct fruit exports from California to British India 248 
 
 62 Native fresh fruits, Burma 255 
 
 63 Current prices, Rangoon, Burma, January 1930, American canned fruits.. 259 
 
 64 Native fresh fruits, British India 275 
 
 65 Current retail prices, British India, January 1930, American canned 
 
 fruits 282 
 
LIST OF TABLES— (Continued) 
 
 TABLE ' PAGE 
 
 66 Retail prices of various brands, British India, January 1930 283 
 
 67 Wholesale prices of various brands, British India, January 1930 283 
 
 68 Current retail prices, January 1930, American dried fruits, British India.... 288 
 
 69 Current prices at wholesale, January 1930, American dried fruits, British 
 
 India 289 
 
 70 Direct fruit exports from California to Ceylon 298 
 
 71 Current prices, Colombo, Ceylon, February 1930, American canned 
 
 fruits 307 
 
 72 Current prices, Colombo, Ceylon, February 1930, American dried fruits. ... 309 
 
 73 Prunes, production and prices 314 
 
 74 United States production and exports of certain fruits, average 1924-1928 
 
 (fresh equivalent) 315 
 
 75 Grapes, carlot shipments and prices 316 
 
 76 United States exports of fresh, canned and dried fruits, 1922-1928 (fresh 
 
 equivalent) 337 
 
 77 Percentage of United States production of certain fruits exported to all 
 
 countries, average 1924-1928 237 
 
 78 United States exports of fruits to Oriental countries, average 1924-1928... 337 
 
 79 Percentage of United States production of certain fruits exported to Asia, 
 
 average 1924-1928 338 
 
 80 Total exports of fresh fruits from the United States, 1926-1928 338 
 
 81 Total exports of fresh fruits from California to Oriental countries, 
 
 1927-1929 339 
 
 82 Total exports of canned fruits from the United States to Oriental coun- 
 
 tries, 1926-1928 340 
 
 83 Total exports of canned fruits from California to Oriental countries, 
 
 1927-1929 341 
 
 84 Total exports of dried fruits from the United States to Oriental coun- 
 
 tries, 1926-1928 342 
 
 85 Total exports of dried fruits from California to Oriental countries, 
 
 1927-1929 313 
 
 86 United States exports of raisins, prunes, peaches and apricots to Asia, 
 
 1910-1928 344 
 
 87 Populations of the countries of eastern Asia 344 
 
 88 Japan, area under different crops, 1923 345 
 
 89 Fruit production in Japan 345 
 
 90 Importations of fruits into Korea by countries of origin, 1925-1927 346 
 
 91 China's imports of fresh, dried and preserved fruits, not otherwise 
 
 recorded, by countries of origin, 1925-1927 348 
 
 92 Net import of oranges into China ports 349 
 
 93 Net import of lemons into China ports 350 
 
 94 Net import of oranges in bulk into China ports 351 
 
 95 Net import of fruits, table and pie (canned goods), into China ports 352 
 
 96 Net import of canned goods, not otherwise recorded into China ports... 353 
 
 97 Net import of currants and raisins into China ports 354 
 
 98 Net import of fruits, fresh, dried or preserved, not otherwise recorded, 
 
 into China ports 355 
 
 99 Imports of canned fruits into the Philippine Islands by countries of 
 
 origin 356 
 
 100 Imports of fresh fruits into the Philippine Islands by countries 357 
 
 101 Imports and exports of fruits in French Indo-China 358 
 
 102 Imports of fresh fruits into Siam 358 
 
 103 Imports of fresh fruits, British Malaya 359 
 
 104 Imports of dried and preserved fruits, British Malaya 360 
 
 105 Imports of other sorts of canned fruits, British Malaya 361 
 
 106 Exports of pineapples, British Malaya 362 
 
 107 Imports of fresh fruit into Java and Madura 363 
 
 108 Imports of canned fruits into Java and Madura 364 
 
 109 Imports of dried fruits into Java and Madura 364 
 
 110 Value of imports of principal foodstuffs into the Netherland East Indies... 365 
 
 111 Imports into Burma of canned and bottled fruits 365 
 
 112 Imports of canned and bottled fruits into British India 366 
 
FRUIT MARKETS IN EASTERN ASIA 1 
 
 B. H. CROCHERONa AND W. J. NORTON* 
 
 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 The post-war agricultural depression in the staple crops brought 
 many far-reaching effects. It not only affected the farmers growing 
 those particular crops which declined in purchasing power but also 
 had other secondary influences upon far-distant farmers growing 
 other commodities. 
 
 After the world war, farmers in California who were growing the 
 staple crops such as wheat, barley, corn, beans, and grain sorghums, 
 felt the immediate effect of the low national prices for these crops. 
 Farmers who were growing fruits and other California specialties did 
 not, however, experience such declining prices. Peaches, prunes, 
 plums, pears, grapes, and tigs, remained high in price for some years. 
 .Many persons expected these high prices to continue indefinitely. 
 
 Not unnaturally, farmers growing the low-priced staple crops 
 decreased their acreages of these commodities and, where facilities 
 were at hand, hastened to plant those fruit crops which were then at 
 a higher price level. The facilities needed were, first, land suitable 
 for the crop, second, water for its irrigation, and third, finance to 
 carry the slowly maturing orchard into bearing. In general, money 
 was easily available from banks to farmers desiring to plant these 
 crops. Bankers, like other persons, expected our specialty fruits to 
 continue at a high price level. 
 
 Under these conditions the acreage of field crops in California 
 steadily and rapidly declined (see table 1). Between 1920 and 1925 
 the percentage decrease ranged from 13 per cent for hay to over 40 
 per cent for corn, wheat, grain sorghums, and beans. The field crops 
 of California declined about one and a half million acres, or about 
 26 per cent. In the meanwhile, there was a rapid and at times almost 
 
 1 Paper No. 10. The Giannini Foundation of Agricultural Economics. 
 
 2 This investigation has been done in cooperation with the U. S. Department of 
 Commerce. 
 
 3 Director of Agricultural Extension, Professor of Agricultural Extension, 
 Agricultural Economist on the Giannini Foundation, and Trade Commissioner in 
 the United States Department of Commerce. 
 
 * Specialist in Agricultural Extension, and Assistant Trade Commissioner in 
 the United States Department of Commerce. 
 
8 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 frantic effort to increase the acreage of fruit crops and vegetables. 
 At that period it was a common expression to designate the planting 
 of an orchard as ''developing the ranch." Civic organizations, urging 
 the planting of fruit crops, discussed it as "developing the country." 
 No one seemed to doubt that the way toward prosperity for the state 
 as well as for individuals was through the planting of large acreages of 
 the high priced fruit crops. 
 
 TABLE 1 
 Percentage Change in the Acreage of Certain Field Crops in California 
 
 Between 1919-1920 and 1924-1925 
 Crop Per cent 
 
 Wheat — 46 
 
 Grain sorghums — 46 
 
 Corn — 43 
 
 Beans — 42 
 
 Eice — 39 
 
 Potatoes — 35 
 
 Sugar beets — 30 
 
 Oats — 22 
 
 Barley — 19 
 
 Hay (tame) —13 
 
 Field crops , — 26 
 
 From Calif. Agr. Ext. Cir. 18. Data from California Cooperative Crop Reporting Service. 
 
 Indeed, there was some justification for this point of view. Cali- 
 fornia lands are generally held at high prices. They cannot be 
 expected to compete on even terms with lower-priced lands all over the 
 nation which grow the same staple crops. On the other hand, due to 
 the climate and soils of the state, it has been possible to plant many 
 fruits which cannot be grown elsewhere within the continental United 
 States, and also to obtain high yields from them, thus maintaining a 
 monopoly production in America and competing successfully with 
 similar regions elsewhere in the world. The general philosophy that 
 California should grow those crops for which it is primarily and solely 
 adapted, seemed an excellent basis for agricultural procedure. This 
 sentiment was expanded to warrant an immediate and large planting 
 by those who looked only at immediate production and prices and who 
 did not seek to forecast the future. 
 
 Between 1920 and 1925 (see table 2), California made material 
 increases in its acreages of various fruits. Some of these increases 
 were very large. Figs increased 156 per cent, grapefruit 103 per cent, 
 almonds 82 per cent, grapes 71 per cent, apricots 55 per cent, pears 
 48 per cent, peaches 46 per cent, and so on. The total fruit acreage 
 of the state increased 43 per cent, or an increase of 573,000 acres. 
 
Bin,. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 9 
 
 No immediate effect of these increased plantings was felt either 
 in volume of production or in price. Tree fruits and vines come but 
 slowly into bearing. The volume of fruit to be marketed was not 
 immediately increased. Thus there was no check through increased 
 volume or decreased prices upon those who saw the future prosperity 
 of California based upon deciduous fruits at high prices. Land values 
 continued to rise. The per acre value of farm real estate increased 9.2 
 per cent between 1920 and 1925. 
 
 TABLE 2 
 
 Percentage Change in Total Acreage op California Fruits 
 Between 1920 and 1925 
 
 Crops Per cent Crops Per cent 
 
 Pigs +156 Cherries + 19 
 
 Grapefruit +103 Prunes + 14 
 
 Almonds + 82 Oranges + 7 
 
 Apricots + 55 Lemons — 5 
 
 Pears + 48 
 
 Peaches + 46 Table grapes +130 
 
 Plums + 46 Raisin grapes + 66 
 
 Walnuts + 33 Juice grapes + 46 
 
 Olives + 22 Total grapes + 71 
 
 Grand total + 43 
 
 From Calif. Agr. Ext. Cir. 18. Data from California Cooperative Crop Reporting Service. 
 
 In many of these fruit crops California has complete, or at least 
 partial monopoly (see table 3). For example, California grows all 
 the commercial apricots in the United States ; fresh, canned, and dried. 
 It grows all of the raisins, and 84 per cent of the fresh grapes. It 
 produces practically all of the canned and dried peaches in America; 
 all of the dried pears, 89 per cent of the dried prunes, and 56 per 
 cent of the canned pears. Any material increase in the California 
 acreage of these commodities represents an almost e.qual increase in 
 the national acreage and therefore of the national production. In 
 most of the staple crops California grows but a small percentage of the 
 product. Even a relatively large increase in the acreage of staple 
 crops would have made but a small fractional increase in the national 
 production and would have had little or no effect upon national prices. 
 
 By 1927-1928 the increased plantings of California fruits were 
 manifesting their production through the increased volume on the 
 markets (see table 4). The California pack of canned fruit increased 
 48 per cent over that in the years of 1919-1920. The dried fruits had 
 similarly increased by 58 per cent. The inter-state shipments of fresh 
 fruits had increased by the enormous gain of 182 per cent. 
 
10 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 3 
 
 Production of Certain Fruits, United States and California 
 Average 1924-1928 
 
 (Fresh Equivalent) 
 
 Per cent of 
 
 Fruit United States California U.S. in Calif. 
 
 1,000 lb. 1,000 lb. Percent 
 Apples 
 
 Total 8,111,016 412,488 5.1 
 
 Fresh 7,447,778 254,008 3.4 
 
 Canned 281,478 
 
 Dried 381,760 156,480 41.0 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Total 340,400 340,400 100.0 
 
 Fresh 32,582 32,582 100.0 
 
 Canned 88,238 88,238 100.0 
 
 Dried 219,580 219,580 100.0 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Total 271,880 31,200 11.5 
 
 Fresh 209,259 20,266 9.7 
 
 Canned 62,621 10,934 17.5 
 
 Dried 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Total 4,563,938 4,133,200 90.6 
 
 Fresh 2,603,118 2,172,380 83.5 
 
 Canned 4,020 4,020 100.0 
 
 Dried 1,956,800 1,956,800 100.0 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Total 2,649,792 950,045 35.9 
 
 Fresh 1,903,553 205,873 10.8 
 
 Canned 493,459 491,392 99.6 
 
 Dried 252,780 252,780 100.0 
 
 Pears 
 
 Total 1,031,232 370,618 35.9 
 
 Fresh 816,436 231,575 28.4 
 
 Canned 170,928 95,175 55.7 
 
 Dried 43,868 43,868 100.0 
 
 Prunes 986,100 880,300 89.3 
 
 Oranges 2,772,955 1,850,408 66.7 
 
 Grapefruit 731,019 44,904 6.1 
 
 Lemons 537,720 537,720 100.0 
 
 Data from Shear, S. W. Fruit Production, Consumption and Utilization in the United 
 States. Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. (in preparation). 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit M arrets in Eastern Asia 11 
 
 TABLE 4 
 
 Deciduous Fruit Production, California 
 
 Average 1919-1920 and 1927-1928 
 
 Average Average Percent 
 
 1919-1920 1927-1928 Increase 
 
 Canned— Cases 12,346,000 18,301,000 + 48 
 
 Dried— Tons 364,000 575,000 + 58 
 
 Interstate Shipments— Cars 32,500 91,700 4-182 
 
 Meanwhile, there had been some increase in the per capita, con- 
 sumption of these commodities in the United States. In part this had 
 come about through the relatively high prosperity of the country and 
 the greater purchasing power of many families due to better wages. 
 In part it resulted from widespread agitation for the increased con- 
 sumption of fruits and vegetables as a desirable contribution to the 
 diet. The doctrine of beneficial vitamins in certain foodstuffs, nota- 
 bly fruits and vegetables, and the alkaline ash residue of some of 
 these foods in the human system, were widely advertised by physicians, 
 dietitians, and those Avho had the commodity to sell. Unfortunately, 
 however, this increased demand was not sufficiently rapid to keep pace 
 with the increased production of these fruits under the stimulus of 
 post-war prices. The consuming public would undoubtedly have been 
 able and willing to purchase a somewhat larger volume of California 
 fruits even at the price level prevalent immediately after the war. 
 They were not, however, willing to consume the large amounts brought 
 upon the market at the then prevailing prices. 
 
 TABLE 5 
 Percentage Change in Prices of California Fruits 
 Between 1921-1922 and 1926-1927 
 Crops Per cent Crops Per cent 
 
 Figs —44 Walnuts 4-10 
 
 Prunes — 37 Cherries +18 
 
 Plums — 33 Oranges +27 
 
 Peaches — 30 
 
 Olives — 26 Table grapes — 64 
 
 Pears — 20 Juice grapes — 39 
 
 Apricots. .... Eaisin grapes — 33 
 
 Almonds + 2 
 
 Prom Calif. A.gr. Ext. Cir. 18. Data from California Cooperative Crop Reporting Service. 
 
 Consequently, prices fell for most California fruits (see table 5). 
 Between 1921-1922 and 1926-1927 the price of peaches declined 30 
 per cent, of plums 33 per cent, of prunes 37 per cent, and of figs 44 
 per cent. Farmers who had planted these crops on high-priced lauds 
 and at high wages found themselves unable to market the crops at the 
 
12 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 expected prices. Many could not make a profit upon the investment 
 already involved. Some could not make cost of production. Further- 
 more, in a number of these crops the peak of production had not yet 
 been reached and would not be reached for years to come. A steadily 
 increasing volume was to be expected. For example, Dr. H. R. Well- 
 man, as shown in figure 1, estimates that the probable cling peach pro- 
 duction of California will not reach its peak of normal production 
 until about 1932 or 1933, and that the normal crop will not again be as 
 
 Fig. 1. — Clingstone Peaches: Forecast of Trend of Production. 
 
 small as that of 1928 until about the year 1938. This estimate, of 
 course, is made upon the assumption that peach orchards will not be 
 destroyed until they reach the normal old-age limit of twenty years 
 and that no large area of bearing orchards will be unduly neglected. 
 The estimate, however, is made on the further assumption that no 
 additional acreages of cling peaches will be planted in the interim. 
 Of course there will be abnormal years, as that of 1929, when through 
 a frost or other hazard, the production will greatly decline. The esti- 
 mate mentioned above only involves production in normal years. 
 
 In many ways, an over-expansion in tree and vine crops is more 
 serious than that in annual crops such as wheat, corn, or potatoes. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 13 
 
 We have already called attention to the fact that since the produc- 
 tion from tree crops does not increase until several years after they 
 are planted, there is thus no quick check on plantings caused by low- 
 ered prices. Farmers may continue to plant under the assumption 
 that the present production and price level will continue. Further- 
 more, any readjustment of fruit acreage occurs but slowly after a price 
 decline, since these fruits are perennial crops which require a large 
 investment to bring them into bearing. Thousands of farmers have 
 been keeping records of their costs of production in cooperation with 
 the Agricultural Extension Service of the University of California. 
 L. W. Fluharty, in charge of this work, gives the following general 
 estimates for the costs per acre of bringing orchards into bearing, 
 not including the cost of the land itself : peaches $250 ; pears $325 ; 
 apricots $250 ; prunes $260 ; vineyards $200. These figures vary of 
 course from county to county and from man to man. They are, never- 
 theless, general averages and give some indication of the investment 
 which must be sacrificed if a fruit orchard is destroyed before the 
 investment is amortized during the bearing years. Therefore calami- 
 tously low fruit prices are not likely to be immediately rectified by 
 decreases in production. Low prices in fruit crops usually continue 
 over extended periods because of the difficulty of rapid adjustment 
 to new conditions and because of unwillingness to sacrifice the large 
 investment already made in planting and maturing an orchard. 
 
 By 1929 in the great deciduous fruit belts of the state calamitously 
 low prices for fruit crops had brought ruin to some, jeopardy to 
 many, and concern to all. Still larger crops were expected in the 
 immediate future. They might sell for still lower prices. 
 
 The whole problem as presented above has been much discussed 
 among those interested in the financial welfare of California. The 
 situation is so far-reaching that it not only confronts the farmers 
 who are directly producing these crops, but also the businessmen and 
 tradesmen who secondarily depend upon them, and even the transpor- 
 tation companies and other public utilities who indirectly derive a 
 large portion of their revenue from the fertile lands of California. 
 
 Three possible remedies have been advanced. The first of these is 
 to destroy a sufficient acreage of the California fruits which are now 
 over-produced to readjust supply to demand. We have already men- 
 tioned some of the difficulties attendant upon such a proceeding. 
 Although some orchards may be pulled out under the immediate 
 depression of low prices, no large or material acreage is likely to be 
 so affected until the financial situation has become extremely acute. 
 
14 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Even though bankrupt farmers leave the land to seek a living else- 
 where, the farm usually passes into the ownership of financial institu- 
 tions or of private capital. Thus, the vines and trees continue to pro- 
 duce. The net result is not likely to affect seriously the volume of 
 production. 
 
 The second remedy proposed is to decrease costs of production 
 in order to meet decreased prices. This remedy is and has been feas- 
 ible within certain limits. One of the greatest factors lying within 
 the power of individual farmers is to decrease their costs of produc- 
 tion by improved methods. The Agricultural Extension Service of 
 the University of California has been committed to this program and 
 has been forwarding it for many years. Nevertheless, any decrease 
 in costs reaches its natural limitations. These limitations are those 
 of the land and of the man himself. It is not possible to decrease costs 
 indefinitely. 
 
 Therefore, many persons and organizations in the State of Cali- 
 fornia have turned to the third remedy, which is to increase demand 
 sufficiently to materially affect prices. These persons rightly recog- 
 nize that these crops are grown for human food and that if prices 
 are to be increased, there either must be found more persons to eat 
 these commodities or those already consuming the crops must by some 
 means be induced to eat more of them. The increase of trade demand 
 has therefore been a fertile subject for discussion by all those inter- 
 ested in the agricultural problems of California. 
 
 THE QUEST FOR LARGER MARKETS 
 
 Undoubtedly something can be done to increase consumption in 
 the United States. Per-capita consumption has been slowly increasing 
 in the past. Certain commodity marketing associations have materi- 
 ally increased the consumption of their particular food product by 
 means of widespread and expensive advertising campaigns through- 
 out the nation. It is recognized, however, that because of the limita- 
 tions of the human appetite, American consumption of California 
 fruits cannot be increased indefinitely. Indeed, there are indications 
 that some of the present widespread advertising campaigns within 
 the nation are bearing less return than formerly, owing to the fact 
 that they are necessarily competitive and offset one another. 
 
 The consumption of foodstuffs is relatively inelastic in America. 
 It might be possible to educate the American public to own two or 
 three automobiles or to advertise that seven razors, one for each day 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 15 
 
 in the week, were necessary for respectability. It is impossible, how- 
 ever, to teach the public to eat two or three times as much food. 
 Under lowered prices, demand increases somewhat, partly through 
 increased consumption but more largely through waste. Real increased 
 demands in foodstuffs are, however, difficult to create. The consump- 
 tion of one food is likely to be at the expense of another. Because 
 of their bulkiness, fruits can occupy but a relatively small place in 
 the American diet. It would be impossible to teach the American 
 public to eat several times as much fruit, even at lower prices. In- 
 creased production requires increased consumers outside of America. 
 
 Attention has therefore been directed beyond the bounds of 
 America to find a consuming population which could be induced, 
 through trade enterprise or other methods, to purchase California 
 fruits and fruit products, thus creating an additional demand which 
 might offset the increased production. 
 
 Europe, which has an economic level and popular food demand 
 somewhat like our own, has for many years been a large consumer of 
 California fruits and their products. As a part of the European 
 recovery, that continent may be expected to consume more of our 
 canned, dried, and fresh fruits. However, many persons believe that 
 neither American nor European demands can be sufficiently increased 
 to solve the problem for rural California. They have insisted that it 
 would require not only the increased demands of America and Europe, 
 but also an increased consumption in the Far East to offset the rising 
 fruit production of California, 
 
 Anyone looking at a population map of the world (figure 2) must 
 be struck with the enormous population of the countries of the Far 
 East, in which half of the world's inhabitants are congregated. Many 
 persons and many organizations have therefore voiced the theory that 
 beyond the Pacific lie at hand markets and market opportunities 
 which should be more fully realized. These markets are relatively 
 close to the Pacific seaboard, from which many coast ports and large 
 cities of the Orient can be reached without trans-shipment. The ques- 
 tion has therefore risen whether, somewhere within the bounds of the 
 Far East, there are not places and nations which would consume 
 more of our products if these were easily available to them in the 
 form and of the kind desired (figure 3). 
 
16 University of California— Experiment Station 
 
Bui* 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 17 
 
 Country 
 
 United States 
 
 China 
 
 British India 
 
 Netherland East Indies 
 
 Japan 
 
 British Malaya 
 
 Population (Millions) 
 100 200 300 400 
 
 500 
 
 Population 
 Area 
 
 Fig. 3. — Area and Population of Certain Countries. Data from U.S.D.C. 
 Yearbook of Commerce, 1928, 2:678-9, 1928. 
 
 Fig. 4. — United States Exports of Canned Fruits to Asia, Europe and 
 All Countries, 1922-1928. 
 
18 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 PRESENT EXPORTS TO ASIA 
 
 In the past, Asia has been but a small factor in our export fruit 
 markets (see figures 4, 5, and 6). In general, our total exports are 
 determined b}^ Europe, contrasted with which, Asia has been a very 
 minor influence (see table 6). This is best realized when our exports 
 are calculated in terms of percentage of the crop produced in America 
 
 600 
 
 500 
 
 400 
 
 o 300 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o* 
 o 
 o 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TOTALS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ► 
 
 
 
 
 
 UROPE""? 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 // 
 / / 
 // 
 
 Y 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ' / 
 
 / 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >w """■—•. 
 
 
 -——■"-"' 
 
 " 
 
 ^ 
 
 lO 
 
 to 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 o> 
 
 o> 
 
 o> 
 
 Fig. 5. — United States Exports of Dried Fruits to Asia, Europe and 
 All Countries, 1922-1928. 
 
 or California. Expressed in tons or in pounds, the huge size of the 
 figures is likely to be deceptive. Obviously, since our production has 
 increased by large percentages, our market demands must be increased 
 by somewhat similar percentages if the former price level is to be 
 restored. 
 
 Although we are exporting to Europe 39 per cent of our entire 
 apricot crop, 45 per cent of the prune crop and lesser but substantial 
 amounts of the other fruit crops, we have never exported to Asia 1 
 per cent of any of our fruit crops (see table 7). Therefore, it is 
 obvious that a small relative increase in our present Asiatic exports 
 
Bul. 493 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 19 
 
 would do little, if anything, to change the general price level of Cali- 
 fornia fruits. Those who are in the business of exports from America 
 or of imports into the Far East, or those who handle or transport 
 these products between America and Asia, might well be pleased 
 with any increase in the present business. Farmers, however, are 
 
 ,200 
 800 
 400 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TOT 
 
 AL Jr 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 /' 
 
 1 
 
 EUROPE -^7 S 
 
 1 v 
 
 ^* 0m * 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 ,' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _**'*rz. 
 
 
 
 N to 
 
 CO 
 
 t- 
 
 CO 
 
 C\J 
 
 CM 
 
 w 
 
 o> 
 
 0> 
 
 o> 
 
 Fig. 6. — United States Exports of Fresh Fruits to Asia, Europe and 
 All Countries, 1922-1928. 
 
 TABLE 6 
 
 United States Exports of Fresh, Canned and Dried Fruits 
 
 1922-1928 
 
 Fresh 
 Total 
 Europe .... 
 Asia 
 
 Canned 
 
 Total 
 
 Europe 
 Asia 
 
 Dried 
 
 Total 
 
 Europe 
 Asia 
 
 1922 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 455,190 
 
 185,102 
 
 8,720 
 
 207,628 
 
 184,585 
 
 7,027 
 
 230,565 
 
 161,988 
 
 6,647 
 
 1923 
 
 1,0001b. 
 
 727,084 
 
 370,511 
 
 12,756 
 
 149,573 
 
 116,936 
 
 7,344 
 
 190,657 
 
 111,452 
 
 11,947 
 
 1924 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 897,893 
 
 510,288 
 
 18,030 
 
 243,448 
 
 213,262 
 
 7,256 
 
 398,950 
 
 309,425 
 
 12,302 
 
 1925 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 800,136 
 
 425,958 
 
 17,214 
 
 282,351 
 
 247,993 
 
 8,163 
 
 331,708 
 
 252,940 
 
 8,276 
 
 1926 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 ,144,908 
 
 686,028 
 
 22,903 
 
 252,633 
 
 214,183 
 
 10,631 
 
 363,557 
 
 270,204 
 
 10,663 
 
 1927 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 1,216,542 
 
 727,563 
 
 23,791 
 
 275,201 
 232,922 
 
 9,923 
 
 481,690 
 
 387,172 
 
 9,907 
 
 1928 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 1,092,470 
 
 591,260 
 25,456 
 
 342,279 
 
 293,015 
 
 10,732 
 
 585,134 
 
 471,306 
 
 15,709 
 
20 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 interested only in general upward changes in price level. Any effect- 
 ive development of Asiatic markets for our fruits is much more diffi- 
 cult of accomplishment when it seeks to influence favorably the entire 
 price level at home than when it strives merely to improve the Asiatic 
 fruit export business which in the past has used such a small fraction 
 of the entire crop. Evidently, if the prices to California farmers are 
 to be materially increased through Asiatic export alone, our shipments 
 to that continent must be increased many fold. 
 
 In total, during the years 1924-1928, countries of the Far East 
 have taken an average of 74,944,864 pounds (see table 8) of fruit per 
 
 TABLE 7 
 
 Percentage of United States Production of Certain Fruits Exported to 
 Akl Countries, Europe, and Asia, Average 1924-1928 
 
 Fruit All countries Europe Asia Others 
 
 per cent per cent per cent per cent 
 
 Apples 10.8 9.5 0.2 1.1 
 
 Apricots 43.5 39.1 0.8 3.6 
 
 Cherries 0.7 0.1 0.3 0.3 
 
 Grapes 14.1 8.4 0.9 4.8 
 
 Peaches 5.3 3.7 0.1 1.5 
 
 Pears 13.3 9.3 0.1 3.9 
 
 Prunes 51.9 44.6 0.3 7.0 
 
 Grapefruit 5.9 2.7 0.1 3.1 
 
 Lemons 3.4 0.02 0.5 2.88 
 
 Oranges 6.8 0.6 0.2 6.0 
 
 TABLE 8 
 
 United States Exports op Fruit to Oriental Countries 
 Average 1924-1928 
 
 Fresh Dried Canned Total 
 
 Country pounds pounds pounds pounds 
 
 British India 137,992 515,108 1,399,034 2,052,134 
 
 British Malaya 1,426,948 399,260 702,888 2,529,096 
 
 Ceylon 507,665 169,108 192,624 869,397 
 
 China 5,413,234 20,584,480 1,556,946 27,554,660 
 
 Java and Madura 366,305 703,008 1,360,342 2,429,655 
 
 Other Netherland E. Indies 21,875 210,352 707,194 939,421 
 
 French Indo-China 9,277 453,712 184,056 647,045 
 
 Hongkong 2,907,838 1,814,388 370,660 5,092,886 
 
 Japan (including Korea) 1,180,846 14,357,092 927,114 16,465,052 
 
 Kwantung 6,792 1,725,764 227,094 1,959,650 
 
 Philippine Islands 9,510,332 3,298,244 1,262,492 14,071,068 
 
 Siam 6,460 73,860 37,868 118,188 
 
 Soviet Russia in Asia 75,521 119,516 21,508 216,545 
 
 Total Orient 21,571,150 44,423,892 8,949,822 74,944,864 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 21 
 
 year from the United States in canned, dried, and fresh form, if these 
 be all rendered into the fresh equivalent. At first glance this seems 
 large, but as earlier discussed, it is a very small fraction of our fruit 
 exports and less than 1 per cent of the California production. 
 
 Although our exports of fruits to Asia are less than 1 per cent in 
 any one crop, and less than 4 per cent of our total fruit exports, the 
 share of the Far East in our total trade is far larger. In 1928 our 
 merchandise trade with the Far East constituted 22 per cent of the 
 entire foreign trade of the United States. The Far East exported to 
 the United States goods valued at over $820,000,000 and imported 
 goods from us valued at $1,180,000,000.* Our trade in fruits has not 
 kept pace with our other trade relations in the Far East. 
 
 Rendered into the fresh equivalent for the various canned, dried, 
 or fresh fruits sent to Asia, our volume of raisins far transcends that 
 of any of our other fruits (see figure 7). Of American fruits in any 
 form shipped to Asia the volume of raisins exceeds the total of all 
 
 Fruit 
 Grapes 
 Apples 
 Oranges 
 Apricots 
 Prunes 
 Lemon 8 
 Peaches 
 Pears 
 
 Cherries 
 Grapefruit 
 
 1,000 
 pounds 
 
 38,885 
 
 12,724 
 
 6,705 
 
 2,757 
 
 2,750 
 
 S 
 
 : 
 
 2,454 "H 
 1,939 [3 
 1,162 
 
 843 
 477 
 
 Million pounds 
 10 20 
 
 30 
 
 -i — 
 
 40 
 
 I i Freah 
 ^Canned 
 •ied 
 
 Fig. 7. — United States Exports of Certain Fruits to Asia, Average 1924-1928 
 
 (fresh equivalent). 
 
 * Spec. Cir. 165 — U. S. Dept. Commerce. J. H. Nunn. 
 
22 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 others combined (see table 9). This great volume is a recent develop- 
 ment. Up to 1918, the amount of raisins exported to Asia was but 
 little in excess of that of prunes, of dried apricots, or of dried peaches. 
 Since that time the amount has so greatly increased that we are now 
 sending about ten times as much as any of our other dried fruits (see 
 figure 8). 
 
 China is the largest Asiatic consumer of fruits from the United 
 States, when these are totaled in canned, dried, and fresh form (see 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 130 
 
 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 
 
 110 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 /- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 80 
 
 10 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 / - 
 
 
 
 
 
 -§70 
 
 - 
 
 RAISINS-^ I 1/ 
 
 o 
 
 (X 
 
 
 
 
 § 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 40 
 30 
 20 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 ^<S 
 
 PRUK 
 1 f~"~f ■«»»l«-»<— .».« 
 
 
 
 
 «Tr^jrw*?.?^.er.s= 
 
 fc^ APRICOTS 
 
 ■sSN 
 
 OOv-HCUIQ^IIOCOt- 
 
 rHCVJMCVJCVJCVJCVJCJCM 
 
 0> 0> O G> O OOCT0) 
 
 Fig. 8.— United States Exports of Certain Dried Fruits to Asia, 1910-1928. 
 
Bul. 403' 
 
 Fruit Markets i.\ Eastern Asia 
 
 23 
 
 figure 9). Japan ranks next, followed by the Philippine Islands. If 
 the imports to Hongkong' are credited to China and those of Kwan- 
 tung, the Japanese leased territory in China, are credited to either 
 China or Japan, as the observer prefers, the importance of these two 
 countries in our present exports is apparent. Taken together, China 
 and Japan with these dependencies consume almost 70 per cent of our 
 Asiatic fruit exports, while the Philippine Islands consume 19 per 
 cent more. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 r.viTFD States Exports of Certain Fruits to Asia, Average 1024-1028 
 
 (Fresh Equivalent) 
 
 I'm it Total 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 Apples 12,724 
 
 Apricots 2,757 
 
 Cherries 843 
 
 Grapes 38,885 
 
 Peaches 1,030 
 
 Pears 1,162 
 
 Prunes 2,750 
 
 Oranges 6,705 
 
 Grapefruit 477 
 
 Lemons 2,454 
 
 1,000 Per 
 
 Country pounds cent 
 
 China 27,555 36.8 
 
 Japan (inc. Chosen) 16,465 22.0 
 
 Philippine Islands 14,071 18.7 
 
 Hongkong 5,093 6.8 
 
 British Malaya 2,529 3.4 
 
 Java and Madura 2,430 3.2 
 
 British India 2,052 2.7 
 
 Kwantung 
 
 1 
 
 ,960 
 
 2.6 
 
 Other Netherland 
 
 
 939 
 
 1.2 
 
 East Indies 
 
 
 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 
 869 
 
 1.1 
 
 French Indo-China 
 
 
 647 
 
 .9 
 
 Others 
 
 
 334 
 
 .5 
 
 Total 
 
 74 
 
 ,94b 
 
 100.0 
 
 Fresh 
 
 
 Canned 
 
 1.000 lb. 
 
 
 1.000 11 
 
 0,807 
 
 
 580 
 
 
 
 
 585 
 
 
 
 
 843 
 
 1,640 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 1,616 
 
 127 
 
 
 1,035 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,705 
 
 
 
 
 477 
 
 
 
 
 2,454 
 
 
 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 
 30 
 
 Dried 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 2,328 
 
 2,172 
 
 
 
 37,236 
 
 308 
 
 2,750 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 0.— Total Exports of Fruit from the United States to Oriental Countries, 
 Average 1024-1028 (fresh equivalent). 
 
24 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 In dried fruit exports from the United States, China ranks first, 
 with 46.3 per cent of the entire Asiatic export sent to that country 
 (see figure 10). Japan is the next largest customer with 32.3 per 
 cent consigned to that nation. The Philippine Islands are a poor third, 
 only taking 7.4 per cent of our Asiatic dried-fruit exports. China 
 and Japan, with Hongkong, take 83 per cent of the dried fruit that 
 goes from America to the Orient. 
 
 V 
 
 1,000 Per 
 pounds cent ° 
 
 Per cent 
 20 30 
 
 Other Netherland 
 East Indi 
 
 Others 
 
 Total 
 
 11,106 100.0 
 
 Fig. 10. — United States Exports of Dried Fruits to Oriental Countries, 
 Average 1924-1928. 
 
 1,000 Per Q 
 Fruit pounds cent 
 
 Raisins 9,309 81. S 
 
 Prunes 1,100 9.7 
 
 Apricots 395 3.5 
 
 Apples 291 2.5 
 
 Peaches 56 .5 
 
 Others 220 1.9 
 
 Total 11,371 100.0 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Per cent 
 30 40 50 
 
 BO 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 Fig. 11. — United States Exports of Certain Dried Fruits to Asia, 
 Average 1924-1928. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 25 
 
 In our exports of dried fruits to Asia, raisins predominate. Rai- 
 sins constitute almost 82 per cent of the total (see figure 11). All 
 others, by comparison, are immaterial. 
 
 In canned fruits, China is our greatest consumer (see figure 12), 
 that nation taking 17.4 per cent, while Hongkong*, a port of trans- 
 shipment, takes 4 per cent more. The next greatest consumer of canned 
 fruits is British India, whose total consumption almost equals that of 
 China ; its record is followed closely by that of Java and by the 
 Philippine Islands, while Japan ranks next with 10.4 per cent of our 
 canned fruit exports to Asia. 
 
 In exports of canned fruits to Asia, (see figure 13), canned peaches 
 still lead, constituting almost 17 per cent of our canned fruit exports 
 to that continent. Pineapples from the Hawaiian Islands are, how- 
 ever, becoming a close competitor and seem to bid fair to overtake 
 our shipments of canned peaches. Pears, cherries, plums, apricots, 
 and apples are also exported, the amount shipped being in the order 
 mentioned. 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 Per 
 
 Country 
 
 pounds 
 
 cent 
 
 China 
 
 1,611 
 
 17.4 
 
 British India 
 
 1,440 
 
 15.6 
 
 Java h. liadura 
 
 1,408 
 
 15.2 
 
 Philippine Is. 
 
 1,307 
 
 14.1 
 
 Japan 
 
 960 
 
 10.4 
 
 Other Netherland j^ 7 9 
 East Indies 
 
 British L'alaya 727 7.8 
 
 Hongkong 384 4.2 
 
 Kwantung 235 2.5 
 
 Ceylon 199 2.1 
 
 French Indo-China 190 2.1 
 
 Others 62 .7 
 
 Total 9,263 100.0 
 
 Fig. 12. — United States Exports of Canned Fruit to Oriental Countries, 
 Average 1924-1928. 
 
2G 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 In fresh fruit exports, the Philippines are our best customer (see 
 figure 14). Almost half of our Asiatic exports go to those islands; 
 25 per cent goes to China, and 13.5 per cent is sent to Hongkong. 
 These three taken together account for over 83 per cent of the ship- 
 
 Fruit 
 
 Peaches 
 
 1,000 Per 
 pounds cent 
 
 1,569 16.8 
 
 Pineapples 1,464 15.8 
 
 Pears 
 
 885 
 
 9.5 
 
 Cherries 
 
 843 
 
 9.0 
 
 Prunes and 
 
 754 
 
 8.0 
 
 Plums 
 
 
 
 Apricots 
 
 723 
 
 7.7 
 
 Apples 
 
 299 
 
 3.2 
 
 Others 
 
 2,804 
 
 30.0 
 
 Total 
 
 9,341 
 
 100.0 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Fig. 13. — United States Exports of Certain Canned Fruits to Asia, 
 Average 1924-1928. 
 
 Country 
 Philippine Is. 
 China 
 Hongkong 
 British Malaya 
 
 1,000 Per 
 
 pounds cont^. 
 
 9,510 44.1 
 
 5,413 25.1 
 
 2,908 13.5 
 1,427 6.6 
 
 Japan (inc. Chosen)l,181 5.5 
 Ceylon 508 2.4 
 
 Java and Madura 
 
 
 366 
 
 1.7 
 
 British India 
 
 
 138 
 
 .6 
 
 Others 
 
 
 120 
 
 J 
 
 Total 
 
 21, 
 
 571 
 
 100.0 
 
 Fig. 14. — United States Exports of Fresh Fruit to Oriental Countries, 
 Average 1924-1928. 
 
Buk 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 27 
 
 ments of fresh fruits to the Orient; Japan, Malaya, Ceylon, Java, 
 and others being but small purchasers. 
 
 In fresh fruits (see figure 16), apples lead the group, constituting 
 almost one-half of the entire fresh-fruit shipments from America to 
 Oriental countries. Oranges come next, with lemons and grapes fol- 
 lowing. These four make up 96 per cent of our fresh-fruit exports. 
 Shipments of grapefruit, pears, peaches, and others are so small as 
 to be of slight importance in any consideration of fruit exports. 
 
 Per cent 
 20 30 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 Per 
 
 Fruit 
 
 pound s 
 
 cent 
 
 Apples 
 
 9,807 
 
 45.7 
 
 Oranges 
 
 6,705 
 
 31.2 
 
 Lemons 
 
 2,454 
 
 11.4 
 
 Grapes 
 
 1,649 
 
 7.7 
 
 Grapefruit 
 
 477 
 
 2.2 
 
 Pears 
 
 126 
 
 .6 
 
 Peaches 
 
 15 
 
 .1 
 
 Others 
 
 246 
 
 1.1 
 
 Total 
 
 21,479 
 
 100.0 
 
 Fig. 15. — United States Exports of Certain Fresh Fruits to Asia, 
 Average 1924-1928. 
 
 THE INVESTIGATION 
 
 This report seeks to answer the question whether demands exist 
 or might be created among Oriental peoples by which, through meth- 
 ods now used or others which might be brought into existence, our 
 markets in the Par East could be increased to a point whereby the 
 economic i ituation among fruit growers would be materially improved. 
 It also, to a lesser degree, seeks to offer suggestions as to how our 
 present normal export business may be increased. 
 
 The investigation discussed in this bulletin has attempted to learn: 
 
 1. What the normal food habits of the people are, and what fruits 
 and fruit products a given territory would normally consume. 
 
 2. What forms these products should take ; whether the market 
 desires them in dried form or canned form, and if so, what size pack- 
 age would adapt itself to local consumption. 
 
28 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 3. How much of these products and at what prices a tributary 
 territory might consume under proper conditions. 
 
 4. What trade promotion, if any, is necessary to develop these 
 markets, assuming that agencies package their products in the size 
 and kind desired. 
 
 The investigation was not limited to present trade demands or 
 practices. It was recognized that increases in the sale of fruits in the 
 Far East must necessarily be developed over a considerable period of 
 time and must first be based upon a study of the consumer demands 
 of the people in the several countries. It further assumed that if the 
 present merchandising methods are not the best that might be used, 
 or are not adequate in volume, means and methods might be found to 
 improve and increase them. 
 
 METHODS OF WORK 
 
 A comprehensive investigation of the opportunities for marketing 
 fruit in eastern Asia could only become possible within reasonable 
 time limits through the co-operation of a wide range of agencies, 
 governmental and private. The area included half the people of the 
 globe. The great distances to be traveled, the enormous populations 
 to be studied, and the fragmentary statistical information available, 
 all made it essential for the investigation to have the active assistance 
 of American organizations whose representatives were resident in 
 Asia, Even the most intensive personal observation could not develop 
 a body of facts sufficient to present an adequate and authentic picture 
 of the situation. Only by supplementing such observations by those 
 of many persons long resident in the countries visited could the task 
 be accomplished. The cooperation of numerous organizations therefore 
 became essential to the success of the undertaking. 
 
 The confidence of the investigators in the conclusions herein pre- 
 sented is based upon the fact that more extensive cooperation was 
 given in this investigation than to any other peace-time study that 
 has been made in the Par East, The conclusions herein are the result 
 of conferences and interviews with, and letters and questionnaires 
 from, thousands of selected individuals whose knowledge of the coun- 
 try and of the people is based upon a life-time of residence and 
 contact. 
 
 Since this study was conducted under the joint auspices and 
 authority of the University of California and the United States 
 Department of Commerce, the investigators traveled as representatives 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 29 
 
 of both these institutions. A resident trade commissioner of the 
 United States Department of Commerce accompanied the party, each 
 commissioner traveling through the area in his district. The offices 
 of the Department arranged in advance for conferences and inter- 
 views. The Department of State instructed its consuls and other 
 foreign service representatives to cooperate and assist. In places 
 where no office of the Department of Commerce was established, the 
 United States Consulate was used as headquarters. There arrange- 
 ments for conferences and interviews were made by the local consular 
 officers. So large a proportion of this study was conducted in com- 
 pany with resident trade commissioners and consuls that this publica- 
 tion is, in a sense, as much the result of their investigation as that of 
 the writers'. Mention of the names and appreciation of the efforts 
 of some of those who took conspicuous part in the investigation is 
 expressed under the heading "Acknowledgments." 
 
 The larger packing companies occupied in the manufacture and 
 marketing of dried and canned fruits wrote their representatives and 
 agents at various places in the Far East to cooperate in the furnishing 
 of information. Farmers' cooperative marketing associations having 
 representation abroad took similar action. The steamship companies 
 carrying fruits from California to the Far East instructed their 
 agents at all ports to assist in every manner within their power. 
 Several great corporations merchandising American oil, tobacco, 
 sewing machines, and farm machinery issued letters to their district 
 offices requesting them to assist the commission in its search for infor- 
 mation. The aid of these great companies was especially valuable 
 since their organizations are spread through the interior at places 
 impossible for the investigators to visit. Finally, a large number of 
 individuals — farmers, educators, fruit shippers, retired businessmen, 
 etc. — issued letters to their friends and associates whom they thought 
 might prove helpful in giving information. Thus, on arrival at each 
 city, the investigators found a large number of organizations and 
 persons already informed of the purposes of this study. Many of 
 these had gathered considerable information in preparation for the 
 visit. 
 
 The Canners' League of California and the Dried Fruit Associa- 
 tion of California assembled and contributed forty-five sets of pack- 
 ages of canned and dried fruits to be used at conferences of importers 
 and dealers. In each set were forty packages of fruit in cans and 
 cartons, designed to show the range of the present products available 
 in various grades and sizes of packages. All commercial labels were 
 
30 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 removed from cans and cartons, a University of California non- 
 commercial label being: substituted. Thus the samples bore no par- 
 ticular brand but served to illustrate the various points discussed at 
 
 £ 4ST INDIES 
 
 70 
 
 90 HO 
 
 Fig. 16. — Route of the Investigation in Eastern Asia. 
 
 group conferences. These sets were shipped in advance to United 
 States Consulates at the cities scheduled. 
 
 Because the published information on exports of fruit from Cali- 
 fornia to Asia was not in sufficient detail for the purposes of this 
 investigation, the past exports to various countries in Asia of all 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asta 31 
 
 fruits in fresh, dried, and canned form were compiled from the origi- 
 nal records, the work being done under the immediate direction of 
 Dr. H. R. Wellman. A portion of that data is published in this 
 report. If all of it were presented it would alone constitute a con- 
 siderable volume. 
 
 The investigators spent eight months in travel (see figure 16). 
 They were accompanied by Mr. P. S. Windrem, a senior student in 
 political science at the University of California, who acted as secre- 
 tary, without salary. The countries studied included Japan, Korea, 
 China, the Philippine Islands, French Indo-China, Siam, British 
 Malaya, the Netherland East Indies, India, and Ceylon. Visits were 
 made to and investigations conducted in thirty-seven cities and towns 
 in these countries. Among these were : 
 
 In Japan — Yokohama, Tokyo, Osaka, Kobe, Beppu. 
 
 In Korea — Seoul (Keijo). 
 
 In China — Mukden, Harbin, Tientsin, Peking, Shanghai, Hong- 
 kong, Canton. In addition thereto, Mr. G. 0. Woodard, Trade Com- 
 missioner at Shanghai, made for this investigation a special survey 
 of Foochow, Swatow, and Amoy. 
 
 In the Philippine Islands — Manila. 
 
 In French Indo-China — Saigon, Pnom Penh. 
 
 In Siam — Bangkok. 
 
 In British Malaya — Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Penang. 
 
 In the Netherland East Indies — Medan, Batavia, Samarang, Sura- 
 baya, Djokjakarta. 
 
 In India — Rangoon, Calcutta, Benares, Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Bom- 
 bay, Madras. 
 
 In Ceylon — Colombo. 
 
 In addition to the above, shorter stops were made in small towns 
 which could be reached by train or automobile, the purpose being to 
 obtain local prices or to observe the penetration of American products 
 in the interior. 
 
 Information was secured from an even wider range of territory. 
 Questionnaires dealing with the problem under study were circulated 
 in the interior of Japan and China through the medium of the Stand- 
 ard Oil Company of New York, the British-American Tobacco Com- 
 pany, and the great missionary organizations. These sent blanks to 
 their resident European employees at places far beyond the usual 
 routes of travel. Several universities in Japan, China, the Philippine 
 Islands, and India circulated these same questionnaires among their 
 senior and graduate students whose homes were at distant points and 
 
32 
 
 University of California— Experiment Station 
 
 who knew the conditions there. At this writing, 198 questionnaires 
 from interior points have been returned and are in the files of the 
 commission. 
 
 At each major point visited, conferences were held with importers 
 and dealers in California fruits. This conference method had not 
 been used in commercial investigations in Asia since it was generally 
 not deemed possible to secure the attendance and active participation 
 of business competitors. However, owing to the broad instructions 
 sent out by numerous large commercial organizations and to the 
 auspices under which the investigation was conducted, no difficulty 
 was experienced in any country in securing a representative attend- 
 
 A conference with Chinese fruit dealers in the office of the Commercial Attache 
 at Peking. 
 
 ance and active discussion. Usually the attendance depended solely 
 upon the number of invitations issued, which in turn was determined 
 by the number of persons in the business and the size of conference 
 desired. Conferences of ten or a dozen persons proved more success- 
 ful than those of larger numbers, 
 
 Conferences were also held at many places with native wholesalers. 
 These proved more difficult, since the participants had usually not 
 been present at any similar gathering, and felt some natural anxiety as 
 to what might be expected of them. Usually, the entire proceedings 
 required the services of an interpreter. With Chinese dealers it was 
 found desirable to hold some of the conferences in the form of a tea 
 to which large red invitations were issued a week in advance. This in 
 turn was followed on the day set by a special invitation carried by 
 messenger. At such teas the formality of the occasion quickly disap- 
 peared in active discussion. In practically all instances the confer- 
 ences were held in offices of the United States Government in order 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 33 
 
 to emphasize the broad scope of the inquiry. In a few cases they were 
 held at hotels. In no case were group conferences conducted in con- 
 junction with any particular business firm or association. 
 
 The normal procedure at all conferences was to explain to those 
 present the purpose of the investigation, emphasizing that the effort 
 was designed to secure information either of a positive or negative 
 nature on the problem of marketing more American fruit in Asia, 
 and that essentially this meant an effort to increase the business in 
 which those present were occupied. The statistics of present exports 
 to that country were placed before the group, after which each kind 
 
 w 
 
 ■<- 
 
 Some conferences with native dealers were held in the form of a tea to which 
 large red invitations were issued a week in advance. 
 
 of fruit, such as apples, peaches, pears, etc., were discussed separately 
 in their various forms, as fresh, canned, or dried products. In this 
 connection the set of samples was displayed and opened before the 
 conference, one set being thus destroyed at each meeting. Plates and 
 spoons were used so that those present sampled the various products 
 as they were opened. Many native dealers were found to be familiar 
 with the exterior of the cans or packages but unfamiliar with the 
 contents. Their interest in both quality and quantity under such 
 conditions was marked. Even European importers evidenced a de- 
 cided interest in the various commercial sizes and their relation to 
 Local demand. Every effort was made to conduct the discussion on 
 broad lines and to refrain from questions which competitors would 
 dislike to discuss in a group. Such questions were asked at inter- 
 views in their individual offices. 
 
34 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 The conferences served the broad purpose of correctly acquaint- 
 ing 1 the business community with the general purpose of the investi- 
 gation and with the kinds of products available in California. The 
 conferences also clearly brought out certain general information 
 regarding markets, purchasing power, trade practices, and consumer 
 demands. The number and attendance at the conferences at each place 
 are given in the table which follows : 
 
 TABLE 10 
 Group Conferences of Importers and Dealers 
 
 Number of 
 Conferences Attendance 
 
 Yokohama 1 12 
 
 Tokyo 2 44 
 
 Kobe 1 9 
 
 Osaka 1 35 
 
 Keijo : 1 15 
 
 Mukden 1 11 
 
 Tientsin 1 21 
 
 Peking 2 23 
 
 Shanghai 3 32 
 
 Hongkong 1 18 
 
 Canton 1 46 ' 
 
 Manila 1 13 
 
 Saigon 1 14 
 
 Bangkok 2 26 
 
 Singapore 2 38 
 
 Medan 1 11 
 
 Batavia 2 23 
 
 Surabaya 1 13 
 
 Rangoon 1 12 
 
 Calcutta 1 17 
 
 Bombay 1 25 
 
 Totals 28 458 
 
 The principal method of securing information was not through 
 group conferences, valuable as these proved, but through personal 
 interviews with those acquainted with the habits and purchasing 
 power of the people and with the business of marketing in the Far 
 East. Not only were all prominent fruit importers interviewed but 
 also many other persons who had a detailed knowledge of the coun- 
 try. The usual procedure at each place was to call at the offices of 
 the agents of export firms and then, one by one, to canvass other 
 mercantile concerns which were selling extensively to the Asiatic 
 population. After this, the scope of the investigation widened to 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 35 
 
 educators, economists, statesmen, and others familiar with the native 
 races to whom California fruits must be sold if any large markets 
 were to be created. 
 
 At these personal interviews, rough notes were taken ; at the end 
 of each day a detailed report of each interview and of the facts and 
 opinions expressed was dictated and transcribed into typewriting. 
 Naturally, not all of the interviews proved productive. In many cases 
 the information was immaterial or was a duplication of that secured 
 elsewhere. In such instances it was not transcribed. There are, how- 
 ever, in the files of the commission, typewritten accounts of interviews 
 with 390 persons and organizations, each of which was the result of 
 one or more visits to their offices. 
 
 Meanwhile, another of the investigators was canvassing stores and 
 markets catering to Asiatics or to Europeans. He there secured the 
 wholesale and retail prices of American fruits in fresh, dried, or 
 canned form, as well as the prices of various other competing prod- 
 ucts. More than 308 stores and markets were visited. 
 
 Unfortunately, no opportunity is presented in this report to state 
 the various authorities upon which it is based, nor the method by 
 which the conclusions were reached. Any attempt to quote the various 
 persons and organizations who contributed to the general conclusions 
 for each fruit in each section would lead to a publication so volumi- 
 nous as to be bej^ond the bounds of practical form. Furthermore, 
 many of those consulted, particularly business organizations, discussed 
 the problem with the investigators in a quasi-confidential manner. 
 They understood that they were not to be quoted before competitors 
 and that their remarks were only to be used in enabling the investi- 
 gators to arrive at a general conclusion. 
 
 This report would undoubtedly be more impressive if the sugges- 
 tions made herein could be stated under the authority of the many 
 persons who made them rather than, as now, only upon the authority 
 of the investigators. For example, in the section on the Netherland 
 East Indies, on page 245, it is stated that in that country " canned 
 grapes in small units might be placed within the range of frequent 
 use by Chinese." This observation was first brought to our attention 
 by the Captain-General in charge of all the Chinese in Sumatra who, 
 himself a Chinese, had discovered a few eight-ounce cans of Thompson 
 seedless grapes on sale in a local store and had purchased them for 
 his own use. To emphasize his remarks, he sent to his home for one 
 of these small cans " packed in California, IT. S. A." With this can 
 before him he traced the whole philosophy of the small unit of sale 
 
36 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 to purchasers of low incomes and suggested that California had an 
 opportunity to develop its fruit markets through this method. His 
 suggestion led to inquiry among many others, out of which grew the 
 conclusion quoted above. 
 
 Although there appears to be no reason why the above illustration 
 of the methods of investigation should not be mentioned here, it 
 would be impossible to follow such a plan of presentation throughout 
 this report, both because of the size of the volume that would result, 
 and because of the understanding of confidence under which much of 
 the information was gathered. 
 
 The following sections treating the market for fruits in various 
 countries were written at the time and place, or immediately there- 
 after. The final section, termed "Conclusions," was written while 
 returning to America. The report thus expresses the viewpoint of the 
 investigators while their impressions were fresh and unobscured by 
 later problems. 
 
 Unless otherwise stated, all weights and measures have been con- 
 verted into American terms and all values to United States currency. 
 
FRUIT MARKETS IN JAPAN 
 
38 
 
 University of California— Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 11 
 Direct Fruit Exports from California to Japan (Including Korea) 
 
 Kind of fruit 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 1929 
 
 Canned 
 
 Berries 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Pears 
 
 Fruit for salad 
 
 Other canned 
 
 Pineapples 
 
 Jams, jellies, etc. 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 1,370 
 
 225 
 
 108,468 
 
 23,394 
 
 37,858 
 
 213,641 
 
 35,059 
 
 5,642 
 14,060 
 52,593 
 
 492,310 
 
 Dried 
 
 Raisins 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Pears 
 
 Other dried. 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 2,835,131 
 
 1,200 
 
 77,998 
 
 240 
 
 71,480 
 
 3,097 
 
 2,989,146 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Grapefruit. 
 
 Lemons 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Apples 
 
 boxes 
 
 530 
 
 14,346 
 
 4,517 
 
 1 
 
 Berries 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Pears 
 
 Other fresh 
 
 pounds 
 
 100 
 13,185 
 
 14,410 
 
 dollars 
 
 218 
 
 26 
 
 10,906 
 
 3,818 
 
 4,005 
 
 18,927 
 
 4,385 
 
 pounds 
 
 2,290 
 400 
 97,163 
 33,218 
 18,200 
 214,732 
 35,768 
 
 780 
 
 1,538 
 
 12,842 
 
 19,367 
 10,378 
 
 82,927 
 
 57,445 
 
 514,443 
 
 dollars 
 
 205,816 
 
 210 
 
 19,924 
 
 36 
 
 5,521 
 
 pounds 
 
 2,953,110 
 
 1,422 
 
 91,440 
 
 1,780 
 
 111,808 
 
 518 
 
 8,882 
 
 232,025 
 
 3,168,442 
 
 dollars 
 
 2,499 
 91,274 
 
 25,781 
 10 
 
 boxes 
 
 542 
 
 15,028 
 
 4,451 
 
 10 
 
 dollars 
 
 19 
 1,290 
 
 pounds 
 
 1,235 
 
 60,620 
 17,230 
 
 dollars 
 
 407 
 
 28 
 
 10,352 
 
 5,065 
 
 1,569 
 
 17,958 
 
 4,662 
 
 2,035 
 
 1,169 
 
 15,659 
 
 pounds 
 
 16,880 
 2,440 
 
 106,236 
 
 42,764 
 
 6,180 
 
 195,349 
 47,564 
 47,945 
 
 105,023 
 13,770 
 20,078 
 
 58,904 
 
 604,229 
 
 dollars 
 
 193,646 
 255 
 
 15,740 
 266 
 
 10,606 
 
 1,359 
 
 pounds 
 
 2,990,935 
 2,460 
 
 272,440 
 3,352 
 
 135,206 
 1,562 
 4,040 
 
 221,872 
 
 3,409,995 
 
 dollars 
 
 2,935 
 
 98,500 
 
 25,791 
 
 15 
 
 boxes 
 
 824 
 
 17,167 
 
 4,798 
 
 301 
 
 dollars 
 
 3,140 
 1,036 
 
 pounds 
 
 100 
 
 2,256 
 
 440 
 
 22,990 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,810 
 330 
 
 12,434 
 
 6,743 
 
 884 
 
 19,035 
 6,403 
 7,832 
 9,402 
 1,647 
 5,966 
 
 72,486 
 
 dollars 
 
 200,985 
 433 
 
 52,886 
 365 
 
 15,270 
 209 
 650 
 
 270,798 
 
 dollars 
 
 4,486 
 
 119,312 
 
 26,539 
 
 604 
 
 dollars 
 
 18 
 
 150 
 
 51 
 
 1,642 
 
Bitl. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 39 
 
 FRUIT MARKETS IN JAPAN 
 
 Whereas the entire Japanese Empire has an area of 260,704 square 
 miles, Japan proper comprises only 142,000 square miles. In 1925 
 its population was 59,768,000. Although Japan is mountainous and 
 volcanic and has an area only approximately one-twentieth that of 
 the United States, it supports a population about half as large as that 
 in America. Furthermore, this population is steadily increasing at 
 the rate of about 6.7 per cent every five years. Japan is one of the 
 most densely populated countries of the world. The population is 61 
 persons per square mile, or 376 persons per square mile of cultivated 
 area. This latter is three times the density of Belgium, four and a 
 half times that of England, and nine times that of France. With so 
 great a population massed upon such a small cultivable area, it is 
 remarkable that Japan has been able to remain so nearly self-sustain- 
 ing. ''It was only after Japan had acquired the island of Formosa 
 and a part of Saghalien, and had annexed Korea that she obtained 
 an outlet for her large and growing population."* 
 
 Japan has two cities, Osaka and Tokyo, each of which has a popu- 
 lation of over 2,000,000 people. Four other cities — Nagoya, Kyoto, 
 Kobe, and Yokohama — have about 500,000 or more each. The growth 
 of the cities of Japan, through the industrialization of the nation and 
 the higher wages in town than in country, has created one of the 
 major social and economic problems of the Empire. However, Japan 
 still remains largely a farming nation since half the families of Japan 
 are farmers. Five and one-half million families till the land, culti- 
 vating 14,959,250 acres, or somewhat less than 3 acres per family. 
 Even in the cold northern island of Hokkaido, which is largely a 
 grazing and dairy country, the average area is only l 1 /^ acres per 
 family. In Japan, one acre has to feed a little under four persons. 
 
 Rice is the great staple farm crop of Japan, more than half the 
 total area under cultivation being given to this cereal. As a second 
 crop, barley, rape, peas, and beans are grown. Fruit growing is a 
 well-developed industry, there being about 250,000 acres in various 
 fruits. The increasing rates for rental of land and the rising wages of 
 farm laborers have led to a desire to find crops which would return a 
 greater revenue per acre than rice and other grains. The situation is 
 thus somewhat analagous to that in California. Under these condi- 
 
 Japan Year Book, 1929, Tokyo, page 488. 
 
40 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 tions fruit growing has increased. As discussed elsewhere in this 
 report, Japan is reaching southward to find markets for these fruits. 
 
 A small number of the population of Japan is wealthy and can 
 afford to buy anything that pleases them. The middle class is rela- 
 tively small in number. Although in America, these make up our 
 great purchasing power, they are difficult to find in Japan. Many 
 highly educated men get very small salaries. The great bulk of the 
 people are poor. Although the average standard of living is higher 
 than in China or India, it is decidedly lower than anywhere in the 
 Occident. A large number of people in Japan work for very low 
 wages. The great farm population, constituting at least one-half of 
 the total, is notoriously poor. Laborers in the cities in occupations 
 requiring some skill get an average wage of a dollar a day. High- 
 class clerks in city business houses and banks, men of high school 
 or university education, are normally paid $100 a month. They must 
 dress well and usually support a considerable family. Positions of 
 this kind are so scarce, however, that those holding them seldom if 
 ever resign. To all these great classes, any additional regular expendi- 
 tures for foodstuffs is of considerable concern. Luxuries may be 
 occasionally bought by them at holiday and festival times. 
 
 Travelers making a casual visit to the ports of Japan are prone 
 to be mistaken as to its modernization. Persons who have not visited 
 that country are even more likely to be deluded by articles and pic- 
 tures appearing in the magazines. Japan, quite properly, is proud 
 of the enormous progress which she has made in the last half century 
 and is eager to write about and to display pictures of the great banks, 
 department stores, and boulevards in her principal cities. However, 
 the bulk of the population of Japan lives in smaller towns, villages, 
 and farms of the country. To most of these, life has changed in only 
 superficial measure under the westernization which has gone forward 
 throughout the nation. Most of them still live in the same houses, 
 wear the same sort of clothing, and eat the same kinds of food as did 
 their forefathers a century ago. To be sure, they travel occasionally 
 on railroads, have a few modern devices in their homes, and probably 
 even an electric light. But these western improvements have but 
 little to do with the daily life of the people. Their expenditures flow 
 largely along the same channels as in former times. 
 
 An attempt was made to estimate the percentage of the Japanese 
 people who might ultimately be able to afford American canned and 
 dried fruits in some form, assuming that the luxury tariff and other 
 difficulties were removed. No definite facts or figures exist which 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 41 
 
 would enable an accurate estimate to be made. Any conclusion can 
 at best be only a, shrewd guess by those who have an intimate knowl- 
 edge of the people. Many persons were consulted. These included 
 foreign residents, Japanese educators, economists, statesmen, and busi- 
 nessmen. Estimates of the buying power of the nation for American 
 fruits varied from 1 per cent of the population, made by certain 
 agents of California packers, to as high as 15 per cent, an estimate 
 made by some of the Japanese themselves. Each of these figures 
 may be taken as extreme estimates. Probably a correct figure lies 
 somewhere between them. In any case, it is evident that the great 
 majority of the Japanese are too poor to purchase American fresh, 
 canned, or dried fruits. 
 
 The climate of Japan is characterized by heat in summer, cold in 
 winter, and a high rainfall. These islands are one of the rainiest 
 regions in the world. It rains or snows an average of 150 days a year. 
 Thus, in summer, the heat and high humidity of Japan necessitates 
 the protection of dried fruits in tins rather than cartons. Bulk dried 
 fruits exposed to the air rapidly spoil. Canned fruits containing pits 
 and seeds, such as cherries, plums, grapes, etc., are likely to swell by 
 action of a gas generated within the can by the high temperature. 
 However, the high summer temperature makes this country one in 
 which fresh fruits, fruit drinks, and fruit ices would meet the needs 
 of the people. 
 
 Fruit in the Japanese Diet. — -The staple diet of the masses of the 
 Japanese people is based upon rice with a small addition of fish and 
 other sea products, and with a limited amount of vegetables. Twenty 
 per cent of the people of Japan make their living from the sea, send- 
 ing their harvest to those upon the land. Only recently have the 
 Japanese begun to eat meat. 
 
 The regular diet of the Japanese does not include fruit. A small 
 pickled plum is used as a condiment. These are preserved in almost 
 every household. Native fresh fruits, including a hard round pear 
 wliich resembles a russet apple, are eaten in season and keep well 
 into the cold weather. Native mandarin oranges are popular during 
 the winter. All these, however, figure in the Japanese mind as a 
 refreshment rather than as a food. 
 
 With the advent of western customs and manners among the upper 
 classes in the large cities, the consumption and production of fruit in 
 Japan has increased . It must be remembered, however, that these 
 upper classes constitute but a very small percentage of the whole 
 population. Fruit, native or imported, is a decided luxury. The 
 
42 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 poverty of the great mass of the people makes the cost of these com- 
 modities beyond the range of their usual daily diet. 
 
 Cooked fruits were originally unknown to the Japanese so that 
 housewives generally have no knowledge of how to prepare them. 
 The introduction of cooked fruits in pastries and as deserts has gone 
 forward largely through foreign restaurants, but these are located 
 only in the big cities. Many Japanese businessmen find it a novelty 
 to eat occasionally at these restaurants. They are not usually accom- 
 panied by their wives, because originally it was not considered quite 
 respectable for women to appear in public eating-places. Thus, the 
 housewife, who is the family purchaser and perhaps the cook, does 
 not come in contact with these foreign foods and, if she did, would 
 not know how to prepare them. 
 
 The popularity of canned fruits among the Japanese is based 
 upon the fact that they do not need preparation. When the can is 
 opened they are ready to serve. Kaisins were introduced as a con- 
 fection to be eaten out of hand in place of candy, rather than as an 
 item in a regular meal. Their recent use by public bakers is the 
 result of trade promotion in some of the metropolitan centers. 
 
 In foreign foods, the Japanese have not yet learned to discrim- 
 inate. The appearance of the Japanese foods was not particularly 
 attractive. The relative attractiveness of imported foodstuffs as well 
 as their novelty, constitute much of their selling power. Appearance 
 is preeminent ; fine distinctions of taste, familiar to the American 
 palate, are secondary. Thus, the appearance of the container and 
 of the commodity itself, is of the highest importance. The Japanese 
 are shrewd and careful buyers. Because they lack the ability to 
 discriminate by means of taste, they exercise their shrewdness in 
 demanding a package or container which has become known to them 
 as first class. They are likely to discard all unknown packages as 
 probably of inferior quality. 
 
 The Japanese taste in foods is not always similar to our own. A 
 canned or dried fruit which may be acceptable to an American does 
 not necessarily appeal to one who is trained in the Japanese diet. At 
 first, this may seem difficult for many Americans to understand, but 
 if they will recall that it was only a quarter of a century ago that 
 Americans were learning to eat grapefruit and green olives they may 
 be better able to understand how the Japanese feel when confronted 
 with a prune or dried fig. In America the grapefruit and the green 
 olive came into use because they were thought to be fashionable — the 
 proper thing to serve as a novelty and as a mark of distinction. Many 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 43 
 
 Americans will recall that they greeted the green olive with distaste, 
 but were told that if they would eat three of them they would then 
 learn to like them. We have almost forgotten that we were trained 
 to their use. More recently the ripe olive and the avocado have been 
 undergoing similar experimentation by many Americans. To the 
 Japanese, some of our fruits are just as unfamiliar and perhaps at 
 first as little liked. 
 
 At the five conferences held in Japan, Japanese predominated. 
 The attendance at various conferences ranged from six to forty per- 
 sons. Samples of American canned and dried fruits were opened one 
 
 A conference of Japanese fruit dealers at Osaka. 
 
 by one. Those attending the conference were given a plate and spoon 
 so that each commodity might be sampled. Despite the fact that in 
 large measure those attending the conferences were importers, whole- 
 salers, dealers, and grocers, it was apparent that certain of the fruits 
 displayed were totally unfamiliar. The Japanese are proverbially a 
 polite people. They courteously sampled the articles displayed when 
 urged to <do so, but a certain effort was required to get them to 
 express a frank opinion about the various fruits after trying them. 
 When they realized that the investigators were really desirous of 
 learning the preferences of the Japanese as represented by those 
 present, they candidly declared that a number of the fruits did not 
 appeal to their taste at all. For example, the Japanese seem to 
 prefer a firm fruit. Thus, canned pears were too soft for the Jan- 
 anese liking. Dried peaches are disliked because of the fuzz on the 
 skin. Canned ripe olives had no good qualities whatsoever. Dried 
 
44 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 figs always brought an interesting discussion ; some preferred the 
 black Mission fig, some the white Calimyrna. They were unable to 
 agree upon a preference. 
 
 In the country districts of Japan, little if any American fruit in 
 any form can be found on sale. Even in the larger towns outside of 
 the influence of the big cities, American fruits are not displayed. 
 Just as in America florist shops are confined to the large towns and 
 cities, so in Japan, American fruits are sold only among the wealthier 
 classes of the larger towns. This is not only because they are ex- 
 pensive but also because they are unfamiliar. 
 
 Fresh Fruits.— The importation into Japan of apples, apricots, 
 pears, peaches, plums, quinces, and walnuts is prohibited from the 
 United States of America, Canada, the Union of South Africa, Aus- 
 tralia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and Brazil under the plant quarantine 
 regulations.* Therefore it must be understood at the outset that these 
 fruits are eliminated for the present from any practical discussion of 
 the markets for American fresh fruits in Japan. 
 
 Importations of fresh fruits from America have been confined for 
 recent years to lemons, oranges, and grapes. These fruits pay a duty 
 under the so-called "luxury tariff" of 100 per cent. Their prices in 
 Japan are necessarily high. In comparison with them, the native 
 fresh fruit under a protected market seems comparatively cheap. 
 
 Fruit growing is now a well-developed industry in Japan, there 
 being about 250,000 acres devoted to fruits, the production of which 
 in 1927 was about as shown in table 12. 
 
 TABLE 12 
 
 Fruit Production, 1927 
 Japan 
 
 Tons Tons 
 
 Apples 78,858 Navel Oranges 15,655 
 
 Grapes 45,402 Peaches 56,856 
 
 Loquats 14,994 Pears 159,486 
 
 Mandarin Oranges 239,396 Persimmons 240,219 
 
 Bitter Oranges 53,821 Pineapple (Formosa) 10,594 
 
 Thus Japan produces about 2 per cent of the amount of grapes 
 grown in California and 11 per cent of California's peach crop. 
 However,, its pear crop almost equals that of California, being 85 per 
 cent of the average production of that state. 
 
 * Ordinance No. 21 of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce of Japan. 
 Issued August 13, 1920. 
 
Bul. 493 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 45 
 
 In old Japan the persimmon, the hard native pear, the loose- 
 skinned orange, and the peach were the principal fruits. With the 
 introduction of foreign fruits into the country and the planting of 
 stocks of European varieties there has come an increase in kind as 
 well as in variety. European varieties of apples, peaches, pears, and 
 grapes are found in many parts of Japan. Persimmons are grown 
 almost everywhere, although seldom in orchards. In August 1929, 
 native pears of Bartlett type were selling at about 7 cents each, 
 peaches at 2 to 10 cents each, early figs at 4 cents each, plums at 9 
 
 Japan packs its apples and grapes in a modern manner. Note the method of 
 roping cases for shipment. 
 
 cents a pound, and hothouse grapes, the only ones then in the market, 
 at 50 cents a pound. Fresh native peaches are eagerly eaten by the 
 Japanese during the summer season despite their comparative lack 
 of flavor. They even sell as high as 70 cents for an attractive box 
 of five, in the best stores. 
 
 Fresh fruits are given as presents, particularly to the sick. It is 
 customary to give fruit rather than flowers to those to whom one 
 desires to express sympathy. Baskets of attractive fresh fruits which 
 sell for $1.50 to $3.00 a basket are prominently displayed in stores 
 of the large cities. Japanese fruit stands specialize in the appearance 
 of the fruit. It is arranged and displayed more attractively than in 
 America, but the occidental buyer is likely to be disappointed when 
 
46 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 tasting the native fruits, which are relatively flavorless, belying their 
 fine appearance. To the Japanese, however, they are quite satisfac- 
 tory, and are eagerly consumed in their season as a luxury. 
 
 The exports of lemons from America to Japan are greater in 
 declared value than that of any other fresh fruit. In 1929 there were 
 17,167 boxes of lemons from California exported to Japan at a declared 
 value of $119,312. In lemons, the California product has a practical 
 monopoly. Packed 300 to the box, they sell at retail for 6 to 10 cents 
 
 Boxed Japanese apples are shipped to all the countries of southeastern Asia. 
 
 each, according to the season and the market price in America. The 
 fluctuation of these American prices, due to the varying demand in our 
 own country, is one of the problems confronting the importer. Fre- 
 quently a period of high prices in America will not coincide with that 
 of the greatest demand in Japan. The importer is therefore reluctant 
 to order lemons at high prices for fear that he may not be able to 
 dispose of them at a profit or even at cost. The importation of lemons 
 has also been somewhat hazardous because of spoilage and breakage 
 of crates. Because of their high cost the consumption of lemons has 
 been confined to the highest classes. A lemonade made from fresh 
 fruit, is an expensive drink in Japan. It can only be obtained in the 
 very best hotels, clubs, and restaurants in big cities. The purchase of 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 47 
 
 lemons, both by Japanese and foreigners in Japan is more than a 
 luxury — it is a delicacy. The amount of lemons imported is therefore 
 likely to increase but slowly so long as present prices obtain. 
 
 Oranges rank second in declared value. In 1929 there were 4,798 
 boxes shipped from California to Japan, having a declared value of 
 $26,539. Oranges from America are unrivaled in the Japanese 
 market. The native oranges are marketed throughout the winter in 
 large quantities and the loose-skinned mandarin orange is exported 
 into America for the Christmas trade. The California orange, how- 
 ever, is recognized as a different product, and as a delicacy that is 
 appreciated by the higher classes. Oranges from California, packed 
 125 to the box, sell for about 20 cents each at retail. At times this 
 price rises to 30 cents. At such prices even the foreign resident in 
 Japan finds them almost prohibitive. 
 
 Grapes usually rank third among our fresh-fruit exports to Japan. 
 In 1928 there were 60,620 pounds sent from California at a declared 
 value of $3,140. These grapes from America find a ready, though 
 limited, sale in the large cities in competition Avith native grapes of 
 Japan. The necessarily high price of American grapes, due to the 
 100 per cent luxury tariff, prohibits them from becoming extensively 
 used except among those to whom cost is a secondary consideration. 
 Early season American grapes compete only with the hothouse grapes 
 of Japan. These latter were selling in the middle of August for 
 50 cents a pound. Late American grapes find little competition from 
 the native grapes. At the time this investigation was made no 
 American grapes had yet arrived in the market for the 1929 season. 
 
 Fresh fruit is generally imported into Japan through agents of 
 California fruit exporters in Yokohama and Kobe on the basis of 
 c.i.f. prices submitted. Interest on drafts is usually charged at the 
 rate of 7 per cent. Fruit comes by freight under refrigeration from 
 California ports at the following rates: apples, $1.10 a box; oranges, 
 $1.50 a box; grapefruit, $1.55 a box; lemons, $1.70 a box and $0.95 a 
 half box; grapes, $25 per ton of 40 cubic feet. Other fresh fruits 
 such as peaches, pears, etc., would be at the rate of $32 per ton of 
 40 cubic feet but none are imported in Japan because the plant 
 quarantine regulations prohibit. 
 
 Arrived at Yokohama or Kobe, fresh fruit must pay 100 per cent 
 ad valorem duty under the luxury tariff. Landing charges at Yoko- 
 hama vary from one-half cent to a cent per case. If the fruit is to 
 be transported to Tokyo this is usually done by lighter, the charge 
 for which averages 94 cents a ton. Coolie hire to place cases in the 
 
48 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 cold rooms of refrigeration plants averages 1 cent a case at Yokohama 
 or Tokyo. At Kobe, lighter and tug hire from ship to shore averages 
 42 cents a ton. Landing and hauling charges to cold storage ware- 
 houses average 56 cents a ton. At Yokohama there is a cold storage 
 space for about 1,200 cases in private warehouses available for public 
 rental at 23 to 27 cents per case per month. At Tokyo one cold storage 
 company has 6,000 cubic feet for rental at the rate of 29 cents per case 
 
 The Japanese grape-growing industry is much smaller than that of California, 
 but the grapes arc of good quality. 
 
 per month. At Kobe the charge in warehouses is about 5% cents per 
 case per day based upon a rental of 60 days. 
 
 In Japan very little imported fresh fruit finds its way beyond the 
 port cities of Yokohama and Kobe and their nearby larger cities of 
 Tokyo and Osaka. The wealthy classes who consume these high-priced 
 luxuries are largely in these cities. The Imperial Japanese Railways 
 have, however, approximately 1,200 refrigerator cars, about 1,000 of 
 which are in use at the present time. These can be dispatched to any 
 part of the railroad system, but are at present used only for the trans- 
 port of fresh fish between Tokyo and Osaka, Tokyo and Kyoto, and 
 Tokyo and Nagoya. The cars are of sheet steel with an ice chamber 
 in the center. Their capacity is from seven to twelve tons each. Less 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 49 
 
 than carload lots are not accepted. Rates vary from 21 cents per 
 ton for short hauls of one to five miles up to $2.16 for hauls of 98 to 
 100 miles. Because imported fruits are at present consumed only 
 in the big cities, and because in any case distances in Japan are com- 
 paratively short, refrigeration on railways is not a factor in the 
 development of markets for American fresh fruits in Japan. 
 
 The expansion of markets for fresh fruits is rendered exceedingly 
 difficult by the fact that most fruits cannot be imported into the 
 country under the present plant quarantine laws and because the few 
 fruits that can be admitted are dutiable under the 100 per cent luxury 
 tariff. Furthermore, the native fruit-growing industry of Japan is 
 expanding and improving. Although native fruits are excellent in 
 appearance most of them are inferior in flavor, but this is not realized 
 by many of the purchasing class. In Korea, Manchuria, and Kwan- 
 tung fruit of finer flavor is produced. All this territory is under 
 Japanese ownership or railway control. It may be expected that 
 larger amounts of fruits from these regions will be imported into 
 Japan (proper) in future years. 
 
 A modification downward of the luxury tariff, which has long been 
 rumored, would undoubtedly make it possible to increase the sale 
 of imported fruits through a decrease in the retail price. At present 
 prices, American fresh fruits can only sell to a very limited grouj) 
 of wealthy persons. Even some of the foreign businessmen, presum- 
 ably of considerable income, stated that the high price of fruits of 
 imported origin was a considerable drain on the family purse. 
 
 Watermelons have become common in Japan. Native watermelons 
 of moderate size are on sale in many of the towns of the Empire. 
 These are readily eaten by the people, and may be purchased, by a 
 considerable element of the population, since they sell at about 25 
 cents each. Melons of cantaloupe or hone} r dew type have not yet 
 been generally and successfully produced. A limited number are 
 on sale in the Japanese stores for $1.50 each, but these do not have 
 the flavor of the American melon. Cantaloupes, casabas, and honey- 
 dew melons, if they could be imported at reasonable prices, would 
 probably find a considerable sale among a limited class in the large 
 cities, including those foreigners who have become accustomed to 
 them at home. 
 
 Canned Fruits. — American canned fruits are popular in Japan 
 among the upper classes in the large cities. However, they encounter 
 the competition of the Japanese canned fruits which, from behind the 
 wall of the 100 per cent luxury tariff, can radically undersell the 
 imported canned fruits. 
 
50 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Japan has a well-developed canning- industry, 
 products are shown in table 13. 
 
 TABLE 13 
 
 Canning Industry in Japan 
 
 Keported Value op Products Canned 
 
 Beef Fish Fruits 
 
 1924 $1,856,970 $4,351,000 $576,220 
 
 1925 1,328,220 3,487,000 572,760 
 
 1926 1,262,240 4,422,000 543,790 
 
 Source: The Japan Year Book, 1929. Tokyo. Page 578. 
 
 The value of its 
 
 Vegetables 
 
 $2,125,810 
 
 2,032,280 
 
 1,579,670 
 
 Japan has a well-developed canning industry. Pineapples, mandarin oranges, 
 peaches and loquats are the principal products. 
 
 Pineapple is the most generally used canned fruit of any in Japan. 
 Over 90 per cent of this pineapple is of native manufacture from 
 pineapples grown in Formosa. In 1928 the pack of Formosan pine- 
 apples was 300,000 cases. This pineapple is inferior to the Hawaiian 
 canned pineapple; the core is frequently not well taken out and the 
 fruit itself lacks the pungent flavor which makes it so popular in 
 America. The low price of the product, however, appeals to the Jap- 
 anese purse. A No. 2% can of Formosan pineapple retails in Japan 
 for about 37 cents. Small cans containing 8%o ounces of this same 
 pineapple are beginning to find ready sale in the department stores 
 at 9 cents each. 
 
 Other fruits than pineapple are extensively canned. Japanese 
 canned peaches in the No. 2% can sell at retail for 35 cents. Japan 
 has been unable, despite the efforts of its agricultural experiment 
 stations, to produce a yellow cling peach. The native canned peaches 
 are therefore packed from a white peach, which is far less attractive 
 and which is recognized by the Japanese themselves as inferior to the 
 American canned peach. Some native peaches are artificially colored 
 
Bul. 493 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 51 
 
 before canning to make them resemble the American product. Ameri- 
 can canned peaches would have little competition from native peaches, 
 if both could be sold for the same price. Owing, however, to the 
 100 per cent luxury tariff of Japan, and perhaps also in part due to 
 
 Japanese canned fruits are extensively advertised, 
 strives to promote the sale of Formosan pineapple. 
 
 This attractive poster 
 
52 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 the low cost of Japanese labor used in manufacture, the canned 
 peaches of Japan materially undersell American peaches in the 
 market. 
 
 Japanese canned cherries in the No. 2*4 can retail at 33 cents, 
 and pears at 35 cents. Loquats in an 8-ounce can are on sale at 
 13 cents. All these are of decidedly lower grade than similar Ameri- 
 can products. The price differential is so great, however, that it is 
 a controlling factor with a considerable element of the middle class 
 population. 
 
 American canned fruits were on sale only in the large cities. 
 Small cities and towns generally do not offer any imported canned 
 fruits although a small variety of native canned fruits may there 
 be seen. Representative retail prices of American canned fruits were 
 as given in table 14. 
 
 TABLE 14 
 
 Current Retail Prices, Augcjst 1929 
 
 American Canned Fruits in No. 2% Cans 
 
 Japan 
 
 Tokyo Kobe Osaka 
 
 Apricots $0.71 $0.71 $0.71 
 
 Cherries 70 .84 .84 
 
 Peaches .58 .58 .58 
 
 Pears 74 .74 .76 
 
 Fruit Salad 84 .84 .84 
 
 Eight-ounce cans of American fruit had recently appeared in the 
 largest stores of Japan. These were not as yet sold in any large 
 volume. Retail prices for peaches and apricots were 18 cents per 
 can; for pears 21 cents, and for fruit salad 25 cents. These same 
 small cans are usually offered in the ten cent stores of America. 
 
 Peaches are the most popular canned fruit in Japan. Those cut 
 in halves are preferred to the sliced because the Japanese think of 
 halved peaches as a superior product. For this same reason, the 
 Japanese are reluctant to believe that the small 8-ounce cans, which 
 are necessarily filled with fruit in slices or cubes, contain the same 
 quality of fruit as that in the No. 2% cans with which they are 
 familiar. 
 
 Among canned fruits, our exports of canned peaches rank first, 
 the shipments in 1929 totaling 195,349 pounds, with a declared value 
 of $19,035. Canned apricots come second in our canned-fruit exports 
 to Japan. Of these we sent 106,236 pounds, valued at $12,434. Cher- 
 ries in canned form are liked by the Japanese of the sophisticated 
 classes. Importers, however, find difficulty in successfully marketing 
 
Buu493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 53 
 
 them in Japan, as owing to the hot summers, the pit in the fruit gene- 
 rates a gas which creates a large percentage of swelled cans. This 
 same difficulty is experienced with other stone fruits. Except for 
 fruit salad, the sale of other canned fruits is small. 
 
 The No. 2V2 cans predominate in sales in Japan. Canned fruits 
 are extensively used as gifts, one or two cans being given as a present. 
 Baskets of assorted canned fruits are also for sale. A large percent- 
 age of the American canned fruits sold in Japan are purchased at the 
 two festival seasons of the year. At other times they are likely to 
 stand on the shelves as a display to advertise the high quality of the 
 store itself, rather than with the hope of finding purchasers. 
 
 American canned fruits are imported on the basis of a c.i.f. price 
 through orders placed with agents of American packers. Freight 
 from California ports to Japanese ports is $14 per ton of 40 cubic 
 feet. On arrival in Japan the canned fruit must pay a duty of 100 
 per cent under the luxury tariff except fruits canned in water instead 
 of syrup, which are shipped into Japan for the use of bakers. These 
 avoid the luxury tariff rates. Since, however, in this condition they 
 are relatively tasteless to the Japanese, fruits in water are used only 
 to decorate pastries. 
 
 Importers generally were of the opinion that the large can of 
 imported fruit was the only one that was salable in Japan because of 
 the fact that American canned fruits are purchased only by the 
 luxury classes who desire to consume the best product in the most 
 luxurious manner. 
 
 So long as American canned fruits are offered only in the large 
 size package they will probably only be used by the very highest class 
 of buyers. The introduction of the small can, holding either 1 pound 
 or 8 ounces, would undoubtedly become popular among certain of the 
 Japanese people if trade promotion methods accompanied its exhibit 
 and sale. In effect, this would be comparable to introducing a new 
 commodity, since the small can would find a different usage and a 
 different clientele than that of the larger size. Large cans are now 
 used for parties in the home, for consumption in restaurants, and for 
 presentation as gifts. The daily common use of canned fruits in the 
 same sense as in our own country is practically unknown. The 8-ounce 
 can is becoming popular among American housewives because of its 
 usefulness to the small family at small expense on ordinary occasions. 
 It might be expected to appeal for the same reason to the Japanese. 
 The introduction of the smaller can would necessarily involve an 
 expenditure of money for display, advertising, and demonstration. 
 
54 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 If these, however, were judicially employed, it might be expected that 
 the small can would prove relatively popular in Japan. 
 
 The luxury tariff on imported canned goods may be somewhat 
 modified if not entirely abolished in the near future. With this 
 restriction removed, American canned fruits would have their sale 
 somewhat increased and the competition of Japanese native canned 
 goods would thereby certainly be reduced. It cannot be expected, 
 however, that even with the luxury tariff removed, American canned 
 fruits would be sold at as low a price as the native product. The 
 appeal of American canned fruits in the future as in the past must 
 be based upon their superior quality and attractiveness. 
 
 Dried Fruits. — Among the countries of the Far East, Japan ranks 
 second as an importer of dried fruits from America, being exceeded 
 only by China. In 1929 the direct exports of dried fruits to Japan 
 from California totalled 1,705 tons and were valued at $270,798. Our 
 largest exports of dried fruits to Japan are raisins, of which we 
 sent 2,990,935 pounds to that country in 1929, with a declared value 
 of $200,985. Our next largest shipment of dried fruits was but a 
 small fraction of the amount for raisins. We shipped 272,440 pounds 
 of apricots, having a declared value of $52,886. 
 
 Raisins owe their present large demand to promotion work carried 
 on through the principal cities. Raisins were introduced into Japan 
 by means of the small 1% ounce package which sells in America for 
 5 cents. In Japan they sell at the same price. An extensive adver- 
 tising campaign was conducted. Through a chain of Japanese dis- 
 tributors, the packages were broadcast over the Empire. These hap- 
 pened to appeal to the Japanese taste as a confection rather than as 
 a foodstuff. The largest sale at first was among the children who 
 bought these small packages. Owing to the large number of fruits 
 in a package, children Avere able to pass them around to their friends, 
 one package thus serving as a confection for a group. Because of 
 spoilage caused by the hot damp summer climate of Japan, the 
 sale of raisins in the small carton is limited to the winter months. 
 Since fruits in cartons are now subject to the luxury tariff, raisins 
 are generally imported in 25-pound cans, and are repacked in Japan 
 in the sizes desired. 
 
 Five years ago a campaign was started among the bakers for the 
 use of raisins in bread and pastries. The method used was to get 
 one or two bakers in each of the large cities to develop these uses for 
 raisins. Their success led their competitors to follow suit. At the 
 present time about 200 tons of raisins a year are used by the bakers 
 in the vicinity of Tokyo and Yokohama alone. A recipe book was 
 
But,. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 55 
 
 distributed free to cooking schools and other similar centers from 
 which the knowledge might spread. Although a few years ago three- 
 fourths of the raisins imported into Japan were sold in the 5-cent 
 package, now two-thirds of them are sold in large units to bakers and 
 restaurants. The greatest use of raisins would naturally be in con- 
 nection with rice in the daily diet of the Japanese. Unfortunately, 
 however, efforts to introduce raisins for this purpose have not been 
 successful. 
 
 There has been some decrease in the use of raisins as a confection 
 among children, partially OAving to the fact that their original pur- 
 chase held the charm of a novelty, which has now worn off, but par- 
 tially because raisins of inferior quality containing both stems and 
 grit, have been imported into the country. The Japanese, fond of 
 their children and likewise sensitive to any deterioration in a product, 
 in some cases ceased to consider raisins either as a good food or as 
 a desirable purchase. Markets in Japan react quickly to downward 
 changes in quality. 
 
 Apricots easily rank second in popularity among American dried 
 fruits in Japan. These naturally appeal to the Japanese taste because 
 of their similarity both in general appearance and flavor to the per- 
 simmon, which has so long been a prominent fruit in Japan. Apricots 
 retail at 28 cents a pound. The importation of dried apricots was 
 greatly curtailed in recent years because of new governmental regula- 
 tions regarding the sulfur content in the dried fruit. Under the pure 
 food regulations, importers found themselves confronted with large 
 losses owing to their inability to dispose of the product which they 
 had already purchased. Although these regulations have now been 
 somewhat modified, thereby increasing the amount of sulfur per- 
 missible in the dried product, the amount that they may contain 
 under the Japanese law is considerably less than that which the fruit 
 normally carries. Although apricots are again coming into Japan in 
 small quantities, it is recognized among importers that this is a 
 hazardous enterprise, since the letter of the law might be enforced 
 at any time. Indeed, the six customs districts in Japan, each under 
 a separate director, are somewhat autonomous, so that the degree to 
 which the law is enforced varies in the different districts. Importers 
 are therefore exceedingly cautious in their purchases of dried apri- 
 cots, living literally from hand to mouth, with the consequence that 
 the amount of dried apricots brought into the country is materially 
 reduced under that of former years. 
 
 Those interested in the business frequently inquired whether it 
 would be possible to find another bleaching agent for apricots, or to 
 
56 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 so reduce the sulfur content that it could come within the letter as 
 well as the spirit of the law. Apricots are extensively used in pastries, 
 but are not commonly used in the home because of lack of knowledge 
 among housewives as to the proper method of cooking dried fruits. 
 It was freely predicted that their use in the country will gradually 
 increase unless the governmental regulations are of such a character 
 as to permanently limit their introduction. 
 
 Prunes have had an increasing favor among a limited class of 
 the Japanese people. The amount imported is still small, but is has 
 nearly doubled in the past three years. In August, 1929, prunes in 
 1-pound cans retailed at 21 cents to 28 cents a pound. In general, 
 the use of prunes is confined to those restaurants and hotels where 
 the methods of cooking are understood and where there is a large 
 foreign trade, and to places frequented by those who copy foreign 
 manners. The general masses of the people, even those who can afford 
 them, have not yet become familiar with the use of prunes in the 
 diet. Although their recent increase may be somewhat due to a de- 
 crease in the importation of apricots, it is traceable, in part at least, 
 to an increased appreciation of this fruit among the upper classes 
 of the population. In all the conferences held, the question was 
 discussed whether dried prunes might be used as a confection in a 
 manner similar to that of raisins. If they could be popularized for 
 eating dry out of hand without cooking, a large use for them might 
 be developed. It was generally felt, however, that in this form they 
 would probably not be as acceptable as the raisin because of the large 
 size of the fruits, thus limiting the number in a package, and also 
 because of the pit that the fruit contains. 
 
 Dried pears are almost unknown. The market for these in America 
 and Europe has been adequate to consume those produced and no real 
 introduction of them has been made in Japan. Dried peaches, as 
 already discussed, are disliked because of the skin that adheres to the 
 fruit. The lack of sweetness in the dried pear would probably not 
 make it appeal to the Japanese taste either as a confection to be eaten 
 out of the package or in the cooked form. 
 
 Except for raisins, which are largely imported by the Sun Maid 
 Raisin Growers Association through their own representatives in 
 Japan, dried fruits are generally ordered through agents of California 
 packers on the basis of a c.i.f . price. Owing to a convention with Italy, 
 dried fruits in tins, up to 25 pounds in weight, come into Japan under 
 a reduced tariff, rather than under the luxury tariff of 100 per cent. 
 In paper cartons these same fruits pay the 100 per cent tariff. Thus, 
 
Buu 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 ,)i 
 
 all dried fruits should be shipped into Japan in large tins and be 
 repacked in the paper carton in that country. 
 
 Landing charges vary from V2 cen t to 1 cent a case. Warehouse 
 handling charges average 1 cent a case. Lighterage charges from 
 Yokohama to Tokyo average 94 cents a ton if dried fruits are to be 
 shipped to the latter city. Normally, 7 per cent interest is charged 
 on drafts on goods ordered on a c.i.f. basis. 
 
 Persimmons, pomegranates, and a hard round native pear are all popular fruits 
 in Japan. 
 
 In dried fruits, the raisin has found its place among the people, 
 which it is likely to hold. Prunes and dried apricots offer other 
 opportunities for development and exploitation among the Japanese. 
 They may be expected to appeal to the taste and liking of the people 
 when properly made known to them. It must be realized, however, 
 that these products cannot be merely offered for sale at American 
 ports or even in the ports of Japan with any hope of a large increase 
 in their demand. The majority of the people of Japan are un- 
 acquainted with them and must be brought to realize through trade 
 promotion methods their healthfulness, pleasant taste, and general 
 desirability. In addition, they must be taught to cook them properly 
 and, finally and most important, must be able to obtain them at a 
 
58 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 reasonable price, because of the low purchasing' power of the classes 
 to which they are offered. 
 
 With the exception of raisins which have already been extensively 
 introduced, prunes and dried apricots would probably meet the easiest 
 sale and be the most readily introduced among the middle and lower 
 classes. This would require their adaptation to the small package 
 and their introduction through a wide-scale campaign continued over 
 a considerable period of time. 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods. — In Japan, price is a matter of the first 
 consideration if any large number of people are to be reached. 
 Appearance is almost as important. These two must be held in mind 
 by all those who hope to make sales to the people at large. 
 
 Until the luxury tariff is considerably revised downward, Califor- 
 nia imported fruits face a handicap that is difficult to surmount. The 
 doubling of their delivered cost constitutes a great barrier to their 
 popularization. Moreover, most of the fresh fruits cannot be imported 
 at all, under the plant quarantine laws. Finally, Japan has an exten- 
 sive fruit production of its own and a considerable fruit-canning 
 industry. 
 
 Nevertheless, despite all these handicaps, American fruit impor- 
 tations into Japan are considerable, although, with the exception of 
 raisins, they have not yet been promoted or exploited by the ex- 
 penditure of any considerable resources. Small 8-ounce or 1-pound 
 cans of peaches appear to offer the most hopeful opportunity for trade 
 promotion among the canned fruits under present conditions. Their 
 retail price in Japan is relatively high. Every possible effort should 
 be made to reduce that price. 
 
 Among the dried fruits, small packages of apricots and prunes 
 would lend themselves to successful trade promotion. The packaging 
 of dried fruits should be in a size sufficient to serve a family of four 
 or five persons at one meal, thus keeping the size of the purchase down 
 to the lowest possible initial investment. Generally speaking, the 
 Japanese are lacking in thrift, particularly in these modern days. 
 Their extravagance has been a matter of serious concern to the Jap- 
 anese government. Streets in the cities are lined with small shops, 
 many of which sell gimcracks, whose appeal is in their novelty 
 rather than in their real utility. However, this extravagant quality 
 is confined to small purchases. Generally speaking, anything that 
 sells for more than 25 cents is a matter for serious concern, for bar- 
 gaining, and for reflection. The small package would therefore have 
 its appeal not only because of its usefulness but because of its rela- 
 tively low cost. Prunes are now usually sold in bulk from the large 
 
Bul. 493' 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 59 
 
 sized tin of either 5, 10, or 25 pounds, but it is probable that the small 
 carton would be as attractive to the Japanese as it is to the American, 
 and even though the unit cost per fruit may be higher than in larger 
 packages or in bulk, the introduction of the product, at least in the 
 beginning, would be best accomplished through a small attractive 
 package. 
 
 Whether for canned or dried fruits, certain principles of trade 
 promotion appear to be essential if success is to be achieved. 
 
 Fruit is sold in the big cities of Japan through modern wholesale markets. 
 
 Branches of the selling agency, keeping stocks of goods on hand, 
 must be established in the large centers of population so that store- 
 keepers may experience no difficulty in renewing their stocks and may 
 be freed from the necessity of purchasing far in advance. 
 
 A small amount of the commodity to be promoted should be placed 
 on consignment with prominent food stores in all towns of 25,000 
 or more throughout the Empire. Dummy cans and cartons for dis- 
 play purposes should be added to the real packages, sufficient to 
 attract attention. These should be displayed for one year before any 
 advertising or promotional campaign is conducted. People must be 
 made familiar with the sight of the product and of the package. 
 
 After this, a campaign of demonstration and advertising should 
 be made. High-class demonstrators should appear before cooking 
 schools and women's organizations to show how the product is pre- 
 pared, and to lecture on its desirable qualities. Other demonstrators 
 
60 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 should be used in the department stores of the big cities. Such dem- 
 onstrators should, before the audience, cook the dried fruit with 
 Japanese utensils and allow the audience to sample the product, mean- 
 while lecturing on its high nutritive value and its desirability in the 
 diet of the people as a health-giving measure. The Japanese, like the 
 people of all other nations, are fond of their children and within the 
 limits of their means are anxious to give them such foods as are 
 healthful. The introduction of canned and dried fruits may be right- 
 fully coupled with this appeal. The graduates of the higher schools 
 and colleges have a large influence in Japan. Work tending to 
 familiarize these students with the product will bear results in far 
 greater proportion than similar efforts in America. 
 
 Finally, a campaign must be conducted through advertising and 
 display. Advertising in Japanese newspapers is expensive. However, 
 Japan has a large number of trade journals and women's magazines. 
 These latter offer a strong opportunity for effective advertising among 
 the purchasing class. The fruits must be made known to and be 
 accepted by physicians, dietitians, and schools of home economics. 
 Written testimonials should be secured from prominent authorities 
 testifying to the high nutritive value of these products. Display in 
 the form of posters and display cartons should be of small size, suit- 
 able for exhibit in very small shops and stores. The display carton, 
 familiar in America, is an especially effective method of attracting 
 attention in Japan. Bargain sales of small packages should occasion- 
 ally occur. In the smaller towns, every effort should be made to move 
 the goods by means of bonuses to storekeepers, reduced prices to 
 consumers, and even of sample free packages given with grocery pur- 
 chases above a certain amount. 
 
 A campaign such as outlined above will be expensive in its earlier 
 stages. It would probably bring considerable result if skillfully 
 managed according to the best American merchandising methods. 
 
Bul, 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 61 
 
 FRUIT MARKETS IN KOREA 
 
 The peninsula generally known to us as Korea is that part of the 
 Japanese Empire officially known as Chosen. It comprises 85,000 
 square miles, being one-third larger than all New England. The 
 population in 1927 was 19,137,698, of which 18,631,494, or over 97 per 
 cent were Koreans and only 1,267 were Europeans, most of whom are 
 missionaries. There are, however, in Korea 454,881 Japanese. These 
 represent the government of the country, which includes the railroad 
 operating throughout the peninsula. They also include a considerable 
 number of Japanese settlers who have migrated to Korea since it 
 came under Japanese control. Most of them are located in the towns. 
 The only important city is Seoul (Keijo) which has a population of 
 316,000, of which 70,000 are Japanese. Fusan, at the lower end of 
 the peninsula, is the port through which rail connection is made with 
 Japan. Its population is 75,000, half of whom are Japanese. 
 
 Korea is primarily a farming country. Over 15,000,000 people 
 live from the soil. In general, it is a mountainous land, denuded of 
 its native forests. The narrow valleys are forced to support a large 
 population. The chief crops are rice and soy beans. Much of the 
 Korean rice is exported, rather than consumed on the farms where it 
 is produced. The farmer grows rice but eats millet because it is a 
 cheaper grain, the cheapest in the world. 
 
 The farming population of Korea in 1928 comprised 3,800,000 
 families or households, constituting 80 per cent of the population. Of 
 the above number, less than 54,000 people, or 13,000 households were 
 Japanese, Chinese, or other foreigners, the remainder being Koreans.* 
 Collectively the farmers cultivate some 11,000,000 acres, of which 
 4,000,000 acres are devoted to rice fields and the remainder to dry or 
 upland farms. Few of the fields are cultivated by the use of heavy 
 machinery but are generally plowed with oxen and a wooden plow. 
 Crops are harvested and threshed entirely by hand, in order to lower 
 the expense in capital investment. The average number of acres 
 farmed by a Korean family is five. Two-thirds of all the rice land is 
 owned by a handful of landlords, and is rented to tenants. Approxi- 
 mately 45 per cent of the people are tenant farmers. 
 
 The standard of living and the purchasing power of the people as 
 a whole is extremely low. Therefore the market for imported articles 
 
 *The Farmers and Farming Lands of Chosen. Report of Hansford S. Miller 
 
 (1928). 
 
62 University of California — Experiment kStation 
 
 is very limited. With the exception of 4 per cent of the farmers who 
 own over half of the land and constitute the landlords of the country, 
 the small farmers and tenants have extremely small incomes. It is 
 estimated that the normal gross incomes of 90 per cent of the farmers 
 of Korea ranges from $50 to $350 a year, with an average of $140 per 
 household.* Under present economic conditions a large proportion 
 of the farmers are not even making costs of production and are forced 
 to borrow money at usurious rates of interest so that many of them 
 are hopelessly in debt. 
 
 The climate of Korea is much like that in Japan except that in the 
 north the winters are longer and colder. In summer the temperature 
 is high. Because the climate is drier than in Japan it is better suited 
 to the cultivation of fruit, which here is of better flavor than in Japan. 
 
 Fruit in the Korean Diet. — The Korean lives largely on a diet of 
 millet, supplemented by small amounts of vegetables, fish, and meat. 
 The cooking utensils in the native Korean home are primitive. The 
 homes of the people with their mud walls and thatched roofs have 
 few conveniences. More of the time of the Korean housewife is con- 
 sumed in keeping white the clothes of the head of the family than in 
 preparing meals. In Korea, clothes assume a greater importance than 
 food. 
 
 Among the upper classes rice takes the place of the cheaper grains 
 and much larger quantities of meat are eaten. The whole diet becomes 
 more elaborate among wealthy persons, food being served in the 
 Chinese fashion. The upper classes are, however, so small in number 
 that they create little collective demand for foreign foodstuffs. 
 
 Fruits are greatly liked by the Korean people and are consumed 
 in summer in as large quantities as they can afford. Among the most 
 popular fruits are apples, pears, mandarin oranges, bananas, peaches, 
 grapes, cherries, apricots, persimmons, dates, walnuts, pine nuts, 
 chestnuts, sweet melons, watermelons, and loquats. The above fruits 
 and nuts are found in abundance in season. Many of them are grown 
 locally and others are imported from Japan proper, Formosa, or the 
 northern fruit-growing areas of China. 
 
 Fresh Fruits. — Korea grows considerable fruit. Its apples are 
 famous in the Far East for their fine flavor and quality. It is the 
 policy of the Japanese government to encourage fruit growing along 
 its railway lines in Korea. Experimental stations have been estab- 
 lished which distribute cuttings of desirable varieties through the 
 country. Japanese and Chinese companies are planting large fruit 
 farms. The area devoted to fruit may be expected to extend. 
 
 *Special Eeport. Eansford S. Miller, American Consul General, Keijo. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 63 
 
 During the summer season, an abundance of local fruit of rjood 
 quality is displayed in markets and on street stands at low prices. 
 Fresh peaches of good quality were on sale in August at 5 cents for 
 four peaches. Apples cost 3 cents each, and small watermelons sold 
 for 15 cents. At small fruit stands, fruits of inferior quality were on 
 sale at V2 cent each. In the fall of the year, namely the months of 
 September and October, fruits of wide variety are offered for sale in 
 many food shops and at railway stations. The grapes and pears are 
 of particularly good quality. 
 
 Canned Fruits. — Imported canned fruits are purchased only by 
 the foreigners residing in the country and by a very few of the upper 
 class of the native and Japanese population. Canned fruits are a 
 commodity used only by the comparatively wealthy. Even some of 
 the foreigners find canned American fruits too expensive to be used 
 frequently on the family table. The increase in native fruit growing 
 has led to a decrease in the consumption of imported canned goods. 
 Many foreign families now preserve their own fruits in glass jars, as 
 is commonly done in America. Some of the missions within the country 
 have also actively undertaken the packing of canned goods in com- 
 mercial cans. The purpose in mind is to develop a local fruit canning 
 industry. 
 
 American canned fruits in No. 2% cans were on sale at prices shown 
 in table 15. In smaller sizes they are practically unknown. 
 
 TABLE 15 
 
 Current Betail Prices, August 1929, American Canned Fruits 
 
 Seoul (Keijo), Korea (Chosen) 
 
 In No. 2% cans 
 
 Apricots $0.63 Pears 56 
 
 Cherries 77 Pineapples 56 
 
 Peaches 56 Fruit salad 86 
 
 The tariff of Japan, with a few exceptions, applies to Korea. Thus, 
 the luxury tariff of 100 per cent already discussed in the section 
 devoted to Japan, applies with equal force to this part of the Empire. 
 On the other hand, imports from Japan and certain parts of China 
 are admitted free of duty. American canned and dried fruits on sale 
 in Korea are obtainable only at about the same prices as in Japan. 
 Competing Japanese canned fruits, admitted free to Korea, are dis- 
 played alongside American fruits at considerably lower prices. 
 Japanese peaches and pears were 35 cents in the No. 2V> can. In a 
 9-ounce can cherries were 14 cents. 
 
64 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 A conference of dealers and others held at Seoul expressed the 
 opinion that the smaller cans of fruit, namely those of 8 or 16 ounces, 
 might create increased sales among foreigners and some of the higher- 
 class Japanese and Koreans. Up to this time, only the No. 2 1 /o can 
 has been offered for sale. If any considerable sale of imported fruits 
 is to be made, it must be through the Japanese and Korean population. 
 Therefore, the unit in which the product is offered must be small, 
 otherwise it cannot be purchased even by that small section of the 
 population which is a potential market. 
 
 Dried Fruits. — Here as in Japan, the cooking of dried fruits is 
 not generally understood. Among imported dried fruits, the raisin 
 is the only one which has yet obtained any considerable hold even 
 upon the Japanese population of the country. Certain native dried 
 fruits are extensively sold in the markets. Dried persimmons and 
 dates of Asiatic origin are known and liked but these in no wise 
 compete with the American fruits. 
 
 California raisins were introduced only a few years ago as the 
 result of a systematic sales campaign ; thus they are a recent intro- 
 duction into the food habits of both Koreans and Japanese. As yet, 
 the Koreans do not use raisins in any appreciable quantities, since 
 they are served only on special occasions with other dried fruits. The 
 Japanese, however, are now using raisins as an additional condiment 
 for their rice. They are also used by bakers in the making of cakes 
 and pastries. About 6,000 cases of raisins are sold annually in Korea. 
 The 15-ounce carton retails at 20 cents and the little 1%-ounce carton 
 at 4 cents. 
 
 Other dried fruits are sold only to foreigners and a few educated 
 Koreans. Dried apricots retail at 37 cents a pound, pears at 37 cents, 
 and prunes at 20 cents. Generally speaking, the use of prunes and 
 apricots might be successfully promoted among the Japanese and 
 other foreigners in the country, and possibly among a very small class 
 of the Koreans who, by their larger incomes, are able to purchase such 
 relatively expensive foodstuffs. But prunes and apricots cannot come 
 into favor until the housewives among the upper classes of the country 
 are familiar with the cooking of them. 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods. — As in Japan, prunes and dried 
 apricots would appeal to the people more than any other dried fruits 
 except raisins. Undoubtedly additional markets could be found in 
 Korea for these commodities provided trade promotion methods were 
 used. These would necessitate demonstrations before groups of 
 Koreans and Japanese, showing how these foodstuffs are prepared 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 65 
 
 and eaten. It would necessitate cooking these products with the equip- 
 ment now used in the average Korean house. Highly decorated and 
 illustrated posters advertising these commodities should be supplied. 
 This type of advertising material is scarce and is always treasured by 
 the Korean merchant. In any advertising of American fruit products, 
 such as on calendars, posters, display cartons, and other similar 
 methods, the effort must be made not only to explain the high quality 
 and palatabilitj' of the fruit, but also the methods of its preparation 
 and use. 
 
 Dried prunes and apricots should be offered for sale in small con- 
 tainers and, if put up in the cheaper cartons, should only be stocked 
 during the cool or winter months. The small can containing these 
 products, it is believed, would keep through the warmer periods of 
 the summer. Can openers should be made available to the Korean 
 family. These might be used as a bait in trade promotion by giving 
 can openers with a 1-pound can of dried fruit. Advertising materials 
 should illustrate methods of opening canned fruits. Cans are very 
 valuable and if they could be opened in such a way as to preserve the 
 container for further household use this would also appeal to these 
 people. If trade promotion were conducted in Korea, such efforts 
 should be confined primarily to the popularization of prunes and dried 
 apricots during the winter months. 
 
 In canned goods, the field will always be small but it is fairly 
 evident that the small can either in the 8-ounce or 1-pound size would 
 find added sale among the small number of consumers of canned fruits. 
 
 The great bulk of the population of Korea is not a potential market 
 for American trade and will not be for a considerable time to come. 
 While through trade promotion, markets can be increased, the stand- 
 ards of living and economic condition of the bulk of the population 
 of Korea are such that the development of a large and important 
 market for imported fruit — fresh, canned, or dried — appears 
 impossible. 
 
66 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 16 
 Direct Fruit Exports from California to China 
 
 Kind of fruit 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 
 1929 
 
 Canned 
 
 Berries 
 
 pounds 
 
 17,373 
 18,073 
 114,502 
 285,703 
 38,879 
 235,514 
 176,425 
 
 dollars 
 
 3,062 
 1,446 
 11,886 
 43,363 
 4,001 
 22,548 
 21,314 
 
 pounds 
 
 27,322 
 
 12,775 
 
 110,082 
 
 361,400 
 
 13,194 
 
 347,596 
 
 180,787 
 
 dollars 
 
 5,034 
 1,604 
 13,454 
 55,430 
 1,038 
 34,601 
 23,097 
 
 pounds 
 13,431 
 10,833 
 76,725 
 
 108,779 
 24,496 
 
 276,878 
 
 122,809 
 79,824 
 51,170 
 11,361 
 67,611 
 
 dollars 
 
 2,291 
 
 
 1,522 
 
 
 9,212 
 
 
 17,473 
 
 
 3,333 
 
 Peaches 
 
 30,623 
 
 Pears 
 
 17,799 
 
 
 13,082 
 
 Other canned 
 
 46,357 
 
 25,754 
 
 128,605 
 
 5,685 
 
 2,790 
 
 33,651 
 
 79,083 
 
 39,542 
 
 157,812 
 
 10,521 
 
 5,483 
 
 36,237 
 
 6,453 
 
 Pineapples 
 
 1,627 
 
 Jams, jellies, etc. 
 
 20,746 
 
 Total 
 
 1,087,185 
 
 149,746 
 
 1,329,593 
 
 186,499 
 
 843,917 
 
 124,161 
 
 
 
 
 Dried 
 
 Raisins 
 
 pounds 
 
 3,455,136 
 
 84,307 
 
 45,916 
 
 30,561 
 
 325,756 
 
 dollars 
 
 247,362 
 11,980 
 
 7,238 
 
 4,357 
 
 28,670 
 
 pounds 
 
 6,980,563 
 
 73,275 
 
 44,639 
 
 41,164 
 
 479,965 
 
 dollars 
 
 363,545 
 
 10,780 
 
 6,722 
 
 5,919 
 
 39,691 
 
 pounds 
 
 6,455,467 
 56,363 
 52,891 
 21,798 
 253,652 
 24,350 
 25,267 
 
 dollars 
 
 356,910 
 
 Apples 
 
 8,619 
 
 Apricots 
 
 10,015 
 
 Peaches 
 
 3,128 
 
 Prunes 
 
 27,277 
 
 
 3,504 
 
 Other dried 
 
 68,324 
 
 9,719 
 
 99,549 
 
 14,926 
 
 3,829 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 4,010,000 
 
 309,326 
 
 7,719,155 
 
 441,583 
 
 6,889,788 
 
 413,282 
 
 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Grapefruit 
 
 boxes 
 
 1,512 
 11,953 
 48,014 
 
 2,798 
 
 dollars 
 
 6,705 
 
 78,289 
 
 226,487 
 
 5,273 
 
 boxes 
 
 1,745 
 11,704 
 35,242 
 
 4,321 
 
 dollars 
 
 8,523 
 
 91,247 
 
 211,760 
 
 6,409 
 
 boxes 
 
 2,090 
 12,077 
 57,644 
 
 3,449 
 
 dollars 
 
 9,279 
 
 Lemons 
 
 88,079 
 
 Oranges 
 
 288,149 
 
 Apples ... 
 
 6,346 
 
 
 
 
 pounds 
 
 400 
 
 144,044 
 
 500 
 
 dollars 
 
 65 
 
 11,240 
 
 25 
 
 pounds 
 
 400 
 
 232,413 
 
 7,843 
 
 4,545 
 
 dollars 
 
 70 
 
 14,611 
 
 467 
 
 379 
 
 1,539 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 Grapes... 
 
 206,979 
 
 7,285 
 
 17,904 
 
 Pears 
 
 685 
 
 
 
 Other fresh 
 
 2,899 
 
 217 
 
 25,163 
 
 2,035 
 
 
 
Bui* 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 67 
 
 FRUIT MARKETS IN CHINA 
 
 China, one of the great countries of the world, has long been a goal 
 of trade and commerce for many nations. Its enormous population 
 and their great combined buying power have brought to its borders 
 for ages past, travelers, merchants, and armies in an effort to secure 
 a share of the wealth of this great nation. 
 
 China is larger than Europe and nearly as large as the United 
 States and Mexico combined. Its population is almost equal to that of 
 Europe, is six times that of all South America, and is about one-fourth 
 that of the entire world. China proper, with its three Manchurian 
 provinces, covers 1,897,000 square miles. Its population is estimated 
 at 436,000,000 — a density of 238 persons per square mile. In addition 
 to China proper, Mongolia, Chinese Turkestan, and Tibet, which have 
 an additional 10,000,000 population, have been nominally a part of this 
 empire. Certain sections of China are very densely populated, while 
 others are but thinly settled. Six-sevenths of the population is located 
 on one-third of its area. The population of the great Yangtsze basin is 
 estimated at 200,000,000. In the delta of the Yangtsze River, an area 
 of approximately 50,000 square miles, about equal in size to one-third 
 of the State of California, there is a population of 40,000,000 persons.* 
 
 China is largely an agricultural nation, about 80 per cent of the 
 population being engaged in farming. It has, however, many great 
 cities. At least five of these have over a million population, and more 
 than twenty have half a million or more. The foreign population of 
 China is largely limited to certain treaty ports, and to a few places in 
 the interior where missionaries and representatives of great American 
 business organizations have settled. There are 12,503 Americans who 
 have registered at the consulates as residents in China, the largest 
 number of these being in Shanghai, where more than 3,000 Americans 
 create a considerable colony. 
 
 Transportation facilities in China are meager, compared with 
 western standards. There are only 8,500 miles of railroad lines, as 
 contrasted with 265,000 in the United tates. It is estimated that, 
 including the paved streets in the various treaty ports, there are only 
 18,485 miles of roads capable of use by automobile. t Owing to China's 
 poor railroad system water transportation is still largely used. Vast 
 areas are without other highways than caravan routes, across which 
 
 *" China.' ' U. S. Dept. Commerce Trade Promotion Series No. 38. J. Arnold, 
 t "Sales Territories in China." C. K. Moser (1929). U. S. Dept. Commerce. 
 
68 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 goods and commodities from distant places travel slowly for thousands 
 of miles. In still other regions, all goods are carried on the backs of 
 men. 
 
 Despite the relative poverty of a large percentage of the Chinese 
 population, the foreign trade of the country is enormous. China's 
 total foreign trade, exports and imports is about $1,400,000,000 a year. 
 In 1928 the exports from the United States to China were valued at 
 $136,960,000, while imports from China to the United States were 
 $140,031,000, or a total foreign trade between the United States and 
 
 Population in millions 
 100 200 300 400 
 
 500 
 
 Country 
 
 United States 
 
 China 
 
 British India 
 
 Netherland East Indies 
 
 n 1 — — i r 
 
 Billions of dollars 
 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 
 
 Japan 
 
 British Malaya 
 
 ^^ Imports 
 B^R Exports 
 V*B Population 
 
 Fig. 17. — Foreign Trade and Population of Certain Countries, 
 1923-1927 Average. 
 
 China of $276,991,000, this being approximately 20 per cent of the 
 foreign trade of China, The same figure represents about 8 per cent 
 of the foreign trade of the United States (see fig. 17). 
 
 Imported foreign foodstuffs find their chief market not among the 
 Chinese population, but among the foreign residents of China, esti- 
 mated at 251,000 persons. In 1924, China's net imports of canned, 
 dried, and fresh fruits were valued at $4,527,381. Of this amount, 
 there came from the United States, fruits to the value of $1,118,280 
 (see table 17). Thus, the value of imports of fruits into China from 
 the United States was only about one-fourth of the total imported into 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
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70 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 that country. The actual imported amount of American fruit may 
 have been somewhat larger, since some commodities from America 
 find their way into China by trans-shipment from ports of other 
 nations. These trans-shipped commodities are not traceable through 
 the export records. 
 
 By 1927, China imported directly from the United States, canned 
 fruits to the value of $183,508, out of a total of $298,140 imported 
 into China from various nations (see table 18), the American imports 
 
 TABLE 18 
 China's Imports of Canned Fruits (Table and Pie) by Countries of Origin 
 
 1925-1927 
 
 Imported from 
 
 1925 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 
 pounds 
 
 656,533 
 
 16,267 
 
 443,867 
 
 1,067 
 
 9,600 
 
 dollars 
 
 52,043 
 
 2,477 
 
 2' 1,902 
 
 76 
 
 1,658 
 
 pounds 
 641,200 
 23,866 
 837,733 
 
 dollars 
 45,802 
 2,726 
 40,580 
 
 pounds 
 
 579,052 
 
 10,266 
 
 894,778 
 
 133 
 
 12,266 
 
 267 
 
 8,933 
 
 2,533 
 
 dollars 
 38,416 
 
 French Indo-China 
 
 1,231 
 
 Singapore, Straits, etc 
 
 40,727 
 
 Dutch Indies 
 
 6 
 
 British India 
 
 4,800 
 
 924 
 
 1,754 
 
 Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Aden, etc. 
 
 71 
 
 
 
 
 8,400 
 
 14,533 
 
 2,667 
 
 2,000 
 
 533 
 
 31,467 
 
 25,000 
 
 75,200 
 
 667 
 
 1,600 
 
 1,534,132 
 
 3,334 
 
 3,207,132 
 2,000 
 
 864 
 
 1,273 
 
 294 
 
 213 
 
 122 
 
 2,837 
 
 2,467 
 
 9,650 
 
 78 
 
 164 
 
 155,858 
 
 330 
 
 264,182 
 107 
 
 1,016 
 
 
 3,733 
 
 380 
 
 478 
 
 
 
 France 
 
 1,333 
 
 933 
 
 1,066 
 
 9,867 
 
 87,467 
 
 800 
 
 200 
 124 
 102 
 1,090 
 8,627 
 195 
 
 3,467 
 
 548 
 
 Italy 
 
 
 
 2,667 
 
 21,199 
 
 179,596 
 
 121,330 
 
 12,266 
 
 1,936,352 
 
 248 
 
 
 1,870 
 
 
 17,819 
 
 
 9,406 
 
 
 1,339 
 
 
 1,232,533 
 5,734 
 
 2,470,800 
 8,534 
 
 124,837 
 502 
 
 214,213 
 815 
 
 183,508 
 
 
 
 
 3,785,105 
 3,066 
 
 298,437 
 
 
 297 
 
 
 
 
 2,462,266 
 
 213,398 
 
 3,205,132 
 
 264,075 
 
 3,782,039 
 
 298,140 
 
 
 
 thus being over 60 per cent of the total imports of canned fruit. In 
 1929, the direct exports of canned fruits from California to China, 
 were valued at $124,161 (see table 16). Of all nations in the Far 
 East, China ranks first in its total consumption of California canned 
 fruits. Among these, peaches had first place. The value of these 
 exported from California to China was $30,623. Canned pears came 
 second with a value of $17,799. Canned cherries were the third most 
 popular commodity, these being" exported to the value of $17,473. 
 
 China also ranks first as an import market for dried fruits from 
 California to the Far East. In 1929, California exported directly to 
 
Bin,. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 71 
 
 China 6,455,467 pounds of raisins, with a declared value of $356,910. 
 California raisins constitute the great bulk of all the raisins imported 
 into China (see table 19). 
 
 TABLE 19 
 China's Imports of Currants and Kaisins, by Countries of Origin, 1925-1927 
 
 Imported from 
 
 1925 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 
 pounds 
 
 655,850 
 
 21,999 
 
 39,066 
 
 7,333 
 
 33,866 
 
 27,333 
 
 7,066 
 
 2,400 
 
 dollars 
 
 91,000 
 
 2,713 
 
 8,674 
 
 835 
 
 6,440 
 
 4,449 
 
 744 
 
 387 
 
 pounds 
 
 477,455 
 
 15,600 
 
 36,532 
 
 533 
 
 25,599 
 
 7,733 
 
 7,600 
 
 4,400 
 
 dollars 
 
 54,512 
 
 1,437 
 
 3,948 
 
 51 
 
 4,243 
 
 1,439 
 
 1,009 
 
 603 
 
 pounds 
 812,113 
 18,400 
 32,933 
 
 dollars 
 82,988 
 
 
 1,618 
 
 
 3,020 
 
 
 
 
 48,265 
 11,866 
 12,533 
 4,933 
 
 8,096 
 
 
 2,218 
 
 Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Aden, etc. 
 
 1,145 
 
 789 
 
 
 
 
 133 
 667 
 133 
 
 12 
 
 167 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 France 
 
 
 
 1,067 
 
 408 
 
 
 
 
 
 Russia, Pacific ports 
 
 
 
 253,460 
 
 12,933 
 
 23,466 
 
 400 
 
 3,917,902 
 
 70,265 
 
 5,220,536 
 1,219,703 
 
 31,140 
 
 
 2,800 
 
 64,132 
 
 133 
 
 2,978,726 
 
 57,732 
 
 3,899,369 
 1,234,236 
 
 564 
 
 3,285 
 
 16 
 
 267,108 
 
 7,003 
 
 393,412 
 117,139 
 
 8,800 
 
 34,266 
 
 267 
 
 4,426,823 
 
 54,265 
 
 5,099,873 
 1,391,699 
 
 1,678 
 
 2,138 
 
 36 
 
 346,099 
 
 6,182 
 
 423,375 
 110,199 
 
 1,961 
 
 Japan (including Formosa) 
 
 1,551 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 306,032 
 
 
 7,990 
 
 
 448,977 
 
 
 97,558 
 
 
 
 
 2,665,133 
 
 276,273 
 
 3,708,174 
 
 313,176 
 
 4,000,833 
 
 351,419 
 
 
 
 In fresh fruits, China is California's second largest export market 
 in the Far East, being outranked only by the Philippine Islands. 
 Oranges are the most important factor in our fresh-fruit exports to 
 China, amounting in 1929 to 57,644 boxes valued at $288,149. This, 
 however, is only a small proportion of the Chinese imports of oranges, 
 far larger amounts coming from Japanese ports (see table 20). Our 
 imports of lemons into China in 1929 amounted to 12,077 boxes valued 
 at $88,079. This constituted the bulk of the lemon imports into China 
 (see table 21). Apples are one of the important fresh fruits brought 
 into China. The imports of these are valued at almost $400,000 (see 
 table 22). Of this amount, in 1927 $61,772 worth came from the 
 United States. Most of these were supplied by Oregon and Washing- 
 ton. The direct exports from California to China in that year 
 amounted to only $5,273. Almost two-thirds of the imported Chinese 
 apples came from Korea, less than one-seventh arriving from the 
 United States. The fresh grape exports to China are relatively small. 
 We shipped eight times as many to the Philippines. 
 
72 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 China has a considerable fresh fruit production in certain sec- 
 tions of that great country. The northeastern provinces known as 
 Manchuria are an exceptionally good fruit region. Peaches, apricots, 
 and pears are there grown in considerable volume ; native peaches are 
 
 TABLE 20 
 China's Imports of Oranges by Countries of Origin, 1925-1927 
 
 Imported from 
 
 1925 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 
 pounds 
 
 492,655 
 
 134 
 
 800 
 
 1,333 
 
 dollars 
 
 19,533 
 
 9 
 
 42 
 
 21 
 
 pounds 
 38,532 
 
 dollars 
 1,867 
 
 pounds 
 285,860 
 
 dollars 
 18,853 
 
 Macao 
 
 
 French Indo-China 
 
 667 
 
 533 
 
 1,333 
 
 17,333 
 
 47 
 10 
 39 
 
 933 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 267 
 
 2,533 
 
 32,266 
 
 24 
 
 
 9,866 
 
 664 
 
 26 
 
 Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Aden, etc. 
 
 924 
 
 1,533 
 
 
 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 
 
 5,200 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 
 533 
 
 1,021,841 
 
 764,781 
 
 24,035,532 
 
 400 
 
 10,933 
 
 1,662,225 
 
 28,001,033 
 17,866 
 
 30 
 90,129 
 42,302 
 766,647 
 30 
 1,186 
 158,352 
 
 1,078,945 
 
 677 
 
 
 
 
 1,981,417 
 
 503,054 
 
 35,022,858 
 
 1,600 
 
 400 
 
 3,458,714 
 
 41,031,641 
 14,266 
 
 104,051 
 
 26,883 
 
 1,003,999 
 
 32 
 
 62 
 
 282,059 
 
 1,420,093 
 860 
 
 4,716,815 
 
 592,252 
 
 27,118,389 
 
 4,800 
 
 400 
 
 3,235,652 
 
 35,990,167 
 11,866 
 
 253,621 
 
 
 28,706 
 
 
 784,911 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Canada 
 
 326 
 
 61 
 
 276,513 
 
 
 1,364,622 
 
 
 997 
 
 
 
 
 27,983,167 
 
 1,078,268 
 
 41,017,375 
 
 1,419,233 
 
 35,978,301 
 
 1,363,625 
 
 
 
 TABLE 21 
 China's Imports of Lemons, by Countries of Origin, 1925-1927 
 
 Imported from 
 
 1925 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 Hongkong > 
 
 pounds 
 5,198 
 8,167 
 
 dollars 
 517 
 275 
 
 pounds 
 4,207 
 
 dollars 
 446 
 
 pounds 
 6,187 
 
 dollars 
 652 
 
 
 
 Turkey, Aden, Persia, Egypt, etc. 
 
 22,275 
 
 873 
 
 
 
 7,672 
 4,455 
 1,732 
 
 263 
 254 
 235 
 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 5,940 
 1,980 
 
 433 
 226 
 
 18,562 
 5,198 
 
 1,438 
 
 Russia, Pacific ports 
 
 565 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 3,713 
 
 248 
 
 4,208 
 
 768,735 
 
 804,128 
 11,633 
 
 349 
 
 21 
 
 416 
 
 81,079 
 
 83,409 
 1,187 
 
 5,692 
 
 439 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 248 
 
 495 
 
 863,775 
 
 894,465 
 28,215 
 
 75 
 
 
 743 
 1,041,728 
 
 1,082,565 
 11,633 
 
 90 
 95,791 
 
 98,298 
 1,054 
 
 
 
 85,571 
 
 
 88,320 
 
 
 2,783 
 
 
 
 
 792,495 
 
 82,222 
 
 1,070,932 
 
 97,244 
 
 866,250 
 
 85,537 
 
 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 73 
 
 TABLE 22 
 
 China's Imports of Apples, by Countries of Origin, 1925-1927 
 
 Imported from 
 
 1925 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 
 pounds 
 18,267 
 
 dollars 
 907 
 
 pounds 
 63,731 
 
 dollars 
 2,625 
 
 pounds 
 57,065 
 667 
 667 
 
 dollars 
 2,978 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 400 
 
 80 
 
 1,067 
 
 226 
 
 69 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 267 
 
 297,859 
 
 5,067,873 
 
 1,323,700 
 
 447,989 
 
 2,546,470 
 
 17 
 20,404 
 281,593 
 56,568 
 29,062 
 155,707 
 4 
 
 546,206 
 2,133 
 
 
 
 
 686,516 
 
 2,930,193 
 
 717,315 
 
 410,390 
 
 1,403,565 
 
 55,689 
 149,208 
 32,204 
 28,740 
 90,408 
 
 132,663 
 
 4,427,222 
 
 1,342,766 
 
 559,853 
 
 972,376 
 
 9,735 
 
 
 228,244 
 
 
 48,126 
 
 
 37,994 
 
 
 61,772 
 
 
 
 
 6,166,646 
 2,933 
 
 6,163,713 
 
 357,236 
 188 
 
 9,748,956 
 35,599 
 
 7,493,279 
 4,933 
 
 388,954 
 
 
 212 
 
 
 
 
 357,048 
 
 9,713,357 
 
 544,073 
 
 7,488,346 
 
 388,742 
 
 
 
 also grown in the lower Yangtsze Valley. In the vicinity of Chefoo, 
 a port on the northern coast of the Shantung peninsula, a considerable 
 fruit industry has been recently developed. Here the growing of 
 apples, pears, and grapes has become of commercial importance, so 
 that fruit has spread along 30 miles of coast line on land previously 
 used for the growing of trees for fuel. Customs statistics indicate that 
 the fresh fruit exports from Chefoo approximate 8,000 tons a year. 
 About 60 per cent of these are apples, the balance being made up of 
 apricots, peaches, grapes, plums, and cherries. The example of the 
 Japanese in fruit growing in the leased territory of Kwantung has 
 spread to many Chinese farmers in the neighboring territory of 
 China.* Definite statistics on the fruit industry of China are of course 
 lacking, because no census or similar government survey has ever been 
 made by that nation. 
 
 Because of the great size and diversity of China, its markets for 
 American fruits are discussed in the following pages under four 
 divisions: Manchuria, Northern China, Central China, and Southern 
 China. 
 
 ^Special Report, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau Agr. Econ. P. O. Nyhus. 
 
74 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 23 
 Direct Fruit Exports from California to Kwantung 
 
 Kind of fruit 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 1929 
 
 Canned 
 Berries 
 
 pounds 
 
 60 
 
 90 
 
 6,057 
 
 9,252 
 
 372 
 
 14,808 
 
 6,011 
 
 dollars 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 749 
 
 1,418 
 
 49 
 
 1,427 
 
 753 
 
 pounds 
 
 540 
 
 74 
 
 7,955 
 
 29,544 
 
 150 
 
 51,100 
 
 13,700 
 
 dollars 
 
 100 
 
 11 
 
 921 
 
 4,520 
 
 30 
 
 4,636 
 
 1,785 
 
 pounds 
 
 398 
 
 1,040 
 
 16,825 
 
 18,139 
 
 120 
 
 82,792 
 
 11,464 
 
 24,216 
 
 4,070 
 
 9,857 
 
 11,207 
 
 dollars 
 
 93 
 
 Apples 
 
 125 
 
 Apricots 
 
 2,033 
 
 2,796 
 
 28 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Peaches 
 
 8,282 
 1,616 
 
 Pears 
 
 Fruit for salad 
 
 3,614 
 
 Other canned 
 
 1,365 
 3,765 
 
 8,870 
 
 170 
 
 425 
 
 1,974 
 
 8,254 
 
 4,395 
 
 18,580 
 
 1,032 
 
 540 
 
 3,522 
 
 560 
 
 Pineapples 
 
 929 
 
 Jams, jellies, etc 
 
 3,434 
 
 Total 
 
 50,650 
 
 6,982 
 
 134,292 
 
 17,097 
 
 180,126 
 
 23,510 
 
 
 
 Dried 
 
 Raisins 
 
 pounds 
 
 367,095 
 
 13,675 
 
 4,597 
 
 2,897 
 
 22,846 
 
 dollars 
 
 27,219 
 
 1,442 
 
 785 
 
 342 
 
 1,716 
 
 pounds 
 
 816,554 
 
 31,900 
 
 4,046 
 
 5,675 
 
 61,862 
 
 dollars 
 
 39,275 
 
 4,029 
 
 648 
 
 586 
 
 3,924 
 
 pounds 
 
 939,690 
 9,750 
 2,650 
 2,525 
 
 22,651 
 2,125 
 
 3,650 
 
 dollars 
 
 45,566 
 
 Apples 
 
 1,467 
 
 Apricots 
 
 441 
 
 Peaches... 
 
 331 
 
 Prunes 
 
 2,336 
 
 Pears 
 
 304 
 
 Other dried 
 
 37,251 
 
 2,926 
 
 29,750 
 
 2,105 
 
 522 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 448,361 
 
 34,430 
 
 949,787 
 
 50,567 
 
 983,041 
 
 50,967 
 
 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Lemons 
 
 boxes 
 
 dollars 
 
 boxes 
 
 153 
 
 dollars 
 
 806 
 
 boxes 
 
 85 
 300 
 
 dollars 
 
 588 
 
 Oranges 
 
 
 
 1,950 
 
 Apples 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other fresh 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 75 
 
 MANCHURIA 
 
 Manchuria, which comprises the three northeastern provinces of 
 China, is a great area similar in many respects to portions of our own 
 central west and to the prairie provinces of Canada, Because of its 
 unique character it is distinct from other sections of China. 
 
 The area of Manchuria, 365,000 square miles, corresponds roughly 
 to the size of California, Oregon, Washington, and Ohio combined. 
 The population is about 25,000,000. Generally speaking, Manchuria 
 is a level country of great fertility, which is but sparsely settled and 
 into which migrations of Chinese were forbidden during most of the 
 Manchurian dynasty. In more recent years, Chinese have been flock- 
 ing to Manchuria at the rate of 800,000 to 1,200,000 per year, so that 
 they are rapidly settling the country. Because these Chinese are 
 progressive members of their race and because of their relatively large 
 land holdings on the new and fertile plains of Manchuria, they are 
 richer than their brethren further south where the land holdings are 
 small and the incomes consequently meagre. 
 
 Manchuria has two great cities, Mukden in southern Manchuria, 
 which has a population of about 200,000, and Harbin in the north 
 with a population of about 300,000. It is estimated that in Harbin 
 there are almost 100,000 Russians. Thus, that city has the largest white 
 population of any in eastern Asia. Some of these Russians migrated 
 here before the war, but the majority fled into northern Manchuria 
 to escape the Bolshevist menace and now remain in China expatriated 
 from their native land. Southern Manchuria is served by the South 
 Manchurian Railroad which has 681 miles of track under Japanese 
 ownership and control. The railroad and the area immediately 
 surrounding it is policed by the soldiers of the Japanese Empire. 
 Northern Manchuria is crossed by the Chinese Eastern Railway, 1,078 
 miles long, which is under joint Russian and Chinese management. 
 Thus, Manchuria possesses no through railway line with a unified 
 supervision or ownership. 
 
 The chief products of Manchuria are soy beans and grain 
 sorghums. These provinces produce 70 per cent of all soy beans grown 
 in China and are the largest growers of this product in the world. 
 Wheat is the second crop. Other cereals such as millet and corn are 
 raised in large quantities. 
 
 Laborers in Manchuria are paid about 50 cents a day for common 
 and 75 cents a day for skilled labor. In north Manchuria the Russian 
 
76 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 population of Harbin, together with that of other towns in that terri- 
 tory, has created a considerable demand for European foodstuffs. 
 Owing, however, to the declining purchasing power of these Russians, 
 and to the increasing wealth of the Chinese, the Russian demands are 
 becoming of less importance while those of the Chinese are growing 
 greater. Generally speaking, the Russians in northern Manchuria 
 have not /been successful in their financial undertakings, while the 
 Chinese occupied in agriculture and trade have been able to outstrip 
 their white brethren. Some Chinese who came into Manchuria as poor 
 coolies have become extremely rich. Agricultural lands cultivated in 
 large areas and farmed with American power machinery have brought 
 wealth to those who have the ability and the necessary capital to 
 undertake such extended enterprises. The Russians on the contrary, 
 are generally without capital and are found as clerks in the stores, 
 drivers of cabs, servants and doorkeepers in hotels and restaurants, 
 and as beggars in the streets. The white race in Manchuria has 
 experienced a steady decline of prosperity in face of the increasing 
 wave of Chinese industry, thrift, and progressiveness. Thus, the 
 market for imported products among the Russians is lessening. If 
 the demand for imported products is to be maintained or increased, 
 it must be adapted to the Chinese who already possess a large share 
 of wealth in the territory and who undoubtedly will possess a still 
 greater share in the future. 
 
 In southern Manchuria more settled conditions pertain since there 
 the Chinese, working northward, migrated earlier, and since in that 
 territory the Japanese have a predominant control of transportation 
 and, to a certain degree, of government. Although a Chinese war lord 
 is the titular power in the country, the Japanese are the predominant 
 influence through their control of the railway and their leased 
 territory. 
 
 The whole of Manchuria for recent years has been a separate 
 political entity loosely affiliated with the general government of China. 
 In has currency, taxes, duties, and regulations of its own. Those 
 conversant with the territory are by no means certain that settled 
 conditions can be expected in the future. If quietude prevails, the 
 great potential wealth of these provinces, based upon their fine level 
 agricultural lands and progressive settlers, may be expected to make 
 Manchuria one of the wealthiest portions of China, and to create here 
 a higher standard of living and therefore a greater purchasing power 
 than elsewhere prevalent in the nation. 
 
 Fruit in the Manchurian Diet. — In northern Manchuria two races 
 live side by side with different customs and traditions. A large part 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 77 
 
 of both populations is of recent migrations so that their habits of food 
 and dress are still those of the regions from whence they came. 
 
 The Chinese, who are the largest element of the population, came 
 from the poorer classes of farmers, laborers, and coolies. Many of 
 them migrated from those provinces in northern China which were 
 devastated by floods, famines, and wars. On the new lands of 
 Manchuria they have found greater prosperity. To a great degree, 
 however, they still follow the customs of food to which they were 
 habituated. Some spend a portion of their newly gained prosperity 
 on the purchase of expensive luxuries. Most of them, however, vividly 
 remembering the days of famine and stark poverty, with customary 
 Chinese thrift either hoard the money they have gained or invest it 
 in enlarging their enterprises. Among the poorer people, the diet is 
 based upon millet and other cheap grains that are locally grown. 
 Wealthier classes eat imported rice. With these cereals are served 
 cooked vegetables, bean sprouts, and diced meats. Fruit is not 
 normally eaten with meals except at feasts and banquets. If able to 
 afford it, the Chinese use various condiments. Pickles, dried fish, fried 
 powdered pork, melon seeds, and nuts all add variety to the Chinese 
 diet. Here, as elsewhere, the Chinese are fond of their native dried 
 fruits which are prepared in a semi-candied form and eaten between 
 
 Numerous street restaurants serve Chinese laborers, 
 their meals at such standi. 
 
 Many persons eat all of 
 
78 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 meals as a confection. Whether because of their contact with the 
 Russians or because of the scarcity of the native Chinese condiments to 
 which they were accustomed, some of the Chinese in Manchuria eat 
 and like prunes. A few of the Chinese women cook these in the same 
 manner as is done in America, Raisins here, as elsewhere in China, 
 are used as a confection. 
 
 The Russians live as nearly as possible in the same manner to which 
 they were accustomed in the homeland. In all the cities of Manchuria 
 there are many Russian restaurants and hotels where typical food of 
 the land is served to those who come from European and Asiatic 
 Russia. Europeans and sophisticated Chinese patronize these hotels 
 and restaurants. Many of the Russians have become so poor, however, 
 that they are unable to live as in former days. They are thus forced 
 to the cheapest Russian foodstuffs or to the numerous Chinese street 
 restaurants that serve the Chinese laborers. Those Russians who have 
 prospered eat quantities of fresh and canned fruits. Prunes and 
 raisins are popular and are cooked with rice in a favorite Russian 
 dish. Jams and jellies are used frequently and abundantly. 
 
 Fresh Fruits. — A large volume of locally grown fruits come into 
 the markets of Manchuria during the summer season. Fruit growing 
 has been encouraged by the Japanese in the leased territory of 
 Kwantung adjacent to southern Manchuria. The practice of growing 
 fruit has spread beyond this territory into Manchuria itself so that a 
 considerable volume of apples, pears, plums, grapes, and cherries are 
 now planted in southern Manchuria and its adjacent territory. Apples 
 and pears are in full bearing. Peaches, grapes, and plums, planted 
 later, have not yet come into production. While the exact acreage of 
 these fruits is not known, it is estimated that 10,000 acres have 
 recently been planted in the leased territory of Kwantung, and an 
 additional 10,000 acres in the vicinity of Mukden. 
 
 Fresh fruits from California thus find a competing market in 
 Manchuria with many fresh fruits grown in areas south of the two 
 large centers of population. These native fruits are abundant during 
 the late summer and fall months. Many street markets, food stores, 
 and vendors at railway stations offer fresh fruits for sale at low prices. 
 At an ordinary fruit stand on the street, pears of three different 
 varieties may be found selling for 3V2 cents each, pomegranates at 
 7 cents per pound, apples at 5 cents per pound, and Canton oranges 
 at 11 cents per pound. It is true that these fruits are not always 
 free from bruise marks or worms, but they are sufficiently low in price 
 to have a ready market. 
 
Buk 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 79 
 
 By far the largest amount of imported fruit comes from Japanese 
 territory in Korea, Formosa, and Japan proper. The following 
 statistics illustrate this fact. 
 
 TABLE 24 
 
 Net Imports of Apples and Oranges into Manchuria* 
 
 Figures in thousands of pounds 
 
 
 
 
 Japanese 
 
 
 
 
 
 Year 
 
 Chinese 
 
 Apples 
 
 Oranges 
 
 American 
 
 Total 
 
 
 From 
 Korea 
 
 From 
 Japan 
 
 From 
 
 Japan 
 
 and 
 
 Formosa 
 
 From 
 Russian 
 Pacific 
 Ports 
 (Jap- 
 anese) 
 
 
 
 Apples 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Apples 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Apples 
 
 Oranges 
 
 1924 
 
 2,000 
 2,400 
 2,130 
 
 1,900 
 1,100 
 1,600 
 
 2,300 
 2,930 
 4,930 
 
 160 
 1,050 
 1,130 
 
 14,800 
 21,400 
 31,200 
 
 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 
 40 
 30 
 90 
 
 4,500 
 6,400 
 8,200 
 
 16,700 
 23,600 
 34,900 
 
 1925 
 1926 
 
 1,020 
 1,980 
 
 * From report of Paul O. Nyhus, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1928. Data noted as from unpublished 
 reports of Chinese Maritime Customs. 
 
 &&&■++ 
 
 In the summer and autumn vendors at railway stations in Manchuria and 
 northern China offer native fresh fruits at low prices. 
 
 Grapes from Shantung province come to the market throughout the 
 year and rule at a high price during the festival season in the winter. 
 Before the war, large amounts of fresh fruits reached this territory 
 from southern Russia, shipped through without rehandling to Harbin. 
 Such traffic has, of course, long since ceased. 
 
 In northern Manchuria, oranges and lemons are the only fresh 
 fruits from America which are regularly on sale. California oranges of 
 
80 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 very small size and poor quality, evidently culls, are sold at retail for 
 6 cents each. Frequent complaint was made by foreign residents and 
 well-to-do Chinese of the very poor quality of California oranges 
 received, although these are stamped with the trade name of a well 
 known brand. A limited amount of high class oranges would find a 
 ready sale at good prices. American apples and grapefruit occasion- 
 ally come into northern Manchuria but the spoilage is so great that 
 these are seldom attempted. There is no refrigeration on either the 
 South Manchurian or the Chinese Eastern Railways. Fresh fruits 
 from refrigerator ships are unloaded at Dairen or Vladivostok for 
 trans-shipment to the inland cities of Manchuria. Inevitably a large 
 amount of these fruits spoil in transit due to the delays in shipment 
 from one railway to another and particularly to the unsettled con- 
 ditions of the political, and railway control. During the long severe 
 winters with extremely low temperatures, fruit frequently freezes 
 en route and thus becomes a total loss. Such fruit therefore as comes 
 into the market is largely handled by Chinese dealers on a speculative 
 basis. Retail stores buy from them at a higher price per dozen or 
 hundred and pay the increased cost in order to avoid larger losses due 
 to spoilage. Fresh grapes come into the Harbin market from southern 
 Manchuria, but these are largely of poor quality. Fresh grapes 
 packed in cork or sawdust would have a relatively good sale with 
 good prices provided agents in the territory saw that they were 
 quickly shipped from Dairen to the point of delivery. 
 
 In southern Manchuria much the same conditions pertain. Mukden 
 obtains a large amount of native fresh fruit from Shantung during 
 the season. The Japanese markets of Mukden display quantities of 
 pears, peaches, and grapes of excellent quality which are sold at 
 exceedingly low prices. Large size pears of the Bartlett type sold 
 for five for 20 cents. Excellent grapes of unknown varieties but 
 resembling Tokays and Emperors sold from 12 cents to 25 cents a 
 pound. Peaches of fair size and quality sold at six for 20 cents. 
 Beside these excellent fruits were displayed California oranges of the 
 poorest quality and condition. These, however, are so prized that 
 they sell in the markets beside the native fruits at the general rate of 
 6 cents each. The orange market is steady and there is a demand for 
 a better quality of fruits. The Chinese in Manchuria at present do 
 not purchase many oranges but they are treasured by foreigners. 
 Lemons found upon the markets are of good size and quality, retailing 
 at 6 cents each, but their market is limited. 
 
 Fresh fruit from California is usually ordered by Chinese dealers 
 at c.i.f. prices from agents of California exporters. Usually fruit is 
 
Bitl. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 81 
 
 trans-shipped at Japanese ports to either Dairen or Vladivostok where 
 it must proceed without refrigeration to its destination in northern or 
 southern Manchuria. Duty into Manchuria is 10 per cent. Freight 
 rates on the South Manchurian Railroad are $3.12 per ton in carload 
 lots. There are also the usual harbor dues, handling charges, and fees 
 of forwarding agents to be paid. Usually agents estimate all these 
 charges from ship to destination at $1.00 per box in southern 
 Manchuria and $1.50 per box in northern Manchuria, 
 
 Potentially, the markets for American fresh fruit in Manchuria 
 are possible of material increase. Practical difficulties are, however, 
 in the way. The large consuming centers are distant from Pacific 
 ports. The brief summers are hot, and the winters are long and very 
 cold. Refrigerated fruit unloaded at the ports is likely to decay in 
 summer and freeze in winter because there are no refrigeration 
 facilities on the railroads and rapid transportation is seldom experi- 
 enced. The railway control in northern Manchuria is often chaotic. 
 
 Nevertheless, imported citrus fruits are highly prized. California 
 oranges are already in these markets but of such poor quality that 
 they would never be purchased if anything better were obtainable. 
 Oranges of higher quality throughout the year, and grapes for the 
 holiday season, offer the best opportunity for the expansion of the 
 markets for fresh fruits. 
 
 Canned Fruits. — To the Chinese in Manchuria canned fruits are 
 a decided luxury reserved for special occasions as at dinners and 
 feasts. On these occasions they are not eaten with chopsticks but with 
 spoons as a dessert. Therefore, fruit cut in halves rather than in 
 slices is in most favor. 
 
 The Chinese are liberal in making presents to their friends on 
 holidays and feast days. These gifts often are baskets containing 
 canned fruits, canned fish, canned meats, cakes, cookies, candied fruits, 
 nuts, and bottles of wine. Gift packages contain even numbers of 
 items, two, four, or six. Thus, very expensive gifts may include six 
 cans of fruit. 
 
 The canned fruits presented as gifts are, however, more likely to 
 be of Chinese than of American manufacture. Most of these Chinese 
 canned fruits come from southern China, although some are packed 
 in northern China. The native canned fruits are of exceedingly poor 
 quality but since they sell at a very low price and have a gorgeous 
 label they make as much show as American fruits at far less cost. 
 Usually the recipient of the gift has as little appreciation of quality as 
 the giver and thus is as much pleased to receive two tins of Chinese 
 fruit as he would be with an equal number of those made in America. 
 
82 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 The Chinese cans are filled one-third or one-fourth with fruit. The 
 remainder of the can contains a very thin syrup. There is usually 
 as much fruit in an 8-ounce can of American fruit as in a No. 2 can 
 of Chinese. Necessarily, the 8-ounce can appears much smaller and 
 has less liquid. The fruit, however, is of far better quality. Fre- 
 quently the recipient of a gift of canned fruit never opens it but saves 
 it as a treasure to be handed on to someone else when it becomes 
 his turn to make a present. Thus, these cans of fruit, Chinese or 
 American, may be passed from hand to hand until the label becomes 
 too disfigured and the can too rusty to serve this purpose. They are 
 then eaten with gusto, the sweet liquid being especially appreciated. 
 
 China has a large canning industry of its own. Chinese canned fruits sell 
 extensively because of their low price. Progressive marketing methods have been 
 used to make them popular. 
 
 Chinese canned fruits are usually manufactured in the No. 2 can. 
 They sell at varied prices but in general are obtainable at the rate of 
 four cans for a local dollar, equivalent to 40 cents in American cur- 
 rency. Prices per can for Chinese canned fruits in Mukden and 
 Harbin in September 1929 were as follows: apples, 9 cents; apricots, 
 16 cents; bananas, 9 cents; cherries, 16 cents; grapes, peaches, pears, 
 and plums, 12 cents; sweet melon and watermelon, 9 cents. 
 
 Among foreigners, including the Russians, Chinese canned goods 
 naturally find no popularity. Chinese of the upper classes also prefer 
 the American canned goods and are willing to pay the price to get 
 them. However, the great masses of the people are not discriminating 
 in their tastes. They eat canned fruits so seldom that any commodity 
 in a real tin can is both a luxury and a novelty. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 83 
 
 American canned fruits in the No. 2 1 /*? cans are on sale in the large 
 cities of northern and southern Manchuria in most high class stores. 
 Imported canned fruits are a luxury, enjoyed only by the well-to-do 
 classes, so that those who can afford to buy American canned goods 
 want only the best. 
 
 Canned cherries rank first in preference, among the Chinese in 
 Manchuria, and fruit salad second. Since these are both higher in 
 price than other fruits their sales are not as large as the preferences 
 indicate. Canned peaches rank third in popularity and first in sales. 
 Canned apricots are liked but are not well known. Pears are not 
 popular. Prices ut retail are shown in the following table: 
 
 The cans of Chinese fruits are filled one-third or one-fourth with fruit. The 
 remainder of the can contains a thin syrup. 
 
 TABLE 25 
 
 Current Trail Prices, Manchuria, September,, 1929 
 American Canned Fruits 
 In No. 2y 2 cans 
 
 Mukden Harbin 
 
 Apples $0.35 $0.35 
 
 Apricots 32 .35 
 
 Cherries 46 .46 
 
 Peaches 34 .32 
 
 Pears 36 .40 
 
 Fruit salad 49 .49 
 
 American canned fruits are ordered through agents of California 
 packers on the basis of c.i.f. prices. Goods are shipped direct to 
 Dairen or Vladivostok, or may be trans-shipped at Shanghai to these 
 ports. Dairen is a free port of entry but on shipment into China a 
 
84 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 duty of I2V2 per cent must be paid. Railroad freight rates from 
 Dairen to Mukden are $3.12 per ton in carload lots. At Dairen it is 
 necessary to employ a forwarding agent and to pay handling and 
 transfer charges. All these costs, including freight, usually aggregate 
 about $1 to $1.50 per case. 
 
 Canned American fruits are well distributed in Harbin and 
 Mukden but are not usually found in the small towns. To create 
 larger markets it would be necessary to convince the Chinese that the 
 American package contained a commodity of better quality than the 
 Chinese tin. To do so would require only that dealers and customers 
 have an opportunity to see the contents of both cans. So long as only 
 the labels are evident they both are of equal standing. If the contents 
 of both cans were known, the Chinese can and the giver thereof would 
 lose "face." 
 
 Furthermore, to develop large markets for canned fruits in Man- 
 churia, the price of a single purchase must be reduced. To accomplish 
 this result, either the small can must be successfully introduced or the 
 overhead costs on the present size must be radically lowered. 
 
 In addition thereto, available stocks of canned goods must be 
 placed at strategic points so that the present indent system will pass 
 away and for it will be substituted a system of branch distributing 
 agencies from which merchants can obtain stocks on short notice. 
 
 The present market for canned goods is relatively small. The local 
 political situation during the immediate past has mitigated against 
 even the customary sales, since businessmen have been unwilling to 
 invest large amounts in canned goods or in any other imported com- 
 modity when trade may be entirely disrupted for a considerable length 
 of time. The sale of American canned fruits depends partially upon 
 the price but partially also upon the general prosperity of the country 
 which has been depressed by recent wars and changes in political 
 status. Any large increase "in markets in Manchuria can only come 
 through larger sales to the Chinese. The great European market for 
 imported canned goods in Harbin, so frequently discussed in relation 
 to its large Russian population, is largely a myth. 
 
 Dried Fruits. — Chinese dried fruits are popular in Manchuria 
 among the Chinese and are sold in large quantities. These dried fruits 
 are treated with honey or sugar and are looked upon as a confection. 
 Since Chinese children, like those of other nations, are fond of sweets 
 these semi-candied and dried fruits are particularly enjoyed by them. 
 The dried fruits from America, which are not treated to increase their 
 sweetness, are looked upon as a different product. The Chinese dried 
 
Bul, 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 85 
 
 fruits are numerous. They include dried apricots, plums, oranges, 
 Hawthorne berries, persimmons, citron, lotus roots, and others. These 
 sell for 12 cents to 20 cents per pound. 
 
 Among the Russians dried fruits from America are extensively 
 used. They prefer, however, the kinds and types of dried fruits to 
 which they were accustomed in Russia, although these would not seem 
 equal in quality to an American. In 1928 large shipments of prunes 
 were received in northern Manchuria from the Ukraine. These 
 traversed the long route from southern European Russia across 
 Siberia. The shipments represented an attempt on the part of the 
 Russian government to reestablish an outlet for fruits grown in 
 southern Russia among the peoples of the Far East. Such shipments 
 
 Many kinds of Chinese dried fruits are sold in Manchuria and northern China. 
 
 probably cannot be considered as a permanent economic possibility but 
 only an incident of Russian trade promotion made possible through a 
 special low rate on the Russian Government Railways. Dried fruits 
 from Persia and Turkestan were also brought into this northern 
 market, finding ready sale among the Russians since they were familiar 
 with them in the old days of prosperity before the war. 
 
 California raisins in the small 1% -ounce package are a familiar 
 sight all over Manchuria and are the only California fruit in general 
 use. They are shipped in 25-pound boxes from the United States to 
 an agency in Harbin which is occupied solely in the distribution of 
 this fruit. There they are repacked in a display carton which goes 
 to the dealer accompanied by posters and illustrated menus which 
 show methods of using raisins in Chinese dishes. About 25,000 cases 
 of these raisins per year are sold in Manchuria. 
 
 In popularity, the second dried fruit is prunes; dried apricots 
 are third. Prunes are in common use among the Russian population 
 in Harbin and northern Manchuria but are not so freely used by the 
 Chinese. Dried prunes and apricots would have a much wider use in 
 this part of China if they were made familiar to the people through 
 trade promotion methods. 
 
86 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 In considering the dried fruit market possibilities, the outlook is 
 more favorable than that for canned fruits. However, to realize a 
 larger market, considerable money and effort must be spent in develop- 
 ing the trade. The Chinese are not accustomed to cooking dried fruit 
 but, owing to their custom of eating native dried fruits, a market lies 
 dormant for prunes and possibly for figs as a confection to be eaten 
 in the dried form without cooking. Prunes, if properly advertised, 
 could be sold in the favorable seasons of the year in small cartons of 
 a half dozen or dozen fruits, or even in a small envelope containing 
 possibly only one or two fruits. 
 
 The possibility of increasing the Chinese consumption of dried 
 fruits in Manchuria depends largely upon making the product known 
 to these people, and upon offering them for sale in small packages that 
 may be purchased for a few cents. Once the Chinese housewife is 
 taught to cook dried fruits, such as prunes, they will be sold in larger 
 amounts. The small package is one of the best mediums to acquaint 
 the Chinese with these products. 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods. — With the exception of the raisin, 
 California fruits in canned, dried, or fresh form have not been pro- 
 moted or advertised in Manchuria. A general unfamiliarity with the 
 product is here one of the most serious short-comings in the marketing 
 of California fruits among the Chinese. Many dealers know very 
 little about packaged fruits, few having ever seen or tasted them. 
 Owners of retail stores and clerks have little conception of the appear- 
 ance, taste, or quality of the fruits inside the cans that they sell. 
 They are probably almost as unfamiliar with the dried fruits in a 
 cooked form. 
 
 The success of the raisin in Manchuria has been due to several 
 factors, one of which is that time, effort, and money have been spent 
 upon its promotion. Coupled with this has been the use of a small 
 package that brought this fruit within the possible purchase of a large 
 number of people. 
 
 Other dried fruits in small packages and canned fruits in small 
 tins might achieve a considerable success when viewed in comparison 
 to their present sales. Northern Manchuria and the "back blocks" 
 of the northern provinces have little native fruit of their own. The 
 present competition is largely from dried and canned fruits made in 
 China. These are obviously and decidedly inferior to the American 
 product but, so long as the general mass of Chinese do not know what 
 is inside the American packages, the local product holds the market 
 because of its lower price. 
 
Bur* 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 87 
 
 Canned fruits, since they are so largely used as presents and for 
 feasts when entertaining guests, could be made "the proper thing to 
 serve" once it were understood that they are a superior as well as 
 more expensive product. It would then be impolite to serve the 
 cheaper product to guests or present it as a gift. But to create this 
 understanding and appreciation someone must open a tin of American 
 fruit and show it to the Chinaman beside his own native product. 
 This has not yet been done. 
 
 To create an appreciation for American canned fruits someone must open a 
 tin of American fruit and show it to the Chinese consumer in comparison with the 
 local product. 
 
 So far as advertising psychology is concerned, the Chinese people 
 of Manchuria are little different from peoples of other countries. 
 Money spent in trade promotion would give results if coupled with a 
 package well within the reach of their purse. Therefore, to acquaint 
 the Chinese with these products there should be used vernacular news- 
 papers, posters, demonstrations before schools, in stores, and eating- 
 houses, house-to-house canvassing with samples and printed literature, 
 small samples given to storekeepers and a limited use of motion 
 pictures. 
 
 The increasing population of Manchuria and its relatively high 
 per capita wealth make these provinces one of the fertile fields for 
 trade promotion if and when a reasonable political and economic 
 quietude prevails. 
 
88 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 NORTHERN CHINA 
 
 For our purpose, northern China may be interpreted as including 
 all that area south of Manchuria and north of the Yellow River. It 
 stretches from the Pacific westward and includes Mongolia and the 
 long reaches of the Gobi Desert. Of this area, Tientsin is the chief 
 port of entry, with Peking, the former capital, as a nearby center of 
 distribution and trade. Each of these cities has a population of over 
 a million persons. The entire territory, comprising approximately 
 one-third of all China, has a total population of somewhere between 
 75,000,000 and 100,000,000 people. While portions of northern China 
 are comparatively well served by railroads, in the sense in which this 
 term is used in Asia, yet vast areas are traversed only by caravan 
 routes and are distant many months from the ports of the Pacific. 
 
 Recently Peking has lost some of its importance and considerable 
 of its wealth with the removal of the capital from that place to 
 Nanking. Tientsin also has suffered, both as the port of entry to 
 Peking and through the silting of the Hai-Ho River, whereby large 
 draft vessels have been prevented from coming to the city. These now 
 load and discharge at Tangku, 30 miles away. Northern China, how- 
 ever, continues to be one of the most settled sections of the country, 
 both in political conditions and in the customs and habits of its people. 
 The population is generally less turbulent than that in the south, and 
 is more conservative in habits of life, as well as in thought. 
 
 There was a general agreement that the rural population at present 
 could not be considered as a possible source of consumption for 
 American fruits. Few reliable statistics have been gathered to shed 
 light on the economic level of the population. Many of the people 
 are, of course, extremely poor. Studies of the Peking Union Medical 
 College in a few sections of that city indicate that 7.8 per cent of the 
 population in the area studied were classified as "rich." In this 
 classification were included those whose family incomes were $100 a 
 month or larger. In the same study, those of "fair" income were 
 classified as of incomes between $50 and $100 a month. In that group 
 were 29.5 per cent of the population. The most optimistic estimates 
 of potential purchasers of American canned and dried fruits would 
 include only those in these two classes, or perhaps one-third of the 
 urban population. It is said that the minimum standard of living 
 possible in Peking is an income of one dollar a month and that there 
 
Bul.493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 89 
 
 are many persons in that city who go through a lifetime on no larger 
 income. For a dollar and a half a month, many persons consider 
 themselves fortunate and above the lowest subsistence level. Obviously, 
 all these are far below the potential consumers of imported foodstuffs. 
 
 In northern China, there are many persons of wealth who are able 
 and willing to pay any price for foodstuffs which appeal to them. 
 There are certain hams, well known to the Chinese, which sell for 
 $200 each. One may in Chinese restaurants pay anywhere from $15 
 to $150 for a dish of shark's fins, according to the variety that is 
 served. At public affairs, the Chinese are an extravagant and generous 
 people who spend extensively to entertain their friends. 
 
 Estimates of the possible buying power in the cities and towns of 
 northern China were secured from many sources. These estimates 
 varied from 5 per cent to as high as 40 per cent. Generally speaking, 
 the lower estimates were made by importing houses occupied in the 
 business of foodstuffs distribution, while the higher estimates were 
 given by statesmen, educators, and social workers. Perhaps an esti- 
 mate of 10 per cent to 20 per cent of the population in the cities might 
 be considered as approximately correct for the purposes of this report. 
 It should be understood, however, in connection with this estimate 
 that such a considerable percentage of the people could consume 
 American canned or dried fruits only in the event that these fruits 
 were put up in small packages, were widely advertised and distributed 
 by trade-promotion methods, and were constantly made available 
 through numerous distributing centers. 
 
 Northern China has hot brief summers and long cold winters. 
 During the winter, the climate is dry. Normally it does not rain 
 between early fall and middle spring. Northern China and Manchuria 
 present the best opportunity in Asia for the storage of dried fruits. 
 During the heat and dampness of summer, however, dried fruits do 
 not keep well in paper cartons. Likewise in summer, fresh fruits are 
 subject to rapid deterioration. The brief summer season is one of 
 great agricultural activity, of less leisure, of fewer feasts. The con- 
 sumption of imported luxuries is therefore higher during the fall, 
 winter, and spring. 
 
 Fruit in the Northern China Diet. — In the diet of the Chinese 
 people, fruits find a minor place. Generally speaking, the Chinese 
 do not consume fruit at meals either in a fresh, dried, or canned form. 
 Indeed, there is a Chinese medical superstition which teaches that cold 
 foods are dangerous and should not be eaten at meals. If canned 
 fruits are consumed, they are usually heated before serving and are 
 
90 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 used in connection with Chinese banquets. These banquets often con- 
 clude with fresh fruits, usually at least four kinds being served 
 together. However, such banquets and feasts have but small part in 
 the daily life of the people, and have no relation to any large increase 
 in the sale of American fruits in China. 
 
 The diet of the people of northern China, as elsewhere in that 
 country, is chiefly based on cereals. In northern China the prevalent 
 cereal is more likely to be wheat than rice. Among poorer people 
 millet or kao-liang (a grain sorghum) takes the place of rice. These 
 cereals are supplemented with soy beans to provide a higher protein 
 
 Many bulky vegetables unknown in America are used by the Chinese. Such 
 vegetables are both cheap and abundant in China. 
 
 content.* These grains may all be ground into a meal and made into 
 a porridge or biscuit, t Vegetables rank next to cereals in dietary 
 importance in northern China. A large number of bulky vegetables, 
 unknown in America, are used by the people at large. Compared with 
 these, the amount of fruit consumed is small. Vegetables are cheap 
 and abundant. Fruits are comparatively expensive and scarce. Meat 
 is also consumed only in small amounts. Usually this is pork, although 
 among the upper classes, fowl may be eaten. Beef is practically never 
 used in northern China. Tables 26 and 27J graphically show the low 
 consumption of meat in northern China as compared with the United 
 
 * American Food Journal, September 1925. W. H. Adolph, Yenching Univer- 
 sity, Peking. 
 
 t Journal of Home Economics, August 1927. Ava B. Milam, Oregon State 
 College. 
 
 t Scientific Monthly, July 1929. W. H. Adolph, Yenching University, Peking. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 91 
 
 States, the higher volume weight of vegetables and fruits in China, 
 and the low protein and energy derived from these food materials as 
 compared with our own country. 
 
 TABLE 26 
 
 Dietaries 
 
 Composition in Percentages by Weight 
 
 Northern China United States 
 
 Cereals 57.0^ 25 
 
 Legumes 7.8 ( 
 
 Vegetables and fruits 27.1 20 
 
 Sugar and starch 0.2) , . 
 
 Fats and oils 0.8( 
 
 Meat and fish 3.9 18 
 
 Eggs 0.5 5 
 
 Milk and cheese 0.0 15 
 
 Other foods 2.7 3 
 
 TABLE 27 
 
 Dietaries 
 
 Percentage Distribution of Protein and Energy Among Different 
 
 Groups of Food Materials 
 
 Northern China United States 
 
 Protein Energy Protein Energy 
 
 Cereals 75.2 83.3 37.3 38.2 
 
 Legumes 10.6 3.9) 1Q 5 121 
 
 Vegetables and fruits.. 4.5 2.9 ( 
 
 Sugar and starch 0.5 0.1 10.1 
 
 Fats and oils 3.5 0.3 10.3 
 
 Meat and fish 8.1 4.8 35.3 19.0 
 
 Eggs 0.8 0.2 4.6 1.8 
 
 Milk and cheese 11.6 8.1 
 
 Other foods 0.8 0.9 0.3 0.4 
 
 Ordinarily fruit comprises but a small portion of the expendi- 
 ture of even the upper-class families in northern China. Table 28,* 
 although derived from a study of only sixteen families in Peking", is 
 probably fairly representative of food expenditures. It will be noted 
 that those incomes over $25 a month show a definite expenditure for 
 fruit. 
 
 In general, the Chinese diet is not sufficiently nourishing, and 
 viewed by Anglo-Saxon standards, is deficient in fruits, vegetables, 
 and meat.f 
 
 * Journal of Home Economics, August 1927. Ava B. Milam, Oregon State 
 College. 
 
 t Chinese Soc. and Pol. Science Review, Vol. XI, No. 1, 1927. Hsien Wu. 
 
92 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 28 
 
 Average Expenditure for Food and Proportion of Total Devoted to Different 
 
 Kinds of Food by Sixteen Chinese (Peking) Families 
 
 Grouped According to Income 
 
 
 Number 
 of fam- 
 ilies in 
 group 
 
 Average 
 number 
 persons 
 in group 
 
 Total 
 annual 
 expendi- 
 tures for 
 food 
 
 Proportion devoted to different kinds of food 
 
 Range of 
 
 annual ii\come 
 
 within 
 
 group 
 
 Cereals 
 
 Vege- 
 tables 
 includ- 
 ing bean 
 curd 
 
 Oils 
 and 
 other 
 fats 
 
 Meats, 
 fish 
 and 
 game 
 
 Sweets 
 and 
 acces- 
 sory 
 foods 
 
 Fruits 
 
 Milk 
 
 dollars 
 81- 157 
 
 2 
 4 
 2 
 4 
 4 
 
 5.0 
 4.2 
 3.0 
 
 7.5 
 6.7 
 
 dollars 
 
 62.50 
 
 95.00 
 
 153.50 
 
 273.00 
 
 512.00 
 
 per cent 
 
 88.8 
 55.2 
 45.2 
 47.2 
 31.0 
 
 per cent 
 
 5.6 
 
 8.4 
 
 12.8 
 
 12.3 
 
 10.1 
 
 per ct. 
 
 3.2 
 
 7.8 
 4.0 
 6.8 
 6.3 
 
 per cent 
 2.4 
 14.6 
 19.9 
 10.8 
 17.8 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per ct. 
 
 250- 300 
 
 4.6 
 13.8 
 10.8 
 15.8 
 
 9.4 
 
 4.3 
 
 7.4 
 
 11.9 
 
 
 500- 600 
 
 
 1020-1460 
 2160-3410 
 
 4.7 
 7.1 
 
 Average 
 
 
 5.6 
 
 247.00 
 
 40.9 
 
 10.8 
 
 6.3 
 
 12.3 
 
 12.3 
 
 9.3 
 
 4.9 
 
 
 
 
 Normally, the Chinese eat three meals a day, but in northern China 
 many families have only two meals a day, although one sees the coolie 
 class munching at one thing or another frequently between meals, t 
 Among fresh fruits, the Chinese especially like peaches and pears. 
 Dried fruits are normally sold in a semi-candied form. These are 
 particularly popular among women and children. Many families, 
 even among the poor, allow their children two or three coppers a day 
 to purchase candies and candied fruits. The use of such sweets was 
 formerly prevalent only in the south of China, but has more recently 
 spread into northern China and is on the increase there. It is in this 
 way, as a confection, that the raisin in the small package has found 
 such extensive sale among the Chinese. 
 
 The fondness of the Chinese people for fresh fruit is a relatively 
 recent innovation. These fresh fruits are eaten between meals except 
 at banquets. Less fruit is eaten in winter than in summer, because 
 the Chinese think of fruit as a refreshment rather than as a food. 
 However, the number of Chinese receiving foreign education is on 
 the increase. These educated Chinese contract new food habits under 
 foreign influence. On return home they spread among their friends 
 and acquaintances the demand for cooked fruits in various forms. 
 Teachers in schools are looking more favorably toward the use of 
 fruits in the diet and are coming to recognize their value. If edu- 
 cators generally were encouraged to discuss with their students the 
 
 t Special Keport, A. Bland Calder, Commercial Attache, Peking. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 93 
 
 value of fruits, such teaching would ultimately have a marked effect 
 upon the consumption of canned and dried fruits. Necessarily, how- 
 ever, measurable results would only accrue through a series of years. 
 
 Fresh Fruits. — Northern China has a large fresh fruit production 
 of its own. Shantung Province is especially noted for its excellent 
 grades of peaches, pears, grapes, and apples. One sees enormous 
 quantities of fresh fruits on sale in all the markets of the cities of 
 northern China throughout the summer and fall. At every railroad 
 stations, lines of hucksters selling fresh fruits meet the trains. The 
 French missionaries introduced many foreign fruits which have been 
 extensively planted. The most successful of these have been peaches 
 and grapes. Other fruits tend to lose their quality, if not their size, 
 after some years of introduction into China. 
 
 Apricots of native production come into the market in June. They 
 are both popular and cheap, and are of good size, sometimes superior 
 to those produced in California. On the fruit stands in the cities, 
 one apricot sells for about three coppers, % cent in United States 
 money. Immediately after the apricots, cherries come into the mar- 
 ket. These are succeeded by several varieties of peaches and plums. 
 Plums of good quality sell for about % cent each. Large selected 
 fruits of superior quality are sold to foreigners at double that price. 
 In late July and August, great numbers of watermelons are on sale. 
 There are varieties with red and with yellow pulp which sell from 4 
 cents to 16 cents each, according to the season and the size. Not 
 many melons of the honeydew or cantaloupe type are grown, but 
 native melons about the size of an apple with a flavor similar to the 
 casaba melon are produced. In August, grapes appear on the market, 
 several varieties of which are extensively grown in northern China. 
 Many of these resemble the Tokay and other varieties familiar in 
 California. On sidewalks these grapes sell for about 5 cents a pound. 
 In the grocery stores catering to foreigners, the price is 6 cents a 
 pound, or more. Native apples of a quality inferior to those grown 
 in America sell for about 6 cents a pound. Apples and hard native 
 pears are on sale all winter.* 
 
 In September, in the street markets of Tientsin and Peking, large 
 pomegranates were 3 cents each ; pears of native type, 4 cents a pound ; 
 European pears, resembling Bartletts in size, shape, and color, from 
 the vicinity of Chefoo, 7 cents a pound ; peaches, four or five to the 
 pound, 6 cents to 9 cents a pound ; apples, 6 cents a pound ; grapes, 
 
 * Special Report, A. Bland CaMer, Commercial Attache, Peking. 
 
94 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 4 cents to 6 cents a pound ; watermelons, 15 inches long, 25 cents each. 
 All these fruits were on sale at the same time and frequently at the 
 same fruit stand. The vast quantity of fresh fruits on sale in the 
 native markets was astonishing to those unfamiliar with the produc- 
 tion of native fruit in northern China. At a railroad station in Shan- 
 tung, 18 pounds of grapes of Tokay type were purchased in a hand- 
 some wicker basket, for 20 cents. The basket was thrown in free with 
 the purchase. 
 
 At a fruit stand in Peking several varieties of excellent peaches, pears, grapes 
 and apples can be purchased. Many of these come from Shantung province. 
 
 At the same fruit stands selling these excellent and cheap native 
 fruits, the only American fruits on sale were oranges from California. 
 These were evidently culls. They were offered at 16 cents a pound. 
 These fruits — small, off-color, misshapen — bore the stamp of a popular 
 California brand, the advertisements of which state it is synonymous 
 with quality. Foreign residents in northern China refuse to believe 
 the advertising. 
 
 Among the foreign population, the greatest demand is for Ameri- 
 can apples and oranges. The latter are chiefly needed during the 
 summer months. They are especially desirable in the diet during the 
 hot weather when the native Chinese oranges are not in market. 
 Native oranges, grown in southern China, come extensively into the 
 northern markets during the winter months. 
 
 Apples come to this market in great quantities from Japan and 
 Korea as well as from other ports. In comparison with them, the 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 95 
 
 volume of American importations is small. The flavor of Japanese 
 apples is poor but those from Korea and certain portions of China 
 are esteemed. Importations through Tientsin are shown in table 29.* 
 
 TABLE 29 
 Apples — Importations Through Tientsin 
 
 Pounds Value 
 
 1927 1928 1927 1928 
 
 From the United States 27,733 17,733 $2,173 $1,280 
 
 From Japan and Korea 129,067 430,266 6,607 22,244 
 
 From Chinese ports and Hongkong 308,400 293,467 16,291 8,870 
 
 Total 465,200 741,466 $25,071 $32,394 
 
 The above statistics indicate that on the average either the Chi- 
 nese or Japanese apples are valued at customs at slightly more than 
 4 cents a pound, while American apples are valued at more than 9 
 cents. Furthermore, American apples are less than 5 per cent of those 
 imported through Tientsin. High price rather than low quality is 
 the cause of small American sales in this market. 
 
 Oranges imported into northern China come largely from southern 
 China and Japan. Importations from the United States are very 
 small. The Chinese Maritime Customs report only 4,133 pounds of 
 oranges from America into the port of Tientsin in 1927 and 5,600 
 pounds in 1928, whereas importations in 1928 from Japan were over 
 a half million pounds, and from southern Chinese ports, over a mil- 
 lion pounds. Importations of American oranges will only increase by 
 shipments of better quality oranges without greatly increasing the 
 price. 
 
 Lemon imports were only 176 boxes in 1928. Opportunities for 
 increasing this market for lemons are small because limes and other 
 acid fruits can be cheaply imported from the tropical regions of the 
 south. Grapes from America find no market here because of the 
 excellent quality and low price of native grapes. 
 
 Fresh imported fruits are charged a duty of 10 per cent with the 
 exception of apples, the duty on which is $1 per lS3y 3 pounds; and 
 of lemons, for which a duty is charged of $3.40 per thousand lemons, 
 or about $1.02 a box. Little distribution of fresh fruits is made beyond 
 the cities of Tientsin and Peking. 
 
 Canned Fruits. — Although the Chinese canned fruits are vastly 
 inferior to the American product, both in the quality of the fruit and 
 
 * Compiled by Consulate General, Tientsin 1929. Data from Chinese Mari- 
 time Customs. 
 
96 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 in the amount of fruit in the can, they are sold extensively among 
 the Chinese, who fail to discriminate in quality and who are often 
 unacquainted with either the quantity or quality of fruit inside the 
 can made in America. At group conferences with Chinese provision 
 dealers in Tientsin and Peking, it was notable that even many of 
 these men, occupied in the business of selling American canned fruit, 
 seemed unfamiliar with the contents of the American fruit cans. They 
 were well acquainted with their exterior, -and spoke glibly of prices, 
 sizes, and trade methods, but when confronted with the fruit emptied 
 from the can, or when it was served to them individually in dishes, 
 they hardly knew what it was called and sometimes did not know 
 how to eat it. 
 
 The Chinese tins are normally filled only a third or fourth with 
 fruit, and sell for one-third or one-fourth that of the American 
 product. The remainder of the can is filled with thin syrup, which is 
 quite acceptable to Chinese of unsophisticated taste, because of its 
 pleasant flavor. Since many of these canned fruits are presented as 
 gifts, the can of native fruit with the gaudy label makes a great show 
 for a small amount of money. Most of the Chinese canned fruit is 
 brought northward by sea from various points in southern China, 
 but there are at least three canning companies in the city of Tientsin. 
 
 In northern China the most popular canned fruits are, first, pine- 
 apples; second, peaches; and third, cherries. The mixed canned 
 fruit, known as fruit salad, is particularly popular for Chinese din- 
 ners, even though somewhat more expensive. The demand for canned 
 grapes, canned apricots, and canned pears among the northern Chinese 
 is relatively small. Many Chinese do not think that pears are sweet 
 enough to appeal to the taste. The canned apricots look small in size 
 because of the large apricots grown in China. Canned grapes here 
 seem to have but little appeal, whereas their countrymen further 
 south are exceedingly fond of them. 
 
 TABLE 30 
 
 Current Prices, September 1929, American Canned Fruits, 
 
 Tientsin and Peking 
 
 In No. 2V 2 Cans 
 
 Wholesale Retail 
 
 Per Case Per Can 
 
 Apricots $6.94 $0.26-$0.34 
 
 Cherries 9.38 .28 
 
 Peaches 6.81 .22-28 
 
 Pears 8.08 .26 
 
 Fruit salad 9.40 .28 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 97 
 
 In large measure, canned fruit imported from America is sold 
 only in the large cities. Native canned fruits have an extensive sale 
 throughout the whole country, partially because of their cheapness 
 and partially also because of the method of distribution by which 
 Chinese canning companies extend credit to native dealers for a con- 
 siderable period of timo. 
 
 In the provision stores of Tientsin and Peking, American canned 
 fruits were on sale at the prices given in table 30. 
 
 It may be noted from table 30 that retail prices in some cases were 
 actually lower than wholesale prices in case lots. This frequently hap- 
 pens in China in a time of rising prices. The Chinese retail merchant 
 is prepared to sell at anything over cost because he cannot afford to 
 hold stocks. Usually his credit is stretched to the limit, so that he must 
 realize on stocks on hand. The retailer was selling from 1928 stocks, 
 whereas wholesale quotations were based on 1929 prices. 
 
 The 8-ounce can of American fruits is having increased sales in 
 this market among a few of the European population and educated 
 Chinese. Prices of the Chinese No. 2 cans and the American 8-ounce 
 cans, both of which contain about the same amount of fruit, are given 
 in table 31. According to the statistics of the Chinese Maritime 
 Customs, importations from the United States through the port of 
 Tientsin totaled 5,449 cases in 1927 and 3,173 cases in 1928. Over 80 
 per cent of the imported canned fruit came from America. 
 
 TABLE 31 
 
 Current Retail Prices, September 1929, American and Chinese 
 
 Canned Fruits, Tientsin and Peking 
 
 American Chinese 
 
 In 8-Oz. cans In No. 2 cans 
 
 Apricots $0.12 $0.10 
 
 Cherries 14 .10 
 
 Grapes .11 
 
 Peaches 12 .12 
 
 Plums .11 
 
 Fruit Salad 14 
 
 Canned fruits are ordered by dealers in Tientsin at c.i.f. prices 
 through local agents of California packers. In many cases these 
 agencies are branches of agents at Shanghai through which orders 
 are forwarded to California. Canned fruit is usually shipped to 
 Shanghai and then trans-shipped to Tangku, but it is sometimes sent 
 to Japanese ports and there trans-shipped. Arrived at Tientsin, 
 American canned fruits pay a duty of 12 1 /2 per cent and wharfage 
 dues and a conservancy tax equal to 8 per cent of the duty. Handling 
 
98 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 charges average 4 cents a case. A local customs duty of 5 per cent 
 on the c.i.f. price is paid for entry of goods into the city of Tientsin. 
 
 Dealers in Peking order through dealers in Tientsin at ' ex-godown ' 
 prices which include the above cost, plus the profit of the Tientsin 
 dealer. They further must pay railway freight on the haul of 67 
 miles from Tientsin to Peking, and a local city tax into Peking. These 
 two usually equal about 3% per cent of the wholesale prices. 
 
 At present prices, American canned fruits sell so much higher than 
 the native product that they are beyond the range of much of the 
 population, even above the purchase of the middle classes. Though it 
 be granted that an 8-ounce can of American fruit contains as much 
 actual fruit as a No. 2 can of the native Chinese fruit, yet this is not 
 sufficient to persuade the Chinese who finds the 8-ounce can selling 
 at a higher price than the large can of native fruits. If there is to be 
 any large sale of the small cans of American fruits, such as is now 
 proceeding in the United States, the price of these cans must be 
 reduced to an equality with the price of the large can of Chinese 
 fruit. It is now possible for the purpose of a gift, to buy four No. 2 
 cans of Chinese fruits for one dollar of local Chinese currency. For 
 this same dollar it is possible to buy only three 8-ounce cans of Ameri- 
 can fruits. 
 
 American canned fruits have not yet permeated the surface of the 
 Chinese market of northern China. They appeal to the native taste, 
 are present in markets of the large cities, but are swamped by the 
 flood of cheap Chinese canned fruit sold by aggressive methods at low 
 prices. The present system of selling American fruits is antiquated 
 and cumbersome. The Chinese cannery sends its own salesmen to 
 dealers, grants extended credit, and delivers goods on short notice. 
 American fruits are ordered by a long, tortuous route. The dealer 
 must anticipate his needs far in advance and must deposit credits and 
 pay interest for the period during which the goods are shipped from 
 America and delivered in China. 
 
 Canned fruits in the usual sizes could, by trade promotion, have 
 their demand materially increased in northern China. In the small 
 8-ounce size they furnish a fertile field for the extension of present 
 markets. Passive order-taking, as prevalent in the past, will not, 
 however, bring any large results. 
 
 Dried Fruits. — The northern Chinese have a large number of 
 native dried fruits in a semi-candied form. It is common usage for 
 Chinese to serve these dried fruits to callers, particularly at the four 
 festival seasons. Normally, at least four, and usually six, such dried 
 fruits are served together. In the markets of northern China native 
 
Bui* 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 99 
 
 dried fruits sell at retail at the following prices per pound : persim- 
 mons, 20 cents; oranges, 17 cents; figs, 20 cents; apricots, 17 cents; 
 peaches, 17 cents; and the "black date," or jujube, 12 cents. Native 
 white raisins are sold in various qualities at from 12 cents to 18 cents 
 a pound. 
 
 Among imported American dried fruits, raisins, of course, hold 
 first place. These are largely sold during the winter months, since in 
 the small paper cartons raisins do not keep well during the heat and 
 dampness of the summer. In 1927 the importation of raisins, largely 
 of American origin, through the port of Tientsin totaled 205,067 
 pounds. In 1928 they increased to 341,999 pounds. In cartons raisins 
 retailed at about 17 cents a pound. In the small l^-ounce carton 
 they sold locally at 3y 2 cents to 4 cents. The raisin is the only Ameri- 
 can fruit that has found its way in considerable quantity into the 
 back country of northern China. Raisins in small packages are on 
 sale in practically every town of any consequence. They travel by 
 caravan across the Gobi Desert and penetrate far beyond the usual 
 channels of trade. The little red package is as well known in the 
 marts of Mongolia as on the news-stands of America. 
 
 Prunes are increasing in use among the people of northern China. 
 This has been caused in part by returned students who have learned 
 to eat them in cooked form in America and Europe. In part it has 
 come about through their use as a confection in the dried form. The 
 largest sale for prunes for this purpose is at festival seasons when 
 various fruits and candies are consumed. It was the general opinion 
 among dealers consulted, as well as among the general public, that 
 prunes put up in a small package of such size that it would be sold 
 at retail for 5 cents would find a considerable sale, provided they 
 were introduced through proper trade-promotion methods. It was 
 also the general opinion that prunes packaged in small envelopes, one 
 or two prunes to the envelope, and sold by hucksters in the streets, 
 would be widely used by the Chinese people after they became 
 acquainted with them. In order to introduce prunes into common 
 usage, it would probably be necessary to sell them at a price as low 
 as the price of raisins. Indeed, it might be necessary in the earlier 
 years to lower the price in order to develop among the people the 
 habit of eating prunes. There are many dishes in which the Chinese 
 use the jujube for cooking purposes. Ultimately it might be expected 
 that the Chinese would use the prune in like manner when they 
 became acquainted with it and its virtues. 
 
 Dried figs are appreciated by the people of northern China but 
 are generally regarded as too high in price to be within the popular 
 
100 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 range of purchase. There is a possibility, however, of a considerable 
 sale of low-priced dried figs, provided these were shipped into China 
 in bulk and there packaged in small envelopes. Other dried fruits 
 are used only by the European population and consequently have only 
 small sale in northern China, 
 
 Dried fruits are ordered on the same system as are canned fruits, 
 with the exception of raisins, which are largely disbursed through 
 stocks in China which are there packaged. Duties and other costs on 
 dried fruits are identical with those for canned fruits which have 
 already been mentioned. 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods. — Any commodity that is to sell largely 
 among the Chinese must be within the purchasing power of the coolie 
 classes, which make up a large bulk of the population. The success 
 of the sale of kerosene oil, of cigarettes, and of raisins, has been based 
 upon the small expenditure required to make an individual purchase. 
 Their sale has been adapted to the smallest unit. Kerosene oil is sold 
 by the dipperf ul ; cigarettes can be purchased one at a time ; and 
 raisins can be bought in a small paper envelope for a couple of 
 coppers. 
 
 If it is estimated that 10 per cent, or even 20 per cent, of the 
 people in the cities of northern China can afford to buy a package 
 of dried fruit that will sell for 5 cents, and if this same percentage 
 can afford to buy a small 8-ounce can of canned fruit at festival times 
 or for presents, the problem still arises as to how this generally illit- 
 erate public, scattered over enormous areas of country in which there 
 are but poor transportation facilities, can be acquainted with the 
 product and inspired with the desire to purchase it. Obviously, ex- 
 tensive trade promotion and the expenditure of considerable sums 
 of money would be required before the commodity would pay its way. 
 
 Many suggestions were made by those familiar with sales methods 
 in China as to the means by which the Chinese public might become 
 acquainted with and appreciative of these commodities. Agreement 
 was general that dried prunes could be successfully promoted in the 
 small package among the middle and upper classes of Chinese and, 
 if sold with one or two prunes in a paper envelope, would even be used 
 by the coolie classes. It was also the general opinion that at slightly 
 lower prices the small tins of canned peaches, fruit salad, pineapple, 
 and perhaps other fruits, could be sold to many of the Chinese people. 
 All these, however, would require more than passive selling. At pres- 
 ent, the initiative to buy canned and dried fruits is left entirely to 
 the purchaser. The goods, if sold to the native dealer, are placed on 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 101 
 
 the shelf where they rest with the hope that someone will come in 
 to buy them. 
 
 In China, the first determinate factor in any sale is the price. 
 Lower prices depend primarily upon a larger volume of sale for the 
 product; secondly, upon the establishment of local distributing cen- 
 ters through which the dealer may obtain short-term stocks of the 
 goods, thus obviating the deposit of sums of money for large stocks 
 for a long time ahead; and thirdly, upon a control of the price 
 through an ability to limit the profits of those who handle the com- 
 modity at various stages. 
 
 Testimonials from noted persons are an effective method of advertising. This 
 poster, advertising an American automobile, bears the signatures of many high 
 Chinese officials. For American fruits, testimonials from physicians and educators 
 should be used. 
 
 Trade promotion should include such methods as securing testi- 
 monials of noted physicians and educators, for use in promotional 
 literature. It should also include the use of posters in full color and 
 the printing of recipe books, folders, and leaflets explaining in the 
 native dialect how the fruits may be used in native dishes. If Chinese 
 girls were employed in a house-to-house campaign to explain the use 
 of these fruits while distributing free samples, this might prove 
 productive. Demonstrations of the cooking of these fruits given in 
 the large stores of the larger towns are an effective method. Because 
 the Chinese entertain and do business in restaurants, the featuring 
 of fruit dishes in such public eating places would be a profitable means 
 
102 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 of trade introduction. Such fruit dishes can be featured by paying 
 a small fee to the restaurant cook. 
 
 Advertisements in Chinese newspapers, while more expensive, have 
 a certain appeal. Although only a small portion of the public is 
 literate, this portion guides the trend of popular opinion. Amusing 
 pictures run in serial form, of such a character that they would attract 
 the children of the families, such pictures showing favorable results 
 from eating American fruits, would be an effective form of publicity 
 in newspapers. The Chinese are notably both a jovial and a curious 
 
 Posters showing 1 the notable effects from eating American fruits are effective. 
 This poster urges parents to buy California raisins for their children. 
 
 people. Pictures that appeal to their humorous impulses or to their 
 curiosity, are effective in advertising methods. However, except with 
 the aid of somewhat lower prices, all these methods might prove 
 unproductive. 
 
 There is an attraction to the Chinese in foreign goods. Just as in 
 America many people think materials are more unique and more 
 valuable if the salesman explains that they are imported from abroad, 
 so in China many people are impressed with the novelty and value 
 of imported articles. This tendency can be successfully capitalized 
 by trade-promotion methods, provided the price can be kept within 
 the reach of the consumer of the middle classes. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 103 
 
 CENTRAL CHINA 
 
 Central China includes that region south of the Yellow River and 
 north of a point on the Pacific coast midway between Soochow and 
 Amoy. It spreads westward throughout all of China into and in- 
 cluding the major portion of Tibet. This great area, comprising nine 
 provinces of China, has an estimated population of about 200,000,000. 
 Portions of this territory are the most thickly settled in the world ; 
 others are so sparsely populated as to be among the little known 
 regions of the globe. 
 
 Shanghai ranks with New York and London as a shipping port. The Bund in 
 Shanghai is one of the busiest streets in the world. 
 
 Central China has at least eleven large cities with over 100,000 
 population. Its great port of entry is Shanghai. Central China is 
 traversed by the great artery of the Yangtsze River. Down this river 
 come products from the far interior to be exchanged for imported 
 commodities for consumption in the heart of central Asia. On the 
 Yangtsze River steamers journey 1,800 miles into western China. As 
 far as Hankow the river has«a draft of 25 feet at high water and a 
 draft of 10 feet or more throughout the entire year. In the delta 
 of the Yangtsze there is a crowded population of about 40,000,000 
 people, or a little less than one-tenth of all those in China. In this 
 
104 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 area much of the travel is by boat through canals and river tributaries 
 which provide a cheap and relatively efficient mode of transportation 
 for the huge population. 
 
 The city of Shanghai, with 2,760,00 population, ranks with New 
 York and London as a shipping port. About 40 per cent of the total 
 trade of China and 58 per cent of its imports come through this one 
 city. Shanghai has grown enormously in recent years owing to the 
 importance of its international settlement and to the consequent 
 influx of financial, business, and manufacturing houses to this metrop- 
 olis of the Far East. Therein comparative safety of life and property 
 are assured under the protection of foreign governments. Over 
 47,700 foreigners, among whom are 3,000 Americans, live and do 
 business in the city of Shanghai, which owes its preeminence to its 
 location on one of the great waterways of the world. In the freight 
 handling of the port of Shanghai 40,000 laborers are constantly 
 employed with hand carts, wheelbarrows, and other hand-drawn 
 vehicles .in transferring goods between the ships of many nations and 
 the warehouses of this port. 
 
 Two hundred fifteen miles up the river is Nanking, the new capital, 
 with a population of 500,000. Almost 600 miles up the Yangtsze is 
 Hankow, a city of about 1,000,000 people, which has long served as a 
 central point in China for the trade and distribution of important 
 products. Owing, however, to the disrupted condition of the interior 
 and to the consequent interference with business conditions, Hankow 
 has so greatly suffered in recent years that it has temporarily ceased 
 to hold its former importance. Up the river, 1400 miles above Shang- 
 hai, is Chunking, a city of over 500,000 people. 
 
 During times of disturbance, commodities necessary to the life of 
 the people continue to flow from one part of China to another. 
 Luxuries are more largely interrupted because merchants hesitate to 
 order materials which have infrequent sale or for which the demand 
 may decrease. Interior points beyond Hankow have therefore received 
 less of foreign importations, including dried and canned fruits, than 
 formerly. This is in part due to the decrease in the number of 
 foreigners but in part also to the hazards of transportation and com- 
 merce. Nevertheless, some American food products, including raisins, 
 continue to find their way into the far interior and are on sale in many 
 distant towns. At present, however, the interior of central China is a 
 declining rather than an increasing market for canned and dried fruit. 
 As soon as staple conditions again prevail, this situation will radically 
 change unless the government in power actively opposes the entry of 
 such products into the country. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 105 
 
 In such large centers as Shanghai and Hankow, where foreigners 
 have settled and factories have developed, wages are higher than at 
 points in the far interior. Nevertheless, according to American 
 standards, the rate of pay is extremely low, with consequent low 
 purchasing power. Whereas in American cities, laborers may be paid 
 from $100 to $300 a month, in Shanghai adult male factory workers 
 are paid an average of about $8.50 a month, or possibly double that 
 figure in a few industries. In canning factories, the average wage is 
 about $10 a month. In general, wages are fixed by the price of rice, 
 which determines the minimum standard of living of laborers. Addi- 
 tions of meat, vegetables, and fruits to the diet are considered as 
 luxuries not within the reach of every workman.* 
 
 On the other hand, there are crowded into Shanghai and other 
 similar international settlements, thousands of Chinese of considerable 
 wealth who seek a refuge therein from the troubled conditions of the 
 interior. It is said that there are now more wealthy Chinese in 
 Shanghai than in Peking. High government officials, whose official 
 headquarters are in Nanking, spend much of their time in Shanghai. 
 These and other wealthy Chinese have brought into the large cities a 
 higher standard of living than that previously obtaining among the 
 people. In turn, this has caused a demand for better conditions among 
 the lower classes who naturally seek to enjoy, insofar as possible, some 
 of the luxuries which have become so common among wealthier 
 Chinese. Thus, an unrest over labor conditions and wages has 
 developed. This has brought about a gradually increasing standard of 
 living among those who have been able to force their demands upon 
 their employers through strikes and other methods of agitation. It 
 may be expected, therefore, that at the points in central China easily 
 reached by foreign methods and influence, there will be an increased 
 demand for those products which were formerly considered luxuries. 
 Such demands may be temporarily lost to sight during wars and dis- 
 turbed political conditions ; however, the standard of living is certain 
 to rise gradually. 
 
 In central China as elsewhere in the Far East, the purchasing 
 power of the people is difficult to estimate. Many persons long resi- 
 dent in the country, particularly those who have tried to introduce 
 new products without means adequate for trade promotion, are most 
 pessimistic concerning the percentage of the population able to buy 
 low priced imported products, such as canned and dried fruits. Esti- 
 mates made by competent persons long conversant with the China 
 
 * Journal of the Shanghai Bureau of Social Affairs, January 1929. 
 
106 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 market varied from as low as 2 per cent of the city populations to as 
 high as 40 per cent. Executives of great American concerns who have 
 successfully introduced products to the Chinese by means of direct 
 selling placed the potential demand for low priced imported articles 
 at from 10 to 20 per cent of those resident in the cities. Certain large 
 business organizations which have probably the widest experience of 
 any throughout the entire country estimated that in central China 
 there are fifteen million people who might purchase small packages of 
 American fruit provided they desired them. 
 
 Fruit in the Central China Diet. — Here, as in northern China, 
 fruits are not a normal part of the meals of the people. Rice with 
 vegetables generally serves as the central item in the diet. In addition 
 to these a number of condiments and meats are used by those classes 
 having the necessary funds with which to purchase them. None of 
 these additional dishes or condiments which are served with the rice 
 are sweet, however. They provide a salty or spicy flavor in which 
 sweets have no place. The people are fond of fruit, this being largely 
 consumed between meals by those who can afford it. Possibly because 
 of the paucity of the diet, the Chinese nibble at various foodstuffs 
 between the normal three meals of the day. Dried fruits, seeds, nuts, 
 and candies are all consumed in this way. 
 
 Many Chinese suffer from poor health. Large numbers of the 
 people of central China have various disorders of the digestive tract. 
 This is even more true of the well-to-do than of the poorer classes. It 
 is common belief that all foods of whatever kind that are eaten have a 
 direct and perhaps an immediate effect upon the health. Such foods, 
 therefore, as are believed to have a medicinal value have a strong 
 appeal. On the other hand, articles of the diet which are thought to 
 be detrimental to the health are shunned. Therefore, any foodstuffs 
 promoted into China should not only appeal to the taste but should 
 also be demonstrated to be of value to health. All those who are 
 cognizant of the recent discoveries in human nutrition will at once 
 recognize the value of fruit in the diet. The Chinese diet is notably 
 deficient in certain items, among them fruit. 
 
 The Chinese are enormous consumers of medicinal preparations, 
 including not only those put up by native doctors and drug stores but 
 also of patent medicines imported from foreign countries. The 
 amount of money expended for these is far beyond the normal demand 
 as measured by countries of greater purchasing power. To the Chinese, 
 medicines influence a vital matter in which they are immediately and 
 personally concerned, namely, their health. 
 
Bul. 493 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 10' 
 
 Fresh Fruits. — A sharp distinction should be drawn between the 
 demand for fresh fruits among the limited foreign population of the 
 city of Shanghai and the requirements of the far greater native popu- 
 lation within the possible range of purchase of fruits from America. 
 
 In general, the foreign population would like to have, insofar as 
 possible, the same quality and kinds of fresh fruits at the same prices 
 as at home. American fruits sell at a higher price than in the United 
 States because there are added to their original costs the charges for 
 
 (fiiU'fORNm 
 
 -V) A 
 
 Gr* ! n s 
 
 M CHtH£i£ 
 DRQGlC/v's £V*-" 
 
 ' « ~\ 
 
 m*<TC~~ 
 
 
 Competition from fresh fruits produced in China is on the increase. Some of 
 the grapes and other fruits locally grown are equal or superior to the imported 
 fruits from America. 
 
 refrigeration, freight, insurance, duty, handling charges, and interest 
 on the investment, as well as the profits of the various dealers who 
 handle the product before it reaches the consumer. These increased 
 costs become especially prominent in a market wherein the unit of 
 exchange, namely the Mexican dollar, has but a fraction of the value 
 of the American dollar and where, generally speaking, labor and 
 living are cheaper than at home. Thus, the increase in prices of 
 American fruits seems more outstanding and indeed exorbitant. In 
 the same breath in which a foreigner denounces the poor quality of 
 California fruit for sale in the Shanghai markets he will bewail the 
 high price charged for it. The point of view of the foreign resident 
 
108 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 is not always consistent nor is it an accurate guide for those who would 
 judge the possible development of the market in this great city. 
 Necessarily, possible consumption of fresh fruit among Europeans is 
 decidedly limited. 
 
 The real problem in the importation of fresh fruits to this port is 
 to secure fruit of good quality at a price within the range of the 
 purchasing power of the Chinese. Furthermore, this fruit must com- 
 pete in price with locally grown fruits which are abundant in the 
 markets during much of the year. The current rate of exchange enters 
 into this problem. For example, in 1929 the price of apples was 
 higher in America than in the previous years, while at the same time 
 the exchange value of the Mexican dollar was lower. Therefore, prices 
 at Shanghai being quoted in Mexican dollars, were much higher than 
 usual. Consequently, the consumption was materially reduced. 
 
 The competition from fresh fruits produced in China is on the 
 increase. It is true that the ravages of the Mediterranean fruit fly 
 and other insects as well as of certain plant diseases cause the quality 
 of the Chinese fruit to be uncertain. Nevertheless, the large volume of 
 native fruit coming on the market is of sufficiently high quality so that 
 many foreigners declare that with the possible exception of oranges 
 and lemons, they now purchase nothing but locally grown fruit. 
 
 Of course, no detailed survey has been made of the fresh fruit 
 production of China, but judging from the fragmentary reports avail- 
 able, the volume of native fruit is larger than generally supposed. In 
 northern Shantung Province, exclusive of the leased territory of 
 Weiheiwei, the average production of native fruits from 1916 to 1925 
 was 18,614,500 pounds per year, of which it is estimated that 75 per 
 cent is exported.* In Fukien Province, from which come the so-called 
 "Foochow oranges" the production of these is said to be over 
 30,000,000 pounds per yearf while in Chekiang Province, south of 
 Shanghai, the production of oranges is said to be 40,000,000 pounds 
 per year. Fukien Province is also said to grow 2,500,000 pounds of 
 plums, 800,000 pounds of peaches, and 130,000 pounds of prunes and 
 of loquats. Around Nanking five varieties of peaches are grown, the 
 production of which is said to be over 1,330,000 pounds per year 4 
 
 These fruits come into Shanghai markets in large quantities, 
 appearing at about the same seasons of the year as in the central zone 
 in the United States. In late April or early May, apricots are on sale. 
 Peaches follow in May or June. The least amount of local fruit is on 
 
 * Report of Consul Lercy Webber (1927). 
 
 t Chinese Economic Journal (December 1928). 
 
 t Bureau of Economic Information, Republic of China. 
 
Bul. 493 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 109 
 
 sale during the very hot summer months. It is during that season that 
 oranges from California are most in demand. In August, fruits from 
 Chefoo come to Shanghai. These cause an immediate effect on the sale 
 of California oranges, the demand for which is at once lessened. 
 Grapes, plums, and peaches are on display locally in great abundance. 
 The native Chefoo apples appear in early October but become scarce 
 by the middle of December. Korean apples arrive in late September 
 and continue in the market until late January. Several varieties of 
 
 Local fruits come to the Shanghai market in great quantities, arriving by 
 cheap water transportation. 
 
 hard native pears are stored in China by burying them under the 
 ground. These are sold throughout the entire winter, as are also the 
 oranges from southern China. 
 
 Prices of these fruits vary with the time of year, as happens in 
 America, some are marketed entirely too green in the hope of getting 
 the benefit of high prices in the early season. Generally, however, 
 prices are as given in table 32. 
 
 TABLE 32 
 
 Chinese Fresh Fruits, Prices in Shanghai, September 1929 
 
 Per Pound 
 
 Wholesale Retail 
 
 Apples $0.02 $0.05-$0.06 
 
 Bananas .02 .03-04 
 
 Grapes .05 .08-10 
 
 Pears 02 .04-07 
 
 Persimmons 01-02 .03-05 
 
 Pomeloes .04 .10 
 
110 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 The extent of the competition of native fruits with the imported 
 may be glimpsed through the statistics gathered by the Maritime 
 Customs Service. Although these figures may not be entirely accurate 
 or correct, especially in regard to native importations, yet they are 
 likely to err on the side of being too small rather than of being too 
 large, since much native fruit is smuggled into the port. 
 
 TABLE 33 
 
 Fresh Fruit Importations, Port of Shanghai, 1928 
 
 In thousands of pounds 
 
 Apples Oranges Lemons Grapes 
 
 From Japan 347 61 1 
 
 From Korea 78 
 
 From Canada 749 1 
 
 From France 6 30 
 
 From United States 1,001 2,500 3,028 266 
 
 From Philippines 32 ... 
 
 From other foreign sources 1 63 
 
 Total foreign importations 2,175 2,600 3,122 
 
 From China ports 9,675 17,871 3 860 
 
 Total importations 11,850 20,471 3,125 1,127 
 
 Most of these importations, whether native or foreign, are con- 
 sumed in the vicinity of Shanghai. Of the apples received, only 
 241,000 pounds, or 11 per cent, were re-exported to interior points, 
 and 68,700 pounds to coast points. Of the grapes received at Shanghai, 
 only 8,200 pounds were reported as having been re-exported — a prac- 
 tically negligible amount. Of the 3,125,000 imported lemons received 
 at Shanghai 1,169,745 were re-exported to coast points, while only 
 34,350 went up the Yangtsze River to interior points. These figures 
 illustrate the small degree to which fruit coming into Shanghai is 
 forwarded to the interior. 
 
 The above figures, which are the best available, point to several 
 general conclusions. First, that the importation of native fruit is far 
 greater than that from abroad. Second, that the volume of fresh fruits 
 from America coming into Shanghai is small, especially when com- 
 pared with the size of the crops at home. The reported imports of 
 grapes from the United States into the port of Shanghai were only a 
 little over one-hundredth of one per cent of the fresh grape crop of 
 California. Third, they indicate that the majority of fruit imported 
 into Shanghai was consumed in and near that city and that whatever 
 fruit is shipped therefrom goes largely to coast points north and south 
 
Bui.. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 111 
 
 of the city rather than into the interior. Shipments of American fresh 
 fruit up the Yangtsze River have been, in the immediate past, 
 extremely small. 
 
 Oranges from America are chiefly in demand between May and 
 July. The market starts to fall off in August when the native fruit is 
 on sale in greater abundance. Oranges shipped into the Shanghai 
 market run from 200 to 252 to the box, the general wholesale price 
 being about $6.40 a box, while the retail price is from 32 to 45 cents 
 
 Local grapes are abundant and cheap in the markets of Shanghai, 
 four times as many local as imported grapes are sold in the city. 
 
 Almost 
 
 a dozen. The small size and poor quality of California oranges in 
 Shanghai have been a frequent cause of complaint among foreigners. 
 The demand for small oranges has been created by competition in the 
 market. Sales are made to restaurants, hotels, and to servants 
 employed by foreigners. These desire not only to obtain oranges at a 
 low price but to obtain as many oranges as possible for a unit of value. 
 Since not less than one orange can be served, the more oranges there 
 are to the box the further they will go, either if served to customers 
 in restaurants or if sold by the dozen to household servants. Thus, 
 the demand in the Shanghai market has forced downward both the size 
 and quality until, at present, the California oranges displayed are 
 certainly not a product of which the state can be proud. However, 
 the demand for California oranges is good and the market strong. 
 
112 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 California grapes find their greatest favor when the late varieties 
 are in season, namely, from August until late fall. The demand for 
 native grapes has been caused by the recent improvement in native 
 grape production. Many native grapes compare most favorably with 
 the California product as received in this market. California grapes 
 of the Red and White Malaga varieties retailed in Shanghai for about 
 14 to 15 cents a pound. Many foreigners expressed themselves as far 
 preferring native grapes now so abundant at all local stores. 
 
 American apples find a seasonal demand dependent upon the extent 
 and quality of the China crop. King David apples from America, 
 running about four to the pound sold in Shanghai markets at about 
 '4 cents a pound. Bellflower apples were about the same price. 
 American apples of fine quality retailed as high as 8 cents a pound. 
 
 Peaches, plums, and pears would find little market in Shanghai. 
 Local peaches of good quality come into the market during the summer 
 in quantities adequate to supply the demand. American plums are 
 in demand in large sizes only, and these find but little sale. American 
 pears will not find markets in Shanghai because of the fair quality and 
 cheapness of the local product with which they cannot compete. 
 
 Freight rates by refrigeration from California ports to Shanghai 
 are as follows: apples $1.10 a box; oranges $1.50 a box; grapefruit 
 $1.55 a box; lemons $1.70 a box and $0.95 a half box; grapes $25 per 
 ton of 40 cubic feet. 
 
 Cold storage facilities at Shanghai are extensive. Five companies 
 maintain cold storage warehouses, but space in these is limited by 
 other products in which the companies are more directly interested. 
 Vast quantities of eggs are shipped to Shanghai where they are con- 
 verted into frozen or dried form. These are kept in cold storage until 
 such time as they are in demand. Thus, shipments of fresh fruits to 
 Shanghai requiring immediate storage might find difficulty in securing 
 space adequate for their needs at the particular time and season at 
 which it was desired. The general rate charged for cold storage is one 
 Mexican cent per pound per month of thirty days, or about one cent 
 per pound in United States currency for seventy-five days. This rate 
 is frequently decreased at seasons of the year when the refrigeration 
 plants are not crowded by other commodities. 
 
 One difficulty that confronts the dealer who desires to send 
 American fresh fruit into interior points in China is the lack of 
 refrigeration on both coastal and river steamers. No local steamers 
 plying out of Shanghai to coastal ports have refrigeration space. Only 
 one boat on the Yangtsze River has any refrigeration space ; this boat 
 plies infrequently as far as Hankow. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 113 
 
 There are a number of importing' firms in Shanghai handling fresh 
 fruits. There are also about 140 fresh fruit dealers who purchase 
 these fruits from the importers. The business transactions between 
 these agencies are quite uniform as to the methods employed. 
 
 The importing- houses employ salesmen who call upon the dealers 
 or Chinese merchants to take orders for fresh fruits dated for future 
 delivery. The prices quoted are based upon cabled prices received 
 each Sunday from California. The orders being" accumulated, the 
 importer then orders his supply from his home office in California or 
 from an exporting firm based upon the orders he has contracted to fill. 
 
 American fruits are moved from wharves to cold storage warehouses and to 
 dealers on hand-drawn carts. 
 
 The exporting office in California ships the fresh fruit to the 
 importer in Shanghai, at the same time drawing a draft upon the 
 Shanghai importer for the value of the shipment plus the insurance, 
 freight, and if the Shanghai firm has no California office, possibly 
 also for commission. 
 
 The bank in California undertaking the collection of the draft, 
 discounts it and sends it to a Shanghai bank with the bill of lading 
 and other necessary papers, such as those having to do with govern- 
 mental inspection for export, etc. 
 
 The bank in Shanghai, upon receiving the draft and included 
 papers, notifies the Shanghai importer that the draft has been received. 
 The importer must then take up the draft, have the shipment cleared 
 
114 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 through the customs, and pay the duty which at present is 10 per cent, 
 except for apples, with which it is $1 for 133 V3 pounds, and £or 
 lemons, with which it is $3.40 per thousand. The draft may be paid 
 in full at this time or the importer may place with the bank a ' ■ letter 
 of guarantee" covering the period that the shipment is being cleared 
 through customs. 
 
 After the shipment is cleared and the duty paid, the importer 
 notifies the buyers that their goods are available and submits to each 
 a bill, estimated to cover all charges. Before the goods are made 
 accessible to the buyer he must pay to the importer the gross amount 
 of this bill, which is stated in United States dollars. The bill being 
 paid, the buyer is then given an order upon the warehouse or wharf 
 of the steamship company that has carried the goods from California. 
 This order permits him to take delivery. 
 
 When all deliveries are made to the buyers of the cargo, a final bill 
 is made out for each buyer. The bill states the c.i.f. price plus other 
 charges such as customs fees, duty, interest, commission and wharfage 
 charges, also the rate of exchange from United States dollars into local 
 currency. The final settlement may be more or less than the first bill 
 paid at the time of delivery, according to the exact amount of the 
 accumulated charges, which can only be determined after the trans- 
 action is entirely completed. 
 
 Another method, occasionally used, is to ship fresh fruit from 
 California by consignment to some commission house located in 
 Shanghai. From the foregoing discussion it must be apparent that 
 such a proceeding is hazardous in the extreme, since the owner of the 
 fruit in California not only risks the danger of spoilage but also the 
 possibility of coming into an over-loaded market at the expense of 
 high costs. Such a method is to be recommended only to those in 
 whom the gambling spirit is predominant. 
 
 In central China there is no demand for an increase in shipments 
 of fresh fruits from America. Owing to the improving quality, increas- 
 ing quantity, and low price of the native fruits, American importations 
 are likely to decrease rather than increase. From time to time, how- 
 ever, by close study of the market, exporters may be able to find addi- 
 tional shipments to Shanghai a profitable venture, but such a method 
 can be utlized by only a few individuals. Oranges and lemons will 
 continue to be shipped to the markets of central China because 
 American oranges can be marketed at a season when the native fruit 
 is not so plentiful and because lemons are not extensively grown in 
 the country. 
 
Bui,. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 115 
 
 The market for fresh deciduous fruits in central China will not 
 warrant general attention nor have any measurable part in the market- 
 ing of the growing volume of California products. 
 
 Canned Fruits. — Chinese canned fruits are abundant in this 
 market. There are twenty-one canneries in Shanghai which in addi- 
 tion to fruits pack meat, fish, vegetables, and make biscuits. Their 
 total output is valued at about $4,000,000 a year.* Most of these 
 native canned fruits are consumed in Shanghai and in the ports along 
 the Yangtsze River, although some are exported to northern China 
 and Manchuria and some even to the United States where they may be 
 found in Chinese eating houses. Chinese canned fruits are on sale 
 on University Avenue in Berkeley. Very little of these canned fruits 
 manufactured in Shanghai go to southern China because local can- 
 neries are there located at Canton, Hongkong, Macao, Swatow, and 
 Amoy. Canned pineapples from Singapore sell extensively in this 
 market. 
 
 Chinese canned fruits sell at retail in Shanghai in the No. 2 can 
 for about 16 cents. Eight-ounce cans of jam sell for 12 to 14 cents. 
 Close to the source of suppty, these prices drop very low. In the 
 neighborhood of the cannery, Chinese canned fruits are sometimes 
 sold as low as 4 cents a can. 
 
 Chinese canned fruits are sold by the sales department of the 
 native canneries through agents who receive a 15 per cent commission 
 upon all sales. One feature of the sales policy of these canneries is 
 to allow extended credit, dependent, of course, upon a known financial 
 standing of the buyer. At times, Chinese canned goods are left on 
 consignment in order to introduce them into the market. These busi- 
 ness methods are naturally expensive so that the wholesale prices for 
 Chinese canned fruits may be only 50 to 60 per cent of the retail 
 selling price. 
 
 The increasing competition of Chinese canned goods is not caused 
 entirely by their lower prices and large volume but also by the 
 extended system of credits which Chinese canneries are able to employ 
 and their intimate touch with the native dealers. Although the quality 
 of Chinese canned fruit is now so far inferior to the American product 
 as to present little real competition among those who are conversant 
 with both, yet the quality of the Chinese product is improving, and 
 already a few of these canneries are striving to approach the American 
 quality, so favorably known among the small group of wealthy Chinese. 
 If America is to have any extended canned-goods market in China, 
 
 * Bureau of Economic Information, Kepublic of China. 
 
116 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 some large and sustained effort must be made to popularize the various 
 small sizes. Such an undertaking would involve funds and effort 
 beyond the present resources of the importing agents. 
 
 American canned fruits have been sold in central China for more 
 than a quarter of a century. At the time when these were introduced 
 the No. 2% can was standard in America. This, size therefore became 
 standard in China for the American grade of packed fruits, which is 
 there synonymous with quality. The purposes for which canned fruit 
 is used are only those to which this size is adapted. The people to 
 whom it sells are those who can afford this large size. Although in 
 America other sizes have become popular, the No. 2% can still holds 
 the entire field in China 'because of the conservatism of the Chinese 
 and their fear that new brands and new sizes may contain inferior 
 products. All attempts, therefore, to digress from the No. 2% can have 
 been unsuccessful. To be sure, at best these attempts have been but 
 half-hearted efforts, consisting merely of the passive offering of the 
 smaller sizes. No representatives of American canned fruits have been 
 able to devote the necessary time and money to acquaint the Chinese 
 consumer with the smaller sizes available. They have been offered only 
 to the native wholesalers and dealers who in turn have no particular 
 interest in changing the demand. Although canned fruits in the No. 1 
 tall and the 8-ounce size are on sale in some stores, no large volume 
 of these is sold. 
 
 Retail prices at Shanghai are given in the table below. For pur- 
 poses of comparison, retail prices at Foochow, a typical out-port, are 
 
 also included. 
 
 TABLE 34 
 
 Current Eetail Prices, October 1929, American Canned Fruits 
 Prices per can 
 
 Shanghai 
 
 , A >, Foochow 
 
 No. 2 i No. 1 8-oz. No. 2 J 
 
 Apples $0.24 $0.12 
 
 Apricots 28 .16 $0.12 $0.34 
 
 Cherries 38 .24 .... .45 
 
 Grapes 20 .16 
 
 Peaches 35 .16 .12 .34 
 
 Pears 36 .16 .12 .36 
 
 Plums 24 .... .... .34 
 
 Fruit Salad 35 .18 
 
 Aside from the native canned fruits, American products dominate 
 the market in central China. Importations from other countries are 
 comparatively small. The figures in table 35, adapted from the returns 
 of the Chinese Maritime Customs, illustrate that fact. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 117 
 
 Of the canned goods imported into central China, probably 80 per 
 cent of the cherries, pineapple, and asparagus is consumed by the 
 Chinese and only 20 per cent by the foreigners. On the other hand, 
 of the apricots and peaches imported, probably only 15 per cent are 
 consumed by Chinese and 85 per cent by foreigners. 
 
 TABLE 35 
 
 Canned Fruits, Importations into Shanghai 
 Values in United States currency 
 
 1927 1928 
 
 From Japan (including Formosa) .... $3,298 $80 
 
 From Great Britain 6,384 3,208 
 
 From British India. 440 446 
 
 From Singapore 7,266 16,541 
 
 From Canada 1,417 103 
 
 From the United States 134,321 134,161 
 
 From Philippine Islands 10,521 81 
 
 From France 120 690 
 
 From Germany 106 17 
 
 From Belgium 137 
 
 From Italy 249 564 
 
 From Norway 377 
 
 From Turkey 71 
 
 From all others 81 
 
 Total $166,381 $167,842 
 
 Not more than 10 per cent of the total importations of canned fruit 
 go further into the interior than Nanking, 215 miles up the Yangtsze 
 River. A few cans of American fruit are often on sale, however, at far 
 interior points. In general, the importer in Shanghai has very few 
 accounts with up-country dealers. The canned goods are sold to 
 dealers in Shanghai, who in turn supply these up-country markets. 
 Often these dealers in Shanghai own or have an interest in provision 
 stories in the far interior. The intricate ramifications of the system 
 of credits, transportation, taxes, and sales from Shanghai to provision 
 stores in the interior are so complex that they seldom are glimpsed by 
 those who look casually into this market, and only dimly understood by 
 foreigners long resident in this country. 
 
 At points in the interior, prices rapidly increase. This is not only 
 caused by the additional transportation involved but also by the local 
 import taxes and other provincial duties common to the interior of 
 China. Thus, the price of canned fruit will frequently be double the 
 Shanghai price at an interior point. 
 
118 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 American canned fruits are sold through a few import houses deal- 
 ing" in foreign foodstuffs who are agents or representatives of Cali- 
 fornia concerns. These import houses sell to a large number of native 
 wholesalers. The wholesalers supply local provision houses in the 
 cities and act as distributors into the interior. City provision houses 
 in turn may act as small wholesalers, even advancing credit to smaller 
 provision shops that they supply. 
 
 In general, the import houses attempt to book native dealers for 
 their year's requirements on the basis of the opening prices for the 
 season. So powerful is the organization of wholesalers and provision 
 
 Throughout all of China restaurants abound. At these, American fruits might 
 be popularized in Chinese dishes. The cook will feature any dish for a small fee. 
 
 houses and so closely do they watch prices that the relation between 
 the importer and the system of Chinese distribution is both difficult 
 and delicate. Practically all of the import houses recognize the power 
 and influence of the native wholesalers and the necessity of holding 
 their good will. The intimate system of inter-relation and of credit 
 between the native wholesaler, provision house, and retailer in the 
 interior makes it difficult if not impossible for the usual importing 
 firm to conduct business except through the native wholesalers. Since 
 such is the case, the agents are forced to protect the native wholesaler 
 within his territory and to refuse to sell direct to provision houses or 
 retailers. The system of Chinese merchandise distribution, extending 
 back into the distant past, is so complex and at the same time so power- 
 ful that it dictates the business practices of all except a few of the very 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 119 
 
 greatest foreign organizations, which by their vast capital and large 
 personnel have been able directly to introduce their imported articles 
 into China on an extended scale. 
 
 Although this system of Chinese distribution operates on a rela- 
 tively small margin of profit, the many successive steps through which 
 the product passes from the time it leaves the cannery in America until 
 it reaches the consumer in China, impose a number of additional costs 
 which, under the present system, are a necessary part of the selling 
 price. The cost of freight from San Francisco to Shanghai is not 
 the only item in this expense. Freight averages $14.50 a ton, or 47 
 cents a case of No. 2% cans, or 2 cents a can. In the No. 1 tall, this 
 freight charge is 1 cent a can ; in the 8-ounce can it is only a little over 
 half a cent. To this, however, must be added the insurance, which is 
 one-half of one per cent of the wholesale value of the product, and 
 the duty of 12y 2 per cent on the wholesale value. Thus, at recent 
 prices, a bill might read as follows: 
 
 One doz. No. 2Y 2 cans of peaches c.i.f. Shanghai $2.90 
 
 Duty per doz. cans 26 
 
 Wharfage and other charges 04 
 
 Total cost delivered Shanghai $3.20 
 
 or a delivered cost of 26% cents a can. 
 
 For a dozen 8-ounce cans of apricots, the bill might be as follows : 
 
 c.i.f. Shanghai per doz. cans $0,925 
 
 Duty per doz. cans 086 
 
 Wharfage and other charges 010 
 
 Total cost delivered Shanghai $1,021 
 
 or a delivered cost of 8V2 cents a can. 
 
 It may be recalled that these same 8-ounce cans generally sell for 
 10 cents in the United States, whereas in China they retail for 12 cents 
 to 14 cents. At the rate of exchange in October 1929, the lowest on 
 record for some years, 10 cents in United States currency was equiv- 
 alent to 25 cents in local currency. If the 8-ounce cans were sold to 
 retail for the equivalent of 10 cents in American money, it would at 
 that rate of exchange be possible to sell four of them for a Mexican 
 dollar. It is obvious, however, that at the present delivered cost and 
 with the present system of distribution, the margin between the 
 delivered prices in wholesale lots and the retail prices would not be 
 sufficient to pass canned fruit through several hands and finally retail 
 them for the equivalent of 10 cents in American money. 
 
120 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 At the present prices of American canned goods it is improbable 
 that any rapid or large development of this market can be made 
 through the intricate and complicated selling system now used. The 
 importing houses who represent American firms in the distribution of 
 canned fruit are both unwilling and unable to expend the time, effort, 
 and money necessary to break through the Chinese distributing system 
 or, working with that system, to conduct a campaign to popularize 
 American products upon the market. Either of these undertakings 
 would be a major enterprise beyond either the present plans or the 
 future possibilities of the import system now prevalent in central 
 China. 
 
 At present, the small can of fruit, either in the 8-ounce or the 
 1-pound sizes has not been introduced to the Chinese people. It is true 
 that certain sporadic efforts have been made in a limited way to induce 
 wholesalers to buy a few of these cans. In general, however, the 
 limited sales have been made only to foreigners. There is no certainty 
 that the small cans can be introduced among the Chinese, but neither 
 is there any evidence that they cannot be introduced. Although the 
 small size is the logical method of developing this market, as yet the 
 matter has not been tested in any effort proportionate to the volume 
 of increased demand that would be opened if success were achieved. 
 The exclusive use of the large can of fruit in China is based upon the 
 fact that American fruits were originally introduced in this size only, 
 and that dealers have continued to demand them because the people 
 have known no others. Canned fruit has been used only on occasions 
 for which the large size was fitted. It has become known only among 
 those who could afford this size. 
 
 To change or to increase the demand so that the small tin would 
 find additional uses among the upper classes and a new use among the 
 middle classes is an undertaking which has not yet been started. Such 
 trade promotion might bear very large results. The result would be 
 somewhat dependent upon ability to lower the price of the small can, 
 so that it would come within the range of the purchasing power of a 
 large number of people and into successful competition with alter- 
 native imported foodstuffs. 
 
 Dried Fruits. — Most of the California dried fruits are not even as 
 widely distributed over the interior as are canned fruits. California 
 raisins, due to their extensive distributing system and trade promotion, 
 are found almost everywhere. Prunes are practically the only other 
 dried fruit which is on sale in the interior, and usually these can be 
 bought only at the river ports along the Yangtsze as far as Chungking, 
 1,500 miles up the river. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 121 
 
 Prices of dried fruits in Shanghai are not only determined by the 
 California cost but also by other charges that must be added. Freight 
 is about $14.50 a ton from either San Francisco or Los Angeles to 
 Shanghai. Insurance is about one-half of 1 per cent of the value. The 
 duty at present imposed by China is 12^2 per cent of the wholesale 
 value. To these must be added wharfage and other local charges, 
 usually amounting to about 2 per cent. The retail prices of American 
 dried fruits at Shanghai are given in table 36. For purposes of 
 comparison, prices at Chefoo are also quoted. 
 
 TABLE 36 
 
 Current Retail Prices, October 1929, American Dried Fruits 
 
 Prices per pound 
 
 Shanghai Chefoo 
 
 Apples $0.22 $0.24 
 
 Apricots 26 .32 
 
 Figs 12 .20 
 
 Peaches 20 .24 
 
 Pears 20 .24 
 
 Prunes .16 
 
 Eaisins 13 .12 
 
 Prices var}^ greatly at interior points from those quoted for the 
 two ports above. Prunes selling at Shanghai for 16 cents a pound 
 usually are offered in the interior for at least double the price, or 
 32 cents a pound or more, although it must be realized that prices vary 
 greatly from town to town in response to the system of local taxation, 
 local currency, and the distance and kind of transportation required. 
 
 Dried fruits are chiefly sold in 25-pound boxes from which they 
 retail in pound lots. However, they are also offered in 1-pound cans 
 and in 1-pound cartons. In some of the stores in the large cities, cans 
 containing 2% and 5 pounds may be found, but these are only in such 
 distributing centers as cater largely to foreigners. 
 
 When the dried fruits come off the ship on arrival at Shanghai, 
 they are stored in warehouses. Those packed in wooden boxes do not 
 withstand the hot damp summers, and thereby considerable spoilage 
 occurs. Much detriment has resulted to the market for dried fruits 
 in central China by the old method of shipping in wooden boxes. 
 Dried fruits in bulk may be stored in cool rooms with some success, 
 but the only practical remedy throughout the summer months is to 
 pack dried fruits in tin containers so that they will keep indefinitely. 
 
 Uncooked prunes are already used in some Chinese homes. It is 
 estimated that of the prunes shipped to central China, 60 per cent are 
 
122 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 consumed by foreigners and 40 per cent by Chinese. Of the dried figs, 
 95 per cent are consumed by foreigners and 5 per cent by Chinese. 
 Of the apricots, pears, and peaches imported, practically all are 
 purchased by foreigners. 
 
 As elsewhere in China, raisins have by far the largest sale of any 
 California fruit. In dried fruits American raisins predominate to the 
 almost complete exclusion of all others. Unfortunately, the statistics 
 of the Chinese Maritime Customs group raisins and dried currants 
 together in one classification. Since, however, the importations of 
 currants are very small, the figures in table 37 may for practical 
 purposes be taken as those for raisins. 
 
 TABLE 37 
 Importation of Raisins and Currants into Shanghai 
 
 , 1926 ^ , 1927 N 
 
 Pounds Value Pounds Value 
 
 From the United States 3,973,866 $301,942 3,236,800 $249,240 
 
 From Philippine Islands 400 21 
 
 From Great Britain 4,733 602 3,666 760 
 
 From British India 2,533 168 1,066 99 
 
 From Australia and New 
 
 Zealand 54,266 6,181 69,200 7,961 
 
 From Hongkong 95,200 15,975 113,333 15,770 
 
 From Singapore 24,000 3,972 38,133 8,199 
 
 From France 1,066 414 
 
 From French Indo-China 266 17 
 
 From Turkey 7,600 1,009 12,533 1,161 
 
 Total imports 4,162,464 $329,866 3,476,730 $283,695 
 
 Only a small portion of these imports are, however, consumed in 
 and around the port of Shanghai. That city is a central distributing 
 point for the Sun-Maid Raisin Growers Association which, at this 
 place, repacks the raisins and distributes them to other points. The 
 following figures giving the re-exports for the same years indicate the 
 extent of this re-distribution. 
 
 TABLE 38 
 Be-exports of Raisins from Shanghai to other China Ports 
 
 f 1926- 
 
 Pounds 
 
 To Northern China Ports 801,733 
 
 To Southern China Ports 802,666 
 
 To Yangtsze Ports 400,533 
 
 Total, re-exports in China 2,004,932 $158,870 961,332 $74,470 
 
 Value 
 $63,521 
 63,615 
 31,734 
 
 Pounds 
 418,533 
 181,466 
 361,333 
 
 u I N 
 
 Value 
 
 $33,728 
 
 14,623 
 
 29,119 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 123 
 
 Raisins are shipped into Shanghai in bulk and are there repackaged 
 and recased for sale throughout the interior and for export. In tins 
 and cartons of 5 pounds, 1% pounds, 1 pound, and smaller they are 
 sent out in case lots to local dealers. For the small paper envelopes, 
 which sell for two or four coppers, the packaging is done by the local 
 dealer who receives the small envelopes with a bulk boxed shipment. 
 The Sun-Maid Raisin Growers Association sells only for cash. About 
 fifty salesmen, employed by the Sun-Maid Raisin Growers Association, 
 
 This small paper envelope has popularized raisins over all of Eastern Asia. 
 Exports of raisins have increased 1000 per cent since it was introduced. More 
 raisins are now sold in Asia than all other American fruits combined. Any com- 
 modity to sell extensively in Asia must be marketed in small quantities. 
 
 tour the interior selling to local dealers for wholesalers recognized 
 by the association. The trade promotion work which has proceeded 
 for a number of years, coupled with the selling organization centralized 
 at Shanghai have popularized raisins among the Chinese people. 
 However, raisins have not yet saturated the central China market. 
 Increased sales can be made if and when raisins become more exten- 
 sively used in bakeries and in the homes. 
 
 Among all dried fruits other than raisins, prunes hold the best 
 possibilities for expansion of markets. Small-sized prunes, largely 
 pit, and lacking in sugar would have little success. The Chinese 
 already have the dried jujube, or 'black date,' of which they are fond. 
 
124 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 These are sold very cheaply on the streets. The prune might be popu- 
 larized as an improvement on and substitute for the jujube. Prunes 
 would hold an added attraction because of their laxative qualities and 
 their beneficial influence upon the health of the user. Those pro- 
 moting the sale of prunes could make an appeal to millions of Chinese 
 searching for good health. As a food or refreshment alone, it is doubt- 
 ful whether prunes would have as large a sale as raisins because of the 
 large size of the fruit and the small number that could be put up in a 
 package within the reach of the low purchasing power of the people. 
 The advantage of the prune lies not only in its food value but also in 
 its medicinal value, which might be successfully exploited to promote 
 its sale. 
 
 In the beginning, prunes should be offered in a package holding 
 1% or 2 ounces, and even sold by hucksters one prune at a time. If 
 sold in the small packages, there should be an even number of prunes, 
 to avoid the Chinese aversion to uneven numbers. If prunes could be 
 retailed at the general rate of 12 cents a pound, which at this writing 
 is equivalent to 30 cents in local currency, this price would then enable 
 one prune to be sold for one copper, the smallest unit of value in 
 general circulation. After the product became successfully known to 
 the people in the large cities and in the interior, larger packages would 
 doubtless be in demand. If prunes could then be so packed that the 
 container itself would be useful, this would add an attractive feature 
 to those who purchased them. Some American commodities already 
 successfully promoted in China have been sold by dealers so nearly at 
 cost that the container itself was their only profit. 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods. — The problem of trade promotion in 
 central China resolves itself into creating a desire for American fruit 
 that can be satisfied by a small initial purchase at a price which will 
 successfully compete with other products offered to the same people. 
 
 Trade promotion to be conducted for canned or dried fruits must 
 be undertaken in a thorough manner in each locality in which the 
 commodity is to be promoted. This does not necessarily mean that it 
 must be spread over all central China in any one period, but rather 
 that it must be sufficient in volume in each place where it is attempted 
 to attract and hold popular attention. Further, it must be maintained 
 for a long enough period for the market to be fully realized. 
 
 In general, trade promotion in central China must take the form of 
 an educational campaign to acquaint the people with the product. It 
 must be headed by those who have an intimate knowledge of Chinese 
 living and Chinese character, as well as of business practices in 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 125 
 
 the Orient. The product should be distributed through a series 
 of branch offices that carry stocks on hand so that the native dealers 
 or wholesalers may obtain a supply on short notice. The packages 
 should be placed on sale in many local stores, even if it becomes 
 necessary to put them there on consignment. The price of these 
 must be so fixed that the dealer will be satisfied with a reasonable 
 profit in order that the cost to the consumer may be maintained as low 
 as possible. A system of bonuses so devised that dealers making large 
 sales would be given a rebate or present would doubtless be effective 
 in pushing trade. 
 
 The many restaurants are an excellent place to popularize canned 
 goods. If small cans were placed there on sale, even if they were only 
 displayed, it would serve as a means of introduction that would be 
 invaluable. It is not beyond the bounds of possibility that the many 
 bake-shops throughout China might be taught to use American fruit 
 and to popularize pastries in which fruits are used. 
 
 Free samples have been the basis of much trade promotion in China, 
 Sometimes these are distributed in connection with entrance fees into 
 theatres, amusement parks, and other places of similar character. 
 Sometimes the samples are sold at a very small price to those who 
 send a letter in response to an advertisement. It is difficult in China 
 to distribute samples from house-to-house and reach the people who 
 will consume the commodity. Usually house-to-house canvassers are 
 met by servants. In such cases, the free sample never reaches the 
 master or mistress of the house. 
 
 All advertising must, of course, be in Chinese in places and publica- 
 tions where it will attract Chinese attention. It seems needless to 
 state that advertising in foreign publications in English would not be 
 effective, yet much money has been wasted in China by duplicating 
 advertising effectively used in America but which proved to be a total 
 failure in China. 
 
 The brand, or 'chop,' used for the commodity should translate 
 readily into Chinese and when so translated should convey in some 
 measure an element in health and prosperity. The name of California 
 conveys nothing in such a brand and might, in fact, antagonize. A 
 local name based upon a Chinese tradition would have far greater 
 appeal. Illustrations used in advertising must be simple and perhaps 
 humorous. The most successful brand of cigarettes in China is careful 
 to have its advertisements appeal to these fun-loving people. 
 
126 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 39 
 
 Direct Fruit Exports from California to Hongnong 
 
 Kind of fruit 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 1929 
 
 Canned 
 
 Berries 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Pears 
 
 Fruit for salad 
 
 Other canned 
 
 Pineapples 
 
 Jams, jellies, etc. 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 18,922 
 2,410 
 61,211 
 44,811 
 12,0-59 
 128,137 
 97,391 
 
 36,897 
 10,519 
 48,443 
 
 460,800 
 
 dollars 
 
 3,516 
 
 245 
 
 6,222 
 
 6,580 
 
 1,240 
 
 12,228 
 
 11,420 
 
 pounds 
 
 10,005 
 
 6,703 
 
 50,434 
 
 28,035 
 
 1 , 101 
 
 109,700 
 
 53,129 
 
 3,707 
 1,310 
 
 11,885 
 
 38,418 
 
 4,943 
 
 42,699 
 
 58,353 
 
 345,137 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,939 
 
 793 
 
 5,756 
 
 4,767 
 
 68 
 
 11,651 
 
 6,739 
 
 4,303 
 
 689 
 
 10,694 
 
 pounds 
 
 11,658 
 
 2,546 
 
 48,619 
 
 37,7§9 
 
 4,079 
 
 148,547 
 
 66,735 
 
 45,467 
 
 32,902 
 
 9,182 
 
 19,389 
 
 47,399 
 
 426,913 
 
 dollars 
 
 2,468 
 
 275 
 
 5,955 
 
 7,105 
 
 427 
 
 17,102 
 
 8,898 
 
 7,452 
 
 3,904 
 
 1,111 
 
 6,473 
 
 61,170 
 
 Dried 
 
 Raisins 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Pears 
 
 Other dried. 
 
 Total 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Grapefruit. 
 
 Lemons 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Apples 
 
 Berries 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Pears 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Other fresh. 
 
 pounds 
 
 295,053 
 
 22,489 
 
 10,395 
 
 825 
 
 94,261 
 
 dollars 
 
 26,512 
 
 3,050 
 
 2,084 
 
 134 
 
 7,914 
 
 pounds 
 
 957,505 
 
 30,505 
 
 13,484 
 
 1,275 
 
 117,334 
 
 dollars 
 
 67,214 
 
 4,816 
 
 2,523 
 
 154 
 
 9,220 
 
 59,336 
 
 5,398 
 
 62,868 
 
 5,730 
 
 pounds 
 
 1,833,602 
 28,118 
 12,030 
 1,821 
 84,226 
 2,850 
 33,732 
 
 dollars 
 
 95,365 
 4,136 
 2,137 
 
 230 
 8,359 
 
 284 
 4,107 
 
 482,359 
 
 45,092 
 
 1,182,971 
 
 89,657 
 
 1,996,379 
 
 114,618 
 
 boxes 
 
 410 
 
 2,619 
 
 14,249 
 
 10,383 
 
 dollars 
 
 2,003 
 14,485 
 72,754 
 18,746 
 
 boxes 
 
 337 
 
 2,494 
 
 13,264 
 
 15,787 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,759 
 17,116 
 80,715 
 28,760 
 
 boxes 
 
 377 
 
 2,459 
 
 17,025 
 
 7,245 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,645 
 
 14,884 
 90,170 
 16,594 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 376,795 
 
 13,620 
 
 220 
 
 595 
 
 27,799 
 
 1,035 
 
 18 
 
 55 
 
 448,037 
 
 31,888 
 
 39,517 
 3,336 
 
 2,300 
 
 180 
 
 pounds 
 
 24 
 
 498,858 
 
 5,370 
 
 60 
 
 5,755 
 
 dollars 
 
 5 
 
 38,262 
 
 425 
 
 10 
 
 416 
 
Bitl.493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 127 
 
 SOUTHERN CHINA 
 
 All that area of China south of a point on the coast midway between 
 Poochow and Amoy may be considered as southern China. It includes 
 the provinces of Kwantung, Kwangsi, and Yunnan, totaling- about 
 200,000 square miles, with a population variously estimated at 
 50,000,000 to 75,000,000 persons. In southern China are the great 
 cities of Hongkong and Canton. The former is a British crown colony 
 with a population of about 977,000. Canton, distant ninety miles up 
 the Pearl River, is the metropolis of southern China. It is a distribut- 
 ing center for the interior as well as an important political and social 
 focus. The population of Canton is 811,000. 
 
 The colony of Hongkong is, of course, under British law. It is 
 practically a free port. Goods shipped from there into the interior of 
 China pay the usual Chinese customs duties at ports of entry from 
 Hongkong. Figures giving imports and exports from Hongkong are 
 always very large, since the city is chiefly a point of trans-shipment. 
 Many of the steamship lines running eastward from Europe terminate 
 at Hongkong. Others from the western coast of America and from 
 Europe through the Panama Canal touch or terminate at this port. 
 Subsidiaries of these great world-wide steamship companies, as well as 
 certain local steamship lines, make Hongkong their home port. Thus, 
 at this city, goods are trans-shipped between the western world and the 
 innumerable ports of the Far East. Statistics of imports and exports 
 at Hongkong are consequently deceptive, since they include commodi- 
 ties which enter this port only to leave again on another ship. Never- 
 theless, the city population of 977,000, including about 16,000 Euro- 
 peans .and 500 Americans, is a considerable market for imported 
 products. 
 
 Canton, on the Pearl River, is the great Chinese city of the south. 
 In 1928 its foreign imports were over $29,000,000 and its exports over 
 $51,000,000. The Cantonese are proverbially progressive, ambitious, 
 and turbulent. Canton has recently been the center of radical polit- 
 ical doctrines and of anti-foreig:n propaganda. Political changes have 
 been frequent with consequent loss to business and to progress. Owing 
 to these disturbed conditions, most large business houses, both foreign 
 and native, now make their headquarters in Hongkong. The compara- 
 tive security of Hongkong has led many to transfer both life and 
 property from disordered Canton to the safer environs of the small 
 rocky island over which flies the British flag. 
 
128 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Four railways are operated in southern China. Of these, the two 
 principal lines are the road between Hongkong and the railway orig- 
 inating in French Indo-China which climbs up to Yunnanfu, over the 
 southern border. Much transport is, however, by junks and steamers. 
 The jagged coast line of over 1,000 miles with numerous bays and 
 harbors swarming with native craft furnishes a major highway along 
 the ocean front and territory tributary thereto, while the West, North, 
 and East rivers, joining at Canton, create an arterial system for river 
 traffic into the interior.* However, the major portion of southern 
 
 The jagged coast line and numerous rivers of southern China furnish highways 
 on which native junks carry freight at low rates. 
 
 China is reached by coolies who transport on their backs a load of 70 
 pounds which they carry some twelve miles a day at an average wage 
 of 60 cents,! 
 
 From the small area known as the Sunning district near Canton 
 have come practically all the Chinese who have migrated to America. 
 Starting in the early days, it has become traditional with the people 
 of this small region to venture to America whenever the opportunity 
 opened. Many of these return to their native district to pass their last 
 years, or if perchance they die abroad, their bodies are shipped here 
 for burial. In the past fifty years many millions of dollars have been 
 
 * U. S. Dept. Commerce. ' ' Sales Territories in China, ' ' C. K. Moser. 
 t U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Trade Promotion Series No. 38 (1928), 417, 
 J. Arnold. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 129 
 
 poured into this region to support families living in China or to pur- 
 chase property with which to ease the declining years of the laborer 
 resident in tke United States. In this locality one can meet many 
 persons who speak the American dialect with fluency if not with pre- 
 cision. From Canton itself have migrated many of the businessmen 
 as exporters and traveling merchants who have come to America. All 
 of these, returning to their native land, have brought into this southern 
 section of China a knowledge of western goods and American habits, 
 so that imported articles are more keenly appreciated here than 
 elsewhere in China. 
 
 The delta, of the Pearl River, which in turn is formed by the con- 
 fluence of the North, East, and West rivers, is a rich section of the 
 country. Silk-growing has prospered in this region, and the people 
 are relatively well-to-do, as judged by Chinese standards. The city 
 of Canton is known as a center of progress, and although leading a 
 checkered career as a result of numerous political theories, it has 
 progressed in influence and wealth beyond that of most inland cities 
 of China. 
 
 Thus, this section of southern China presents an opportunity for 
 trade promotion in low-priced American products beyond that of many 
 other regions. The progress of its people, their knowledge of western 
 ways, and their relative prosperity make this a comparatively fertile 
 field. 
 
 The purchasing power of the people is difficult to estimate. Those 
 who have the best knowledge of them, through* many years of business 
 contact and association, testify to the comparative extravagance of 
 even the coolie classes which would lead a man earning 40 cents a day 
 to buy a ten-cent package of fruit provided this happened to take his 
 fancy. Large American business organizations estimated that as high 
 as 50 per cent or even 75 per cent of the people were able to buy a 
 package of dried fruits costing 5 or 10 cents provided they desired to 
 purchase it. Others less optimistic, placed this purchasing power at 
 only about 10 per cent of the city population. Most estimates, how- 
 ever, tended toward the higher figure. In the far interior, conditions 
 are less prosperous. Military adventures and political experiments 
 have upset the usual channels of trade, thereby depriving the people 
 in the back country of much of their normal livelihood. 
 
 Southern China has a semi-tropical climate, hot and humid from 
 April to September, but cool and damp in winter. It is therefore a 
 region in which native semi-tropical fruits flourish but in which 
 imported fresh fruits deteriorate rapidly unless under the best refrig- 
 
130 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 eration conditions. In summer dried fruits, unless packed in tin-lined 
 moisture-proof packages, are quickly rendered unfit for sale and even 
 certain canned fruits do not withstand the hot season. 
 
 Fruit in the Southern China Diet. — Most Chinese in the southern 
 area have two meals a day, although in large centers of foreign influ- 
 ence, such as Hongkong, three meals a day have become prevalent 
 among those who have had frequent contact with foreigners. Because 
 the Chinese believe it is desirable to eat very large amounts of their 
 staple food, which is rice, they do not at meals eat sweets which are 
 
 Chinese who eat two meals a day are likely to augment these in the middle of 
 the morning and afternoon by purchases at one of the numerous street stands. 
 
 supposed to detract from the appetite, thereby lessening the ability 
 to consume large quantities of rice. With the rice diet are served 
 various other foods such as pork, beef, vegetables, and fresh, salted, or 
 dried fish. These, however, are largely intended to make it possible 
 to eat more of the staple food since, according to the Chinese, an 
 unlimited amount of rice could not be eaten at one meal unless accom- 
 panied by these other foodstuffs which give flavor to the rice. Persons 
 of the richer classes supplement their rice diet with chicken, with more 
 expensive vegetables, and with the better grades of beef and pork. 
 They also may eat fresh fruit at the end of a meal, after they have con- 
 sumed as much of the staples as is possible. 
 
Bui* 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 131 
 
 Those who eat only two meals a clay are likely to augment this in 
 the middle of the morning and in the afternoon by a sweetened gruel 
 or other light foods, intended to placate their growing appetite until 
 the time of the next meal. The wealthy may also have an additional 
 meal at midnight. In such cases they rarely rise before noon on the 
 following day. 
 
 The Chinese like fresh foods rather than those that have been kept 
 in cold storage. Thus, fish are sold as they swim about in a tank in the 
 markets, the purchaser selecting his fish from the lively specimens 
 before him. Refrigerated meats from abroad have not found popu- 
 larity, the Chinese preferring the inferior meats of their own land 
 because of their freshness. 
 
 Normally, the Chinese do not cook fruits and do not understand 
 the simple processes of preparing American dried fruits. Indeed, all 
 eooking is somewhat of a problem in much of southern China because 
 of lack of firewood. The country has been gradually deforested 
 through ages past, so that wood is scarce and expensive in many places. 
 In much of the interior, rice or wheat straw is used for both heating 
 and cooking. This straw tied in bundles is put in a stove where, by 
 means of bellows, great though short-lived heat is generated. 
 
 The Cantonese are famous for their culinary art. It is frequently 
 said that they live in order to eat instead of eating in order to live. 
 Wealthy Chinese in southern China display their position and success, 
 not by the extravagance of their dress or the magnificence of their 
 homes, but by the number of their entertainments in the form of 
 banquets and dinners. Among the wealthy classes, these feasts are 
 frequent. The amount of money expended by Chinese in entertaining 
 their friends is very large. Since the restaurants serve a central dish 
 for each course, rather than an individual service as customary in the 
 western world, the number of persons at the table may be somewhat 
 indeterminate and may fluctuate during the meal. Guests come and 
 go. The restaurant charges by the dish rather than by the number of 
 persons served. Normally, there may be eight to twelve persons at a 
 table, the entire dinner costing about $20, including the wines, tips, 
 and incidentals. It is at these dinners and feasts that imported fruits 
 are served. They furnish a novel imported product to grace the 
 dinner as one of its final courses. 
 
 Fresh Fruits. — Southern China has always been noted for its many 
 varieties of fresh fruits. The semi-tropical climate prevalent over 
 most of the area has enabled so wide a range of fruits to be grown that 
 the people are accustomed to eating these throughout the entire year. 
 
132 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Fresh native fruits are obtainable in the cities at relatively low prices. 
 Fruits grown in nearby territories are shipped to Hongkong and 
 Canton at prices much lower than that of fruits brought from 
 America. 
 
 Although prices vary with the season of the year, table 40 indicates 
 the seasons in which the most prominent native fresh fruits are avail- 
 able and gives representative retail prices in four cities of southern 
 China. 
 
 Southern China has always been noted for its many varieties of fresh fruits. 
 Every street stand has numerous kinds of fresh fruit for sale. 
 
 All these fresh fruits are sold to the people through numerous 
 retail fruit stands on the streets as well as by hawkers who go from 
 house to house. So general is the consumption of fresh fruits, even 
 among the poor, that it is not uncommon to see segments of pomeloes 
 sold at a copper per segment, which is about equivalent to one-sixth 
 of a cent — and for pears, bananas, and other fruits to be sold in pieces, 
 one piece to each customer. 
 
 American fresh fruits are chiefly in demand among the foreign 
 population and by the well-to-do Chinese who use these to supplement 
 the native fruits and to add variety and novelty to dinners and other 
 festive occasions. There are also certain seasons of the year when the 
 native fresh fruits are available in smaller variety during which time 
 American fruits have a larger sale. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 133 
 
 American oranges are in demand throughout the entire year, but 
 chiefly during the summer. At the present time, the market uses those 
 running from 150 to 252 to the box, the smaller fruits being more pre- 
 valent at Canton. About 10,000 boxes represent the usual market 
 
 It is not uncommon on the street stands of southern China to see fruits sold in 
 pieces, one piece to a customer. 
 
 TABLE 40 
 Native Fresh Fruits, Southern China 
 
 Apples 
 
 Bananas 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Longans 
 
 Loquats 
 
 Lichees 
 
 Mangoes 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Pears 
 
 Persimmons 
 
 Plums 
 
 Pomeloes 
 
 Pineapples... 
 
 Seasons 
 
 July-Nov... 
 
 All year 
 
 June-Sept. 
 June- Aug... 
 May-July... 
 May-July... 
 April-June. 
 Nov.-April 
 
 May 
 
 Aug.-Oct... 
 Sept. -Nov. 
 April-May. 
 Oct.-May.. 
 July-Sept. 
 
 Retail prices per pound 
 
 Hongkong Canton Swatow 
 
 08 
 
 .03 
 .03 
 
 .05 
 .05 
 
 .07 
 .03 
 
 .08 
 .08 
 .04 
 .03 
 .05 
 .08 
 
 08 
 
 02^ 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 05 
 
 05 
 
 07 
 
 03 
 
 08 
 
 08 
 
 04 
 
 03 
 
 05 
 
 08 
 
 $.06 
 
 • 02^ 
 .10 
 .05 
 
 • 07^ 
 .06 
 .06 
 
 • 043^ 
 .06 
 .03 
 .02 
 .04 
 
 • 02^ 
 .07 
 
 Amoy 
 
 $.06 
 • 02H 
 .10 
 .05 
 
 oiy 2 
 
 .06 
 
 .06 
 
 ■ 04^ 
 
 .06 
 
 .03 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .02^ 
 
 .07 
 
134 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 consumption. Lemons are chiefly used during' the hot season for the 
 making- of lemonade. 
 
 Grapes are chiefly in demand from October to January. The price 
 of these varies greatly with the season, the supply from America, the 
 market at the particular time, and with the competing fruits that 
 happen to be in the local shops. During recent seasons the market has 
 been frequently glutted, with consequent cancellations of orders due 
 to the low prices. The demand for grapes at the prevailing price in 
 competition with the native fruit is so small that large shipments 
 easily over-supply the market, with consequent immediate depression 
 in price to a point below cost. 
 
 Of all American fruits imported to Hongkong and Canton, apples 
 are the most important and the most popular, about 30,000 boxes being 
 consumed in southern China. Most of these come from Oregon and 
 Washington. 
 
 Peaches, pears, apricots and plums are greatly appreciated by 
 foreign residents, since, due to difficulties in shipment, these come into 
 the market at infrequent intervals. However, the demand is from 
 such a small number of individuals that the market is precarious and 
 may easily be over-supplied. Repeated difficulty has been experienced 
 with all the softer, thin-skinned fruits from America. The long voyage 
 coupled with the hot weather and rough handling frequently result 
 in the fruit being received by the retailers in an unsalable form. On 
 the other hand, shipments of fruit from Japan and Korea have been 
 increasing owing to the brief voyage and to their superior packing in 
 small containers in which there is sometimes a compartment for each 
 fruit. Although fruit from the Japanese territory is often inferior 
 in flavor, its fine appearance on arrival leads it to be selected by 
 dealers and storekeepers in preference to American fruit. The quanti- 
 ties of peaches, pears, and apricots from America are small. Gen- 
 erally, however, peaches and pears retail at about 27 cents per pound 
 in Hongkong. They are seldom shipped to Canton because of the lack 
 of refrigeration. 
 
 Wholesale and retail prices of American fruits vary at different 
 seasons. In table 41 representative prices at the time this investigation 
 was made are given. These prices are particularly enlightening when 
 compared with the prices of local fruits given in the preceding table. 
 
 Fruit from America is generally brought into Hongkong through 
 local representatives of American exporters. These order fruit in 
 quantities based upon orders received from local dealers. Under this 
 method payment is made by the dealers when the goods are received. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 135 
 
 Prom dealers not so well known or established a contract order is 
 required and the original draft is drawn directly upon the dealer. 
 
 Across the Pacific to Hongkong, refrigerated freight costs about 
 as follows: grapes, $1.50 a keg, or $0.80 a box; oranges $1.50 a box; 
 lemons $0.75 a half box ; grapefruit $1.55 a box ; and melons $32 a ton. 
 At Hongkong, refrigeration space is available; one large plant having 
 15,000 cubic feet of refrigeration. For this space storage costs are 
 relatively high, being at the rate of about 17^ cents per box of fruit 
 per month. 
 
 TABLE 41 
 Current Prices, American Fresh Fruits, October 1929, Southern China 
 
 
 At wholesale 
 
 At retajl 
 
 
 Hongkong 
 
 Canton 
 
 Hongkong 
 
 Canton 
 
 Swatow 
 
 Amoy 
 
 Apples 
 
 Grapes 
 
 %'i per box 
 13c per lb. 
 $4-$5 per Yi box 
 $6-$7 per box 
 
 $3 per box 
 16c per lb. 
 $ 4 50 per Vi box 
 $7 per box 
 
 9c per lb. 
 18.- per lb. 
 3c-4c each 
 4c-5c each 
 
 10c per lb. 
 22c per lb. 
 4c each 
 5c-7c each 
 
 14c per lb. 
 
 14c per lb. 
 28c per lb. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From Hongkong, American fresh fruits are shipped to southern 
 points in French Indo-China and Siam, as well as to northern ports on 
 the China coast, such as Foochow, Amoy, and Swatow. It is impossible 
 to measure accurately the amount of the shipments to northern ports, 
 since cargoes are often smuggled into northern ports from Hongkong, 
 thereby avoiding payment of the Chinese customs duties. Since, how- 
 ever, the boats going to the northward on the China coast do not have 
 refrigeration space, the shipments to those ports are confined to fruits 
 that have the best carrying qualities. Recent direct refrigerator 
 service from San Francisco to French Indo-China makes it possible to 
 ship to that territory without trans-shipment. 
 
 Merchants in Canton purchase fruit from dealers in Hongkong who 
 market through an associate or business connection in Canton. Street 
 peddlers selling fruits in Canton usually send to Hongkong for sup- 
 plies of those fruits through a friend in that city or through some 
 associate working on one of the river boats. Merchants usually obtain 
 these fruits from Hongkong on thirty days' credit, but the street 
 peddlers pay with cash for the goods purchased. From Hongkong to 
 Canton there is no refrigeration and although the trip is short, taking 
 only about six to eight hours in actual transit, the warm climate of this 
 area throughout the summer months makes the shipment of many 
 fresh fruits to Canton an undesirable undertaking. 
 
136 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 American fresh fruits, now chiefly used by foreigners, would find 
 an additional outlet only among the wealthy Chinese. During the 
 season that the native grapes are not in the market, American grapes, 
 because of the possibility of cutting the bunches into small clusters, 
 sell on fruit stands to the lower classes. Such methods of selling 
 American fruits are an exception, however, and sales thus made aggre- 
 gate very little. Both the expense and the difficulty of refrigerating 
 American fruits on the long voyage from the Pacific Coast to points 
 
 A street peddler in Canton purchases his stock of fruits in small quantities and 
 carries it from house to house. 
 
 in southern China make it difficult if not impossible to increase their 
 sale to any large degree, except among the wealthy class. Better 
 knowledge of refrigeration methods, which in turn would reduce spoil- 
 age, would create an opportunity for a sale of some of the better 
 grades of peaches, apricots, plums, and pears among the limited group 
 of foreigners and wealthy Chinese in Hongkong. Owing to the lack of 
 refrigeration from that point to Canton and to the interior, their sales 
 must be confined to the British city and its immediate environs. 
 
 Canned Fruits. — In Hongkong there are four canneries manufac- 
 turing native canned fruits; seven are located at Canton, and seven 
 more at Swatow. There are doubtless others in southern China. 
 Canned fruit from other areas comes into this section of China, the 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 137 
 
 largest amount being pineapple imported from Singapore. The total 
 volume of Asiatic canned fruits is thus very large. It is a familiar 
 sight in Hongkong and Canton to see a large display of Chinese 
 canned goods on sale at cigarette stands and in the entrance lobbies 
 of Chinese restaurants. The largest output from the canneries is 
 ginger and lichees. Pears and peaches, as well as other fruits, are 
 canned in smaller amounts. Normally, native canned fruits are put 
 up in a No. 2 can which sells at retail for 10 cents or less. In the 
 vicinity of the canneries canned fruits sell for even lower prices. 
 This is indicated in table 42.* 
 
 TABLE 42 
 
 Current Prices, November, 1929, Chinese Canned Fruits, Southern China 
 
 In No. 2 Cans 
 
 Wholesale 
 Per Case of 48 Cans Retail 
 
 f.o.b. Canneries , A N 
 
 Swatow Swatow Amoy 
 
 Lichees $2.86 $.08 $.088 
 
 Longans 2.86 .08 .088 
 
 Loquats 2.80 .08 
 
 Peaches .068 
 
 Pears 2.48 .076 .10 
 
 Pineapple 2.20 .068 .08 
 
 Salesmen representing the native canneries tour the country, 
 soliciting orders from merchants. Chinese canned goods are normally 
 sold on thirty days' time in Hongkong, and sixty days' time in Canton. 
 It was formerly the practice to sell on the yearly payment plan, by 
 which final settlement was made at the Chinese New Year. Since 
 the recent disturbances in southern China this custom has largely 
 passed away. A considerable volume of these native canned fruits 
 is exported to Singapore, Canada, Australia, and other places where 
 numbers of Chinese reside. A measurable amount is exported from 
 China to the United States. In 1928, fruits and fruit preparations 
 were exported to America from Canton alone amounting to 1,703,555 
 pounds, valued at $162,887. 
 
 American canned fruits are popular among Chinese of wealth as 
 well as among those who have come in contact with western civiliza- 
 tion. Because of their higher prices, the consumption is small when 
 compared to the large population of southern China and the affluence 
 of a considerable number of the people. Possibly one-half of the 
 imported cherries and asparagus is consumed by Chinese and per- 
 haps one-fourth of the peaches, apricots, and pears. 
 
 * Prices from survey of G. O. Woodard, Trade Commissioner, Shanghai. 
 
138 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Retail prices of American canned fruits are necessarily higher in 
 Canton than in Hongkong- due to the additional transportation costs 
 imposed thereon, as well as the import duty when entering Chinese 
 territory. Hongkong, as a British free port, enjoys an exemption 
 from Chinese tariffs not shared by other points in southern China. 
 The approximate retail prices in the fall of 1929 of American canned 
 fruit in four cities of southern China are shown in table 43. 
 
 TABLE 43 
 
 Current Retail Prices, November 1929, American Canned Fruits 
 Southern China 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Hongkong 
 
 Canton 
 
 Swatow 
 
 Amoy 
 
 Apricots f 
 
 Cherries f 
 
 No. 2^2 can 
 
 8 oz. can 
 No. 23^ can 
 
 8 oz. can 
 No. 2H can 
 No. 1 can 
 
 8 oz. can 
 No. 23^ can 
 No. 23^ can 
 
 8 oz. can 
 No. 23^ can 
 
 8 oz. can 
 No. 23^ can 
 
 $.24 
 .09 
 .37 
 .13 
 .37 
 .33 
 .13 
 .30 
 .24 
 .09 
 .29 
 .11 
 .26 
 
 $.29 
 
 .14 
 .41 
 
 $.34 
 
 .10 
 .44 
 
 $.30 
 .14 
 .44 
 
 .18 
 
 f 
 
 Fruit Salad .{ 
 
 .40 
 .35 
 
 .48 
 
 .44 
 
 26 
 
 { 
 
 Grapes 
 
 .12 
 .32 
 .34 
 .10 
 
 .38 
 
 .18 
 
 
 .30 
 
 Peaches f 
 
 Pears 1 
 
 \ 
 
 Pineapple 
 
 .26 
 .11 
 .34 
 
 .30 
 .14 
 .34 
 
 .30 
 
 .36 
 
 
 
 
 Prices in the interior vary, dependent upon the distance that 
 the goods must be carried and also upon the local taxes. On the 
 average, at interior points, American canned fruits are 40 to 50 per 
 cent higher in price than at Hongkong, and about 25 per cent higher 
 than at Canton. 
 
 Canned fruits from the United States to Hongkong pay freight 
 of $14 per ton. This is equivalent to about 45 cents per case of 
 No. 2!/2 cans, or 35 cents per case of No. 1 cans. Insurance costs 
 40 cents per $100 valuation. Freight is generally landed on the 
 Kowloon side of Hongkong harbor, opposite the main city, so that 
 trans-shipment charges equivalent to about 4 cents per case must be 
 paid for its passage from the wharf to Hongkong. If the canned 
 fruit is to be transported to Canton, it is moved up-river by freight 
 at a cost of 7.8 cents per hundred pounds. Lighterage and deliverage 
 charges at Canton average about 4.8 cents per hundred pounds. To 
 this must be added the duty, equivalent to about 87 cents per hundred 
 
Buu 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 139 
 
 pounds. The delivered costs at Canton over those at Hongkong are 
 thus about 1 cent a pound. 
 
 In addition to the standard No. 2^2 can of imported fruit, smaller 
 sizes are on sale in some of the best stores in Hongkong and Canton, 
 especially those catering to foreigners. The small sizes have as yet 
 found but little sale, since the Chinese in southern China, as else- 
 where, are accustomed to the large can of American fruit, and to its 
 use only in connection with banquets, dinners, festivals, and as 
 presents. Furthermore the small tins of fruit are now on sale at 
 prices higher than is consistent with their original cost. This is in 
 part because they are used by foreigners who, to the Chinese mind, 
 can afford to pay high prices, but also in part because the small size 
 is such a novelty that the merchant buying a case of the small cans 
 undertakes some risk in forecasting their sale. 
 
 The distribution of American canned fruits in southern China 
 beyond the cities of Hongkong and Canton is relatively limited. In 
 the far interior, native canned fruits predominate, the consumption 
 of American canned fruits being mainly among the missionaries and 
 the representatives of foreign business houses. 
 
 American canned fruits have maintained their market in southern 
 China because of their high quality rather than because of any pro- 
 motion or salesmanship that has been done looking toward greater 
 distribution. Sales of American canned fruits are likely to dwindle 
 rather than increase unless the whole method of distribution is im- 
 proved. By the present system of indenture, goods must be ordered 
 far in advance from America through a local agent who is paid a 
 small percentage commission, which may be divided with a Chinese 
 sub-agent. It is improbable that these agents, often handling several 
 other lines and commodities, can spend much time, effort, or money 
 on the promotion and sale of American canned fruits. It is not 
 unusual to find these firms handling hardware, tools, toilet articles, 
 cotton goods, and canned fruits. American fruits can necessarily 
 occupy only a small amount of their time and attention. Chinese 
 canned goods are extensively sold and distributed. This is not only 
 because of their low price, but also because of the system of salesman- 
 ship and of credits emanating from the canning factories to the final 
 dealer. Chinese canned fruits sell extensively despite their poor 
 quality — not because of it. American canned fruits have some sale 
 despite their system of marketing — not because of it. 
 
 At conferences held in Hongkong and Canton, the opinion was 
 expressed that considerable sales of the small sizes of American canned 
 fruits could be made in southern China provided they were sold at 
 
140 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 lower prices than now prevalent so that the small can would not be 
 so heavily penalized by the caution and the profits of those who 
 handle them. Eight-ounce cans retailing at about 25 cents in Hong- 
 kong currency, or 10 cents in American currency, would find com- 
 paratively large sale among the Chinese population if they were 
 properly introduced. American peaches, pears, and apricots are all 
 appreciated by the Chinese, particularly by those who have come in 
 contact with western ways. At present, their consumption is con- 
 fined to festive occasions and to the small numbers of wealthy persons 
 to whom low cost is not of primary importance. 
 
 An increased business in American canned fruits in southern 
 China is dependent upon the establishment of branch houses carrying 
 stocks on hand, directed by representatives thoroughly cognizant of 
 the Chinese market, who give their whole time and attention to the 
 enterprise. In addition, it would be necessary to devote a substantial 
 sum to various forms of trade promotion over a series of years. The 
 Chinese market reacts but slowly to new influences, but nevertheless 
 it does react. It would furthermore be necessary to reduce the size 
 of the initial purchase through popularizing the small can and de- 
 creasing the cost to the lowest feasible price. This would not neces- 
 sarily mean that sales would be limited to this size, but rather that 
 canned fruits would be introduced to a new class of people who did 
 not previously use them. At present the use of American canned 
 fruits is confined to banquets and festivals. This has been brought 
 about by the high cost of the commodity and the large size of the 
 package in which it was marketed. The small can might be expected 
 to find a new use among a new class of people. 
 
 Dried Fruits. — In southern China, the people are accustomed to 
 the use of dried fruits as a confection. Many of these are prepared 
 with syrups and sugars, and sold by native dealers and hawkers. In 
 Hongkong, native dried apricots sell for 22 y 2 cents a pound ; so-called 
 "golden dates" are 30 cents a pound; a hard, dried olive sells for 
 22 cents a pound; while dried lichees, greatly esteemed by the 
 Chinese, are sold at over 50 cents a pound. 
 
 American dried fruits suffer under the difficulties inherent to the 
 semitropical climate of Hongkong and Canton. Dried fruits, with 
 the exception of raisins, have been badly handled in southern China. 
 Put up in the old-style wooden boxes, as in drier and colder climates, 
 they have repeatedly suffered spoilage on ships, in warehouses, and 
 in the stores of retailers. Raisins, prunes, apricots, and peaches are 
 the most popular dried fruits, in the order named, but the volume 
 of raisins consumed greatly transcends that of all others combined. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 141 
 
 Excluding raisins, perhaps only 10 per cent of the net imports of 
 American dried fruits into Hongkong are trans-shipped to interior 
 points in China; except raisins, the great bulk of all of the dried 
 fruit is consumed by foreigners in Hongkong and Canton. Including 
 raisins, perhaps one-third of all dried fruits are shipped to interior 
 points. 
 
 Chinese dried fruits are extensively manufactured in southern China. These 
 are dipped in a preparation of honey or sugar to make them sweeter. 
 
 TABLE 44 
 
 Current Betail Prices, November 1929 — American Dried Fruits 
 Southern China 
 
 Prices per pound except as noted. 
 
 Hongkong Canton Swatow Amoy 
 
 Apples $0.26 $ .... $ .... $0.30 
 
 Apricots 30 .27 .34 
 
 Figs 13 .17 
 
 Peaches .27 
 
 Pears 30 .27 
 
 Prunes 18 .18 .20 .20 
 
 Eaisins (in 15-oz. cartons) .09-11 .09-11 .10 .10% 
 
 Among the dried fruits, the raisin is the only commodity for 
 which modern salesmanship has been shown, and which in turn has 
 reached any volume of sale worth serious consideration. Raisins 
 received at Hongkong in summer are largely repacked at that place 
 by lining the case with tin and refilling it with raisins, either in bulk 
 or in cartons. Cartons of 15 ounces and 1% ounces are sold through- 
 out southern China, as are also small paper envelopes which are 
 retailed for a few coppers. In the carton weighing 15 ounces, 45 of 
 these are packaged in a case weighing 43 pounds. The small 1% ounce 
 
142 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 cartons are put in a display carton holding 24 small cartons. Six 
 display cartons, holding in all 144 small cartons, are packed in a 
 case weighing about 22 pounds. The packaging of raisins is done at 
 the central receiving point at Hongkong, except in the case of the 
 small paper envelopes which are filled by the local dealer who retails 
 them. 
 
 Everywhere throughout southern China, California raisins are 
 known; about 1,300,000 pounds of raisins a year are consumed. They 
 are the only American fruit utilized by the middle and lower classes of 
 the population. Their use undoubtedly has been brought about not 
 
 Cigarette stands on the streets of southern China sell native fruits and Califor- 
 nia raisins. Everywhere throughout eastern Asia California raisins are known. 
 Packaged in small containers, they can be bought by the masses of the people. 
 
 only by the liking of the people for them but also by their reputed 
 medicinal value. The slogan "Have You Had Your Iron Today?" 
 has had even a greater utility in China than in America. The little 
 red package of California raisins has found a real popularity among 
 the Chinese, from which it is unlikely to become displaced. Raisins 
 generally sell at slightly lower prices than in America. 
 
 Prunes are more largely used among the foreign population than 
 among the Chinese. The spoilage due to shipping prunes in wooden 
 boxes from America to southern China has retarded the sale of this 
 fruit in that area. Owing to the system of sales, losses due to spoilage 
 during transit from California are borne by the buyer. In the hot, 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 143 
 
 sub-tropical climate of summer, prunes become moldy and infested 
 with insects within a short time. This occurs not only after the boxes 
 are opened, but sometimes during the voyage. Dealers are therefore 
 reluctant to order prunes from America during that season of the 
 year. Prunes could undoubtedly be popularized among the people 
 of southern China. Whether their sale would ever equal that of 
 raisins is a matter of some doubt. Their ultimate volume of con- 
 sumption cannot be forecast at this time, since no effort toward their 
 promotion has been made. They should be packed not only in small 
 cartons, bringing them within the purchasing power of the small 
 
 Native dried fruits wrapped in waxed paper sell extensively in small packages. 
 They are popular because they are said to be "both healthy and digestive." 
 
 consumer, but also in a smaller case — tin-lined during the summer 
 months — thus providing a smaller unit of purchase for a retailer 
 stocking them. 
 
 The whole study of the adaptation of dried prunes to the tastes 
 and likings of the people of southern China must devolve upon experi- 
 mentation made on the ground by some agency interested in their dis- 
 tribution. Possibilities in this regard are indicated by the fact that 
 Chinese hawkers have of their own volition, treated native prunes 
 with sugar, and wrapped them in waxed paper on which are printed 
 Chinese characters testifying to their health-giving qualities. Another 
 indication was the frequent inquiry whether pitted prunes could not 
 be shipped from America. Furthermore, American dried prunes are 
 
144 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 sometimes sold as a confection on street stands along with the native- 
 candies and confections. 
 
 White figs have obtained some popularity among the Chinese as a 
 remedy for colds and constipation, but the demand is relatively small. 
 Other dried fruits are almost entirely used among the foreign popula- 
 tion. Figs from California might reach some outlet among the people 
 of southern China. 
 
 The freight rate from San Francisco to Hongkong on dried fruits 
 is $14 per ton of 40 cubic feet, or about 20 cents per box weighing 
 25 pounds. Charges for lighterage and coolie hire from the ship to 
 the dealer's warehouse in Hongkong average about 3V2 cents a box. 
 In Hongkong dried fruits are stored in warehouses or in the shops of 
 the dealers who order them from California. During the winter 
 months most dried fruits, even those packed in wooden boxes, keep 
 successfully, but during the summer it is only those in tin-lined cases 
 or sealed tins which can be stored for any length of time. 
 
 When shipped from Hongkong to Canton, the freight is 10 cents 
 per hundred pounds. Lighterage and delivery costs at Canton 
 average 5 cents per hundred pounds. To these charges must be added 
 the Chinese tariff on imported fruits, which is 12% per cent of their 
 value. Dealers in Canton generally order dried fruits from whole- 
 salers in Hongkong, buying only in small amounts from time to time 
 as supplies may be needed. In general, these supplies are brought in 
 only during the winter months, owing to the danger of spoilage. To 
 interior points beyond Canton, dried fruits are conveyed by the 
 elaborate system of waterways of southern China. 
 
 The lining of cases with tin, at present only practised with raisins, 
 would enable larger amounts of dried fruits to be sold throughout 
 southern China. Although this process is relatively expensive when 
 done in America, the_ cost of relining cases in China when done with 
 native material and native labor is only about 1 cent a pound. 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods. — The question of price is predominant 
 in all sales to Chinese of the middle and lower classes. Any com- 
 modity that is to sell extensively among the Chinese must successfully 
 compete with other products offered to them at comparable values. 
 The largest tobacco company operating in China finds its biggest sales 
 are those of a brand which retails twenty cigarettes for 5 cents. On 
 many cigarette stands in the cities, cigarettes retail at the rate of two 
 cigarettes for one copper, the copper being worth about one-sixth of 
 an American cent. Sales are normally made of these cigarettes from 
 open packages, the buyer laying down a copper and picking up two 
 cigarettes in exchange. A great American oil company selling its 
 
Bin.. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 145 
 
 commodity to dealers only in case lots, finds that retailers peddle the 
 oil down the streets to householders who bring out tiny lamps to buy 
 one filling for a couple of coppers. The American organizations suc- 
 cessfully selling on an extensive scale to the Chinese are those which 
 have been able to reduce the unit of sale so that the masses of the 
 people could purchase the commodity in small quantities. 
 
 Sales of cigarettes are made from open packages, the buyer laying down a 
 copper and picking up two cigarettes in exchange. 
 
 Above all, any trade promotion enterprise conducted must have 
 as its basis a cheap commodity which maintains a low price through a 
 volume of sales and an efficient distributing agency operating on a 
 narrow profit. All methods of trade promotion, no matter how 
 cleverly conducted, are less effective among the Chinese than is a low 
 selling price. It would thus be desirable, at least at the outset, to 
 sell California canned and dried fruits at the lowest possible cost. 
 
 With many of the commodities retailed in China, such as tobacco, 
 oil, machinery, etc., the goods are sold at a lower price than in the 
 United States. The Far Eastern market was developed for them in 
 
146 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 order to dispose of a surplus in production which could not be offered 
 to America without unduly depressing the price level. In canned and 
 dried fruits, however, the goods are offered for sale at prices substan- 
 tially higher than in the United States. Fruits are marketed at the 
 American selling price, plus the freight, handling charges, commis- 
 sions, and tariffs imposed upon them by their export to China. Thus, 
 we attempt to sell to a people of low purchasing power at a price 
 higher than we ask of the relatively rich American. If any extended 
 development of dried and canned fruits is to be made in southern 
 China, the price must be reduced so that it will compete with native 
 products of similar usage. The profit, if any, must be derived through 
 a large volume of sales which buoy up the American price level rather 
 than through the commission on a few cases of canned goods or boxes 
 of dried fruits. 
 
 In most of the successful trade-promotion enterprises conducted 
 in China, the distribution of free samples has been an effective method 
 of advertising. Coupled with this, the appeal to improved health is 
 always powerful. Furthermore, the masses of Chinese still greatly 
 respect education and those who possess greater learning than them- 
 selves. Trade promotion embodying these three principles is likely 
 to be successful. Demonstrations conducted before girls' classes in 
 the schools which would illustrate not only the value of California 
 canned and dried fruits but also the methods of preparing them in 
 the home, would be an efficient means of presenting them to the people. 
 Although the interior of China is an impenetrable wall to many for- 
 eigners, Chinese in great numbers travel back and forth on the river 
 systems of southern China, bringing from the cities to the interior the 
 newest ideals in modern living popular among the people in the cities. 
 Even advertisements from the newspapers showing modern methods 
 of dress and modes of life are carried by these visitors back to their 
 distant country homes. Although the reaction among the masses of 
 the people is relatively slow, it is nevertheless certain. Demonstra- 
 tions, display, and advertising in the big cities would thus have a wide 
 spread of influence. 
 
FRUIT MARKETS IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
148 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 45 
 
 Direct Fruit Exports from California to the Philippine Islands 
 
 Kind of fruit 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 1929 
 
 Canned 
 
 Berries 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Pears 
 
 Fruit for salad 
 
 Other canned 
 
 Pineapples 
 
 Jams, jellies, etc. 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 19,861 
 60,006 
 56,445 
 
 109,137 
 39,561 
 
 307,720 
 87,671 
 
 251,861 
 
 49,143 
 
 143,940 
 
 1,125,345 
 
 dollars 
 
 4,167 
 
 5,955 
 
 6,851 
 
 20,007 
 
 4,492 
 
 32,514 
 
 11,196 
 
 pounds 
 
 28,082 
 52,377 
 31,228 
 
 149,250 
 34,171 
 
 325,502 
 50,550 
 
 22,733 
 
 7,096 
 
 27,994 
 
 148,365 
 
 54,712 
 
 186,731 
 
 143,005 
 
 1,060,968 
 
 dollars 
 
 6,192 
 6,055 
 4,075 
 
 27,285 
 4,393 
 
 35,541 
 7,264 
 
 16,187 
 
 7,776 
 
 36,984 
 
 pounds 
 
 29,778 
 63,646 
 23,936 
 
 129,160 
 36,063 
 
 381,414 
 55,450 
 63,311 
 
 199,427 
 43,066 
 
 106,556 
 
 151,752 
 
 1,131,807 
 
 dollars 
 
 5,957 
 5,894 
 2,673 
 
 22,240 
 4,427 
 
 43,807 
 7,561 
 
 11,214 
 
 19,165 
 5,902 
 
 24,578 
 
 153,418 
 
 Dried 
 
 Raisins 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Pears 
 
 Other dried. 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 634,505 
 7,632 
 4,511 
 4,382 
 
 185,099 
 
 dollars 
 
 72,703 
 1,474 
 
 812 
 
 897 
 
 19,067 
 
 pounds 
 
 917,740 
 
 19,158 
 
 4,871 
 
 4,869 
 
 202,915 
 
 dollars 
 
 79,373 
 
 2,285 
 
 1,129 
 
 890 
 
 20,311 
 
 21,212 
 
 4,404 
 
 25,597 
 
 5,476 
 
 pounds 
 
 1,000,439 
 8,037 
 6,017 
 5,093 
 122,292 
 2,900 
 30,849 
 
 857,341 
 
 99,357 
 
 1,175,150 
 
 109,464 
 
 1,175,627 
 
 dollars 
 
 78,455 
 
 1,674 
 
 1,424 
 
 942 
 
 12,580 
 
 324 
 
 5,729 
 
 101,128 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Grapefruit. 
 
 Lemons 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Apples 
 
 Berries 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Pears 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Other fresh. 
 
 boxes 
 
 1,274 
 
 6,859 
 
 44,740 
 
 22,877 
 
 dollars 
 
 6,126 
 
 36,438 
 
 219,824 
 
 40,557 
 
 boxes 
 
 1,461 
 
 6,628 
 
 40,811 
 
 22,925 
 
 dollars 
 
 7,433 
 43,087 
 
 239,878 
 37,733 
 
 boxes 
 
 1,727 
 
 6,384 
 
 45,372 
 
 21,248 
 
 pounds 
 
 10 
 
 ,150,917 
 
 14,983 
 
 10,539 
 
 37,741 
 
 dollars 
 
 2 
 
 92,599 
 
 1,468 
 
 771 
 
 3,404 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,458,150 
 
 19,750 
 
 2,850 
 
 26,342 
 
 130,944 
 
 1,978 
 
 211 
 
 2,244 
 
 pounds 
 
 650 
 
 1,629,809 
 
 37,268 
 
 9,360 
 
 58,489 
 
 dollars 
 
 8,641 
 
 34,918 
 
 245,678 
 
 45,267 
 
 dollars 
 
 90 
 
 137,346 
 
 3,873 
 
 722 
 
 4,499 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 149 
 
 FRUIT MARKETS IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Because the Philippine Islands are the only Far Eastern possession 
 of the United States, they have become so well known that they hardly 
 require description. Familiarity with the Philippines has caused them 
 to assume a greatness in the American mind out of proportion to their 
 relative importance in the vast areas of the Far East. Usually 
 Americans know many persons who have lived in the Philippines, 
 whereas the neighboring islands of Borneo and Formosa remain 
 remote and unknown. However, despite American possession through 
 a third of a century, the islands continue in their life and their trade 
 demands to be typically Asiatic, except at those few centers where the 
 American influence has permeated more deeply than elsewhere. 
 
 Because of free trade with the United States, American imported 
 goods predominate in the islands. In 1927 the United States supplied 
 over 61 per cent of the total imports, which were valued at over 
 $115,000,000. Relatively high wages have resulted from the free entry 
 of Philippine goods into the United States and from the exclusion 
 policy of America, which has prevented the hordes of other Asiatics 
 from migrating to the islands. Through the operation of these two 
 policies the per-capita trade of the United States with the Philippines 
 has increased from 50 cents in 1903 to $5.20 in 1927. Meanwhile, it 
 is estimated that wages in the Philippines have increased more than 
 200 per cent since Spanish times and that wages are still increasing 
 at about the rate of 10 per cent a year. However, the per-capita income 
 is still low, being estimated at from $34 to $35 a year.* 
 
 The purchasing power of the people varies from season to season, 
 according to the success of the agricultural crops, which are the largest 
 resource of the Islands. The group is predominantly agricultural, 
 although possessing large timber belts and mineral deposits. 
 
 The entire archipelago extends southward for a length of 1,500 
 miles, a. distance about equal to that from Maine to Florida. However, 
 the land area of about 115,000 square miles, is only equal to that of 
 New England. The islands, scattered over a vast area of the tropic 
 seas, constitute both a commercial and an administrative problem 
 because of the difficulties of transportation and of communication. 
 Among the 3,000 islands in the group, only a few are of real import- 
 ance. Luzon and Mindanao are the two largest islands, the former 
 
 * U. S. Dept. of Commerce, il Sales Territories in Middle Asia and the Philip- 
 pine Islands" (1929), p. 34. 
 
150 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 with about 40,000 square miles and the latter with an area of 36,000 
 square miles. 
 
 In 1928, the entire population of the Philippine Islands was esti- 
 mated at 12,354,000 persons, of whom only 5,800 were Americans. 
 These Americans with an equal number of Europeans, most of whom 
 are Spanish, make up the foreign population. Manila is the only 
 large city in the group, and is the great distributing center for all the 
 islands. Practically all imported products enter at Manila and from 
 there are distributed over the archipelago. Manila's 400,000 persons 
 constitute a large consuming center not only because of their numbers, 
 but also because of their comparative sophistication, relatively high 
 wages, and fondness for foreign articles. The second largest city is 
 Cebu, with a population of 69,500. Iloilo has 49,000 and Zamboanga 
 30,800 people. All these are in the southern islands, distant by sea 
 several days' travel from Manila. 
 
 There are about 50,000 Chinese in the Philippines, practically all 
 of whom are merchants. They largely control the distribution of 
 merchandise throughout all the islands. Until recently they have been 
 responsible for perhaps 95 per cent of all distribution. More recently, 
 Filipino merchants have developed an increasing knowledge of trade 
 and commerce, and because of their progressiveness in the introduc- 
 tion of new articles, have displaced the Chinese from some of their 
 former supremacy. However, in the main, the Chinese still continue 
 to handle merchandise from the importer or manufacturer to the final 
 consumer. Most sales to the consumer are made in very small indi- 
 vidual purchases through small stores known as 'tiendas.' To these 
 stores the Chinese distribute imported goods in small quantities by 
 means of a system of their own which ramifies throughout the islands. 
 
 The purchasing power of the Filipino people, based on a daily wage 
 of 40 cents and an average per-capita income of $35, seems exceedingly 
 small to those who know only the United States. Since, however, the 
 necessities of food, clothing and shelter are obtained so cheaply and 
 easily, this wage permits the purchase of a considerable number of 
 luxuries, provided they are obtainable for a small individual purchase. 
 The people generally are not bargainers, and are ready to purchase 
 such commodities as take their fancy, provided they have the money 
 in hand or can borrow it. In estimating the percentage of people w r ho 
 might be considered as potential consumers of small cans of fruit or 
 small packages of dried fruit, responsible business firms long resident 
 in the islands varied from 25 per cent of the people to as high as 
 practically the entire population. The latter estimate, of course, 
 merely assumed that all might be occasional purchasers if they desired 
 
Bui,. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 151 
 
 it. The largest number of estimates indicated that perhaps two-thirds 
 of the people might be considered as within the class capable of pur- 
 chasing a package of dried fruits that would sell for 5 cents or a small 
 can of fruit for 10 cents on occasions when they desired to indulge in 
 one of these luxuries. 
 
 Individual purchases in the Philippine Islands are made through small stores 
 and shops. Most of these are controlled by Chinese. 
 
 It is generally held by Americans throughout the islands that the 
 Philippine market represents one of the best trade opportunities in 
 Asia because of free trade with the United States, which has been 
 steadily building up the buying power of the people and because of 
 
152 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 the luxury-loving habits of the population which lead them to indulge 
 in the purchase of new commodities when these are properly presented 
 to them. 
 
 Fruit in the Philippine Diet. — Rice is the basis of the diet of the 
 people of the Philippine Islands. This is necessarily supplemented by 
 other foods, the largest element of which is fish. Near the seacoast fresh 
 fish is used, cooked separately from the rice but eaten with it. In the 
 interior, where fresh fish is unobtainable, salted fish is more common. 
 The fish is frequently cooked with various vegetables. Essentially, the 
 diet of the poorer people is one of rice, varied by whatever other food 
 materials are available. 
 
 As the social scale rises, and the income of the people becomes 
 larger, their diet is varied with a considerable number of forms 
 of fish, vegetables, and fruits. Whenever obtainable, sweets are eaten 
 at the end of the meal and are greatly liked by the people. Fresh 
 native fruits are more generally eaten for their sweetness than for 
 their food value. In the neighborhood of sugar plantations, sugar 
 cane may be consumed as a sort of dessert at the end of the meal. 
 However, fruits are still regarded as a luxury in the rural sections of 
 the islands and as something not always obtainable, despite their 
 cheapness and profusion throughout the entire year. 
 
 Among the sophisticated people of Manila and its environs, the diet 
 has, of course, changed materially during the American occupation. 
 These constitute, however, so small a proportion of the Filipino people 
 as to be almost negligible in any discussion of the trade development 
 of the islands. It is recognized, however, that under continued 
 American control and occupation, the development in food habits 
 which has proceeded so rapidly in the large centers will proceed out- 
 ward through the rural districts. 
 
 The extravagance of the people is notorious, so that the hoarding 
 of money was originally unknown. The wants of the native people 
 were few. The climate made it unnecessary for them to build houses 
 that would do more than serve to protect from rain and sun. Their 
 demands for clothing were limited to the requirements of decency. 
 Thus, a large percentage of the national income has always been 
 expended upon food. The development of a higher per-capita income 
 is largely dependent upon the creation of new desires. Because of the 
 humid, damp climate of these fertile islands, the people have been 
 able to obtain the necessities of life with but little work. Life has been 
 easy for many generations. As new desires are created, more work 
 becomes necessary in order to purchase the commodities with which to 
 satisfy them. Thus, increased purchases come more largely through 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 153 
 
 increased desires rather than through increased incomes. Increased 
 incomes are a secondary result brought about by a desire for comforts, 
 conveniences, and novelties not previously enjoyed. 
 
 The introduction of American fruits, fresh, dried, and canned, 
 has gone forward slowly throughout the Islands. To the American 
 people some of the uses of these fruits would seem peculiar. Garlic, 
 raisins, and pickles are sometimes cooked together, while a large use 
 for imported mince-meat has been that of stuffing for baked chicken. 
 
 The regard for American fruits has been primarily because of 
 their sweetness rather than because of their need in the diet. However, 
 
 In the Philippine Islands fresh native fruits come into the market at low 
 prices. 
 
 the native diet has a deficiency in certain vitamins and a surplus of 
 carbohydrates. Fruit is therefore a desirable addition to the food 
 habits of the people. Owing to the efforts of health authorities and 
 of school teachers, the younger generation consumes larger amounts 
 of fruit. In the neighborhood of school houses there are many road- 
 side shops which sell fresh or dried fruits as a confection to school 
 children. 
 
 Fresh Fruits. — Although the Philippine Islands consume almost 
 one-half of the fresh fruit exported from California to Asia, the 
 further development of the fresh fruit market is limited by (1) the 
 uncertainty of successful refrigeration during the long voyage, (2) 
 the competition of native fruits which ripen throughout the entire 
 year, (3) the difficulties of distribution throughout the scattered 
 
154 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 islands, and (4) the low purchasing power of the people. Despite 
 these handicaps, the Philippine Islands with their relatively small 
 population consume almost twice as much American fresh fruit as 
 does China. Freedom from import duties has been responsible in 
 part for the expansion of our fresh-fruit markets in the Philippines, 
 but more largely, the growth of the trade has been due to American 
 initiative, to the example in food habits set by American citizens, and 
 to teaching in the schools. 
 
 Native fresh fruits come into the market throughout the year at 
 low prices. Table 46 states the approximate seasons that native 
 fruits are available and the retail prices at Manila of those in market 
 at the time this investigation was made. 
 
 TABLE 46 
 
 Native: Fresh Fruits 
 Seasons and Retail Prices, November 3929, Manila, Philippine Islands 
 
 Seasons Retail prices 
 
 Bananas All year 25c-40c per 100 
 
 Cocoanuts All year 23^c-3c each 
 
 Limes All year 20c-25c per 100 
 
 Papayas All year 8c-12c each 
 
 Chicos Janua^HVIarch lc-3c each 
 
 Melons January-March 
 
 Pilis March-June 
 
 Pineapples March-June 25c each 
 
 Mangoes April-June 2^c-10c each 
 
 Lantoes May-June ^c-lc each 
 
 Guavas May-September lc per 10 
 
 Mangosteens June-September 
 
 Mandarins June-September 
 
 Calamondins June-September 
 
 Carambolas June-September 
 
 Avocados July-September 
 
 Mabolos July-September J^c-l^c each 
 
 Lanzones July-September 15c-40c per 100 
 
 Oranges Oct.-Feb 3^c-5c each 
 
 Pomeloes Oct.-Feb 5c each 
 
 Among California fruits, oranges have the largest sale. They are 
 in demand throughout the year, owing to the warm climate and to 
 the fact that the native oranges do not in any sense directly compete 
 with the California product. In 1929 over 45,000 boxes of oranges 
 from California were imported into the Philippines, and although the 
 market for these has not increased during recent years, the demand 
 continues steady. Oranges packed 126 to the box wholesale at from 
 $6.50 to $11.75 a box and retail in the markets of Manila for 9 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 155 
 
 or 10 cents each. Packed 200 to the box, wholesale prices range from 
 $5.50 to $7.50 and retail prices from 6 to 7 cents each. The gen- 
 eral tendency of the market seems to demand a rather large orange, 
 since oranges are a luxury fruit consumed by the people of larger 
 incomes and by the resident Americans. Owing to the fact that 
 oranges as well as apples can be shipped considerable distances with- 
 out refrigeration, these fruits are found on stands throughout the 
 central portion of the island of Luzon, where a widespread motor- 
 truck transportation makes it possible to take these products from the 
 central city to various rural districts. Smaller quantities are also 
 trans-shipped to the southern islands, and are there found in the 
 large centers of population. 
 
 Bananas are abundant and cheap throughout the year in the Philippines. Here 
 they are unloaded on the shores of the Pasig River. 
 
 California grapes have steadily increased in demand until the 
 season of 1929, when an abundant crop of lanzones, one of the native 
 fruits, was coincident with the arrival of large quantities of California 
 grapes. People of the Islands, liking their native fruits which were 
 abundant and cheap, consumed lesser amounts of grapes, so that late 
 in the season there were large hold-overs in the warehouses of the 
 city of Manila. The grape market in the Philippines in 1929 con- 
 sumed over a million and a half pounds of grapes, but this market 
 is not capable of wide expansion because of the scattered nature of 
 the islands and the difficulties of transportation to distant points. 
 The consuming market is in and around the city of Manila. The 
 amount of fresh grapes trans-shipped to the southern islands is almost 
 negligible. In the fall of 1929, crates of grapes weighing 32 pounds 
 wholesaled at from $2.50 to $4.50 a crate. In kegs of 32 pounds, the 
 
156 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 wholesale price ranged from $3 to $5 a keg. At retail, California 
 grapes were selling at from lS 1 /^ to 17% cents a pound, depend- 
 ent upon the quality and variety. Many importers asserted that they 
 had taken very large losses because of the oversupply in the market, 
 and that they even sold out at fifty cents on the dollar. 
 
 Apples rank third in the shipments from California to the Philip- 
 pines, but of the total imports of fresh fruits from the entire United 
 States, apples have first place. The greatest volume of these is shipped 
 from Oregon and Washington, California apples having a relatively 
 small place in this market, being in demand only in the early season. 
 It was stated that the present predominance of Washington and Ore- 
 gon apples has been based upon the careful inspection Carried on in 
 
 Since the American occupation, extensive municipal markets have -been built in 
 all the large cities of the Philippine Islands. 
 
 those states. Dealers in Manila asserted that the quality of apples 
 from California was uncertain, and not necessarily in accordance with 
 the inspection marks which they bore. Small apples labeled "orchard 
 run," about 280 to the box, wholesale at from $2.40 to $3 a box. Those 
 containing about 100 to the box wholesale at from $3 to $5 a box. At 
 retail, apples sell from 2 to 6 cents each, according to the size, quality, 
 and season. 
 
 Lemons rank fourth in importance among the fresh fruit imports 
 from California to the Islands. There is a steady demand for lemons 
 throughout the year in this warm climate. Packed 300 to the box, 
 they sell at wholesale at from $5 to $14 a box, and retail at from 4 
 to 6 cents each. 
 
 The importation of pears, peaches, apricots, and plums is rela- 
 tively small, and is a hazardous enterprise owing to the difficulties of 
 transportation under present refrigeration methods. When these 
 fruits succeed in reaching the Manila markets in good condition, the 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 157 
 
 prices are relatively high since importers must be compensated for 
 previous bad shipments. The demand is confined largely to the foreign 
 population and to the luxury classes. Peaches, 18 pounds to the 
 crate, wholesale at from $1.75 to $4 a crate. Pears, 44 pounds to the 
 box, wholesale at from $3.25 to $5.50 a crate. Plums, 18 to 20 pounds 
 to the crate, wholesale at from $2.50 to $4.50 a crate. Peaches, pears, 
 and plums all retail usually at about 27 to 28 cents a pound. The 
 losses in shipping the softer fruits to the Philippines are so great 
 that they limit the market even below the popular demand. Material 
 increase in the consumption of peaches, pears, plums, and apricots 
 can be made if refrigeration methods are perfected so as to enable 
 these fruits to arrive in Manila in good condition with reasonable 
 surety. 
 
 Aside from oranges and apples, imported fresh fruits are for sale 
 only in Manila and its immediate vicinity. There are five large cold 
 storage houses in the city, two of which are privately owned and in 
 which space is not available for public use. In the other three plants, 
 cold storage space totals about 159,000 cubic feet. Charges in these 
 plants, fixed by the Public Utilities Commission, is a /3 cen t per day 
 per cubic foot, or, for the average case of fruit, about % cent per 
 package per day. From Manila to the outports in the Philippines 
 there is no refrigeration space on inter-island boats. 
 
 Freight charges from California points to Manila average about 
 as follows: apples, $1.10 per box; grapes in 32 pound kegs, $1.55 a 
 keg, in 32 pound lugs, $1.09; oranges, $1.50 a box; lemons, $1.70 a 
 box, and 90 cents a half box ; peaches, 67 cents a crate ; plums, 64 
 cents a crate ; and pears, $1.33 a crate. Interest charges average 
 about one-fourth of one per cent during trans-shipment. In addition 
 thereto, there is a lV? per cent sales tax in the Philippine Islands 
 imposed each time the goods are sold. 
 
 The largest demand for fresh fruit occurs during the fiesta season, 
 beginning with November first and terminating about the first of 
 January. During that season, after the harvest of the year, the 
 people are in a festival mood, have more ready money, and purchase 
 more luxuries than during other months. 
 
 The comparatively large demand for fresh fruits in the Philip- 
 pines, which is chiefly concentrated in a portion of the island of Luzon 
 near Manila, is indicative of the possibility of the development of a 
 fresh fruit market in Asia wherever relatively high wages and good 
 transportation obtain. Unfortunately, the continent of Asia is typi- 
 cally a region of low wages and poor transportation, so that such areas 
 
158 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 do not frequently occur. In the Philippine Islands only a very small 
 percentage of the native population is reached by the present fresh- 
 fruit market. It is improbable that more than 10 per cent of the 
 fresh fruit received in the Islands is shipped outside of the vicinity 
 of Manila. 
 
 Further increase in the market for fresh fruits must await means 
 of better transportation as well as improved refrigeration methods. 
 Meanwhile the development of good roads, better inter-island service, 
 
 The market for American fresh fruits is influenced by the volume of native 
 fruits on sale. When native crops are large the sale of imported fruit decreases. 
 
 and motor-truck transportation will slowly but steadily increase the 
 numbers of those persons to whom fresh fruits from America are 
 available. 
 
 Canned Fruits. — Canned fruits have a much wider distribution 
 in the Philippines than do fresh fruits, because they are capable of 
 almost indefinite storage and transportation. Probably 35 to 45 per 
 cent of the imported canned fruits are consumed outside of Manila 
 and its vicinity. 
 
 There is very little native fruit canned in the Islands, the output 
 being" confined to three small canneries in and near Manila, These 
 pack mangoes and pineapples, with a few other native fruits, but their 
 entire production is of no consequence when viewed as competition 
 with importations from America. Considerable amounts of canned 
 pineapple come into the Islands from Singapore, its cheaper price 
 making it attractive to the native population despite its poor quality. 
 From China also come canned lichees, which sell at 20 cents a can at 
 
Bul.493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 159 
 
 retail. Sliced and cubed pineapple retail at about 22% cents a can. 
 Native canned mangoes retail at 35 cents. 
 
 Among' American canned fruits, peaches are by far the most 
 popular. Cherries are second in popularity, despite their high price. 
 However, the volume of cherries sold is only about half that of peaches. 
 Canned grapes are the only other popular canned fruit. These sell 
 largely to the Chinese. Pears, apricots, and plums are not appreciated 
 by the native population as they lack sufficient sweetness to satisfy 
 their taste. Probably 90 per cent of the peaches, pineapple, cherries, 
 and grapes imported are consumed by the native population, and only 
 about 10 per cent by the foreign residents. On the other hand, prac- 
 tically all of the apricots, pears, and plums imported are consumed 
 by foreigners. 
 
 TABLE 47 
 
 Current Retail Prices, Manila, November 1929, 
 
 American Canned Fruits 
 
 Prices per can 
 
 No. 2 1 Can No. 1 Can 
 
 Apples $0.30 $0.20 
 
 Apricots 30 .20 
 
 Cherries 35 .27% 
 
 Figs 42% .22% 
 
 Grapes 30 .17% 
 
 Peaches 27% .17% 
 
 Pears 37% .20 
 
 Plums 32% 
 
 Fruit Salad 42% .22% 
 
 Prices in other cities of the Philippines are dependent upon the 
 distance the commodities travel from Manila and upon the number of 
 hands through which the goods are passed before reaching" the final 
 consumer. The 1% per cent sales tax, levied by the Philippine govern- 
 ment, is imposed each time the commodity changes ownership. Some 
 canned fruits are sold as many as four times before reaching- the last 
 retailer. Presumably each seller increases the price at least enough to 
 pay the government tax and also to insure himself a moderate profit. 
 Generally speaking, costs increase from 5 to 15 per cent in various 
 sections of the Islands over prices in Manila. In remote sections, where 
 fruits must be unloaded from trading" schooners on the beaches and 
 from there hauled on mule-back to distant centers, the rise in price is 
 necessarily large. Some canned fruits are shipped direct from Cali- 
 fornia to merchants at Cebu and Iloilo. In such instances they usually 
 sell at about Manila prices. 
 
160 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Canned fruits are largely ordered on the indent system through 
 representatives of California packers established in Manila. How- 
 ever, the largest distributing house in the Philippines orders direct as 
 its own representative of certain California packers. Distribution 
 throughout the Islands is carried on by Chinese wholesale merchants 
 in Manila. They sell to local retailers on Luzon and on other islands, 
 who frequently have financial connection with the wholesaler. In gen- 
 eral, the entire system is conducted by the Chinese in a manner some- 
 what similar to that in China. 
 
 Freight to Manila on canned fruits is $14 per ton of 40 cubic feet. 
 This is equivalent to 27 cases of No. 2y 2 or No. 1 tall cans, or about 
 30 cases of 8-ounce cans. Insurance rates rule at 35 cents per hundred 
 dollars' valuation. Delivery charges from ship to warehouse at Manila 
 by means of lighters and trucks average about 62y 2 cents a ton. 
 Wharfage dues are 57 cents a ton. There must furthermore be added 
 the \y 2 per cent sales tax of the Insular government, 1 per cent interest 
 charges on the draft, 1% per cent exchange costs, and one-fourth of 1 
 per cent bank commission. All these accrued charges between the 
 point of shipment from California to delivery in Manila necessarily 
 increase the cost by an appreciable sum. Presumably also, those 
 occupied in the business derive a margin of profit from the transaction, 
 which must be added to the charges as a legitimate increase in the cost 
 of delivery from California to the Philippines. 
 
 The market for California canned fruits has not yet reached satura- 
 tion. The sale of canned fruits has continued to show a slow but 
 gradual increase throughout the passing years. It may be expected 
 to continue to grow during the future, even under the present methods 
 of packing and distribution. 
 
 The small cans of fruit have not been introduced into the Islands 
 to any measurable degree. A few of them can be found on sale in 
 some of the Manila stores, but these stores are largely in the hands of 
 Chinese who are notoriously inactive in creating a new demand 
 although exceedingly effective in supplying a demand after it has been 
 otherwise created. The purchasing power of the people of the Philip- 
 pines, while higher than that of some other Asiatic countries, is low 
 in comparison with that of the people in America. While the Filipinos 
 are open-handed and at times extravagant, the amount of funds on 
 hand at any one time is necessarily small. The large can introduced 
 in early years is difficult to sell to the general native population, except 
 on rare occasions. Here again in the Philippines, a relatively high- 
 priced commodity is offered for sale in a large package to a poor 
 population. 
 
Bui* 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 161 
 
 The Filipino eats canned fruits for their sweetness rather than for 
 their fruit flavor. He appreciates them as a dessert in proportion to 
 the amount of sugar contained in them. Many of the California canned 
 fruits offered to the native are not sufficiently sweet to appeal to their 
 tastes. The canned fruits that are popular among" the natives of the 
 Philippines are those which have a high sugar content. 
 
 Dried Fruits. — Of the dried fruits imported from California into 
 the Philippine Islands, about 85 per cent are raisins and 10 per cent 
 prunes. These two commodities thus make up 95 per cent of the 
 California dried fruits used in the Philippines. 
 
 Native dried fruits are not produced in the Islands, but in 1928, 
 37,133 pounds of raisins were imported from Spain, and 495 pounds 
 from Palestine. Dried fruits from China to the amount of 335,504 
 pounds were also brought into the country. These were chiefly lichees 
 and Chinese dates.* Lichees retail at 28 cents a pound and dates at 
 20 cents a pound. 
 
 Because of the damp, humid climate, dried fruits spoil rapidly 
 when open to the air, becoming infested with molds and insects. 
 Much dried fruit is therefore sold from cans, although some is packed 
 in tin-lined cases. However, the sale of raisins in bulk in wooden 
 boxes still continues. The turn-over of these is sufficiently rapid to 
 usually enable them to be sold before spoilage. Dried fruits in Manila 
 are frequently stored in refrigerator rooms at a temperature of from 
 40° to 45° Fahr., where they keep almost indefinitely. Raisins are 
 usually warehoused without refrigeration for the first year, but if they 
 are to be held a longer time are then placed in the cold rooms along 
 with other dried fruits. Cold storage costs 23 cents per case per 
 month, or a little less than 1 cent a day for a 25-pound box. 
 
 The sale of raisins in the Philippine Islands trebled in the three 
 years between 1925 and 1928, owing to the promotion work which has 
 been carried forward for raisins as a food. The first extensive intro- 
 duction of raisins was for their use as a confection. They were thus 
 sent out in 25-pound wooden boxes in which were enclosed 400 one- 
 ounce envelopes. These were filled by the local dealer who retailed 
 them at about 1 cent each. The demand for any confection is fickle, 
 and it was recognized by those promoting this product that a stable 
 demand could be created only on the basis of food used in the home. 
 Therefore, an educational program was undertaken to induce the 
 people to use raisins as a food. Contests were held for the best recipe 
 for the use of raisins, these contests being held in various languages 
 
 * Annual Report of the Insular Collector of Customs (1928), 
 
162 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 and dialects. The best recipes were then printed in booklets which 
 were distributed in connection with the sale of raisins. Efforts were 
 also made to get bakers to use the product in raisin bread and other 
 bakery goods. But by a peculiar local psychology, the bakers could 
 not be induced to use a sufficient amount of raisins to make either a 
 noticeable improvement in the bread and the demand for it, or an 
 appreciable increase in the consumption of raisins. However, raisins 
 have become more firmly established as a food of the people so that 
 the demand in the future is likely to be more constant than in the 
 past. Indeed, the demand may be expected to materially increase. 
 Raisins retail at from 10 to 12% cents for a 15-ounce package in 
 Manila, They also sell in packages weighing 1% ounces, which are 
 retailed at about 3^2 cents. 
 
 Prunes in the two years of 1927 and 1928 increased materially in 
 consumption, but as yet their use is chiefly as a confection to be eaten 
 dry out of hand. They are sold chiefly in bulk from a 5-pound can, 
 smaller sales being made from cans weighing 2~y 2 and 1 pound. In 
 many of the smaller stores of the Philippine Islands, prunes are sold 
 one at a time on the end of a toothpick. This demand is recognized 
 as unstable by those promoting their sale, and as likely to decrease 
 whenever some other product catches the popular attention. Efforts 
 therefore are now being made to introduce prunes as a food stuff in 
 the home, so that the demand will be more permanent than in its 
 present form. In Manila, prunes sell at about 16 cents a pound. In 
 other cities of the Islands, prices are somewhat higher, usually about 
 19 cents a pound. 
 
 The native consumption of prunes and raisins is responsible for 
 the quantities that are sold in the Islands. Probably 90 per cent of 
 the raisins and prunes are sold to natives. Of apricots, pears, and 
 peaches, however, probably at least 90 per cent is consumed by 
 foreigners and only 10 per cent by natives. The total consumption of 
 these is therefore very small, and the present market immaterial. In 
 Manila, apricots sell at 37 cents a pound, peaches 32 cents a pound, 
 pears 32 cents a pound, and white figs 28 cents a pound. Prices vary 
 throughout other cities of the Islands, but, in general, away from 
 Manila apricots bring at retail about 40 cents a pound, peaches 35 
 cents a pound, pears 35 cents a pound, and white figs 31 cents a pound. 
 There is usually an increase of about 2y 2 to 5 cents a pound in other 
 cities of the Islands above the prices in Manila. 
 
 Of the dried fruits, prunes and raisins are the only ones that are 
 sold in considerable amounts outside of the general vicinity of Manila, 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 163 
 
 It is estimated that about 50 per cent of the prunes and raisins are 
 sold in other sections of the archipelago. Since so large a proportion 
 of apricots, peaches, and pears are consumed by foreigners, most of 
 whom are congregated in the capital, the shipment of these to other 
 ports in the Islands is exceedingly small. 
 
 Shipments of dried fruits from California to the Philippines pay 
 freight at the rate of $14 per ton of 40 cubic feet ; insurance is about 
 40 cents per hundred dollars' valuation. As in the case of other com- 
 modities, there is a local sales tax of IV2 per cent each time the goods 
 are sold. Interest charges on drafts average about 1 per cent, exchange 
 costs 1% P er cent, and there is a one-fourth of 1 per cent bank commis- 
 sion. Delivery costs from ship to warehouse at Manila by means of 
 lighters and trucks average 62% cents a ton. Wharfage charges are 
 57 cents a ton. Thus there are a considerable number of charges that 
 must be added to the American cost of the goods to permit their sale 
 in the Philippines. 
 
 Dried fruits are usually ordered by the indent system, through a 
 local representative in Manila of California exporting firms. One large 
 organization carries stocks on hand, but this is an exception to the 
 usual method. In the outlying ports in the Islands, dried fruits are 
 ordered through Chinese wholesalers in Manila, who in turn place 
 their orders with Manila representatives of California exporters. 
 Buyers are usually allowed thirty to sixty days' credit. Some dried 
 fruits are shipped direct from California to local ports such as Iloilo 
 and Cebu, but the great majority of all material is landed at Manila, 
 and is there trans-shipped to the other ports in the Islands, 
 
 The present consumption of dried fruit should be understood to 
 involve raisins chiefly, with the consumption of prunes following far 
 behind, but nevertheless increasing. Other dried fruits are entirely 
 inconsiderable because confined to the small group of foreigners whose 
 entire purchases aggregate less than 5 per cent of the total sales. 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods. — A large percentage of the population 
 of the Philippines is still illiterate. Furthermore, they cannot be 
 reached by the English language. There are three major languages 
 and eight dialects in the Philippines, as well as a number of variations 
 thereof spoken by small groups. Trade promotion by means of adver- 
 tising in newspapers and periodicals would not reach more than 5 per 
 cent of the people of the Islands, even though it were distributed in 
 various languages and dialects. 
 
 Free sampling has not been extensively practiced in the Philippines. 
 It is recognized, however, that when this is done, samples should be 
 
164 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 left in the homes rather than given through the stores, and that a 
 printed advertisement should be left with every sample. Advertising 
 on billboards is more effective than might be expected, since a new bill- 
 board can often be found with a group of persons gathered about to 
 listen to one man, able to read, who is conveying to the group the 
 information conveyed by the picture and lettering on the board. One 
 firm has found that advertising on paper bags distributed to retailers 
 is a more effective method of advertising than the newspapers and 
 periodicals. 
 
 In the Philippines all trade promotion for California fruits rests 
 (1) upon the creation of a desire for a commodity which has not been 
 previously used, (2) upon the goods being extensively distributed so 
 that the desire having been created it can be satisfied through a local 
 purchase made in the immediate neighborhood, (3) upon the possi- 
 bility of the commodity being sold in small units, if it is to be con- 
 sumed by a people of small purchasing power who have little reserve 
 funds, and (4) upon stocks being carried on hand at central points 
 where a demand arising in any place in the Islands can be supplied. 
 
 The Chinese who control the present distributing system in the 
 Islands are not accustomed to creating a demand. They look upon 
 new commodities with suspicion, being fearful that they will be unable 
 to sell them from their shelves. The demand having once been created, 
 however, the Chinese are quick to avail themselves of the new com- 
 modity and to place it on sale. The introduction of new articles such 
 as American fruits, must be carried forward by some other agency 
 than the local dealer. The Chinese almost always take the viewpoint 
 that nothing can be sold other than goods that are already in demand. 
 It thus becomes desirable in any large promotion plan to actually place 
 salesmen in the stores to display the goods and to push them before 
 the people. Demonstrations of methods of cooking and utilizing the 
 product are not an effective method, where given in the shops, because 
 the higher classes of native people do not themselves make purchases 
 but usually send servants to do so. One large organization in the 
 Philippines has employed domestic science teachers to make house-to- 
 house canvasses, telling and showing the people how to use American 
 canned and dried fruits. 
 
 The Filipino people are naturally extravagant and like the best 
 quality of goods. Because of their lack of knowledge of new materials, 
 they usually cling to one brand and are slow to change to new brands 
 of an old product. Manufacturers therefore would do well to estab- 
 lish one brand and one grade only for sale in the Philippines. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 165 
 
 Canned fruits have not yet been introduced in the 1-pound and 
 8-ounce sizes. There is every reason to believe, however, that small 
 sizes could be successfully popularized provided trade promotion were 
 conducted over a considerable period of time. Beans, soups, meats, 
 and chili con carne are already packed in individual tins which are 
 offered for sale throughout the Islands. Canned California fruits, 
 however, have been offered only in the large size. The sale of an 
 8-ounce can which would sell for 10 to 12 cents might be extensively 
 developed. One large agency was so optimistic as to estimate that 
 after two years of extensive trade promotion it would be possible to 
 sell in the Philippines, 100,000 cases of 8-ounce cans of peaches per 
 year. These, however, should be quartered rather than sliced since, 
 except in the neighborhood of Cebu, the demand for sliced peaches is 
 small. Canned grapes in the small 8-ounce can would also be popular. 
 The demand for canned grapes is already considerable, and the small 
 size of the fruit makes it especially practical in the small tin. The 
 oval can of California sardines which retails at 20 centavos, or less, of 
 local money, or 10 cents in American currency, has increased in four 
 years through one firm alone from a sale of 90 cases to 175,000 cases. 
 It is quite within the range of possibility for similar even though less 
 extensive success to be made for the small can of California fruits, 
 provided it were properly promoted with funds available for the 
 purpose. 
 
 The sale of dried fruits will probably be limited in the future, as in 
 the past, to raisins, prunes, and white figs. The sweetness of all these 
 fruits is an important element in their sale. Their further develop- 
 ment is dependent upon their introduction to the home as an element 
 in family cooking. Efforts to develop these uses might be expected to 
 increase present sales. The market for prunes is especially promising, 
 provided they could be sold cheaply enough to make them available 
 to the masses of the people at a relatively low price. The present 
 necessity of packing these dried fruits in tin, except where rapid sales 
 can be made, obviously increases the price. Such a necessity might not 
 obtain, however, after the fruits gained greater popularity. While 
 introducing a new cigarette, a large tobacco company, in order to pre- 
 vent spoilage, sold cigarettes in cans of fifty as one of the introductory 
 phases of its work. Although the expense of this tin increased the 
 cost, the cigarettes were sold at the same price as those in the paper 
 package. After sales increased so that the turn-over was more rapid 
 and the danger of spoilage thereby lessened, the company was able to 
 displace their cigarettes in tins with others in the usual paper package 
 
166 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 common in America, but wrapped in an outside waxed paper. The 
 extra cost of the tin involved in the early sales was considered a part 
 of the trade-promotion expense necessary to the introduction of the 
 commodity. A similar method might be followed in dried fruits. 
 
 The purchasing power of the Filipino people is gradually increas- 
 ing. Even the so-called 'non-Christian' tribes resident in the far 
 interior are becoming familiar with imported goods and feeling a 
 desire for them. It is not infrequent for these hill tribes to come down 
 from the mountains, take a contract under their chief for the clearing 
 of land, and after its completion spend the entire amount for the pur- 
 chase of goods at the plantation store, returning to their mountains 
 laden with the produce they have earned. Money, as exchange, is of 
 no use to them in the hills, so that the turn-over from cash to com- 
 modity is immediate. 
 
 Under continued stable conditions and continued free trade with 
 America, the Philippine Islands present a favorable opportunity for 
 the promotion and sale of canned and dried California fruits of the 
 sweeter types, in the small package. The population is small as com- 
 pared with the vast numbers in China and India, but owing to the 
 higher purchasing power of the people, the market for American fruits 
 is greater than the relative numbers of the people would indicate. 
 Under their rising scale of living they may be expected to consume 
 increasing amounts of California dried and canned fruit. This 
 increase may be accelerated by proper trade promotion throughout 
 the Islands. 
 
FRUIT MARKETS IN FRENCH INDO-CHINA 
 
168 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 48 
 Direct Fruit Exports from; California to French Tndo-China 
 
 Kind of fruit 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 1929 
 
 Canned 
 Berries 
 
 pounds 
 
 252 
 
 3,627 
 
 31,368 
 
 31,764 
 
 4,278 
 
 36,201 
 
 26,215 
 
 dollars 
 
 39 
 333 
 3,871 
 4,593 
 522 
 3,708 
 3,413 
 
 pounds 
 
 864 
 2,688 
 31,525 
 17,136 
 3,780 
 35,538 
 26,500 
 
 dollars 
 
 153 
 352 
 
 4,187 
 2,346 
 480 
 3,782 
 3,807 
 
 pounds 
 
 4,962 
 
 1,362 
 
 31,725 
 
 19,775 
 
 11,336 
 
 44,795 
 
 38,398 
 
 18,615 
 
 67,829 
 
 888 
 
 8,634 
 
 dollars 
 
 900 
 
 Apples 
 
 180 
 
 Apricots 
 
 4,027 
 
 2,822 
 1,523 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Peaches 
 
 5,696 
 5,717 
 
 Pears 
 
 Fruit for salad 
 
 3,393 
 
 Other canned 
 
 92,530 
 
 7,539 
 
 67,627 
 
 548 
 
 41,528 
 
 5,664 
 
 85 
 5,702 
 
 6,094 
 
 Pineapples 
 
 126 
 
 Jams, jellies, etc 
 
 11,305 
 
 2,233 
 
 2,006 
 
 Total 
 
 237,540 
 
 26,251 
 
 227,734 
 
 26,558 
 
 248,319 
 
 32,484 
 
 
 
 Dried 
 
 Raisins 
 
 pounds 
 
 146,012 
 
 900 
 
 1,200 
 
 100 
 
 2,390 
 
 dollars 
 
 11,606 
 
 109 
 
 220 
 
 16 
 
 243 
 
 pounds 
 
 249,232 
 
 694 
 
 2,094 
 
 160 
 
 11,401 
 
 dollars 
 
 23,313 
 
 124 
 
 383 
 
 38 
 
 1,195 
 
 pounds 
 
 330,211 
 
 3,020 
 
 4,329 
 
 895 
 
 10,745 
 
 825 
 
 2,149 
 
 dollars 
 
 18,756 
 
 Apples 
 
 473 
 
 Apricots 
 
 770 
 
 Peaches 
 
 104 
 
 Prunes 
 
 1,300 
 
 Pears 
 
 123 
 
 Other dried 
 
 501 
 
 65 
 
 1,595 
 
 389 
 
 446 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 151,103 
 
 12,259 
 
 265,176 
 
 25,442 
 
 352,174 
 
 21,972 
 
 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Grapefruit 
 
 boxes 
 
 dollars 
 
 boxes 
 
 15 
 20 
 52 
 
 7 
 
 dollars 
 
 74 
 109 
 312 
 
 17 
 
 boxes 
 
 13 
 
 52 
 
 196 
 
 340 
 
 dollars 
 
 76 
 
 Lemons 
 
 17 
 
 104 
 
 6 
 
 88 
 513 
 
 8 
 
 338 
 
 Oranges 
 
 1,192 
 
 Apples 
 
 854 
 
 
 
 Grapes 
 
 pounds 
 
 480 
 
 dollars 
 
 33 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 pounds 
 40,040 
 2,038 
 
 85 
 1,080 
 
 dollars 
 
 4,557 
 194 
 
 Pears 
 
 
 
 Peaches 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Other fresh 
 
 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 169 
 
 FRUIT MARKETS IN FRENCH INDOCHINA 
 
 The Far Eastern possession of the Republic of France known as 
 Indo-China, comprises the eastern portion of the Indo-Chinese pen- 
 insula. It touches China on the north and Siam and Burma on the 
 west. Around it on the east and south are the China Sea. and the 
 Gulf of Siam. French Indo-China consists of Cochin-China, a French 
 colony, of which Saigon is the capital ; of Cambodia, a colony which 
 has its own king and of which Pnom-Penh is the capital ; of Annam, a 
 protectorate along the east coast ; of Tonkin, a protectorate in the far 
 north, of which Hanoi is the capital; and of Laos, a colony in the 
 northwest. The exact area of Indo-China is not known but it approxi- 
 mates 273,500 square miles. The estimated population is over 
 20,000,000 persons. Included in these are about 500,000 Chinese. 
 There are only 21,500 Europeans, almost all of whom are French. 
 Including the consulate, there are only eight Americans resident in the 
 large city of Saigon. Practically all of the large importers are French 
 firms whose offices are in Saigon and Hanoi. The native population is 
 predominently agricultural, most of whom are occupied in the grow- 
 ing of rice. Retail trade is largely conducted by Chinese and Hindus 
 who thereby control local finance, banking, and landed enterprises. 
 
 The principal city of the group is Saigon. It has a population of 
 330,000 persons. Pnom-Penh, the capital of Cambodia, has about 
 100,000, as does Hanoi, the capital of Tonkin. Since Hanoi is located 
 some miles from the sea, goods are shipped through Haiphong, a city 
 of 75,000 people on the coast, with which it is connected by rail. 
 
 Although there are only about a thousand miles of railway in 
 French Indo-China, it has about 10,000 miles of roads, most of which 
 are suitable for automobile travel. Therefore, between the large cities 
 of the territory and many nearby country towns and villages motor 
 buses and trucks ply on regular schedule through most of the year. 
 During the rainy season this travel is frequently interrupted ; but in 
 general, owing to the French system of road building and its rapid 
 expansion under recent administrations, French Indo-China has one 
 of the most highly developed motor truck services of any country in 
 Asia. This makes possible the distribution of imported products 
 throughout the thickly settled portions of Cochin-China, Cambodia, 
 and Annam. 
 
170 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 The most densely populated districts are, first, in the delta of 
 Fleuve Rouge near Hanoi and Haiphong, second, along the coast of 
 Annam, and third, along the banks of the Mekong River from its many 
 mouths where they open into the sea up the river as far as Pnom-Penh. 
 It is in these densely populated regions that the wealth of the country 
 is produced. In these areas the population varies from 200 to 600 
 persons per square mile or perhaps an average of over six persons 
 per acre. 
 
 The total foreign trade of French Indo-China was in 1926 about 
 $217,000,000. Of this amount, $125,000,000 were exports, two-thirds 
 of which was rice, while the imports were about $93,000,000, of which 
 only about $2,000,000 was from the United States. The per-capita 
 imports were thus about $4.70 per person per year, of which the 
 American share presumably was about 10 cents. The total imports of 
 fruits and nuts were valued at $280,000 a year. 
 
 The policy of the French government has been to develop trade 
 between France and its colonies even though the great distances 
 involved necessitate high freight rates between the two. Foreign trade 
 and commerce between the colony and other nations have not been 
 encouraged except in certain primary commodities which are not pro- 
 duced in French territory and which are necessary to the development 
 of the colony. 
 
 In purchasing power, Cochin-China ranks first among the pro- 
 vinces, Cambodia second, and Tonkin third. Other divisions of the 
 colony would, come still lower in the scale. The colony as a whole has 
 recently been depressed by the low exchange value of silver. Between 
 1923 and 1927, the fall in value of the French franc and the relatively 
 high value of silver created a speculative wave throughout Indo-China. 
 This in turn lead to a subsequent depression in business, and the cessa- 
 tion of new activities. The stabilization of the value of the franc, 
 followed by the fall in value of the local currency based on silver, has 
 made it more difficult to import goods into Indo-China. These condi- 
 tions, coupled with bad harvests, have depressed the entire financial 
 outlook of the country. 
 
 The climate of Indo-China is decidedly tropical, the year being 
 divided into a wet season from May to October and a dry season from 
 November to April. During the rainy season the great central and 
 southern plain of the country is frequently flooded by rising rivers so 
 that local travel, except by boat, is interrupted. It is during this wet 
 season with its very high humidity that difficulty is experienced in 
 preserving any perishable foods that are exposed to the air. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 171 
 
 Fruit in the Indo-Chinese Diet. — The diet of the native population 
 of Indo-China consists primarily of rice, which is supplemented with 
 meat, chiefly pork, and with vegetables. Generally the meat and vege- 
 tables are not cooked, but are finely minced and eaten raw. Over the 
 rice and other foods is poured a hot sauce, known as 'meoc-man, ' the 
 manufacture of which is a considerable industry. To Americans, this 
 sauce would seem most unusual. Raw fish, sprinkled with salt, is 
 exposed to the sun. In the hot climate of Indo-China, the fish rapidly 
 putrefies so that in a few days an oil exudes from it. The oil is then 
 removed to a cool place where it ferments, producing the hot sauce 
 used on the native food. It necessarily has a strong odor. 
 
 Practically the entire native population chews betel nut. The 
 smoking of opium is general. Because of the use of highly seasoned 
 foods and strong stimulants, the natives are unappreciative of deli- 
 cately flavored foodstuffs. In a meal in which their universal hot 
 sauce is used, there is no place for sweets or other desserts. Therefore, 
 native fruits, produced locally throughout the entire year, are eaten 
 between meals rather than as a part of the regular native diet, 
 
 The number of well-to-do natives is very small. These have a more 
 varied diet than do the masses of the population. Wealthy natives 
 may conclude the meal with sweet cakes or with fruit. Essentially, 
 however, their primary diet is similar to that of the lower classes. 
 Only a very small number of natives who have means to satisfy their 
 desires show liking for foreign foods. The standard of living of the 
 wealthy natives is relatively low as viewed from American conceptions. 
 Wealthy natives of China and of the Philippine Islands are likely to 
 imitate Anglo-Saxon standards of living. In French Indo-China those 
 similarly inclined copy continental standards, which have a more eco- 
 nomical basis. Colonial French generally live on lower standards than 
 do Americans or British similarly placed. The scale of living among 
 even the highest classes of natives of French Indo-China is below that 
 of similar classes in countries under the financial or political control 
 of the Anglo-Saxon race. 
 
 The Chinese population has a somewhat higher financial status than 
 the native. The diet of the Chinese is essentially the same as in their 
 home country. Large importations of dried and canned fruits come 
 from China into Indo-China for the use of the merchant classes of 
 Chinese scattered over the peninsula. 
 
 The French population of the possession live as nearly as possible 
 as they would in France. Fresh vegetables and European fruits are 
 difficult to obtain and are eagerly sought by the French. The number 
 
172 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 of Europeans is, however, so small, being only about one-thousandth 
 part of the entire population, that their demands are inconsiderable 
 when viewed from the standpoint of any large trade enterprise. 
 
 The purchasing power of the native population is so low that it is 
 probably below that of southern China. The people are lacking in 
 enterprise and, generally speaking, are a backward race. The terri- 
 tory now included in French Indo-China was long a vassal of the weak 
 empire of China. Because of the low purchasing power of the people, 
 foreign foodstuffs of all kinds are practically unavailable to them. 
 The highly seasoned native foods and the extensive use of stimulants 
 makes the people unappreciative of foreign foodstuffs of all kinds. 
 
 Fresh Fruits. — Native fruits are abundant in the markets of Indo- 
 China throughout the entire year. In addition to the fruits mentioned 
 in table 49, mangoes and mangosteens are available for two or three 
 months each year. 
 
 TABL7 49 
 Native Fresh Fruits, French Indo-China 
 
 Seasons Retail Prices 
 
 Bananas All year 2c-5c per pound 
 
 Cocoanuts All year 2%c each 
 
 Oranges All year 4y 2 c-7e per pound 
 
 Sugar Cane All year %c per two feet 
 
 Pineapples All year 2c-3c each 
 
 Pears Aug.-Nov. 9c-llc per pound 
 
 Persimmons Aug.-Nov. 8c per pound 
 
 Pomeloes Aug.-Nov. 10c each 
 
 Imported fresh fruits originally came from France by refrigera- 
 tion on steamers running direct from that country to Indo-China. 
 Fresh fruit from America was received by trans-shipment from Hong- 
 kong or Singapore. With the recent development of direct refrigera- 
 tion from California to Saigon at about one-half the rate charged 
 from France, the importation of fresh fruits from France has prac- 
 tically ceased. The amount imported from France was always small 
 since the cost was great and the long voyage through the tropics fre- 
 quently resulted in the fruit reaching Indo-China in bad condition. 
 The shorter voyage of 38 days from America with its lower rate, makes 
 the possibilities of the fresh-fruit market greater for American prod- 
 ucts than for French. Since, however, refrigeration boats touch only 
 at Saigon, and since there are no cold storage facilities from that port 
 to other places in the colony, the importation of American fruits with 
 the exception of apples, oranges, and lemons must necessarily be 
 confined to that portion of the population in and around the city of 
 
Bul. 493J Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 173 
 
 Saigon who are capable of purchasing them and anxious to obtain 
 them. Furthermore, refrigeration facilities in the city of Saigon are 
 almost non-existent, being confined at present to one firm which has 
 10,538 cubic feet of cold storage which it uses for its own purchases. 
 
 Until 1929 the largest demand among fresh fruits was for oranges 
 running 176 to 200 to the box, which cost delivered at Saigon about 
 $8.00. These oranges retail in local markets at from 4 ] /2 to 6 cents 
 each. The demand for lemons is small, since the native lime furnishes 
 an acceptable substitute which is extensively used by the foreign 
 population. With direct refrigeration service the demand for grapes 
 has increased. In 1929, 40,000 pounds were shipped from California. 
 Malaga grapes delivered at Saigon cost about $4.00 for the 32-pound 
 keg, and about $2.35 a box. Emperor grapes cost about $5.00 a keg 
 and $3.35 a box. At retail, grapes sold in Saigon at 20 cents a pound. 
 In poor condition they sold down to 10 cents a pound. American 
 apples, largely from Washington and Oregon, wholesale at about 
 $4.00 a box. They retail at 20 to 25 cents a pound. During the 
 past season, pears from California received in the Saigon market 
 retailed at about 4 cents each. 
 
 Refrigerated freight rates from California ports to Saigon are, 
 for apples, peaches, and pears $38 a ton, grapes $28 a ton, oranges 
 $1.70 a box, lemons $1.90 a box, grapefruit $1.75 a box. Ships from 
 the United States usually discharge their cargo 10 miles down the 
 river below Saigon. The lighterage from that point to the customs 
 warehouse averages $1.20 a ton. Porterage from the customs ware- 
 houses to the local stores averages about 4 cents a package. Interest 
 charges average 8 per cent per annum on drafts. In addition, the 
 French duty on imported foodstuffs includes not only the fruit but 
 also the container. The duty on citrus fruits shipped direct from 
 America to Indo-China is at present equivalent to 23 to 25 cents for 
 220 pounds. If trans-shipped on the way from America, the duty 
 increases about seven times, being in that case about $1.50 to $1.75 for 
 220 pounds. The French tariff is subject to frequent revision, usually 
 upward. 
 
 In the past, the importation of fresh fruits was so small and the 
 demand by the foreign population so keen that there was no necessity 
 for fruits to be held in cold storage for any considerable length of 
 time. Fruits consigned to the port of Saigon were bought up and 
 consumed almost as soon as they were received. The development of 
 any considerable market for fresh fruits would require the installation 
 of local cold storage facilities, since at present ships coming directly 
 
174 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 from California with refrigeration space call at Saigon only once in 
 forty-five days. The present fresh fruit market for the softer and 
 more perishable fruits is therefore confined to Saigon and its immedi- 
 ate vicinity. For apples, oranges, and lemons, the market is wider, 
 since these may be shipped by train, boat, or truck for short distances 
 provided they are received at Saigon in good condition. 
 
 It must be remembered, however, that in any case the market for 
 fresh fruits is confined to the small European population, to the 
 wealthy Chinese, and to a very few of the highest class Annamese. 
 Furthermore, the volume can only be as large as can be disposed of 
 quickly after receipt of fruits from refrigerator ships. Later con- 
 struction of cold storage facilities may be expected at Saigon. This 
 will somewhat increase the possible consumption of fresh fruits in that 
 locality. 
 
 The foreign population of Saigon, consisting almost entirely of 
 French, desire to obtain fresh fruits and vegetables of the type that 
 they have used at home. The native fruits are inferior and insipid. 
 The foreign population of the city would undoubtedly consume fresh 
 imported fruits in fair quantities, particularly as long as receipts are 
 infrequent so that they remain both a novelty and a luxury. Further- 
 more, in the interior of Cochin-China and Cambodia, there is a small 
 but steady demand for imported oranges from California, particularly 
 around the New Year season. However, the entire market is small, 
 can be easily overloaded, and is precarious because of the lack of 
 cold storage facilities and of adequate distribution. 
 
 Canned Fruits. — American canned fruits predominate in the high 
 class stores of Saigon and other cities in French Indo-China and are 
 found on sale in all of the larger towns. In the smaller towns only 
 Chinese canned fruits are on sale. Large general stores in Saigon as 
 well as the food shops conducted by Chinese carry a rather complete 
 line of American canned goods. The sale of canned fruits is almost 
 entirely among the foreign population, although a small number of 
 wealthy Chinese and a very limited number of Annamese consume 
 these products. The Chinese also consume canned lichees, chestnuts, 
 bamboo sprouts, and pineapple, which are imported into Indo-China 
 from Swatow and Singapore. The total volume of these Asiatic 
 canned products imported into the colony probably exceeds the volume 
 of American canned fruits. 
 
 Import statistics of canned fruits to Indo-China are incomplete. 
 The total exports from California to French Indo-China are not trace- 
 able either in the American export figures or in the French import 
 
Bul.493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 175 
 
 statistics, since neither figures include goods that are trans-shipped 
 at other ports. 
 
 Peaches probably rank first in popularity, followed by pears, 
 grapes, and apricots. Cherries are only imported in small amounts, 
 owing to the difficulty caused by swelled cans in this hot climate. 
 Wholesale prices at Saigon and retail prices at Saigon and Pnom-Penh 
 are given in table 50. At other points in the interior where American 
 canned fruits are on sale retail prices generally rise about 25 per cent 
 above those quoted at Saigon. It will be noted that in the table below 
 prices at Pnom-Penh were in all cases lower than at Saigon. Mer- 
 chants in Pnom-Penh were selling from old stocks, while those at 
 Saigon were quoting from higher wholesale prices based upon new 
 stocks. 
 
 TABLE 50 
 
 Current Prices, French Indo-China, November 1929 
 American Canned Fruits 
 
 Saigon Pnom-Penh 
 
 Wholesale Retail 
 
 Per Case Per Can 
 
 No. 2% No. 1 No. 2% No. 1 
 
 Apples $7.20 $ $0.50 $ 
 
 Apricots 7.92 .45 .20 
 
 Cherries 8.40 .50 .20 
 
 Grapes 4.80 .40 
 
 Peaches 6.00 7.20 .40 .20 .36 
 
 Peara 7.20 8.16 .45 .27 .36 
 
 Plums 4.80 .40 
 
 Fruit Salad 9.12 .49 .25 .48 
 
 The freight rate from the United States to Saigon on canned fruits 
 is $17 a ton. In addition, there is a lighterage charge averaging $1.20 
 a ton ^or trans-shipment from the wharves up the river to the customs 
 warehouse. Trucking and coolie charges from the customs warehouse 
 to the dealers' stores average 4 cents a package. The duty on canned 
 fruits is at present about $2 per 220 pounds. The Indo-Chinese gov- 
 ernment also imposes an internal tax of 2 per cent in addition to 
 the duly. 
 
 Canned fruits are usually ordered on the indent system by dealers 
 through agents located in Saigon. These agents are French firms 
 who are representatives for a wide variety of commodities among 
 which canned fruits are included. Usually, none of these agents carry 
 stocks on hand. 
 
 The demand for American canned fruits has been gradually in- 
 creasing. Sales are made almost entirely in the No. 2% can, although 
 
176 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 recently a considerable quantity of fruits in the No. 1 tall can have 
 been offered for sale in local stores. As yet, however, the sales for 
 these have not been large. 
 
 The introduction of the smaller sizes of cans of American fruits 
 may be expected to somewhat increase consumption in Indo-China. 
 It is not probable, however, that any considerable number of the 
 native population can be considered as potential consumers. Thus, 
 the demand may be expected to be limited in the future as in the past 
 to the foreign population, numbering- about 20,000 persons, to the 
 wealthy Chinese scattered over the colony, and to a small number of 
 natives whose total number could not exceed 100,000. The oppor- 
 tunities for any large sales of American canned fruits are not evident. 
 It may be expected, however, that sales will gradually increase in the 
 future, and that American canned fruits will continue to hold first 
 place in this market. 
 
 Dried Fruits. — Difficulties in Indo-China caused by the damp, 
 humid climate during six months of the year restrict the sale of dried 
 fruits in bulk to the dry season. All of the American dried fruits are 
 found on sale in large stores which cater to foreigners. With the 
 exception of raisins, however, the consumption of American dried 
 fruits by natives is immaterial. In addition to the American fruits, 
 prunes are imported from France, raisins and figs from Smyrna, 
 lichees from China, and dates from the Near East. 
 
 In volume of sales, raisins transcend all other American dried 
 fruits in Indo-China. They were originally introduced through the 
 small package of 1% ounces which retails locally for about 3 cents. 
 In the 15-ounce package, California seedless raisins retail for about 
 12 cents. Raisins from Smyrna retail at about 27 to 30 cents a 
 pound. Raisins from the small packages are consumed extensively 
 by the natives and are found on sale in rural districts during the 
 dry season. They are generally eaten out of hand as a confection 
 by children, but in the larger packages are used by bakers for the 
 manufacture of cakes for consumption by foreigners and by Chinese. 
 So general is the use of raisins among the native population that they 
 are now regarded as one of the staple commodities for sale in the 
 interior. Along with other foodstuffs, small packages of raisins are 
 frequently placed before gods in the temples. Raisins are thus offered 
 as a sacrifice to placate the wrath of the deities and to bring security 
 for the future. Presumably the gods have recently become as fond 
 of raisins as have the inhabitants of the territory. It is estimated that 
 the total consumption of raisins in the colony is over 15,000 cases 
 per year. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 177 
 
 Prunes are second in popularity among' California dried fruits, 
 although the total importation is only a small fraction of that for 
 raisins. The consumption of prunes has been limited almost entirely 
 to the foreign population. More recently prunes have gained popu- 
 larity among a small element of the native people to whom they are 
 sold one prune at a time in a manner similar to that seen in China. 
 In stores catering to foreigners, prunes are sold in tins of 1, 2, 
 and 5 pounds. Retail prices vary from 25 to 50 cents a pound. In 
 smaller containers holding !/2 pound, they would probably have a 
 larger sale for local use if the containers could be cheaply manu- 
 factured. Tins having a replaceable cover, so that the container may 
 have a further utility, pay a higher rate of duty under the French 
 tariff than cans which, when opened, are thereby destroyed for further 
 use. For this reason tinned prunes sent to Indo-China should be 
 packed in an ordinary can similar to that used for canned fruits. 
 
 Dried apricots, peaches, pears, figs, and apples are only used in 
 small quantities by the foreign population. Dried apricots, peaches, 
 and pears were on sale in Saigon at 51 cents a pound. Although they 
 are stocked in the best stores in the large cities, it is evident that the 
 sale is small. It is unlikely to increase. 
 
 Dried fruits shipped from California to Saigon pay freight at the 
 rate of $17 per ton of 40 cubic feet. In addition, there are lighterage 
 charges of $1.20 a ton from the point of discharge to the customs 
 warehouse. Other additional charges occur in amounts similar to 
 those for canned and fresh fruits. 
 
 Dried fruits from America, coming into Indo-China, do so on the 
 indent system through agents located in Saigon who represent French 
 firms which carry a number of agencies. Freight rates from Saigon 
 to places in southern and western Indo-China average about 12 cents 
 a case. To the cities of Hanoi and Haiphong on the northern coast, 
 shipments are made from the United States rather than through 
 Saigon. 
 
 Dried fruits probably represent the best opportunity for the 
 expansion of fruit markets in French Indo-China. The packaging 
 of these in small, inexpensive tins of % to 1 pound, would doubtless 
 increase sales. There is a certain demand for bulk raisins and bulk 
 prunes in tin-lined cases. Thus far, the use of tin-lined cases has been 
 confined to raisins and has not been obtainable for prunes. 
 
 The political, social, and economic status of French Indo-China 
 makes it difficult to carry forward much trade promotion in dried 
 fruits without an expenditure of money beyond the merits of the 
 prospective market. Generally speaking, the local agencies which 
 
178 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 represent American firms are less interested in this phase of their 
 business than in others which seem to offer larger opportunities. In 
 addition, the population is very poor. Finally, the governmental 
 agencies are not notably sympathetic toward promotional enterprises 
 for American foodstuffs. The same expenditure of time and money 
 would probably bring larger results elsewhere. 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods. — Except in the case of raisins, Amer- 
 ican fruits have not reached the native population of French Indo- 
 China. Raisins seem to provide an exception to the general rule laid 
 down by all dealers that the natives cannot be considered as a market 
 for fruits from California. The popularity of raisins has been based 
 on the fact that they have been sold cheaply in a small package which 
 contains a considerable number of individual fruits. At first, these 
 small packages provided a confection for children. They later were 
 used extensively by natives of all classes and by the Chinese residents. 
 
 The foreign population of French Indo-China is so small that it is 
 negligible in any consideration of large markets for American fruits. 
 Although the demand among foreigners can be increased by more 
 frequent receipts of fresh fruits, by extensive presentation of small 
 cans of fruit, and by the packaging of dried fruits in small moisture- 
 proof containers, the opportunity offered is relatively small. 
 
 French Indo-China is being developed by France for the benefit 
 of the French people. Business houses are predominantly French, 
 both in nationality and in sympathy. The government of French 
 Indo-China looks with some disfavor upon the extensive promotion 
 and sale of foreign commodities which are also produced in the mother 
 country. Therefore, any extensive sales promotion enterprise in 
 French Indo-China might encounter the opposition of the French 
 government as expressed through prohibitive tariffs. 
 
 Extensive trade promotion in Eastern Asia would have larger 
 results in several other countries than in Indo-China. However, the 
 general principles involved in successful trade enterprise apply with 
 equal force to this territory as to others. The Chinese dealer, static 
 in his trade demands and outlook, is found in Indo-China as also in 
 the Philippine Islands and in China itself. The Far Eastern agent, 
 who represents many firms and many commodities of world-wide dis- 
 tribution is in Indo-China with about the same outlook and perspec- 
 tive as elsewhere. If his sympathies are here more predominently 
 continental, it is only to be expected. The difficulties and problems 
 of trade promotion in Indo-China are similar to those found else- 
 where except that they exist to a larger degree and if they were 
 successfully overcome they would perhaps bring smaller results. 
 
FRUIT MARKETS IN SIAM 
 
180 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 51 
 Direct Fruit Exports from California to Siam 
 
 Kind of fruit 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 1929 
 
 Canned 
 Berries 
 
 pounds 
 
 1,732 
 1,157 
 2,738 
 10,281 
 6,138 
 4,760 
 3,888 
 
 dollars 
 
 379 
 147 
 367 
 1,709 
 957 
 603 
 592 
 
 pounds 
 
 3,612 
 3,438 
 2,924 
 7,474 
 8,154 
 7,636 
 5,558 
 
 dollars 
 
 715 
 
 424 
 
 .380 
 
 1,317 
 
 1,142 
 
 944 
 
 900 
 
 pounds 
 
 2,621 
 1,854 
 4,275 
 5,592 
 5,203 
 3,163 
 3,199 
 2,829 
 913 
 538 
 1,515 
 
 dollars 
 
 532 
 
 Apples 
 
 231 
 
 Apricots 
 
 564 
 
 Cherries 
 
 993 
 
 Prunes 
 
 742 
 
 Peaches 
 
 357 
 
 Pears 
 
 517 
 
 Fruit for salad .. 
 
 495 
 
 Other canned .. 
 
 8,751 
 1,032 
 7,791 
 
 1,074 
 
 139 
 
 2,001 
 
 2,976 
 
 192 
 
 7,154 
 
 382 
 
 31 
 
 1,368 
 
 141 
 
 Pineapples 
 
 90 
 
 Jams, jellies, etc 
 
 449 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 48,268 
 
 7,968 
 
 49,118 
 
 7,603 
 
 31,702 
 
 5,111 
 
 
 
 Dried 
 
 Raisins 
 
 pounds 
 
 7,300 
 
 1,188 
 
 606 
 
 72 
 
 998 
 
 dollars 
 
 612 
 
 176 
 
 102 
 
 10 
 
 119 
 
 pounds 
 
 42,735 
 300 
 
 dollars 
 
 3,866 
 60 
 
 pounds 
 
 13,795 
 512 
 144 
 
 48 
 
 699 
 
 48 
 
 1,015 
 
 dollars 
 
 886 
 
 Apples 
 
 102 
 
 Apricots.. . 
 
 52 
 
 Peaches ... 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 Prunes 
 
 589 
 
 178 
 
 94 
 
 Pears 
 
 18 
 
 Other djied 
 
 577 
 
 101 
 
 244 
 
 46 
 
 204 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 10,741 
 
 1,120 
 
 43,868 
 
 4,150 
 
 16,261 
 
 1,369 
 
 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Grapefruit 
 
 boxes 
 
 dollars 
 
 boxes 
 
 dollars 
 
 boxes 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 85 
 
 dollars 
 
 82 
 
 Lemons 
 
 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 Oranges 
 
 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 Apples 
 
 
 
 
 
 273 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grapes 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 pounds 
 
 7,696 
 44 
 
 dollars 
 
 956 
 
 Pears 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Other fresh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Bul. 493' 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 181 
 
 FRUIT MARKETS IN SIAM 
 
 The kingdom of Siam, an absolute monarchy, occupies the central 
 and upper portions of the great Malayan peninsula of southeastern 
 Asia. It is bounded by Indo-China on the eact, and by British Burma 
 on the west. It stretches southward down the Malayan peninsula to 
 British Malaya. The total area of Siam is estimated at about 200,000 
 square miles, with a population of approximately 10,000,000 people. 
 
 The imports of Siam enter through Bangkok, which is not only the capital of 
 the kingdom but also its principal city. 
 
 Thus, the average density is only 50 persons per square mile. How- 
 ever, certain areas in the delta region are thickly populated, while 
 others in the northern hill country are comparatively uninhabited. 
 
 Bangkok is not only the capital, but the principal city. It is 
 estimated that 85 per cent of the imports of Siam enter through this 
 one port. The population of Bangkok is about 400,000 persons, but 
 with the surrounding district tributary thereto, the capital area has 
 a population of 827,000 persons. It is in this area that most of the 
 foreign goods are consumed, and the greatest purchasing power of the 
 country gathered. 
 
 The total white population of Siam includes only about 2,000 
 persons, of whom over three-fourths are in Bangkok.* The entire 
 
 * General Information Circular. American Consulate General, Bangkok (1928). 
 
182 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 consuming power of Europeans resident in Siam is thus less than in 
 many a country village in the United States. 
 
 Siam has permitted and, indeed, encouraged immigration under 
 the general principle that the country needed and could support a 
 larger population and that it should welcome to its shores peoples 
 from the nearby crowded countries. For years past there has been 
 an emigration from China aggregating about 100,000 per year. Boats 
 crowded with Chinese immigrants land in Bangkok several times a 
 week. Thus, the population of Siam has become strongly infused 
 with Chinese. Although the official figures credit the Chinese with 
 less than 5 per cent of the population, estimates made by many 
 persons conversant with the country ranged as high as 50 per cent 
 of Chinese in the entire population of Siam. These estimates included 
 not only those of full Chinese race but also others of mixed blood, 
 known as '' luk- chins, " who despite a partial parentage from the 
 Siamese, show strong Chinese affiliations. Although Siamese control 
 the government under the monarchy and occupy the governmental 
 positions, the Chinese are predominant in commercial circles and, as 
 in other countries to which they have migrated, control the distribu- 
 tion of products from the importer to the consumer. 
 
 The people of Siam, of Malay race, are indolent, pleasure-loving, 
 and tolerant. The more ambitious, hard-working, and frugal Chinese 
 have long dominated the commercial circles of the country, but are 
 content to occupy a subordinate position in the nation so long as the 
 are not disturbed in their commercial supremacy. For imported 
 articles, the Chinese are almost the only element considered, except 
 for those articles purchased by governmental agencies. The buying 
 power of the agricultural population is so low, its wants so few, and 
 its activities so narrow, that commercial agencies in Siam give little 
 consideration to the native race. However, there are many well- 
 educated Siamese occupied in the affairs of government. These and 
 a few other wealthy Siamese constitute a group whose total purchases 
 aggregate a considerable amount. 
 
 The government of Siam is making strong efforts to develop the 
 interior of the country, both through the extension of the Siamese 
 Government Railways and through the building of automobile roads. 
 However, the transportation of most products is by means of the 
 waterways, which ramify over the great central plain where the agri- 
 cultural wealth of the nation is concentrated. Small boats loaded 
 with rice come down from the interior to the markets of Bangkok to 
 carry back imported foodstuffs and other products from abroad. To 
 a considerable degree, these imported products serve as a means of 
 
Buk 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 183 
 
 barter in the interior. The Chinese who carry on this trade frequently 
 derive most of their profit, not from the imported article which they 
 sell, but from the rice, teakwood and other products which they trade 
 for imported goods and which they bring down from distant sections 
 of the country. 
 
 For the year ending March 31, 1927, imports into Siam totaled 
 about $90,000,000. Exports amounted to about $110,000,000. Over 
 $11,000,000 or about 14 per cent of the imports were classified as food- 
 stuffs. Foodstuffs ranked as the largest single class of goods im- 
 ported.* The chief items of these foodstuffs were, however, sugar from 
 
 The transportation of most products in Siam is by means of the canals and 
 waterways which ramify over the great central plain where the agricultural wealth 
 of the nation is concentrated. 
 
 Java, and vegetables, fresh and dried fish, and other commodities from 
 China. American foodstuffs occupy but a small place in these imports. 
 In 1929 the declared direct importation of canned fruits from Califor- 
 nia totaled only 31,702 pounds, valued at $5,111. The dried fruits 
 totaled 16,261 pounds, valued at $1,369. Doubtless larger amounts 
 reached Siam by re-export from Singapore and Hongkong, but the 
 present consumption of California fruits is very small. 
 
 The climate of Siam is tropical. The average mean temperature 
 at Bangkok is 83° Fahr. The year is divided into a wet season lasting 
 from May to October, and a dry season from November to April. 
 
 * Market for American Foodstuffs in Siam. Trade Information Bulletin 610. 
 U. S. Dept. Commerce (1929). D. C. Bliss. 
 
184 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Thus, fruits shipped to Siam must be well protected against both heat 
 and moisture, since in the damp tropical climate of the country, food- 
 stuffs rapidly deteriorate and become unfit for sale. 
 
 Fruit in the Siamese Diet. — As elsewhere in eastern Asia, the basis 
 of the diet of the people is rice. The morning meal usually consists 
 of rice curry, vegetables, and peppers, mixed with salt and garlic. 
 The noon meal is about the same as the breakfast. The evening meal 
 is largely of rice curry. It usually lacks the hot flavoring ingredients 
 used at breakfast. The rice curry of the evening meal is generally of 
 chopped meat and fish. A small amount of fermented fish oil may 
 be added. Among the wealthier classes, fresh native fruits usually 
 conclude the meal. The use of sweets between meals is common 
 throughout all of Siam among people able to purchase them. Very 
 sweet fruit drinks, low-quality ice creams containing fruits such as 
 .bananas and fresh cocoanuts, and native candies are extensively used 
 in the towns of Siam. 
 
 The native fruits are never cooked but are eaten raw. High-class 
 Siamese families, however, are learning to cook foreign dried fruits 
 so that small amounts of these are now being used. The Siamese home 
 has a very small porcelain or iron stove, in which charcoal is burned. 
 In the country districts, much of the cooking is done over an open 
 fire of twigs and small bits of wood. 
 
 The food of the Chinese population is similar to that- prevalent 
 in southern China. Their diet differs from the Siamese in that they 
 do not commonly use the hot sauces, curries, and other condiments 
 popular among the native races. 
 
 Considerable quantities of salt are used in the Chinese food. The 
 Chinese are particularly fond of shrimps, crabs, and of dried and 
 fresh fish. The poorer Chinese families usually have only two meals 
 a day, while the wealthier classes often have four or five. The Chinese 
 are fond of the canned fruits imported from China. Large amounts 
 of canned lichees, bamboo sprouts and pineapple are consumed. Here, 
 as in China, many Chinese in cities purchase and eat their meals at 
 the small restaurants and eating-shops and curb-stone stands. Other 
 families buy cooked foods from street vendors who come through the 
 Chinese sections of the city crying their wares. Very little cooking is 
 actually done in the Chinese home. 
 
 The large influx of Chinese into Siam has influenced the native 
 food habits in the cities to the degree that Siamese are beginning to 
 follow the customs of the Chinese in purchasing cooked foods from 
 vendors or at restaurants. These vendors, operating on a very narrow 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 185 
 
 margin of profit, are able to sell prepared meals at but slightly in- 
 creased cost over the raw materials. 
 
 The consumption of native fruits in Siam is very large. Much 
 of the population live on a narrow dietary and on very small incomes. 
 The comparative cheapness of native fruits furnishes a means of 
 filling hungry stomachs at a relatively small price. Despite the cheap- 
 ness and variety of fruits available throughout the entire year, the 
 lower classes of the population have a dietary deficiency which fre- 
 quently results in beri-beri and other deficiency diseases. In a country 
 such as Siam where fruits are so abundant and cheap, this alone is a 
 commentary upon the low financial status of a large element of the 
 population. 
 
 Fresh Fruits. — Despite the volume of native fresh fruits which are 
 in the markets of Siam throughout the year at low prices, a certain 
 demand exists among the Europeans and the high class Siamese who 
 have been educated abroad for imported fruits to grace dinners and 
 banquets, arid to provide a novelty in the diet. 
 
 The best season for the importation of fresh fruits is between the 
 first of November and the first of January. Most of the national 
 holidays and festivals fall at this time of the year when the weather 
 is less torrid. It is during this season that much entertaining is done. 
 
 Oranges have only a small demand in Bangkok because of the 
 •prevalence and cheapness of the native orange. California oranges 
 running 200 to the box wholesale at about 4 cents each and retail at 
 about 7V2 cents each. The larger sizes sometimes bring double the 
 price. Lemons are uncommon in this market because of the use of the 
 native lime which takes the place of the American lemon. Lemons, 
 however, have been received, 300 to the box, which wholesale at about 
 5 cents each and retail at about 7^2 cents. 
 
 Apples have been largely brought into Bangkok from Australia. 
 The shorter voyage and the excellent keeping qualities of Australian 
 apples make them popular. However, due to the fact that Australian 
 apples come into this market during a different season of the year than 
 do American apples, there is a certain small demand for American 
 apples running 113 to 138 to the box. These wholesale at $3.60 a box 
 and have retailed at 22 cents a pound. 
 
 Grapes from California are the most popular imported fruit in 
 Siam. The market for these is between November first and January 
 first. The cost delivered in Bangkok is between 15 and 18 cents a 
 pound. They retail at about 27 cents a pound. Heretofore American 
 fresh fruits received in Bangkok were trans-shipped at Hongkong or 
 
186 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Singapore to boats touching at this port. A recent service by direct 
 sailing once in 42 days has enabled fruits to be received direct from 
 California. The infrequency of sailings makes it possible for only a 
 few direct shipments to reach the market during the brief fall season 
 of the year when imported fruits are in greatest demand. The market 
 is thus easily overloaded since, after the long voyage from America, 
 such commodities as grapes cannot be expected to keep in good con- 
 diton for a long period. 
 
 The cold storage space available at Bangkok is so small as to be 
 almost negligible. Two business houses have refrigeration space which 
 they rent for about IV3 cents per* pound per month. Outside of 
 Bangkok no sales of imported fresh fruits are made, the market at the 
 present time being practically confined to the capital and its vicinity. 
 
 Fresh fruits are usually ordered on the indent system and are dis- 
 tributed by importers to wholesalers and Chinese shopkeepers. The 
 importers of fresh fruits also have retail stores in which the fruit is 
 sold. Freight from San Francisco to Bangkok averages for grapes, 
 $25 to $28.50 per ton of 40 cubic feet; for apples, $1.10 to $1.24 a box; 
 for oranges, $1.50 to $1.72 a box ; for lemons, $1.92 a box. There is 
 a 5 per cent duty on all commodities entering the country. Boats 
 are generally unloaded at Kohsichang, "The Island of the Four 
 Elephants," from which goods must be lightered to Bangkok. This 
 takes from twelve to twenty-four hours. Lighterage and coolie hire 
 cost about 6V2 cents a package. Above the delivered costs, wholesalers 
 and shopkeepers usually add a profit of from 10 to 20 per cent each 
 time the goods change hands from the time they leave the importer. 
 
 The population of Siam is exceedingly fond of fresh fruit, which 
 they consume between meals in large quantities. They would undoubt- 
 edly appreciate American fruits such as grapes, apples, peaches, and 
 pears provided these could be delivered at a cost within the range of 
 their purchasing power. Since, however, these commodities are so far 
 beyond the possibility of purchase by any except a very small element 
 of the population, and since facilities for the storage of fruits are so 
 meager, the importation of fresh fruit from California to Siam can 
 be only in very small quantities. Neither the buying power of the 
 people nor the facilities for storage, distribution, and sale are avail- 
 able for any large quantity of fresh fruit. Thus, it is probable that, 
 as in the past, the sale of fresh American fruits will be confined to 
 the small luxury class and even then to the times of the year when 
 they are entertaining extensively. The appreciation of American 
 fresh fruits is evident. This is not, however, a proper gauge of the 
 market demand. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 187 
 
 Canned Fruits. — Perhaps half of the American canned fruits 
 imported into Siam are consumed by the foreign population and the 
 other half by educated Siamese and by Chinese. American canned 
 fruits are not generally found outside of the capital city. On the 
 other hand, Chinese canned goods such as lichees, bamboo sprouts, 
 and pineapples are extensively imported from China for use of the 
 large resident Chinese population throughout the country. Much 
 canned pineapple is also brought from Singapore. These canned goods 
 at low prices are found in villages and towns of the interior where 
 American canned goods do not reach. Generally speaking, no effort 
 whatsoever has been made to develop the sale of American canned 
 fruits in the small cities, towns, or villages of Siam. Indeed, in many 
 smaller places, the buying power of the people is so low as to make it 
 doubtful whether such efforts would be warranted. In Siam, even 
 more than in many other countries, the buying power of the nation 
 is concentrated in the capital. 
 
 Canned cherries are particularly popular among the Chinese. 
 Canned grapes have the largest sale among both Chinese and Siamese 
 because of their lower price. Peaches are probably the most popular 
 canned fruit among foreigners and are also consumed somewhat by 
 natives and by Chinese. Fruit salad is increasing in popularity. 
 Canned apples, apricots, and pears are used only by foreigners in 
 limited amounts. Representative retail prices are given in the table 
 below : 
 
 TABLE 52 
 
 Current Retail Prices, November 1929 
 
 American Canned Fruits, Bangkok, Siam 
 
 Prices per can 
 
 No. 2 y 2 No. l 
 
 Apples $0.30 $ 
 
 Apricots 37 0.19 
 
 Cherries 48 .28 
 
 Grapes 29 
 
 Peaches 44 .24 
 
 Pears 33 .19 
 
 Fruit salad 48 .28 
 
 In general, stores in Bangkok catering to the foreign trade carry 
 a full line of American canned fruits in the No. 2% and No. 1 tall 
 sizes. Prices in other towns in Siam usually increase about 25 to 30 
 per cent over retail prices in Bangkok. It is infrequent, however, 
 for much American canned fruit to be found in other towns of the 
 kingdom. The 8-ounce cans of fruit recently introduced in America 
 are not as yet on sale in Siam. 
 
188 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Freight rates from California to Siam are $17.90 per ton of 40 
 cubic feet, in addition to which there is a 5 per cent duty and a 
 lighterage charge of about 6V2 cents a package from the point of 
 discharge down the river to Bangkok. In addition to direct ship- 
 ments from America, indirect shipments are made from Singapore. 
 Native boats loaded with rice, cattle and hides journey from Bangkok 
 to Singapore. Returning, they bill cargoes at low rates. Any com- 
 modity that proves popular is likely to find the market flooded by ship- 
 ments made by Chinese dealers through representatives in Singapore 
 
 Although stores in the interior of Siam sell many imported articles, American 
 canned and dried fruits are infrequently on sale. 
 
 who send the goods to Bangkok on these native boats. Thus, the price 
 of canned goods in Bangkok has been subject to fluctuations from these 
 unforseen shipments which arrive from time to time on native crafts. 
 
 Likewise, in shipments of various foodstuffs into the interior, 
 Chinese lighters operate on narrow margins of profit. Boats travel- 
 ing over the network of rivers and canals into the interior, there buy 
 up cargoes of rice, hides, and teakwood. In order to secure these 
 cargoes, they carry from Bangkok into the interior whatever com- 
 modities they believe will find ready exchange as a means of barter 
 for the rice and other products which they hope to secure. In such 
 cases, the Chinese usually expect to make their profits from the 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 189 
 
 products brought back rather than from the imported goods which 
 they use as a means of exchange. The impossibility of forecasting 
 wildcat shipments to and from the market of Bangkok has made it 
 difficult for agents at Bangkok to so operate that dealers handling 
 the commodity can be assured of a reasonable profit. All efforts to 
 build up demand are based upon the willingness of the Chinese 
 dealers to push the goods. Such willingness requires that they make 
 a profit. The flooding of the market with unexpected shipments of 
 canned goods has made prices erratic and dealers fearful that they 
 may not be able to profitably dispose of the goods. 
 
 It should be understood that the demand for American canned 
 fruits in Bangkok is small and that, from a practical standpoint, they 
 have not permeated the country. At conferences held at Bangkok, 
 importers and dealers were of the opinion that with proper promotion 
 the 8-ounce can of fruit could be successfully soM among a consider- 
 able element of the population. Both the Siamese and Chinese of the 
 better classes are sympathetic toward imported articles. They like 
 sweets. They are fond of fruit. The limiting factor in the past has 
 been that American canned fruits in the large No. 2 1 /-> can were 
 bej^ond the range of purchase of all but a very minute percentage 
 of the population. Furthermore, importers and agents located in 
 Bangkok have been unwilling or unable to devote much time and effort 
 to the promotion of American canned fruits because of the small 
 volume of business that was possible. If small cans of fruit could be 
 extensively introduced into the retail stores of Siam, the present con- 
 sumption might be materially increased. There is also an opportunity 
 for increased consumption of canned fruits among the European 
 population. Although this market is not large enough to be of 
 consequence by itself, trade promotion conducted with and through 
 the native population might be expected to result in a larger use of 
 these fruits among Europeans. 
 
 Dned Fruits. — The only dried fruit from America having exten- 
 sive sale in Siam is raisins. Those are used extensively both by the 
 Chinese and Siamese populations. Practically all kinds of American 
 dried fruits are found on sale in the stores catering to foreigners, but 
 the turnover is so small that it is surprising that so large a variety 
 is stocked. 
 
 Raisins are chiefly shipped into Siam in 25-pound tin-lined cases 
 in which they are distributed through wholesalers to retailers. Each 
 tin-lined case is usually accompanied by a thousand small paper 
 envelopes. The retail dealer places from eight to twelve raisins in 
 each of these envelopes, which he then offers for sale at one local cent 
 
190 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 each, which is equivalent to less than one-half of an American cent. 
 Raisins are also sold in the 1%-ounce package which sells for from 
 3% to 5 cents, and in the 15-ounce carton which retails for about 
 13 cents. They are also offered, largely to the foreign trade, in the 
 1-pound, 2-pound, and 5-pound tins. 
 
 One of the commercial wonders of the Far East is the way in 
 which California raisins came into popularity in a day. Since they 
 are used mainly as a confection for eating between meals, the demand 
 is not necessarily permanent, and indeed there are evidences that they 
 are less popular in Siam than formerly. Competition among different 
 brands and irregular and unexpected shipments into Bangkok from 
 other ports of the Orient have made it difficult to regulate supply to 
 demand. Thus, the price has been forced downward so that dealers 
 are less interested in pushing the sale of this product and less willing 
 to buy stocks in advance for fear that further declines in price may 
 result in losses to them. Although the population in and around 
 Bangkok are the chief consumers, it is estimated that about 25 per 
 cent of the raisins shipped into the country are sold through the 
 many retail stores in country districts. 
 
 Prunes are only used by Europeans, with the exception of a very 
 small amount sold to the Chinese population. It is recognized, 
 however, that it might be possible to popularize prunes among the 
 Chinese and some of the native population provided it were possible 
 to sell them in small units similar to the manner in which raisins are 
 packaged. Prunes delivered in Bangkok cost about 13 V2 cents a 
 pound ; they are on sale at retail for 20 cents a pound. Unless packed 
 in tin, prunes rapidly become unfit for consumption through souring 
 or through insect infectation. Therefore, prunes are usually sold in 
 a 1-pound tin, in which form they are unavailable to the middle classes 
 of the population whose purchasing power is not high enough to 
 include such a large unit. 
 
 A small amount of white figs are sold which retail in tins. These 
 are used mainly by the Chinese at festival seasons. In tins, apples 
 retail at 48 cents a pound, apricots at 44 cents a pound, and peaches 
 at 40 cents a pound. In addition to the California dried fruits found 
 on the market, currants are imported from Australia which retail at 
 20 cents a pound. Raisins from Australia retail at 13 cents a pound ; 
 dried lichees from China were sold at 36 cents a pound. The Chinese 
 stores also carry large amounts of Chinese dried fruits of the type 
 that are coated with sugar and honey. These are as popular here 
 among the Chinese population as they are in China. 
 
Bui* 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 191 
 
 Freight on dried fruits from California ports to Bangkok is $17.90 
 per ton of 40 cubic feet. In addition thereto, there is a duty of 5 per 
 cent and a lighterage charge of about 6V2 cents a case. Freight rates 
 by railroad into the interior are high. Therefore, commodities are 
 generally carried by boat through the numerous canals wherever they 
 can be utilized. There are no uniform rates for such transportation, 
 since the method is to arrive at a bargin with the boatman. 
 
 Merchandizing in Siam is in the hands of Chinese who control the commercial 
 enterprises of the kingdom. 
 
 Dried fruits are generally imported into Siam on the indent 
 system, although a few firms carry small stocks on hand. Sales are 
 generally made to Chinese wholesalers who may themselves run a 
 retail business as well as conduct a wholesale enterprise. 
 
 Because of the hot, damp climate, dried fruits shipped in bulk or 
 in cartons quickly spoil. Even if the cartons are wrapped in waxed 
 paper, spoilage results because the cartons are bored by various 
 insects. It is, therefore, necessary to pack dried fruits either in tin- 
 lined cases or in small retail-size cans. The sale of raisins in envelopes 
 and in small cartons has been made possible by the rapid turnover 
 resulting from the volume of business in this fruit. Other fruits not 
 
192 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 so quickly salable cannot be feasibly shipped into this market by that 
 method. 
 
 Prunes present the best opportunity for the expansion of the 
 market for dried fruits. Importers, wholesalers, and dealers agree 
 that with proper trade promotion these might be popularized among 
 the upper and middle classes of Chinese and Siamese throughout the 
 nation. Prunes should be sold to retailers in small vacuum tins of 
 from 1 to 5 pounds, with which should be supplied paper envelopes 
 large enought to hold one or two prunes; the expectation being that 
 these would be retailed by hawkers and at street stands in the same 
 manner in which raisins have been sold. As the volume of sales 
 increased, and the fruit became more popular, it would then be pos- 
 sible to ship prunes in tin-lined wooden boxes with the expectation 
 that retailers would be able to dispose of these prunes by the envelope 
 method before they spoiled. At present, however, prunes in 25-pound 
 wooden boxes, whether tin-lined or not, are a mistaken method of 
 packing for this market. Figs and pears might also be popularized 
 by similar methods. It is not probable that the Chinese or native 
 population would respond to efforts to interest them in dried apricots, 
 apples, or peaches. 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods. — At present the sale of canned and 
 dried fruits is conducted through importing agencies which handle a 
 large number of products among which fruits are included. In the 
 past, the sales have been so small and the difficulties connected with 
 the business so many that little concentrated attention has been given 
 to these products by the agents in charge. In return they have received 
 little encouragement from the American companies that they represent 
 and have felt that the business was immaterial either to the industry 
 at home or to their own profits. 
 
 If successful trade promotion for American canned and dried 
 fruits is to be conducted in Siam it will be necessary to delegate some 
 person or persons to develop the business and to travel throughout 
 the country. It will also be necessary for the fruit to be offered for 
 sale in small unit packages, in an effort to bring it within the purchas- 
 ing power of the people. 
 
 Advertising in Siam is not a successful method of trade promotion. 
 The Siamese generally dislike blatant forms of advertising and are 
 more inclined to respond to some method of personal appeal. The 
 distribution of free samples in connection with entrance fees to moving 
 picture shows or at fairs and festivals is a more effective method 
 than a similar amount of money expended for advertising. There 
 
Buii. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 193 
 
 are three languages in use in Siam : English, Siamese, and Chinese. 
 On all packages it is desirable to print labels in at least two, if not 
 three, of these languages. It is furthermore highly desirable, if the 
 label is to give a picture of the fruit, to have that picture as the fruit 
 appears inside the package rather than as it appears on the tree. 
 Labels on California fruits showing whole red peaches with accom- 
 panying green leaves are likely to seem a deceit to the Siamese when 
 they open the package and find therein yellow sliced peaches. 
 
 Demonstrations before schools are an effective method in Siam. 'The 
 government is encouraging education and the people respect it. The 
 upper governing class in this absolute monarchy have not only a 
 political but a moral hold upon the people which enables them to set 
 the fashion. There are many clerks and other middle-class employees 
 in Bangkok who eat at least one meal a day in tea houses and 
 restaurants. If California canned and dried fruits were served in 
 these restaurants at a low cost, it would go far in popularizing them 
 among the people. All trade promotion should seek to emphasize 
 that California fruit of the varieties promoted is healthful, inexpen- 
 sive, and delicious. California fruits are not yet in the public mind. 
 The aim of trade promotion should be to bring them into public 
 consciousness and to keep them there. 
 
 Siam is absolutely dependent upon the rice crop. Probably 70 per 
 cent of the population derives its livelihood from that one industrty. 
 Although large amounts of teakwood are exported, the value of this 
 is inconsiderable when compared with the value of rice. Siam is thus 
 a one-crop country subject to violent fluctuations in its economic 
 condition, according to the condition of the rice. Trade promotion 
 conducted in Siam would thus face the difficulty of dealing with a 
 people of varying purchasing power. Conducted in a good rice year, 
 trade promotion might achieve a considerable result, whereas similar 
 methods in the following year with a bad rice crop might be totally 
 lost. Even with these varying conditions, however, it its probable 
 that the people of Siam have as high a purchasing power as similar 
 numbers in China, and that trade promotion might be as effective 
 here as among the Chinese. The present system of distribution, by 
 which fruit is indented into the country through agents largely 
 occupied in other affairs, cannot be expected to result in any material 
 increase in sales. If a larger volume of California fruit is to be sold 
 in Siam, the entire method of distribution must be modified, a reason- 
 able sum of money must be expended, and the packages must be 
 adapted to the needs and purchasing power of the people. 
 
194 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 The largest opportunity for an increased sale of California fruit 
 in Siam is with prunes. It is probable also that the 8-ounce can of 
 fruit might, to a limited degree, be successfully promoted among the 
 Oriental population. With the exception of raisins, American canned 
 and dried fruits are practically unknown to the masses of the people 
 of Siam. 
 
FRUIT MARKETS IN BRITISH MALAYA 
 
196 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 53 
 
 Direct Fruit Exports from California to British Malaya 
 
 Kind of fruit 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 1929 
 
 Canned 
 
 Berries 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Pears 
 
 Fruit for salad 
 
 Other canned 
 
 Pineapples 
 
 Jams, jellies, etc. 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 44,797 
 22,846 
 53,313 
 32,772 
 66,004 
 114,429 
 84,925 
 
 401,449 
 
 3,370 
 
 70,090 
 
 894,055 
 
 Dried 
 
 Raisins 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Pears 
 
 Other dried. 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 73,450 
 
 15,647 
 
 2,067 
 
 1,232 
 
 27,729 
 
 4,919 
 
 125,044 
 
 dollars 
 
 8,131 
 2,548 
 6,873 
 5,384 
 8,606 
 12,580 
 11,561 
 
 pounds 
 
 45,013 
 IS, 042 
 55,723 
 51,552 
 49,345 
 131,010 
 90,446 
 
 37,949 
 
 471 
 
 15,690 
 
 225,696 
 
 6,269 
 
 70,146 
 
 109,793 
 
 743, S42 
 
 dollars 
 
 6,178 
 
 2,537 
 
 422 
 
 212 
 
 2,821 
 
 pounds 
 
 65,393 
 
 20,218 
 
 3,452 
 
 1,373 
 
 57,300 
 
 1,189 
 
 7,422 
 
 13,359 
 
 155,158 
 
 dollars 
 
 7,901 
 2,226 
 6,513 
 8,713 
 
 6,748 
 13,586 
 12,105 
 
 23,206 
 
 835 
 
 13,983 
 
 pounds 
 
 58,185 
 11,875 
 44,414 
 33,948 
 49,265 
 
 114,832 
 84,596 
 62,966 
 
 249,994 
 
 2,975 
 
 14,992 
 
 95,876 
 
 728,042 
 
 dollars 
 
 5,521 
 
 2,887 
 517 
 164 
 
 5,831 
 
 1,411 
 
 pounds 
 
 123,101 
 
 18,262 
 
 5,697 
 
 2,600 
 
 53,204 
 
 3,402 
 
 11,946 
 
 16,331 
 
 218,212 
 
 dollars 
 
 10,474 
 
 1,626 
 
 5,454 
 
 0,150 
 
 0,177 
 
 12,555 
 
 11,278 
 
 11,449 
 
 25,329 
 
 501 
 
 4,292 
 
 95,285 
 
 dollars 
 
 9,379 
 3,408 
 1,282 
 
 472 
 5,797 
 
 305 
 2,330 
 
 23,033 
 
 Fresh 
 Grapefruit. 
 
 Lemons 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Apples 
 
 boxes 
 
 1 , 045 
 
 971 
 
 9,33S 
 
 24,023 
 
 dollars 
 
 7,182 
 
 5,075 
 
 50,400 
 
 50,4S0 
 
 boxes 
 
 1,929 
 2,113 
 
 9,9S7 
 25,440 
 
 dollars 
 
 8,793 
 10,343 
 50,523 
 45,091 
 
 boxes 
 
 2,042 
 1,338 
 
 11,700 
 38,227 
 
 Berries 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Pears 
 
 Peaches 
 Other fresh 
 
 pounds 
 
 800 
 
 208,390 
 
 1,903 
 
 dollars 
 
 205 
 
 20,264 
 
 13S 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,7S1 
 
 340 
 
 355,149 
 
 14,459 
 
 300 
 
 1 , 392 
 
 31,131 
 
 929 
 
 24 
 
 70 
 
 pounds 
 
 22,338 
 
 463,973 
 
 19,439 
 
 1,040 
 
 22,805 
 
 dollars 
 
 13,610 
 
 8,095 
 
 63,981 
 
 87,053 
 
 dollars 
 
 4,023 
 
 42,147 
 
 1,301 
 
 104 
 
 2,0G3 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 197 
 
 FRUIT MARKETS IN BRITISH MALAYA 
 
 British Malaya occupies the southern end of the long Malayan 
 peninsula which stretches southward 400 miles, with its tip almost on 
 the equator. Politically, Malaya has a diverse organization consisting 
 of the Straits Settlements, the Federated Malay States, and the 
 Unfederated Malay States. For the purposes of this report, however, 
 these political divisions are of minor importance, so that the territory 
 may be considered as a unit. The area of British Malaya totals 52,500 
 square miles. With a population of 3,864,000 people it has an average 
 density of 74 persons per square mile. The country as a whole is a 
 low-lying peninsula with many shallow rivers and with a mountain 
 range on the east coast traversing it from north to south. Originally, 
 the whole area was a dense jungle. In many sections, this has been 
 cleared away so that well-developed rural districts now present an 
 appearance of high cultivation. Government railways traverse the 
 peninsula from north to south, connecting with the Siamese railroads 
 to Bangkok. Motor highways, in splendid condition, are maintained 
 between all the larger towns. However, much of the commerce of the 
 peninsula is carried by coastwise shipping on small steamers, boats, 
 and native junks. The shallow rivers furnish an artery for slow- 
 moving freight at low rates. 
 
 The population of British Malaya, originally of the Malay race, 
 has been augmented by large migrations of Chinese and of natives of 
 India, so that at the present time the Malays constitute less than half 
 of the population. In 1928 there were 1,787,000 Malays, 1,374,000 
 Chinese, 628,000 natives of India, 14,913 Eurasians, 21,093 Europeans, 
 and 37,836 others. The Chinese population almost equals the number 
 of Malays, while the natives of India have rapidly increased in 
 numbers since they were introduced at the beginning of the present 
 century to supply cheap labor for the rubber plantations. The Malays 
 are primarily agriculturists, cultivating rubber and rice, or are 
 engaged in fishing. The Chinese are the traders and shopkeepers and 
 are laborers on the plantations and in tin mines. The Indians are 
 mostly engaged on the rubber estates. The Eurasians, as the half- 
 castes are called, are clerks in business houses and in various offices. 
 The Europeans are, of course, the dominant race, occupied in the 
 affairs of government and commerce, and in the management of the 
 mines and larger estates. 
 
198 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Singapore is the great city of British Malaya and, indeed, of all 
 southeastern Asia. With its population of 532,000 it not only domi- 
 nates the commercial affairs of British Malaya but also, through its 
 position on an island close to the tip of the Malayan peninsula, serves 
 as a port of call for all ships passing between east and west, and as a 
 port of trans-shipment between India, the Dutch East Indies, Siam, 
 and China. Products to and from these countries pass through 
 Singapore in enormous volume. It is the seventh port and one of the 
 most strategic points on the world's highways. Among the other 
 cities of Malaya, Malacca has 188,000 people, Penang 181,000, and 
 Kuala Lumpur 101,000. All these cities are located on or close to the 
 west coast of the peninsula. They are not only centers of population 
 but also distributing points to and from the interior of the country. 
 
 Primarily, the prosperity of British Malaya depends upon the 
 markets for rubber and tin, for which products it is the chief pro- 
 ducing country in the world. All civilization rides on automobile tires 
 manufactured from Malayan rubber. Forty per cent of the world's 
 output of tin comes from this country. The total rubber acreage in 
 1928 was 2,750,000 acres, not all of which was yet in production. The 
 exports were 408,693 tons. In the same year 61,935 tons of tin were 
 exported. Although 663,000 acres of rice are grown, the country is 
 on an importing basis for this important foodstuff.* Thus, to a large 
 degree, the purchasing power of the people and the entire prosperity 
 of the country are dependent upon the price and demand for rubber 
 and tin. At the present writing, the values of both rubber and tin are 
 so low that the whole country suffers under the depression. 
 
 The introduction of natives from British India, chiefly Tamils 
 from southern India, who came in as laborers on the rubber plan- 
 tations, was the result of an attempt to decrease the cost of labor. 
 Plantation laborers are paid from 25 to 35 cents a day, together with 
 a certain amount of rice. Chinese coolies, who are largely employed 
 in the tin mines, receive somewhat higher wages than the Tamils. The 
 Chinese in Malaya generally are more prosperous than those occupied 
 in similar industries in their home country, since the wages for 
 Chinese artisans rule 50 per cent higher than in China. Skilled 
 workers in the cities generally receive about $1.00 a day. Among 
 the whole Chinese population there are a considerable number of 
 well-to-do and rich Chinese. Malacca is famed as the home of Chinese 
 millionaires. From Penang it is estimated that in northern Malaya 
 there are 30,000 rich Chinese. Nevertheless, mention is more likely to 
 
 * Unpublished report. D. C. Bliss, Trade Commissioner, Singapore. 
 
Buk 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 199 
 
 be made of the comparatively few well-to-do than of the very large 
 number of Chinese who are but little above the rank of poverty. 
 
 A considerable portion of the rubber plantings of Malaya are in 
 small holdings owned by Chinese and natives. In times of high rubber 
 prices these " native owners" have a comparatively large purchasing 
 power. It is estimated that half the rubber in Malaya is cultivated 
 in acreages of less than 100 acres, owned and worked by Chinese and 
 natives, and that there are more than 100,000 such plantations. Thus, 
 these native rubber plantings equal in area the rubber estates owned 
 by Europeans and the larger estates managed by Asiatics. 
 
 The depression in the price of rubber and tin is manifest directly 
 not only in the general purchasing power of the country but also in 
 the scale of wages and in the amount of employment among the 
 numerous Asiatic population. In a time of low prices, wages on the 
 estates and in the mines are reduced ; clerical staffs are cut down. In 
 prosperous years many of the Chinese firms pay their employees not 
 only a wage but also a bonus. In years of low prices this bonus is 
 not paid. Small though it may be, the bonus is often the only portion 
 of the clerical income that may be invested in luxuries. The price 
 depression in British Malaya is thus felt throughout the entire popu- 
 lation of the country, affecting the native owners, the laborers, the 
 storekeepers, and those occupied in trade and commerce. 
 
 Here, as in all countries to which they have migrated, the Chinese 
 control the distribution of goods from the European agent to the 
 consumer. Their control of merchandizing is due to their willingness 
 to operate on a very small margin of profit, and is assisted by their 
 knowledge of credit and trade among their own nationality. More 
 recently, natives from India have begun to enter the commercial field 
 but, as yet, their activities are negligible and are confined to the 
 smallest retail establishments. 
 
 Europeans introducing imported goods into Malaya generally con- 
 sider only the white race and the Chinese as possible purchasers. The 
 Malays and natives of India are not usually taken into consideration 
 when discussing trade possibilities. The only exception to this is in 
 the interior when in times of high rubber prices native planters 
 suddenly find themselves in comparative affluence. Since the produc- 
 tion of rubber is increasing faster than the consumption, it is difficult 
 to predict when, if ever, these times of prosperity will again favor the 
 native planter. 
 
 Thus, in Malaya, the upper classes consist of the Europeans and 
 of a comparatively few wealthy Chinese. The middle classes are the 
 Eurasians, the Chinese clerks, storekeepers, and skilled artisans. Into 
 
200 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 this class the native Malay planter sometimes intrudes. The great 
 mass of the population — Chinese laborers in mines and on plantations, 
 Tamil workers on rubber estates, Malay farmers — holds little purchas- 
 ing power for imported luxuries. 
 
 The climate of British Malaya is oppressively tropical. Lying 
 almost on the equator, the temperature varies but slightly during the 
 entire year. The seasons are marked only by a wet and a dry season. 
 These seasons are irregular and vary for different parts of Malaya, 
 although April to October is the accepted dry period. Under the hot 
 and humid conditions of the country, the food habits and the trade 
 demands of the people are directly influenced by the climatic con- 
 ditions by which they are always surrounded. Materials of all kinds 
 sent to British Malaya must be protected against both heat and damp- 
 ness, as well as from the insect pests, molds, and fungi which flourish 
 in the humid atmosphere. 
 
 Fruit in the Diet of British Malaya. — Large amounts of fresh 
 fruits are consumed by all classes in British Malaya. Fruits are 
 eaten uncooked, with the exception of bananas, which are sometimes 
 fried in a batter and served as one of the dishes at a regular - meal. 
 Fruit is largely consumed between meals, except among the upper 
 classes where it is sometimes used as a dessert. 
 
 Above all, the Malayan likes hot sauces. Perhaps the heaviest 
 amounts of spices and condiments used anywhere in the world are 
 in the Malayan diet. These hot dishes act as a stimulant to the 
 appetite, and perhaps to the digestion of those living in this perpetu- 
 ally warm climate. Fruits are often eaten green. In that case they 
 are sliced, sprinkled with pepper or a hot chili sauce. In this state 
 their original flavor is probably not perceptible. Hucksters on the 
 streets offer, for a half -cent each, large slices of ripe pineapple over 
 which is sprinkled a pepper sauce. With such an abundance of hot, 
 stimulating condiments used in the food, delicate flavors are not in 
 great demand. Furthermore, sweets are not usually consumed in 
 large quantities. Sweetmeats find their largest use among children, 
 although various forms of candies and candied fruits are occasionally 
 eaten between meals, just as an American might stop at a street stand 
 to buy a 5-cent bar of candy or a package of chewing gum. 
 
 The Chinese, who are the largest potential consumers of foreign 
 products, quickly divert from their home food habits when living in 
 Malaya. They tend to follow the same liking for hot sauces shown 
 by the natives. Even Europeans resident in the country develop an 
 increasing desire for hot flavorings and for occasional meals of native 
 food. Among residents of the tropical East who have returned to 
 
Bui,. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 201 
 
 their European homes, the demand for hot sauces still continues. The 
 returned Easterner has furnished literature with a favorite figure. 
 He is always depicted as being short of temper and digestion, but as 
 longing for the hot sauces and curries of the tropics. 
 
 The change in the food habits of the Chinese after coming to the 
 really tropical country of Malaya is significant in discussing the trade 
 demands for American fruits. Canned American fruits are not in 
 demand here among the Chinese. When asked to choose between a 
 large can of first-class American peaches and a half dozen small native 
 bananas, the Malayan Chinese would probably choose the latter. In 
 China, canned fruits are liked for their sweetness. In Malaya they 
 are not liked because of it. Fresh fruits are cheap and abundant. 
 They are usually firmer than a canned fruit. These people like a 
 hard, firm fruit. 
 
 Normally, the Chinese eat three meals a day, although the more 
 wealthy classes, particularly the Cantonese, may eat five. Rice forms 
 the staple in at least two of these meals. In others, macaroni, vermi- 
 celli, or other starchy foods may take the place of rice. With the rice 
 and other starches are used cooked vegetables and meat, chiefly pork. 
 The Chinese diet in Malaya thus far resembles that in their native 
 land. But as the Chinese remain longer in the country, they add to 
 their staple foods larger amounts of condiments until the so-called 
 "Straits-born" Chinese consumes a diet as strongly condimented 
 as do the Malays. Highly-salted condiments, sour condiments, and 
 above all, hot condiments are regarded as a necessary part of the 
 food supply. Sweets are used between meals but they rank no higher 
 in the public taste than do materials that are salt or sour, if as high, 
 and are considered far below those that are hot. So-called fresh fruits 
 are shipped into Malaya for Chinese consumption from southern 
 China. They are preserved in a brine and are packed in kegs or jars. 
 Apparently the salt does not detract from their popularity with the 
 consumer. 
 
 Large quantities of preserved and pickled fruits are sold on the 
 streets under the general name of 'kana.' This name has come to 
 cover a wide variety of fruit products, purchasable for a local cent, 
 about equal to half an American cent. All of these are highly seasoned 
 so that to the uninitiated the original flavor is not evident. Kana 
 may be salty, sour, hot, or sweet. Hundreds of street stands sell it to 
 passers-by, as do food-shops and coffee shops. At one small shop 
 thirteen such products were purchased, some of which were as follows : 
 Dried olives of a nutmeg color, tasting both sweet and sour ; dark red 
 
202 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 plums cut into thin slices dipped in syrup tasting sweet and sour; 
 dark brown plums crushed flat, treated with powdered licorice and 
 tasting sour; black dates dried and then boiled in a sugar syrup; 
 dried salted dates rolled in licorice powder and tasting very salty. 
 Twenty other different products could be purchased in any one of a 
 hundred stands on the prominent streets of Singapore. 
 
 The diet of all classes in Malaya is thus characterized by a demand 
 for strong condiments as a zest to the appetite in the consumption of 
 
 Sk i >*r MA. 
 
 ■1 
 
 
 
 *•* .v '•;• *\ % *v ... "_t^B 
 
 yi 35*p-*. ■ * *^> ^2> '-;t ~,„ a 
 
 mm. y%; k\ s '.*^> - ^ " \ ■■ 
 
 &* ',, .-, T"*v '■' ''i** 4 ? » ^flH 
 
 life """■•..»,' .*i2L*Jm *M "^'•'""■■ik. 
 
 In British Malaya many kinds of preserved and pickled fruits are sold on the 
 streets under the general name of ' ' kana. ' ' Thirteen kinds were purchased at 
 one stand for about one-half a cent each. These condiments are eaten between 
 meals to lessen the growing hunger. 
 
 rice, vegetables, and meat. Fruit, particularly native fruit, is pur- 
 chased in great amounts when it is cheap and abundant, but it is 
 largely consumed as a refreshment between meals. 
 
 Fresh Fruits. — Native fruits are abundant in British Malaya 
 during the entire year. Nevertheless there is an important and a 
 growing market for fresh fruits from other countries. 
 
 Five countries, other than the United States, are competing for 
 the fresh-fruit markets of Malaya. Australia sends apples, peaches, 
 pears, grapes, plums, and oranges in small amounts. Since Australia 
 is south of the equator, its seasons do not correspond with those of 
 America. Japan ships apples and pears to Malaya. At present the 
 importations are small, but it is evident that the Japanese are desirous 
 
Buu 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 203 
 
 of developing this market. From China are imported pears, apples, 
 oranges, pomeloes, and persimmons. Their low price and low quality 
 fit them primarily for the Chinese trade. Spain and other Mediter- 
 ranean countries send grapes. In earlier years these reached a con- 
 siderable volume, but in face of the increasing shipments and lower 
 prices from America, the European shipments have greatly decreased. 
 Palestine, through the port of Jaffa, has begun to ship oranges of good 
 quality. Although as yet these have been received only in small quan- 
 tities, the future volume may be expected to increase. Thus, from both 
 hemispheres, and from East and West, fresh fruits come to the city 
 of Singapore at the cross-roads of the world. For practically twelve 
 months of the year, fresh imported grapes, apples, and oranges are 
 on sale. 
 
 Native fresh fruits are many. The following table shows some of 
 the more prominent of these, their seasons, and the average retail 
 selling price in average seasons in Singapore. 
 
 TABLE 54 
 
 Native Fruits in British Malaya 
 
 Season Average retail price 
 
 Mango All year 2^c-17c each 
 
 Banana All year }^c-lc each 
 
 Orange All year 2^c-5c each 
 
 Papaya All year 23^c-7c each 
 
 Lime All year ^c-lc each 
 
 Pineapple All year 23^c-5c each 
 
 Plantain All year 3^c-lc each 
 
 Cocoanut All year 4c each 
 
 Chiku May-Dec I3^c each 
 
 Pomelo Aug -Feb 4}^c-6c each 
 
 Duku Aug.-Nov 6c lb. 
 
 Pulasan Aug.-Nov 34c each 
 
 Rambutan Aug.-Nov 3c doz. 
 
 Mangosteen Aug.-Sept. and Jan.-Feb Y^o, each 
 
 Durian Aug.-Sept. andJan.-Feb 6c lb. 
 
 Of all these, the durian, mangosteen, mango and banana are the 
 most popular. So fond are the people of durians that during a season 
 when this evil-smelling fruit is cheap and abundant, whole cities 
 reek with it. In the interest of public health, police have been known 
 to take action in some of the towns of British Malaya against the 
 universal eating and casting away of durians. The big tobacco com- 
 panies state that during a good durian season their sales of cigarettes 
 are notably decreased. This is abundant testimony to the liking of 
 the people for this fruit as well as to the low purchasing power of the 
 
204 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 general public. The passion for durians cannot, however, be judged 
 by ordinary standards since the people believe the durian has a medi- 
 cinal and physical reaction. Mangosteens and mangoes are scarcely 
 less favored. When these fruits are in season the populations seem to 
 be continually occupied in eating them. 
 
 Statistics fail to show clearly the volume of imported fresh fruit 
 reaching Malaya. Singapore is a port of trans-shipment for all 
 Malaysia. Thus, not all the fruit delivered at Singapore remains for 
 consumption in the country. Likewise, fruit from Canada and the 
 United States is frequently trans-shipped at Hongkong. Thus neither 
 the export figures from America nor the import figures at Singapore 
 give an accurate basis for statement. Nevertheless, the figures given in 
 table 55 from the Annual Summary of Foreign Imports and Exports 
 from British Malaya, 1928, are probably indicative of the actual 
 situation. 
 
 TABLE 55 
 
 Fresh Fruit Imports, British Malaya 
 
 Amount 
 From Tons Value 
 
 United Kingdom 36 $ 17,662 
 
 British Possessions 2,515 372,079 
 
 Continental Europe 14 6,515 
 
 Japan 366 36,779 
 
 China 4,887 414,155 
 
 United States 1,090 240,722 
 
 Others 2,190 153,357 
 
 Total 12,098 $1,241,272 
 
 Among fruits from America, apple imports probably rank higher 
 than all others combined. Prices, of course, vary with the year and 
 the season. Packed 125 to the box, delivered costs ranged from $3.30 
 to $3.70 a box. These wholesaled at about $4.90 a box and retailed in 
 Singapore at 4 cents to 5% cents each. In Penang the retail price 
 was about % cent greater. 
 
 Oranges have ranked second in popularity. In boxes of 156 they 
 usually cost delivered $8.60 to $8.80 a box. In 1929, costs ranged 
 from $6.55 to $8.80. Oranges averaged at wholesale prices $9.05 a box 
 and sold at retail from 5^2 to 7% cents each in Singapore. In Penang 
 they were found on sale at 15 cents each. 
 
 Grapes have enormously increased in their shipment and sale to 
 Singapore markets. The increase in ships having refrigeration facili- 
 ties, the augmented interest in California, and the enlarged cold stor- 
 age warehouses at Singapore have all resulted in a notable increase 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 205 
 
 in grape shipments during- the last two years. Costs and prices are 
 decidedly erratic. Delivered costs at Singapore may average $3.55 
 in 32-pound lugs and $4.S0 in 32-pound kegs. These have wholesaled 
 at $3.75 and $5.10 respectively, and have retailed at 28 to 34 cents 
 a pound. However, retail prices fluctuate violently, based upon the 
 visible supply. The Chinese fresh fruit dealer operates upon short 
 credit and small capital. He must quickly realize on his stocks in 
 order to pay his bills. Furthermore, he is a natural gambler, accus- 
 tomed to taking losses. For example, if grapes cost the dealer $8 a 
 keg he may wholesale these at $18 or at $4, according to the supply 
 at the moment. A small immediate surplus sets the Chinese market 
 in a selling panic. The local price depends both upon the visible 
 supply and the amount of cash needed by the dealers to meet their 
 bills. Owing to the unexpectedly large volume of grapes in 1928, 
 numbers of Chinese dealers lost from $4,000 to $5,000 each in Cali- 
 fornia grapes. In 1929 losses were not so large. 
 
 Pears, and plums have been received in this market but only in 
 small quantities. Losses during shipment are heavy. Pears are said 
 to have lost 50 per cent in shipment. Even oranges are said to be a 
 25 per cent loss in transit. Trial shipments of peaches have been 
 unsuccessfully made. 
 
 Grapefruit have only a small market in Singapore and are pri- 
 marily desired when the pomeloes are not in season. Packed 100 to 
 the box, they cost delivered $4.80,' wholesaled at $5.05, and retailed 
 at 8 x /2 to 11^2 cents each. 
 
 Fresh fruit is ordered from America by Chinese wholesalers who 
 indent through local agents of California exporters. The Chinese dis- 
 tribute the fruit to retail stores on 30 to 60 days' credit. Fruit is also 
 ordered by cold storage companies on their own account. These firms 
 not only sell to Chinese wholesalers, but also retail the fruit from their 
 own stores maintained in connection with their cold storage plants. 
 Freight rates from California points to Singapore are about as 
 follows: Apples, $1.10 a box; oranges, $1.50 a box; lemons, $1.70 a 
 box and $0.90 a half box; grapefruit, $1.55 a box; grapes, $25 per ton 
 of 40 cubic feet ; peaches, $32 a ton. Singapore is a free port thus 
 there is no duty charged. Harbor dues average 5.7 cents a ease. 
 Delivery charges from ship to cold storage warehouses and thence to 
 dealers average about the same amount. Interest on drafts averages 
 from 2 per cent to 6 per cent. Fruit frequently changes hands two or 
 three times after it leaves the importer, each dealer averaging perhaps 
 5 per cent in increased price. 
 
206 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Singapore has two cold storage plants that rent space for fresh 
 fruit. The total space available is sufficient for 10,000 to 15,000 pack- 
 ages. Charges average 15 cents a package for the first week and 10 
 cents for each week thereafter. 
 
 Probably 60 per cent of the apples and grapes, and 70 per cent of 
 the oranges are consumed in Malaya outside of Singapore. These are 
 shipped to Penang, Kuala Lumpur, Malacca, Ipoh, and smaller points. 
 The government railways own and operate twenty refrigerator cars. 
 No public cold storage space is available for rental in the smaller 
 cities, although private companies operate plants for storage of their 
 own fruits in seven of the smaller towns. 
 
 The consumption of imported fresh fruits in Malaya is limited by 
 the depressed financial condition of the country, by the competition 
 of cheap native fruits, and by the difficulties of distribution to the 
 scattered population to whom these fruits are within the possible range 
 of purchase. The market demands a high-quality product. Much 
 inferior fruit has been shipped into Singapore. If Malaya recovers 
 its financial prosperity, and if fruits of high quality are shipped, the 
 volume of imported fruit consumed can be increased considerably over 
 the present figures. The greatest opportunity for increased sales lies 
 in the smaller towns of the interior. The Singapore market is already 
 comparatively well supplied. The upper and middle classes in interior 
 cities still present possible opportunities for future expansion. 
 
 Canned Fruits. — In British Malaya, American canned fruits are 
 found on sale at all the better stores in the towns, at food shops in the 
 railroad stations, and at the plantation stores on the larger rubber 
 estates. However, canned fruits with the exception of grapes, are 
 used only by Europeans and by a few rich Chinese. 
 
 Singapore is the center of the pineapple growing and canning 
 industry. Over 40,000 acres are planted to pineapples. While quan- 
 tities of these come into the local markets as fresh pineapple, the chief 
 outlet is through the canning industry. There are twelve canning 
 factories in and near Singapore, and one factory in Selangor. Although 
 the quality of the canned product is inferior to Hawaiian pineapple, 
 Singapore pineapple has a large sale because of its low price. In 
 1-pound cans pineapple retails locally at 4% cents a can. Enormous 
 quantities are exported to other countries. In 1928 there were 51,969 
 tons of canned pineapple exported from British Malaya. Of this, 
 33,453 tons went to the United Kingdom and 1,096 tons to the United 
 States. Singapore canned pineapple is found on sale through all the 
 
Bui,. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 207 
 
 coastal cities of China. To Hongkong are exported 5,283 tons, while 
 744 tons go to other ports in China.* 
 
 Chinese canned fruits, such as lichees, bamboo sprouts, peaches, 
 and pears, are sold in all the Chinese food shops. Retail prices range 
 about 17 cents in the No. 2 can. Dutch and Swiss canned fruits are 
 found in the better stores catering to foreigners but, as the prices are 
 higher than those for California canned fruits, they have only small 
 sale. English jams are popular with the European trade since the 
 great majority of Europeans in Malaya are British. These jams are 
 usually sold in 1-pound cans. 
 
 The greatest market for American canned fruits is for a low-priced 
 can of Muscat grapes in the No. 2% size. These grapes are sold almost 
 entirely to the Chinese and are chiefly used in connection with ban- 
 quets and dinners. At these dinners there is a large consumption of 
 hot spiced foodstuffs and of heavy distilled liquors such as brandies. 
 The canned grapes are poured into a dish and over them is placed 
 cracked or shaved ice. This ice in melting dilutes the liquid on the 
 grapes, making it less sweet, and cools and hardens the fruit. Those 
 attending the dinner eat these grapes, one by one, between courses or 
 between drinks to cool the mouth after the hot foods and beverages. 
 Canned cherries are liked and are used in the same manner, but are 
 generally regarded as too expensive for popular use. Both grapes 
 and cherries spoil in this hot climate from swelled cans caused by a 
 gas generated by the pits. However, this difficulty is less in grapes 
 than in cherries and, due to their lower price, the turn-over in grapes 
 is more rapid so that less spoilage results. During 1929 canned 
 grapes sold at wholesale as low as $1.80 a dozen in the No. 2% can. 
 
 Peaches are second in popularity among canned 'fruits, but the 
 market is comparatively small, since about 75 per cent of the peaches 
 imported are consumed by Europeans. Pears rank third in popu- 
 larity and are used only by the European trade. Other canned fruits 
 of all the principal varieties are found on sale in all towns but their 
 consumption is limited by the small number of the white race in the 
 country. 
 
 Canned fruits from California sell in British Malaya at reasonable 
 prices, as judged by other Asiatic markets. Five or six prominent 
 American brands are on sale. Competition between these brands keeps 
 prices down to a low margin of profit. Generally, prices increase by 
 2 1 /2 to 5 cents per can at interior cities over prices at Singapore. How- 
 
 * Return of Foreign Imports and Exports, British Malaya, 1928. 
 
208 
 
 University op California — Experiment Station 
 
 ever, up-country stores usually hold older stocks than those in Singa- 
 pore, therefore, in a time of rising" prices canned fruit may be actually 
 cheaper in the smaller towns than in Singapore. This was true in 
 some cases in November and December, 1929. Although prices vary 
 with the quality and brand, the prices in table 56 are illustrative of 
 those current at the time this investigation was made. 
 
 TABLE 56 
 
 Current Prices, British Malaya, November-December, 1929 
 American Canned Fruits 
 
 
 Per case, wholesale 
 
 Per can, retail 
 
 
 No. 2^ 
 
 No. 1 
 
 No. 2H 
 
 No. 1 
 
 8-ounce 
 
 
 <v 
 t- 
 o 
 a 
 
 03 
 bD 
 
 a 
 
 bO 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 o3 
 bO 
 
 a 
 to 
 
 bD 
 
 a 
 
 03 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 03 
 bC 
 
 a 
 
 m 
 
 bD 
 
 C 
 03 
 
 J? 
 
 u 
 
 o3 a 
 
 ■a a 
 
 0> 
 
 a 
 
 03 
 bD 
 
 a 
 o3 
 
 bD 
 
 G 
 03 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 03 a 
 "3 £ 
 
 3 G 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 03 
 bD 
 
 G 
 
 ic 
 
 bD 
 
 a 
 
 03 
 
 a 
 Ph 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Apples 
 
 $6.65 
 
 6.69 
 6.18 
 9.03 
 8.09 
 6.58 
 4.98 
 9.14 
 
 7.50 
 
 6.55 
 
 37 
 
 28| 
 40 
 37 
 37 
 
 25| 
 40 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 37 
 40 
 40 
 34 
 31 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 Hi 
 
 12 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Pears 
 
 8.75 
 8.00 
 7.80 
 5.00 
 9.00 
 
 10.20 
 8.90 
 7.80 
 6.00 
 
 10. 
 
 10.20 
 
 8.92 
 
 7.80 
 
 5.70 
 
 10.88 
 
 42 
 
 37 
 28| 
 28| 
 40 
 
 31 
 23 
 20 
 17 
 
 281 
 
 23 
 20 
 16 
 
 23 
 23 
 23 
 
 17 
 
 11a 
 llj 
 
 131 
 
 n 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Grapes ... 
 
 09 
 
 Fruit Salad: 
 
 25| 
 
 31 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 Table 56 is representative of the price variations in a small terri- 
 tory. The prices given are in most cases averages of prices at several 
 different stores in each city. They well illustrate the variations in the 
 marketing system, and the lack of standardization in prices. 
 
 The relatively new 8-ounce can of fruit is more prominent in Brit- 
 ish Malaya than in any other section of the Far East. In Kuala 
 Lumpur, which serves as a distributing point for the rubber planta- 
 tions, the demand for this new size was unexpectedly large. This 
 demand should not, however, be confused with the question, so fre- 
 quently discussed in this report, of the possibility of popularizing 
 this small size among the native population. The demand for the 
 small can has been almost exclusively from Europeans. 
 
 Canned fruit is usually ordered on the indent system by whole- 
 salers through local agents of California firms. As is common through- 
 out most of the Far East, these firms are agents for a wide variety of 
 products among which are canned fruits. A few firms, acting as 
 agents, carry small stocks on hand which they sell on their own account 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 209 
 
 to wholesalers at ' * ex-godown " prices. By far the greater volume of 
 American canned fruit comes to Malaya on indent orders at c.i.f. 
 prices. 
 
 Freight rates from California points average $16 per ton of 40 
 cubic feet. Interest on drafts ranges from 2 to 6 per cent. Bank 
 charges on exchange are % to *4 per cent. Delivery charges from 
 the ship to the warehouse average 8V2 cents a case. Harbor dues are 
 about 5y 2 cents a package. Delivery charges to stores average 5% 
 cents a case. Evidently, at the prices prevalent in December 1929, 
 there is little profit in American canned fruits either to the wholesaler 
 or to the retailer. 
 
 The primary difficulty with the expansion of the canned-fruit mar- 
 ket in British Malaya is that any large expansion must be made 
 through Chinese and to a lesser degree, through native consumers 
 who are not particularly fond of canned fruit. The diet of the Chi- 
 nese and of the natives makes them unappreciative of sweet canned 
 fruits. At a conference of native dealers and wholesalers at Singa- 
 pore, canned peaches were served. Although every Chinese present 
 politely accepted and tasted the half peach offered, it was notable that 
 not one of them consumed the small serving. Such a result never 
 occurred elsewhere in the experience of the investigators. This merely 
 substantiated statements made by many other sources. Had the 
 peaches been iced and the syrup diluted Anth the resultant ice water, 
 the peaches would probably have been eaten, though without 
 enthusiasm. 
 
 Canned fruit, to the taste of the Chinese in British Malaya, is not 
 a delicacy but rather one of many foodstuffs to be compared in price 
 and in quality with the cheap native fresh fruit or with imported 
 fresh fruits. In general, fresh fruits, whether native or imported, 
 are preferred at an equal price. The expansion of the market for 
 American canned fruits among the Asiatic population is therefore a 
 matter of competition with cheap fresh fruits. In China this is not 
 the case. Canned fruits, particularly if well-sweetened, are regarded 
 as a luxury far superior to fresh fruits from any source whatsoever. 
 Malaya has a different taste. 
 
 Canned grapes in the 8-ounce can could probably be easily pro- 
 moted among a large number of the Chinese in Malaya. Grapes are 
 already well known to the Chinese and, although their characteristic 
 use is for dinners and banquets, this use could probably be extended. 
 Other American fruits, sueh as peaches and pears, would find more 
 difficulty. At present prices they cannot be extensively popularized. 
 
210 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 The common coin of the country is the 10-cent piece. This has a value 
 only slightly higher than 5 cents in American currency. If 8-ounce 
 cans of peaches and pears could be sold for 10 cents in local money 
 and could be promoted by all the usual forms of trade introduction, 
 they would probably come into popular favor as a relatively cheap 
 food. If these small cans became fashionable and generally well 
 known, the price might be gradually increased. Only on such a basis 
 would canned American fruits other than grapes, be largely used in 
 Malaya among the Asiatics. 
 
 The market for American canned fruits among Europeans has 
 not been saturated. Most families are small. The large can has been 
 generally unsuitable to their use. However, the increasing volume of 
 fresh fruits coming into this market throughout the year makes it 
 improbable that the consumption of canned fruit will increase among 
 Europeans. Unless advertising and other forms of trade promotion 
 are conducted, the canned fruit market in Malaya is likely to decline 
 rather than increase. 
 
 Dried Fruits. — With the exception of raisins and prunes, Amer- 
 ican dried fruits have small sale in British Malaya. The European 
 trade consumes limited amounts of all dried fruits but the consump- 
 tion is unimportant. 
 
 Raisins are not sold in such abundance here as in most other coun- 
 tries of the Far East. They are extensively offered for sale but are not 
 as much in evidence as in China, It may be that raisins do not here 
 appeal to the taste so strongly as in cooler regions. It is also apparent 
 that less trade promotion has been conducted for them. The consump- 
 tion of raisins in British Malaya reached its high point in 1926, since 
 which time it has steadily declined. High rubber prices were coin- 
 cident with the largest sale of raisins. Not all the decline may be due 
 to the lower financial condition of the country. Raisins are perhaps 
 less popular than formerly. 
 
 The largest sales of raisins are in the little 1%-ounce packages 
 which here retail for about 3 cents. About 60 per cent of the raisins 
 imported are sold in this size container. Raisins packed in 15-ounce 
 cartons make up about 30 per cent of the sales, while bulk raisins in 
 25-pound tin-lined cases constitute the remaining 10 per cent. Diffi- 
 culty is experienced in the damp climate of Malaya with discoloring 
 of raisin cartons once the case is opened. Wrapping cartons in trans- 
 parent water-proof paper would assist sales if a cheap method could 
 be used. A large part of the American raisins imported into Malaya 
 are trans-shipped from China, where the Sun-Maid Raisin Growers 
 
Bui* 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 211 
 
 Association carries large stocks on hand and there packs bulk raisins 
 in cartons. The export figures from America to Singapore are there- 
 fore not a correct indication of the total volume of sales, which prob- 
 ably aggregate about 15,000 cases a year in British Malaya. 
 
 Raisins are used for eating dry out of hand, for the baking of 
 cakes, and are prescribed by Chinese physicians when administering 
 bitter medicines. The concoctions of the Chinese herb doctors are 
 made less nauseating by the pleasant flavor of the California raisin. 
 
 Prunes rank second in volume among California dried fruits. They 
 are not only consumed by Europeans but have also become known 
 among the higher class Chinese for their laxative qualities. Among the 
 better-educated families, prunes are fed to babies and young children. 
 In such cases they are usually cooked. Chinese physicians frequently 
 recommend to their patients the eating of dry prunes. These various 
 uses, largely medicinal, have helped to increase the sales of prunes 
 beyond that of other dried fruits. However, the consumption of 
 prunes has not yet become general among the Chinese. Many Chinese 
 stated that, if prunes were better known, most Chinese would prefer 
 the taste of the prune to that of the raisin. The prune seems less 
 sweet to them and corresponds closer to their usual preference in this 
 climate. 
 
 To some small degree, prunes have been sold one by one as a con- 
 fection. The small retail stands in Singapore display prunes at the 
 price of one prune for one local cent, about equal to a half-cent in 
 American currency. If prunes of good quality could be retailed two 
 for a local cent they might have large sale. There would be no market 
 for small-sized prunes in competition with the many kinds of Chinese 
 dried fruits and "kana" displayed beside them at low prices. Prunes 
 sold as a confection in Malaya should not be smaller than the 50-60 size. 
 
 Apples rank third in popularity among dried fruits, but their 
 consumption is limited to the European population and is said to be 
 decreasing in face of the rising tide of fresh apples that are in the 
 market during the entire year. Apples, apricots, peaches, and pears 
 discolor in the hot climate of Malaya, even in unopened tin containers. 
 Dealers are therefore fearful to stock these in large quantities less they 
 incur a loss. All these fruits have only a small sale which does not 
 extend to the Asiatics. 
 
 Raisins retail in 1-pound tins at 22 cents a pound, in 15-ounce 
 cartons at 14 cents, and in bulk at 14 cents a pound. Prunes retail 
 in 1-pound tins from 13 to 20 cents a pound. Peaches in tins are 
 34 to 36 cents a pound and are sold in bulk at the same prices. 
 
212 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Apples were 31 cents a pound in tins and 40 cents in bulk. White 
 figs in tins were 38 cents a pound. Apricots in bulk were 51 cents a 
 pound. Prices of dried fruits are frequently higher in bulk than in 
 cartons because of the risk taken by the retailer who buys a 25-pound 
 case and fears spoilage before all the goods are sold. Despite the fact 
 that bulk dried fruit is usually displayed in large glass jars, similar 
 to those used for candy in America, it was noticeable that the fruit 
 within the jars was frequently spoiled by souring, moulding or by 
 insects. The 1-pound tin is evidently an economical method of retail- 
 ing dried fruits to the European trade so long as consumption is too 
 small for the retailer to dispose of a 25-pound case before the contents 
 become unsalable. 
 
 Dried fruits are usually ordered on the indent system. Freight 
 rates on dried fruit from California points to Singapore are $16 per 
 ton of 40 cubic feet. Other charges are about the same as those pre- 
 viously given for canned fruits. 
 
 British Malaya is not a large dried-fruit market except as raisins 
 and prunes may be popularized as a confection; in that field they 
 must compete with the numerous confections and condiments already 
 on sale. Time, effort, and money expended on introducing prunes to 
 the Chinese population as a medicinal fruit might bring large results 
 if such trade promotion were skillfuly done. Here, as elsewhere, the 
 Chinese are avid for medicinal foods and preparations. The prune 
 and raisin offer the brightest opportunities in British Malaya for 
 any large increases in sales of California fruits. 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods. — At present writing, the low financial 
 condition of the country, due to the decreasing prices of rubber and 
 tin, does not make this an opportune time to introduce new products 
 to the masses of- the population. Despite that fact, trade and com- 
 merce go on in large volume. People continue to eat and to spend 
 money for luxuries. The financial depression of Malaya merely means 
 that the number to whom a successful appeal might be made is not 
 so large as in times of higher prices. 
 
 Up to the present, the sales of American canned fruits have been 
 confined to Europeans and to a few comparatively wealthy Chinese. 
 Sales promotion has been largely confined to the scramble for this 
 trade. Increased sales of one brand merely meant decreased sales of 
 another. The net result did not go far to enlarge the consumption of 
 American fruits. Little attempt has been made to widen the markets 
 among new classes of buyers. Indeed, the various firms handling 
 California fruits voiced their disappointment at the present situation 
 
Bui,. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 213 
 
 in the canned-fruit business of Malaya. Competition among agents 
 is so keen that the Chinese wholesalers have been able to force com- 
 petitive bidding and to obtain goods at lower prices than the agents 
 found satisfactory. In turn, the agents had all the troubles and finan- 
 cial difficulties attendant upon the business. However, none of them 
 seemed anxious to resign their agencies. With the exception of grapes, 
 the introduction of American canned fruits to the general Chinese 
 population has not been attempted. All evidence that the Chinese 
 would not purchase canned fruit except at very low prices is entirely 
 a matter of opinion. Nevertheless, the opinion seems to be well- 
 founded. It is not probable that canned fruits will here find a greatly 
 increased market unless prices become markedly reduced below the 
 present levels. In that event, the small 8-ounce can would offer a 
 bright prospect for trade promotion among the middle classes. 
 
 Dried fruit, both raisins and prunes, might have greatly expanded 
 sales in British Malaya if a campaign of education and promotion 
 were skillfully waged in the vernacular newspapers. Such a campaign 
 should include the employment of salesmen to push sales with retailers 
 in the name of and for the Chinese wholesalers. It should include 
 the use of free samples. Coffee houses should be supplied for a time 
 with free samples for distribution to customers — one prune with a 
 cup of coffee. Later these coffee houses could be charged a low price 
 for the prunes. This price could be gradually increased as the product 
 became better appreciated. Coffee houses now sell a cup of coffee 
 with a small cake for 5 cents in local currency. They also supply a 
 cigarette and a match for an additional cent. For another cent (a 
 half -cent in United States coinage) they might supply a prune. More 
 than any other method, this form of distribution would make the 
 fruit known among the population who have purchasing power. 
 
 Advertising for prunes should emphasize their medicinal value. 
 The greatest appeal can be made to this population for products which 
 give increased health and strength. Prunes sold on the street should 
 retail in envelopes containing one or two prunes. These envelopes 
 should bear a definite 'chop' or brand and should extol in Chinese 
 characters the health value of the product. Prunes in tins of 1, 2, 
 and 5 pounds sold to retailers should be accompanied with enough 
 envelopes to enable them to sell the fruit in small quantities, the brand 
 and the health recommendation thus accompanying each purchase. 
 A printed container, even a small envelope, that goes into the home is 
 the cheapest and most effective form of advertising. 
 
214 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Fresh fruits require no advertising in British Malaya. The prob- 
 lem is to move a sufficient quantity into distribution. Unfortunately, 
 imported fruits are beyond the purchase of all except the well-to-do 
 classes in the large towns. Even the Europeans on distant rubber 
 plantations are beyond the range of purchase of many imported fruits. 
 Only fresh fruits with the best keeping qualities, such as apples and 
 oranges, can be successfully transported to these outlying communi- 
 ties. On the plantations the number of foreigners is small and the 
 demand, therefore, precarious. As the number of shops installing 
 electric refrigerators increase, the wider distribution of fresh fruits 
 will become feasible. 
 
 For the clerical class, American fresh fruits are a possibility 
 only when a glut in the market brings these fruits within their range 
 of purchase. The middle classes are quite satisfied with the native 
 fruit and feel no longing for American peaches, pears, and apples. 
 A durian is to them more desirable than all the fruits of America. 
 Imported fresh fruits, to the native trade, are a novelty which they 
 are willing to purchase only when the price is low. The only excep- 
 tion to this is grapes. Fresh grapes are understood to be more desir- 
 able for banquets and dinners than canned. Freshly iced, they are 
 in demand among the better classes for feasts and festivals. Those to 
 whom they are within the range of purchase are a limited group whose 
 numbers can be expanded when and if means are found to put fresh 
 grapes in Malaya at low prices. 
 
 British Malaya is a price market. Low prices would make the 
 sale of American fruits possible in larger amounts. Raisins, prunes, 
 canned fruits in small containers and fresh fruit can be increased if 
 and when they can be retailed at lower levels than hitherto prevalent. 
 
Bui* 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 215 
 
 TABLE 57 
 Direct Fruit Exports from California to Java and Madura 
 
 Kind of fruit 
 
 Canned 
 
 Berries 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Pears 
 
 fruit for salad 
 
 Other canned 
 
 Pineapples 
 
 Jams, jellies, etc. 
 
 Total 
 
 Dried 
 
 Raisins 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Pears 
 
 Other dried 
 
 Total 
 
 1927 
 
 pounds 
 
 6,904 
 
 54,331 
 
 95,954 
 
 124,230 
 
 97,463 
 
 122,506 
 
 114,460 
 
 336,122 
 17,437 
 81,921 
 
 1,051,328 
 
 pounds 
 
 7,702 
 
 52,070 
 
 17,418 
 
 462 
 
 59,853 
 
 3,455 
 
 140,960 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,335 
 7,797 
 12,018 
 20,159 
 8,959 
 11,932 
 14,703 
 
 33,231 
 
 2,245 
 
 15,165 
 
 127,544 
 
 dollars 
 
 678 
 
 7,998 
 
 2,859 
 
 55 
 
 6,392 
 
 676 
 
 18,658 
 
 1928 
 
 pounds 
 
 7,720 
 36,504 
 131,509 
 144,045 
 13,954 
 166,922 
 139,518 
 
 716,559 
 
 12,099 
 
 120,020 
 
 1,488,850 
 
 pounds 
 
 13,287 
 
 85,723 
 
 20,514 
 
 1,308 
 
 199,448 
 
 4,105 
 
 324,385 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,464 
 4,495 
 17,274 
 21,961 
 1,413 
 16,012 
 17,017 
 
 73,945 
 
 1,608 
 
 19,221 
 
 174,410 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,213 
 12,682 
 
 3,061 
 
 127 
 
 19,698 
 
 694 
 
 37,475 
 
 1929 
 
 pounds 
 
 11,646 
 
 39,149 
 
 176,526 
 
 184,786 
 
 27,618 
 
 239,406 
 
 225,601 
 
 163,185 
 
 802,168 
 
 18,431 
 
 14,414 
 
 1,902,930 
 
 pounds 
 
 56,525 
 
 137,801 
 
 22,383 
 
 1,614 
 
 191,000 
 
 2,992 
 
 2,310 
 
 414,625 
 
 dollars 
 
 2,135 
 
 4,999 
 
 21,708 
 
 31,261 
 
 3,243 
 
 26,584 
 
 30,440 
 
 26,584 
 
 87,094 
 
 2,751 
 
 4,162 
 
 240,961 
 
 dollars 
 
 4,626 
 
 21,650 
 
 5,207 
 
 279 
 
 21,222 
 
 559 
 
 434 
 
 53,977 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Grapefruit 
 
 Lemons 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Apples 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Pears 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Other fresh. 
 
 boxes 
 
 37 
 
 21 
 
 394 
 
 6,657 
 
 dollars 
 
 168 
 
 144 
 
 2,569 
 
 14,094 
 
 boxes 
 
 80 
 
 3 
 
 468 
 
 11,836 
 
 dollars 
 
 443 
 
 21 
 
 3,043 
 
 18,705 
 
 110 
 
 1 
 
 1,081 
 
 19,566 
 
 dollars 
 
 545 
 
 6 
 
 5,622 
 
 41,864 
 
 pounds 
 
 92,270 
 10,575 
 
 dollars 
 
 6,802 
 766 
 
 410 
 
 27 
 
 pounds 
 
 148,430 
 
 16,375 
 
 1,915 
 
 9,690 
 
 dollars 
 
 10,207 
 657 
 150 
 752 
 
 pounds 
 
 226,192 
 
 61,570 
 
 1,500 
 
 14,686 
 
 dollars 
 
 20,951 
 
 5,485 
 
 150 
 
 1,927 
 
216 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 58 
 Direct Fruit Exports from California to Other Netherland East Indies 
 
 Kind of fruit 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 1929 
 
 Canned 
 
 Berries 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Pears 
 
 Fruit for salad 
 
 Other canned 
 
 Pineapples 
 
 Jams, jellies, etc. 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 3,039 
 29,201 
 51,210 
 63,701 
 20,512 
 55,349 
 56,852 
 
 431,895 
 
 5,034 
 
 32,956 
 
 749,749 
 
 dollars 
 
 544 
 3,354 
 6,091 
 10,812 
 ,2133 
 5,480 
 7,022 
 
 pounds 
 
 4,929 
 18,717 
 61,032 
 66,070 
 
 1,968 
 94,434 
 72,307 
 
 43,196 
 
 560 
 
 5,911 
 
 567,655 
 
 4,401 
 
 53,579 
 
 85,103 
 
 945,092 
 
 dollars 
 
 989 
 2,170 
 6,876 
 9,797 
 
 244 
 8,654 
 8,937 
 
 53,539 
 
 532 
 
 7,800 
 
 pounds 
 
 8,066 
 
 29,464 
 
 67,775 
 
 91,041 
 
 5,963 
 
 104,572 
 
 102,398 
 
 72,884 
 
 494,590 
 
 3,646 
 
 7,124 
 
 99,538 
 
 987,523 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,151 
 
 3,592 
 
 9,914 
 
 14,745 
 
 725 
 
 11,798 
 
 14,069 
 
 11,986 
 
 48,573 
 
 474 
 
 1,772 
 
 118,799 
 
 Dried 
 
 Raisins 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Pears 
 
 Other dried. 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 7,201 
 18,985 
 
 3,440 
 
 132 
 
 17,262 
 
 dollars 
 
 748 
 2,851 
 
 505 
 
 18 
 
 1,751 
 
 pounds 
 
 17,926 
 
 23,286 
 
 3,682 
 
 204 
 
 57,054 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,644 
 
 3,441 
 
 516 
 
 32 
 
 5,667 
 
 1,496 
 
 690 
 
 79 
 
 pounds 
 
 12,502 
 
 28,220 
 
 5,067 
 
 252 
 
 60,517 
 
 72 
 
 394 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,234 
 4,401 
 1,060 
 
 28 
 
 6,568 
 
 10 
 
 83 
 
 48,516 
 
 102,842 
 
 11,379 
 
 107,024 
 
 13,393 
 
 Fresh 
 Grapefruit. 
 
 Lemons 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Apples 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Pears 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Other fresh. 
 
 boxes 
 
 dollars 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 450 
 
 193 
 960 
 
 boxes 
 
 7 
 
 40 
 
 7 
 
 1,130 
 
 dollars 
 
 25 
 
 240 
 
 35 
 
 1,765 
 
 boxes 
 
 27 
 
 36 
 
 124 
 
 76 
 
 dollars 
 
 97 
 199 
 655 
 
 158 
 
 pounds 
 
 18,432 
 800 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,220 
 80 
 
 pounds 
 
 6,000 
 160 
 1,450 
 3,900 
 
 dollars 
 
 300 
 12 
 75 
 
 220 
 
 pounds 
 
 6,596 
 500 
 
 dollars 
 
 878 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 6 
 
Bui* 493] FRUIT MARKETS IN EASTERN ASIA 217 
 
 FRUIT MARKETS IN THE NETHERLAND EAST INDIES 
 
 The eastern empire of Holland, known as the Netherland East 
 Indies, is a series of great and small islands lying near the equator 
 south of eastern Asia and north of Australia. It is these islands that 
 divide the Pacific and Indian oceans. From east to west they extend 
 over 46° of equatorial longitude, in an area greater than that of the 
 entire United States. Most Americans are only familiar with these 
 islands through small-scale world maps. From such maps little con- 
 ception is gained of the great distances covered by the Dutch posses- 
 sions. Among the most important of these are Java, Sumatra, Dutch 
 Borneo, Celebes, Dutch Timor, Dutch New Guinea, and the Maluccas. 
 In this study, the investigators visited Java and Sumatra, which 
 commercially are the most important islands of the group. 
 
 Java, though not the largest, is because of its dense population, 
 the chief province of the Netherland East Indies. Under the last 
 150 years of Dutch sovereignty there has been a great increase in 
 population. Centuries of peace, sanitation, and industry have caused 
 the population to multiply many-fold. From this increase large 
 problems have resulted. In an area of 50,800 square miles are crowded 
 37,433,000 persons, or about 750 per square mile, making this island 
 one of the most thickly settled regions of the globe. Efforts of the 
 Dutch government to induce the Javanese to migrate to other islands 
 have not achieved much success. Java, together with the small neigh- 
 boring island of Madura, is one of the two major divisions of the 
 Netherland East Indies. All other possessions are grouped as 'out- 
 lying provinces.' Government statistics are accumulated for the two 
 divisions. 
 
 The outlying provinces have far greater areas but much smaller 
 populations than Java. Sumatra is more than twice as large. With 
 127,602 square miles, its population is 4,629,000. Borneo has 212,727 
 square miles, and about 2,000,000 population. The Celebes area is 
 71,470 square miles ; its population is 2,352,048. New Guinea, with an 
 area of 151,789 square miles, of which about two-thirds belongs to 
 Holland, has only about 200,000 people. Scattered among the other 
 islands are about 4,700,000 persons. 
 
 The Netherland East Indies thus have a total population of over 
 50,000,000, the great majority of whom are natives. These are mostly 
 Indonesians, a branch of the Malay race. The native population num- 
 
218 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 bers 34,433,000 in Java and 13,871,000 in the outlying provinces. 
 Thus, out of a population of perhaps 50,000,000, over 48,304,000 are 
 of the native races. The second largest, but far smaller, group are 
 'foreign Asiatics.' Of these there are 445,000 in Java and 431,000 in 
 the outlying provinces. Of the ' foreign Asiatics,' numbering 876,000, 
 about 92 per cent are Chinese. The remaining 8 per cent are Arabs 
 and natives of India. The Europeans number 135,000 in Java and 
 34,000 in the outer provinces. These 169,000 persons constitute the 
 ruling class. Over 90 per cent of the Europeans are Dutch. The last 
 census found only 266 resident Americans in all the Dutch possessions. 
 
 If, therefore, one is to obtain a quick picture of the population of 
 the Dutch East Indies, he must imagine an island 700 miles long, 
 swarming with natives. In the crowd are a few Chinese and an 
 occasional Hollander. Out from this island are other larger islands, 
 sparsely populated. In the whole zone among any three hundred 
 people, five might be Chinese and one a European. All of the 
 remainder would be natives. The Europeans rule in government and 
 in commerce. The Chinese distribute products from the importer to 
 the retailer and own and operate the important shops. The natives 
 till the land in tiny patches of their own and work in gangs on plan- 
 tations owned and managed by Europeans, 
 
 The Netherland East Indies have, of recent years, been a rich 
 possession. In normal times the exports have been double that of the 
 imports, so that the islands have had an exceedingly favorable trade 
 balance. Since, however, much of the accumulating wealth passes on 
 to Holland and other European countries where stockholders of the 
 great estates and commercial companies reside, not a great share of 
 the earnings of the island remains in them. Very little falls into the 
 hands of the native. 
 
 The exports are normally about equally divided between Java and 
 the outlying provinces. Rubber makes up the greatest single value of 
 export; sugar ranks second, oil third, tobacco fourth, and tea fifth. 
 Most of the rubber comes from Sumatra and Borneo, the sugar from 
 Java, the oil from Borneo, and the tea from Java. Other important 
 exports are coffee, tin, pepper, and spices. 
 
 Imports come more heavily to Java than elsewhere. The largest 
 single imported group of articles is textiles, most of which is cotton 
 piece-goods for native clothing. The second largest item is rice. 
 Despite the enormous areas in Java given to that cereal, the islands 
 are not self-sustaining. 
 
Bui* 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 219 
 
 Unfortunately, the Netherland East Indies are not as prosperous 
 as formerly, due to the low price level of many important exports. 
 This coupled with the poor condition of the rice crop in 1928 has 
 lessened the buying power of the Islands. Table 59, showing- a few 
 of the agricultural exports, illustrates the situation. 
 
 TABLE 59 
 Certain Exports, Netherland East Indies, 1928-1929 
 
 1928 1929 
 
 Sugar $149,006,444 $121,706,207 
 
 Kubber 110,108,125 92,551,638 
 
 Tea 39,284,038 34,434,371 
 
 Coffee 32,545,406 27,617,576 
 
 Tapioca 13,512,958 8,419,254 
 
 Total $344,456,971 $284,729,046 
 
 In 1928 the imports of rice were $3,600,000. In 1929 they were 
 about $10,000,000. Thus, the native population, the vast majority of 
 whom are always on a narrow margin between maintenance and pov- 
 erty, have become poorer and consequently more restless. The natives 
 are indolent and extravagant. If there is money in hand it is easily 
 spent. If there is no money they attempt to borrow. In order to 
 loosen the clutches of the Indian money lenders, the Dutch govern- 
 ment operates pawn shops which dot all important towns. Crowds 
 may be seen daily at the windows of these shops pledging, or perhaps 
 redeeming, articles of small value. 
 
 The Netherland East Indies maintains an excellent Bureau of 
 Statistics. From its publications the only measured estimate of the 
 buying power of an Eastern people may be glimpsed. 
 
 The government imposes a tax on all those with an income of over 
 $48 a year, except those who pay a 'land rent.' Of these latter there 
 are about 6,000,000 in Java. The assessment of incomes under $480 
 a year is not left to the individual. It is fixed by a local committee 
 who know the person and his economic status. The result of the income 
 tax of 1925 has been studied by the Bureau of Statistics. Out of the 
 total population of 50,000,000 there were 3,651,748 persons assessed. 
 Of these 3,178,166 were natives, 394,971 were foreign Asiatics, mostly 
 Chinese, and 78,611 were Europeans. Over 87 per cent of the natives 
 had an income of less than $160 a year and 99 per cent an income of 
 less than $480 a year (see figure 18). Of the foreign Asiatics, mostly 
 Chinese, about 39 per cent had an income of less than $160 a year and 
 90 per cent less than $480 a year. Of the Europeans, over 63 per 
 
220 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
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Bul.493" 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 221 
 
 cent had less than $2,000 a year.* The publication of the Bureau 
 further states that "It should be borne in mind that the land-renters 
 do not come into consideration. In the event of their number being" 
 taken into consideration the concentration (in the lower brackets) 
 would certainly appear considerably higher." Furthermore, only 
 those were assessed whose incomes were $48 a year or more. Since 
 only a little more than three million assessments were made it is 
 evident that most of the population were believed by the local com- 
 mittees to have an income below that amount. 
 
 Rice is the staple food of Java 
 in a large basket. 
 
 Here, on a native plantation, rice is threshed 
 
 The same bureau has made a study of the cost of living" of the 
 native population.! Presumably this concerned the necessities of life 
 only, since no luxuries are scheduled. They found the average expendi- 
 ture was 5.2 cents per day per person, of which over 82 per cent was 
 for food, almost 6 per cent for kerosene oil, 9 per cent for clothing, 1.8 
 per cent for transportation and. finally', nine-tenths of one per cent for 
 matches. The fact that the last item was scheduled is sufficient com- 
 mentary on the general scale of living. Of the 82 per cent required 
 for food, almost one-half was for rice. 
 
 Wages of natives on plantations range from 15 cents to 20 cents 
 a day. However, the day's labor lasts only from 6 to 11 a. m. After 
 these hours they return to their homes to rest, to sleep, or to cultivate 
 
 * Bulletin G9, Central Bureau of Statistics, N.E.I. 1929. 
 t Bulletin 31, Central Bureau of Statistics, N.E.I. 1926. 
 
222 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 their own patches of ground. It is not usual for natives to be employed 
 continuously. They work only when they require money and if there 
 is work available. In cities, wages are higher. For skilled occupa- 
 tions they are often from 40 to 80 cents a day. In such occupations 
 workers are expected to labor for 10 to 12 hours with a rest during 
 the heat of the day. 
 
 In Sumatra much of the labor is indentured. It is recruited in 
 Java under government control for a contract of three years. Java- 
 nese, Chinese, and natives of India are thus secured as contract labor- 
 ers. Wages are fixed by government and vary from 16 to 20 cents 
 a day, together with housing, medical attendance, and a certain 
 amount of rice. For violations of the contract to labor, jail sentences 
 are imposed. Because laborers in Sumatra and certain other islands 
 are employed the year round, they have more actual money than the 
 natives in Java where part of the subsistance comes from their own 
 patches of ground and part from employment. 
 
 Any commodity that is to sell to the millions must be bought by 
 natives. It must obviously be a very low-priced article salable in 
 small units for a few cents. If it is higher in price it can only be 
 offered to the hundreds of thousands, not to the millions, which means 
 it can appeal only to the Chinese and Europeans. High-priced articles 
 can only be offered to Europeans and a few rich Chinese. In 1925 
 there were less than 5,000 ' foreign Asiatics' with incomes over $2,000 
 a year. Salaries of most Europeans are low. Holland is a crowded 
 country. Many young Dutchmen are glad to come to the East Indies 
 for wages that a similarly placed American would scorn. Almost 
 two-thirds of the Hollanders in Java receive less than $2,000 a year. 
 Furthermore, the Hollander is a frugal person. The Dutch housewife 
 regards a 40-cent can of American fruits as an extravagance only to 
 be indulged on special occasions. 
 
 Bliss* estimates that at the utmost there are not more than 
 11,000,000 natives and 1,000,000 Europeans and 'foreign Asiatics' 
 who are a potential market for American foodstuffs and that of these 
 "the vast majority can afford to buy only minute quantities of 
 imported foodstuffs and only the cheapest varieties of them. ' ' 
 
 On the other hand, it must be remembered that the native is an 
 extravagant person. He buys what he wants if he has the money or 
 can command it. He may spend his last 5 cents for an entrance fee 
 to a movie show if that happens to be his momentary desire. Most 
 
 * Market for Foodstuffs in the Netherland East Indies. Trade Information 
 Bulletin 620, D. C. Bliss. 1929. 
 
Bui* 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 223 
 
 purveyors of low-priced commodities are occupied in trying to ' ' make 
 the native want it ' ' rather than worrying- how the native is to get the 
 power to purchase. The native has a way of finding the money for 
 what he wants in a larger number of instances than a study of his 
 income would lead one to suppose. 
 
 The Netherland East Indies have an equatorial climate. There is 
 little change of temperature. The seasons are marked only by the 
 so-called wet and dry seasons and the changes in the monsoon. Most 
 of the islands are mountainous. Europeans seek surcease from the 
 heat at stations in the higher altitudes where cool nights temper the 
 tropical heat of equatorial lands. Imported fruits coming into the 
 East Indies must meet the attack of dampness and heat before they 
 reach the consumer. Furthermore, they must meet the test of appe- 
 tites jaded by a hot climate in a country where tropical fruits abound. 
 
 Fruit in the Diet of the Netherland East Indies. — Throughout the 
 thickly settled portions of the Dutch possessions, rice is the staff of life. 
 However, large amounts of other foodstuffs are used and the diet here 
 is perhaps more varied than elsewhere in the East. 
 
 The native starts his day before dawn. Normally a cup of coffee 
 is the only early meal. This is frequently bought from coffee stands, 
 thousands of which dot the towns and villages. If a heavy meal is 
 eaten before the day's work begins it is because the native has more 
 money than usual. By ten-thirty to eleven the whole populace is eat- 
 ing its first general meal of the day. Usually this too is bought from 
 an itinerant or roadside restaurant. By four or five in the afternoon 
 the last meal of the day is eaten. This may be bought at a restaurant 
 but, if any cooking is done at home, it is likely to be in connection with 
 this afternoon meal. In many cases, only the rice is cooked at home, 
 the additional foodstuffs being bought from itinerant vendors. 
 
 Meals are irregular. A native may eat early and often if he has 
 the money. He may be reduced to one meal a day in times of hard- 
 ship. Normally, rice forms the basis for each meal. Large amounts 
 of Indian corn are grown and consumed and, because this is cheaper 
 than rice, may take the place of that cereal when rice is high or the 
 people poor. When still further reduced the cassava, sometimes 
 called the tapioca, is used. This is not processed, as is done when it is 
 manufactured for European trade under the name of pearl or flake 
 tapioca, but the entire root, which resembles a sweet potato or yam, 
 is cooked. The Dutch government has made efforts to popularize the 
 cassava among the native people in order to reduce the imports of rice 
 into the country. 
 
224 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Rice furnishes only the primary basis for the meal. Various vege- 
 tables are cooked in considerable water and the ensuing soup is poured 
 over the rice. Very young ears of corn are sometimes used for this 
 purpose, the entire ear, including the cob, being ground or sliced for 
 the purpose. Over the rice and vegetables, small amounts of dried or 
 fresh fish are sprinkled. It is for this usage that the California sar- 
 dine has become popular in places where fresh fish is scarce or expen- 
 sive. Their low price places these sardines within the range of pur- 
 chase of many natives because only small amounts of them are used. 
 
 In Java, many meals are bought in cooked form from itinerant vendors. If 
 meals are cooked at home, primitive utensils are used over a fireplace in the open. 
 
 Sardines for native consumption are usually sold in quantities of one- 
 half or one-fourth of a sardine. 
 
 From native vendors and traveling restaurants a large number of 
 fried and cooked foods are available. These are decidedly in the lux- 
 ury class, as is also the sweetened bread, made from imported flour. 
 These cooked foodstuffs look far from unappetizing. Small crisp cakes, 
 about 4 inches in diameter, are cooked in deep fat at the itinerant 
 restaurants. As the batter hardens peanuts, shredded cocoanut, 
 shrimps, or chopped meat are sprinkled over them. These cakes, cut 
 into small pieces with a pair of scissors, are added to the rice. Finally, 
 hot sauces are poured over the dish and the native thus at a cost of 
 perhaps two and a half American cents finds himself with a large bowl 
 of rice, the entire top of which is covered with native foods of various 
 kinds. 
 
Buii. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 225 
 
 If funds are available there is a vast amount of eating- between 
 meals. Coffee shops abound. In Java these are usually mere roadside 
 stands where for a few local cents a cup of coffee and a small cake can 
 be had. In Sumatra they are usually more ambitious. There the coffee 
 shop is a sort of club where for 5 local cents (2 cents American money) 
 a cup of coffee and a cake may be eaten in comparative comfort and 
 with even the added joy of a phonograph. For another local cent a 
 cigarette and a match may be bought. In such coffee houses in 
 Sumatra, people are seated for hours at a time. 
 
 In addition to the liking for coffee, immense quantities of fresh 
 fruits are consumed between meals. Millions of natives in Java own 
 their own patches of ground on which are always a variety of fruits. 
 To be sure, these fruits may not necessarily be harvested by the 
 owner. Sometimes a neighbor gets them first. Within the cities and 
 among the contract laborers of Sumatra, fruit must of course be pur- 
 chased. Fruit vendors with large baskets go from house to house or 
 squat by the roadside in native sections of the city selling various 
 varieties of fruits in season. Even unripe fruits are eaten. For exam- 
 ple, green mangoes are sliced and over them is poured ketchup or a 
 hot Spanish sauce — the hotter the better. The consumption of fruits, 
 however, is entirely between meals. 
 
 Sweets are eaten between meals and a very cheap grade of Euro- 
 pean candies is in demand. Native candies are largely based on the 
 cocoanut, which in shredded form is frequently rolled up in a sort of 
 candy. Iced fruit-flavored drinks are popular. A small amount of 
 actual or synthetic fruit juice is added to a glass of ice water. These 
 same highly colored fruit syrups are also served with shaved ice. 
 Probably, however, the sales of fresh native fruits outweigh all of the 
 other between-meal refreshments except coffee. Native fruit is so 
 abundant and so well liked by the population that the consumption 
 is enormous. 
 
 The natives show no tendency to turn to European foods except 
 for sweets and for bread. Even the half-castes are likely to revert 
 to native food rather than European. The taste for the varied condi- 
 ments in the East Indian diet seems to be inherent to the climate. 
 Europeans show a frequent desire for native food. The famous rice- 
 taffel of Java is a dish of rice over which many foodstuffs used by 
 natives are poured. The fact that in a modern hotel fifteen or twenty 
 servants are assigned to serve this dish with all the pomp and cere- 
 mony attendant upon the life of the European in the Far east, in no 
 wise affects the central fact that the Hollander eating his beloved rice- 
 
226 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 taffel from a large soup plate is in fact eating the native meal served 
 in somewhat native fashion. Just as the native finds that sweets have 
 no place in such a meal, so the European eats the one dish as an entire 
 luncheon, and waives the customary dessert until such time as he is 
 partaking of typical European food. 
 
 TABLE 60 
 
 Native Fresh Fruits, N/etherland East Indies 
 
 Seasons Average prices at retail 
 
 Banana All year l^c to lc each 
 
 Cherimei All year 20 for lc 
 
 Cocoanut All year 4c to 15c each 
 
 Cheico All year 3^c each 
 
 Djambol All year 4c per quart 
 
 Jack Fruit All year 20c each or 3^c per slice 
 
 Lime All year 3^c each 
 
 Lubilubi All year 3^c each 
 
 Orange All year 23^c each 
 
 Pala All year lc each 
 
 Pineapple All year 2c to 4c each 
 
 Peaya All year lj^c to 8c each 
 
 Salak All year lc each 
 
 Sirsak All year 2c to 4c each 
 
 Sirakaya Jan. -Feb 134c each 
 
 Buanona Jan.-Feb l^c each 
 
 Maja Jan.-March lc each 
 
 Mandelika Jan.-March lj/^c each 
 
 Buaatap Jan.-March 6 for lc 
 
 Blingbing June-Sept l^c each 
 
 Jamblang Sept.-Oct lc per dozen 
 
 Buni Sept.-Oct lc per hundred 
 
 Mango Sept.-Jan 4c to 10c each 
 
 Samaka Sept.-Dec 40c each 
 
 Durian Nov.-Jan 16c each 
 
 Kemang Nov.-March 10 for 8c 
 
 Chempedak Nov.-Feb 8c each 
 
 Kachapi Dec-Jan 10 for 2c 
 
 Gandaria Dec-Jan 10 for 4c 
 
 Gohok Dec-Jan 10 for lc 
 
 Kokosan Dec-Feb 10 for lc 
 
 Mangosteen Dec-Feb 7c per dozen 
 
 Menteng Dec-Feb l^c per hundred 
 
 Fresh Fruits. — Except in the mountain section, the climate is 
 excessively warm throughout the entire twelve months of the year. 
 Fruit as a refreshment between meals is therefore a commodity in 
 demand at all seasons. Native fruit is abundant and cheap. 
 
 Throughout Java and Sumatra the government has built public 
 markets where natives by payment of a small entrance fee, set up 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 227 
 
 stands with goods for sale. These markets offer great quantities of 
 local fruits in numerous varieties. The larger fruits may be bought 
 by the slice or segment. Smaller fruits may be purchased by the 
 piece or by the dozen. Europeans as well as natives patronize these 
 markets where they buy fruits at low prices. Table 60 gives a list of 
 thirty-three of the more prominent native fruits together with their 
 seasons and representative retail prices. 
 
 Imported fresh fruit comes to the Netherland East Indies from 
 Japan, China, Australia, Palestine, and America. Smaller amounts 
 
 In the Netherland East Indies an abundance of native fruits are on sale in the 
 local markets. 
 
 come from Spain and Holland. Because the Dutch islands stand 
 almost on the equator and half-way between the Mediterranean and 
 America, they draw supplies from both the northern and southern 
 hemispheres and from East and West. 
 
 Australia, being relatively close to Java and Sumatra, is able to 
 ship apples and other hardy fruits from its west coast as deck cargo 
 on short voyages of six or seven days at low rates. Fruit received 
 from the east coast of Australia is shipped as refrigerated freight at 
 rates lower than those from America. 
 
 Originally Australian fruit was not well-graded and was discrimi- 
 nated against in the market. More recently, the grading and quality 
 have improved so that Australian fruit, particularly apples, has the 
 largest demand in the islands. 
 
228 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 From Japan and from Shantung province in China come apples 
 and pears. The market for these is increasing. From the port of 
 Jaffa in Palestine come oranges which are of good quality and which 
 meet a ready demand. Holland sends small amounts of fresh fruit 
 but, due to the long voyage from the mother country, the prices are 
 high and the sales small. 
 
 Imported fresh fruit is consumed primarily by the European 
 population, to a lesser degree by the Chinese, and in only small 
 amounts by the natives. It is the consumption of imported fruit by 
 the Dutch that makes this a fresh-fruit market worthy of attention. 
 The native consumption of imported fresh fruits is small, not because 
 certain imported fruits such as apples and grapes are not liked but 
 because they are beyond the buying power of the people. The amount 
 of imported fresh fruit consumed by natives was estimated by various 
 importers at from 1 per cent to 20 per cent of that imported. It is 
 not surprising that estimates varied widely because the native con- 
 sumption changes with the state of the local fruit crop and the price 
 of the imported commodity. If local fruit is relatively scarce and 
 more expensive than usual, and if imported fruits are abundant and 
 therefore comparatively cheap, larger amounts may be sold to natives. 
 Generally, however, the native only buys imported fruit when there is 
 a glut in the market so that prices drop to low levels or when fruit 
 spoils so that spotted apples or oranges are thrown to the native trade 
 in the hope of recovering part of their cost. 
 
 Imported fresh fruit is landed at Surabaya and Batavia in Java 
 and at Medan in Sumatra where there are cold storage facilities. Of 
 these three cities, Surabaya is the largest market, particularly for 
 apples. From these ports, some imported fresh fruit is shipped to 
 towns in the interior. There are no refrigerator cars on the Javanese 
 railways, and no large towns near Medan in Sumatra. Small amounts 
 of fruit are sometimes shipped to Borneo and the Celebes but this is 
 not common. The fresh-fruit market of the Netherland East Indies is 
 confined at present to three port cities and to those interior towns in 
 which the demand is sufficiently great to warrant the speculation of 
 shipment without refrigeration. 
 
 Normally, fresh fruit is brought into the East Indies by an im- 
 porter on the basis of advance orders from Chinese wholesalers. These 
 wholesalers sell the fruit to dealers who in turn distribute to small 
 Chinese shops. The entire distribution is therefore dependent on the 
 interlocking system of Chinese merchants. Much of the fruit actually 
 reaches the consumer through peddlers. A native peddler will buy a 
 
Bui* 493] FRUIT MARKETS IN EASTERN ASIA 229 
 
 box of apples and a keg of grapes and, with two baskets and a shoul- 
 der pole will retail them from house to house of the Europeans. The 
 first purchasers having the pick of the supply, are charged the high- 
 est prices. As the day goes on and the choice lessens, the prices grad- 
 ually lower till at night the last may be sold cheaply to natives to close 
 out the day's sales, especially if the whole work of the day has already 
 returned a small net profit. A native peddling fruit from one veranda 
 to another in a European section of the city is a familiar sight in the 
 warm tropic evenings. 
 
 The heaviest demand for any imported fruits is for apples. It 
 seems to be the firmness and tartness of the apple that makes them an 
 occasionally desired delicacy among Europeans. The native fruits are 
 of different flavor and consistency. Perhaps, after all, Europeans 
 like apples because they taste like home. Primarily the Dutch like a 
 hard, firm fruit. Thus, a hard sour apple finds a ready market among 
 the Hollanders. On the other hand, the Chinese prefer a sweet apple. 
 If it is highly colored, so much the better. Apples wholesaled in 
 Batavia and Surabaya in Java at $3.25 to $5.00 a box. At Medan in 
 Sumatra they were about a dollar higher in price for the same quality. 
 At retail in Java they sold at 21 % cents a pound and in Sumatra at 
 24 cents a pound. Meanwhile in Java apples from Australia and 
 from Japan were selling at 20 cents a pound and from China at 24 
 cents a pound. Bliss states* that "from a standpoint of suitability 
 there is little to choose between the Australian and United States 
 apples," and that "the reason for the larger imports of Australian 
 apples into Java is that Australian apples reach Java at a time when 
 there is comparatively little native fruit on the market, whereas United 
 States apples arrive during the heaviest marketing period for domes- 
 tic fruit." However, that may be, Australia has the advantage of a 
 short voyage and cheap transportation. 
 
 Grapes rank second in importance among fresh-fruit imports. 
 While California grapes are consumed by Europeans, the great mar- 
 ket for them is among the Chinese and to a smaller degree among 
 natives. The Chinese not only like the flavor, but also seem to believe 
 that they are 'strengthening.' Here, as in their native land, anything 
 that makes for strength is eagerly sought. The usual sale to natives 
 or to Chinese is in small amounts for 5 or 10 cents. Large bunches 
 are cut apart into small clusters and retailed in amounts suited to the 
 purchasing power of the consumer. In Java grapes wholesaled at 
 
 * Trade Information Bulletin 587 — "Markets for Fresh Fruit in the Nether 
 land East Indies." D. C. Bliss. 
 
230 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 $4.80 to $6.00 per 32-pound keg. In Sumatra the price was $6.50. 
 At retail in December, 1929, they were selling in Surabaya at 36 
 cents a pound, at Batavia 40 cents and in Medan, Sumatra, at 44 cents. 
 Australia regularly ships grapes into these markets but since the sea- 
 son is different from that for American grapes they do not directly 
 compete. The grape market is essentially a luxury market. While 
 natives, because of their extravagant habits, do purchase grapes occa- 
 sionally, this consumption is both small and unreliable. A sudden 
 influx of desirable native fruit or the advent of a new candy or a 
 popular movie causes the native fresh-grape consumption to fall off 
 or disappear. The Chinese consumption of grapes is, however, fairly 
 steady and reliable but is distinctly limited. No great and sudden 
 expansion can be made. 
 
 Oranges rank third in popularity among imported fruits. Cali- 
 fornia oranges, 156 to 200 to the box, were selling at wholesale in Java 
 at $6.00 to $8.00 a box. In Sumatra they were $8.75. At retail in 
 Java they were 6% cents each ; in Sumatra 10 cents each. Meanwhile, 
 fair-quality oranges from Australia were 6 cents each and mandarin 
 oranges from China were 4 cents each. In Java a native orange, known 
 as the 'Malang' orange, is of good quality. When this comes in 
 season the market for imported oranges drops off because of the low 
 price of the local product. Jaffa oranges packed 160 to 172 to the box 
 cost $3.60 f.o.b. Port Said. They come cheaply as deck cargo without 
 refrigeration during the winter months but, as the season is short, 
 only four shipments a year are received. As yet, therefore, they do 
 not represent a serious competition. Oranges from California are 
 the highest grade of any shipped to this market. The demand for them 
 is steady during the year but increases during the Mohammedan 
 New Year, a movable feast which constitutes the festival season of the 
 country. During Ramadan when good Mohammedans do not eat from 
 sunrise to sunset, the evening of each day is as much of a feast as the 
 native can afford. During this period, the consumption of oranges 
 is increased by a demand from the well-to-do natives. 
 
 Pears rank, perhaps, fourth in popularity but it is chiefly the hard 
 pears from Japan and north China that are in demand. The American 
 pear is too soft to appeal to the Chinese or native trade. It is only 
 among a small group of Europeans that pears from the United States 
 are purchased. California pears, 150 to the box, wholesaled in Sura- 
 baya at $6.40 a box and in Batavia at $6.80. In Surabaya they 
 retailed at 36 cents a pound ; in Batavia at 49 cents. At the same time 
 large pears from China retailed at 24 cents a pound while small ones 
 were only 12 cents. 
 
Bui. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 231 
 
 Other fruits are only in small demand. A few American grape- 
 fruit are sold, but only when the native pomelo is not available. In 
 December, 1929, they wholesaled at $10 a box and retailed at 20 cents 
 each. Apricots, peaches, and plums would have very small demand 
 even if they were received in this market in good condition. The 
 many native fruits successfully take the place of these in popular 
 taste. A few cases could be sold but it would be as a novelty rather 
 than as a market presenting any possibility of -large development. 
 
 Two steamship lines carrying refrigeration space run from Cali- 
 fornia points to the Dutch East Indies. Two other lines, without 
 refrigeration, also ply between these ports. Refrigeration rates from 
 California to Java ports are : for apples and pears $1.10 a box ; for 
 oranges $1.50 a box; for grapefruit $1.55 a box; for lemons 90 cents 
 a half-box and $1.70 a box ; for grapes $25 a ton of 40 cubic feet; and 
 for peaches $32 a ton. 
 
 In addition to the freight charges there is at Batavia a landing 
 charge of 6 cents a box and a truck and coolie charge from the port to 
 the city amounting to 12 cents a box. Import duty is 12 per cent 
 on the c.i.f. costs in addition to which there is an additional charge 
 of % of 1 per cent of the duty for the upkeep of the statistical depart- 
 ment of the colonial government. There is also a charge of 14 cents 
 a ton harbor dues, and 14 cents a case inspection costs. 
 
 At Medan in Sumatra the charges are even more complex because 
 freight is usually trans-shipped at Singapore and because the city of 
 Medan lies further inland from its port, Beliwan-Deli. There is an 
 8V& cent charge per package for refrigeration at Singapore while 
 awaiting trans-shipment to Medan, and a 10-cent charge per package 
 for cargo transfer. At Beliwan-Delhi discharging from the ship costs 
 80 cents a ton ; harbor dues are 12 cents a ton ; godown charges for 
 the first four days are 2 cents; coolie transfer from warehouse to 
 truck or train is 4 cents a case ; truck or train transfer from the port 
 to Medan is 5 cents a case. In addition to all of which is the 12 per 
 cent duty, to which is added % of 1 per cent to maintain the Statistical 
 Bureau, and the 14 cents a case inspection charge. 
 
 Cold storage facilities are available at Batavia to the extent of 
 about 6,000 cases in plants of two different firms. At Surabaya there 
 is available space for about 5,000 cases where branches of the same 
 firms are established. At Medan, in Sumatra, one company has three 
 or four small rooms for fruits with space sufficient for perhaps 700 
 cases. At the port of Semarang there is no public refrigeration space 
 at present available. 
 
232 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Because there are no refrigerator cars on the State Railways in 
 Java, the distribution of fruit of a quickly perishable nature is rela- 
 tively hazardous. The greatest interior distribution of fresh fruit is 
 made from Surabaya. Probably fifteen small interior towns receive 
 fresh imported fruit from this point through Chinese wholesalers who 
 ship fruit up-country to dealers, who in turn distribute to stores, 
 stands in public markets, and to peddlers. From Batavia only a few 
 interior points are reached, chiefly the considerable cities of Ban- 
 doeng and Buitenzorg. From Medan in Sumatra there is little 
 interior distribution. Four or five small up-country towns and a few 
 large plantations occasionally receive imported fruit. 
 
 The fresh fruit market in the Netherland East Indies presents 
 little opportunity for any marked expansion except as decreased 
 prices in America or decreased freight rates may enable fruit to be 
 landed at lower costs and thereby come within the purchasing desire 
 of a larger number of people. As more cold storage plants are estab- 
 lished in interior towns, and as improved distribution takes place, 
 the consumption can be gradually increased. At present prices and 
 with present facilities the market must remain comparatively small. 
 The cheapness and abundance of native fruit throughout the entire 
 year furnishes a substitute for the fruits of the temperate zone which 
 is sufficiently satisfactory for most of the European trade. At the 
 same price the Hollander would probably prefer apples, grapes, or 
 oranges to mangoes, bananas, or mangosteens. At present prices the 
 latter do well enough except for occasions when a novelty is desired or 
 when the Hollander wishes to entertain his family or his friends. 
 Apples, grapes, or oranges are understood to be a decided treat, not 
 because of their rarity, but because of their cost. After all, even in 
 America under the relatively high standard of living and of expendi- 
 tures there prevalent, the consumption of these fruits would be small 
 if they were displayed at the high prices necessarily asked in Java and 
 at the same time were competing with other desirable local fruits at 
 one-fifth or one-tenth the cost. 
 
 Canned Fruits. — In proportion to their population, the Netherland 
 East Indies do not consume large quantities of canned fruits. About 
 three-fourths of the canned fruits brought into the Islands are from 
 the United States. China ranks next in importance, sending consid- 
 erable amounts of lichees and bamboo sprouts in the No. 2 can for 
 the Chinese trade, and lesser amounts of pears and peaches of inferior 
 grade. Australian canned goods come to Java in smaller quantities 
 and do not create any considerable competition with American canned 
 
Bul.493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 233 
 
 fruits. European jams and jellies are popular among the wealthier 
 families of the white race. 
 
 Because of trans-shipment and because of the failure to segregate 
 imports into classification by countries of origin, it is impossible to 
 obtain accurate detailed statistics of the consumption of the various 
 canned fruits. The best estimates were those secured from the local 
 agencies of California packers. 
 
 Probably the total consumption of canned fruits from America 
 aggregates 60,000 cases a year. Of this, more than half is canned 
 grapes that sell to the Chinese and native trade. Of the remainder, 
 peaches rank first, cherries second, pears third, and apricots fourth. 
 The total amounts of each of these are similar. There is small differ- 
 ence between the amounts of peaches and apricots sold. 
 
 Grapes are the great canned-fruit commodity of the Islands. Most 
 of these are of second or third grade which appeal, because of their 
 low price, to the purchasing power of the Asiatic trade. Grapes 
 became popular through the Chinese who, as elsewhere in these south- 
 ern lands to which they have migrated, use them in connection with 
 banquets and dinners with ice and iced drinks. Natives have followed 
 the lead of the Chinese in the use of canned grapes. While the native 
 consumption is still comparatively small, the better class of natives 
 occasionally purchase the lower grades of grapes. Furthermore, local 
 stores sometimes display a glass jar into which one or more cans of 
 grapes have been emptied. These are retailed a few grapes at a time. 
 Usually they are sold in company with a ball of shaved ice. Some- 
 times one or two canned grapes are dropped, together with a little 
 syrup, into a glass of ice water. 
 
 The largest consumption of canned grapes is at the time of the 
 Mohammedan New Year when the sales double or triple. The Arabs, 
 who long ago migrated to Java, as well as the Mohammedan natives, 
 consume canned grapes at that season. The Chinese New Year is 
 another occasion for an increased demand. Canned grapes are dis- 
 tinctly a festival refreshment so that the sales fluctuate not only with 
 the season but with the prosperity of the country. Under the present 
 and prospective depression in the East Indies, the sales of canned 
 grapes may be expected to decrease. Cherries also are consumed by 
 Chinese and to a limited extent by natives. Owing to their higher 
 price the sales aggregate only about one-fifth that of grapes. The 
 people like cherries as well or better than grapes but the price limits 
 their purchase. 
 
234 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Canned peaches, pears, and apricots are consumed only by Euro- 
 peans. Their sale is therefore distinctly limited. Natives seem to find 
 these soft fruits not particularly desirable. Here again, as in Malaya, 
 it was noticeable that Chinese and natives attending" the conferences 
 at which samples were opened and served showed reluctance to taste 
 these fruits and always failed to consume the small portions served to 
 them. The European demand is relatively small both because of the 
 large variety and low price of native fruits and because in this hot 
 climate sweets are not in great demand among the white race. The 
 small salaries and frugality of the Dutch also limit sales. As one 
 highly placed Hollander expressed it, when he had influenza his wife 
 offered to open a can of peaches for him but that ' ' of course she would 
 not do that when he was well ' ' except, perhaps, when they had guests. 
 
 Probably 90 per cent of the sales of canned fruit are in the No. 
 2^2 tin. The remaining 10 per cent are in the No. 1 tall size. The 
 small 8-ounce cans are infrequently on sale and are not yet popular. 
 The market is distinctly conservative. The largest sale of canned 
 fruit, perhaps half of all that sold in the Islands, is for one brand 
 which was introduced into the Islands a quarter of a century ago. 
 The brand and label have long since been discontinued in America 
 but must be retained here because the market refuses to accept any 
 other. New brands and new sizes of old brands find tremendous sales 
 resistance. Importers are therefore reluctant to embark upon new 
 ventures either in label or in kind of package. 
 
 At wholesale, grapes sold in Java for $6.40 a case, and for $7.00 
 in Sumatra. At retail they were 28 cents a can in the No. 2% size in 
 Java and 30 cents in Sumatra. Prices for all canned fruits do not 
 differ materially at interior towns from those at coast ports because 
 wholesalers usually sell freight prepaid. In the No. 1 tall can grapes 
 were 20 cents in Java and 22 cents in Sumatra, In the 8-ounce can 
 they were 12 cents in Sumatra although Chinese stated that they had 
 purchased them for 10 cents. It is common for prices at retail to be 
 quoted higher to Europeans than to natives. None of these 8-ounce 
 cans of grapes were found on sale in Java. 
 
 Canned peaches wholesale in Java at $8.00 a case in the No. 2% 
 size; for $9.30 in the No. 1 tall size; and for $7.60 in the 8-ounce size. 
 They retailed at 34 to 37 cents in the No. 2y 2 can and at 26 cents 
 in the No. 1 tall can. Pears wholesaled at $8.00 a case in the No. 2y 2 
 size ; $9.30 in the No. 1 tall ; and $7.60 in the 8-ounce size. At retail 
 they were 40 cents in the No. 2% can and 26 cents in the No. 1 tall. 
 In Sumatra prices were 2 to 4 cents per can higher. Apricots both at 
 
BUT* 493] FRUIT MARKETS IN EASTERN ASIA 235 
 
 wholesale and retail brought the same prices as did pears. Fruit 
 salad, the consumption of which is small, was $10.60 per case of 
 No. 2% cans ; $12.80 in the No. 1 tall ; and $10.50 in the 8-ounce size. 
 At retail it was 48 to 50 cents in the No. 2% can and 30 cents in the 
 No. 1 tall. 
 
 Freight rates from California points to Java are $16 per ton of 
 40 cubic feet. To Medan in Sumatra they are $2.00 a ton higher. 
 There is a 12 per cent duty for imports. For the upkeep of the 
 Statistical Bureau one-quarter of 1 per cent of the duty is added. 
 Harbor dues are 12 to 14 cents a ton, dependent upon the port used. 
 Landing costs in Sumatra are 80 cents a ton for discharge from 
 the ship ; 4 cents a case for coolie charges to load from ship to truck 
 or train and 5 cents freight or truck charges from the port of Beliwan- 
 Deli to Medan. At Batavia the landing charges are 6 cents a case; 
 the truck and coolie charges from the wharf to Batavia are 12 cents. 
 
 Canned fruit is brought into the Netherland East Indies by large 
 agencies some of which are Chinese and others Dutch. The Holland 
 firms are usually great companies which handle a number of com- 
 modities among which canned fruit is included. These often com- 
 plained that the business was small and unprofitable. The Chinese 
 importers seemed satisfied with the business and keen to increase it. 
 Importers place orders on the basis of a year's supply as calculated 
 from advance orders from wholesalers. Smaller importers usually use 
 the indent system. Shipments are desired at intervals throughout the 
 year. Usually importers carry small supplies on hand to satisfy 
 interim orders received. Goods are sold by importers to wholesalers at 
 'ex-godown prices,' meaning, landed costs plus storage, overhead, and 
 profit. Competition is keen among the wholesalers and importers so 
 that prices are frequently forced to relatively low levels. Especially 
 is this true in times of financial depression when wholesalers and 
 importers desire to realize on stocks on hand and when sales are less 
 than anticipated. 
 
 The ' Outlying Provinces ' buy larger amounts of canned fruits than 
 their proportion of the population would indicate. Bliss estimates* 
 that the 29 per cent of the inhabitants of the East Indies who are in 
 the 'Outlying Possessions' take 56^ per cent of the imports of canned 
 fruits. He accounts for this by the fact that there are larger numbers 
 of Chinese in the outer possessions and that these islands from a 
 
 * Trade Information Bulletin 620. "Market for Foodstuffs in the Netherland 
 East Indies," D. C. Bliss, 1929. This publication, on pages 21-32, gives an 
 extended discussion of the present market for canned fruit to which the reader is 
 referred. 
 
236 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 foodstuffs viewpoint are not self-supporting- but produce exportable 
 products such as rubber, tin, spices, etc., and that, furthermore, the 
 larger amounts of ready money from employment make such purchases 
 practical whereas in Java the natives are more nearly self -maintained. 
 In Java probably 70 per cent of the imports of canned fruit are sold 
 in the large port cities. In Sumatra probably 60 per cent is consumed 
 in the important towns. Chinese dealers buy from importers and 
 wholesalers on 30 to 60 days' credit. Since Chinese failures are not 
 uncommon, the business holds hazards for the importer and wholesaler, 
 particularly when in times of financial depression these failures are 
 frequent. 
 
 Canned fruit is largely beyond the range of the purchase of the 
 native trade. At certain large towns, as at Djokjakarta and Solokarta, 
 there are important groups of well-to-do natives, but, in the main, with 
 the exception of grapes the native consumption of canned fruit is 
 negligible. Partially this is because canned fruit in No. 2% tins is 
 the only well-known size, partially because native fruit is abundant 
 and cheap, partially because canned fruit does not appeal to the native 
 as a desirable luxury in competition with other possible luxuries such 
 as movie shows, a flash light, or a future bicycle. To the natives, 
 canned fruit has little pull of attraction. To the Chinese, canned 
 fruits are a desirable purchase for festivals and parties, particularly 
 canned grapes or cherries. Meanwhile, the European regards canned 
 fruit as an expensive food for which he has no particular craving but 
 which is useful when desiring a novelty in the diet for himself or his 
 guests. 
 
 Dried Fruits. — Raisins are the only American dried fruit which 
 sells extensively to the native population in the Netherland East 
 Indies. To a small degree, dry prunes are sold to Chinese and to 
 natives. Other dried fruits, such as apples, peaches, apricots, and 
 pears, are consumed only among the Europeans. 
 
 Among the Chinese population, dried fruits from China are sold 
 in a manner similar to that in Malaya, This was fully discussed under 
 that section of this report. Dates from the Near East enter the Dutch 
 East Indies in large volume. In 1928, 5,700,000 pounds were imported, 
 being divided almost equally between Java and the other sections of 
 the East Indies. These dates which retail at 8 to 14 cents a pound 
 are used by Arabs and by natives in large quantities at the time 
 of the Mohammedan New Year. Because of their low price, they 
 furnish an acceptable sweet for the Mohammedan population. Efforts 
 to popularize American dried fruits, such as raisins and prunes, have 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 237 
 
 had to meet the competition of the cheap Arabian date. The fact that 
 dates from the Near East are dirty and adulterated with sand, twigs 
 and insects does not present sufficient deterrent to influence the natives 
 to purchase the cleaner but more expensive American dried fruits. 
 Many of the imports of dates are credited to India in the government 
 statistics because they are frequently trans-shipped at Indian ports 
 from their port of origin. 
 
 Booths, advertising California raisins, were erected at local fairs, each booth 
 being in the shape of a raisin carton. At these booths raisins were sold in a paper 
 envelope containing 30 raisins for a "gobang, M a copper coin equivalent to an 
 American cent. 
 
 Because of the heat and dampness, all American dried fruits must 
 be shipped into the East Indies in tin containers. Fruit packed in 
 wooden boxes rapidly spoils. For European consumption fruits are 
 packed in cans of 1, 2 and 5 pounds. Raisins usually enter in 25-pound 
 tin-lined cases. Cartons, without a protection of tin-lining to the case, 
 become unfit for sale in a short period although by storage in refrig- 
 erated rooms their deterioration may be postponed. The cost of tin- 
 lined cases or of packing in tin cans necessarily increases the price of 
 the American fruit and makes it more difficult to successfully compete 
 with other foodstuffs offered to the native population. 
 
 Raisins are imported from Australia and the Near East for festival 
 consumption. These are large yellow-bleached Sultana raisins which 
 
238 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 have a strong appeal to the Arabs and natives. Their high price har 
 prevented any very large sales except for extraordinary occasions. 
 California raisins were popularized in the Dutch East Indies as else- 
 where in the Far East, by extensive trade promotion carried on for 
 them over a series of years. Booths were erected at local fairs, each 
 booth being in the shape of a raisin carton, and at these booths raisins 
 were sold in a paper envelope containing thirty raisins for a ' gobang, ' 
 a local copper coin equivalent to one American cent. Free coupons 
 
 In Java, automobile trucks, painted to represent the raisin carton, went about 
 the country putting raisins on sale in every country village. 
 
 were sometimes given at the entrance to these fairs entitling the holder 
 to an envelope of raisins. Outside the booth lectures were delivered 
 in the vernacular extolling the value of the raisin, that it was better 
 than the date and had a large number of seedless fruits in a package. 
 Automobile trucks, painted to represent the raisin carton, went about 
 the country. Talks were delivered in school houses, free samples given 
 away and small envelopes sold, after which a supply was placed on 
 sale locally in the villages. Cases of raisins holding 25 pounds were 
 sold to dealers with 800 envelopes designed for the retailing of the 
 contents. No money was spent on newspaper advertising. The result 
 of this propaganda was a large sale of raisins in small envelopes to 
 school children. In western Java this still continues. In eastern Java 
 the sale through small envelopes has passed away in favor of larger 
 
Btjl. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 239 
 
 bulk sales to bakers and confectioners. The school boy of eastern Java 
 has ceased to buy raisins as a confection, possibly because the trade 
 promotion seeking to capture him has been discontinued. 
 
 TTIakanlaK lebih lxin(ah 
 
 Satoe pond Kis- 
 mis ijap Sunmaid 
 
 MUHUow^guDea 
 
 mempoenjai S C- (Kismis lid a ada bidjinja) 
 
 rocpa kckocatan 
 
 m a k a n a n d a r i: (\ 
 
 49* 
 o m ly pond 
 
 Sun-Maid Rozijnen 
 ada lebih baik, manis 
 dan bersih dari semoea 
 laen 2 roepa Kismis. 
 
 Bisa didapei moclai dari 2'/, cent 
 
 In Java a campaign of advertising is seeking to win older persons to the use 
 of raisins. This poster, in Malay, emphasizes the food value of raisins as com- 
 pared with other foods. 
 
240 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 In the 'Outlying Provinces' California raisins are even more popu- 
 lar than in Java, because there are not so many competing" confections. 
 In Java ice cream, iced drinks, and many kinds of candies attract the 
 school child. In the other islands fewer of these are offered, so that 
 the California raisin has a larger share of the field. 
 
 At present, out of a total sale per year of 12,000 to 16,000 cases of 
 California raisins in the East Indies, more than half are sold in the 
 'Outlying Provinces.' It is recognized that sales could be increased 
 by the expenditure of funds for trade promotion in the same manner 
 as used in earlier years. At present a campaign of high-class advertis- 
 ing is going forward in limited degree seeking to win older persons to 
 the use of raisins, the advertising being based on their high food value. 
 Attempts to get the Dutch housewife to use raisins with rice instead 
 of their familiar and time-honored "rice and currants" have not been 
 successful, but a large use for raisins in cakes and bread for native and 
 Chinese consumption has grown up in some of the larger centers of 
 population. Unfortunately, the economy of local bakers leads them 
 to decrease the number of raisins as much as possible. One may see 
 offered for sale a large flat cake whereon six raisins adorn the top.. 
 
 Two-thirds of the sales of California raisins in the East Indies are 
 in bulk in 25-pound tin-lined cases with which envelopes may or may 
 not be supplied. If envelopes are not furnished, 20 cents of the pur- 
 chase price is deducted. In eastern Java most bulk sales are accom- 
 panied with envelopes. In western Java envelopes are not used. 
 About 25 per cent of the raisins sold are in cases holding 144 small 
 cartons of 1% ounces. That this form of package is so small a pro- 
 portion of the total is evidence of the low buying power of the natives. 
 It is too large for them to purchase, although it retails at the equivalent 
 of 4 American cents. About 10 per cent of the sales are in 15-ounce 
 cartons for use of bakers. This demand remains relatively steady 
 while the bulk sales are likely to fluctuate with the prosperity of the 
 country and the trade promotion conducted. At wholesale, raisins sell 
 for 16 to 17 cents a pound. At retail they sell in bulk for 20 to 28 
 cents a pound. The 15-ounce carton retails at 20 cents. 
 
 Prunes present perhaps the best opportunity for large additional 
 sales among all American fruits in the Dutch East Indies. Already 
 prunes are comparatively well-known to the Chinese for their medic- 
 inal value. Some promotional work has been conducted for them. One 
 importer at a local fair steamed prunes and sold them one by one in a 
 cooked form to natives to illustrate how attractive this fruit might be 
 when properly prepared. The result, as measured by increased sales, 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 241 
 
 justified the effort. In some local coffee-shops prunes are offered for 
 sale at about 1 cent each. They are usually, in such cases, found on a 
 shelf in a glass jar along with other confections. This opportunity for 
 prunes has not yet been extensively realized. Among Europeans the 
 prune is used but the Hollander seems to prefer, for general use, the 
 
 4 > a .' 
 
 The Chinese in Java are not neglected in the advertising campaign for raisins. 
 Here the value of raisins is compared with popular Chinese foods. 
 
242 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 dried apple. Prunes for European use are usually sold in tin cans of 
 1, 2, and 5 pounds. In bulk they wholesale locally at 20 to 22 cents 
 a pound, the 50-60 size usually being" used. Retail prices were actually 
 lower in December 1929 than wholesale prices, since retail shops had 
 on hand stocks from the previous year's crop which sold at lower 
 prices. Prunes were retailing in tins at 20 cents a pound and in bulk 
 at the same price. In Sumatra the cost was 5 to 10 cents higher. 
 
 The European demand for dried fruits other than prunes and apples 
 is small. Dried apples wholesaled in December 1929 at 29 to 34 cents 
 a pound. They were found on sale at retail in tins for 23 to 26 cents 
 a pound, while in the same cities dried apples in bulk were selling at 
 38 cents. The high spoilage of bulk dried fruit and the small turn- 
 over evidently led the Chinese merchant to charge a higher price for 
 the bulk dried apples. Apricots were wholesaling at 48 cents per 
 pound and retailing at 50 cents. White California figs in 1-pound 
 tins retailed at 40 cents a pound. 
 
 The costs for freight, duty, and delivery charges on dried fruits are 
 the same as those previously given for canned fruits in the Netherland 
 East Indies. Dried fruits are ordered by importers who act as dis- 
 tributors for California packers. These sell to Chinese wholesalers 
 who, in turn, distribute to dealers and retailers. Dried fruits in tins 
 are found on sale at all interior towns where there is a European popu- 
 lation. Raisins, apples, and prunes predominate at interior points, 
 other fruits being less frequently on sale. Freight rates on the State 
 Railways of Java and Sumatra are high. Freight per case of dried 
 fruit varies from 16 to 30 cents, according to the distance transported. 
 Motor-truck service is even more expensive. Points not reached by 
 railroad frequently have high transportation costs. 
 
 Any large sales of dried fruits are dependent upon the possibility 
 of retailing in small units at low prices. Chinese dealers and European 
 importers were both of the opinion that prunes could be popularized 
 among the Chinese and among a portion of the native population pro- 
 vided they could be retailed, one prune at a time, for 1 local cent per 
 prune. This price would be equivalent to 2y 2 prunes for 1 American 
 cent, or, in the 50-60 size, at 20 cents a pound. Wholesale prices must 
 be substantially lower than this in order to enable the retailer to 
 become interested in the business. At the equivalent of 1 American 
 cent per prune, the sales will continue to be small to the native trade 
 unless the medicinal value of prunes can, by advertising and trade 
 promotion, be sufficiently impressed upon the Asiatic population so 
 that the commodity enters into the class of medicines rather than that 
 of confections or of foodstuffs. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 243 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods in the Nctherland East Indies. — The 
 greatest obstacle to be overcome in trade promotion for California 
 fruits is the fact that natives, Chinese, and even Europeans do not 
 particularly care for most of them. The natives and Chinese do like 
 raisins, they like canned grapes and cherries, and they evidence a 
 growing liking for dry prunes. Among fresh fruits they like apples, 
 grapes, and oranges. Other fruits — fresh, canned, and dried — are of 
 little interest to them as a luxury purchase. It must be borne in mind 
 always that imported fruits are in the luxury group among the people 
 of the East Indies. 
 
 There are three coins in the Netherland East Indies which are in 
 general circulation — the 'gobang,' or 2%-cent piece, equivalent in 
 value to an American cent; the 10-cent piece which equals 4 cents in 
 American money ; and the quarter-guilder, or 25-cent piece of parallel 
 value to an American dime. Any article selling extensively to the 
 native trade should retail for one of these coins. Obviously it must 
 sell at wholesale at a price enough below these values to enable the 
 dealer and retailer to make an attractive profit, else they will not push 
 sales or, perhaps, even stock the commodity. 
 
 In general, articles to be sold by the millions to the millions must 
 sell for a ' gobang. ' It is this value of an American cent which is the 
 greatest current unit of expenditure among the natives. Where 
 'gobangs' will rattle in the till by the millions, dimes will come in 
 only by the thousands and quarter-guilders by the hundreds. The 
 successful sale of raisins in the East Indies is based upon the fact that 
 they could be bought for a ' gobang. ' To be sure, the price was higher 
 in such minute quantities than in larger units of purchase but the 
 native often had the * gobang' to spend and he infrequently had a 
 dime and seldom a quarter-guilder. 
 
 It is difficult to get American fruit down to such units of purchase 
 that a small coin will complete a sale. It is possibly only in a few 
 fruits. For this purpose, the raisin and the prune present the best 
 opportunities. The raisin market has not been saturated. The market 
 for prunes is yet to be developed. Canned fruit, obviously, does not 
 come within the range of any of the three coins mentioned except, 
 perhaps, the quarter-guilder. At present, even the 8-ounce can usually 
 sells at a higher price. The fact, however, that 8-ounce cans of Thomp- 
 son seedless grapes are on sale in the East Indies for a quarter-guilder, 
 10 American cents, evidences the fact that there are possibilities that 
 this size package might retail for that price. 
 
244 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Primes present the best possibility of expansion because they have 
 an additional appeal beyond that of a foodstuff or a confection. 
 Because prunes can be promoted as a medicine, they might, even at 
 present prices, be sold to natives successfully. The appeal of ' ' obat, ' ' 
 or medicine, is great among the people of the East Indies. One sees 
 large numbers of medical advertisements in the name of ' obat. ' For a 
 medicinal purchase, the native limit is a quarter-guilder. It is possible 
 to sell great quantities of a popular medicine even at that relatively 
 high unit of purchase. In envelopes holding two prunes for a 'gobang, ' 
 or in small cartons giving fifteen prunes for a local dime, prunes could 
 probably be successfully promoted. The mere passive offer of prunes 
 in these units would not achieve success. Too many other products 
 claim the attention and money of the native. He must be introduced 
 to the prune as a pleasant confection which also contains the magical 
 and beneficent ' obat. ' It would be necessary to conduct a widespread 
 campaign heralding the power of the prune to conserve health and 
 strength. Afterward, the attention of the native must be held until 
 eating prunes becomes a permanent habit of his life. 
 
 Such a campaign should begin with high-class advertising in news- 
 papers in Dutch, Chinese, and Malay. These should, if possible, dis- 
 play testimonials from some of the native princes. Free sampling 
 should be done from the thousands of coffee shops. On certain days a 
 dry prune should be given away with each purchase of a cake and cup 
 of coffee. Afterward, in bulk, they should be placed on sale in these 
 coffee shops at the rate of one prune for a local cent, equivalent to 
 % of an American cent. Local fairs throughout the country should 
 offer an opportunity for the people to become acquainted with dry 
 prunes. A coupon on the entrance ticket enabling the holder to get 
 a free sample by calling at the booth is a method that has already 
 been used for raisins. Small cartons of prunes, purchasable as 'obat' 
 for a local dime, 4 cents, should be on sale in every country village. 
 In the beginning it would be necessary to package these cartons in 
 small tin boxes to enable the retailer to dispose of an entire box before 
 the contents spoiled. Later the usual size cases might be used as the 
 demand increased. It is only by some such campaign as that outlined 
 above that prunes can be brought into general consumption. It is 
 believed, however, that the outlook is sufficiently encouraging to 
 warrant the effort. 
 
 Of all the canned fruits, canned grapes in 8-ounce tins to retail for 
 a quarter-guilder, present the only large opportunity. No extensive 
 trial of these has been made so that the inference that they could be 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 245 
 
 successfully sold is based chiefly upon the liking of the people for 
 grapes and upon the fact that purchases in larger units are beyond 
 their power. Obviously, canned grapes, if they are to sell in large 
 quantities in small units, must be introduced to those who have not 
 previously purchased them, or, at least, to those who previously have 
 eaten them infrequently. The Chinese, for all their liking for grapes, 
 are infrequent eaters of them. At present their use is only at banquets 
 and dinners. Canned grapes in small units' might be placed within 
 
 School-boys in Java 
 vicinity of school-houses. 
 
 sold raisins in the villages am 
 
 in.1I towns and in the 
 
 the range of frequent use by Chinese. If they would not sell to the 
 millions they might, at least, sell to the thousands of Chinese. 
 
 To popularize grapes in small cans would require time, money, and 
 effort. Here, as elsewhere, the Chinese are conservative not only as 
 merchants but also as consumers. To them canned grapes are a ban- 
 quet dish purchased in a large No. 2 1 /? can under a well-known brand. 
 Small cans presented to influential Chinese citizens at frequent inter- 
 vals, advertising in Chinese papers, and the extensive display of the 
 new small size would aid the undertaking. Most of all, however, the 
 small can should sell at approximately the same rate per unit as the 
 large cans. If there is about one-fourth of the contents of the No. 2y 2 
 can in the 8-ounce size, then the 8-ounce can must sell at about one- 
 
246 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 fourth the price of the No. 2% tin. Too great a price differential, 
 based upon the cost of the tins, causes the Chinese to feel that they 
 are not getting the worth of their money. Instead of eating canned 
 grapes frequently in small amounts, they would prefer to continue, as 
 before, to defer their use until such time as an occasion of sufficient 
 importance arose to warrant the purchase of the No. 2% can. 
 
 Fresh imported fruit is beyond the usual range of native consump- 
 tion. It can appeal only to the well-to-do among the Hollanders, the 
 Chinese, and the natives. Fresh fruit will continue to be purchased 
 occasionally even by poorer natives because of their impulsive extrava- 
 gance. Fresh fruit at present prices can sell only to the hundreds, or 
 perhaps to the occasional thousands. However, the importance of 
 fresh fruit can and will increase as the distribution becomes wider so 
 that it comes within the range of a larger number of the luxury class. 
 How much of this increased market will pass to Australia and how 
 much to America is a question which only the future can answer. 
 Australia with the improving methods used in grading and packing 
 fruit is in a position because of the short haul, often without refrigera- 
 tion, to place fresh fruit in the markets of Java at low prices. 
 
FRUIT MARKETS IN THE INDIAN EMPIRE 
 AND CEYLON 
 
248 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 61 
 
 Direct Fruit Exports from Caijfornia to British India 
 
 Kind of fruit 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 1929 
 
 Canned 
 Berries 
 
 pounds 
 
 33,988 
 12,623 
 62,041 
 112,361 
 261,004 
 264,867 
 105,123 
 
 dollars 
 
 6,424 
 1,663 
 8,202 
 17,264 
 32,831 
 28,380 
 14,559 
 
 pounds 
 
 41,677 
 
 27,907 
 
 68,451 
 
 85,373 
 
 247,741 
 
 323,390 
 
 117,102 
 
 dollars 
 
 7,932 
 3,780 
 9,408 
 14,573 
 33,411 
 35,018 
 18,375 
 
 pounds 
 
 68,482 
 
 26,850 
 
 76,007 
 
 94,076 
 
 307,530 
 
 369,902 
 
 175,527 
 
 256,515 
 
 120,555 
 
 74,396 
 
 21,644 
 
 dollars 
 
 13,283 
 
 Apples 
 
 3,107 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Cherries 
 
 9,890 
 17,904 
 
 Prunes 
 
 40,521 
 
 Peaches 
 
 43,843 
 
 Pears 
 
 26,153 
 
 Fruit for salad 
 
 45,132 
 
 Other canned 
 
 75,140 
 
 35,270 
 
 139,021 
 
 11,492 
 
 4,991 
 
 28,949 
 
 96,688 
 
 - 45,581 
 
 162,657 
 
 14,611 
 
 6,712 
 
 29,267 
 
 17,936 
 
 Pineapples 
 
 9,913 
 
 Jams, jellies, etc 
 
 5,177 
 
 Total . 
 
 1,101,438 
 
 154,755 
 
 1,216,567 
 
 173,089 
 
 1,591,484 
 
 232,859 
 
 
 
 Dried 
 
 Raisins 
 
 pounds 
 
 10,875 
 
 14,024 
 
 3,082 
 
 2,291 
 
 49,622 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,038 
 
 2,610 
 
 573 
 
 373 
 
 5,027 
 
 pounds 
 
 32,330 
 
 15,021 
 
 5,125 
 
 2,174 
 
 227,528 
 
 dollars 
 
 2,141 
 
 2,020 
 
 988 
 
 336 
 
 19,814 
 
 pounds 
 
 14,583 
 
 29,613 
 
 8,857 
 
 6,330 
 
 147,957 
 
 2,285 
 
 11,761 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,295 
 
 Apples 
 
 6,267 
 
 Apricots 
 
 2,428 
 
 Peaches 
 
 1,342 
 
 Prunes 
 
 15,203 
 
 Pears 
 
 449 
 
 Other dried 
 
 11,487 
 
 1,958 
 
 12,541 
 
 2,057 
 
 1,878 
 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 91,381 
 
 11,579 
 
 294,719 
 
 27,356 
 
 221,386 
 
 28,862 
 
 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Grapefruit 
 
 boxes 
 
 125 
 
 19 
 
 267 
 
 505 
 
 dollars 
 
 510 
 
 113 
 
 1,712 
 
 1,147 
 
 boxes 
 
 20 
 
 dollars 
 
 100 
 
 boxes 
 
 dollars 
 
 Lemons 
 
 
 
 Oranges 
 
 3 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 75 
 
 1 
 
 956 
 
 4 
 
 Apples 
 
 2,145 
 
 
 
 Berries 
 
 pounds 
 
 400 
 1,550 
 
 dollars 
 
 100 
 300 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 Grapes 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other fresh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 249 
 
 FRUIT MARKETS IN THE INDIAN EMPIRE AND CEYLON 
 
 It has been said frequently that "India is not a country, it is a 
 continent." Its vast area, enormous population and many races of 
 people create an insurmountable difficulty for anyone who would 
 briefly describe this part of the British Empire. 
 
 India has a population of 318,942,480, to w r hich must be added 
 5,124,992 for Ceylon. Together they constitute almost one-fifth of the 
 human race. India has 1,805,000 square miles. Ceylon adds 25,000 
 more. Thus, India w T ith an area about one-half that of the United 
 States has a population almost three times as large. Where the United 
 States has 32 persons per square mile, India has 177. Successive 
 waves of conquest and migration have superimposed peoples from 
 many of the nearby countries of Asia. These, fusing with the original 
 inhabitants, have created mixtures and gradations of many races. 
 Various religions were brought with the successive conquerors. Modi- 
 fied by their environment, these religions separate and divide groups 
 which otherwise would be in close contact. Religions have brought 
 with them customs of food and dress, as well as of habit and thought, 
 so that any general statements as to the tastes and purchasing power 
 of the people of India is certain to be true only of some groups and 
 not of others. 
 
 India is essentially an agricultural country. About 90 per cent of 
 the people live outside of towns and cities. Of all the people of 
 India, 73 per cent are directly engaged in agriculture. Only 1 per 
 cent are in organized industries, such as manufacturing, while 8 per 
 cent are in trade and transport and 9 per cent in unorganized indus- 
 tries connected with the supply of simple household and industrial 
 necessities. Agriculture is the great business of India. Most of the 
 people live in small villages, of which there are 685,665 in India. 
 From these they go out to till the land. 
 
 India depends for its prosperity upon the monsoon. The warm, 
 moist wind from the Indian Ocean spreads over the Bay of Bengal 
 and the Arabian Sea during June and brings to India the rain upon 
 which the crops and the prosperity of the country depend. The extent 
 and duration of this monsoon determine the prosperity and the buying 
 power of the people during the ensuing year. During one year in 
 five, the monsoon is deficient. In one year in ten the failure is severe. 
 It is during these recurrent failures that famine conditions arise. The 
 
250 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Government of India has developed extensive irrigation works to 
 increase food production and mitigate failures in the monsoon. Out 
 of 225,000,000 acres in India sown to crops, there are 27,473,000 under 
 irrigation. A network of railways has been built, totaling 39,711 
 miles, in order to get crops to market and to reach with foodstuffs 
 sections threatened by famine. All these measures have improved 
 the welfare of the country and the buying power of its people. 
 
 In the towns are 32,500,000 persons, not an inconsiderable popu- 
 lation. Even if for purposes of study or trade all the people of India 
 
 Agriculture is the great business of India. Most of the people live in small 
 villages. From these they go out to till the land. 
 
 be discarded except those who live in the towns, the remaining popu- 
 lation would still be as great as in many large nations. India has 
 33 cities with a population of 100,000 or more. Of these Calcutta and 
 Bombay each have over a million people. Calcutta with 1,327,000 is 
 the largest city in the Indian Empire. Bombay ranks next with 
 1,175,000 more. In any part of the world, these cities and their 
 markets would be of consequence. Madras has over 500,000 people 
 and Hyderabad has more than 400,000. Rangoon and Delhi each have 
 over 300,000. Despite the predominant agricultural population, India 
 is a land of big cities. 
 
 In 1921 there were in India 174,057 persons of European and 
 allied races. Of the Europeans, 115,606 were British-born. There 
 were 10,587 others from Europe, America, and Australia. In addition 
 to these there were 113,090 Eurasians, known here as Anglo-Indians. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 251 
 
 Thus, the white and half-white population of India consists of less 
 than 300,000 persons, or one in a thousand of the population. 
 
 In India there are 222 languages, dialects not being included, of 
 which 13 are the most important. Of these, Western Hindi is spoken 
 by about one hundred millions, almost one-third of the population 
 of India. Bengali is spoken by fifty millions, and Telegu by thirty 
 millions. The obstacle of language to trade is therefore not so great 
 as might at first appear. 
 
 According to the census of 1921, there were in all India 22,600,000 
 people able to read and write. This constitutes a little over 8 per cent 
 of the population. Of these only 2,500,000 can read and write Eng- 
 lish — less than 1 per cent of the population. Thus, advertisements, 
 posters, billboards, etc., in English can hope to reach but a minute 
 fraction of the population. Literacy is steadily increasing, however. 
 In 1925-26 there were 10,500,000 students in educational institutions. 
 
 The political administration of India is divided between the fifteen 
 provinces which constitute British India, and the Native States which 
 are under their own rulers and laws, subject to certain restrictions 
 and to the general overlordship of Great Britain as a suzerain power. 
 About one-third of the area of India and one-fifth of its population 
 are within the borders of the Native States. These vary from tiny 
 holdings to states such as Hyderabad, as large as Italy. The govern- 
 ment of these states, provinces, and other political subdivisions need 
 concern but little, however, the question of the development of mar- 
 kets for American fruits. The political devices by which various 
 portions of India are governed are only of consequence so far as they 
 affect the prosperity, education, and modernization of the people. 
 
 Because of the essential differences between the people of the 
 Indian peninsula, here termed India proper, and those in Burma and 
 in Ceylon, each of these three areas is discussed separately in the 
 following pages. Burma is governed as a part of India; Ceylon is a 
 separate Crown Colony. To the student of foreign markets the three 
 group together as the general problem of British India. 
 
252 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 BURMA 
 
 Burma, the largest province in India, is about the size of the state 
 of Texas. Of the whole population of 13,200,000, over 80 per cent 
 are Burmese, Shans, Kachins, etc., who belong to the Tibetan-Chinese 
 family and who profess the Buddhist faith. The Burmese largely 
 reside in the rural districts, the alien population being mainly in the 
 cities. There are 888,000 Indians, 149,000 Chinese and 25,000 Euro- 
 peans and Eurasians. 
 
 Essentially, the province is agricultural. More than 80 per cent 
 of the people are supported by the soil. The principal crop is rice, 
 two-thirds of the cultivated area being given to that cereal. Rangoon, 
 the capital and chief seaport, has a population of 386,000, most of 
 whom are alien Asiatics. Mandalay, the second city, has a population 
 of 147,000. Away from these large cities the Burmese predominate.* 
 
 The Burman differs essentially from the Indian in that the Bur- 
 man is pleasure-loving and extravagant. The limit of his spending is 
 only measured by the amount he can borrow. Because of the large 
 influx of natives of India to this province, the Burman is rapidly losing 
 his economic supremacy, many of the rice fields having fallen into the 
 hands of the Indian money-lenders. Where the Indian is miserly in 
 hoarding his money, the Burman spends freely whatever he can earn 
 or command. This fact has an important bearing upon the markets 
 for imported luxuries, among which fruits are included. 
 
 The Irrawaddy River, upon which the large cities of the province 
 are located, is the great natural thoroughfare. Wherever practicable, 
 products to and from the rural districts travel by water on steamers 
 and barges. The Burmese Railway has a length of 1,908 miles and 
 traverses the country.! There are no refrigerator cars in Burma. 
 
 In 1928 the imports of Burma were $142,000,000 and the exports 
 $243,000,000. Despite this apparently favorable trade balance the 
 country is far from prosperous. Invisible exports of money and 
 credits of the natives of India to their homes in other provinces, of 
 the great British houses to the homeland, and of payments to support 
 the Government of India deplete the favorable balance of Burmese 
 trade. 
 
 The general standard of living is higher in Burma than in other 
 portions of India, and second only to that of Ceylon. Partially, this 
 
 * General Information Sheet, American Consulate, Rangoon. 1929. 
 
 t Indian Year Book, 1929. Published by ' ' The Times of India, ' » Calcutta. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 253 
 
 is due to the fact that the Burman spends, instead of saves; partially 
 because wages are higher in Burma than elsewhere. In central India 
 wages for coolies may be $4.50 a month ; in Burma for the same work 
 they may be paid $9.50. It is the relatively high wages that have 
 brought the large migration of Indians to Burma. Household ser- 
 vants in Burma may be paid from $7.40 a month, the wages of a 
 sweeper, to $18.50, the salary of a butler. In other portions of India 
 these same services would command only half as much. A land owner 
 whose income may not exceed $11 a month may have ambitions to 
 educate his son. If by borrowing he can bring the boy through the 
 equivalent of the seventh grade of school, the son can as a teacher 
 start at $18 a month. If he is able to complete high school he can 
 begin his career at $30 to $36 a month. If, finally, he is able to obtain 
 a year in normal school, his starting salary will be $45 to $50 a month. 
 Any of these salaries are far beyond the earnings of his father. 
 Nevertheless, all that the son receives will be squandered in some 
 manner. None will be saved. 
 
 As contrasted with the Burman who, whether educated or not, 
 spends his money freely, the Indian coolie who has migrated to Burma 
 is a hoarder of pennies. Great numbers of these natives come to 
 Burma, harvest the rice crop, and return to their homes at the end 
 of the season. Ships to and from Calcutta, Madras, and Colombo 
 travel loaded with deck passengers. Rangoon annually has more 
 passenger traffic than any port except New York. Many of these 
 Indians finally remain in Rangoon and vicinity as laborers, sending 
 their earnings back to their families in their native villages. Despite 
 the fact that most of this money is returned to India by mail, it is 
 said that the transmission of telegraphic money orders from Burma 
 to India pays the entire cost of the Burmese telegraphic system. Not 
 all the immigrants prosper. Poverty is rife amongst them. Every 
 night between 15,000 and 20,000 sleep on the sidewalks of Rangoon 
 because they have no other place to go. If the buying power of many 
 Indians in Burma is high, their purchasing desire is low. It is the 
 Burman who is the real market for imported goods. 
 
 The climate of most of Burma is tropical. In the central and 
 delta section is it hot throughout the year. The delta region, which 
 is the thickly settled portion of the country, has a rainfall of 90 to 
 100 inches. At Rangoon the rainfall averages 110 inches, while at 
 places on the coast it reaches 200 inches. Practically all of this moist- 
 ure falls between May and October, the other months of the year 
 being dry except for occasional showers. However, the air at all 
 seasons is intensely humid in the coastal and delta regions. The moist- 
 
254 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 ure-laden air from the Bay of Bengal creates a high humidity over 
 lower Burma which causes the storage of fresh and dried fruits to be 
 difficult and hazardous. Exposed to the air, refrigerated fresh fruit 
 rapidly deteriorates. Dried fruits must be packed in moisture-proof 
 and insect-proof containers. 
 
 Fruit in the Diet of Burma. — The diet of the Burman is based 
 upon rice together with a curry made up of fish, vegetables, or meat. 
 Much oil is used in the curry ; usually this oil is derived from sesamum 
 seed but it may be peanut or cottonseed oil. With the curry, spices 
 are extensively used together with a hot sauce prepared by the putre- 
 
 Much of the fruit grown in Burma is in districts distant from the large centers 
 of population. Thus fruit is a purchased rather than a home-grown commodity. 
 
 faction of fish, a sauce similar to that used in Siam. Considerable 
 quantities of vermicelli are used as a carbohydrate in place of rice. 
 In 1929, 20,661 cases were imported. Many succulent vegetables are 
 eaten in either fresh or cooked form. Except among the upper classes, 
 fish and meat are recognized as luxuries to be used sparingly. Canned 
 salmon and the California canned sardine have a great vogue in the 
 interior. Although the Burmese are exceedingly fond of sweets, 
 these are not usually eaten with meals. Fresh fruit may be consumed 
 at the end of the meal but this is understood to be an addition to the 
 customary diet. 
 
 Normally, the Burman has two meals a day, the first being in the 
 late morning and the second in the late afternoon. The lower classes, 
 such as the cultivators, usually live on meals costing not more than 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 255 
 
 6 cents each, while the middle classes spend from 8 to 12 cents a meal. 
 The foodstuffs purchased by these two groups do not differ materially, 
 but the middle classes have a larger variety and buy vegetables, meats, 
 etc., that are in better condition. 
 
 As in other places where a rice diet pertains, there is much eating 
 between meals. At thousands of tea and coffee shops a cup of tea or 
 coffee, abundantly supplied with sweetened milk, can be purchased at 
 from 2 to 8 cents. A slice of bread to accompany it costs 2 cents. 
 In these coffee shops refreshments of all kinds are sold. These include 
 candies, sweet crackers, fresh and dried fruits, and cigarettes. 
 
 Much of the fruit grown in Burma is in districts distant from the 
 large centers of population. In the delta of the Irrawaddy the end- 
 less rice fields present no opportunity for the growing of fruit. Thus, 
 fruit is a purchased rather than a home-grown commodity with most 
 of the people. Imported fruits, whether fresh, dried, or canned, do 
 not suffer from the same competition as in countries further south 
 where the native usually has fruit which has cost him nothing. The 
 use of fresh and dried fruit between meals in these coffee shops or else- 
 where is extensive. The sweeter the fruit the better to the taste of 
 the Burman. 
 
 Fresh Fruits. — The native fruits of Burma are eaten and enjoyed 
 by all races. Usually the Indian ranks lowest as a purchaser of native 
 fruit, the Chinese next, and the Burman highest of all. Imported 
 fresh fruits are seldom eaten except by Europeans and the wealthiest 
 class of natives. 
 
 TABLE 62 
 
 Native Fresh Fruits 
 
 Burma 
 
 Seasons Average Prices at Retail 
 
 Banana All year %c- lc each 
 
 Cocoanut All year 4c-15c each 
 
 Jack Fruit All year 20c-60c each 
 
 Papaya All year 4c-15c each 
 
 Pineapple All year 2c- 4c each 
 
 Watermelon Jan. Apr 10c-12c each 
 
 Strawberries Feb. Apr 7c-10c small basket 
 
 Mangosteen Mar.-Jan 5c-10c per dozen 
 
 Kana-zoo-thi Mar.-June %c- lc each 
 
 Mango Mar.-Aug l%c- 2c each 
 
 Guava Apr.- June %c-%c each 
 
 Durian Apr.-July llc-13c each 
 
 Peach May-July %c- 2c each 
 
 Custard Apple July-Sept V2C- lc each 
 
 Pomegranate Oct.-Feb lc-l^c each 
 
 Orange Oct.-Mar lc- 2c each 
 
 Lime Oct.-Mar lc- 4c per dozen 
 
256 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 All the year round, fresh native fruits are in the market. Stalls 
 and stands with an extensive and attractive display of native fruits 
 are a feature of the bazaars. Europeans as well as Asiatics purchase 
 their supplies of fresh fruits in these markets. Table 62 gives a list 
 of the more prominent native fruits, together with their seasons and 
 retail prices. 
 
 Imported fresh fruits come to Rangoon from India (proper), from 
 Spain, from Australia, from Japan, and from America. Because there 
 is (January, 1930) no line of ships between American ports and Ran- 
 goon on which there is refrigeration space, the amount of American 
 fresh fruits imported into this market is small. American fruits are 
 usually sent by refrigeration to Singapore and there trans-shipped 
 on local steamers to Rangoon as deck cargo. Occasionally fresh fruit, 
 such as California oranges, are purchased in British markets and 
 shipped under refrigeration from Great Britain to Colombo, Ceylon, 
 where they are trans-shipped to one of the two lines of steamers which 
 carry refrigerated cargo from Colombo to Rangoon. In such instances 
 the California fruit travels almost two-thirds of the entire circuit 
 of the globe to reach its final destination in Burma. It is understood 
 that in the near future a direct line of steamers carrying refrigeration 
 will sail from California ports and will include Rangoon in the stops 
 made. 
 
 Apples, grapes, and oranges are the popular imported fruits in 
 Rangoon, ranking in the order named. In January, 1930, there were 
 in the markets of Rangoon, apples from Australia, from Japan, and 
 from the United States. Grapes from Spain sold beside grapes from 
 America. Pears from Japan were on sale with American pears. 
 Lemons from Palestine were ranged beside local limes and oranges. 
 
 Apples from America sold at wholesale at $4.80 a box and retailed 
 at 9 cents each. Apples from Japan, of good appearance, were 6 cents 
 and from Australia 4 cents. American grapes wholesaled at $4.80 to 
 $6 per keg of 32 pounds. At retail they were 26 cents a pound. With 
 them in the markets were grapes from Spain at 37 cents a pound. 
 American pears retailed at 15 cents each. Japanese pears were on 
 sale at 8 to 10 cents each. Lemons from Jaffa, of good quality, were 
 offered at 4 to 8 cents each. 
 
 Fresh fruit from Singapore to Rangoon comes as deck cargo at 
 the rate of $8.55 per ton of 50 cubic feet. Import duty is 15 per cent. 
 Harbor and wharf dues vary according to the manner in which the 
 cargo is unloaded and the size of the shipment. These average, 
 however, about 78 cents per ton of 40 cubic feet. Truck and coolie 
 hire from wharf to warehouse average 2% cents a case. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 257 
 
 There is no available cold storage at Rangoon for public rental. 
 One firm which conducts a wholesale and retail business has a private 
 cold storage warehouse capable of holding 1,000 cases. Another large 
 ice company has rooms ready for fitting for cold storage purposes 
 large enough to hold 8,000 cases, but they are not yet equipped for 
 that purpose. Fresh fruit stored in Burma encounters difficulties 
 of preservation due to the high humidity. The opening and shutting 
 of the doors of cold rooms condenses moisture on the walls which 
 drops over the fruit. Chilled fruit removed from cold rooms is im- 
 mediately covered with water condensed from the atmosphere. Con- 
 sequently rapid deterioration occurs after refrigerated fruit is exposed 
 to the air. 
 
 Imported fruits are usually brought to Rangoon on orders from 
 importers who receive the fruit at c.i.f. prices. Occasionally, when 
 the markets! of Singapore or Penang are overstocked, fresh fruit is 
 shipped to Rangoon on consignment, but such practice is not general. 
 The importer, who is usually also the wholesaler, disposes of fresh 
 fruit to the owner of stalls and stands in the bazaars. These buy 
 the fruit for cash and sell it at retail to consumers. They also fre- 
 quently sell in quantities of less than a box to hawkers and peddlers 
 who retail on the streets. Because of the difficulty in keeping refriger- 
 ated fruit in this climate and because of the lack of refrigeration on 
 the Burmese railways, there is no distribution of imported fresh fruit 
 to up-country towns or cities. All imported fruit is sold in Rangoon. 
 
 At present the amount of imported fresh fruit sold is insignificant. 
 If regular refrigerated steamship service from California is inaugu- 
 rated, the volume of fresh fruit that may be sold in Rangoon will 
 markedly increase. Cold storage space available for public rental will 
 undoubtedly follow, provided the steamship service is at frequent 
 enough intervals to enable the warehouses to maintain a continuous 
 business. 
 
 In view of the fact that all fruit is shipped into the Rangoon area 
 rather than produced there, the opportunity for the extended sale of 
 imported fruit is greater than in those areas where native fruit is 
 locally produced. However, as in Malaya and the Netherland East 
 Indies, fruit from Australia because of the shorter and cheaper voyage 
 can be landed at lower costs. The demand for California fruit is 
 based upon its superior quality, variety, grading, and packing. So 
 long as this supremacy continues, California fruit will sell in these 
 markets at a premium sufficient to compensate for the additional costs 
 of transit and the hazards of the longer voyage. Fresh fruit will, 
 however, continue to flow in from Australia, Japan, and perhaps from 
 
258 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 the Mediterranean. Since the Burma market for fresh fruit is con- 
 fined to the city of Rangoon, its sale is necessarily limited to the 
 upper classes in that city. Thus the market is relatively small and 
 the sales of fruit from other countries must necessarily infringe on 
 the opportunities for fruit from America, even though the latter is of 
 better quality. 
 
 The opening of direct refrigerated communication between Cali- 
 fornia and Rangoon will undoubtedly increase the market for 
 imported fresh fruit in that city. Sales will expand as storage and 
 distribution improve. Because not only the European but the Bur- 
 mese population like and appreciate American fruits such as apples 
 and grapes, the potential market for these is brighter than in other 
 sections where the consumption is limited to Europeans. 
 
 Canned Fruits. — American canned fruit holds first place in the 
 markets of Burma, Although European and Australian canned fruit 
 is offered for sale in many of the stores, the sales of American fruits 
 exceed all others. All races and nationalities in Burma like canned 
 fruits. Sales, however, are confined to the relatively small class that 
 can afford this rather expensive luxury. 
 
 Considerable canned pineapple of low quality is imported from 
 Singapore. In 1929, 6,620 cases were brought through the Rangoon 
 custom house. There were also imported 365 cases of canned lichees 
 and 315 cases of bamboo sprouts. All these are used chiefly by the 
 Chinese population. 
 
 In the past, 90 per cent of the canned fruit sold in Burma has been 
 in the No. 2% can and perhaps 10 per cent in the No. 1 tall. More 
 recently, sales in the No. 1 tall can have been increasing. The new 
 8-ounce can, recently introduced, has begun to achieve some success. 
 Among Europeans, the small cans are popular because families are 
 small. European children do not usually remain in the trying climate 
 of Burma but are sent to the homeland where better physical condi- 
 tions and educational facilities are prevalent. Among the Burmese, 
 the smaller sizes are popular because of their lower price. However, 
 the small cans, even the No. 1 tall, are not always available, since 
 many merchants prefer to stock one size rather than several. In such 
 instances the No. 2^2 can is the only one offered for sale. 
 
 Peaches, pears, apricots and fruit salad rank in popularity in 
 the order mentioned. Canned cherries are also well liked but their 
 higher price limits their sale so that, due to the possibility of spoilage 
 through swollen cans, smaller dealers do not stock them. Although 
 canned grapes are popular in southern China and among the Chinese 
 in Siam, Malaya, and the Netherland East Indies, they are not con- 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 259 
 
 sumed by the Chinese in Burma. The turnover is therefore so small 
 that many dealers do not offer them for sale. Held on the shelves for 
 any considerable length of time in this warm climate, they are subject 
 to spoilage from a gas generated in the seeds. 
 
 American canned fruits are imported by large retailers at c.i.f. 
 prices through orders placed with agents of California packers who 
 indent orders to America. Some of these retailers have a number of 
 retail stores so that they order in considerable quantities. A small 
 amount is sold at wholesale to other retailers and dealers. Canned 
 fruit is usually shipped via the Pacific. In such cases it is trans- 
 shipped at Singapore by steamers to Rangoon. Freight from Cali- 
 fornia to Rangoon via Singapore is $19.50 per ton of 40 cubic feet. 
 Arrived at Rangoon, duty is 15 per cent. Harbor and wharfage dues 
 vary according to the manner in which the cases are unloaded and the 
 size of the shipment. In general this averages 78 cents per ton of 
 50 cubic feet. Coolie and truck hire from wharf to warehouse averages 
 2V2 cents a case. 
 
 American canned fruit is often found on sale at large up-country 
 towns and cities where there is a European population. However, 
 probably only 10 per cent of the amount imported is sold outside of 
 Rangoon. Up-country dealers usually pay cash for purchases at time 
 of delivery at Rangoon, although a few Chinese wholesalers sell to 
 up-country Chinese dealers on a credit basis. Freight rates vary from 
 %o cents a pound to the large city of Mandalay 376 miles north of 
 Rangoon, to IV2 cents a pound to Namyao, 548 miles away. At these 
 interior points retail prices are usually 2 to 5 cents a can higher than 
 in Rangoon. 
 
 TABLE 63 
 
 Current Prices, Rangoon - , Burma, January 1930 
 
 American Canned Fruits 
 
 Apricots $7.03 
 
 Apples 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Pears 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Plums 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Fruit Salad 
 
 Per Case Wholesale 
 
 A 
 
 Per Can Retail 
 
 A 
 
 No. 2 h 
 
 
 No. 1 
 
 No. 2 1 
 
 No. 1 
 
 $7.03 
 
 
 $8.88 
 
 $0.41 
 
 $0.27 
 
 8.50 
 
 
 
 .46 
 
 
 10.35 
 
 
 12.50 
 
 .51 
 
 .32 
 
 8.50 
 
 
 10.35 
 
 .51 
 
 .32 
 
 7.40 
 
 
 9.25 
 
 .46 
 
 .27 
 
 7.77 
 
 
 
 .32 
 .37 
 
 
 10.75 
 
 
 13.32 
 
 .60 
 
 .32 
 
 Table 63 illustrates current wholesale and retail prices in Rangoon. 
 Since there are 24 cans in a case of No. 2y 2 fruits and 48 cans in a 
 case of No. 1 fruits, it is possible to estimate the spread between whole- 
 
260 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 sale and retail prices. In the countries of the East, Europeans seldom 
 pay cash for retail purchases. In British India many governmental 
 officials and army officers feel required by their positions to live 
 beyond their salaries, so that the interval between purchase and pay- 
 ment may be very extended. Therefore, retail stores are compelled 
 to charge prices sufficient to cover long credit and bad debts. One 
 store has inaugurated a cash-and-carry system. It has become popular 
 among American missionaries and others who are accustomed to pay- 
 ing their bills and to whom lower prices are consequently of interest. 
 Eight-ounce cans of fruit are an innovation in the retail stores of 
 Rangoon and are not yet generally known among either Europeans or 
 Asiatics. At only two stores were they found on sale and in these 
 stores they were placed inconspicuously. Dealers and wholesalers are 
 of the opinion that when the 8-ounce can is known to consumers it 
 will be popular among all those who are able to buy canned fruit. 
 At present, 8-ounce cans of peaches retail at 18 cents and of fruit 
 salad at 23 cents. These prices are approximately double the c.i.f. 
 prices to which, of course, must be added duty, delivery charges, and 
 a legitimate profit for both wholesaler and retailer. Because of the 
 novelty of the small size and the hazard of a new introduction, prices 
 at retail are higher than will be justified when the new size becomes 
 well known. 
 
 At somewhat lower retail prices, the 8-ounce can will have a wide 
 appeal to many Burmese and Chinese as well as to Europeans. If, 
 further, trade promotion were conducted for the small size, the sales 
 for that size alone might become considerably larger than the present 
 total sales of all American canned fruits in Burma. If, finally, the 
 costs in America and the freight, or both, could be so reduced that the 
 8-ounce can of fruit would retail at 4 or 5 annas (9 to 11 cents), the 
 sales would be very large. At such prices the potential consumers 
 would be so much increased that canned fruit would be used by large 
 numbers of people to whom the price is now prohibitive. If the 
 Burmese, who now generally know canned fruit as a luxury in a large 
 1 in requiring a single purchase of 50 cents, could be supplied with a 
 small tin at about 10 cents, the present demand would be increased 
 many fold. 
 
 Dried Fruits. — Large amounts of dried fruits are offered for sale 
 in the bazaars and markets of Rangoon but they are not American 
 fruits. Most of the dried fruit comes from Kashmir, Afghanistan, 
 and the Near East. This fruit is cheaper than American dried fruits, 
 is often sweeter, and therefore, both because of price and taste, appeals 
 to the native trade. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 261 
 
 Blocks of dates from the Near East, strings of dried and com- 
 pressed figs from Persia looking like long sausages, and heaps of 
 yellow Sultana raisins from Afghanistan are familiar sights in the 
 markets of Burma. Apricots from upper India are on sale both with 
 and without the pit. Kashmir dates, soaked in honey for six months, 
 are sold as a delectable sweet to the native trade. Of the Asiatic dried 
 fruits, figs sell at 14 cents a pound; dates for 15 to 20 cents; apricots 
 for 11 cents; currants for 11 cents; and raisins for 14 cents. 
 
 The sales of American dried fruits are small but all the usual 
 varieties are offered in retail stores catering to Europeans. Most of 
 these are packed in sealed tins because of the rapid deterioration 
 caused by the climate to all dried fruits open to the air. California 
 raisins and prunes are sold in the native markets in cartons and in 
 bulk because the sales of these are sufficiently frequent to enable them 
 to be marketed before spoilage results. Other dried American fruit 
 is occasionally seen in bulk in glass jars. Usually the price is higher 
 per pound than in tin because of the losses to the merchant caused by 
 spoilage. Bulk sales are due to the fact that natives and Europeans 
 often do not desire to buy a whole tin. Usually stores catering to 
 European trade have dried fruits in 2-pound tins only. 
 
 Dried apples in 2-pound sealed cans sold at retail at 48 cents per 
 pound. In 1-pound cartons they were 55 cents, and in bulk were 
 the same price. Apricots in 2-pound sealed tins were 60 cents per 
 pound ; in bulk they were 64 cents. Pears in tins were 53 cents a 
 pound ; in bulk they were 55 cents. Peaches in the 2-pound cans were 
 34 cents a pound ; in bulk they were 37 cents. Figs, both white and 
 black, were 46 cents in 1-pound cartons and 37 cents in bulk. Raisins 
 from California in the little 1%-ounce carton were extensively offered 
 for sale in the native markets for 4% cents. In the 15-ounce carton 
 they sold for 14 cents. Prunes in sealed tins were 25 cents a pound. 
 
 All of the above prices raise the question whether 8-ounce sealed 
 tins of American dried fruits would not find more extended sales than 
 do the present sizes of 1, 2, or 5 pounds. Because the 2-pound can is 
 usually the smallest size offered for sale, it is necessary when desiring 
 a lesser amount to buy in bulk and pay the higher prices. After a 
 sealed tin is opened, the contents must be consumed within a few days 
 before molds or insects make them unfit for European food. Few 
 families can use 2 pounds of dried fruit in so short a period. 
 Europeans complained that American dried fruits were put up in such 
 large packages that they were not usable. However, out of this has 
 grown an incidental use that is of interest in those countries, if not 
 in America, Prunes, in order to preserve them, are frequently soaked 
 
262 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 in gin or brandy for six months or longer. At the end of that time 
 they are served as a confection. 
 
 Dried fruit is ordered by large retailers who also act as whole- 
 salers. These buy at c.i.f. prices through agents of California packers 
 who forward indent orders to America. Duty is 15 per cent. Freight, 
 wharfage, and handling charges are identical with those already 
 quoted for canned fruits. There is little distribution of American 
 dried fruits to up-country towns and cities. Probably not more than 
 5 per cent of the dried fruit received is sold outside of Rangoon. The 
 native trade has not been offered American dried fruits in a unit small 
 enough for possible purchase, nor at a price comparable with com- 
 peting dried fruits from Asia. 
 
 Dried fruit in the 8-ounce sealed tin would appeal to the European 
 trade throughout Burma. Raisins and prunes in small cartons retail- 
 ing at the equivalent of 4% cents might appeal to the native trade. 
 The present price of the 1%-ounce carton of raisins at 4*/2 cents is 
 50 per cent higher than in the Netherland East Indies. A reduction 
 in price or an increase in the size of the carton for the same price 
 would result in larger sales. Prunes packed in small cartons, fourteen 
 prunes to the carton, might have an extensive sale. If one-fourth of 
 a pound of prunes could be retailed in a small carton for a 2-anna 
 piece, a local coin equivalent to 4 1 /2 cents, their sale would be much 
 larger than at present. In the bazaars bulk prunes now sell per half- 
 pound for 5 annas, about ll 1 /^ cents. Slightly lower prices and a 
 package that would retail for a common coin, such as the 2-anna piece, 
 would probably succeed in popularizing prunes among the Burmese. 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods. — In Burma, as elsewhere in the East, 
 the development of any large business is dependent upon sales to the 
 native trade. Because of the small number of Europeans, any com- 
 modity that sells only to them must necessarily have very limited sale. 
 To reach the native trade it is necessary to merchandize a size of 
 package that is suitable to the use of the people. This usually means 
 that it must be sufficiently small so that it can be sold at a low price. 
 Soap manufacturers have developed small cakes that retail for 2 and 
 4 cents. The sales of these are enormous, despite the fact that formerly 
 the people used no soap. Oil companies merchandize kerosene by the 
 bottle for 7 cents and sell great quantities, although formerly the 
 Burman used a vegetable rather than a mineral oil. British cracker 
 manufacturers sell sweet biscuits by the hundred cases. They are 
 retailed to the natives a few biscuits at a time. Successful trade pro- 
 motion for California fruits in Burma is dependent upon the intro- 
 duction of packages small enough to sell at a low price. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 263 
 
 Furthermore, the commodity must represent a real value com- 
 parable with other luxuries that may be purchased for the same cost. 
 Imported fruit, whether fresh, dried, or canned, is a luxury. The 
 Burmese like American fruits but they can do without them; they 
 are not a necessity of life. To sell in this market in competition with 
 other products of world-wide civilization, American fruits must be 
 marketed at a narrow margin of profit. At present the volume of 
 sales is so small that the few importers exact a rather wide margin of 
 safety and profit for their services. Larger sales should, through 
 natural competition, bring reduced prices and larger values. Price is 
 the first determinant factor in the success of any trade promotion in 
 Burma. 
 
 Because the Burmese are more largely scattered through the 
 interior than segregated in the capital at Rangoon, the successful sale 
 of American fruits to the native trade is dependent upon wide dis- 
 tribution. The product must be presented in dozens of towns and 
 hundreds of villages. Recently agencies which are supplied w r ith 
 funds for trade promotion by manufacturers have developed here a 
 method of attractive propaganda through the 'bazaar special,' a rail- 
 road train the cars of which are divided into stalls, each presenting a 
 commodity to be promoted. Stops are made for a. day. Thousands of 
 natives come down to walk through the train. Condensed and malted 
 milk, soap, flashlights, and piece goods are all exhibited, sold, and 
 sometimes given away as free samples. Necessarily only those goods 
 are represented for which trade promotion funds are available. 
 California fruits are not numbered among them. Following the train, 
 salesmen go through the country placing supplies on sale at local 
 stores. 
 
 The Burmese have an extended Lent at the end of which there are 
 festivals at the various pagodas and places of similar gathering. These 
 present an especially favorable opportunity for the exhibit and sale of 
 packages suitable to the native trade. The distribution of handbills 
 is here effective but they must be printed in at least four languages : 
 Urdu, Telegu, Chinese, and Burmese. 
 
 American fresh fruits will increase in sales among Europeans and 
 the highest class of natives with the coming of direct refrigeration 
 service to Rangoon. Problems of distribution will remain to be solved 
 before any material markets are developed. Canned fruits in the 
 8-ounce and 1-pound cans will appeal not only to Europeans, but to 
 many of the natives, provided the 8-ounce cans can be retailed at about 
 the equivalent of 10 cents, and the larger cans at a proportionate 
 price. Raisins in the small envelopes and in the 1%-ounce cartons will 
 
264 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 enjoy much larger sales if their price is reduced to that prevalent in 
 neighboring countries. Prunes, and perhaps other dried fruits, in 
 8-ounce sealed tins will sell to the European and the higher class 
 native trade. In cartons of about 4 ounces they might be a successful 
 venture before the native trade, provided the price at retail were not 
 higher than 2 annas (about 4% cents in American currency). 
 
 For any and all of the foregoing, the increase of sales will be slow 
 unless trade-promotion methods are used to bring and hold the 
 products within the attention of the people. Because the people of 
 Burma enjoy American fruit and because they spend their money 
 freely, Burma presents a. favorable opportunity for trade promotion 
 for American fruits packaged in a manner to appeal to the native 
 trade. 
 
Bul, 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 265 
 
 INDIA (PROPER) 
 
 The great Indian peninsula is the major possession of the British 
 Empire in the East. Despite its great area, most of the huge popu- 
 lation, dependent mainly upon agriculture in a land of deficient rain- 
 fall, is close to the margin of mere subsistence. 
 
 The population of the Indian peninsula is concentrated more 
 densely in northern and southern than in central India. The river 
 Ganges with its tributaries traverses three-fourths of the distance east 
 and west across northern India, thus creating the Gangeatic Valley. 
 On the west side this meets the valley of the Indus, a river flowing 
 westward toward the Arabian Sea. These two river valleys have built 
 a great northern plain of practically level area. Much of the soil is 
 naturally fertile. The casual observer would be reminded of the 
 Sacramento and San Joaquin vallej^s of California. Where irrigation 
 is perennial, successive crops are raised. Where agriculture is depen- 
 dent upon the rains of the monsoon that fall during the early summer 
 months, agriculture is limited to one crop, and that crop is sometimes 
 precarious. In parts of this area, rainfall is so scanty that the land 
 is used only for pasturage. Adjacent to the valley of the Indus lies 
 the great Sind Desert, a dry country of sands and waste land. 
 
 Near the west coast of central and southern India is a considerable 
 mountain range. Central India, south of Calcutta and Bombay, is a 
 somewhat hilly and mountainous region. Although in America the 
 population would be termed dense, it is far less numerous than in 
 northern India. Only in those areas where broad river valleys flow 
 to the sea is the population crowded. 
 
 Southern India, south of Madras and Bangalore, is a region of 
 considerable population but of somewhat hilly lands except along the 
 seacoast. The large numbers dependent upon the land and the poor 
 conditions for agriculture make this region one of the least prosperous 
 in India. Until a few years ago, the people of southern India were 
 more conservative than those of the north. Recently they have become 
 ambitious for improvement and are now relatively progressive. 
 
 The religions and castes of India are perhaps its most confusing 
 feature. Broadly speaking, of every hundred persons in the Indian 
 Empire, 68 are Hindus, 22 Mohammedans, 3 Buddhists, 3 follow the 
 •religion of their tribes, 1 is a Christian, and 1 a Sihk. Of the remain- 
 ing two, one is likely to be either a Buddhist or a Christian, and the 
 other probably a Jain, possibly a Parsi, or perhaps a Jew, a Brahma, 
 
266 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 or a holder of indefinite beliefs.* Expressed even more briefly, we 
 may say that the great majority of the people of India are Hindus 
 but a strong percentage are Mohammedans. It is chiefly among the 
 Hindus that the mystery and confusion regarding India arises. 
 Hindus largely predominate in central and southern India but are 
 also strong in other sections. The Mohammedans predominate in 
 northern India. 
 
 Among the Hindus there are 67 recognized castes with innumerable 
 gradations thereof. This caste system, briefly, means that persons 
 born into a certain sphere of life cannot rise above it and that contact 
 with persons of lower caste definitely lowers the prestige, and perhaps 
 the position, of the higher. Food touched by persons of lower caste 
 becomes a menace. The highest castes are surrounded by many pre- 
 cautions and taboos that must be followed to preserve their position 
 in the religious and social world. Hindus of most castes and sects are 
 not supposed to kill living things. 
 
 The Mohammedans are not divided into the caste system, but into 
 two great branches of Mohammedanism with variations thereof. These 
 have certain food prejudices, such as the prohibition of pork, and that 
 animals for food must be killed properly by a member of their own 
 faith. 
 
 In the large cities all these religious prejudices are, however, 
 weakening in the face of modern times. Orthodox Hindus, whose 
 fathers would faithfully have carried out all the prohibitions of the 
 Hindu faith, are likely to carry these out in public but to relax in the 
 presence of Europeans or in the privacy of their own homes. The 
 spread of education, the reading of newspapers, and the interchange 
 of ideas with people of many lands in these days of extensive travel, 
 all combine to break down the old religious prejudices among the 
 wealthier classes of the Indian population, among whom any market 
 for American fruit would lie. 
 
 For centuries past, the fabled wealth of the Indies and the glories 
 of the Mogul Empire attracted traders from the nations of the world. 
 In large measure, this wealth was concentrated in the hands of a few 
 rulers. The mass of the population ravaged by wars, famines, and 
 disease, were sunk in depths of poverty difficult for the Occidental 
 mind to conceive. Within the past century, the political control of 
 the entire country by a world power has freed the peninsula from the 
 military adventurers that successively held India in economic and . 
 governmental subjection. It has also given opportunity for the 
 
 "The Indian Year Book," 1929, published by "The Times,' ' Calcutta. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 267 
 
 development of railways, highways, irrigation works, sanitation, and 
 finally, education. 
 
 Because of the scanty resources of the country, progress among 
 such an enormous population must necessarily be slow. The people of 
 India are probably, as a whole, still poorer than those in China. 
 Especially is this true in most of the Native States where one-fifth of 
 the people are gathered. If India ranks lower than China in economic 
 level it is possibly due to the lower vitality of the Indian race and its 
 inability to work excessively, as is customary among the lower classes 
 of Chinese. 
 
 No competent statistics have been gathered concerning the pur- 
 chasing power of the people of India. The Annual Yearbook pre- 
 pared by the Government of India for the British Parliament describes 
 "the nakedness of the land in respect to economic data,"* Investi- 
 gators and propagandists have published estimates as to the average 
 income per person per year, varying from $7.40 to $51.80. The wide 
 discrepancy between these estimates indicates the lack of dependable 
 data upon which to base them. Even though the highest estimate be 
 used, it is evident that the purchasing power of the masses is extremely 
 low. 
 
 The Government of India imposes an income tax on all those in 
 British India (not including the Native States) having an income 
 of $740 or over per year, except incomes derived from agriculture. 
 In 1927-28 there were only 307,000 persons in all India, including 
 Europeans, who paid this tax.f It is recognized, however, that the 
 number subject to the tax may have been much larger than those who 
 actually paid it. The character of the country and of the people leads 
 to successful evasion of an income tax, a form of taxation which is 
 everywhere recognized as presenting difficulties of successful collec- 
 tion. Especially is this true among a crowded Oriental population. 
 
 Native clerks in offices in large cities are paid from about $28 to 
 $55 a month, with an average of perhaps $37. Skilled workers in 
 cotton mills are paid from $11 to $22 a month. Dock laborers are 
 paid from $11 to $18 a month. The Government of India in a study of 
 over 3,000 such families found that their expenditures for other than 
 the necessities of life — expenditures termed "common luxuries" — 
 varied from $1 to $2 a month in the case of the laborers and workmen, 
 with only a slightly higher amount for the clerks. 
 
 * ''India, 1927-28,' ' Government of India, Central Publication Branch, Cal- 
 cutta, 1928. 
 
 t "All-India Income Tax Return 1927-28," Central Board of Revenue, Govern- 
 ment of India. 
 
268 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 The average farm in India is about 2 acres. Some farmers in 
 unirrigated regions near to large towns supplement their incomes by 
 working in factories during the dry season, returning to the land 
 before the rains of the monsoon start. Others find additional profits 
 by going to the large towns, taking the money derived from their 
 crops, and there purchasing popular commodities such as piece goods, 
 which they sell in their own and neighboring villages. 
 
 The Government of India believes conditions are improving ; they 
 st?,te : "Although there are good reasons for believing that an appre- 
 ciable improvement has taken place in the standard of living of the 
 Indian agricultural masses during the past quarter of a century, this 
 represents only the beginning of what has to be accomplished. There 
 is a vast amount of what can only be termed dangerous poverty in the 
 Indian villages — povertj', that is, of such a kind that those subject to 
 it live on the very margin of subsistence."* 
 
 The economic level of India is, however, rising. "Railway statis- 
 tics, for example, show that even the poorest sections of the people can 
 afford to travel much mo* than in the past. Again, cigarettes, mineral 
 waters and other simpl ^uxuries are now enjoyed by the masses. 
 Savings bank deposits i d membership in cooperative societies are 
 continually increasing. ' ' + 
 
 If governmental and litical stability remain, the economic con- 
 dition of the people will itinue slowly to improve. Great irrigation 
 works are under constr tion. The Sukkur Barrage and canals in 
 Sind, costing about $70,000,000, will irrigate 5,500,000 acres. The 
 Sutlej Valley works in the Punjab will cost about $52,000,000 and 
 irrigate over 5,000,000 acres. These, and other enterprises under 
 way, are expected to add materially to the resources of the country. 
 
 The climate of the Indian peninsula is necessarily varied because 
 of its great size. In California there is a wide difference between the 
 climate of the northern high Sierras and the southern semi-tropical 
 valleys. In the Indian peninsula the variations are even more marked 
 because of the greater heights of the Himalayan regions and the truly 
 tropical location of southern India. However, aside from the moun- 
 tain regions in which but a sparse population resides, all of India 
 is tropically hot for eight or nine months of the year. Southern India 
 is hot during the entire year. Northern India, where fully half the 
 people reside, is cool only from December to March. Thus, for market- 
 
 * India, 1927-28," p. 97, Goverment of India, Central Publication Branch, 
 Calcutta, 1928. 
 t Ibid., p. 95. 
 
Buk 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 269 
 
 ing conditions, India must be treated as a tropical country in which 
 imported fruits are subject to spoilage whenever and wherever exposed 
 to the air. While an exception to this condition may be made for 
 northern India in the cool months, this season is so brief that the 
 practical marketing of fruits requires that they be packed, handled, 
 stored and transported for all India as in a tropical country. 
 
 Fruit in the Indian Diet. — Because of the large numbers of races, 
 religions and classes among the population of India and the wide area 
 over which they are resident, it is difficult to phrase a general state- 
 ment regarding the food habits and practices of the Indian people. 
 
 Generally speaking, the native diet is based upon rice. However, in 
 the northern sections of India, such as in the Punjab, wheat takes the 
 place of rice. In the poorer sections of southern India, corn or millet 
 is used as a food grain, while among the still poorer classes the cassava 
 or tapioca becomes the carbohydrate. The peoples in northern India 
 on a wheat diet are physically superior to those further south on a 
 rice diet. Whether this superiority is dv to climate, to racial char- 
 acteristics, or to food, is a question which has not been determined. 
 
 In the main, India is a vegetarian ^untr} r . However, Moham- 
 medans, who constitute 22 per cent of t e population, freely eat all 
 kinds of meat except pork, while the H ldus themselves are divided 
 into two groups, namely, the vegetarians d the non-vegetarians. Of 
 these latter there are in turn several si] Visions, namely, those who 
 eat only fowl and others who also eat m ton and goat. None of the 
 Hindus eat beef. 
 
 In general, all of the people of India eat without knives or forks, 
 and usually without spoons. Food is usually so prepared that it can 
 be readily eaten with the fingers. In parts of India, a flat, unleavened 
 bread known as "chaupatti" is made from ground grain. This is 
 used as a sort of scoop to assist in eating soft foods. Among most 
 people of India, only two regular meals a day are eaten. Moham- 
 medans build a fire twice a day, but the Hindus normally prepare only 
 one hot meal. This usually consists of the rice ration, to which a curry 
 is added. A stew of vegetables is made and as this cooks it is thickened 
 with grain, the variety depending upon the district and the season. 
 With this grain, various spices are used, the curry becoming more 
 highly spiced in southern India than in the north. At the evening 
 meal the menu is usually about the same as in the morning, except 
 that a little fish may be added. Normally, among the masses of the 
 people, even of the middle classes, meat is eaten seldom, possibly only 
 twice a week. 
 
270 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 India grows numerous vegetables throughout the entire year. The 
 freshness of these vegetables largely determines their price. The diet 
 is thus much the same among all classes, quality being the determinant 
 factor. For example, in the markets of the large cities four standard 
 grades of meat are sold, varying in price from 15 to 30 cents a pound. 
 All this is exhibited as government inspected. 
 
 Above all, the Indian likes food cooked in "ghee." This is a clari- 
 fied butter found only in India. After the butter is churned it is boiled 
 slowly, thus settling out the sediment. The result is a clear residue 
 known as ghee. This is acceptable to the diet of all Hindus, since it 
 is not the result of the killing of any animal. The most popular method 
 of cooking is to fry foods in ghee or mustard oil. A desirable dish is 
 rice with a vegetable curry, over which is a liberal coating of ghee. 
 Owing to the rapid rise in the price of ghee, due to the increasing 
 demand for it and the small supply because of the poor quality of 
 Indian cattle, a cocoanut butter substitute is now used extensively 
 among those who find ghee unduly high in price. However, large 
 numbers of people of the lower classes still use this commodity, which 
 constitutes a considerable portion of their food expenditure. The 
 price of ghee rules around 50 cents a pound. 
 
 In the great Gangeatic Valley and elsewhere in certain sections of 
 India, people are inordinately fond of sweets. All meals among those 
 who can afford it close with some sort of dessert. One of the most 
 popular is clabbered milk, and another is sweetened rice, which is 
 usually colored with ' ' zurda, ' ' a yellow coloring matter used in foods. 
 Yellow is the sacred color of India and the people are fond of bright 
 colors on all occasions. At feast days, weddings, and similar events, 
 desserts may even be covered with a silver or gold foil, intended to add 
 to its attractiveness. Many candies are sold in the native markets; 
 the sweeter these are, the better. These consist of almost pure sugar, 
 with the addition of some flavoring. 
 
 People of all classes are fond of fresh fruit. Everywhere, however, 
 this is regarded as a luxury, purchasable only by those of larger means, 
 although during most seasons of the year fresh native fruits sell at low 
 prices in the markets. If they can afford it, Hindus and Moham- 
 medians alike are accustomed to eating fresh fruit at least once a day. 
 In northern India, however, this is more likely to be eaten in the 
 morning than at night. There is an old Bengali saying that ' ' Fruits 
 are gold in the morning, silver at midday, but lead at night." A 
 quarter of a century ago more fruit was eaten because it was then 
 cheaper and the diet was simpler. The rise in living standards among 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 271 
 
 the people, small as this may seem to the European, has noticeably 
 affected their food habits, since it has opened to them types and 
 varieties of food which were formerly not used among their group. 
 
 If necessary, the Indian is able to live on a narrow dietary under 
 conditions which would seem impossible to a European. Working 
 people of the lower classes may buy corn, millet, or other cheap grains 
 which are ground with a mortar and pestle in the home. But little of 
 the bran is removed from it. A small amount of this grain is tied 
 in a corner of the gown and with this as a ration, they journey con- 
 siderable distances from home. Owing to the system of Indian villages, 
 the agricultural population frequently lives distant from the land 
 which it cultivates. When food is necessary, the package of meal in 
 the corner of the gown is untied and, using the gown itself as a 
 receptacle, sufficient water is added to the grain to make a stiff dough 
 to be eaten with the fingers. This uncooked meal becomes the food 
 for the day. 
 
 An enormous number of Indians travel on the railways of the 
 peninsula. The purpose of this travel is sometimes to seek work, often 
 to make religious pilgrimages, but frequently only the desire to make a 
 change. Hindus traveling on pilgrimages to wash in the sacred water 
 of the Ganges are not supposed on these journeys to eat foodstuffs 
 prepared by others until they have bathed in the holy river. They 
 thus live on dried fruit and other foods carried with them. 
 
 Orthodox Hindus are not at any time permitted to accept cooked 
 food prepared by others of lower caste or alien race. Dried food such 
 as rice, dried fruits, and others, may be accepted by them without con- 
 tamination. In the large cities and towns these customs of caste are 
 noticeably breaking down. Owing to the general system of two meals 
 a day and to the rice basis for the diet, people become hungry between 
 meals and patronize the tea and coffee shops which in large numbers 
 dot the towns of India. It is said that there are twelve hundred of 
 these tea shops of larger size in the city of Calcutta alone. Although 
 many of these shops are labeled as being for certain castes or races, all 
 but the most orthodox are likely when in the city to patronize which- 
 ever happens to be convenient. 
 
 Among the upper classes, expenditures for food do not increase as 
 rapidly as might be expected. On returning home, Indians educated 
 in universities of Europe and America are likely to assume the same 
 habits of life and of food practiced before they went away. Despite 
 their acquired knowledge of bacteriology, they show no objection to 
 eating foods prepared under conditions which would make them 
 
272 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 impossible to the European, and do not hesitate to drink water from a 
 village pond. Thus, the increasing 1 education of the Indian race does 
 not result in any appreciable tendency to turn to European standards 
 of living' in the cleanliness of food nor the kinds of products from 
 which it is prepared. Clerks in stores and offices, and officials in minor 
 governmental appointments, live little above the standards of those of 
 the poorer classes from which they have perhaps risen. Surpluses of 
 money may be spent for clothing and for occasions of show, such as 
 weddings and funerals. The great purpose, however, of additional 
 income is that it may be saved in order to provide a competency for 
 the family in later years. Above perhaps all other races of the Far 
 East, the Indian is a hoarder of money as a safeguard for the future. 
 
 The most notable exception is among the Parsis, most of whom are 
 congregated in Bombay. This small group of coreligionists, totaling 
 only about 100,000 in the entire world, have about 75,000 of their 
 members in that one city. These have become widely known for their 
 business sagacity, liberal scale of living, and wide philanthropy. They 
 constitute, however, an exception to the general population of India, 
 and because of their small numbers, are negligible in any broad con- 
 sideration of the problem of marketing fruits in the Indian peninsula. 
 
 The European population of India, to whom may be added the 
 half-castes known here as Anglo-Indians, constitute less than 300,000 
 persons. The Europeans live, of course, as nearly as possible as they 
 would at home. Owing, however, to the low price of labor, servants, 
 and native food products, and to many other factors, Europeans 
 become accustomed to a low scale of expenditure. A purchase seems 
 a larger outlay than it would at home at the same price. Therefore, 
 luxurious foods are not bought as freely as in Europe or America. 
 The additional charge of a few cents for a higher grade of product is 
 often regarded as a sufficient reason why the lower grade should be 
 used. Europeans generally do much of their purchasing through 
 household servants. These are likely to buy native fruits, either fresh 
 or dried, in preference to imported articles, because the price is lower. 
 If the dried fruits exposed in the native markets are adulterated with 
 pebbles and dirt, and have been visited by many flies, this is not evi- 
 dent when in cooked form they are served on the table. Thus, the 
 European resident in India is likely to depend more upon Indian than 
 upon imported foods, even though the latter are locally purchasable. 
 In earlier days in India, imported foodstuffs were rarely obtainable 
 and then only at exorbitant prices. Such a condition has long passed 
 away, but the tradition remains. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 273 
 
 Fresh Fruits. — The amount of American fresh fruit imported into 
 India is so small as to be practically negligible. Up to the time this 
 investigation was made, no steamship line carrying refrigerated cargo 
 plied between American ports and the Indian peninsula. The small 
 amount of fruit imported journeyed to London, where it was trans- 
 shipped eastward around the world, or else came westward across the 
 Pacific to Colombo, where it was trans-shipped by other lines to Indian 
 ports. 
 
 Native fresh fruit is abundant and cheap in India throughout the entire year. 
 
 Native fresh fruit is, however, abundant and cheap throughout 
 the entire year. Because of the varied climate of India, fruits of the 
 temperate, sub-tropical and tropical zones are grown. Across all of 
 northern India in the hill-valleys on the slopes of the foothills of the 
 Himalayas, orchards of plums, apples, peaches, and grapes are planted 
 in many localities. Some of these are the property of Europeans, 
 retired from the Indian services, who have become established in the 
 valleys as a retreat from the warmer country of the plains, and have 
 there planted orchards of European varieties of fruits. In addition 
 to these foothill areas, the Vale of Kashmir has for hundreds of years 
 been famous for its fruits. Owing to the opposition of the ruler, no 
 railroad enters the country, but a large amount of fresh fruit is trans- 
 ported by cart for distances of 150 to 300 miles over rough roads to 
 railhead where, by ordinary freight, it comes down to the centers of 
 
274 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 population. Necessarily the fruit must be picked when it is hard and 
 green. On the plains are grown mangoes, oranges, lemons, limes, figs, 
 and other fruits characteristic of sub-tropical regions. Since these 
 are in proximity to large centers, they reach the market in better 
 condition than some of the fruit from the distant foothill valleys. 
 Europeans are insistent, however, that during recent years apples, 
 peaches, and pears of Indian production are frequently of excellent 
 quality, because of the introduction of better stocks and because the 
 farming is frequently under the proprietorship of Europeans. 
 
 Mangoes are grown on a large scale in the Bombay Presidency 
 and grapes are extensively grown in Mysore. The whole population 
 is inordinately fond of mangoes. Grapes are also popular, since they 
 are supposed to be strengthening. They are sold in native markets in 
 small quantities, purchasable for the equivalent of an American "cent. 
 Bananas are cultivated in parts of the Madras and Bombay presiden- 
 cies and in the neighborhood of Calcutta. In the Central Provinces 
 the orange industry is of importance. 
 
 No figures are available as to the total fruit acreage of India. 
 Fruits, vegetables, and root crops are all grouped together in the 
 official statistics of the Government of India. In 1925-26 there were 
 of these 5,173,000 acres in British India (not including the Native 
 States).* How much of this was fruit is unknown. Certainly, how- 
 ever, the acreage in India is considerable. 
 
 A recent commission on agriculture has studied the problem of the 
 development of farming in India. Among the findings of this com- 
 mission was the conclusion that "fruit growing can seldom be com- 
 bined with ordinary cultivation by the small cultivator and that he is 
 faced with serious financial and other difficulties in regard to the 
 transport of fruit and other vegetables, "f The report further empha- 
 sized that before fruit growing is promoted in India, "investigations 
 into transport and marketing should form an essential part of any 
 policy of active encouragement." 
 
 The prices of native fruits vary, of course, in different seasons and 
 in different places. For example, in Assam oranges in season sell for 
 10 cents a hundred. Growers sometimes harvest their crop by selling 
 it on the tree at one rupee (37 cents) per tree. The poor methods of 
 marketing, packaging, and transportation cause great variation in 
 prices, dependent upon the distances the goods travel to the consumer. 
 
 *' 'Present Position of Fruit Culture in India. " Unpublished Report of C. B. 
 Spofford, Jr., Trade Commissioner, Calcutta, 1928. 
 
 t Report of the Royal Commission on Agriculture in India. 1928. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 275 
 
 The following' prices secured in the markets of Calcutta and Bombay 
 are, however, representative of those paid for native fruits by the 
 large consuming population of these two cities, each of which has over 
 a million population. 
 
 TABLE 64 
 
 Native Fresh Fruits, British India 
 
 Average Prices at Retail in 
 Seasons Calcutta and Bombay 
 
 Khubanee All year 18c per pound 
 
 Mangosteen All year 2c for ten 
 
 Pesta All year 50c per pound 
 
 Pineapple All year 5c to 15c each 
 
 Plantain (banana) All year 10c per dozen 
 
 Papaya All year 5c to 10c each 
 
 Pomelo All year 10c to 23c each 
 
 Sweet lime All year %c to lc each 
 
 Sour lime All year ^c to lc each 
 
 Pomegranate All year 37c per dozen 
 
 Fig All year 10c to 16c per dozen 
 
 Chico All year lc each 
 
 Orange All year 10c per pound 
 
 Custard apple Jan.-June, Aug.-Sept. %c to lc each 
 
 Alobokhara Jan.-Feb. 18c per pound 
 
 Mango Mar.-Sept. lc each 
 
 Sofata Mar.-Sept. 18c per hundred 
 
 Kessur May-Aug. 18c per pound 
 
 Apple May-Mar. y 2 c to lc each 
 
 Apricot June-July 9c per pound 
 
 Peach June-Aug. y 2 c to lc each 
 
 Bael fruit June-Aug. 4c to 6c each 
 
 Grape June-Feb. 4c to 6c per pound 
 
 Lichis monkey June-July 18c per hundred 
 
 Tamarind orange Oct.-Mar. 2c to 3c each 
 
 Imported fruit for the occasional use of Europeans and a few rich 
 and sophisticated natives, comes to India from many sections of the 
 globe. Because India is a British possession it is natural that the 
 steamship lines are predominantly those running between India and 
 other parts of the Empire. The result is that imported fruits are 
 largely from countries under the British flag. An exception to this, 
 however, is the fruit from Japan which, because of its low price, has 
 found a place in this market. 
 
 In January, 1930, apples from Japan sold in Calcutta at whole- 
 sale for 9 cents a pound. At retail they were 9 cents each. Smaller 
 Japanese apples sold for 7 cents a pound and retailed for 6 cents each. 
 Meanwhile in Calcutta apples from Australia wholesaled at 9 cents 
 
276 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 a pound. In Madras they were 10 to 12 cents a pound, retailing at 20 
 cents a pound. In Calcutta they retailed at 10 to 20 cents a pound, 
 while in Bombay this price had increased to 30 cents a pound. Beside 
 them were apples from South Africa. These wholesaled in Bombay 
 at 11 cents a pound and retailed for as high as 37 cents a pound. Thus, 
 at the same time, apples were on sale from three widely separated 
 sections of the globe. American apples were found on sale only in 
 Bombay and Madras at that time. At wholesale, 200 to the box, they 
 were $7.40 a box. Earlier in the season in Calcutta, they were $4.50 
 to $5.00 a box. At retail in Bombay they were sold at 24 cents a 
 pound ; at Madras they were 25 cents a pound. 
 
 Excellent oranges from Jaffa in Palestine ranged in price at 
 wholesale in Calcutta and Madras from 36 to 48 cents a dozen. In 
 Bombay they were 41 cents a dozen. At retail they were on sale in 
 Calcutta at from 40 to 75 cents a dozen ; in Bombay at 55 cents a 
 dozen ; and in Madras at 50 to 60 cents a dozen. California oranges, 
 packed 120 to the box, wholesaled at $8.14 a box and retailed at 74 
 cents a dozen. 
 
 Grapes from Australia wholesaled at 11 cents a pound in Calcutta. 
 At retail they were 37 cents a pound in Calcutta and 40 cents in Bom- 
 bay and Madras. Competing with them were grapes from Spain, 
 which at wholesale were 22 cents a pound in Calcutta and Madras, and 
 20 cents in Bombay. At retail these were offered at 55 cents per 
 pound in Calcutta and 40 cents in Bombay. No American grapes 
 were found on sale, nor were sales reported. 
 
 Lemons from both Palestine and Italy were offered for sale at 
 identical prices. At wholesale these were 1 cent each in Bombay and 
 2 cents each in Calcutta. At retail the prices were exactly doubled 
 in each case. 
 
 Pomeloes from British Malaya were wholesaled in Calcutta at 9 
 cents each and retailed at 12 cents. Grapefruit from Palestine whole- 
 saled at 10 cents each in Bombay and retailed at 13 cents. In Cal- 
 cutta the retail price rose to 23 cents. American grapefruit, packed 
 100 to the box, wholesaled from $11.50 to $13.00 a box. The fruit 
 retailed in Calcutta at 13 cents each. None was on sale in Bombay. 
 The Jaffa grapefruit was obviously of quality superior to that from 
 America. 
 
 Pears from South Africa wholesaled in Bombay at I 1 /* cents each. 
 At retail the price was from 13 to 16 cents each. 
 
 The above prices show great differences between the wholesale and 
 retail levels. Obviously, the retailer exacts a wide margin to insure 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 277 
 
 his profits and to cover possible losses from spoilage on fresh fruits. 
 The demands are so small that retailers undertaking to merchandise 
 imported fresh fruits do so only when possible risks may be covered 
 by adequate margins of safety. 
 
 No statistics are available as to the amounts of fresh fruit imported 
 into India from other sections of the world. Not only are all fresh 
 fruits lumped together in the import statistics, but vegetables are 
 also grouped with them. The "Annual Statement of Sea-borne Trade 
 of British India with the British Empire and Foreign Countries" 
 lists fruits and vegetables in one single classification. It is evident, 
 however, that the amounts imported are small. Considerable effort 
 was made to find imported fresh fruit in large cities in the interior of 
 India. Usually none whatsoever was on sale. Even in the great port 
 cities of Calcutta and Bombay, fresh imported fruit was offered by 
 only a few of the highest class stores catering to Europeans, and by 
 a few of the best stalls in the bazaars which held a similar trade. Even 
 in these the stocks were so small as to clearly indicate the limited 
 sales that were made. 
 
 Fresh fruits from America are generally imported into India on 
 the basis of a c.i.f price, whereas fresh fruits from Jaffa, Italy, Spain 
 and South Africa are usually shipped on consignment. Brokers 
 charge 10 per cent for their selling services. After deducting all 
 charges, they remit the balance that remains. Apples have the largest 
 demand, grapes ranking second. Except among a very limited group 
 of Europeans, imported citrus fruits are not used, because of the low 
 price of the native citrus fruit. 
 
 Refrigerated freight rates on fresh fruit from California ports 
 to Calcutta are as follows: apples, $1.30 a box; oranges, $2.00 a box; 
 lemons, $2.15 a box and $1.00 a half box; grapes, $32.00 a ton; other 
 fresh fruit, $35 a ton. 
 
 Imported fruit landing in India is subject to an import duty of 
 15 per cent. It is further subject to harbor dues, which at Calcutta 
 are 2 cents on the dollar valuation. At Bombay, harbor dues are 14 
 cents per case. Truck and coolie hire at either Calcutta or Bombay 
 average 9 cents per case. At Calcutta the brokerage charge to clear 
 through customs is $1.48 on each shipment. At Bombay it is 3 a /2 per 
 cent on the valuation. Interest on drafts, for goods ordered from 
 California is usually 7 per cent from the time the fruit is shipped 
 until the draft is paid. 
 
 Cold storage space for fresh fruits is decidedly limited. One organ- 
 ization at Calcutta has space for about 2,000 cases available for public 
 
278 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 rental at 23 cents per case per month. Three firms at Bombay have 
 a combined total space for 1,000 cases which they will rent at 6 cents 
 per case per week. Several retail stores have small spaces for their 
 own storage but these are not open to public rental. In Madras one 
 company has refrigeration storage space for 100 cases which they rent 
 at the rate of 4% cents per case per day. Larger cold storage spaces 
 are repeatedly rumored as under contemplation in Calcutta and Bom- 
 bay. The prejudice of the natives of India against cold storage is a 
 factor that will have to be considered in any large cold storage 
 enterprise. 
 
 There are no refrigerator cars on the railways of India. Although 
 for several years it has been privately stated that the Railway Admin- 
 istration stood ready to install refrigerator cars as soon as needed, no 
 action has been taken.. In the present state of political uncertainty 
 of the country, it is doubtful if any immediate action is probable. 
 Such installation would affect the distribution of the higher grades 
 of native fruit quite as materially as that of imported. Refrigerator 
 service is likely to increase the shipment of fresh native fruits over 
 India and to thereby increase the competition with imported fruits. 
 Under refrigeration, native fruit should reach the large consuming 
 centers in better condition than at present, and thereby lessen the 
 apparent disparity in quality between the home-grown and the sea- 
 borne fruit. 
 
 There is no difficulty in educating the Indian to eat American 
 fruit. The difficulty is one of price. The possible expansion of mar- 
 kets for imported fresh fruit in India is limited by ( 1 ) the low buying 
 power of the very large majority of the population, (2) by the small 
 expenditure which even rich natives are willing to make for foodstuffs, 
 (3) by the competition of native fruits of fair quality, which com- 
 petition is likely to increase as better transportation becomes avail- 
 able, and (4) by the difficulty of adequate distribution. 
 
 Despite all these limiting factors, there is a substantial demand for 
 imported fruit, provided the price is within reasonable limits and 
 the fruit is of high quality. A number of widely separated sections 
 of the globe are anxious to supply this demand. South Africa and 
 Australia from within the British domains and Palestine under Brit- 
 ish mandate, are likely to find first place in this market, both because 
 of their affiliation with the ruling race and because the haul to the 
 Indian peninsula is shorter than that from the American continent. 
 
 The expansion of American markets depends upon quality and 
 price. India offers distinct competition in fresh fruits, both from 
 
Bui,. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 279 
 
 India itself and from other sections of the British Empire. Fruit, 
 as fruit, is in India in abundance. It is there in all kinds and varie- 
 ties. Imported fruit from America can find sale only on the basis of 
 superior quality at a price not too greatly increased over that of com- 
 peting sections of the globe. If any material markets are to be devel- 
 oped for American fresh fruit, the prices must be lowered to meet 
 competition. Even then, the market can not be indefinitely expanded 
 because of the very small number of wealthy persons who are willing 
 to spend their money for imported fresh fruit when native fruit of 
 fair, though inferior, quality is so cheap and abundant. 
 
 Canned Fruits. — With the exception of a few wealthy Indians, 
 canned fruits are practically unknown to the native population of the 
 Indian peninsula. Nothing in their diet approximates canned fruit, 
 so that an effort to popularize it among the native population, even of 
 the higher classes, would constitute a major problem in dietary 
 education. 
 
 Europeans in India, of course, consume canned fruit in reasonable 
 quantities. Even they, however, use it in lesser amounts than might 
 be assumed. Its relatively high price as compared with fresh native 
 fruit limits its sale. Canned fruit at present prices is recognized as 
 a distinct luxury. Even in the best hotels it is infrequently served 
 and usually then only to augment some lower priced dessert. Mis- 
 sionaries and others on smaller incomes find imported canned fruits 
 beyond the range of their food expenditures. 
 
 Nevertheless, India in the aggregate consumes considerable quan- 
 tities of canned fruit. The country is so large and the population so 
 numerous that any consumption whatsoever among even a very minute 
 percentage of the people aggregates a material amount. The total 
 imports of "canned and bottled fruits from foreign sources" into 
 British India in the year 1927-28, all of which are grouped together 
 in one classification, totaled a value of $362,730. Of this, imports 
 from the United States were valued at $140,384. The American sta- 
 tistics showed exports from California to British India aggregating 
 $154,755 in 1927, and $173,089 in 1928 (see table 61). This would 
 perhaps represent sales of about 24,000 cases per year in all India. 
 However, those in the business in India state that sales of American 
 canned fruits total about 50,000 cases a year. This discrepancy is 
 perhaps accounted for by the fact that large amounts of American 
 canned fruits are trans-shipped either at London or at Hongkong or 
 Singapore. They are not credited, therefore, in the American state- 
 
280 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 nients of exports to India nor in the British tabulations of imports 
 into India from America. The United States imports, direct and 
 indirect, of canned fruit into India probably amount to somewhere 
 between two-thirds and three-fourths of all that consumed in the 
 country. 
 
 India has no extensive fruit-canning industry of its own. Several 
 canning- plants have, from time to time, been established under the 
 patronage of the Indian government. Due to various causes, these 
 have all proved unsuccessful, although several small plants that pre- 
 serve mangoes are still in occasional operation. ' ' The tropical climate 
 of the country, an absence of scientifically-grown fruit gardens, the 
 location of most gardens far remote from consuming centers, and the 
 high cost of transportation are some of the factors retarding any 
 efforts on the part of private enterprise to pack locally. ' '* The govern- 
 ment of the Madras Presidency established a ' ' Fruit Preserving Insti- 
 tute" which lapsed after a term of years. An official report states 
 that "there have been heavy imports of cheap bounty-fed Australian 
 jams and preserves with which the institute is quite unable to com- 
 pete at the same price ... It is perhaps doubtful whether the com- 
 paratively tasteless Indian fruits are particularly suitable for the 
 manufacture of preserves."! India is unlikely to establish any con- 
 siderable fruit canning industry for a long time to come. 
 
 Canned lichees and longans are imported from China to India in 
 small amounts for use of the Chinese population. French canned 
 fruits come to India in small quantities. Aside from American fruits, 
 the principal importations are those of English and Australian brands 
 which sell extensively in these markets. For many fruits even these, 
 branded as they are with English or Australian labels, are only Cali- 
 fornia products under another name. The labels definitely, if not 
 conspicuously, state for certain brands of peaches, pears, apricots, 
 and fruit salad, that the contents were "packed in California, U. S. 
 A." Thus the consumption of American fruits is larger than the 
 sales of American brands. 
 
 Among the various kinds of fruits, peaches rank first in popular- 
 ity. Perhaps almost one-half of the sales are of this one fruit. Pears 
 rank second, cherries third, and apricots fourth. The mixed fruits, 
 known as fruit salad, sell in quantities exceeded only by that of 
 peaches. 
 
 * Unpublished Report, ' ' Indian Market for Canned Fruits, ' ' R. 0, Cbckburn, 
 Assistant Trade Commissioner, Calcutta, 1929. 
 
 t Report of the Dept. of Industries, Presidency of Madras. 1925-6, pp. 35-36. 
 
Bin,. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 281 
 
 Canned fruits are found on sale in all the large cities and are even 
 offered in those smaller towns where a military cantonment congre- 
 gates a number of Europeans. Usually, however, canned fruits are 
 sold only in stores and markets that have a regular European trade. 
 In markets patronized exclusively by Indians, canned fruits are con- 
 spicuously absent. In some cities of 100,000 population, American 
 canned fruits were offered for sale in but one or two shops. It was 
 plain that they were stocked only in the expectation of European 
 consumption. Many railroad restaurants display various foodstuffs 
 
 Most retail purchases in India are made in very small si 
 shops that cater to Europeans sell American canned fruits. 
 
 Usually only 
 
 for sale in cartons and packages. Usually these include a display 
 of American canned fruits. They are intended for sale to railroad 
 officials, stationed at that point, rather than to the traveling public. 
 The owners of these restaurants report very small sales from these 
 displays. Canned fruits are not consumed by the natives except by 
 the Parsis of Bombay and by a few Europeanized persons who have 
 become more than usually influenced by Western customs. 
 
 The prices of canned fruits rise rapidly as the distance from the 
 ports increases. This is doubtless caused not only by the freight rates 
 involved, but also by lessened demand which means infrequent sales 
 and less competition. In some cases, canned fruits were on sale at 
 prices clearly beyond those warranted by their cost. Table 65 illus- 
 
282 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 trates the range of the retail prices for fruit in No. 2% cans at various 
 points in India. These prices were averaged from those prevailing in 
 a number of stores in the towns visited. 
 
 TABLE 65 
 
 Current Retail Prices, British India, January, 1930 
 
 American Canned Fruits 
 
 In No. 2% Cans 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Pears 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Plums 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Fruit Salad 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 $0.37 
 .37 
 .50 
 .41 
 .32 
 .37 
 .41 
 .50 
 
 Benares 
 
 57 
 
 Agra 
 
 $0.37 
 
 
 .37 
 
 
 .50 
 
 $0.55 
 
 .39 
 
 .41 
 
 .37 
 
 .37 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 Delhi 
 
 $0.50 
 
 .55 
 .60 
 
 .55 
 .43 
 .55 
 .50 
 .64 
 
 Lahore 
 
 $0.50 
 .55 
 .74 
 .55 
 .50 
 
 74 
 
 Bombay 
 
 $0.41 
 .41 
 .50 
 .43 
 .37 
 .37 
 .46 
 .50 
 
 Madras 
 
 $0.39 
 .46 
 .55 
 
 .48 
 .41 
 .37 
 
 50 
 
 Similar tables could be presented for other sizes of cans. For 
 example, cherries in the No. 1 tall can sold at 32 cents at Calcutta, 
 Bombay, and Madras, but at 46 cents at Agra, while in the nearby 
 city of Delhi they were 37 cents. Peaches in this size were 23 cents 
 at Calcutta and Madras, and 25 cents at Bombay, but only 23 cents 
 at Agra, while they rose to 29 cents at Delhi and Lahore. The 8-ounce 
 tins of peaches and apricots were 13 cents at Calcutta and Bombay. 
 They were 16 cents at Delhi and Madras. All of these figures would, 
 however, only substantiate the obvious conclusion that small sales 
 mean high prices. Dealers operating on infrequent turnover and 
 under small competition charge prices large enough to insure them- 
 selves against probable losses and to cover a substantial margin of 
 profit, Probably not more than 10 per cent of the canned fruit 
 received in India is consumed outside of the large port cities where 
 most of the European population of higher purchasing power is con- 
 gregated. The removal of the capital of India to Delhi will, however, 
 bring larger consumption to that city. 
 
 A prominent Australian brand of canned fruits sells extensively 
 on the markets of India because its prices are lower than those of the 
 competing American brands. Much of the fruit packed under this 
 brand is purchased already packed in America and marketed under 
 the label of the Australian brand. Its sales are considerable, not be- 
 cause of superior quality but because of lower price. Even though 
 
Bul. 493 J 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 283 
 
 it be contended that the quality is at times uncertain and occasionally 
 inferior, many European consumers stated that they held to this 
 brand because it was cheaper and the fruit was satisfactory. 
 
 TABLE 66 
 
 Eetail Prices of Various Brands, British India, January, 1930 
 
 In No. 2% Cans 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Pears 
 
 Plums 
 
 Fruit Salad 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 American 
 brand "A" 
 
 $0.37 
 .41 
 .50 
 .37 
 .46 
 .41 
 .50 
 
 American 
 brand "B" 
 
 $0.37 
 .37 
 .50 
 .32 
 .41 
 .37 
 .50 
 
 Australian 
 brand 
 
 $0.32 
 .27 
 .41 
 .27 
 .32 
 .27 
 .46 
 
 Bombay 
 
 American 
 brand "A" 
 
 $0.46 
 .41 
 .53 
 .41 
 .46 
 .46 
 .55 
 
 American 
 brand "B" 
 
 $0.41 
 .41 
 .50 
 .37 
 .43 
 .37 
 .50 
 
 Australian 
 brand 
 
 $0.34 
 
 27 
 34 
 37 
 46 
 
 The same prices were reflected in the wholesale quotations. While 
 in some cases the wholesale prices were actually higher than the pro- 
 portionate retail price, this was caused by the fact that retailers 
 generally were operating from old stocks of the 1928 crop, and 
 although aware of the fact that replacement of these stocks could only 
 be obtained from the 1929 crop at higher prices, the old retail prices 
 prevailed because of the desire to convert stocks into cash. At higher 
 prices sales might decrease or cease almost entirely. 
 
 TABLE 67 
 
 Wholesale Prices of Various Brands, British India, January, 1930 
 
 In No. 2% Cans. Prices per Case 
 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 Bombay 
 
 
 American 
 brand "A" 
 
 American 
 brand "B" 
 
 Australian 
 brand 
 
 American 
 brand "A" 
 
 American 
 brand "B" 
 
 Australian 
 brand 
 
 Apricots 
 
 $ 9.24 
 
 11.46 
 
 7.76 
 
 9.98 
 
 11.46 
 
 $ 7.20 
 
 11.10 
 
 7.20 
 
 8.50 
 
 11.10 
 
 $ 6.10 
 
 9.98 
 
 6.38 
 
 7.02 
 
 10.36 
 
 $11.24 
 
 11.85 
 
 8.88 
 
 11.10 
 
 11.51 
 
 $ 8.78 
 
 11.10 
 
 7.95 
 
 9.98 
 
 11.10 
 
 $ 7 02 
 
 Cherries 
 
 9 98 
 
 Peaches 
 
 7.02 
 
 Pears 
 
 7.76 
 
 Fruit Salad 
 
 10.36 
 
 
 
 All of these figures are cited merely to illustrate the fact that 
 American fruits under an Australian brand are selling extensively 
 in India at prices lower than those of the prominent American brands. 
 
284 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Now, India is pre-eminently a price market, not only among- the 
 natives but also among many of the Europeans to whom the question 
 of price is more important than fine distinctions of quality. At 
 the comparative prices quoted above, sales under this Australian 
 brand are likely to continue to increase. 
 
 The greatest volume of sales of all brands is in the No. 2% cans 
 although the No. 1 tall size is prominently displayed in most large 
 stores and finds some usage among small families. So seldom is 
 canned fruit used for occasions when families are not entertaining 
 guests that the large can continues to rule the market, despite the fact 
 that European families in India are small. The price of even the No. 
 1 tall size has been generally beyond the regular expenditure of many 
 Europeans. The use of canned fruits is thus reserved for entertain- 
 ment and for other occasions where desirable but expensive luxuries 
 are consumed. The small 8-ounce can has been recently introduced 
 into the market. As yet its sales are small. The price differential be- 
 tween this size and larger packages has prevented its extension. Fur- 
 thermore, no advertising or trade promotion has been conducted for 
 the new package, so that many Europeans do not know that it can be 
 obtained. Indeed, at most interior towns, it is not on sale. Stores 
 having only small demands for canned fruits usually stock only one 
 size, in which case the No. 2% size is the one carried. 
 
 American canned fruits are imported into India on the basis of 
 orders taken by agents of American exporters who quote to dealers 
 c.i.f. prices. These agencies usually represent a large number of 
 manufacturers among which one brand of canned fruit is included. 
 In eastern India, canned goods usually enter through the ports of 
 Calcutta or Madras. The territory from which they are distributed 
 from Calcutta extends as far westward as Delhi. The port of Madras 
 distributes for the eastern side of southern India. In western India 
 goods usually enter via Bombay or Karachi, coming by way of Europe 
 and Suez. Wholesale dealers receiving canned fruits from import 
 agents distribute these to retailers. So large a proportion of the 
 canned fruit is purchased by Europeans from a few large provision 
 stores in the big cities, that in many cases these retail stores, which 
 often have numerous branches, themselves order direct from agents 
 on a c.i.f. price, thus eliminating the wholesaler. Goods are sold to 
 up-country dealers at f.o.b. prices at the city of entry. Freight rates 
 from Calcutta to such places as Benares and Patna Junction average 
 less than 1 cent a pound. To Delhi, Agra, Lmcknow, and Cawnpore 
 they average 1 to iy 2 cents a pound. From Bombay, freights vary 
 
Bul. 493 J Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 285 
 
 from % cent a pound for Poona to over 2 cents for Bangalore, 
 Bezwada, and Guntakai. 
 
 To successfully market a large volume of canned fruit in India, 
 several factors are involved. (1) Prices must be made lower. At 
 present prices, neither the European nor the Indian population will 
 greatly increase consumption. (2) The small sizes, such as the 
 8-ounce and the No. 1 tall, must be widely placed on sale. (3) An 
 extensive campaign of trade promotion must be conducted over a 
 considerable period of time. The Indian market reacts slowly. 
 
 The most promising field appears to be for the 8-ounce can. If 
 this could be reduced in price so that it could be retailed for four 
 annas (10 cents), it might have considerable sale, provided it were 
 exploited by extensive trade promotion through methods later dis- 
 cussed. Even so, the outcome is by no means certain. More than in 
 other Eastern countries, the probable trend of native demands is an 
 unknown factor. Because no considerable percentage of natives use 
 canned fruits, no measuring stick is available to judge the possible 
 effect of a campaign seeking to educate them to this commodity. Up 
 to the present time no efforts have been made, so that results, either 
 positive or negative, have not been secured. The best-informed people 
 in India believe that a campaign for a low-priced package might 
 have large results, provided it were skillfully managed and were 
 prosecuted over a term of years. 
 
 Dried Fruits. — The Indian market consumes large amounts of 
 dried fruits. These are chiefly of Asiatic origin and come into India 
 from the Northwest. Their low price permits their use among the 
 native population which, for ages past, has been accustomed to regard 
 them as a desirable luxury. Dates from Arabia ; apricots, currants, 
 figs, and raisins from Afghanistan ; apricots from the northern Pun- 
 jab ; all are prominently displayed in the native bazaars. 
 
 .Many of these fruits travel by caravan routes across the countries 
 of the Near East, till coming over the passes into British India, they 
 meet rail lines whence they are shipped by freight to the consuming 
 markets of the Indian peninsula. At the original source of produc- 
 tion the prices of dried fruits are indeterminate. Sales are frequently 
 made by barter against goods brought by caravan from India. On 
 return these caravans carry dried fruits among other stocks obtained 
 from the interior. The fruit is usually packed in gunny sacks and in 
 this manner is loaded on horses and camels. It remains in these sacks 
 till it is dumped out in the bazaars, where it is displayed in large piles 
 on the summit of which the proprietor of the stall sits cross-legged in 
 
286 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 the typical attitude of the East. Naturally, these dried fruits from 
 the interior are far from clean. Furthermore, they may be adulterated 
 with pebbles and dirt. Nevertheless, their appearance is not unat- 
 tractive as they are displayed in the markets. 
 
 The native of India has no sanitary scruples against the use of 
 these fruits. Indeed, to the Mohammedan population as well as to 
 
 The Indian market consumes large amounts of dried fruits of Asiatic origin. 
 These come into India from the Northwest. On stands selling dried fruit a native 
 cocoanut candy is prominent. 
 
 many of the Hindus, they have a mystical attraction because they 
 came from the direction of Mecca and from the fabled Northwest 
 whence came the migrations and conquerors of old. Probably, how- 
 ever, their attraction over American fruits is largely in their low price. 
 When sentiment and saving can be combined, they are an irresistible 
 combination to the Indian mind. 
 
 Dried fruits from Afghanistan sell as follows : The dried apricots 
 retail in Lahore at 11 cents per pound. In Bombay they are 16 cents 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 287 
 
 and in Calcutta and Madras, 18 cents. The currants sell for 13 cents 
 a pound in Lahore, while in Bombay they are 16 cents, and in Cal- 
 cutta and Madras, 18 cents. The raisins are 11 cents per pound in 
 Lahore; at Bombay they are 13 cents; at Calcutta 11 cents; at Madras 
 18 cents. Dried figs are 11 cents in Lahore and 13 cents in both 
 Bombay and Calcutta, but are 18 cents in Madras. 
 
 Dried fruit from Arabia sells as follows : Dried dates are 9 cents a 
 pound in Lahore, Bombay, and Madras, but rise in price to 16 cents 
 in Calcutta. These are the true dried dates, not the block dates famil- 
 iar in former years on fruit stands in the United States. The amount 
 of these displayed for sale increases with the distances westward. 
 
 Apricots from the Punjab sell for 11 cents a pound in Lahore. 
 They are 13 cents in Bombay, and 18 cents in Calcutta. Currants from 
 Greece are 18 cents a pound in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras. 
 
 Meanwhile, Australia sends dried fruit for the European trade. 
 Australian currants sell for 18 cents a pound in Bombay, Calcutta, 
 and Madras, thus meeting the price of the same fruit from Greece. 
 Australian raisins are 11 cents a pound in Calcutta, but rise to 18 
 cents in Bombay and Madras. At c.i.f. prices, Australian seedless 
 raisins reach Calcutta for 9 cents a pound. Similarly, high grade 
 white-bleached Sultana raisins of a quality that cannot be exceeded 
 cost c.i.f. 11 cents a pound. 
 
 American dried fruits in cans, cartons, and in bulk are for sale 
 in all large cities. Sales are largely in tins because of the danger 
 of spoilage. Usually, these are sold only to Europeans because the 
 prices are so much higher than those of the Asiatic dried fruits. Even 
 many of the white race use the local products because of their lower 
 prices. They would much prefer to purchase the cleaner and well- 
 packed fruit from America, but contend that since the dried fruit is 
 thoroughly washed before it is prepared, the result is reasonably satis- 
 factory. The only American dried fruit selling extensively to the 
 upper-class natives is prunes. This is largely the result of the advo- 
 cacy by European physicians of prune juice for babies and prunes 
 as a measure for health. The volume of prunes imported into India 
 exceeds that of all other dried fruits combined. In southern India 
 these are often eaten dry out of hand. Even a small native use of one 
 of our fruits creates a large percentage increase in imports. Retail 
 prices of American dried fruits are given in table 68. 
 
 Comparison between these prices and those of the Asiatic fruits 
 shows a wide disparity. Attempts to get the native population to eat 
 American dried fruits will not meet large success so long as the same 
 
288 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 68 
 
 Current Retail Prices, January 1930, American Dried Fruits 
 
 British India 
 
 Prices per Pound 
 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Madras 
 
 
 In 
 tins 
 
 In 
 cartons 
 
 In 
 bulk 
 
 In 
 tins 
 
 In 
 
 cartons 
 
 In 
 bulk 
 
 In 
 tins 
 
 In 
 cartons 
 
 In 
 bulk 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots... 
 Peaches... 
 
 $0.48 
 .53 
 .41 
 .23 
 .23 
 .23 
 
 $0.69 
 
 $0.69 
 
 $0.46 
 .46 
 .46 
 .46 
 
 
 $0.46 
 .55 
 .55 
 .55 
 
 $0.46 
 .60 
 .46 
 
 .48 
 
 
 $0.50 
 
 $0.55 
 .55 
 
 
 .64 
 
 
 .50 
 
 
 .55 
 
 Pears 
 
 .18 
 .18 
 
 $0.19 
 
 .55 
 
 Raisins . 
 
 
 .23 
 
 
 Prunes .... 
 
 .27 
 
 .23 
 
 .46 
 
 .27 
 
 .32 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 or comparable fruits produced in Asia sell for much lower prices. 
 The difference in price between American and Asiatic fruits is even 
 more marked in the interior than at the ports. Whereas American 
 fruits become more expensive as they are carried inland, Asiatic fruits 
 become cheaper. For example, at Calcutta, American dried apricots 
 were 53 cents a pound ; native apricots were 18 cents. At Lahore, 
 American apricots were 55 cents, native apricots were 11 cents. 
 
 American dried fruits are ordered on indent through agents of 
 American packers. These sell on the basis of c.i.f. quotations at the 
 ports of entry. Via the Pacific, freight rates per ton of 40 cubic feet, 
 from California ports to Calcutta are $20, and to Madras $20. Ship- 
 ments to Bombay and Karachi are generally made via the Atlantic, in 
 which case the rate is $1.10 per 100 pounds. Dried fruit pays a duty 
 of 15 per cent on entry into British India. Harbor dues are 2 cents a 
 pound at Calcutta and 14 cents a case at Bombay. Other charges are 
 similar to those for canned fruits, already given. Dealers in interior 
 cities have the above charges to pay in the form of wholesale prices, 
 which not only include these costs but also the profit of the wholesaler. 
 
 In January, 1930, wholesale quotations in Calcutta, Bombay, and 
 Madras were as given in table 69. 
 
 In some cases the above prices are higher than retail prices. As 
 usual this was because wholesalers were quoting from the 1929 crop, 
 while retail sales were being made from the 1928 crop. 
 
 The inland merchant must also pay rail charges as the wholesale 
 prices are f.o.b. Calcutta or Bombay. In addition to freight rates, 
 which are the same as those already quoted for canned fruits, there 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 289 
 
 is usually a local city tax analagous to an import duty. For exam- 
 ple, at Lahore this tax is 37 cents per 82 pounds. Probably not more 
 than 10 per cent of the American dried fruit entering India is shipped 
 beyond the port of entry. 
 
 TABLE 69 
 
 Current Prices at Wholesale, January, 1930, American 
 
 Dried Fruits, British India 
 
 Prices per Pound in Tins 
 
 Calcutta Bombay Madras 
 
 Apples $0.47 $0.38 $0.37 
 
 Apricots 50 .50 .48 
 
 White Figs 44 .43 
 
 Peaches 31 .50 .32 
 
 Prunes 17 .20 .15 
 
 Raisins 17 .18 .16 
 
 Under present conditions, the opportunity for large sales of 
 American dried fruits is not brilliant. Prunes present the best field 
 for any intensive effort that might be made. Their attraction lies in 
 the consideration that they are not extensively produced in India and 
 that an appeal might be based upon their medicinal value. India does 
 produce small quantities of prunes, but these are very dry and are 
 largely pit. In India as in other countries where a rice diet pertains, 
 constipation is general. Furthermore, much of India is underlaid 
 with a limestone formation. The water is 'hard' all over the country. 
 From these combined causes, chronic constipation is a frequent inci- 
 dent of illness among the whole population, including Europeans. In 
 addition, all India has become greatly concerned over the question of 
 its high infant mortality and the low strength of the Indian people. 
 The publication of recent books, widely read throughout the world, 
 criticizing this phase of Indian life, has roused the people of the whole 
 peninsula to a degree seldom reached in recent generations. All large 
 towns now hold "Baby Weeks." Free clinics for young mothers are 
 multiplying throughout the country. Manufacturers of infant foods 
 and of oat and wheat cereals are extensively promoting the knowledge 
 of their products through these media. 
 
 Dried prunes would really fill a need in the Indian peninsula, but 
 this need would be more largely medicinal than nutritional. However, 
 in order to gain any large consumption among the Indian people, 
 prunes must be packaged in small containers of about a dozen fruits 
 and offered at a low standard price, or must be sold at still lower 
 prices in bulk in the bazaars under some method of control whereby 
 
290 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 the price is not allowed to rise above a level at which they could be 
 purchased by the middle classes of the population. Furthermore, it 
 would be necessary to maintain stocks at central depots in order to 
 obtain wide distribution. Finally, the Indian people must be informed 
 that prunes will be an aid to the health and strength of their families. 
 
 Other dried fruits offer little opportunity for marked expansion 
 unless their retail price is brought much nearer to that of the same 
 fruits produced in Asia or other countries. The entire European popu- 
 lation and a small number of Indians would undoubtedly be willing to 
 pay a slightly higher price for clean American fruit attractively pack- 
 aged than for dirty Asiatic fruit sold in bulk. But they are not, in any 
 large numbers, willing to pay too great a differential. Indeed, the 
 number of natives of India who are willing to pay anything whatso- 
 ever for cleanliness of foodstuffs is relatively small. 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods. — Fresh imported fruits present only a 
 very limited opportunity in the Indian peninsula and therefore do not 
 lend themselves to extensive trade promotion methods. Any com- 
 modity that is to repay in sales the cost of expensive public exploita- 
 tion must be capable of purchase by a great number of persons. Fresh 
 fruits, landed in the large cities of Calcutta, Bombay, or Madras will 
 find a limited outlet. They will be adequately made known among the 
 high-class trade, to whom alone they can appeal, by the dealers who 
 purchase them. Apples, grapes, pears, and even citrus fruits can be 
 sold in sufficient quantity to interest fruit exporters and shippers as 
 individuals. They cannot be marketed in large enough quantities in 
 India to warrant any considerable campaign. 
 
 Canned fruits might have very much larger sale if they could be 
 made fashionable for the better-class natives. How many there are 
 in the upper and middle classes is difficult to determine. Even if all 
 the rural population be eliminated from discussion and we consider 
 only the 32,500,000 people who live in towns and cities, the number 
 among this group who might afford to purchase a low-priced but desir- 
 able luxury is considerable. Because there are no statistics showing the 
 economic status of the various groups of the population, estimates 
 were secured from a wide range of sources as to the percentage of 
 those in towns and cities who could afford to buy an 8-ounce can of 
 fruit that sold at retail for 10 cents. Curiously enough, here, as in 
 China, the lowest estimates were made by agents of American pack- 
 ers. The highest estimates were made by social workers and by those 
 large corporations which are already merchandizing to the native 
 trade. Estimates ranged from 5 per cent of the city population to as 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 291 
 
 high as 25 per cent. All agreed that an even higher percentage could 
 afford to buy these fruits occasionally, such as at times of weddings 
 and other festivals. However, the population of the towns would not 
 be the only people who might be reached. In India as elsewhere, the 
 rural people are likely to follow the lead of those in the towns. Prob- 
 ably in country, districts those who make up the middle class are a 
 very small percentage of the rural population. In the aggregate, how- 
 ever, they must constitute a considerable number of persons. 
 
 Canned fruits in India might appeal to the native population 
 because of their sweetness, and because of their novelty. Obviously, 
 however, as already stated, a promotional campaign to popularize 
 canned fruit in India would require large funds and sustained effort. 
 
 Dried fruits face the competition of native dried fruit in all varie- 
 ties except prunes. Fortunately, the prune is the one American dried 
 fruit which might appeal to the native trade, because of its medicinal 
 properties. As such, it presents large possibilities provided it were 
 advertised and exploited as nature's health food for the people. 
 
 A trade-promotion campaign for any of these fruits, dried or 
 canned, would require for its success the application of certain prin- 
 ciples. 
 
 First, stocks must be carried on hand at certain central points in 
 India. The system of indent through agents cannot develop a large 
 market. 
 
 Second, the commodity must be packaged in a small unit so that 
 only a small initial purchase need be made. The unit of popular cur- 
 rency in India is the anna. Sixteen of these make the rupee, worth 
 37 cents. The 2-anna piece and the 4-anna piece are popular coins. 
 If prunes could be packaged so as to sell for 2 annas and canned 
 fruit for 4 annas, the middle class would find these within their range 
 of possible purchase. 
 
 Third, there must be as much for the money as possible. Expressed 
 in another way, the commodity must be made as cheap as possible. 
 The more prunes that can be put in a 2-anna package the better. The 
 less the 8-ounce can of fruit can retail for, the more probable it would 
 be to succeed. 
 
 Fourth, a thorough and prolonged campaign of education and 
 exploitation must go forward after the stocks are on hand and the 
 distribution accomplished. 
 
 For example, if we assume that a campaign is to be conducted to 
 popularize dried prunes in India, it should start by laying down 
 stocks at the central points from which the campaign is to be con- 
 
292 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 ducted. Packaging in small units might be done in India. It must 
 be done wherever the cost is the lowest. Dried fruits packed in car- 
 tons and laid down in India without the protection of tin or some other 
 impervious covering will spoil from insect injury and, in the monsoon 
 season, from molds. Tin containers, such as small vacuum cans, are 
 too expensive for the Indian market ; therefore, the small carton must 
 be used. Prunes might be shipped into India in tin-lined cases and 
 there packaged in small cartons as needed for distribution. These 
 small packages might be packed in a tin-lined case. This does not 
 necessarily increase the price to the consumer. A popular brand of 
 cheap tea is packed in paper envelopes which in turn are enclosed 
 in quantity in a tin box with a hinged lid. This tea retails at slightly 
 less than a cent a package. The profit of the dealer is the tin case. He 
 is compelled to sell the tea at the exact price that he pays for it. The 
 price at retail is printed on the package. If the tea were not packed 
 in a tin case, it would have to be sold to the dealer at a price as much 
 lower as the resale value of the tin box. The dealer takes his profit in 
 box instead of money. 
 
 After the commodity is on hand and properly packaged to meet 
 the market, distribution must be effected through an organization 
 employed for this purpose and for no other. Such an organization 
 should be headed by an American or other Caucasian who is thor- 
 oughly familiar with the people of India. This not only means that he 
 must have been resident in India over a period of years, but also 
 that his work and sympathies have brought him close to the Indian 
 people. There are many European businessmen long in India who 
 know nothing about the natives whatsoever. Indeed, some pride 
 themselves upon that fact as though there were some virtue in an 
 ignorance of the consumers to whom they are catering. The main basis 
 of such an organization, however, should be native. Indians should 
 be employed to do the work of distribution but not to make decisions 
 or to dictate policies. 
 
 Before any extensive advertising or trade promotion is done, the 
 commodity should be placed on sale at a large number of places. At 
 first, to do so might require that it be packed in smaller cases than those 
 usually standard. It might also be necessary to promise that an 
 advertising and trade-promotion campaign would follow immediately 
 after distribution. In some instances it might even be necessary to 
 put small quantities in shops on consignment. 
 
 All this should proceed in a small test area only. To attempt 
 trade promotion in all India at one time would be a needlessly expen- 
 
Bul. 493 J Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 293 
 
 sive experiment. The territory selected might include only one large 
 city, such as Calcutta, which has over a million population, but should 
 also, for experimental purposes, include a small section of typically 
 rural area adjacent to it. 
 
 The promotional campaign itself should seek to impress on the 
 people that (1) this fruit will make you well and strong, (2) it is 
 something new, (3) it is cheap, and (4) it is proper for all castes to 
 eat it. Under the latter heading, the slogan "Not touched by human 
 hands" can be effectively used. In truth, the fruit from California 
 
 ifflsiaiKinig 
 
 '^THE IDEAL FOOD 0R1NK 
 
 PfttPARED IN A MOHENT, NO COOKSN6 REQUIRED. 
 
 UNTOUCHED BY HAND ■■ 
 
 «ir*rwir« «tw1 wit mmh '-*?« 
 
 MADE AT SLOUGH Bl/C/TS, ENGIAND. 
 
 : 
 
 To popularize American canned and dried fruits in India the slogan "not 
 touched by human hands' ' could be effectively used. This advertisement for 
 malted milk recognized the caste prejudice of the Hindu. 
 
 is so consistently handled only by machinery that, from the Oriental 
 viewpoint, it can be satisfactorily advertised as such. 
 
 In advertising- campaigns, the vernacular press only should be 
 used. The weekly and monthly journals of standing are more effective 
 than daily papers. Testimonials from local Hindu or Mohammedan 
 physicians as to the health-giving properties of California fruit would 
 be valuable advertising copy. Testimonials from European physicians 
 would be far less valuable. A motion-picture film of the California 
 fruit industry and the processing of the fruit, handled entirely by 
 machine, could be shown in motion-picture theaters patronized by the 
 middle-class natives. Advertising booths near temples, shrines, and 
 other holy places, especially at times of special gatherings, make a 
 great impression on the native mind. On special occasions, free sam- 
 
294 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 pie distribution together with a free lecture on the virtues of Califor- 
 nia fruit would be attended by many. Free samples need not consist 
 of a package but only of one or two prunes, or one or two slices of 
 canned peach. The native is always willing" to listen to a harangue. 
 A man with a gong and plenty of talk can gather a crowd anywhere 
 any time in India. 
 
 There are numerous coffee and tea shops in the large cities and 
 towns. They offer for sale many commodities which are not consumed 
 in the shop^ Crackers, canned fish, tobacco, soap, and other similar 
 small articles are found in these coffee and tea shops. Free sampling 
 in them would reach a wide public. 
 
 It would not be difficult, through the methods outlined above, to 
 acquaint the entire native middle-class public with the new and bene- 
 ficent foodstuff within a short time. It must not be expected, however, 
 that they would respond quickly and rush to buy. It is characteristic 
 of the Indian market that it reacts slowly. Such a campaign might 
 be conducted for a long time before large results were secured. 
 
 In rural areas, different methods must be used. In many native 
 villages there is not a store or shop or any other place where anything 
 whatsoever can be bought. However, once a week there is a sort of 
 local fair. At that time the people come together to sell and to barter. 
 Peddlers come to the village to display their wares. These native mar- 
 kets are under the control, in British India, of a local governmental 
 official who issues licenses for vendors and generally keeps an eye on 
 the proceedings. 
 
 There are also throughout rural India gatherings of people, great 
 and small, which on a religious background bring together a large 
 percentage of the population. These are known as 'melas. ' While in 
 modern times a certain amount of their religious significance is lost 
 in the general holiday atmosphere, they are a favorite gathering place 
 for those who desire to introduce new things to the Indian people of 
 the rural areas. 
 
 Recently, throughout certain sections of India the railroads have 
 promoted 'bazaar trains.' These are special commercial trains sent 
 out in rural distircts to afford an opportunity to merchants and manu- 
 facturers to place their wares before the people in the country and 
 small towns. The nearest resemblance to them in America are the 
 " Agricultural Demonstration Trains." In the latter case they seek 
 to give away information. On the trains in India the object is to 
 advertise and sell goods. Each car in the train is divided into two 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 295 
 
 booths, half a car being sold by the railroad as one shop. The cost for 
 a month is about $300 for half a car. During that time the train 
 makes one stop each day, the rental cost of this train-store thus being 
 about $10 a day. Enormous crowds of people come to see and to buy 
 
 Paper bags supplied free to shop-keepers offer a better opportunity for adver- 
 tising in India than do most of the newspapers. Paper bags are scarce and are 
 often treasured in humble households. 
 
296 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 at these trains. American soap, safety razors, malted milk, and other 
 products have been widely advertised by them. No effort has ever 
 been made to acquaint the people of India with California canned or 
 dried fruits by that means, nor, as a matter of fact, by the other 
 methods mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs. 
 
 For emphasis, it should again be said that trade promotion, even on 
 a wide scale for California canned or dried fruit in India, is not cer- 
 tain of success. The result would depend in large degree upon the 
 skill and perseverance with which it was done. In still larger meas- 
 ure it would depend upon a reduction in price below present levels 
 and packaging the commodity in small units. 
 
CEYLON 
 
298 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 70 
 Direct Fruit Exports from California to Ceylon 
 
 Kind of fruit 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 1929 
 
 Canned 
 
 Berries 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Pears 
 
 Fruit for salad 
 
 Other canned 
 
 Pineapples 
 
 Jams, jellies, etc. 
 
 Total 
 
 Dried 
 
 Raisins 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Pears 
 
 Other dried. 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 5,300 
 11,04,3 
 27,100 
 21,629 
 43,872 
 48,298 
 38,518 
 
 25,646 
 
 6,165 
 
 19,459 
 
 247,030 
 
 pounds 
 
 17,593 
 
 15,663 
 
 2,837 
 
 672 
 
 25,950 
 
 5,519 
 
 68,234 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,067 
 1,206 
 3,567 
 3,664 
 5,095 
 5,823 
 4,917 
 
 pounds 
 
 7,844 
 9,986 
 30,093 
 28,675 
 34,649 
 52,139 
 40,081 
 
 3,434 
 
 831 
 3,987 
 
 34,764 
 
 6,880 
 29,197 
 
 33,591 
 
 274,308 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,671 
 
 2,392 
 
 592 
 
 113 
 
 2,613 
 
 pounds 
 
 4,730 
 8,926 
 2,972 
 1,995 
 36,499 
 
 1 , 220 
 
 8,253 
 
 601 
 
 63,375 
 
 dollars 
 
 732 
 288 
 225 
 960 
 071 
 579 
 155 
 
 4,577 
 
 980 
 
 5,193 
 
 pounds 
 
 9,133 
 
 7,800 
 
 19,875 
 
 23,944 
 
 30,469 
 
 39,410 
 
 34,237 
 
 21,366 
 
 18,624 
 
 5,789 
 
 1,585 
 
 39,760 
 
 212,232 
 
 dollars 
 
 523 
 
 1,383 
 
 440 
 
 248 
 4,129 
 
 1,093 
 
 pounds 
 
 4,764 
 19,175 
 
 3,550 
 
 1,454 
 
 34,172 
 
 834 
 
 6,134 
 
 7,816 
 
 70,083 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,846 
 
 917 
 
 2,643 
 
 4,312 
 
 3,578 
 
 4,802 
 
 5,215 
 
 3,726 
 
 2,462 
 
 900 
 
 499 
 
 30,900 
 
 dollars 
 
 412 
 3,368 
 
 761 
 
 257 
 3,440 
 
 131 
 1,159 
 
 9,528 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Grapefruit. 
 
 Lemons 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Apples 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Pears 
 
 Other fresh 
 
 boxes 
 
 803 
 
 11 
 
 2,281 
 
 11,873 
 
 dollars 
 
 4,084 
 
 69 
 
 10,989 
 
 28,795 
 
 boxes 
 
 1,083 
 
 15 
 
 2,341 
 
 11,879 
 
 dollars 
 
 5,866 
 
 95 
 
 13,833 
 
 24,991 
 
 boxes 
 
 943 
 
 15 
 
 1,996 
 
 14,152 
 
 pounds 
 
 86,000 
 210 
 
 dollars 
 
 7,460 
 18 
 
 pounds 
 
 132,540 
 660 
 
 dollars 
 
 13,416 
 65 
 
 pounds 
 
 183,243 
 
 1,000 
 
 120 
 
 dollars 
 
 4,538 
 
 80 
 
 10,478 
 
 32,583 
 
 dollars 
 
 14,996 
 
 110 
 
 12 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 299 
 
 CEYLON 
 
 The island of Ceylon is a British Crown colony and is thus gov- 
 erned separately from India. However, in any discussion of Eastern 
 markets for American fruits it must be considered as a part of the 
 British Indian Empire. 
 
 For centuries past, Ceylon has ranked in the Occidental mind as 
 the exemplar of Oriental wealth and tropical luxuriance. Since early 
 times it has been famed for its gems, spices, and other valuable prod- 
 ucts and for its beauty of scenery. Yet Ceylon is but a very small 
 segment in the vast land areas of the East. The possible consumption 
 of imported luxuries must necessarily be small. The extreme length 
 of the island is only 270 miles. Its greatest width is but 140 miles. 
 Even this area is not all productive ; a large part of the island is 
 semi-arid. It is in the central-western section where the rainfall is 
 over 75 inches per year that valuable products are grown. The land 
 in crops averages only about 3,000,000 acres, or 18 per cent of the total 
 area. In 1929 the exports from Ceylon were valued at $152,556,191. 
 Of these, tea created 48 per cent of the value, rubber 22 per cent, and 
 cocoanut products 14 per cent. Thus, these three crops compose 84 per 
 cent of the island's exports. The present low prices of rubber and 
 cocoanut, and the accumulating stocks of tea have depressed the eco- 
 nomic outlook of Ceylon. Like Indo-China, Siam, Malaya, and Java, 
 the colony is in a financial slump. The United States buys much more 
 from Ceylon than it sells to it. In 1929 the exports from Ceylon to 
 America were $32,291,618, while the imports from America were only 
 $4,888,626. Thus the United States has been a valuable customer. 
 
 At the time of the last census, in 1921, the population was 4,505,000. 
 It is now estimated as 5,124,992. The density ranges in different dis- 
 tricts from 854 to 27 persons per square mile. Of this whole popula- 
 tion, the Sinhalese, as the native race is called, make up the great 
 majority. There are 3,299,000 of these on the island, or over 64 per 
 cent of the inhabitants. The next largest group are Tamils from 
 southern India, who have been imported as laborers on the plantations. 
 These number 1,164,000. Taken together, the Sinhalese and Tamils 
 make up the bulk of the people; they aggregate 87 per cent of the 
 population. There are 297,000 Moors, 32,000 Eurasians, 15,000 Malays, 
 and 11,000 Europeans. Only about 45 Americans are in Ceylon.* 
 
 * Trade Information Sheet, American Consulate, Colombo. 
 
300 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 The religion of the country is predominantly Buddhist. This reli- 
 gion has about 3,000,000 adherents in the island, largely Sinhalese. 
 Of Hindus there are almost a million, chiefly Tamils. The Mohamme- 
 dans number about 300,000.1 As in the Buddhist countries of Siam 
 and Burma, the people of Ceylon are known as liberal spenders, and 
 luxurious livers, so far as their small economic ability permits. Per- 
 haps this is due more largely to climate than religion. In a country 
 where for centuries past it has been possible to obtain food without 
 work, there has seemed little need for saving for a time of scarcity. 
 That time never came. The Tamils, however, who have migrated to 
 Ceylon are saving and miserly. As such, they retain the habits 
 ingrained on the Indian peninsula where life has been hard and 
 frugality necessary. 
 
 The only great city of Ceylon is Colombo, which has a population 
 of about 250,000. It is not only the seat of government, but the dis- 
 tributing center for the whole island. The second largest town is 
 Jaffna, which has 42,000 people. Galle ranks third with 39,000, and 
 Kandy fourth with 32,000. As a center for trade distribution, Colombo 
 is the only place meriting consideration. 
 
 The average income of the people of the island is low but undoubt- 
 edly higher than in India or China. The average income per head of 
 all classes is perhaps $60 a year, or about $300 per wage earner. This, 
 however, includes all classes, even the Europeans. There are a num- 
 ber of wealthy Sinhalese families. It has been estimated that about 
 20,000 live on European standards. Many of these, because of their 
 extravagance, are losing their economic position. The middle classes 
 consist mainly of clerks and others of similar incomes. Perhaps 50 
 per cent of them are deeply in debt. Clerks generally are paid from 
 $25 to $50 a month. To command such wages they usually must have 
 considerable education. Below these rank the villagers and laborers, 
 who make up the bulk of the population. Laborers on plantations are 
 paid from $7 to $15 a month. 
 
 This investigation secured various estimates of the number of 
 natives in Ceylon whose incomes were one hundred rupees ($37) a 
 month or over. While no exact figures are available, the best opinion 
 indicated that these did not number more than 50,000. A recent survey 
 to determine a basis for an income tax estimates that there are not 
 more than 35,000 persons of all classes in the island, Europeans 
 included, who have an income of more than $75 a month. 
 
 t Handbook of Ceylon," L. J. B. Turner. Government Record Office, Colombo, 
 1926. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 301 
 
 The climate of Ceylon is hot and humid throughout the year. The 
 average annual temperature at Colombo is 81° Fahr. In the interior, 
 mountains rise to over 8,000 feet, at which elevation the temperature 
 is, of course, much lower. Since the population and the business 
 center are in the low-lying hot country, imported fruits must be 
 protected from both heat and moisture at all seasons. 
 
 Fruit in the Diet of Ceylon. — The diet of the people of Ceylon is 
 based upon rice. The island normally produces only about one-third 
 of its rice requirements, so that it is necessary to make heavy importa- 
 tions from Burma, India (proper), and sometimes even from Siam. 
 
 Sinhalese and Tamils alike live on a rice diet. Normally they have 
 two meals a day, in the late morning and early evening, although 
 among the poorest classes only one meal a day may be eaten. The 
 laborers and lower classes buy their supplies daily. These consist of 
 small amounts of rice and of various condiments such as curry powder, 
 peppers, and perhaps dust tea, which are bought from a small local 
 store, known as a 'boutique.' Usually these purchases are on credit. 
 Normally the laborers live in one room and thus have no place to store 
 any large supplies. Vegetables are locally produced except among 
 these in towns and cities. Tamils laboring on plantations have small 
 patches of vegetable garden close to the 'coolie lines' where they live. 
 Sinhalese are often land owners or renters and grow vegetables for 
 their own supply. 
 
 Most of the people of Ceylon begin the day with a cup of tea or 
 coffee with which may be eaten a bread of rice flour. This may be 
 sweetened, or if unsweetened, is eaten with a spiced condiment. The 
 late morning meal consists of rice, together with a vegetable curry. 
 A little fish may be added to this. If so, it is usually dried fish, but 
 the fish may be fresh if the people live near the sea or if, during the 
 seasons when rice fields are flooded, fish can be caught nearby. The 
 evening meal is almost identical with that of the morning. At neither 
 meal are sweets or fruits usually consumed among the masses. 
 
 Unless the wealthier classes have assumed European habits, their 
 diet is much the same as that of the poorer people. Those of higher 
 economic standing have more curries. Where the laborer may eat one 
 curry at a meal, the middle class may serve several and the wealthy 
 classes a dozen or twenty. The difference in the diet is chiefly quality 
 and variety rather than kind. In the cities the evening meal may 
 include a meat curry but the people are largely vegetarians. 
 
 All classes of the population are fond of fresh fruit. This is 
 normally eaten between meals as a sort of stop-gap, rather than as a 
 
302 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 part of the diet. People of the upper classes may serve an afternoon 
 tea at which both sweets and fresh fruits are served. Some may have 
 fresh fruit with the early morning cup of coffee, but chiefly fruit is a 
 commodity to be consumed in the long hours between the two meals of 
 the day. As elsewhere, those here on a rice diet find that hunger soon 
 returns because rice, when thoroughly cooked, rapidly leaves the 
 stomach. In a country where native fruit has been cheap and abun- 
 dant throughout the year, the population has come to regard it as a 
 bridge of satisfaction across the endless hours between the two meals 
 of the day. 
 
 In cities, clerks and laborers purchasing food at one of the num- 
 erous small restaurants can get a complete meal for the equivalent of 
 8 to 10 cents. After this meal they may purchase candy, a cake, or a 
 cigarette for the equivalent of another cent, thus spending luxuriously. 
 
 There are no religious food prohibitions that would seriously inter- 
 fere with the introduction of canned or dried fruits among the people 
 of Ceylon. While a few orthodox Hindus literally live to the tenets 
 of their religion, the number of these is so small as to be negligible. 
 Whether association with the easy-going Buddhist or displacement 
 from the motherland of India has influenced the Tamils, they here 
 exhibit a tolerance in food that differs from the ancient customs of 
 southern India whence they came. 
 
 Fresh Fi^uits. — Ceylon differs from many other tropical countries 
 in that the quality of the native fruit is poor and the supply meagre. 
 The island thus presents a better opportunity for the importation of 
 fresh fruits than do some of the other countries of the southern seas. 
 
 The people of Ceylon have always been fond of fruits and accus- 
 tomed to eating them, but owing to the multiplying population, the 
 planting of more valuable crops, and the lassitude of the native people, 
 the native fruits have neither been increased nor improved. There is 
 no commercially developed fruit-growing industry of any considerable 
 size except for the cocoanut, which is one of the principal products 
 of the island. Most of the native fruit is grown in small and appar- 
 ently accidental patches. It is marketed mainly through 'basket- 
 women' who come into the towns and villages with a few native fruits 
 in a basket and there attempt to sell them to the ultimate consumer. 
 A basket-woman is usually the wife of the farmer who grows the fruit 
 on a spare patch of ground. Apparently, no system of gathering these 
 fruits from the producer for transport and sale in quantities has been 
 developed. Attempts have been made to stimulate interest in an 
 organization of fruit growers, but thus far without success. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 303 
 
 Europeans find the native fruits insipid in taste and poor in 
 quality. They are eaten, however, because they are always obtainable 
 and cost but little. Mangoes are the most popular native fruit. They 
 are in season from April until January, and cost at retail about 1 cent 
 each. Mangosteens perhaps rank second in popularity, although their 
 quality is inferior to those of Java. Normally these are on sale from 
 December through February, at two for 1 cent. The native orange is 
 acceptable, although relatively juiceless when compared with the 
 American fruit. They retail for about 1 cent each and are available 
 during the whole year. The local pineapples are superior to those of 
 Malaya or Java, These sell for 1 to 5 cents each and are always in the 
 market. Limes, cocoanuts, jack-fruits and several others are fruits 
 for the entire year. 
 
 In 1929 there were 2,385,800 pounds of fresh fruit valued at 
 $294,091 imported into Ceylon. Of this a certain amount was re- 
 exported as ships' stores, since in the run between China and the 
 Mediterranean, Colombo is a central point where many ships are 
 resupplied. Because of the lower price of the native tropical fruits, 
 ships are more likely, however, to stock at Colombo with these than 
 with the imported fruits of the temperate zone. 
 
 Of the imported fresh fruits, the largest quantities come from 
 Australia and the United States. British India ranks third, and Spain 
 fourth. Italy and Palestine also ship to this market, but in far smaller 
 amounts than the four countries named above. 
 
 Apples rank first in popularity among imported fruits. The native 
 of Ceylon thinks a hard red apple is a very fine luxury. Australia 
 sends large quantities of apples into this market. This investigation 
 found Australian apples wholesaling at 10 cents a pound, while 
 American apples, packed 200 to the box, wholesaled at $5.50 to $6.50 a 
 box, or for about 10 to 15 cents a pound. At retail, both sold at the 
 same price, namely, at about 44 cents a pound. 
 
 Grapes rank second in popularity among imported fresh fruits. 
 Spain, Australia and America all send grapes to Ceylon. Spain and 
 America directly compete, as their seasons coincide. When shipments 
 start from Australia the importations from Spain and America usually 
 cease. In early 1930, however, late shipments of California grapes 
 found Australian grapes already in the market. The price conse- 
 quently had to be radically reduced in order to make sales. Spanish 
 grapes, packed in kegs in cork are shipped as deck cargo. American 
 grapes in sawdust arrive only by refrigeration. Australian grapes 
 without refrigeration come by a relatively short voyage at low rates. 
 
304 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 The native population buys grapes from small stands in the towns. 
 Large bunches are clipped into small clusters which are sold for about 
 the equivalent of one-half cent each. It is not uncommon to see coolies 
 and rickshaw pullers stop to buy a cluster of imported grapes which 
 they eat on the spot. In February 1930, in the same markets grapes 
 from Spain were wholesaled at 18 to 25 cents a pound and were 
 retailed at 25 to 30 cents. Grapes from Australia wholesaled at 13 to 
 20 cents a pound and retailed at 20 to 30 cents. Grapes from Cali- 
 fornia wholesaled at 16 to 18 cents a pound and retailed at 24 cents. 
 
 Oranges from America were on sale beside those from Palestine. 
 The oranges from Jaffa wholesaled for $6.10 per box of 200 and 
 retailed at 5% to 7 cents each. California oranges, also 200 to the 
 box, but of superior quality, wholesaled at $10.36 a box and retailed at 
 8 to 10 cents each. California grapefruit wholesaled at $10.36 per box 
 of 100. They retailed at 17 cents each. Trial shipments of grapefruit 
 have been sent from Jaffa but there were none in the markets at that 
 time. Japan has made shipments of pears, but normally pears do not 
 reach this market with any regularity. 
 
 Fresh fruit from California to Ceylon comes under refrigeration 
 by either one of two lines which run between California ports and 
 Colombo. Fruit is usually ordered at c.i.f. prices from California 
 exporters. Since a large proportion of the imported fruit is sold to 
 Europeans, much of the imports enter consigned to a few large retail 
 stores which cater to the European trade. These do no wholesale busi- 
 ness. There are also, however, a few importers who order fruit on 
 their own account or on that of regular clients. Some of these place 
 blanket orders with California firms for stated amounts on each out- 
 going ship, for which a maximum price is stipulated. 
 
 Fresh fruit from Australia and Jaffa is imported by similar 
 methods except that the Australian or Palestinian exporters have 
 become habituated to including an additional quantity on consignment 
 along with the amount regularly ordered. 
 
 The freight rate under refrigeration from California to Colombo 
 for apples is $1.30 a box ; for grapes it is $30 per ton of 40 cubic feet ; 
 and for oranges and grapefruit, $1.80 a box. On arrival at Colombo, 
 fresh fruits enter without payment of duty. Since ships are anchored 
 in the harbor, all cargo must be lightered to the shore. Coolie and 
 lighterage charges average 4% cents a case. Harbor dues are IV2 cents 
 a case. By the plant quarantine regulations, all fruit must be fumi- 
 gated on arrival. The charge for this is 18 cents a case. 
 
Bin,. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 305 
 
 Two companies at Colombo have cold storage warehouses in which 
 they rent space at 55 cents per case per month. On contract with 
 these companies this charge is usually reduced to 37 cents. The total 
 space available is sufficient for 2,500 cases. About 20 per cent of the 
 fresh fruit landed at Colombo is shipped to other towns on the island. 
 There are no refrigerator cars on the Ceylon Government Railways, 
 but the haul is so short that refrigeration is not necessary. 
 
 Because of the competition of other countries of the world, any 
 large expansion of markets for American fresh fruits in Ceylon 
 depends mainly upon reduction in price. Australia is able to ship 
 fresh fruit by comparatively short voyages without refrigeration. 
 American fruit must make a long voyage through warm seas under 
 cold storage. Although the peak of the seasons do not coincide for 
 California and Australia which are on opposite sides of the equator, 
 the beginning and end of the seasons do overlap. Thus, Australian 
 shipments limit the length of time during which American fruit can 
 be sent profitably into this market. Spanish grapes and California 
 grapes compete at the same season, but Spain is able to send grapes 
 without cold storage. Spanish grapes are even, at times, shipped to 
 London and from thence reshipped back past Gibraltar and through 
 the Suez Canal to Colombo, all without refrigeration. In February 
 1930, grapes from Spain exhibited in the markets of Colombo were 
 superior to those from California, although the former came by 
 refrigeration and the latter without it. 
 
 If cheaper means of marketing, transportation, and storage were 
 devised so that California fruits could be laid down in Colombo at 
 lower prices, more fresh fruit could then be marketed. At lower prices 
 not only would the competition from other countries be decreased, but 
 the native consumption would be increased. At present prices, there 
 is little opportunity for marked expansion. 
 
 Canned Fruits. — The native population of Ceylon likes canned 
 fruit. The upper classes consume it in limited amount. However, 
 their liking for jams is at least as great as that for the higher-priced 
 canned fruits. Consequently, comparatively large amounts of jam are 
 sold in this market. 
 
 The European population consumes canned fruit in larger amounts 
 than in some other countries of the East because of the poor quality 
 of the native fruit. Furthermore, in Ceylon it is traditional among 
 Europeans for intimate friends to arrive for dinner without special 
 invitation or appointment. On such occasions it is the duty of the 
 household servants to provide food for a number of extra persons on 
 
306 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 a few minutes' notice. They do so by borrowing- food already cooked 
 from the kitchens of the neighbors. If a householder at dinner notices 
 that he is served fewer potatoes than customary, he infers that some 
 nearby neighbor has unexpected guests. Into such a scheme of house- 
 hold economy, the tin of canned fruit fits admirably. With the aid 
 of only a can opener, an acceptable dessert is provided for emergencies. 
 Therefore, most European housewives, in self-defense, keep a supply 
 of canned fruit in the pantry. 
 
 The tin of canned fruit not only panders to the laziness of the East, 
 but also to the desire for a food from the lands beyond the seas. The 
 rather insipid native fruit palls upon the imagination as well as upon 
 the palate. A can of fruit puts an interest into a meal for persons 
 jaded by long residence in a humid tropical country. 
 
 American canned fruit predominates in the markets of Ceylon. 
 The reported importations of canned fruits from all countries through 
 the customs offices total about 6,000 cases. In addition thereto, 5,600 
 cases of jams, jellies, and marmalades were imported in 1929. More 
 than half the canned fruit comes from the United States; the exact 
 amount cannot be determined. In 1928 the United States exports 
 from California to Ceylon were reported as 4,218 cases, exclusive of 
 tinned prunes and of jellies and jams. The import figures of the 
 Customs of Ceylon credited 3,120 cases to the United States. In addi- 
 tion to these, however, considerable amounts shipped to Hongkong 
 and Shanghai are trans-shipped from there to Colombo. 
 
 In competition with American canned fruits, the markets also dis- 
 play cherries from France, fruit salad from Switzerland, cherries and 
 plums from England, and an entire line of canned fruits from Aus- 
 tralia. In jams and marmalades, English and Australian jams pre- 
 dominate. For the native trade Australian jams rule the market 
 because of their low price. One-pound cans of jam retail at from 
 15 to 22 cents a can, according to the variety of fruit in them. 
 In small native shops they sell as low as 12 cents per pound can. 
 One-pound cans of California canned fruits retail at 19 to 30 
 cents for various varieties. The can of jam appears to be solid fruit 
 and is very sweet. The can of fruit holds fluid as well as fruit and 
 contains less sugar. Under these circumstances the native usually 
 chooses the jam instead of the canned fruit. When cheapness, 
 quantity, and superior taste are all combined, the result is likely to 
 command the native trade. 
 
 In Ceylon, as in India (proper), one brand of Australian canned 
 fruit sells at a lower price than competing American brands. Here, as 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 307 
 
 in India, much of the fruit marketed under the Australian label is 
 packed in America. These Australian fruits have not yet made large 
 inroads into the sale of the American brands except in sales to the 
 native population. In stores catering to the Sinhalese trade, it is 
 customary to see a half-dozen cans of American branded fruit dis- 
 played beside a much larger stock of canned fruit under the Australian 
 label. Either because of the energy of agents for the Australian brand 
 or because of its lower price, or both, the sales to natives of American 
 canned fruit are gradually becoming displaced. While it may be of 
 no consequence to the California fruit grower under what label his 
 fruit is marketed, it is certainly of interest to the owners of American 
 brands. 
 
 Among the European population, peaches rank first in popularity, 
 apricots second, pears third, and cherries fourth. Among the natives, 
 peaches are the most popular, followed closely by pears. Cherries 
 rank third in popularity and apricots fourth. Fully 90 per cent of 
 the sales are in the No. 2% can. Only small amounts of the small 
 sizes have been sold. 
 
 Representative wholesale and retail prices in Colombo of American 
 canned fruits under medium-priced brands are given in table 71. 
 
 TABLE 71 
 Current Prices, Colombo, Ceylon, February 1930, American Canned Fruits 
 Per Case Wholesale Per Can Retail 
 
 No. 2\ 
 
 No. 1 
 
 8 oz. 
 
 $0.36 
 
 
 
 .37 
 
 $0.22 
 
 $0.15 
 
 .47 
 
 .27 
 
 .17 
 
 .31 
 
 
 
 No. 2\ No. 1 8 oz. 
 
 Apples $8.42 
 
 Apricots 7.69 $9.52 $8.64 
 
 Cherries 10.26 12.44 10.85 
 
 Grapes 6.96 
 
 Peaches 7.69 10.30 7.20 .37 .23 .12 
 
 Pears 8.42 10.66 8.64 .40 .30 .15 
 
 Plums 7.69 7.20 .37 .19 .12 
 
 Fruit Salad 10.99 13.19 12.24 .45 .30 .20 
 
 California canned fruits are ordered on indent direct or through 
 agents on the basis of a c.i.f. price. Several large provision stores 
 catering to the European trade conduct both a wholesale and a retail 
 business in canned fruits. There are also wholesalers in Colombo who 
 indent through agents. These distribute to smaller shops and native 
 stores in the bazaars. They often extend credit up to four months 
 from the date of purchase. 
 
 Freight rates from California to Colombo average $20 per ton of 
 40 cubic feet. On arrival, canned fruit pays a duty of approximately 
 
308 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 IOV2 per cent. Lighterage and coolie charges average 4% cents a 
 case. Harbor dues are IV2 per cent. Interest on drafts is usually 
 charged at the rate of 7 per cent. 
 
 It is estimated that about 25 per cent of the canned fruit shipped 
 to Colombo is consumed at interior points in Ceylon away from that 
 city. The distribution is largely through the large provision stores 
 in Colombo who not only ship regular monthly and weekly orders of 
 provisions to Europeans on up-country plantations, but who also 
 supply local stores in some of the interior towns. 
 
 A reduction in price to meet or surpass the competition of other 
 brands of canned fruits and of cheap jams, would be a great stimulus 
 to the consumption of canned fruit in Ceylon. Because of the extrava- 
 gant habits of the Sinhalese, their liking for sweets, and the compara- 
 tively small variety of native fruits, Ceylon is a fertile field for the 
 sale of canned fruits. 
 
 Even the European consumption of canned fruits could be 
 increased. At present they are chiefly used among Europeans for 
 entertainment purposes. The average Britisher has an inherent dis- 
 trust of canned goods of all kinds. He fears he may be poisoned by 
 them. Furthermore, he does not believe they are a valuable foodstuff, 
 but rather that they have lost their vitamin content and other valuable 
 properties. However, price is the main limitation to their sale. A 
 decrease in price would result in increased consumption. 
 
 The small-sized can would fit into the needs of the European, when 
 not entertaining, and into the purchasing power of the natives. As yet 
 this size has not been sold nor has it been actively promoted. 
 
 Dried Fruits. — In 1928 the United States customs reported 63,375 
 pounds of direct shipments of dried fruits from California to Ceylon. 
 In addition to this amount, they reported 34,649 pounds of prunes in 
 tins. The Ceylonese customs report only credits the United States 
 with importations of dried fruits totaling 37,600 pounds. If either 
 figure be taken, the sales of dried fruits are small in Ceylon. 
 
 Contrary to most countries of the East, American raisins have not 
 permeated the native trade of this island. Prunes are by far the most 
 popular American dried fruit. Not only do the Europeans consume 
 them, but some of the natives eat prunes dry out of hand as a confec- 
 tion. The best hotel in Ceylon serves dry prunes regularly as a con- 
 fection at the end of the dinner. Many traveling Americans regard 
 with astonishment this use of the familiar prune. 
 
 Practically all American dried fruits brought into Ceylon are in tin 
 containers. These tins are sold to Europeans but are also sometimes 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 309 
 
 opened in native markets where the fruit is sold in small quantities 
 from the can. However, in these markets dried fruits from other 
 countries compete with American fruit. From Afghanistan apricots 
 retail at 23 cents a pound, currants at 20 cents, and figs at 23 cents. 
 Block dates from Arabia and Mesopotamia retail at 6 cents a pound. 
 From Australia currants sell at 20 cents a pound and dried apples 
 at 50 cents. 
 
 American dried fruits are on sale at the wholesale and retail prices 
 shown in table 72. 
 
 TABLE 72 
 
 Current Prices, Colombo, Ceylon, February 1930, American Dried Fruits 
 
 Prices per pound 
 
 Apples . 
 Apricots 
 
 Figs 
 
 Peaches 
 Prunes . 
 
 At wholesale 
 
 At reta 
 
 il 
 
 In tins 
 
 In bulk 
 
 In tins 
 
 In bulk 
 
 $0.44 
 
 
 $0.50 
 
 $0.54 
 
 .45 
 
 
 .52 
 
 .55 
 
 
 $0.37 
 
 
 .41 
 
 .42 
 
 
 .47 
 
 .50 
 
 .24 
 
 
 .28 
 
 .28 
 
 Dried fruit is ordered from California by the same general system 
 as canned fruits. Freight rates are $20 per ton of 40 cubic feet. There 
 is a duty of about IOV2 per cent on entry into Ceylon. Coolie and 
 lighterage charges and harbor dues are the same as for canned fruit. 
 Perhaps 25 per cent of the dried fruit imported from America is con- 
 sumed in the towns, villages, and plantations outside of Colombo. 
 Since distances are short, the freight charges on the railroads are 
 small, consequently, prices of dried fruits in the interior do not 
 increase greatly over those in Colombo. In general, at interior points 
 prices rise only about 5 per cent. 
 
 Prunes present the best opportunity for increased markets of any 
 dried fruit in Ceylon. The fact that some natives already purchase 
 these for eating dry out of hand indicates that with favorable promo- 
 tion their sale might be increased. Most of all, lower prices would 
 increase consumption. To this end, smaller prunes would not be 
 effective. A prune to be used as a confection or as an assistance to 
 health must be of good size and quality. The native likes a prune 
 which is fat, juicy, and rather moist. Furthermore, this fruit must 
 compete, to some degree, with Asiatic dried fruits that come to this 
 market at low prices. The present price differential is large and yet, 
 even with this handicap, the consumption of dry prunes is relatively 
 great. 
 
310 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Raisins face competition with cheaper raisins from Afghanistan 
 and from Australia. Very few California raisins are now on sale. 
 Only 900 pounds were imported in 1929, according to the Ceylonese 
 statistics, but the American statistics state that 4,764 pounds were 
 exported from California, in that year. Meanwhile, 64,900 pounds 
 came from Afghanistan, through India, and 22,400 pounds from 
 Australia. Afghanistan raisins retail at 16 cents a pound and 
 Australian raisins at 14 cents; both prices are materially lower than 
 that of the raisins from California which in pound cartons wholesaled 
 at 18 cents and retailed at 23 cents. 
 
 Other dried fruits such as peaches, pears, apricots, etc., are used 
 only by the small European population and by the few natives who 
 live on a European diet. Marked expansion in their sale does not 
 appear feasible of accomplishment. 
 
 Trade Promotion Methods. — Because Ceylon is such a small section 
 of the East, trade promotion cannot here yield large results. Never- 
 theless, the buying power of the island is considerable, both because 
 of the somewhat higher average income and because of the spending 
 habits of the people. 
 
 The population of Ceylon responds readily to advertising appeals. 
 About 40 per cent of the people of the island were literate at the time 
 of the census of 1921.* Doubtless the percentage is even higher at 
 present. Viewed in comparison with the peoples of other Far Eastern 
 countries, those of Ceylon are progressive and anxious to embrace new 
 ideas. Health and health education are matters of governmental and 
 public interest. It is said that anything abundantly advertised in 
 Ceylon as an aid to health and strength can be sold in large amounts. 
 The reading of newspapers is widespread. As an advertising medium 
 the vernacular press is the best vehicle. Persistent advertising in the 
 native papers usually brings results, provided the commodity is one 
 that meets the needs of the people and that sells at a low price. 
 
 Both canned and dried fruits of certain kinds could be successfully 
 promoted in Ceylon if these were packaged in small containers and 
 were abundantly distributed and advertised. Their success, however, 
 would depend upon lower prices than those now current. The rupee, 
 of the same value as in India, namely, 37 cents, is the coinage of 
 Ceylon. Here, however, the rupee is not divided into sixteen annas, 
 as in India, but into one hundred so-called cents. Five, ten, and 
 
 * "Handbook of Ceylon, 1926,' ' L. J. B. Turner. Pub. by Govt. Printer, 
 Colombo, 1927. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 311 
 
 twenty-five cent pieces are the customary coins. If the 8-ounce can 
 of fruit could retail in native markets for a 25-cent piece (9 cents plus 
 in American value), and if a small package of raisins or prunes could 
 retail for a 10-cent piece (3y i() cents in American value), their sales 
 would be very much greater than if the price were a trifle higher. 
 
 The distribution of recipe books is well under way in Ceylon. One 
 firm advertises that a recipe book of desserts, all of which call for the 
 use of their product, can be obtained by sending them 3 local cents. 
 The distribution of similar directions telling how to use dried and 
 canned fruit, each recipe book being accompanied by a small free 
 package, might be an effective method of advertising. In all such 
 cases, however, a nominal charge must be made. Otherwise the flood 
 of answers from those who write to get something for nothing would 
 extend down below the level of the potential consumer into the class of 
 those who have nothing to spend. 
 
 Here as in some other Eastern countries, the coffee and tea shop is 
 everywhere in all towns. These coffee shops would serve as an effective 
 place of advertising and of distribution. Any coffee-shop keeper who 
 is paid something for the service, will promote anything whatsoever. 
 Small packages of prunes, and small cans of peaches, would lend 
 themselves to distribution at these places. Although a small can of 
 fruit that retails for % rupee is beyond the usual scale of coffee-shop 
 expenditures and must at best be only an occasional luxury to most 
 Sinhalese, it would not be beyond their occasional impulsive purchase 
 since they are people who like to indulge in luxurious habits. Espe- 
 cially would this be true if the coffee-house keeper called such packages 
 frequently to their attention. 
 
 Any trade promotion for dried or canned fruits in Ceylon should 
 start in the cities and become popular there before an effort is made to 
 introduce them into the rural districts. Not only are the middle classes 
 largely congregated in the towns, but it is there that the fashions in 
 spending are created. In this wise, Ceylon differs not at all from 
 western countries. If these commodities became favorably known in 
 the towns, their use would not be confined to them. The small stores 
 that cater to the laborers ' needs would find that increased demands for 
 canned and dried fruit would arise. Because of the small size of the 
 island, intercourse between town and country is frequent. Anything 
 used by those in the city is soon demanded by those in the country. 
 Since the rural people usually have low incomes, their desires may not 
 be possible of frequent satisfaction, but even the laborer is a spender 
 
312 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 within the limits of his power. He might not buy canned or dried 
 fruits very often, but he would buy them occasionally if he desired 
 them at all. 
 
 The greatest opportunity for the expansion of markets appears to 
 be for canned peaches and for dried prunes. Both of these are already 
 liked by those who are acquainted with them. Their relatively low 
 price lends these commodities to the needs of this market. The health 
 value of prunes is one appeal that can be made to this people. In 
 small packages they would meet the buying power of the native middle 
 class. The small-sized packages would also provide a new use for these 
 fruits among Europeans who now utilize them chiefly for entertain- 
 ment purposes. In a land where native fruits are of poor quality and 
 limited variety, the small can of fruit would prove a boon to the 
 European householder if it could be brought into his consciousness and 
 kept there. 
 
 Fresh fruits are in demand among natives and Europeans alike. 
 The expansion of their sale is a matter of price. By lowered prices, 
 larger quantities will be sold without trade promotion. At present 
 prices, the market will expand but slowly. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 313 
 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 The active demand for American fruit in Asia is already supplied. 
 This investigation did not succeed in finding- anywhere millions of 
 natives of Eastern Asia waiting expectantly for American fruits in 
 fresh, canned, and dried form. In most countries there is an abun- 
 dance of cheap local fruit to which the people are accustomed. There 
 are also many local condiments, confections, and refreshments which 
 have been developed to fit their needs and their purchasing power. 
 There is no opportunity to ship to Asia large amounts of fresh, canned, 
 or dried fruit which will sell at good prices through spontaneous 
 demand. If the people of Asia need American fruit in larger 
 quantities they do not realize it. 
 
 The present export of fruit to Asia has no material influence on 
 the prices farmers receive. Not 1 per cent of any California fruit 
 is marketed in Asia. Only one-tenth of 1 per cent of the United 
 States peach crop goes to Asia. From this the percentages range 
 upward to that for the grape crop (see table 7) of which nine-tenths 
 of 1 per cent is there marketed. All these amounts are so small that 
 they have no material effect on the prices farmers receive. If there 
 were an embargo across the Pacific so that not one pound of fruit 
 could be shipped to Asia, it might cause a momentary flurry in the 
 fruit market, but, in the long run, prices paid to farmers would be as 
 high as before. Larger demands bring higher prices, but our market- 
 ing system is not yet so sensitive nor so finely adjusted that prices 
 respond to fluctuations of a fraction of a per cent in demand. The 
 present Asiatic market for California fruits is of no direct benefit to 
 the California farmer. 
 
 In order to perceptibly move prices upward by means of Asiatic 
 export it would be necessary to increase present exports by several 
 hundred per cent. For prunes, H. R. Wellman has calculated on the 
 basis of past production and prices (see table 73) that a decrease in 
 production or a decrease in supply to the present markets of 4.5 per 
 cent would cause an increase in price to growers of 5 per cent (see 
 figure 19). Since the average annual production of prunes in the 
 United States between 1926 and 1928 was about 220,000 tons, it would 
 have been necessary during those years to have increased Asiatic 
 export by 9,900 tons per year to have raised prices to growers 5 per 
 cent through that method. Such increase, based upon the average 
 
314 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 Year 
 
 1921 
 1922 
 1923 
 1924 
 1925 
 1926 
 1927 
 1928 
 1929 
 
 
 TABLE 73 
 
 
 
 Prunes : 
 
 Production and 
 
 Prices 
 
 Price to 
 
 
 Production 
 
 
 California 
 
 
 
 
 
 World 
 
 United States 
 
 California 
 
 on 40-50s 
 
 tons 
 
 tons 
 
 tons 
 
 cents per lb 
 
 205,700 
 
 173,300 
 
 100,000 
 
 9.1 
 
 225,400 
 
 166,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 8.7 
 
 246,700 
 
 155,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 7.5 
 
 178,300 
 
 164,000 
 
 139,000 
 
 7.5 
 
 211,600 
 
 159,000 
 
 146,000 
 
 7.3 
 
 249,200 
 
 190,500 
 
 150,000 
 
 5.2 
 
 299,100 
 
 244,500 
 
 225,000 
 
 4.9 
 
 245,900 
 
 223,100 
 
 220,300 
 
 6.8 
 
 146,400 
 
 130,500 
 
 103,000 
 
 11.0 
 
 130 
 
 g 120 
 u 
 
 © 
 I 
 
 8 ioo 
 
 h 
 
 a 
 
 o 90 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 
 
 United States production - per cent of trend 
 
 Pig. 19. — Average Relation between California. Price of Prunes and 
 United States Production of Prunes. 
 
Bul. 493 J 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 315 
 
 farm price in those years would have returned annually to growers 
 $990,000 more than they received. But in those three years we sent 
 to Asia only 651 tons of prunes. Thus it would have been necessary 
 to increase our present Asiatic markets more than fifteen fold to have 
 brought this increased return. 
 
 Let us similarly look into the question of the export of fresh grapes. 
 In the United States during 1924-1928 the average annual production 
 of grapes marketed as fresh was 1,301,560 tons. In California the 
 production was 1,086,190 tons. In that same period our average export 
 of fresh grapes to Asia was 825 tons (see table 74), or considerably 
 less than one-tenth of 1 per cent of the fresh grape crop. Based upon 
 
 TABLE 74 
 
 United States Production and Exports of Certain Fruits 
 Average 1924-1928 
 ( Fresh Equivalent. ) 
 
 Fruits 
 
 Apples 
 
 Total 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Canned 
 
 Dried .... 
 Apricots 
 
 Total 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Canned 
 
 Dried ... 
 Cherries 
 
 Total 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Canned 
 Grapes 
 
 Total 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Dried 
 Peaches 
 
 Total 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Canned 
 
 Dried... 
 Pears 
 
 Total 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Canned. 
 
 Dried .... 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Grapefruit 
 
 Lemons 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Production 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 8,111,016 
 
 7,447,778 
 281,478 
 381,760 
 
 340,400 
 32,582 
 
 88,238 
 219,580 
 
 271,880 
 
 209,259 
 
 62,621 
 
 4,563,938 
 2,603,118 
 1,956,800 
 
 2,649,792 
 
 1,903,553 
 
 493,459 
 
 252,780 
 
 1,031,232 
 816,436 
 170,928 
 43,868 
 986,100 
 731,019 
 537,720 
 
 2,772,955 
 
 Amount exported 
 
 Total 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 878,415 
 
 610,580 
 
 30,173 
 
 237,662 
 
 147.938 
 
 25,476 
 122,462 
 
 1,882 
 
 1,882 
 
 643,984 
 
 33,563 
 
 610,421 
 
 140,494 
 17,333 
 80,672 
 42,489 
 
 136,729 
 
 61,858 
 74,871 
 
 511,385 
 42,890 
 18,434 
 
 188,679 
 
 Europe 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 770,917 
 
 519,994 
 
 29,140 
 
 221,783 
 
 132,938 
 
 23,394 
 109,544 
 
 322 
 
 322 
 
 383,472 
 
 293 
 
 383,179 
 
 98.876 
 
 401 
 
 69,161 
 
 29,314 
 
 96,313 
 27,054 
 69,259 
 
 439,739 
 
 19,766 
 
 92 
 
 17,203 
 
 Asia 
 
 1,000 1b. 
 
 12,724 
 
 9,807 
 
 589 
 
 2,328 
 
 2,757 
 
 585 
 2,172 
 
 843 
 
 843 
 
 38,885 
 
 1,649 
 
 37,236 
 
 1,939 
 
 15 
 
 1,616 
 
 308 
 
 1,162 
 
 127 
 1,035 
 
 2,750 
 
 477 
 
 2,454 
 
 6,705 
 
 Per cent exported 
 
 Total Europe Asia 
 
 43.5 
 
 28.9 
 55.8 
 
 0.7 
 
 3.0 
 
 14.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 31.2 
 
 5.3 
 
 0.9 
 
 16.3 
 
 16.8 
 
 13.3 
 
 7.6 
 
 43.8 
 
 51.9 
 5.9 
 3.4 
 
 6.8 
 
 per cent 
 
 9.5 
 
 7.4 
 
 10.4 
 
 58.1 
 
 39.1 
 
 26.5 
 49.9 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.5 
 
 8.4 
 
 o.o: 
 
 19.6 
 
 3.7 
 
 0.02 
 14.0 
 11.6 
 
 9.3 
 
 3.3 
 
 40.5 
 
 44.6 
 2.7 
 0.02 
 0.6 
 
 per cent 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 0.2 
 0.6 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.6 
 1.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.9 
 0.1 
 1.9 
 
 0.1 
 0.01 
 0.3 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.3 
 0.1 
 0.5 
 0.2 
 
316 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 the prices and volume of the crop in the past (see table 75), Wellman 
 has calculated that a decrease in supply of 2% per cent would cause 
 a 5 per cent increase in price (see figure 20) . Thus, it would be neces- 
 sary to move into Asiatic export 33,300 tons of fresh grapes if we 
 desired to raise the price of grapes 5 per cent by that method. This 
 would require us to ship to Asia an additional amount equivalent to 
 forty times our past exports. 
 
 TABLE 75 
 Grapes ; Carlot Shipments and Prices 
 
 Total Shipments 
 
 Year 
 
 r-. * > 
 
 Calif. U.S. 
 
 f.o.b. 
 Calif. 
 
 
 cars 
 
 cars 
 
 dollars per lug 
 
 1921 
 
 33,343 
 
 37,816 
 
 1.32 
 
 1922 
 
 43,944 
 
 59,918 
 
 1.08 
 
 1923 
 
 55,348 
 
 65,323 
 
 .89 
 
 1924 
 
 57,679 
 
 69,925 
 
 .87 
 
 1925 
 
 76,043 
 
 81,857 
 
 .66 
 
 1926 
 
 64,326 
 
 78,589 
 
 .55 
 
 1927 
 
 75,923 
 
 82,675 
 
 .56 
 
 1928 
 
 72,711 
 
 81,770 
 
 .36 
 
 1929 
 
 55,119 
 
 65,117 
 
 .62 
 
 tee f.o.b. California - per cent of trend 
 3 o o o o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 70 80 90 100 110 120 
 United States shipnents - per cent of trend 
 
 130 
 
 Fig. 20. — Average Relation between California f.o.b. price of Grapes and 
 United States Carlot Shipment of Grapes. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 317 
 
 In the problem of developing higher prices for California fruit, 
 the shipment of a few thousand cases additional here or there, while 
 spectacular to those who see them loaded or who read about it in the 
 press, confers no benefit whatsoever except upon the individuals who 
 ship, export, or transport the fruit. To raise the price level of Cali- 
 fornia fruits in America the supply offered for sale at home must be 
 decreased by a considerable percentage. This means an amount of 
 fruit so enormous that few realize its volume other than those who 
 have dealt with the problem on the basis of mathematical calculation. 
 A few thousand cases of fruit removed from America into the Far 
 East or elsewhere are like lowering the level of a lake by taking out 
 a dipperful of water. The lake is of course lowered, but it does not 
 perceptibly assist the man who proposes to wade or swim across. 
 
 If trade in Asia is to effect results that will benefit the state as 
 a whole and the farmers as a group, it must move a sufficient additional 
 percentage of the crop so that the general price is definitely raised. 
 Otherwise such an undertaking is not of concern either to the farmers 
 or to those who look to them for financial reimbursement. It is the 
 concern only of those who themselves are benefited, namely, those who 
 market or transport the particular shipments. 
 
 An increased demand sufficient to move prices upward by means of 
 export to Asia can come only from Asiatics. The European population 
 of Asia is exceedingly small. In all the countries covered by this 
 report, a territory which comprises half the people on the earth, there 
 are only approximately 671,146 Europeans and Americans. The 
 majority of these already consume fruits imported from California. 
 Except for raisins, most of the fruit exported to Asia is eaten on the 
 tables of Europeans. They cannot possibly be induced to eat forty 
 times, or even fifteen times, as much as they now do. And yet it would 
 require such increases to cause a result of general benefit. Obviously, 
 therefore, if markets in Asia are to be so increased that they will be 
 favorably reflected in farm prices, the increase must be gained through 
 the eating of these fruits by Asiatics. 
 
 All discussion, therefore, of the consumption by Europeans in 
 Asia is futile when it relates to the general farm price level. The only 
 question of concern to the state is whether the native peoples of Asia 
 can and would consume American fruits in sufficient volume to move 
 prices upward. 
 
 Fresh fruits cannot be sold in Asia in large enough quantities to 
 move prices upward. Asia has a large production of fresh fruits. In 
 most of the countries studied, great quantities of native fresh fruits 
 
318 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 come upon the market at low prices. In all countries, native fruits are 
 offered so cheaply that they preclude the possibility of imported fresh 
 fruit consumption by Asiatics except among a very limited group who 
 may desire an occasional novelty in the form of an apple, a bunch of 
 imported grapes, or a California orange. 
 
 The production of fruits of European varieties is increasing in 
 Japan, China, and Korea. These fruits are cheaply produced and, 
 although often inferior to those grown in California, they sell at low 
 enough prices to command the native trade. In the tropical countries 
 native fruits are so abundant and so cheap throughout the entire year 
 that, in comparison, the imported fruits are extraordinarily expensive. 
 Competition from Australia, Japan, Northern China, and Palestine is 
 increasing in the Asiatic tropics. These countries ship by shorter haul 
 and usually without refrigeration into these markets. 
 
 Fresh imported fruits can be sold only in and near the ports of 
 most countries in Asia, For wide distribution, fresh fruit requires 
 excellent conditions of transportation and storage, otherwise the 
 market must be limited to those places where the fruit is landed. The 
 interior of Asia certainly does not have good transportation or good 
 storage. In most of the countries of Asia, fresh fruits cannot at 
 present get far beyond the ports. 
 
 Thus, markets for American fresh fruits in Asia are limited not 
 only by the buying power of the people — which limits the outlook for 
 imported commodities of every kind whatsoever — but also by the great 
 quantity and low price of native fruits, by the competition from other 
 countries, by the perishable nature of the product, and by the poor 
 transportation. Fresh imported fruit must, at present, find its pur- 
 chasers among the natives and Europeans close to the best transporta- 
 tion. Of these the number who could be induced to buy fresh fruit 
 from America is small in comparison with the volume that must be 
 marketed in order to influence the general price level. 
 
 Finally, it is impossible at the present time to ship enough fresh 
 fruit under refrigeration across the Pacific to influence prices. At 
 present, all the ships of all the lines that touch at California bound for 
 Asia, or that are expected to voyage in 1930, have a combined refrig- 
 eration space which, multiplied by the number of voyages that each 
 ship makes in a year, totals 118,219 tons of forty cubic feet. In an 
 average month this is equivalent to 9,852 tons of space. But only 16 
 kegs of fresh grapes weighing 32 pounds each can be stored in 40 cubic 
 feet. Even if we desired to assume that there would be no difficulty 
 in selling forty times as many grapes in Asia as before, it would 
 
Bui,. 493] FRUIT MARKETS IN EASTERN ASIA 319 
 
 require more than all the refrigeration space in all the ships that run 
 between California and Asia loaded to their utmost capacity with 
 nothing- whatsoever but fresh grapes for the entire year to unload 
 enough grapes on the Asiatic market to raise the price of grapes 
 5 per cent. 
 
 Small packages of canned and dried fruits present the best oppor- 
 tunity to make large increases in our present fruit markets in Asia. 
 If American fruits are to obtain large markets in Asia they must be so 
 presented that a comparatively small initial expenditure will buy a 
 unit of the product. The success of the great oil, tobacco, cracker, and 
 soap companies on that continent is based upon several factors, one of 
 which is that the product is purchasable in small amounts by persons 
 of low income. The small tin of fruit and the small package of dried 
 fruit must be emphasized if markets are to be greatly increased. 
 
 Among all the California fruits in all forms, small packages of 
 dried prunes and small cans of peaches present the best general 
 possibilities for materially enlarged markets. Raisins from Cali- 
 fornia are already popular among the people of Asia. Even at present, 
 with the comparatively small effort which has been made to market 
 raisins in Asia, we sell there about 1.9 per cent of the United States 
 raisin crop, or about 0.9 per cent of the entire grape crop. We only 
 sell in Asia 0.3 per cent of our dried prunes and 0.3 per cent of our 
 canned peaches, although the volume of grapes made into raisins in 
 California is about double that of prunes and four times that of 
 canning peaches (see tables 3 and 74). 
 
 Small packages of dried prunes might be made popular in Japan, 
 China, the Philippines, Siam, India, and perhaps even in British 
 Malaya and the Netherland East Indies under certain conditions later 
 discussed. Because prunes offer an opportunity for introduction as a 
 medicine as well as a food, the possibilities which they present are even 
 larger than that for raisins. The pages of this report have repeatedly 
 called attention to the need for a laxative among those on a rice diet. 
 Coupled with this need is the general active desire for greater health 
 and strength. In eastern Asia the natives have long sought charms 
 and nostrums for that purpose. From these they have progressed to 
 patent medicines. More recently they are beginning to emerge into 
 some knowledge of diet and its effect on health. America and Europe 
 are not the only places where vitamins are discussed. These new and 
 mysterious substances appeal to the psychology of the East. If the 
 lower classes are still steeped in the auguries and talismanic medicines 
 of the Orient, there is clear evidence that they are also interested in the 
 
320 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 new health foods of which they are beginning to hear from mission- 
 aries, from European physicians, and from the companies manufactur- 
 ing canned and dried milk, cereals, and baby foods. Dry prunes could 
 with truth and sincerity be promoted as an aid to health and strength 
 among many peoples of the East. 
 
 If the volume of prunes shipped to Asia became as great as the 
 present volume of raisins exported, the market in Eastern Asia, would 
 then consume about 1.9 per cent of the world's prune production (on 
 the average of 1923-1927), or slightly less than 3 per cent of the Cali- 
 fornia prune crop. Such increase is entirely within the bounds of 
 practical marketing possibilities, provided adequate funds were avail- 
 able for promotion among the people of the Far East. Even this, 
 however, might not create any clearly perceptible increase in the farm 
 price of prunes. 
 
 Dried fruit to be popular in Asia must, at present, be offered as a 
 condiment or confection to be eaten dry out of hand. The use of dried 
 fruit in cooking might follow later. Because the people of Asia do not 
 know how to cook dried fruits and have no present place for it in their 
 customary meals, it would be much more difficult to introduce dried 
 fruits for the purpose of cooking than for eating as a sweetmeat to be 
 munched at various hours of the day. The vast amount of eating 
 between meals habitual all over Eastern Asia would make this use a 
 large one if it were developed. 
 
 Small cans of peaches and other fruits present considerable poten- 
 tiality for expanding markets. China is a particularly favorable field 
 for small cans of various fruits. American canned fruits could come 
 into their own in China if they could be put within the possible range 
 of purchase of a larger number of people by means of a smaller pack- 
 age and then made known to them as a high-quality product. The 
 Chinese like canned fruit and they respect quality. The Philippines, 
 Siam, Burma, and Ceylon offer smaller opportunities only because of 
 their smaller populations. Japan will present a large possibility for 
 American canned and dried fruits if the luxury tariff of 100 per cent 
 is radically revised downward. India might consume much larger 
 amounts of canned fruit than at present, if the market were con- 
 sistently cultivated. 
 
 At present the large No. 2 x /2 can of fruit is standard throughout 
 Asia. Its use is confined to the purposes for which it is adapted. 
 Canned fruit is largely used only by the well-to-do. Rich natives use 
 canned fruit for gifts and for feasts ; Europeans use it for entertain- 
 ing friends. The common daily use of canned fruits in the home, simi- 
 
Buu493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 321 
 
 lar to that in America, is not prevalent anywhere in Asia except in a 
 very few places among- a very limited group of rich Europeans. 
 
 It is obvious that as long as the large can of fruit is the only 
 size used it can sell only to those who have enough money at one time 
 to buy a luxury of that magnitude. Furthermore, it will only be 
 bought by them for occasions for which the large can is fitted. Thus, 
 the large can has both a limited clientele and a limited use. 
 
 The small can would appeal to a far larger public provided its 
 price can be reduced so that there is not too great a penalty for buying 
 in a small quantity. In many places it was evident that retail 
 merchants, and perhaps wholesalers, were exacting as much profit from 
 the sale of a small can as from that of a big one. They perhaps worked 
 upon a sale basis rather than on a percentage. A sale was a sale and 
 it ought to bring in about so much return. Perhaps a high price was 
 charged because the merchant feared the small size would not sell and 
 therefore hoped to regain the cost of the whole case by the returns 
 from a part of it. 
 
 Except in Japan and India, the Chinese merchant prevails from 
 north to south over all of eastern Asia. From Harbin to Surabaya 
 retail merchandising is in the hands of the Chinese. These merchants 
 usually stated that the small can of fruit would not sell because 
 nobody had ever asked for it. The Chinese are notoriously deficient in 
 creating a demand. They are equally active in supplying a demand 
 once it is created. The imagination of the Chinese merchant seldom 
 goes beyond what has been customary in the past. 
 
 Likewise, it was usual in many cities for ag-ents of California 
 packers to express the opinion that the small can of fruit would not 
 sell in Asia because people only used canned fruit in entertaining 
 friends and for that purpose the reduced sizes were too small. Agents 
 often stated that, although they had placed small cans in 1-pound 
 and 8-ounce sizes on sale, there was small demand for them ; they had 
 hoped they would succeed but the attempt was a failure. Therefore, 
 the matter was settled in their minds: only the large No. 2y 2 can 
 would sell and that only to the rich. 
 
 The fact is that no attempt has been made to sell the small sizes to 
 the potential consumer. Agents have, perhaps, induced and even com- 
 pelled the dealer to buy one or two cases of the small cans. After wait- 
 ing for some time, the agent inquired if the dealer wished to buy 
 another stock and was told by the dealer that he still had on hand 
 most of the cans he unfortunately bought. There was no repeat order, 
 so the agent correctly inferred that there was no demand. 
 
322 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 No real attempt anywhere has been made to place the small sizes 
 before the consuming public in such a way as to create a demand. 
 Many householders declared they had never seen the small cans. On 
 investigation it often developed that these were on sale, if you inquired 
 for them, in their favorite store. The investigators frequently found 
 a few 8-ounce cans on the top shelf. The Chinese merchant was often 
 voluble in explaining that nobody asked him for them. His prices 
 were usually 10 to 50 per cent higher than the cost warranted. 
 
 On the other hand, executives of the great American corporations 
 which are successfully selling to Asiatics, on seriously considering the 
 proposal as a possible American enterprise, expressed their belief that 
 the small unit of canned or dried fruit might reach a large sale if 
 modern merchandising methods were applied. Many educators, states- 
 men, and social workers stated that the way to reach a large volume of 
 sales for American canned or dried fruits was through the introduc- 
 tion of the small unit to the native consumer of the upper and middle 
 classes. All agreed that this could not be accomplished by merely 
 inducing a few merchants to place goods on sale. All realized that 
 sustained and skillful trade promotion must accompany their introduc- 
 tion and that if possible, the price should be adjusted so that a package 
 would retail for a coin of local currency. 
 
 Small packages of dried fruit, particularly prunes and raisins, 
 offer even better opportunities for reduction in size of package than 
 do canned fruits. The cost of the tin imposes an obstacle that limits 
 the size to which canned fruits can be reduced — and at present canned 
 fruit requires a tin container. Dried fruits, on the contrary, can be 
 reduced to a very small package and, if necessary, can be sold without 
 any package at all, even one fruit at a time. They thus present some 
 of the merchandising possibilities of the cigarette which, generally, 
 has succeeded because it was possible to sell one cigarette rather than 
 a package of them. 
 
 The small can of fruit is essentially a new commodity for a new 
 public. Any development of fruit markets in Asia means that old 
 customers must use the fruit in new ways, or that new customers must 
 be found, or both. In either case, since the product is a luxury rather 
 than a necessity, the new customers must be introduced to the product ; 
 the old consumers must have the new use put before them. 
 
 The Chinese merchant is not fitted to do either of the above. The 
 European agent is not equipped to do it for him. Passive order-taking 
 on the part of the Chinese merchant and of the European agent have 
 been characteristic of the Asiatic market for American canned fruits. 
 
Bul.493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 323 
 
 So far as the Chinese merchant has been active it has been with regard 
 to underselling his competitors. So far as the European agent has 
 been active, it has been in supplanting the use of some other brand by 
 that of his own. Neither merchant nor agent has sought to create new 
 demands. They could not do so. Money and time spent on creating 
 new demands merely put their competitor in a better position to make 
 lower prices. The competitor might meet trade promotion by the 
 expenditure of an equal sum on lowered prices. Thus everybody 
 scrambles for the few old customers. Nobody endeavors to create new 
 uses and new demands. 
 
 The present system of collecting indent orders through agents will 
 not develop a large market in the Far East for California fruits. The 
 present system whereby various companies and corporations market- 
 ing fruits under certain brands act through agents in Asiatic terri- 
 tory is cheap but inefficient. Usually these agents represent a large 
 number of manufacturers, among whom the exporter of American 
 fruits is one. Many agencies with limited personnel and small offices 
 stated that they represented from 20 to 200 manufacturers. They 
 sometimes represent everything from locomotives and aeroplanes to 
 crockery and canned goods. Their offices are often a medley of dusty 
 and cluttered samples, among which a few rusty cans of California 
 fruit may with persistence be found in a corner. Because hitherto 
 these agents have not been furnished with any material funds for 
 trade promotion and because the active demand for American fruits 
 is small, they have in many cases found the business far from lucra- 
 tive. In any event, when handling such a large number of entirely 
 different commodities, their attention can at best be directed to any 
 one of them in small proportion. These agents accept or collect orders 
 which are indented to America, 
 
 The whole system whereby a merchant is required by draft or 
 deposit of security to order fruits far in advance, thereby anticipating 
 his wants, might be fairly efficient when an irresistible demand has 
 already been created ; it is far from effective when the demand is 
 latent or non-existent. For American canned or dried fruit to sell in 
 any large quantities in Asiatic territory, stocks must be maintained 
 at central points so that merchants can obtain the fruit quickly after 
 their orders are placed without the deposit of money for a considerable 
 period in advance. 
 
 Furthermore, the attention of an entire corps of people must be 
 directed toward the creation and supply of this demand. The Asiatic 
 market will not react to disinterested selling. At the present state of 
 demand for American fruit, Asiatic merchants in large numbers will 
 
324 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 not come to agents and demand it. In the past, the market has chiefly 
 been supplied through passive order-taking, because the agents would 
 not, or could not, adopt any other method. 
 
 The writers cannot claim to be the first to have made the above 
 observation. G. 0. Woodard, Trade Commissioner at Shanghai, in 
 an unpublished report on ''The Canned Fruit Market in China," 
 dated December 23, 1927, in discussing the situation in that market 
 stated : 
 
 In the two or more decades that American canned fruits have been offered in 
 the China market, with possibly one exception, not one of the canned fruit lines 
 sold has been represented by an organization in a position to study the require- 
 ments of the China market with a view to formulating a constructive selling 
 program based on the peculiarities of this particular market. There has been 
 very little attempt, if any, at any really sound, constructive selling program. 
 There has been only passive order taking. 
 
 It is quite natural that this should be so since the general import house is 
 concerned with twenty or thirty or ever forty or fifty items more profitable from 
 the standpoint of returns. They are obviously, in the business for immediate 
 profits and cannot possibly become concerned with developing an organization to 
 undertake extensive sales promotion work of a pioneering nature that would 
 perhaps only yield results five or more years hence. ... In the light of the actual 
 returns from two or more decades of passive handling of already established 
 brands of canned fruits, however, until such time as there is individual or group 
 endeavor put forth along the lines of studying the infinite peculiarities of the 
 China foodstuffs market, it is quite patent that growth in sales will continue to 
 be slow, due primarily to passive and disinterested handling, lack of constructive 
 selling programs, and the almost total absence of sound merchandizing interest of 
 whatsover nature. 
 
 The above statements, made with regard to the merchandizing 
 system in China might be applied with equal truth to the situation 
 throughout the entire Far East. 
 
 By skillful extensive and sustained trade promotion it would he 
 possible to increase several fold the exports of certain fruits to the 
 Far East. Although in Asia trade promotion has been successfully 
 waged for many American commodities, no considerable trade pro- 
 motion has been conducted for American fruits. The nearest approach 
 was made by the Sun-Maid Raisin Growers Association which about 
 thirteen years ago devoted a small amount of funds to popularizing 
 their product among the peoples of the Far East. This resulted in a 
 tenfold increase in the export of raisins to Asia so that at the present 
 time the exports of grapes in that form exceed the combined exports 
 of all other fruits in all forms (see figure 7). 
 
 Several factors contributed to this result. First, this organization 
 established its own representatives in the countries in which it was 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 325 
 
 chiefly operating. It did not operate through agents or indirect 
 representatives. Second, at central points it established stocks on 
 hand. It did not attempt to create a large business through indent 
 orders. Third, it packed the commodity in small packages. It did 
 not expect to make the large package, originated for the use of rich 
 America, fit the needs of the poor Orient. Fourth, it made these 
 packages and this fruit known to the people through trade promotion 
 in various forms. It did not depend merely on advertising, valuable 
 as that may be in conjunction with other methods. Fifth, it established 
 its own corps of salesmen who took orders for native and European 
 wholesalers at the expense of the association. It did not depend on 
 Chinese wholesalers to create a demand. 
 
 Viewed from the standpoint of the large volume of the raisin crop, 
 the enterprise in Asia was on a small scale. The results have been 
 comparable to the effort expended. Larger funds and greater efforts 
 would have brought increased results. Nevertheless, compared with 
 the markets for other American fruits in Asia, the demand for raisins 
 is so much larger that it dominates the whole horizon. 
 
 To materially increase our markets, American fruits and their 
 virtues must be made known among the people to whom they are to 
 be sold. Except for raisins, American fruits are known among only 
 comparatively small groups of people in all the countries of the East. 
 The great majority of Chinese, Indians, and East Indians have never 
 seen a prune and would not recognize it if it were shown to them. 
 These people will not rush to demand the product, even though a 
 package be standing on the shelf of their favorite shop or store. They 
 must be told of its virtues and its uses. Such education over enormous 
 territories and their crowded populations cannot be accomplished 
 quickly or easily. Time, effort, skill, and money would be required 
 for the success of the enterprise. Nevertheless, these same people have 
 been educated to the use of kerosene oil, cigarettes, wheat flour, baby 
 foods, and other commodities which a generation ago were entirely 
 foreign to them. The task is not impossible ; it is merely difficult. 
 
 Methods of trade promotion in Asia have been so extensively dis- 
 cussed under previous sections of this report that recapitulation is 
 unnecessary. Although the types of trade promotion adapted to 
 various peoples and lands vary somewhat, certain general principles 
 appear to be outstanding in the experience of organizations success- 
 fully selling in this market. Among these principles are (1) an 
 efficient personnel must be assembled based upon high-class European 
 or American executives who know the people as well as the country. 
 These must be supplemented with trained and educated natives. 
 
326 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 (2) Extensive distribution must be accomplished before efforts are 
 made to induce the public to purchase. The native population must 
 find the product available when they respond to the promotional 
 appeal. (3) The product must be purchasable in a small unit for a 
 small initial expenditure. (4) Extensive educational propaganda 
 must be conducted to enable the people to test the product through a 
 free or very cheap sample. The campaign must also emphasize the 
 value of the product and the benefits which will accrue from its use. 
 In fruits, the value to be emphasized is that better health and greater 
 strength are to be gained from their use. In such a campaign adver- 
 tising in newspapers plays but small part. Personal contact with 
 potential consumers at fairs, festivals, and other gatherings is a more 
 effective method. (5) Stocks must be on hand to replenish supplies 
 of retailers at short notice. 
 
 From a practical standpoint, the maintenance of an organization 
 of high-caliber personnel might prove one of the most hazardous 
 aspects of the enterprise. The number of persons who have an intimate 
 knowledge of the East and the people therein is decidedly limited. 
 Those of their number who have high ability are very much fewer. 
 The East is not a region which is either stimulating or inspiring. It 
 is enervating and disillusioning. Those able to combat these influences 
 successfully are few indeed. A high executive of a great corporation 
 which is successfully merchandizing in the Far East warned the 
 investigators that the gathering, training, and maintenance of a 
 competent personnel would be the most difficult phase of any trade- 
 promotion enterprise. Indeed, he went so far as to state that execu- 
 tives in the East are usually men who could not hold comparable 
 positions in America or Europe. If this be true it is plain speaking, 
 but in discussing an enterprise that may involve the welfare of large 
 numbers of people in America, we must state the facts as we see and 
 find them. 
 
 Often, under Oriental conditions, Europeans and Americans fail 
 to measure up to the standards of business initiative maintained at 
 home. It is common throughout the entire Far East for Europeans to 
 work five hours or less a day. Often these hours are rendered ineffec- 
 tive by other hours that come between. Whether an organization, 
 even of high personnel, could be assembled in Asia and maintained 
 at the level of business efficiency necessary to secure large results is 
 a question that should be seriously considered in any definite pro- 
 posals for such an undertaking. There are, of course, many exceptions 
 to the assumptions made above. Since, however, they are exceptions 
 rather than the rule, the proposal must face conditions as they exist. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 327 
 
 If large funds became available for a trade-promotion enterprise 
 in Asia and if these were skillfully employed, it then would be within 
 the bounds of reasonable expectation that within the next five or ten 
 years it would become possible to market in Asia several times as 
 much fruit as is now exported thereto. 
 
 In order to illustrate the statement that adequate trade promotion 
 over a period of years might increase markets for California fruits 
 several fold, the following calculation may be used. 
 
 India probably represents one of the most difficult countries for 
 trade promotion because of the peculiar food and religious habits of 
 many of its people, because of the very high percentage of its popu- 
 lation who live in hundreds of thousands of small villages, and because 
 of the low average purchasing power of the population. Let us 
 calculate the possibility India presents on the basis of the conclusions 
 of this report. 
 
 Almost 90 per cent of all of the 318,942,480 people of India live in 
 small villages. Most of them are very poor. To be conservative, let 
 us assume that not a single can of fruit can be sold among these 
 people; that all development of our future markets would lie entirely 
 in the towns and cities. In these, however, there are 32,500,000 people. 
 The best estimates given to this investigation evidenced that at least 
 10 per cent of the people in cities and towns could afford to occasion- 
 ally eat canned fruit provided they desired to do so. Therefore, let 
 us further assume that 90 per cent of the people who live in the towns 
 and cities will not or cannot eat canned fruit under any conditions 
 whatsover. We have now brought our possible potential consumers 
 down from about 319,000,000 to 3,250,000. 
 
 In India, California canned fruit now sells almost entirely to 
 Europeans and to some of the half-castes. A very few Indians also 
 eat it. There are in India about 174,000 Europeans. There are about 
 113,000 half-castes. Thus, the total white and half-white population 
 is somewhat less than 300,000. If, to be again conservative, we assume 
 that all of these now eat canned fruit and would eat no more under 
 trade promotion, and if we likewise assume that an equal number of 
 Indians, numbering 300,000, now eat canned fruit, which is probably 
 far beyond the fact, we then have a present consuming public of 
 certainly not more than 600,000. Many of the Europeans do not live 
 in towns and cities. They are scattered a1 every administrative office 
 throughout India. Many others do not eal any measurable amount 
 of canned fruit. But if to be on the conservative side we deduct all 
 the Europeans, all the half-castes, and 300,000 Indians who already 
 may possibly consume canned fruit from the upper 10 per cent of the 
 
328 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 city and town population, we have thus further reduced our possible 
 new consumers in all of India down to 2,650,000. 
 
 But these 2,650,000 are men, women, and children. The average 
 size of the family in India is 4.9 persons.* It would be fair to assume, 
 then, that among" these whom we are discussing there are at least 
 540,000 heads of families. These are natives who belong to the upper 
 10 per cent of the population of towns and cities and who do not now 
 consume California fruits. If through trade promotion these heads 
 of families could be induced to buy occasionally one can of fruit it 
 would increase our present markets several fold. If these heads of 
 families each bought the equivalent of one No. 2% can of fruit once in 
 two months, they would consume 3,240,000 cans of fruit a year; or, 
 at 24 cans per case, 135,000 cases a year. The present consumption in 
 India is about 50,000 cases. Such increased consumption therefore 
 would be over two and a half times our present markets. In other 
 words, we would sell more than three and a half times as much as we 
 now do. 
 
 It may be contended that not all the upper 10 per cent of the 
 families in towns and cities could be reached. Doubtless this is true. 
 However, it can be contended likewise that the consumers who would 
 be reached would probably consume canned fruit more frequently 
 than once in two months. The contention might further be made that 
 many of the 90 per cent of the population in towns and cities, not 
 counted in this estimate, would consume canned fruit occasionally if 
 it were made fashionable among the upper classes of the population. 
 Furthermore, it can be claimed with equal strength that the fashion 
 once having been created in India, material consumption could be 
 developed among some of the people in the villages who spend large 
 amounts of money on weddings, funerals, and other festivals. It can 
 further be claimed that under trade promotion Europeans could be 
 induced to consume more canned fruit than at present. On the whole, 
 our basis of estimate is probably very conservative. 
 
 The above discussion is given merely to indicate that because our 
 present markets are small, the primary question involved in any 
 scheme of trade promotion is not the buynig power of the population, 
 but the question whether ultimately those who have this buying power 
 can be induced to include California fruits among the luxuries they 
 purchase, and if so, whether the consumption created would repay 
 the time, effort, and money expended. In every country of eastern 
 Asia, the per-capita income is very low ; everywhere the masses of the 
 people are poor. However, in considering the development of markets 
 
 * India Year Book, 1928. Published by "The Times of India," Calcutta. 
 
Buii.493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 329 
 
 for American fruits we are not concerned as yet with per-capita wealth 
 nor with the average man. Our sales of imported fruits in Asia are 
 so small that we have not yet saturated the market among those who 
 have the money to purchase. 
 
 The question might be raised as to what can be done to improve 
 our present fruit markets in Asia without the expenditure of any large 
 funds for trade promotion or any considerable revision of the present 
 marketing methods. Under such conditions, little more can be accom- 
 plished than is now being done. There are no areas in Asia whose 
 active wants for California fruit at present prices are not supplied. 
 Something, however, would be accomplished through giving greater 
 prominence to the smaller-sized package, either of canned or dried 
 fruit. Furthermore, various packers might find it profitable to estab- 
 lish at favorable points representatives instead of agents. This, of 
 course, is more expensive since the overhead must be carried, whereas 
 the establishment of an agency merely requires the payment of a small 
 commission on whatever sales are made. Nevertheless, it is striking 
 that in many places of the East the popular brand which rules the 
 market is that for which a representative has been established over a 
 term of years or where an agent is employed who does nothing else 
 whatsoever than sell this particular brand. If, furthermore, the 
 various companies could make appropriations sufficient to enable these 
 representatives to do a considerable amount of free sampling and a 
 limited amount of advertising in the vernacular press, sales would 
 undoubtedly increase. 
 
 Lower retail prices would increase markets for fruit in Asia. If 
 there is such a thing as a 'price market,' it is in Asia. Here, if any- 
 where, small differences in price determine whether a purchase shall 
 or shall not be made. Even the so-called middle classes are poor when 
 judged by American standards. Small economies become large when 
 transported to the Far East. Reductions in price, even though small, 
 are therefore of great importance. 
 
 One of the difficulties faced by imported fruits in the Far East 
 is the fact that their local prices are quoted in the currency of the 
 country, which has a unit of value lower than that of the American 
 dollar. The Chinese dollar, the Indo-Chinese piastre, the Siamese 
 tical, the East Indian guilder, and the Indian rupee all have values 
 that range around four- tenths of an American dollar. But such is 
 the psychology of the East, that the value of these coins come to 
 appear, even to Europeans, as large as that of the American dollar. 
 Many of these coins resemble in appearance the American silver dollar 
 and its subdivisions, and procure as much of local service or value as 
 
330 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 would the similar coins in America. The silver dollar of China closely 
 resembles in size and appearance that of America, The quarter- 
 guilder of the Netherland East Indies looks like the American 25-cent 
 piece ; the 10-cent piece of Ceylon is almost a counterpart of the coin 
 by the same name at home, and yet these all have but 40 per cent of 
 the gold value of similar American coins. However, locally for many 
 things they are practically their equivalent. In taxi fares, personal 
 services, and small purchases the coin bearing the same name produces 
 the same return. Thus, those resident in the Orient come impercept- 
 ibly to feel that a dollar of Chinese currency is there as precious as 
 the American dollar at home. 
 
 The American housewife in China, calling at her favorite provision 
 store enquiring the price of a can of peaches is told that it is on sale 
 for one dollar a can. She exclaims that this is very expensive and 
 turns immediately to some local bananas which she is told are 2 cents 
 each. She is likely to go home with a half dozen bananas, meanwhile 
 exclaiming at the high price of American fruits. If at home she were 
 told the price was 40 cents, she would probably not consider this as 
 beyond the possibility of purchase, even though it were a few cents 
 higher than the price to which she was accustomed. In the translated 
 currency her sense of economy prevents the purchase. 
 
 Thus, entirely without thought of deception, she may write to 
 friends at home that, "I saw some California grapes for sale today 
 and, would you believe it, they were 50 cents a pound. Of course 
 they were too expensive for us to afford. When I think of the grapes 
 selling for almost nothing on the farms at home I wonder why someone 
 doesn't send grapes into this market." Because she has become accus- 
 tomed to the coinage of the East, she entirely forgets to mention that 
 the price quoted is in local currency and that the grapes were actually 
 on sale at 20 cents a pound in the currency of those who read her 
 letter in America, She likewise ignores the seven thousand miles that 
 stretch between the farms on which these grapes were produced and 
 the Chinese fruit store where they were for sale. She knows little of 
 the large number of necessary services performed in conveying these 
 grapes from one place to the other and arranging them for display be- 
 fore her eyes in a fruit store convenient to her home in a distant land. 
 
 One of the factors militating against the sale of American fruits 
 in the East is, thus, the low unit of local currency. Slight decreases 
 in price which may be brought about by improved methods of market- 
 ing and transportation are of high importance because these decreases 
 become multiplied when rendered into the local currency of the 
 country where the product is sold. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 331 
 
 If America were able to sell its fruit in Asia at radically lower 
 prices than those prevalent at home, large markets might be quickly 
 developed. At present we attempt to sell fruit at higher prices in 
 Asia than in America. Thus in lands where native fruit is always 
 cheaper and often more abundant than in the United States we strive 
 to sell our competing fruits at higher prices than at home. If it is 
 difficult to sell high-priced fruit to the comparatively rich Americans, 
 it is much more difficult to sell it at still higher prices to poor 
 Orientals. 
 
 In Asia many American commodities sell at prices as low or lower 
 than they do in America. The great tobacco and oil companies first 
 embarked upon the extensive development of Asiatic markets because 
 of a situation identical with that which faces fruit-growing in Cali- 
 fornia, In both oil and tobacco there arose an increased and uncon- 
 trollable production. To save prices from going to the bottom, 
 increased consumption was necessary. To secure this increased con- 
 sumption in Asia it was recognized that oil and tobacco must sell at 
 low prices. Kerosene must successfully compete with the native 
 vegetable oils ; cigarettes must compete with native tobacco in cheroot. 
 or pipe. Even today, kerosene oil and cigarettes sell as cheaply, or 
 more cheaply, in most of the countries of Asia than they do in America. 
 
 Any measure that would remove a considerable percentage of the 
 deciduous fruit production of California from customary marketing 
 channels would not only raise prices but would also increase the gross 
 return. In the spring of 1929 a frost decreased the expected tonnage 
 of deciduous fruits in California by about 23 per cent. The remaining 
 77 per cent was marketed for about $27,000,000 more than the entire 
 crop would have brought had there been no frost. Although many 
 individual farmers whose entire crop was lost suffered disaster, the 
 state as a whole benefited by a larger return than if there had been no 
 abnormality of weather. 
 
 If, thus, an increased return resulted from destruction of almost 
 one-fourth of the crop, an even greater benefit might be expected 
 through marketing the surplus among new consumers at low prices. 
 Three results might accrue from such a procedure: (1) the over- 
 production would be removed from the present markets thus causing 
 a greater gross return; (2) some revenue would be derived from the 
 sale of the surplus; (3) new consumers would become acquainted with 
 the product and thus educated to consume it so that the demand would 
 continue even though prices were gradually increased. 
 
 However, to sell fruit in the Orient at lower prices than in America 
 would require a complete and radical revision of the whole sales 
 
332 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 program, the discussion of which is not within the scope of this report. 
 Nevertheless, in presenting the results of a study of marketing in Asia 
 it is necessary to emphasize that if prices were radically reduced the 
 entire picture would change and the possibility of increased demands 
 become vastly greater. 
 
 Even extensive trade promotion, backed by large funds, cannot 
 create in Asia large enough fruit markets to materially help in raising 
 farm prices within the probable duration of the present price depres- 
 sion. At the present time the most desirable result that could be 
 accomplished for the farmers of California who are producing the 
 fruits which have ruled at a low price would be to market a sufficient 
 volume of California fruit in Asia or elsewhere so that the price level 
 would be moved upward in the home markets to the point of cost of 
 production or above. In order to do this it would be necessary to 
 develop within a short time a demand sufficient to remove from the 
 present markets in America and Europe considerable percentages of 
 California's various fruit crops. The so-called 'surplus' varies for 
 different fruits. In some fruits an increase in demand of 25 per cent 
 or more would probably be required to restore the price level prevalent 
 at the time the trees were planted. 
 
 Within the probable duration of the present price depression, and 
 at present exported prices, there does not appear to be any opportunity 
 to develop markets in Asia of sufficient magnitude to accomplish this 
 greatly desired result. Even though a very extensive trade promotion 
 campaign were conducted with all its attendant costs, a market cannot 
 be created for fruit at present prices in large enough volume in short 
 enough time. Since, unfortunately, our present exports to Asia are 
 small, even an increase of several hundred per cent would not alone 
 be sufficient to solve a surplus problem of the magnitude of that now 
 extant in California. 
 
 Surpluses in fruit production ultimately cure themselves through 
 the coming of old age to trees and vines so that the acreage gradually 
 decreases. Surpluses are also cured through the gradual development 
 of demand. Such development may come about through the increase 
 in the population of America and an increased per-capita consumption 
 of fruit. Surpluses are also cured by lowered costs of production, 
 and the pulling out of acreages on which costs are too high. A profit- 
 able price is that which is above cost of production. These costs vary 
 from man to man and from farm to farm. Those first emerge from 
 under a surplus market who have the best land and the most skillful 
 methods. Although it is probable that low farm prices will, under 
 present market demands and marketing methods, continue for some 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 333 
 
 years, they will ultimately be restored to equilibrium through the 
 normal action of economic forces. 
 
 Trade promotion for certain California fruits in Eastern Asia will 
 accelerate the movement toward equilibrium between costs and returns, 
 but Asiatic markets cannot at prevalent prices be created quickly 
 enough to act as a cure in the present crisis. However, it must be 
 remembered that so far as can be foreseen, these surpluses are likely 
 to be recurrent during forthcoming years, despite our developing 
 system of economic education. Even with an adequate system of 
 warnings and economic forecasts, human nature is likely to be the 
 same in the future as in the past. In times of relatively good prices 
 greatly increased plantings will probably be made. These bring lower 
 prices in their wake. 
 
 If conducted for a considerable period of time, trade promotion 
 might secure markets in Asia which would be of material assistance in 
 sustaining prices in future years. Even though extensive trade pro- 
 motion in Asia might not succeed within the next five or ten years in 
 marketing a volume of the California crop comparable to the present 
 surplus or that now sold in Europe, it is perfectly clear to all students 
 of Oriental affairs that great changes are coming in Asia and that 
 within the next quarter of a century these peoples will rise to an 
 economic level which they have not heretofore enjoyed. Furthermore, 
 it is probable that this rise in financial security will mean the adoption 
 of European standards to a degree not hitherto deemed possible. Any 
 extensive trade promotion for American fruit in Asia should be 
 undertaken not only with a view to developing the present markets 
 but also with the object of building for the future. If California is 
 to continue to develop her fruit industry faster than the increasing 
 population of America warrants, markets must be built abroad. Such 
 structures require long periods of time. 
 
 Growers in other countries are trying by educational methods to 
 develop the demands for their product. India taxes every grower of 
 tea on the basis of his production. The funds thereby accumulated 
 are devoted to an attempt to induce the world to drink more tea, 
 preferably from India. Extensive advertising, and educational cam- 
 paigns are in operation in India, America, and elsewhere. It is said 
 that the per-capita consumption of tea in India has been increased 
 50 per cent, but that in America the campaign has not been so 
 successful. 
 
 Australia has an organization, fostered by government, to export 
 the dried fruit in excess of the needs of that continent. A board 
 annually determines how much dried fruit must be shipped for export 
 
334 University of California— Experiment Station 
 
 and the price that must be charged for it to secure its sale outside the 
 country. Fruit to be shipped abroad is thus sold by a sort of pool at 
 a lower price than that charged in Australia. 
 
 In considering the possible development of American markets in 
 Asia, it should be realized that backward countries may be expected 
 to go through three periods of development. In the first period there 
 is a small market for European foodstuffs as well as for other imported 
 commodities because the people have not yet felt the need for them 
 and have low standards of living caused by their limited purchasing 
 power. 
 
 The second period is when through the development of hidden 
 resources in timber, mines, and water power, and through the use of 
 machinery and manufacturing devices there comes a great rise in the 
 economic level of the people so that they have the desire for higher 
 standards of living and the luxuries that go with them. 
 
 The third period is when such a country seeks to manufacture these 
 luxuries itself, thereby lessening the outgo to other nations. Such 
 countries usually attempt through prohibitive tariffs and otherwise to 
 develop their own manufacturing and agricultural industries in order 
 to provide a higher economic return and to improve their balance of 
 trade. 
 
 The United States has passed through the first two stages of 
 development and is now well advanced into the third. Japan is 
 rapidly emerging from the second into the third period. Most of the 
 countries of the East, however, are still in the initial era. After they 
 pass from the first into the second development, as they are likely to 
 do within the next quarter of a century, they will present a marked 
 opportunity to those countries of the world that by spade-work in 
 advance have prepared themselves to take advantage of the oppor- 
 tunity. Ultimately, in the dim future, these countries will, like Japan, 
 merge into the final development wherein it becomes much more diffi- 
 cult than in the intermediate period to find large markets for those 
 commodities which can be produced or manufactured within their own 
 borders. 
 
 Viewing, however, the immense masses of the population it is 
 improbable that this last phase will be reached within calculable time 
 for most of the areas of the Far East. It is rather for the period 
 during which the countries of Asia may be expected to develop and 
 expand that the California fruit-grower has an opportunity to occupy 
 these markets. 
 
Bul. 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 335 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 So many persons and organizations rendered material assistance 
 to this investigation that it would be difficult, if not impossible, to 
 catalogue all of them. One of the pleasantest aspects of the work 
 was the unselfish and hearty cooperation extended throughout the 
 whole course of the itinerary. Certainly, however, special mention 
 should be made of those members of the Foreign Service of the United 
 States who gave liberally of their time and experience. 
 
 From the United States Department of Commerce, those who 
 traveled with the investigators included : Paul P. Steintorf , Trade 
 Commissioner at Tokyo ; A. Bland Calder, Acting Commercial Attache 
 at Peking; Wilbur K. Hoyt, Assistant Trade Commissioner at 
 Mukden; Granville 0. Woodard, Trade Commissioner at Shanghai; 
 Don C. Bliss, Trade Commissioner, and August Brauer, Jr., Assistant 
 Trade Commissioner at Singapore; Robert C. Cockburn, Assistant 
 Trade Commissioner at Calcutta; and Norman C. Stow, Assistant 
 Trade Commissioner at Bombay. 
 
 Others from that Department who gave conspicuous assistance 
 included Julean Arnold, Commercial Attache at Peking; John J. 
 Ehrhardt, Trade Commissioner at Mukden ; Frank A. Williams, Trade 
 Commissioner at Shanghai ; George C. Howard, Trade Commissioner, 
 and Harvey V. Rohrer, Assistant Trade Commissioner at Manila; 
 Thomas C. Barringer, Trade Commissioner at Batavia ; and C. B. 
 Spofford, Trade Commissioner at Calcutta. 
 
 From the United States Department of State the splendid assist- 
 ance of the following is gratefully acknowledged : William T. Turner, 
 Vice Consul at Yokohama; Sheridan Talbott, Consul, and George J. 
 Haering, Consul, at Kobe; Ransford S. Miller, Consul General, and 
 Charles H. Stephen, Vice Consul at Seoul (Keijo) ; Clarence E. Gauss, 
 Consul General at Tientsin; John R. Putnam, Consul at Amoy; 
 Samuel Sokobin, Consul at Foochow; David C. Berger, Consul at 
 Swatow; Roger C. Treadwell, Consul General, and Perry N. Jester, 
 Vice Consul at Hongkong; Douglas Jenkins, Consul General, and 
 Frederick W. Hinke, Vice Consul at Canton; Harold 0. Mackenzie, 
 Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Siam; Alan 
 S. Rogers, Consul at Bangkok; Samuel G. Ebling, Vice Consul at 
 Penang; John B. Ketcham, Consul General at Singapore; Daniel M. 
 Braddock, Vice Consul at Medan ; Edward M. Groth, Consul, and 
 Raymond Lanctot, Vice Consul at Surabaya; Haskell H. Dick, Consul 
 
336 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 at Rangoon; Edmund B. Montgomery, Consul at Madras; and Still- 
 man W. Eells, Consul at Colombo. 
 
 In circulating questionnaires among their employees in distant 
 places, special assistance was rendered by the Standard Oil Company 
 of New York; the British- American Tobacco Company, and the mis- 
 sionary organizations affiliated in China. Similar assistance was 
 rendered in circulating questionnaires among the students and 
 graduates of the Imperial University of Tokyo ; Yenching University 
 of Peking; St. John's University at Shanghai; Lingnan University at 
 Canton ; and the University of the Philippines at Manila. 
 
 In addition to those already mentioned, the organizations which 
 instructed their agents and correspondents to assist the investigators 
 included the Dollar Steamship Line; the Kerr Steamship Line; the 
 States Steamship Company ; the McCormick Steamship Company ; the 
 Oceanic and Oriental Navigation Company; the California Packing 
 Corporation ; Libby McNeil and Libby ; G etz Brothers ; A. T. Gillespie ; 
 the Golden State Milk Products Company; the International Har- 
 vester Company; the Sun-Maid Raisin Growers Association; and the 
 San Francisco Chamber of Commerce. As already stated, the 
 Canners' League of California and the Dried Fruit Association of 
 California contributed 45 sets of 40 packages each of canned and 
 dried fruits. In many other ways they were of great assistance. 
 
 Special thanks are due to the Peking Union Medical College, to 
 Dr. William H. Adolph of Yenching University, and to Dean Ava B. 
 Milam of the Oregon State College, the results of whose investigations 
 into the diet of the people of northern China are mentioned herein. 
 The collation of exports from California to Asia by Dr. H. R. Well- 
 man, as well as other material incorporated in this report, has already 
 been noted. The preliminary arrangements for the investigation were 
 greatly assisted by Wesley 0. Ash, District Manager at San Francisco 
 for the United States Department of Commerce. Finally, and by no 
 means least, our thanks are due to Paul S. Windrem, whose untiring 
 efforts as secretary merit special commendation. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 337 
 
 TABLE 76 
 
 United States Exports of Fresh, Canned, and Dried Fruits, 1922-1928 
 (Fresh Equivalent.) 
 
 
 1922 
 
 1923 
 
 1924 
 
 1925 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 1,000 1b. 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 Fresh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 455,190 
 
 727,084 
 
 897,893 
 
 800,136 
 
 1,144,908 
 
 1,216,542 
 
 1,092,470 
 
 Europe .... 
 
 185,102 
 
 370,511 
 
 510,288 
 
 425,958 
 
 686,028 
 
 727,563 
 
 591,260 
 
 Asia 
 
 8,720 
 
 12,756 
 
 18,030 
 
 17,214 
 
 22,903 
 
 23,791 
 
 25,456 
 
 Canned 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 200,606 
 
 144,515 
 
 235,215 
 
 272,802 
 
 244,090 
 
 265,894 
 
 330,704 
 
 Europe .... 
 
 178,342 
 
 112,982 
 
 206,050 
 
 239,606 
 
 206,940 
 
 225,045 
 
 283,106 
 
 Asia 
 
 6,789 
 
 7,096 
 
 7,010 
 
 7,887 
 
 10,271 
 
 9,587 
 
 10,369 
 
 Dried 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 922,260 
 
 762,628 
 
 1,595,800 
 
 1,326,832 
 
 1,454,228 
 
 1,926,760 
 
 2,340,536 
 
 Europe.. 
 
 647,952 
 
 445,808 
 
 1,237,700 
 
 1,011,760 
 
 1,080,816 
 
 1,548,688 
 
 1,885,224 
 
 Asia 
 
 26,588 
 
 47,788 
 
 49,208 
 
 33,104 
 
 42,652 
 
 39,628 
 
 62,836 
 
 TABLE 77 
 
 Percentage of United States Production of Certain Fruits Exported 
 
 to all Countries, Average 1924-1928 
 
 Fruit Total 
 
 per cent 
 
 Apples 10.8 
 
 Apricots 43.5 
 
 Cherries 0.7 
 
 Grapes 14.1 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Pears 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Grapefruit 
 Lemons .... 
 Oranges .. 
 
 5.3 
 13.3 
 51.9 
 5.9 
 3.4 
 6.8 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Canned 
 
 Dried 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 8.2 
 
 10.7 
 
 62.3 
 
 
 29.8 
 
 55.4 
 
 
 3.0 
 
 
 1.3 
 
 
 31.2 
 
 0.9 
 
 16.3 
 
 16.8 
 
 7.6 
 
 43.8 
 
 51.9 
 
 5.9 
 
 
 
 3.4 
 
 
 
 6.8 
 
 
 
 TABLE 78 
 
 United States Exports of Fruits to Oriental Countries 
 
 Average 1924-1928 
 
 Country Fresh Dried Canned 
 
 pounds pounds pounds 
 
 British India 137,992 128,777 1,448,000 
 
 British Malaya 1,426,948 99,815 727,489 
 
 Ceylon 507,665 42,277 199,366 
 
 China 5,413,234 5,146,120 1,611,439 
 
 Java and Madura 366,305 175,752 1,407,954 
 
 Other Netherland East Indies 21,875 52,588 731,946 
 
 French Indo-China 9,277 113,428 190,498 
 
 Hongkong 2,907,838 453,597 383,634 
 
 Japan (including Korea) 1,180,846 3,589,273 959,564 
 
 Kwantung 6,792 431,441 235,043 
 
 Philippine Islands 9,510,332 824,561 1,306,678 
 
 Siam 6,460 18,465 39,194 
 
 Soviet Russia in Asia 75,521 29,879 22,260 
 
 Total Orient 21,571,150 11,105,973 9,263,065 
 
338 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 79 
 
 Percentage of United States Production of Certain Fruits 
 
 Exported to Asia, Average 1924-1928 
 
 Fruit Total Fresh Canned Dried 
 
 percent percent percent percent 
 
 Apples 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.6 
 
 Apricots 0.8 .... 0.6 1.0 
 
 Cherries 0.3 .... 1.3 
 
 Grapes 0.9 0.1 .... 1.9 
 
 Peaehes 0.1 0.01 0.3 0.1 
 
 Pears 0.1 0.02 0.6 
 
 Prunes 0.3 .... .... 0.3 
 
 Grapefruit 0.1 0.1 
 
 Lemons 0.5 0.5 
 
 Oranges 0.2 0.2 
 
 TABLE 80 
 Total Exports of Fresh Fruits from the United States, 1926-1928 
 
 Countries in Orient 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 British India 
 
 British Malaya 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 China 
 
 Java and Madura 
 
 Other Netherland East Indies. 
 
 French Indo-China 
 
 Hongkong 
 
 Japan (including Korea) 
 
 Kwantung 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Siam 
 
 Soviet Russia in Asia 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 335,096 
 
 1,427,416 
 
 283,360 
 
 7,202,745 
 
 333,183 
 
 6,155 
 
 29,344 
 
 3,275,572 
 
 1,111,182 
 
 ), 049, 449 
 15,705 
 13,302 
 
 23,082,5.09 
 
 dollars 
 
 5,250 
 
 97,460 
 
 19,232 
 
 466,330 
 
 15,902 
 
 396 
 
 2,140 
 
 180,150 
 
 82,592 
 
 pounds 
 
 54,386 
 
 2,195,854 
 
 1,274,322 
 
 5,616,754 
 
 425,647 
 
 44,926 
 
 9,270 
 
 3,245,503 
 
 1,501,135 
 
 545,381 
 693 
 862 
 
 1,623,825 
 21,334 
 
 1,416,388 
 
 24,012,956 
 
 dollars 
 
 3,997 
 
 135,959 
 
 58,529 
 
 379,746 
 
 24,615 
 
 2,810 
 
 642 
 
 199,655 
 
 126,660 
 
 576,442 
 1,103 
 
 pounds 
 
 14,092 
 
 2,566,150 
 
 903,856 
 
 5,934,846 
 
 723,564 
 
 52,494 
 
 6,644 
 
 3,600,381 
 
 1,564,704 
 
 12,078 
 
 9,968,736 
 
 252 
 
 42,3r6 
 
 1,510,158 
 
 25,390,113 
 
 dollars 
 
 995 
 
 157,330 
 
 58,863 
 
 416,214 
 
 34,401 
 
 2,249 
 
 512 
 
 237,407 
 
 133,055 
 
 822 
 
 627,627 
 
 10 
 
 3,780 
 
 1,673,265 
 
 Continents 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 
 pounds 
 
 686,027,566 
 
 386,453,427 
 
 44,984,070 
 
 22,902,661 
 
 2,306,309 
 
 2,233,886 
 
 dollars 
 
 29,585,465 
 
 18,863,543 
 
 2,742,085 
 
 1,417,151 
 
 155,344 
 
 154,494 
 
 pounds 
 
 727,562,746 
 
 418,979,883 
 
 35,921,468 
 
 23,790,934 
 
 7,483,230 
 
 2,803,299 
 
 dollars 
 
 33,068,649 
 
 21,918,748 
 
 2,514,171 
 
 1,514,301 
 
 528,519 
 
 184,773 
 
 pounds 
 591,260,479 
 423,643,668 
 44,533,494 
 25,455,595 
 5,431,125 
 2,145,230 
 
 dollars 
 27,878,733 
 
 
 23,205,948 
 
 South America 
 
 Asia 
 
 2,686,424 
 
 1,677,032 
 
 438,157 
 
 Africa 
 
 129,333 
 
 Total 
 
 1,144,907,919 
 
 52,918,082 
 
 1,216,541,560 
 
 59,729,161 
 
 1,092,469,591 
 
 56,015,627 
 
 
 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 339 
 
 TABLE 81 
 Total Exports of Fresh Fruits from California, 1927-1929 
 
 Countries in Orient 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 
 pounds 
 
 50,775 
 
 2,132,285 
 
 793,551 
 
 4,613,534 
 
 414,224 
 
 40,532 
 
 9,287 
 
 2,045,771 
 
 1,451,677 
 
 dollars 
 
 3,882 
 
 134,684 
 
 51,415 
 
 328,301 
 
 24,570 
 
 2,478 
 
 642 
 
 136,895 
 
 122,108 
 
 pounds 
 
 3,510 
 
 2,413,697 
 
 862,093 
 
 3,900,470 
 
 711,307 
 
 62,880 
 
 6,334 
 
 2,281,029 
 
 1,549,460 
 
 11,895 
 
 5,911,472 
 
 dollars 
 
 190 
 
 152,910 
 
 58,266 
 
 335,005 
 
 33,978 
 
 2,672 
 
 512 
 
 171,383 
 
 131,417 
 
 820 
 
 463,508 
 
 pounds 
 40,222 
 
 3,212,999 
 976,172 
 
 5,450,540 
 
 1,208,065 
 23,328 
 75,923 
 
 2,213,152 
 
 1,711,253 
 27,375 
 
 6,386,452 
 13,350 
 
 dollars 
 2,149 
 
 
 222,437 
 
 
 62,797 
 
 
 412,477 
 
 
 76,550 
 
 Other Netherland East Indies.. 
 
 2,013 
 7,276 
 
 
 162,411 
 
 
 152,802 
 
 
 2,538 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 5,897,689 
 
 401,189 
 
 481,034 
 1,475 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 17,449,325 
 
 1,206,164 
 
 17,714,147 
 
 1,350,661 
 
 21,338,831 
 
 1,585,959 
 
 
 
 Continents 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 
 pounds 
 
 57,957,489 
 
 6,655,240 
 
 254,865 
 
 17,482,925 
 
 7,121,949 
 
 119,308 
 
 dollars 
 
 3,300,523 
 
 388,941 
 
 13,663 
 
 1,207,764 
 
 513,886 
 
 5,379 
 
 pounds 
 
 39,108,935 
 
 8,716,778 
 
 518,808 
 
 17,715,747 
 
 5,299,447 
 
 315,192 
 
 dollars 
 
 2,139,889 
 
 553,365 
 
 23,289 
 
 1,350,811 
 
 433,739 
 
 11,297 
 
 pounds 
 123,271,008 
 
 9,679,400 
 
 1,587,176 
 21,345,831 
 
 8,296,318 
 611,692 
 
 dollars 
 
 5,245,338 
 
 529,156 
 
 North America 
 
 
 110,749 
 1,586,559 
 
 Asia 
 
 
 562,473 
 22,981 
 
 Africa 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 89,591,776 
 
 5,430,156 
 
 71,674,907 
 
 4,512,390 
 
 164,791,425 
 
 8,057,256 
 
 
340 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 82 
 Total Exports of Canned Fruits from the United States, 1926-1928 
 
 Countries in Orient 
 
 British India 
 
 British Malaya 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 China 
 
 Java and Madura 
 
 Other Netherland East Indies 
 
 French Indo-China 
 
 Hongkong 
 
 Japan (including Korea) 
 
 Kwantung 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Siam 
 
 Soviet Russia in Asia 
 
 Total 
 
 1926 
 
 pounds 
 
 1,405,990 
 
 1,006,461 
 
 183,392 
 
 1,566,333 
 
 2,155,197 
 
 1,117,996 
 
 221,944 
 
 318,687 
 
 1,078,393 
 
 230,051 
 
 1,255,485 
 
 37,946 
 
 18,555 
 
 10,596,430 
 
 dollars 
 
 217,507 
 
 124,377 
 
 26,308 
 
 195,507 
 
 254,356 
 
 128,068 
 
 27,044 
 
 42,812 
 
 104,305 
 
 20,088 
 
 169,085 
 
 6,452 
 
 2,246 
 
 1,318,155 
 
 1927 
 
 pou?ids 
 
 1,653,864 
 
 898,417 
 
 255,824 
 
 1,896,496 
 
 1,080,064 
 
 755,469 
 
 237,540 
 
 517,108 
 
 825,965 
 
 194,712 
 
 1,466,356 
 
 48,687 
 
 12,790 
 
 1,843,292 
 
 dollars 
 
 242,646 
 
 111,197 
 
 34,567 
 
 210,800 
 
 129,853 
 
 85,867 
 
 26,253 
 
 63,375 
 
 86,992 
 
 17,536 
 
 168,924 
 
 8,106 
 
 1,482 
 
 1,187,598 
 
 1928 
 
 pounds 
 
 1,664,348 
 
 750,156 
 
 282,883 
 
 1,958,943 
 
 1,515,486 
 
 950,913 
 
 227,734 
 
 424,123 
 
 878,041 
 
 513,933 
 
 1,320,054 
 
 49,658 
 
 65,485 
 
 10,601,757 
 
 dollars 
 
 242,211 
 
 97,680 
 
 40,880 
 
 233,927 
 
 176,688 
 
 100,110 
 
 26,558 
 
 52,982 
 
 86,809 
 
 43,988 
 
 172,397 
 
 7,717 
 
 6,643 
 
 1,288,590 
 
 Continents 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 
 pounds 
 
 214,182,600 
 
 22,760,688 
 
 3,348,319 
 
 10,631,360 
 
 939,102 
 
 771,296 
 
 dollars 
 
 22,014,642 
 
 2,537,885 
 
 446,842 
 
 1,322,412 
 
 103,988 
 
 93,319 
 
 pounds 
 232,921,532 
 25,759,459 
 3,387,797 
 9,922,874 
 1,679,187 
 1,529,980 
 
 dollars 
 
 21,777,461 
 
 2,666,474 
 
 429,546 
 1,196,110 
 
 169,617 
 
 157,045 
 
 pounds 
 
 293,015,405 
 
 31,379,439 
 
 2,976,057 
 
 10,731,675 
 
 2,529,909 
 
 1,646,459 
 
 dollars 
 26,965,820 
 
 
 3,015,557 
 
 
 355,538 
 
 
 1,301,651 
 
 
 214,616 
 
 
 173,093 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 252,633,365 
 
 26,519,088 
 
 275,200,829 
 
 26,396,253 
 
 342,278,944 
 
 32,026,275 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 341 
 
 TABLE 83 
 Total Exports of Canned Fruits from California, 1927-1929 
 
 Countries in Orient 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 1929 
 
 British India 
 
 British Malaya 
 
 pounds 
 
 1,101,438 
 
 894,055 
 
 247,030 
 
 1,087,185 
 
 1,051,328 
 
 749,749 
 
 237,540 
 
 460,800 
 
 492,310 
 
 50,650 
 
 1,125,345 
 
 48,268 
 
 3,150 
 
 dollars 
 
 154,755 
 
 109,793 
 
 33,591 
 
 149,746 
 
 127,544 
 
 85,103 
 
 26,251 
 
 58,353 
 
 57,445 
 
 6,982 
 
 143,005 
 
 7,968 
 
 449 
 
 pounds 
 
 1,216,567 
 
 743,842 
 
 274,308 
 
 1,329,593 
 
 1,488,850 
 
 945,092 
 
 227,734 
 
 345,167 
 
 514,443 
 
 134,292 
 
 1,060,968 
 
 49,118 
 
 dollars 
 
 173,089 
 
 95,876 
 
 39,760 
 
 186,499 
 
 174,410 
 
 99,538 
 
 26,558 
 
 47,399 
 
 58,904 
 
 17,097 
 
 151,752 
 
 7,603 
 
 pounds 
 
 1,591,484 
 728,042 
 212,232 
 843,917 
 
 1,902,930 
 987,523 
 248,319 
 426,913 
 604,229 
 180,126 
 
 1,131,807 
 31,702 
 
 dollars 
 232,859 
 95,285 
 30,900 
 
 
 124,161 
 
 Java and Madura 
 
 Other Netherland East Indies.. 
 
 240,961 
 118,799 
 32,484 
 
 
 61,170 
 
 
 72,486 
 
 
 23,510 
 
 
 153,418 
 
 
 5,111 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 7,548,848 
 
 960,985 
 
 8,329,974 
 
 1,078,485 
 
 8,889,224 
 
 1,191,144 
 
 
 
 Continents 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 1929 
 
 
 pounds 
 155,769,117 
 7,114,586 
 2,091,726 
 7,561,517 
 1,252,645 
 635,847 
 
 dollars 
 15,538,288 
 725,671 
 256,243 
 962,298 
 138,174 
 61,246 
 
 pounds 
 195,220,752 
 8,491,235 
 1,652,620 
 8,404,669 
 2,120,948 
 1,021,539 
 
 dollars 
 
 19,265.684 
 
 863,887 
 
 196,638 
 
 1,084,769 
 
 182,749 
 
 98,281 
 
 pounds 
 185,050,263 
 8,623,189 
 2,402,041 
 8,947,940 
 1,085,476 
 1,093,607 
 
 dollars 
 20,144,733 
 
 
 963,775 
 
 
 307,253 
 
 
 1,197,255 
 
 
 118,958 
 
 
 125,757 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 174,425,438 
 
 17,681,920 
 
 216,911,763 
 
 21,692,008 
 
 207,202,516 
 
 22,857,731 
 
 
 
342 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 84 
 Total Exports of Dried Fruits from the United States, 1926-1928 
 
 Countries in Orient 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 
 pounds 
 
 107,479 
 
 135,388 
 
 38,128 
 
 4,940,329 
 
 204,155 
 
 53,878 
 
 56,545 
 
 198,597 
 
 3,520,409 
 
 406,712 
 
 615,876 
 
 29,144 
 
 25,645 
 
 dollars 
 
 17,447 
 
 17,498 
 
 7,178 
 
 398,627 
 
 30,062 
 
 7,382 
 
 6,880 
 
 21,961 
 
 362,548 
 
 39,031 
 
 72,585 
 
 4,596 
 
 4,310 
 
 pounds 
 
 105,883 
 
 125,548 
 
 69,334 
 
 4,019,544 
 
 140,960 
 
 48,516 
 
 151,103 
 
 483,474 
 
 2,993,069 
 
 452,111 
 
 928,785 
 
 10,741 
 
 49,978 
 
 dollars 
 
 13,862 
 
 13,434 
 
 8,740 
 
 309,927 
 
 18,658 
 
 6,122 
 
 12,259 
 
 45,273 
 
 232,423 
 
 34,651 
 
 94,621 
 
 1,120 
 
 5,804 
 
 pounds 
 
 300,068 
 
 155,230 
 
 62,752 
 
 7,727,155 
 
 323,385 
 
 103,049 
 
 265,174 
 
 1,187,196 
 
 3,168,938 
 
 957,037 
 
 1,177,486 
 
 43,868 
 
 6,488 
 
 dollars 
 28,047 
 
 
 16,346 
 
 
 7,756 
 
 
 442,634 
 
 
 37,475 
 
 Other Netherland East Indies.. 
 
 11,412 
 25,442 
 
 Hongkong 
 
 90,024 
 221,968 
 
 
 50,567 
 
 
 109,656 
 
 
 4,150 
 
 
 953 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 10,332,285 
 
 990,105 
 
 9,579,046 
 
 796,894 
 
 15,477,826 
 
 1,046,430 
 
 
 
 Continents 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 Europe 
 
 North America 
 South America 
 
 Asia 
 
 Oceania 
 
 Africa 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 270,203,556 
 
 68,454,781 
 
 5,621,177 
 
 10,663,399 
 
 8,265,993 
 
 343,565 
 
 363,557,471 
 
 dollars 
 
 23,210,321 
 
 5,170,640 
 
 569,287 
 
 1,022,180 
 
 667,017 
 
 36,603 
 
 pounds 
 
 387,172,445 
 
 67,492,662 
 
 6,342,611 
 
 9,907,076 
 
 10,120,955 
 
 653,973 
 
 30,676,1 
 
 481,689,722 
 
 dollars 
 27,058,044 
 4,567,354 
 523,848 
 829,676 
 762,693 
 55.365 
 
 pounds 
 471,306,311 
 77,059,429 
 10,462,403 
 15,708,743 
 9,476,030 
 1,121,563 
 
 33,796,930 
 
 585,134,479 
 
 dollars 
 
 32,267,743 
 
 4,764,660 
 
 797,581 
 
 1,067,835 
 
 608,378 
 
 101,101 
 
 39,607,298 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 343 
 
 TABLE 85 
 Total Exports op Dried Fruits prom California, 1927-1929 
 
 Countries in Orient 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 1929 
 
 British India 
 
 British Malaya 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 China 
 
 Java and Madura 
 
 Other Netherland East Indies 
 
 French Indo-China 
 
 Hongkong 
 
 Japan (including Korea) 
 
 Kwantung 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Siam 
 
 Soviet Russia in Asia 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 91,381 
 
 125,044 
 
 68,234 
 
 4,010,000 
 
 140,960 
 
 48,516 
 
 151,103 
 
 482,359 
 
 2,989,146 
 
 448,361 
 
 857,341 
 
 10,741 
 
 20,500 
 
 9,443, 
 
 dollars 
 
 11,579 
 
 13,359 
 
 8,601 
 
 309,326 
 
 18,658 
 
 6,122 
 
 12,259 
 
 45,092 
 
 232,025 
 
 34,430 
 
 99,357 
 
 1,120 
 
 2,050 
 
 pounds 
 294,719 
 155,158 
 63,375 
 
 ,719,155 
 324,385 
 102,842 
 265,176 
 
 ,182,971 
 
 ,168,442 
 949,787 
 
 ,175,150 
 43,868 
 
 793,978 
 
 15,445,028 
 
 dollars 
 
 27,356 
 
 16,331 
 
 7,816 
 
 441,583 
 
 37,475 
 
 11,379 
 
 25,442 
 
 89,657 
 
 221,872 
 
 50,567 
 
 109,464 
 
 4,150 
 
 pounds 
 
 221,386 
 
 218,212 
 
 70,083 
 
 6,889,788 
 
 414,625 
 
 107,024 
 
 352,174 
 
 1,996,379 
 
 3,409,995 
 
 983,041 
 
 1,175,627 
 
 16,261 
 
 2,600 
 
 1,043,092 
 
 15,857,195 
 
 dollars 
 
 28,862 
 
 23,033 
 
 9,528 
 
 413,282 
 
 53,977 
 
 13,393 
 
 21,972 
 
 114,618 
 
 270,798 
 
 50,967 
 
 101,128 
 
 1,369 
 
 260 
 
 1,103,187 
 
 Continents 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 1929 
 
 
 pounds 
 251,359,280 
 17,733,322 
 5,786,564 
 9,482,556 
 10,115,982 
 437,379 
 
 dollars 
 17,383,382 
 1,282,713 
 457,811 
 796,513 
 762,230 
 32,840 
 
 pounds 
 
 368,532,310 
 
 23,062,622 
 
 9,951,653 
 
 15,487,505 
 
 9,473,329 
 
 884,984 
 
 dollars 
 
 24,542,055 
 
 1,566,701 
 
 732,463 
 
 1,046,339 
 
 608,023 
 
 79,067 
 
 pounds 
 170,219,693 
 18,099,666 
 6,326,917 
 15,875,976 
 8,440,611 
 696,714 
 
 dollars 
 16,710,353 
 
 Nortl America 
 
 1,289,254 
 
 South America 
 
 554,210 
 
 
 1,105,445 
 
 
 539,938 
 
 
 83,007 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 294,915,083 
 
 20,715,489 
 
 427,392,403 
 
 28,574,648 
 
 219,659,577 
 
 20,282,207 
 
 
 
344 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 86 
 
 United States Exports of Raisins, Prunes, 
 to Asia, 1910-1928 
 
 Year Raisins Prunes 
 
 1,000 lb. 1,000 lb. 
 
 1910 331 265 
 
 1911 430 295 
 
 1912 606 531 
 
 1913 897 493 
 
 1914 757 533 
 
 1915 751 574 
 
 1916 886 1,028 
 
 1917 1,032 802 
 
 1918 1,169 864 
 
 1919 2,990 1,036 
 
 1920 2,438 1,128 
 
 1921 2,473 621 
 
 1922 5,369 479 
 
 1923 10,561 587 
 
 1924 10,362 879 
 
 1925 6,711 711 
 
 1926 8,443 963 
 
 1927 7,963 1,184 
 
 1928 13,066 1,760 
 
 Peaches, and Apricots 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Apricots 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 1,000 lb. 
 
 26 
 
 117 
 
 52 
 
 160 
 
 77 
 
 147 
 
 80 
 
 183 
 
 69 
 
 151 
 
 159 
 
 248 
 
 253 
 
 313 
 
 176 
 
 207 
 
 65 
 
 290 
 
 165 
 
 437 
 
 91 
 
 301 
 
 92 
 
 355 
 
 50 
 
 393 
 
 36 
 
 348 
 
 65 
 
 618 
 
 43 
 
 356 
 
 51 
 
 617 
 
 49 
 
 177 
 
 72 
 
 208 
 
 TABLE 87 
 Populations of the Countries of Eastern Asia 
 
 Country Total Population Europeans 
 
 Japan 59,763,000 8,627 
 
 Korea 19,137,698 1,267 
 
 China, including Manchuria 425,000,000 251,000 
 
 Philippine Islands 12,354,000 11,600 
 
 French Indo-China 20,000,000 21,500 
 
 Siam 10,000,000 2,000 
 
 British Malaya 3,852,842 21,093 
 
 Netherland East Indies 51,314,048 169,000 
 
 Burma 13,200,000 25,000 
 
 India (proper) 305,742,480 149,059 
 
 Ceylon 5,124,992 11,000 
 
 Total Eastern Asia 925,489,060 671,146 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 345 
 
 TABLE 88 
 
 Japan, Area Under, Different Crops, 1923 
 
 Per cent of 
 Acres area in crops 
 
 Total area 15,257,432 100.0 
 
 Area under principal crops 19,678,431 129.0 
 
 Foodstuffs 15,008,970 98.4 
 
 Industrial crops 744,454 4.9 
 
 Fruits 250,000 1.7 
 
 Vegetables 128,605 8.4 
 
 Green manures 1,060,517 7.0 
 
 Mulberry fields 1,322,976 8.7 
 
 Data: Page 491, the Japan Year Book, 1929. 
 
 TABLE 89 
 Fruit Production in Japan 
 
 Year 
 
 Man- 
 darins 
 
 Persim- 
 mons 
 
 Pears 
 
 Apples 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Bitter 
 oranges 
 
 Navel 
 oranges 
 
 Loquats 
 
 1905 
 
 pounds 
 192,096 
 303,443 
 345,529 
 443,479 
 32,336 
 422,233 
 472,027 
 443,264 
 441,734 
 603,718 
 478,792 
 
 pounds 
 358,215 
 383,381 
 396,249 
 376,525 
 410,316 
 385,010 
 366,154 
 517,934 
 354,775 
 586,318 
 480,437 
 
 pounds 
 127,316 
 157,626 
 178,045 
 223,067 
 242,956 
 246,107 
 222,331 
 227,731 
 274,481 
 290,897 
 318,974 
 
 pounds 
 50,207 
 105,385 
 58,428 
 63,770 
 60,024 
 142,897 
 66,168 
 87,894 
 127,250 
 215,161 
 157,717 
 
 pounds 
 44,766 
 75,828 
 
 100,199 
 
 108,899 
 91,508 
 87,315 
 92,922 
 84,122 
 98,769 
 99,306 
 
 113,713 
 
 pounds 
 14,754 
 27,473 
 37,455 
 55,872 
 52,051 
 56,633 
 61,066 
 66,003 
 78,284 
 89,779 
 90,805 
 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 1910 
 
 93,236 
 92,856 
 113,564 
 102,292 
 127,970 
 75,976 
 104,872 
 124,331 
 139,366 
 107,642 
 
 7,460 
 19,054 
 28,589 
 
 8,642 
 27,035 
 28,507 
 26,257 
 27,026 
 31,914 
 31,310 
 
 20,865 
 
 1915 .. . 
 
 20,468 
 
 1920 
 
 21,055 
 
 1921 
 
 22,751 
 
 1922 
 
 24,256 
 
 1923 
 
 25,306 
 
 1924 
 
 24,380 
 
 1925 
 
 26,307 
 
 1926 
 
 25,405 
 
 1927 
 
 29 987 
 
 
 
 Data from E. F Penrose, Nagoya Commercial College, Japan. 
 
346 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
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348 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 91 
 
 China's Imports of Fresh, Dried, and Preserved Fruits not Otherwise 
 Kecorded, by Countries of Origin, 1925-1927 
 
 Imported from 
 
 1925 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 Hongkong 
 
 Macao 
 
 French Indo-China 
 
 Siam 
 
 Singapore, Straits, etc 
 
 Dutch Indies 
 
 British India 
 
 Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Aden, etc. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Germany 
 
 France 
 
 Spain (including Gibraltar) 
 
 Italy 
 
 Russia and Siberia by land frontier 
 
 Russia Pacific ports 
 
 Korea 
 
 Japan (including Formosa) 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Canada 
 
 U. S. A. (including Hawaii) 
 
 Australia, New Zealand, etc 
 
 Direct gross imports 
 
 Re-exported abroad 
 
 Net imports from abroad 
 
 pounds 
 
 14,142,846 
 
 5,125,072 
 
 429,856 
 
 417,323 
 
 39,066 
 
 12,133 
 
 5,467 
 
 70,665 
 
 15,866 
 
 6,133 
 
 54,665 
 
 533 
 
 2,667 
 
 8,666 
 
 46,399 
 
 133,463 
 
 7,110,222 
 
 253,994 
 
 1,200 
 
 486,921 
 
 1,067 
 
 28,364,224 
 667 
 
 28,363,557 
 
 dollars 
 
 617,034 
 
 171,788 
 
 11,798 
 
 8,044 
 
 " 2,117 
 
 717 
 
 683 
 
 7,844 
 
 2,093 
 
 646 
 
 4,853 
 
 177 
 
 207 
 
 1,013 
 
 2,840 
 
 9,417 
 
 193,724 
 
 13,038 
 
 105 
 
 55,619 
 
 163 
 
 1,103, 
 
 35 
 
 pounds 
 
 5,246,003 
 
 1,126,639 
 
 5,302,534 
 
 581,185 
 
 17,600 
 
 423,323 
 
 6,000 
 
 45,599 
 
 4,800 
 
 15,066 
 
 74,931 
 
 14,933 
 
 19,200 
 
 143,196 
 
 184,395 
 
 13,266,735 
 
 835,979 
 
 133 
 
 1,401,698 
 
 28,709,949 
 16,400 
 
 1,103,885 
 
 28,693,549 
 
 dollars 
 
 181,731 
 
 37,205 
 
 83,581 
 
 10,091 
 
 997 
 
 5,372 
 
 1,156 
 
 5,004 
 
 684 
 
 1,851 
 
 4,910 
 
 pounds 
 
 18,810,196 
 
 3,459,780 
 
 80,398 
 
 487,188 
 
 13,866 
 
 103,997 
 
 21,066 
 
 46,399 
 
 14,666 
 
 16,000 
 
 4,933 
 
 1,288 
 
 2,313 
 
 13,374 
 
 12,185 
 
 379,580 
 
 49,190 
 
 8 
 
 96,467 
 
 17,733 
 
 933 
 
 81,998 
 
 251,860 
 
 13,673,125 
 
 364,658 
 
 16,000 
 
 749,448 
 
 1,159 
 
 38,214,245 
 17,200 
 
 885,828 
 
 38,197,045 
 
 dollars 
 
 514,364 
 
 101,904 
 
 2,036 
 
 8,262 
 
 933 
 
 1,201 
 
 2,772 
 
 4,471 
 
 1,370 
 
 2,061 
 
 873 
 
 1,929 
 
 131 
 
 6,098 
 
 13,676 
 
 331,856 
 
 26,101 
 
 623 
 
 73,827 
 
 1,094,488 
 588 
 
 1,093,900 
 
Buk 493] Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 349 
 
 TABLE 92 
 
 Net Import of Oranges into China Ports 
 
 1927 1928 
 
 Net import into r~ b A > r - ' A ■ N 
 
 pounds dollars pounds dollars 
 
 Aigun 400 42 133 7 
 
 Harbin District 4,716,282 253,592 3,407,115 216,443 
 
 Hunchun 34,131 3,918 104,797 5,502 
 
 Lungchingtsun 482,921 23,945 549,719 19,874 
 
 Antung 1,525,695 58,940 1,256,502 48,679 
 
 Dairen 22,877,428 651,400 21,033,874 587,754 
 
 Newehwang 35,866 2,881 47,599 4,412 
 
 Chinwangtao 1,333 108 4,266 129 
 
 Tientsin 745,715 32,041 1,623,693 68,837 
 
 Lungkow 81,731 1,815 27,333 1,007 
 
 Chefoo 69,865 2,649 89,731 4,221 
 
 Kiaochow 1,815,288 51,722 1,679,825 45,602 
 
 Chungking 
 
 Ichang 400 41 
 
 Shasi 3,600 301 
 
 Changsha 133 12 
 
 Hankow 48,132 3,760 201,462 18,686 
 
 Kiukiang 1,733 152 
 
 Wuhu 3,067 228 533 30 
 
 Nanking 667 55 400 28 
 
 Chinkiang 1,333 107 133 8 
 
 Shanghai 2,508,604 210,816 1,996,217 212,688 
 
 Hangchow 1,467 124 1,067 96 
 
 Ningpo 400 19 267 14 
 
 Wenchow 800 151 
 
 Foochow 11,867 920 3,333 304 
 
 Amoy' 268,660 17,344 187,595 12,870 
 
 Swatow 4,000 259 2,133 44 
 
 Canton 67,465 3,660 205,995 9,096 
 
 Kowloon 4,800 124 39,999 1,042 
 
 Kowloon: Railway Traffic. 11,333 293 3,067 80 
 
 Wuchow 7,866 180 
 
 Kiungchow 138,397 11,682 232,661 4.500 
 
 Pakhoi 533 12 533 20 
 
 Mengtsz 933 48 400 70 
 
 Tengyueh 2,533 26 1,867 188 
 
 Total net import 35,524,845 1,333,314 32,702,782 1,262,284 
 
 Data from G. O. Woodard, Trade Commissioner, Shanghai. 
 
350 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 93 
 
 Net Import of Lemons into China Ports 
 
 1927 
 
 Net import into 
 
 1,000 lemons dollars 1,000 lemons dollars 
 
 Aigun 
 
 Harbin District 20 538 5 147 
 
 Antung 1 34 1 27 
 
 Dairen 929 19,777 657 14,670 
 
 N/ewchwang Ill 2,351 189 5,026 
 
 Chinwangtao 1 19 2 61 
 
 Tientsin 207 4,383 320 8,252 
 
 Chefoo 27 616 46 1,268 
 
 Kiaochow 126 2,634 45 1,010 
 
 Changsha 
 
 Hankow 24 452 24 601 
 
 Kiukiang » 
 
 Wuhu 3 13 
 
 Nanking 
 
 Shanghai 2,124 51,862 1,875 52,300 
 
 Amoy 5 99 12 342 
 
 Canton 20 554 37 872 
 
 Total net import 3,595 83,322 3,213 84,589 
 
 Data from G. O. Woodard, Trade Commissioner, Shanghai. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 351 
 
 TABLE 94 
 Net Import of Oranges^ in Bulk into China Ports 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 Net import into 
 
 Antung 
 
 Dairen 
 
 Newchwang 
 
 Tientsin 
 
 Cliefoo 
 
 Kiaochow ... 
 Chungking . 
 
 Ichang 
 
 Shasi 
 
 Changsha ... 
 
 Hankow 
 
 Kiukiang ... 
 
 Wuhu 
 
 Nanking 
 
 Chinkiang 
 Shanghai ... 
 
 Soochow 
 
 Hangchow . 
 
 Ningpo 
 
 Wenchow ... 
 
 Foochow 
 
 Amoy 
 
 Swatow 
 
 Canton 
 
 Lappa 
 
 Samshiu 
 
 Wuchow 
 
 Nanning 
 
 Kiungehow . 
 
 Pakhoi 
 
 Mengtsz 
 
 Tengyueh ... 
 
 pounds 
 
 1,333 
 
 5,199 
 
 134,633 
 
 2,399 
 
 4,532 
 
 800 
 
 133 
 
 133 
 
 1,067 
 
 5,065 
 
 2,399 
 
 1,600 
 
 400 
 
 15,063 
 
 62,651 
 
 1,066 
 
 2,000 
 
 3,466 
 
 400 
 
 2,000 
 
 133 
 
 1,866 
 
 1,733 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,333 
 28,660 
 
 667 
 
 533 
 
 14,796 
 
 1,466 
 
 106 
 
 497 
 
 11,032 
 
 189 
 
 304 
 
 79 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 106 
 
 507 
 
 291 
 
 148 
 
 34 
 
 1,571 
 
 6,390 
 
 102 
 
 192 
 
 356 
 
 38 
 
 150 
 
 11 
 
 183 
 
 136 
 
 94 
 
 2,489 
 
 66 
 
 46 
 
 1,494 
 
 141 
 
 Excess of re-export over 
 
 import 
 
 Total net import .. 297,526 26,785 
 
 Data from G. O. Woodard, Trade Commissioner, Shanghai. 
 
 pounds 
 
 1,333 
 
 933 
 
 142,498 
 
 6,398 
 
 16,529 
 
 7,865 
 
 533 
 
 1,733 
 
 267 
 
 21,061 
 
 4,799 
 
 7,598 
 
 1,066 
 
 13,330 
 
 56,652 
 
 400 
 
 1,733 
 666 
 
 9,198 
 267 
 
 1,200 
 
 267 
 
 12,397 
 
 6,398 
 667 
 
 14,796 
 933 
 
 331,517 
 
 133 
 
 331,384 
 
 dollars 
 
 500 
 
 86 
 
 13,394 
 
 489 
 
 1,106 
 
 309 
 
 61 
 
 171 
 
 28 
 
 2,034 
 
 508 
 
 746 
 
 110 
 
 1,490 
 
 6,248 
 
 40 
 
 185 
 81 
 
 913 
 21 
 
 123 
 32 
 
 975 
 
 500 
 48 
 
 1,852 
 132 
 
 32,182 
 13 
 
 32,169 
 
352 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 95 
 Net Import of Fruits, Table and Pie (Canned Goods) into China Ports 
 
 1927 1928 
 
 Net import into r~ A n t A -n 
 
 pounds dollars pounds dollars 
 
 Aigun 7,598 1,180 4,932 648 
 
 Harbin District 
 
 Hunchun 21,195 1,865 37,724 3,962 
 
 Lungchingtsun 533 94 
 
 Antung 10,931 1,134 24,527 1,751 
 
 Dairen 707,290 59,236 1,104,257 97,630 
 
 Newchwang 7,198 331 15,729 1,406 
 
 Chinwangtao 1,333 122 3,732 375 
 
 Tientsin 347,113 31,984 305,524 28,514 
 
 Lungkow 2,533 154 4,132 274 
 
 Chefoo 4,799 328 
 
 Kiaochow 73,315 5,837 77,980 6,939 
 
 Chungking 34,125 3,524 72,515 6,955 
 
 Wanhsien 400 41 7,865 720 
 
 Ichang 54,253 4,991 73,582 5,796 
 
 Shasi 1,200 Q6 
 
 Changsha : 3,999 321 17,996 1,664 
 
 Yochow 1,200 124 
 
 Hankow 66,117 5,093 250,204 20,498 
 
 Kiukiang 3,732 319 12,663 1,254 
 
 Wuhu 22,928 2,294 14,130 969 
 
 Nanking 1,200 166 2,666 253 
 
 Chinkiang 4,266 399 4,132 409 
 
 Shanghai 1,484,029 130,966 1,577,072 128,410 
 
 Hangchow 
 
 N/ingpo 667 31 
 
 Wenchow 3,999 3S8 7,065 640 
 
 Foochow 2,799 247 70,382 2,952 
 
 Amoy 761,809 32,978 920,703 37,686 
 
 Canton 5,199 606 8,398 679 
 
 Samshui 400 32 
 
 Wuchow 17,062 1,591 21,328 2,229 
 
 Kiungchow 14,396 1,267 156,228 13,544 
 
 Pakhoi 6,532 631 15,863 1,657 
 
 Lungchow 533 42 
 
 Mengtsz 91,710 8,802 161,426 15,232 
 
 Tengyueh 9,864 1,409 8,398 1,306 
 
 3,767,325 297,908 4,990,085 385,037 
 Excess of re-export over 
 
 import 11,064 1,003 7,598 736 
 
 Total net import.. 3,756,261 296,905 4,982,487 384,301 
 Data from G. O. Woodard, Trade Commissioner, Shanghai. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 353 
 
 TABLE 96 
 Net Import of Canned Goods not Otherwise Recorded into China Ports 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 Net import into 
 
 Aigun 
 
 Harbin District 
 
 Hunchun 
 
 Lungchingtsun 
 
 Antung 
 
 Dairen 
 
 Newchwang 
 
 Chinwangtao 
 
 Tientsin 
 
 Lungkow 
 
 Chefoo 
 
 Kiaochow 
 
 Chungking 
 
 Wanhsien 
 
 Ichang 
 
 Shasi 
 
 Changsha 
 
 Yochow 
 
 Hankow ■ 
 
 Kiukiang 
 
 Wuhu 
 
 Nanking 
 
 Chinkiang 
 
 Shanghai 
 
 Soochow 
 
 Hangchow 
 
 Ningpo 
 
 Wenchow 
 
 Santuao 
 
 Foochow 
 
 Amoy 
 
 Swatow 
 
 Canton 
 
 Kowloon 
 
 Kowloon : Railway Traffic 
 
 Lappa 
 
 Kongmoon 
 
 Samshui 
 
 Wuchow 
 
 Kiungchow 
 
 Pakhoi 
 
 Lungchow 
 
 Mengtsz 
 
 Tengyueh 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,657 
 
 26,958 
 
 1,505 
 
 9,989 
 
 7,839 
 
 206,276 
 
 1,575 
 
 912 
 
 89,238 
 
 73 
 
 23,731 
 
 27,636 
 
 1,035 
 
 351 
 
 3,422 
 
 501 
 
 4 
 
 5,191 
 
 1,165 
 
 1,315 
 
 505 
 
 573 
 
 295,838 
 
 39 
 
 133 
 
 602 
 
 18 
 
 1,428 
 
 43,696 
 
 4,280 
 
 30,161 
 
 438 
 
 3 
 
 3,665 
 
 520 
 
 121 
 
 552 
 
 9,233 
 
 2,273 
 
 1,260 
 232 
 
 pounds 
 
 Total net import 805,943 
 
 Data from G. O. Woodard, Trade Commissioner, Shanghai. 
 
 dollars 
 
 1,306 
 
 2,307 
 
 2,911 
 
 11,967 
 
 16,112 
 
 302,150 
 
 4,148 
 
 2,469 
 
 107,941 
 
 55 
 
 22,149 
 
 24,197 
 
 1,534 
 
 1,172 
 
 4,353 
 
 620 
 
 146 
 
 191 
 
 14,657 
 
 1,465 
 
 1,205 
 
 218 
 
 503 
 
 358,111 
 
 41 
 
 1,825 
 
 393 
 
 116 
 
 49 
 
 2,610 
 
 40,389 
 
 3,091 
 
 34,567 
 
 1,005 
 
 391 
 
 2,967 
 
 1,055 
 
 823 
 
 72 
 
 10,551 
 
 527 
 
 271 
 
 1,129 
 
 120 
 
 983,879 
 
354 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 97 
 Net Import of Currants and Raisins into China Ports 
 
 1927 192* 
 
 Net import into r^ % r~ « A \ 
 
 pounds dollars pounds dollars 
 
 Aigun 6,533 1,183 3,867 609 
 
 Harbin District 238,527 29,304 87,598 9,428 
 
 Hunchun 7,466 1,159 4,666 613 
 
 Lungchingtsun 5,333 785 5,067 858 
 
 Antung 1,867 123 23,599 1,845 
 
 Dairen 903,577 74,096 1,215,970 80,595 
 
 Newchang 124,797 6,801 108,664 8,509 
 
 Chinwangtao 2,533 267 10,133 797 
 
 Tientsin 205,062 19,371 345,991 33,161 
 
 Lungkow 267 28 
 
 Chefoo 26,133 1,479 25,999 1,454 
 
 Kiaochow 40,266 3,854 120,664 7,057 
 
 Chungking 3,867 573 6,133 539 
 
 Wanhsien 267 12 933 63 
 
 Ichang 1,467 126 5,733 324 
 
 Shasi 933 61 57,998 3,743 
 
 Changsha 24,933 2,710 107,864 9,229 
 
 Yochow 1,600 160 1,867 293 
 
 Hankow 100,531 8,800 387,857 22,507 
 
 Kiukiang 76,665 8,214 155,596 11,629 
 
 Wuhu 57,732 4,940 55,732 3,609 
 
 Nanking 41,332 3,329 29,599 2,250 
 
 Chinkiang 28,933 2,669 63,865 3,389 
 
 Shanghai 1,354,099 107,514 2,733,932 145,043 
 
 Soochow 7,200 542 533 23 
 
 Hangchow 1,067 168 667 64 
 
 Ningpo 25,199 1,829 41,599 2,134 
 
 Wenchow 20,666 1,397 29,866 1,557 
 
 Santuao 133 12 667 96 
 
 Foochow 45,466 6,255 85,864 8,706 
 
 Amoy 39,732 3,076 60,798 4,334 
 
 Swatow 78,931 6,858 117,864 13,181 
 
 Canton 53,332 5,481 132,930 9,880 
 
 Kowloon 339,458 31,621 389,724 33,352 
 
 Kowloon: Railway Traffic 4,533 422 2,933 251 
 
 Lappa 82,398 7,249 163,063 13,098 
 
 Kongmoon 7,333 1,117 6,667 1,021 
 
 Samshui 10,933 1,520 11,466 1,037 
 
 Wuchow 48,265 6,403 85,331 11,816 
 
 Nanning 4,667 752 4,267 696 
 
 Khmgchow 8,533 751 9,200 988 
 
 Pakhoi 7,200 1,020 10,400 1,659 
 
 Lungchow 133 33 
 
 Mengtsz 35,066 3,128 35,732 3,837 
 
 Tengyueh 10,800 2,120 8,533 1,794 
 
 Total net import 4,085,765 359,312 6,757,431 457,068 
 
 Data from G. O. Woodard, Trade Commissioner, Shanghai. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 355 
 
 TABLE 98 
 
 Net Import of Fruits, Fresh, Dried, or Preserved, not Otherwise Recorded 
 
 into China Ports 
 
 1927 
 
 Net import into , 
 
 pounds 
 
 Aigun 800 
 
 Harbin District 81,979 
 
 Hunchun 10,931 
 
 Lungchingtsun 78,247 
 
 Antung 246,738 
 
 Dairen 6,744,047 
 
 Newchwang 32,925 
 
 Chinwnngtao 1,733 
 
 Tientsin 4,448,621 
 
 Lungkow 
 
 Chefoo 
 
 Kiachow 406,432 
 
 Chungking 
 
 Ichang 133 
 
 Shasi 
 
 Changsha 133 
 
 Yoehow 
 
 Hankow 8,664 
 
 Kiukiang 400 
 
 Wuhu 267 
 
 Nanking 
 
 Chinkiang 
 
 Shanghai 1,634,658 
 
 Soochow 
 
 Hangchow 3,066 
 
 Ningpo 
 
 Wenchow 3,466 
 
 Santuao 1,066 
 
 Foochow 2,211,980 
 
 Amoy 433,492 
 
 Rwatow 1,025,610 
 
 Canton 3,619,362 
 
 Kowloon 9,597,333 
 
 Kowloon: Railway Traffic 301,924 
 
 Lappa 4,588,986 
 
 Kongmoon 1,100,525 
 
 Samshiu 386,037 
 
 Wuchow 570,524 
 
 Nanning 1,333 
 
 Kiungchow 372,574 
 
 Pakhoi 154,628 
 
 Lungchow 2,799 
 
 Mengtsz 39,590 
 
 Tengyueh 4,532 
 
 dollars 
 
 pounds 
 
 165 
 
 1,866 
 
 6,203 
 
 229,543 
 
 645 
 
 12,130 
 
 7,132 
 
 73,715 
 
 9,662 
 
 406,965 
 
 197,421 
 
 6,726,718 
 
 1,370 
 
 2,266 
 
 36 
 
 533 
 
 123,667 
 
 5,359,460 
 
 
 1,866 
 
 
 16,396 
 
 11,059 
 
 589,853 
 
 17 
 
 133 
 
 
 3,066 
 
 8 
 
 800 
 
 415 
 
 14,396 
 
 33 
 
 1,466 
 
 37 
 
 533 
 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 133 
 
 88,590 
 
 3,173,473 
 
 208 
 
 
 
 1,733 
 
 173 
 
 4,399 
 
 31 
 
 667 
 
 35,559 
 
 1,354,994 
 
 12,204 
 
 275,531 
 
 43,357 
 
 1,180,905 
 
 111,990 
 
 3,561,909 
 
 168,163 
 
 11,744,396 
 
 7,610 
 
 262,734 
 
 155,929 
 
 5,868,666 
 
 39,738 
 
 1,156,777 
 
 17,707 
 
 462,951 
 
 25,124 
 
 674,898 
 
 83 
 
 11,331 
 
 15,686 
 
 437,891 
 
 7,909 
 
 174,090 
 
 185 
 
 16,529 
 
 1,739 
 
 93,177 
 
 376 
 
 
 
 
 dollars 
 
 294 
 
 13,936 
 
 956 
 
 6,962 
 
 15,704 
 
 206,302 
 
 220 
 
 8 
 
 146,358 
 
 48 
 
 853 
 
 12,330 
 
 11 
 
 67 
 66 
 
 924 
 174 
 
 17 
 113 
 
 6 
 
 108,877 
 
 40 
 
 153 
 
 19 
 
 21,763 
 
 10,728 
 
 54,867 
 
 114,101 
 
 219,261 
 
 7,764 
 
 247,579 
 
 43,576 
 
 18,682 
 
 39,096 
 
 .174 
 
 19,690 
 
 9,455 
 
 437 
 
 4,182 
 
 Total net import 38,115,535 1,090,231 43,900,089 
 
 Data from report of G. O. Woodard, Trade Commissioner, Shanghai. 
 
 1,326,193 
 
356 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 99 
 
 Imports of Canned Fruits into the Philippine Islands by Countries 
 
 of Origin 
 
 Fruits 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 Pineapple 
 United States 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 pounds 
 
 81,426 
 124,870 
 
 6,499 
 341,227 
 
 1,425 
 
 dollars 
 
 7,917 
 
 9,481 
 
 352 
 
 19,531 
 
 78 
 
 pounds 
 
 63,261 
 
 119,414 
 
 1,410 
 
 527,690 
 
 dollars 
 
 6,400 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 
 
 10,783 
 
 China 
 
 
 
 81 
 
 Br. East Indies 
 
 
 
 31,885 
 
 Dt. East Indies 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 555,447 
 
 37,359 
 
 711,775 
 
 49,149 
 
 
 
 
 
 All Other 
 United States 
 
 1,318,909 
 
 91,111 
 
 6,508 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 541 
 
 1,254 
 
 11 
 
 10,626 
 
 1,335 
 
 169,107 
 
 349,426 
 
 1,760 
 
 136,465 
 
 9,184 
 
 420 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 65 
 
 194 
 
 2 
 
 2,060 
 
 209 
 
 15,628 
 
 15,114 
 
 99 
 
 1,224,595 
 
 120,242 
 
 1,771,231 
 1,100 
 
 166,106 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 297 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 766 
 
 148 
 
 
 Belgium 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 470 
 
 132 
 
 18 
 
 11,152 
 
 858 
 
 124,454 
 
 3,676 
 
 11 
 
 Belgium.... 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 France.... 
 
 88 
 
 299 
 
 29 
 
 6,767 
 
 31 
 
 106,964 
 
 5,042 
 
 16 
 
 48 
 
 4 
 
 1,264 
 
 3 
 
 8,903 
 
 233 
 
 32 
 
 Germany 
 
 21 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 2 
 
 Spain 
 
 2,026 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 107 
 
 China 
 
 10,631 
 
 Br. East Indies 
 
 206 
 
 Hongkong 
 
 290 
 3,025 
 1,166 
 
 13 
 204 
 
 85 
 
 
 
 Japan 
 
 1,833 
 607 
 
 122 
 56 
 
 385 
 22 
 
 35 
 
 Australia 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,953,050 
 
 179,627 
 
 1,349,062 
 
 131,163 
 
 1,913,531 
 
 179,478 
 
 
 
 Data from H. V Rohrer, Assistant Trade Commissioner, Manila. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 357 
 
 TABLE 100 
 Imports of Fresh Fruits into the Philippine Islands by Countries 
 
 Articles and countries of origin 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 Apples 
 
 United States 
 
 pounds 
 
 5,141,895 
 
 dollars 
 
 215,628 
 
 pounds 
 
 5,424,164 
 
 dollars 
 
 217,965 
 
 Canada 
 
 
 France 
 
 
 
 
 
 China 
 
 101,858 
 11,136 
 
 4,637 
 362 
 
 250,549 
 
 8,987 
 
 8,444 
 
 Japan 
 
 190 
 
 Australia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 5,254,889 
 
 220,627 
 
 5,683,700 
 
 226,599 
 
 
 
 Lemons 
 United States 
 
 544,586 
 
 38,475 
 
 680,262 
 
 41,419 
 
 Italy 
 
 
 Canada 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 
 418 
 4,323 
 
 15 
 
 China 
 
 
 
 327 
 
 Australasi?.... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 544,586 
 
 38,475 
 
 685,003 
 
 41,761 
 
 
 
 Grapes 
 United States 
 
 1,179,000 
 
 95,269 
 
 1,090,265 
 2,343 
 
 84,004 
 
 Australia 
 
 255 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,179,000 
 
 95,269 
 
 1,092,608 
 
 84,259 
 
 
 
 Oranges 
 United States 
 
 3,159,198 
 
 364,817 
 
 308 
 
 10,932 
 
 226,113 
 
 9,603 
 
 10 
 
 277 
 
 3,549,418 
 
 1,405,543 
 
 330 
 
 1,738 
 
 240,742 
 
 China 
 
 52,967 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 5 
 
 Japan 
 
 63 
 
 Australasia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 3,535,255 
 
 236,003 
 
 4,957,029 
 
 293,777 
 
 
 
 Pears 
 United States 
 
 48,972 
 
 3,788 
 
 73,161 
 
 5,546 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 China 
 
 131,426 
 
 6,583 
 
 216,854 
 
 9,844 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 
 Japan 
 
 913 
 
 35 
 
 114,710 
 
 4,544 
 
 Australasia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 181,311 
 
 10,406 
 
 404,725 
 
 19,934 
 
 
 
 All Other 
 United States 
 
 47,285 
 168,661 
 
 4,951 
 7,269 
 
 106,133 
 341,537 
 
 8,828 
 
 China 
 
 1 1,317 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 Canada 
 
 
 
 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 3,582 
 
 15,767 
 
 957 
 
 159 
 
 501 
 
 55 
 
 1,555 
 
 34 
 
 French East Indies 
 
 
 Japan 
 
 1,155 
 
 20 
 
 Australasia 
 
 
 Australia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 236,252 
 
 12,935 
 
 450,380 
 
 23,199 
 
 
 
 Data from H. V. Rohrer, Assistant Trade Commissioner, Manila. 
 
358 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 101 
 
 Imports and Exports of Fruits in French IndO'-China 
 
 Fruits 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 Imports 
 Fresh fruits 
 
 Apples and pears 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Chinese origin 
 
 All others 
 
 Dried fruits 
 
 Raisins 
 
 Almonds and nuts 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Chinese origin 
 
 All others 
 
 Canned fruits 
 
 Exports 
 
 Cocoanuts 
 
 Mangoes and mangosteens 
 
 Bananas 
 
 Dried fruits 
 
 Candied fruits 
 
 241 
 74 
 
 4,029 
 759 
 
 306 
 69 
 56 
 574 
 736 
 349 
 
 2,100 
 313 
 
 176 
 
 dollars 
 
 13,152 
 17,136 
 
 299 
 97 
 
 219,804 
 41,556 
 
 122,384 
 25,380 
 18,416 
 
 235,968 
 
 78,524 
 76,280 
 
 26,728 
 53,348 
 
 24,568 
 145,316 
 
 5,205 
 756 
 
 262 
 86 
 68 
 642 
 723 
 437 
 
 93 
 241 
 
 42 
 
 135 
 
 1,042 
 
 dollars 
 
 32,632 
 22,680 
 
 283,920 
 130,412 
 
 142,876 
 30,840 
 22,352 
 
 264,032 
 
 268,876 
 144,588 
 
 1,188 
 
 37,632 
 
 2,288 
 
 7,336 
 
 52,636 
 
 310 
 
 86 
 
 33 
 
 6,767 
 
 762 
 
 340 
 
 90 
 
 53 
 
 1,405 
 
 891 
 
 133 
 
 84 
 
 124 
 
 968 
 
 dollars 
 
 33,860 
 20,104 
 23,800 
 377,340 
 35,572 
 
 185,576 
 
 31,948 
 
 15,484 
 
 577,572 
 
 162,520 
 
 64,464 
 
 23,576 
 
 45,688 
 
 8,168 
 
 29,692 
 
 TABLE 102 
 Imports of Fresh Fruits into Siam* 
 
 Imported from 
 
 Fiscal years ended March 31 
 
 1926-27 
 
 Quantity 
 in pounds 
 
 Value 
 
 1927-28 
 
 Quantity 
 in pounds 
 
 Value 
 
 Singapore 
 
 Hongkong 
 
 China 
 
 India 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 British Malay States 
 
 United States 
 
 France 
 
 Indo-China 
 
 Penang 
 
 Australia 
 
 Burma 
 
 Kohkong 
 
 Total 
 
 899,755 
 
 682,094 
 
 520,445 
 
 15,154 
 
 25,800 
 
 153,850 
 
 9,101 
 
 218 
 
 154 
 
 748,069 
 
 3,598 
 
 7,280 
 
 5,732 
 
 $ 35,776 
 
 100,036 
 
 259,910 
 
 1,747 
 
 3,148 
 
 3,758 
 
 1,232 
 
 49 
 
 22 
 
 46,834 
 
 577 
 
 372 
 
 210 
 
 2,558,267 
 2,340,214 
 
 7,388,589 
 
 408,845 
 
 2,778 
 
 60,787 
 
 7,348 
 
 I 72,471 
 
 141,908 
 
 271,951 
 
 12,589 
 
 496 
 
 2,159 
 
 1,115 
 
 3,274 
 
 376,120 
 
 600 
 
 12,262 
 
 8,796 
 
 176 
 
 24,883 
 
 97 
 
 392 
 
 247 
 
 10,071,250 
 
 453,771 
 
 13,167,880 
 
 528,484 
 
 * Includes a small quantity of dried fruit. 
 
 From Trade Info. Bui. 610, U. S. Dept. Com. 
 
 Source, Annual Statement of the Foreign Trade and Navigation of the Kingdom of Siam. 
 
Bui,. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 359 
 
 TABLE 103 
 
 Imports of Fresh Fruits — British Malaya 
 
 Countries 
 
 1928 
 
 1927 
 
 1926 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 tons 
 34 
 4 
 
 dollars 
 17,663 
 308 
 
 tons 
 86 
 6 
 
 dollars 
 43,897 
 439 
 
 tons 
 
 101 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 142 
 451 
 648 
 
 dollars 
 43,364 
 1,196 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 27 
 
 218 
 
 1,145 
 
 879 
 
 544 
 
 22,857 
 
 101,556 
 
 247,327 
 
 5 
 
 579 
 
 4 
 775 
 956 
 846 
 
 230 
 
 62,539 
 
 100,594 
 
 254,740 
 
 641 
 
 
 17,850 
 
 Hongkong 
 
 40,493 
 174,888 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 11,875 
 
 655 
 
 6,300 
 
 30 
 
 10,820 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 5,937 
 
 3 
 
 414,156 
 
 388 
 
 1,270 
 
 5,958 
 
 36,779 
 
 12,435 
 
 14 
 
 3,812 
 
 
 
 
 4,364 
 
 6,547 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 110 
 
 363 
 
 94 
 
 2 
 
 77 
 
 622,868 
 
 1,163 
 
 2,634 
 
 13,707 
 
 56,247 
 
 12,663 
 
 226 
 
 4,484 
 
 4,751 
 3 
 63 
 50 
 22 
 79 
 2 
 120 
 
 495,487 
 
 
 784 
 
 
 15 
 
 49 
 328 
 121 
 
 7,412 
 
 
 4,839 
 
 
 3,665 
 
 
 5,646 
 
 
 237 
 
 
 169 
 
 14,136 
 
 5,223 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 868 
 380 
 
 70,987 
 26,016 
 
 1,280 
 241 
 
 131,051 
 
 12,363 
 
 10 
 
 1,689 
 
 15,309 
 
 245,213 
 
 1,370 
 461 
 
 115,453 
 
 
 17,942 
 
 
 
 Philippine and Sulu Arch 
 
 33 
 322 
 973 
 
 5,420 
 
 18,449 
 
 240,722 
 
 12 
 
 206 
 
 1,037 
 
 66 
 262 
 574 
 
 10,436 
 
 
 19,281 
 
 United States of America 
 
 118,028 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 9,940 
 
 1,243,495 
 
 12,722 
 
 1,600,896 
 
 9,238 
 
 1,097,558 
 
 
 
 Data: British Malaya, Return of Foreign Imports and Exports, 1928. 
 
360 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 104 
 Imports of Dried and Preserved Fruits — British Malaya 
 
 Countries 
 
 1928 
 
 1927 
 
 1926 
 
 
 tons 
 23 
 
 dollars 
 16,051 
 
 tons 
 29 
 4 
 
 dollars 
 16,253 
 141 
 
 tons 
 25 
 
 dollars 
 12,489 
 
 
 89 
 
 Brunei 
 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 288,618 
 
 8 
 
 693,534 
 
 3,520 
 
 1 
 
 7,697 
 
 139 
 
 756,423 
 
 6 
 
 760,905 
 
 3,104 
 
 11 
 
 36,627 
 
 3,788 
 
 7 
 7,000 
 
 1,378 
 
 
 3,149 
 
 738,822 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 3,157 
 10 
 
 3,252 
 9 
 
 2,042 
 11 
 
 455,682 
 
 
 4,203 
 
 
 
 
 2,348 
 4 
 
 166,997 
 
 1,296 
 
 156 
 
 453 
 6 
 
 4 
 11 
 
 558 
 
 
 4,496 
 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 
 1 
 
 207 
 
 111 
 
 82 
 
 62 
 
 503 
 
 3,869 
 
 300,910 
 
 2,081 
 
 14 
 
 3,508 
 
 
 
 70 
 103 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 397 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 289 
 1,527 
 1 
 1 
 8 
 3 
 2 
 
 1,335 
 
 29,949 
 
 248,157 
 
 217 
 
 43 
 
 2,833 
 
 366 
 
 149 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 63 
 
 42,736 
 
 714 
 
 2 
 
 39 
 
 1,829 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 2,741 
 
 4 
 
 1,015 
 
 
 1,254 
 
 
 538,429 
 
 
 1,357 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 14 
 13 
 
 1,833 
 
 2,365 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 243 
 
 40 
 
 41,718 
 
 969 
 
 14 
 
 51 
 
 8,970 
 
 69,258 
 
 490 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 328 
 
 
 3,178 
 
 
 131 
 
 
 
 146 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 78 
 
 
 1 
 
 421 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 355 
 9 
 
 264 
 8 
 
 35,035 
 
 
 634 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 6,511 
 
 62,876 
 
 124,645 
 
 
 
 
 Siam 
 
 48 
 
 202 
 
 1,406 
 
 44 
 
 232 
 
 53 
 
 59 
 43 
 
 12,855 
 
 United States of America 
 
 22,807 
 
 
 4,184 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 12,615 
 
 1,691,045 
 
 13,998 
 
 2,011,198 
 
 12,326 
 
 1,843,231 
 
 
 
 Data; British Malaya, Return of Foreign Imports and Exports, 1928. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 361 
 
 TABLE 105 
 
 Imports of Other Sorts of Canned Fruits — British Malaya 
 
 Countries 
 
 1928 
 
 1927 
 
 1926 
 
 
 tons 
 10 
 
 dollars 
 
 5,915 
 
 5 
 
 tons 
 15 
 
 dollars 
 
 8,686 
 
 12 
 
 71 
 
 63 
 
 143,171 
 
 tons 
 19 
 
 dollars 
 11,096 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 349 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 94,830 
 
 51 
 
 1,912 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 587 
 
 804 
 
 548 
 
 112,568 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 3,663 
 
 17 
 
 5,934 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 172 
 1,794 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 . 3,169 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2,264 
 
 
 379 
 
 Italy 
 
 1 
 
 345 
 
 29 
 
 128 
 
 119,881 
 
 
 26 
 
 34 
 
 8 
 
 173,266 
 
 82 
 
 238 
 
 654 
 
 
 
 315 
 
 
 
 
 
 China 
 
 900 
 
 1,228 
 
 1,886 
 
 291,907 
 
 French Indo-China 
 
 
 Japan 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 270 
 1,137 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1,608 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 Sumatra 
 
 
 14 
 
 208 
 
 106,623 
 
 
 59 
 
 
 124 
 
 
 1 
 
 355 
 
 
 22 
 461 
 
 3,007 
 
 United States 
 
 393 
 
 124,844 
 
 153,609 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,868 
 
 333,329 
 
 2,455 
 
 457,395 
 
 2,966 
 
 583,925 
 
 
 
 Data from British Malaya, Return of Foreign Imports and Exports, 1928. 
 
362 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 106 
 
 Exports of Pineapples — British Malaya 
 
 Countries 
 
 1928 
 
 1927 
 
 1926 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 British North Borneo 
 
 Brunei 
 
 Sarawak 
 
 British India and Burma 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Hon,gkong 
 
 Canada 
 
 Australia 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 Other British Possessions 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Denmark 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Italy 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Norway 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Other European Countries. 
 
 Arabia 
 
 China 
 
 Egypt 
 
 French Indo-China 
 
 French India 
 
 Japan 
 
 Bali and Lombok 
 
 Banka and Billiton 
 
 Borneo 
 
 Celebes and Moluccas 
 
 Java 
 
 Sumatra 
 
 Other Dutch Islands 
 
 Philippine and Sulu Arch... 
 
 Siam 
 
 United States 
 
 Other Foreign Countries 
 
 tons 
 33,453 
 4 
 
 5 
 331 
 
 261 
 
 5,283 
 
 348 
 
 1,652 
 
 282 
 
 178 
 
 34 
 
 905 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 439 
 
 36 
 
 2 
 
 97 
 
 744 
 
 384 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 57 
 
 78 
 
 35 
 
 213 
 
 390 
 
 ,096 
 
 40 
 
 Total. 
 
 46,401 
 
 dollars 
 3,440,427 
 388 
 35 
 773 
 36,577 
 
 tons 
 30,952 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 281 
 
 26,268 
 
 544,449 
 
 33,893 
 
 168,416 
 
 38,277 
 
 19,597 
 
 3,973 
 
 101,462 
 
 202 
 
 3,740 
 
 49,010 
 
 63 
 
 ,248 
 
 589 
 
 ,768 
 
 280 
 
 56 
 
 50 
 
 410 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 339 
 
 3,777 
 253 
 11,962 
 75,589 
 54,603 
 393 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 71 
 
 457 
 
 314 
 
 310 
 
 50 
 
 436 
 
 585 
 
 5,026 
 
 8,031 
 
 3,761 
 
 21,326 
 
 39,959 
 
 101,425 
 
 5,210 
 
 1 
 124 
 
 22 
 207 
 
 50 
 778 
 
 27 
 
 4,800,183 
 
 40,134 
 
 dollars 
 
 3,632,573 
 
 272 
 
 42 
 
 107 
 
 35,434 
 
 4 
 
 7,224 
 
 374,731 
 
 68,464 
 
 206,576 
 
 42,145 
 
 7,605 
 
 6,795 
 
 51,169 
 
 785 
 
 2,254 
 
 47,478 
 
 5 
 
 43 
 
 235 
 
 844 
 
 10,204 
 
 52,829 
 
 46,902 
 
 425 
 
 44 
 
 1,200 
 
 51 
 
 194 
 
 15,591 
 
 2,607 
 
 24,883 
 
 6,817 
 
 78,446 
 
 4,203 
 
 tons 
 31,100 
 
 10 
 249 
 
 171 
 
 4,146 
 
 395 
 
 1,370 
 
 146 
 
 67 
 
 102 
 
 709 
 
 18 
 
 43 
 
 10 
 401 
 
 293 
 
 2 
 222 
 
 25 
 135 
 247 
 557 
 
 14 
 
 dollars 
 3,335,860 
 75 
 20 
 1,112 
 30,342 
 
 17,197 
 421,673 
 
 45,543 
 151,691 
 
 20,942 
 7,396 
 
 12,050 
 
 85,503 
 2,158 
 4,711 
 
 24,571 
 
 1,326 
 
 40,120 
 
 41,551 
 
 40 
 
 47 
 
 192 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 343 
 
 28 
 
 259 
 
 26,537 
 
 2,942 
 
 16,996 
 
 23,461 
 
 56,014 
 
 1,769 
 
 4,729,181 
 
 40,634 
 
 4,372,487 
 
 Source of data: From British Malaya, Return of Foreign Imports and Exports, 1928. 
 
Bul, 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 363 
 
 TABLE 107 
 
 Imports of Fresh Fruit into Java and Madura 
 
 Country of origin 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 Apples 
 
 pounds 
 26,400 
 28,600 
 1,029,600 
 105,600 
 176,000 
 
 dollars 
 3,600 
 1,600 
 
 64,000 
 6,800 
 
 10,400 
 
 pounds 
 
 28,600 
 
 24,200 
 
 1,056,000 
 
 92,400 
 
 389,400 
 
 dollars 
 3,200 
 1,600 
 
 63,200 
 5,600 
 
 24,800 
 
 pounds 
 37,400 
 
 dollars 
 4,400 
 
 
 
 
 1,309,000 
 
 94,600 
 
 629,200 
 
 6,600 
 
 83,200 
 
 
 6,800 
 
 U. S. A. Pacific Coast 
 
 36,000 
 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,366,200 
 
 86,400 
 
 1,590,600 
 
 98,400 
 
 2,076,800 
 
 130,800 
 
 
 
 Grapes 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,400 
 6,600 
 
 330,000 
 28,600 
 
 237,600 
 2,200 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 33,000 
 200,200 
 19,800 
 19,800 
 13,200 
 
 4,400 
 22,000 
 2,400 
 2,000 
 1,200 
 
 4,400 
 
 310,200 
 
 33,000 
 
 96,800 
 
 2,200 
 
 800 
 
 36,400 
 
 4,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 400 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 35,200 
 
 U. S. A. Atlantic Coast 
 
 2,800 
 
 U. S. A. Pacific Coast 
 
 20,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 286,000 
 
 32,000 
 
 446,600 
 
 51,600 
 
 609,400 
 
 60,400 
 
 
 
 Oranges 
 
 
 
 11,000 
 11,000 
 
 800 
 800 
 
 
 
 Egypt 
 
 
 
 13,200 
 26,400 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 
 1,600 
 
 
 
 
 13,200 
 68,200 
 22,000 
 59,400 
 6,600 
 
 1,200 
 4,400 
 1,600 
 4,400 
 400 
 
 
 
 85,800 
 
 6,000 
 
 112,200 
 
 22,000 
 
 44,000 
 
 6,600 
 
 7,600 
 
 
 2,400 
 
 U. S. A. Pacific Coast.... 
 
 
 
 4,400 
 
 Other Countries . .. 
 
 39,600 
 
 2,800 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 125,400 
 
 8,800 
 
 191,400 
 
 13,600 
 
 224,400 
 
 17,200 
 
 
 
 Data from E. W. Groth, Consul, Surabaya, Java. 
 
364 
 
 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 108 
 Imports of Canned Fruits into Java and Madura 
 
 Country of irigin 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 Holland 
 
 pounds 
 
 46,200 
 
 dollars 
 
 6,400 
 
 pounds 
 
 55,000 
 6,600 
 
 74,800 
 8,800 
 
 74,800 
 
 dollars 
 
 8,400 
 1,200 
 7,600 
 800 
 8,800 
 
 pounds 
 
 74,800 
 4,400 
 48,400 
 17,600 
 30,800 
 
 dollars 
 
 10,800 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 400 
 
 France 
 
 68,200 
 
 7,200 
 
 5,600 
 
 Italy 
 
 1,600 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 85,800 
 
 10,400 
 
 3,600 
 
 British India 
 
 
 Singapore 
 
 
 
 13,200 
 
 101,200 
 
 321,200 
 
 6,600 
 
 17,600 
 
 6,600 
 
 59,400 
 
 1,592,800 
 
 6,600 
 
 1,200 
 
 7,200 
 
 24,000 
 
 400 
 
 1,200 
 
 400 
 
 5,600 
 
 146,000 
 
 400 
 
 176,000 
 
 96,800 
 
 266,200 
 
 12,400 
 
 Hongkong 
 
 90,200 
 261,800 
 
 8,400 
 22,400 
 
 8,000 
 
 China 
 
 21,200 
 
 Philippines 
 
 
 Australia 
 
 110,000 
 
 9,200 
 
 
 
 Polynesia 
 
 
 
 U.S.A. Atlantic Coast 
 U.S.A. Pacific Coast.. 
 Other countries 
 
 257,400 
 
 2,263,800 
 
 30,800 
 
 23,200 
 
 201,600 
 
 2,800 
 
 105,600 
 
 1,863,400 
 
 8,800 
 
 7,200 
 
 149,200 
 
 2,400 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 3,214,200 
 
 291,600 
 
 2,345,200 
 
 213,200 
 
 2,692,800 
 
 222,400 
 
 
 
 Data from E.W. Groth, Consul, Surabaya, Java. 
 
 TABLE 109 
 Imports of Dried Fruit into Java and Madura 
 
 Country of origin 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 1928 
 
 Dates 
 
 pounds 
 
 61,600 
 
 323,400 
 
 1,592,800 
 
 55,000 
 
 dollars 
 
 2,000 
 10,400 
 54,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 pounds 
 
 19,800 
 
 547,800 
 
 2,050,400 
 
 dollars 
 
 800 
 18,400 
 68,400 
 
 pounds 
 
 dollars 
 
 
 332,200 
 2,534,400 
 
 10,800 
 
 
 83,600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15,400 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 2,032,800 
 
 68,400 
 
 2,618,000 
 
 87,600 
 
 2,882,000 
 
 95,200 
 
 
 
 All Others 
 
 Holland 
 
 79,200 
 
 11,200 
 
 167,200 
 
 4,400 
 
 8,800 
 
 2,200 
 
 26,400 
 
 123,200 
 
 176,000 
 
 39,600 
 
 11,000 
 
 255,200 
 
 277,200 
 
 4,400 
 
 688,600 
 
 8,800 
 
 42,000 
 
 800 
 
 2,400 
 
 400 
 
 2,400 
 
 9,600 
 
 14,400 
 
 4,000 
 
 1,600 
 
 28,800 
 
 28,000 
 
 400 
 
 69,600 
 
 1,200 
 
 103,400 
 
 20,400 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 
 
 8,800 
 
 2,000 
 
 4,400 
 
 400 
 
 Italy 
 
 
 Egypt 
 
 17,600 
 70,400 
 121,000 
 44,000 
 
 1,600 
 4,800 
 9,600 
 4,800 
 
 8,800 
 
 66,000 
 
 217,800 
 
 33,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 British India 
 
 5,200 
 
 Singapore 
 
 14,800 
 
 Hongkong 
 
 3,600 
 
 
 
 
 211,200 
 268,400 
 
 92,400 
 756,800 
 
 11,000 
 
 24,000 
 27,200 
 10,400 
 80,800 
 800 
 
 292,600 
 
 330,000 
 
 63,800 
 
 668,800 
 
 6,600 
 
 32,400 
 
 
 32,000 
 
 U. S. A. Atlantic Coast 
 
 5,200 
 
 U. S. A. Pacific Coast 
 
 60,400 
 
 Other Countries 
 
 1,600 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,680,800 
 
 177,200 
 
 1,793,000 
 
 205,600 
 
 1,795,200 
 
 177,200 
 
 
 
 Data from E.W. Groth, Consul, Surabaya, Java. 
 
Bul. 493] 
 
 Fruit Markets in Eastern Asia 
 
 365 
 
 TABLE 110 
 
 Value of Imports of Principal Foodstuffs into the Netherland East Indies 
 
 
 1926 
 
 1927 
 
 Commodity 
 
 Java and 
 Madura 
 
 Outer pos- 
 sessions 
 
 Total 
 
 Java and 
 Madura 
 
 Outer pos- 
 sessions 
 
 Total 
 
 
 $2,232,976 
 87,786 
 
 1,142,262 
 727,333 
 
 838,512 
 1,342,137 
 
 $ 724,472 
 28,473 
 
 1,115,298 
 931,172 
 
 819,822 
 1,764,261 
 
 $ 2,957,448 
 116,259 
 
 2,257,560 
 1,658,505 
 
 1,658,334 
 3,106,398 
 
 $1,973,982 
 99,651 
 
 1,165,475 
 931,669 
 
 845,507 
 1,272,665 
 
 $ 674,371 
 34,253 
 
 1,308,563 
 1,014,550 
 
 760,116 
 2,076,562 
 
 $ 2,648,353 
 
 
 133,904 
 
 Vegetables, dried, canned, 
 
 2,474,038 
 
 
 1,946,219 
 
 Fruit, fresh, dried, and 
 
 1,605,623 
 
 
 3,349,227 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 $6,371,006 
 
 $5,383,498 
 
 $11,754,504 
 
 $6,288,949 
 
 $5,868,415 
 
 $12,157,364 
 
 
 
 From Trade Info. Bui. 620, U. S. Dept. Com. 
 
 Source; Jaaroverzicht van den in— en Uitvoer van Nederlandsch Indie. 
 
 TABLE 111 
 Imports into Burma of Canned and Bottled Fruits 
 
 1926-27 
 
 From 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 Straits Settlements 
 
 Hongkong 
 
 Victoria 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 Other British Possessions . 
 
 Germany 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 France 
 
 China 
 
 Muscat 
 
 United States of America 
 Other countries 
 
 Quantity 
 cwt. 
 
 256 
 
 1,240 
 
 1,830 
 
 128 
 
 99 
 
 43 
 
 21 
 
 48 
 
 173 
 
 2,433 
 
 4 
 
 Value 
 
 12,632 
 
 25,607 
 
 1,967 
 
 1,250 
 
 607 
 
 452 
 1,953 
 
 2,837 
 
 45,469 
 155 
 
 Total 6,275 $93,577 
 
 Data from H. H. Dick, Consul, Rangoon, India. 
 
 1927-28 
 
 
 Quantity 
 cwt. 
 
 Value 
 
 344 
 
 2,277 
 
 $9,223 
 20,684 
 
 2,259 
 40 
 
 31,638 
 604 
 
 92 
 
 1,123 
 
 19 
 
 250 
 
 20 
 
 225 
 
 5 
 
 415 
 
 41 
 
 826 
 
 39 
 
 1,789 
 
 245 
 
 3,692 
 
 114 
 
 554 
 
 2,389 
 4 
 
 43,525 
 129 
 
 7,888 
 
 $114,677 
 
366 University of California — Experiment Station 
 
 TABLE 112 
 
 Imports of Canned or Bottle© Fruits into British India 
 
 Countries of Origin 1924-25 1925-26 1926-27 1927-28 
 
 dollars dollars dollars dollars 
 
 United Kingdom 43,970 45,761 30,460 47,204 
 
 Straits Settlements 36,593 24,784 31,794 76,652 
 
 Hongkong 33,479 35,303 33,454 37,064 
 
 Australia 15,958 35,962 31,836 23,593 
 
 France 6,212 8,577 11,638 11,093 
 
 China 3,526 3,537 4,591 6,848 
 
 United States of America 181,269 219,815 200,385 248,116 
 
 Other countries 10,684 6,216 12,970 12,161 
 
 Share of Bengal 69,430 98,287 70,674 97,952 
 
 Share of Bombay 61,695 84,289 85,779 141,387 
 
 Share of Sind 46,789 60,025 42,902 61,356 
 
 Share of Madras 36,836 38,203 55,601 44,173 
 
 Share of Burma 116,941 99,151 102,172 117,863 
 
 Total 331,691 379,955 357,128 462,731 
 
 Data from report of Robert C. Cockburn, Assistant Trade Commissioner, Calcutta, India. 
 
 20m-4,'30