CONFIDENTIAL. For the sole use of the officer to whom issued. WAR DEPARTMENT, ..... OFFICE OF CHIEF OF STAFF. SECOND (MILITARY INFORMATION) DIVISION. GENERAL STAFF. No. L NOTES ON PANAMA. Compiled and arranged by Capt. H. C. HALE, General Stoff. November, 1903. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1903. WAR DEPARTMENT, Office Chief of Staff Document No. 217. TABLE OF COXTKXTS. Page. I. Historical Sketch 5 II. Geography, Physical and Descriptive 11 (a) Area and boundaries of cotintry 11 (b) Discussion of the general geography 11 Monntain ranges ... 11 River system and lakes 13 Climate 15 Fauna 21 Flora 22 (c) Coastline 23 General description, bays, gulfs, peninsulas, capes, adja- cent islands, soundings, harbors, anchorages, light- houses 23 Ports, breakwaters, jetties, docks, wharves, loading and discharging facilities, coaling facilities 143 (d) Statement of cities 149 Name, population, location, description and characteris- tics 149 (e) Lines of travel and cojumunication 164 Canals 164 Water transportation 174 Roads 179 Railroads 185 Cables 195 Telegraph 195 III. Population. 196 (a) Census and distribution, race, language, religion, char- acter, morals, manners, mode and cost of living, habi- tations, health conditions, etc 196 IV. Resources ■ 203 (a) Mineral resources. 203 (b) Timber and fuel resources 205 (c) Animal resources : 206 (d) Products and manufactures 206 (e) Revenues 208 Taxes, exports and imports 208 V. Miscellaneous Information 210 VI. Appendix 219 NOTES ON PANAMA. I. HISTORICAL SKETCH. "Alonso de Ojeda landed on the Isthmus of Panama in 1499. Later on the Spaniards found many warlike Indian tribes there. Eight principal tribes are enumerated. Those in Darien were specially troublesome. "Columbus visited the port of Chagres and the bay of Limones in 1502. Having heard of the mineral riches of Veraguas he made the first attempts at colonization on the banks of the Belen. The renowned mineral wealth of the Isthmus attracted many navigators, and it was given the name of Castillo del Oro (golden castle). "The warlike and intrepid natives fought heroicall}^ to preserve their libert}^, and there ai'e to-day over 10,000 natives who still preserve their original wild independence. "In 1510 Diego de Nicuesa brought a large expedition to Panama and was appointed governor. He founded the city of Nombre de Dios, which was sacked and burned in 1595 by English freebooters. In 1546 Christopher Peiia came with 130 men to settle the territory, but accomplished nothing. In 1513 Balboa, who was in command at the Isthmus, organ- ized an expedition of 190 Spaniards and 1,000 Indians, which ended in tlie discover^^ of the Pacific. " Owing to comj)laints made against Balboa, an expedition of 2,000 men was sent from Spain in 1514 under Pedro Arias Davila (called Pedrarias), who succeeded Balboa. Pedrarias sent people to settle the Pacific coast and founded the city of Ada. He had Balboa beheaded in the latter place in 1517. " In 1521 Pedrarias transferred the seat of government from Santa Maria la Antigua del Darien to the village of Panama. 6 NOTES ON PANAMA. It may be said that the conquest ended with the transfer of the government to Panama, for Darien was abandoned with the conviction that it was impossible to conquer it, and the remainder of the territory presented no obstacles. The ports of Chagres and Panama, with the Cruces road, were thus ojiened to traffic between the two oceans. " Owing to the famed riches of the Isthmus and its excep- tional geographical position it was a target for the attacks of pirates for about one hundred years, which greatly disturbed its commerce and industry, "The following towns were sacked or burned at different periods: Portobelo, Santa Maria la Antigua del Darien, Nom- bre de Dios. The castle of San Lorenzo was destroyed. Finally Panama, the wealth}^ and populous capital, was sacked, burned, and destroyed by the pirate, Henry Morgan. "In IGTirt William Paterson, a Scotchman, sailed with 1,500 men to establish a colony in Darien. He bought land of the Indians and settled at Ada, calling it New St. Andrew and the adjacent country New Caledonia. The colonists immedi- atel}^ began to improve the jjort of Ada, or Puerto Escoces, as it is called to-daj. They opened a canal and erected a fort, in wliich they mounted 50 guns ; they also erected a house on a mountain overlooking the port, from which they com- manded a long view and could guard against surprise. This colony, being refused recognition or assistance from the Span- ish Government, was soon without resources, and the majority died of hunger. A few reenforcements subsequently arrived, but they were attacked by a Spanish force of 1,600 men, three months later, and fmall}" defeated. Of the remnant of the colony but 30 souls eventually returned to Scotland alive. "Under Bolivar the Republic of Colombia gained its inde- pendence of Spain in 1819, and was officially constituted December 27, 1819. "At the time when the South Americans rose in arms against Spain and proclaimed their independence Panama was divided for administrative purposes into two provinces, Panama and Veraguas, each ruled by a governor. "While New Granada, Venezuela, and Quito were strug- gling for their independence, Panama, owing to its lack of resources and its strategic position, had to patiently await the result without participating. NOTES ON PANAMA. 7 "The English expedition under General McGregor, which arrived at Portobelo in 1810, might have hastened the eman- cipation of the Isthmus had not McGregor remained at Porto- belo and allowed himself to be surprised by the Spaniards. The result was fatal to the Isthmus, as it led the Spaniards to double their vigilance and increase their garrison. "However, its hour was approaching. In 1821 part of the garrison (700 to 800 men) was taken b}^ vhe. governor and cap- tain-general of Granada to Quito, leaving four companies of troojps in Panama, under Lieut. Col. Jose Fabriga, at the time governor of the province of Veraguas. "The Panamanians believed the hour of independence to have arrived. The first cry was raised in the village of Los Santos; then the capital followed. The movement was immensely popular and no bulwark could stay it. On Novem- ber 28, 1821, the ayuntamiento, boldly risking the conse- quences of such a step, convoked all the militarj^ civil, and ecclesiastical bodies in a general assembl}^ in which it pro- claimed the independence of the Isthmus from the Govern- ment of Sixain and adhered to Xew Granada. "In 1826 the Latin-American Congress was held in the city of Panama. It was participated in by Colombia, Central America, Peru, and Mexico, and a treaty of coalition, provid- ing for the furnishing of a certain annual military contingent bj" each country, was concluded, but never ratified by all the Governments. "In 1830 Jose Domingo Espinar, commander in chief at Panama, usurped authority and assumed the title of civil and military chief, declaring the government of the Isthmus inde- pendent of that of the Republic of Colombia. This condi- tion lasted three months, when tlie usurper himself decreed that the original regime be restored. He continued, however, as a dictator, but became so tyrannical that he was finally superseded by Col. Juan Eligio Alzuro at the instigation of the commanders of tlie garrison. Espinar was exiled to Guayaquil. Alzuro retained militar}- command of the garri- son, and quiet was restored for a while. He, however, soon began to act ar])itraril3', and on July 8, 1831, he called an assemblj" and proposed the independence of the Isthmus from the central government. The motion was unanimously de- feated. But the Venezuelans, exi3elled from Ecuador, 'who 8 NOTES ON PANAMA. expected to make the Istlimns their inheritance,' incited Alziiro against those who opposed him, and he called another assembly, from which, by intimidation, he wrested a declara- tion that the Isthmus should be a state indei^endent from the Government of Colombia. The assembly appointed him supreme military commander, and Gen. Jose de Fabrega civil chief. "Colonel Herrera then began to collect forces against Alzuro, who then also assumed the civil authority, deposing General Fabrega and exiling him and other prominent citi- zens, with admonitions never to return. They did, however, return, and began inciting the population in Darien to insur- rection against the tj^rant. Finally, on August 24, a desper- ate struggle took place between Alzuro on one side and Herrera and Fabrega on the other. Alzuro was defeated and taken prisoner, and he and his counselors were shot. The executive power approved the conduct of Herrera and expressed words of praise to him for liis services in the cam- paign." — Direciorij of Panama, 1808. The vast Republic split w]) into Venezuela, Ecuador, and the Republic of New Granada Febriiar}' 29, 1832. The same year a conspiracy headed b}^ two officers again attempted to overthrow the constituted government. They failed and were executed. Comparative quiet followed until 1840, when a revolution, with Herrera at the head, was insti- tuted, independence was proclaimed and for two years main- tained. In 1842, however, Panama again sulmiitted and returned as a i)rovince of New Granada. An imjiortant treaty was concluded between- the United States and New Granada December 12, 1846, guaranteeing, among other items, equal commercial privileges on the Isth- mus of Panama to citizens of both cont racting countries. In order to secure constant enjoyment of the advantages accru- ing to the United States in this treaty and as compensation for these advantages, and in order to secure unembarrassed transit across the Isthmus, the United States guaranteed to New Granada neutrality of the strip and the rights of sov- ereignt}^ and property then possessed over the Isthmus by that country. Grievances preferred by foreigners have in numerous instances strained the relations between the National Govern- ment and the powers, and the neglect of the Government to NOTES ON PANAMA. 9 afford safe passage across the Isthmus finally became so flagrant that in 1854 a protest signed by the consuls of sev- eral powers, including the United States, Great Britain, and France, was addressed to the governor of Panama. It was not till after 1859, when the President of the United States asked Congress for power to protect Americans on the Isth- mus, that the more serious causes for complaint disappeared. Except for some minor disturbances in the provinces of Aguero and Veragua in 1854, comparative peace i^revailed in tlie Isthmus from the revolution of 1840 to 1856. In 1855 Panama, under a liberal constitution, became a State of New Granada. The executive authority was vested in a governor. The outlook for the future appeared hope- ful, but from this time forward the Isthmus became afflicted with constant conflict; revolution became a habit. — Authority consulted, Bancroft, Native Races, vol. 8. "The constitution of April 1, 1858, changed the Republic into a confederation of eight States, under the name of Con- federation Granadina. "On May 8, 1803, an improved constitution was formed, and the States reverted to the old name of Colombia — United States of Colombia." — Commercial Eelatiojis, 1900. "After the great civil war of 1801, generally known as the Mosquera revolution, the sixth constitution of government was framed and adopted. It changed the name of the coun- try from Xew Grenada to the ' United States of Colombia,' disestablished the church, confiscated nearly all church property, and disfranchised the clergy, but extended the suf- frage to all other male persons 18 years of age and upward. " This constitution remained in force for about twenty-two years, and during that time there were as many as eleven ' revolutions,' or one on an average of about every two years. "After the hopeless failure of the armed revolt against the iSTuhez administration, in 1885, another constitution was framed and adopted, making the seventh in chronological order within a period of not quite fifty years. This last constitution changed the name and title of the country from the United States of Colombia to that of 'The Republic of Colombia,' thereby intending to convey the idea that a con- solidated reiDublic had been substituted for a confederation of 'sovereign states.'" — Scruggs, The Colombian and Vene- zuelan Republics, 1809. 10 NOTES cm PANAMA. "The insurrection which began in October, 1899, was ended on November 22, 1902, the fleet and war stores of the insur- gents being restored to the Government." — Commercial Rela- tions luith the United States, 1900. Discontent born partly of the failure of the central gov- ernment to pass the Hay-IIerran canal treaty resulted in November, 1903, in the separation of Panama and the estab- lishment therein of an independent republic. — {Compiler.) II. GEOGRAPHY, PHYSICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE. (a) AREAS AND BOUNDARIES. "Panama is bounded on the north b}' the Caribbean Sea, west by the Republic of Costa Rica, south by the Pacific Ocean, east by the Department of the Cauca. "The area of Panama is 32,380 square miles, of which only about one-half is inhabited. Its greatest length, from the Darien Range to that of La Cruz, on the side of Costa Rica, is about 420 miles. The widest part of the Isthmus lies be- tween the mouth of the Escribanos River, on the Atlantic side, and the point of Mariato, on the Pacific, a distance of about 118 miles. The narrowest part lies between the Gulf of San Bias, on the Atlantic, and the mouth of the river Chepe, on the Pacific, a distance on a sti-aight line of 31 miles." — Colom- bia, Bureau of American BepuUics. {b) GENERAL PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. "Mountain Ranges. — Panama belongs geographically to Central America, and is the last of the long line of isthmian formations which form so many links in the chain by which the northern and southern continents have been connected since Tertiary times. At the Costa Rican frontier it trends round from southeast to east, and maintains this normal direction through a series of rj^thmical curves for over 400 miles to the Atrato Valley, which, jointly with that of the San Juan, forms the true parting line between Central and South America." — StanfonVs Compendium of GeograpJiy, Central and South America, Vol. II. "A massive range known as the Cordillera de Baudo tra- verses the Isthmus through nearly its whole length, dwin- dling away in the neighborhood of Panama. This range approaches now the southern coast and again the northern, and though not a very elevated one (1,557 feet, average height, with peaks of from 2,296 to 2,624 feet,' and passes less 11 12 NOTES ON PANAMA. than 900 feet high) it gradually increases in both height and breadth as it approaches Veraguas; in Chiriqni it reaches its greatest elevation and runs through the middle of the Depart- ment into Costa Rica." — Colonthia, Bureau of American Republics. "Through the Cordillera de Chiriqui the Costa Rican oro- graphic S3^stem passes into Panama, which it traverses in its entire length to the Gulf of Darien under various sectional names, such as the 'Cordilleras of Veragua' and 'San Bias.' These cordilleras do not form a continuous mountain range, but rather a number of loosely connected ridges, spurs, and offshoots, which decrease generally in altitude in the direction of the east, and are here and there crossed by historical passes which fall below 300 feet, and are the lowest that occur any- where between the Atlantic and the Pacific. "It seems obvious that here also the two oceans formerly communicated through several channels, and that Panama, like other parts of Central America, constituted an insular chain, which has since been merged in continuous land partly by volcanic, partly by meteoric agencies. This may be even inferred from the geological constitution of the uplands, which consists in the west of comparatively recent eruptive rocks and elsewhere largely of granites, gneiss, dolerites, trachytes, and crystalline schists. "In the extreme west, where the Panama highlands attain their greatest elevation, the Central American igneous sys- tem is continued by three api)arently extinct volcanoes — Pico Blanco, Rovalo, and Chiriqui. West of Veragua the system becomes fragmentary and, so to say, dislocated, cul- minating in Mount Capira, on Panama Baj', then falling to 700 feet in the Ahoga-Yeguas hills, which are crossed by a pass only 380 feet high, followed by the still lower Culebra Pass (290 feet), where the Isthmus itself contracts to a little, over 34 miles in a direct line from sea to sea. In the San Bias section, with a mean altitude of less than 2,000 feet, the highest peak scarcely exceeds 3,000 feet, and here the Isth- mus narrows to about 18 miles between San Bias Bay on the Atlantic and the head of the tide waters in the Rio Bayano on the Pacific coast. (StanfonVs Compendium of Geography, Central and South America.) Near the western extremity of the Isthmus are found peaks of some considerable height, such as Cerro Santiago, 6,234- feet; Volcan de Chiriipii, 0,480 NOTES ON PANAMA. 13 feet; Cerro Pieaclio, 7,054 feet; Cerro Horqiieta, 0,234: feet, and Pico Robaldo, 7,012 feet." — Report of ihe Liferconii- 7iental Railway Commission, Volume II, port 1, 1891-1898. Rivers axd Lakes. — " The moimtainons regions in the cen- tral part of the Department of Panama give rise to innumer- able brooks and rivers which have their source in the Cordil- leras and irrigate the soil in every direction. "The principal streams that irrigate the province of Code are: Rio Grande, Uvero, Hondo, Chorrera, Estancia, Anton, Hato, Farrallou, Chico, Majaqual, Calaboza, Mataabogodes, Piedras, Tejas, Lajas, el Code, etc. "Province of Colon: El Chagres, Indios, San Miguel, Code, Candelaria, Calabebora, Guasaro, San Diego, Bananos, Chan- guinola, Sigsola, Tervis, etc. "Province of Chiriciui: El Doraces or Culebras, el Golfito, Coto, Pavon, Claro, San Bartolome, Chiriqui viejo, Tabasara, Colorado, Chico, Gualaca, Chorcha, Fonseca, Covales, David, Plantanal, Salado, Santiago, etc. "Province of Los Santos: Rio Cambuta, el Guere, Guarare de la Villa, Pocri, Escota, Parita, Pedasi, Caldera, j^ria, etc. "The province of Panama is irrigated by innumerable rivers, because it embraces the extensive territory of Darien, from whose ridges and mountains rise innumerable rivers, some of which, like the Tuira, the Balsas, the Sambu, and the Tayecua or ]Marea, are quite large and important. "Central district: El Bayano or- Chepo, the Chagres, the Culebra, Lagastes, Boca Fuerte, Pacora, Hondo, Manzanillo, Gatun, Grande, Chico, Mandinga, Nombre de Dios, Aguacata, and Capira. "Territory of Darien: El Tuira, the most important of the rivers of the Isthmus. It has the greatest volume of water and is navigable by steamshii)s to Yavisa. Tliis river has many affluents, the principal ones being the Chucunaque and its affluent, Yavisa. This Chucunaque River has a long- course and receives a multitude of tributaries from the Cor- dillera Septentrional, the Piedras, Rio Grande, Cupe, Cuna, Nique, Cubunella, Paj'a, Puero, etc. "After the Tuira come: The Sambii, the Balsas, the Taj^e- cua and Masea, the Cliiman (all these have a great manj'^ tributaries), the Lara, Trinidad, the Sabana, Santa Barbara (which receives the waters of the Congo), tlie Cupunate, Pimeguilla, San Antonio, etc. 14 NOTES ON PANAMA. "Lastly, the province of Veragnas is irrio;ated by the fol- lowing- rivers: San Pedro, San Pablo, Viro, Bubi, Piinta- gorda, Rosario, Rio del Muerte, Corota, San Lorenza, Caiia- zas, Suai, Gate, Santa Lncia, Rio Arena, Rio Quebro, Torco, Negro, etc." — Directory of Panama, 1898. "Several of the isthmian streams descending from the cen- tral uplands have a somewhat lengthy course, their lower valleys being disposed parallel with the coast. But their basins are too narrow to send down any great volume except during the floods, Avhen they often rise suddenly 20, 30, or even 40 feet above their normal level and sweep with tre- mendous force and velocity down to the coast. "Such is the regime of the Rio Chagres, Avhich has its course in the center of the Isthmus, and has hitherto proved one of the most formidable obstacles that the constructors of the Panama ship canal have had to contend with. After its junction at Matachiu with its chief tributary, the Obispo, descending from the Culebra uplands, it flows directl}^ to the north coast near Colon (Aspinwall), where the entrance is obstructed by a bar with an average depth of about 10 feet. In ordinarj' years its level ranges from 14 to 40 feet with the seasons, but unusually heavy rains may at times cause an absolute rise of as much as 40 feet, with a discharge of from 65,000 to 70,000 cubic feet per second. The difficulty of con- trolling such a volume rushing at tremendous speed down a narrow valley seems insurmountable, and all attempts at regulating tliese sudden freshets have hitherto proved inef- fectual. The railway bridges of the interoceanic line run- ning from Aspinwall to Panama are occasionally submerged, while immense damage is caused to the works on the Atlantic section of the canal. "On the Pacific side the Rio Bayano presents fewer obsta- cles, because the western slopes are drier. But the bar at the entrance to its broad estuary is only 2 or 3 feet deep at low water, while the bay itself shoals so gently that large vessels have to ride at anchor 4 or 5 miles off the coast. Hence costly harbor works will be required at the Pacific entrance whenever the ship canal reaches the Gulf of Panama."— >S7an/brd's Compemlinm of Oeograpliy, Central and South America. " Various rivers flow into either the Atlantic or the Pacific, some through long and narrow vallej^s, others by shorter courses. The principal river is the Tuira or Darien. It rises NOTES ON PANAMA. 15 in the heights of Aspaves and receives tlie waters of a niini- bei" of tributaries, among wliieh may be named tlie Nique, Balsas, Paya, Piiero, Cano, Lomon, Chucimaque (which itself has several tril)utaries navigable for small vessels), and the Taj'ecua or Marca. As thus increased the Tuira flows into the Gulf of San Miguel on the Pacific coast. "The River Code is some 70 miles long, being navigable for small vessels for about 40 miles. It rises in the Andes, and receives the waters of 14 tributary rivers and a multitude of brooks. The Rio de los Indios and the Calabebora rise in the desert range which traverses the Isthmus and empty into the Atlantic. The first is navigable for 1 s miles and the second for 21. The Doraces forms the boundar}^ with Costa Rica. The Chiriqui and the Guazaro flow into the Atlantic. "Another important river is the Bayano, or Chepo, which rises in the Andes and flows west and then southwest into the Gulf of Panama. It is about 160 miles in length and is navi- gable for about 125 miles. It collects on its course the waters of a number of tributary streams. The River Chagres is 102 miles long and navigable for about 60 miles. It receives the waters of more than 21 tributaries, and flows first southwest and then northwest, finally emptying into the Caribbean. Part of its channel has been utilized in the construction of the interoceanic canal. " The Zambii River rises in the heights of Aspave and fiows nearly parallel with the southern coast until it empties into the Gulf of Han Miguel. It is navigable some 93 miles. The Chico and the Santa Matia flow into the Parita Gulf, the San Pedro and San Pablo flow into the Ensenada de Montijo, the Tabasara, Santiago Fonseca, and Chiriqui-viejo empt}^ into the gulf of Alanje, and the Golfito flows into the Golfo Dulce, on the boundary of Costa Rica." — Colombia — Bureau of Americaii Bepublics, 1892. "The principal lagoons and marshes are: The lagoon of Chiriqui (improperly' called lagoon, as it really is a gulf or bay, well protected by the archiijelago in front of it), the lagoon of Tacu, and the lowlands of Catibal and Pruaya." — Direcfory of Panatna, 1898. Climate. — "The climate varies very much, it being in certain regions warm but healthful, in others damp and sickly, and in others cold and salubrious. "The whole coast, from the boundary of Costa Rica to the Gulf of Uraba, has a hot and damp climate, in which it is dif- 16 NOTES ON PANAMA. ficult for the white race to flourish by reason of swamps and marshes, wliose exhalations are extremely unwholesome. To this is added the intensitj^ of the heat, agii;ravated by the great humidity produced by the frequent rains and bj^ the aqueous vapors rising from the sea, which the prevailing winds carr}^ to the wooded plains that fringe the entire territory. There is a part of the Pacific coast to which this does not apph% for from Panama to Cape Burica there are no marshes or wooded plains, but, on the contrar}^, cereal-bearing fields and rivers which waiter and fertilize that generally inhabited region. The climate is as a rule warm, but not so damp, which permits the inhabitants to enjoy good health. The Cordilleras are all cool and salubrious, but their slopes are uninhabited, both on the soutliern side, which bears the cereal grasses, and on the northern, which is covered with woods. "The coast from Panama to El Choco is unhealthy. The interior of the Isthmus of Darien is very sickly, and only the negroes and Indian half-breeds can stand its excessively rainj^ climate, hot and damp, and its atmosphere, which the marshes make malarious. Though about the Darien cordillera the temperature is milder, it can not be said that the region is salubrious, and it will never be until the great woods and groves shall have disappeared. "In Porto Bello the climate is unhealthy and the heat excessive bj' reason of the stagnation of the air and because the port is surrounded by high mountains, and noxious exhala- tions emanate from vegetable matters, both terrestrial and aquatic. The nights there are often stifling and the days marked by rains, with thunder and lightning, such as can not but terrify the unaccustomed visitor. "It may be said that it rains in the department of Panama at least nine months in the year, and that, too, in extraordi- nary quantities. There occur, too, brief but verj- hard ' scuds ' or showers and much thunder and lightning — a sure proof of the abundance of electricity in these regions. "The dry months are February, March, and a jjart of Aj^ril, and the hottest months are August, September, and October, in which the heat becomes almost unbearable. In the other months the breezes and the continual rain render the heat less intense, though, on the other hand, they make tlie climate disagreeable. "In the territory which formerly constituted the provinces NOTES OlSr PANAMA. 17 of Chiriqui and Veraguas the heat is intense, thoiiiili tem- pered b}' the rains from April to Decemlier. In tlie part of the Isthmus bordering upon the Cauca it rains all the year round at such a rate as to make the rainfall i»<> cubic inches, while in Europe it is only 28 or 29." — Haiulhoolc of Colomhia, Bureau of American Bepiiblics. "When the sun is north of the Isthmus southerly winds prevail, and when south, northerly winds. As is the case with monthly means, the changes of temperature from hour to hour and from day to day are subject to much less variation on the Isthmus than in regions more remote from the equator. Alhajuela fairly represents the climate of the interior. Here the temi^erature at sunrise in the dry season is about 72°; it soon rises rapidly, attaining about 87° at 1 p. m. ; after this it falls rapidly to about 81° at sunset, and then subsides grad- ually to the minimum at sunrise. During the rainy season the temperature at sunrise is about 74°; it rapidly reaches a maximum at noon, about 85°, and then falls to about 80° at sunset, and later to the minimum at sunrise. Thus, during the drj^ season, the daily temperature has a larger range and a later maximum than when rain prevails. "At La Boca, situated on the bay of Panama, the minimun temperature occurs later, or at abont an hour after sunrise, being then about 75° in both the drj^ and the rainy seasons. The maximum in the dry season, 80°, is reached at about 4 I), m., and in the rainj' season, 84°, at about half past 2 p. m. The rate of fall is more gradual than at Alhajuela, the mer- cury receding at sunset in the dry season only to about 86° and in the rainj^ season onlj' to about 83°. In short, the changes on the Pacific coast are less extreme and are later than in the interior, but the daily average is about the same. "An annual rainfall of about 140 inches may be expected on the Atlantic coast, about 93 inches in the interior, and about GO inches near the shores of the Pacific. There is a well-defined dry season, beginning in December and includ- ing the months of ,Januarj% February, March, and part of April, a period during which the sun is returning northward from his southern journey to the Tropic of Capricorn, and the locus of heavj^ rainfall has been transferred southward from the Isthmus. This comparative exemption from rain is char- acteristic of the interior and of tlie Pacific coast, but some- what less so of the region bordering the Caribbean Sea. 12312—03 2 18 NOTES ON PANAMA, "Natives of the temperate regions can not safely perform arduous manual labor under exposure to a tropical sun, and dependence for such work must be placed upon the negroes of the West Indies. White men can supervise, but must not attempt more. "Considering the average figures for the past four j^ears, with a personnel of 2,275 on the canal, the percentage of dis- ease lias been 29.65 and the mortality 2.35 per cent. These figures do not exceed those on large works in any country. "It should, however, be added that this personnel has been long on the Isthmus and is well acclimated. "Among infectious diseases on the Isthmus yellow fever is undoubtedly the most to be feared by unacclimated j)ersons of the white race. During the two recent epidemics of j^ellow^ fever, the first from May to Deceml^er, 181)9, and the second from March to September 10, 1900, only two cases appeared among the personnel of the company. The disappearance of yellow fever from the Isthmus from the year 1892 to the year 1897 would lead to the belief that the disease is in no wise necessarily endemic. The city of Colon, which up to about the years 1891 and 1892 was a terrain than Avliicli nothing could be better for yellow fevei', rejjuted more dangerous that the city of Panama, has since that time remained fi-ee from anj- infectious disease and has esca^jed the yellow-fever epidemics of 1897, 1899, and 1900. This is due to the sanitary works which have been executed, the filling up of the many little swamps, and the cleaning of streets which before were veri- table sewers. By these improvements the citj' of Colon has been considerably freed from the swarms of mosquitoes which rendered life insupportable. " Might not a like result be secured for the city of Panama (1) by a good supply of pure water; (2) by drains to conduct sewerage to the sea, to which its situation and conformation are easily adapted, and (3) bj^ watering the streets daily in the dry season and by cleaning them dailj' tliroughout the entire year. Now they are in a repulsive condition of filth. These three improvements, which I consider fundamental and essential, are now wholly neglected. " There should also be instituted an effective quarantine .service for vessels arriving in the harbor, for beyond all doubt the epidemics of 1897, 1899, and 1900, and the few cases which occurred in January, 1901, were due to importa- NOTES ON PANAMA, 19 tions, in one instance from the Atlantic and in three instances from tlie Pacific." — The Engineering Magazine, July, 190S. "In the late summer and autumn months, when tlie north- ers are replaced b}" the southeastern trade winds, the Atlantic coast lands are occasionally visited by terrific cyclones, such as that of October, 18G5, which wrought destruction among the shij)ping at Colon and was felt as far north as Cape Gracias a Dios. Thanks to these monsoons, the annual rain- fall often exceeds 120 inches on the Atlantic side, or about double the discharge on the Pacific coast. But malarious affections are everywhere prevalent and yellow fever a fre- quent visitor, so that the Isthmus still remains the Sepultura de Vivos, tlie 'living grave' of I^uropeans, as it was named In^ the first Spanish settlers." — 8iauforout 5,000 inhabitants — Indians, negroes, and Spanish- Amei'icans. "Tlie trade is principally in the hands of Americans. "The boat landings are on the southeast side of the town. NOTES ON PANAMA. 27 There is a wharl' at the settlement, alongside of which finit steamers load. About five steamers call weekly during- the fruit season (March to Augu.st). A buoy, which is not to be depended upon, marks the 2-fathom patch, 4 cables S. 10° W. (S. 10° W. mag.) from Fort Point. The patch of 2 fathoms charted northeastward of it has but H fathoms. "The United States is represented by an acting consular agent. "Supplies. — Fresh beef is scarce and of poor quality. Pork and poultry can be had in moderate quantities, but at high prices. "Preserved provisions, salt meats, and bread are imported by trading firms, but a large stock is not kept on hand. "Good fish are plentiful in the bay, and game is said to be abundant on tlie mainland. "Water. — Rain water is all that is to be had; it is con- tained in an iron tank (an old boiler) of a capacity of about 6,000 gallons. "Coal. — Thei-e is no imported coal in the place, but coal of fair qualitj" can be mined in tlie immediate neighborhood, and at \ery moderate cost, by using native labor. "Provisiox Island is 8 miles long east and west, with a ridge of irregular hills on its north side from 300 to 400 feet high. On the south side of this ridge the land is low, swampy, and skirted by numerous mangrove cays, with boat channels between, which extend all the wa}" to the Crawl Cay Channel. The northeast side is foul, and the sea breaks on it with great violence to the distance of three-fourths of a mile from the northeast point. Cape Toro, the northwestern extremity of the island, is a bold scarped headland, easily recognized. There is a small black rock, steep-to, about 800 yards to the northeastward of it. A reef, steep-to, and on which the sea generally breaks, extends west nearly one-half mile fi-om the cape. " 1'he west end of the island terminates at a low, sandy point, u[)on which there is a small settlement, and the land about it is so fertile in the growth of tropical fruits and vegetables that it gives the name to the island. "Boca del Toro, between Columbus and Provision is- lands, is the principal channel leading into the baj', and between Careening Caj', close off Columbus Island and Pro- vision'Island, it is about three-fourths of a mile wide. Both 28 NOTES ON PANAMA. sides, however, are skirted by a coral ledge, so that in the middle, in the narrowest part, it is only about one-fourth of a mile across. In the middle of the channel and across the Garcia bank or Middle ground, which lies just within the bay, a depth of not less than 5 fathoms may be carried ; and if buoyed, 6 fathoms could be maintained. "The edges of the reefs on the Provision Island side gen- erally show themselves, but the water is so muddy at the entrance that the shoals there are not visible, and as Long Bay Point is dangerous, strangers will require a pilot. "Shoal. — The existence of a small coral patch is reported in. Boca del Toro with 3 fathoms of water over it at low water. The 3-fathom spot is on the following bearings : "Careening Point, N. 3° E. (N. 3° W. mag.), distant 800 yards. "Mangrove Point, S. 81° W. (S. 75° W. mag.). "There are depths of 4 and 44 fathoms close around this patch. "Directions.— In a case of necessity, or with but little local knowledge, the following directions for the Boca del Toro will be useful and, to vessels drawing under 17 feet, quite safe. "There is not much difficulty in recognizing the entrance. Cape Toro being a remarkable bold headland, but it must be approached from a northeast direction at a wide offing and with the sea breeze. An easterly set of the current should be allowed for. When the channel comes fairly open, bear- ing S. 21° W. (S. 15° W. mag.), a very remarkable large tree on Cristoval Island, called 'Pillar tree,' will be seen. "The i-ange for approaching and entering is Pillar tree in range with the eastern side of Split Hill and not the center of the hill. A small notch will be seen just to the eastward of the highest part of Split Hill and on the eastern slope; this in range with the Pillar tree will carry nearl}' in the center of the channel. Should the range be shut in by rain or mist after getting on it, it is better to head for the eastern tangent of Careening Caj^ until Toro Point bears abeam and then to head the course by compass about S. 20° W. (S. 14° W. mag.) through the channel, turning when Mangrove Point bears S. 82° W. (S. 70° mag.). A S. 48° W. (S. 42° W. mag.) course will lead across tlie deepest part of the middle ground, in 4 to 5 fathoms, when anchorage may be taken as most conven- NOTES OJS PANAMA. 29 lent, ill 12 or 13 fatlioins, mud, provided Careening Point does not bear eastward of N. 17° E. {N. 11° E. mag.). "The south end of Careening Cay is sufficiently steep for a vessel to heave down alongside, and between it and the Fort Point there is a 12-foot channel, admitting coasting ves- sels to a more sheltered anchorage off the settlement. "In leaving the lagoon by the Boco del Toro it will be nec- essaiy to wait for the land Avind. To attempt working out against the heavy swell which usually rolls in would be attended with considerable risk, notwithstanding the assist- ance of the outset, and if caught at the entrance by the sea breeze it will be more prudent for a vessel of heav}' draft to run back. It is also necessary to be cautious not to haul out to the northeast before Cape Toro bears S. 74° E. (S. 80° E. mag.) to avoid the reef from that i^oint. " Caution. — Vessels drawing 18 feet should sound and buoy the channel, as Garcia Bank has changed, but tliere is a channel with a least depth of -1 fathoms. ' ' Pilots. — Local pilots come off to ships, but are not reliable. "Tides and Current. — It is high water, full and change, in the Boca del Toro at 12h. 15m., and the rise is from 1 to 1^ feet. There is no flood stream, but a continual outset, de- pending upon the rains; in the dry season its strength is about a knot. The great easterly eddy sets on to the cays off the north side of Columbus Island at the rate of from 1 to 2 knots, and it will be met with off the Boca del Toro and should be allowed for after the cays bear southward of west, "Shepherd Harbor. — Of the many small basins formed by the islands off the south shore the largest and most favor- ably situated lies at the southwest end of Almirante Baj^ and is named Shepherd Harbor. It is about 4 miles in length in a northwest and southwest direction and from 1 to If miles in breadth, with a depth of 12 fathoms on muddy bottom. "On the northeast side it is bounded by Shepherd, or Igu- ana, Caj^, which is 1^ miles long east and west, about one-half mile broad, and, in the highest j)art, 264 feet high. From the southeast end of the island a narrow coral ledge stretches off to the southward about a mile, upon which are several cays, the two largest named Garcia and Roldan. The channel between the south end of Roldan and the main is nearly one- half mile wide. From Snapper Point, which forms the south point of entrance, a ledge, nearly dry and steep-to, projects 30 NOTES ON PANAMA. to the northward oOO yards, but Roldau is bold to within 100 yards; elsewhere it is quite clear, with a depth of 15 fathoms. "•The western cliannel, be ween Shepherd Cay and Iguana Point, is about one-half mile wide. The eay is clear to within 100 3'ards, but from Iguana Point a coral ledge shows itself to the distance of 200 yards and is steep-to. All the dangers in the interior of the harbor are confined to the south shore and easily seen from aloft, and the coral ledges, which fringe most parts of the mangrove shores to a short distance, are so bold that a vessel ma}" lie close to them. Secure anchorage may be fallen up anywhere, as most convenient for watering, wooding, or refitting, and in many parts large vessels may lie alongside the shore. Shepherd Cay and the adjoining cays and a considerable portion of the mainland adjacent are now almost completely cleared and covered with banana and cocoa plantations. American steamers visit the several plantations in Ahnirante Bay and collect the produce. There is a landing- wharf at the southeast corner of Roldan Cay. The chief sup- plies, however, are grown on the banks of the streams on the mainland, principally at Saurian and Cultivation creeks. Here the land is of extreme fertility and produces all the tropical fruits and vegetables, cotton, coffee, and sugar cane in the greatest perfection and with very little labor. "The dense forest around the lagoon also yields abundance of most excellent ship timber, wiiich is used on the island to build canoes and small coasting vessels. The most valuable timber is the eboe tree, wiiich has a diameter of from 3 to 4 feet and grows straight from 50 to (30 feet, with large spread- ing arms, having crooks of all forms and dimensions. The zapatilla attains about the same height and is from 2 to 3 feet in diameter, but being rather brittle it re(iuires caution in felling. The sum-wood, called also Spanish elm and cap- aro, is of the same dimensions, saws and works well, and is well ada])ted for planking, as it resists the trying effects of this climate better than the woods generally used for this puri)ose. This tree is also found on Popa Island. Cedar also grows to great size and perfection, and is used for the construction of large canoes, dories, and piti^ans. " Water. — Four small streams flow into the south side of Shepherd Harbor, but they are only navigable for small canoes for a short distance. The largest is Saurian Creek, and it is the best at wliich to water; a vessel of large class may be conveniently moored within 400 yards of the mouth. NOTES ON PANAMA. 31 " Directions. — Having entered Alinii-ante JJay, if proceed- inii' from the Boca del Toro, the nortli end of Cristoval Island ninst be approached cantionsly to avoid a small coral ledge whiclilies nortliwcstward three-fourths mile fi'om Coco Point, the northern extremit\' of the island; the channel is about 1^ miles wide, with a depth of 15 fathoms. In running or work- ing, Juan Point must not be bi-ouglit westward of S. 02° W. (S. 56° W. mag.) until the ledge is passed. "Juan Point is foul to the distance of about 400 j-ards, and from Tristan Point, on the western shore of the bay, a flat coral ledge, dry in places, extends 1^ miles to the eastward, having 3 and 4 fathoms on its outer edge, leaving a channel l^ miles in breadth. The Cristoval side must, therefore, be kept aboard; it is everywhere bold within 400 j'^ards, and should it be necessary to work tli rough this part, a little white lookout hut on the higliest part of Shepherd Caj^ must not be brought to the southward of S. 17° W. (S. 11° W. mag.) when standing to the westward. " The southeast end of the Ti-istan Reef lies with Mangrove Point well oj^en of -Juan Point. To the southward of this there is no danger; either channel maj^ be taken into the harbor, but the southeastern will be the most convenient with the sea breeze, and all that is necessary is to steer in mid- ehannel or work in by the Eye, avoiding the ledges off the entrance points. " From the Boca del Drago, after j)assing Lime Point Bank, care must be taken to haul well to the eastward to avoid a coral bank extending from Donate Point on the western shore, the outer end of wiiich bears S. 3° W. (S. 3° E. mag.) nearly 2^ miles from Lime Point. Tristan Point must also be verj- cautiously approached, and Juan Point not brought to the northward of East (N. 84° E. mag.), or a depth of not less than K) fathoms be maintained before Shepherd hut bears to the westward of S. 11° W. (S. 5° W. mag.). With the hut bearing S. 17° AY. (S. 11° W. mag.), the end of the Ledge will be crossed in 5 fathoms. "Crawl Cay Channel.— At the head of the bight formed by the islands southwest of the Zapatilla cays, between Pro- vision and Popa islands, is the Crawl Cay Channel, leading into the Almirante Lagoon. This cut has depths of not less than 5^ fathoms, between detached coi-al shoals, but it is so intricate and narrow, l)eing in some parts not 100 yards wide. 32 NOTES ON PANAMA. that it is quite impossible to give safe directions for its navi- gation. The sea, however, is so tranquil and clear that every coral head is easily seen, and the tidal stream being weak, the pilotage may be effected by the eye from aloft, provided the weather be clear and favorable and the sun not ahead. " The entrance is about 300 yards in width, but so hidden by mangrove caj^s within that it would be impossible for strangers to make it out, and the shore is far too dangerous to approach without being certain of the channel. There is a conspicuous saddle-shaped hill 670 feet high, about S. 62° W. (S. 56° W. mag.) of the anchorage off the Zapatillas, the south hummock of which, when brought to bear about S. 55° W. (S. 49° W. mag.), and in line with the northwestern extremity of Popa island, will lead to the opening. ""The north part of Popa, being formed of lofty trees grow- ing straight out of the water, appears from this direction bold and distinct, and the end of the reef which runs to the north- east off Cobbler Point three-fourths of a mile and forms the east side of the entrance is steep-to and breaks heavily. "The west extreme of the westernmost Zapatilla island, bearing N, 73° E. (N. 67° E. mag.) astern, leads up to the entrance. "Zapatilla Cays. — The west side of the outer part of the Tiger Channel is bounded by two narrow sandy islets named Zapatilla, which appear as one island, their general direction being west-northwest. They are each a little more than one- half mile long, and about 1,200 yards apart, a ledge almost dr}^ joining them. Both are thickly wooded, affording excel- lent firewood, easily obtained; the tops of the trees are about 80 feet above the sea. • "The surrounding reef extends east-southeast 1 mile from the easternmost, the extreme bearing N. 70° W. (N. 76° W. mag. ) 4^ miles from the Tiger breaker. Near the extremity the reef is one-half mile broad and generalh^ shows itself, but it skirts the north and south sides of the cays at only a short distance. From the westernmost cay it stretches off a mile in a northwest direction, and at this extremity is 1 mile broad. Between it and the reef off Patino Point there is an intricate channel with many shallow heads. "Anchorage. — On the south side of Zapatilla Cays anchorage and the best shelter will be found in 10 fathoms, sand and mud, with the west end of the westernmost cay NOTES ON PANAMA. 33 bearing X. 27° E. (N. 21° E. mag.) about 1 mile distant. The soundings are very irregular and change suddenly in some parts from 6 to 12 fathoms, but everywhere the bottom is formed of mud and sand. "Caution. — The edge of soundings lies about 6 miles northward of the Zapatilla Cays; but farther west the edge is close to the land. At night or in thick weather, if eastward of the Zapatilla Cays, a vessel might stand in until the first sounding is obtained, but this must be done cautiously. "POPA Island, which forms the northwest boundary of Chiriqui Lagoon, is of moderate elevation, but at the north end there is a very remarkable isolated hill named Mount Popa, with a rounded summit 1,300 feet above the sea, and is a serviceable object. The south side of the island is covered with trees, termed by the traders "sum-wood," which grow to large dimensions and are conveyed to Cartagena for ship- building. Good coal has been found on this island. There is a channel into the lagoon between Water Cay and Popa Island, carrying 6 fathoms water, but it is too narrow and tortuous for a stranger to navigate. Between the west side of Popa Island and the main there are narrow deep channels leading into Almirante Bay navigable for trading craft and launches. " Chiriqui Lagoon. — The Chiriqui Lagoon is 32 miles long from east to west, 12 miles wide in the center, 5 at its east and 10 at its western extremity, and is capable of receiving in security vessels of all drafts. The entrance between Blue- field Point and Water Cay is 3^ miles wide, and, being open north and south, is very easily recognized. Bluefield Point is a bold rounded headland. "There is not less than 8 fathoms in the fairway over a chan- nel, which is about one-half mile wide, and there is no bar. The southern part of the lagoon has depths of 15 to 20 fath- oms, decreasing toward the shore. "The principal trading places are the Chirica Mola and Frenchman Creek. "The north side of the interior of Chiriqui Lagoon is thickly fringed with detached shoals and coral heads, steep-to; and the main entrance itself, although from one-half to 1 mile in breadth, is so intricate that with sailing vessels it should only be taken with the sea and land breezes. These shoals extend to a distance of 4^ miles to the southward of 12312—03^ 3 34 NOTES ON PANAMA. Bluefield Point, and so block up the east end of the lagoon that that part is only navigable for small handy vessels. The navigation is not difficult, for the water is so clear that the eye can guide from aloft. The mangrove creeks at this end are so deep that the}' afford ready jilaces for concealment. " The eastern and southern shores of the lagoon for a very considerable distance inland, as far as Man Creek, 17 miles from the east end of the lagoon, are low and swampy, and there are only a verj^few spots in this space where a landing- can be effected. "At Man Creek the base of a great spur from the Cordil- lera reaches the shore and only 2 miles inland has an eleva- tion of 2,672 feet. This lofty ridge extends about 5 miles to the westward, when the Chiriqui Vallej^, from .3 to 5 miles wide, separates it from another ridge 2,840 feet high, at the southwest end of the lagoon, about 2^ miles inland. At the foot of each of these ranges there is a trading post. "The south side of the lagoon Avestward of the Chirica Mola is free of danger and maj^ be safely navigated by the lead. The west side is low, swampj^, and uninhabited; it is skirted by a coral ledge from one-fourth to three-fourths of a mile distant, with 6 and 7 fathoms close-to. "The easternmost stream that flows into the southeast corner of the Chiriqui Lagoon is the Catabella Creek; it is verj' small and will only admit canoes to a short distance. "Toro Creek, or San Diego River, empties about 3^ miles westward of the Catabella and communicates with the Chirica Mola just below its rapids. To the westward of the entrance there are a few fishermen's huts. "Water Cay is low, flat, and denseh^ wooded, the tops of the trees at the east end reaching to the height of about 120 feet above the sea. The eastern end of this cay is formed of low red-clay cliffs, and very close off the eastern extremity there is a small dry rock, which, on a S. 24° E. (S. 30° PI mag.) bearing, seen just open of the point, is the leading mark into the lagoon. A reef, on which the sea breaks heavily, stretches off from it 300 3-ards and skirts the whole of the northeast side of the ca3^ At Goo yards from the east point the depth is 5 fathoms. " Chirica Mola River is the only stream of any magni- tude in the lagoon and enters it 4 miles to the westward of Toro Creek. It has formed a small delta, which projects out NOTES ON PANAMA. 35 to a well-defined sandy point at the entrance, S. 5° E. (S. 11° E. mag.) Oi miles from Hlnefield Point. On its eastern side, about H miles from the ejitrance, the shore forms a small cove, named Irish Bay, which has 3 to 4 fathoms, nnder the mangroves. Small trading- coasters generally collect their cargoes here from the small settlements aiound. They lie completely hidden by the high trees. "A small low mangrove island divides the mouth of the Chirica Mola into two channels, the eastern of which is alone navigable, and on the bar during the dry season there is less than 2 feet of water. At this period the water is brackish about 2 miles above the entrance. The banks are low and inundated for a distance of about 3 miles, whence they rise, and at the first rapids are 7 feet above the rivei-. To this point, a distance of about 12 miles, the stream varies in breadth from 100 feet to nearly 000 feet and in depth from 2 to 12 feet. As already- observed, at the commencement of the rapids a branch of the river turns to the southeast, form- ing the Toro Creek. Above the rapids the bed of the river is so full of rocks that its ascent can only be accomplished in small strong canoes and with very great labor. "Settlement. — About 10 miles above the landing at the rapids, on the right bank, is the most considerable village of the Valiente Indians, and a trading post for a long time has been established here. Cotton and hardware manufactures are brought from Jamaica and bartered for sarsaparilla, vanilla, cattle, and hides. The situation is said to be healthy, . and communicates by footpaths with the Biarra and Cata- bella creeks. "The coast westward of the Chirica Mola forms a bight 5| miles wide and about 3 feet deep. The interior consists of small mangrove lagoons, in which the manatee is frequently captured. The west end of this bight terminates at the entrance of the Warri or Biarri River, the eastern entrance point of which forms a well-defined and easily recognized projection. The entrance of the Biarra is about 20 feet wide, and on the bar there is only a foot of water in the dr}' season. Canoes ascend to the first rapids, about 8 miles from the mouth, where there is a small settlement. From this river the mangrove shore of its delta again recedes inward and, curving to the northwestward, forms a large bay, about 8 miles wide and 3 deep. About 3 miles from the Biarra, at W. T. CONWAY \s\ LIEUT. 6th INFANTRY 36 NOTES ON PANAMA. the foot of the highlands already described, is the entrance of Man Creek, which, in the rainy season, is navigable for canoes two days' journej'. "From the head of the hay a shallow bank extends out nearly 2 miles, and in the southwest corner, by the side of a rivulet at the base of the hills, there is a trading post. "Thence the coast is low and swampy, forming the delta of the Chiriqui, which river enters the lagoon at the north- west point of the bay. The shore in this space is closely skirted by a coral ledge, steep-to. The entrance of the Chi- riqui River is so small that a sti-anger will have great diffi- culty in discovering it among the narrow openings in the mangroves. In the dry season the bar is impassable, except by hauling over it, and in the heavy rains the numerous rapids are too formidable even for canoes. "From the Chiriqui the low swampy shore which bounds the Chiriqui Valley trends westerly 5 miles to Frenchman Creek. About midway is Cabbage Creek, of no importance. "Frenchman Creek emerges at the base of the lofty ridge which forms the west side of the Chiriqui Valley, and, although unnavigable, taking its rise in the adjacent moun- tains, it is a constant running stream of good water. The land to the southwestward and w'estward of it is firm and wooded all the waj^ to the southw^est end of the lagoon, and, being free of morass, the locality has been well chosen for the establishment of a trading post. The settlement stands on the west side of the entrance of the creek and around it is a small cultivated space, which is most fertile in the produc- tion of all tropical fruits and vegetables. This end of the lagoon also abounds in turtle in the season. "The position, indeed, has been found so favorably situated, and, comparatively, so healthy, that a bridle path has been opened along the west side of the Chiriqui Valley and across the mountains to Ciudad David, near the Pacific, b}" means of which cattle have been brought from thence to this spot and then conveyed in canoes to the Boca del Toro settlement in three days. The shore is here quite clear, and there is excellent anchorage in 7 fathoms about one-half mile distant. Numerous small streams descend from the table ridge into the w^est side of the lagoon, but the Robalo is the only one navigated bj' small canoes. NOTES ON PANAMA. 37 " RoBALO River entrance lies near the southwest corner of the Chiriqui Lagoon, on the north side of a shallow mangrove bay, about 2 miles westward of Frenchman Creek. Although \evY narrow, it is navigated by the sarsaparilla pickers in their little canoes, two or three days' journey, according to the state of the river. At the end of one day's paddling rap- ids are met with, and after two days' ascent it receives a small stream from the southward, whicli throws so large a body of water into the main branch as to render it almost impassable after very heavy rains. The banks are said to be densely covered with trees of the largest dimensions. "AVater. — The best place in the lagoon to water is at Frenchman Creek, There is also an excellent and convenient spring in the little sandy bay on the east side of Blueheld Point, olf which there is anehoi'age; it is, however, difficult to get at, and so exposed as to be dangerous Avith strong west- erly breezes and land winds. "Directions — Tiger Channel.- — Vessels bound into the Chiriqui Lagoon with the sea breeze should approach by the Tiger Channel, which, between Tiger Breaker and the east end of Zapatilla Reef, is 4 miles wide. After passing southward of the breaker the opening into the lagoon is readily distin- guished, and a course should be shaped to pass from three- fourths to 1 mile from the east end of Water Cay. From this a southerly course must be taken, until the west extreme of the Zapatilla Cays is in line with the eastern extremity of Water Cay, bearing X. 24° W. (X. 30° W. mag.), taking care to bring these marks on before Valiente Peak is in line with the south end of Toro Cays. " Or, when the extremities of Water and Zapatilla cays are in line as above, a very small rock, 3 or 4 feet above the sea, close off the north side of Water Ca^^ Point, will be seen just open of it, and this mark will lead between the shoals. When Valiente Peak is over a hut at the east end of a small sandy cay, on the east side of Bluefield Point, bearing X. 33° E. (X. 27 E. mag), a vessel will be inside them, and may shape her course as convenient. It is necessary, however, to observe that it will not be prudent for a large vessel to goto the east- ward of the Chirica Mola, to the entrance of which the lead- ing mark, or the same course, will carry her. "The rock off Water Cay lies so close to the point that it must be used very cautiously as a mark, and onl}^ when the 38 NOTES ON PANAMA. Zapatilla Cay is not seen. As the tops of the trees on the west end of the latter cay are only 80 feet above the sea, it will perhaps be necessary and safer to gnide the vessel from aloft, so as to keep that mark in sight as long as possible instead of trusting to the rock and bearing. "Great attention is requisite, for the water at entrance of the lagoon is so discolored that the shoals can not be seen, and as they are steep-to, wi':h deep and exceedingly irregular soundings, the lead is almost useless, and there is only a space of about 400 yards to spare from tlie shoals on the west side of the channel. "There is another channel to the westward of the above, full three- fourths mile wide from east to west, but so difficult of access, for want of marks, that without the assistance of a pilot it is dangerous to navigate. However, with some local knowledge the following directions will assist to guide safely into the lagoon in a case of necessity: "Pass three-fourths mile eastward of Water Cay, and when Water Cay Point bears W. (S. 84° W. mag.) steer S. 23° W. (S. 17° W. mag.) until it bears north (N. 0° W. mag.), thence a south (S. 6° E. mag.) course will lead through between the shoals at the distance of about 800 yards. "If bound to the southwest part of the lagoon, when Yali- ente Peak is in line with the north side of Bluefield Point, a course as most convenient may be pursued; but if bound to the Chirica Mola, it will be necessarj^ to stand on until Vali- ente Peak bears N. 30° E. (N. 33° E. mag.) or Popa Hill N. 35 W. (N. 41° W. mag.), when a S. 51° E. (S. 57° E. mag.) course Avill lead to the entrance of that river. "In leaving the Chiriqui Lagoon it will be necessarj^ to wait for the land wind, either in the evening — if it comes off:" earl}", which it very frequently does — or in the morning, soon after daylight. To run through the eastern channel the leading mark must be brought on from a iDOsition well to the south- ward, with Valiente Peak bearing to the northward of N. 34° E. (N. 28° E. mag.). Steer out, with the east end of Water Cay in line with the west end of the western Zapatilla Ca}^, N. 24° W. (N. 30 W. mag.), and when Valiente Peak comes in line with the east side of Bluetield headland, N. 45° E. (N. 39° E. mag.), j^ou will be between the outer shoals, and a north (N. G° VV. mag.) course will lead clear out to sea. "To run by the western channel, the east point of Water NOTES ON PANAMA. 39 Ca}' must be broiii;]it to bear north (N. G° W. mag.) (the course through) befoie Mount Popa bears westward of N. 35° W. (N. 41° W. mag.). When Valiente Peak is seen over Little Toro Cay, N. 50° E. (N. 50° E. mag.), the shoals will be cleared, and a course to sea may then be shaped. "Should it be necessaiy to work up from ihe west end of the lagoon, the north shore must be approached very cau- tiously, for no marks can be given to avoid the shoals off that side. As the south side can be navigated by the lead, it will be better not to stand more than about halfway across from tliat shore, until the leading marks for the channels are nearly on. "Tides. — It is liigh water, full and change, about noon, and the spring rise in the Chiriqui Lagoon is about 1 foot. In the interior of the lagoon there is seldom any tidal stream, but an outset to the northward, according to the state of the rivers. In the dry season, from March to June, off the Chirica Mola, and as far out as the entrance of the main channel, the strength of the ebb is from one-half to 1 knot an hour, and there is sometimes a weak flood stream; but outside and in the small channels to the westward there is a continual out- set, running at the rate of 1 or 2 knots, and after long heavy rains even as much as 3 knots, in the main channel. " Bluefield Point, 3 miles S. 30° W. (S. 24° W. mag.) from Cape Valiente, is a bold bluff wooded headland 180 feet high and easily recognized. About 200 yards to the westward of it there is a small black rock, G feet out of water, the western side of which, as well as the southwest extremity of the bluff, is steep-to. "From abreast the black rock a sand}^ beach, backed by mangrove swamps, trends about northeast GOO yards, and from the north end a dr^' coral ledge extends aliout 200 yards to the Little Toro Rock. "Toro Cays, about one-half mile westward of Little Toro Rock, are small islets, lying so close together that they gen- erally appear as one narrow island, about one-fourth mile in length, from north to south. They are formed of dark indu- rated clay, in which are embedded thin spiral layers of peb- bles and stones, and their summits are covered with wood. From a northeast and southwest direction the southernmost of these cays are seen to rise perpendicularl}^ from the sea, and have a similar appearance to those off Cape Valiente. 40 NOTES ON PANAMA. The f^roiind is all foul inside of them, and a led.^e extends from the northernmost north-northwestward -fOO yards. There are 5 fathoms at 400 yards to the westward. "Bluefield Rock, a small perpendicular black rock 32 feet high, with two or three remarkable trees on its summit, is easil}' recognized from the westward; it lies on the south edge of the Valiente bank, 800 yards to the northward of Creek Point, and marks the narrowest part of the channel into Bluefield Creek. "Bluefield Creek, on the south side of Cape Valiente, is 4y miles in extent, east and west, but the south side of the creek is so indented that its breadth varies considerabh'. The narrowest part of the entrance is 800 j-ards across, but within it is nearly 1:^ miles wide in some jilaces and has a depth suf- ficient to receive vessels of large draft in perfect security. There is no bar. " The interior is exceedingly picturesque. The vessel will appear to lie in a deep valley, the gorgeous densely wooded hills rising on the north side to the Valiente Peak and on the south side to an. elevation of 180 to 500 feet. The eastern end is swamp}^ and bounded by low mangroves. From the northeast end a pathway leads across the narrow isthmus which connects the peninsula to the main, and at the south- east end a small narrow ridge of irregular hills rises to the height of 640 feet. "On the south shore of the creek, in a small plain to the eastward of Carolina Point, there is a small stream of excel- lent water, and all around the Valiente Peninsula maj^ be seen the detached huts of the Valiente Indians, with small cultivated spots here and there. The huts of this tribe will be elsewhere met with, scattered around the adjacent lagoons and at the entrances of the small rivers on the coast, but this is the only spot where they appear to have formed a regular settlement; sometimes, however, the i)eninsula will be found entirely deserted, for in their long fishing and hunting excur- sions thej^ are ac(!ompanied by their whole families. " Scrubby Point, the southwest entrance point of Bluefield Creek, is low and wood3^ It is the northeast extremity of a narrow neck of land three-fourths mile in length, which ter- minates to the southwest at Bluefield Point, the east point of entrance to the Chiriqui Lagoon. "Supplies. — Water may be obtained from the stream on the NOTES ON PANAMA. 41 south shore, from which a shallow flat extends some distance, bnt by means of a long hose the water can be conveyed into the boats. Wood will be found all around, but, when time is not an object, it will be better to proceed to the Zapatilla Cays for this purpose, where there will be less risk to the health of the crew. The seine may be hauled with great success in any of the sandy bays, but it is necessary to be prepared to meet with small alligators and to be careful that the people are not electrified bj^ the torpedo. "The papaw, a most excellent vegetable, grows almost wild all around the inlet, and the banks of several of the streams on the main afford an abundant supplj^of bananas and plan- tains. There is also fair hunting, but it is attended with some risk. The dense rank underwood is infested with snakes of the most venomous description, and a season seldom passes without a fatal accident occurring among the sarsaparilla pickers. "Directions. — The extremity of the Torro Ledge is about west of Scrubby Point, and from it to the nearest point of Valiente Bank the channel into Bliiefield Creek is a mile wide, with 11 to 18 fathoms water, except about midway, where there is a depth of 8 fathoms. Both the edge of the Valiente Bank and the opposite bold projecting points which separate the bays are steep-to, but the bays themselves are very shal- low within the lines of the points. "Vessels having occasion to visit Blnefield Creek had bet- ter enter bj^ the Tiger Channel, taking care in so doing to give the Tiger Breaker a wide berth and not to haul in to the southward nntil the Toro Cay bears eastward of S. 11° E. (S. 17° E. mag.). By waiting until the sea ])reeze is established the channel may be navigated without the necessit}^ of mak- ing a board. Steer toward Bluefield Point, taking care not to bring it to bear westward of south (S. G° E. mag.) to avoid the edge of the Valiente Bank, until the hummock on the south end of the Bluefield Ridge at the head of the creek is in line with Carolina Point, S. 74° E. (S. 80° E. mag.). "This mark will lead nearly in mid-channel to the narrow- est part, when the anchorage may be steered for. It will be better, however, not to go farther in than to bring Cai^e Val- iente in line with a remarkable bluff named Observatory Point, which lies a short distance to the southward of it, and anchor in 11 fathoms, mud, with a large hut on the summit 42 NOTES ON PANAMA. bearing N. 23° W. (N. 29° W. mag.), and Bluefleld Rock about N. 69° W. (N. 75° W. mag.)- A position to the east- ward of this loses the advantage of the breeze, by no means desirable in so confined a vallej'and in such a fearful climate as this. "A bank of 2 fathoms is chartered in mid-channel just within Carolina Point, with deep water on either side; and there are several shallow patches farther in, with deep water between them. "Tides. — It is high water, full and change, in Bluefield Creek at 12h. 30in., and the rise is about a foot. There is no perceptible stream on the flood, but the ebb will assist a ves- sel in working out. " Valiente Peak. — From Cape Valiente, the northwestern extremit}^ of the Valiente Peninsula, to Chiriqui Point a rocky shore extends easterly 2| miles, and bold, irregular, densely wooded hills rise abruptlj'^ from the shore to the height of 500 or 600 feet. On ihe western shore of the peninsula and about a mile southeastward of Cape Valiente one of these hills ter- minates in Valiente Peak, 722 feet high, which, being much higher than any other summit on this part of the coast, is a most remarkable object and excellent guide from a long distance. "Valiente Cays. — From Cape Valiente the western face of the promontorj^ turns sharplj^ in a southeast direction for If miles and is fronted by a shallow coral bank extending 1^ miles. The north side of this bank is bounded by a range of small islets and rocks, forming the southern side of the VaM- ente Channel, which is here 1| miles broad. Near the west- ern edge of the bank thei'e is also a small low rock, named Middle Rock, with sunken rocks between it and the ca3^s. "These islets and the Tiger Cays appear to be of jn-ecisel}^ the same formation as those lying close off Escudo de Ve- ragua. Those off Cape Valiente are equally remarkable, being perforated in the same way and crowned with cocoa- nut trees. They appear to be wasting from the action of the waves, and one has been washed away. "Chiriqui Rocks. — From Chiriqui Point a coral ledge called Chiriqui Rocks extends about west-nortliwest Ij miles, and terminates at 400 yards beyond Barren Rock, 10 feet high, williiji which are several rugged, rock}" islets from 50 to 150 feet above water. NOTES ON PANAMA. 43 "Valiente Channel, between Ban-en Rock and the Tiger Caj^s, has depths of G to fathoms on either side of Valiente Breaker. "Valiente Breaker, N. 35° E. (N. 20° E. mag.), U miles from the extremity of Cape Valiente, is a very small head of 3 fathoms, steep-to, which breaks hea\Mly when rollers pre- vail, even in the finest weather, and is extremely dangei'oiis. Between it and Barren Rock there are depths of 10 and 11 fathoms, and l^etween it and the Tiger Cays tlie channel is three-fourths mile wide, with G to fathoms. "Tiger Cays, which bound the north side of the Valiente Channel, consist of three small red-clay islets about a mile in extent from east to west. The easternmost and largest lies 1| miles fi'om Cape Valiente, and is covered with brushwood, but on the others are trees with their tops about 35 feet above the sea. Tlie ca3\s are connected and surrounded at a short distance by a coral ledge, almost dry, preventing landing any- where, although it is steep-to. "Tiger Rock.— At 1,200 yards N. G4° AV. (N. 70° W. mag.) of the westernmost of the Tiger Cays lies Tiger Rock, a small detached rock G feet above the sea and steep-to, having 14 fathoms water between. " Tiger Breaker, 800 j^ards N. 71° W. (N. 77° W. mag.) of Tiger Rock, is a small isolated breaker, also steep-to and extremely dangerous, for it does not always show itself. From Tiger Breaker Valiente Peak and Cape are in line and Toro Cay bears 8. 3° W. (S. 3° E. mag.). "Directions. — The widest channel is westward of Val- iente Breaker and between it and Tiger Cays. "Little Toro Rock, a sugar-loafed islet 100 feet higli, in line with oi; open of Cape Valiente, bearing S. 33° W. (S. 27° W. mag), leads westward of the breaker in about fathoms. When Barren Rock bears N. 85° E. (N. 70° E. mag.) keep it astern on that bearing until Bluefield Point bears S. 5° E. (S. 11° E. mag.), then steer for it. This mark will lead west- ward of Valiente Bank and up to the leading mark for Blue- field Creek. If proceeding into Chiriqui Lagoon, pass about 1 mile westward of Toro Cays and follow the directions given for Tiger Channel. "The flood stream in Valiente Channel is charted as run- ning one-half knot an hour to the southwest and the ebb from 1 to 2 knots in the opposite direction, the strength of the lat- 44 NOTES ON PANAMA. ter beiug caused bj^ the easterly current and the outset from the higoon. This increases the swell, which is generall}^ so heavy that it is by no means a safe channel to work out of nor for a stranger to enter, for the break over the Valiente Rock may not occur for long intervals. "Valiente Peninsula. — From Chiriqui Point the shore trends about southeast. 5 miles to Tobobo Bluff, which forms the southeastern extremity of the Valiente Peninsula, having on its northern side a small cove with bold irregular hills rising from it all along. The beach is of white sand, skirted by small islets and detached rocks and reefs to the distance of 200 to 400 yards, ui3on which the surf breaks furiously. It is remarkable that this is the first clear white sandy l)each met with to the westward of Chagres. P^lsewhere, as far to the westward as Grey town, the beaches are com posed of dark, almost black, ferruginous sand, which is so impregnated with minute metallic particles that a magnet thrust into it will frequently be brought out completely coated with them. The only exception is the above beach and the sea or northern sides of the outlying caj's and islands, which are bounded by beaches of pure white calcareous sand. "It is also remarkable that the beach of the Mosquito shore northward of Grej^town is in many parts similar, except that the sparkling appearance seen there is owing to small parti- cles of mica, which at first sight have been mistaken for gold dust. "Plantain Cay, northeastward 1 mile from Tobobo Bluff, is a small but remarkable wooded islet, rising abruptly from the sea to the height of L'30 feet, and between it and the bluff there is a similar cay, named ' Tobobo,' but only 150 feet high. Between these cays there is a narrow channel, adapted for coasting vessels. Plantain Cay has some small rocks, steep-to, close off its north side. "Tobobo Bank, 5^ miles eastward from Plantain Cay, is a small coral bank with 7 to 10 fathoms water, which to^is with heayj" rollers and is exceedingly alarming; and N. 51° E. (N. 45° E. mag.) 5^ miles of the cay there are 10 fathoms, on a nari'ow coral ledge, with 16 to 17 fathoms, which lies just within the edge of soundings and has 30 fathoms inside it. Vessels should approach this neighborhood with great caution. "Tobobo Bight. — From Tobobo Blutf, a bold prominent headland 500 feet high, the shore trends to the southeastward NOTES ON PANAMA. 45 and eastward to Old Bess Point and forms a deep irregular mangrove bight. The inner part of this bight is ver}' shallow and skirted bj^ a dangerous reef, which breaks heavily about a mile from the shore and is steep-to. There are several small openings, however, forming boat channels intoTobobo Creek, in the northwest corner. "There are two huts on the south side of Tobobo Bluff and a spring of good water in a small sandy cove to the north- ward of them. "From Old Bess Point the coast trends about southeast 3 miles to Coco Plum Point, which is about a mile to the north- northwest of the entrance of the Cana and is fringed with a reef to a considerable distance. Abont midway, close to the shore, there is a small cluster of islets named the Tooley Cays, and abreast them the wooded land rises to the height of 460 feet. "EscuDO DE Veragua is an island lH miles longfrofii east to west and about three-fourths of a mile broad, and its south- western extremity lies east-northeastward 10 miles from Coco Plum Point, the nearest part of tlie mainland. It is low and woody, and the trees grow so very regular in height that when first sighted it appears like a small island of tableland which, when approaching from the northward, will be seen to slope down gradually to the westwai-d. The eastern part of the island is formed of soft, reddish-brown, perpendicular cliffs from 40 to 50 feet high, in which are embedded several species of marine shells. "From the destructive action of the waves, however, the cliffs have been cut into and separated here and there at very short distances from the body of the island, forming small islets; some of them have been pierced through, and the arches, being crowned by dense foliage and trees from 70 to 80 feet high, have a most remarkable and picturesque appearance when seen from a short distance. The west end and south side of the island are very low and swampy and bounded by a dark sandy beach, similar to that found on the mainland. The southwestern extremity is steep-to and affords the only landing place, which, however, is at most times difficult of access on account of fhe heavy surf. From the west end a reef extends about 200 yards, and also skirts the north shore at a distance of one-fourth mile and the east end one-half mile outside the little clay islets; from the mid- dle of the south side a ledge extends about one-half mile. 46 TiOTES ON PANAMA. " Diii-inc the rainy season several small rivnlets force them- selves tlii'ough the sand on the south side of the island, but the supply of good water is so scantj^ that the few fishermen who visit it in the turtle season are obliged to dig wells "Anchorage. — A vessel may anchor off the southwest end of Escudo de Veragua, but will ride extremelj'^ uneasy, and not at all times safe; for although the soundings show; a sandy and gravel bottom, it is but a thin stratum over a flat shelf of coral, which does not afford good holding ground. Should it be necessary to take shelter here, the west end sliould be rounded in a depth of not less than 8 fathoms, and a berth taken wherever the sea appears the most smooth, in about 10 or 12 fathoms, taking care, however, to leave plenty of room for dragging or weighing with the land breeze, which sometimes comes off suddenly with considerable force. "Tides. — There is a rise of tide of from 1 to 1^ feet at the island of Escudo de Veragua. In the daytime, at the anchor- age, the current generally has a westerlj' set, which ceases at uight. "Bank of soundings. — The regular bank wdiich skirts the main forms, to the eastward of Escudo de Veragua, a large tongue, extending from the island in an east and northeast direction about 8 miles and to the northward 5 miles, with a tolerably regular increase in tlie depth; but to the northwest- ward the soundings are irregular, as about 3 miles distant they change rapidly from 30 to 10 and 14 fathoms. Tliey are also irregular to the southward, but there is no danger, and a vessel may work to the westward quickl}', between the island and theniain, by means of the eddy, which generally runs in that direction. "Cana River. — The Caiia separates the territories of Chiriqui and Veragua. The entrance is S. 60" W. (S. 54° W. mag.), 11 miles from the northwest point of Escudo de Vera- gua, and readily distinguished by two huts, one on either side; that on the western i3oint is more like a house, and, being generally whitewashed, is a conspicuous object. About 5 miles from the mouth, in a southerly direction and near the foot of the Tiger Sjpur, there is a small village inhabited by Indians who are employed in grazing cattle, collecting sarsa- parilla, and washing for gold dust, which is occasionally brought down in small quantities. Small canoes can navi- gate the stream thus far, but the nortlieast swell rolls in so NOTES ON PANAMA. 47 heavily that the passage of the bar is only safe in very favor- able Aveatlier. "The Coast. — From the Cana a low sand^' shore extends about southeast for 19 miles to Buppan Bluff. About 3 miles westward of the bluff is the entrance of Pedro River, and about the same distance farther on is that of the Chiri- qui. Both are very small, and can only be entered by canoes after heavj' rains. "Eastward of the bluff' the shore forms a sandy bay 2^ miles long, through the middle of which a small stream clears an opening for its exit in heavy rains. From the bay to the entrance of the Passiowla a ridge of red cliffs extends to the eastward, skirted by a beach and crowned by a clump of remarkable flat-topped trees about 200 feet above the sea. From tlie Passiowla to Coaita Point the usual sandy beach is intersected by two low rocky shelves. About midwaj' a coral ledge extends about one-fourth mile and is steep-to. In this space four small streams descend from the Catalina Hills, the easternmost of which is visited by sarsaparilla pickers in small canoes. The Passiowla is also navigable for small canoes for a short distance after the heavy i-ains, but at other times the mouth is blocked bj^ a dry sand bar. "Buppan Bluff. — The west end of the above beach termi- nates at the base of a large bold j^romontory, formed by two bluff headlands close together, and a third, about 1^ miles westward of them, named Buppan Bluff. All three rise pre- cipitously from the beach in round cones to an elevation of from 700 to 800 feet only one-fourth mile inland. "Landing. — From Buppan Bluff a small dry ledge extends about 400 yards, under the lee of which, in moderate weather, there is a landing place. "Tiger Head. — At about 11 miles westward of Buppan Bluff a large spur extends in a northwest direction, which gradu- ally descends with a long slope into the plain ; a little below the summit, 3,882 feet above the sea, there is a small projec- tion called the Tiger Head, but more like the ear of that ani- mal, which is most remarkable when seen from the northwest and northeast quarters, and being generally visible when the higher summits behind are clouded, it is a useful landmark. "King Buppans Peak. — The south side of the eastern- most hill descends with a slight gradual slope about 2+ miles to the southeast, when it rises suddenlv to the summit of a 48 NOTES ON PANAMA. narrow conical bill 2,8-l:() feet liigh. It then forms, between the summit and a much higher ridge behind, a deep, hollow notch, which is a most remarkable feature, although backed by the loftiest part of the Cordillera, which reaches an eleva- tion of 7,140 feet at about 15 miles from the coast. "The name 'King Buppans Peak' has been given to this hill by the Mosquito Indians, who, it is said, penetrated thus far in one of their marauding excursions, accompanied by their king. From the island of Escudo de Veragua, distant 22 miles S. 15° W. (S. 9° W. mag.), it is a most conspicuous object among the neighboring heights. "CoAiTA Point, which lies under the northeast angle of the Catalina Hills, is low and sandy, and the most southern point on this side of the Isthmus of Panama. "No ANCHORAGE. — From this point to the Chagres, a dis- tance of 83 nules, the shore runs nearly straight, without anj'- sheltered anchorage whatever; and, indeed, without safe landing except in native boats under favorable circum- stances, at spots known to the coasters and fishermen, for heavy surfs break continually along the whole shore. Abreast Coaita Point the edge of soundings is about G miles distant, and the depths will be found regularly decreasing to the shore, which is generally bold and clear. "Catalina Hills. — The deep valley through which the rivers Candelaria and Calawawa run is about 4 miles wide, and is also well marked; its western side is formed by the Catalina Hills, a large mass of irregular rounded heights, rising abruptly from the shore to an elevation of l,7o8 feet, and its eastern side b}^ a ridge, with a gradual rise to a height of 2,600 feet soutlieastward 5 miles from the Calawawa. " Calaw^awa River. — The distance between the Calawawa and Candelaria is only If miles; and between there is a small ridge of red cliffs. The former stream discharges through the breach, and the entrance is pointed out by two cocoanut trees on the western point and by some red cliffs topped with trees about three-fourths mile to the westward. "The Calawawa is navigable for canoes about 20 miles, and bej^ond this a footpath or bridle road leads over the moun- tains to the capital of the province. The journey may be performed in about thirtj^-six hours, and the mode of con- ve3'ance is on the shoulders of Indians, who accomplish it with great ease and rapidity, even in the midst of incessant torrents of rain, which prevail at almost all seasons. ¥»i 1 . oui^ff n I 1st LIEUT. 6th INFANTRY NOTES ON PANAMA. 49 Tlie red cliff westward of the Calawawa is skirted by a coral ledge, extending off about one-fourth mile. From thence the beach extends westerly for 2w miles to Coaita Point. "A mile westward of the above-mentioned cliff the sand projects out a little to a point, from which a ledge extends off one-fourth mile, and shelters a landing place to the west- ward of it, near a hut on the beach. "Candelaria River. — On each point of the entrance there is a single cocoanut tree, and on the western point there are also two or three huts; it is also further marked by a house standing on a slight elevation just above the mouth of the river. "The coast. — Three-fourths of a mile to the eastward of Candelaria River is a bold, rocky headland, close under which lie two little rockj" islets having foul ground one-fourth mile outside. The shore then extends 1^ miles to the eastward, presenting dark, sandj'^ beaches, separated b}^ small rocky shelves, when it terminates at the base of a range, of most remarkable cliffs, which rise boldlj' from the sea to the height of between 100 and 200 feet and extend 2^ miles in a westerly direction. These cliffs appear to be comj)osed of red indu- rated clay impregnated with minute metallic grains, which have become so highly polished by attrition of the water unceasinglj" trickling over them from the highlands in the rear that when the sun shines on them from a low altitude a most dazzling appearance is produced. Thej^ sometimes look like the white sails of a vessel, and the easternmost has been likened to the stern of a large ship. They are certainly most striking objects and valuable guides to the coasters. "From these cliffs the shore trends easterly If miles to Wasora River; it is sandy and intersected by two rocky shelves. From the entrance of the Wasora, which is verj^ small, the coast curves slightly to the northeastward for about 2 miles to a bluff which lies a short distance westward of tlie Cocooyah River. The shore is a sandy beach, divided in the middle by a small rocky point. "Zapatero Point is low and sandj- and breakers extend from it about one-half mile. At 1^ miles beyond the point is a very remarkable red cliff 100 feet high. At 1^ miles to the eastward of the cliff the Gold River empties, and from here the shore trends about east-northeast for 4 miles to the west entrance of St. Christopher Bay, and is sandy and skirted by 12312—03 4 50 NOTES ON PANAMA. a ledge, which breaks nearly one-half mile off. About mid- wa}^ the beach projects a little, and near this spot there is a solitary hut. About one-half mile to the eastward of the Gold River the beach is broken by a small low rock}^ i)oint. " Gold or Conception River. — There is said to be a gold mine near the source of this river, from which it is named. The entrance maybe distinguished by a remarkable umbrella- shaped tree standing on rising ground on the eastern bank, to the eastward of which, on a small cleared spot, there is a house, and below it on the beach are two cocoanut trees at the mouth of the river. Tlie opening of the valley is also very conspicuous. "Castle Choco is a remarkable mountain, rising almost perpendicularly on its northern face from the plain to an ele- vation of 6,342 feet; the flattened summit has the exact ap- pearance of a huge square castle, with a small tower at one angle. It is, however, so constantly enveloped in clouds as to be seldom visible, except at the break of day, just before sunset, or on a sudden cessation of lieavj^ rains, Avhen the atmosj)here will almost instantly becoine most remarkably bright and clear; and these remarks are aiiplicable to all the highlands on this coast. "When visible the castle is, of course, an excellent guide for the mouths of the small streams to the westward of the Coclet; it is also to be seen, under favorable circumstances, from the castle of San Lorenzo, at Chagres, west, distant 07 miles. "From the base of Castle Choco irregular masses of wooded hills begin to rise, and, taking a northwest direction, reach .an elevation of 3,100 feet only 5 miles south of the Cocooyah. Thence the base of the Cordillera almost bounds the shore, as far as its northwestern extremity, neai- the meridian of the Chiriqui River, 35 miles to the westward of Zapatero Point. "Cordillera of Yeragua. — Between the Cocooyah and Belen rivers the interior is comparatively low. forming a deep valle}' for some distance to the southeastward, and tlie land declines in height toward the coast, where it is elevated about 150 feet; but only 2 miles to the southward of the Cocooyah the northeastern extremity of the base of the Great Cordillera of Yeragua rises abruptlj'^ 1,044 feet. The highest ridge in this immense mass of mountains traverses the Isthmus from NOTES ON PANAMA. 51 east to west, for about 70 miles, at the distance of about 15 miles from the coast. " The Saddle de Veragua, the eastern extremity of the ridge, rises from the low plain of Panama, south, about -^0 miles from the entrance of the Coclet River, and, when seen from the northwest, foi'ms a remarkable double peak or saddle 8,32() feet high. "St. Christopher Bay. — Tothe westward of Palisado Point the shore forms a sandy bay 2^ miles wide and a mile deep, into which Old Yeragua River empties. "The river has a hut on the east point of its entrance, and on the rising ground on the west side, in the center of a cleared space, having the appearance of a green plain, there is a conspicuous white house. "The coast. — From Palisado Point, off which breakers ex- tend one-half mile, the shore extends easterly for 1^ miles in a straight sandy beach, then is rocky for about one-half mile to the Belen River, the opening to which is so small that it is only recognized by the receding of the low hills which form its valley. About 4 miles farther on is the entrance to the Palmillo, which is pointed out by two huts on the eastern side, but is so hidden by dense foliage that it is extremely difficult to find. From this river to Rincon Point the shore trends about northeast for G miles and is a sandy beach, intersected by low rocky shelves; the land near the shore gradually declines in height. " RiNCOX Point is a bold, scarped, rocky headland, reaching the height of 550 feet three-fourths of a mile inland. At 3 miles south of it the elevation is 800 feet. Abreast this head- land ihe edge of soundings is onh^ 2^ miles distant, and the shore is so bold that there are 24 fathoms one-half mile ofl:". "Coclet River and Mountain. — The Coclet River is pointed out by two huts on the west point of entrance and a house in the middle of a small cultivated spot on the east side. Behind it rises the Sierra de Coclet, which, at 4 miles to the southward of the river entrance, reaches an elevation of 1,432 feet. This large mass of irregular hills is connected with the Sierra de Miguel de la Borda by a wooded ridge from 800 to 900 feet high. A little to the eastward of the Coclet the base of the sierra rests on the shore, and continues to bound it until interrupted by the valley of the Plantain River. "From the Coclet the coast trends about east-northeast 11 52 NOTES ON PANAMA. miles to the entrance of the Mangalee, and is bounded by a sandy beach, intersected occasionally by small patches of low- rocks. About 5 miles from the Mangalee a slight bay is formed for about 2 miles, into which the Plantain River flows; the entrance is marked by a single hut on either side and the deep valley through which it runs. ' ' Mangalee River. — From the entrance of Mangalee River, which is pointed out by two or three huts on the w^est side and a little low rocky point on the east side, to the village of Gicacal, the sandy shore, backed by low rocks, extends for 2^ miles. "The whole line of shore between these points is fringed with coral, to a distance of from 200 yards to one-half mile, upon which the sea breaks, rendering landing extremely diffi- cult and dangerous, except under most favorable circum- stances. "All the streams from the Mangalee to the Indios are navi- gated by small canoes, conveying the sarsaparilla collected on their banks to the small trading vessels which occasionally call for it. "The Mangalee defines the northwestern boundary be- tween the provinces of Veragua and Panama. "Anchorage. — There is temporary anchorage all along the coast just described, in 6 to 8 fathoms, sand and mud, about 2 miles from the shore. "Pilon de Miguel de la Borda. — This remarkable iso- lated mountain, 1,669 feet high, is situated southwestward 28 miles from the mouth of the Chagres and about 14 miles inland. It is not, however, often visible, being generally con- cealed by the dense vapors which hang over the extensive low, flat surrounding plain ; still it may be occasionally seen from the Chagres anchorage. "Aspect. — Immediately behind the entrance of the Man- galee the base of Sierra de Miguel de la Borda attains, almost abruptly, the height of 592 feet, whence it continues to rise in irregular densely wooded ridges to the summit, which is 1,552 feet above the sea and S. 18° E. (S. 23° E. mag.) 5 miles from the entrance of the river. The Pilon de Miguel de la Borda lies southward and eastward of Giscal village, but is not visible to the westward of it. Abreast the middle of the red cliffs, eastward of Gicacal, there is a conspicuous round hill 356 feet above the sea. Near the entrance of the Indios N0TE8 ON PANAMA, 53 the land is about 150 feet above the sea, and to the westward it gradually rises. "The coast from the Mangalee River extends about east- northeast for 14 miles to the Indios River. About 2^ miles to the eastward of the Mangalee River is the village of Gica- cal, Avhich consists of a few straggling huts on the left bank of a small stream. Half a mile to the eastward of the village is a remarkable ridge of low red indurated mud cliffs, which extend for about 3 miles; thence to the Indios cliffs the shore for 2 miles is a low rocky shelf, upon which will be seen a few huts, and then a sandy beach. About one-half of a mile to the westward of the river is a remarkable cavern in the cliff, and at the same distance to the eastward is the village of Salud. From the river to Lagarto village the shore is low, sandj', and thickly wooded behind. At -i miles northeastward of the vil- lage is Diego Point. From here the land gradually ascends to the base of the Chagres table-land. Diego Point is formed by a low rocky shore, and about a mile to the westward of its extremit}' is a remarkable white cliff, with a small sandy beach on either side, above the western end of which there is a cleared space and grazing farm. Morrito Point is formed by a low red cliff, upon which are a few huts, and foul ground extends from it about -iOO yards. " From El Morillo, a little rock about one-half of a mile east- ward of Morrito Point, the shore is rocky and foul to Arenas Point, at the entrance of the Chagres River, with Boca de la Furnia Point in between. "Chagres River. — The flat rocky promontory which bounds the north side of the entrance to the Chagres River is about JrOO yards in length east and west and about 175 yards broad. On the north, west, and south sides it rises almost perpendicularly from the sea to the height of 82 feet at the outer end and to that of 100 feet at the inner part. The western part is occupied by the fortifications of San Lorenzo, now in ruins, immediatelj' in the rear of which there is a level plateau 300 feet in length, terminating at a little mound commanding the valleys on all sides and the only road to the castle. The works are everywhere in a state of decay and the buildings almost in ruins. "The south side of the entrance to the river is formed by a dark sandy beach, and from Arenas Point to the base of the promontory opposite the width is 225 yards. From the inner 54 NOTES ON PANAMA. end of the promontory tlie shore turns suddenly to tlie south- ward, and abreast Arenas Point the river is only 100 yards wide. "The bar has 11 feet of water in the dry season, but the depth changes according to the state of the river. The mouth of the river, outside the bar, is obstructed by the Laja Reef, a rocky ledge about 50 yards in diameter, which breaks in heavy weather and is nearly even with the surface of the sea. The best approach is northward of Laja Reef in depths of 14 feet over a breadth of about 70 yards. Within the bar the Avater deepens to 17 to 20 feet abreast the town, which is 200 yards above the bar. Here is the anchorage for vessels that can enter. Small craft also lie alongside the bank of the river southward of the town, as the shore at the town is a rocky ledge. "Reefs nearlj' awash, one-fourth of a mile in extent, which also break during strong winds, lie from one-third to one-half of a mile westward of Arenas Point, with shallow water ex- tending toward the Laja. The passage between, though with 14 feet of water, is narrow and not recommended. "Chagres. — The town of Chagres is on the eastern shore, between the Castle and Caiio Rivulet, which enters the river abreast Arenas Point. The shore in front is skirted by a flat rocky ledge, so that small craft find it more convenient to lie alongside the bank just above the Cano. Since the comple- tion of the Panama Railroad Chagres has become simply a fishing hamlet and retains no evidence whatever of its former size and importance. A few thatched huts and a population of 200 souls comprise the whole. "Anchorage. — The anchorage off Chagres is an open road- stead, exposed from northeast, round northerly to southwest. In the latter direction, however, it is somewhat protected by the distant land and bank of soundings; but in strong winds from between west and northeast remaining here is attended with risk, and it will be better when the weather threatens from these quarters to put to sea or proceed to either Colon or Porto Bello. A good berth will be found with the castle of San Lorenzo bearing S. 5G° E. (S. 61° E. mag.), and the rock of Mogote de Brujas just open of the bluff N. 45° E. (N. 40° E. mag.) in 10 fathoms, mud, about 1^ miles from the shore, but a position farther in may be taken if necessary. NOTES ON PANAMA. 55 "Current. — The eurrent usually sets northeastward with a velocity of about 1 knot an hour. "General Directions — Approaching Colon and Chagres. — Approaching from the northeast in the season of the breezes, from November to May, the first land seen will be most probably the loft}^ flat mountain ridge of Lloroua, overlooking the harbor of Portobelo from the southward, at the height of 3,000 feet. The shore is very low to the Avest- ward of Portobelo until it reaches the little flat peninsula of Chagres, and it is of the same character to the westward of that river for a distance of about 25 miles; therefore the locality is well marked bj' the peninsula and easily made out. The interior is so generally shrouded by the rains and deadly vapors arising from the swamps that the inland chain of the Calderos Altos is sehlom visible. The Sierra de Lloroua is also frequently obscured, but the irregular hills which inclose Portobelo are generally unclouded, and, being from GOO to 1,300 feet high, are sufficiently remarkable to be distin- guished from the much lower table-land of the Chagres Peninsula. "As the land back of Manzauillo is high and can be seen from 40 to 60 miles off, according to the state of the atmos- phere, it forms a splendid landmark, and no allowance for the easterly set is made by most of the captains of mail steamers; as, should the current happen to be slight or no cur- rent at all be encountered, as sometimes happens, and allow- ance were made for the easterl}^ current, a vessel would make the low land to the westward of Colon, where it is difficult to recognize. By making no allowance, a vessel is sure to make the high land of Manzauillo, or that between Manzauillo and Colon. "The islands off Manzauillo Point are nearly all covered with trees and can not be easily distinguished until after a vessel is within a few miles of the coast; but the large bare rock, Farallon Sucio, the largest islet of the group of this name, is a splendid landmark from all directions and can readilj^ be distinguished, since it is comparatively bare of vegetation. It is not unlike in appearance to Green Island, off Portobelo; but the latter, l^eing covered with trees, can not be distinguished from the mainland at a distance, and, besides, it is much smaller and not so far offshore as Farallon Sucio. 56 NOTES ON PANAMA. "Captain Lima, of the Pacific Mail steamship Netvjwii, states that in 90 voyages from New York to Colon he has always made Sucio, off Manzanillo Point, bearing S. 16° W. (S. 11° W. mag.) to S. 19° W. (S. 14° W. mag.), even in the rainy season, when no observation could be obtained. His invariable rule is to change his course, so as to allow for the easterly set near this coast, as soon as he sights logs, trees, and driftwood. At his speed of 12 knots he allows one-half to three-fourths of a point, according to the quantity of driftwood encountered. If the quantity of drift- wood is very great- and the discoloration of the water very marked, he sometimes allows as much as 1^ points. If he encounters no drift he makes no allowance and assumes that there is no current. "Off Manzanillo Point numerous tide rips have been observed and the current found to be 1^ knots per hour set- ting eastward. A current close in to the coast, as strong as 2^ knots per hour, has often been found. "In the other part of the year, when calms and variable winds prevail and the easterlj^ current is most j)owerful, it will be better to keep an offing from 30 to 40 miles and to make the coast even to the westward of Chagres. By doing this a vessel will not only avoid the strength of the current, but in a great measure escape the heavy rains and violent squalls from the shore. "In this case the locality of the river is pointed out by a remarkable piece of fiat wooded tableland, about 3 miles in diameter, which lies not far inland on tlie west bank of the river. Its north side rises rather abruptly to a height of 800 feet, and the elevation of its summit does not alter more than about 30 feet in its whole extent. Tliere is nothing like it in the neighborhood. The land behind Chagres being higher than at the entrance, the castle is not seen from the west- ward until within a short distance. "In leaving Chagres or Colon and bound to windward it will be, of course, advantageous to work or run alongshore in the influence of the great eddy stream, which generally reaches as far up as Cartagena. In the season of the vari- ables and hazy weather, however, great care is requisite, par- ticularly at niglit, for the stream runs close to the islets of Portobelo, and both liand and deep-sea leads should be well attended. It is also necessary to warn the navigator to be NOTES ON PANAMA. 57 well prepared to meet the violent gusts from the high lands at this iDeriod and to anchor should it fall calm. "Coast. — From the bluff at the entrance of the Chagres River to Brujas Point the shore extends nearly straight north-northeast 3 miles, and is rocky and steep-to. About midway, however, there is a small rocky cove, into which a rivulet falls over the cliff from a height of about 30 feet. The water is excellent, but the heavy surf prevents landing anywhere near it. " On the north side of the bluff of Chagres there is also a small sandy cove named 'Laja,' about 200 yards wide and having a depth of 15 feet close to the beach, into which a little stream flows at the southeast corner, hj the side of the precipice. The north side of this cove is bounded by a bold irregular bluff headland, rising to the height of 120 feet, and, being higher than the bluff", hides the castle of San Lorenzo from the northward until the latter is brought to bear S. 17° E. (S. 22° E. mag.). " Brujas Point is a bold, rock}', wooded headland, from whence rises the highest part of the peninsula. At the foot of the cliff, and onl}' a few yards distant, is a small, isolated rock, with perpendicular sides, croAvued with bushes, called the Mogote de Brujas, which, when seen open of the bluff, is remarkable. The rock is connected to the bluff by a flat ledge, dry at low water, extending outside it about 200 yards; it is steep-to. There are 6 fathoms 400 yards from the rock. "From Brujas Point to Toro Point, the west entrance point of Limon Bay, the coast trends about east-northeast 2 miles. The shore in this space forms a low shelf of rock, intersected near the middle by a small sandy bay, and is skirted at a short distance bj'' a ledge nearly dry at low water. "Toro Point, the highest point of the peninsula between Chagres Bay and Colon Bay, is about 2^ miles broad and 400 feet high. The summit is thickly covered with wood, and is consequently totally different in appearance from the low mangrove coast to the eastward, and this serves to point out the locality from a wide offing. From Toro Point a shallow coral ledge projects north-northeastward three-fourths mile, and is generally marked by heavy breakers. It should be given a wide berth. The ledge also extends one-half mile east-north- eastward from the point. "Light— Toro Point Light.— On Toro Point, from an iron 58 NOTES ON PANAMA. tower painted red and white, on stone base, is shown a white light, which shows a flash of five seconds every thirty seconds. The light is elevated 108 feet and is visible Ki miles. The glare of the light has been seen 21 miles. When close to the light, the eclipses are not total. "Colon, Limon or Navy Bay. — Toro Point is 2| miles N. 79° W. (N. 84° W. mag.) of the Colon light-honse, and between them is the entrance of Colon Bay. This bay is 3^ miles deep from north to south and about 3 miles wide at the head. The depths at the entrance are 5| and 6^ fathoms, whence they decrease to 4^ fathoms in the middle and 3 fathoms at a mile from the head of the bay, and within this distance they shoal gradually to the beach to the southward. It would appear that the depths in this bay are continually decreasing. "There are from 26 to 28 feet alongside of the wharves. "In the season of the north winds, the bay being completely exposed in this direction, a heavy swell rolls in. "Limon Point, on the west side of the inner part of the bay, stretches a little to the eastward, and affords shelter under its south side in Limon Harbor for small vessels in 2^ fathoms of water. "Manzanillo Island, which is about a mile long north and south and three-fourths mile broad, is very low, and for the most part covered by mangrove brushes. It is sepa- rated from the main by the Boca Chica, a narrow boat chan- nel leading into the harbor. Its eastern portion is known as the Boca Grande. A coral reef skirts the north and north- west ends of the island to the distance of 200 yards. Reefs extend also off the entrance points to the Boca Chica, from 200 to 400 yards. A bridge of the Panama Railroad Company connects the island to the main. "Light — Colon Light. — On ]VIanzanillo Point, the north- western extremity of Manzanillo Island, a fixed white light isexhibited on the top of an open framework at an elevation of 60 feet, and should be visible in favorable weather at a distance of 10 miles. It is often difficult to distinguish this light from the ordinary white light carried .bj' steamers. "Buoys. — A buoy has recently been moored by the Panama Railroad Company in of fathoms. Colon light-house bearing N. 60° W. (N. 65° W. mag.), distant one-sixth mile, and Toro light-house bearing N. 88° W. (S. 87° W. mag.), distant NOTES ON PANAMA. 59 2^ miles. Vessels should not pass between this buoy and the reef. Several buoys are also placed off the wharves for the convenience of wharfing or mooring. These, together with the Panama Canal buoys, are the only buoj^s in the harbor. "Directions. — There are no known dangers in the approach to Colon Bay other than the reef extending from Toro Point. The chart shows a 4|-fathom spot, position doubtful, about three-fourths mile N. 28° E. (N. 23° E. mag.) of Manzanillo Point light. "Anchorage. — The best anchorage in ordinary weather is abreast the Pacific Mail Company's dock, about GOO yards off, but in bad weather it is better to anchor on the opposite side to avoid the heavy sea that rolls in around Toro Point. The holding ground is good, but there are many anchors and cables strewn about the bottom. "Tides. — There is a rise of tide about 18 inches to 2 feet in Litaou Bay, according to the winds, but the time is uncertain. "Northers. — These winds occur in November, December, and January. They are seldom violent, but a heavy sea rolls in. "At Colon a norther is not necessarily a gale of wind; in fact, the wind frequently does not blow home, and is at times quite light, but very heavy ground swell heaves into the bay. When the wind does blow home, as happened during the norther of December 19-21, 1890, no vessel can remain at anchor with safet3^ There is no way of predicting these dan- gerous northers. The barometer gives no indication. The ' fitful showers of rain in large drops ' may or may not be an indication. The gradually increasing swell, supposed to be a forerunner of a norther, frequently proves to mean nothing. "The norther of December 19-21, 1890, was preceded on the 18th by a heavy swell and threatening weather, but to- ward evening the swell decreased, the weather cleared, and it looked like a fine night. Later in the night the swell com- menced to heave in with greater force, so that steamers were compelled to leave their wharves. It was not till after day- light on the 19th that the full force of the norther began to be felt, and in a very short time it became so rough that all steamers put to sea. The Pacific Mail steamer Newpori cut her lines and steamed across the bay to the anchorage under the lee of Toro Point, but was soon compelled to abandon this anchorage and \)\\\j to sea. One steamer, lying in the 60 NOTES ON PANAMA. harbor with two anchors down, dragged nearly 1 mile before she could get sufficient steam to be able to slip and go to sea. "During the season of northers steamers should keep steam up constantl}^ and be ready to move at a moment's notice. This is the custom of steamers of all nations w^hich touch at this port, regardless of the time they may remain. However long the weather may have been threatening, when the norther does break it conies suddenly and leaves no time for prepa- rations. If compelled to get under way the surest way is to slip the chain and steam out to sea. It would be almost im- possible to get up anchor without damage to the ship at such times, and there is always a risk of hooking one of the old anchors and chains with which the bottom of tlie harbor is strewed. "Colon (Aspinwall), on the west side of Manzanillo Island, is connected with Panama, 47^ miles distant, bj^ rail. It is almost entirely a port for a few lines of regular steamers running on through arrangements with the Panama Railroad Company, carrjdng cargoes destined principally for transit to and from the Pacific. The town stands on a low island which was originally covered with morass and jungle; there is no drainage possible of any value, and the malarial ex- halations of the surrounding swamps, coupled with the emanations of the town, i^roduce a condition of things most undesirable. There was a floating population of about 3,000 in 1901, composed principally of employees of the Panama Railroad Company, Avhose headquarters are at Colon. On account of better sanitary conditions the health of Colon is said to be somewhat improved of late. "The United States is represented by a consul and vice- consul. The port is free. " Colon APPROACH — Shoal northward of ManZx\nillo Point.— Lieut. Commander W. R. Rush, of the U. S. S. Mari- etta, reports under date of March 11, 1902, having located a dangerous shoal about a mile northward from Manzanillo Point, east side of entrance to Colon Harbor. "The ilia/* ie^te anchored on the shoal in -ty fathoms and used two boats in sounding out the hummock in radial lines from the bow of the ship, crossing with parallels. "The least water found was 23 feet, in one spot. From this depth of 23 feet the water rapidly deepened on all sides to 7 fathoms. NOTES ON PANAMA. . 61 "The 23-foot spot is on the following bearings: Manzanillo Point S. 10° E. true (S. by E. i E. mag.) Toro Point light- house S. 77° W. true (WSW. i W. mag.). (Variation 4° E. in 1902.) "Lieut. Commander W. V. Bronaugh, of the U. S. F. S. Kearsarge, reports under date of March 11, 1902, that the 4f -fathom shoal shown on Hydrographic Office chart No. 1008, about two-thirds of a mile N. 15° E. true (N. by E. mag.) from Manzanillo Point light-house and marked 'P. D.,' does not exist in its assigned position. Soundings taken March 11 over the assigned position of the shoal showed a least depth of 35 feet in the vicinity. "Colombia — Colon — Buoy off Manzanillo Point. — Lieut. Walter McLean, of the U. S. S. Macldas, reports under date of May 15, 1902, that there is but one buoy off Manza- nillo Point, entrance to Colon Harbor. This buoj^ is a large can buoy with spindle and vane painted a drab color. It is on the following bearings: Toro Point light-house N. 78° W. true (W. f N. mag.). Statue on Christobal Colon Point S. 15° 30' E. true (S. by E. % E. mag.). Manzanillo Point light- house N. 85° E. true (E. | N. mag.). "Colon — Panama Canal entrance — Soundings — Buoy. — Lieut. Commander A. E. Culver, U. S. ISTavy, com- manding the L^. S. S. Bancroft, reports under date of March 8, 1903, that he took soundings at the entrance to the Panama Canal to ascertain if it were practicable to take the Bancroft into the entrance of the canal during the season of northers. He found the soundings just about 1 fathom less than cor- responding soundings shown on Hydrographic Office chart No. 1008. " Of the buoys shown on this chart marking the entrance to the canal only one now remains, viz, the first black buoy bearing S. 57° E. true (SE. by E. ^ E. mag.) from the statue on De Lesseps Point. "Supplies. — Fresh meats, vegetables, and fruit are scarce and of poor quality. Preserved provisions can be had in lim- ited quantities. "Water can be obtained from the Panama Railroad Com- pany at 1^ cents gold per gallon, delivered in tanks on the wharf; it is taken from the river and must be thoroughly fil- tered before being used. "Coal. — American and English coal can be had from the 62 NOTES ON PANAMA. railroad compan}' alongside the wharf. The price is high. Coal may also sometimes be obtained from a vessel in the harbor at a much less cost. " Charges. — Vessels entering the harbor are charged light fees, 5 cents per ton for first 100 tons, 12| cents for every additional ton, and in coming to wharf, wharfage in propor- tion to tonnage, as per printed rates of the Panama Railroad Company. Tonnage dues, $1 per ton. Ships landing car- goes at Colon for the Isthmus of Panama must present to the inspector of the, j)ort a general manifest of all cargoes to be landed, also a copy of every invoice with the certificate of the Colombian consul at the port of shipment. This does not applj^ to cargoes in transit. "Pilotage. — Not compulsory, from 115 to $30 (all charges payable in Colombian currency). Repairs. — The railroad company's machine shops offer facilities for repairs. " Communication. — There is regular steam communication with various ports in the United States and Europe, as well as with Central and South American ports. Vessels of the Pacific Mail Company ply betw^een Aspinwall and New York three times a month each wa}^ There is telegraphic commu- nication with the United States via Jamaica, and also via Panama and Vera Cruz. "Wharfage. — The wharfage is ample, and large steamers find sufficient water (26 to 28 feet) to go alongside the wharves to embark and discharge. There is a boat landing at the northern wharf only. "Climate. — The Panama Canal district is one of the hottest, wettest, and most feverish regions in existence. Intermittent and malignant fevers are jirevalent, and there is an epidemic of yellow fever at times. The death rate under normal con- ditions is large. "Rainy Season. — The rainy season is from the end of April to the end of December, and almost incessant from June to the latter month. In 1889 the rainfall amounted to 119 inches, the greater x3ortion of which fell during a period of four months. " Panama Canal. — The proposed enlarged port of Colon, northern entrance to the intended Panama Canal, was begun on the south shore of the Boca Chica, and the northern point of entrance to Boca Chica, named Terre-plein, was reclaimed NOTES ON PANAMA. 63 for the purpose of erecting worksliops and stores and to cover tlie entrance of the intended canal. The canal, 46 miles in length, was begun in sections in 1882 and continued for several years. In March, 18Sf), the original Panama Canal Companj' was forced to go into liquidation for lack of funds and to sus- pend i)ayment and all operations on the canal. In 1894: a new companj^ was formed, which obtained a concession for ten years, extended in 1000 for six years, so as to terminate in 1910. Bj^ that time, according to the annual report of 1809, the canal could be completed at a cost of about 8100,000,000. "Manzanillo Bay. — Between Manzanillo Island and the main a small harbor is formed, which has a depth of from 4 to 2 fathoms. At the entrance, which is three-fourths mile w ide, there is an anchorage in 5 fathoms, sand and clay, about one-fourth mile from the eastern shore, with the west end of Margarita Cay just open to the westward of Coco Solo Point, bearing N. 6° W. (N. 11° AV. mag.). "The coast. — Longarremos Point is formed of low man- groves and bordered with reefs to a distance of somewhat more than 200 yards, having 11 fathoms of water close-to. About 5 miles east-northeast of the point are the Xaranjos Cays, covered with trees and surrounded b}^ reefs. To the westward of them is anchorage in 4 to 7 fathoms, mud. "Between the point and ca^'s the mangrove shore is very irregular, and forms two bights or creeks, named 'Minas;' the eastern extends inward to the south-southeast about 3 miles, but varies in breadth; the western runs into the southward about a mile, and is much narrower than the other, and the shore of both are fringed with coral. " These cays are near the entrance to the Grande River, and from here the coast trends about northeast by east 5 miles to Gorda Point, the land gradually diminishing in height from the point to the river, and westward of the river is very low and bounded by mangroves. From the point the coast trends to the northeast to Buenaventura Cove about one-half mile to the southward of Cocal Point. The cove is so obstructed by reefs as to be of little use. "PoRTOBELO (Porto Bello) is one of the best harbors west of Cartagena. The port being, however, inclosed to the north and south b}^ hills ranging from 600 to 1,300 feet high, shutting out the regular breezes, and bounded on the east by dense swamps, the position is exceedingly unhealthy, and the 64 NOTES ON PANAMA. port is now of little commercial importance. The forts and government bnildings have fallen into decay. The popula- tion in 1882 numbered about 500. " The north side of the port is formed by a narrow irregular island, nearly 1^ miles in length from east to west, of mod- erate elevation, and steep-to. The south shore is bounded bj'^ the base of the mountains, which rise, not far inland, to a height of 1,300 feet, and are seldom unclouded. This side is foul, being skirted by a coral reef to the distance of 200 to 400 yards, with irregular soundings some distance outside; the depth of the water in the harbor is reported to be decreasing considerably. "The village of Portobelo and the ruins of the Castle of St. Jeronimo are situated on the beach, in the southeast corner of Portobelo. There is a sand bank of feet water extending in a northerly and westerly direction from the castle. On the north shore, oj^posite the town, are the ruins of San Fernando Castle, hidden bj^ bushes. " Off Cocal Point, the southwest point of the port, are three small islets, the outermost and largest named 'San Buena- ventura,' Ijang 600 yards south westward of the point. Foul ground extends about GOO j^ards to the westward and north- ward of these islets; and at this distance, with the northwest point of the outer islet bearing south (S. 5° E. mag.), and Cocal Point S. 55° E. (S. 60° E. mag.), is the Farnesio Shoal, of 4 fathoms, within which there is no safe passage. "At the head of the port a sand bank stretches off about 500 yards from the mangroves, leaving a channel on the north side into the careening cove, which has depths of 3 or 4 fathoms. " Between Portobelo Point and San Buenaventura Islet the width of the entrance is 1^ miles; but a short distance within this, between Iron Castle Point and the south shore, it is about one-half mile wide; this breadth is carried up for about a mile, to the head of the harbor, and the depth gradu- ally decreases from 17 to 7 fathoms, close up to the edge of the sand bank. Green Islet. — At 300 yards southwestward of Portobelo Point is Green Islet, little more than 100 yards in extent from east to west, and having a break in the middle which appears at a certain distance to divide it into two parts. It is clear all NOTES ON PANAMA. 65 around, but the passage between it and the point is not safe for large vessels. Salmedina Bank. — xVt one-fourth mile west of Green Islet is the Salmedina l>ank, on wliicli the sea breaks in two dis- tinct patches. It is composed of rock, about 100 yards in extent, dry at low water, with G fathoms close around; in the channel between it and the islet there are 10 to 21 fathoms, clay. The bank has been reported as lying N. 79° W. (N. 84"^ W. mag.), three-fourths mile from the position assigned. "Directions for Portobelo. — The wind generally blows out of Portobelo, or is light and baffling, according to the seasons; a vessel will therefore most probably have to work or tow in. In approaching from the northward it is advisable to leave the Duarte Islets about one-half mile to the east- ward, thence avoiding the position of the rock charted off Mantilla Point, steer to pass about 200 yards, or with a steadj^ breeze even less, from Green Islet, to avoid the Salmedina. "Having passed the islet, the vessel may keep close to tlie wind, with the north shore aboard, and in the season of the breezes she will fetch into the middle of the harbor. After passing Iron Castle Point, in working up, when standing to the southward, no part of the town must be shut in with the land to the westwai-d, to avoid the ledge off the south shore. An anchorage may be taken up as most convenient, for with the exception of the above ledge, there is no known danger. " When approaching from the westward it is recommended to keep the shore about 3 miles distant; and in the night the soundings should not be neglected, as between Chagres and this port they extend from 8 to 10 miles. From this direction the entrance is made known b}^ two remarkable trees on the top of the hill on the south side and a signal post upon a hill on the north side of the harbor; the continued existence of either, however, is very doubtful, but from this quarter tlie opening itself is sulhciently remarkable. In standing toward the San Buenventura Islands Green Island must not be opened to the westward of Portobelo Point or brought to bear to the northward of N. 28° E. (N. 23° E. mag. ), and in standing toward tiie Farnesio Shoal from the northward the northernmost extremity of the lines of St. Jeronimo castle must be kept well open of the land. 12312—03 5 66 NOTES ON PANAMA. " From May to November liiibt l)reezes from the son. tli west and Avest Avitli heavy rain prevail in the harbor, but toward morninf2: there is a> ligiit air from the northeast; therefore, in leaving, vessels should be prepared to get under wa^^ at da.y- break, Avitli 1)oats ahead to tow. " It is also to be observed that the northeasterly current runs strong close to the entrance of Portobelo, and in the rainy season at least 1| knots an hour as far as Farallon Sucio. Sailing vessels, therefore, should make the port from the west- Avard, more particularly during the months of August to November. "Portobelo (Porto ]3ello) Point, the northwest point of the entrance of Portobelo, bears S. 20° W. (S. 15° W. mag.) 2^ miles from the northernmost i)art of the Duarte Islets. The coast is high and scarped, and close westward of Mantilla Harbor is a small harbor called Leon, of not much importance, the entrance being almost blocked up by reefs and a small island at the mouth. "Rock. — Midway between the Duarte Islands and Porto- belo Point and 700 yards offshore there is a rock which always breaks. Jose Pobre Point is just open off Sabanilla Point N. 56° E. (N. 51° E. mag.) when near it. "Sabanilla Point is fringed by a reef and some rocks, the adjacent coast is high and scarped with some bays, and Jose Pobre Point, N. 61° E. (N. oC)° E. mag.), li miles from Sabanilla Point, projects a short distance. "Duarte Islets are four in number, extending north-north- west and south-southeast three-fourths of a mile. From the northernmost islet a reef extends in a northwesterly direction about 200 yards. The southernmost islet is separated from Duarte Point on the main by a channel a little more than 400 yards wide, and from Sabanilla Point by a channel a little more than one-third of a mile across; between these two channels there are from 2f fathoms water close to the islet to 15 fathoms toward the main. The southeast side of the island is fringed by a reef to the distance of 100 yards or more. "Farallon Sucio is the name given to the westernmost of a cluster of five small rugged rocks, which occupy a space of about one-fourth of a mile from east to west. It appears to be steep-to, but from the easternmost rock a foul ledge NOTES ON PANAMA. 67 extends 300 yards to the southeast. The northernmost islet lies west nearlj' 4 miles from Tambor Island, witli 16 to 30 fathoms clay and sand between, and 16, 21, 22, and 25 fathoms between the north islet, the islets off the coast, and Lavadera Shoal. These rocks appear from a distance as one islet, which is remarkable for its barren whiteness. This contrast with tiie Diiarte Islets, which are dark, or the mainland, makes them an excellent landmark from all directions. " BOQUERONES PoiNT is high, salient, and scarped. Abont a mile to the southward Casiqiie Hill rises to a peak of moder- ate heiglit. Northeastward of the point there are five small islets named the Boquerones, abont 600 yards in extent, which are the westernmost of the reefs and cays that extend from Pelado Islet. "Garrote Harbor. — At 2^ miles sonthwestward of the highest part of Tambor Island is the entrance of Garrote Harbor, which is formed on the south side by the mainland, on the east by Great Garrote Island, and on the west by Pelado and other islets, which extend westward for about 1| miles to the mouth of the 13oquerones. The entrance, which is scarcely 600 j^ards wide between the reefs westward of Great Garrote Island and Pelado Islets, runs in a southerly and southeasterly direction, with depths from 12 to 18 fathoms, mud, decreasing to Q^ fathoms within. "Bastimentos Harbor, although with depths of 3^ to 7 fathoms and sheltered, is of little imjiortance. All its shores are bounded l)y reefs, and the customary anchorage is to the southwest, south, and southeast of the south or sandy point of Bastimentos Island. "Bastimentos Island is nearly a mile in length northeast and southwest, and forms, with the mainland, the northeast channel of Bastimentos Harbor, which is about 300 yards wide batween the reefs, with 5 and 5^ fathoms, sand. Tlie island is foul on its southeast, south, and southwest sides; the latter, with Cabret Island, which bears a liitle to the south of west, forms the northwest channel, 600 yards wide in the narrowest part between the reefs, and carries from 3^ to fathoms, mud. "Lavadera Shoal, northward, nearly three-fourths of a mile from the northern extremity of Pelado Islet and west 1 mile of Cabret Islet, at the mouth of Bastimentos Harbor, is composed of rock with ver}' little water on it, and steep-to 68 NOTES ON PANAMA. There are 7 and 9 fathoms close to a rock, on which the sea breaks. The channels between it and Cabret and Pelado islets carry from 14 to 17 fathoms on mnd. "Mountains.— Between Garrote and Bastimentos harbors is the hill of Garrote, tolerably high, its snmmit terminating in a peak, about three-fourths of a mile from the coast. At 3t miles about south by east of the little ba}' of Garrote is the high mountain of Capira, almost always covered with clouds. It is nearly east from Porto Bello. "At a short distance to the southward of Capira are the Sierras Lloronas, extending nearly east and west. The east- ern part of its summit appears as if cut down vertically, form- ing a peak, named Campana, or the Bell, and from this peak the ridge descends gradually to the westward to near the peak of Guanche. The Llorona is the highest range on this part of the main, its summit reaching an elevation of .3,000 feet, and its appearance is such that it can not be mistaken for an}' other. In clear weather it may be seen from a dis- tance of 45 miles, but in the season of fresh breezes it is gen- erally covered with haze. In the season of the vendavales and variable winds it is often visible betAveen 8 and 9 in the morning and 4 and 5 in the afternoon, but in the remainder of the daj^ it is covered with clouds. "Tambor Island, about H miles westward from Manza- nillo Point, is high, round, and scarped, and connected by a reef 400 j'ards long, with the northernmost part of Venados or Bastimentos Island. "Manzanillo Point, the northern extremity of the coast of Panama, is a high scarped projection, with two hummocks on it resembling a saddle. Near this point are several islets and a shoal. Martin Pescador, the outermost islet, is about 200 j-ards in extent from north to south, and lies about a mile eastward of the point. About 8O0 yards S. 28° W. (S. 23' W. mag.) of this islet and about three-fourths of a mile from the point is Manzanillo Island, which is the largest. Off the north side of this island are three rocky islets, the farthest out being distant over 200 yards. S. 28° W. (S. 23° W. mag. ) of 'he same island there are three more small islets, surrounded by reefs extending northeast and southwest, and also to the eastward, about 300 j-ards, there is another small one. All these islets are high and scarped. Between those of JVIanza- nillo and Martin Pescador there are from 10 to 14 fathoms water. NOTES ON PANAMA. 69 " Manzanillo Shoal, Ijing northwestward, distant 800 yards from Manza.iillo Point, has very little water over it and 5 and 6 fathoms close-to. l^etween it and the point the depth is 13 fathoms. "With Manzanillo Point bearing S. 51° W. (S. 46° W. mag.) and Tambor Island west (S. 85° W. mag.) about 4 miles dis- tant, 6 fathoms water, over rocky bottom, have been obtained, deepening to 20 fathoms in a northwest direction. . " Light — Isla Grande Light. — On Isla Grande, off Man- zanillo Point, from a white tower is shown a light flashing white and red, alternately, every five seconds. The light is elevated 305 feet and visible 24 miles. The light has been observed to be very irregular in its action, sometimes obscured and sometimes showing white or red only for some minutes' duration. "San Cristoval Bay.— At 5 miles S. 79° E. (S. 84° E. mag.) of Manzanillo Point, a mile to the eastward of which is the islet of Marti u Pescador, is Pescador Point; both are high and scarped. Between these points the shore recedes to the southward, forming a bight about 3 miles deep. At 3f miles westward of Pescador Point the shore projects con- siderably at Cristoval Point, and to the southwestward of this, at the bottom of the bight, is the small foal Ijay of San Cristoval. About 400 yards northeastward of Cristoval Point is an islet named Juan del Pozo, surrounded by rocks, and about southeast one-half mile from the islet is the Vibora Bank. Between this bank and Juan del Pozo, and between the latter and the point, there are 9, 10, and 13 fathoms water on gravel and coarse sand, and between the Vibora and Buey shoals, off Pescador Point, there are about the same depths on sand and claj'. "From tdie head of San Cristoval Bay reefs extend nearly a mile toward Cristoval Point. This part is dangerous in strong winds. The coast between Cristoval and Manzanillo points is lofty and scarped. " NoMBRE DE Dios TL\RBOR. — At the east side of San Cris- toval Bay, about H milfs southwestward of Pescador Point, is the small cove or harbor of Nombre de Dios. Its mouth has 3:^, 4, and 5 fathoms, but the entrance points are skirted by reefs, and so is the greater part of the interior. " Caution. — From the numerous shoals which have been pointed out it will be quite evident to the mariner that to 70 NOTES ON PANAMA. navigate within this bight requires tlie greatest care and attention, and the leeward part of it shoidd be avoided altogether. "Pescador or Terrin Point is fringed with reefs which extend northward 200 yards and westward one-lialf mile, and, continuing on in a southerl}^ direction, surround three islets lying between the point and the northeast point of Norabre de Dios Harbor. At 400 yards northwestward of Pescador Point is Pescador Islet, and N. 02° W. (N. 67° W. inag.), about a mile from the same point, is the Buey Shoal, between which and the reefs sl^:irting Pescador Point there are 9 and 12 fathoms. " Mountains. — Among the mountains in this neigliborliood two are remarl^able, named Saxino and Nombre de Dios. The first is high and terminates in two peaks near each other, the northeastern most of which bears about 8. 6° E. (S. 11° E. mag. ) 7 miles from Pescador Point. The latter mountain rises to a single peak, about south by west S miles from the same l>oint, and is a guide for Xombre de Dios Harbor, which is nearl}^ on its meridian. "Islands. — At 8 miles to the eastward of Pescadoi- Point is Quengo Island, about one-half mile from shore, and miles from the coast, between San Bias and Manzanillo points. Cape Manzanillo bore S. 79° W. (S. 74° W. mag.), and the vessel had passed 3 miles to the northward of Escribanos ]5ank. "The captain thought the vessel struck upon a bank of coral. When she struck the second time the following bear ings were taken: Quengo Island S. G° E. (S. 11° E. mag.), and Tambor Island S. 70° AV. (S. 65° W. mag.). Xo surroundings Avere taken. Vessels should pass well to the northward of this doubtful ground. "PiEDRAS AND Perro CAYS.— -Off the northern part of San Bias Point, which is low and covered with mangroves, lie the Piedras and Perro caj's, united to the Ca}' Frances Reef, which terminate at an island in front of a lagoon 1^ miles farther to the westward. " Gulf of San Blas.— San Bias Point, which forms the north point of the gulf of that name, is low and skirted b}' a reef to the distance of If miles, on which are several caj's; 72 NOTES ON PANAMA. the easternmost is named 'Cay Frances.' From San Bias Point to Mandinga Point, south of it, the gulf is 6 miles wide, and to the westward of that line it is about the same distance deep; the coast is low all round and bounded by mangroves. In a southwesterly and westerly direction from Cay Frances there are 12 or more islets, upon some of which are small fishing establishments, and to the eastward of them are many banks and islands, forming part of the Mulatas Archipelago, with various channels between. The bottom is foul for 1} miles northeastward of Cay Fran- ces, at which distance the depth is 4 fathoms on the edge of the reef, whence it drops into deep water. "San Blas Channel, the westernmost into the gulf, lies between the San Bias Cays to the westward and the Chichime and Lemon caj^s to the eastward and southeastward, and is If miles wide, with depths in the fairway of 11 to 25 fathoms. " Chichime Channel lies close eastwai-d of Lemon Cays, and is about one-half mile wide with a depth of 12 fathoms. Patches of 5 fathoms lie 1^ and 2 miles northwestward of Chichime Cavs. "IIOLANDES Channel, the largest of all in this direction, is 2^ miles in width, with depths of 13 to 30 fathoms on sandy bottom. Its entrance is formed on the east by the western extremity of the reef extending from the Ilolandes Cays, which break heavily, and on the southwest by Icacos Cay, which is dry and covered with high icacos trees. "At a little more than li miles to the Avest-northwest of Holandes Cays there is a rocky bank of 6 fathoms, one-half mile long north and south, which breaks when there is but little swell. It should be left to the westward in entei-ing. "Directions. — To enter the Gulf of San Bhis by the San Bias Channel, wJiich is the best, having opened out the mouth of the channel and being on the meridian of the second islet (from the westward) of the Lemon Cays, steer south (S. 5'' E. mag.) toward it until about abreast Cay Frances, the eastern- most of the San Bias Cays. Thence the course will be about southwest, through the middle of the San Bias Channel, be- tween the reefs which extend from Cay Frances and those from Gallo Cay, the westernmost of the Lemon Cays. Being Avitliiu the latter, a vessel may proceed as most convenient to an anchorage on the north side of the gulf, or to Inglesa Baj-, in the southwest part of it, or to that in Mandinga r>ay, which is well sheltered. NOTES ON PANAMA. 73 "Should the Ilolandes Cluinnel be taken, the eastern side is well marked b}- the edges of the reefs extending from the westernmost of the Holandes Cays, and, as already said, a ves- sel should pass between them and the 6-fathom bank, on which the sea generally breaks, situated N. 02^ W. (N. 67° W. mag.) 14 miles from them. Then steer for the east end of the Icacos Reef, giving it a good berth in passing; and having brought Icacos Cay to bear X. 5° E. (Xorth mag.) shape course to pass southward of Guard Cay to Mand inga Bay. The channel is clear of danger, with depths from 21 to 25 fathoms, oozj- bottom, and from 2| to 3 miles wide, between groups of rocks, detached ca3^s, and reefs. " Caution. — Little is known of the northwest or southwest heads of the gulf, and great caution should be exercised when navigating here; the ej'e, aloft, is the best guide. "Trade. — The district of San Bias has not been open to civilization or settlement, as the Indians inhabiting its coast and mountains are openly hostile to Colombian rule; it is therefore but little known. Vessels tradingalong this coast are obliged to call at Cartagena, where duties are levied and collected on their cargoes. "MuLATAS Archipelago. — Off San Bias Point commences the extensive archipelago of the Mulatas, composed of cays, shoals, and reefs, which, sweeping round to the southeast- ward at a considerable distance from the mainland, terminate at Pajaros Island, about 80 miles distant. Pajaros Island lies about 2 miles northward of Pinos Isle. It is low, covered with brushwood, and surrounded bj' reefs having 7 and 8 fathoms close-to. "The ca3'S are mostly low, fiat, sand.y, and thickly wooded, and lying in clusters, having navigable channels between, leading into secure anchorages within them all along the shore. Some of the caj's have springs of good water, and convenient spots for landing and careening, and the fishing and turtling around them is excellent. "The main shore contains several sandy bays, with many small sti-eams running into them, but from the fringe reef are extremel}' difficult of access. "The interior of the main is high and mountainous, and there are many remarkable peaks, which serve as guides to the anchorages and channels to those with local knowledge. "The principal channels are those of San Bias, Chichime. 74 NOTES ON PANAMA. Holandes, Caobos, Moron, Mangles, Puyatlas, Arebalo, Playon Grande, Ratones. Rio de Monos, Cocos, Punta ]>rava, Zaiu- bogandi, Cniti, Mosquitos, and Pinos, which are all more or less easily navigated by those acqnainted with them. Great care and attention to the lead is required in navigating this coast, for it is supjjosed many banks lie outside the cays simi- ar to those in the neighborhood of tlie Sasardi Islands, which in heav3' weather are dangerous. "Holandes Cays. — This group is about 7 miles in extent east to west. Its eastern extremity lies N. S4^ E. (N. 79° E. mag.), 18 miles from San Bias Point. The north side of the reef which bounds the cays is 8 to 10 miles from the coast, and the cays are separated from those immediately adjacent to tlie mainland by a clear opening 3 miles wide. A patch of 5 fathoms lies about 2 miles S. 11° E. (S. 16° E. mag.) of Caobos, the largest of the Holandes Cays. It is apparentlj^ the best channel to the anchorages in the Gulf of San Bias when coming from the eastward, but sailing vessels would have to leave b}^ one of the nortliern channels. Many sjiots on the chart have not been sounded. "Navagandi or Mona River. — At 3 or 4 miles to the westward of Pinos Isle is the entrance to this little rivei'. The water in it is excellent, but the narrow cuts leading in through the reefs are intricate and the breakers so heavy that it is extremely difficult and dangerous for a boat to get through them. Abreast the west end of Pinos Isle is the entrance of the Navagandi lagoon, which is blocked up by the reefs which skii-t the shore all along. "On a sandy spit on the east side there are a few huts, and 6 or 7 miles up the river there is a settlement where vegeta- bles and poultry may be obtained. "Pinos Isle, the southeastern extremity of which lies northwestward, about - miles from Sasardi Point, is about a mile in length southeast and northwest, and a little less in breadth; it is separated from the main by a channel 400 yards wide in its narrowest part, with 2 to 3 fathoms water on sand and grass. The island is 400 feet high, and a hill extends thi'ough it, on which are two remarkable wooded peaks; its northeast and south sides are scarped and bordered b}^ reefs, which, however, lie near the shore. " Water. — On the south side of Pinos Isle there is a snuiU stream of good water, v,hich runs down a gully and into a NOTES ON PANAMA. ( i) small basin at the bottom of the declivit}', but so near the shore that an nnusual rise of the tide washes away the sand, and the sea flows into it. "Firewood may be cut to the eastward of the watering place, but great care must be taken to avoid touching the manchineel tree, which abounds here and is poisonous. "Anchorage. — Tliei-e is anchorage V)oth off the east and west ends of Pinos Isle, but exposed, tlie formei- from the east to northeast, the latter from the north to northwest; and a constant ground swell rolls in, particularly at the eastern anchoi-age, which makes riding very uneasy. At the east end a berth will be found in fathoms, with the south end of the island about X. 18° W. (N. 23" W. mag.), but vessels of light draft may go so far in as to bring it to bear X. 28° E. (X. 2o° E. mag. ). Tlie point is so bold that a small vessel might heave down alongside it. "The western anchorage is by far the better, being partly sheltered from the sea breeze. These anchorages, however, should onlj^ be used in case of necessity. "Sasardi Bay and Harbor. — The Hasardi Islands are separated from Sasardi Point on the main by an opening three-fourths of a mile wide, which is exposed on the northeast side. From Sasardi Point the coast trends to the northward, then to the southwestward; forming a bay about three -fourths of a mile in extent, near the center of which there is convenient anchorage for watering in 4 to 6 fathoms. The Sasardi Rivu- let, al)out 10 feet wide and with 2 feet of water on the bar, flows into the western side of this ba}" and is the best place to obtain water; canoes manage to get up it with some difficulty about 2 miles; on the north side of the entrance there is a village. The land is here much lower than in the neighbor- hood of Port Escoces. "In the interior of the bay there are several shoals nearly awash and consequently easily avoided; a small reef with 1^ fathoms on it lies to the southward of Sasardi Point, distant about 800 3-ards, and just within the line of entrance about two-thirds the wa}^ across from Sasardi Point there is a hard flat ledge about 400 yards in length, upon which the sea gen- erally breaks. The channel to the eastward of this ledge is only 400 yards wide, with a depth of 4 fathoms; to the west- ward of the ledge in mid-channel there are fathoms. The outermost of the banks in the immediate vicinity of the 76 NOTES ON PANAMA. entrance has 3^ fathoms over it and lies N. 42^ E. (N. 37° E. mag.) 2 miles from the western extremitj^ of the Sasardi islands, "with the northeastern extremity of Oro Island just shut in with the Crag Rock, bearing S. 32° E. (S. 37° E. mag.)- A bank of 44 fathoms lies N. 5° E. (north mag.) 1^ miles from the 3|^-fathom bank. " Supplies. — The inhabitants of the village of Sasardi sub- sist by iishing and hunting and the cultivation of i^lantains and cocoa. The latter article and cocoanut oil are exported in small quantities in American vessels, which give in exchange arms, ammunition, cotton, and culinary articles. No live stock is to be obtained, but the sea abounds in fish, and plenty of turtle are caught in May and June. "The interior is densely wooded with trees of tlie most valuable description, growing to the height of 70 to 100 feet. Among them are found the mahogany, cedar, silk-cotton, ebony, satin wood, rosewood, fustic, logwood, with many of the pine family adapted for spars and masts. The Indians use cedar for their canoes and a red wood called calli-calli, which is very hard and durable, notwithstanding the destruct- ible effects of the worms and insects of this climate. "Water. — The Sasardi Rivulet is b}^ far the most con- venient place at which to water. " Directions.— In approaching Sasardi Bay or Harbor from the eastward, the mark already given for the outer banks should not be crossed until the Sasardi village is brought just in sight to the southward of Sasardi Point, S. 87° \V. (S. 82° W. mag.). This latter mark will lead to the southward of the outer bank, and when the west end of Sasardi Island bears S. 23° W. (S. 18° W. mag.) the course may be altered for either of the channels most convenient. If intending to enter the harl)or between the cays and the main, and the eastern channel is taken, the reefs which skirt the Sasardi Islands should be rounded within 200 yards; if the western channel, the opening should be steered for about 07je-third the distance across the Sasardi Point. "After passing the shoal in the middle, composed of hard limestone, Sasardi Island will be found steep-to, and anchor- age may be taken up anj^where within 200 yards of it in from 5 to 7 fathoms. The shoals all lie on the western side of the harbor, and are easily avoided by the eye. To sail out is not so easy, except with a land wind, for the channels are nar- row and the sea rough with the usual sea breeze. NOTES ON PANAMA. < < "TlDES.^The tidal streams are overcome by a eurreiit which sets tlirough tlie Sasardi Channel to the southeastward about one-third mile per hour. "Org Island, the easternmost and highest of a range of cays and rocks whicli lie fi*om I to 3 miles from the mainland and extend in a northwest direction about 5 miles, is 470 feet high at its eastern extremity. The edges of the I'eefs which skirt it and the little cays and rocks extending a mile to the southeastward of it to Piedra Isle alwaj^s show themselves and are steep-to. The Oro Shoal of 4 fathoms, which lies -100 yards from the eastern point of that island, also breaks in strong breezes. "Caledonia Harbor.— -Between these cays and the main are two well-sheltered harbors, the westernmost, Sasardi, the easternmost named Caledonia, which are oulj^ separated by a narrow bar with 12 feet w^ater over it. "The entrance to the harbor is one-half mile wide between the shoals fronting Oro Island and the lieventazones break- ers, with a depth of lo to 17 fathoms in the fairway and 8 to 9 fathoms in the anchorage. Apparently there is no settle- ment here. "Reventazones Shoals. — The entrance to Caledonia Harbor is obstructed by three dangerous shoals, on which the sea breaks heavily in strong breezes, lying about a mile to the southeastward of the cays extending from the south- west end of Oro Island. "The shallowest spots are known as Outer, Middle, and South shoals, with least known depths of 2^ to 3^ fathoms, and cover a space of 1^ miles north and south. "A patch of 4i fathoms lies about a mile N. 72° E. (N. 67° E. mag.) of the south extreme of south shore, about midwa}^ between it and an outlying 4-fathom patch in the approach to Port Escoces. "Mount Vernon, on the southeast point of entrance to the harbor, and Piedra Isle, the southeasternmost of the cays (which is very small) in line, bearing about S. 84° W. (S. 79° W. mag.), will lead Just clear to the uorthw^ard of the outer- most shoal, which has 3+ fathoms water. There are chan- nels between the shoals and between the southernmost and the main, all of which are clearly pointed on the chart, but they are too intricate for a stranger to navigate. "Winds and Seasons. — In Caledonia Harbor, as else- where on this coast, there are two seasons, the wet and the W. T. comway >st LIEUT, bth INFANTRV 78 NOTES ON PANAMA. dry. The latter continues from January to April or Maj-, when the wind blows strong and often violent during the day from north-northwest to north-northeast, accompanied by a very heavy sea, and lulls on tlie shore to nearly a calm dur- ing the night. At this season the temperature is about 82°, the atmosphere is exceedingly moist, and so hazy that at times the land can not be seen more than 5 miles, yet the climate is generall}^ healthy. "In the rainy season, which occupies the remaining portion of the year, the breeze lulls and becomes variable, and a land wind blows off, with occasional squalls from the southwest Avard. "Tides. — It is high water, full and change, at Caledonia Harbor at 11 h. iOm. ; the rise at springs is 14^ feet and at neaps li inches. "Directions. — Approaching Caledonia Harbor, and hav- ing brought Oro Island to bear about S. 51° W. (S. 40° W. mag.) before Carreto Peak comes over the outer isleta (the line of the outer banks), Piedra Isle must be brought in line with a remarkable hill, bearing S. 45° W. (S. 40° \V. mag.), which mark will lead between the outer banks. The. reefs which skirt Ora Island must then be rounded at the distance of 400 yards, passing between them and the Reventazones Banks. From abreast Rocky Cay a vessel will generally have to work to windward, and when standing to the westward the south end of the sandy beach in Surf Bay must not be shut in with San Fulgencio Point, at the base of Mount Yer- non, nor must Rocky Cay be shut in with Dobbin Cay when standing to the eastward. "These limits give a clear space of 8 to 10 fathoms water on mud, in any part of which there is good anchorage. If desir- able to go farther up, as far as Scorpion Cay, the eye must be the guide, observing that the bottom can not be seen at a greater depth than 12 feet. "An entrance can also be made as far to the southward as to bring on the mark given before for clearing the north end of the Reventazones, but great care must be taken not to cpen Mount Vernon to the southward of Piedra Isle before these banks are passed or the Oro Rock is in line with Craig Rock, the outermost islet. "In sailing out of the harbor vessels will generally have a wind either from the north-northeast in the season of the NOTES ON PANAMA. 79 breezes or off the land occasionally in the wet months. It will be merely necessary to skirt Rocky Caj"^ and reef at a safe distance and, getting on the line of Piedra Isle and JNFount Vernon, proceed to sea on that mark. Should the wind not admit of this, short tacks must be made toward and along the reef until past the outer Reventazones Shoal. In the event of missing stays when standing close to the Reventazones Breakers, a thing very likely to occur from the heavy sea, it would be better to keep away and pass to the leeward of the shoal than attempt to tack again. Vessels can also pass out along the shore to the southward of the Reventazones, taking- care not to go outside the line between the west extreme of Dobbin Ca}' and a remarkable solitary tree on Scorpion Cay, X. 40° W. (N. 45° W. mag.), until the Aglatomate huts bear northward of N. 85° W. (West mag.), or the outer isleta is just shut in with the northern extremity of P^scoces Point, when the vessel may haul out to the eastward of those shoals. "Tree Top Hill, 200 feet high, touching north side of Man- grove Cay or the north extreme of San Fulgencio Point, bear- ing N. 65° W. (N. 70° W. mag.), leads between P^scoees Point and the off-lying banks. "EscocES Point terminates at Pattersons Hill, 260 feet high; but 3^ miles to the sontliward of it the mountain ridge, which extends parallel to the shore, rises to the height of 1,180 feet, and about 7 miles to the westward to the height of 1,985 feet. About 3 miles southeastward of the point and about a mile from the shore are three small rocky islets, named Las Isletas, and within them is a cay of lai-ger dimen- sions. " Port Escoces. — Escoces Point is the extremity of a nar- row neck of land about 2 miles in length in a northwest direc- tion which forms the northeast side of an inlet of irregular breadth, named 'Port Escoces.' In the center of the outer part there is a depth of 6 fathoms, whence it gradually de- creases to 3 fathoms at the head of the inner arm. The entrance is about three-fourths of a mile wide, but the outer part is obstructed by the Escoces Reef, 3 feet high, lying about three-fourths of a mile to the westward of Escoces Point; there is a channel for either side of it, but the western is the better. The west and south sides of the reef are bold, but about 400 yards N. G7° E. (N. 62° E. mag.) of it there is a small head, with 18 feet water. With a strong northeast 80 NOTES ON PANAMA. wind the sea breaks across between the rock and Escoces Point; also on tlie Middle Reef, Antonio and Harbor Rocks, in the interior of the inlet. "In tlie ajiproach from tlie sonthward and eastward are sev- eral coral banks. One of them, with a least known dej)th of 41 fathoms, lies with the north extreme of Escoces Point S. 81° W. (S. 76° AV. mag-.), distant abont 2 miles. A patch of 4 fathoms lies with the east extreme of the point South (S. 5° E. mag.), distant about If miles. " Carreto Peak, in line or shut in on the outer islet, leads inside the 4^-fathom bank, and the peak kept open of that islet leads outside the 4-fathoni bank. "Water. — Several small rivulets of good water run into the south side of the port, but the}' are sometimes dry, and land- ing is generally difficult. In a little sandy bay about 3 miles to the westward of Escoces Point, is the entrance of the Agla- tomate River; and one-half mile farther on, in Surf Bay, is the entrance of the Aglaseniqua. "These rivers are from 20 to 30 feet broad and never dry, and the waters in botli are excellent, but difficult to obtain in rough weather. When moderate, the best landing is under cover of the little reef at the mouth of the Aglaseniqua; but the most convenient place for watering is at the mouth of the Sasardi, farther northward. On the west side of the entrance of the Aglatomate there are a few bamboo huts. "Directions. — Vessels of heavier draft than 20 feet must approach the entrance to Port Escoces with great care, for there are several coral banks in the offing which, in heavj' weather, are dangerous. Having rounded the Escoces Reef within the distance of about 400 yards to the westward, the eye must be the guide, directing the course in mid-channel until nearly abreast the narrowest part of the entrance, between the old fort point and the opposite side, when the eastern shore should be kept aboard to avoid the Middle Reef, which may be seen from aloft. "Anchorage may be obtained as soon as convenient within the Middle Reef. In entering the inner arm the wind baffles so much after passing HaVbor Rock as to make it very dan- gerous, although there may be a strong breeze outside. "Port Carreto. — On the west side of Carreto Point, be- tween it and some small islets lying about 1^ miles to the northwestward of it, the sliore curves to the southwestward, NOTES ON PANAMA. 81 forming- a bay about a mile deep, in which there are not less than 3 nor more than 8 fathoms water. Being exposed, how- ever, to the heavy sea thrown in by the northeast breezes, it is only of use as an anchorage in the season of light weather. "Carreto Shoals. — To the northward of this port about 1| miles are two small rocky banks, near each other, lying in a northeast and southwest direction, with 5^ fathoms over them and 20 to 25 fathoms close around, but they break Avith. fresh breezes. "Anachucuna Bay. — From the j)oint under the peak of Carreto to Cape Tiburon the shore, consisting of a sandy beach, extends about east-southeast 13 miles, forming a bend about 2^ miles deep, named Anachucuna BaA^ "Port Escondido. — At the northwest end of this bay, about 2 miles to the south of Carreto Point, is the little harbor of Escondido, adapted only for coasting vessels. "Cape Tiburon. — The northwestern extremity of the Gulf of Darien is rocky, high, and scari^ed; projecting boldly out to the northeast, it forms on each side a small harbor. That to the southward of the neck is so narrow as to be of little use, but Miel Harbor, on the west side, has good holding ground of sand and clay, in 11 to 12 fathoms water. "Gulf of Darien. — The entrance to this gulf is formed between Cape Tiburon and Caribana Point, which are 29 miles apart; and from this line the gulf is 40 miles long. "The western shore. — From Cape Tiburon the coast takes a southeasterly direction for about 12 miles to the Gandi River; .midway between, a mile offshore, lies Tonel Island, which is steep-to on its east side. "From Gandi River to the point of that name the shore trends about southeast about If miles, forming Estola Bay, into which the little Estola River empties, but neither the river nor the bay is of any importance. "From Gandi to Tripo Gandi Point a low sandy shore trends nearh^ east-southeast about G miles, forming Gandi Bay. Piton Islet, steep-to, lies one-half mile from the coast. At 3 miles S. 56° E. (S. 61° E. mag.) are the Bolanderos Islets, which consist of one large islet, with several small ones to the southward of it, all of them clear and bold and not farther than three-fourths mile from the shore. Tambor Islet lies 3 miles to the southward and eastward and rather more than one-half mile from the shore: at about one-half X. 28° E. (N. 12312—03 G 82 NOTES Oisr PANAMA. 23° E. mag.) of it a rocky shoal shows itself, between which and the islet there is a clear passage; it is, however, always better to pass outside. To the westward of Tambor Islet the shore forms a bay named Port Escondido, which affords shel- ter for small vessels. The Tumate islets, three in number, one-half mile from the coast, are 4 miles farther on. Four miles from the Tumate Islets are the Tarena Cays, which lie close to the shore. "The whole of the coast between the Tarena Cays and Cape Tiburon is high, bold, and clear of danger, but it is very wild in the season of the breezes. At this period the eastern shore of the gulf should be kept aboard, where good anchorage will be found, if necessary, and a smooth sea for working to windward. "At 2| miles southeastward of the Tarena Caj^s the shore takes an easterly direction for 6 miles to Revesa Point, form- ing the northern boundarj' of the delta of the Atrato. The principal mouth of the river opens out about 3 miles to the westward of the point; but being so exposed to the breezes, the commerce is more conveniently carried on by means of the little Faisan Branch, which has the advantage of the adjacent anchorage in Candelaria Bay. "The sand thrown out of the main branch is deposited at a long distance, and this part of the coast should not be approached nearer than 2 miles. " In the bight, at 5 miles west of Revesa Point, a hill named the Peak of Tarena rises near the shore, and thence a lof tj" ridge, having several remarkable peaks, stretches in a north- west direction as far as Cape Tiburon ; the southernmost is named Candelaria, the center one Gandi, and the northern- most Pico de Cabo. The latter rises beyond Cape Tiburon. "The western shore of the gulf, for the distance of about 20 miles from its head, is low, swampy, and irregular, being ormed by the delta of the Atrato River, which enters the gulf by numerous branches, eight of which are navigable for canoes and bungos. At the outermost part of the delta the gulf is contracted to a width of only 4 miles. "Atrato River, probablj^ the fourth largest river in vol- ume in South America, rises in a spur of the Antioquian Range that connects the latter with the divide or Cordilleras of Darien, Flowing on a course generally north for several hundred miles, it emjities through thirteen mouths into the NOTES ON PANAMA. 83 Gulf of Darien. It has numerous tributaries on both sides. This river was surveyed b}' Commander Lull, U. S. Navy., for 160 miles, or as far up as the mouth of the Bojaya. Its banks are low, and for the whole of this distance, during the wet season, are overflowed to a depth of 3 or 4 feet, from which cause all the houses are built upon piles. Below Sucio there are no inhabitants upon the banks, as they are submerged ten months of the yeav. This river resembles the lower Mis- sissippi in grandeur of proportion, with its long reaches, its width varying from 500 to 825 yards, and its great depth, often exceeding 10 fathoms. Its current varies from 2 to 3 knots per hour, which would be much increased in the rainy season but for the overflow of the banks, which permits an escape of the surplus water by spreading for miles over the adjacent country. "The surve}^ was made in a rowboat floating doAvn with the current, and nowhere in the channel were found less than 28 feet. Over the whole distance surveyed no rocks were found; the bottom was muddy, and the river unobstructed by snags. So well' defined is its channel and so free from obstructions that a single passage up and return would be sufficient to make one acquainted with the navigation. "The mouths of the Atrato are obstructed by bars, ui)on which there will not be found more than 6 feet of water. They differ in character, however, according to their protec- tion from the sea. The Uraba mouth, being farthest from the sea, and also protected by a long sand spit, is fixed in its nature, and the bar is of hard sand. These bars, as thej^ in- crease by fresh deposits, extend out and break off abruptly from 2 to 10 fathoms. "The extensive delta projects far beyond the limits of the mainland, and banks, composed of a deposit of the softest ooze, extend about a mile outside the bars, exposed, however, to constant changes, especially during the season of the breezes. "Revesa Bay. — FromRevesaor Choco Point to the north- west point of Candelaria Bay the low mangrove shore trends about south by east 5 miles. Revesa Point, pi'oject- ing a little to the eastward, affords off its south side good anchorage with northerly winds. Vessels entering the Revesa anchorage may pass within 300 yards of that point, and anchor as soon as it bears eastward of north in 13 or 11 fathoms. 84 NOTES ON PANAMA. The sand bank skirting- Candelaria Bay gradually disappears as Revesa Point is approached. "Candelaria Bay. — On the north side of the delta of the Atrato there is a bight about 2| miles in extent, named Can- delaria Bay. The land around, however, is so low that the greater part is inundated, even at low water; and it is bor- dered with mangroves, reeds, and rushes, so tliat only the northwest part of the bay appears dry. A sand bank skirts the whole circuit of thebaj^and extends a mile southeastward from the northwest point, which reduces the entrance between it and the mouth of the Little Faisan branch of the Atrato to scarcely a mile in breadth. Off the mouth of the Faisan, and along the southeast side of the bay, however, the bank does not reach to more than about 300 yards from the shore, leav- ing a space of good anchorage about 1^ miles in extent. "The bar of the Little Faisan has 3 feet of water upon it, and it is one of the best branches by which canoes enter the Atrato. "Directions. — To enter Candelaria Bay great attention is required to the soundings, care being taken not to shoal in less than 17 fathoms in the entrance nor 12 within. This caution is absolutely necessary, for the sand bank that skirts the shore is so steep that it shoals suddenly from 13 to 5 fathoms, and from 5 to getting aground. Bj^ preserving a proper depth a vessel will pass about 800 yards off the south- east point, and, having entered, the discolored water on the edge of the bank may be seen from aloft. "Tides.— The tide in the Gulf of Darien rises 2 feet. "The eastern shore. — From the head of the Gulf to TJraba Point the eastern shore trends nearly north 29 miles, and is very low and swampy, the only remarkable object being the little hill that forms Cayman Point 9 miles from Uraba Point. The soundings are regular, and this shore may be easily navigated with proper attention to the lead. The head of the Gulf is about 10 miles in breadth, and the Suriquilla River flows into the middle of it. "From Uraba Point the shore, which is low, with a few small hillocks, trends about north-northwest for 6 miles to the Salado River, and thence for about 5^ miles in a westerly direction to Arenas Point, a low, sandy peninsula, bold and steep-to. W. T. CONWAY l8t LIEUT. 6th INFANTRY NOTES cm PANAMA, 85 " From Arenas Point the shore trends to the northward for about 3 miles, when it bends abruptly to the northeastward to Caribana Point, the north point of the low, sandy penin- sula, about 2^ miles in breadth at the extremity from north to south. The west face of this peninsula is bold and steep-to, and may be safely coasted at the distance of a mile. The interior is occupied by the Aguila Lagoon, about 5^ miles in extent from east to west, in which are many mangrove cays. " Caribana Point is low and wooded. At a short distance within the point is Cerro Aguila, and, although of only mod- erate height, it is remarkable from standing alone in the mid- dle of lowland, and is a useful guide." — Hydrograpltic Office, Gulf of Mexico and Caribhean Sea, No. fU. DESCRIPTION OF THE PACIFIC COAST. " Coast. — Between Buriea Point and the southwest extrem- ity of Parida Island, 32 miles N. 85° E. of the point, the coast recedes 17 miles in a gradual curve, forming a large bay, within which are no known dangers. On the northern shore, which is low and wooded, are the small rivers Bartolome, Pinos, an Piedra, but no port or place of resort. The western shore is higher and deep water api)roaches nearer to it. The oper. anchorage along the coast is considered in general safe. "The delta of the David River lies on the eastern side of the bay north of Parida Island and is formed by numerous low islands fronting the coast for a distance of 17 miles, from the Boca San Pedro on the west to Boca Chica on the east, covered by extensive shoals with heavy breakers. Within the islands the low coast is a labyrinth of small streams and osteros. "Boca San Pedro, about 30 miles N. G0° E. from Buriea Point, between the large islands San Pedro and Sevilla, is the westernmost and main entrance to the David River and the shortest approach to the city of that name. The original sur- veyors, both British and French, regarded this entrance as impracticable for vessels and even for boats, although used by the native fishermen, and considered the Boca Chica, with the connecting 25 miles of intricate navigation, the only prac- ticable approach to the river and city of David. "A sketch survey made in 1900 by Mr. J. A. Rupert Jones, of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, and now incorpo- rated on the latest charts of the locality, shows a close line of 86 NOTES ON PANAMA. soundings across the bar in a comparatively straight course, with a least depth of 4 fathoms, to an anchorage in 44^ fathoms about three-fourths mile northward of San Pedro Point, . the southeast end of San Pedro Island. The channel is dan- gerous with a heavy southwest swell, and the banks border- ing the channel on the eastern side within the bar and oppo- site San Pedro Island are extending westward; the present width of the channel abreast of San Pedro Point, which it closely skirts, is about 700 yards, the width of the opening between San Pedro Point and Powis Point, the western ex- tremity of Sevilla Island, being nearly 2^ miles. On San Pedro bank, which forms the west side of the channel, the sea breaks heavily, and along the edge of the bank incessantly. " The German bark Theodore, of 680 tons, registered, crossed the bar of the Boca San Pedro February 2, 1892, and lay at the anchorage above San Pedro Point until March 24, when, having loaded a cargo of brazil wood, she passed out , drawing 15 feet, being the first large vessel to visit the port. Captain Saunders of the steamer Elvira, of 200 tons, on whose recom- mendation the Theodore was chartered and who towed the vessel into and out of the harbor, appears to have been the first to discover a navigable channel across the bar and the first to make general use of it. At the time of the Theodore's visit the coasting steamers calling at David, although with Punta Arenas as a farther destination, made the long circuit by the Boca Chica. "Anchorage. — There is good anchorage off the entrance to the channel in 13 fathoms with the southeast end of San Pedro Island bearing N. 29° E. (N. 23° E. mag.) and distant 3| miles. The water shoals gradually shoreward, and a mile farther in on this bearing there are 8 fathoms. From the anchorage here given, to enter the port the course is first N. 12° E. (N. 6° E. mag.) for U miles, then N. 57° E. (N. 51° E. mag.) li miles, then N. 17° E. (N. 11° E. mag.) l\ miles to the inner anchorage, the last course for half the distance skirting the east side of San Pedro Isl ind at about 200 yards. "Caution. — On account of the liability to frequent and sudden changes of all open sea bars, it would manifestly be imprudent to use this channel without a pilot or prior inves- tigation by boat. " CiUDAD DE David, the capital of the province of Chiriqui, with 9,000 to 10,000 inhabitants, lies about 10 miles north of NOTES ON PANAMA. 87 San Pedro Island and tlie river mouth and about 2^ miles from Pedregal, a small village on the right bank of the west- ern branch of the river. From the anchorage within San Pedro Point a least depth of three-fourths fathom can be carried 10| miles to Pedregal and a couple of miles beyond, the snuiU coasting steamers of 200 tons ascending to the vil- lage, whence a road leads across a treeless grassy plain to the city. This plain gives good pasturage to many horses and cows. On nearing the city the character of the country changes and hills occur; the ground is more or less cultivated and is divided up by fences. Nothing, however, appears of the town until the first houses are reached. It does not pre- sent a striking appearance, consisting for the most part of bamboo huts and wooden houses with thatched roofs and clay floors. Nevertheless, there are many well furnished stores in which can be bought at a reasonable price all that one may wish. There were at the time of the Theodore's visit but few foreigners settled in David, among them being a German ph3'sician, here stranded, and a few Italian laborers. "Supplies. — Meat, poultry, eggs, rice, yams, and fruit are abundant and cheap. The price of a live ox is $12 to $14. Only flour is dear. Good drinking water can be obtained from the river at the junction of the eastern and the western branch, above the Hacienda Pino. "Sevilla and San Pedro islands abound in game, which is easily obtainable. The latter island is a private possession and consists of open grass fields and dark forests, giving sup- port to some hundreds of cattle and numerous horses and swine. Of human dwellers there are here only the so-called matador, who has the supervision of the cattle, and a few nomadic Indian fisher people. The soil, though fruitful, is not cultivated. "Climate. — The climate, in the dry season at least, was considered by the captain of the Theodore to be not un- healthy. During the seven weeks of the Theodore'' s stay at San Pedro, February 2 to March 25, there was not a single case of sickness on board, although the days were hot and all the work of discharging ballast and taking in and stowing the cargo of brazil wood was done bj^ the men. The nights were always agreeably cool and there were no mos- quitoes. "Parida Island is of irregular shape, about 4 miles long 88 NOTES ON PANAMA. NNE. and SSW., and 2 miles wide in its widest part. It is well wooded, but not high, and has rivulets affording abun- dance of water. Numerous islets with many sunken reefs among them lie off the east and southeast sides of the island to a distance of 5 miles, all of them being apparently within the line of 10 or 12 fathoms. Bolano and Baraco, the largest of these islets, terminate the group, lying about 4^ miles east of the south end of Parida. The chart shows at 2 miles east- ward of them several rocks awash, and at about three- fourths mile southward of Baraco several rocks under water. Close to both groups are soundings of 12 fathoms. Channels doubt- less exist among the islets and reefs, but vessels must keep outside of them, as they have not been closely examined, and in approaching David Bay from the southwestward give the whole locality a good berth. "Parida •anchorage, — The only anchorage is at the northeast end of the island, in 6| fathoms, sheltered from the southward by the long, low island Gami. Here there is a sandy beach for landing and abundance of good water. To reach this anchorage from the eastward from a position west of Widow Rock steer for the San Jose islands, and then, leaving these islands to the northward, steer for the north end of Parida, maintaining a depth of 7 to 6 fathoms, but decreasing to 3^ fathoms as the anchorage is approached, when it deepens again to 6i fathoms at the anchorage, close to the shore. *'A narrow channel with 8 to 3| fathoms of water leads sea- ward close around the north end of the island. "Boca Brava, between Sevilla and Brava islands, lies 5| miles north of the north end of Parida, from which a chan- nel leads through the shoals in almost a straight course with a least depth of 3 fathoms, deepening between the islands to 6 fathoms, and within to 9 fathoms. There is no informa- tion as to this channel being used to reach an anchorage within the islands or to communicate with David, although as the entrance is exactly marked by the north i3oint of Par- ida and the channel more sheltered than that of Han Pedro and deeper than the Boca Chica it would appear to have at times decided advantages. "C'HIMMO Bay, at the southwest end of Parida Island, is small, with depths of 10 to 2^ fathoms. The Santa Cruz Islet fronts the bay, and the j^assage in is north of the islet, some NOTES ON PANAMA. 89 rocks extend iug- southward from it to the shore. A reef also runs southward a short distance from some islets on the north side of the bay. Good fresh water maj^ be obtained in the northeast part of the bay. "Tides. — High water, full and change, in Chimnio Bay is at oh, lorn. ; rise of tide, 104 feet, "Caution. — The southwest point of Parida Island should be given a berth of about a mile on account of some sunken rocks one-half mile from it, with depths of 15 and 16 fathoms close to them. "Grono Rock, with a depth of G feet over it and 30 fath- oms close to, has been reported to exist 3^ miles S. 37° W, (S. 31° \V. mag.) from Santa Cruz Point. Breakers were seen in this locality by the master of the steamship Casma, who was informed by a diver engaged in the pearl fishery of the existence of the rock, with particulars as above. It has been entered on the chart as doubtful in position. "David Bay, as named by the original surveyors, lies between Parida Island and El Juco Point, 11 miles N. 67° E, of the SE. part of the island, the name being also given on the present chart to the great bay west of the island. In it are numerous islands and rocks, but with the assistance of the chart little diflBculty should be experienced in selecting an anchorage. " The Monitas are two islets on a reef lying about a mile nearly south of Juco Point, The western islet closely resem- bles a saddle. The channel between the Monitas and Juco Point is considered unsafe on account of the currents in it, although the depth is from 7 to 8 fathoms; hence vessels making for Palenque anchorage generally pass to the south- ward of these islands, "ViUDA OR Widow Rock, lying 2f miles S. 11° E. of the western Monita, is an isolated rock with a reef extending from it one-lialf mile in a direction S. 69° E. At low water four pinnacles are uncovered, but at high water only one is visible. As this rock and reef are both steep, with soundings close around them of 10 to 12 fathoms, great care is required in avoiding them. It is said that to vessels approaching David Bay from the southward the position of the Viuda may generally be known bjMjreakers, but whetlier this be the case or hot, lying in the fair way of vessels and so far from the shore, it is a very formidable danger. 90 NOTES ON PANAMA. ' ' A sunken rock, the existence of which there is great rea- son to doubt, was many j^ears ago reported at about 4 miles SSE. mag. from the Viuda. The French surveying vessel Obligado searched for it unsuccessfully, although assisted in the search by a native who stated that he had seen breakers upon it; it was said to show but very rarely. The difficulty of finding an isolated sunken rock in deep water is well known; hence it will be prudent to exercise more than ordi- nary vigilance when in the vicinity of this reported danger, especially as no soundings are recorded about the site. "El Buey, a dangerous rock of small extent in the middle of David Bay, with soundings of 5 to 7 fathoms close to it, onlj^ uncovers at half tide, not showing at all in fine weather at high tide. No well-defined landmarks can be given for this danger, but it lies l\ miles X. 49° E. from the summit of the highest San Jose islet and 3 miles N. 78° W. from the western Monita. The chart shows the rock to be on the range of the southeast extremity of the San Jose group, the south- ernmost of the Linartes, and the NW. tangent of Bolano. "San Jose islets are a group of four wooded islets united by a reef. They are safe of approach except that the reef projects from them one-fourth mile to the eastward, and a 2-fathom spot lies three-fourths mile to the westward. Mid- way between San Jose and Bolano islands is a cluster of islands named Linartes. " Palenque Island, of irregular shape, 256 feet high and about li miles in extent, lies on the south side of Brava; Deer Islet, on which was the observation spot of the survey, lies off the southeast point of Palenque. The shoal water which limits the bay trends about NE. by N. and SW. by W. from Deer Islet. " Playa Grande Bay, lying north of Juco Point and the chain of islands extending from the point to the Boca Chica, has many sunken reefs in it and has not been closely exam- ined. The passage south of Carre Island into the bay, nearly a mile wide, has 6 fathoms of water, and this depth is carried about three-fourths mile inside, gradually decreasing to 3 fathoms at about 700 yards from the eastern end of the bay, where there is excellent shelter for a small vessel. Chuche- gal Bay opens from the northeastern part of Playa Grande and extends about 1^ miles northeastward, to the base of Red Hill, but has not been sounded out or closely examined. The NOTES ON PANAMA. 91 country behind the bay affords abundant pasturage for large herds of cattle. "Boca Chic a, 3^ miles N. 65° W. of .Juco Point, the nar- ' row channel between Ventana and Saino islands leading into the David River, is practicable for only light-draft vessels, there being in some parts of it at low tide only 8 to 10 feet of water. Boca Chica may be recognized by the rocks of Ven- tana Island, which have been pierced by the sea. Lavandera Rock, an isolated danger, covered at high water, lying on the east side of the entrance 300 yards southward of Saino, must be carefully guarded against, there being a depth of 5 fath- oms close to it on the south side. Within the entrance, at the east end of Brava Island, the channel expands and forms and anchorage called El Pozo (the well) with a depth of 6 fathoms. The village of San Lorenzo is partly in sight at the western end, consisting of about a score of huts in the midst of orange and banana trees. "Anchorage. — During the fine season there is good anchor- age off the Boca Chica in 5 fathoms, sheltered from the north- erly winds which have then considerable strength. When the southwest winds prevail it is better to anchor farther out under shelter of the San Jose islets. "A more open anchorage, suitable for large vessels, is in 8 fathoms midway between San .Jose islets and the Monitas. "Tides. — High water, full and change, at Palenque and Parida anchorages is at 3h. 15m.; springs rise lOf feet, neaps 8 feet. During the OhJigado's visit the flood stream at the anchorage outside the Boca Chica was observed to set NNW., and the ebb in the opposite direction, with an average strength of 1 mile an hour, diminishing in force toward the San Jose and Monitas islands. Within the entrance and in the river the current was much stronger. "Supplies. — At the village of Boca Chica or Puerto San Lorenzo, on the north side of the river and 3| miles from the sea, cattle, poultry, eggs, fruit, and vegetables can be pro- cured. Water of good quality can be got from the stream immediately east of the village. "Directions. — Vessels from the westward or southward should pass between the Viuda and the rocks east of BoLano, and if from the eastward, between the Viuda and the Moni- tas, in either case steering for the San Jose islets on a safe bearing until well past Viuda. If intending to anchor off 92 NOTES ON PANAMA. Boca Chica, when west of Viuda steer for Carre Islet, and when one-lialf mile from its south point continue along the south side of the chain of islets to the anchorage. "The Ladrones are two rocky, barren islets of moderate height, and together not more than a mile in extent, lying 14 miles S. 20° W. (S. 14° W. mag.) of the southwest point of Parida. They are ver^^ steep-to, with 70 fathoms close to their southern edge. The only known dangers are some rocks extending from them to the northward about 2 miles, and a very dangerous reef at 4 miles in the same direction with only G feet of water over it at low tide. As this reef is only shown by breakers when there is a stiff breeze, it must be carefully guarded against. "MONTUOSA ISLET,« lying 27 miles S. 25° E. (S. 31° E. mag.) from the Ladrones and 22 miles west of Coiba Island, the nearest land, rises to a height of 500 feet and has its summit covered with cocoa and other trees. A narrow reef, partlj* above water, extends from it about 3 miles in a westerly direction, and a reef also runs off from its southeast side. Captain Colnett landed here in 1794 and obtained a quantity of cocoanuts and a few birds. lie mentions that the bottom on the south side of the island and also the shore near the sea is rock3^ A sandy beach was found behind some little creeks that run in between the rocks, which afforded a safe landing place for boats. There was a great plenty of par- rots, doves, and iguanas, and probablj^ other refreshment. "Secas Islands are a group consisting of three principal islands and numerous islets and rocks, covering an extent of 5| miles in latitute by 3 miles in longitude, and lying about 15 miles from the coast between David Bay and Port Nuevo. About and among them are no known sunken rocks the posi- tions of which are not usually indicated hj breakers. Small vessels may find good shelter here, and on some of the islands a landing may be effected; but no fresh water can be ob- tained. The best anchorage is stated to be in 10 to 12 fath- oms, on sand. «The center of Montuosa Islet, as cut in February 5, 1902, by the U. S. S. Concord from nimierons positions of the ship obtained each time by not less than three cross bearings of Jicarita, Qnibo, and the Ladrones Islands was found to be about 2^ miles N. 44° E. (N. 38° E. mag.) of the charted position, approximately in latitude 7" 29' N., longitude 82 13' 30 " W. NOTES ON PANAMA. 93 "La Bruja Rock, about 3 miles east of the north end of the largest island, is a formidable danger, especiallj^ at night. It is stated by some authorities to be almost awash at low water and b3' others to be awash at high water, and is surrounded by depths of 20 to 24 fathoms. "CONTRERAS ISLANDS, a group about 14 miles southeastward of the Seeas and !)| miles north of Coiba, composed of two principal islands with many small islets and rocks, are unin- habited and have no good anchorage. Vessels maj' approach these islands without hesitation if due precaution be taken, as the depths near them are from oO to 40 fathoms and it is believed that there are no sunken dangers among them that are not marked bj^ breakers. "Prosper Rock, so named from the wreck of Le Prospere, a French ship that was drifted onto it in a calm, lies about 1\ miles south of the southern island and has the appearance of a black tower. A reef which uncovers at low water of spring tides extends from it about 200 yards in a south- Avesterly direction. It is not safe to pass between Prosper Rock and the islands on account of a reef midway in the channel, which is partly dr}^ at low water. "Coast. — At 14^ miles east of Juco Point the coast turns northward for 3| miles to the mouth of San Lorenzo River, and thence trends S. 77° E. for 20 miles to Espartal Island, at the mouth of the river of Pueblo Xuevo. Nearly all this shore is low and fronted hy a sandy strand; the entrances of the various rivers are barred and can usually be recognized by the white trunks of the mangrove trees, the toj)s only being in leaf. About a dozen miles inland is a range of hills between which and the sea is a wooded plain. "There ai-e no known sunken dangers along this coast, and vessels may skirt it at a distance of 2 to 3 miles in sound- ings of 6 to 11 fathoms. Some cliffs of red color eastward of San Lorenzo River and ending at about 13 miles from Pueblo Nuevo are ver}^ conspicuous. " Venado Islands, on the east side of Juco Point, consist- ing of one large island near the point and three small ones on a bank about a mile to the eastward, are said to be a good mark for vessels approaching from the eastward. " San Lorenzo Bay, formed by the bend in the coast east of Juco Point, is so thickly strewn with rocks that all vessels should avoid entering it, and for the same reason the river 94 NOTES ON PANAMA. can be approached only in boats. A considerable village lies on the San Lorenzo River, a few miles from the sea. "Port Nuevo lies just within the southern mouth of the Pueblo Nuevo River, now charted as Rio San Lucia, or Remedios. The entrance, which is south of Silva and Inso- lita islands, from whatever direction approached may be at once recognized bj* the peculiar formation of the Cayado Hills, which rise to heights of 300 and 400 feet from the nar- row peninsula forming the south side of the port, and from a distance appear as two islets. Sugarloaf Hill, 540 feet high, standing close to the shore near Espartal Island, is a good mark for the port, as are also the two wooded islets, Silva de Tierra and Silva de Af uera, distant, respectively, 1^ and 4^ miles westward from Entrada Point. " Espartal and Insolita, two large marsh}^ mangrove islands made of the soil brought down by the floods, front the coast for a distance of 7 miles, forming the river delta. The Boca de Santiago, between the two islands, although the direct entrance to the river, is navigable onlj^ by boats and at high tide, being obstructed by shoals through which, in 1899, there was no channel; the narrow passage north of Espartal is also unnavigable. "From Aguda Point, the south end of Insolita, the Belitre Bank, partially dry at low water, extends H utiles westward along the north side of the channel, ending opposite Entrada Point, and forms a natural breakwater for the port. The rock}^ islet Intrusa, steep and safe of approach on all sides, lies nearly in mid-channel between Aguda Point and the south shore. Robalo Island, three-fourths mile northeast- ward of Aguda Point, is about three-eightlis mile in extent, with a channel on either side, a mud bank extending from it about the same distance to the southward. Numerous rocks are reported in the eastern channel, that on the Insolita side, though narrower, being the one recommended for use. "Opposite the north end of Robalo is Dedo Point, from which the three remarkable Dedo (finger) hills, about 1,500 feet high, extend in a northeasterly direction, tiie line of the hills passing through Entrada Point, Herron Islet lies on the east bank of the river, opposite the south end of Robalo and three-eighths mile above La Tinta Cove. The south and east shores of the port are bordered by shoal water to a distance of one-fourth mile. Point Arenitas is at the NOTES ON PANAMA. 95 north end of Insolita, and 1:^ miles above is Rocky Point, which marks the real mouth of the river. Just within the rivers Jacobe and Santiago enter the San Lucia from the eastward. "The bay is inliabited by a few Indians in ranchos or huts scattered along the beach, and there are said to be a number of small villages on tlie numerous streams that fall into the river, but by far the largest is that which gives to the river its name. San Juan Enfrente, a cattle corral and clearing, is on the right bank of the San Lucia, 2^ miles above Rocky Point. "Some eggs, fowl, vegetables, and fruit may be obtained. Belcher states that water can not be procured in any quantity, but Captain de Rosencoat, of the Obligado, says that good water may be procured from a brook which falls into the small bay on the east side of Cape Cayado (Entrada Point). "The Channel, according to the survey of 1854, supple- mented by an examination in 1900 by Mr. J. A. Rupert Jones, of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, carries a low- water depth of 6 to 8 fathoms as far as Intrusa Islet, the width north of Entrada Point being about 400 yards and increasing within to about 750 yards near the islet. Farther in the depth is quite irregular, but 4 fathoms at low water may be carried more than a mile, prol)ably 3 fathoms to Rocky Point, north of Insolita, and 1 fathom a considerable distance farther up the San Lucia. "The anchorage selected l)y the French surveying vessel Obligado in 1854 was immediately southward of Intrusa, with the islet in range with the south end of Insolita. East- ward of this the channel expands considerably, but there are several isolated shoal spots, 2^ and 3 fathoms, restricting the anchorage space and making it inconvenient for large ves- sels. To a draft of less than IG feet it offers the advantage of ample space, with protection from all winds. A few small buoys to mark the shoal spots and the ends of the shoals would greatly increase its usefulness for large vessels. Excel- lent ranges are afforded by Intrusa Islet with Entrada Point and the two Silvas. "Westerly winds, frequent from June to October, are said by the inhabitants to send occasionally into the river a very heavy sea, which causes considerable inconvenience to ves- sels anchored near Intrusa. At such times it will be advis- able to run to the inner anchorage. 96 NOTES ON PANAMA. "Tides. — Higli water, full and change, at Port Nuevo is at 3 h. 44 m., rise of tide about 10 feet; at San Juan Enf rente at 4 h. 30 m. ; rise 12 to 16 feet. "Pueblo Nuevo Village, now Los Remedios, is said to be at some distance within the river, north of Insolita Island, and the passage up to it so intricate that it can only be found by native guidance. Provisions are said to be obtainable here in considerable quantities. The principal article of trade is the sarsaparilla, that of this neighborhood being esteemed of a superior quality. A venomous species of ser- pent, the bite of which is fatal, is numerous on the mainland and on the islands. "Directions. — To cany 6 fathoms, the best water, into the port? the entrance should be approached on a north course, , keeping from one-fourth to one-half mile from the shore just below Entrada Point, in order to avoid the shoal water west- ward of the point and the bank with 4 to 5 fathoms extend- ing southeastward from Silva de Tierra. When lutrusa Islet Oldens from the point, steer for the islet, passing close to the point, and Avlien within steer to pass southward of Intrusa to the inner anchorage, or anchor in 9 fathoms, fine sand}' bot- tom, on the range of lutrusa and Aguda Point. Entrada Point, in line with the north end of Silva de Afuera, leads through the narrowest part of the channel between Belitre Bank and the shoal water to the southward. " From Aguda Point about a mid-channel course leads up the river as far as Rocky Point, above which the channel passes between wide shoal banks on either hand and ascends the western stream. "The best time to enter the river is with the flood stream and the wind from seaward ; and to leave the river, witli the land wind and a little before the end of the flood. Vessels must pass south of Silva de Tierra, but may pass between the two Silvas, the depth here being from 8 to 12 fathoms. By entering at the first of the flood the edges of the banks are plainly seen. "Coast. — From Port Nuevo the coast has a general trend of S. 30° E. for 23 miles to the entrance of Baliia Honda and is quite irregular in outline, being intersected by several rivers and indented bj^ a number of small bays, of which the principal are Pajaros, Rosario, and Monita, all of them open and exposed to winds from the westward. About 3f miles NOTES ON PANAMA. 97 southward of Entrada Point is the Tavasera River, which has no bar at its mouth, a channel with from 2 to 3 fathoms lead- ing in to an ancliorage ground of considerable extent, with a dei^th of only 1 to 4 fathoms. Negro Bluff, west of the entrance, is at the southwest end of a round-shaped peninsula about a mile in diameter, occupied by a low hill of gradual ascent and connected with the northern shore by a very nar- row neck. Between the Cayado Peninsula and Negro Bluff the coast recedes considerably, forming an open bay, which appears to be free from danger, with 3 to 4 fathoms at one- fourth of a mile from the low shore. The Nueces Rocks lie at the northern end of this bay, the entire group lying within one-fourth mile of the lieach. "Below the Tavasera River the coast is fronted for a dis- tance of 8 miles by a long sandy shelf, called the ' Play a Brava,' extending from 1 to 2 miles from the low shore, with depths of 1 and 2 fathoms, and covering in the southern part the mouth of Lavenia River, 7 miles from the Tavasera. This bank is steep-to, and should be approached with care, keep- ing outside the l()-fathom line. "Pa.jaros Bay, about 2 miles south of the Lavenia River, between Pajaros and Muertos points, is about a mile in width and depth, with from 10 to 18 fathoms of water. Rosario Baj', separated from Pajaros by a narrow peninsula ending in Muertos Point, is recognizable by the isolated pointed hill terminating this point, and by a small round islet, called ' Muela,' in the middle of the bay, about a mile from the shore, Rosario Point projects into the baj^^ at its middle, dividing it into two parts, the southern of which is called Pivaj^ Bay. A stream discharges at the bead of each ba3\ " Gorda Point, of blunt shape and 2 miles broad, separates Pivaj^ from Monita Bay, which is so named from a wooded islet in its northern part near the shore. Ventana Point, limiting Monita Bay on the south, is 1 mile north of Roble Point, which fronts the north side of Medidor Island and is 2^ miles from the entrance to Bahia Honda. " These bays, being open to the westward, afford anchorage only in the fine season. In each bay are found a few Indian families, who live by hunting and fishing. "Medidor Island, of irregular shape and moderate height, about 1^ miles long and five-eighths of a mile in average width, lies about 2 miles northwestward of the entrance to 12312—03 7 W. T. CONWAY list LIEUT. 6th INFANTRY 98 NOTES ON PANAMA. Bahia Honda, and is separated from the coast by a narrow and rocky channel less than one-fonrth mile wide, which is not recommended for nse. Pacora or Trucha Islet, lying three-eighths mile south of Med id or, is abont one-fourth mile long and 100 yards wide. A reef extends about two-thirds across the passage, leaving a narrow channel between its end and the islet, with a depth of 24 fathoms. Both Medidor and Pacora appear to be bold and steep-to, the water being from 20 to 30 fathoms deep in their vicinity, but should not be approached too closely on the northern and western sides on account of the deficiency of soundings. "Bahia Honda (deep bay), lying 14 miles northeast of the north end of Coiba Island and 23 miles NW. by W. from Zur- ron Point, the west end of Cebaco, is an excellent harbor for vessels of the largest size, being deep, safe, capacious, and very easy of access. The entrance, between Guarida Point and Sentinela Island, is seven-eighths mile wide, and the harbor within is 2 miles long and wide, exclusive of the extensive mud flats in the eastern part of the bay, deep water lying in general close to the shores, which, as a rule, are clean and safe of approach. " Guarida, the north entrance point, is bold and clean, and may be approached close-to, there being 20 fathoms of water at from 100 to 200 yards. "Sentinela Island, forming the south entrance point, lies seven-eighths of a mile south of Guarida Point. It is small and surrounded by rocks, which, on the south, extend as far as Cono Islet. A detached reef lies about 400 j^ards to the northeastward. Sentinela and Cono are separated from Cape Jabali b}' a narrow rocky channel, with rocks on both sides and practicable only for boats. "Between Guarida Point and Sentinela Island the depths are from 20 to 25 fathoms for almost the entire width of the channel, which is clear and free from dangers, except the rocks and reefs close to the island. Within the entrance the depths decrease gradually to 10 and 12 fathoms at 1^ miles. "Talon Island, lying about 1:^ miles within the harbor and opposite the entrance, is about five-eighths of a mile long, north and south, and 120 feet high. Two small islets, Pueril and Espuela, lie respectively off the western and the southern point of Talon, and from the former islet a shoal and reef extend northwestward about one-fourth of a mile. NOTES ON PANAMA. 99 Talon Island separates the harbor into two anchorages, Chinche Bay to the westward and Legamo Bay to the east- ward, the former being much the larger. On the northeast side of the island a narrow channel connects the two bays. "Chinche Islet is round and wooded, and lies in the northern part of Chinche Bay, about 600 yards from th^ shore; it is clean and safe of approach on all sides, with 10 and 11 fathoms close-to, to the southward. "Anchorage maj^ be had in any part of the harbor, but the best berth for large vessels is in Chinche Bay south of the islet, in from 10 to 14 fathoms, mud bottom, sheltered from all winds. The only dangers in this locality are a rock cov- ered bj^ 8 feet of water about one-fourth of a mile northward of Guarida Point, and the reef lying 300 yards northwestv>-ard of Pueril Islet. Legamo Bay is clean, with an anchorage ex- tent of three-eighths of a mile and depth of 5 to 7 fathoms, completely sheltered b}' Talon Island. "Tides. — High water, full and change, is at 3h. 10m. Springs rise llf feel, neaps 8f feet. The tidal streams run from one half knot to 1 knot an hour. "Supplies. — Vegetables and fruit are only obtainable in very small quantities. Water can be procured near a vil- lage on the southeast side of the bay; a boat can anchor here in calm weather and fill with a hose. Very good water may also be procured from a cascade outside the harbor on the north shore, at 1| miles from Guarida Point. The water falls uj)on a rock, Avliich affords facilities for fixing a hose. "Captain de Rosencoat states that the Indians are exj)ert turtle catchers and will furnish a large quantity daily. Fish were abundant. "Directions. — The entrance of the bay does not make out well at a distance, but its location is so plainlj^ marked by the islands Af iiera, Medidor, and Pacora that it is readih^ found. After making out Afuera in mid-channel, Medidor will l)e seen and should be steered for until Pacora is made out oi- the entrance is opened. Then steer for Guarida Point, which may be ranged close-to, and when past it head for Chinche Islet and anchor in 11 to 14 fathoms, mud bottom, sheltered from every wind. The best time to leave the harbor with a sailing vessel is in the morning, when the winds that j)recede the sea breeze come from NE. to E. These are sometimes so light that the boats must be used to tow out. The channel 100 NOTES OlSr PANAMA. between Medidor and the coast and that between Medidor and Pacora should not be used. "Afuera Island lies about midway between the north end of Coiba and the mainland, the channel being 13^ miles wide. The island may be passed on either side, the only danger being a reef extending from its southeast point about 400 yards; at its extremity is a black rock almost covered at high tide. Afuerita Islet nearly touches the northwestern end of Afuera. "Coiba or Quibo is the largest island off the coast, being 21 miles long, NW. and SE., with a width varj'ing from 4 to 12 miles, and of moderate elevation. It is covered with for- ests and a dense and tangled tropical vegetation. The inte- rior is said to consist of fine plains covered with magnificent forests, as yet untouched. In all parts there is abundance of good water. Around its shores are numerous anchorages, but no harbor in which a vessel may find protection from all winds. "The western shore is bold, with deep water close-to and clear of dangers not in close proximity to the shore. Her- mosa Point is the northwest extreme of the island, and has deep water close outside the rocks and islets off it; eastward of it is Hermosa Baj', open to the northwestward, with a sandy beach at its head. It has not been sounded out, but has 20 and 14 fathoms in the entrance. "Off the southern coast are several dangers, requiring caution in approaching this side of the island. A shoal nearly a mile in width extends about 5 miles along the shore from Negada Point, tlie southeast extremity of the island to Racimo Point. Hill Rock, a dangerous detached shoal with 6 feet of water over it, lies at 2^ miles from the shore, nearly south of Racimo Point, and 5j miles S. 64" W. of Negada. Several shoal spots of 4 to o fathoms lie at 1| and 2 miles southwestward of Negada Point, with deeper water inshore. Barca Islet is a little over one-half mile southwestward of Racimo Point. Passage Rocks, a grouj) above water, are about 2 miles west of Barca, and Logan Rock, also above water, lies about a mile northwest of the former, with sound- ings of 6 to 9 fathoms between them and the coast. "Damas Bay, on the eastern side of Coiba, G miles north- west of Negada Point, is the principal anchorage. The bay is about 7 miles wide at the entrance between Fea and Clara NOTL'S ON PANAMA. 101 points, and penetrates 4 miles. At its head is a broad sandy flat, tlirough wliich flows a SDiall stream, the San Jnan. There is good anehoi-age in any part of the bay, the deptlis gradually decreasing from 30 fathoms in the entrance to 10 and 12 fathoms within one-fourth mile of the flats at the head, which, on account of the considerable rise and fall of the tide, must not be approached too closely. Off the south- ern shore, between Fea and Observatory points, rocky shoals extend out about a mile and are steep-to, with 10 to 12 fath- oms close to their edges. A narrow recess in the reefs here, with to 8 fathoms of water, might with care afford protec- tion from the SE. to a small vessel. From Fea Point to Negada Point shoal water extends one-half mile from the shore, and from Clara Point, for a stretch of 2 miles to the northward, a shoal extends nearly a mile from shore. "Tides. — High water, full and change, is at 3h. 10m.; springs rise about 1 2 feet. The ebb and flow are regular. "Supplies. — No fruit or vegetables are procurable; tur- tles abound, but are hard to catch; crabs, cockles, and oysters are plentiful. In the woods monkeys and parrots abound, and in Anson's time there were deer; but the interior is nearly inaccessible from the steepness of the cliffs and the tangled vegetation. Explorers should beware of alligators and snakes. "Arena Bay.— At Job Point, 2| miles north of Clara Point, the coast turns due west for 2 miles and then again to the northward, forming Arena Baj', in which the depth is con- venient for anchoring over a large area, the depth at 2 miles from the shore being only 20 fathoms. At the head of the bay a sandy flat extends out one-half mile, and througli it flows the Juncal River, which would appear to be the remark- able cascade described in the account of Anson's voyage. Pesado Rocks lie in the northern part of the bay, -H miles from Job Point and three-fourths mile from the shore, and north of these, about a mile offshore, are the Cocos Islands; outside of these rocks and islands there appear to be no dangers. "Baltasar Head, the north extreme of the island, 74- miles N. 31° W. from Job Point, is a bold headland with deep water close-to. The channel between it and tlie Contreras group has soundings of 40 to 04 fathoms and no dangers ex- cept Prosper Rock. 102 NOTES ON PANAMA. " Remarks. — The following interesting description of Coiba Island is found in the account of Lord Anson's vo\'age around the world, by Richard Walter, the chaplain, j)ublished in. 1770, thirty years after the voyage. It would seem that the island has changed but little up to the present day. The anchoring place at the Centurion was in Danias Ba5^ "The island of Coiba is extremely convenient for wooding and watering, since the trees grow close to the high-water mark and a large, rapid stream of fresh water runs over the sandy beach into the sea, so that we were little more than two days in laying in all the wood and water we wanted. The whole island is of a very moderate height, excepting one part. It consists of a continued wood , spread all over the whole surface of the countrj^ which preserves its verdure the year round. Among the other wood we found there abundance of cassia and a few lime trees. It appeared singular to us that, considering the climate and the shelter, we should see no other birds than parrots, paroquets, and macaws. Indeed, of these last there were prodigious flights. Next to these birds, the animals we found in most plenty were monkej^s and iguanas, and these we frequently killed for food, for, notwithstanding there were many lierds of deer upon the place, the difficulty of penetrating the woods prevented our coming near them, so that, though we saw them often, we killed only two during our stay. Our prisoners assured us that this island abounded in tigers, and we did once discover the iDrint of a tiger's claw upon the beach, but the tigers themselves we never saw. The Spaniards, too, informed us that there was frequently found in the woods a most mis- chievous serpent called the fl.ying snake, which, they said, darted itself from the boughs of trees on either man or beast that came within its reach, and whose sting they believed to be inevitable death. Besides these dangerous land animals, the sea hereabouts is infested with great numbers of alligators of an extraordinary size; and we often observed a large kind of flat fish, jumping a considerable height out of the water, which we supposed to be the fish that is said frequently to destroy the pearl divers by clasping them in its fins as thej- rise from the bottom; and we were told that the divers, for their security, are now always armed with a sharp knife, which, when they are entangled, they stick into the belly of the fish and thereby disengage themselves from its embraces. NOTEB ON PANAMA. 103 " While the ship continued here at anchor, the comnio- dore, attended by some of his officers, went in a boat to ex- amine a bay which lay to the northward; and they afterwards ranged all along the eastern side of the island, and in the places where they put on shore, in the course of this expedi- tion, they generally found the soil to be extremely rich and met with great plenty of excellent water. In ijarticular, near the northeast point of the island they discovered a natural cascade, which surpassed, as they conceived, everything of this kind which human art or industry has hitherto produced. It was a river of transparent watei', al)out 40 yards wide, which rolled down a declivity of near 150 yards in length. The channel it fell in was very irregular, for it was entirely composed of rocks, both its sides and bottom being made up of large detached blocks, and by these the course of the water was frequently interrupted, for in some parts it ran sloping with a rapid but uniform motion, while in others it tumbled over the ledges of rocks with a perpendicular descent. All the n^^ighborhood of this stream was a fine wood, and even the huge masses of rock which overhung the water, and which by their various projections formed the inequalities of the channel, were covered with lofty forest trees. "Rancheria or Quibito is a small island, 1^ miles by three-fourths mile in extent, lying 2 miles east of Baltasar Head, the north end of Coiba. The channel between the two islands is 1^ miles wide, with soundings of 8 to 14 fathoms, and appears to be safe by keeping near the shore of Coiba and just outside the Cocos Islands. On account of the numerous rocks and uneven bottom, however, it is not rec- ommended for use. Don Juan Rock, above water, lies nearly in midchannel. Aaron Rocks, a group of islets about a mile northwestward of Rancheria and li miles northeastward of Baltasar Head, are the outermost dangers in this vicinity. "There is good anchorage south-southeast of Rancheria, opposite a sandy beach whence wood and water can be easily procured from the island. Some shelter is furnished by a high ]-ound islet. A Frenchman named Sorget was resident on Rancheria in 1847. "JiCARON Island, 4 miles south of Coiba, is of triangular form, 3f miles long north and south, and well wooded; its highest point, 830 feet high, is on the east side, and the most extensive lookout, says Captain Colnett, is from the top of 104: NOTES ON PANAMA. this island, for it commands Coiba and tlie whole of the coast and bay to the northward. David Point, the northeast ex- treme, is clear and safe of approach, with deep water close -to Around the northwest extreme are numerous rocks and reefs, foul ground extending off three-fourths of a mile. A small group of rocks above water lies If miles N. 70° W. of Ursula Point, the south extreme of the island, and 1^ miles offshore, closely surrounded by depths of 23 to 27 fathoms. About one-fourth of a mile south of Ursula Point is Jicarita Islet, 1:^ miles long and covered with cocoa palms. "West Coast — Jicaron Island — Corrected Height. — The officer in charge of the Branch Hydrographic Office, San Francisco, Cal., reports that the master of the steamer San Juan, Captain Afredberry, states that as the result of obser- vations on four consecutive voyages between San Francisco and Panama he finds the height of Jicaron Island (4 miles south of Coiba (Quibo) Island) to be (approximately) 1,400 feet instead of 830 feet, as given on the chart. " The channel between Jicaron and Coiba is practicable, but of very irregular depth, the best water, not less than 11 fathoms, being nearer Jicaron. Hill Rock, the principal danger in the approaches, lies 5^ miles east of David Point. " Coast. — From Bahia Honda the coast trends S. 08° E. for 20^ miles to Brava Point, at the entrance of Montijo Bay, and is rugged, with several islets and rocks off it. At 2 miles from the land the soundings are 35 to 27 fathoms until the vicinity of the point is reached. Lorenzo Bay, about 5 miles westward of the point, is of considerable extent, but appar- ently foul, and has not been closely examined. In running from one bay to the other the coast should have a berth of not less than 3 miles. "Montijo Bay extends northward about 14 miles, with an average breadth of 9 miles, and is fronted and nearly inclosed by the two islands, Cebaco and Gol)ernador, which lie in the entrance. Within the bay, near its head, is Leones Island, between which and the north side of Cebaco, a distance of 8 miles, is a continuous shoal with a depth of 2 fathoms, which occupies a large part of the ai-ea of the bay and leaves on either side but a narrow channel. Opposite Leones Island, on both sides of the bay, are several small streams accessible only by boat. The l)ay is of little value to shipping and sel- dom visited on account of the shoals and very irregular soundings. A closer examination or survey would make its NOTES ON PANAMA. 105 use quite practicable for steamers aud afford to them a safe and sheltered harbor. "Cebaco Island is of irregular shape, i:U miles long, ENE. and WSW., and 3 miles wide at its eastern end, the broadest part. Some detached rocks lie immediatelj' south of its west- ern end, and a sunken rock lies about a mile from its eastern point, leaving no safe channel between. When entering the bay by this, the east, channel, it is necessary on account of this sunken rock to keep nearer to the main than to the island, the depths being 12 to 10 fathoms; steer then for San Juan Rock, distant al)out 1^ miles from the land, until a 2- fathom spot in mid-channel Iw miles southward of the rock and in line with the east point of Cebaco is passed, and then steer to pass the rock on its west side at about three-fourths of a mile in 4 fathoms; hence, to the east side of Leones Island the course is about north (N. G° W. matr.), westward of several rocks lying offshore, in soundings of 6, 7, and 9 fathoms. " GoBERNADOR ISLAND, between the west end of Cebaco and the main, is about 2^ by 1| miles in extent, and divides the western entrance to the bay into two channels, either of which is practicable, but the northern preferable because wider and less exposed to the strong outward current from the bay. The depth in the southern channel is 9 to 6 fathoms and in the northern 16 to 6 fathoms. There is good shelter for vessels of light draft under the west shore of the bay, which is easily reached. The banks throughout the baj' are steep aud require careful attention to the lead; ves- sels should not go bej^ond 4 fathoms. "DuARTis Point, the eastern entrance point of Montijo Bay, lies 6 miles southeastward of Cebaco. Foul ground ex- tends from it nearly 2 miles to the eastward. "The coast south of Duartis Point is low and indented by two large baj'S, with a small stream at the head of each. The Quebra Islets, G miles below the point, extend to the west- ward about li miles from the bluff projection of the coast separating the two bays. Vessels should keep at least 2 miles from this stretch of coast, as it has not been closelj' examined. "At 14 miles south of Duartis is a bluff headland, and one- half mile off it is the rocky but wooded islet Naranjas, which is steep, with deep water close outside. "Mariato Point, 5 miles SE. of Naranjas Islet and 55 106 NOTES ON PANAMA. miles east (N. 84° E. mag.) from the south extremity of Jica- rita, is a bold headland marking a sharp tnrn of the coast. It is the beginning of the range of high coast land which ter- minates at Morro Puercos. "Landfall. — Mariato Point is a good landfall for vessels bound to Panama frojn the westward, as by keeping under the land to the eastward of the point they avoid the southerly set-out of the gulf. "Morro Puercos, 27 miles east of Mariato Point, is a lofty headland forming the termination of the range of high coast land. The water off this coast is deep close to tlie rocks for two-thirds of the distance, with 100 fathoms within 2 miles of the shore. Nearer Puercos Point the 20-fatliom line is about 2 miles from shore. About 4 miles westward of the point and 1 mile from the shore is a reef above water; and 2 miles northeastward of the point, 1^ miles from shore, is a 3-fathom patch. The chart shows a 5-fathom spot, with 14 fathoms close-to, at 3:^ miles S. 75° E. (S. 81° E. mag.) from the point. "Coast. — ^From Puercos Point to Guanico Point, 7 miles to the northeastward, the coast curves in a double biglit, and thence in a larger bight to Raia Point, off which, at one-half of a mile, are the Venado Islet and reef. The Tomosi River is nearly 3 miles northward of Guanico Point, and al)out the same distance beyond the river, at the head of the bight, is a patch of rocks at a short distance from the shore. About 2 miles westward of Raia Point is the Juera River, mentioned in Findlay as accessible, according to native report, for vessels of any draft, having 10 or 12 fathoms depth, and affording a supi^ly of fresh water. "From Guanico Point to Cape Mala, 23 miles N. 60° E. of the point, the coast is low and along it the depths are morlerate. "North and South Frailes are tw^o low, barren, flat topped islets, of which the southern lies llf miles S. 46° W. (S. 40° W. mag. ) from Cape Mala, and the nortliern 21 miles N. 28° W. (N. 34° W. mag.) from the southern. A reef extends about 200 j'^ards off the northwest jjoint of the south- ern islet, but with this exception they are steep-to and clear of outlying dangers, with 20 to 30 fathoms within one-half of a mile of the rocks. Although a good mark for Cape Mala in clear weather, at night or in the thick, squally weather of this coast they are dangerous to vessels keeping under the land NOTES ON PANAMA. 107 westward of Mala to avoid the current, as the lead giv^es no warning of their proximity. At such times they should be given a wide berth. THE GULF AND BAY OF PANAMA — PEARL ISLANDS. Variation in 1902. Cape Mala 5° 41' E. | Piuas Point 4° 58 E. "General description. — Cape Mala on the west and Pinas Point on the east may be considered the limits of the Gulf of Panama. The line between these points, running nearly east and west, is 105 miles long, and within this line the gulf extends to the northward 02 miles, Avith the bay and city of Panama at its head. Between the entrance points the 100-fathom line curves slightly to the northward, the depths outside increasing rapidly to 1,000 and 2,000 fathoms, while within they decrease gradually to the head. The Pearl islands are entirely within the 50-fathom line. "The Isthmus of Panama., which encircles the gulf, is the narrow neck of land connecting the continents of North and South America; in a restricted sense the name is applied to the narrow crossing between Panama and Colon, the two other narrowest crossings being distinguished as the Isthmus of San Bias and the Isthmus of Darien; the widths of the Isthmus at these points, in the order here given, are, respec- tively, 31, 27, and 32 miles, the last distance being measured from the head of deep-water navigation at the mouth of the Savannah River in Darien Harbor. "The whole Isthmus is comprised in the Department of Panama of the Republic of Colombia, this department ex- tending from the Costa Rican boundary to the Department of Cauca. All the departments of Colombia, except Panama, are included in South America. The total population of Panama in 1881 was 285,000 persons. "Climate. — The geographical position of the Isthmus of Panama, the absence of high mountains, and the vast extent of forests and other uncultivated parts tend to produce a hot and rainy climate, which, nevertheless, with the exception of a few localities, asChagres, Colon, and Portobelo, is said to be health}^ and more favorable to Europeans than that of most tropical countries. Diseases of the digestive and integumen- tary systems are common, and malarial fevers, often of a most pernicious type, prevail throughout the year. The rainy 108 ' NOTES ON PANAMA. season is the most unhealthy, especially at its end, when the weather is changing. Yellow fever has prevailed at times in an epidemic form. On board shij) Panama is the most healthy j)lace on the coast of Central America. Vessels of war have remained here many months at a time, their crews con- tinuing in a healthy state " The wet season begins in May and lasts till November. The rains graduallj^ increase until the season is fairly estab- lished in June, and continue through July, August, and Sep- tember, with strong southerh'^ winds. In December the rains cease; the NW. and NNW. winds set in, producing an imme- diate change. During the dry season regular land and sea breezes blow. The sea breeze sets in about 10.30 a. m. from SSVV., generall}' increases in force until about 3.30 p. m., then graduall}' subsides, and at sunset is followed by a calm. "About the end of June the rains are suspended for a short time, the occurrence of this i^henomenon being so regular as to receive the name of Veranito de San Juan. The average temperature of tlie year is very high. "Winds. — The navigation of the approaches to the Gulf of Panama is for a sailing vessel one of the most tedious, uncer- tain, and vexatious undertakings known to the seaman. Between Cape Corrientes (latitude 5° 30' N.) and Panama the pi'evalent winds are from the northward and westward, with frequent squalls from the SW. between the months of June and December. In the Gulf of Panama the winds are regu- lated by the seasons; the prevalent wind, however, is from the northward. In the fine season, commencing in December, the winds are regular and constant, bringing fine, dry weather. To the southward of the gulf they blow much harder, and ofC the coast of Veragua " a double-reef topsail breeze in Januarj^ and February is not uncommon. In April and May the northerly winds are less regular and have more westings in them, with calms, light sea and land breezes, and occasional squalls from the southwestward. In June the rain}' season sets in and the southerlj^ winds become stronger; still the northwest wind is mostly found after noon, and ves- sels sailing from Panama will generally have at all seasons a fair wind until south of Cape Mala. "Between the Galapagos Islands and the coast, westward « Province of the Department of Panama lying between the Isthmus of Panama and the Isthmus of Chiriqui. NOTES ON PANAMA. 109 of the meridian of 80° W. and sonth of the parallel of 5° N., the winds are between south and west all the year round, and, except between the months of February and June, they are of sufficient strength and duration to make navigation easy; but northward of latitude 5*^ N. and between 80° W. and 110° W. is a region of calms and doldrums, accompanied by rains and squalls. "Currents. — The Gulf of Panama is subject to irregular currents, partly caused by the formation of the land and partly influenced by the Peruvian and Mexican streams, ac- cording to the varying strength of each. Malpelo Island, which lies about 230 miles S. 25° W. of Cape Mala, is surrounded by strong and rapid currents. These have been observed to set in opposite directions, sometimes to the NE. and sometimes to the SW. A steadj^ current has been found to set to the northward after passing Cape San Lorenzo, at the rate of 24 to 36 miles per day, extending offshore about 60 miles. This stream runs along the coast, following the direction of the land, enters and makes a complete circuit of the Gulf and the Bay of Panama, and then sets with considerable force, espe- cially in the dry season, to the southward down the western side of the gulf. After passing Cape Mala it meets the Mex- ican current from the WNW., causing tide rips, eddies, and the short, choppy sea met with at the entrance to the gulf. "West Coast.— Cape Mala, which forms the western j)oint of entrance to the Gulf of Panama, is a low but cliffy point with outlying rocky ledges, having deep water close to them. The land from the NW. slopes gradually down to the sea at this point from a considerable distance, making the exact cape difficult to distinguish unless the breakers are seen. On opening the gulf around this cape a strong south- erly set is generally experienced, especially in the dry season. "Iguana Island, lying about 9 miles to the northward of Cape Mala, is a little higher than the adjacent coast, and thus forms a conspicuous object. A ledge extends about 600 yards from its south point, and the chart indicates a reef as extend- ing about 2 miles ENE. from its east point; also, in 1858, a reef was reported to stretch to the NNE. from its north point; but otherwise the island is steep-to, with 15 fathoms in the channel of about 1 mile in width between it and the main. "Tides. — High water, full and change, at Iguana Island is at 4h. ; springs rise 15 feet. The flood sets to the northward 110 NOTES ON PANAMA. and the ebb to tlie southeast, the latter being considerably the stronger, especially between the months of December and June. "Parita Bay, nearl}^ 20 miles wide and open to the east- ward, lies within Lisa and Antoine ]3oints, the former point being 38 miles NW. of Cape Mala and the latter 40 miles SW. of Chame Point. From the cape to Lisa Point the shore is a hard bank with sand}^ beach in front; at the point mud flats begin and extend around the western side of the bay, the coast being a low mangrove shore, intersected by the mouths of no less than five small rivers; the land to the west- ward is also low, with several hummocks. The coast between the bay and Chame Point is a continuous beach, named Playa Grande, in front of a low wooded bank. There is a depth of 4 and 5 fathoms about 2 miles off this beach, except S. 22° E. (S. 27° E. mag.) of the Cerro Chame, where there is onlj' about 4 fathoms at nearly 7 miles from the land, the bank extending from here to Chame Point. "Otoque AND Bona Islands, with Estiva Islet and Re- dondo Rock, lying 6 miles southeastward of Chame Point, form a group similar but smaller than Taboga and Tabo- guilla, being cultivated and having a considerable village, named La Goleta, in the baj' on the western side of Otoque. Otoque and Bona are high and peaked, and form good land- marks for vessels entering this side of the bay. Anchorage in from 10 to 14 fathoms may be found in any part of the group, and all dangers are above water. " Chame Bay, at the head of which is a small river of the same name, is nearly filled with large mud banks, the largest, the Cabra Loma, lying in the middle of the bay and on it Tabor Island. Chame Point, the southern horn of the bay, is a singular, low, woody, projecting peninsula, 5^ miles long and one-half mile wide; between it and Cabra Loma Bank is a convenient harbor, 2 miles long b}^ three-fourths mile wide, with from 3 to 8 fathoms water, there being 16 to 18 feet close to the beach. "Coast. — The coast from Chame Point to Bruja Point, a distance of 16 miles, forms a shoal bay, with several outljing banks and rockj^ islets, and vessels bound to Panama should therefore keep near the Island of Taboga and not ai^proach this shore within the depth of 5 fathoms. The Rio Chorrera discharges at the head of the bay, about 15 miles southwest- NOTES ON PANAMA. Ill ward of Panama, and on the river, at about 17 miles from Panama, is the town of Chorrera, 180 feet above the sea, with nearly 5,000 inhabitants. Vique Cove, with a small village is 5 miles westward from Bruja Point. About a mile north- east of Vique is a loft}' treble-peaked hill, 1,610 feet high, named Cerro de Cabra, a conspicuous object for vessels bound to Panama, and frequently mistaken for Taboga by those coming from the eastward. " Valladolid Rock, with 10 fathoms close-to, lies G miles north of Otoque Island and 6^ miles northeast of Chame Point. "Chame Island lies 2 miles northeast of Valladolid Rock, with 7 to 10 fathoms close outside. Perique Rock lies close to the north extreme of the island. "Taboga Island, with the islands of Urava and Tabo- guilla, forms a pleasant group, about 1 miles by 2 miles in extent, lying 9 miles south of Panama. Taboga, the highest and largest island, 935 feet high, is well cultivated, with a large village on its northeast side. Northward of the village is the Morroof Taboga, a small hill connected with the main island by a sandy neck covered at high water. This island is occupied by the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, which has here some stores, a water tank with abundant supply of water, and a gridiron 300 feet long. " The anchorage off the village is convenient, being about GOO 3^ards from the shore, in 10 fathoms, with the j)eak of Urava in range with the high cliff of Taboga, and the church bearing between southwest and west. " Ukava is a small lofty island separated from the southeast end of Taboga by a narrow and shoal channel; off its south extreme is the small islet of Terapa. " Taboguilla, 710 feet high, also well cultivated, with some islets oft" its southwest extreme, is the northeast island of the group, with a wide and deep channel between it and Urava, and in the middle of the channel a rock which uncovers 4 feet at low-water springs; the sea seldom breaks over the rock at high water, and it must be carefully avoided bj' closing either island, both being steep-to, or by keeping the neck of the Morro open, bearing N. 57° W. (X. 62° W. mag.), and pass- ing south of it. Farallon, a snuill islet, also lies in this chan- nel and is steep-to, with 10 fathoms between it and Taboguilla. "Melones, a small rocky islet, lies 2} miles northwest of 112 NOTES ON PANAMA. Taboga, with the Melones rock, above water, one-half mile to the northward of it. "Bruja Point, about 5 miles northward of Taboga Island, is a rocky, projecting point, marking a tnrn of the coast. Venado, Cocovi, and Cocoviceta islets lie southwestward of the point, all within a distance of 1^ miles; and Tortola and Tortolita islets lie about 2 miles southeastward of the point and o^ miles north of Taboga; these islets are all witliiu the 3-fathom curve. From Bruja Point to the Citj' of Panama shoal water extends about 2 miles from the shore and envel- opes all the islands on this side of Panama road. "Batele Point, 1| miles northeast of Bruja, is the south extreme, 102 feet high, of a large, round, hilly projection which forms the western side of Panama road. Changarmi Island, surrounded b}' the Pulperia Reefs, with Penamarca Rock at their northern end, lies 1^ miles S. G8^ E. from the point. " Guinea Point, 1^ miles northward of Batele Point, is the north extreme, 320 feet high, of the liill}^ projection above mentioned. From here to the city of Panama, 2^ miles to the northeastward, the shore line recedes in an extensive bight, filled with mud flats, and is broken by the mouths of the Farfan, the San Juan, and the Grande, small rivers with cultivated banks. La Boca, at the moutii of the Rio Grande and about 1^ miles west of the city, is the railway terminus, where connection with ship is made. "Naos, Culebra, Perico, and Flamenco Islands, with the outlying islet of San Jose, are a group in the southwest- ern part of Panama road, Perico, 335 feet high, lying about 6 miles northward of the north extreme of Taboguilla and 2 miles southward of tlie cit3^ Naos, 167 feet high, is con- nected with Culebra and Perico by a neck of sand and rocks, covered at high water. The passage between Perico and Flamenco is shoal and should not be used except hy boats, but that between Flamenco and San Jose has 5 fathoms in mid-channel and no dangers. Flamenco is 344: feet high. "Naos is the headciuarters of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, which has here machine shops, and a depot for fresh water, coal, and supplies, Avhich articles can be ob- tained from the company. The bay on the northern side of Naos and Perico forms a convenient anchorage, and on the isthmus connecting the two islands, which is sandy on the NOTES ON PANAMA. 113 north side, steam vessels of 2,500 tons have been easily beached. A channel has been cnt by the tides aronud the eastern end of Xaos Island, through v.'hich the anchorage north of the island may be reached with a draft of -20 feet at mean low water. " La Boca Channel has been dredged across the flats that fill the bight southward of the citj^ so as to connect the anchorage nortliward of Perico Island with the Panama Rail- road terminus at La Boca, on the east side of the mouth of the Rio Grande, this being also the terminus of the Panama Canal. A large iron pier for vessels has been constructed at La Boca, and in the basin adjoining it the depth at mean low water was stated by the Panama Railroad Company in June, 1901, to be nowhere less than 20 feet. The channel is well marked by ten pairs of buoj^s, and five additional buoj's mark the west side of the basin opposite the pier. These buoys, while intended to be, respectively, red and black, show with the coloi' of rusty iron. The railroad eomj^any possesses and maintains in n^adiness for use an extensive dredging plant for tiie purpose of keeping this channel deep enough for ocean steamers. "Panama — La Boca Channel— Dredging operations. — Information dated May 21, 1002, has been received from the Panama Railroad Company that the work of dredging the seaward end of La Boca Channel is progressing rapidly, establishing a depth of 21 feet at low water spring tides. The work will be continued until approximately that depth is established in the channel up to the pier and basins, at which a mnch greater depth is maintained. "La Boca Wharp'^' was built by the canal company, but has been turned over to the railroad company. , During its construction its failure was predicted on account of the great rise and fall of the tide and the difficulty of keej)ing open the channel leading to the wharf, as a great amount of mud is l)rouglit down by the San Juan River. The difficnlties have been reduced to a minimum. Vessels are not lashed alongside the wharf, but have floats placed between them and the wharf, so that there are no bad results froai the tide. The cranes or winches on the wharf are of a special kind that permits the working of cargo at all stages of the tide. « Report of vice-consul-general, June 15, 1901. 12312—03 8 114 NOTES ON PANAMA. "The following measurements give, in feet, the size and capacit}^ of the wharf: Total length, 085; total width, 54; depth of channel alongside at high tide, 45f ; at low tide, 26^; width of channel alongside, 98 ; capacity of vessel space, 985 ; railroad tracks, 2; total length of railroad track, 787|^; car capacity of tracks, 39; cranes, 6 of 2 tons and 1 of 20 to 24 tons; tonnage of largest vessel yet docked, 4,600 tons. "The basin in which vessels lie has a maneuvering space of 480 feet. The bottom is soft mud, and while it is con- sidered best for the vessels to be at all times afloat, 3'et they can rest safel}^ in the muddy bottom. "From the above it is seen that any vessel of 500 feet length and not drawing more than 20 feet can be handled at this wharf with facility. "The wharf is constructed entirely' of steel, and is roofed over and housed in Avith corrugated iron. The rates charged for vessels coming alongside are governed for the most part by contract. "Los Hermanos Rocks are three black rocks, visible at first-quarter ebb, lying nearly one-half mile south of the south- east bastion and 300 yards from the reef; detached rocks with 3 and 7 feet of water between them, visible only at low-water springs, lie off their soutlieast extreme, the outer one being 400 yards from the reef. "BUEY Point, seen onl}- at half tide, is the northeastern extremity of the rockj^ ledge or reef that surrounds the east- ern and southern shores of the peninsula occupied by the city, Avith a width of from 500 to 1,000 yards. Immediately south of Bue}' Point, which lies 900 yards eastward of the northeast bastion, a deep indentation in the reef forms a baj^ in which, after half flood, there is eas,y landing on the sandy beach in front of the Monks' Gate. The reef is marked by iron posts. "Petillo Point, 1:^ miles northeastward of the city, is a black rocky promontory with two small hills over it, and between them a rivulet admitting boats at high water; rocky ledges extend 300 yards from the point. Between Petillo Point and Buey Point the shore recedes nearly three-fourths mile, forming a bay called El Puerto, the head of which is of mud, edged with a sandy beach, and the greater portion dry at low- water springs. It is here that most of the minor trade of the gulf is carried on by means of bungos (large canoes NOTES ON PANAMA. 115 made from trunks of trees, some of them, though, made of a single trunk measuring- 12 tons). Though clumsy in appear- ance, they are well fitted for the navigation of the gulf, and bring to the city most of the tropical productions of the Isthmus. "The Knocker and Taboga are two rocks Avith only 6 feet of water on them, the former nearly five-eighths mile S. 86° E. (N". 89° E. mag.) from the southeast bastion, and Taboga about 300 yards southwestward of the Knocker. A stranger should not attempt to pass west of the red buo}' marking the Knocker, this being in 14 feet about 300 yards eastward of the rock, which has near it depths of 8 to 12 feet. Shoal patches with 10 and 11 feet lie outside the buoy at from 400 to 800 yards from the Knocker. "Sulphur Rocks. — This dangerous reef, lying about a mile northwest of the Danaide and 1^ miles eastward of the southeast bastion, is about one-fourth mile in extent, north and south, and has a rock aw^ash in its center, with 6 and 9 feet around it, and outlying patches of 12 and 14 feet. The reef is marked by a red buoy on the southern side. The rail- road flagstaff, in line with the center of Mount Ancon, bear- ing N. 89° W. (S. 86° W. mag.), leads northward of the reef in 15 feet, but this passage should not be used at low-water springs, "Danaide Rocks. — These four patches of conical rocks, lying on the eastern side of the Panama Road, about 2:^ miles northeastward of Perico Island and 2^ miles southeastward of the city, have only 15 to 18 feet on them, with 3| and 4 fathoms on all sides. They lie awkwardly in the track of vessels standing for the anchorage from the eastward and keeping their luff with the land breeze. These shoal spots are favorite fishing ijlaces, and canoes seen in their vicinity should be avoided by vessels, as thej^ may be fishing on the rocks. "Clearing marks. — The south steeple of the cathedral kept midway between the east and southeast bastions, N. 61° W. (N. 66° W. mag.), leads southward of all the Danaide patches; the Hermanos rocks in range with the hill, 252 feet high, between the rivers Farfan and Grande, S. 84° W. (S. 79° W. mag.), leads to the northward of the patches and southward of Sulphur rocks. "Panama road, the anchorage off the city of Panama, al- 11(3 notp:s on Panama. though shoal and on the seaward side entirely unprotected, may be considered secure. The bottom, being of mud, holds well, and with good ground tackle and common precaution a vessel might lie here with one anchor down all the year round. Attention to the tides and soundings will enable a vessel to lie close-in at times for discharge of cargo. The new dredged channel leading to the railroad terminus at La Boca enables vessels to discharge and load at the pier. "The inner anchorage is in 2 fathoms about a mile east- ward of the northeast bastion; the outer anchorage is in 3^ to 4 fathoms about 2 miles southeastward of the city, or in 5 to 6 fathoms northeastward of Perico Island. "Lights. — A fixed red light, visible 3 miles, is shown at the end of the railroad wharf north of the city. "A fixed red electric light, maintained by the city to illu- minate the ijromenade, is shown at an elevation of 64 feet above low- water mark from a pole standing 400 feet north of the corner of the southeast bastion, and is tlie highest electric light seen from the bay. 'lliis light is made on rounding Taboguilla, being then, in ordinarj^ weather, distinctly vis- ible, and is used as a leading light by the Pacific Mail steam- ers, giving them at night the direction of San Jose Rock by shutting the light out behind the rock. " Tides. — High water in Panama Road, corrected establish- ment, is at 3h. 2m. ; low water at 9h. 12m. ; mean range of tides, 13 feet; of springs, 17 feet; of neaps, 8 feet. The average times of high and low water are a trifle earlier at La Boca and the range of the tide somewhat greater, the mean range of spring tides being 20 feet. "The datum plane for the Ranger's survey of the harbor of Panama in February and March, 1900, is mean low water as determined hy the Panama Canal C^ompanj-'s observations, extending over a period of five years, at its tide-gage station at the northeast end of Naos Island. "Tidal Streams. — The flood stream sets to the northwest- ward and the ebb stream to the southward, the strength vary- ing from one-half knot to 1^ knots per hour, the ebb being- stronger than the flood. TJie long swell which occasionally sets into the road ceases with the flowing tide. NOTES ON PANAMA. 117 Tidal strcioiis in Pmiama Harbor, as observed by the U. S. S. Ranger in February and March, 1900. Half flood. Half ebb. Station. Range of tide in feet. Set. Drift in knots per hour. Range of tide in feet. Set. Drift in knots per hour. Eastward of Perlco and Flamenco is- lands. Knocker buoy _ Entrance to La Boca Channel. Halfway up La Boca Channel. La Boca basin, half- way between pier and inner-channel biioys. 21 17 17 17 17 NW.iN. NW. W.by N. WNW. W.by N. 0.6 .5 .4 1 . 1 20 16 21 21 20 SE. by S. S. byE. S. by E. SE. by E. iE. SE. i E. 0.6 .6 2.2 1.5 "Panama city, the capital of the Department of Panama, with a population estimated in 1901 at 20,000, of which the foreign element, mostlj^ Jamaican negroes, foi'ms about one- half, the Americans numbering about 100, stands on a rocky peninsula jutting out into the shallow water at the head of the bay, and was formerly a strongly fortified city. It has a noble appearance from the sea; the churches, towers, and houses, shoAving above the line of the fortifications, stand out from the dark hills inland with an air of grandeur. About a mile westward of the city, to which it forms a pleasant background, is Mount Ancon. a beautiful hill, (530 feet high. On each side of Ancon are flat hills, with copses of wood and savannas, grassy slopes, and wild thickets, while to the southward the cultivated islets of Perico and Flamenco complete a scene which, says Dampier, makes 'one of the finest objects that I ever did see, in America, especially.' " The expectations formed in viewing the city from the sea are by no means realized on landing. The principal streets extend across the peninsula and are intersected by tlie Calle Real running east and west, which has a quiet and stately but comfortless air. The houses are of stone, mostly in the old Spanish style, the larger ones with courts and patios. The public edifices, comprising cathedral, churches, con- vents, nunnery, college, theater, and market, are partly in ruins. The cathedral, a large lofty building on the west side of the plaza, is hardh' worthy of its situation, onl}^ the towers redeeming it from insignificance and forming in the distance an ornament to the citv. The fortifications were well con- 118 NOTES ON PANAMA. structed, but are in partial ruins, the northeast bastion hav- ing fallen in 1845. The south and west ramparts are in fair condition and form a pleasant promenade. Drainage is neg- lected, though the elevation of the peninsula on which the city stands, together with the great rise and fall of the tide, offers considerable advantages for cleansing, a duty at pres- ent performed by the heavy rains of the wet season. In 1901 the police force of the city, numbering 150, Avas reported as efificieut, well uniformed, and well armed. The city was under martial law. "The old city of Panama, built in 1518, which was taken and destroj'ed by the buccaneers under Morgan in 1073, stood at the mouth of a creek, about 4 miles northeast of the pres- ent city. Old Panama was larger than the Panama of this day and a jjlace of surprising wealth. The spot is now deserted, but well marked hy a tower, an arch, two or three piers of a bridge, and some fragments of wall. In the afternoon, the tower is still a conspicuous object from the anchorage. "Weather. — The following brief synopsis of the weather at Panama is by Mr. J. II. Smith, long a resident of the city: "January, February, and March. — Fresh north winds, fine weather, and clear sky. "April. — North winds decreasing, with frequent calms and light southerly airs in the day; latter end of month, occasional squalls from the north Ji the afternoon, with rain, thunder, and lightning. "May. — During the da}^ frequent calms and light southerly winds, weather becoming cloudy, and occasional fresh squalls from northeast to southeast, with rain. "June. — The rainy season well set in, breezes dui-ing the day increasing from the south, with squalls and heavy rain; niglits generally clear, with light land breezes from the nortli; latter end of month eight or ten days of fine weather fre- quently occur. "July, August, and September. — Moderate south winds, squalls, and rain; duilng the equinox four to six days of strong south winds without cessation during the night, and frequent squalls with rain, " October. — South winds, squalls, and rain; frequent land winds at night and fine west winds. "November. — South winds decreasing, with frequent inter- vals of fine weather and occasional squalls off the land. NOTES ON PANAMA. 119 "December. — First i)art, freqneut calms and liglit soiitli winds during' the day; latter part, occasional north winds and line weather. "Sanitary conditions. — The habits of the people are in general most uneleanlj^ and the sanitary condition is bad. Yellow fever, remittent, bilious, and pernicious fevers are endemic, and yellow fever was considered epidemic in July, 1885. No reliable information can be obtained as to the mor- talit}' of the port; it has been reported as high as 40 per diem during the sickly season. The most sickly i^arts of the 3'ear are at the changes of the seasons. It is considered that the prevailing direction of the wind has some influence on the sanitary state — that the northwest winds are healthful and the southeast winds unhealthful. During the wet season calms and light variable winds prevail, the air is laden with moisture, and it is very oppressive. At the canal company's observatory on Naos Island the highest temperature was 102° F. and the lowest 66° F. "Hospitals. — The foreign hospital, built and owned by the canal company, situated on high ground at the foot of Mount Ancon, is well managed and clean, with a capacity of about 2,000. The cost of occupation is $2 and '^5 per day for a separate room. Two regular physicians are in attendance. A sanitarium on Taboga Island is connected with the hospital. "The St. Thomas Hospital, a charity institution, situated in the city and subsidized b}' the Government, is diit}' and not well kept. The capacity is about 100 and cost of occupa- tion II per day. "Supplies. — Supplies may be had, but it is considered unsafe to buy them on account of the bad sanitarj^ condition of the place and the consequent danger of infection. Light- ers for the transportation of stores may be hired from the railway comijany. Fresh provisions in ample quantity and of fair quality can be purchased as required. Prices i^aid by the U. S. S. Iowa in October, 1901: Fresh beef, 12^ cents; vegetables, 8 cents; bread, 8 cents. All kinds of fruit are obtainable. Ice can be obtained in large quantities. Sand is obtained from Perico Island. Good water can be obtained from the Pacific Mail Steamship Companj' at Flamenco Island or from the Pacific Steam Navigation Company at Taboga Island, being brought alongside and pumped into the tanks by steam pumps at a cost of 2 cents per gallon. The 120 NOTES ON PANAMA. loiixi was supplied by the Panama Railroad Company, by steam water l)oat, capacity 50,()00 gallons, at 0.0 cent per gallon. " Coaling Facilities. — Cumberland, Cardiff, Welsh, New Castle, and Australian coal can be obtained from the Panama Railroad Company, the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, and the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, which companies keep large quantities on hand, though it is said that the steamship companies will not part with awy coal when it can be purchased elsewhere. The coal is delivered alongside in lighters holding from 150 to 250 tons, at a cost per ton of from $13 to 117. Coal may be obtained directly from the ship or collier, which greatly lessens the danger of fever. The Iowa was supplied by the Panama Railroad Company with 100 tons per week of Pocahontas coal, at $0.50 gold per ton; supply reported as i^lentiful. "Telegraph and postal communication. — Panama is connected by cable with South American and Central Ameri- can ports, and hy land line with Colon, and thence by cable with Jamaica and the West Indies. The line to the United States and Europe is by way of the Tehuantepec Isthmus, the City of Mexico, and Galveston, Tex. Postal communica- tion with the United States is by the Panama Railroad Com- pany's steamers from Colon ; with Central America, Mexico, and San Francisco by the Pacific Mail and other steamers, and with South American ports hy the steamers of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company and the South American Steam- shii) Compan}'. Mails from the United States are at times irregular. '"Steamer lines. — Panama is a termiiml point or port of call of four lines of steamers, viz ; "(1) The Pacific Mail line to San Francisco, three times a month, calling at Central American and Mexican ports. "" (2) The Panama Railroad Steamship line to San Francisco direct. "(3) The Paeifi(' Steam Navigation Companj-'s line from Coronel, Valparaiso, and intermediate i)orts to San Francisco and intermediate ports; also line of this company from South American ports to Acapulco and way ports; and line from South American ports to Ocos and way ports. " (4) The Compania Sud-Amerieana de ^'apores Line, with the same itinerar}^ and alternating in service with the j)re- WOTES ON PANAMA. 121 cediiiir company, Lota (Chile) being tlie extreme southern point, however, instead of Corouel. " The rate for first-class passengers from New York to San Fi-aneiseo is 81()o, and from NeAv York to Valparaiso t?240. " Commerce. — 'J'he commerce and trade of Panama is natu- rally divided into two parts, the local and the transit. The latter is also divided into two parts, that with the United States and that with Europe. The entire local trade of Panama with the United States for the year 1885 amounted to .$3, 728,061 of exports and $4,263,519 of imports. " The local exports are India rubber (which is becoming- scarcer), gold dust, hides, ivorj^ nuts, manganese, shells, to- bacco, cocobolo (a cabinet wood), tortoise shells, vanilla, whale oil, sarsaparilla, cocoanuts, and fruit. From South America the bulk of the shipments consists of bark, cotton, cocoa, and rubber; from the Central American States, of coffee, sugar, and indigo. "Panama is normally a free port, but import duties are levied on tobacco in all its forms, salted or preserved meats, wines, spirits, ales, beer, ginger beer, cider, salt, etc. Recent reports state that there is a customs duty of 15 per cent on all goods, with an increase on spirits. "In shipping stores for naval vessels on the coast to the care of the consul-general at Panama it is al)solutely neces- sary that they should be accompanied b}' complete invoices stating the contents of each package, the weight thereof, and the cost value. Small parcels must also be accompanied by a statement of contents and value addressed to the consul- general or to the person to whose care they are consigned. "Machine shops. — The Pacific Mail Company has a small machine shop on Xaos Island for repairing vessels of the line, and the Pacific Steam Navigation Company has a similar one at Taboga Island. There are no docks at Panama; the grid- iron at Taboga is the only means of effecting repairs to ves- sels' hulls. "Landing place. — The general landing place at high water is around Buey Point inside the northeast bastion, at the market place known as 'the steps.' Great care is required when landing at Panama in steam cutters or other heavy boats, which can be effected only at nearly high water. Land- ing is made in small boats irom ships' boats at Hotel Marina landing. Boats going in should pass southward of the outer 122 NOTES ON PANAMA. white beacon and leave all the other beacons on the port hand. "The Panama Railroad, 47 statute miles long-, extending to Colon, on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus, is an asset of the bankrupt Panama Canal Company, which holds nearly all of the stock. Culebra, the station at the highest point of the road, is probably, with the exception of the Nicaragua divide, the lowest point in the range of mountains that extends from North America all the way through South America, being 252.4 feet above mean sea level. "The road, which was built b}^ an American comj)any be- tween 1850 and 1855, is a broad-gage, single-track line, with a maximum grade of 76.6 feet to the mile. The rate for first- class passengers between Panama and Colon, formerly $25, is now 14 in American gold. "At Colon connection is made for ports of the Spanish Main, the West Indies, and all parts of Europe by steamers of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, Leyland Line, Harrison Line, Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, Hamburg- Ameri- can Packet Company, La Veloce (Italian), and Compania Transatlantica Espaflola. The steamers of the Panama Rail- road Steamship line leave Colon for New York every Tues- day; time seven days. "The Panama Ship Canal, to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, is planned to follow much the same route as that of the railway from Colon to Panama, the length to be 40.09 statute miles from the 6-fatliom line in the harbor of Colon to the 8-fathom line in Panama road, and the depth 35 feet, with a minimum bottom width of 150 feet, as planned for the Nicaragua route. The special difficulties to be en- countered are the deep cut of the summit level at Culebra and the Bohio Dam for the impounding and control of the waters of the Chagres River and its tributaries. The summit level of the canal, that of Lake Bohio, this level being carried com- pletely through the Culebra Cut, will be nearly 22 miles in length and in general 85 feet above mean sea level, with ex- treme fluctuation between 82 and 92 feet. It will be reached by two locks on the Atlantic side, both at the Bohio Dam, and by three locks on the Pacific side, two at Pedro Miguel and one at Miraflores, the latter point being 1.33 miles nearer Panama. The cost of construction to complete the canal on these lines, taking advantage of the work alread}^ done, is N0TP:S on PANAMA. 123 estimated by tlie Istliiniaii Canal Conunission at about $145,000,000. "The natural attractions of the Panama ronte lie in the combination of a very narrow isthmns with a low .summit. The width of the Isthmus iu a straight line is less than 35 statute miles, while the summit is barely 300 feet above mean tide, which, though higlier thau the Nicaragua summit, is less than half the height of any other that has been investigated. The high portion of the Isthmus is limited to a width of about 6 miles near the Pacific side, and tlie Chagres River affords access by canoe navigation to within 15 miles of the Pacific Ocean. "Consuls. — The United States is represented at Panama by a consul-general and a vice-consul-general. Great Britain and France by consnls, and many other countries by honor- ary consular officers. "Port officials. — There is a captain of the port, who is also the health officer, but it appears that he does not board incoming vessels and quarantine is not very strictly enforced.^' The quarantine station is near Taboguilla Island. Pilots ai-e not required except for La Boca channel, for which the ijilot is furnished by the Panama Railroad Company. "Official calls. — The governor of the Department of Panama and the President of the Republic, when present, are the onlj^ native officials to be called on. A saluting bat- tery has recently been established on shore and salutes are promptly returned. " "Directions. — Sailing vessels bound to Panama, especiajiy betAveen December and June, should endeavor to get within 3 or 4 miles of Chepillo Island, which lies near the coast north of the Pearl Islands, and so have all the advantage of the northerly wind. From this position Ancon Hill, behind the city, will be seen and should be kept a little on the port bow, as the wind draws to the westward on approaching the city. Vessels drawing over 18 feet should pass south of the Danaide Rocks bj^ keeping San Jose Rock open to the westward of Taboga Island until the cathredal towers are open to the northward of Ancon. Having passed the Danaide, the ship is fairly in the road and maj^ anchor according to her draft. If not more than 18 feet, she may have Tortola just shut in hy « Report from U. S. S. loica, September 9, 1901. 124 NOTES ON PANAMA. Naos, bearino- 8. 30° W. (S. 25° W. mag.), and San Jose open east of Tabogiiilla. Larger vessels, drawing 24 feet, may anchor northeastward of Perico, with XJrava Pealc in range with the east point of Flamenco bearing S. 6° W. (S. 1° W. mag. ), taking care not to open Changarmi northward of Perico. If necessar}' to work up the road to an inshore berth, a vessel should tack on the western side just before Perico and Fla- menco touch, and in standing to the eastward avoid closing San Jose with Taboga Island, or Tortola with Flamenco. "Vessels d)-awing 14 feet may pass northward of Danaide and south of Sulphur Rock, with Hermanos Rocks on with the right side of the peak between the rivers Farfan and Grande; then San Jose Rock on with the peak of Tabogiiilla, bearing south (S. 5° E. mag.), leads between Sulphur Rocks and the Knocker to an anchorage north of the buoy, in 16 feet, keeping it between Perico and Flamenco, with Uabilan, a roek}^ peninsula west of the town, just shut in by the south- east bastion. During neap tides anchorage more to the nortli- west may be taken. "Coast. — From Petillo Point to the Chepo River an exten- sive mud flat borders the coast the entire distance, fronted by a shoal bank, the edge of which lies from 3 to 5 miles from shore. Numerous small streams intersect the shore line. Vessels should not stand into less than 6 fathoms between Panama and Chepillo Island. "Chepo River, w^hich enters the Bay of Panama about 25 miles eastward of the city, comes from some distance in the interior, its source being far to the eastward, near the head- waters of the Savannah River. The entrance is to the west- ward of Chepillo Island, through a 10-foot channel about 600 yards wide. A small hill with a cliff under it on the east- ern bank, steered for on a bearing N. 54° E. (N. 49° E. mag.), will lead through the deepest water. "The San Blas Canal route, much recommended by the narrowness of the Isthmus at this point (27 miles), was carefulh' examined in 1870 by Commander Selfridge, U. S. Navy. The route ascends the Chepo River 12 miles, and then tlie r\Iamoni, a tributarj^ from the northward, to its sonrce; thence it crosses the divide, with an elevation of 1,142 feet, and descends by the Maud inga River to the Gulf of San Bias. A tunnel of 10 miles would be required to connect cuts of 190 feet on either side of the divide. For the remaining 16 miles NOTES ON PANAMA. 125 the excavation would not exceed an average of GO feet. The vast expenditure for so lon^ a tunnel renders this route, otherwise so prepossessing, of questionable practicability. "The most complete plan developed by the Isthmian Canal Commission for this route involves a tunnel at least 7 miles long, which, while considered not necessarily impracticable, would be very objectionable, and renders this line inferior to that of Panama or Nicaragua. "Tides. — High water, full and change, at the mouth of Chepo River is at o h. 40 m. ; tides rise about 16 feet. " Chepillo Island, described by Dampier as the most pleasant island in Panama Bay, lying off the mouth of Chepo River about 21 miles eastward of Panama and 2 miles from the coast, is 1 mile long by one-half mile broad, and very fertile. It is low on the north side, and rises by a gentle ascent toward the south end, over which is a remarkable tree that forms an excellent mark to vessels bound up the bay. The south end may be approached within a mile, but the other sides are shoal, and a reef extends three-fourths mile off the north point, following the direction of the channel. " Pelado Islet, lying '6H miles southea.stward of Chepillo Island and 4 miles west of Mangue Islet, directly off the mouth of Chiman River, is flat, of small extent, about 00 feet high, and treeless, but covered with a coarse prickly shrub; it is steep-to on all sides and forms a useful mark for vessels bound to Panama. "The coast between Chepillo Island and Pelado Islet con- sists of low river land with mangrove bushes. Of the sev- eral small streams, the principal are the Hondo and Corutu, both being shoal at the entrance. The land north of these rivers is of some elevation; Column Peak and Asses' Ears, about 12 miles north of Chiman River, and Thumb Peak, at the west extreme of the range, are conspicuous. Extensive mud flats, dry at low water, extend from 1 to 4 miles from the coast, and outside of the flats is a shoal bank the outer edge of which lies 7 miles from the shore. Vessels standing in shore should tack in 9 fathoms. "Chiman River, 32 miles southeastward of Chepo River, is wide at the mouth, but shoal, being nearly dry at low water, with small channels for canoes. The entrance is well marked by the Avooded bluffs on each side, the Mangue Islet to the southward, and Pelado Islet in the offing. On the eastern side. 126 NOTES ON PANAMA. under a hill, is the small village of Cliiman. This is the j)oint to which Pizarro retired in 1525 after beating about for seventy daj's, with much danger and incessant fatigue, without being- able to make any advance to the southward. He was here joined bj' Almagro, and the following year they sailed again for Peru. "Mangue and Majaguay are high and wooded islets lying, respectivelj% 3 miles and 2 miles south of the east en- trance point of Chiman River, and at the western edge of a large mud flat, dry at low w^ater, which extends to the north bank of Trinidad River. There are 10 to 12 feet of water to the westward of the islets. " Trinidad River, about 9 miles southeastward of Chiman River, has a low rocky projection forming its southern point of entrance. A 3-fathom channel was found into this river, extending 1^ miles from the point, beyond wiiicli distance it was not examined. The northern bank of the ri\'er is com- posed of mangroves, which continue along the coast from here to Panama, a distance of nearl}^ 70 miles, except where inter- rupted by the bluffs of the rivers Chiman and Chepo. Shag Rock, a barren islet with shoal water around it, frequented by birds, lies 2| miles northward of the entrance. "The Pajaros are two small rocky islets, lying between 2 and 3 miles south of the south entrance point of Trinidad River and 1| miles from the coast, with 4 and 5 fathoms off their west sides, but only 12 feet between them and the shore. From Chame Point, southwest of Panama, to these islets, the whole shore of Panama Bay is fronted by a shoal with 5 fathoms on its outer edge. " South Farallon Ingles is a small but high island, lying about 8 miles southward of the Pajaros and 19 miles south- eastward of Pelade Islet, at the edge of the shoal off the river Buenaventura, with 12 and 15 feet of water on its western side. North Farallon lies three-fourths mile to the northward and three-eighths mile fi'om the west entrance point to the river. It was in this river, in 1681, that Dampier and his party, being prevented by the Spaniards from going by way of the Santa Maria or Chepo rivers, sank their ship when starting on their journey to the Atlantic; this they reached in twenty- three days at a point near Concepcion cays, 60 miles west- ward of Golden Island in Caledonia Baj', having traveled 110 miles and crossed some high mountains, though their NOTES ON PANAMA. 127 common marcli was in the valleys, among deep and dangerous rivers. "GoRDA Point, 4 miles northward of the South Farallon, is bold and woody, with 4 fathoms close-to; above this point there is less swell than to the southward of it. " Brava Point and San Lorenzo Point, 2 miles to the east- ward of Brava, lie on the north side of the entrance to San Miguel Bay; both are edged with reefs and outlying rocks on which the sea breaks with great violence, and this fact, together with the proximity of the Buey Bank, makes this part of the coast dangerous, and it should be avoided even by small vessels. "Buey Bank, lying about a mile south of Brava Point, in the northern part of the entrance to San Miguel Bay, is an extensive shoal about 3 miles in diameter, which dries in patches at low water and on Avhich a heavy sea breaks. A I^assage five-eighths mile wide, with 4 to 5 fathoms, lies be- tween the bank and the shore, but subject to a heavy swell and not recommended for use. A spit with 12 feet of water extends Ij miles off the southwest side of the bank, and out- side the spit the water deepens very gradually, the 5-fathoni line lying about 3 miles to the westward and 2 miles to the southward. "San Miguel Bay, on the eastern side of the Gulf of Panama, is 154^ miles wide between the entrance points, Brava on the north and Garachineon the south, and penetrates within the points about 20 miles to the eastward. Between San Lo- renzo Point and Patena Point to the southeastward, the bay narrows to about 7^ miles, expands again within to 11 miles, and agaiu narrows to 4| miles between Pierce and Virgin points; thence continues a curved and gradually narrowing channel, terminating in the land-locked and sj)acious Darien Harbor, formed by the junction of the rivers Savannah and Tuyra. "Across the entrance of the bay and for about 9 miles sea- ward extends a flat bottom with depths from 5 to 8 fathoms, but the water gradually deepens within the ba}', and through the Boca Grande the depths are from 11 to 16 fathoms. Across the entrance flat a depth of 7^ fathoms can be carried, and thence to Darien Harbor more than 8 fathoms. "San Miguel Bay was well known to the buccaneers, who used it as the entrance to the Pacific and terminus of their W. T. CONWAY Ut LIEUT. 6th INFANTRY 128 NOTES ON PANAMA. overlaud jouruej's from the Gulf of Darien, which the}' geu- erally accomplished in about teu daj^s. Careful surveys were made in 1870 and 1871 ])y naval parties under Commander Selfridge, U. S. Navy, to ascertain the feasibility of a ship canal between this point and tlie Atlantic coast at Caledonia Bay and the Gulf of Darien, but the different routes across this part of the Isthmus were found to be quite impracticable. The route by way of the Atrato, the Napipi, and the Doguado rivers, considered b}" Commander Selfridge as the most f)rac- ticable route eastward of Panama, terminates on the Pacific at Chiri-Chiri Bay, 112 miles below Garachine Point. "San Lorenzo Point lies 2 miles S. 76° E. from Brava Point, the shore between them receding in a shoal-water bight. A reef projects about 2 miles southeastwaid from the point, and on the reef at 1:^ miles from the point are the Paul Rocks, above water. "From San Lorenzo Point the shore line turns sharply northward and sweeps around in a semicircular curve to Pierce Point, a rock}' projection 7 miles to the northeastward, form- ing within these points North Bay, in which the depths are quite regular from 2f to 2 fathoms. A mud flat borders most of the shore and several streams enter the bay, among them being the rivers Congo and Cupunadi. In the western i^art of the bay is a shoal bank of triangular shape, about 8 miles on a side, with depths of one-half fathom, and on this bank are the islands Iguana and Iguanita and the Amelia islets and rocks. Lost Rock lies 2 miles north of San Lorenzo Point and one-fourth mile from shore. "From Pierce Point a reef projects about three-fourths mile to the southward, with a rock above water near its outer end. McKinnon Bay, a small bight with shoal water at the head, lies eastward of the point and reef. Peris Point, 4 miles northeastward of Pierce Point, marks a sharp turn of the shore Hue to the northward at the beginning of the Boca Grande. "Garachine Point, the south entrance point of San Miguel Bay, is at the extremity of a peninsula projecting 5^ miles northward from the mainland, with an average breadth of 2 miles. The land to the southward and eastward of the penin- sula is lofty, Mount Zapo — noticeable as a sharp conical peak about 5 miles from the coast — rising to an elevation of 3,000 feet above the sea. A high, bold, and wooded coast appar- ently free from dangers and with deep water close-to, extends NOTES ON PANAMA. 129 southward about 30 miles to Piiias Bay. Cape Escarpado, with a small bight just above it, open to the northwestward, lies about 3 miles southward of the point. " Garachine Point is clean, and on its north and west sides may be closely skirted, but on the east side the line of 3 fathoms runs eastward from the extreme point. "Garachixe ok South Bay, lying within Garachine Point and Patena Point, lit niiles to the northeastward, is shoal, with a low mangrove shore, from which mud banks extend to a distance of 3 miles. These flats are fronted by a shoal bank with 2 to 3 fathoms, occupying much of the remaining area of the ba}'. Several small streams enter the bay, and a chan- nel with one-half fathom of water leads across the mud flat to the mouth of the River Sambu. Along the east side of the Garachine Peninsula extends a tongue of water with a depth of 2^ fathoms, forming a small harbor with anchorage for small vessels near Garachine village, a small collection of huts at the head, where enters the River Alquitran. "Vessels may anchor close-off either Garachine or Patena points, the depth of water being convenient. "Patena Point is low, sharp, and projecting, with Pate- nito Islet close outside and deep water near islet and point. Colorado Point, about 2f miles northeastward of Patena, is bold and rocky, with a conspicuous i^atch of reddish clay on its face ; w'ithin the points the shore recedes about 1^ miles, forming Charles Bay. From (-olorada to Corales Point, If miles to the northeastward, the shore gradualh' gets lower, and from the latter point sweeps around to Virgin Point, forming a bay, with low mangrove shores, nearly 5 miles wide between the jjoints; at the head is Corales village, about a mile southeast of the point, with anchorage off it at one-half mile; the shore of the bay is bordered by shoal water to the distance of three-eighths to three-fourths mile, outside of which are apijareutly no dangers. "From Virgin Point the shore line in its general trend turns gradually northward for nearly 5 miles to Virago Point, at the entrance of the Boca Chica ; in this space are several little bays lined with mangrove, the points generally being of small elevation, rocky, and covered with bush. Bains Bluff, 1 mile southward of Virago Point, should be avoided on account of a ledge of rocks off it at 600 jards; the shore between the bluff and the point is also bordered by shoal water. 12312—03 9 130 NOTES ON PANAMA. "Cedar or Washington Island, S^ miles northeast of Corales Point and H miles west of Virgin Point, is about 600 yards long and wide and denselj^ covered with wood. Several islets and rocks extend southward from it, and these, with the shoal extending from the opposite shore, take up much of the width of the channel on tliis side of the island. The best and most direct channel up the bay is northward of the island, and between it and Jones Islet, a conspicuous little rock about 20 feet high and covered Avith grass, lying 1^ miles to the northwestward of Cedar, both being clean and safe of approach, with 10 fathoms in mid-channel. "Strain Island, 2^ miles northeastward of Cedar and 1:^ miles from the eastern shore, is about 25 feet high and cov- ered with trees and shrubs. It is suri'ounded by a ledge of rocks, extending a short distance off it toward the channel, and is connected by mud banks with two islands westward of it. Between Strain Island and the western shore are Jore}' Island, a chain of islets called Los Gombales, Edith Islet, and Mary Islet, all forming a grou]3 within the o-fathom line, cov- ering an area of 2 miles by li miles. Strain is the southeast- ernmost of the group and nearest the channel. "Anchorage. — The space included between Cedar, Jones, and this group of islets appears to afford the most favorable anchorage for vessels not wishing to enter Darien Harbor, or obliged to wait for the tide in order to do so on account of the strong tidal currents and eddies in the entrances. "Barry Rock, seven-eighths mile southwest of Sti-ain Island and three-eighths mile north of Seaford Point, is 20 feet high, covered with cactuses, and surrounded bj" deep water; the channel is between the rock and the island, and has a depth of 10 fathoms. "Stanley Island, low and wooded, 1^ miles long by 1 mile wide, divides the channel into two passages, both lead- ing into Darien Harbor; the principal one, the Boca Grande, forms a continuation of San Miguel Baj' to the northward along the west and north sides of the island, while the Boca Chica skirts its south side, lying between the island and Virago Poiiit. "The Boca Chica has on either side of its outer entrance a dangerous ledge of rocks, the passage between them being but about 200 yards wide; the southern ledge, called 'Colum- fit LIEUT. 6th INFANTRY NOTES ON PANAMA. 131 bia Rocks,' projects about one-eighth mile westward from Virago Point and shows only at low-water spring tides; the Foley Rocks lie along the north side of the channel, extend- ing nearly one-fourth mile westward from the south point of the island, and uncovering at half tide; north of this ledge is Trevan Islet. At three-eighths mile within the entrance the channel narrows to about 50 yards, the width between the shores being less than 200 yards. A small ledge makes out a short distance from Buena Vista, the southeast point of Stanley Island, having passed which the vessel will be in Darien Harbor, and may anchoi", as convenient, in 5 to 10 fathoms, sand and mud. "Although the Boca Chica carries a low- water deptli of 5 fathoms, its use is not recommended, unless at slack water, for during the strength of the tide the velocity of the stream reaches G to 7 knots, and the eddies make steerage difficult. "Leading Mark. — The northwest extreme of Jorey Island and the middle of Mary Islet in line, S. 58° W. (S. 53° W. mag.), clears the rocks in the entrance of the Boca Chica. When past these rocks a vessel should keep in mid-channel, and when past the reef off Buenavista Point haul a little to the northward, to give Price Point a berth of 150 yards. "The Boca Grande is a little over a mile wide at the entrance, between the rocks outside the Boca Chica and Milne Island, on the western shore, and continues for 1^ miles at about the same width between Stanley Island and the shore. A dangerous rock, only showing at about three-fourths ebb and connected hy a ledge with the island, lies off its north- west point, and from the opposite shore a shoal extends five- eighths of a mile, leaving between rock and shoal a width of five- eighths of a mile for the navigable channel; this now bends to the eastward and continues of the same width between Ray and Jeannette islands on the north, and a large, fiat rock, nearly always uncovered, and a small wooded island, about a cable off Stanley, on the south; then bending southeast- ward it continues between Ellen and Paley islands on the west and the main shore on the east into Darien Harbor, graduallj^ broadening after passing the former island and attaining a width of nearly 2 miles abreast of the Boca Chica. "Savannah Point is the southern extremity of the long, low peninsula separating for a distance of 5 miles the Savan- nah River from the Boca Grande. Foul ground borders the 132 NOTES ON PANAMA, point, extending off one-fourth mile, and at tliat distance south of the point is a small islet with deep water close along its southern edge. Graham Point, one-half mile beyond Savannah, marks the entrance of the river, and has close off it the tiny islet La Pantila. " Vaguila Rock, showing at about half tide, lies a little over one-half mile south of Savannah Point. There is a good channel three-eighths mile wide between the rock and the islet off the point, with 9 to 11 fathoms of water. "Directions. — To pass through the Boca Grande: After passing Barry Rock a vessel may haul up for the southwest end of Stanley Island, keeping on the range of Barry Rock and Virgin Point until Jones Islet comes in range with Strain Island; then steer to pass about one-fourth mile from Milne Island, and as soon as Mar}^ Island is shut in b3' Milne steer for Ray Island, keeping the east end of Edith Island a little open of Milne; following the channel, pass Ray at one-fourth mile, and as soon as Ellen Island opens from Turk Island haul to the southward, giving these islands and then Paley Island a berth of one-fourth mile to starboard, and anchor, as con- venient, in 5 to 10 fathoms; bottom, sand and mud. " Daeien Harbor, formed by the junction of the Tuyra and Savannah rivers, extends in a southeasterly direction from the Boca (Grande to the village of Chipigana, on the south bank of the Tuyra, a distance of 11 miles, with a width of 4 miles in the northern part and 2 miles at the village. The depth of water is from 7 to 10 fathoms from Paley Island to the mouth of the Savannah, beyond which it shoals rapidly, almost the entire harbor having a uniform depth of from 13 to 17 feet. Off Chipigana there is a depth of 3f fathoms for an area of about 1 mile by 1^ miles, affording excellent anchor- age for vessels not exceeding that draft, to which it is access- ible by taking advantage of the tides. During spring tides, which here rise 22 feet, the currents both of ebb and flood run at this point with great velocity, and especially is this the case during freshets, when it is oftentimes difficult for a vessel to remain at anchor. "The shores of the harbor are almost a continuous line of mangrove, intersected by numerous small streams, with densely wooded hills from 100 to 300 feet high a short dis- tance inland. Chipigana is a town of about 600 inhabitants, mostly negroes, of which race almost the whole population of NOTES ON PANAMA. 133 Darien is composed. The houses are built of bamboo, and eventhing is of the most primitive description, a comiDromise between barbarism and civilization, " La Palma Village, on the west shore, just at the inner entrance to the Boca Grande and at the beginning of the shoal water of the harbor, appears to be situated at the best i^oint, and has an abundance of fresh water. " Anchorage. — The best place for anchorage is in 7 to 10 fathoms off Palma Village, about a mile southeastward of Price Point and 60() j'ards from shore. "Tides. — High water, full and change, in Darien Harbor is at 4h. 15m. ; the mean rise and fall of tide is 16 feet. The tidal streams in the narrows are verj^ strong, especially at the time of springs, which are said to rise 24 feet. Great care is required in the navigation, and it would seem advisable, at least for a sti-anger, to wait for slack water before attempt- ing the passages. "Productions. — All tropical productions of the Western Hemisphere can be grown here. Maize, rice, sugar, coffee, cocoa, yams, and plantains grow almost wild; mahogany can be had in abundance; also the palm and the india-rubber tree abound. This fine harbor, with its extensive rivers pene- trating into the interior, in the hands of an energetic peojjle that would cultivate the fertile soil of the region, would soon become a place of importance. " Climate. — There is a rainy and a dry season, the former beginning in May and lasting until November, accompanied by lightning and thunder and winds peculiar to the Gulf of Panama; for the other six months of the year the weather is fine. With common care, the countrj' is comparatively health}'. "TuYRA River, the Santa ^ Maria of the Spaniards and buccaneers, rises in latitude 7° 40' N. and enters Darien Harbor near the village of Chipigana. About 26 miles above this village and a mile above the junction of the river Chu- cunaqua are the ruins of the old Spanish fort of Santa Maria, near which were the gold mines worked by the Spaniards in the seventeenth century. As far as Santa Maria, which is the head of navigation for all ci-aft but canoes, the depths in the river are from 1 to 5 fathoms; above this point a steam launch drawing 3^ feet could go onlj- during spring tides. "The spring tides extend during the dry season to some 3 134 NOTES ON PANAMA. miles above Pinogana, which is 48 miles by river above Chipi- gana, but at this point the flood does not run more than two hours, with an extreme rise of 4 feet. During the neaiD tides the rise barely reaches Pinogana, and during the rainy season the influence of the tide extends but half the distance, owing to the great amount of water to be backed up. "Bj" following the bends a depth of 30 feet can be carried 20 miles above Chipigana, except at the crossings, where there is but 22 feet at ordinary high tide. Above this point the channel of the Tuyra narrows considerably and the depth decreases. The country as far up as Pinogana is flat and marshy a long distance back from the river and is overflowed during high water in the autumn. "The Canal Route by way of the Tuyra ascends this river some 40 miles above Pinogana, and then the Cue, a tributary from the eastward, to its source; thence it crosses the divide at an altitude of 753 feet above the sea and descends the Cacarica or the Peranchita to a junction with the Atrato, and then this magniflcent, deep, and navigable river, some 40 miles, to the Gulf of Darien. The difficulties of this canal line of 55 miles, with its necessar}' tunnel of 2 miles, are such as to make it quite impracticable. "Chucunaqua River, which joins the Tuyra from the north at a point 25 miles above Chipigana village, rises in latitude 8° 50' N., westward of Caledonia Bay on the Atlan- tic; its course appears to have been the favorite track of the buccaneers from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Captains Coxon, Harris, and Sharp with 330 men in April, 180G, started from Golden Island in Caledonia Bay, and on the second day reached the head of this river, which they describe as so ser- pentine that they had to cross it every half mile, sometimes up to their knees, sometimes up to their middle, and as run- ning with a very swift current. On the fifth day 70 of the men embarked in canoes, but found that mode of traveling quite as wearisome as marching, for at almost every furlong thej'^ were constrained to quit their boats to launch them over rocks, or over trees that had fallen athwart the river, and sometimes over necks of land. Earlj" on the eighth day they reached Yavisa, which is 15 miles from Santa Maria, at the junction of the river of the same name, now the residence of the principal autliorities of the province. Here they halted to prepare for the attack on the fort. They also made paddles NOTES ON PANAMA. 135 and oars to row w ith, for thus far down the river tlie canoes had been carried by the stream and guided by poles, but here the river was broad and deep. On the niornina,- of the tenth day they attacked and carried the fort, but without gaining the expected amount of plunder, although a buccaneer says, * We examined our prisoners severely.' "Savannah River rises in latitude 8° 44' X. and a few miles from its source meets the river Loro, where the bottom is level with the half tide. Below this point for about 10 miles there is a general depth of lA fathoms, except in two jjlaces, Avhere banks with only one-fourth fathom extend from shore to shore; thence to the mouth of the river, a distance of 12 miles, there is a good navigable channel with a least depth of 3i fathoms, except for a stretch of 1^ miles with 2^ fathoms, just above the junction of the Rio Ingles. The navigable en- trance is about three-fourths mile wide between Graham Point and Haydon Bank, the channel narrowing within to about three-eighths mile. The shores of the river are low mangrove land, skirted with hills 200 to 300 feet high, within 2 miles of the banks. H. M. S. Virago anchored in 3^ fathoms, 1 mile northeast of Graham Point. ' ' The Darien Canal Route, so called, as surveyed by Com- mander Selfridge, U. S, Navy, in 1870 and 1871, ascends the Savannah River 24 miles to the junction of the Loro, and then the latter to its source ; thence it crosses a ridge and descends the La Paz to the Chucunaqua, crosses the latter, and ascends to its source, the Sucubdi, a tributary from the east; thence it crosses tlie divide at about 4 miles from the Atlantic coast, with an elevation of 1,003 or 1,259 feet, and descends to Cal- edonia Bay by either the river Aglasenic|ua or the Caledon. "A variation of this route, starting from the junction of the La Paz with the Chucunaqua, ascends the latter some miles to the Morti, and this river to the divide, with here an elevation of 1,137 feet, descending thence to Caledonia Bay by the river Sasardi. "A canal by way of the Sucubdi would require a tunnel 10 miles long to connect the elevation of 160 feet on the Atlan- tic slope with a corresponding height on the Pacific slope; in addition there would be an average cutting of 130 feet for 10 miles or more, and the Chucunaqua to be crossed b}^ a costh' aqueduct. The route by way of the Sasardi and Morti presents results of the same character and no less unfavor- 136 NOTES ON PANAMA. able. The impracticability of the Darien route was consid- ered by Commander Selfridge as fully established. "By the report of the Isthmian Canal Commission the Sa- sardi route would require a tunnel 1.6 miles long, assuming an open cut to be used to a depth of 400 feet; and if the Aglaseniqua or the Caledon were used the tunnel would be about 2 miles longer, while the approaches on the south side would be much heavier. The total length of canal naviga- tion from Caledonia Bay to the mouth of the Savannah River would be about 50 statute miles. "San Jose Bank, a dangerous shoal in the center of which is the Trollope Rock with only 2 feet of water on it, lies in the fairwaj^ of vessels bound to Panama from the southward, the rock being 15 miles N. 88° W. from Garachine Point and 10 miles S. 62° E. of Galera Island, the southeasternmost of the Pearl Islands. The bank is 1 mile in diameter within the 5-fathom line and 2f miles long by 2 miles wide within the 10-fathom line, outside of which tlie water deepens in general quickly; close to the rock are 2f, o^, and 1 fathoms. Vessels should not approach within the depth of 10 fathoms. "Marks. — The Trollope Rock may be easily avoided, either by keeping along the main shore until past Garachine Point, or by passing about 2 miles from Galera Island, with care for the shoal patch and rocks off its southern side. THE PEARL ISLANDS. "The Pearl Islands, also known as Islas del Rey, Islas del Istmo, and Islas de Colombia, form an archipelago con- sisting of 16 islands and numerous rocks, covering an area of 450 square miles on the eastern side of Panama Gulf, the northern extremity being 33 miles southeastward of Panama city and 15 miles from the nearest j)art of the mainland. Rey Island is the largest of the group; San Jose, Pedro Gon- zales, Bayoneta, Casaya, Saboga, Pacheca, and Contadora are of secondarj^ and the rest of minor importance. Scat- tered among these islands are numerous fishing villages, con- taining 1,041 inhabitants in 1843, chiefly engaged in the pearl fishery, which formerly produced about 2 gallons of pearls a year. The pearl shells gathered here, also an article of commerce, are known as Panama or Bullock shells, and are shipi^ed to San Francisco or Panama in barrels. "These islands are low and wooded; the soil is fertile but NOTES ON PANAMA. 137 not much cultivated. The numerous cocoanut groves and briglit sandy beaches, interspersed with small rocky bluffs crowned with trees, give them a pleasing appearance. "Saboga Anchorage. — This good and spacious harbor, about 2 miles long, north and south, and nearly 1 mile wide, Avith an average depth of fathoms, lying at the extreme northern end of the archipelago, is formed by three islands and numerous islets and shoals. Saboga, the largest island, If miles long b}' an average width of one-half mile, is on the southwestern side. From its northern end a reef and shoal extend 1^ miles to the northward, protecting the harbor on the west. Contadora Island, 1^ miles long and one-half mile wide, forms the southeastern side; and Pacheca Island, three- fourths mile long and one-half mile wide, the northern side. About midway between these two islands is Bartholomew Islet, north and south from which extend shoals, protecting the harbor on the east side. "Channels. — Three channels lead into the harbor, respec- tively from the northwest, the east, and the south. The Pacheca Channel, southward of this island, is nearly one-half mile Avide and appears to carrj* a depth of not less than 5^ fathoms in a straight course, but should be more closely ex- amined, as there is a deficiency of soundings. Bartholomew Islet, on a bearing S. 00° E. (S. 71° E. mag.), leads through in about mid-channel. Contadora, northward of the island, is at present the deepest and safest channel, carrying a least depth of 9 fathoms by keeping the north end of Saljoga just open of the south end of Near Islet, S. 85° W. (S. 80° W. mag. ) . Saboga Channel, l)et ween this and Contadora, appears to have a o-fathom channel, but must be navigated with cau- tion, and is not recommended before further examination on account of the shoals obstructing the entrance and reported shoal patches outside. If this harbor were to be much used a few buoys would greatly assist the navigation. "A considerable village with a church lies on the northeast shore of Saboga Island, at the head of a bay tilled with a shoal and a reef. The usual anchorage is in 7 or 8 fathoms at one-half mile off this village. Contadora has 5 fathoms close along its north \ve^t shore, which is low and well adapted for wharves. "Tides. — High water, full and change, at Saboga anchorage is at 4h. Om. ; springs rise about 14 feet. 138 NOTES ON PANAMA. " Chapera and Pajaros, the next islands to the southward of Contadora, have a 4-fathoni channel between them, but it should not be used, as the ground is foul. A 2^-fathoni shoal lies three-fourths of a mile eastward of Pajaros, and south- ward of this island the soundings are very irregular, with rocky bottom. No vessels should attempt the passages between Pajaros and Rey islands without previous examina- tion and marking the points of the shoals. "Casaya, Bayoneta, and Viveros are the largest of a cluster of islands on what may be termed an extensive reef, about 8 miles long by 5 miles broad, stretching off the north- west point of Rey Island. There are also numerous islets and rocks rising from the reef, and the passages between them all are foul, with occasional strong tides. A bank 1| miles long by three-fourths mile wide, with only 9 feet of water on its shoalest part, lies nearlj- 4 miles eastward of the north point of Casaj^a, and the Caracoles and Cangrejo islets, wilh foul ground around them, lie about 2 miles oif the northeast point of Viveros. "Clearing marks. — The entire group of islands stretch- ing northwestward from the northwest point of Rey Island should be avoided by Panama-bound vessels, which should not approach the islands on their western side nearer than just to open the eastern point of San Jose eastward of Pedro Gonzales Island, bearing S. 6° E. (S. 11° E. mag.), and on their eastern side should not open San Pablo, an islet off the northeast side of Rey Island, or bring it to bear eastward of S. 31° E. (S. 36° E. mag.). ' ' Rey Island, the largest of the Pearl group, is about 15 miles long, north and south, by 7 miles wide, with several peaks, the highest being 600 feet high. Numerous islets and shoal patches, with deep water between them, lie 3 miles off the western shore, but should not be approached by strangers within the depth of 10 fathoms. Cocos Point, the south extreme, is the end of a remarkal>le promontory, 4 miles long by about 1 mile wide, jutting southward into the sea. Its extreme cliff was crowned in 1859 by an umbrella-like tree, making it conspicuous. "Off the eastern shore of Rey are also islands, but they are steep-to and may be approached within one-half mile, with the exception of Caiias Island, off which is a 3-fathom patch lying outside a sunken rock, nearly H miles from the shore. This NOTES ON PANAMA. 139 may be easily avoided by not opening- Monge Islet eastward of St. Elmo Island until Pablo Islet opens eastward of Mnerta, a small ban-en islet lying about 1 mile northward of this patch. ' ' St. Elmo Bay, on the east side of Cocos Point, is open to the southeastward, but has convenient anchorage in all parts, in 6 to 9 fatlioms, and a good stream of water near Lemon Point at its head. " San Miguel, the principal town of these islands, is on the north side of Rey. It is of considerable size, with a conspicu- ous church, but is badly situated, landing at low water being difficult. Cerro Congo and Cerro Vali rise southward of the town, the former being 481 feet high. Supplies are uncer- tain and dear, all iDroductions of the island being generally sent to Panama. "Anchorage. — Vessels having to lie off the town sliould run in between Caracoles and Cangrejo islets, taking care not to shoal the water under 7 fathoms at low water and using caution in the approach, as the Ijottom is irregular and rocks abound; anchor in about 6 or 7 fathoms when the church is shut in, or behind Afuera, an islet lying off the town, bear- ing S. 29° E. (S. 34° E. mag.). " Galera Island, lying 8 miles S. 81° E. from Cocos Point, is small, and, like the point, remarkable for its umbrella tree. A cliff forms its southern side, sloping down to a beach on the north, and to the southward a reef runs oft' for nearly 1 mile. This island is generally the first land made by vessels bound to Panama; it should not be approached within the depth of 10 fathoms, but between it and Cocos Point there is a good passage by using which the vessel will be clear of the San Jose Bank, 10 miles to the southeastward. "Pedro Gonzales Island, separated from the islets off the west side of Rej- by a broad, deep channel, is of irregular shape, with an extreme length, northwest and southeast, of 3f miles by an average width of one-half mile, and has on its northern side a wide and deep indentation forming two bays, Perry and Magicienne, partially protected on the north by the small islands Seiiora and Seiiorita. Ti-apiche Island, 100 feet high, which is connected bj' a sandy neck with Gonzales at low- water springs, forms the division between the two baj^'s. Off the east point of Trapiche extends a rocky ledge, and from this extends a shoal with 14 feet of water at the end, 140 NOTES ON PANAMA. nearl}' 600 yards from tlie point. Perry Bay, which lies within this shoal and Swift Point on the opposite side, is a mile wide and penetrates nearly a mile, affording anchorage in 5 to 7 fathoms, with good protection from wind and sea. "A large sti-eam of water, found in full force in the month of April at the end of what had been considered a remarkably dry season, runs into the sea on the western side of Magicienne Ba}\ This baj', however, is small and shoal, having only a tongue of deep water, 3:^ fathoms, projecting three-eighths mile within the entrance, with a width of one-eighth mile. Senora, wooded and 70 feet high, and Seiiorita, small and 40 feet high, with the shoals olf their eastern sides, have an extent of about 1 mile, and are separated from Trapiche bj' a 7-fathom channel, steep-to on both sides. "Perry and Magicienne bays were examined in 1858 as to their capabilities for a depot for steam vessels. Although not considered so good and not so near Panama as Saboga anchor- age, tliej" were thought to have some advantages. "Tides. — High water, full and change, in Perry Baj' is at 3h. 50m. ; rise, 16 feet. The tidal streams are not felt at the anchorage, l)ut off the island there is a considerable set, the flood running northward and the ebb southward, the latter being generally the stronger. " Directions. — Vessels may pass on either side of Seiiora and Seiiorita Islands, taking care to avoid the shoal eastward of them, if passing on that side, by keeping the eastern point of Gonzales Island, a rocky i)eninsula, open of the point next north of it, bearing S. 17° E. (S. 22° E. mag.) until Punta Piloto, 120 feet high, the north extreme of Gonzales, bears to the westward of S. 73° W. (S. 68° W. mag.) ; if entering Perry Baj', the shoal off Trapiche may be avoided by not passing westward of midwaj^ between this island and Swift Point. "San Jose Island, lying Smiles south of Gonzales, is about 6t miles long bj' 3 miles wide, and its summit forms a table- land said to be a considerable grazing ground. Nearly 2 miles southeast from Iguana Point, the north extreme of the island, a large waterfall, running into the sea, affords an excellent watering place. A deep bay indents the southeast side of the island, but the swell sets in there with great vio- lence. Off the southern end are a number of high rocks of singular and fantastic shapes, also lashed bj' a heavy surf; this part of the island should be avoided. The western shore NOTES ON PANAMA. 141 is bold and cliffy, with a small baj' near the middle, opening- to the northwestward. "The channel, 6^ miles wide, between Rej^ and Sau Jose, is foul on the Rey side, but deep and clear on the San Jose side, the depths exceeding 20 fathoms for two-thirds tlie length of the island. " Passage Rock. — This dangerous sunken rock, with 12 and 9 fathoms close around it, lies near the middle of the chan- nel, otherwise deep and clear, between San Jose and Gonzales islands. " Clearing marks. — The peak next south of the highest on Rey Island, just open south of Coco Islet, one of the outlying islets off the west side of Rey, bearing N. 78° E. (N. 73° E. mag.), leads more than one-half mile southward of Passage Rock; vessels should keep between this line and the San Jose shore. "Bound to Panama. — Vessels bound to Panama from the northward should make the island of Jicaron, which lies about 50 miles westward of Mariato Point, and from here endeavor to keep under the land as far as Cape Mala, or, if unable to do this, i^ush across for the opj)osite coast, where the current will be in their favor. On getting to the eastward of Cape Mala, the safest plan is to shape a course for Galera Island and use the eastern passage, that between the Pearl Islands and the main; if, however, tempted up the gulf by a fair wind, vessels should endeavor to get on the western coast of the Pearl Islands, for the reasons noted below. " The passage from the southward into the Gulf of Panama is easily made during the greater part of the year by keeping about GO miles from the coast north of Guaj^aquil, and after crossing the line shaping a course for Galera Island, taking- care, especially in the dry season, to stand inshore with the first northerly wind. By so doing vessels will most probably have the curi-ent in their favor along the coast, whereas by keeping in the middle or on the western side of the gulf a strong southerly set will be experienced. After making Galera and clearing the San Jose Bank the navigation be- tween the Pearl Islands and the main is clear and easy, with the advantage of being able to anchor slionld the wind fail or the tide be unfavorable. As a rule this passage should be taken, but with a strong southerly wind the navigator is tempted to run up the bay, in which case he should keep on ]42 NOTES OK PANAMA. the western shore of the Pearl Islands, where less current will be found, and anchorage should the wind fail, an event always to be exj)ected in these regions. Between Chirainbira Point and Cape Corrientes the land is low and faced with shoals, caused by the numerous rivers that have their out- lets on this part of the coast ; but after passing Cape Corri- entes it may be aj)i)roached fairl}" close except off Solano Point, where some rocky shoal patches extend seaward, as the coast is in general bold-to. Care, however, should be taken not to run into the calms caused b^^ the high land, as it is difficult to get off into the breeze again, and the swell sets inshore, where there may be no anchorage until close to the rocks. " In beating up the Gulf of Panama in the fine season, the eastern passage is to be preferred, as, with one exception, it is free from dangers, the water is smooth, and a regular tide enables more northing to be made tlian would be possible in most cases against the strong current and short high sea which at this season prevail in the middle or on the western side of the gulf. During the rainy season a straight course up the bay is preferable to becoming entangled with the islands, the current generally following the direction of the wind. "Bound from Panama. — The great difficulty, however, is the passage out from Panama Bay. Pizarro, the first to attempt this, in November, 1525, after beating about for sevent}^ days, was forced to return to the river Chiman. "The best plan for all sailing vessels, whether bound for ports north or south of Panama, is to push to the southward and gain the southeast trade. By so doing they will not only avoid the doldrums and vexatious winds, but will have the additional advantage of salubrious weather, with the sea at a temperature of 75° instead of 83° F. Between January and April it may be better for north-bound vessels to cross the line between the Galapagos Islands and the coast before push- ing westward, keeping south of the line until westward of 105° W., when a course may be shaped for 10° N. and 120'' W., in which track they will probably find the northern trade. This will generally prove far preferable to encountering the vexatious weather met with at this season north of the Galapagos. "The i3assage to the northward has been made by keeping NOTES ON PANAMA. 143 close inshore after passing Cape Mala, and navigating by the land and sea breezes; bnt this should be attenii)ted only by vessels that are well found and manned, unless bound to the ports of Central America, when it is their only route. " The passage to the westward during the rainj^ season is a most tedious affair. Calms, squalls, contrary winds and cur- rents, a heavy swell, and extreme heat, as Avell as an atmos- phere laden with moisture and rain, are the daily accompa- niments. It often occurs that 20 miles of westing are not made in a week, and it is only by the industrious use of every squall and slant of wind that the passage can be made. "In the navigation of these regions and of the coasts of Cen- tral America and Mexico even small auxiliar}- steam power proves most useful." — West Coasts of Mexico and Central America. Hydrograpliic Office, No. 8Jf, 1902. "Islands, etc. — There are on the coast and on the banks of rivers marshes or ponds more or less ijermanent and extensive. "Both the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts are sprinkled with islands, in some spots so thickly grouped as to consti- tute archipelagoes. "On the Atlantic side there are some (>30 islands and islets, with an aggregate area of 14-7 square miles, of which about 115 square miles are susceptible of utilization for lumbering or colonization. The remainder is waste, unsheltered, and lacks both water and vegetation. "The islands of this Department on the Pacific coast are larger and more numerous than those on the Atlantic side. In the group known as the Archipelago de las Perlas the principal island is that of San Miguel, which is about 10 miles long by 7 or 8 miles wide. The largest island on the coast is that of Coiba, a few miles from Bahia Honda, whose greatest length is some 22 miles and its greatest breadth is 15 miles. These Pacific islands are said to number in all 1,053, with an aggregate area of about 500 square miles." — Handbook of Colombia, Bureau of American Repidjlics. "Between Saboga and Bartoleme islands, in the north part of Perlas Archipelago and about 10 miles southeast of the city of Panama, is a fine anchorage for a fleet of at least 10 large vessels." — Report of Caot. C. B. HiunpJrreij, Twenty- second Infantry, 1903. Ports, Breakwaters, etc. — Colon. — "Colon is located on 144 NOTES ON PANAMA. a flat island in the bay of Limon. The main harbor is located on the west side of the city. On Point Toro, opposite Colon, is located a strong light, about 75 feet high, which can be seen for about 20 miles at sea. On the point of the island, in the city of Colon, is also located another light, about 30 feet in height, which can be seen at least 12 miles at sea. ' ' There is also another baj' on the east side of the city of Colon. The largest ships may anchor in either one of these bays. All along the water front of Colon are located ships' piers. In case of storms coming from the north ships must leave the harbor and also the docks and proceed to Portobelo for protection. There is a plan proposed to build a break- water at Colon, at a cost of about $1,500,000, to protect the harbor. This is quite practicable and would render the har- bor safe. Of the two ports, Portobelo is very much the bet- ter, but no land communication is to be had witli Colon except by a trail. "No timber exists in the vicinitj' of Colon, j^et a small amount of large pine timber could be found in the railroad yards. "Small boats could be landed along the shore about one- half mile south of the wharves. The anchorage in the har- bor off Colon is sufBciently large for almost any number of vessels." — Report of Capt. C. B. HiDnphrey, Twenty-second Infantry, 1903. "The harbor of Colon is not- by any means a safe one, as it is without natural or artificial protection, and during the 'norther' season — January, February, and March — vessels are in danger of heavy damages. The wharves here, which are owned and controlled by the Panama Railroad Companj^, are five in number. Four of them are modern steel and iron structures and afford ample room to berth twelve ocean-going steamers and a number of smaller sailing craft. The harbor entrance and the wharf slips have recently been dredged, so that vessels of 28 feet draft may be safely docked." — Com- ynercial relations of the United States witJi foreign countries during the year 1900. Panama. — "Ships which do not enter the harbor of Panama northeast of the city or the harbor of La Boca may find anchorage on the north side of Culebra Island, where there is located a small town. There are tliree lighters owned by the English company, which run from their pier at La Boca to the island of Culebra. Anchorage may also be found for NOTES ON PANAMA. 1-15 ships on the northeast side of the island of Tal)oga. Taboga is a veiy rich and pi-oduetive islaud, where the principal fruits are grown, such as mangoes, pineapples, and bananas. This island is also generally in a very i^ood sanitary condi- tion, and in case of an epidemic of yellow fever, smallpox, or bubonic plague on tlie Isthmus the richer inhal)itants of Panama leave for this island."— i^e/)©?-^ of Capf. C. B. Hum- plireij, Ttcentij-second Infantry, 1903. "Every steamer or sailing vessel of high freeboard upon arriving in port casts anchor to the north of the Flamenco, Perico, and Naos islands, which are situated 2^ miles south of Panama. The passengers are canned to the wharf of the Panama Railway Company when the state of the sea permits it, as well as the cargo, which is unloaded in large scows of 120 to 300 tons eacli. The same is done in embarking passen- gers and cargo. For this service there are at Panama three good-sized strong tugboats, called as follows: Bolivar, Ancon (which is kept at anchor and in reserve), and Morro. "The two former belong to tlie Panama Railroad Company' and the latter to the Pacific Steam Navigation Company. "It is very easy to obtain coal and water in this bay, as the aforementioned companies furnish it to all who ask for it, "This bay also lias a cistern boat (steamer) called Isabal, and owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Compan3\ It has a capacity of 47,000 gallons of fresh water. "In order to ply the waters of the Bay of Panama it is nec- essarj- to use tide tables, which can be had in the printing office of I^a Estrella de Panama, where they have been pub- lished for years, and are compiled by seamen who are well acquainted with the bay. " Between the wall or bastion of Chiriqui, which is situated to the east, and the northeast coast the sea runs in a con- siderable distance, forming an excellent roadstead, at the head of which are situated the public market of the city and foui* large wharves — that of the market, where the coasting trade is carried on; the American wharf, alongside which come the tugboats and bongos, and where the products in transit or brought for Panama from the Pacific coast are loaded and unloaded; the English wliarf of the Panama Railroad, where the Pacific Steam Navigation ComjDany transacts its business, and the coal wharf, where this combustible is loaded in order to transport it to Flamenco. 12312—03 10 146 NOTES ON PANAMA. "The constant movement in tliis excellent roadstead of hundreds of caiques, scows, sloops, schooners, and tugboats which are continually entering' and leaving, mostly with un- furled sails, together with the noise caused by the engines and cars of the railroad and by the carriages and wagons which arrive in considerable numbers from the center of the city and leave from the nmrket and wharves, lend this place the livelj^ aspect and air of greatness peculiar to all busy ports. " Panama at high tide, and seen from seaward, is beautiful and looks like a European port." — Directory of Panama, 1898. '^ La Boca. — Mr. Francis Gudger, vice-consul general of the United States at Panama, has furnished a description of the wharf at La Boca. This wharf was built bj^ the Panama Canal Compan}', but is now controlled b}'' the Panama Rail- road Compan3\ The rates charged for vessels coming along- side are governed for the most jjart by contract. "The wharf, constructed wholly of steel, with a roof and sides of corrugated iron, is situated at the mouth of the Pan- ama end of the Panama Canal, about 2^ miles from Panama City. During its construction its failure was predicted on account of the great rise and fall of the tide; also because of the difficult}^ of keeping the channel leading to the wharf open, as a great amount of mud is brought down b}^ the San Juan River. The difficulties have been reduced to a mini- mum. Vessels are not lashed alongside the wharf, but have floats placed between them and the wharf, so tluit there are no bad results from the tide. The cranes or winches on the wharf are of a special kind that permit of working the cargo at all stages of the tide. The following measurements will give an idea of the size and capacity of the wharf: Total length - feet. . 985 Total width do 54 Depth of channel alongside at high tide do 45| Depth of channel alongside at low tide do 26^ Width of channel alongside . - do 98 Cranes (six of 2 tons each, one of 20 to 24 tons) number . . 7 Capacity of vessel space feet. . 985 Tonnage of largest vessel yet docked tons. . 4. 600 Railroad tracks on wharf number. . 2 Car capacity of tracks on wharf cars. . 39 " It is possil)le to dock any vessel drawing less than 20 feet G inches. NOTES ON PANAMA. 147 "In speaking- of the channel alongside it might be well to explain that this is not exactly a channel, but what is called a souille, or basin, in which the vessels lie, and in wliich there is a maneuvering space, at anj^ stage of the tide, of 186 feet. The bottom of this basin is soft mud, j^et, while it is consid- ered best for the vessels to be at all times afloat, they can rest easj' in the muddy bottom. From the above it is seen that any vessel of 500 feet length and not drawing more than 26 feet can be handled at this wharf with facility." — Montldij Bulletin of Hie Bureau of American Eepublics, August, 1001. "A branch of the Panama road runs from the city of Pan- ama through the town of La Boca to a large ships' pier in La Boca Harbor. ''It contains facilities for docking 3 large ships at the same time. There are 16 steam cranes and 4: electric cranes on the dock. On the end of the pier is a large 20-ton crane. The rise and fall of the tide is over 20 feet, but owing to the dredging which goes on all the time ships can come in at siny stage of the tide. "Across the Rio Grande from the town of La Boca, about 700 yards away, can be seen the mouth of the south entrance to the canal. The harbor at La Boca and the harbor of Pan- ama might be commanded perfectly hx artillery placed upon the hills between the two places. La Boca is also commanded by a hill to the east, shown in the charts, about 1,000 j'ards away. There is a first-class wagon road between Panama and La Boca." — Report of Capt. C. B. Humphrey, Twenty- second Infantry, 1903. " Various Ports, etc. — For traveling to any points in the interior of the Dei)artment, except those between Panama and Colon, although there are a few bridle paths, the most convenient, cheapest, and shortest routes are by sea or rivers. "To the west of the city of Panama are situated the most populous and richest provinces of the Department, for, although Darien, which is situated to the east, possesses such great and varied natural riches that thej^ will Avithout doubt render it an emporium wlien its day arrives, tliej- are not yet under exploitation, with the exception of the rich gold mines of Espiritu Santo and Cana. "To the west are situated the provinces of Code, Vera- guas, Los Santos, and Chiriqui, and to the northwest the flourishing district of Boeas del Toro, belonging to the prov- ince of Colon. 148 NOTES ON PANAMA. "Travelers may reach these points as follows: From Colon to Bocas del Toro in steamers or in some of tlie sailing or steam vessels which are engaged in the banana traffic. "The provinces of Code, Veraguas, Los Santos, and Chi- riqni liave their harbors on the Pacific or on some of tlie riv- ers which empty tlierein and are navigable for minor craft and sailing vessels. Traffic between Panama and these provinces is carried on in greater part by sailing vessels, except that to Chiriqui Province, where, at Port David, steamers touch with considerable frequency, because of the growing commerce of that province with and its proximity to the Republic of Costa Rica. "The province of Code has several harbors, but that of Agnadulce is the one preferred, because steamers visit it also. The city of Penonome, capital of the province, has for its service the harbor of Posada on the river Code. The port of Aguadulce will not, however, lose its prestige, and it will certainl,y always be preferred by travelers bound for the towns in the province mentioned (Nata, Anton, Penonome, etc.), and even for the contiguous provinces of Los Santos and Veraguas, owing to the advantageous circumstance that, as before stated, steamers and large sailing vessels touch there. "The province of Veraguas has the harbors of Montijo and Sona on the rivers San Pedro and San Pablo, wliich emptj^^ into the Gulf of Montijo and are navigable in their head- waters with minor craft and sailing vessels. But since, iji order to go from Panama to these liarbors, it is necessary to double the peninsula of Azuero, the port of Aguadulce is preferable in going to Santiago (capital of the province). From this port (Aguadulce) the traveler goes to Santiago by a good wagon road. There are over a hundred wagons at Aguadulce to attend constantly to tlie transportation of pas- sengers and freight. "The port of Aguadulce, after tliose of Panama, Colon, Bocas del Toro, and Pedregal, is the most frequented and visited by steamers. This j)ort is situated in the Gulf of Parita, which forms part of the great Gulf of Panama, and it is owing to this advantageous position that it serves as a stopping place for steamers and sailing vessels. "From the maritime salt works owned and oj)efated by the National Government at Aguadulce almost all the towns in the department are supijlied with salt. NOTES ON PANAMA. 149 "The province of Los Santos, whieli is situated on the jieninsula of AzAiero, possesses manj^ commodious maritime ports, the principal of which are Chitre, Las Tablas, and Monsabe. " The Pacific Steam Navigation Company dispatclies one or two steamers everj^ month from Panama, which stop at Aguadnlce, Remolino, San Lorenzo (when necessary), Sona, Pedregal, and Puntarenas (Costa Rica). " For voyages to the archipelago de las Perlas and to Darien they put into service coast-trading vessels, which enter and ascend the Tuira, a river of great volume and navigable by steam as far as Yavisa. The Darien Gold Mining Company disi)atches regularly a steamer to the port of Yavisa. "The fares on the sailing vessels to these ports are as a rule verj' reasonable, varying from $2 to $5 per person, ac- cording to the class in which the passenger wishes to travel. " — Di rector ij of Panama, 1898. Tides. — "The tides xavy considerably with the seasons, and are much higher at Panama than at Colon. In Colon Bay the difference between ebb and flow seldom exceeds 12 or 14 inches, and is often scarcely perceptible for days together, whereas in Panama Bay it is as much as 8 feet in the earl}- summer (Maj* and June), when it is least felt, and rises to 20 or even 23 feet in winter, the average for the year being 13 or 14 feet — that is, as many feet as inches on the opposite side. The consequence is that in an open canal without locks no equilibrium could be established, the current con- stantly shifting with the alternating tidal currents." — Stan- ford's ConipendiiDnofGeograpliy, Cent ral and South America. {(I) CITIES. Colon.^" lender the old regime of Spain the only line of communication between the two oceans was one simple mule path crossing the Isthmus from Panama to Porto Bello, on the Atlantic side. Porto Bello Harbor is commodious and deep, but the fortifications of the old seaport are now overgrown with forest vegetation and the place has become an obscure hamlet, occupied by a few hundred negroes, who do a little trade with Colon, Colombia, and Jamaica. "The deadl}- Chagres fever raged so there that the port was practically abandoned, and Chagres became the Atlantic 150 NOTES ON PANAMA. terminus of the isthmian route from Panama. But Chagres soon won fame as a hotbed of marsli fevers and the popula- tion rapidly disappeared. "A new port was founded, therefore, which was called Colon, in honor of Columbus, who discovered the bay. It be- came known also as Aspinwall, from the name of one of the chief promoters of the isthmian railroad. This name in late years has been very little used. "After Colon was burned in the revolution of 1885 it was /^ A NZ A N / LLO BAY 2 i-tMaj' MANZANIULO PT. rebuilt on a larger plan and on better drained ground, but it is still a very unheal thful place." — New York Sun, Novem- ber IS, 1903. "The city of Colon has a jjopulation of about 13,000. The mean temperature is 80.6° F. The air is most oppressive and saturated with moisture. The city is generally composed of miserable frame houses and small stores. At the mouth of the canal is a fine statue of C'olumlnis, and near it are grouped the houses of the old French company, now unoccu- pied, but still in a fair state of repair. Two of these Avere NOTES ON PANAMA. 151 once handsome — the liouses of M. de Lesseps and his sou. At the other end of the city is the large hotel owned by the railroad company and about it are grouped many comforta- ble houses belonging to foreigners. The other chief build- ings are the stations and storehouses of the railroad and steamship companies. These could be used as excellent l)ar- racks for troops to the number of 1,200. "A great many supplies, such as canned goods, could be obtained iu Colon. There is a hotel in Colon, run on the American plan, which will accommodate about 100 to 150 peo- ple. The best drinking water obtainable is from the cisterns. Supplies of all kinds could be transported across the Isthmus by the railroad. "The buildings which might be used as barracks for trooj)s have already been mentioned. Near Colon there are really no suitable locations for camps, the country being generallj^ too swampy about the city. The climate is hot. The rain- fall during the rainy season is very heavy. "Troops should not be landed from ships in Colon for any length of time before operations were to begin. It would be preferable to keep them aboard ship. The sanitary condi- tion of Colon could be very much improved. At present it is very baY\ dock near canal entrance. The Chagres is navigable for boats up to Gatun. '^Buhio Soldado. — Sixteen miles from Colon; 215 frame houses, 120 huts. Small machine shop. Springs of fairlj- good water near railroad station. Telegraph station. ^^ Gatun. — Seven and one-fourth miles from Colon. Canal village on east bank of Chagres; Indian village on west bank. Comuiunication with Aspinwall by canal, railway, or Chagres; W. T. CONWAY 1« LIEUT. (Jth INFANTRY W.T. fl^WAV 1st LIEUT, bth INFANTRY NOTES ON PANAMA. 153 40 or 50 frame houses; avei-age eapaeit}', 8 to 12 men; 150 huts. Poi)ulatioii: White, 75; natives, 1,200 to 1,500. Re- pair facilities for small vessels. Water tank for locomotives. Potable well and spring water. Telegraph station. River not fordable. Favorable i)osition for resisting attacks. No bridge over Chagres. Railroad bridge over Gatuncillo, two- thirds mile south of I'ailroad station. ^^ Frijoles. — Nineteen miles from Colon. Best and largest supply of drinking water on the Isthmus. The creek from which this is taken should be guarded ; best i^osition for guard on Frijole Hill. Steam pumps; water tanks of 8,000 gallons capacit}' each. Telegraph office. Only a few frame houses and huts. Tavernii.la. ^'' TavertiiUd. — 'J'wenty-one miles from Colon. Canal vil- lage; 40 frame houses; 20 huts. Best site for camp on hill to eastward of railroad. Fair suppl}^ of spring water. "aSV^; Pablo and Barhacoan Bridge. — Twenty-three and one-half miles from Colon. Twenty frame houses; 100 huts. Population, 60 whites, 1,800 others. No water in village. Spring on hill at Aspinwall end of bridge, 400 gallons a day. No telegraph. Barbacoas Railroad bridge over Chagres, 700 yards northwest of railroad station, built of iron; stone piers; is 617 feet long; plank footway between the rails. Aspinwall end furnishes best site for camp or guard — one of the most important on line of transit — should be held by strong guard. 154 NOTES -ON PANAMA. '■'■Qorgona. — Tweiity-eig'lit and three-fonrths miles from Colon. Comparatively healthy. Small springs. No tele- graph. Forty frame houses; 350 huts. Eight}' whites, 2,000 natives, etc. GORfiOXA. ^^ Mafacliin. — Thirty miles from Colon, 174 from Panama. Unhealthj- in late summer and fall. Eighty frame houses, capacity 600 to 800; 200 hnts. One hundred whites, 1,000 to 3,000 natives, etc. Spring on east slope of hill. River water dangerous. Trail for i^ack animals between Gorgona, Matachin, and southward. Suspension and pontoon bridges N()TP:8 on PANAMA. 155 across Chngres. C'hagres here turns to northeast. Strongest site for resistance on hill near railroad track, one-fourth mile to southward of station. It is unhealthy. Best site for camp on hill immediately in rear of railroad station. ^"Gamboa. — One mile from Matachin. Excellent site for quartering men, holding them readj^ for active operations at either end of transit. Exceptionally healthy. One hundred huts; 500 native. River supplies good drinking water. Bridle path to Cruces (up Chagres) and Panama. River cur- rent very strong. Lower Obispo. " Obispo {lower and upper). — Thirty-one and one-fourth and 32 miles from Colon. Sanitary conditions unfavorable. Lower Obispo, 00 frame houses, 25 huts; 40 whites, 50 natives. Upper Obispo, 45 houses, 80 huts; 25 whites, 300 natives. Lower Obispo Hill commands river toward Gamboa, j)ath from Gamboa to Lower Obispo, and railroad toward Empire. Railroad bridge over Obispo River at Upper Obispo. L^pper Obispo Hill best site from which to guard bridge. Water tank for locomotives. Obispo River supplies fair drinking water. ^^ Emperador {or Etnpire). — Thirty-six miles from Colon, 11^ from Panama. Eight hundred and fifty frame houses; capacity, 4,000. Eighty whites, 3,300 natives, etc. Fuel abundant. Water brought from Camacho Creek. Best site for camp or resistance on hill. Machine shops. Telegraph. " Cidebrn. — Thirty-seven and one-eighth miles from Colon, 156 NOTES ON PANAMA. lOf from Panama. The summit. Strong strategic position. Amjjle quarters — 800 frame liouses, 400 huts. Good water supph' from springs. Machine shops. " Pa?'«/so. — Forty miles from Colon, 7^ miles from Panama. One hundred and twenty-five frame houses, 100 huts. Fifty whites, 750 natives. Small sj)rings give limited supplj^ of water. Telegraph. ^^ La Boca. — The Pacific entrance to canal, a suburb of Panama. Railway connection (back of town) with Panama Railwav." ..,-'-/A^>--"' /^/4 C//-/C OC£A// Panama. — "About 1518 Governor Pedrarias Davila trans- ferred to the native village of Panama the episcopal see and the civil government, which had been since 1514 at Santa Maria de la Antigua, in Darien. "The name of Panama is believed to have come to these coasts from an aboriginal w^ord which signified "abundance of fish," according to several historians, although according to others it was derived from the fact that the town was founded near some large trees which the natives called 'Panama.' "Hardlj' had three years i^assed after the transfer of the ecclesiastical and civil governments to the village of Panama, when the latter obtained a city charter from the Emperor Charles V (1521). "Panama had a mint, and in 1535 it was made a nwal audiencia (judicial district). NOTES ON PANAMA. 157 "In this city, in 15-25, the eouqnerors F'ranciseo Pizarro, Diego de Almagro, and Hernando de Lufiiie formed the mem- orable eompanj^ to proceed to the conqnest of Peru, which enterprise the illustrious Pizarro accomplished in 1532. "Both ancient and modern Panama were cities which mer- ited the name of opulent owing to the extraordinary com- merce which developed in the Isthmus, being the point through which all commerce between Peru and Spain had necessarily Explanation G. R.P.Pr,perffS,Wharf ^.GranJCenfral Hofe/. w. Hospital . y.Anericait Consulate \.Sta.A/!iCharcl!. ^PacHlcMailSS.OfF. J.Cuirte/. K. CuAftel L.Cuii-tel. R. Ruins adjoining Monastery. s. Court-^tard, Main Cuart'el \i.CentiS.Am.Ca6leC<,. f*.Baa.f Landing at half ^.fhliceSta. SPrhon. H-Cafftedraf. yj. Boston Ice Co. 2 . Oufsr Railroad Station. to pass until 174:0, when navigation about Cape Horn became frequent. "Although of later foundation than Portobelo, Nombre de Dios, and other towns, Panama gave its name to the famous isthmus on whose southern coast it is situated. " Clironiclers, in speaking of the cities of Panama and Portobelo, record the fact that a road paved with flagstones connected the two cities. "Being the emporiums of commerce between the regions of 158 NOTES ON PANAMA. the Atlantic and Pacific, Panama and Portobelo had to suffer repeated attacks, either from English and French i)irates or from the Spaniards themselv^es, who raised the standard of rebellion in Peru and Central America. "The ancient city of Panama was situated about -t miles to the east of the city now bearing the same name. Travel- ers still find the ruins of that wealthy city, although they are mostly hidden by an exuberant vegetation. The remains of many public buildings are still seen, such as the tower of the cathedral, the walls of churches, bridges, turrets, cisterns, and part of the pavement of the streets, all covered with enor- mous fig trees, pepper shrubs, and numerous yerbas moras (a medicinal herb), whose flowers perfume the air with fra- grant odors. "Modern Panama. — After the destruction of the city Governor Fernandez de Cordova resolved to change the site and chose for the purpose a short peninsula surrounded by steep rocks, easily defended, at the base of Mount Ancon, about 5 miles southeast of the destroyed city. "The celebrated engineer Alonso de Villa-Corta con- structed a fortified town, the like of Avhich does not exist anywhere else in South America, unless it be Cartagena. He surrounded it with very strong walls several yards thick. The uneven and rocky ground which was inclosed was filled in afterwards, so that the surface of the city became smooth and level, with an elevation of over 20 feet, there having been erected, at each end of the front facing the Pacific, two colossal defensive bastions, in view of which there was a time when it w^ould have been an exceedingly serious and dangerous undertaking to attack this city. "A century ago Panama was considered one of the richest and most beaufciful cities in the world. The galleons which arrived there laden with the rich treasures from Peru, to- gether with the continual passage of adventurers and emi- grants bound for Peru, rendered it the most frequented landing point of all western America. * * * "Owing to its advantages and conveniences Panama would have continued to progress had it not been for a series of causes which started its decline. "At the time of the great immigration to California and during the period of greatest activity in the work on the isthmian railroad the hope was revived that the city would NOTES ON PANAMA. 159 return to its former prosperity. It was frequented by innu- merable travelers, and its harbors were visited by thousands of vessels, but the opening of tlie railroad between San Fran- cisco and the Eastern States of the North American Union almost completelj^ exhausted these new sources of wealth. "Tlien came the great fire, which occurred March 7, 1878, and which almost entirel}" completed the work of destruction which had been begun j'ears before. "Following upon the fire came the epoch of the inaugura- cion of the canal in Panama, an epoch of feverish business activit}^ when money flowed in torrents. "The city was soon rebuilt and immediately began to acquire those buildings, parks, and promenades, as well as most of the enterprises, which give it the seal of importance and beauty which it now possesses. " Unfortunatelj^ on June 13, 1894, another conflagration destroj^ed a large part of the northern part of the city, in which there were some splendid buildings. However, many of them have been rebuilt already and new buildings are continually going up, there being a marked tendency nowa- da3^s to build of rubble masonry instead of wood, which is a constant menace in these hot climates. " Notable Buildings. — The cathedral is situated in the principal square, and was begun to be built in 1020. This building consists of a spacious principal nave and four lat- eral ones, and it possesses a magnificent organ and notable pictures and images. "The episcopal palace is situated on the north side of the cathedral park, and is a large, beautiful building of the re- naissance style. Its fagade is elegant and adorned by some fine moldings. "The government palace is a solid and convenient edifice on the southern lateral coast of the mercado (market) cove. It faces the north and receives in consequence the breezes which come from that direction. "The Grand Central Hotel, which is, without doubt, the finest of all the private structures, is situated in the cathedral park. It has four stories and occupies a quarter of a block, "In the same square the Interoceanic Canal Company has its offices in another notable building of solid and elegant construction, modern style, and four stories. "The municipal palace (city hall), a handsome edifice with 160 NOTES OIS PANAMA. three tiers of g;alleries in its front and of considerable height, stands in Cathedral Park also. In its beautifnl main hall the cabildo {city council) meets and the sessions of the de- partmental assembly are held. Other parts of the building are occupied by the Columbus Library and the offices of the city treasury. Charitable institutions. — "The department of charity is well attended to in the cities of Panama and Colon, which, being the most populous cities in the Isthmus, are the places where charitable institutions are most needed. In the city of Panama are situated the following : ^^Hospitcd of the canal company. — This establishment, con- sidered the best of its class in South America, was con- structed on the best hygienic principles at the expense of the original canal company for the exclusive use of the employees and laborers in this colossal enterprise. "It consists of 18 large rooms, and is attended by the Sis- ters of Charity. Each room contains 40 beds. It has a com- plete apothecary's shop and, besides, a surgical room supplied with all the apparatus necessary in snrgical operations. "It occupies a charming position, dominating the city and the beautiful bay from the elevated position on the sides of Mount Ancon where it is built. It is surrounded by gar- dens, shade trees, and palms. The excessive heat which pre- vails in the cxiy during the hottest months of summer is never felt here. ^''Foreign hospital. —T\x\^ hospital, also situated on Mount Ancon and built on the same hj^gienic principles as that of the canal company, was built under the auspices of the for- eigners residing in the city, Avho contribute to its support. It has a capacity for 70 to 80 patients. Foreigners and so- journers can secure good treatment in this establishment by paying a certain sum, varying according to category and service required, but not generally exceeding |1 per day. '■''Santo Tomas Hospital. — This hospital is in the city and is a purely charitable institution. It is attended by Sisters of Charity and governed by a board of five meml)ers. "The number of Sisters of Charity attending in the hos- pital is eleven, one acting as superior. "T/ie pesthouse ofPunta Mala. — By this name is designated a house on the outskirts of the town where let)ers are kept. This house is far fi-om being a regular pestliouse, a7id this NOTES ON PANAMA. 1()1 fact is realized by the CTOvernment, which is malcing efforts to found one. For this purpose the decree of January 13, 1897, was issued, creating the lepros}' board, composed of nine members, among them being two pliysicians. "The total number of lepers in the department is 50, the number of eases in the province of Panama being 24, in Colon 24, in Chiriqui 1, and in Los Santos 1. There were only 23 cases in 1802, of which 18 were in the province of Panama and 5 in that of Colon. It is believed on good grounds that the great increase was not due to contagion or spontaneous contraction of the disease, but to the immigration of infected persons. "TAe Bolivar Asijhdii (southern extremity of the Bocas del Toro highwajO- — 1'he Bolivar Asylum is a purely charitable institution, founded in this citj' b}' the pliilanthroj)ist. Gen. Tonn'is Herrera, and other gentlemen and distinguished Pana- manian ladies. It is an institution of refuge for beggars prijicipall}^, but its doors are open to all persons unable to earn a livelihood or temporarily out of emplo^'ment, who here find shelter and food until they can improve their condition. It does not admit insane peoj)le or persons suffering from a contagious disease. It is sustained mainly by voluntary con- tributions, but also receives a certain quota from the profits of the Panama lottery. The establishment is spacious and well ventilated, and the service and sanitation are good. The average daily number of persons sheltered is calculated at 155. '■''Oijjhan A.syhiiii of the Daughters of San Viceutede Paul. — This institution, presided over by the Sisters of Charity, was founded in 1895 ])y the Rev. Mr. Parra, who is now bishop of Pamplona. He donated to it the building which it occupies. Children taken in here are given food, shelter, and a good Christian education. ^'■Asylum of San Jose de Malamho. — This is an establish- ment for orphans, founded hy Mr. Manuel Jaen in 1889 and put in operation in 1890. It is a two-story building, is situ- ated in an open, airj^ place, and can easily accommodate 50 children. "Promenades, etc. — One of the interesting promenades is the ascent to the top of Mount Ancon, which is 236 feet high, and from wdiich a view of the whole city is commanded. When its summit is reached, the eye takes in the whole im- 12312—03 11 162 NOTES ON PANAMA. mense Gulf of Panama and its pretty islands, as well as the Rio Grande throughout its whole extent. * * * "All the environs of Panama are occupied 1)}^ extensive and beautiful haciendas (farms), where the owners and farm- ers pass the hottest part of the summer, for which reason the countr}^ is crossed by paths and good roads, through some of which carriages can conveniently pass. * * * " The nearest and most popular summer resorts are Sabanas, Taboga, Gorgona, Chorrera, El Valle, Anton, and many others. All these j)laces have many clear brooks and enjoj' an agree- able temperature. Provisions are also i^lentiful, and the milk is excellent and cheap. This is a valuable resource, for dur- ing the months of December, January, and February the heat renders living in the capital very trying. "The means of reaching these summer resorts are cheap and easy. Taboga is one of the islands situated in front of the city, and is reached by sailing vessels in from one to four hours, according to the breeze blowing, while in steamboats hardlj^ three-quarters of an hour are consumed in the trip. "Sabana is reached in a carriage and Gorgona by rail, the latter place being situated at an elevated and agreea))le point on the line. "To La Chorrera, El Valle, Anton, and other towns of the interior the trip is made via the Pacific to the ports of La Chorrera, Capira, Chame, San Carlos, etc., and thence by bridle paths." — Directory of Panama, 1898. "Panama is a city of about 30,000 inhabitants. To the northeast of the city is located a small harbor, where small steam vessels and schooners may enter at high tide. A gar- rison of about 450 well-drilled Colombian troops is stationed in the cuartel in the "Plaza des Armas" in the city of Panama. These troops, commanded by a Colombian gen- eral, drill accoi'ding to Upton's tactics, and use the same bugle calls as those nsed by the United States Army." — Report of Capt. C. B. Humphrey, Tn-enty-second Infantry, 1903. "Panama is 47| miles from Colon. Ample quarters; best at railroad station. Hospitals for more than 500. Best posi- tion for camp at railway yard and wharf. Ancon Hill domi- nates and commands all api)roaches. Usual garrison, 500 NOTKS ON PANAMA. 103 trooi)s. Boat lanclin.u" at niilroad wliai-f or beach. Another hindiiig at half tid(; at foot C. de Narino. One revenue cut- ter on Pacific coast. Rise and fall of tide, 15 to 22 feet. "Tlie time from Panama to New York is seven days; San Francisco al)out twenty days. Tliere are two cable com- panies in the city, an electric-liglit plant, and an electric street-car line, which runs from one end of the city to the othei". "■ Divitld. — Divala has an elevation of 538 feet and is sit- uated near the west or riyht bank of the river of the same name. ^^ David. — David, GO miles from the frontier, is the capital of the province of Chiriqui, contains about 9,000 inhabitants, possesses gold mines and numerous herds, and has excellent pasture lands. The elevation of David is 66 feet above the sea. " Santi(((jo. — At a distance of 1!)0 miles from the frontier we tonch the town of Santiago, the capital of the province of Veraguas. Santiago has a population of abont 6,000 inhab- itants, who are occupied with the extraction of gold, the rais- ing of stock, and the fal)rication of cotton and woolen goods. The town has an elevation of 302 feet above the sea. ^^Agiia DnJce. — -Agua Dulce is a village in the Province of Code, the capital of which is Penonome, with a population of about 15,000 inhabitants. The province possesses a very fertile soil, on which flourish large plantations of tobacco, cacao, and coffee. '"'■Anton. — Proceeding via Nata and crossing numerous streams almost at right angles, but on very nearlj^ level ground, the town of Anton is attained at a distance of 248 miles from the assumed boundary. ^'■San Carlos. — The next important place touched is San Carlos, situated very near the Pacific Ocean, and belonging to the Province of Panama. Passing by Chame, Capira, and the town of Chorrera, the city of Panama is finally reached at a distance of 334 miles from the Rio Golfito." — Report of Intercontinental Bailway Commission, 1891-93, Vol. 1. '"'■Nata. — Nata is one of the oldest settlements, in America, dating from 1512, some time befor(^ the name of Mexico was known in Europe. 164 NOTES ON PANAMA. ^''Biigaba. — Bnjiaba, near David, is sitiiatefl in the vicinity of the location of the old graves, full of gold ornaments, which, in 1860, gave the Chiriqni district a t.einporaiy renown as a new El Dorado." — New York Sun, Norernher 15, 1903. ''''Bocns del Toro is a thriving town rapidly coming into prominence as the point of export for a large district, rich in native products, and with an immense area of unoccupied land, suitable for the cultivation of cocoanuts, ])ananas, and other tropical fruits for wliich the demand is apparently a matter of constant growth. "Rice and sugar in the low lands and coffee and cocoa in the higher districts of the interior may also be cultivated to great profit and brought to this port b}' roads over a coun- try which offers great facilities for cheap construction and easy maintenance. "Although the population is made up to a considerable extent of natives of the West India Islands, who are British subjects, the export trade is entirely in American hands, and the import trade is chiefly American, with slight diversions in favor of Jamaica and Colon." — Bulletin No. 33, Bureau of American Eepuhlics. BrifisJi Consular Reporh for ISOO, Colombia. "San Blas District.— This district, situated to the north- east of Colon, at a distance of about 30 miles, wliich has not been opened to civilization or settlement — as the Indians in- habiting its coast and mountains are i^ractically unconquered and openly hostile to Colombian rule — is but little known." — Colombia. British Diplomatic and Consular Reports of Trade and Finance. Report for the yeayr 1809 on the Trade of the District of Panama. (e) LINES OF TRAVEL AND COMMUNICATION. Canals. — "In 1878 the Colombian Governnient granted a concession for building the Panama Canal, and in the fol- lowing j^ear M. de Lesseps took the matter up. A companj* was organized, with a nominal capital of 000,000,000 francs (^115,800,000), to be obtained by popular subscriptions in France, and. the work of construction was begun in October, 1881. The canal Avas to follow much the same route as that of the railway from Colon to Pananui. It was to be o-t miles in length, the bottom to lie 28 feet below the mean level of the oceans, the width to be 72 feet at bottom and IGO feet at NOTES ON PANAMA. 1(>5 top, except ill tli(i section tlirouuii the C'ulebra Ridge, wliere the depth was to be '.) meters (2!i.o2 feet), llie bottom width 24 meters (78.91 feet), and the top widtli 28 metei-s (01. 8G feet). The special diflficnlties to be encountered were the piercing of tlie Cordillera and the overflow of tlie Chagres Kiver and its tributaries. In January, 1884, a little more tlian two j-ears after beginning the work, but one-tliirtieth of the excavation had been completed, although during 1883 a force of ll,O(»0 men was employed. The cost of the work proved to be enor- mous, and much of the money, it was claimed, was wasted b3' extravagant management. "According to the handbook of Colombia published by the Bureau of American Republics, the canal comimny had raised, up to June 30, 1886, the sum of 772,545,412 francs ($149,101,2(34), or 172,545,412 francs (6:3:], 301, 204) more than the original estimate, and it was then stated that nearly as much more would be required to complete the work. Finally, in March, 1890, work was stopped for want of funds, and pro- visional administrators were appointed by the French courts. Various schemes of reorganization were proposed, but little of actual importance was effected Iintil 1804." — Coinnu-'rcial Directory of the Aiiiericaii Rejjithtics, 17. "In 1804 a new company was formed, which obtained a concession for ten years, extended in 1000 b}' six years, so as to terminate in April, 1010. By that time the canal, accord- ing to the annual report of 1800, might be completed at a cost of 512,000,000 francs (^20,480,000). On January 4, 1902, the board of the company offered to sell to the United States all their rights and property. In view of this offer the United States Isthmian Canal Commission recommended the Panama route, and on Januaiy 22, 1003, a treat}" was signed whereby the United States obtains a lease of the necessary strip of land for one hundred years, renewable at the pleasure of the United States. The treaty between Great Britain and the United States, signed November 18 and ratified by the United States Senate December IG, 1001, provided for the neutralization of the interoceanic canal by whatever route it may be constructed and for its use on equal terms by vessels of all nations." — TJie Sfatesmcur.s Year Book, JW3. "The natural attractions of the Panama route lie in the combination of a verv narrow isthmus with a Ioav summit. The width of the Isthmus is less tlian 35 miles in a straight 166 NOTES ON PANAMA. line, wliile the suiiimit is Inirely oOO feet above mean tide which, tliough higher than tlie Nicaragua snmmit, is less than half tlie height of any other which has been investigated. Tlie high portion of the Isthmns is limited to a width of al)ont 6 miles near the Pacific side, and the Chagres River affords access hy canoe navigation to within 15 miles of the Pacific Ocean. " The Isthmus here runs nearly east and west, but the course of the railroad or canal is from northwest to southeast, the Pacific terminus being about 20 miles farther east than the Atlantic. The Atlantic port is Colon, and the Pacific port Panama. Neither is a first-class harbor. The defect of Colon Harbor is its exposure to strong northerly winds, which, though rare, occur for periods of a few days everj^ year, and while they iDrevail ships may go to sea for safety. Panama Harbor is a roadstead, behind islands, at the head of a great bay. "The old Panama Canal Company, organized in 1879, pro- jected a tide-level canal, 47 miles in length, between the two oceans. Five miles were in the coastal plain near Colon, 24 in the valley of the Chagres, 6 in the hills which form the divide, 7 in the valley of tlie Rio Grande, a small stream run- ning from the hills into Panama Baj% and 5 in the harljor ap- l^roaches. Two principal difficulties were encountered: The line of the vallej^ of the Chagres involved an excavation be- low the bed of the river, which rises in the mountains east of Panama in a district subject to violent rains and at times floods its entire valley; the passage of the divide in the Cule- bra region involved an excavation of unprecedented dimen- sions. " Before the stoppage of work by the old French company the scheme of a tide-level canal was abandoned, and various plans for a canal with locks were proposed, the summit level being- placed at different heights, the highest l)eing IGO feet above mean tid--^, to Avhicli high level it was proposed to pump the water. The new French company adoj^ted a scheme in which the summit level of the canal is placed at a minimum eleva- tion of 974^ feet, approached b}^ 4 locks in each direction, to be supplied with water from the upper Chagres, impounded by a (lam at Alhajuela and brought through a conduit 10.4 miles to the canal at Obispo. By this ari-angement the exca- vation in the continental divide was reduced within such limits that it was thought the work could be finished in eight veais. NOTES ON PANAMA. 167 "Bytlie C'Oiistnictioii of a (lain across tlio C'liagres at lioliio the river between tliat point and Obispo was converted into a lake of sufficient dimensions not to be seriously affected bj' flood discharges, while diversion channels were to be con- structed on botli sides of the canal from this dam to tlie sea. With a carefully designed system of sluices and controlling works the violence of the floods was to be checked by impounding the water both above the Alhajuela dam and in Lake Bohio, so as to keep the flow below the Bohio dam within the capacity of the two diversion channels. The adoption of this scheme bj"" the French engineers in prefer- ence to a simpler plan, which was fully discussed by them, was determined bj^ the limits of time to which the company was restricted. As the conditions would be different if the canal were constructed by the United States, the commission has adopted a simpler plan, avoiding complicated construc- tions like the conduit for the summit supply of water and making the regulation of the floods as nearly as possible automatic. " AVith the cliange from the tide-level canal to a canal with locks, a third problem was added to the other two — the sup- ph" of water for the summit level. The only available source of suppl}^ is the Chagres River. This brings the water sup- ply into such intimate relation with the control of the flood disciiai-ge that the two become practically one and must be treated together. The discharge of the Chagres at Bohio varies from a minimum of about 350 to a maximum of over 100,000 cubic feet per second, the extreme flood discharge being about 300 times the low-water discharge. The esti- mated requirement for the operation of the canal, with an annual traffic of 10,000,000 tons net register, is 1,067 cubic feet per second. The discharge of the Chagres exceeds this in some j^ears for every month, and in all years, except for a short period in February, March, and April, provision must ])e made for the storage of enough water to supply the deh- ciencj" during these three diy months. The best storage place for this watei- is in the lake foi-med in the valley of the Cha- gres, making it of sufficient depth to allow the needed supply to be drawn oil without lowering the level enough to impede navigation. "The greatest flood of Avhich there is any record occurred in 1879. From the imperfect information Ave have it has been 168 NOTES ON PANAMA. estimated that it may have reached a maximum discharge of 75,000 cubic feet per second at Gamboa, and 110,000 at Bohio. There is no record of any other flood in which the discharge at Bohio exceeded 80,000 cubic feet per second, while the floods in wliich it exceeds o0,000 are at such rare intervals tliat their effect on navigation would not l)e serious. The works should be so designed tliat a flood of 70,000 cubic feet per second would i^roduce no currents which would interfere with navi- gation, the limit of such currents being fixed at 3 feet per second, and that a flood of twice this amount, or a discharge of 140,000 cubic feet per second, while it might temporarily suspend navigation, should not injure the structure of the canal. " Xo location suitable for a dam exists on the Chagres River below Bohio, and while this location is not Avithout dif- ficulties it has the great advantage that about 3 miles south- west of the dam. near the head of the Rio Gigante, a triljutarj' of the Chagres, there exists an excellent site for a spillwaj^ by which the discharge from the lake could be kept well a waj^ from the dam and accessor}^ works. The height of this spillway would regulate the height and area of the lake. After careful con- sideration the Commission has decided to fix this height at 85 feet above mean tide and to make the spillway in the form of a fixed weir 2,000 feet long. At elevation 85 the lake has an area of 38| square miles, more than 1,000,000,000 square feet. The height of 5^ feet from the crest of the weir to the elevation required to pass the maximum discharge would rep- resent the impounding of more than 6,000,000,000 cubic feet of water. While in the absence of complete data exact cal- culations can not be made, coinj)utations giving reasonably approximate results indicate that no flood has jet occurred which would raise the level of the lake more than a few inches above elevation 90.5 or create a discharge over the weir exceed- ing 80,000 ctibic feet per second. "The extreme possible effect, however, of along-continued flood, with a discharge of 140,000 cubic feet per second, for which there is absolutely no precedent, as all great floods are of short duration, will be to raise the water over the spillway to elevation 92.5 and to iDroduce a current of from 5 to G feet per second in the narrow j)arts of the lake. Calculations have been made of the amount of water required to supply the deficiencies in the three dry months. An assumption of a minimum average discharge of 630 cubic feet per second NOTES ON PANAMA. 169 for ninety daj's, which is the record of the driest year, gives an aggregate deficiency of 3,398, 100,000 cubic feet below the required supply of 1,067 cubic feet per second, which corre- sponds to a deptli of about 3 feet over the whole area of the lake. Under these extreme conditions the level of the lake might therefore be lowered to elevation 82, This represents a range of 8 feet from elevation 82 to elevation 90 in Lake Bohio during navigation. Any rise above 90 would mean nothing more than a swift current for a limited distance, and any fall below 82 would mean a temporary- decrease in the depth of water in the canal. "The overflow of Lake Bohio would discharge through the Giganta spillway into the Pena Blanca Swami3 and thence into the Chagres near the point where the Chagres has aban- doned its old channel and now flows through the canal exca- vation made by the old company. It is necessary to con- struct a new channel of large dimensions west of the canal to take the Chagres. An alternate plan would be to leave the present canal to carry off this water and construct the canal oh a new location farther east. A feasible location has been found which, besides keeping the canal safely away from the Chagres, is 1:^ miles shorter than the original French line. The old location has, however, been retained in these esti- mates, the canal being enlarged to meet the new dimensions adopted b}" the Commission. This involves a new channel from the Marais de Peiia Blanca to the Marais de Agua Clara and a continuous levee for 5 miles along the line of the canal. " The canal, as thus projected, may be described as follows: "The excavation begins at the 0-fathom line in the harbor of Colon, with a bottom width of 500 feet, and slopes of 1 on 3 through the bay and lowland 2.62 miles, of which about 1 mile is inside the shore line, forming a narrow, p)'otected har- bor. The estimated cost of this entrance and harbor is 87,334,673. "From the inner end of the harbor the bottom width of the canal is 150 feet, the side slopes of 1 on 3 being retained for 1.96 miles through the swam^), after which they are reduced to the standard used in firm earth. This level extends 12.56 miles to the Bohio locks. Its estimated cost is -Sio,718,288. At Bohio is located a double flight of locks, having a total lift varying from 82 feet at the minimum level of the lake to 90 feet at the maximum, 45 to each lock, the normal lift being 85 feet. These locks are on the location adopted by the 170 NOTES ON PANAMA. French company. The estimated cost of this flight of double locks, fonr lock chambers in all, is 110,982,345. "Above the locks the canal enters the artificial lake formed by the Bohio dam and known as Lake Bohio. For the first 7 miles it is a broad, deep body of water, affording room for anchorage as well as navigation. ]>eyond this some light excavations are necessary. At the u^jper end the channel would be enlarged to provide for the flood discharge of the Chagres, being given a minimum section of 50,000 square feet. The length of the channel in Lake Bohio is 12.59 miles from the locks to the point where it enters the cut through the divide. The estimated cost of this section is $2,780,449. "Near to the entrance to the summit cut would be placed a pair of gates 100 feet wide, so that if it should become neces- sary to draw off the water from the summit cut the level of Lake Bohio would not be affected. These gates Avould be at the site of a lock proposed by the French company, near Obispo, with a foundation on hard rock. The estimated cost of these gates is 8295,436. "The summit cut is 7.95 miles long from the Obispo gates to the Pedro Miguel locks. The highest point is about 5 miles from the Obispo gates, where the bottom of the canal is 274 feet below the natural surface of the ground at the sides of the cutting. This is the famous Culebra cut, though the name has often been applied only to the mile of heaviest work. There is a little verj^ hard rock at the eastern end of this section, and the western 2 miles are in ordinarj^ materi- als. The remainder consists of a hard indurated clay, with some softer material at the top and some strata and dikes of hard rock. In fixing the price it must be rated as soft rock, but it must be given slopes equivalent to those in earth. This cut has been estimated on the basis of a bottom width of 150 feet with side slopes of one on one. While the cut may not be finished with this uniform slope, this furnishes as correct a basis of estimate as can now be arrived at. The entire cut would be lined with masonrj^ walls, finishing at ele- vation 92, 2 feet above high water, these walls having nearly vertical faces and furnishing benches 38 feet wide on either side of the canal, on one of which the I*anama Railroad would be laid, while it is probable that a service track would be placed on the other. "Much has been said about the instability of the Culebra 'AWi/ll J* f . }* , w NOTES ON PANAMA. 171 €ut. In point of fact, there is a claj' in the upper jjortion of the deep cut wliich flows readilj' when saturated, l)ut which will give little trouble if thoroughly drained; probably nine- tentlis of the material would naturallj' be classed as hard clay of stable character. It would weather somewhat, and the surface might require some repairing with concrete in bad places, a practice common in deep cuttings in Europe. This clay disintegrates rapidly in water, and for this reason the canal prism should be confined between masonry walls. AVith the i)rovision made for broad benches on each side, on which any slight slides would be arrested, it is confidentlj'^ believed that no trouble would be experienced. The estimated cost of the G.02 miles of heavy work is $41,940,480, and of the entire 7.95 miles between the Obispo gates and the Pedro Miguel locks, '^44,.378,33o. It would probably take eight years to excavate this section of the canal. "The Pedro Miguel locks will be similar to the Bohio locks, the aggregate lift vaiTing from 54 to 02 feet. There is an excellent rock foundation here. The estimated cost of these locks, including an adjacent dam, is $8,496,826. "A level 1.33 miles long extends from the Pedro Miguel locks to the last lock, which is at jNIiraflores. The normal elevation of the surface of the water is 28. The estimated cost of this section is $1,169,611. "At the end of this level would be located the JNIiraflores Lock, with a lift varying from 18 feet at high tide to 38 feet at mean low tide. There is a good rock foundation for this lock. A spillway would be required to regulate the height of this level. The estimated cost of this lock and spillway is $5,720,363. " For 4. 12 miles bey ond the Mirafloi'es Lock the canal extends through a low swamp country through which the Rio Gi-ande runs. Occasional rock is found here, but the material is generall}' very soft, and the canal has been estimated for a bottom width of 150 feet, with slopes of 1 on 3. This brings the canal to a point known asLa l)Oca, where the Panama Railroad Company has constructed a large and substantial wharf. A dredged channel 200 feet wide, with slopes of 1 on 3, would extend here 3.6 miles to the 8-fathom line in Panama Bay. The first 2 miles of this dredged channel are through flats which are bare at low w^ater, where there is a considerable amount of submerged rock. The total cost of this section from the lock to deep watei* is estimated at $12,366,914. 172 NOTES ON PANAMA. " liesides the works einbraced in the excavation of the canal itself, there will be five outlying works which must be con- sidered. These are the Bohio dam, the Gigante spillway, the diversion of the lower Chagres opposite Gatun, the diversion of the Gatuncillo east of Gatun, and the diversion of the Panama Railroad around Lake Bohio. "The Bohio dam is tlie most important structure on the line. A dam of either earth or masonry is feasible, the latter being the more expensive. The French plan contemplates a dam of earth. It has been decided, however, to use the masonry type for the purpose of these estimates. The foundation must be carried to rock, the depth 'to which has not yet been estimated at all points, though the maximum is known to be not less than 128 feet below mean tide. The estimated cost of such a dam is $8,500,000. " The Gigante spillway, which is a structure of considerable magnitude, is very simple. There is a good rock foundation at or above tide level for the entire length of this spillway. It would consist of a masonry dam with a crest at elevation 85, terminating in an apron at elevation 65, with a solid founda- tion below this level, the apron being anywhere below the pres- ent surface of the ground. The foundation below elevation 65 would be put in first, and before the flow of water through the present river at the site oC the Bohio dam is checked. The water after passing over this spillway would flow across the country about a mile to the swamp known as the Marais de Pefia Bhmca. The elevation of the surface of this swamp is now 22.3 feet, so that the water would have a fall of 42.7 feet in this mile, whicli fall would be materiallj^ reduced in extreme floods by the backing up of water in the swamp. Plans have been prepared for this spillway, and the estimated cost is 11,124,524. "A channel must be cut from the Marais de Pefia Blanca to the Marais de Agua Clara, the cost of whicli is estimated at 11,448,076. "A channel was cut by the old canal comi^au}- to divert the Chagres from the canal opposite Gatun. This channel, how- ever, is of very inadequate dimensions, and a new channel, part of which will be an enlargement of the present one, should be cut here. It should liave a cross section of 10,000 square feet. Rock would be encountered in its excavation, and its cost has been estimated at 11,929,976. NOTES ON PANAMA. 173 " A diversion channel, intended to take part of t lie waters of the Chagres, was constructed by the old company along the east side of the canal at Boca Grande, l)ack of Colon. This cnt across the Gatuncillo near Gatun and the portion of it north of this point is available as a new channel for the Gatuncillo. Some work must be done on it, especially at the crossing of the Panania Railroad, where the piers for a new bridge are completed. The cost of putting this channel into service is estimated at S10(),000. " From Bohio to the Obispo gates the Panama Railroad must be rebuilt for 154 miles on an entirely new location, with a bridge across the Chagres below Gamboa. An estimate made from approximate profiles indicates that the cost of this diversion will not exceed 875,000 a mile, or 81,162,500. From the Obispo gates the railroad would be carried for (3 miles on the bench formed by the retaining wall on the east side of the Culebra cut, these 6 miles being estimated to cost S!l0,000 a mile, which includes only track laying, ties, and ballasting. Beyond this will be a mile of light work, esti- mated at 82o,00D, while the main track will have to be raised for 2 miles farther, at a cost of 820,000. Combining these figures, the total cost of the diversion of the Panama Rail- road becomes $1,267,500. "Summing up the several figures already given, the total estimated cost of completing the Panama Canal is as follows: Colon entrance and harbor $T, 334, 673 Harbor to Bohio locks, inchiding levee 10, 718, 288 Bohio locks, including excavation ... 10, 982, 34.5 Lake Bohio 2,786,449 Obispo gates 295, 436 Cnlebra section 44, 378, 335 Pedro Mignel locks, including excavation and dam 8, 496, 326 Pedro Miguel level 1, 169, 611 Miraflores locks, including excavation and spillway 5, 720, 363 Pacific level . 12,366,914 Bohio dam 8.500,000 Gigante spillway 1 , 124. 524 Channel between the marshes 1, 448. 076 Chagi-es diversion 1 , 929, 976 Gatuncillo diversion 100, 000 Panama Railroad diversion - - - 1. 267, 500 Total 118,618,816 Engineering, police, sanitation, and general contingencies. - 23, 723, 763 Aggregate 142, 342, 579 174 NOTES ON PANAMA. ' ' Tliis estimate is for the completed i^roject. A canal begun upon this plan may be opened to navigation before its final completion. If single instead of double locks be used, and the bottom width be made 100 instead of 150 feet, the cost will be reduced •i'2G,401,364, and the estimate becomes $115,941,215. — Interoceanic Canal, Senate Re-port 1337, part U, 1901. "A canal is being built from the Chanquinola River, about 18 miles from Bocas del Toro, to Almirante Bay, opposite Bocas de Drago, the concessionnaire of which is Mr. N. T. Snyder, the owner of nearly" 4,000 acres of banana land in Chanquinola. This canal is about 8 miles in length, and will oj)en to commerce a wide area of the richest banana coun- try in the world, of which about (J, 000 acres are already cul- tivated and bearing fruit. — Commercial Relations, 1902. " Water Transportation. — The port of Panama, situated on the west side of the bay of that name and located at one of the most interesting geographical positions in the Ameri- cas, if not of the world, is of the greatest importance. It is a halfway station on the highway of commerce between Europe and Asia, yet it has no direct line to the Asiatic ports. By the way of Colon and the Panama Railroad it is connected with Europe and with the eastern part of the United States by many steamship lines, to wit: The Royal Mail Steamship Company (mail line, British); The Royal Mail Steanishij) Company (cargo line, British); Compagnie Generale Trans- atlantique, of Saint-Nazaire (French); Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, of Havre and Bordeaux (French); Com- pagnie Generale Transatlantique, of Marseilles (French); West Indies and Pacific Steamship Company, of Liverpool (British); The Harrison Line, of Liverpool (British); Ham- burg-American Packet Companj^ of Havre and Hamburg (German); The Colombian Line, of New York (old Pacific Mail Steamship Company, United States) ; Compahia Trans- atlantica, of Barcelona (Spanish); The Italian Line, of Genoa (Italian). The fleets of these companies aggregate some 05 vessels, some of which are among the finest sailing across the ocean. ^^Soufli Arncricaii Steamsliip Companij. — This company has steamers leaving this port every other week bound for Chile, the termini being Panama and Valparaiso, a distance of some- thing over 3,000 miles. The itinerary of the lino is as fol- NOTES ON PANAMA. 175 lows: Buenaventura, Tuinaco, Esnieraklas, Naliia, Manta, Caj'O, Belleuita, Guayac£uil, Tiimbes, Pa3'ta, Teehiira, Pimen- tel, Eten, Pacasmayo, Selaverry, Chinibote, Samanco, Casma, Huarme}', Supe, Huacho, Callao, Corro Azul, Tanibo de Moro, Pisco, Lonias, C'hala, Quilca, Mollendo, Ilo, Arica, Iquique, Tocopacilla, Tobija, Antofagasta, Taltal, Clianaral, Caldera, Carrizal Ba.jo, Iluasco, Cociuinibo, Valparaiso. The steamers of this line call at all of tliese places. The regular ports of call for the largest steamers are Guayaquil, Techura, Pimentel, Callao, Mollendo, Iquique, and Coquimbo. The distance from Panama to Guayaquil is 800 miles; from Guayaquil to Gallao, 600 miles; from Callao to Iquique, G50 miles, and from Iquique to Valparaiso, 800 miles. This com- pany secures its coal from Corral, some 400 miles south of Valparaiso, where splendid coal de^josits are found. "The fleet of this line is composed of the following vessels: steamers. Aconcagiia Imperial - . Mapocho. - Maipo Cachapoal Lantara . . . Amazones Itata , Copiapo - - - Capac- ity. Tons. 3,000 3,000 3,(KX) 2,9.50 2, 7.5.5 2, 600 2, .500 2.600 1,800 Horse- power. 3,100 3,000 3,1100 2. ( H K I l.iHiO 1,6(10 1,,S(I0 1,5(K) 1,900 steamers. Limari , Chilian . Biobio._ Spartan Aqiiila - - Lircai .- Longavi Manle .. Pudeto . Capac- ity. Tons. 900 600 600 600 6110 600 400 250 300 Horse- power. 6.50 450 400 400 400 400 370 240 "Onh^the largest of these vessels come to this port, viz, the Aconcagua, Imperial, Mapcjclw, Maipo, and CacliapoaJ. The other steamers, especially the small ones, do coastwise service and ascend the rivei"S as far as i)0ssible, so that from Valparaiso to Panama there is not a port of importance in Chile, Peru, and Ecuador that can not be reached by one of these vessels. "The passenger (first-class) rates are, from Panama to Guayaquil, £13 los. ($66.81); from Guayaquil to Callao, £-20 (.$97.3:i); from Callao to Valparaiso, £11 17s. 6d. (657.79); from Panama to Valparaiso, £31 17s. 6d. ($154.63). "The rates to all intermediate points are somewhat propor- tional to distance. The passenger traffic is considerable Iwth ways.- The line is controlled by Chilean capitalists. '■''Tlie Pacific Steam Navigation Company. — This is an English corporation (limited), with headipiarters in Liverpool. It runs steamers all over tlie worhl, fjut has a distinct line 176 NOTES ON PANAMA. doing' service with Valparaiso, from Avhich iDort it runs a spe- cial line of steamers to Panama. The fleet is composed as follows : steamers. Capac- ity. Horse- power. steamers. Capac- Horse- ity. power. Tons. 3.190 2,600 1.8IK) 1.600 4.50 900 2,200 Pizarro . . Ton.s. ' 2.160 1.9(10 Bolivia.. 1,925 Coquimbo 1,821 Casma .592 Manavi 1 - 041 Quito Santiago Serena -.. 1.2(i6 1,100 3.190 2,800 2.394 2,100 170 150 Pnno._- - - 2,:398 "These steamers make trips fortnightly regularly and work somewhat in conjunction with the South American Steamship Company, although they are distinct lines under different managements. There was a time, not so very long ago, when the}' ran a powerful comiietition, but tliey have i^ooled their issues. ''The termini of this particular line are Valparaiso and Panama, but it runs a steamer regularly to Puntas Arenas and back, principally for the cattle business. The itineraiy of this company is identical with that of the South American Steamship Companj'. The rates for jiassengers (first class) from Valparaiso to this place and intermediate points, and vice versa, are identical with those of the same companj', as are the rates of freight. " Tliis comi^any owns in the I^ay of Panama an island called the "Little Toboga," leased from the owner for a number of years. On this island they have waterworks, which furnish them all needed water (spring) for their steamers. Thej" maintain in this baj' a small steamer called the Morro, of 170 tons, to supply their vessels with water. This lease is exceed- ingly valuable, as the water is excellent and, so far as known, the onl}' spring water in this jjart of the world. '^ North American Navigation Comjjaiiij. — This company has a fleet composed of the following vessels: steamers. Capacity. Horse- power. St. Paul Tons. 606.61 1,240.72 2,511.40 2,268.15 1,919.13 400 Mexico 700 Keweenaw. 2,000 1,900 1,700 Saturn Progreso NOTES ON PANAMA. 177 " This company was organized earlj^ in l.^'.)3 in San Fran- cisco bj^ some of the leading mercliaiits of iliat phice, in oj)positiou to the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. It operates in conjunction with the Panama Railroad, through bills of lading being given from San Francisco direct to New York via Panama and Colon, and vice versa. All the vessels are chartered from eastern parties for the term of one j'Car, and the line is controlled by Capt. W. L. Merry, president of the comjDanj'^, with general offices in San Francisco. "It has no accommodations for passengers (first class) and does not pretend to carry anj^, unless upon exceptional oc- casions, and then only as deck passengers. It carries a large amount of freight both from San Francisco to Panama, and vice versa. It broke the monopoly which the Pacific Mail Steamship Company had enjoyed on this coast for many 3'ears. The trips are somewhat irregular, there Ijeing no fixed dates for arrivals or departures, but so far they have aver- aged two trips per month each way. The rates of freight, owing to the competition with the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, are verj^ low and irregular. They (charge what they can get — sometimes less than a cent per pound, often only $2 per ton. "The ships of the North American Navigation Company make the trips direct from here to San Francisco and return, calling on rare occasions at Mexican and Central American ports. The distance from San Francisco to 'Panama is 3,9-40 miles. ''^The Pacific Mail Steamship Company. — This companj- has been supplying service between San Francisco, the Isthmus, and New York for nearlj'^ half a century. It is not as power- ful in these regions as it once was, but promises ere long, if all signs do not fail, more than to regain its former usefulness and greatness. It is doubtful if it will ever have a foothold south of Panama, nor does it seem to care for any. In fact, it has not protected its own coastwise trade north of Panama, as it has allowed the Pacific Steam Navigation Compan}- (Brit- ish) to encroach on its domain, thac line now having a steamer doing service at the expense of th^ Pacific Mail as far north as Puntas Arenas, in Costa Rica. This service promises not to stop there, and it would not be surprising to see the Pacific Steam Navigation Company steam all the way to San Fran- 12312—03 12 178 NOTES ON PANAMA. Cisco, unless the Pacific Mail gives miicli better service than it now gives. "The fleet of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company on this route consists of the following vessels: steamers. Capacity. Horse- power. Steamers. Capacity. Horse- power. Colon San Jose Tons. 1,843.50 1,538.25 1,759.24 1,700 1,450.50 1.600 City of Sydney Tons. I,9ft5.88 1,166.80 1,548.41 1,046.30 1,&59 1,800 900 Acapiilco San Bias . Starbuck 1,000 1,496. .50 1,300 1,496. .50 1-3.50 City of Panama Barracouta (Brit.). 8(X1 San Juan 1,4(K) Colima 2, 143. 23 2,000 "The last four are doing coasting service as far up as Aca- pulco. They do not go to San Francisco. The itinerary of the company is as follows: Puntas Arenas, San Juan del Sur, Corinto, Amapala, La Union, La Libertad, Acajutla, San Jose de Guatemala, Champerico, Ocos, San Benito, Tonala, Salina Ci-uz, Puerto Angel, Acapulco, Manzanillo, San Bias, Mazatlan, and San Francisco. "The main points and their distances from Panama are: Covinto, 74U miles; San Jose de Guatemala, 990; Acapulco, 1,590; Manzanillo, 2,140; San Bias, 2,225. The distance between Panama and San Francisco is 3,920 miles. " When the cofi'ee ceases to move, one of the coasters is with drawn from the route, and it then serves as a coal ship in the Bay of Paiuima. "The Barracouta sails under the English flag. "Three steamers leave San Francisco for Panama — on the 8th, 18th, and 28th of each month. Tliey return from Pan- ama to San Francisco on the 9th, 19th, and 29th of each month. The coasters leave Panama on the 10th and 29th of each month, and tlie}^ aim to make about one trip per month for each vessel, but this is not very regnlar, owing to the dif- ficulties in loading and unloading at tlie difl'erent places in Central America and ^Icxico, the system of lighterage being in vogue at almost all these ports, there being no piers. — Coinmercial Directoi-ij of the American Bepuhlics, 1S97-9S. "In 1901-2 on the Pacific coast the steamship lines engaged in the isthmian transit trade were (1) tlie Pacific Mail Steam- .ship Company (American) from San Francisco, Mexican, and CiMilral American ports; (2) the Pacific Steam Navigation Company (IJrilish); (;>) tlie Campaiiia Sud .Vmericana de NOTES ON PANAMA. 179 Vapores (Chilean) from Valparaiso and other Chilean ports, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia. "On the Atlantic coast trading to Colon are (1) the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company from Southampton and the Lejdand and Ilarj-ison Line from Liverpool, both represent- ing British trade; (3) the Campagnie Generale Transatlan- tique from Havre, Bordeaux, and St. Nazaire, representing the French trade; (4) the Hamburg- American Line from Ham- burg, representing the German trade; (5) the Campaiiia Transatlantica de Barcelona from Barcelona, representing the Spanish trade; (6) the Panama Railroad Companj^'s Steamship Line from New York, representing the United States trade. — Monthly Bullefin of ilie Bureau of American Bepuhlics, August, 1903. "Roads. — The country between Panama and "Panama Viejo " is very rolling and grown with grass, affording fine pasturage for cattle. Along this road the country Avould also afford excellent camping facilities for lai-ge bodies of trooj)s. The water supply of Panama at the present time is verj'poor, the only good water being stored in cisterns Jn the city. Water is also drawn from wells along the railroad near the city, but this is exceedingly impure. — Report of Capt. C. B. HumpJireij, Twenty-second Infantry, 1903. "The Sabana road, leading out of Panama, near rail- road station, forks a short distance outside of town. The east bi'anch leads to Puerto Bello, the other to Cruces and Gorgona. P^rom the latter, just east of Cardenas River, 4^ miles from Panama, a path leads off westward to Chorrero, crossing the old line of railway between Pedro Miguel and Rio Grande stations, then uji the left bank of the Rio Grande above canal and railroad. One and one-half miles northeast of the Rio Grande station the Cruces-Gorgona road forks, one branch leading to each village. That to Cruces does not again approach tlie railroad, but terminates in the valley of upper Chagres at Cruces. The Gorgona road beyond the fork crosses the railroad two-thirds mile northwest of Em- pire and continues to Gorgona, about one-half mile dis- tant from the west side of railroad. A trail continues to Matacliin. A trail leaves the Cruces-Panama road a short distance south of Cruces and crosses the railroad one-fourth mile south of Obispo station. It crosses the Gorgona road about 1 mile northward of where the latter crosses the rail- road. 180 NOTES ON PANAMA. "San Miguel Region. — The line of our survey from Pan- ama was along the mule trail to Chepo; for the first few miles over a moderately rolling and mostly open country, thence to Juan Diaz River, skirting or crossing the foothills from the central range, from the sloping j)lain rather, the occasional flat ground heavily timbered and mucky in parts from the late rains. "From the Juan Diaz to the Pacora j)retty much the same. The axial cordillera does not run out sj)urs to the Pacific. Those spurs range only a short distance from the main mass — wooded, their declivities at an arable pitch — and sink into a very moderately sloping plain apj)arently 12 to 15 miles wide. The line of the trail is three-fourths in open prairie. Many large hard- wood trees in the forest. The subsoil a red or red- dish yellow, loamj^ clay, underlain by massive clay rock — that is to say, rock in thick beds— solidified shale, as packets of mouth glue becomes solidified. It is a better country than that passed bj^ us Ijetween David and Panama — than the last 200 miles of it, at least; better soiled and timbered. The wide plain above noted, bountifullj^ watered b}^ perennial streams, is really, because of erosion, a series of hardly ridges except here and there, but heaves or spits, turtle- backed, generally open grass land, inclined just right for drainage and merging in a flat, adjacent to the sea, 3 or 4 miles wide, coiniDosed of the fine wash from the upland and heavily wooded. We found it hard baked and sun-cracked wherever bare of grass. There was a continuous crack 2 to 4 inches in width along the middle of every trodden path, however it might wind or jog. The petrified hoof holes showed it to be soft in the rainy season. "From Pacora the trail ran northeastward in order to get uphill and follow a ridge crest. Thence across a rolling tract watered by affluents of Rio Chico it won the village of Chepo. "Chepo village is on high ground, healthful, and free from insects. " We studied the coast attentively down to San Miguel Bay, there, as farther east, observing that it was character- ized by sea plain and knolls or short ridges, both isolated and in clusters, quite detached from the cordillera except at the Chiman. From our night's anchorage at the mouth of Rio Ti'inidad we discovered a saddle in the spur above Chi- NOTES ON PANAMA. 181 man village permitting transit from that river soutlieastward. At San Miguel Bay the surprise awaited us of finding a clear vista northwestward up Congo River toward Chiman, and that the hills between Buenaventura and Punta Brava were outstanding, an unexpected event. "On the northern side of San Miguel Bay no obstacle appeared. A depression in the low ridge dividing Darien Harbor fi-om the estuar}' of the Savana River admitted the proposed railroad line to a crossing of that stream, which we selected 5 miles below its confluence with the Lara, after an exi3loration by canoe. "The section at high tide was as follows: Beginning on fast ground west side, thence 600 feet of mangrove thicket, depth of water gradually increasing to 10 feet; thence 1,000 feet, deepening to 40 feet; thence 300 feet, shoaling to 85 feet; thence 100 feet, shoaling to mangrove swamp awash; thence 500 feet fiat to fast ground on east side. Mean range of tides, about 15 feet. Bottom bluish mud, into which, at the river margin, we were unable to churn down a sharp and heavy pole more than 15 feet. Commander Eastman remarks, concerning this estuary, that the bottom is generally mud, a few exceptions of rock and gravel, but that 10 feet under the mud rock would probably be found. "From Rio Chico southward the greater portion of the pro- posed railway line would pass through forest, probably full half of it would be in forest between Panama and Yavisa." — Report of the Inierconfinental Railway Commis- sion, Vol. II. "David to Panama. — AYe resumed field work at David Sat- urday, January 21, 1S93, and, by way of the public trail, gen- erally used as a thoroughfare through San Lorenzo, San Felix, Tole, La Mesa, Santiago, Aguadulce, San Carlos, Chame, Capira, and Chorrera, arrived at the railroad station in Pan- ama Thursday, February 16, a distance of 292 miles from the start. "The trail on the whole is fairly direct, but in detail de- vious and sometimes tortuous, seeking to traverse detached ranges of settlement on the sabanas and ridge-crest passages between them through the forest. "The Isthmus on the Pacific side, from David to Panama, may be topograi^hically summarized as mountains, sloping Ijlain, and sea flat. The mountain rose first. I'he plain was 182 NOTES ON PANAMA. derived mainly from it and spread ont under water. The sea flat was similarly derived from the plain after its emergence and built up in the coast shallows above tide level. " This uniform make is interrupted by spurs from the Cor- dillera at Tole and La Mesa and by the approach of the Cor- dillera itself to the Pacific near Capira. The plain, too, has been defeatured hy erosion and is masked to some extent by lofty hummocks and hogbacks, fragments of the ancient mountain mass. "The geolog}^ is variegated clay, red or ruddy yellow at the surface, gray below, underlaid by shale in massive beds, weathering black where exposed. "The country is watered by numerous streams, almost without exception clear, livelj^, stony bedded, and firm banked. Timber for railroad use is abundant. The same may be said of stone for masonry if concrete be included in that item. Material for dry walls is scarce. "Perhaps those who shall utilize our work hereafter would be best served by more i)articular sketch of our ol)servations. "From David to Rio Chorcha the line is nearly all in prairie^ well populated by native Indians. It passes through forest only at the stream crossings, but the prairies themselves — various in width and a little undulated lengthwise — are lakes of grass, bordered bj' irregular shores of forest, so that the view was bounded by woods on every hand as we went along. " Between Chorea and Boca del Monte the trail held the crest of a sharply serrate ridge in close wilderness, with under- growth of palms and platanitos, issuing at the latter point on ridge praii"ies, which extended thence in widening and declin- ing expanses to level plain at San Lorenzo. "Between the rivers Fonesca and Tupi the topography is irregular and hummocky. There is prairie for about 2 miles approaching Rio San Juan and for about 5 or 6 miles ap- proaching Rio Viejo. " From the vicinity of Remedios to that of Tole another jagged profile through forest exists on the line of the trail, ending in sharp ascent. "Between Callejon Summit and Rio Cobre the country is comparatively rough and uninhabited. "La Mesa, as the name implies, is seated on a high plain, which declines very slowlj^ eastward and drops off at the end so fast as to necessitate a little development [for railroad NOTES ON PANAMA. 183 location] near the \'acoi. Thence toward Santiago, crossing affluents of the San Pedro in a wide, scrubby' flat, another marked characteristic of the Pacific plain is found. Xeai" all those tributary channels the surface was pitted l)y rainfall over considerable spaces, 10 to 15 feet deep. The harder layers being cemented b}^ some solution of iron, those pitted areas had the exact likeness of hematite ore diggings. "From Santiago a wide swell of grassy plain, drained right and left, carried us by imperceptible descent to the Rio Santa Maria. Thence to Aguadulce there were long reaches of low undulation, with shallow, dead flat, lake-like basins on either hand around which the trail detoured. A dark-green water weed covered them, showing that they might be ponds during the rainj' reason. 'From Aguadulce the trail bore northeastward to Nata, passing to the left of an outlying clumi) of hills. "Arrived over easy ground at Anton; we followed the trail to the beach and the beach to San Carlos; had not tide pre- vented would have followed it to the vicinity of Cliame to make speed. It is the usual highway when tide permits. Much of the land along this part of the coast bluffs into the sea — clay bluffs 50 to 80 feet high, containing beds of rounded cobbles, and shingle cemented with clay, and standing ver- tical or nearl}^ so. " Capira Mountain, south of the river so named, is ap- proached by waj^ of a series of low saddles in spurs from the main eordillera. It necessitates an ascent of 550 feet and a descent of o31 feet to a crossing of the river. It exposes beds of clay rock hai'der than that found farther west, and is cumbered with blocks of the same material and bowlders of volcanic origin. Heavy timber reappears in this locality. "It is plain going from Capira River to Chorrera. " Future expeditionary parties for survey betWeoii T*unta Arenas and the Atrato country should be so timed, manned, and distributed as to complete the work in the summer sea- son, say December to March, inclusive. This allows the month of November for drying the ground and cairies nearly to the end of fair w^eather. Even in January and February we encountered hog wallows barely passable — some not pass- able — necessitating tedious detoui's. A few days' i-ain would liave the effect of seriously im[)cding, if not actually block- ing, field work. This memorandum is of great importance. 184 NOTES ON PANAMA, "The river Santa Maria flows eastward into the Gulf of Parita through a wide valley, receiving its principal tribnta- I'ies from the southern sloj>e of the cordillera. The Rio Grande, its neighbor eastwardly, appeared to draw its sup- plies direct fi'om the interior of the Isthmus, which in that quarter looked much broken, hummocky, and comparatively low. "Between Nata and Chame the oxhorn thorn abounded. It is chestnut-brown in color. Twin thorns alternate, 1 inch apart, on the stems and twigs of a shrub thinly foliaged, its leaves similar to those of the honey locust. The most perfect thorns have a height of If inches, a spread of 2| inches, and taper continuousl}' on curved lines from an elliptic section at their juncture half an inch wide and a quarter deep. They curiously justify the name given them. Near the points a small hole is found in each thorn, permitting the passage of little reddish ants, who first consume the pith filling of the thorns and then inhabit the hollow. They discriminate unerr- ingly between the push of the wind and that of hand, paw, or claw, and swarm out promptly to repel the intruder. Their bite is instant, multitudinous, and hot — somewhat like nettle sting, but the pain does not last long. " In that same region, on saucered plains annually ponded 1)3" rain, were numerous abandoned ant hills, as we supposed, of a light granite-graj, having the appearance of cemetery monuments. They range from low cones 4 to 6 feet in diam- eter at the base and 2 feet high, through every variety, con- cave and convex in outline, of low cone surmounted by peaky cusp, the larger ones rising to heights of 8 and 10 feet above ground. "Oui" march along the seaside between Anton and San Carlos was enlivened by the great company of pelicans — sometimes at rest on bowldery jetties, sometimes on the water, all of them taking wing when a shoal of fish appeared. "The pUiins of Chame are of gray and white clay with disseminated shingle and cobbles, large beds of them scat- tered about. The surface of the country is clawed by drain- age as if by spread fingers of an enormous hand struck in and gradually drawing together. The general surface is about 100 feet above the channels of the larger streams. Mist flowM'rs were in blossom there, and morning glories, crim- son, white, blue, and yellow, together with c O S5 ■2. 3 fe: :S 2i o ^" :c -*' 't cc .-; oi t- ■*-*CCCC cc CCCl55T>'JiK! N ^ Jh W CO >-< o'od a o 03 a o y 3 y a'eS Ca4>OC-*C<5 o ^ t— * f-H t"- (3^ 1-^ t- 5 ; eo 1-5 00 OS; *3 ^^^59^^ *^ C5CCO^-*iJC O cc ^ OCC (M *f ac CO _2; sucoicot-. uc i-i-^ooucus s s e i=;;i §5 ^ SS :~ '—•^COO'N ic «cx'^-^^^^ccn; 50 oc' o ^cc ^' m t-^oi 12 r^^-Hr-ir-1'M3^'IJ«Ci5.!CCCCCCM CCCCcS es g aj . d.£P^2^ ■w-ag -^ ^ ^ O^^ T— I "M^ CC CO fe 02 S^'inot-iet--* CO ?> g'^ooort?^ cc S .-iNaisJcccccc cc ^1 9< c5rt(Mce-* in ;j g SJ S5 a: CO o »■ ® SS2SS5 ig ;zi? fea2 COfe cc 02 02 023202 02 02 cc i-- m cc Q -*■ -J i-c cm o n o oo »-H -M ?c cc ■* -t- »n »n o o 1— t 02 aj 02 02 CC CO 02 "^ii— in incinoi^ iQ r-^ -*'■* -*' •*•*-*■*■-# ■* in 5 §S332SS 3 I- l-^ I- X X' OC X 00 x' O OiOil— i-na^m ■* ■* ^inmoocvi?! 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" "^ "^ . 2 O O t— I ^ § g w ^ »i g .» NOTES ON PANAMA. 195 Intercontinental Railway. — "Any location that may be adopted for a railway aloni^ the Pacific slope of the Lstlimns of Panama would, from the point of leaving Costa Kiea to its attainment of the Atrato l>asin, cross nearly at right angles most of the streams emptying into the great ocean. In their order, from west to east, the principal ones would be the Golfito, which empties into the Gulf of Dulce; the Chiriqui Vie jo, the David, and the Tabasara, which discharge into the Gulf of Alanje; the San Pablo aiyi San Pedro, into the Gulf of Monti jo; the Santa Maria, into the Gulf of Parita; the Chepo, which is navigable for small vessels and empties into the Gulf of Panama; the Turia, the principal stream of the Isthmus, which discharges into the Gulf of San Miguel." — Report of the Intercontinental Railway Commission, J^ol- ume /, i^art 1, 1891-1S98. A Projected Railroad. — "A contract has been signed hy the minister of the ti-easui'v of Colombia and Don Pablo Pinzon for the construction of a railroad to connect the dis- trict of Bocas del Toro and Chiriqui, in the department of Panama. The work is to be comijleted within ten years and the concessionaire is to receive from the Government a sub- sidy of 5,000 pesos per kilometer." — Monthln Bulhtin of tlie Bureau of American Republics, July, l&W. Cables. — Communication with the outside world is main- tained at Colon by cable via Jamaica, and at Panama via Nicaragua and Mexico northward and J^uenaventura south- ward. Telegraph. — Two telegraph wires along the railroad from Colon to Pananxa belong to the railroad and canal companj^ separately. The telegraph offices along the route are: Gatun (2), Bohio (2), Frijoles (1), Taverniila (2), Mamei (1), Mata- chin (2), Empire (2), Paraiso (2), Ri: Grande (1), Corozal (2). III. POPULATION. (a) CENSUS, DISTRIBUTION, RACE, LANGUAGE, ETC. "The inhabitants can hardly be chissed as belonging exclusively to either of the three primal races. They are a curious mixture of red, white, and black — crude evidence of that lax morality which j^revailed here in early Spanish colo- nial times. Just how these unfortunate people manage to live or why they never had the energy or ambition to better their condition nobody seems to know. Yet they are appar- ently happy in their life of poverty and wretchedness. They have few wants of body or mind. The indigenous plantain and banana afford a cheap and convenient substitute for bread, and fish from the streams and lagoons and a few yellow- legged chickens afford all the meat they want. Occasionally one sees an inferior specimen of the domestic pig or a forlorn- looking, half -famished donkey and sometimes a few domesti- cated ducks; but there are no cows or horses or other live- stock, and one rarely sees a vegetable garden. Toward the Pacific coast the country is more thickly jjopulated, the houses are better, the people look cleaner, healthier, stronger, and more self-resj)ecting. "The present population is perhaps 400,000, including an independent tribe of Indians, who are said to number about 8,000." — Tlie Coloiiihian and Venezuelan Repuhlics. Scruggs^ 1900. "At present no group of Carib speech is known to inhabit any jDart of the Isthmus, although there are traditions that some of the warlike tribes in the central disti-icts south of San Bias came originally from the Goajira Peninsula, which is still held by a powerful Carib nation. In recent j^ears they have nearly all been absorbed in the general population — a mixture of Indians, whites, and mulattoes, in which the col- ored element is most pronounced. It is due to the large num- ber of Jamaicans who were attracted to Panama by the high 196 NOTES ON PANAMA. 197 rate of wages on the raihvaj^ and canal works and manj- of whom afterwards settled in the countrj'. The movement, unless arrested, must eventuallj' assimilate the Isthmus to those parts of the Antilles where the African element pre- dominates. In the eastern districts most of the aborigines, such as the Dariens or Papaparos, are extinct. But others, such as the Chocos, Q neves, and Tules, still survive and con- stitute the Cuna famil}', whose affinities appear to be with the Chocos and Baudos of the Atrato and San Juan valleys in Colombia proper. (See table, Ch. III.) "On the other hand, the Veraguas and Chiriquis, formerly dominant in the west, where they still form the bulif of the poi)ulation, have abandoned the tribal system, with the asso- ciated usages and traditions, and are scarcelj^ noAv to be distinguished from other Ilispano- Americans of Spanish speech and culture. Xevertheless, they had, in pre-Colum- bian times, a culture of their own and thus formed a link in the chain of more or less civilized nations which extended, with interruptions, from the Pueblos of Arizona, through Mexico and Central America, into Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. "Like some of the neighboring Costa Ricans, the Veraguas of the auriferous district named from them were specially noted for their taste and technical skill in the goldsmith's art. Throughout the western section of the Isthmus, between the Chiriqui Inlet and Panama Bay, occur numerous prehistoric huacas (graves or barrows), which have yielded an abundance of gold and other artistic objects that had been deposited with the dead. Similar graves, some of large size, extend as far as the Gulf of Nicoj^a, but the objects found in them — obsid- ian, greenstone, and tinely wrouglit jade tools and orna- ments, knives, axes, armlets, rings, figures of men and gods, etc. — have been ascribed to Aztec influences, or even to the Aztecs themselves, who are now known to have ranged from Nicaragua into the adjacent parts of the present Costa Rica territory. Some of the barrows visited by Colonel Church in the district east of Guapiles are 100 feet long, 75 wide, and 15 high. 'They appeared to be filled with broken statues of men, women, animals, and other objects sculptured from volcanic rock. We cut the weeds and exposed an immenes statute, which must have been 10 feet high,' besides 'a fine life-size specimen of the head of an alligator and one of a 198 NOTES ON PANAMA. puma.' But no mention is anywhere made of architectural remains or of any monuments at all comparable to those of the Maj^as or Incas. In this respect the culture of these Costa Riean and Panama people shows more affinity with that of the Colombian Chibchas, who were also famous jew- elers and goldsmiths." — StanforcVs Compendium of Geog- rapliy^ Central and Soutlt America. "All along the rail wa}^ from Colon to Panama are little towns and settlements, but few good houses. The habita- tions are thatched-roof sheds with dirt floors, and their inmates a curious mixture of red, white, and black. The indigenous plantain and banana afford a cheap and conven- ient substitute for bread, and fish from the streams and lagoons and a few yellow-legged chickens afford all the meat they want. There are no cows or horses or other live stock, and one rarely sees a vegetable garden. "It is necessary to know their language and disposition to get along with the people. Civil and kind treatment almost assures civil and even courteous treatment in return. Touch- ing their sensibilities or wounding their vanity should be avoided. Serious disturbances sometimes result from a mere thoughtless jest." — Tlie Colombian and I'enezuelan Repub- lics. — Scruggs. 1900. Description oe people met with on a journey between David AND Panama. — "Our departure from David having occurred on a Saturday, we had our Sunday rest at Chorcha, a small Indian hamlet 12 miles out, pitchiug camp near the dwelling of Doctor Pecuado, an immigrant Cuban physician, who comes hither annually from Panama to pass the summer. Mr. Obaldia accompanied us and introduced us to that hos- pitable colony. The Pecuados were the oidy white residents. They straightway adopted us into rhe tribe, and in effect we slept at camp and ate with the family. The beautiful mother would take no excuses. The doctor's farm covered 450 acres of fertile prairie and bottom, half of it timbered. Land-hungry readers may be interested to learn that this fine estate cost him just 20 cents, the legal fee for making out paijers. It is only 2 miles direct from salt water, but the crooked river channel across the sea flat necessitates a canoe voyage of three or four hours. lie cultivates the plantain and the cacao chiefl3\ Said that monkeys lessened his crops, as they destroyed more than they ate. Had a tigei" hide b^ feet long from muzzle to rump; tail nearly 2^ feet. NOTES or PANAMA. 199 "We made tlie acqaaintance there of another transient guest, Senor Jose Santa Maria Jovenes, one of two young bachelor brothers, to whom we are indebted for courtesj'. They have a cattle range, wire fenced, on the eastern side of Rio Fonseca, probably including 2 square miles. Their grant is a tract 12 by GO miles in area, its boundaries not yet marked on the ground nor definitely described in writing or graphical plan. It is 47 square miles larger than the average size of counties in Pennsjdvania. "Near Remedies we met a party of wild Indians from the interior — thick-set, strong-legged fellows. Their faces were painted, as if with a fine camel's-hair brush, in thin, black lines, a diamond figure inclosing th-e mouth, three or four horizontal stripes across the nose, forehead, and cheeks in tit-tat-to diagram, no two alike, of which holiday set-off they betrayed a little conscious vanit3\ They answered our salu- tations with pleasant grins and friendly' gestures. "Agricultural Indians, speaking Spanish, peopled the coun- trj" along the line of our survey through Chiriqui and Yera- guas. In the provincial capitals, David and Santiago, whites may have outnumbered them. The field population wa« almost exclusively Indian. They were happily circumstanced. Numerous villages strung on the trail — singles and clusters, variously spaced like beads of a rosary — would remind Pacific voyagers of the coral archipelagos, each village an atoll with oval or circular prairie for lagoon, a girdling reef of cabins, then the all-surrounding woodland sea. Like their island cousins, before the paleface blasted them, they are for the most part in their first childhood as communities, sucklings of nature, to whom she bears a milkier bosom than to the Eskimo and Fuegan. "Their cabins stand apart, within talking distance usually ; clumi)s of mangoes and cocoanut in front, narrow plantations behind, similar to those of the French Canadians along the St. Lawrence, cleared from wilderness and sloping to brook or river — water convenient being a prime necessity. Peren- nial vegetation and a warm, equable climate, tempered by ocean winds, countervail the disadvantage of a soil but moder- atelj' rich. Cattle, horses, pigs, goats, and fowls feed at large. Every family is well housed, well fed, without toilsome labor, and the grown members well and cleanly clad; the wives tidy, robust, cheerful helpmates; the naked young broods 200 NOTES ON PANAMA. frisking like colts on the gTeensward. All villages alike are scenes of peace, welfare, and contentment. "Their social economy, their genei'ous hospitality, their good-fellowship, and neighborly virtues have come down to them, it is believed, not only from before the 'Conqnest,' but from the period antedating a previous invasion, j^robably of Phoenician adventurers or immigrant warriors from Atlan- tis. These traits, as well as their features, color, and the antiquities of their country, bespeak them a race identical with our North American Indians, modified in some respects by an infusion of Semitic blood." — Report of Intercontinental Railway Commission, 1891-189S, Vol. II. "The Talamancans. — Within less than 100 miles of where is contemplated the greatest interoceanic ditch tlie world has seen there dwells an Indian nation that is to all intents and purposes identically the same to day as it was when Columbus first discovered the Western Hemisphere. These are the Talamancans, who inhabit a few square miles in the mountains almost midway between the two oceans, and but a comparative!}^ short distance from the Panama Railroad, though it is much to be doubted if they have ever seen it or are aware of its existence. "For upward of four centuries the mediaeval civilization of Spain has surrounded them on all sides, but their language is still their own and seems to have lost little of its orignal char- acter through contact with the execrable mixture of English, Spanish, and French spoken by the lower classes throughout the West Indies and along the Spanisli Main. As they live in virtually an unknown region, at least three days' journey from the nearest settlement, their solitude is seldom broken. The visitor is received with the greatest hospitality and is welcome as long as he desires to remain. Their visits to the outer world are infrequent, rarely extending bej^ond the nearest port, and are undertaken only in quest of luxuries. "Extra fowls and porkers are bartered on these occasions for tobacco, geegaws, and ammunition. The spear and blow- gun are used more than firearms for various reasons. The former are not only infinitely cheaper, but usually more effective in the hands of the Indian than the clieap muzzle- loading fowling piece of Frencli or German origin with its paper-like barrel — the onl}^ arm he can afford to purchase besides the machete. NOTES ON PANAMA. 201 "Their language and customs in some respects resemble those of the score or more of widel}' differing peoples that are scattered over the tenitorj' lying between the Mexican bor- der and the Isthmus. "Their ancestors doubtless served Aztec masters for cen- tui'ies before Cortez appeared on the scene to impose a worse slavery upon them, for thej" are not of the superior race of which so man\ reminders in the shape of gold and silver ornaments, stone idols, and curious specimens of pottery have been unearthed in quantities in several of the Central American States, and being the opposite of warlike they could easily be held in bondage. "They are not idolaters in any sense of the word, nor do they profess religion or hold public worship of any nature, though their belief tends more to fear of an evil spirit than faith in a good one; in fact, the Talaniancans present an instance of a nation without a doctor, a lawyer, or priest, the 'sokee,' corresjionding to the medicine man of the North American tribes, usually combining the functions of all three. Polyg- amy is the most important feature of their domestic relations, few, if any, of the members of the different tribes being con- tent with less than three to half a dozen wives, while his Talainancan majesty might well exclaim with Launcelot, 'Alas! Fifteen wives is nothinge.' His seraglio is usuall}^ better provided in j)oint of numbers. "The government of this Indian nation is entirely heredi- tary, and it is astonishing to learn of the many points of the doctrine of primogeniture as practiced by the reigning fami- lies of Europe with which they are familiar. Their laws are naturally few in number, both the legislative and judicial power, as is usually the case where no fixed principles of either have been acquired, being vested exclusivelj' in the king. In common with others in his position the world over, he is a despot, and rules according to royal whim where this does not conflict with long-established custom. The marital relation is held sacred. The engagement of a girl begins within a few hours of her birth, the bridegroom to be mak- ing a contract with the parents at that time. It is usually con- summated when she reaches the age of 10 or 12, a custom that is responsible for great disparity in the age and longevity of the sexes. "The needs of the Talamancaix are primitive to a degree 202 NOTES ON PANAMA. characteristic of the early ages of man, and as nature pro- vides for him with a bounteous hand his is an existence of dream}^ contentment undisturbed by thought of the morrow or fear of the hereafter. The rivers teem Avith many varie- ties of edible fish, and game abounds to a degree unknown outside the Tropics, while the soil is so fertile as to give rise to the saying that it will raise pickaninnies. A little corn and cassava are planted, and the soil and climate do the rest. When the}' mature, which in the case of corn is four times a year, they are prepared in the same manner as that i)racticed bj' their forefathers from t ime out of mind. Clothing, whether for man or woman, is of the scantiest description imaginable, except on gala occasions or a visit to the settlement, when the trousers and shirt of civilization are donned by the former, the children running about absohitel}' naked until several 3'ears old. " The Talamancan\s hut, which is a masterpiece in the art of thatching, is a huge affair, and shelters his entire family and all his worldly possessions, including the domestic ani- mals, that continually root around the interior during the day and retire with him at night. As he is a past master in the art of domesticating the wild deer, the peccary, the tapir, and even the tiger cat, numbers of these animals are present in every village, taking the place of the motley pack mon- grels that usually greet the visitor at such humble settle- ments. His bed consists of the trunk of a certain species of palm, cut into strips and supported 3 or 4 feet from the ground on a frame, and a few earthen j)ots, with now and again an iron one, complete the furnishing of his house. "While adept with the spear and deadly blowgun, in which various of the South American tribes employ poisoned darts, he is of the most peaceable nature, and his traditions contain no stirring tales of conquest, nor does his conversation boast of personal valor, for he knows not war. In short, the Tala- mancan is forever at peace with all the world, and only de- sires to pursue the even tenor of iiis yvay unmolested to the end of the chapter."" — Scientific American, NoreiuherSl, 1903. IV. RESOURCES. (a) MINERAL RESOURCES. "Gold is obtained from the rivers Marca and Balsas, in South Darien. There still lives the tradition of the famous mines of Cana or Espiritu Santo, in the neighborhood of the Tuira. At one time they were called ' Potosi,' on account of the abundance and fineness of the ore j)roduced. There are likewise gold mines in the neighborhood of the rivers Code, Belen, and Indias, and their tributaries. Of these the most noteworthy is that of San Antonio, on the Code, which is reported as yielding 140,000 a year. Other mines are found at Las Tablas, Las Minas, El Mineral de Veraguas, Sona, Lovaina, Gualaca, and San Lorenzo. "Salt is found in abundance throughout the department, and at many points its production is more profitable than that of gold "Copper is found near San Felix and near the road from David to Bocas del Toro. It exists also, there is reason for thinking, in the old province of Azuero. "Iron is to be found in and about the Cerro de San Cristo- bal and in the ancient province of Azuero, according to indi- cations. "Coal is found near Las Bocas de Toro and in Golfo Dulce. "Mineral waters are found in the districts of Santiago and Calobre, near the headwaters of the Chonguinola, near the volcano at the foot of the Castillo Mount, near the Cliiriqui River, in the Mendez Ranch, near the Yeguas Pass, in Pan de Azucar, and on tlie banks of the Gallequi River, near San Felix. "Pearls are found not only in the Archipelago de las Perlas, but in many other spots on the sea bottom, which would seem to be almost covered with these precious stones. As many as one million shells a year are said to be secured by divers, and though all do not contain i^earls they are available as mother-of-pearl. 203 204 NOTES ON PANAMA. "Chalk and lime also abound in various parts of the department." — Colombia. Bureau of American JRepublics, 1892. "In the early days of the Panama Railroad, and later, during the canal construction period, numerous effoi-ts were made to explore the coal regions of the Atlantic in near proximit}' to the jjorts of Colon and Panama. These re- searches led up to the discovery of bituminous shales and lignite near the port of Boca del Toro on tlie Caribbean Sea. Some hopes had been entertained that these deposits would give valuable coal, but an examination and analysis have convinced me that the veins are too small and the percent- age of carbon too low to justify anj^ expectation from this source. The largest vein I saw was about 3 feet thick, and the analysis gave — Carbon 40.131 Water 12.9(52 Ash 30.216 "It will be seen at a glance that the coal has no commer- cial value, especially as some of the carbon was infusible aud noncombustible graphite. Considerable work was done at these mines some years ago, but little signs of the excava- tions now remain, the opening being filled with debris washed in b}^ the waters of the rainy season. These deposits do not cover an area of over 10 miles, and arc not worthy of more than passing mention. " On the Pacific, coal measures expose themselves near Punta Burica, in Colombia, and the peninsular projection that forms the northern inclosure of Golfo Dulce, in Costa Rica. The numerous small streams that flow into the gulfito from the Cordillera, on the boundary of Colombia and Costa Rica, bring down fragments of lignite and coal, showing that they pass through large carboniferous deposits. " Some work was attempted in these regions (judging from oi3enings that are now nearly filled in with debris) many years ago, but evidentl}^ with meager results, owing to the fact that the exploring party did not enter sufficiently far into the interior to reach a healthy carboniferous formation. I consider it feasible to mine good coal in these regions at a distance of from 15 to 20 miles from the coast, as the crop- pings I examined at several points show veins from 3 to B feet thick of bituminous coal embedded in lignite and shale. NOTES ON PANAMA. 205 " The carboniferous measures of this loealit}' cover an area of about 100 square miles, and are about equal to the coal beds of Chesterfield Count}^ \'a. "This disposes, as far as I have investigated, of the coal beds of Panama, with the exception of those of Rio Chu- cunaque, about 12 miles northwest of Point Mosquito." — MoniliUj Bulletin of Hie Bureau of American Republics, 1893-04. ISpecial BaUeiin, November, 1893. (b) TIMBER AND FUEL. "The department yields woods of excellent quality and colossal growth, principally in South Darien, though they abound also in the mountains along the coasts and in the islands of both seas. The following may be named: Cacique, corotu, and espave, fit for shipbuilding, and not infested by any sort of insect whatever; caimito, hueso, cerezo, macano, madroiio, naranjillo, bola, and laurel, excellent for polished work and building, as are also the mora and guayacan, which are, furthermore, incorruptible; nispero and espinoso, which make the best boarding known; mahogany (black, red, or veined), rosewood, rosilla, quira, cocobobo, and roble ama- rillo (j-ellow oak), which do not rot; roble comun (common oak), adapted for ship timbers; el manzanillo (manchineel), a building and cabinet wood; jicarrillo, and espino amarillo. "Among furniture woods may be named the cedars known as ceboUa, espina, real, and papaya, all of excellent quality and exempt from the attacks of the ' comejen ' (timber worm) ; amarillo de Gua^'aquil, which is incorruptible; algarrobo del Peru, ijagua de montaiia, alcornoque, chuchipate, and cha- chojo, all very useful for building; maderon, verj' durable and available for inlaid work; alfahillo, the same; tanjiro, similar to mahoganj'; jigna blanca, jigna negra, saponario, the leaves and bark of which are used as soap; majagua, used by the Indians for making ropes; palo de lana (wool- tree), similar to the ceiba or silk-cotton tree, and which grows to a height of more than 100 feet, and is used for canoes; hobo, a durable and colossal tree; bongo and balso, trees of considerable thickness, but very light, resembling cork, and used for making rafts; yaya, verj^ durable; mangle, cavalero, pena, salado, and Colorado, the last verj'^ durable and suitable for shipbuilding; culuba, much used for making mats-, etc.; gachapahi and maria, good for masts; mureielago, hobo de 206 NOTES ON PANAMA. puerco (e de cerco), barigon, haya, raton, carciin, sibo, and terciopelo, all useful to carpenters, as are also the guayabito de montana, cerezo silvestre (wild cherry), pavo, niostrenco, and conaza. "The following woods used for making dyestuff are found in the department: Uvilla, curtidora, divi-divi, dragon's blood, tuno, mulberrj^ Brazilian wood (brasilete), igua, agua- cate colorarlo, guayacan, anil araarillo de yuca, carocolito (purple shell), muqueva, ojo de venado (black), tagua de montaiia (indelible carmine), and nazareno (purple)." — Co- loriihia, Bureau of America]! Repuhlics. (c) ANIMAL RESOURCES. It is reported that mules maj" be obtained in numbers and in localities and in one week's notice, as follows: Pedregal 100 Puerto MiTtis 30 Mensable 50 Aguaclulce 50 Chepo 10 Chorrera 10 Panama , 50 — Report of Capf. C. B. Humplirey, Twenty-second Infan- try, 1903. (d) PRODUCTS AND MANUFACTURES. (( rr The department produces cloves equal in fragrance to those of Ceylon ; palosanto, from which is obtained the famous balsam maria; copaiba, caucho, almaciga (mastic), copachi, chutra, caraiia, cabima, cateba, croton, i^alo de sangre, sau- medio, jiguacanelo, balsamo de drago, chiriqui, chinchire, tustele (yielding rubber, like the caucho), and palo de vaca. "Honey and beeswax are i)roduced in great abundance. "The following fruits and vegetables are produced on the Isthmus, both wild and in cultivation: "Aguacate, cacao, coco, pomaroda, mango, mamei del pais, naranjo dulce, naranjo agrio, limon, torovijo, maraiion, guan- abano, membrillo (quince), gua.yabo zapote, brevo, hicaco, anon, hagua, name, uvitoguagabilia, calanva, nispero, cerezo, higo (figs), caimito, higo chumbo, granado, papayo, sabio, NOTES ON PANAMA. 207 granadillo, ciruela (plum), giiate, curubo, piiio, piiinelo, sapoya, eereiijena (eggplant), tomate (tomatoes), melon, sandia, ealabaza dulce (squash), and eight sorts of aji (cap- sicum). "Among the palms of Panama we may note the wine palm, the oil palm, the corozo, the royal, the chontadura, the um- brella palm, the cabeza de negro palm, the taparro, and the cocoa palm, which is remarkable not only for its fruit, but for being planted around settlements to protect houses from lightning, as it serves as a very efficient sort of lightning rod." — CoJonihia, Bureau of American Repuhlics. ' ' While coffee is being grown everywhere in the depart- ment, yet, according to the practical study and experience of a Costa Rican, you find the land in the province of Code to be the best fitted for the cultivation of this most precious grain. " Cocoa has a great future in the Isthmus, and there are already some valuable plantations under cultivation — rub- ber, ivorj' nuts, cabinetmakers' wood, wood for dyeing pur- poses, mother-of-pearl and tortoise shell, sarsaparilla, ipeca- cuhaua, leathers and skins of different kinds. ' ' The tobacco produced is of excellent qualitj^ but its pro- duction hardly suffices for home consumption. " Sugar-cane products and the breeding of domestic animals constitute the principal riches of Chiriqui, Los Santos, Code, and Veraguas. They lend themselves to the cultivation of sugar cane, however, with great ardor, which promises such valuable returns through its products. The same can be said of the cereals belonging to their zone, which up to the pres- ent time is cultivated for interior consumption." — Directory of Pana m a , 1898. "Ice, formerly imported from the United States, is now manufactured in Panama, where machinery with a maximum product of about 10 tons per day has lately been established. The ice is of poor quality, because of an imperfect and filthy water supply, and is sold at the high price of 5 cents silver (IM.) per j)ound. Frequent interruiitions in the service of this important commodity have occurred during the year, and many complaints are consequentl}^ heard in the commu- nity." — Colombia, British Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Report for the year 1890 on Panama. 12'312— 03 14 208 NOTES ON" PANAMA. (e) REVENUES. Taxes, etc. — "Previous to 1880 the Panama Railway had been paying to Colombia an annual revenue of 225,000 pesos gold, but in that year the income was anticipated up to March 27, 1908." Exports and Imports. — "Tliere is an important transit trade passing between the two ports of Panama and Colon. In 1900 the weight of goods transported westward by rail was 153,758 tons, of which 00,518 tons was from New York, 54,905 tons from Europe, and the remainder was in local traffic. "The weight carried eastward was 203,619 tons, of which 118,670 tons was to New York, 77,219 tons to Europe, and the rest was in local traffic." — Statesman's Yearbook, 1903. "The export trade of the Department of Panama showed an advance for 1898 over 1897 of 19 per cent. The items showing the greatest percentage of increase are rubber, mahogany, ipecacuanha, cocobolo, medicinal balsams, ba- nanas, and tortoise shells. The total value of the articles sent to the United States was 1777,792.69. Besides the arti- cles named the following are included: Cacao, cocoanuts, coffee, raw hides, skins, ivory nuts, and mother-of-pearl shells. Exports to other countries amounted to $131,733.66; to Great Britain, $103,777.09; Germany, $19,437.30, and France, $8,519.27. "From Bocas del Toro, the seat of the banana industry, 2,029,021 racimes (bunches) of plantains were sent to the United States in 1896. The value of this product at the port of shipment was 1405,804. The fruit is conveyed from Bar- ranquilla in small United States steamers to the markets of Mobile and New Orleans, the round trip being made in twelve daj's. Fifteen firms in Barranquilla, ^^'llich has a population of 10,000, deal in bananas. From Barranquilla the exi)orts amounted to 19, 280, 356. 53, an increase over 1897 of l>670, 303. 57. The most important industrj^ in this section is the manufac- ture of soap by two factories equipped with the latest appli- ances. A Spanish firm recently erected a modern candle factory and has a good demand for its goods. Other indus- tries are several distilleries, an iron factorj^, two tanneries, with a monthly output of 3,000 hides, and a number of brick kilns and tile factories." — MontMy Bulletin of the Bureau of A/mericun Repuhlics, June, 1890. NOTES ON PANAMA. 209 "The exportation of products has commenced to be quite considerable in the Isthmus. Recent statistics demonstrate that the exportations equal one-half more or less of the importations of the department. "The exports are very varied and rich, commencing with gold, but the iDresent revenue statistics finds silver at the head, which is exported on a large scale from the northern shores, especially those of the rich and flourishing district of Bocas del Toro." — Directory of Panama, 1898. V. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. TABLE SETTING FORTH THE TERRITORIAL, POLITICAL, FISCAL, JUDICIAL ECCLESIASTICAL, ELECTORAL, NOTARY AND REGISTRY DIVISIONS, ETC., OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PANAMA, FORMED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE LAWS, DECREES, AND REGULATIONS IN FORCE. A. Provinces of the department {pblitical and fiscal) . [Directory of Panama.] Names of the provinces and municipal districts. Colon (capital. Colon): 1. Bocas del Toro 2. Buenavista 3. Colon 4. Chagres 5. Donoso - 6. Gatnn 7. Portobelo -.. CocLE (capital, Penonome ) 1. Aguadulce 2. Anton 3. La Pintada 4. Nata 5. Ola 6. Penonoinet Chiriqui (capital, David): 1. Alanje 2. Bugaba 3. David _ 4. Dolega 5. Gualaca 6. Los Remedies T. San Felix 8. San Lorenzo 9. Tole.. Los Santos (capital, Pese) 1. Chitre 2. Guarare 3. Las Minas- 4. Las Tablas .5. Los Santos 6. Macaracas 7. Ocu 8. Parita 9. Pedasi 10. Pese. .- 11. Pocri 12. Santa Maria 13. Tonosi Panama (capital, Pana- ma): 1. Arraijan 2. Balboa 3. Capira 4. Chame ■5. Chepo 6. Chorrera 7. Chepigana 8. Emperador Distance Distance to the to the city of 1 city of Panama.' Bogota." Miriame- Miriame- ters.b ters.l' 62.08 160 5.03 8.63 8.07 7.25 10.05 18.25 15. 25 18.05 17.08 19.08 17.03 52.25 53.45 50.55 .52.35 50. .35 40.08 42.04 45.08 37.03 25.56 28.14 27.85 28.08 25. &5 29.45 26.03 Zi.sr-, 32. 02 25.25 30.01 21.55 29.90 2.02 8.05 6.25 8.75 7.01) 3.75 20. 75 .25 142.3 139 139.5 (f) 139.2 134 im.b 162.5 165.3 165.1 167.1 164.6 199.6 200 197.8 199.6 198.1 188 189.7 193. 1 184.6 172.8 175. 4 175. 15 176.1 172. 8 176.4 173.6 171.1 179.5 172.5 177.4 168.8 177 149.6 (<•) 153.5 156 1.54.3 1.51. a5 168 147. 05 Mayoralties. Chiriqui Grande, Bastimento, Bocas del Drago, Bocas del Toro. .zr; Tabernilla, Ahorca Lagarto, Buena- vista, Caimito Mulato. Monkey Hill. Majagual, Playa Plor. Lagarto, Salud y Rio Indio. Jamaiquita. Nombre de Dios, Palenque. Pocri. Cocle,Paloverde,RioGrande,Tuabre. Pedregal, Bajo Boquete, San Pablo. Paritilla. Cocoli, Farfan. San Miguel, Chiman, Saboga. El Potrero, Cermeno. Corozal, El Llano. Chepigana, La Palma, Garachine, Jaque, Jurado, Tucuti. Culebra, Paraiso y Pedro Miguel, Cascadas y Casas Blancas. 210 n Via Cartagena. b 1 miriameter equals 6,2i;W English miles. <■' No data. NOTES ON PANAMA. 211 A. Provinces of the department {political and fiscal) —ContrnvieA. Distance Distance Names of the provinces and to the to the • municipal districts. city of city of Mayoralties. Panama. Bogota. Miriame- Miriume- Panama— Continued. ters. ters. 9. Gorgona 3.7.5 142.5 Alto y Bajo Obispo. Matachin, Ma- mey y Bailanionos, San Pablo, Cruces. 10. Panama .00 147.3 Pueblo Nuevo. Naos, La Boca, Pa- cora. 11. Pinogana 18.07 165.3 Cana. Pinogana. Yaviza. El Real de Santamaria. 12. San Carlos 10.05 L75 1.57.8 149.05 13. Taboga. Otoque. Veraguas ( capital, Santi- ago): 1. Calobre 21. ai 168.6 2. Canazas 2.5.03 172.6 3. La Mesa. 27.08 31.08 26.65 175.1 179 173.9 4. Las Palmas 5. Montijo ._ Coibita. 6. Rio Jesus 27.95 22.09 175.2 170.2 7. San Francisco 8. Santa Fe 36.03 25.03 183.3 172.35 9. Santiago Atalaya. 10. Sona 30.08 178.1 B.— . Judicial circuits and sections. BOCAS DEL ToRO (cap ital, Bo cas Lo s Santos — Continued. del Toro) : 5. Los Santos. Bocas del Toro. con los corn 3gi- 6. Macaracas. mientos de Chiriq [ui Gran de. 7. Ocu. Bastimentos . Boo. IS del Dr ago 8. Parita. y Bocas del Toro. 9. Pedasi. Colon (capital. Colon) 10. Pese. 1. Buenavista. 11. Pocri. 2. Colon. 12. Santa Maria. 3. Chagres. 13. Tonosi. 4. Donoso. Panama (capital, Panama): 5. Gatun. 1. Arraijan. 6. Portobelo. 2. Balboa. CocLE (capital, Penono me): 3. Capira. 1. Aguadulce. 4. Chame. 2. Anton. 5. Chepo. 3. La Pintada. 6. Chorrera. 4. Nata. 7. Chepigana. 5. Ola. 8. Emperador. 6. Penonome. 9. Gorgona. Chiriqui (capital, Davi d): 10. Panama. 1. Alanje. 11. Pinogana. 2. Bngaba. 12. San Carlos. 3. David. 18. Taboga. 4. Dolega. Veraguas (capital, Santiago): 5. Gualaca. 1. Calobre. 6. Los Renaedios. 2. Cfiaazas. 7. San Felix. 3. La Mesa. 8. San Lorenzo. 4. Las Palmas. 9. Tole. .5. Montijo. Los Santos (capital, P ese): 6. Rio Jesus. 1. Chitre. 7. San Francisco. 2. Guarare. 8. Santa Fe. 3. Las Minas. 9. Santiago. 4. Las Tablas, 10. Sona. 212 NOTES ON PANAMA. C. — Educational provinces. Municipal districts forming the provinces. Rui'al schools in the mimicipal districts. Colon (capital, Colon): 1. Bocas del Tore 2. Bnenavista. 3. Colon , 4. Chagres 5. Gatun. (). Portobelo CocLE (capital, Penonome): 1. Anton 2. Aguadiilce 3. La Pintada. 4. Nata. 5. Ola. 6. Penonome , Chiriqui (capital, David): 1. Alanje. 2. Bugaba. 3. David 4. Dolega.. 5. Gualaca. 6. Los Eemedios. 7. San Felix. 8. San Lorenzo. 9. Tole. Los Santos (capital, Pese): 1. Chitre. 2. Guarare. 3. Las Minas. 4. Las Tablas. 5. Los Santos 6. Macaracas. 7. Ocu. 8. Parita. 9. Pedasi. 10. Pese. 11. Pocri 12. Santa Maria. 13. Tonosi. Panama (capital, Panama): 1. Araijan. 2. Balboa 3. Capira 4. Chame .5. Chepo. 6. Chorrera. 7. Chepigana 8. Emperador 9. Gorgona 10. Panama.. 11. Pinogana 12. San Carlos. 13. Taboga. Veraguas (capital, Santiago) 1. Calobre. 2. C^anazas. 3. La Mesa. 4. Las Palmas. .5. Montijo. 6. Rio Jesus. 7. San Francisco. 8. Santa Fe» 9. Santiago 10. Sona. Chiriqui Grande y Bastimentos. Playa de Flor. Lagarto. Palenqiie, Viento Frio y Nombre de Dios. El Valle. Pocri y El Cristo. Rio Grande y Toabre. Boqueron Pedregal, Las Lomis y San Pablo. Tinajas. La Palma. Paritilla. Chiman. Cermeno y El Potrero. Bejuco. La Palma. Culebra, Paraiso. Matachin y Bailamonos. Pacora. Santa Maria, Garachine y Yaviza. La Colorada. NOTES ON PANAMA. 213 D. Xotartj and registry circuits. BoCAS DEL ToRO (capital, Bocas del Toro) : 1. Bocas del Toro. Colon (capital, Colon): 1. Buenavista. 2. Colon. 3. Chagres. 4. Donoso. 5. Gatun. 6. Portobelo. CocLE (capital, Penonome): 1. Aguadulce. 2. Anton. 3. La Pintada. 4. Nata. 5. Ola. 6. Penonome. Chiriqui (capital, David): 1. Alanje. 2. Bugaba. 3. David. 4. Dolega. 5. Gualaca. 6. Los Remedios. 7. San Felix. 8. San Lorenzo. 9. Tole. Los Santos (capital, Pese): 1. Chitre. 2. Guarare. 3. Las Minas. 4. Las Tablas. 5. Los Santos. 6. Macaracas. Los Santos — Continued. 7. Ocii. 8. Parita. 9. Pedasi. 10. Pese. 11. Pocri. 12. Santa Maria. 13. Tono.si. Panama (capital, Panama) : 1. Arraijan. 2. Balboa. 3. Capira. 4. Chame. 5. Chepo. 6. Cliorrera. 7. Chepigana. 8. Emperador. 9. Gorgona. 10. Panama. 11. Pinogana. 12. San Carlos. 13. Taboga. Veraguas (capital, Santiago) : 1. Calobre. 2. Caiiazas. 3. La Mesa. 4. Las Palmas. 5. Monti jo. 6. Rio Jesus. 7. San Francisco. 8. Santa Fe. 9. Santiago. 10. Sona. 214 NOTES ON PANAMA. Population electoral circuits or districts, 1S70. Colon (capital. Colon): 1. Bocas del Tore 5,250 2. Buenavista 1,458 3. Colon... 8,246 4. Chagres-- .-. 1,277 5. Donoso 2,903 6. Gatun 606 7. Portobelo- - 10,531 30,271 COCLE (capital, Penonome): 1. Aguadulce _ 3,074 2. Anton 2,792 3. LaPintada. 5,711 4. Nata 5,888 5. Ola ---- 3,756 6. Penonome 12,667 33,888 Chiriqui (capital, David): 1. Alanje __ 7,487 2. Bugaba 1,059 3. David.. 9,613 4. Dolega 3,407 5. Gualaca 2, 413 6. Los Remedios.- 1.538 7. San Felix 2,230 8. San Lorenzo 2,309 9. Tole 2,384 32,440 Los Santos (capital, Pese): 1. Chitre 2,378 2. Guarare 1,472 3. Las Minas 2,761 4. LasTablas 5,047 5. Los Santos 4,023 6. Macaracas. 3,199 7. Ocu... 3,321 Los Santos— Continued. 8. Parita... 2,.551 9. Pedasi- 4,182 10. Pese... 3,318 11. Pocri 3,302 12. Santa Maria 2. 264 13. Tonosi 1,500 39,318 Panama (capital, Panama): 1. Araijan 1,319 2. Balboa.. 3,220 3. Capira. 1,-501 4. Chame 1,961 5. Chepo - 8, 1.57 6. Chorrera 4,8:M 7. Chepigana 3, 716 8. Emperador. 1,420 9. Gorgona... 2, .564 10. Panama. 16,406 11. Pinogana 3,715 12. San Carlos 2,034 13. Taboga. 1,568 47,415 Veraguas (capital, Santiago): 1. Calobre ..... 3,670 2. Canazas.... 3,824 3. La Mesa 3,.561 4. LasPalmas 2,691 5. Montijo.... 1,800 6. Rio Jesus 2,027 7. San Francisco 3. 471 8. Santa Fe 3,508 9. Santiago. 9,219 10. Sona 3,439 37,210 • Total 220,.542 Towns and localities connected bi/ tlie telegraph. — Aguadulce. Anton. Arraijan, Capira, Chame, Cliitre. Chorrera. David. Guarare, Horconci- tos, Las Lajas, La Mesa, La Pintada, Las Palmas, Los Santos, Las Tablas, Nata, Ocu, Panama, Parita, Penonome. Pedregal, Pese, Reme- dios, Santiago. San Carlos, San Felix, Santa Maria. San Lorenzo. Sona Tole. ' ' An advance across the Isthmus from Colon toward Panama would be, of course, easiest by the railroad line, as the trails are all generally very difficult and overgrown with brush. There is a telegraph and telephone line which runs across the Isthmus along the railroad. The railroad is ballasted with rock nearly the whole distance from Colon to Panama. Light artillery could be taken along the railroad on trains or could be taken along the railroad track, when the necessaiy amount of boards and planks would have to l)e carried to lay over the bridges. Tliree equipped men on foot could march abreast along the railroad line. "There is water communication from the mouth of the Chagres River to Gatun, whicli has already been spoken of. '■^t*-'-'. re*-.;.'- NOTES ON PANAMA. 215 The milroad is aeiierally straight, with no more than the ordinary numl)erof curves. Vegetation on both sides of the track grows most luxuriantly, there being a great man j^ bam- boo and banana trees. "There are several hills which could be occupied to pre- vent advance along the line. The railroad is quite well equipped with plenty of rolling stock. There are about 65 bridges, principally steel, the most important and longest crossing the Chagres River at Gatun. "About 150 small cart mules and horses could be oV)tained in the city of Panama; about 75 pack mules could be obtained in C'horrera, while not more than 50 or 60 animals could be obtained in the city of Colon. "Guns mounted upon a point near the light-house in the city of Colon could protect both harbors against a hostile fleet. Fresh water is obtainable at Colon for vessels, but is of poor quality. "About one-half mile west of the city of Panama is a large hill about GOO feet in height (Ancon). On the northeast side of this hill are located large hospital buildings of the French Canal Company. This hospital has 18 wards, each ward having 40 beds, and has very modern equipment. The drain- age system, however, is not very well arranged, and at pres- ent the sanitary condition of the hospital is not good. Modern artillery could be placed upon this hill and command the citj- of Panama and l)oth the harl)ors, also the anchorage near the island of Culeljra. Other hospitals are the Hospital de Estran- jeros, having room for 75 patients, and the Hospital of Santo Tomas, with 11 nurses. Sisters of Charity. "The only points where troops could be landed near Colon on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus are Portobelo Harbor, Manzanillo or Limon r>ay, at Boca del Toro, or in favorable weather at the mouth of the Chagres River. The only place where troops could be landed on the south side of the Isthmus is at the harbor of Panama or La Boca, or at the mouth of the Camito River near Chorrera." — Report of Cajd. C. B. Hnvt- phrey, Tiuenty-second Infanirij, 1903. The Interior. — "Although in the search of a practicable canal route from the Atantic Ocean to the Pacific, the Isth- mus of Panama has been considerably explored transversely, it w^ould appear that longitudinally it has not received the same attention. Thus, w^hile we learn that between Chepo If jt LIEUT, ««h mFANWf 216 NOTES ON PANAMA on the south and the Gulf of San Bias on the north the Isthmus narrows to a minimuin width, that the summit of the Cordillera reaches an altitude of but 1,500 feet, and inci- dentally that the Indians are numerous, w^arlike, and hostile; while from Cullen we learn that the Cordillera is reduced to a height of 350 feet between Caledonia Bay and the Savana River, and that the ridge here is but 2 miles wide at its base, falling away on both sides in level plains (statements proven to be erroneous by Selfridge); and while again we are in- formed that by following the course of the Tuira River we shall be led to a portage to the Atrato River of but 3 miles in length and 400 feet in height — while we are furnished with reports like these derived from journeys across the Isthmus, we look in vain for accounts of exploration lengthwise of this neck of land. Roads or trails there appear to be none. In the interior tropical growth, jungle, thicket, and sw^ampy morass abound. The Cordilleras are irregular and difficult, few towns exist, and the Indians, in some localities at least, are unconquered, savage, and hostile. With such obstacles to overcome, it would seem on the whole that the interior of the Isthmus presents almost if not quite insuperable difficul- ties to extensive and continuous exploration or passage along its length . " — Co mp ileT. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. "While i3ublic instruction in the department leaves much to be desired, yet its progress is slow but sure. The gi'eat obstacle is the lack of competent teachers. "The secretarj' of public instruction, in his report of the year 1898 to the governor of the department, states that elementary schools are springing up, one hy one, through- out the entire department, but that it is of greater impor- tance to produce good instructors than to multiply primary schools. With this end in view the normal school for teach- ers was founded in May, 1897, which is doing a i^romising work under the direction of two distinguished ladies. Dona Matilde and Dona Rosa Elena Rubiano C, who were brought from the capital of the Republic expressly for that purpose. NOTES ON PANAMA. 217 Educational statistics for 1896 and 1897. Pupils reg- istered. Pupils in attend- ance. 1897.. 6,592 5,421 4,006 1896 .. 3,636 Increase of 1897 . 1,171 103 370 Further increase in 1897 by means of normal school pupils 103 Total increase of 1897 1,274 473 ' ' For the most part the schools are abundantly supplied with the books and appliances required by modern pedagogy. "The school fund has a revenue to be applied to educa- tional purposes of more than 1160,000 per year. Educational statistics of the Department of Panama for 1897-98. >, ^ ■ m CO . 09 n3 CO ^8 !0X CO aj S Province. •3V ■Si 8 3 2* =1-1 p.g ®'o II 1 M it) 1-^ 11 l.se -2-2 g.2 '^'■ 'a" S s S- ^ fe-^ 12; ii; 12; ^i !5 Panama. 15 14 10 5 18 31 1,179 885 1,199 925 Colon 3 6 3 6 6 4 ■■■■4" 3 3 10 11 225 438 153 321 282 401 193 Code 270 Los Santos 6 5 6 1 5 n 889 268 339 255 Veraguas 3 3 6 1 2 10 203 151 282 199 Chiriqui 7 8 4 7 I 7 353 226 242 160 Total 40 34 36 11 38 1 80 2,787 2,0W 2,745 2,002 Total number of pupils registered of both sexes "-&, 592 Total number or pupils in attendance , . 4, 006 — {Directory of Panama, 1898.) « Leaving, apparently, 1,060 unaccounted for in above table. — Compiler. VI. APPENDIX. EXTRACTS FROM REPORTS OF EXPLORATIONS AND SURVEYS TO ASCERTAIN THE PRACTICABILITY OF A SHIP CANAL BETWEEN THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS BY WAY OF THE ISTHMUS OF DARIEN, BY COMMANDER T. 0. SELFRIDGE, U. S. NAVY, 1870- 1873. THE OROLOGY OF THE ISTHMUS OF DARIEN. (Survey of 1870.) The terms Darien and Panama are indiscriminately ap- plied to the narrow neck of land between latitndes 8° and 10° north, connecting North and Sonth America. Properly speaking, the Isthmus of Panama comprises all the territory watered by the Chagres and its tributaries across the divide to the Pacific. The Isthmus of Darien extends from the San Bias Moun- tains, which separate the headwaters of the Mandinga and Marmoni from those of the Chagres, to the boundaries of the State of Choco, or to the mountain range from which the Tuyra or Darien River takes its rise, this range running in a southwesterly direction from the mouth of the Atrato toward the Pacific. The Cordilleras, entering the State of Panama, diverge toward the Pacific, and on the line of the Panama Railroad are not distant more than 5 miles from that ocean. They lose their character as mountains, and the divide, ranging from 262 to 600 feet, is broken into a great number of isolated peaks and hills, through the gorges of which the line of rail- road runs to the city of Panama. From the point where the railroad crosses the divide, the latter stretches to the north- east, increasing greatly in altitude, and bifurcates; one fork inclosing the headwaters of the Chagres, and, dividing it from the Mandina, meets the Atlantic in the vicinity of Cape Manzanillo. The other, stretching to the east within a few miles of the coast, takes the name of the Cordilleras Lloranes, 219 220 NOTES ON PANAMA. and forms the great backbone of the Darien Isthmus as far as the mouth of the Atrato. It here again suffers a depres- sion, separating the Atrato from the Tuyra, and, turning to the southwest, forms with the Antioquian chain the Andes of South America. Let the orology of Darien be carefully considered, and it will appear that though through its whole length it is nar- rower than any other of the transits spoken of, there are but few points which present any probability of a successful search for a low level. . The Cordilleras Lloranes skirt the Atlantic coast at dis- tances varing from 5 to 8 miles, and varying in altitude from 1,000 to 3,000 feet. Between this range and the shore there are three other ridges or hills, decreasing in altitude succes- sively, and cut up with valleys, through which the various water courses wind their way to the Atlantic. This feature does not permit plains of any size, circumscribes the valleys, and, breaking up the whole surface of the country, covered as it is with a dense primeval growth, renders all attempts at a regular survey of a most diftieult nature. From the close proximity of the Cordilleras to the Atlantic, we find no rivers of any size except the Mandinga; they are mostly brooks in the dry season and mountain torrents in the wet. This dividing range through the length of Darien is very narrow at its crest, in some places not exceeding a few feet in width, with steep slopes and spurs jutting out from each side, over which leads the Indian trail. These spurs inclose ravines, which extend so far into the divide that the water courses which spring from them are often not more than a thousand feet apart on each side, and they would in them- selves form an important feature in reducing the estimates of excavation, but for the fact that their mean level is too high to enable us to dispense with tunneling. The western slope of the Cordilleras, being much wider, is drained by three large rivers. The Bayamo, rising in the Chiman range, an offshoot of the Cordilleras, flows north ; the Chucunaqua, also rising in the southern slope of the Chiman Mountains, empties into the Tuyra not far from its mouth; the Tuyra, the largest river of the Isthmus, rising in the boundaries of the State of Choco in the south, drains the western slope and empties into the Gulf of San Miguel. NOTES ON PANAMA. 221 The Cordilleras skirting so closely the Atlantic coast, it follows that an}- deep depression in their outline could be seen from the sea, though its depth might be hid bj'^ the intervening hills that lie between them and the coast. No such depression is visible except in the valley of the Man- dinga, and constant inquiries among different tribes of Indi- ans still further strengthen this fact. The Chiman range cuts the Isthmus transversely and separates the sources of two rivers, one flowing north and the other south; it is therefore evident the mean height of any transit line will be greater the nearer j^ou approach the center of the Isthmus. In other words, from the configura- tion of the land as marked by the water courses, it must be at the extrelnities, and not in the center, that we can with any success hope to find a favorable route. The northern extremity is but 36 miles across, and is the narrowest portion of the western continent. The southern extremity embraces the valley of the Tuyra; and, though wider than the other portion, it has the advantage, if reports are true, of having the lowest divide anj^where to be found. The question of harbors, entering so minutely into the canal problem, still further narrows our researches. There are but two fine harbors on the Atlantic coast, the Gulf of San Bias and Caledonia Bay. Both of these are admirable and possess every requirement, and from their vicinity only could a canal well be constructed. Though the Isthmus of Darien is an unexplored wilderness and but little known, j^et, for the purpose of canalization, there are therefore but three portions that admit of an}^ necessity of exploration to settle the question of its adapta- bility to the purpose in view. CLIMATE. The climate of Darien, like other portions of the Tropics, may be divided into two seasons — wet and dry. The former extends from May to Januar}"; but the rainfall varies greatly for different months. Commencing in May, this month and June are rainy, but in July and until the middle of August the weather is comj)aratively good, and labor at this period would be but little incommoded. In the middle of August commence the heavy rains, and they continue until January-. Severe squalls, waterspouts, 222 NOTES ON PANAMA. vivid thunder and lightning, and such rain as may well be called a deluge mark this period. At this time no excava- tions would be possible not protected with sheds. The rivers overflow their banks and all low land near the coast is inundated. The dry season, or the season of the breezes as it is some- times called, commences in January and ends in May. At this time the trade winds blow fresh from the north, and a heavy sea breaks all along the coast, rendering it impossible to land or anchor when not protected by reefs or harbors. The climate at this period is delightful; little or no rain falls except in the mountains, which, intercepting the trade clouds, always precipitate more or less moisture upon the Atlantic slope; the air is moist and cool, the sky clear day and night, and the thermometer ranges between 79° and 86°. After the expiration of the trades in the latter part of April, sea and land breezes prevail, and with them the ther- mometer rises to 88° and falls to 76°, showers are frequent, and heavy rain for a day or two. Though the above is the general aspect of the seasons, the experience of this expedition has, however, been different. Rain has occurred more or less every month, particularly three or four days before the new moon, and especially in the interior, where work was interrupted whole days. Though it is a disputed point that the moon has any effect in dis- turbing the equilibrium of the earth's atmosphere, the changes of the weather with the changes of the moon were very marked upon the Isthmus. The closing days of the lunar month were sure to be marked with rain, and showers were always more frequent in the latter than in the early quarters of the moon. With us the month of May was marked with unusually severe rains; the enormous amount of 7 inches fall in one night was recorded at Aspinwall; but during the first two weeks in June the weather was charming. Such an amount of rain in the dry season and such a heavy fall in May had rarely been known. The Isthmus of Darien has a most un- enviable reputation for sickness. This is partly traditional, from the early experiences of the Spaniards, and partly from our experiences on the Isthmus of Panama, Nicaragua, and other portions of Central America. The formation of Aspin- wall and of a portion along the line of the railroad is coral- NOTES ON PANAMA. 223 line. The mindi and other swamps in the bottom lauds of the Chagres River hold in decomposition a vast amount of vegetable matter. Unfavorable as this should be, the record of the Panama Railroad develops a mortalitj^ of only 293 white men out of 0,000 that were constautl}^ engaged on the work. The coolies fared the worse; the negroes and natives better. That the Isthmus of Darien is vastly more healthy is not only the unanimous record of every previous explorer, but is abundanth" verified by the experience of this exiDedition, which, numbering a force of 280 men, suffered but one death, and that from drowning, though exposed to a severe test from the constant exposure incident to the surve}', which at all times required a large number in the field. The fever we met with differs from the Chagres fever, leaving none of the effects of the latter upon the system, and arose more from fatigue and privation than from any climatic causes. That a less favorable condition of health would be experienced in the wet season is undoubtedly correct; but our ships of war lie for months in the harbor of Aspinwall without injury, and I have no idea, with proper shelter and food, that the excavation of a canal upon the Isthmus of Darien would prove any more unhealthy' than in many places in the United States where the virgin soil is first turned up. INHABITANTS. The whole of the Isthmus of Darien, except a small portion of the valley of the Tuyra, comprising the towns of Chipo- gana, Pinogana, Yavisa, and Santa Maria, and a few scat- tering inhabitants on the Bayamo near its mouth, is unin- habited except by the San Bias or Darien Indians. It is on account of their jealous exclusion of foreigners that so little is known of the country. In 1710 the Catholic missionaries had succeeded in establishing a number of towns on the Atlantic coast and upon the rivers flowing into the Gulf of San Miguel, but they were all destroj^ed by the Indians. In 1790 a treaty of peace was made with the Indians of Darien, in compliance with which the Spaniards abandoned all their forts in that district, in which no white man has since settled. They have the usual characteristics of the copper-colored race, but are much lower in stature than the Xorth American 12312—03 15 224 NOTES (m PANAMA. Indians, being rarely met with over 5 feet G inches in height. They are a muscular race, capable of great exertion for Avhieh their life in canoes or the broken nature of their mountain homes peculiarly fit them. They are very peace- able in their UxT,tures, and I could learn of no conflict between the villages, but 3^et independent and resolute against for- eigners. They inhabit the wdiole Atlantic coast from San Bias to the the Tarena, mouth of the Atrato, and in the interior from the Sucubti to the upper parts of the Bayamo. There is no head or chief of the whole tribe, as commonly reported; but though the language and customs are similar, each village or tribe has its head man or chief, generally the oldest man of the tribe, to whom all pay great deference. The Mountain Indians, or Bravos as styled by the Span- iards, are more numerous than generally supposed. On the Sucubti branch of the C'hucunaqua we found three lai-ge villages that could not have contained less than 1,000 inhab- itants. The most warlike, as well as the least known, and probabl}^ the most numerous, are the Chucunas and Navi- gandis, in the center of the Isthmus. The interior, back of San Bias, is uninhabited; neither are the Indian settle- ments with until you ascend the Bayamo some -tO miles. The coast Indians, from contact with foreigners, are ver}^ docile and tractable, and by a conciliatory course I found no difficulty, after becoming known, in obtaining guides and all the information they possess of the interior; but they stand in awe of the mountain Indians and would never accompany me into their territory. They live j)rincipally upon fish, plantains, and bananas, with Indian corn and a kind of cassava. Some sugar cane is raised, the juice of Avhich, extracted in a rude way between two poles, upon one of which an Indian jumps, they mix with cocoa for a beverage. The women are very short, and their large features and straight coarse hair do not give them a prepossessing appear- ance. After reaching womanhood thej^ cut their hair short and blacken the teeth. They wear large gold rings in their noses and ears, and necklaces of silver pieces, tiger, monkej', and alligator teeth. The women all tattoo across the bridge of the nose and paint their cheek bones red, but paint or tattoo is seldom used among the men. I was not able to discover their ancient form of worship. Their belief in a Supreme Being is the result of contact NOTES ON PANAMA. 225 with the Spaniards a century ago rather than an ancient tribal l)elief. They believe in evil spirits, and their Leles, or medicine men, have numerous ugh' images and ridiculous relics that are believed to possess the power to cure dis- eases. Thej' are exceedingly averse to labor, except the little re([uired in the cultivation of tlieir fields, and no assistance from this source would be obtained for the work of a canal. The\' believe that God made the country just as it is, and that He would be angry with them and kill them if they assisted in any work constructed by white men. Work in the fields is left to the women, but the severe labor is mostly performed by men. Polygamj^, though permitted, is rare, and the Darien Indians are particularly marked by their jealous exclusion of women from observation. During our stay at Caledonia Bay no women were ever met with, and \\\wn our approach the}' were always removed from the vil- lages, and this was the only mark of fear they evinced toward us. No traces of amalgamation were met with but some albinos. Their arms are principally the bow and arrow, in the use of which they are very skillful, and the single-barreled shotgun. The Mountain Indians rarely visit the coast, except to trade their native products, ivory nuts, cocoa, and caout- chouc, for cotton cloths, beads, and a few simple domestic utensils. The Coast Indians carry on a large trade in cocoa- nuts, ivory nuts, and tortoise shell. Though the Republic of Colombia has a nominal authority, they have always main- tained their independence. They number probably not less than seven thousand, but tlieir strength lies in the rugged nature of their country. Their independence of character prevents the use of presents to any extent, and the}^ will be of little service in procuring a desired policy. Individuals would refuse to receive gifts until they had obtained the per- mission of their headmen, and I could never prevail uijon any of the chiefs to accept anything in ray official capacity. An amusing example of this occurred on one occasicni. T was paj'ing my first visit to the chief of the Sassardis, and, ignorant of their iDrejudices, had brought for him a large present of cloth, needles, etc. He at first refused, but after- wards accepted them out of compliment to me, as he said, as I told him it was the custom in my country never to take back a present once given. After our council had broken 226 NOTES ON PANAMA. up, I noticed a palaver among tliem, and on mj^ return to mj^ gig found the present returned. I went back and told them I was very angry at their discourtesy, but the}' replied their customs would not permit them to receive presents from for- eign governments. However, I put the present on the beach, and afterwards saw the cloth in the chief's house. This denial of what they would gladly purchase, showed an inde- pendence of character cropping out in an amusing wa}' that was pleasant to find. As a whole this tribe is cowardly, but treacherous, and, though they are to be feared only by small i^arties, become dangerous in a work like ours, from their knowledge of the country, to the scattered parties engaged in surveying or bringing up supplies. GEOLOGICAL FORTVEATION. The geological formation of the Isthmus presents but little diversity from the other portions of the great range of mountains of which it forms a part. There were no indica- tions of recent volcanic action, and but few volcanic stones were found. The mountains themselves thrown up in the original upheaval are immense masses of syenite or trap. The plains for from two to five miles from the coast are of coralline formation, covered with the alluvium washed from the mountains, a system of reclaiming from the sea which is a striking feature of the world's economy. Passing from the coralline formation, we meet an outer cropi)ing of sandstone at a high angle, which, although modified by the surrounding topography, taken in connec- tion with the steep slojie of the mountains on the Atlantic slope, appears to have been upheaved and at the same time folded over. At an elevation of 100 feet on the Caledonia route, syenite is first met with, which, forming the substructure of the mountain area, extends for some 14 miles, where the sand- stone again becomes visible, which continues the underlying formation until lost in the clay beds of the Chucunaqua. Indications of copper were found in great abundance on the Sassardi and Morti line, and veins of pure copper, though small, were traced for several feet. Iron and copper pyrites were met in great abundance, but no indications of gold NOTES ON PANAMA. 227 were discovered on any of the routes explored by the expedition. Large numbers of agates were obtained on the Sassardi line. The San Bias route was singularly uninteresting in geolog- ical specimens. Decomposed syenite and sandstone were met with on the lower portion al)ove an altitude of 20 feet, while trap composed the formation of the great mountain area of this route. ******* DESCRIPTION OF THE PORTION OF DARIEN TO BE EXPLORED. (Survey of 1871.) The Isthmus of Darien may be subdivided into three divi- sions — the northwestern, including the water-shed of the Bayamo River, on the Pacific, and the Atlantic coast border- ing on the Bay of San Bias as far as the peak of Playon Chico; the central, from Playon Chico to a line drawn from Cape Tiburon to Cape Garaehine (the Cordilleras break off into two ranges at Playon Chico, one continuing along the coast, the other, crossing the isthmus transversely, ends in the higli hills that skirt the north shore of the Gulf of San Miguel. This range forms the divide between the Bayam flowing to the north and the Chucunaqua to the south) ; the southern included between parallel 7° 30' and 8° 40' north latitude. From Cape Tiburon the coast range known as the Cordilleras Llorenes pursues an unbroken line, but a short distance from the coast, to the Puerto Escondido. At the latter point it recedes and bifurcates, the one fork running nearly south, graduallj^ lessening in altitude till it disappears at the mouth of the Cacarica River; the other takes a more westerly direction till it strikes the Pacific coast, forming the true divide, known by the name of Sancti Espiritu Mountains. It is in the vallej' at the forks of this range that the Cacarica, a tributaiy of the Atrato, rises, emptying into the latter some 40 miles from its mouth. The western slope of this range is drained by the Tuyra River, which empties into the Gulf of San Miguel. Two tributaries of the latter river — the Paya and Cue — have their sources very near those of the Cacarica and Peianchita. 228 NOTES ON PANAMA. The divide between them seems to lose its mountainous character, and is broken up into hills and spurs, over which an Indian trail, leading from one side of the divide to the other, is known to the "caoutchandos," or India-rubber hunters, as the pass of the Cacarica. This is the region, therefore, that I proposed thoroughly to explore — a task requiring a combined expedition from both oceans, which, running separate lines of level, should finally connect in the interior. The principal explorers \y1io purj^ort to have visited this region are Ilellert, Lacharme, Gorgoza, and De Puydt. The facts as stated by them are so positive as to the adaptabilitj^ of this route that one could but feel it conclusive that here would be found a line fullj^ equal to all the requirements of a suitable location. Ilellert contributed a paper upon his explorations to the Berlin Geographical Societ}^ which seemingly gave it such authority that upon its assertions I based mj- plans for the surve}' of the Pacific slope. For a translation of this report by Professor Davidson I am indebted to the courtesy of the Coast Survey. Processor Davidson deduced from llellert's notes the total height of the divide to be but 2oi feet, and the Falls of Tapanaca, many miles above the Cue River, but 43 feet above sea-level. This was all couleur de rose, and here undoubtedly, if these figures had been borne out in facts, was the long-sought-for spot, or, as Ilellert terms it, the "key to the Pacific.*' He says further that there are 8 to 10 feet, in the dry season, in the Tuyra River, as far as the Tapanaca, and that no rocks were to be seen over the whole of this distance, and the river bottom sandy, with small pebbles. One nmy judge of my surprise when I learned from Mr. Xelson, the agent of the railroad at Panama, that Hellert was in his employ while in the country, and never penetrated the interior farther than Pinogana. ]\[ons. Lacharme, a civil engineer of South America, explored the valle}' of the Tuyra as far as the divide, in I860, at the request of Seiior Gorgoza, who supposed he had dis- covered in the Spanish ai'chives information that would lead to the discovery of a pass for the proposed canal. Lacharme published a very interesting narrative of his travels, in Put- nam's Magazine. He places tlie moutli of the Paya River at NOTES ON PANAMA. 229 144 feet above, and Paya Village, some twenty- five miles up that stream, at only 173 feet above sea-level. He states he followed the Indian trail from l*aya across the divide, to a branch of the Cacarica, called the Tiiciilegua, which he places at an altitude of IGO feet. He i^urports to have gone some distance down the Cacarica, in all, two days' journey from Paya village, and to have returned in one day, meas- uring the distance with a chain. He places the summit level of his survey near the village of Paya at 178 feet, which is very remarkable for being the very datum given to liim before he set out as the greatest elevation that would be practicable for the enterprise. It is also singular that he should find this summit but a short distance from Paya, when he must have known that the head waters of that river were man}- miles distant. Seiior Gorgosa also visited, I believe, the village of Paj'a, and the accounts he published were sufficiently flattering to lead to the formation of a company of capitalists in Paris fo" the purpose of acting upon his reports. They sent Genera. Heine, an attache of the American legation at Paris, to ex- amine this route. Heine proceeded as far as the mouths of the Atrato, but, not being properh* prepared, did not ascend the river, and returned to Aspinwall. The true facts ob- tained by the expedition will show how erroneous were the estimates of these explorei'S, and how much we who had believed in them were deceived. INHABITANTS. The population of the region explored during the past year may be divided into Colombianos and Indians. The former are composed of whites, mulattoes, samboes, and negroes. The latter compose at least five-sixths of the whole, and are an athletic race, but lazj^ and shiftless. They are to be found in the villages of Chipigana, Santa Maria del Real, Molineca, Pinogana, and Yavisa in Darien, and the small village of Turbo, or Pisisi, on the Gulf of Darien. They are princi- I)ally engaged in the production of caoutchouc, in which an industrious man can easilj' earn $100 a month; and as it per- mits a free and lazy existence, it is difficult to procure labor- ing men except at the most exorbitant rates. At one time, no doubt, the whole of the valleys of the 230 NOTES ON PANAMA. Tiiyra and Chucunaqua were inhabited by the Darien Indians, but they have disappeared entire!}' from the former, excepting the Paya tribe, on the river of that name. These Indians are less averse to strangers than anj^ I had met with previously, owing, no doubt, to their long intercourse with the Spaniards, of whom, however, they are perfectly inde- pendent, and with whom there are no signs of amalgamation. They treated me with kindness when I visited them, but were sharp enough to avail themselves of our necessities in driving- hard bargains for provisions. They do not number more than four hundred. On the Atlantic slope, near the Tarena mouth of the Atrato, we hav'e the villages of Arpeti, Cuti, and Tanela, all under the chief of the latter. The Indians of these villages are as isolated as those of the interior, and have all of the latter's dislike to white men. They have no dealings witli Europeans; their towns are only approached through small streams in the marshes of the Atrato, where one is almost devoured by mosquitoes, and their only glimpse of the outer world is when thej' visit Pisisi to trade for the few wants thej' may require. These Indians were described by those of the expedition who visited them as the finest that had been met Avith in Darien. De Puydt asserts to have descended to the Tanela village, and even beyond; but, on the other hand, their chief, Suza-le- Lele, who was ver}' unwilling that Lieutenant-Commander Schulze should explore their domain, told him that he was the first white man who had ever jienetrated so far. On the Chucunaqua there are now no villages of Indians below the Sucubti River, which was visited by the expedition in 1870. The Indians of the Atrato Valley, called Choco, are of a much milder disposition than the Darien. They were entirely subjugated by the Spaniards, and under these hard task- masters were almost depojjulated, and lost their tribal organi- zation. Here and there families are to be found upon the rivers. They are quite inoffensive, and readj^ to offer their services as boatmen or guides. They are not averse to labor, and at Cupica Baj' I found them tilling the ground by the side of the Spanish negro, whom in their present degraded condition they consider a sujperior being. NOTES ON PANAMA. 231 CLIMATE. The climate of the lower portion of Darien is materially the same as that of the region explored last year. Of the two seasons, dry and wet, the former commences about the 1st of January and extends to the 20tli of April. At this period the wind blows invariably from the north. After April there is more or less rain till the 21st of June. My own experience would lead me to believe that the heaviest rains during this season are in the first three weeks of May, and after that pleasant weather is frequent. July, though not a dry month, has but little rain. August denotes a reappear- ance of the wet season, though there is often much pleasant weather. September and October present the greatest rain- fall; in November the amount is less, though this is the month of the most violent storms, accompanied with heavy rains. The rainfall in the interior is much greater than on the coast. While we were having only showers about the 1st of May, the journal of the survej^ors records heavy rain. As to the effect of the seasons upon the construction of a canal, during nine months of the year there would be no more than partial interruption, and of these five may be considered as dry months. During the remaining three — September, Octo- ber, and November — it is not probable that any work could be done except under cover. The wind during the wet sea- son is usually from the south and west, with frequent calms. The temperatui'e during the dry season is necessaril}^ much higher on the Pacific slope, and the nights are often hot and close. SOIL. All through the Isthmus and valley of the Atrato the soil is of unsurpassed fertility. On the lower ground, subject to overflow, it has been enriched by the deposit of rivers annu- ally brought down for ages, while at higher elevations the vegetable decomposition going on in the dense forest growth has given it a rich, loamj' composition. All tropical prod- ucts would flourish in profusion, but the ground is peculiarlj^ adapted to the production of the sugar cane, which grows to an enormous size. Plantains are the staple food for both Indians and negroes. 232 NOTES ON PANAMA. The indolence and indifference of the inliabitants, the sparse population, and the enervating effect of the climate upon Europeans, seem to present almost impassable barriers to its improvement; and unless acted upon by such a pow- erful impetus as would be produced by the construction of a ship canal, it will probably remain forever in all its natural, wildness. FORESTS. The whole of Darien is covered with a vast primeval growth from its swamps to the top of its highest peaks. Many of the trees I am unacquainted with, but among them are the following, more or less known: Caoutchouc, mahoganj', ebony, oak, cedar, rosewood, espave, quito, lignum-vitfe, ironwood, besides numerous varieties of the palm family. The forest trees support whole families of parasites, and from almost every branch hang festoons of vines, wliich hide the trees from which they spring and i)resent a scene of the richest luxuriance. The puma, jaguar, tapir, and tiger cat inhabit the forests of Darien, but, hidden by daj' in the dense solitudes, are rarelj" met >\ it h. Many varieties of the snake family abound, whose bite is generally deadly. The wild hog, or peccary, is found in great numbers all over the Isthmus, and forms the chief article of meat for the natives. Monkeys are numer- ous; also a small species of deer, armadillos, rabbits, and squirrels. Parrots and parroquets of the most brilliant plumage are met with everywhere; also the toucan, carpin- tero, chucara, and many other varieties not familiar. Wild turkeys are plentiful in the valley of the Atrato, and on the hills a beautiful bird like a pheasant, called by the natives the currasaAv, is sometimes seen. RIVERS. The two principal rivei'S of the portion of Darien exj)lored the past year are the Atrato and Tuyra. The Atrato, prob- ably the fourth largest river in volume in South America, rises in a spur of the Antioquian Range that connects the latter with the divide, or Cordilleras of Darien. Flowing on a course generally north for several hundred miles, it dis- charges itself through thirteen mouths, of which the principal N<)TE8 ON PANAMA. 283 are the 'J'areiia, Caiideleria, IJaibocoas, Coquilo, Coeo-Grande, Uraba, and Pichindi, and empties into the Gulf of Darien. The valley which it drains, between the Antio(iuiaii Moun- tains and Cordilleras, extends from latitude 5° 20' north to 8° o' noi'tli, and varies from 100 to 150 miles in width. Its principal ti'ibutaries on the west bank are the Cacarica, Salaqui, Truando, Opogado, Napipi, and IJojaj'a; on the "east, the Tumarador, Sucio, Murindo, and Muii. The Atrato was surveyed by Commander Lull for 100 miles, or as far up as the mouth of the Bojaya. Its baiik.s are low, and for the whole of tliis distance during- the wet season are overflowed to the depth of 3 or 4 feet, from which cause all the houses are built upon piles. TJelow Sucio there are no habitations upon the banks, as they are submerged ten months of the year. This river resembles the lower Mississippi in orandeur of propoi-tions, with its long reaches, its width, varying from 1,500 to 2,500 feet, and its great depth, often exceeding 00 feet. Its current varies from 2 to 3 knots per hour, which would be much increased in the rainy season but for the overflow of the banks, which i)ermits an escape of the surplus water by spreading for miles over the adjacent country. Trautwine, in his report upon this i-iver, states that there are not more than 18 feet 90 miles from the mouth. It is prob- able that his soundings were made from a canoe, which, in passing upstream, Avould keep in slack and shallow water. Our survey was carefullj' made in a rowboat floating down with the current, and nowhere in the channel were found less than 28 feet. Over the whole distance surveyed no rocks were met with, the bottom muddy, and from its great depth the river was unobstructed with snags. So well defined is ity channel, and so free from obstructions, that a single passage up and return would be sufficient to make one acquainted with the navigation. The mouths of the Atrato are at pres- ent obstructed bj' bars, upon which there will never be found more than 6 feet of water. They differ in character, how- ever, according to their protection from the sea. The Ui'aba mouth, the one that it is proposed to utilize, being farthest from the .sea, and also protected by a long sand spit, is fixed in its nature, and the bar of hard sand. These bars, as thej'^ are increased by fresh deposits, are slowly extending out, and break off abruptly from 2 fathoms into 10. An examina- 234 NOTES ON PANAMA. tion of the Uraba month showed that as soon as the deposit on each side of the channel was snfficient to rise above the water and give growth to water plants, the water commenced to deepen; and where the banks were of snflicient consistency to give growth to mangrove and palm, and thns confine the flow of the cnrrent, a depth of 4 or 5 fathoms would be found. In the improvement of the bar, I would suggest that this action of nature be imitated in creating artificial banks by piling out to deep water, and a channel dredged out, which could be accomplished at a moderate outlay. The Tuyra.— This river differs entirely in its character from the Atrato. It rises in the Pirri Range, not far from the Pacific coast, flows first east, then gradually in a semi- circle to the north as far as the Paj^a, and, taking about a west-northwesterly course, empties into the Gulf of San Mi- guel. Above tide water, during the dry season, its bed for 50 miles is filled with rapids, upon Avhich there is scarce water enough to float a canoe to the Falls of Tapanaca. Above the falls it dwindles into a small stream. It is about oOU feet wide over most of this distance, very crooked, and the marks on the tref^s indicate a rise of I'i feet during the wet season. Passing almost its entire course through a hill}" country", through its numerous tributaries it pours out a vast flood of Waaler during the season of rains. Of its branches, the prin- cipal, on the left bank, are the Tucuti, Pirri, Arusa, Cupe, Paca, Piedra, and Cana. On the right bank it receives the Chucunaqua from the north, a river of the same size and hardh" a tributarv; the Yape, Pucro, Paya, and Cue, the lat- ter probably tlie same as known as the Punusa in the old Spanish maps. EVAPORATION. Experiments at Muertos Island, Gulf of Darien, continued through the greater part of the dry season, showed an evap- oration of 1 inch in five days. As tliis test was made with a very small body of water (in a wooden tank made for the purpose) it is believed to be the maximum amount for this locality, and tliough a smaller quantity than generally' allowed for this latitude, yet when the very moist condition of the atmosphere is considered it is not surprising that it is not capable of absoi-bing more. NOTES ON PANAMA. 235 HEALTH. The sanitary condition of the late expedition has been fully equal to that of 1870, and the fact that no mortality has taken place from climatic causes is most gratifying, in the face of tlie reports of the unhealthiness of this part of the continent. The percentage of sick on both expeditions has not been much greater than upon the ordinary service, though officers and men have been constantly exposed to the full malarial effect of the climate. The prevalent diseases were fevers (remitient and intermittent), disorders of the digestive organs, and skin diseases. Fevers did not assume a danger- ous type, though very exhaustive in their effect. Eczema occasioned much annoyance, and was difficult to heal. Bites from the hordes of insects that infest The jungles and forests, though not dangerous, were very j)ainful, and, in causing loss of sleep, often brought on fever. Malaria, though necessarily active in such a wet climate as that of the Isthmus, does not, in the uncleared portions, appear as poisonous as in manj^ other portions of the world which have a higher reputation for health. I attribute the fact to the hilly nature of the country- and great waterfall, by which all vegetable decomposition is quickly carried off, and also that the dense tropical growth does not permit the action of the sun's rays. To the ver}' stringent sanitar}' regulations, such as requir- ing flannel to be worn next to the skin, or, when on the sur- vey on shore, that every person should put on a dry flannel change at right; the liberal use of quinine as a prophylactic, in doses of 1^ grains every morning to each person in the field; to the ample supply of wholesome food, at least 3 pounds to a man; to the absence of intoxicating drinks; and to the but moderate indulgence in fruits, may be attributed, under Providence, in a great degree, the health of the expedi- tion, engaged as we were in a fatiguing and laborious task, exposed alternately to the fierce rays of a tropical sun and to constant wettings from rain or work in rivers. The experience of this expedition and others, of the Pan- ama Railroad Company, and of residents on the Isthmus, proves that the climate is not as unhealthy as generally suj)- 236 NOTES oisr Panama. posed, and that it is possible to reside here iiiau}' years without serious injury. In the employment of such a vast body of men as would be required in the construction of a ship canal, the j)reservation of healtli is a subject of the highest interest, not onlj' on the score of humanit3\ but as vitally important to the success of the enterprise. It is confidently believed that by comfortably constructed quarters, with wliich shonld be connected appa- ratus for the quick drj-iug of clothes, by rigid sanitary regu- lations, and by a regular supply of wholesome food, a state of health may be maintained that will compare favorablj" with newly opened districts in the United States. Thongh the Indians, so far from increasing in numbers, appear to be rather the reverse, yet the great mortality seems to be in childhood, for many of the men attain a great age. GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. The study of the geology of those parts explored by the expedition, in their relation toother portions of the Isthmus, is very instructive; and attention is called to the interesting report of the geologist. Dr. G. A. Maache, upon this subject. The results of our explorations of last year indicated that the base of the mountains forming the backbone of the Isthmus is principally syenite, which places them in the prim arj^ formation; while our observations, on the present expedition, from the valley of the Atrato and on the lire of the Panama Railroad, would denote a substructure of trap and trachyte, and of a more recent creation. From this we are led to infer that the central portion of the Isthmus was of an origin coeval with the continents of North and South America; that the foot of these mountains was washed by a united ocean, and not until a later period were the connecting links upheaved; for the geological and physical features of the southern portion of the Isthmus are very different from the central, the regularity of the Cordil- leras losing itself in a broken country of very much less alti- tude, of which the hills are principally of a trappean origin. The extraordinary depth of the Atrato for 200 miles from its mouth, and the very little fall in this distance (40 feet), though surrounded at not great distances bj' high hills and nuuintains, indicate plainly that the whole valley of the NOTES ON PANAMA. 237 Atrato was at one time an estuary of the ocean; that bj' a later upheaval the continents were connected and the oceans were separated, when commenced a gradual encroachment upon the sea from the decomposition of the hillsides (which is comparatively very rapid in this climate), being carried down bj^ numerous streams, and, upon contact with another force from ocean waves and tides, deposited upon the bot- tom. We see this going on now in the changing of the delta of the Atrato, only very much slower, because from the shel- tered position tiie action of the ocean is much less felt, and the influence of the many streams fiom the east side of the Gulf of Darien tend to carry the sediment of the Atrato farther seaward. The geologj' of the Napipi River and Cupica Bay is of special interest, as having been the line selected that pre- sented the most favorable features for the construction of a ship canal. Here the hills rise precipitously from the sea, and then slope away gradually till the}- terminate in a plain reaching to the Atrato, with a fall of about o feet to a mile. The formation of the hills surrounding Cupica Bay and the divide is trappean, and a closer examination of its mineral- ogical properties would constitute them principally as what is known in petrography as "hornblende anderite." Once over the divide, we have a stretch of some 3 utiles of table land interspersed with clay hills of a moderate height. After descending into the plain, the outcroppings of rock become rarer as one proceeds, and often so decomposed as to be cut with a knife; and near the Atrato a stratum of decaj'ed leaves is frequently met with below the surface, overlying red and blue clay. The rock at Cupica Bay, at the falls of the Limon River, and upon the Napipi, indicates great densitj' and hardness; but the question of being self-sustaining can only be satisfactorily ascertained by boring. No minerals were found during these explorations between the Atrato and the Pacific Ocean, though the formation is favorable to gold, and considerable quantities of the precious metal are obtained in the rivers that rise in tlie Antioquian range, which is of a similar formation. - Gold ornaments of ancient manufacture have been found in the bed of the Napipi River, and I have been told by the Indians that there is gold in the mountains, though they always refused to give any information in regard to it. W.T.CONWAY ,3t LIEUT. 6th INFANTRY 238 NOTES ON PANAMA. A vei'}' iiuportaut discoveiy of coal was made in the region bordering upon the east side of the Gulf of Darien. an anal- ysis and report of which, by Professor Barker, of Yale Col- lege, is appended to this report. The survey of the Tuyra developed the general geological features of the Xapipi. Interesting specimens of fossilized shells, embedded in rock and detached bowlders, were found at various points on the Tuj^ra, and even on the top of hills — an additional proof that this formation conies within the later Tertiary formation. Fossilized coral is found in the. bed of the Chagres, 30 miles from the sea, and at a considerable altitude, while at the same place will be gathered pel)bles of quartz, jasper, agate — all belonging to a different jjeriod than fossils. r^ ^ ^ ^ 4: ^ ^ DISCUSSION OF PROPOSED CANAL ROUTE VIA THE NAPIPI AND DOGUADO VALLEYS. (Report of 1878.) Much has already been said of the nature of the country, and difficulties to be encountered, in the vallej' of the Napipi in my previous report. But as the value of this route depends so entirely upon the capacity of ship navigation of the rivei- Atrato up to the point we leave it to cross to the Pacific Ocean by an artificial cut, I will again allude to it before proceeding to discuss the general features of the new proposed line. Our knowledge of the Atrato is based upon a complete line of soundings, run by Commander Lull, for the whole dis- tance, from the mouth of the Xapipi to the mouth of the Atrato, wlio made the survey in his gig, taking soundings every five minutes. So important is the fact of the great depth of the Atrato that I append liis letter to me on his return, as also one from the officer who accompanied him, Lieutenant Merrill : United States Ship Guard, Fourth Rate. Gidf of Darien, United States of CoIo)nbia, May J, 1S71. Sir: I would re.spectfiilly inform yoii that, in obedience to your order, I have examined the river Atrato, from the month of the Napipi down to the month of the Cacarica. sounding ks rapidly as possible, while pulling gently with the current, in the gig of this ship, making a run- ning traverse at the same. W. (. UUIVWAY ht LIEUT. 6th INfANIHV NOTES ON PANAMA. 239 The least water found in the channel of the river was 28 feet although the surface was at least 6 feet below high water; we frequently found over 12 fathoms. There are very few obstructions, in the shape of snags, etc. All that we saw could be cleared away in a single day's work by a steamer. The channel follows the curves of the shore so exactly that any pilot, after once going up or down the river, could never after make a mistake with regard to it. It is the clearest river I have ever seen. The river bottom is all soft mud; we did not discover a single rock or stone the whole distance. I beg to say that I use superlative language advisedly in speaking of this river, as its advantages for navigating purposes struck me as being so remarkable that I examined it with great care. I am, very respectfully, your obedient servant, Edward P. Lull, Coiiimander. Commander Thos. O. Selfridge, Commanding Darien Exploring Expedition. Marshall, Mich., August 5, 1873, Sir: I accompanied Commander Edward P. Lull, U. S. Navy, on the survey of the Atrato River, and am confident that, after crossing the bar at the mouth, there will be no difficulty in carrying 26 feet of water to the mouth of the Napipi. Vei'y respectfully, your obedient servant, John P. Merrill, Lieutenant , U. S. Navy. Commander Thos. O. Selfridge, U. S. Navy, commanding DaiHen Expedition. No one who lias visited this river and floated niDou its sur- face as I have can but be struck with the grandeur of this miglity flow of water and can but feel that it has been designed by the Almighty to bear a more important part in the great economy of the world's progress than the carrying of the little crafts which are now its sole navigators. That the Atrato is entirely and wholly capable of ship navigation to the Napipi is a fact that no longer admits of an}' doubt. BAR OR OBSTRUCTION AT THE MOUTH OF THE ATRATO. The Atrato spreads itself out into a delta at least 20 miles in length, and empties by 13 mouths into the sea. The great difficult}^ that has been met in the permanent improvement of the mouths of all the rivers that empty into the Gulf of Mexico is the shifting character of the sands, caused by the action of the sea swell, and which requires the 12312—03 16 240 NOTES ON PANAMA. constant use of the dredge, as at the mouth of the Missis- sippi, where the storm of a single night may open a channel entirely different from the one in use. While nearly all the mouths of the Ati'ato are exposed to this same influence that one known as the Uraba is an exception, as it empties into an almost land-locked harbor, the surface of which is hardly ruffled. This fact gives the character of its bar a permanence which none of the others possess in the same degree. Specimens of boring at a depth of 18 feet below the surface indicate that it is composed entirely of black and white sand whose geological prof)erties are the same as the hills from which the tributaries of the Atrato flow. I was also struck by the fact that as soon as we crossed the bar to a point where the overflow was restrained by the growth of plants, then did the depth commence to increase, and as soon as the flow was confined by banks compact enough to sustain vegetation, the water at once deepened to five fathoms. This action of nature to mj^ mind was conclusive proof that if the current was confined bj^ artificial banks and the in- closed distance dredged to the required depth there would be a permanent channel requiring no further outlay to keei3 open. From the ten-fathom line to a depth of five fathoms in the Uraba Branch it is about 2,500 feet. There would be re- quired for a double row of piling the whole of this distance 10,000 trees 30 feet long and 1 foot or more in diameter. Trees of the varietj^ known as the cedron, guallaca, or truntago, chacajo, and insive can all be cut on or near the Atrato and its tributaries. These varieties are all hard and very durable, of a specific gravity less than water, and could be therefore floated to the desired spot and driven at a cost not exceeding 15 per pile. For a channel 300 feet wide and a depth of 2(3 feet of water, there would require to be removed 0-10,000 cubic yards of material. The expense, therefore, of the required improve- ment at the mouth of tlie Atrato would be: 10,000 piles, $5 each §50,000 640, 100 cubic yards material. 50 cents per cubic yard 320, 000 370. 000 25 per cent increase for contingencies 92, 500 Total 462.500 NOTES ON PANAMA. 241 POISON OF THE INDIAN ARROWS. (Survey of 18T0.) We inquired of all the Indians, both men and boys, at Cale- donia Bay and at San Bias for the "curari" or "urari" poison, so often mentioned, but none of them appeared to have ever heard the name. They admitted that they nsed poison on their arrows, and after numerous attempts they brought us what they represented to be the bona fide poison. It was a watery liquid with a white precipitate at the bottom, which became milky by shaking. They, by signs, gave us to under- stand that when it was intended to be particular!}- virulent it was necessar}' to expose it for three days in the sun, then mixed with a paste before applying it to tlie ari-ows. It turned out to be nothing but the juice of the manzanillo del playa. So, if this is their chief poison, and is the same as the "curari," it is not so much to l)e dreaded. Its effect appears to be different on different constitutions; on some, the juice will raise blisters, and the smoke of the burning wood will attack the eyes, while others experience no harm. The natives wash the injured parts in salt water, which is readilj^ obtained, as the tree, fortunately, only flourishes near the sea coast. The young leaves and fruit steeped in milk are also said to be a perfect antidote. That which we have is extremely volatile, giving off a strong smell of sulphureted hydrogen and other smells which we could not detect. From its volatile nature alone we would infer that ii was only to be dreaded while fresh, although the Indians maintain that exposure to the sun for three days causes it to regain all its strength. We tried some of it on our hands when first obtained, and it had no effect beyond the stinging produced by acid; we also have made several experiments on rats and cats since our return. The animals appeared to grow sick after ten minutes, incling to cough or vomit, l)ut in the course of an hour all unpleasant effects appeared to have passed away and they were as well as ever. 242 NOTES ON PANAMA. MEDICAL REPORT OF THE DARIEN EXPEDITION, BY LINNiEUS FUSSELL, ACTING PASSED ASSISTANT SURGEON. (Survey of 1870.) Philadelphia, August 3o, 1671. Sir: In tliis report the facts recorded will be for the most part such as fell under my own observation. I shall, how- ever, bring to bear on the subject information received from other sources, from the surgeons of the Resaca and Guard, and of the Panama Railroad Company, from books, period- icals, etc. My services upon the Darien expedition lasted from December 3, 1870, to June 27, 1871. During that time I had medical charge of a surveying j)arty for one hundred days, from February 22 to June 3, 1871, this service being a con- tinued one in the wildest portion of the Isthmus of Darien. The following is a summary of the amount of sickness, etc., during that time: Number of men in party 34 Admission to sick list ■- 41 Niimber of sick clays 133 Average time sick, days 3 Daily average - - IxVo Daily percentage 5 These numbers ma}- appear large; they are realh^ the re- verse, for this statement includes every case, medical or sur- gical, excused from duty from any cause however slight. No deaths occurred; no cases became chronic; no severe form of disease existed at anytime during the progress of the survej^ These observations apply not only to the partj^ which I accom- panied in the woods, but to the whole expedition, and for the whole time. Sevei'al other surveying parties were on other parts of the isthmus, and the greater part of the officers and crews of the Resaca and Guard had extra work to do on hydrographic and other duty connected with the survey. All were exposed to the direct raj^s of the burning sun, to the poison of malaria, or both. With the whole command the same sanitary pre- cautions were taken (which will be referred to hereafter), and with about equally good results. ^Malarial fevers (intermittent and remittent) formed the greater part of the cases, twenty-one of the admissions out of NOTES ON PANAMA. 243 forty-one being cases of fever. Most of the other affections met with showed a distinct malarial impression, and all wore benefited by the treatment proper to cases of fever. Manj- canses cooperated to prodnce cases of sickness, the first and most important one being the poison of malaria, to which we were constantl}' exposed. Many different opinions are held as to the nature of this peculiar poison, to none of which I need allude. All agree that for its i3roduction, vege- table decomposition, favored by heat and moisture, is neces- sary; that this decomposition is most active when there is no more moisture than is necessary for that purpose. Un- commonly rainy seasons, followed by unusually dry ones, are very favorable to its development, as is ever}^ change by which a perpetual alteration of the water level is occasioned. These conditions were presenti durina- the whole time of our trip, most markedly so at the commencement and toward tlie end of our survey. At the commencement the rainy sea- son had ended, but the water which covers tJie lowei- portions of the country during this period had not yet had time to descend to its lowest point, and while we were ascending the river Cue the water was gradually falling, exposing masses of vegetable matter to decaj', and constantl}^ adding to the amount of malaria everywhere present. During the last month our survey took us over a very rough country, which, though generally of the kind which a late author speaks of as "very active in the evolution of malaria," ("such as are traversed by i)ercolating streams or canals in wooded disti-icts, termed jungles,'.') was composed of a succession of hills and vallej'S extending from the mouth of the river Paj^a (empty- ing into the Tuyra) to the town of Pinogana, a village some oO miles farther down. The weather was also such as to favor the production of malaria — rain for one or two days, followed by hot, dry weather for a corresponding period. Other causes which had their influence in predisposing to disease ma}' be merely alluded to; the fact of being compelled on many occasions to wear wet clothing, not only during the day, but at night, for, although ordinarily great care was taken to have the men put on dry clothes on finishing their work, it would often be impossible to keep dry owing to very heavy rains and imperfect shelter inseparable from such work in a perfect wilderness. The effects from bites from hordes of various kinds of insects, etc., may be alluded to, not sim- 244 NOTES ON PANAMA. ply from their local effects which were sometimes severe, but from the loss of sleep occasioned by this persistent annoy- ance. In this connection the bites of vampire bats should be referred to, as the stories toid of them are bj^ many deemed rather apocryphal. We were troubled with them more or less during the whole time we were out, but ordinarily they did not prove a serious annoyance; toward the latter part of our trip, however, some one was bitten almost every night; one night, the 13th of May, nine men were bitten. The men were rarely awakened by the bites, which, however, bled freely, suffici(Mit blood l)eing usually lost to saturate the clothing, and to show its effects very perceptibly in the loss of color and general feeling of weakness experienced. 1 have now to consider the reasons which, notwithstanding the various predisposing causes to disease, led to the general continuance in health of the various members of the expedi- tion. I would mention first, the fresh and most excellent water which we always found without difficulty; second, having regular hours for meals, and the good food furnished, it being of better quality and of larger quantity than that furnished to any armj^ or navy in the world, amounting to 53 ounces (3^% pounds) of solid food per diem for each man; third, the total absence of all causes of excitement; fourth, the absence of all kinds of intoxicating liquors; the care taken to have each one in the party wear flannel next the skin. The good influences to be expected, « priori, from these causes are so evident that it will be needless to dwell upon them. As to the prophylactic use of quinine, some words will be necessary. With us the suliDhate of quinia was used regularly from the time of starting out and contin- ued during the whole period, with the exception of some three or four days. Before that time we had had but three cases of fever, all light attacks. At the end of the fourth day of ihe time in Avhich the use of quinine was omitted, three men were attacked with the fever and on tlie following day three more. These six cases were in every respect the most serious ones I had to treat dui-ing the whole trij), though even they readily yielded in a few days to the free use of quinine. When these men were taken sick we were not exposed to a greater amount of malaria than before. The good effects of the daily use of quinine were so marked as to be readily per- ceived by even the sailors and macheteros of the party, witli NOTES ON PANAMA. 245 whom at first great diflficiilty was experienced in getting them to take the medicine. Afterwards, however, they never neglected to come for it when serv^ed out in the morning, and used freciuentlj' to ask at other times for extra doses. It was given usually immediatel}^ before breakfast, about half the time being administered in solution in whisk}', four grains to the ounce for each dose. Occasionally, after extra exposure or an unusually hard daj^'s work, a dose would be given in the evening. During a portion of the time it Avas given suspended in clear, cold coffee, a method which masks most effectually the peculiar bitterness of the remedj'^; but I pre- fer, however, for small doses, the solution in whisky, the small amount of the latter i)i each dose being in itself verj^ beneficial. Quinine, as a prophylatic against fever, has long been used, and its good effects noted l)y all who have had experi- ence in its use. I shall introduce here two quotations from writers upon the isthmus: "In 1855 the use of quinine enabled the Panama Line of steamers to continue their service during the sickly season, and lias ever since been found to reduce the number of sick in the service to a mere fraction of its former amount, while it preserved from disease in a remarkable manner the officers and dependents of the railroad companj^ on the isthmus." Dr. I. K. Merrill, sur- geon of a mining and exploring party on the isthmus, states that "for more than two years the party enjoj'ed an almost complete immunity from miasmatic disease under the sys- tematic use of quinine. The proper mode of giving quinine in cases of fever is a question uj)on which there has been much discussion, the principal difference of opinion being whether it should be given in one or at most two large doses or in small doses frequently repeated. My experience, which is in conformity with that of the surgeons of the Panama Railroad Company and that of a majority of the profession, is tlTat one large dose — 15 to 25 grains — should be given as early as possible, either as soon as the paroxysm has subsided or, if a recur- rence of the attack is anticipated, in a short time, even at the commencement of the sweating stage, and with most excellent results. It may be noted as a fact of importance that the antifebrile influence of quinine does not coincide with its physiological 246 NOTES ON PANAMA. effects, wliicli are manifested almost immediately aud sub- side in from six to eight hours. It is certain that the anti- febrile effects are manifested 'at a later period. A word as to the manner of administration of (luinine in large doses. Pills are readil}^ taken by many, but they soon become hard and insoluble. The solution with sulphuric acid is undoubtedl}' the form in which it is most readily intro- duced into the system, but the taste is to many so unpleasant as to prove a matter of some importance in causing nausea and vomiting, which are easilj' produced in these fevers. I usually give it suspended in clear cold coffee, a mixture which a noted author says "produces a precipitate of the insoluble tannate of quinia, which is probably decomposed but slowly in the system." In every case, however, I found the physio- logical effects to be produced in about the same time as when given in the solution with aromatic sulphuric acid, and its curative effects were certainly as well marked as could be desired. When there is hepatic congestion the administra- tion of calomel is usually called for in connection with the use of quinine. Opium is in many cases a useful adjunct. One point more as to treatment, aud that is to put in my word against the necessity of any "preparation of the s^^stem " for the use of quinine by the use of purgatives, emetics, or both, as recommended by many. It seems to me scarcely ever necessary and often absolutely' hurtful, as valuable time is often thereb}" lost, the natural tendency of the disease itself being sufficiently exhausting without adding to it b}' such unnecessarj" drains upon the system. Whether the system can become even in a measure accli- mated to the po so malaria is a question which seems to me should be decided in the negative, but upon this point "doctors disagree." Professor Aitken says, "It is now an established fact tliat no one can be acclimated so as to withstand the influence of malaria." Dr. Stephen Rogers says, " Gradiml acclimation diminishes the danger of being attacked by the more violent forms of miasmic disease." Upon the diseases other than malarial met with little need be said. We were troubled with various forms of skin affec- tions, which I here only allude to to note the good effects of carbolic acid, which was used in solution, one part of the acid to forty of water, and applied in almost every case. Its use NOTES ON PANAMA. 247 was mostly followed by immediate relief of itching, and a cure was generally accomplished in a fcAv days. Is the climate of the Isthmus a very unhealth}' one or not ? This is a question about which there is a wonderful diversitj' of opinion. There seems to be a very widespread notion that it is not only very unhealthy, but one of the most pestilential places to be found, and thus most writers who have men- tioned the climate speak of it. Residents of the Isthmus, on the other hand, including the different medical men there, are unanimous in their assertions tliat it is not unhealthy. The\' maintain that the}' have fewer diseases on the Isthmus, and even proportionally fewer cases of malarial fever, than are to be met with in various portions of the United States, and not only fewer cases, but cases of less dangerous type. It would be uncandid not to mention that yellow fever has at various times been prevalent on the Isthmus, and that when met with it has occurred as an epidemic of severe type; dur- ing the last one (which occurred in 1868) from 75 to 80 per cent of those attacked succumbed to the violence of the dis- ease. From as extended an observation of the country itself as I could make, from infoimation derived f i-om the statistics for the last three years of the medical service of the Panama Railroad Companj", and from conversations with different medical men there I have reason to believe that the state- ments of the residents of the Isthmus as to their climate are sub- stantially correct, as far at least as the towns of Panama and Aspinwall are concerned. It must be remembered, however, that malarial fevers are not usually met with in cities, and that the use of quinine as a prophylactic is there largely resorted to. In the smaller native villages, Avhere this is not the case, fever of a violent t\"pe is very common, deaths occurring frequenth". The con- clusion, therefore, seems to me evident that malaria is every- where present on the Isthmus, less so in the cities, but that its ill effects can to a great extent be prevented by the use of small daily doses of quinine, with the observance of various hj'gienic rules, the use of flannel next the skin, the avoidance of the use of intoxicating drinks, and of exposure to the open air during the morning and evening, being careful to avoid exposure after extreme fatigue from any cause. AVith this care I am satisfied a long time may be sjjent on the Isthmus 248 NOTES ON PANAMA. with bat little detriment to health; without such preeaiiliou, however, the effects of the climate are speedily shown, being first manifested upon the nervous system, langor, lethargy, loss of appetite being almost immediate results, fever and disease of the digestive organs following surelj^ in due course of time. To conclude, it seems to me that flie most practical point of this inquir}^ is, whether in case of a ship canal being built across the Isthmus passengers would be exposed in transifu to malarial diseases'? In view of the facts already noted, this seems to admit, without further argument, of a readv answer in the negative. ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION— THE REPORT OF THE DARIEN SUR- VEY. EASTERN DIVISION, 1899-1900— BOYD EHLE, PRINCIPAL AS- SISTANT ENGINEER. ENGINEER EHLE'S REPORT. The Caledonia (hpres.sion. — Rio Caledonia empties into the bay ill front of its main entrance from the sea, where there is least protection froni the surf caused by the northerl}- trade winds. From the shore, and perhaps half a mile inland, the formation is coralline, slightly covered by the debris of the river. At a point about half a mile inland the valley becomes very decided, with a general width of about 1,000 feet, this width continuing to the "forks," at about H miles from the river's mouth. The river here divides into two branches of nearly equal volume. The one coming from the southeast rises in hign hills, and its valley — a veritable canj^on — is broken by manj'^ cascades filled with huge bowlders. The trend of the valley is somewhat parallel to the divide, and offers no evident chance for an economical canal location. This river is probal)ly the one that caused Gisborne's error. The other branch of the main river lies in a southwesterly direction — nearly at right angles to the divide — with a wide valley nearly similar to the main river for about a mile above the "forks," where it reaches the foot of the divide. There is a short, steep ascent in less than 1,000 feet from the creek bed to the divide's lowest point — 083 feet elevation — and then comes the gentle incline of the Pacific drainage. H< ^ :{: ^ ^ ^ ^ NOTES ON PANAMA. 249 The AgJasenKjiia (Taps. — Tlie Rio Aglaseniqiia empties into Caledonia Baj' aljout a mile northwest of the Rio Caledonia, and is of smaller size. The general trend of the valley is east and west. Its watershed was fnlly developed by the surveys of party No. 1, showing that the depression made by its headwaters in the divide aiie at greater altitude than at the Rio Caledonia; also that the depressions have greater alti- tudes as the}' are farther away from that gap. The first two saddles are about 750 feet elevation, the next about 815 feet, then one over 1,000 feet, etc. ******* The Carrefo Gap. — As this depression appears very low from the sea, a detailed examination of this vicinity was made, but this developed no advantages over the Caledonia Gap. Carreto Bay is well protected and has sufficient depth. The valley of the Rio Carreto is quite wide for several miles and then narrows to a rocky gorge that offers small chances for a canal location. The ascent from the river to the divide, with its least elevation 815 feet, is very steep; but then there is a flat slope to the Rio Chucunaqua. There is greater width of the Isthmus than at Caledonia Gap. The Sassardl Gap. — A view of this depression from the sea suggests better possibilities than are realized after a detailed investigation. The Rio Sassardi enters Caledonia Bay in its northerly part, opposite a channel out to sea. There is a coastal plain over 2 miles from the beach which can be crossed in any direction with a canal line with but light work. Then the valley of the Rio Sassardi is badly broken by two interlocking spurs, which can not be passed by the easy curves necessary for a canal. The valley beyond this point is favorable for about a mile, and then its tortuous course renders it unfavorable for canal purposes. From the river the Atlantic side of the continental divide is very steep. The least elevation in the depression is 1,098 feet, and from this point there is a steep descent to the Rio Morti. There is a clear view down this valley; and the Chucunaqua-Sabana divide appears as a flat, and beyond this was a low divide, probably in front of the Pacific Ocean. On a projected canal line through the Rio Sassardi and Rio Morti valleys, and crossing the low dixide to the Rio Sabana, there would be a very short distance between tide water — probably the shortest distance on the continent. * * * * * * * 250 NOTES ON PANAMA. San Bias depression. — A detailed examination of the region of possible feasibility for a canal was made extending along the divide between the high hills. The point of least eleva- tion, 9oG feet, is at the headwaters of the most easterly branch of the Rio Carti. There are two other well-defined points of low elevations, one on either side of this low Carti pass. The one at an elevation of 994 feet, made by the headwaters of the Rio Samgandi, a tributary of the Rio Mandinga; the other at an elevation of 1,070 feet, made by a branch of the Rio Carti. The narrow tortuons valleys of these streams offer serious, if not prohibitive, difficulties to an}' canal scheme. :^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Divide and Cliagres Valley reconnaissance. — This survey, to prove the existence or nonexistence of a low gap between San Bias and Culebra, and incidentally developed ijortion of the Rio Chagres watershed for hydrological studies, has given what seems to be conclusive data. The divide is everywhere at a height greater than at Culebra or the San Bias gaps. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. ^ ■^ ^ ^ ^ 9f ^ It is curious to note how the animal trails followed the valleys and crest of ridges on the easiest lines of progress. The Indians in former days decided for themselves their lines of transisthmian communication Avith least work to their phj^sical energies, in so successful a way that they were adopted by the conquering Spaniards. The tendency of primitive people is toward water communication as much as possible. This did not, however, lead the Indians astray on the Isthmus for they gave to the Spaniards the trails across the divide at Carreto, Caledonia, and Sassardi, and these are used to this daj'. The routes via the Rio Atrato received no favor from the early Spaniards or their followers, yet on these originated the supposed "mystery of straits," and it can not be doubted that canoes and boats have been passed from the Atlantic to the Pacific. This manner of communication is merely a curiosity without any value for the demands of the present. Balboa's expedition from Caledonia Bay to San Miguel Bay NOTES ON PANAMA. 251 constituted the first recorded interoceanic survey of a route that has retained its fascination with the present generation of engineers. The Panama route was of a later date, the communication being then with Portobello on the Atlantic coast, for which a paved highway was constructed. With the coming of the Spaniards began the collection of data which at the i^resent time offers much to the engineer stu- dent. Our efforts have added to these records extensive detail data regarding the more evident portion of the region of i^robable canal feasibility — referring to the vicinitj^ of San Bias and of Caledonia. The divide lies very close to the Atlantic coast all the way from Mandinga to Cape Tiburon and then, rising consider- ably' in elevation, crosses in a southwesterly direction to the Pacific Ocean. INCIDENTAL. The Isthmus of Darien extends from near San Bias to the Rio Atrato Valle.y, lying almost wholly in the province of Panama, Republic of Colombia; a narrow strip along the Gulf of San Bias is part of the province of Colon. In our field of operation on the Atlantic side of the divide the coun- tr}^ was much broken up by a complex network of spurs. The Avatershed is verj' limited and there are no streams worthy of the name of river. Part of the narrow coastal plain is coralline in structure. A thick forest, abundantly tangled with vines, covers the whole surface of the countr}^ and is of such rapid growth that it easily holds in check the feeble efforts of the Indians at cultivation. The soil is, in general, a reddish clay overh'ing massive rock of volcanic origin, Avhich can be seen exposed in the creeks. These rocks, of an eruptive character, are usuall}^ known as "trap," and for our i)urpose it is not necessary to go into the complex geologic or mineralogic terms. It is very probable that the rock could be easily excavated by machines, but would be of little value for structural purpose on account of its tendency to disintegrate OTi exposure to the air. Syenite, granite, and sandstone were found in small quantities, but it is possible that exjjloration might develop beds of these. Many crystals and traces of iron and copper are found in the creek beds, 252 NOTES ON PANAMA. but nowhere did we observe any evidence of gold, and the Indians did not seem to have any native precious metals in their possession. Along the coast from Caledonia Bay to San Bias Point there is nearly a continuous string of islands and reefs, which protect the shore of the mainland from the effects of severe storms and afford many safe anchorages. The islands are coralline in structure, and are covered thickly with cocoanut palms which yield superior cocoanuts. Along the coast from San Bias to Cape Tiburon there is a current of about 2 knots per hour. At Cape Tiburon this usually' meets the waters of the Rio Atrato, if in flood, and is deflected across the Gulf of Darien and along the coast toward Cartagena. Tliis coast- wise current jDroved very annoying in our trips with sailing vessels when opposed to its force, especiall^^ in the rainy sea- son after the northerl}- trade winds have ceased, and there are calms of considerable duration. At such times our sloop and schooner would helplessly drift with the current. Dur- ing the suspension of the trade winds there are fitful shore and sea breezes, usuall}^ at night, that would lielp us in sailing. The winds of the rain}^ season come intermittently as squalls, which are dangerous to sail vessels in their fierce outbursts, unless quick and sufiicient preparations are made for their coming. There seems to be no evidence of recent volcanic action or records of earthquakes. Climate. — There are two seasons on the Isthmus, a wet and a dr3^ Their duration is not well defined, but usually the former lasts from May until January. During this time there is a suspension of ihe northerly trade winds and showers are very frequent, the rainfall probably approximating slightly more than half that at Greytown, Nicaragua. During the "dry" months there are usually light rains in the mountains each night. The temperature is very even, usually not vary- ing more than 15° during the year between the limits of 75° and !)()' F. In the forest this temperature is delightful, and on the high hills the evenings are cold enough for blankets. The climate did not seem to have any deleterious effect by itself, and with proper sanitar}' discipline it would probably not be disadvantageous for consti-uction work. NOTES ON PANAMA. 253 Iiiltahlkmfs. — Tlie Indians of the Atlantic side of the Isth- mus of Darien make tlieir homes on the coast, or prefer- ably the islands, and cultivate, in haphazard way, small patches of land on the coastal plain or river valle^^s, gather cocoanuts, and fish. Their features are of Indian type, but ph3^sically they are inferior to most Indian races. Thej- are apparently losing in numbers, due to mortality among the children. This is not suprising after seeing the insanitar}^ conditions of the villages. The men are ver}" proficient in sailing or handling the dugout canoes that thej^ fashion with much skill. In these they live most of the day, fishing, getting cocoanuts, or trading. Small trading vessels frequent the coast and exchange cloth and simple articles for cocoa- nuts and tortoise shell. The men seem to prefer the blue cotton cloth, but the women arraj" themselves in gay j^ellow and ]-ed. The former wear large rings of a copper alloy in their ears, and the latter, in addition to these, have them in their noses, usually elongating the cartilage. There does not seem to be any definite tribal government, but each village has its chief, councilors, and a policeman who carries a carved staff of office. Coronel Inanaguina, with whom our treaties were made as head chief, is a creation of Colombian influ- ences, and the Indians, except near Sassardi, his home, did not seem to know or respect him. The whole Atlantic side of the Isthmus is uninhabited except these few people who live in their palm-thatched villages along the beach or on the islands. There are Indians on the Rio Morti and Rio Sucubdi who come across the divide to the coast to trade. The coast Indians seem to stand in great awe of these people and ex- plained their unfriendly attitude toward us by their di-ead of punishment by the mountain Indians if they welcomed us. The coast Indians are peaceable and never committed an}' overt act during our stay, but their fears, which were those of childish instinct, kept them restless until our depar- ture. Their dread of aggression is rightly inherited from their ancestoi's, who were ruthlessly sacrificed to the greed of the Conquistadors. While this feeling lingers with the old men, who always govern in the villages, it is appannit that many of the Indians are less conservative. Some speak the English language quite well, on account of visits to 254 NOTES ON PANAMA. Colon or having shipped as sailors. It is probable that the Indians will long retain their land, as there are no resonrces to tempt the foreigners. There does not seem to be any intermarriage of these people with other races; any attempt would undoubtedly bring dire punishment. Medical treat- ment is very primitive and the Indians at times resort to incantations to heal. They appreciate the foreign doctor bej'ond their medical men, and were not slow to ask for much aid. Apparently any religion they may have had is now very slightly, if at all, observed. The Catholic priests of former da^'s seem to have made no important impressions of their creed. To-day the Indians have many curious carved wooden idols, and not only lack reverence, but at times will barter them. Plantains, fish, and land crabs are the main articles of diet, and these are subjected to ver^^ primitive cookery. The Indians j^ractice monogamy in their marital relations and the son-in-law must serve the father-in-law for a certain period or give sufficient goods for his bride. Health. — It is probable our expedition would have as much or more sickness in most jiarts of the United States. The boils and sores that proved so troublesome were due to dietary indiscretions, poor cooking, and wading in the Avater. A few light cases of malarial fever yielded very rapidly to simj)le treatment. The exhausting hill climbing and i^acking of provisions told heavilj^ on officers and laborers and made the way for the sickness with which we Avere afflicted. The In- dians after they pass childhood seem healthj" and live to a considerable old age in spite of their slight attention to sani- tarj^ measures. * H< * H: H! * =!■ Supplies. — Where provisions must be packed by laborers it is doubtful if so extensive rations are advisable, and it would be better to limit according to food values and bulk. Rice is the great food of the Tropics, and together with plan- tains should form the bulk of rations for officers and laborers. The effort to have them use corn meal was a failure ; it Avas too heating for the Tropics. Neither did mackerel appeal to the Colombian laborer's palate. Our cooks — mere water boilers — were to blame for manj" stomach discomforts, as they had to swim CA^erything in grease. Many of the men suffered inconvenience from alack of proper personal equip- ment, and this matter is discussed in Doctor Wickes's report. NOTES ON PANAMA. 255 His remark in regard to the necessity of a physical examina- tion of men for sucli expeditions is very pertinent, as persons of physical inferiority certainly are a drag to progress, and then life is not a pleasant one in the severe demands of tropical survej's. Labor. — The progress of our surveys were greatlj^ limited by the inefficient native Colombian labor, and it has never been my misfortune to meet worse. We were, of course, limited to the men along the coast, and on account of the civil war most of these were hiding from military conscrip- tion. These men seemed to have little idea of patriotism, were indolent and capricious. The few men that filtered through from the interior were always noticeable as of supe- rior character. While the wages paid (20 pesos Colombian silver per month) were far in excess of country rates, and they were fed with lavish generosity and even clothed, yet all these they failed to appreciate when they were coupled with work; rather the liand-to-mouth living and the continual siesta, while clothes were not thought a necessitj^ of the Tropics. All laborers had to be advanced monej^ before they would think of going with us, but thej^ were faithful to this obligation. * ****** . We could not prevail on the San Bias Indians to work, but this was not entirely due to aversion to labor, but partly in conformance with their uncompromising attitude of not rendering us any assistance. ******* Camps. — It was impossible to find thatching for shacks in abundance, as in Nicaragua, forcing us to provide tents, or, rather, lai'ge canvas tarpaulins were used. As these were not painted or otherwise treated thej^ deteriorated rapidly from mildew. ******* TRANSITMAN C. P. HOWARD'S REPORT. * * * A- * * * We reached Cartagena, Colombia, November 1(3. A revo- lution was then in i^i-ogress, and with difficulty a small force of laborers was secured to do tlio packing and clearing for 12312—03 IT 256 NOTES ON PANAMA. the expedition. November 24 we left Cartagena on the Scor'- pion, and reached Caledonia Bay the day following. The Indians who came aboard and hovered around were very much opposed to our landing. In consequence, landing was postjioned until several consultations had been held with them, and a treaty finally arranged. Most of the work of both parties in December was confined to the country that could be reached from the camj) at Cale- donia BaJ^ Early in January, Mr. Ehle having arrived with a considerable force of men, our party moved camp south to the forks of Caledonia River, and about a month later to a site on the east fork, 8 miles by the river from the supply camp at its mouth, and 2^ miles in a straight line from the nearest point of coast. March 13-14, camp w^as moved to the suppl}^ station at Caledonia Bay, and shortly afterwards to a site on the west fork of river. From these j)oints as a base the Caledonia watershed w-as explored. :): ^ H: H^ * * * The higher parts of the ridge were hard to reach on account of the rugged nature of the ravines, and the labor of cutting trails on ridges. It was necessary to camp near the summit, building booths of leaves. The correct ridge at certain points was hard to find, involving much exi^erimental work. Except a few Indian plantations near the coast, the country is all forest. If it should be attempted at any time to trace the divide from Carreto east, it would be wise to make prei^ara- tions to live on the country by hunting and fishing as much as possible, as, owing to the distance, it would be difficult to reach the coast. Hs * * * * * * There was a considerable amount of sickness in the Cale- donia camps, but nothing of a serious nature. Boils were very troublesome. When severe, they entirely- incapacitated a man from work, especially tlio^e on the feet and legs. It was suspected that they might have been caused in part by the use of leggings during the earlier months of survey. April 11 our party sailed from Caledonia to Carreto Bay, and commenced the survey of the watershed of Carreto River, Our first line followed the i-iver in a southw^esterly direction to an elevation of 395 feet, at a point whei-e the river gorge NOTES ON PANAMA. 257 turns toward the southeast. Here we left the river, and going west crossed the divide at an elevation of 053 feet at a point 500 yards distant from the river. By another line, leaving the river lower down, we crossed the divide in a gap, elevation 815 feet, distant 1 mile to the northwest in an air line from the first gap explored. The last-mentioned gap is very low compared to the ground elevations on the Pacific side, where the stream falls off very slowly. AVe followed the water courses on the Pacific slope down to an elevation of 750 feet on bank of stream, at a point 4,000 feet from the first gap and 3,000 from the second, and considerably farther by the meanderings of the streams. The streams that flow from the two gaps unite and form one creelv at a point a few hun- dred yards short of the farthest point reached. This low point in the divide corresponds to the gap in the horizon observed from the da}^ before commencing the survey. It is about li miles southeast in an air line from the farthest point on the ridge reached by reconnaissance of the Caledonia watershed, the barometer elevation of which was 1,625 feet. The upper part of the Carreto Valley or ravine is rough. The line of survey avoided a half mile of its course by a detour over a hill 650 feet high, the bottom of ravine being imj)assable at that point. On completion of the Carreto survej^, a stadia line was run to connect with the Caledonia surveys. We followed an Indian trail and the coast line to a point near Point Escoces, supposed to be the site of old Fort St. Andrew; thence across the bay and up a stream to a connection with one of the Cale- donia lines. All lines on the Carreto survey were run by stadia measurements and needle bearings, elevations being taken with the level. The conduct of the Indians at Caledonia Bay was in general indifferent. But during the absence of the Scorpion previous to March 14, the occasion on which we moved camp to the shores, much uneasiness was felt concerning their atti- tude. Our party did not come much in contact with them except by communication with the supply camp at Caledonia Bay. The Carreto Indians were frieudU% a fact which was gratifying and of substantial advantage, in view of the sup- plies of fruit and occasional game which we secured from them. 258 NOTES ON PANAMA REPORT OF MR. H. H. GRANGER, CHIEF OF PARTY NO. 3. The working camp was located a quarter of a mile up the Nercalaqua River, with party No. 4 on the opposite or west side of the river. Here the fresh water was not affected by the tide. The scope of the work hoped to be attained by this expe- dition had as a prime object of a more thorough exploration of the passes at the headwaters of the Carti River than had been accomplished by the earlier survey's. The valley of the Carti River was reached in 7 miles by a broken line, following the most favorable ridges to facilitate our progress and to meet the requirements of a simple con- necting line. These ridges, were composed of rocky spurs reaching a maximum elevation of 420 feet, thinly covered with the residual yellow clay, but affording foothold for the enshrouding tropical forest that is existent from ocean to ocean. For the first mile and a half we covered the low and at times marshy coastal i^lain. This is the land on which the San Bias Indians make a futile effort to subdue the over- whelming tropical growth for the cultivation of the banana, cane, coeoanut, alligator pears, coffee, etc. At 3| miles from the beach we encountered an unmapped river of considerable size that flows directly to the sea. Camp No. 3 was estab- lished on the banks of the Carti, at an elevation of GO feet. The Carti River, here averaging 150 feet wide, was well suited to a meander line, though forcing the men to wade continually^ but was impracticable for a packing trail. The laborers thus relieved from chopping were put to work clear- ing a more favorable trail along the crest of the ridges that held the general direction of the river. At points we were thus a mile away, but at intervals were forced in near the river by the larger tributaries, which was taken advantage of for camping ground, to be near the work. ******* After the bed of the river attained an elevation of 300 feet, the surrounding range of hills increased in height, tow- ering up from the watei-'s edge narrowing the channel to al- most imj)assable i-ocky (canyons through which the water NOTES ON PANAMA 259 rushed with torrential force. This state of the river contin- ued until the verj' headwaters were reached at the pass lo- cated at an elevation of 056 feet, and as measured by our traverse line 20 miles from the zero point on the beach. This summit proved to be the lowest of anj^ subsequently discov- ered in this region. * * * H: * * * Climate. — At our beach camp it was generally hot and sti- fling, rendered burdensome by the mosquitoes at night, and a minute gnat at all times. Still the men in charge the of commissar}^ camp and the doctor attached to our party be- came accustomed to these discomforts and remained there the season througli without an}" ill effects from the location. When once an elevation of lOU feet was attained, or even 50 feet, a noticeable improvement was felt, the woods and soil laden with moisture had a decided tendency to modify and temper the rays of the sun. At night a light covering was always desirable and the mosquito nets were always used as a protection against heavy dews. At an elevation of 1,500 feet the atmosphere was invigorating to a marked degree, but usuallj' toward sundown clouds heavilj" laden with mois- ture came rolling up from the Atlantic side, enveloping our camp in a dense fog, the dampness penetrating our clothing and bedding much to our discomfort. Our fieldwork, con- tinuing from the middle of January to the latter part of May, was favored by the dry season; however, there was enough rain falling, usuall}'^ a soaking shower once a week, to start all vegetation and thus keeping the ground saturated and giving rise to rnnning rivulets in all arroyos even at the highest elevations. The continued healthfulness of our party was doubtless in a great measure due to the cool and pure water always at hand. The San Bias Indians. — The small islands along the coast encircling Mandinga Hai-bor are clustered with the dwellings of a numerous branch of the ancient tribe of the San Bias Indians, which they inhabit to the exclusion of the main- land, thus obtaining full benefit of the cooling trade winds. Here in this isolated position they live a life of independence, with no restraint from the Coloml)ian Government, claiming the mainland by family allotment, submitting to their tribal regulations peacefully, and having duly appointed executives. They are industrious to a marked degree, constantly fishing. 260 NOTES ON PANAMA. clearing up small patches for oultivation, or gathering the ripening fruits and nuts and disposing of the surplus in Colon in exchange for domestic necessities. They present a picturesque sight while skillfully handling their small canoes in the open Gulf or paddling up the navigable rivers. As long as our camps were accessible from navigable streams we were frequentlj^ visited by curious groups of In- dians, but were never molested by them further than missing a few tins of supijlies that were left unprotected, for they were generally attending to their own affairs. These Indians will liiiely be permitted to retain possession of these islands for all time, for the interior is doomed to remain a wilderness. REPORT OF MR. W. P. ALFORD, CHIEF OF PARTY NO. 4. General report relative to the exploration of the Isthmus from the Mandinga Pass to the source of the Rio Chagres and down the river to Gorgona, on the Panama Railroad. Hi ^ ^i ^ ^ ^ ^ The object of this exploration was to * * * determine the existence of a pass in the Cordillera lower than 1,000 feet, if such a pass existed; also, to learn the general char- acter of the topographj^ flora, and geology of this section, which has heretofore been an unknown wilderness. While the laborers were packing provisions from the com- missary I was personall}- occupied in exploring the vallej^ to the south and on the Pacific side. This valley is a part of the drainage of the Rio Chepo, and the river is as large as the Carti. It heads due west in the high mountains, and as it does not appear on the map I assumed that hereto- fore it was unknown except to the Indians, and named it "Rio Gaston." The lUitler River, shown on the Selfridge map, flows into this river to the south and east of the Man- dinga Pass. I also followed the divide to the west for a dis- tance of a mile and a half, and located our second camp close to a fine spring. On Saturday, May 5, five weeks' provisions were at camp No. 1, and early that morning we broke camp and made our real start along the divide for the Chagres River. NOTES ON PANAMA. 261 The work was distributed among the officers and men, as follows: Myself and one native did the advance scouting, blazing the trail along the divide and determining as far as possible the most feasible path for a packing trail. Owing to the peculiar conformation of the divide along tliis part of the Isthmus, this w^ork proved slow and exceedingly ardu- ous. To find the divide and trace it, we were compelled many times to climb down from the summit of the high ridges to deep gorges, often 500 or a thousand feet deep, then slowly and with infinite labor follow up the stream to its source. This operation would be sometimes repeated on the opposite side, thus making doubly sure of our position; then cutting back along the divide to our trail, we were able to carrj^ the advance scouting along the backbone of the Cordillera. Owing to the almost impenetrable jungle vegetation, our progress was often slow, yet in the face of all the trying and fatiguing labor of tracing the continental divide, our prog- ress averaged about 1 mile per day up to the time we reached the headwaters of the Chagres, on May 18. ******* At every step of our progress along the divide unusual difficulties met us. The crest of the Cordillera from San Bias to the Chagres was covered with a mass of wet, slimy, creeping vines, binding the dense underbrush into a solid mass of undergrowth. The divide itself is an almost inex- plainable factor in its erratic windings. Tlie series of nearly parallel ridges running with the axis of the Isthmus form only so many links in the chain. These high ridges are connected by two traverse ridges, usually so low and obscure that their presence, even when the view is unobstructed, is uncertain, and at a season of the j'ear when it rains almost every hour of the day it is impossible to know where or when to look for them. The advance Avork of cutting a path along the crest of the divide, and being able to follow it from ridge to ridge, is a most serious problem, and even when condi- tions are favorable, which seldom occurs, the work is most difficult. The topography of this part of the Isthmus consists of three main ridges running approximately east and west with the Isthmus. Tliere is a high mountain range lying between the Pacific and the Rio Gaston that swings to the north 262 NOTES ON PANAMA. near the head of the Rio Chagres and forms the Cordillera proper; also another range of mountains that runs out on San Bias Point and joins the main range near the same place as the range on the south. Between these three ranges there are innumerable spurs and low ridges, separated by deep gorges and narrow vallej^s. At the point where the moun- tain range on the south and from San Bias Point joins the Cordillera occurs the highest mass of mountains. This, as shown by the profile, reaches an elevation of nearly 3,000 feet. From the Mandinga Pass, at an elevation of 004 feet, the gradient is uniformly ascending to the summit of the mountain, and is indicated on the map as "Brewster Peak." The flora of the divide is almost identical with that found at San Bias and other parts of the Isthmus, excepting possi- bly a less marked tropical vegetation. This can be accounted for bj' the higher altitude, and it impressed us as being more subtropical. There are few valuable woods aside from an occasional mahogany or cedar. The palm famil}' is poorly represented. Only one species attracted our attention, and unfortunatelj^ only the local Indian name was secured, viz, "Palma amarga." This palm is peculiar in its giant leaves, which are circular and fully 4 to 6 feet across the solid cen- tral part, and from this solid part radiate long pendants, making the leaf fully 8 or 10 feet in diameter. The trunk is covered with a hairy fiber, which makes it appear much larger than it really is. This tree is only found in one small locality and at an elevation of about 2,500 feet. The geolog- ical formation is difficult to describe, owing to the fact that all rock exposed to the action of the atmosphere is rotten. A few general observations were made as opportunity offered. The rock formation is granite and composed of two principal varieties, namely, a dark blue and a variegated gray granite. Often these two kinds of stone would be found cemented together, with the line of demarcation cut sharp, while the mass itself was one. The most prominent feature noticed relative to the general character of the rock was its dip. This wherever its stratification was observable was found to dip toward the south or Pacific side at an angle of 10 to 15°. This observation was Ijorne out by the fact that all springs on the Atlantic side are from 300 to 1,000 feet below the crest of the divide, while on the Pacific side water can often be found at the head of the water courses and within a few feet NOTES ON PANAMA. 263 of the summit of the backbone. Only in two instances did we find traces of volcanic action, and these were on spurs of the divide and mii>ht have been caused by a buckling, due to a sudden lift and cooling- and then dropping to the normal level. It is safe to say that ver}^ little evidence of volcanic action is to be found between San Bias and Panama. On reaching the summit of Brewster Peak, May 18, it was quite evident that at last we were in the watershed of the Chagres River. At this point the continental divide swings to the southwest for a distance of 2 or '3 miles, Avhereit meets and joins a high mountain range, running parallel to the Pacific coast. From the top of Brewster Peak we had a fine view down a valley running nearly S. 60 W. As this was almost the first clear day since leaving the Mandinga Pass, it seemed quite providential that such an opportunity was offered to verify our position by surrounding conditions. Up to this time we had kept a rough traverse, that our location might be approximately known, and our position on the map so nearlj^ coincided with our surroundings that we felt con- fident in our position. Other observations from this moun- tain develoi^ed the fact that the Mandinga River heads on the northeast side and the Rio Gaston on the south side, while the Rio Chagres finds its head near the summit on the south- west face. Leading off from the mountain there is a long spur fully three-quarters of a mile in length, which leads down to the river on the north side. As the spur runs in the direc- tion of the valle}^ we followed it down the river. Previously I had explored the stream and found it to be so hemmed in bj^ perpendicular rocks that it was impossible to follow down the bed of the stream. Like all other water courses in this section the amount of water collected in a given area is sur- prisingly large, and Avhen we reached the river scarcely 1 mile from its head, we found fully 10 cubic feet of water flowing per second and increasing rapidly as we went down the river. About one-half mile below this point, which is indicated on the map as Camp No. 6, the river narrows up, and for three-quarters of a mile there is a deep gorge, neces- sitating the cutting of a trail up an almost perpendicular bluff and down on the other side of the bluff to the river. Although the difficulties we had met on the divide had been many, yet their aggregate was less fatiguing tlian the work 264 NOTES ON PANAMA. of cutting- a trail up these bluffs and around the gorges, which became so many and so difficult of passage that we Avere at one time temj)ted to leave the river for the hills, but this was abandoned after one trial, as it carried us a long- way from the river. On coming back to the river we found another goi-ge just below which proved more serious to pass than any of the jirevious ones, as it was nearl}' 5 miles long. Repeatedly we had to cut a path up an almost perpendicular bluff, down over detached bowlders and through a labja-inth of vines, and as at this time we were, both officers and men, packing- from 30 to 50 pounds on our backs, the labor can well be imagined. In this gorge the channel varies from 20 to 50 feet in width, and the depth of the water is from 10 to 50 feet. The appearance of these gorges indicates that the river is following- a fissure, caused b}^ an earthquake, which opened a huge crevice parallel with and along the north side of the divide. Up to this last gorge, named Danta Canyon, there were three considerable sti-eams entering the Chagres — two from the north and one from the south. The most noticeable feature of these streams was the marked differ- ence in the color of the water, as well as the marked change in the temperature. The streams from the south were all as clear as crystal and the water cold, evidently coming from high altitudes and running over a rocky bed. The streams entering from the north were all greatly discolored, having the appearance of swamp water, and the temperature was several degrees warmer. Why this difference should exist I am unable to state, as our observation from the top of the hills failed to locate any area sufficiently^ level to admit a swamp. The discoloration may be due to an alluvial soil through which the rivers flow. This can easily be, as there evidently is a section lying between the mountains forming the divide and the range that runs close to Portobello, where the rock is less iDronounced, and consequently there is a greater amount of soil over the rock, through which the water finds its course. From the source of the Chagres down several miles the river drops at the rate of 200 feet per mile, and then there is a uniform drop of 25 feet to the mile until we reach Santa Barbara, the upper gaging station. This rate of descent in the river makes a series of rapids. While not continuous, they are so close together that only a few hundi-ed feet sepa- • NOTES ON PANAMA. 265 rate them. The channel where the rapids are most numerous is filled with bowlders from the size of a man's head to the size of an omnibus. As the water rushes over and between the rocks it is churned into a white foam. The perpendicular rocks often compelled us to cross these rapids to gain a better footing on the other side. As some of the men were unable to swim, a sense of relief was always felt when all were safel}^ across. Often long poles would have to be held out in the channel to give support to the weaker men, as the swift current would catch them in midstream. On several occa- sions the men and packs were completely submerged and had to be pulled ashore bj' the men holding the poles on the bank. Although these incidents were often dangerous, yet they furnished much merriment, which greatly relieved the monot- ony of the laborious work of packing and travel. This work was continued from May 18 until May l'6, wiien the difficul- ties became so great that we determined to build rafts and, if possible, make greater ^i)eed even at greater personal risk. On Saturday afternoon, May 26, after working our way over a high bluff and through an almost impassable canyon, we stopped and began the work of raft building. This proved less difficult than at first expected. Along the banks there were plenty of trees, known to the natives as "balsa," which make an ideal raft owing to its wonderful cork-like nature. The rafts were about 8 feet long and 5 feet wide, bound together by crosspieces securely pinned to the logs. Although these rafts were comparatively small, yet they would carry safely 500 pounds. On Saturday morning. May 27, the finishing touches were given to the five rafts, and at-9 o'clock our baggage and pro- visions were securely lashed to the rafts, and the personnel of the crews determined by distributing the poor men among the experienced men. On the two rafts in the lead, and this position was maintained during the entire trip, were 3Ir. Philips, Mr. Coates, and myself, with two trusty natives. The two days on the rafts furnished many exciting incidents as we whirled in and out among the rocks or slowly poled our way through the still water. Often in shooting the i-ap- ids we would strike great bowlders in midstream, or at a sharp angle in the channel we would be thrown on the rocks, often with such force that we were unable to keep our footing and so would be thrown into the river; yet with all tlie many 266 NOTES ON PANAMA. upsets and duckings that we were subjected to we readied Santa Barbara safely and without any serious accidents. In looking back over the trip from the i ime we left the pass until we reached the gaging station, it seems almost provi- dential that we escaped serious accidents and sickness. Our nights were spent in the jungle or on the sand banks, often without protection from the elements, and the days were passed in the most difficult work of climbing rugged hills and down gorges or in shooting rapids where bowlders were as thick as pebbles. During this trip no signs of Indians were foundj and as far as the observations of ihe party go, there are no Indians between the (Tulf of San Bias and Santa Bar- bara on the Chagres River. There were many stories circu- lated relative to the Indians on tliis part of the Isthmus, and we expected to be fed on poisoned arrows and have the nights made hideous by the fear of massacre; but these stories were merely mj^ths, emanating from timid people. The animal life is exceptionally meager, even the ever- present monkey seems to feel lonelj^ in the solitude of this vast wilderness. An occasional tiger track was the only in- dication that the animal lived at all in this section. The wild hogs, so plentiful in Nicaragua, are seldom found on this part of the Isthmus. Wild turkey and a large "pava" are found in sections, but not plentiful enough to be depended upon for meat. The ''danta," or tapir, are numerous along the upper waters of the Chagres, and as they have never been bunted or disturbed by man, there was little difficulty in shooting them. Thei-e are ver}' few snakes to be found in any place along our survey on the Nercalagua or the divide. Why this fact should be, not only relative to the snakes, but to all animal life, seems to be an unanswered question, unless it be the dividing line betwvven North and South America in the animal and vegetable world. REPORT OF DR. G. L. WICKES, SURGEON TO EXPEDITION. (1) EFFECT OF CLIMATE. During the dry season there were occasional heavy down- falls of rain occurring through the day, as a rule. After May 1 the bulk of the rain fell between sunset and sunrise. NOTES ON PANAMA. 267 The wetting from rain had 1' cle effect on the men's liealth, as the}^ were continnally wtt from day to day from wading the mountain streams. Prolonged exertion when chilled bj^ water-soaked garments predisposed one to slight febrile attacks and bilious fever. The danger of this was greath* lessened by a bath followed by a brisk rub down on the return to camp. The greater part of the work of the survey' was done at an elevation of over three hundred feet, so the men were not exposed to the worst form of the tropical climate. The absence of swamps and mosquitoes at this elevation precluded the infection of malarial fever, while the dense growth of trees, vines, and underbrush was a complete protection from the sun. It can not be said that the men suffered much from the climate. Enervation and bilious fever were about all that could be charged up agains it. The first was a natural and expected result, and the latter was due more to the lack of physical condition of some of the men than to the effect of the climate. None of the officers was subjected to a physical examination before starting for the Isthmus, and naturally many of them were ill-conditioned. Men who are at all inclined to stoutness do not stand hard work well in this climate. There was no case of isolation in any of the parties. {2) SICKNESS. («) Swam}) sores. — The affection locally known as ''swamj) sore" differs but little from the indolent ulcer in description, jjrogress, course, and treatment. This, though a minor ail- ment, was the most annoying and frequent ailment with which the writer had to contend. The development of swamp sores depended on several conditions, as follows: In certain local- ities along the seacoast or in swampy districts biting insects became very numerous and troublesome. The itching occa- sioned bj' gnats, sandflies, and mosquitoes was at first slight and easily bearable. This irritation gradually increased in severity and became so unbearable that to refrain from scratching the points of the itching skin was eventually an impossibility. Many of the officers were unable to sleep until they had at first scratched the epidermis from the bitten area. Others would seek the same relief from the intolerable itching in their sleep. This resulted in nurnerous raw, in- flamed surfaces which were prevented from healing through 268 NOTES ON PANAMA. the constant wading necessitai 1 l\y the work of the survey. It was noticed that tliose wearing canvas leggings suffered most from swamp sores. Infection naturally followed the deluj^ed healing of the primary abrasion. The ulcers were mostly confined to the lower limbs, though a few developed on the arms. They were not observed on any other part of the body. In appearance these sores resemble any small super- ficial ulcer. They are red, inflamed, irregular-shaped depres- sions, some round, others oval, and varying in size from that of a dime to a 25-cent piece. While actively inflamed the border and base is irregular and angry looking, but during the subsequent process of cicatrization they jpresent a smooth punched-out appearance. The secretion is a characteristic, clear sero-purulent fluid which may be slightly sanguineous at times. This secretion is constantl}^ collecting beneath a crust of false cicatrization which alternatel}" breaks, dis- charges, and re-forms during the active stage of the sore. These sores may be single or multiple. As many as a dozen have been observed on one limb. They affect the skin and subcutaneous tissue, but go no deeper, their further growth following a lateral direction by continuity of tissue. A cure results in a i)igmented scar bluish red or reddish brown which remains for several years. The treatment is the same as that for any infected surface, but dilficult when the patient con- tinues working. Rest and antiseptic dressings, daily, result in a cure from two weeks to a month, depending on the amount of tissue destroyed. When the patient continues working the rule should be antiseptic dressings twice daily, and the application of an impervious dressing of cotton and flexible collodion every }norning. Prophylactic measures embrace the avoidance of being bitten by insects as far as possible and treatment to allay the irritation of the stings when they have occurred. When wading streams continu- ally the clothing about the lower limbs should be as light as possible and canvas leggings should not be worn. The devel- opment of swamp sores also dejiends on the condition of the patient's blood. They were much worse in ansemic individ- uals and consequently worse for everyone during the process of acclimation. They were very general among the officers; hardly a man escaped them. The native Colombians were not subject to them. {!)) Ifoils. — Many men were temi)orarily incapacited from dutv from this cause. NOTES ON PANAMA. 269 (c) Bilious fever. — This was the most frequent serious illness encountered. The symptoms were headache, dizzi- ness, loss of appetite, nausea, vomitinsj, constipation, and a constant temperature of 104° F. ((7) Contrary to expectations, ver}' few cases of intermittent fever were developed among the officers. But two cases occurred in this party (No. 2), both of the tertian type and both yielding- readily to the orthodox treatment of rest in bed and quinine sulphate administered twice daily. (e) Gusanos caused universal annoyance to all of the officers. They resembled boils very much, from which thej^ were differentiated as follows: The gusano is caused bj" the larvae of some insect — probably the gadflj' — hatching in the skin and forming a grub there. When squeezed the thin yellowish tluid always escapes from the apex of the tumor through a small aperture, which is constantlj" present. This is characteristic of the gusano. The grub is best expressed by squeezing, after the application of an impervious dressing. (/) There was one case of acute lobar pneumonia, which after running a tj'pical course came down by lysis. The patient was a native Colombian. {g) Infectious diseases. — There was no yellow fever or smallpox in the vicinity of the various camps, and the Indians have no recollection of an epidemic of the former. At Car- reto the Indian village was half