s 1 . WILLIAMS & ROGERS SERIES NEW PRACTICAL ENGLISH GKAMMAK FOR USE IX 2. /74l BUSINESS COLLEGES, ACADEMIES, NORMAL AND HIGH SCHOOLS, AND ADVANCED CLASSES IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. N EW YORK • : • ( ' I X < I X X ATI . : CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Entered according- to Act of Congress, in the year 1894, By Williams & Bogers, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C w. p. 9 AMERICAN pin e&batteb*, PREFACE. ^ FHA t THE design of this book is to present the essential features of grammar briefly enough to enable the student to complete the course of lessons in a compara- tively short time, and to accompany the statements of principles with sufficient illustrative material to make the study interesting and profitable. A feeling of dislike for the study of grammar is not uncommon with the student where his work is confined largely to rules and principles, and little opportunity or encouragement is given him to illustrate and apply the knowledge gained. The study of principles is essential and must be insisted upon, but the feeling of dislike may be changed to one of favor if the study of grammar and the study of language be made to go hand in hand, especially if the illustrations given in the book and those drawn from the student are in keeping with his best efforts in conversation and sentence making. It is believed that when the student has selected or supplied the proper expres- sions called for throughout this work, he will have so exercised his power to criticise and originate, and will have so increased and corrected his vocabulary as to have made it apparent to himself that he has been a distinct and substantial gainer thereby; and it is further believed that he will have developed a liking for the study of language that will be permanent. The plan of this book assumes some previous knowledge of the subject on the part of the student, and on account of this fact and the brief character of the work, it has been deemed advisable to place all that relates to a given part of speech in one series of lessons, an arrangement which it is thought will add greatly to the convenience of those using or referring to the book. Some attention is given to the correction of false syntax (see note, page 17). But this part of the work has been so arranged as to cultivate as far as possible the judgment and critical power of the student by the selective plan which has been largely adopted. The final part of the work is intended to lead from grammar to composition and letter writing, and is believed to contain enough of such matter for the average need, and arranged in such a manner as to be practicable. CONTENTS. The Senteucc 1 Principal Elements.. 3 Modifying Elements 4 Classification of Sentences 5 Analysis of Sentences 7 Parts of Speech 9 Nouns --. 10 Modification of Nouns and Pronouns 11 Number. 11 Person 14 Gender 14 Case in Nouns... 16 Pronouns — 19 Personal Pronouns... 19 Personal Pronoun and Antecedent 20 Ambiguous Use of Personal Pronouns... 21 Relative Pronouns 23 Relative Pronoun and Antecedent 24 Ambiguous Use of the Relative Pronoun 25 Interrogative Pronouns. 26 Adjective Pronouns.. 26 Additional Rules 27 Adjectives 29 Some Current Misuses of the Adjective.. 34 Verbs 36 Modifications of the Verb. 37 Mode 38 The Subjunctive and Indicative Modes Compared 40 Tense 41 Tenses in all the Modes 42 Signs of the Tenses 42 Number and Person 42 Regular and Irregular Verbs 42 List of Irregular Verbs. 43 Conjugation 44 Progressive and Passive Forms. 45 Conjugation of the Verb 45 Agreement of Verbs. 49 Redundant, Defective, and Impersonal Verbs 53 Participles 54 Some Uses and Offices of the Participle. . 55 The Participle in Construction 56 Some additional Principles and Sugges- tions 58 Adverbs 61 The Preposition 65 1 List of Principal Prepositions in common use 66 The Con j unction 70 Interjections 74 Principles of Expression 75 Synonyms 79 Effective Words „ 81 The Paragraph 83 Paraphrasing 85 Punctuation 87 Use of Capitals ..- 92 Index 95 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2- / It I LESSOR 1 1. Language is the expression of thought by means of words, and may be either spoken or written. 2. Oram mar treats of the principles and usages of language. 3. English Grammar is the science which teaches how to speak and write the English Language correctly. The Sentence. 4. A word is the expression of an idea. 5. A sentence is a collection of Avords expressing a thought completely: as, — Americans travel. Prices advance. 6. In every sentence there must be two parts; the subject and the predicate. 7. The subject is that of which something is said: as, — Americans and prices in the above examples. 8. The predicate is that which is said of the subject: as, — Travel and advance in the same examples. Exercise 1. — Select the subjects and predicates in the following sentences: 1. Corn ripens. Stars appear. Steamers ply. Do you try ? I shall go. 2. Palaces have crumbled. Have leaders been chosen ? What can be done ? 3. Captains command. Managers direct. Statements agree. Note. — It is hardly possible to give too much attention to words. They are "vehicles of thought." " They indicate both the moral and the intellectual character." "The surest proof of scholarship, of discipline, of strong thought, is the right use of words." At the very outset of our work in language let us begin to practice using words as we study them in their various relations. If we do this as we go along we shall find the subject a very interesting one, for what we learn of it in this way, be it ever so little, will have a practical value for us. Exercise 2. — What appropriate predicates can be used with the subject I roups.-' Some of them are: 1. March, drill, charge, parade, advance, skirmish, disperse, withdraw, embark. 2. Cheer, surround, surrender, conceal, storm, scale, plunder, rally, rescue, defend. 3. Bivouac, conquer, vanquish, defeat, overcome, disband, repulse, attack, assault, assail. 4. Approach, desert, deploy, maneuver, reconnoiter, retreat, engage, endure, halt. 1 2 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. Encamp, hind, guard, entrench, volunteer, evacuate, occupy, form, enlist, stack. 6. Invade, encounter, capture, hesiege, seize, surmount, rendezvous, garrison, confront. 7. Hold, regain, maintain, wheel, face. 8. There are others. Can you name some of them? Exercise «'?. — Name predicates appropriate to the subject cannon: 1. Boom, batter, burst, bombard, dismantle, demolish. '2. Name as many more as you can. Exorcise 4. — Nnme predicates appropriate to the following subjects: Rivers, reading, exercise, experience, cities, books, flag, water, heat. Exercise 5. — What subjects can be used appropriately with the predicate encourages? 1. Kindness, sympathy, example, success, assistance, advice, influence, help, enthusiasm. 2. Health, cheerfulness, patience, perseverance, ambition, tact, experience, prosperity. 3. Name some others. Exercise O. — Name subjects appropriate to the following predicates : 1. Arouse, hasten, certified, balance, instructs, has attended, floats, can reach. 2. Nipped, will compete, charmed, regulates, may be found. Note. — The foregoing exercises may be too simple or too difficult to suit a given class. It will be easy to substitute others better adapted, and to add as many as may be desired. LESSOE" 2. The Sentence — Continued. 0. A proposition is a subject combined with its predicate. 10. A sentence may consist of one proposition, or of a combination of two or more propositions: as, — 1. The rain falls. 2. The rain falls and the grass grows. 3. When the signal was given, the supports were knocked away and the vessel shot quickly into the water. 11. A clause is one of two or more united propositions. Exercise 7. — There are two clauses in the second example given above and three in the third. Can you select them ? Exercise 8. — Construct sentences containing two or more clauses in each, using the following subjects and predicates and combining them as you may choose : 1. John, found, William, could go, he, changed. 2. My brother, telegraphed, party, would reach, he, thought, our carriage, would not accommodate. 3. Day, arrived, sides, met, contest, began. THE SENTENCE. 3 4. You, desire, I, shall be glad (to introduce), who, lives. 5. I, trust, you, have had, letter will find, who, welcome. 6. Ross & Co. , assume, they, give (second mortgage), they agree. Exercise 9. — Construct sentences, each containing as many clauses as you can use conveniently, about some event of the day, some item of business, etc. Note. — Do not hesitate to try something that will require effort. What one can do very easily will be of little benefit to him. 12. A phrase is a group of words forming a single expression, but not con- stituting a proposition: as, — Into the water ; by the way ; at a bargain ; on horseback. 13. Position of the Phrase. — A phrase denotes a related idea, and its position in the sentence should show just what that relation is. The sentence, " He went to see his friends on horseback," may mean either of two things. Can you tell what they are? Can you re-arrange the sentence in such a way as to make the meaning clear? Exercise 10. — Write sentences containing the following phrases : 1. At least; by kundreds; on the second day; from the depths. 2. After blowing the whistle; entering the next room; climbing the mountain. Exercise* 11. — Tell which of the following are phrases and which sentences: 1. On the street. 6. Omit that sentence. 2. Take your books. 7. He went away. 3. It rains. 8. Over the bridge. 4. During a storm. 9. Apply yourself. 5. At the house. 10. At the desk. LESSOR 3. The Sentence. — Pkincipal Elements. 14. The principal elements of a sentence are the subject and the predicate. 15. The subject may be ti word, a phrase, or a clause: as, — Winter is coming. To betray confidence is wrong. "Your squadron looks very pretty," was signaled by the British admiral. 16. The predicate consists of a verb, with or without modifying words: as, — linin falls. To be contented is to be happy. The American admiral signaled, "Thank you.'" 17. Simple or Compound Subject. — The subject of a proposition is either simple or compound. 18. Simple Subject. — The subject is simple when something is affirmed of only one thing: as, — Copper corrodes. 4 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1'.). Com pound Subject. — The subject is compound when something is affirmed o\' two or more tilings: as, — Gold and silver do not corrode. 20. Simple or Compound Predicate. — The predicate of a proposition is either simple or compound. 21. Simple Predicate. — The predicate is simple when it makes bur one affirmation of the subject: as, — Copper corrodes. 22. Compound Predicate. — The predicate is compound when it makes two or more affirmations of the subject: as, — Copper corrodes and loses its brightness. 23. Compound Subject and Predicate. — The subject and the predicate of a sentence may both be compound: as, — Gold, silver, and copper are mined, coined, and used as money. Note. — The subject nominative is called the grammatical suhject. The subject nominative, with its modifiers, is called the entire or logical subject. The predicate verb is called the grammatical predicate. The predicate verb, with its modifiers, is called the entire or logical predicate. Exercise 12. — Write six sentences containing compound subjects, compound predicates, or both. MODIFYING ELEMENTS. 24. The modifying elements of a sentence are adjective elements, adverbim elements, objective elements, connecting elements, and independent elements. These elements may be words, phrases, or clauses. 25. Adjective Element. — Whatever modifies a noun or a pronoun is an adjective element: as, — The diligent scholar improves. A flock of birds was in sight. The house which stood on the corner burned down. The sky is cloudless. Exercise 13. — Construct sentences containing the following adjective elements: 1. Solid; constant; thoughtless; financial; of rare value. 2. That would not be desirable; suffering from cold and hunger. 26. Adverbial Element. — Whatever modifies a verb, an adverb, or an adjective is an adverbial element: as, — The house was sold yesterday. The house was sold to pay the owner's debts. He writes very well. She is wonderfully patient. Exercise 14. — Use in sentences the following adverbial elements: 1. Almost immediately; quite recently; respectfully; well; soon. 2. Fast; early; with great difficulty; ten years ago. 27. Objective Element. — Whatever is the object of a verb or a preposition is an objective element: as, — The soil produces corn. He knows that you are diligent. I did not hear of it in time. Exercise 15. — Use the following words and clauses as objective elements: 1. Flowers; Napoleon Bonaparte; Columbus. 2. Who you are; that the earth is round. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. Exercise 16. — Supply appropriate modifying elements for the following blanks: 1. An building was blown L by the 2. The man was rescued crew 3. Can you tell which of the modifying elements just supplied are adjective, which adverbial, and which objective? 28. The connecting elements are the conjunctions, the prepositions, some adverbs, and the relative pronouns. The connecting elements will be explained and illustrated farther on. 29. The independent element maybe a noun or a pronoun used independ- ently; or it may be an intersection ; or it may be something that represents an entire sentence : as, — My friend, you are not wise. He failing, who shall meet success? Oh! that you were wise. 30. The Attribute. — A word, a phrase, or a clause, used in the predicate, but relating to the subject, is called the attribute: as, — The man is honest.' Milton is the suUimest of poets. My impression is, that you will succeed. 31. The Copula. — The verb be, with its different forms, am, is, are, ivas, were, etc., when used to connect the subject and its attribute, is called the copula: as, — The world is beautiful. I am weary . He teas rich. LESSOR 4. Classification of Sentences. 32. Sentences are divided with respect to use, into four classes: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. 33. A declarative sentence is used to affirm or to deny: as, — Men walk. Fish do not walk. 34. An interrogative sentence is used to ask a question: as, — Are you glad ? Where do they live ? 35. An imperative sentence is used to express a command, entreaty, or request: as, — Know thyself. Give me a penny. Lend me jour book. 36. An exclamatory sentence is used in exclamation or to express strong emotion: as, — Oh, how sorry I am! Alas! I shall perish I 6 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Exercise 17. — Toll to what class each of the following sentences belongs: 1. The day is calm. How many pecks in a bushel ? Write rapidly. 2. How kind you are ! Where is Australia ? How bright the inoon is ! 3. Bring forth the prisoners. We intend to start to-morrow. Exercise IS. — Write twelve sentences illustrating these four classes. >Vi. Sentences are divided with respect to form, into three classes: simple, complex, and compound. 38. A simple sentence consists of but one proposition: as, — Stars shine. Who comes here ? Move slowly. 39. Propositions are either principal or subordinate. 40. A principal proposition is one which makes complete sense when standing alone. 41. A subordinate proposition is one which must be connected with another proposition to make complete sense: as, — The man that does no good does harm. Note. — In this sentence, "The man does harm," is the principal proposition, for it makes complete sense when standing alone. " That does no good," is the subordinate proposition, for it does not make complete sense unless connected with the other proposition. It modifies man. 42. A complex sentence consists of a principal proposition with either itself, or some part of itself, modified by a subordinate proposition: as, — Leaves fall when autumn comes. He who is diligent will win the race. I hear that you have bought a fine residence. 43. A compound sentence consists of two or more propositions joined by co-ordinate connectives: as, — Summer comes and fruit ripens. " I go, but I return." Notes. — I. Propositions composing complex or compound sentences, are called clauses or members. II. The propositions composing compound or complex sentences, may themselves be com- pound or complex. III. Relative pronouns, subordinate conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs, are used to connect the dependent clauses of complex sentences to the principal clause, and to each other when they themselves are complex. IV. Sometimes the connectives are omitted: as, "Talent is power, tact is skill." Exercise 19. — Write three simple, three complex, and three compound sentences. 44. A complex phrase is one Ghat contains a phrase or a clause, as an adjunct of its principal part: as, — " In the varieties of life." 45. A compound phrase is one composed of two or more co-ordinate phrases: as, — " Stooping down and looking in." " Over the bridge and around the bridge." 46. A prepositional phrase is one which is introduced by a preposition: as, — "Of a truth." ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 7 4-7. An infinitive phrase is one, the principal part of which is a verb in the infinitive mode: as, — "To do good." 48. A participial phrase is one, the principal part of which is a participle: as, — " A measure founded on justice." Note.— A phrase may be used as subject, object or attribute, or it may be an adverbial or an adjective modifier, or it may be independent. "To achieve success was his aim," phrase used as subject. " I like to study arithmetic," phrase used as object. " To miss the concert was to lose a great pleasure," phrase used as attribute. " Imagine a palace of ivory and pearl," phrase used as adjective modifier. " The old soldiers fought with bravery = (bravely)," phrase used as adverbial modifier. " To speak plainly, he is your best friend," independent phrase. LESSOIST 5. Analysis of Sentences. 49. The analysis of a sentence is the separation of it into its parts or elements. Example 1. — Washington captured Cornwallis. Explanations. — I. This is a sentence; declarative, simple (why?). Wash- ington is the subject; captured is the predicate verb, and is modified by Corn- wallis, an objective element. Example 2. — What did you find? II. This is a sentence; interrogative, simple (why?). You is the subject; did find is the predicate verb (why?). The predicate verb is modified by what, an objective element. Example 3.— Bring me flowers. III. This is a sentence; imperative, simple (why?). Thou or you under- stood is the subject; bring is the predicate verb (why?). The predicate verb is modified by flowers, a direct objective element, and by me, an indirect objective element. Example 4. — They have chosen Garfield president. IV. This is a sentence; declarative, simple (why?). They is the subject; have chosen is the predicate verb (why?). The predicate verb is modified by Garfield, an objective element, and Garfield is modified by president, an adjective element denoting office. Additional Examples. — He read the books. Students study astronomy. They rowed the boat. Obey the laws. Brokers sell stocks. We elected him moderator. I gave him an apple. Whom did you see? 8 PBACTICAL ENGLISH GUAM MAR. Example 5. — The boat glides smoothly. V. This is a sentence; declarative, simple (why?) Bout is the subject nomi- native: glides is the predicate verb. The subject nominative is modified by the, an adjective element; the predicate verb is modified by smoothly, an adverbial element. Additional Examples. — The ladies sing sweetly. Eva ran rapidly. I shall surely oppose you. Is tiic mountain very beautiful? Promptly give him your attention. Example (>. — William is strictly honest. VI. This is a sentence; declarative, simple (why?). William is the subject; is, is the predicate verb (or copula); honest is the attribute (why?). The attribute is modified by strictly, an adverbial element. Example 7.— Large trees are plenty. V I I. This is a sentence; declarative, simple. Trees is the subject nominative; are plenty is the predicate verb (why?). The subject nominative is modified by large, an adjective element. Are is the copula (why?). Plenty is the attribute. Example 8. — The lion broke the boy's arm. VIII. Lion is the subject nominative, modified by the, an adjective element. Broke, the predicate verb, is modified by arm, an objective element. Arm is modified by boy's, an adjective element. Boy's arm is modified by the, an adjec- tive element. (Some may regard the as a modifier of arm.) Additional Examples.— I wrote a long letter. Many hands made quick work. "Man's necessity is God's opportunity." The summer breezes blow soft and cool. The old man, laughing, said "Yes." Exercise 20. — Analyze the following sentences: 1. Compound subjects. — 1. He and I went to London. 2. Wisdom, judgment, prudence, and firmness were his predominant traits. 3. To profess and to possess are often two different things. 4. Education and energy have accomplished wonders. II. Compound predicates. — 1. The bank clerk wrote the draft and handed it to the cashier for signature. 2. Education expands and elevates the mind. 3. He rose, reigned, and fell. III. Compound objective elements.— 1. He had a good mind, a sound judgment, and a lively imagination. 2. Learn to labor and to wait. 3. We can see Mars and Venus to-night. IV. Compound adjective elements. — 1. He was a good, faithful, and generous man. 2. I am not the advocate of indolence and improvidence. 3. Napoleon was shrewd and far-sighted. He is not angry, but excited. V. Compound adverbial elements. — 1. "Man is fearfully and wonderfully made.' 2. The soldiers marched slowly and sadly. 3. Swiftly and successfully the aeronaut made his perilous trip. 4. The journey was accomplished speedily, yet pleasantly. 5. The work was done with profit and pleasure. PARTS OF SPEECH. 9 Note. — Compound and complex sentences should be separated into their members, or clauses, in analysis, and each of these should be treated as a simple sentence. VI. Compound sentences. — 1. William went to Paris and Henry staid at home. 2. The wind rose and the ship began to roll. 3. Our boat capsized, but we were rescued. VII. Complex sentences. — 1. The hand that governs in April, governs in January. 2. I venerate the man whose heart is warm. 3. I know now why you corrected me. 4. " Come as the winds come, when navies are stranded." Notes. — I. The student should not pass beyoud this lesson until he has fully mastered all the different kinds of elements and sentences mentioned in it. II. Continuous narrative, if not too difficult in style, usually affords better material for practice than short sentences having no relation to each other, and the " Selection for Prac- tice " given below is believed to be suited to the average student. The time for several lessons may be very profitably given to the study of this selection or any others considered more suitable. SELECTION FOR PRACTICE. "The entire brigade scarcely made one effective regiment according to the numbers of Continental armies, &nd yet it was more than we could spare. As they rushed toward the front, the Russians opened on them from the guns in the redoubt on the right, with volleys of musketry and rifles. Tbey swept proudly past, glittering in the morning sun in all the pride and splendor of war. We could scarcely believe the evidence of our senses. Surely that handful of men are not going to charge an army in position! Alas! it was but too true. Their desperate valor knew no bounds, and far indeed was it removed from its so called better part — discretion. They advanced in two lines, quickening their pace as they closed toward the enemy. A more fearful spectacle was never witnessed than by those who beheld those heroes rushing to the arms of death. At the distance of twelve hundred yards the entire line of the enemy belched forth, from thirty iron mouths, a flood of smoke and flame through which hissed the deadly balls. Their flight was marked by instant gaps in our ranks, by dead men and horses, by steeds flying wounded or riderless across the plain. The first line is broken! — it is joined by the second! — they never halt or check their speed for an instant. With diminished ranks — thinned by those thirty guns which the Russians had laid with the most deadly accuracy — with a halo of flashing steel above their heads, and with a cheer which was many a noble fellow's death-cry, they flew into the smoke of the batteries; but, ere they were lost from view, the plain was strewed with their bodies, and with the car- casses of horses." — Russell. LESSOR 6. Parts of Si'Eech. 50. There are eight classes of words, or parts of speech, in the English language: Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 51. The noun, pronoun, verb, and some adjectives and adverbs, are inflected. 10 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. NOUNS. -VJ. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. (Illustrate.) 53. Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common. Common nouns include collective, abstract and verbal. 54. A proper noun is a name applied to a person or to an individual object: as, — Henry, America, Bible. 55. A com iii on noun is the name applied to each of a class of objects: as, — Book, bell, school. 56. The principal office of nouns is to name the thing of which we affirm something. 57. Any word, syllable, letter or symbol, may be used as a noun: as, — You is a pronoun. Con is a prefix. B is a consonant. . is a period. 58. A collective noun is a name denoting in the singular form more than one object of the same kind: as, — Council, meeting, committee, family. Exercise 21. — Write at least ten other collective nouns. 59. An abstract noun denotes attributes: as, — Virtue, wisdom, whiteness, indolence, ambition, goodness. Exercise 22. — "Write ten other abstract nouns. 60. A verbal noun is a participle or an infinitive used as a noun: as, — Studying is pleasant. To progress is our desire. Exercise 23. — Write ten other verbal nouns. 61. Words from other parts of speech, also phrases and clauses, are sometimes used as nouns: as, — In the gray of the morning. What time does your "promptly'" mean? To be contented ia to be happy. That the earth is round can easily be shown. Exercise 24. — To which class does each of the following nouns belong? 1. Mind, music, thoughts, muscle, strength, class, duty, city. 2. Charter, rights, time, gold, quality, courage, money, Kaiser. 3. Queen, president, navy, war, prices, food, culture, neatness, group. 4. People, darkness, produce, plan, running, Asia, June, day, Monday. Exercise 25. — Form abstract nouns from the following adjectives, and adjec- tives from the nouns. ( More than one can be given in some cases.) 1. Long (3), wide, broad, true, deceptive, able, magnanimous. 2. Inclement, worthy, acceptable, grievous (2), wise, prudent. 3. Apt (2), sagacious, attentive, quiet (2), lovely, legible. 4. Firm, gentle, fortune, sorrow (2), mirth, fire, ancestor. 5. Art (2), splendor, beauty (2), science, wit, courage, hope (2). 6. Despair, cheer, multitude, idea, sense (2), speed, care (3), heart (3). MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. LESSOR 7 Modifications of Nouns and Pronouns. number. 62. Modifications, or inflections of the parts of speech, are changes in their form, meaning, and use. 63. Nouns and pronouns have number, person, gender, and case. 64. Number is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing or more than one. There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. 65. The singular number denotes one thing. 66. The plural number denotes more than one thing. NUMBER FORMS. 67. Formation of Plural Nouns. — The plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding s to the singular. 68. When the singular ends in a sound that cannot be united with that of s> es is added to form another syllable: as, — Topaz, topazes; fox, foxes; match, matches. Note. — Such words as horse, niche, and cage, drop the final e when es is added. Exercise 26. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns, and note what letters represent sounds that cannot be united with the sound of " s": 1. Ax or axe, arch, adz or adze, box, brush. 2. Cage, chaise, cross, ditch, face, gas, glass, hedge, horse. 3. Lash, lens, niche, prize, race. 69. Nouns ending in 0. — Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, take "es" without an increase of syllables: as, — Hero, heroes; cargo, cargoes. 70. Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, require s only. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel, add s. Exercise 27. — Form the plurals of the following words: 1. Canto, dommo, duodecimo, halo, junto, lasso, memento, octavo. 2. Piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero, trio, folio, embryo. 3. Cargo, echo, embargo, grotto, hero, bravado, motto, mosquito, mulatto. 4. Negro, portico, potato, tornado, volcano, buffalo, calico. 5. What other nouns ending in o can you name? Note. — The plurals of the above nouns can be found in an unabridged dictionary. 71. Nouns ending in Y. — Common nouns ending in y after a consonant, change y into i, and take es without increase of syllables. Nouns ending in y after a vowel, require s. 12 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR* Exercise 2S. — Form the plurals of the following words: 1. Alley, ally, attorney, chimney, city, colloquy, daisy. . •J. Essay, fairy, fancy, kidney, lady, lily. 3. Money, monkey, mystery, soliloquy, turkey, valley, vanity. 72. Nouns ending in f or fe. — Nouns ending in / or /7. — Give the voice of each of the verbs in the following sentences: 1. "The spider up there defied despair; He conquered, and why shouldn't I?" 2. "And Belgium's capital had gathered then her beauty and her chivalry." 3. The lost child cried bitterly. 4. The little boy cried himself to sleep. 5. We ran a race. 6. We ran several miles. 7. He was appointed overseer. 8. The machine was run by steam. 9. I was deceived by the false signals. 10. Socrates said that he who might be better employed was idle. 11. Get wisdom. 12. I can do no more to-day. 13. The carriage was drawn by four horses. 14. The audience was composed of children. 15. The committee to whom was referred the matter of engaging a speaker for Decoration Day has secured the services of Dr. Wise. He is an able man, and the people may well con- gratulate themselves on their good fortune. LESSOR" 21. Mode. 178. Mode is that modification of a verb which denotes the manner of asserting the action or being. 179. There are five modes, the indicative mode, the potential mode, the impera- tive mode, the infinitive mode, and the subjunctive mode. 180. The indicative mode asserts the action or being as a fact: as, — We breathe. The weather is delightful. 181. The potential mode asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of the action or being: as, — We can breathe. We must breathe. MODE. 39 Note. — The potential mode uses may, can, must, might, could, would, or slwuld, as part of the verb. 182. The imperative mode requests, permits, entreats or commands: as, — Write when convenient. Pass this way. Do not venture on the bridge now. Forward, march. Note. — The subject of a verb in the imperative mode is always thou or you understood. Is3. The infinitive mode expresses the action or being without affirming it: as, — To write; to hate written. He rose to speak. Notes. — I. Since the action or being is merely named in a general way and not asserted of any thing in particular, verbs in this mode can have neither person nor number. A verb is said to be finite when it has person and number. II. The infinitive may usually be known by the sign to placed before it. This sign is omitted after the active verbs bid, dare, feel, let, see, make, need, and hear; and sometimes after have, please, and help ; also after behold, mark, observe, watch, view, and other equivalents of see: as, Bid him go. I dare do it. Let her go. We saw the sun rise. Do not help him learn his lesson. See him run. They \»ould have us stay. Also after than and as when used in making com- parisons- as, We may as well go as stay here. I would rather go than stay. III. The preposition is almost always used after the passive form of these verbs, and occa- sionally after the active: as, She was heard to say that it is not true. You cannot see to read. I dare you to do it. IV. The infinitive is sometimes used: 1. As an abstract noun. It may then be the subject or the attribute of a sentence; it may be in apposition with a noun, or it may be the object of a transitive verb or a preposition: as, To lie is disgraceful. To work is to pray. Delightful task, to rear the tender thought. I love to read. He is about to sell. 2. It may also be used as an adjective: as, I have two letters to write. 3. It may be used as an adverb: as, I write to inform you of the change. 4. It may be used independently: as, To tell the truth, I do not favor your friend's course. V. The infinitive may govern an object, or be modified by an adverb or adjective: as, He is learning to read Latin. He is afraid to go forward. To play is pleasant. Exercise 68. — Supply appropriate infinitives in the following sentences, and tell how each infinitive is used: 1. He was afraid the responsibility. 2. She was prevailed upon the work. 3. I shall be glad you some assistance. 4. Such a report ought adopted. •j. Do not fail for duty to morrow. 6. How impatient we are ahead. 7. We are going -. --- better. 8. I cannot make the top 9. What have you for your work ? 10. We could not hear you 11. Both yachts seemed at the turn. 12. The judge proceeded -- the jury. 13 the subject thoroughly one must begin at the foundation. 14 myself from slipping I held the rope tightly. 15 plainly, I must say I cannot agree to the proposal. 40 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1^4. The subjunctive mode expresses a future contingency, supposition, wish, etc.: as, — If he be elected, he will make a good officer. If I were to undertake the work, I should put in more machines. Oh! that I knew where I might find him. NOTES.— I. A verb in this mode is generally preceded by one of the conjunctions, if, that, though, lest, or unless, except, whether, till. II. The conjunction or word expressing condition, is sometimes omitted : as, Had I written, I could not have received an answer in time. Were I in your place, I would not go. III. The subjunctive mode uses be instead of am, are and is; were instead of was, and throughout the same tense usually undergoes no change in form: as, If I be; if I were; if he read, IV. There is a difference of opinion among grammarians regarding the use of the subjunc- tive, some holding that it should be dropped entirely. Without attempting to discuss the question, we would simply say that while there is perplexity as to some of its uses, there are others so clear and so generally observed by good speakers and writers, that they should be brought to the attention of students with as much care as any other accepted forms of speech. THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND INDICATIVE MODES COMPARED. 185. The following comparison of subjunctive and indicative forms will serve to make the above note plain: Subjunctive Mode. Indicative Mode. 1. If the applicant merit commendation do 1. If the applicant merits commendation his not withhold it. (Remains to be seen.) letter will show it. (It is claimed that he does.) 2. If he understand the problem he will 2. If he understands the problem why does try to explain it. he hesitate? 3. If the weather be warm we shall start 3. If the weather is warm the water may next week. (Weather may be cold.) be cold. (Weather admitted to be warm.) 4. If he become rich he may grow selfish. 4. If he is rich he is not selfish. (No doubt (A doubt about the riches.) about the riches.) 5. If I were in your place I would not try. 5. If I was in your place I did not try to (A supposition.) imitate you. (A fact.) 6. If he decline your offer to-day try him 6. If he declines your offer to day why do again to-morrow. you think he will accept it to-morrow? 7. Though he deceive me I will befriend 7. I will do what I can for him though he him. deceives me, I know. 8. If he possess the qualifications, his sue- 8. How can he fail if he possesses the quali- cess is assured. fications? 9. If good, earnest effort be requisite the 9. If good, earnest effort is requisite, why- effort shall not be wanting. is it not supplied? 10. Were it the intention of France to 10. If it was the intention of France to submit the matter to arbitration, the action of submit the matter to arbitration, the fact still her warships in crossing the bar is incompre- remains that her warships have crossed the hensible. bar. Exercise 69. — Determine the mode of each of the verbs in the following sentences: 1. If I am correctly informed the number was 5000. 2. If I am not mistaken he said he would return to-day. 3. I still speak to him though he snubs me every time. TENSE. 41 4. If he return give him this note. 5. fehe cannot enter unless she pays. 6. If he has said so, what of it? 7. If he have said so, I shall be much surprised. 8. Should any further information be desired it will be furnished on application 9. If any further information has been asked for, we have not known of it. 10. " If prosody is a part of grammar, why should the latter not include rhetoric? " 11. If he continue to improve he will soon be a fair writer. 12. Oh! that I were there to help you. 13. "My lords, my lords," the captive said, "were I but once more free, * * * * that parchment would I scatter wide!" 14. Is it necessary that the work be done again? 15. Had I known of this sooner I could have protected you. Notes.— I. The distinction between a future contingency which requires a verb in the subjunctive, and the conditional statement of a fact, which requires a verb in the indicative, is a very nice one: thus, — " If he continue to improve (he may not) he will in time become a fair scholar." "If he continues to improve (and it is assumed that he will) he will soon become a fair scholar." II. The tendency 6*f modern usage is to disregard the distinction. When there is doubt as to whether the indicative or subjunctive mode is required, use the indicative. LESSOR 22. Tense. 186. Tense is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or the being. 187. There are six tenses, the p?-esent tense, the past tense, the future tense. the present perfect tense, the past perfect tense, and the future perfect tense. 188. The present tense denotes the action or being as present: as, — We write. We think. He studies. Notes.— I. The present tense should always be used to express a general principle or a universal truth: as, "We were told that the air has weight," [not had]. The doctor said in his lecture that fever always produces thirst (not produced). II. It is also used to denote what frequently or habitually takes place: as, He travels for our Arm. We go home twice a week. Also, in describing past events to give force or anima- tion: as, "Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy." 189. The past tense denotes the action or being as past: as, — We wrote. We thought. He studied. 190. The future tense denotes the action or being as yet to come: as, — We shall write. We shall think. He will study. i2 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 191. The present perfect tense denotes the action or being as completed at the preseni I ime: as. — We have written. We have thought. He has studied. 192. The past perfect tense denotes the action or being as completed at some past time: as, — We had written. We had thought. He had studied. 11)3. The future perfect tense denotes the action or being to be completed at some future time: as, — We shall have written. We shall have thought. He will have studied. TENSES IN ALL THE MODES. 194. The indicative mode has six tenses, the present, the past, the future, the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future perfect. The potential mode has four tenses, the present, the past, the present perfect, and the past perfect. The imperative mode has one tense, the present. The subjunctive mode has three tenses, the present, the past, and the past perfect. The infinitive mode has two tenses, the present, and the present perfect. Notes — I. When a verb, followed by an infinitive, refers to a future act or circumstance, the present, not the perfect, infinitive should be used: as, I intended to go [not to haw gone]. I expected to see you [not to have seen you], II. Tense does not properly belong to the infinitive mode. Its tenses are mere forms, having no regard to time. SIGNS OF THE TENSES. 195. Indicative Mode. — Present and past, no sign. Present perfect, have or has. Past perfect, had. Future, shall or will. Future perfect, shall have or will have. Note. — The auxiliaries do in the parent tense, and did in the past, are used to give emphasis : as, I do assure you. He did say so. 196. Potential Mode. — Present, may, can, or must. Past, might, could, would, or should. Present perfect, may have, can have, or must have. Past per- fect, might have, could have, would have, or should have. NUMBER AND PERSON. 197. Number and person, as applied to verbs, indicate only the form to be used with each number and person of the subject. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 198. Verbs are divided, in respect to form, into regular and irregular. 199. A regular verb is one that forms its past tense in the indicative mode active, and its past participle, by adding ed to the present: as, — Present, act; past, acted; past participle, acted. TENSE. 43 200. An irregular verb is one that does not form its past tense in the indic- ative mode active, and its past participle by adding ed to the present: as, — Present, write; past, wrote ; past participle, written. 201. The following list gives the principal parts of about one-fourth of the irregular verbs of the English language: List of Irregular Verbs. Present. Past. Past Participle. Be or am, was, been. Begin, began, begun. Blow, blew, blown. Break, broke, broken. Choose, chose, chosen. Come, came, come. Do, did, done. Draw, drew, drawn. Drink, drank, drunk or drank. Drive, drove, driven. Eat, ate, eaten. Fall, fell, fallen. Fly. flew, flown. Freeze, froze, frozen. Go, went, gone. Get, (For) got, got or gotten. Give, (For) gave, given. Grow, grew, grown. Have, had, had. Know, knew, known. Lay, laid, laid. Lie (to rest), lay, lain. Ride, rode, ridden. Ring, rang or rung, rung. Rise, rose, risen. Run, ran, run. See, saw. seen. Set, set, set. Sit, sat, sat. Shake, shook, shaken. Sing, sang or sung, sung. Slay, slew, slain. Speak, spoke, spoken. Steal, stole, stolen. Take, took, taken. Tear, tore, torn. Throw, threw, thrown. Wear, wore, worn. Write, wrote, written. Note. — Regular verbs, and some irregular verbs, have the same form in the past tense and past participle, and this accounts, perhaps, for frequent mistakes in using those irregular verbs (like many in the foregoing list) in which the past tense and past participle forms are different. 44 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. *J0*2. Rule. — Where these forms differ, the past participle is used when the verb is in any of the perfect tenses, and also in all the tenses of verbs in the passive voice: as. — We were driven (not drove) through the park. We have cliosen (not have chose) our leader. The coat was torn (not was tore). Exercise 7<). — Supply appropriate irregular verbs in the following sentences: 1. The bird has . 2. lie has to the city. 3. I him mail the letter. 4. We have him for many years. 5. The boys have the cherries. 6. The letter will be 7. The river has | J^™ j- high water mark. 8. The bell will be at 12 o'clock. 9. The dog ashore. 10. The prisoner his bonds. 11. The burglar softly up the stairs. 12. I have to my friend on that subject. 18. Have you the footings? 14. The blacksmith the iron. 15. The cloth is very closely Exercise 71. — Compose sentences containing the past tense and past participle forms of some of the following verbs. Note. — The verbs given below are not in the foregoing list, but if any of the forms are not familiar to the student they can be found in an unabridged dictionary. 1. Awake, bear (to carry), beat, bend, bereave, beseech, bid, bind, bite, bleed, bring. 2. Build, burn, burst, buy, cast, catch, cleave (to split), cling, cost, creep, crow, cut. 3. Dare (to venture), deal, dig, feed, feel, fight, find, flee, fling, forsake, gild, grind. 4. Hang (to suspend, not to execute), hear, hide, hit, hold, hurt, keep, kneel. 5. Lead, leave, lend, let, lose, make, mean, meet. 6. Pay, put, quit, read, rend, rid. 7. Say, seek, sell, send, shed, shine, shoe, shoot, show, shrink, shut, sink, sleep. 8. Slide, sling, slit, smite, sow, speed, spend, spill, spin, split, spread, spring, stand. 9. Stay, stick, sting, stride, strike, string, strive, swear, sweep, swing. 10. Teach, tell, think, thrust, tread, weave, weep, wet, win, wind, work, wring. LESSOR 23. Conjugation. 203. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb. 204. The principal parts of a verb are those from which the other parts are derived. They are the present indicative or the present infinitive, the past indicative, the present participle, and the past participle. CONJUGATION. 45 205. Auxiliary verbs are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs. The auxiliaries are be and. its variations, also do, did, have, had, shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, and must. Notes. — I. Verbs, not auxiliary, are called principal verbs. II. Be, do, have, will, would and can are used also as principal verbs. They are so used where not combined with a principal verb expressed or understood: as, "I have two books," have, principal. "I have seen the races," have, auxiliary. PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS. 206. Progressive Form. — A verb is conjugated in the progressive form by joining its present participle to the different forms of the verb be: as, — Am going. Have been thinking. 207. Passive Form. — A transitive verb is conjugated in the passive voice by joining its past participle to the different forms of the verb be: as, — Were seen. May be permitted. Conjugation of the Verb Be, or Am. Present. Be, or am, Singular. 1. I am, 2. You are, 3. He is, 1. 2. 3. I was, You were, He was, 1. I shall be, 2 - You [willbe, 3. He S PRINCIPAL PARTS. Past. was, regular conjugation. Indicative Mode, present tense. 1. 2. 3. PAST TENSE. FUTURE TENSE. Past Participle. been. Plural. We i You >■ are. They ) 1. We \ 2. You >• were. 3. They J 1. We shall be, 2 - You > will be. 3. They ) 1. 2. 3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. [ have been, I You He has been, 1. We i 2. You > have been. 3. They ) PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I ) 2. You y had been, 3. He ) 1. 2. 3. We \ You > had been. They ) 46 ri; \otical English grammar. 1. 2. 3. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. I shall have been, 1. 2. 3. We shall have been, ^ ou I will have been, lie ) You ) They ) will have been. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 4. Singular. •If I j If. you |-be, If he ) Ifl > If you |- were. If he ) i 1 ' Were ■< you, (he, Subjunctive Mode, present tense. PAST TENSE. 01' PAST TENSE. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. PAST PERFECT TENSE. Ifl ) If you > had been, If he ) 1. 2. 3. or PAST PERFECT TENSE. Had ■< you >• been, (he ) Potential Mode, present tense. You \ may be, He ) You >• might be, He J PAST TENSE. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. You >• may have been, He ) PAST PERFECT TENSE. You > might have been, He ) 1. 2. 3. Plural. If we \ If you | be. If they ) If we \ If you >■ were. If they ) | we, Were -j you, ' they. If we \ If you I had been. If they ) rwe | Had ■< you V been. ( they ) We \ You > may be. They) We \ You > might be. They ) We j You > may have been. •They ) We \ ; You V might have been. They) CONJUGATION. 4$ Notes.— I. Shall, in the first person, and will, in the second and third, future tenses, are used to denote futurity. When will is used in the first person, or shall, in the second or third, determination or necessity is represented. (See Lesson 29.) II. In reviews, use in the Potential Mode, the auxiliaries can and must, for the present and present perfect; and could, would and slwuld, for the past and past perfect. Imperative Mode. Singular. present tense. Plural. .2. Be, or do you be; 2. Be, or do thou be; 2. Be, or do ye or you be. Infinitive Mode. Present, To be, Present Perfect, To have been. Participles. Present, Being, Past, Been, Present Perfect, Having been. Note. — In the poetic and solemn style, the pronoun in the second person singular is thou. With this pronoun, the second person singular of the verb is conjugated thus: Thou art, thou wast or werl, thou wilt be, thou hast been, thou hadst been, thou wilt have been, for the indicative mode. If thou be, if thou werl or wert thou, ; | thou hadst been or hadst tlwu been, for the subjunc- tive mode. Thou mayst be, thou mightst be, thou maysl have been, thou mightst have been, for the potential. Imperative, do thou be. Exercise 72. — Fill out the following forms, using the verb write: Indicative Mode, present tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I...., 1. AVe ..... 2. You ..... • 2. You ..... 3. He ..... past tense. 3. They 1. I...., 1. We 2. You ..... 2. You, , 3. He • FUTURE tense. 3. They 1. I .... 1. We ..... 2. You ..... 2. You 3. He ..... present perfect tense. 3. They..... 1. I...., 1. We ...., 2. You ..... 2. You ..... 3. He ..... PAST PEKFKIT TENSE. 3. They 1. I...., 1. We ..... 2. You ..... 2. You ...., 3. He ..... FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 3. They ..... 1. I..... 1. We ..... 2. You ...., 2. You 3. He 3. They 4S I'U ACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Sl'liJI'NI TIVK Moi)K. PRESKNT TENSE. 1. HI I. Ifwe...., 2. If you , 2. If you , 3. If he ...., 3. If they PAST TENSE. 1. Ifl 1. Ifwe...., 2. If you , 2. If you , 3. If he...., 3. If they , PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. Ifl .., or .. .. I , 1. Ifwe .., or we 2. If you .. . . , or . . . . you , 2. If you . ., or you ... — » 3. If he .., or .. .. he , 3. If they . . , or they . . 1. I may 2. You may 3. He may . . 1. I might , 2. You might 3. He might , 1. I may have 2. You may have 3. He may have . . 1. I might have ... 2. You might have 3. He might have . Potential Mode, present tense. 1. We may ... 2. You may . . 3. They may . PAST TENSE. 1. We might , 2. You might , 3. They might , PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. We may have , 2. You may have , 3. They may have , PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. We might have , 2. You might have , 3. They might have Imperative Mode, present tense. 2 , or do you Present. To...., Present. 2. , or do thou . Infinitive Mode. Participles. Past. 2 , or do ye or you Present Perfect. To have , Present Perfect. , having AGREEMENT OF VERBS. 49 Exercise 73. — Correct the errors in the following sentences and give reasons: 1. I done it myself. 16. He throwed it into the river, for I seen 2. Some valuable land was overflown. him when he done it. 3. She sets by the open window enjoying 17. She come just after you had left. the scene tbat lays before her.* 18. They sung a new tune which they had 4. The tide sits in. not sang before. 5. Go and lay down. 19. The water I drunk there was better 6. The sun sits in the west. than any that I had drank elsewhere. 7. I remember when the corner-stone was 20. The leaves had fell. lain. 21. I had rode a short distance when the 8. Sit the plates on the table. sun begun to rise. 9. He sat out for London yesterday. 22. I found the water froze. 10. I laid there an hour. 23. He run until he became so weary that 11. Set down and talk a little while. he had to lay down. 12. He has laid there an hour 24. I had began to think that you had for- 13. I am setting by the river. sook us. 14. He has went and done it without my 25. I am afraid that I cannot learn him to permission. do it. 15. He flew from justice. (* For special exercises on sit, lie, rise, fall, fly, see Lesson 29.) LESSOR 24. Agreement of Verbs. 208. Rule. — A verb must agree with its subject in number and person: as, — I am the man. He writes well. Henry and George play scientifically. 209. Special Rule I. — The number of the verb is not controlled by the adjuncts: as, — The derivation of these words is uncertain. 210. Special Rule II. — Every finite verb should have a separate subject expressed: as, — " It is a contented mind makes him happy," is incorrect. The verb "makes" should have its subject that expressed. Exceptions.— I. A verb in the imperative mode, its subject being, generally, thou or you understood: as, " Be noble minded." II. A verb repeated for the sake of emphasis, or connected with another in the same con- struction: as, "It is going, going, going." "Flowers bud, blossom, wither, and die." III. Sometimes a verb after the conjunction than. " He did no more than was expected of him." 211. Special Rule III.— When the subject of the verb is a relative pronoun, the number of the verb is determined by the number of the antecedent: as, — "That is one of the strongest arguments that have been presented on any subject." That, the subject of the verb, is plural to agree with its antecedent arguments ; therefore the verb must have the plural form. 4 50 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Notes. — I. A singular subject may have a plural attribute: as, A dollar is one hundred cents. II. A plural subject may have a singular attribute: as, "Ye are the salt of the earth." III. When, by transposition, the subject is placed after, and the attribute before the verb, care is needed to make the verb agree with the subject and not with the attribute: as, "The salt of the earth are ye." " Ye," being the subject, the verb must have the plural form. Exercise 74. — Name the verb in each of the following sentences, and give its subject. If the verb and subject agree, give the rule and show how it applies. If they do not agree, change the verb to agree with its subject, and give the rule. Example. — I loves reading. Loves should be love, to agree with /, in the first person singular. I love reading. 1. A soft answer turn away wrath. 2. The days of man is as grass. 3. Thou sees how little has been done. 4. He dare not act otherwise. 5. Fifty pounds of wheat produces forty pounds of flour. 6. A variety of beautiful objects please the eye. 7. So much of ability and merit are seldom found. 8. A judicious arrangement of studies facilitate improvement. 9. The combined population of the two cities are two huudred thousand. 10. To be ignorant of such things are now inexcusable. 11. She needs not trouble herself. 12. Forty head of cattle were sold in one hour. 13. The horse was sent forward to engage the enemy. 14. The foot, in the meantime, was preparing for an attack. 15. Fifty sail were seen approaching the shore. 16. Two dozen is as many as you can take. 17. One pair was spoiled. 18. Five pair was in good condition. 19. Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 20. Life and death is in the power of the tongue. 21. Anger and impatience is always unreasonable. 22. Out of the same mouth proceeds blessing and cursing. 23. To profess regard, and to act differently, marks a base mind. 24. To be good and to seem good are different things. Exercise 75. — Correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. He says he don't know what to advise in the matter. 2. That the ship, with all her crew, are lost, have been reported. 3. You was not there. (The pronoun you is of the plural form and must have a plural verb.) 4. It is his evil companions that has led him away. 5. It is thinking strengthens the mind. 6. What have become of your good resolutions? 7. The condition of the crops show that the country has suffered much. 8. I called but you was not at home. 9. There was more than one of us present. 10. You are not the first one that have been deceived in the same way. 11. The spirit of our forefathers still animate their descendants. 12. There comes the boys. 13. Ten months' interest are due. 14. Young's " Night Thoughts" are his great work. AGREEMENT OF VERBS, CONTINUED. 51 LESSOX 25. Agreement of Verbs — Continued. '212. Rule. — A collective noin requires a plural verb when reference is made to the individuals composing the collection; but when the collection is referred to as a whole, the verb should be singular: as, — " The jury were not unanimous." " The fleet is under orders to sail." Exercise 76. — Determine the number of each of the following nouns, and tell which verb or pronoun should be used: 1. The public \ „ 1S Q c invited to attend. n t«i„ .1 ( was ) v . -. -, . ( its opinion. 2. The assembly j were £ divided in \ tbeir P opinions . 3. The jury j ^ J. failed to agree. 4. A committee •]. was [■ appointed to examine the accounts. 5. In France, the peasantry -j ^ s I barefoot while the middle class j ^k^s [ use of wooden Shoes. 6. The legislature - , * s I adjourned. 7. The House \ ^"J 3 I called to order. ( was ) 8. The multitude eagerly j ^™^ J. pleasure. 9. The corporation -J a ? e j- individually responsible. 10. Fifty head -j ™ a I drowned. J ( were ) 11. Upon motion the assembly resolved j the ^gff VeS \ int0 a committee of the whole. 10 rr U ( were j •, . A ._ ( their leader. 12. The army j was j- devoted to -j ^ ]eader Exercise 77. — Use in sentences the following collective nouns: 1. Family, nation, council, majority, association, club, parly. 2. School, navy, command, force, community, court, congregation, company. 213. Rule. — I. Two or more subjects connected by and, when they convey plurality of idea, require a verb in the plural: as, — " Time and tide wait for no man." "That the man is a detective, and that he was present, are well-known facts." II. Two or more subjects connected by and, convey, not plurality, but unity of idea, in the following instances, when the verb must be in the singular number: 1. When the connected subjects are used to designate but one individual: as, "The distin- guished patriot and statesman has retired from public life." 2. When they name two or more things taken as one whole: as, "Bread and milk is excel lent food for children." 3. When singular subjects are preceded by each, every, and no, they are taken separately: as, " Every tall tree and every steeple was blown down." " No time and no money was spared in the pursuit of happiness." 5^ PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note. — The connective is sometimes understood: as, "Every day, every hour, has its own duties." '21 4-. Rule. — Two or more singular subjects connected by or or wo?* require a verb in the singular number: as, — Ignorance or negligence has caused the mistake. K either John nor Henry teas there. '1 1 5. Special Rule I. — Two connected subjects, one taken affirmatively and tlir other negatively, belong to different propositions, and the verb must agree with the affirmative Bubject: as, — " Virtue, and not riches, constitutes happiness." " He, and not I, is chosen." 2 1 (i. Special Rule I i. — When two subjects are connected by as well as, save, but, than, as, or as soon as, the verb must agree with the first and be understood with the second: as, — " Time, as well as patience, is needed." "More industrious men than he are seldom seen." 217. Special Rule III. — A verb having two or more subjects of different persons or numbers connected by or or nor, agrees with the subject nearest to it, and is understood with the rest, in the person and number required: as, — "Neither his style nor his thoughts are remarkable." "He or I am wrong." "Tou or Mary is mistaken. " Note. — When, however, the subjects require different forms of the verb, it is generally better to express the verb or its auxiliary with each subject, or to reconstruct the sentence: as, He is wrong, or I am. You are mistaken, or Mary is. 218. Special Rule IV. — When the verb separates its subjects, it agrees in number with the subject which precedes it, and is to be understood after the rest: as, — "John was present, and Paul and William." 219. Special Rule V. — When several subjects follow the verb, each subject may be emphasized by making the verb agree with that which stands nearest: as, — " Therein consists the use, and force, and nature of language." 220. Special Rule TI. — When the connected subjects are of different per- sons, the verb must be in the plural number, and must agree with the first person rather than the second, and with the second rather than the third: as, — "My sister and I are employed daily in our respective occupations." Exercise 78. — Correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. Circumstances alters cases. 2. A number of persons were there. 3. Have the grammar class recited? 4. Nothing but wailings were heard. 5. Such books as this is worth purchasing. 6. Neither poverty nor riches is hurtful to him. 7. The book is one of the best that ever was written. 8. Is each or both of us going to row on the return trip? 9. Pleasure, and not books, occupy his mind. 10. His food were locusts and wild honey. 11. The hue and cry of the country pursue him. 12. Every book and every paper were in their place. REDUNDANT, DEFECTIVE, AND IMPERSONAL VERBS. 53 L, i^i^W-lX. au, 13. Each day and each hour bring their own duties. 14. No time, no money, no labor, were spared. 15. Generation after generation pass away. 16. They, as well as I, am influenced by what he said. 17. After the battle the army was scattered through the country. 18. A herd of cattle peacefully grazing afford a pleasing sight. 19. The court, at last, have passed sentence on the criminal. 20. Virtuous effort, and not depraved genius, win the prize. 21. No voice nor sound but their own echoes were heard in reply. 22. The committee was unable to agree, and it asked to be discharged. 23. The second and the third Epistle of John contains each a single chapter. 24. For the consequences of this transaction he or they is responsible. 25. When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune affect us, the sincerity of friendship is tested. LESSOR 26. Redundant, Defective, and Impersonal Verbs. 221. A redundant verb is one that has both a regular and an irregular form for the past tense and perfect participle: as, — Swelled, swollen; learnt, learned. 222. A defective verb is one that forms no participles, and is not used in all the modes and tenses. The defective verbs are: The auxiliaries can, may, shall, will, and must, with their variations; also, ought, quoth, beware, and wit. 223. An impersonal verb is a verb that is used only in the third person singular. There are two kinds of impersonal verbs: 1. Those asserting natural phenomena; as, — "It rains;" "it storms;" "it grows cold." 2. The forms methinks and methought. Notes. — I. The neuter pronoun it, in such expressions as "It rains," does not seem to represent any noun, but in connection with the verb, expresses merely a condition of things. II. Methinks is composed of me, the indirect object, and thinks, meaning seems. The sub- ject of the verb thinks is the clause following: as, "Methinks I hear a voice'" = " That I hear a voice seems to me," or "It seems to me that I hear a voice." 224. Retained object. — The indirect object of a verb is sometimes made the subject of a verb in the passive voice, and the direct object is retained after the verb: as, — He was promised a position by the secretary = The secretary promised him a position; or, A position was promised him by the secretary. Note. — This form of construction is regarded improper by some grammarians, but it is an idiom of our language established by good usage. 5-4 PKACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Exercise 71). — Change each of the following sentences to the opposite form: 1. Her teacher paid her a high compliment. 2. 1 was presented a fine painting. 3. A very fine specimen was shown us. 4. I was told the story by one of the witnesses. .">. Admittance was refused him by the guard. 6. Two tickets were offered us. 7. He was given two hours in which to procure bail. 8. Every opportunity was offered him. 9. He was allowed a discount of twenty per cent. 10. The contractor was allowed an extension of time. 11. I was saved much trouble by your thoughtfulness. 12. The artists were tendered a hearty vote of thanks. 13. We were offered our choice of the remaining rooms. 14. The president was accorded a hearty reception. 15. The officer was granted a two weeks' leave of absence. Note. — The pronoun used as the indirect object is often a word which refers to some person or persons to whom prominence is desired to be given. This can be effected by using the indirect object as the subject, and changing the verb from the active to the passive form; and in many cases the expression certainly does not lose in force and smoothness by reason of the change. The question as to which of the objects, the direct or indirect, shall be made the subject when the passive verb is used, is, perhaps, more a matter of where to place the emphasis than of how to make the expression smooth and concise. Compare, 1. " That question has been asked me more than once," with, " I have been asked that question more than once." 2. " His choice was allowed him," with, " He was allowed his choice." 3. "Permission was granted the captain to change the time," with, "The captain was granted permission to change the time." LESSOR 27. Participles. 225. A participle is a word derived from a verb and partaking of the nature of a verb and of an adjective or a noun, or, in some instances, of an adverb. Example I. — "We could see many little fish swimming near our boat." In this sentence the word swimming, as an adjective, qualifies the noun fish, and as a verb, signifies the action of the fish. Example II. — "The stvimming of the little fish attracted our attention." In this sentence the word swimming, as a noun, stands as the subject of the verb attracted, and as a verb signifies the action of the fish. Example III. — "The little fish went swimming by." In this sentence the word swimming, as an adverb, modifies the verb went, and as a verb signifies (in part) the action of the fish. PARTICIPLES. 55 226. There are three participles, the Present, the Past, and the Compound, 2*27. The Present or Active Participle ends in ing, and is also called the Imperfect Participle, because it represents the continuance of an action, being, or state: as, — Speaking, being, dreaming. 228. The Past or Passive Participle ends in d, ed, t, n, or en, or takes an irregular form, such as sunk, thought, etc., and is also called the Perfect Par- ticiple, because it represents completed action, being, or state: as, — Spoken, been, dreamed or dreamt. 229. The Compound Participle is formed by placing being or having before a Past Participle: as, — Being spoken, having dreamed. And by placing having been before either a Present or Past Participle: as, — Having been dreaming, having been spoken. SOME USES AND OFFICES OF THE PARTICIPLE. w 230. As an Adjective. — The participle is often used as a pure adjective: as, — An amusing story. A sliding scale. " The Deserted Village." The beaten path. And in such compound forms as, — The all-absorbing topic. A half-learned lesson. A self-invited guest. 231. As an Adverb. — Sometimes ly is added to the participle to form a pure adverb: as, — The audience smiled approvingly. The leader spoke encouragingly. The question was very pointedly asked. 232. As an Attribute Complement. — The participle may be used as an attribute complement: as, — The work is progressing ; The lady is accomplished. 233. Used Independently. — It may be used independently: as, — Nothing preventing, we shall start to-night. Strictly speaking, the statement is not correct. 234. The Gerund. — It may be the equivalent of an infinitive and is then called by some the gerund: as, — The attorney commenced speaking at two o'clock = The attorney commenced to speak at two o'clock. Notes. — I. Active transitive participles may govern objects just as the verbs from which they are derived: as, 1. Hearing a voice (noun) I turned. Seeing that his boat was being drawn into the current (clause), and believing him to be unconscious of his peril (pronoun and infinitive phrase), we shouted to him to take his oars. II. Participles may have modifiers: as, 1. His (possessive pronoun) worrying was unneces- sary. 2. There is nothing to prevent my brother's (possessive noun) going with you. 3. Looking carefully (adverb) we found the error. 4. Passing by the house (phrase) we looked in. 5. We saw the purse lying ichere you left it (clause). III. The participle maybe followed by an attribute: as, 1. My foreman being sick (adjective), I cannot attend. 2. My father being attorney (noun) for the plaintiff, he will argue the case. 50 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Exercise 80. — Construct sentences containing the fo] lowing words and phrases used appropriately: 1. The increasing cloudiness. 10. Repeatedly. 2. A sweeping fire. 11. Convincingly. 3. A consuming thirst. 12. Taming. 4. The dripping clothes. 13. Roaring. 5. Flaming torches. 14. Crumbling. 6. Surging crowd. 15. All-destroying. 7. Flying timbers. 16. Self-governed. 8. Laughingly. 17. Half-hearted. 9. Assuringly. 18. Health permitting. Exercise 81. — Tell which of the following participles are adjectives, which, nouns, which, adverbs, and which are used in some other way: 1. The little maid went tripping along to school. 2. The exciting contest drew a crowd of spectators. 3. The passengers, alarmed at the pitching of the boat, asked the captain to land them. 4. The wolves came prowling about our tent. 5. The gathering darkness obscured our view. 6. We were aroused by the beating of drums and the shouting of the natives. 7. The water was scalding hot. 8. Talking about hunting, have you read Cummings' adventures? 9. The bridge giving way, the train was wrecked. 10. Seeing is believing. 11. Going a few steps farther, we could see the advancing column. 12. You can imagine me groping through the darkness, dripping wet. 13. Waving his sword above his head, the colonel called to his men to follow him. 14. The water being rough, we did not row far. 15. Hoping that this arrangement will please you, I remain, etc. LESSOR 28. The Participle in Construction. 235. Rule. — When a transitive participle, used as a noun, is limited by some preceding word, the preposition of is required to govern the object following: as, — The taking of things by force generally causes trouble. Much reading of good authors has improved his style. 236. Exception. — But when the transitive participle is not limited by a preceding word, the preposition of should not be used: as, — Reading good authors has improved his style. 237. Suggestions. — As either the participle or the infinitive may sometimes be used, it is often difficult to determine which should have the preference. The following suggestions may be of use in making a decision in some cases: THE PARTICIPLE IN" CONSTRUCTION'. 57 1. After verbs that signify to omit, to avoid, to 'prevent, etc., the participle should generally be used: as, — I omitted doing it. We avoid referring to the matter in his presence. II. After verbs that signify to try or to intend, the infinitive should generally be used: as, — I tried to do it. We intend to refer to the matter, etc. III. The participle may generally be used after the various forms of the verbs begin, commence, desist, practice, and others, especially when reference is made to what is habitual or repeated (though the infinitive is sometimes more elegant): as, — I began writing my lessons last term. He commenced borrowing about a year ago. You would better desist urging him. They will practice throwing the hammer at 3 o'clock. Note. — Care should be taken not to use a participle when an ordinary noun, a verbal noun, a verb in the infinitive, or a substantive phrase or clause will more accurately or more elegantly express the meaning. Examples. — 1. " Further discussing of the question was postponed," should be, "Further discussion, etc." ± 2. "It is easier asking questions than answering them," should read, " It is easier to ask questions than to answer them." Exercise 82. — In the following sentences state whether or not it is better to use the participles and prepositions: 1. I neglected \ ?^JL~ [ m y customary exercise. 3. No one likes j ^g| I in debt. 4 - ^ \ studylnglaftnSlly } one ma ^ become learned " ithe exercising of ) exercising [• our muscles they become strong, the exercise of ) 6. Do not forget j ^Stai \ those letters - 7. We were just j ^{£2^ ' \ the propriety of doing so. 8 I regret J not bein S allowed l to SDeak 8. i regret j tha( . j wag nQt allowed J- to speaK. 9 j There being no objection ) . stand d i As there is no objection j l ' 10. You must try j ^JjJJ* [ more diligently. 238. Caution.— Participles should be so used that there will be no doubt as to what they refer to or modify. Example I. — " Walking up the street, the entire building may be seen." Or, "The entire building may be seen walking up the street." In these sentences the meaning suggested is that the building walks. The true meaning may be shown by introducing a preposition, indicating at once the relation of the participle as, " By walking up the street," etc., or, "May be seen by walking up the street." 5S PRACTICAL ENGLISH (iKAMMAR- Example II. — "Emerging from the thicket the hunters saw a fine moose." In this sentence it may be either the hunters or the moose that emerged from the thicket. If the hunters, we must say, " On emerging," etc., or, "The hunters emerging," etc. ; if the moose, we should say, " The hunters saw a fine moose emerging," etc. Note. — From the last example it will be seen that the participle should be placed as near the word it modifies as is necessary to make the meaning plain. Exercise 83. — In the following sentences make such changes and additions as may be needed to show the intended meaning: 1. The hew hall was formally presented to the society finished in hard wood and beauti- fully decora sd. 2. Wanted. Good, second hand piano by reliable party tuned to concert pitch. 3. Lost. Small, brown spaniel, by boarder at 27 Elm St., wearing brass collar marked "Galo." 4. For sale, cheap. Bicycle, near]; lew, for gentleman weighing 26 pounds. 5. The enraged elephant charged on his keeper as soon as he saw him swinging his trunk and flapping his ears. 6. Expecting to make the trip in a single day the horses were fed at daylight. 7. A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a small family containing all the improvements. 8. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor handsomely trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap. 9. Sitting on the ledge of rock we could see the wounded eagle. 10. Two new cruisers were added to the fleet each carrying guns of the heaviest calibre commanded by experienced officers. LESSOR 29. Some Additional Principles and Suggestions. 239. Yerbs similar in Form. — Care should be taken to distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs similar or identical in some of their forms. The following verbs are often confounded: Intransitive. Transitive. Lie, lay, lain. Lay, laid, laid. Rise, rose, risen. Raise, raised, raised. Sit, sat, sat. Set, set, set. Fall, fell, fallen. Fell, felled, felled. Note. — Notice that lay is the past tense form of the intransitive verb to lie, and also the present tense form of the transitive verb to lay; and that fell is the past tense form of the intransitive verb to fall, and also the present tense form of the transitive verb to fell. SOME ADDITIONAL PRINCIPLES AND SUGGESTIONS. 59 Exercise 84. — State which of the verbs in the following sentences are cor- rectly used: 1. The book lies on the table. 10. The general sits his horse well. 2. Let it lay there. 11. The explorers have just sat out. 3. He lay there an hour before help came. 12. Have you set a good example? 4. He has laid there all day. 13. The sun sat behind a cloud. 5. We have laid our plans. 14. Set down at once and write a telegram. 6. The tree has just fell. 15. He raised himself with difficulty. 7. Are they going to fall the tree? 16. The river has raised several i' ches. 8. The tree was fallen by the wind. 17. The river has raised the bridge. 9. I am glad that you have fallen in with 18. The sun raised high in the eavens. such good companions. Note. — Ten of the foregoing verbs are incorrect. > r ' The following verbs are sometimes confounded: Flee, fled, fled. (To run away.) Fly, flew, flown. (To move in the air.) Flow, flowed, flowed. (To move by gravity as a liquid.) Exercise 85. — Which of the verbs in the following sentences are correct? 1. The thief flew from justice. 2. The whole valley was overflown. 3. The bird had flown. 4. The hounds flew along the track. 5. The air was filled with flying cinders. 6. The water has flowed over the bridge for several hours. Note. — Sometimes in poetic forms fly is used for flee, and even in prose a very high rate of running speed may be indicated by the various forms of the verb fly: as, The engine fairly flew along the rails. Other verbs also are used in this way: as, The frightened horses tore down the street. 240. Shall and Will, Would and Should. — Use these auxiliaries so as to convey just the meaning intended. Shall in the first person simply foretells: as, — " I shall go to Chicago next week." " I shall be happy to see you at that time." Shall in the second and third persons, promises, commands, or expresses- determination: as, — "You shall go." (I promise it.) " You shall go." (I command it.) " Re shall go." (lam determined to have it so.) Will in the first person expresses a promise or a determination: as, — "Yes, I will go." (I promise it.) "I will go." (I am determined to go.) Will in the second and third persons simply foretells: as, — " You will go." " He will go." (It will come to pass.) Should and would are used in a similar manner: as, — I think that I should — you would— he would (where the matter is not under my control). Y< >u were determined that I should — that you would— that he should. I resolved that I would— you should — he should (where I have the authority and mean to use it). Note. — In interrogative sentences these auxiliaries generally have a meaning nearly the opposite of that in the affirmative. " Sliall I go? " (Is it your wish or determination?) " Wilf he go? " (Is there a willingness?) " Do you think I should go? " (That I ought to go?) 60 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Exercise SO. — Supply the proper auxiliaries (cither shall or will, should or would) in the following sentences: 1. I consider it a great favor. 0. All receive their money when the work have been completed. 3. I am resolved that I do my duty. 4. I was resolved that he do his duty. 5. I not be surprised to see him there. 6 I go to Europe or not? 7. Do you intend that I go? 8. Do you intend that you go? 9. He sit and read for hours. 10. I have decided that you go. 11. we hear a good lecture if we go? 12. If, on the other hand, they consult their safety and turn back, who blame them? 13 ..Ifindyou at home? You... find me there. 14. Do you wish me to go? I then. 15. I like to know who said it. Compare: " I will deliver your message and you shall soon know his decision," with " I shall deliver your message and you will soon know his decision," and show how both forms may be correct. (For a full discussion of these auxiliaries, see Richard Grant White's "Words and Their Uses," page 264.) 241. Omissions and Substitutions. — A verb should not be omitted nor represented by an auxiliary when by so doing the meaning is rendered obscure or the construction improper. For example, the sentence, "Money is scarce and times hard," should read, "Money is scarce and times are hard." " I never have and never will assist him," should read, " I never have assisted and never will assist him." Exercise 87. — Correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. I have always and still do think that labor is honorable. 2. There always has and always will be harmony between them. 3. We did not then and have not since credited the report. 4. I have not and I am sure he will not consent to the arrangement. 5. If you intend to, he ought not to think of going on the same day. 242. Different Forms. — It is improper to use different forms of verbs in the same connection: as, — Example I. — "This had served to increase instead of alleviating the difficulty." This sentence should read, " This had served to increase rather than to alleviate the difficulty." Example II. — " Having known Mr . A. for several years and as I believe that it will be to your mutual advantage to become acquainted, I take pleasure in giving him this letter of introduction." This sentence should read, "As I have known, and as I believe," etc., or, "Having known, and believing," etc., or "I have known," etc. Exercise 88. — Improve upon the following constructions: 1. I would prefer to go now in place of staying so short a time. 2. As I have some knowledge of Mr. B.'s business ability, and believing that it will be to your advantage to make his acquaintance, I take pleasure in introducing him. ADVERBS. Gl 3. After several years' careful study of the best methods of ventilation, and having for some time made a specialty of the famous "Harper System," we feel prepared to give the public the best service possible in our line. Note. — A progressive form for the passive voice in the present and past indicative, is made by combining the present and past tenses indicative of the verb to be with the present passive participle: as, " The house is being built." "The book is being printed." This is now super- seding the old form, " The house is building." " The book is printing," though some writers do not favor it. LESSOR 30. Adverbs. 243. An adverb is a word or expression joined to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, to modify it: as, — Henry writes rapidly. (Verb.) He is an exceedingly bright boy. (Adjective.) This was written very rapidly. (Adverb.) 24-4. Sometimes an adverb modifies a phrase or a clause: as, — The book is soiled only on the outside. I came just as you started. 245. Entire phrases are sometimes used as adverbs: as, — His interest is not, in any degree, lessened by this action. One is, at least, better than none. 246. Adverbs are often formed by annexing ly to adjectives or participles : as, — Wise, wisely ; brave, bravely ; exulting, exultingly. 247. Comparison. — Many adverbs are compared like adjectives: as, — Soon, sooner, soonest; wisely, more wisely; most wisely; well, better, best. 248. With respect to their meaning, adverbs may be divided into the following classes : 1. Adverbs of in aimer — answering the question how? as, justly, bravely, neatly, thoroughly. 2. Adverbs of place — answering the question tvhere? as, here, there, away, yonder. 3. Adverbs of time — answering the question when? as, now, then, soon, often, recently. 4. Adverbs of degree — answering to what extent? as, much, greatly. 5. Adverbs of cause — answering the question ivhy .' as, therefore, consequently, hence. 249. To the above list may be added the following: 1. Adverbs of affirmation or emphasis: as, yes, surely, certainly, undoubtedly. 2. Adverbs of negation : as, no, not, nay, never. 62 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Notks. — I. Some adverbs belong sometimes to one class and sometimes to another, accord- ing to their meaning, and how, token, irhy, etc., become interrogative adverbs when used to ask questions. II. Some adverbs are compound: as, herein, thereby, whereat, hereabout. III. Some adverbs are used independently: as, Yes, I think so. Why, that is strange. IV. The adverb there is sometimes used merely to introduce a sentence: as, There was no one at home. It may then be called a mere expletive, or, a word of euphony. V. Sometimes adverbs connect two clauses and modify a word in each clause. Such words may be termed either conjunctive adverbs or subordinate conjunctions: as, Make hay white the sun shines. You speak of it as }T>u understand it. Exercise 81). — Complete the following sentences by supplying in each case as many appropriate adverbs as you can: 1. The citizens protested against the appropriation. 2. Working men are almost opposed to the change. 3. If he tries again he will most succeed. 4. I realize the importance of acting 5. It is expected the committee will report 6. I have thought I would do so sometime. 7. Can you tell me they went? 8. How he reads. 9. The snow falls 10. We should all try to live 11. That is what I told him. 12. Do not walk near the edge of the cliff, at that point. 13. We started after we had dinner. 14 and the tourists made the ascent. 15. The house is too large. Exercise 90. — In the following sentences substitute adverbs for the italicized phrases and adverbial phrases for the italicized adverbs: 1. We shall stop at this place to day. 2. There was no one with him at that time; (or at the time I talked with him). 3. He is due at this time. 4. We have not heard from him up to date. 5. At what point shall I begin? 6. We reached the second bluff and there we halted for an hour's rest. 7. We spent two days in the quarry where we found many good specimens. 8. At 5 o'clock the order was given and soon we were ready to sail. 9. I have been consulted frequently regarding this matter. 10. He spoke very candidly. 11. I do not know how to present my request. 12. Why do you think I should go promptly? 13. We traveled far in the wrong direction. 14. The operation was performed with great skill. 15. We could not go early, therefore, we preferred not to go at all. 16. They greeted us very cordially. 17. He cannot speak English readily, though he converses with fluency in French and German. 18. The closing speaker summed up for the negative most effectively. 19. Tell me when to start and I will certainly come. 20. The debate continued, uninterruptedly , from morning till night. ADVERBS, CONTINUED. bi> LESSOR 31. Adverbs — Continued. 250. Rule* — Adverbs modify verbs, participles, adjectives, other adverbs, and sometimes pnrases or clauses. 251. Special Rule I. — Adverbs should not be used as adjectives nor adjec- tives as adverbs: as, — "It looks strangely," is incorrect. The adverb strangely is used for the adjective strange. "John writes tolerable well." The adjective tolerable is used for the adverb tolerably. Note. — I. What is said regarding the false and exaggerated use of adjectives, page 34, will apply with equal force to the adverb. II. Such verbs as sound, smell, taste, feel, appear, look, seem, should be followed by adverbs when the manner of doing or acting is described, and by adjectives when the idea of quality is to be conveyed: as, "He appeared (seemed to be) prompt and willing." " He appeared (made his appearance) promptly and willingly." " The leader sounded (caused to sound) the notes clearly. " ' ' The notes sung by the leader sounded (seemed) clear. " "Our friends arrived safe (condition of friends)." " Our friends arrived recently (time of arrival)." 252. Special Rule II. — Adverbs should be so placed that there will be no doubt as to what words they modify: as, — " I wish only to order fifty books," implies that I do not wish to deliver them or do anything else with them than order them; whereas, if it is desired to restrict the number ordered to fifty, it should be, " I wish to order only fifty books." 253. Special Rule III. — Do not put an adverb between "to" and its verb: as, — "He preferred to not sing." "He preferred not to sing," is better. 254. Special Rule IY. — The adverbs ivhen and where should not take the place of a noun and preposition in defining a term: as, — "A contract is when persons make an agreement," should read, "A contract is an agreement between persons." Notes. — I. Two negatives, or denying words, used so that one contradicts the other, render the meaning affirmative : as, "I have never said nothing of the kind." Nothing should be any- thing, or, never should oe omitted. " The bridge has not been condemned yet, I don't think." Don't should be omitted. II. When not is followed by only, or by some equivalent word, the negation is preserved : as, " I not only never said so, but I never thought so." III. The position of the adverb should not be such as to make the wrong verb negative: as, "I do not think I shall go." The speaker does think that he will not go, and the sentence should therefore read, "I think I shall not go." TV. No, in such expressions as " whether or no," should be not. Y. Ever so properly expresses indefinite or unlimited degree; its place should not, there- fore, be usurped by never so: as, " Be he never so wise." Here never should be ever. VI. Farther refers to distance; further means additional: as, I can go no farther in this direction, till I have further instructions. (34 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. VII. Moat moans in the highest degree; it is often improperly used for almost: as, "It is viost dune." Moat should be almost. VIII. Nearly should be applied to quantity, time, or space, and almost to degree: as, "It is almost perfect, is better than It is nearly perfect." IX. Hence, thence, and w7ience should never be preceded by from ; from hence, from thenct, from whence, are tautological expressions. Exercise 91. — Correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. Every collegian is not a scholar. 2. His sagacity almost appears miraculous. 3. He don't do nothing. 4. This can be done easier. 5. My head feels badly. 6. She is most sixteen. 7. He reads very bad. S. He went most there. 9. Most everybody says so. 10. I will not go but once. 11. She walks graceful. 12. He spoke eloquent. 13. She did that work good. 14. His expressions sounded harshly. 15. It rained most every day. 16. Verbosity is when too many words are used. 17. It is impossible to be continually at work. 18. Whether he is in fault or no I cannot tell. 19. Do you know from whence this proceeds? 20. Neither he nor no one else can do that. 21. He was not able to pay the debt but in part. 22. He only read the book, not the notice of it. 23. A wicked man is not happy, be he never so hardened in conscience. 24. Snow seldom or ever falls in the southern part of Texas. 25. Nothing farther was said about the matter. 26. We could proceed no further on our journey. 27. He is some better than he was yesterday. 28. This pen does not write good. 29. She dresses suitable to her means. 30. Theism can oidy be opposed to polytheism. 31. Corn should be generally planted in April. 32. The words should be arranged so that the meaning may be clear. 33. The Secretary was expected to soon resign. 34. You are not well, I don't believe. 35. Come quick and do not hinder us. 36. They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the war. 37. The then Emperor was noted for his cruelty. 38. He intended to early apply himself to the study of law. 39. I have done like he directed. 40. We remained a week at St. Louis and proceeded from thence to Chicago. THE PEEPOSITIOX. 65 LESSOR 32. The Preposition. 255. A preposition is a word which expresses the relation between a noun or a pronoun, before which it is usually placed, and some other word in the sen- tence: as, — We chatted with the conductor. The ball passed over his head. The conductor chatted with, us. The ball passed over him. Note. — With shows the relation between conductor and chatted; over, between 7iead and passed; with, between us and chatted; over, between him and passed. 256. Preposition and Object. — The noun or pronoun following the prepo- sition is called its object, and the preposition with its object forms a phrase which modifies or relatesj;o some other word. The phrase is sometimes called an adjunct. Note.— The object of a preposition may be a phrase or a clause: as, "They came from over the sea.'" "We continued the work from tchcre you finished." 257. Adjective Phrase. — When the phrase formed by the preposition and its object is equivalent to an adjective, it is called an adjective phrase: as, — A man of ability = An able man. Habits of care = Careful habits. He is without friends = He is friendless. 258. Adverbial Phrase. — When the prepositional phrase is equivalent to an adverb it is called an adverbial phrase: as, — We followed in haste = We followed hastily. He answered with reluctance = He answered reluctantly. We walked towards home — We walked homeward. Notes. — I. A prepositional phrase is adverbial or adjective so long as it does the duty of either part of speech, whether we can actually substitute an adverb or adjective or not: as, They sailed on Tuesday (adverbial of time). Hang the coat on the hook (adv. of place). A man of means (adjective phrase). The wheat in that field is ripe (adj. phrase). II. Sometimes the prepositional phrase is used as a noun: as, " Over the fence is out" (sub- ject). My visit was of no avail (attribute). The sound came from under the ground (object of prep.). Exercise 92. — Use the following prepositional phrases in sentences, and state which are adjective, which adverbial, and which are used as nouns: 1. Through the glass. 9. Around the world. 2. Down the hillside. 10. At the World's Fair. 3. Across the way. 11. Between the lines. 4. Behind a tree. 12. Before the mast. 5. Under the lilacs. 13. During the first year. 6. Within reach. 14. Without further ado. 7. Of bygone days. 15. Beyond my comprehension. 8. Prom bad to worse. 16. With your kind permission. 66 I'K UJTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Exercise J>;>. — Change the following adjectives and adverbs to phrases, and the phrases to adjectives or adverbs: 1. Of the nation. 11. Without shelter. 2. Fearless. 12. Brazen. 3. At what time? 13. Of necessity. 4. Where? 14. Homeless. V In what manner? 15. For a purpose. 0. Seaward. 16. Never. 7. Of use. 17. Without prudence. 0. Shakespearean. 18. Probably. 9. 0. With rashness. Certainly. 19. Within reason. 20. Alone. List of THE PRINCIPAL Prepositions in Common Use. aboard, behind, for, throughout, about, below, from, till, above, beneath, in, to, across, beside, into, touching, after, besides, of, toward, against, between, off, towards, along, betwixt, on, under, amid, beyond, over, underneath, amidst, but, past, until, among, by, pending, unto, amongst, concerning, regarding, up, around, down, respecting, upon, at, during, round, with, athwart, ere, since,' within, before, except, through, without. Notes. — I. The words of the above list ending in ing were originally participles and are sometimes so used. Example 1. — The young man, respecting (or regarding = having respect or regard for) his father's wishes, decided to change his plans (part.). There is but one opinion respecting (or regarding or concerning = with reference to) his con. duct (prep.). Example 2. — The boat steamed down the river, touching at various points for passengers (part.). Touching (= regarding or concerning) the points you mention we have no information (prep.). II. The words after, before, below, but, under, up, off, on, round, within, etc., are used either as prepositions, as conjunctions, or as adverbs, according to the relation which they sustain to other words. Prepositions usually become adverbs when the object is omitted : as, " Walk in." " They passed by." Example 1. — We stood before the fire (prep.). You are telling me what I knew before (adv.). Example 2. — We waited until the arrival of the steamer (prep.). We waited until the steamer arrived (conj.). III. Two or more prepositions are sometimes combined, expressing a single relation: as, According to, from out, out of, over against, from before, from beyond, instead of. THE PREPOSITION". 67 I'v. The preposition into expresses relation produced by change from one condition or place to another; and in denotes motion or rest in a condition or place. Hence, "To walk into the house," means to walk from the outside to the inside of the house, while, "To walk in the house," means to walk after getting inside of the house. V. Between is generally used when reference is made to two things or persons; among, when more than two are referred to; but this rule is not followed strictly by good writers. Such expressions as " Reading between the lines," " Leaving spaces between the letters," etc., are common, and are accepted as correct. VI. In and on have a broader meaning than at, with reference to both time and place: as, "At sunrise in the morning." "At noon on Monday." "He lives in Chicago, on Dearborn Ave., at No. 2040." " We arrived in New York at the Grand Central Station." VII. But and save are prepositions when equivalent to except: as, " They were all saved but one." A is a preposition when used in the sense of per: as, "I ride twice a (per) day," and combines, as the equivalent of at, on, etc., with other words to form such compounds as, asleep, aground, etc. VIII. Other words than those given in the preceding list and notes are sometimes used as prepositions. If the student wishes to know whether a given word may be used as a preposition, or as any -other part of speech, he can always get the information in some good unabridged dictionary. Exercise 94. — Determine which of the italicized words in the following sen- tences are prepositions, which adverbs or adjectives, and which conjunctions, and correct those not properly used. (Four of the sentences contain errors.) 1. The inspector is off on his western trip. 2. I have not been off my feet to-day. 3. When do you expect to come over? 4. The player ran his fingers over the keys. 5. There is no finer building the whole country over. 6. He got his pay and a dollar over. 7. The young man has worked his way up. 8. It was hard rowing vp stream. 9. There does not seem to be any one about. 10. We are about to begin. 11. John called for James and they left about fifteen minutes after. 12. His character is above reproach. 13. The captain staid above ichile the mate went below to examine the leak. 14. "Our fruitful Nile flowed ere the wonted season. ' 15. They live at Boston, in Tenth street, on No. 64. 16. Put the basket of apples in the wagon. 17. The year o/the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter poverty. 18. Butter brings twenty cents/or a pound. 19. "None but the brave deserve the fair." 20. Pending the trial a petition was circulated asking foi his release. 21. I am under obligations to you, as, but for your help, I should have gone under. 22. The case comes within the statute. 23. Please sign and return the within notes. 24. There is no one within. 25. The messenger will be here within an hour. 6S PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. LESSOR 33. The Pre position — Continued. 050. A Proposition governing a relative <>r an interrogative pronoun is often placed at the end of the sentence, and at a distance from the word governed: as, — Whom did you write to? Which room shall I find it in? What is copper useful for? Whose house did you stop at? This is the party whom I spoke of. Note. — This form is allowed in familiar styles of expression, especially where it is desired to emphasize the preposition, but, in other cases it is usually better to place the preposition before the pronoun: as, To whom did you write? 260. "When two or more prepositions in a sentence refer jointly to a noun, it is better to place the noun after the first preposition, and a pronoun repre- senting the noun after each of the others. The sentence, " He is unacquainted with, and hence cannot speak upon, nor give advice concerning the matter," should read, "He is unacquainted with the matter, and hence cannot speak upon it nor give advice concerning it." 261. Omission of Preposition. — Prepositions should not be omitted when they are needed to complete the sense. "Egypt is the west side of the Red Sea," should read, " Egypt is on the west side," etc. " Ignorance is the mother of fear as well as admiration," should read, "Ignorance is the mother of fear as well as of admiration." 262. The unnecessary use of prepositions should be avoided. " Where is he going to?" should read, " Where is he going?" "I went there at about noon," should read, "I went there at noon" (exact time), or, "I ■went there about noon " (approximate time). 263. Prepositional phrase modifiers should be so placed as to make clear what words they are intended to modify. The sentence, " He went to town driving a flock of sheep on horseback," should read, "He went to town on horseback," etc. Note. — Smoothness of sound must also be considered in placing phrases. Exercise 95. — Correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. He plunged into, and swam across, the river 2. The second proposal was different from, though a result of the first. 3. I never could understand at what he was aiming anyway. 4. He is worthy our charity. 5. His efforts were not for the great but the lowly. 6. San Francisco is the other side of the Rocky Mountains. 7. Let us consider the works of nature and art. 8. He received dispatches from England and Russia. 9. Many talented men have deserted from the party. 10. The performance was approved by all who saw it. 11. Lift the box off of the floor. 12. This is the subject of which I intended to speak about. THE PKEPOSITION, CONTINUED. 69 13. He lives near to the river. 14. We were prevented returning sooner. 15. The tall stranger is speaking now with the dark side whiskers. 16. Habits must be acquired of temperance and of self-denial. 17. A young man was arrested last night a few doors from where we stopped in a state of intoxication. 18. We bought our tickets before boarding the train at the Main St. office. 19. The young lady plays beautifully on the harp with the light blue eyes and fair com- plexion. 20. These designs were drawn last summer by an artist who came here and died to pass away the time. 264. Appropriate Use of Prepositions. — In selecting prepositions care must be taken to choose those that are appropriate to the words to which they relate. To be able to do this one must know not only the various relations expressed by different prepositions, but also the different relations possible with the same prepositions. Note. — This knowledge can be gained from dictionaries and other books on words, also from observation of thjB use of the preposition by good authors. 265. The preposition may be studied according to the plan suggested in the following lists, which can be extended as desired: Verbs and Participles. Appropriate Prepositions. 1. Adapted - - - - to (a thing); for (a purpose); from (an author). 2. Agree with (persons); to (things). 3. Attend - - - - to (listen); upon (wait). 4. Bestow - - - - in (places); upon (persons). 5. Besiege - - - - in (positions); with (weapons). 6. Confer - - - - on (give); with (converse). 7. Confide - - - - in (to place confidence); to (intrust). 8. Converse - - - - with (persons); about (subjects). 9. Correspond - - - with (by letter); to (similar things). 10. Differ with (in opinion); from (in appearance). 11. Divide - - between (two); among (more). 12. Disappointed - - of (what we expect); in (what we get). 13. Enter into (agreements); upon (duties); in (a record); at (a given point). 14. Employ • - - - in (to occupy); for (a purpose). 15. Familiarize - - - to (scenes); with (a business, etc.) Nouns. Appropriate Prepositions. 1. Adaptation - - - of (means); to (an end); for (a purpose). 2. Attendance - - - upon (service); to (attention); at (presence). 3. Advantage - - - of (favoring condition); over (a competitor). 4. Warrant .... for (authority); of (guaranty). 5. Yearning - - - - for (things); towards or after (persons). Adjectives. Appropriate Prepositions. 1. Angry at (things); with (persons). 2. Anxious - - - about (persons); for (results). 3. Analagous - - - to (something else); in (certain respects). 4. Useful for (a purpose); to (persons); in (a degree). 5. Watchful - - - - of (what should be done); against (what should be avoided). 70 PRACTICAL ENGLISII GRAMMAR. Note. — Students should be encouraged to expand the preceding lists for themselves. It is suggested that a book of record convenient for carrying in the pocket be kept, in which the words can be entered as occasions offer for looking them up or noting their use. Exercise 96. — Construct sentences showing what prepositions can be used appropriately with the following words: 1. Accommodate, '-'. Argue, 3. Believe, 4. Beguile, 5. Careless, 6. Communicate, 7. Die, 8. Disgusted, 9. Embark, 10. Free, 11. Grief, 12. Hopeful, 13. Insensible, 14. Just, 15. Kind, 16. Liberal, 17. Make, 18. Necessity, 19. Obliged, 20. Part, 21. Question, 22. Reconcile, 23. Share, 24. Touch, 25. Urgent, 26. Vexed, 27. Write, 28. Waiting, 29. Yield, 30. Zealous. Exercise 97. — Supply appropriate prepositions for the following blanks: This soil is adapted wheat. This book is different that. John differs James in stature. This originated a misunderstanding. We were followed ... a crowd. He lives the turn in the road. They have need our assistance. We found them thirsting know- ledge. 9. Much sympathy is expressed them, but there seems to be little themselves. 10. I congratulate you your success. 11. We rejoice your determination to hold on. 12. Are you provided the danger ? 13. We could not prevail him to go. 14. This plan is preferable that. 15. His friends are solicitous... his welfare. LESSOR .34. Conjunctions. 266. A conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, and clauses: 1. The doors and windows were fastened. (Words.) 2. To bring back his shield or to be carried back upon it, was the Spartan mother's charge to her son. (Phrases.) 3. The money icas speedily raised but it icas unwisely expended. (Clauses.) 4. The old man smiled when we spoke to him. (Clauses.) CONJUNCTIONS. 71 267. Conjunctions are divided into two classes, co-ordinate conjunctions and subordinate conjunctions. '268. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses of the same rank; that is, those that are independent of each other. Note. — In the first sentence quoted above, each of the subjects doors and icindows is equal to the other in its relation to the verb were fastened. Neither one is dependent upon the other, and if either of the words should be omitted the relation of the other to the verb would remain unchanged. The same is true of the phrase subjects in the second sentence; and in the third sentence each of the clauses connected by but is entirely independent of the other, and expresses the thought intended completely, whether the other is used or not. These words, phrases, and clauses are therefore said to be of the same rank or order, and the conjunctions connecting them are very properly called co-ordinate. 269. The words most frequently used as co-ordinate conjunctions are: and, but, or, nor, therefore. Some of th,e other words usea as co-ordinate conjunctions are: yet, also, still, however, consequently, accordingly, nevertheless. 270. Subordinate conjunctions connect clauses of different rank. Note. — In the fourth sentence quoted above, the clause, When we spoke to Mm, is used to tell wher> the old man smiled, and is therefore an adverbial modifier of the verb smiled. Any clause that is used to modify some word or words in another clause is dependent upon the other to express its meaning fully, and being a mere modifier, it is said not to be of the same rank. For this reason the conjunctions connecting such clauses are called subordinate. 271. The subordinate conjunctions in common use are: if, unless, though, that, lest, than, since, because; the conjunctive adverbs, when, where, why, how, while, before, after, until, ere, till, as; and the relative pronouns. Note. — Conjunctive phrases are sometimes used to connect clauses: as, Provided that, as if, as well as, as far as, etc. 272. Correlatives. — Words are sometimes used in pairs as conjunctions, and they are then called correlatives: as, — I would rather go than stay. Either you or I must go. 273. The principal correlatives are: As - - • - as; Such - - - as; As - - - - so; Such - - - that; Both - - - and; Though - - yet; Either - - - or; *Sooner \ If .... then; Rather - - - than; Neither - - nor; Other ' So - - - - as; Whether - - or. So - - - - that; Note. — If the first correlative in each pair is not a conjunction it is either an adjective or an adverb, in which case it performs its usual office as a modifier, and gives force to the second correlative. For example, in the sentence, "We walked farther than we rode," fartlier is an adverb modifying walked, and than is a conjunction, connecting the clause we rode to the pre- ceding clause as a modifier. *Any adjective or adverb in the comparative degree may be used as a correlative of than: as, Lead is heavier than tin. (Adj.) Light travels faster than sound. (Adv.) ;■' PKACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Exercise 98. — In the following sentences supply the proper conjunctions, state the kind, and tell what they connect: 1. Take heed you fall. 2. Apples are scarce the price will be high. 3. Visitors have arrived in numbers the hotels are crowded. 4. Come the rush begins. 5. To cross now might be possible, it would not be prudent. 6. I have seen several buildings you describe. 7. I feared I should be late. 8. Henry William will go. 9. The men were placed to be within easy reach. 10. It was argued the will was executed by him fraud had been practiced undue influence exercised. 11. I do not entirely favor the project; I will render assistance ... I can. 12. General advertising is of great value to the advertiser in keeping an established article before the public in introducing a new one, , advertise. LESSOR 35. Conjunctions — Continued. 274. The conjunctions, and, that, hut, etc., are sometimes used merely to introduce sentences. When so used they generally indicate a continuation of the preceding thought or discourse: as, — " But, to return to my story." "And it came to pass." 275. When a word or phrase has a common dependence on two or more connected words or phrases, it should make good sense with each: as, — "Bread is more nutritious, but not so cheap as potatoes," should read, "Bread is more nutritious than but not so cheap as potatoes," or, " Bread is more nutritious than potatoes but not so cheap." 276. Co-ordinate and correlative conjunctions should not be used to join different forms of elements: as, — "He managed the business 'promptly and with caution,'" should read either, "promptly and cautiously," or, "with promptness and caution." 277. Care should be taken that the proper correlatives be used together, and that they stand where they belong. It is a common error to place one of the correlatives before a verb and the other before some other part of speech: as, — " We should both consider the advantages and the disadvantages of the plan." This sen- tence should read: " We should consider both the advantages, etc." 278. Than. — The conjunction than should introduce the latter term of a comparison after else, other, rather, and all comparatives except preferable, dif- ferent, etc. : as, — "A corrupt government is nothing else than a reigning sin." "His second statement was quite different from his first one." CONJUNCTIONS, CONTINUED. 73 But else, other, and more, implying something additional of the same kind may be followed by besides : as, — " He can converse on other topics besides politics." 279. As and So. — When the correlatives, as as, and, so as, are used to connect terms denoting a comparison, as should follow so if a negative is expressed: as, — " Is the water as high as it was? " " It is not so high as it was reported to be." 280. As is sometimes improperly used for that in such sentences as: " I do not know as I shall try." As should be that. 281. What is also used improperly for that: as, — " I do not know but icliat I may build." What should be that. 282. But that. — In using the expression hut that, care must be taken that the words convey just the meaning intended. The sentences, "I do not know that the story is true," and, "I do not know but that the story is true," convey very different meanings, the first implying denial or disbelief and the second possibility of its truth. 283. • Lest should not be used for that when fear or anxiety is expressed: as, — " I feared lest I should be late." Lest should be that. Note. — The conjunction and is sometimes improperly used for the infinitive sign: as, "I will try and do better next time. " And should be to. Exercise 99. — Supply the proper conjunctions and correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. Cornwallis could not do otherwise surrender. 2. Let us not only consider the lesson, but also the application. 3. The prisoner will receive either ten days' imprisonment or be fined several dollars 4. I do not deny he has intelligence. 5. Your work is not well done it ought to be. 6. She is equally deserving as her sister. 7. No errors are so unimportant but they deserve correction. 8. Neither he ... his brother is making the most of his opportunities. 9. Has he no other motive that? 10. They think of little else what is fashionable and popular. 11. There is no doubt but what he is well fitted for the work. 12. I could buy it borrow it. 13. At the time that I knew her she was an earnest student. 14. Some useful lessons, and which I shall never forget, I learned from him. 15. Hjive you heard she has arrived? 16. He may know more and write better, but he does not talk so well as his father did. 17. Try ... do your duty bravely. 18. The cold rather seemed to increase than to decrease. 19 the contest will take place has not been decided. 20 the fare was homely . . .It was very acceptable. 21 he is innocent is generally believed. 22. That work always has and always will be read. 23. He commenced he intended to succeed. 24. I do not know that will be enough. 74- PRACTICAL KMil.JSir GRAMMAR. LESSOR 36. Interjections. •JS4-. An interjection is a word whicli is not related to the other words in a sentence, but is thrown in to express some sudden or strong feeling. 285. Interjections may be classed as follows: Primitive Interjections and Derivative Interjections. 286. Primitive Interjections are natural exclamations, expressing passion or feeling, and consisting mainly of those sounds or utterances resulting from the position of the organs of speech during emotion: as, — Oh! Expressing wonder or astonishment, or pleasure; also sharp and sudden pain, et Ah! Expressing regret or complaint; also, with prolonged utterance, to denote pain a' panied with grief or languor. Tut! Used to rebuke or silence. Ugh! Indicating loathing or aversion. Pshaw! Poh! Pugh! Tush! Denoting contempt or disdain. 287. Derivative Interjections are exclamations expressing a state of the will, and consisting mostly of words derived from other parts of speech: as, — Hush! hark! behold! (Verbs.) Shocking! Going! going! gone! (Participles.) Silence! Game! Victory! (Nouns.) Good! Delightful! Keady! (Adjectives.) Never! Quickly! (Adverbs). Exercise 100. — Classify and use with sentences the following interjections: 1. Fire! 8. Welcome! 15. Faster ! 22. Encore! 2. Hurrah ! 9. Halt! 16. There! 23. Now! 3. Hello! 10. Halloo! 17. Aha! 24. Chirr! 4. Whoa I 11. Go! 18. Quack! 25. Peep! 5. Fie J 12. Alas! 19. Snap! 26. Away! 6. Horrors! 13. Charming! 20. Begone ! 27. Out! 7. Hail! 14. Hallelujah! 21. Safe! 28. Congratulations! Notes. — I. The literal meaning of the word interjection indicates that it is something thrown between or among, and it may be placed anywhere in the sentence, but it is generally used at the beginning. II. The interjection is frequently prefixed to nouns and pronouns independent by direct address, and it is then not ordinarily followed by the exclamation point: as, " Hear, O heavens, and give ear, O earth ! " " O Absalom, my son ! " " O upright j udge ! " II. The interjection Oh is generally used in connection with some statement, question, or wish, and, if the whole expression is exclamatory, may be followed by the comma: as, Oh! Now I can do it. Oh! What have you done? Oh, that I knew where I might find him! Exercise lOl. — Punctuate and capitalize the following expressions: 1. Judge O you gods how dearly Caesar loved him. 2. Oh what a fall was there my countrymen. 3. Oh now you weep. 4. O piteous spectacle. PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION". 75 5. O noble Caesar. 6. Oh grief hath changed me since you saw me last. 7. Oh that your highness knew my heart in this. 8. Ho every one that thirsteth. 9. How short alas is life. 10. Ready present fire. 11. Forward march. 12. Hail gentle spring. Note. — Interjections, expressing the multiplied emotions of the human mind, and lending their aid where other language fails in this respect, contribute much, when rightly used, to render language an exact expression of thought; but a caution may be proper here against those exaggerated forms of exclamations so often heard, so difficult to avoid when the habit of using them has been once formed, and which serve so well to cheapen expression and cast discredit, in general, upon the utterances of those who employ them. Let our interjections be expressions of real feeling, not mere affectations. LESSOE" 37. Principles of Expression. 288. Retrospective. — In the preceding lessons we have studied words under the several classes to which they belong, and have presented the principal rules generally accepted as governing their use, noting as we went along some of the errors common to each class. We have also given some attention to the selection of appropriate words, and to the framing of brief original constructions. 289. Prospective. — We pass now to exercises in selection and construction of a more extended and general character. These exercises will, if practiced properly, serve to develop facility and effect- iveness of expression. Before taking them up, however, we stop to consider briefly a few very important principles. 290. The object of language should be the expression of thought in the clearest and most attractive manner. Every writer or speaker will, of course, have a style of expression peculiar to himself, but there are some cptalities essen- tial to all good styles; namely, clearness, force, and harmony. 291. Clearness. — 1. Clear Thinking. — Clear writing requires clear thinking. One cannot convey clearly to others what is vague or indistinct in his own mind The habit of writing or speaking without first knowing definitely what we intena to say will invariably produce an obscure and slovenly style of expression, and just as surely will careful and diligent thought find expression in a clear and effective style. I s !! ?6 PUACTICAL ENGLISH GItAMMAB. 2. Unity of Thought. — Another essential of clearness is the unity of thought in the sentence. Every sentence should have one, and only one, principal subject of thought. The sentence may be long and consist of many parts; but the parts should be so closely and skillfully combined as to give the impression of one symmetrical whole. To maintain unity: a. Change the subject as little as possible in the course of the sentence. b. Do not crowd into one sentence things that have so little relation to each other that they may properly be expressed in two or more sentences. c. Do not modify a relative clause, which is itself dependent, by another rela- tive clause. d. Supplementary clauses at the end should be avoided. 3. Paragraphing. — The grouping of the sentences that bear upon some given point or idea into paragraphs, and the arrangement of paragraphs in a logical order, instead of throwing them together promiscuously, are aids to clearness. •i. The Proper Use of Words. — This requires knowledge of the exact meaning of the words we use; care in the use of synonyms; avoidance of the use of unnec- essary words; simplicity — a preference for small words. 5. Ambiguous expressions must not be used. (For illustrations of ambiguity, see lessons 12, 14, 28, 31, and 33.) 292. Force. — This element is sometimes called strength or energy, and is that quality of style by which thought is expressed forcibly and vividly. Note. — Mere correctness and consistency of expression are not all the qualities necessary to effectiveness. The words of a sentence may be chosen in accordance with the requirements of good diction, and its parts be so arranged as to violate no rule of grammar, yet force or effect- iveness may be lacking. The choice of words and the construction of the sentence should be such as to give the thought the strongest impression of which it is capable. All that was said regarding clearness will apply to force, as whatever produces clearness tends to force, but in addition the following suggestions are offered: 1. Brevity, which is gained by choosing apt words, and omitting redundant or superfluous expressions; also, by contracting or abridging statements. This must not, however, be carried to the point of rendering the meaning obscure. 2. Position. Give the principal words a conspicuous position, so that they may make their full impression. Sometimes, for example, the sense is rendered more forcible by putting the subject at the end of the sentence. 3. Conjunctions. Both the repetition and the omission of conjunctions may serve to give force to expressions. Note. — When a deliberate enumeration of particulars which are designed to impress the mind forcibly is used the conjunction is repeated: as, "Such a man might fall a victim to power; but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with him." On the other hand, when the conjunction is omitted, the mind passes more quickly from one thought to the next: as, "I came, I saw, I conquered." PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION. 77 4. Contrast. The force of a statement may frequently be intensified by placing it in contrast or comparison with another: as, — John is a better writer, but William is a better reader; or, John writes the better but William reads the better. James may work longer but he does not accomplish more than Henry. 5. Climax. Arrange the clauses with a view to climax: that is, so that they shall go on increasing in importance to the last. A general rule in this connec- tion is, that even in, short or comparatively short sentences, a weaker assertion, or statement, should not come after a stronger one, and the longest member should generally be the last one. Note. — Other figures of speech, as the simile, metaphor, epigram, irony, etc., are used to give force and variety of style. The student can find them fully discussed in works on rhetoric. 293. Harmony, or Agreeableiiess of Sound. — This is the last and per- haps the least important cptality to be considered. Sense should never be sacri- ficed to sound- A few rules to be observed are: 1. Select the most melodious words. 2. Avoid all disagreeable combinations of sounds. 3. Arrange the clauses with a view to ease in pronunciation, and an agreeable impression upon the ear. 4. Adapt the sound to the sense. Exercise 102. — 1. Combine the following statements into three sentences so arranged as to secure unity of thought: " The buildings are of all sizes and shapes. They seem to have been built one by one as occasion required. They have red- tiled or thatched roofs. The furniture looks as if it had served for generations. The stable and the wood-shed are set in the most convenient place; also the tool-house, the houses for chickens, ducks, and geese, and even the large brick oven. They are set without regard to plan, consequently every nook and corner makes a picture. The floors of the houses are tiles set in squares or diamonds." Note. — Let the teacher give such additional exercises under this or the following numbers as may be desired. 2. Group the sentences in the following business letter into three paragraphs: Gentlemen, — We have during the past year built a large addition to our factory. No. 27 State St., and have equipped the same with the latest improved machinery in order to supply our constantly increasing trade. Come and see us before purchasing elsewhere. Our vehicles have gained a world wide reputation and we are now prepared to supply our patrons with a better grade of goods and for less money than any other factory in the state. We cordially invite all our patrons to come and see our new factory and inspect the new machinery which is now running full blast. We have also added to our stock a large supply of all kinds of harness, which we offer at the lowest possible rates. Thanking you for your former patronage, we are, yours respectfully, etc. 3. In the following sentences substitute, for the words in italics, those that express the meaning intended: a. The financial depression has effected our business .?» b. The traveler described some incredulous stories. c. I remain, yours very respectively. d. He taught with great acceptation. 78 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ■A. Explain the difference in meaning conveyed by using the several words enclosed in brackets in the following: a. His great -> w ; s< i OQ f " ( l uan ^ es n ' m lor llie position. b. It will not be -j p,.^,'.^',..'^,^, [ for us to conduct our business on that plan. <=• T Beer spoke j "~S2»S& H " is -«-«-• 5. Select the proper word in each of the following sentences. Give reason. a. Those are \ jJjSJjJjJj j- articles of food. b. The sky looks very { p^X}. C. The first man that - ,K ! [- the experiment failed. 6. What words in the following sentences are unnecessary? a. There is nothing which is more beneficial to a state than a healthy and vigilant public spirit. b. I went home from the lecture full of a great many new ideas. c. Hoping that a speedy and amicable arrangement may be made at once, I remain, etc. 7. Simplify the following exjiressions by substituting shorter words and phrases: a. We have partaken of our morning repast. b. For what reason should we get under locomotion at this particular moment? c. I shall assiduously endeavor to perform with satisfaction to mj' employer such duties as he may designate. 8. Change the following constructions so as to overcome the ambiguity: a. Mr. Johnson told Mr. Wilson that the price be had been asking for his property seemed to be higher than purchasers were willing to pay and he asked him if it would not be well to make a reduction. b. Please excuse Charles for absence from school caused by his mother's sickness which I assure you shall not occur again. c. Shoes made to order by a first-class shoemaker with patent leather tips, stylish, but inexpensive. d. Any assistance you may render Mr. Miller by giving him such introductions as will tend to promote his welfare, or otherwise, will be appreciated. e. I have read your advertisement which I enclose in this morning's Herald for a book- keeper, etc. f. Last evening I counted 500 stars sitting on our front steps. 9. Make the following expressions stronger by contrast: Example. — The days diminished in length. The progress of the work increased. = Though the days became shorter yet the work progressed more rapidly. a. The conditions were unfavorable. The speed of tbe steamer was unequaled. b. Our train was an hour late in starting. We arrived 5 minutes ahead of time. c. Note the strength of the following sentence: " Whatever may be thought of the utlier contents of this letter, the absolute truth of this last statement is incontestable." Can you make it stronger? 10. Arrange the following sentences in order of climax: a. "We must fight if we wish to be free, if we mean to preserve inviolate our rights, if we do not mean to abandon the struggle." SYNONYMS. 79 b. "I voted for this principle to-day, I shall vote for it in the future, and I have voted for it in the past. c. "If we think of morals without a stain; of the purest patriotism; of wisdom in the cabinet; of the highest integrity, public and private; of glory in the field,— the august figure of Washington presents itself as the personation of all these ideals." LESSOR 38. Synonyms. 294. Synonyms. — Many of the words of our language are so nearly alike in sound, spelling, or meaning, that inaccuracy in their use is inevitable with those who do not make a careful study of them. Notes. — I. Words- alike in sound, such as vane, vain, vein; rain, rein, reign; strait, straight; piece, peace; course, coarse, etc., are confined mostly to monosyllables, and are not difficult to learn thoroughly, as there is but a small number of them in all. II. The same may be said of words nearly alike in spelling and pronunciation but having marked differences in meaning; as, avocation, vocation; respectfully, respectively; affect, effect; emigrate, immigrate; difference, deference, etc. Mistakes in the use of words of these two classes are considered almost inexcusable. The design of this lesson, however, is to call attention to another and much larger class of words, known as synonyms. 295. A synonym is a word which, if not identical in use and meaning with one or more other words, is so nearly of the same signification as to admit, in certain cases, of being used interchangeably with them. Note. — There are very few words in our (or any) language that are in all instances exact equivalents of other words, and only careful study will qualify the student to use synonyms with precision on account of the many close distinctions in meaning that exist. The import- ance of this knowledge, however, is sufficient to justify diligent and systematic effort to obtain it. There are excellent books to be had on the subject of synonyms which make the knowl- edge accessible and its acquisition pleasant. Example 1. — We were supplied with \ an '^."h" 106 [ °f fruit.' The term abundance means an overflowing supply. Plenty satisfies or fills. As that, how- ever, which fills suffices as much as that which overflows, the terms are sometimes employed promiscuously to represent the same idea; as, a plentiful crop, for, an abundant crop. But this use is confined to familiar expressions; as, a plentiful harvest, but, abundant cause for gratitude. (See Crabb's English Synonyms, page 671.) Example 2. — We hope that the present - , . ,, ^ t relations may continue. Both words denote that good-will which all should bear, one to another; but amicable implies rather a freedom from discord, while friendly means, in addition, a positive feeling of regard. We speak of an amicable settlement or adjustment, but of a friendly greeting or visit. Our choice, therefore, of the two words in the above sentence should depend upon the idea we wish to convey. SO PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Example 3. — The speaker - j^."^ \ to the close of his address. These -words both imply moving forward quickly; but to hasten is to proceed with order, in, while to hurry denotes disorder, confusion. If the speaker shortened the discourse in a systematic way, keeping to his line of thought, etc., we should say hastened; if in a con fused, irregular way, hurried would express it. Exercise 103. — In the following sentences select the appropriate synonym in each case, or where more than one would be proper to use explain the meaning conveyed by each. i courage ) bravery >-. fortitude ) t acknowledge ) 2. I -j own V that I was wrong. ( confess ) 3. Why do you regard him with j ^J™* J ? 4. A deadly fire was directed against the advancing lines but the men did not | . w *T e ^ | for an instant. 5. There seems to be no -j * jff Prprif .p [ between the two cases. 6. There is great j varietv f °^ °P m ' oa regarding the matter. i design ) purpose >■ to discuss the question, intention ) 8. The association \ ^on™ S \ at 8 °' clock - 9. He looks forward to the result with a feeling of j ^^ence [ ' 10. The officer was obliged to use -J v ; i ence f m making the arrest. 11. We enjoyed the ■< rust j c r scenery and the j . . V manners of the people. 12. History furnishes us with many j fn^^iigg [ °f patriotism. 13. The writer -j C o°°JjJJ2 s f latitude with longitude. 14. Can you -j -, ie ^ , I on the accuracy of his statement? f l'pf 11CP(] ) 15. The witness -j declined \ to answer the question. 16. The public were -j ^barred [ of the right to enter the grounds. Exercise 104. — Distinguish between the following: 1. Error, mistake, and blunder. 6. Defect, and fault. 2. Enough, and sufficient. 7. Contented, and satisfied. 3. Want, need, and lack. 8. Penitence, repentance, and remorse. 4. Praise, commendation, and applause. 9. Character, and reputation. 5. Deface, disfigure, and deform. 10. Idle, lazy, and indolent. EFFECTIVE WORDS. 81 LESSOR 39. Effective Words. 296. Illustration. — The following graphic extract from a letter of an American writer is presented as an illustration of a simple and attractive style in which one of the chief elements of force and vividness consists in the effective- ness of single words, many of which are exceedingly apt, the best, perhaps, that could be used. Exercise 105. — 1. In the following extract substitute words of your own choosing for those in italics, and note the effect of the change; also reproduce in your own way the thought of some of the sentences or paragraphs, and compare with the original: " The Columbia is one of the most beautiful rivers in the world. Perhaps one of the things that makes it seem so is the fact that so few people know it to be the case. Before many years, most likely, its water? will be churned by the swift paddles of excursion steamers, villages and factories and saw mills and smelters will pop into existence along its banks, its magnificent forests will be swept away and the Columbia will become as well known as the Rhine and the Hudson. I allude to that part of the river that flows through British territory, for the lower reaches of the stream are familiar enough by this time. Bursting out of the earth as a full river, and navigable within a few rods of its source, it takes an impetuous way to the north- ward, flowing between the Rockies and the Selkirks, then, turning sharply south, between the Selkirks and the Gold range, it descends into our country, foams through the Dalles, then turns westward and rolls in state to the sea. The steamers that ply up stream from Golden and down from Revelstoke do not promise much to the eye, but they are more comfortable than they look, and so long as you have a clean berth with plenty of cover at night, a lamp to read by and enough to eat, you are doing well. While the propulsive power is a large, old fashioned wheel at the stern, that throws a cloud of spray behind it and that is rimmed with rainbows in the morning, the pace is not much behind that of our side wheel boats. Though apprised by the trembling of the timbers that the steamer was under way, for the captain starts as soon as there is light enough, either of dawn or moon, to see the way clear, as no gleam c&me through the window I did not turn out until it was manifestly day. Then, going on deck, I found that the boat was near the upper of the two expansions known as the Arrow lakes, in water as smooth as a mill pond and that reflected the landscape like a mirror. Fancy the Hudson, with the Catskills pressed to the edge of the water, \\ Mi gli?npses of snow peaks over the tops of the nearer mountains, with occasional valleys opening a magnificent perspective of Alps, with a huge forest clothing the hills to timber line, with stony caps and crags jutting into the flood, with little beaches where a boat could be drawn up, but with never a, house or hut or tent, and you have the Columbia." The morning had dawned cold and crisp and clear, and as the sun peered over the Selkirks the rosy light on the glaciers paled to silver and the russet mists grew pink, then white, then vanished altogether. Inaccessible wastes of rock and snow loomed on the western side, and on the east a bare mountain rose from the river's edge in one immense slant to a beetling peak higher than Mount Washington and splashed with snow about the top. Two or three sharp twists among an archipelago of sand spits and islands were necessary in keeping to the channel, and in some places the way was so narrow that the need of going through by daylight was obvious. 82 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GUAM MAR. 2. Select some of the most effective words in the following sentence: "Those who visited the Columbian Exposition carried away with them vivid memories of minarets and spires piercing the heavens; of vast bubbles of glass aud iron swinging in air; of acres of floor crowded with wonders of mechanism; splendors of art, and displays of the genius and energy of man in every conceivable field of effort. 3. In the following narrative: a. Note the easy, natural style of expression, the short sentences, and the small number of long words. b. Eead the selection once or twice and try to fix the circumstances (not the words) in the memory. The following day write in your own words as accurate an account of the incident as you can. Lay it aside till the next day and then after reviewing it and improving it as far as possible, compare with the original. " It was a great festive day in Vienna. Crowds of gayly dressed people were thronging to one of the main parks of the city. The rich and poor, high and low, good and bad, all mingling together, were intent on enjoying the great festival. At this time also, many who had been unfortunate — cripples, beggars and blind people — took occasion to better their con dition by appealing to the charities of those who had been more favored. Among others of this class was an old crippled soldier, who walked slowly along, carrying under his arm an old violin. He took his place under a large oak tree where the crowds of people would have to pass, hoping to gain a little help by the music which he might make, or the sympathy he might excite. He presented a forlorn looking picture which reminded one that the saying, ' Young soldier, old beggar,' had in his case been true He was accompanied by his dog, which was almost as emaciated as himself. He had taught him to hold an old hat between his teeth to catch what any one might wish to give. The old man began to play, and eagerly watched the crowd to see if some one would not drop into the hat a piece of money, but no one seemed to notice him. Still he kept on, till it was nearly sunset. He became very tired. His hand was no longer able to hold the violin. There was a stately gentleman standing behind the old tree, unnoticed by the old man, who had been listening attentively to the music. He now came out and asked the beggar to let him take the violin. He examined it closely, found it to be a fairly good one, and began to tune it. Under his skillful fingers its tones became smooth and clear. The old man was filled with amazement, and thought he heard angelic voices singing. Crowds began to gather around, spellbound by the wonderful music. The stranger told the old man to take the hat. Money began to pour in. The old man emptied the hat into a sack, and again it was filled. The sun sank in the west; the evening shades began to gather; the atmosphere became damp; and still the crowd stood, watching the strange gentleman and list- ening to the sweet music. Suddenly he struck up the national hymn of 'Austria.' Hundreds of voices joined in the song. He then laid the violin in the palsied hand of the beggar, lifted his hat, and disappeared as suddenly as he had come. The crowd began to ask, 'Who is he?' but the old man only said, 'I know not, but God sent him.' A man stepped from the crowd and said: ' He is the great violinist, Boucher, and now, in honor of him and because of our neglect, let us take another collection.' He took the hat, and immediately the people began to give; some gold; some silver; others copper, as each had been moved by the music or the kind-hearted act of the great violinist. There were two happy men in Vienna that night; the beggar, because of his wealth, and Boucher, because he had shown his love for his fellow-man." — Incident in the life of Boucher, the great violinist. THE PARAGRAPH. 83 LESSOR" 40. The Paragraph. 207. A paragraph may consist of but one sentence, but it is usually a group of sentences relating to the same topic and marked by beginning the first word on a new line a little to the right of the marginal space. The separation of topics into paragraphs enables the reader to grasp the thoughts presented easily, and makes reference to any given part of the writing convenient. For example, the following letter can be much more readily comprehended and referred tc when arranged in the form of No. 2 : 1. Dear Sir, — We have just purchased the 20,000 acres of pine and hemlock timber land owned by L. E. Lyle & Son, of Cumberland, with all mills and machinery complete, which places us at the very head of the lumber industry in the state of Pennsylvania. You have always favored us with a fair share of your patronage, but we now intend to make it to your interest to purchase ail your goods in our line from us, as you will see by our enclosed price list which allows 15 per cent discount from our cash list of the 20th ult. You are probably aware that we have recently placed new machinery in many of our mills, and can now offer you the finest quality of cut shingles and lumber at the price which is generatly asked for inferior grades of sawed stock. We are also making a drive on hard wood timbers for large buildings, and can furnish them in all sizes at prices lower than ever before. We would be pleased to have you call and examine our works, and, should you want any special stock, we will try to obtain it for you. Awaiting further favors, we remain, Yours respectfully, 2. Dear Sir, — We have just purchased the 20,000 acres of pine and hemlock timber land owned by L. E. Lyle & Son, of Cumberland, with all mills and machinery complete, which places us at the very head of the lumber industry in the state of Pennsylvania. You have always favored us with a fair share of your patronage, but we now intend to make it to your interest to purchase all your goods in our line from us, as you will see by our enclosed price list which allows 15 per cent discount from our cash list of the 20th ult. You are probably aware that we have recently placed new machinery in many of our mills, and can now offer you the finest quality of cut shingles and lumber at the price which is gen- erally asked for inferior grades of sawed stock. We are also making a drive on hard wood timbers for large buildings, and can furnish them in all sizes at prices lower than ever before. We would be pleased to have you call and examine our works, and, should you want any special stock, we will try to obtain it for you. Awaiting further favors, we remain, Yours respectfully, Kxercise 106. — Paragraph the following letters: 1 . To Our Patrons, — We would respectfully call your attention to our largely increased facilities for turning out a superior quality of drop forgings and castings. We have just com- pleted erecting a large trip hammer of the very latest design, also the manufacture of a com- plete set of dies for the forgings usually used in the manufacture of agricultural implements. We have also secured the services of Mr. Alex. Mclnnis, lately an employee of the Carnegie Steel Co., of Pittsburg, as foreman of our Forge Department. We have this day completed arrangements whereby we control the entire output of the Toby Valley Furnace Co., thus securing the best pig iron on the market to day. Hoping to receive a continuance of your favors, we remain, etc. S4 PRACTICAL KNiiLISH GRAMMAR. 2. Bear Sir, — I regret very much having to inform you that I cannot ship order for goods which you placed with me on the 15th inst. and which was to be shipped by May 20. Owing to the dull times of a few months ago I was obliged to cut down my help to a very few men. The discharged men sought employment elsewhere, and those who were unable to find work have left the place, so it has beeu nearly impossible to procure skilled workmen. I am getting my mill in running order again as fast as it is possible, and will be able to ship your order within thirty days of the time before promised. I would like to have you advise me as to your order, and if you wish to leave it I will, owing to the delay, be pleased to extend the regular terms of credit thirty days. Yours respectfully, 298. Expansion. — As an aid to clear writing, when what is to be presented contains many particulars which it is important to arrange and express in the most effective manner, the plan is suggested of first making an outline of the points to be covered, to be expanded afterwards as may be desired. Example 1. — Bear Sir, — Letter received. Reply would say collections slow for some months. Held note due 16th. Relied on pay- ment. Postponed writing. Hoped to remit. Note returned protested. Business, our line, depressed. Obliged to ask for time. Expect to remit fifteen days. Sooner if possible. Yours truly, Expansion. — The above outline might be expanded as follows: Bear Sir, — Your letter of the 25th inst. was duly received. In reply would say that collections have been very slow with us for some months back. We held a note tailing due on the 16th inst., relying on the payment of which we postponed writing you in hopes that we would be able to make a remittance in full of account on that day, but the note has been returned to us protested. In view of the continued depression in our line of business we are obliged to ask for an extension of the term of credit on our account. We now expect to be able to remit in at least fifteen days, and will make every effort to do so before that time. We are, Yours truly, Example 2. — Bear Sir, — We request hold order fall goods till 5th. Our Mr. Green can call. Believe it to your advantage. Our groceries purest, highest grade. Prices below inferior goods elsewhere. Special inducements in spices. Also teas and coffees. Prices lower than last year's. Appreciate past favors. Hope for continuance. Yours respectfully, Expansion. — Bear Sir, — We earnestly request you to hold your order for fall goods, if possible, until our agent, Mr. Green, can call upon you, which will be about May 5th, and show you what we are offering. We believe it will be to your advantage, as our groceries are of the highest grade of excel- lence and purity, and we are now offering them at less than inferior goods are sold for by other firms. We have bought the entire production of the large spice mills of Craig & Sons, and can offer some special inducements in that line. Our agent will also show you samples of the finest teas and coffees we have ever handled, which we are able to sell at even lower rates than our moderate prices of last year. Appreciating your favors of the past, and trusting that we may merit a continuance of them, we are, Yours respectfully, PARAPHRASING. 85 Exercise 107. — 1. Make an outline of the main points in the following letter: Dear Sir,— Your favor of the 4th inst. received, and in reply would say it was not my inten- tion to neglect answering your former communication. I have been unable to make collections" as anticipated, and have been putting off writing to you, expecting I would be able to remit before this. The failure of Jones & Co., of Boston, Mass., has further embarrassed me, and I am com- pelled to ask for an extension of ten days on my account. I can say for a certainty that I will be able in that time to pay my account in full. Trusting this explanation will prove satisfactory, I remain, Yours truly, 2. Construct a letter from the following outline: Dear Sir,— Sincerely regret to inform. Furnace has become burnt and defective. Work delayed. May not complete order for three weeks. Expect to advise definitely when we hear again from you. Shall we send iron already wrought, according to directions? Nearly two-thirds of order. Please advise particularly as to filling order. If possible to accommodate shall be glad to have opportunity. Trusting unavoidable delay no serious inconvenience. That explanation may prove satis- factory, we are, Yours truly, LESSOR 41. Paraphrasing. 299. A paraphrase is a statement in one's own language of the thought contained in a statement made by some one else. 300. Paraphrasing is excellent practice in language, as it teaches one to observe more closely than he would otherwise do the strength and excellence of the passage he tries to reproduce. To paraphrase well one should read the passage not so much to get the meaning of individual words in it as to get the thought expressed by the whole. Note. — We should not try to paraphrase by simply substituting different words here and there, but by changing the construction and choosing a style of expression original with our- selves. Of course, we may often find it impossible to improve upon, or even equal the passage we try to paraphrase, especially to be as brief and simple, but that should not discourage us from trying. We must remember that the one who expresses a thought first has the great i si choice of style and language at his disposal. Example 1. — "It is true that but few people can read an article in a newspaper in a style which engages the attention of their hearers." If we should try to paraphrase this sentence in the way in which the first line of the note above suggests we should not, and should look into our dictionaries for the meanings most appropriate to the words used in the example, the result would probably be some such stupid production as the following: PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Paraphrase I.— It is conformable to fact that only not many persons are able to utter aloud a discourse in a public print that circulates news in a manner which attracts the consideration of their auditors. If we tried to paraphrase it as suggested in the second line of the note we might get it some- thing like this: Paraphrase II. — It cannot be denied that the ability to read a newspaper article in a way that interests their hearers is possessed by but few people. Can you paraphrase it in another way? Try. Commence with the word that. Example 2. — "A true man while away from his own country is peculiarly careful to bear himself in a manner worthy of a citizen of the commonwealth which he represents." Pakaphra.se. — The peculiar care which a foreigner takes to worthily represent his native commonwealth shows whether or not he is a true man. Paraphrase differently. Example 3. — " Illegible writing is considered by some people one of the marks of a superior mind." Paraphrase. — Some persons think that one of the indications of mental superiority is the ability to write a hand that cannot be read. Give another paraphrase. Exercise 108. — Paraphrase the following: 1. It is a far better thing to find other great people than to become great yourself. 2. We think ourselves obliged on this occasion to testify that your charities have been most faithfully applied to the purpose for which they were intended. 3. Those who fail to get an education when they can will wish to do so when they cannot. 4. It cannot be too strongly asserted, and it can hardly be too often repeated in the discus- sion of this subject, that no dictionary can teach the proper way of speaking English. 5. Gentlemen, — We regret to say that your order of the 16th inst. for 30 roller-top desks and 100 dozen dining room chairs cannot be filled by May 1st as agreed. We have been delayed in our business by a two weeks' strike of the men in the finishing department, consequently we could fill no orders in that time. We have now resumed work and can fill your order by the 15th of May. Please advise us in the matter. We trust that the delay will cause you no serious inconvenience, and assure you that we will endeavor to please you should you now advise shipment. Awaiting your favor, we are, Yours respectfully, 6. Dear Sir, — In anticipation of a heavy freight traffic this coming season we have built two new steamers. These, in addition to the one built last year, and the three the year before, give us the credit of having the finest transportation line on the lake. These steamers will be run with the utmost regularity possible, and at such times as will best accommodate our patrons. We will send you schedule of trips in a few days. We especially solicit shipments of fruit, live-stock and produce, as our fast boats will give quick delivery to cities on Lake Ontario. All freight will receive the most careful handling and attention, and everything will be done that we may deserve your future patronage. Yours respectfully, 7. Gentlemen, — You are aware that our bills have heretofore been settled promptly, and our intentions were equally good in this case, but, as you know, on Jan. 1st we purchased the entire stock of Mills Bros., the business to be carried on jointly with our own. We did not have the ready cash to pay for this large stock, but trusted to our collections, on goods already sold, to cover the note which we gave them. PUNCTUATION. 87 Owing to the hard times our collections have been very small and those of our Western house have been even smaller, so that all of our ready cash has been banked to meet this note, which has caused us great anxiety. We hoped, from day to day, that matters would brighten so that we could see our way clear to spare the $3000.00 which your bill calls for, but we have been unable to do so, and now make you the following proposition: That we send you our note, with interest, from the time your bdl became due. Hoping you will appreciate the difficulties with which we have had to contend, and return a favorable answer, w T e remain, Yours truly, 8. Gentlemen, — Knowing that your extensive business must require a large amount of advertising, we desire to call your attention to the advantages the Daily Courier is offering business firms. We have a large and constantly increasing subscription, which gives a circulation of great value to the advertiser. Our paper is also placed in many public reading rooms, thus increasing its value as an advertising medium. We have every facility for doing the best work in this line. Our rates are reasonable, and we make special terms to parties contracting by the year. As we have room for only a limited number of advertisements, we insert only those of reliable firms. Hoping you will give this favorable consideration, we are, Respectfully yours, LESSON 42. Punctuation. 301. Punctuation is the art of pointing written or printed compositions. Its chief office is to show more clearly the meaning intended. It has become a recognized principle that punctuation is as much a matter of taste and judgment as of rigid rule; and while certain rules are positive, and to be followed absolutely, much is to be left to the discretion of the author. The fashion changes in punctuation as in everything else. The tendency of the present day is to free or open punctuation, which is characterized by the avoidance of all pointing not clearly required by the construction. In some cases, as in certain legal papers, title pages, etc., punctuation is wholly omitted. The principal marks used in punctuation are the following: Comma , Interrogation ? Semicolon ; Exclamation ! Colon - : Parenthesis () Period - - . Dash — Quota tii hi marks " " 302. The Comma. — Commas arc properly used to present to the eye the proper grammatical construction of the sentence. They are used for the separa- tion of clauses, to mark parentheses, and to separate words where several are used in the same construction, or wherever they help to show the exact meaning of the writer. SS PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rule 1. — Words used in a series in the same construction are generally set off by commas: as, — " Industry, honesty, frugality, and temperance are among the cardinal virtues." Exception. — The. comma should be omitted when the conjunctions are 'expressed: as, — " Let us try to enrich and purify and ennoble our minds." Note. —Two or more words are of the same construction when they have a common depend- ence on some other term. Rule II. — Pairs of words of the same part of speech are separated from other pairs in the same series by commas: as, — "The dying man cares not for pomp or luxury, palace or estate, silver or gold." Rule III. — Words or phrases contrasted with each other, are separated by commas: as, — " We live in deeds, not years; in thoughts, not breaths; in feelings, not in figures on a dial." Rule IV. — Words and phrases in apposition, also words and phrases used independently, are set off by commas: as, — "Newton, the great mathematician, was very modest." " We, the people of the State of New York, in convention assembled," etc. "His father being dead, the prince ascended the throne." " Now, sir, what is your conclusion? " Rule V. — Parenthetical words, phrases, and clauses should be separated by commas from the rest of the sentence: as, — " Napoleon was, unquestionably, a man of courage." " Generally speaking, an indolent person is unhappy." " Prudence, as well as courage, is necessary to overcome obstacles." "The Romans, who conquered Greece, were brave men." Note. — If the relative clause is restrictive, no comma should be used: as, "The man who is honest will be trusted." Rule VI. — A comma is used before or, when it introduces an equivalent, an explanatory word, or a phrase defining the author's meaning: as, — " The skull, or cranium, protects the brain." Rule VII. — In compound sentences, when the verb is expressed only in the first clause, and understood in all the others, a comma takes its place: as, — "Reading makes a full man; conversation, a ready man; writing, an exact man." Rule VIII. — When a transposition occurs, so that an adjunct or a clause, which would naturally follow a verb, is introduced before it, a comma is generally required: as, — " To obtain an education, he was willing to make sacrifices." Rule IX. — Quotations, passages resembling them in form, and observations in general, when short and not formally introduced, are set off by commas: as,— " It was Bion that first said, ' Know thyself.' " " ' The book of Nature,' said he, ' is open before thee.' " "I say unto all, Watch." PUNCTUATION. 89 Rule X. — Independent clauses, when short and closely connected, should be separated by commas: as, — "Science tunnels mountains, it spans continents, it bridges seas, and it weighs the stars." Rule XI. — A word emphatically repeated is generally set off by a comma: as, — "Happy, happy, happy child." Rule XII. — The principal parts of the heading, address, conclusion, and superscription of a letter should be separated by commas: as, — Boston, Mass., July 11, 1894., Mr. J. H. Williams, 190 James St., Philadelphia, Pa. Dear Sir, — Tours respectfully, Robert Blair. 303. The semicolon is used to separate parts of a sentence less closely con- nected than those separated by a comma. Rule I. — Members of sentences subdivided by commas, unless very closely connected, should be separated by semicolons: as, — "Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, not the web; and wit the ornament of the mind, not the furniture." Rule II. — Clauses and expressions in a series, having a common dependence upon another clause, are separated from each other by a semicolon, and from the common clause by a comma and dash: as, — "If we think of glory in the field; of wisdom in the cabinet; of the purest patriotism; of the highest integrity, public and private; of morals without a stain; of religious feelings without intolerance and without extravagance,— the august figure of Washington presents itself as the personation of all these ideals." Note. — Where the comma can serve the purpose formerly effected by the semicolon, the present tendency is to give the preference to the comma. Rule III. — A semicolon should be placed between the members of compound sentences, unless the connection is very close: as, — "You may quit the field of business, though not the field of danger; and though you cannot be safe, you may cease to be ridiculous." Notes— I. The connective is sometimes omitted: as, "The miser grows rich by seeming poor; the extravagant man grows poor by seeming rich." II.— When the clauses are short and the connection is close, a comma may be employed: as, " Simple men admire the learned, ignorant men despise them." Rule IY. — A semicolon should be placed before an enumeration of particu- lars, when the names of the objects are given without any formal introductory words or accompanying description: as, — "To Greece we are indebted for the three principal orders of architecture; the Doric, the Ionian, and the Corinthian." 304. The colon is the intermediate point between the Semicolon and the Period. 90 PKAlTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. llule I. — When a clause is followed by an additional remark or illustration, especially if no connective is used, the colon is employed: as, — "A void evil doers: in such society an honest man may become ashamed of himself." " Yes, sir: it has been attended to." Rule II. — A colon is used before a direct quotation: as, — " In his last moments he uttered these words: ' I fall a sacrifice to sloth and luxury.' ' Notes. —I. When the quotation is long, or begins a new paragraph, the colon may be followed by a dash: as, " The cloth having been removed, the president rose and said: — ' Ladies and gentlemen, we have assembled,' " etc. II. — If the quoted passage is introduced by that, or if it is short and introduced in the middle of a sentence, a colon is not admissible before it: as, " Bion's favorite maxim, ' Know thyself,' is worth whole pages of good advice." Rule III. — The connectives, to wit, namely, as, introducing an example, are generally preceded by the colon: as, — There are three kinds of street cars: namely, horse, cable, and electric. 305. The Period denotes the greatest degree of separation. Rule I. — Put a period after every sentence that is not interrogative or exclamatory. " Worth makes the man, the want of it the fellow." "Be true to thyself." Rule II. — A period is used after every abbreviated word not written or printed with the apostrophe; and where two letters are used for two separate words, each letter should have a period after it. Acct. bu. Dec. mdse. cont'd i. e. C. O. D. s. d. Rule III. — A period is used after a title or heading, and after the date, address, and signature of a letter; also, at the end of the address on an envelope or label: as, — New Complete Bookkeeping. Chapter IV. New York, Jan. 4, 1893. Marshall Field, Chicago, 111. Robert Rutter. Rule IV. — The period is used to set off decimal numbers from whole num- bers; also, before figures, to show that they constitute a decimal and not a whole number: as, — 375.05, $264.15, .045 mile. 306. The interrogation point is placed after every direct question: as, — Who got the position? Where does he live? What is the price of wheat? Notes —I. When each of the interrogative parts of a sentence requires a distinct answer, the interrogation point is placed after each of the parts: as, What is civilization? Where is it? Where does it commence? Where does it end? II —When only one answer is needed, or where the question is not complete before the end is reached, the comma or semicolon is used within the sentence, and the interrogation point at the end- as, Did he win, or lose? Was he their bookkeeper, their cashier, or their manager? 307. The Exclamation.— Rule I.— An exclamation point must be placed after every exclamatory sentence, member, clause, and expression: as, — "How it rains! " ( Exclamatory sentence.) PUNCTUATION. 91 " The clock is striking midnight; how solemn and suggestive the sound!" (Exclamatory member.) " Unhappy man that I am, what have I done! " (Exclamatory clause.) " How sad! " (Exclamatory expression.) Rule II. — An exclamation point should be put after every interjection except 0: as, — Oh! Ah! Hark! Ha! Alas! Pshaw! Note. — Observe the difference between and oh. The former is used only before the nasaes of objects addressed or invoked, is not immediately followed by an exclamation point, and must always be a capital; the latter is used by itself to denote different emotions of the mind, has tyn acclamation point after it, and begins with a small letter except at the commence- ment of a sentence. 308. The dash is used to mark some kind of break or interruption. Rule I. — A dash is used to show a sudden change in the construction or senti- ment: as, — " The heroes of the Revolution — how do we regard their memory?" " She was beautiful — in her own opinion." Rule II. — A dash is used to mark a rhetorical pause or a suspension of the voice for effect: as, — " Men will wrangle for religion, write for it, anything but — live for it." Rule III. — A dash is used to denote the omission of letters, figures, and words: as, — Mr. B n. 1894-5. Here comes . Rule IV. — A dash is sometimes used to mark the transition from a succes- sion of particulars to some emphatic general expression which includes them all. " He was witty, learned, industrious, plausible, — everything but honest." Note. — The dash is sometimes used before and after a parenthetical clause. Formerly the dash was used more frequently for this purpose than at present, and the tendency is to a less frequent use of it. 309. The parenthesis is used to enclose an explanatory word or phrase or other matter not strictly belonging to the sentence: as, — The vapor of water (steam) upon cooling becomes a liquid. A. M. (Artium Magister) Master of Arts. His manner of writing (i. e. his style) is very pleasing. 310. Brackets are used to enclose words, phrases, and clauses explanatory of what precedes them; also to correct an error or to supply an omission: as, — They [the electric cars] are very fine. Do you know if [whether] he is at home. Paris [Ky J Jan. 5, 1895. 311. Quotation marks are used to indicate a passage taken from another author, or anything said by a speaker when it is given in his own words. Rule I. — A direct quotation should be enclosed by quotation marks: as, — " Trade, like a restive horse, is not easily managed." Mr. Jones arose and said: "I am satisfied that he is an honest young man and that hi* accounts will be found correct." PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rule II. — When one quotation is embraced within another, the contained quotation has single marks: as, — ' It was what teachers call a ' hard day ' in school." Rule III. — Titles of books, pictures, or newspapers, etc., should be quoted: . — " Washington and His Generals." "The Youth's Companion." "The Horse Fair." Notes. — I. Where the title of the book, etc., is well known, or is abbreviated, and also where it is used In a tabulated list, as in catalogues, advertisements, etc., the quotation marks are usually omitted. II. Sometimes, as in newspapers, magazines, etc., when reference is made to a periodical, the title is printed in a different style of type from that used for the regular reading matter: as, "The reference to the Herald in yesterday's Tribune was," etc. 312. Additional Marks. — Some of the other marks used in punctuation are the apostrophe, the hyphen, and the caret. 313. The apostrophe (') is used to denote the omission of a letter or letters in a word; also the omission of the century in dates when the century is under- stood: as, — Don't for do not. Fve for / have. ' tis for it is. The winter of '94. Dec. 25, '94. 1894, '95, '96. 314. The hyphen (-) is used between compound words which have not by usage become single words; also at the end of a line where words are necessarily divided: as, — Vice-president, mother-in-law, steam-engine, ninety-five. Notes. — I. Words necessarily divided at the end of a line should be divided only at the end of a syllable. II. — In dictionaries and some spelling-books the hyphen is used between the syllables of words to aid in showing the proper pronunciation. 315. The caret ( /\ ) is used to indicate that one or more letters or words have been omitted and afterwards interlined: as, — m to Gramar. He is bound succeed h h Use of Capitals. 316. A capital letter should begin — 1. The first word of every sentence, 2. All proper nouns, and adjectives derived from them. 3. Titles of office, honor, and respect. 4. Every line of poetry. 5. The name of a thing personified. 6. Every quotation forming a sentence, and every direct quotation introduced into a sentence. 7. The initial letter in all words denoting the Deity should be a capital. 8. Capital letters should be used for the pronoun I and the interjection 0. PUNCTUATION. 93 9. Begin with a capital every noun, adjective, and verb, in the titles of books and headings of chapters. 10. The names of the months of the year and the days of the week should begin with capitals. Note. — Use a small letter when in any doubt as to the propriety of using a capital. Exercise 109. — Write all the words of the following list requiring capitals in one line, and all the others in another line: ohio, state, Chicago, france, bostonian, country, england, boston, milton, river, girl, mary, hudson, william, britain, miltonic, city, englishman, messiah, platonic, america, deity, bible, book, plato, christian, broadway, jehovah, christ, british, easter, europe, man, scriptures, god. Exercise 110. — Give reasons for the capitals in the following words: Long Island, Good Friday, Mount Vernon, Suspension Bridge, New York City, Harpers Ferry, Cape May, Bunker Hill, Red River, Lake Erie, General Jackson, White Mountains, River Thames. Astor House, Steamer Drew, North Pole. Exercise 111. — Re-write, punctuate, and use necessary capitals: 1. in what state is mount Washington 2. Baltimore is an american City 3. The territory of alaska was bought of russia 4. Address your letter to j p jones new brunswick n j 5. send me a copy of pickwick bound in Calf 6. i intend to go south in march 7. Monday tuesday and friday are Days of the week 8. composition Sets the sentence off Clearly from others and Views it as distinct from Them 9. The Ideal history of english literature like the Great american novel is always to Be written 10. in the dial of nov 16 appeared an Extended Review of the life and Inventions of thomas Alva edison By w k 1 dickson And antonia Dickson 11. dr bryant in his discussion of the american scheme of State education says 12. Teaching the Children of n y City is a serious business says Stephen H olin in the educational Review 13. the Chicago Board of education will transfer its Offices from the City hall to the schiller Theatre building 14. The united States is but little behind Great britain as a Coal producing Nation 15. a b dr lb 1 1 d p o eng aa p m oz i e viz ill dol per cent col hon m c 16. an Eminent Writer says talent knows what to do Tact how to do it 17. The Mandates of god must be obeyed 18. o Balmy Spring o day of dear Delights 19. The Ways of providence are Concealed from man 20. emporia kansas July 4th 1887 21. dr Williams Cincinnati ohio 22. h d gunn m d Chicago ill 23. The ohio river the rocky mountains the atlantic ocean lake michigan and niagara falls are names familiar to every american citizen. 24. The north the south the east and the west are four grand divisions of the u s 25. hail holy light offspring of heavens first born 26. sing heavenly muse 27. He Dare not Touch a hair of cataline 28. Awake Arise or be forever fallen 29. Today if You Hear His voice harden not your Hearts. 94 PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 30. Punctuate the following in two different ways in order to bring out a difference in meaning: " I said he is a scoundrel it is true and I am sorry for it." 31. the Weather bureau of the United states is now under the control of the department of agriculture S3. The large fleet of vessels engaged in Cod -fishing on the Grand banks of nova Scotia is chiefly from Massachusetts 83. the rhine and The danube are connected by a Canal thus forming aa unbroken water- way from the north Sea to the Black sea 34. we heartily Welcome supt Albert marble now of omaha lately of Worcester mass to the west 35. We are glad to learn that the executive Committee of the kansas State teachers associ- ation has secured judge Andrew S draper president of the university of Illinois to deliver a Lecture at the december meeting. Exercise 112. — Abbreviate the following: 1 Connecticut, 16. California, 31. county, 46. Numeral (number), 2. captain, 17. colonel, 32. credit, 47. Pennsylvania, 3. Kansas, 18. Delaware 33. East, 48. saint, 4. Massachusetts, 19. England, 34. north, 49. street, 5. Michigan, 20. esquire, 35. south, 50. Vermont, 6. Minnesota, SI. Friday, 36. Doctor, 51. Virginia, 7. Mississippi, 22. General, 37. debtor, 52. January, 8. Nebraska, 23. George, 38. Georgia, 53. February, 9. Oregon, 24. governor, 39. Junior, 54. March, 10. Professor, 25. Honorable, 40. Kentucky, 55. April, 11. Tennessee, 26. Illinois, 41. Louisiana, 56. August, 12. Thursday, 27. Indiana, 42. Maine, 57. September, 13. Alabama, •28. Wednesday, 43. Maryland, 58. October, 14. answer, 29. Wisconsin, 44. Mister, 69. November, 15. Arkansas, 30, Company, 45. Master, 60. December, INDEX Abstract nour 10. Active voice, 37. Adverbs, definition, 61; comparison, 61; how divided, 61 ; of manner, 61 ; of place, 61 ; of time, 61 ; of degree, 61 ; of cause, 61 ; of affirmation, 61 ; of negation, 61 ; rules for, 63. Adverbial elements, 4; pbrase, 65. Adjective, definition, 29; elements, 4; limit- ing, 29 ; numeral, 30 ; qualifying, 30 ; forms of, 30 comparison, 30 ; how compared, 30 ; irregular, 31 rules for, 32, 33, 34 ; some current misuses of, 34 phrase, 65. Agreement of verbs, 49; rules for, 49. Analysis, 7. Antecedent of relative pronouns, 24. Apostrophe, 92. Appropriate use of preposition, 69. Articles, the, 30. As, 23. As and so, 73. Attribute, the, 5. Attributive verb, 37. Auxiliary verbs, 45. Brackets, 91. Brevity, 76. But that, 73. Capitals, use of, 92. Cardinal numerals, 30. Caret, 92. Case, definition, 16; subjective, 16; possessive, 16 ; objective, 16 ; independent, 16. Clause, definition, 2. Clearness, 75. Climax, 77. Co-ordinate conjunctions, 71. Collective noun, 10. Comma, the, 87 ; rules for, 88. Common noun, 10. Comparison, definition, 30; of adjectives, 30; degrees of, 30 ; of adverbs, 61. Compound, subject, 4; sentence, 6; phrase, 6; words, 12; personal pronouns, 19; relatives, 24; participles, 55. Complex, sentence, 16; phrase, 6. Connecting elements, 5. Conjugation, 44. Conjunction, definition, 70; how divided, 71; co-ordinate, 71 ; subordinate, 71 ; repetition and omission, 76. Contrast, 77. Copula, the, 5. Correlatives, 71. Dash, the, 91 ; rules for, 91. Declarative sentence, 5. Declension, definition, 17; of nouns, 17; of personal pronouns, 19 ; of relative pronouns, 23. Defective verbs, 53. Elements, modifying, 14; adjective, 4; adverb- ial, 4 ; objective, 4 ; connecting, 5 ; independent, 5. Exclamatory sentence, 5. Exclamation point, 90; rules for, 90. Expansion, 84. Feminine gender, 14. Force, 76. Future tense, 41 ; perfect, 42. Gender, definition, 14; masculine, 14; femi- nine, 14 ; neuter, 15 ; forms, 15 ; how distinguished, 15 ; of pronouns, 15. Gerund, the, 55. Harmony, 77. Hyphen, 92. Imperative sentence, 5. Imperative mode, 39. Impersonal verb, 53. Independent element, 5. Indicative mode, 38; compared with subjunc- tive, 140. Infinitive phrase, 7; mode, 39. Interrogative, sentence, 5; pronoun, 26. Intransitive verb, 37, 38. Interrogation point, 90. Interjections, definition, 74; primitive, 74; derivative, 74. Language, definition, 1; object of, 75. Lest, 73. Limiting adjectives, 29. Marks, punctuation, 87; additional, 92. Mode, definition, 38; indicative, 38; potential, 38; imperative, 39; infinitive, 39; subjunctive, 40- Modifications, of nouns and pronouns, 11; of vi 'i-l is, 37. . Modifying elements, 4. Neuter gender, 15. Noun, definition, 10; proper, 10; common, 10; collective, 10; abstract, Hi; verbal 10; modifica- tion of, 11 ; gender forms of, 14. % I NM'.X. Number 11, singular, 11^ plural s 11; of the verb, 43. Numeral adjectives, 30, Object, retained, 53, and preposition, 65, of language, 75. Objective elements, 4; case, 16, use of, 17. Ordiual numerals, 30. Paragraph, S3. Paragraphing, 76. Paraphrase, 85. Parenthesis, 91. Parts of speech, 9. Participial phrase, 7. Participle, definition, 54; present, 55; past, 55; compound, 55; uses of, 55; in construction, 56; rule, "Hi; suggestions, 56. Passive, voice, 37; form of verb in, 45. Past, tense, 41; perfect, 42; participle, 55. Past participle, 55. Past perfect tense, 42. Perfect tense, 42. Period, 90; rules for, 90. Person, definition, 14; first, 14; second, 14; third, 14 ; of the verb, 42. Personal pronoun, 19; simple, 19; compound, 19 ; forms, 19 ; declension, 19 ; rules for, 20 ; am- biguous use of, 21 ; position of, 21. Phrase, definition, 3; position of, 3; complex, 6; compound, 6; prepositional, 6; infinitive, 7; participial, 7. Plural nouns, formation of, 11; irregular, 12. Possessive case, 16; rules for, 16. Potential mode, 38. Predicate, the, 1; of what it consists, 3; simple, 4 ; compound, 4. Prepositional phrase, 6; modifiers, 68. Preposition, definition, 65; and object, 65; omission of, 68; unnecessary use of, 68; appro- priate use of, 69. Present tense, 41 ; perfect, 42. Present participle, 55. Progressive form of verb. 45. Pronoun, definition, 19; genders, 15; personal, 19 ; forms of, 19 ; declension, 19 ; relative, 23 ; gen- der, 23 : declension, 23 ; interrogative, 26 ; adject- ive, 26. Preposition, definition, 2; principal, 6; sub- ordinate, 6. Proper use of words, 76. Punctuation, 87. Quotation marks, 91 , rules for, 91. Redundant verbs, 53. Regular verbs, 42. Relative pronoun, definition, 23; simple, 23; gender, 23; declension, 23; compound, 24; rule, 24 ; position of, 25 ; antecedent of, 24. Semicolon, the, 89; rules for, 89. Sentence, definition, 1; principal elements, 3; declarative, 5; interrogative, 5; imperative, 5; exclamatory, 5; simple, 6; complex, 6; com- pound, 6. Shall, 59. Should, 59. Signs of the tenses, 42. Simple, subject, 3; sentence, 5; personal pro- noun, 19. Singular number, 11. Subordinate conjunctions, 71. Subjunctive mode, 40 Subjective case, 16. Subordinate proposition, 6. Subject, 1; what it may be, 3; simple, 3; com- pound, 4. Synonym, definition, 79, Tense, definition, 41; present, 41; past, 41; future, 41 ; present perfect, 42 ; past perfect, 42 , future perfect, 42; in all the modes, 42; signs of, 42. Than, 72. That, 23. Transitive verb, 37„ Unity of thought, 76. Verb, definition, 36; classes, 37; transitive, 37; intransitive, 37 ; attributive, 37 ; modiflcations.of, 37; regular, 42; irregular, 43; conjugation, 44; auxiliary, 45; agreement of, 49; redundant, de- fective, and impersonal, 53; similar in form, 58; omission of, 60 ; substitution, 60 ; different forms of, 60. Verbal noun, 10. Voice, definition, 37; active, 37; passive, 37 o What, 23, 26, 73. Which, 23, 26. Who, 23, 26. Will, 59. Would, 59. Words, compound, 12; proper use of 5 76; effective, 81. WILLIAMS & ROGERS SERIES BUSINESS AND SOCIAL COEKESPOKDENCE. A TEXT-BOOI .v FOR USE IN" ALL SCHOOLS IX "WHICH THE SUBJECT IS TAUGHT. REVISED, NEWYOKK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1889, By Williams & Rogers, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washing-ton, D. C w. p. 9 PREFACE. The text-book on correspondence of which this is a revision, treated the subject somewhat briefly, and was devoted entirely to business letter writing. The tavorable reception accorded that work, the increasing interest manifested in the subject as a branch of study, and the apparent necessity for a more comprehensive text-book, so constructed as to be desirable for class use, have led to the prepara- tion of this work. The advantages claimed for it are: new and valuable information and instruc- tion in business letter writing are presented; the subject of social correspondence has been given proper attention; the arrangement of the material, and the number, variety and character of the exercises, make it more convenient and valuable for the teacher's use. Some of the subjects treated are not to be found in any other work of this kind, and the statements made regarding the various phases of correspondence have received the indorsement of experienced correspondents, whose judgment has been sought with a view to obtaining the latest and most practical ideas and customs. COKTEOTS. Diagram of parts of a letter 4 Introduction 5 Correspondence, business, definitions, classification, material 7 Parts of a letter. Heading * 9 Address. - H Salutation 14 Body 17 Complimentary closing 18 Signature - 20 Completion of letter. Folding 22 Inserting - 22 Sealing 23 Addressing 23 Stamping 24 Miscellaneous. Postal Cards 26 Correcting exercises.. - 27 Special Points. Errors in letters 29 Imperfect addresses 29 Spelling - - 29 Penmanship _ - 30 Mixing business and friendship 30 Verbiage 30 Hasty replies - 30 Copying letters 30 Style of expression 30 Modifying words 31 Courtesy 32 Choice of words 32 Business Letters. Ordering goods 33 With inclosures 36 Requesting special favors 42 Of introduction 44 Of indorsement - 44 Of recommendation - 45 Of application . . . 47 Dunning 49 Of censure 49 Telegraphing 51 Socl\l Correspondence. Materials - 58 Heading 58 Address. 58 Salutation and closing 58 Body of letter - 59 Social Letters. Of affection. 59 Of friendship - 59 Of congratulation 63 Of introduction 64 Of condolence - 65 Postal Information 68 General Index 73 DIAGRAM OF THE PARTS OF A LETTER. Heading-. Address. Salutation. Body of letter. n Body of letter. — "03 be a - PL, Body of letter. Complimentary closing. Signature. rNTBODTIOTIOK It is generally conceded that the subject of business correspondence should receive a greater share of attention in the schools of our country than is usually devoted to it, a necessity resulting from the requirements demanded of the young men and women called upon to fill positions in the business world. It is also desirable that young people should acquire a pleasing style in their social corre- spondence, hence both parts of the subject are treated in these pages. Few young people appreciate the value of the ability to write creditable business and social letters. It is the opinion of those whose opportunities for forming judg- ment have been most favorable, that a man's habits, qualifications, and qualities in general as a business man, may be estimated with fair accuracy upon no further knowledge of him than may be obtained from familiarity with his business letters; and it* may be as truthfully asserted that his social correspondence furnishes an index to his bent of mind and general character. Since a large portion of the busi- ness of the world, and much of the friendships of life, are maintained only through the medium of letters, it would appear that it can be no more important to cultivate the ability to transact business and to preserve friendships in personal life than to cultivate such powers in correspondence; and the fact that a man's correspondence is in a measure shaped by his habits, previously formed, and that, on the other hand, his habits are controlled and improved by cultivating care in his correspondence, adds force to this opinion. Although the subject of correspondence is broad and comprehensive, there is no good reason for hesitation in making it a part of the course of study in our schools. Experience has demonstrated that as great a degree of success may attend rightly directed effort to instruct in this subject as in any other; and it is believed that no other branch of study will be productive of more real, practical benefit to the student, in proportion to the amount of effort expended upon it, than the study of correspondence. While it may be true that the great diversity in business necessitates widely differ- ent lines of correspondence, it is also true that in all correspondence certain funda- mental principles hold good; and if a general foundation can be laid, the student will much more readily work into any particular line of correspondence that may be required of him than if he had not received any instruction; and it is unreason- able to suppose that, because of this diversity in business, the student may not be instructed in correspondence as successfully as he is now instructed in book-keeping. It is the aim of tin's work, not only to furnish information for the student in letter writing, but to suggest to the teacher a method of presenting the subject, which, of course, may be altered or modi lied to suit the needs of his pupils. After tin' student has been led to understand the importance of the subject, ha3 been instructcl regarding the materials to be used, and has received such other ral information as he may need in a preliminary way, the form, and parts of >» 6 INTRODUCTION. letter are explained and illustrated, so that his subsequent work upon letters will confirm him in correct habits of form at the same time that he is learning the art of i xpression. When he is ready to take up let in- writing proper, it is suggested that he be given at the outset, if possible, some subject with which the teacher may find him familiar. This plan is more likely to secure the student's interest at the start than if he were assigned work without reference to his previous knowledge of the subject. 'Thus it may be well to have some students commence with letters of friendship, others with letters ordering goods, others again with letters of introduc- tion, etc. And this will he found to be perfectly practicable with the exercises given in this work, as each set is complete in itself, and it is not claimed that the order in which they appear will be the best to follow with all classes. lla\ ing assigned the exercise, let the teacher draw from the student, by question- ing, such information us he should possess concerning it before attempting to write the desired letter, supplying his lack of information when necessary. He may be shown specimen letters, similar in character to the one assigned him, either before or after his own attempt, as may be thought best, and when his work is completed and criticised he may be required to correct or rewrite it until he has brought his letter to the highest point of excellence in his power. This letter may be followed by others similar to it, upon exercises given in the work or supplied by the teacher, until the student becomes familiar with letters of this class, after which he may be assigned work upon the next class selected. The manner of arranging the various parts of a letter is secondary, and yet certain forms of arrangement are accepted by common consent as reasonable, orderly, and in good taste, and are approved by the best correspondents; and since these accepted forms can be learned as easily and employed as readily as others not so approved, it seems entirely proper that students should be taught to use them. The matter of first importance in a letter is the expression of the proper ideas in proper language — in other words, what to say and how to say it appropriately and effectively. To secure good results in this direction, various suggestions, comments, and illustrations are supplied with the exercises given in the work. foRRESPONDENCE. DEFINITIONS. Correspondence is the interchange of thought by means of letters. A Letter is a written or printed communication addressed to some person or persons. For convenience, letters are here divided into two general classes : 1. Private, or Personal ; 2. Public, or Open. Private Letters are those intended only for the persons to whom they are addressed; and they" are divided into two classes : Social and Business. Social Letters are those that grow out of social and personal relations; as, Letters of Affection, of Congratulation, of Sympathy, of Introduction, of Censure, of Condolence — in fact, all letters not of a business or official character. Further explanation, and illustrations of the various kinds of social letters will be given iru, another part of this work. Business Letters, as the term clearly indicates, are such as are written on matters relating to business, of whatever kind. These include that class of letters written by persons holding public office, and which are sometimes called Official Letters. The first part of this work will be devoted mainly to the discussion of Business Letters. Public Letters are such as are usually addressed to some particular person, but intended for the public. They relate, as a rule, to matters of general interest, and are given to the public through the medium of the newspaper and magazine press. Under this head may be placed the letters written by newspaper correspondents, which are generally addressed to the editor of the paper, and intended for publica- tion. In this class may also be placed the circular letters sometimes issued by business men for advertising, or other purposes, and, being intended for general distribution among their customers, partake more of a public than of a private or personal character. MATERIALS. The Materials ordinarily employed in conducting correspondence are, pen, ink. and paper. Other appliances, such as letter-books, copying -presses, letter-files, filing cabinets, etc., may be used, and in most business offices some or all of these are used, together with typewriting machines, and other modern office devices. p en . — The opinions of correspondents regarding the proper size, elasticity, and fineness of a pen are as various as their styles of expression. It is believed, how- ever, that for two reasons a pen of medium size, elasticity, and fineness is prefer- 7 8 rOKKKSPONPKNCK. able to one possessing any extreme quality; first, because one will become accus- tomed to its use with loss efforl : and second, when called upon to use a pen with which he is not familiar, the change will be less marked, and hence less inconven- ience will be experienced. Again, a very fine pointed pen should be avoided, on account of its liability to catch in the paper, and a very coarse one, because of the heavy lines it leaves, rendering the page black and unsightly. A medium pointed pen is also the besl to use when the matter written is to be copied by the copying- pros. A fine pointed pen would not distribute enough ink upon the paper to produce a good, clear impression in the letter-book, except by much shading, which is not desirable in correspondence; and at the same time the use of a very coarse- pomted pen would produce a heavy or blurred impression in the letter-book. Ink. — Any ink of a positive, indelible color, that flows from the pen readily, is suitable for business correspondence; but custom and good taste have dictated that black is the most appropriate color. For business use, and especially with a gold pen, the commercial fluids are receiving great favor. The chief objection to them is their corrosive properties, which arc such as to destroy, utterly and quickly, the flexibility of ordinary steel pens, and to materially lessen their durability. Fluids are objectionable for school purposes, on account of their lack of decided color when first applied, rendering the pupil unable to see with distinctness the work he is attempting to do. To offset these objections, fluids usually possess the indispensable quality in a good ink of extreme fluidity, flowing freely at every touch of the pen to the paper. There can be no objection, however, to using a black ink, and there is every advantage in it over any pale fluid, providing the ink possesses the quality of fluidity and is non-corrosive. The presence of corrosive properties in ink may be easily detected by permitting a drop to dry upon the pen. If it be destructive to steel, the pen will be found coated with rust, while if harmless, the deposit remaining upon the pen may be easily removed, leaving the metal untar- nished. Paper. — The paper to be used in correspondence will depend upon the purpose for which it is intended ; and, generally speaking, that which would be regarded proper for business letters would not be suitable for social correspondence. While letter papers are made in various shapes and sizes, only a few styles are in common use. For social correspondence, what is known as note paper is now almost universally used. This is oblong in shape, usually unruled, and is generally fur- nished in three sizes, viz.: 4 by G in., called Billet ; 44- by 7 in., called Octavo; and o by 8 in., called Commercial note; all of which have four pages to the sheet. For business correspondence, three styles of paper are in common use, viz. : Com- rcial note, which is about 5 by 8 in.; Packet note, which is about 5£ by 8f in.; and Letter paper, which varies in size from 8 by 10 in. to 8f by 11 in. Paper for business correspondence is made only in half-sheets. The Commercial note and the Packet note are used for short letters, and the Letter paper for long ones. For pen- written letters most business men prefer to use ruled paper, but for type-written letters and social correspondence unruled paper is almost exclusively used. Note. — Cap paper should never be used for business or social letters. If the correspondent have no other, he should cut the cap paper down to letter or note size. While the quality of the paper for business and social correspondence is somewhat a matter of taste, it should be of such grade as is suited to the purpose and the PARTS OF A LETTER. * # occasion. Good paper furnishes an incentive to good work, and produces a favor- able impression upon the recipient. Business men recognize these facts, and, as a consequence, the letter paper used in business k generally of a good quality. The color of the paper for social correspondence is also a matter of taste, but good usage favors white. For business correspondence, white is the prevailing color, any other being .the exception. For invoices, checks, and some other kinds of business forms, colored paper is quite extensively used. EnT elopes. — The envelopes used for business correspondence are oblong in shape, and of various sizes. Those most commonly used are known as !Nos. 6 and 6^. The former measures 3f by 6 in., and the latter, 3f by G| in. The No. 9 envelope, which measures about 4 by 9 in., is much used for official correspondence, legal documents, manuscripts, etc., and is known as the official envelope. For social correspondence, two styles of envelopes are in general use. One, nearly square, which contains the note sheet folded once, and the other, oblong in shape, made to contain the note sheet after it has been folded twice, once each from the top and bottom. These are from -§• to \ in. greater in width and length than the folded sheet. The square-shaped envelope should not be used for business purposes. For social correspondence, the color and quality of the envelope should harmonize with that of the paper. For business purposes this is not of so much importance, although for correspondence a good quality of white envelope is generally used. PARTS OF A LETTER. For convenience and clearness in explaining the form of a business letter, the following classification of the parts or elements is presented : 1. — Heading ( Place and Date ). 2. — Address. 3. — Salutation. 4. — Body. 5. — Complimentary Closing. 6. — Signature. Heading. — The heading indicates when and where the letter is written. It usually contains the post-office directions of the Avriter, and the date of the letter. The heading should furnish the party addressed the information he will need in directing his reply. Whether the county, street and number, post-office box, etc., should be given depends upon the circumstances, and is left to the judgment of the writer. Generally speaking, if the writer reside in a city, his post-office address should contain the street and number, city and state; if in a small place, it should include the name of the post-office, county and state. When a request is made to direct a reply m 'care of a third party it is usually put in the body of the letter or just after the signature. The heading is generally begun on the first ruled line, which in letter paper is about two and ;i half inches, and in note paper about two inches, below the top of i!i" sheet; and it may occupy one, two, or three lines, according to the information it is designed to contain. The heading of a business letter rarely occupies more than one line, and a part of it, the place, is generally printed. The date of a letter 10 CORRESPONDENCE. consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year in which it is written, the month usually being in words, and the day of the month and the year in figures; as. April 24, 1889. The arrangemenl and position on the lines of several headings are shown in the forms given below. Form 1 shows a one-line heading, hegnn far enough from the left margin to rill the remaining spare to the right. Form 1. ^i^z^ny.Jf.M^Z^^^ v-'ff?* A two-line heading should be used when the matter, arranged in one line, woulfl extend more than half way across the sheet. The heading should never extend to the left of the middle of the sheet. Form 2 shows a two-line heading, the first line begun near the middle of the page, and the second line begun far enough from the beginning of the first to fill the remaining space to the right. Foio[ 2. Form 3 shows a two-line heading arranged similar to form 2, in which the post- office address occupies one line and the date the other. Forh 3. ^(asuy, O^^^^' O^r ycSc/, /^/rf^. PARTS OF A LETTER. 11 Form 4 shows the manner of arranging a two-line heading which includes the post-office box, and is similar to Form 2. Form -4. v(y^ da^r ^T/rfM Punctuation". — The heading of a letter should be carefully punctuated. Sepa- rate the parts — the street, the place, the state, the county, the month, and the vsar — by commas. Put a period after every abbreviation and at the end of the heading. If any .part of the heading ends with an abbreviation it will require a period and a comma, as shown above. The accompanying script forms should be carefully studied and referred to until any heading can be correctly punctuated. Remark. — In submitting the various forms given herein, the fact is recognized that an absolute standard is not observed either in the books upon the subject or in the practice of correspondents, and it is therefore thought best to present but few forms. Those given have been selected because they are most generally used, and it is believed that drill upon a few standard forms will produce better results than practice upon a greater variety of styles. The practice exercises for the student, given herewith, will be of much more value if they be carefully written with pen and ink, and after being corrected, returned to student for re-writing, to be preserved by him for reference. Better results can also be obtained if students all use paper uniform in quality and size. A EXERCISES. Write the following headings, referring to the models, if necessary, for the correct position, punctuation, and use of capitals : l.^Trenton X J dec 9 1885 2. June 10 1888 S C Charleston 3. NebrFremont 1887 4 May 4. NY Livingston co Mt morris Jan 2 1886 5. Iowa Rose hart co 1884 9 Oct v 6. Box 81 Pa Sheridan 1 July 1887 v 7. 1889 may 24 16 Park place Cin- cinnati 8. June 8 1887 Kas 13 Oak St Topeka 9. 30 Aug 1885 Ithaca N Y Cornell University \ 10. Write a correct heading of a let- ter from your home. Address.— The address of a letter consists of the name and title of the party addressed, and his residence, place of business, or such other place as he may desig- nate for the reception of his mail. The address is written at the beginning of busi- ness letters, and at the end of social and official letters. The inside address, as this may be termed, corresponds to the address on the envelope, excepting that in the inside address the city and state are written on the 12 CORRESPONDENCE. same line, and that Letters addressed to our person, in care of another, have such information or direction placed only on the envelope. The street and number or post-office box are often omitted in the inside address. In business letters the address occupies either two or three lines, according to the particulars it is necessary bo give in order to insure certainty as to the party addressed. The name is the first part of the address, and politeness, as well as custom, requires that some title be added to the name. The common titles of courtesy are Miss, Mrs., Mr., Esq., and Messrs. Miss is applied to an unmarried woman, Mrs. to a married woman, and Mr. to a man. Messrs. is applied to two or more men. In regard to the proper use of the titles Mr. and Esq. there is a great diversity of opinion. In ordinary business correspondence they are treated as synonymous, the latter being the more common. In addressing a lawyer or a person of distinction who has no professional or literary title, Esq. should be used. Two titles of courtesy should not be joined to the same name; as, Mr. Hiram Sibley, Esq. Nor should a title of courtesy usually be used in connection with professional or official titles; as, Mr. I). B. Wilson, M. D., or Hon. Henry Wilson, Esq. One exception to this rule is where a clergyman's given name or initials are unknown in which case he may bo addressed as Rev. Mr. ( ), giving only the surname. The second part of the address comprises the post-office directions of the party addressed, and occupies one or two lines. If the post-office is in a city it is some- times necessary to include the street and number in the address, in which case they will occupy one line, and the city and state another. The inside address is often omitted in social letters, but it should never be omitted from business letters. Copies of business letters are usually preserved in a letter- book, stenographer's note-book, or in some other form, and without the inside address such copies would be of little or no value for reference. It is also important that the full addresses be given as a matter of convenience to the writer in directing the envelopes, thus avoiding the liability of misdirection or enclosing letters in the wrong envelopes. The following forms illustrate the proper arrangement and position of the inside address : Form 1 shows an address occupying two lines, the name written on the next line below the date and commencing at the marginal line, which is about one inch from the left side of the sheet, and the remainder of the address beginning at the para- graph line, which is about two inches from the left side of the sheet, on the line below the name. See diagram of a letter on page 4. The measurements here men- tioned apply to letter paper, which is usually about eight inches in width. When note paper is used the spacing should be correspondingly narrower. Form 1. V M y<^^y^z^^z^Jia^n^ C^-J^zS PAKTS OF A LETTER. 13 Form 2 shows an address occupying three lines, the first and second being placed as in Form 1, and the third line beginning about one inch to the right of the para- graph line. Form 2. uf^JLj^oiy. Form 3 is arranged the same as Form 1, and is placed after the body of the letter instead of before it, which is the proper position in official and social letters. Form 3. Punctuation. — The address should be punctuated as shown in the above forms. Separate the parts — the name, the street and number, the city, and the state — by commas. A comma should be placed between the name and title when the title follows the name. Put a period after every abbreviation and at the end of the address. EXERCISES. Write the following headings and addresses, arranging and punctuating them correctly : 1/ Lock Box 94 Ann Arbor Mich Dec 6 1871 Messrs Willson & Rodney General Printers and Lithographers Chicago 111. 2. /164 Emmet Avenue Brooklyn N Y April 30 1890 Richard Sherman Esq Elm Park Corner L St Washington D C. 3. 360 E Forty-eighth St New York May 31 1890 William Sartin M D Bellevue Hospital City. 4. s ' Almont Lincoln Co Mont Fourth of July 1889 Jones Bros & Smith 328 Broad- way New York. 5. Room 1007 Wilder Block Rochester N Y Monday Aug 4 1889 Mr Howard White Sec Fidelity Insurance Co 14 James Road London Eng. 14 CORRESPONDENCE. Salutation. — The salutation is the complimentary term used to commence the letter, and the choice of the appropriate word or words to bo used is governed by the circumstances and the relations of the writer to his correspondent. Custom has pre- scribed certain forms which are in general use; as, Sir, Dear Sir, or My Dear Sir, when writing a business letter to a gentleman, and Sirs, Gentlemen, Dear Sirs, or Mil Dear Sirs, when addressing a firm. Sir is appropriate when the writer is addressing a stranger; or it may be used consistently in a letter of censure or rebuke. The more familiar f orm Dear Sir, implies an acquaintance or the existence of previous business relations, while My Dear Sir should not be used unless intimacy or friendship exists between the parties. The contractions Dr. for Dear, and Sr. for Sir should never be used. The term Gentlemen is almost synonymous with Dear Sirs, though not indicating au equal degree of familiarity, and for this reason is preferred by many corres- pondents. The term Gents should never be used. The position of the salutation depends upon the number of lines in the address. It may begin at the paragraph line, a short distance to the right of that line, or at the marginal line. Form 1 shows the position of the salutation following a two-line address and begun about one inch to the right of the paragraph line. Form 1. Form 2 shows the position of the salutation following a three-line address and begun at the paragraph line. Note. — In this form it will be observed that the salutation begins directly under the initial letter of the second line of the address. Form 2. Ja^^^^u/- Form 3 shows another position of the salutation following a two-line address and begun at the marginal line. Note.— This is a common position for the salutation on note paper, on account of the narrowness of the sheet Some authorities capitalize only the first word of the salutation. parts of a letter. 15 Form 3. cj^h^y^^z^is- The salutation in a business letter to a married woman, or to an elderly unmarried woman, would be Madam, Dear Madam, or My Dear Madam. Probably more uncer- tainty has been felt regarding the proper salutation to be used in a letter to an unmarried woman who is a stranger, than upon any other point in the arrange- ment of a business letter. If she be a young woman, Madam would manifestly be improper, and since there is no other word in the language just suitable as a substi- tute, it is suggested that no salutation be employed. Write the heading and address, and proceed with the letter; as: y "/UJ2y '■^tn^y- ** Punctuation". — The salutation in a business letter should be followed by a comma and a dash. EXERCISES. Write the following headings, addresses, and salutations, arranging and punctua- ting them according to the forms heretofore given : v 1. Trenton N" J Dec 9 1885 Mr William Wallace Salt Lake City Utah 84 Maple A.ve Dear Sir Your letter came yesterday and 2. Charleston S C June 10 1888 Mo St Louis McCall Meyers & Co Gentlemen 23 /ine St Enclosed please find invoice 3. Fremont Nebr May 4 1887 James J Carson Minn St Cloud Dear Sir Your favor of the 10th inst 4. NY Livingston co Mt morris Jan 2 1886 Mr John B Halstead Colo Denver president of the board of trade Sir can you inform me b/~ 1889 May 24 Park Place Cincinnati Jackson & Chambers Lansing Mich 62 Main St Gentlemen our best mechanics are at work upon your order 6. Juno 8 1887 Kas 13 oak St Topeka Richards & Conover 100 e 5th St Kansas City Mo Gentlemen Please ship us immediately 7. Write the heading, address, and salutation of a letter from yourself to your Tather, mother, or guardian. Include the name of the school you are attending in the heading. 8. Make an exact copy of the exercises on the next page. 16 CORRESPONDENCE. yS -'i/C^ks staJiin^y f the states, are so nearlv 24 CORRESPONDENCE. alike that, unless the writing is perfectly legible, the letter may ho forwarded ta the wrong place. For instance, in Colorado and California there are many post- offices of the same name; as. Fair Play, Florence, Georgetown, Greenwood, Jackson, Jamestown, etc.; ami, it* a letter were addressed, say, to Greenwood, Colorado, and the writer abbreviated Colorado to Col. (as is often done) instead of Colo., without making the "o" very plain, or without stating the county, his letter would be liable to be missent. Or again, New York and New Jersey have post-offices of the same name, as Allentown, Andover, Belvidere, Garfield, Kingston, Trenton, etc., audit often happens that t iie " Y ' or "J " are written so imperfectly that letters addressed to these post-offices are sent to the wrong state. To prevent this, many correspond- ents almost invariably write the name of the county. The envelope should be placed before the writer so that the flap is farthest from him, otherwise it will be addressed upside down; and the letter should not be inserted until after the address is written. The envelope used for business purposes should have upon its upper left-hand corner, either printed or written, the address of the writer, with a request to return, if uncalled for, after a certain number of days, usually 5 or 10, at the end of which time it will be returned to him; but without this recpiest, if not called for, it will be forwarded to the dead letter office. When several letters are written at one time, to avoid enclosing them in the wrong envelopes, it is suggested that, as each envelope is addressed, the letter to which it belongs be enclosed at once; or, if the letter is to be reviewed by some one else, it should lie slipped, unfolded, under the flap of the envelope. When letters are addressed to commercial travelers, tourists or others who are only temporarily stopping in a city, especially one where the free delivery system is in operation, such letters should be marked "Transient" or "General Delivery," unless some stated place, other than the post-office, is included in the address. If the person be stopping at a place not having the free delivery system, the letter may be marked "Not a resident," " Transient," or words to that effect. This is done to obviate the risk of the letter being delivered to a resident of the same or similar name. The Stamp. — The postage on all letters should be fully prepaid, by affixing a stamp of the proper denomination. The stamp should be neatly and firmly attached to the upper right-hand corner of the face of the envelope, as shown in the illustra- tions on page 25. The placing of the stamp in any other position on the envelope indicates a degree of carelessness or ignorance that is deplorable. One stamp of the proper denomination should always be used, if possible, instead of two of a lesser value. Overweight letters are not forwarded unless one full rate (2 cents) is prepaid, in which case the postage due is collected at the office of delivery. If, however, one full rate is not prepaid, the letter is not forwarded until the postage is paid. Id this case the writer is notified, if his name can be ascertained, and if not, the person addressed is notified that a letter addressed to him is held for the necessary postage, and that it will be forwarded upon receipt of the same. If the adhesive gum- has been removed from the stamp in any way, mucilage should be used to attach it, firmly to the. envelope. It should not be necessary to inform one with even the meagerest amount of taste and culture that the stamp should be right end up. When a stamp is inclosed in a letter, slightly dampen one corner and attach it to the face of the letter sheet. Courtesy requires that letters to disinterested parties, especially letters asking favors, should contain a stamp for reply. ENVELOPE ADDRESS AND STAMP. 2? 26 CORRESPONDENCE. Opening; Letters. — Letters are opened properly by cutting the top open length- wise with any convenient instrument. If letters arc opened in this way, the con- tents are more easily Been, and inelosures that may be separate from the folded letter sheet are Less liable to be overlooked; also, the letter sheet is more easily removed, and if it is attached to the envelope, as sometimes happens, it can be taken out without being mutilated. ■.- EXERCISES. Write the following envelope addresses. Unruled paper cut to the size of envelopes, or ruled paper cut so the writing will be across the lines, may be used. 1. Mr. E. S. Cushman Delhi Mills, Mich. 2. F B Kenyon Esq 24 E Dean st Lockport X Y. 3. Hamilton Brown LLD care of W H Wentworth Esq Ithaca X Y. 4. Hon John Brown Goodrich Penn Park cor H street Philadelphia Pa. 5. Miss Elizabeth Duncan Vassar College Poughkeepsie X Y. G, Mrs Henry W French Box 24 Lincoln Onoka Co S Dak. 7. Messrs J C Bradstreet, Bingham & Co Clothiers and Furnishers about 400 Broadway Xew r York. 8. Kansas City Journal Journal Building cor 10th and Walnut Sts Kansas City Mo. 9. Mrs D H Brown or Mrs W D Hilton Chautauqua X Y. 10. • Messrs Bannig & True (As nearly as we can ascertain) Photographers Min- neapolis Minn. 11. ABC care of Daily Tribune City. 12. John Brown D D Stanwix House Denver Colo Please forward. 13. Mr Peter Henderson Detroit Mich Transient. 14. Prof Geo C Ostrander Springfield Mass General Delivery. 15. Dr James Kobison care of Robison Bently & Brown Girard Pa Personal. 16. Silas Warner Esq Geneva Deliver without delay if possible. 17. William W Duncan M D Xew Haven Conn Deliver to addressee only. 18. Mr John Smith Augusta Me General Delivery Xot a resident. 19. Mr Washington Howe Avon X Y After one week P M will please forward to Penn Yan X Y. 20. Master William Young care of Dr J G Young Homer Idaho Ter. Postal Cards. — Postal cards are properly employed for making brief business announcements of an informal and usually of an unimportant character. A written message that approaches the dignity of a letter should not be entrusted to a postal card. This is principally on account of their publicity, and also for the reason that many have a contempt for one who uses such a medium for important communica- tions. Further reasons why they should not be employed for important business are, that they are not returned to the writer if uncalled for, but destroyed by the postmaster, and also because they are naturally treated as less important than sealed letters, and are, consequently, more likely to be miscarried, misplaced, or lost. It is not good taste to use postal cards for any kind of social correspondence. Instructions regarding letters also apply to postal cards, with the exception that the inside address is omitted, the heading and the salutation only preceding the message. Nothing but the address should be written on the face of postal cards, as post- ENVELOPE ADDRESS AXD STAMP. 27 masters are instructed not to forward them if they do not conform to this rule. The U. S. Postal Guide says: "~No printing or writing is permitted upon the address side of the postal card (except the address), nor is it allowable to paste, gum, or attach anything thereto, except an address label to be used for the address upon the card." CORRECTED LETTER. ^/^^zy /^/^T^y C^ 02Sti, j+r+*r 'iieh mistakes are the least excusable. Nothing short of absolute accuracy should se tolerated in all the work, and habits of care and neatness should be inculcated from the start. The accompanying corrected letter illustrates a simple method of correcting com- mon errors. 2S CORRESPONDENCE. REVIEW EXERCISES. 1. 9 Coe st Erie Pa Oct 1 1890 W Ooy Esq Ely * * * 1 am yours truly J Nye. 2. < Office of Superior Lumber Co Duluth Minu Jan 20 1891 Hon Daniel South- wick House o£ Representatives Washington D C My dear Sir * * * I have the honor to remain yours very truly David Carson. 3. Linden Cal Aug 20 1889 D Appleton & Co 1 3 and 5 Bond Street New York Gentlemen What are your tonus and prices for your "British Art"? Please give quotations for the work both in pamphlet form and bound in two volumes in half Russia. { Paragraph here. ) If you have an agent in this vicinity vvho will call on us we may conclude to handle some of your goods Yours respectfully Manson Bros. 4. Room 20 Westinghouse Building Pittsburgh Pa Nov 21 1889 Messrs Iloyt, Williamson & Hoyt ( 'or Stephenson Park and "West II St San Francisco Cal Dear Mrs * * * We put this matter in your hands without definite instructions trusting that you will give it your best attention we remain yours very respectfulbj The Iron Mountain Iron Co per J "Wren Sec. 5. 904 East loth Street Kansas City Mo June 12 1889 DrHW Stanford Presi- dent of the London Medical Dispensary 25 Warwick square Manchester Eng Dear Sir I inclose herewith Five Dollars ($5) for your * * * Please forward as soon as possible and oblige Yours respectfully O P Bloss. 6. N Staffordshire Westmoreland County N H Aug 4 1889 John T Williamson Manfg Co 9G8 S Monument St Philadelphia Pa Gentlemen * * * By giving this your immediate attention you will relieve us of the painful necessity of using means that will force this matter to a conclusion we are yours respectfully Bell Bros & Yates. ; . 96 Hampton Place Denver Colo Mar 12 1890 Mr John R Snell 87 San Juan Terrace Quito Ecuador S A via San Francisco Dear Sir * * * I am sir Very respectfully yours J II Wenthrop. 8. Room Go New England Building Chicago 111 Aug 1 1889 Mr A Carr care J Pierce Dominion Land Surveyor Moosehead Lake via Edmonton North West Ter Dear Sir This is my third letter to you since hearing from you * * * ( Para- graph here.) If my letters reach you in a bunch I hope you will make a clean sweep and answer them all at once Yours truly W Conn. 9. 44 Avenue B Tick Park Rochester N Y Aug 6 1889 John Hampden Esq 105 Cumberland Court E London Eng Dear Sir Your letter of June 25 came during my absence * * * Yours very truly Jas M Gilbert. 10. Office of Alex Dwight & Co Bankers 24 Wall st New York USA July 9 1880 Mr Geo T Venedicoff 37 Lege rue Sophia Bulgaria Europe Dear Sir * * * Thanking you for the confidence reposed in us and pledging you our best efforts in your behalf we have the honor to remain very respectfully your obedient servants Alex Dwight & Co. 11 Grecncastle Pa July 30 1889 Messrs D & H Vail Proprietors of the Hanover News Hanover Mich Gentlemen Your favor of the 28th inst received We expect to ship your order to-morrow and it should reach you in time. (Paragraph here.) We have your dispatch to-day regarding Warren's paper and have wired answer that it has just been shipped with car load of Press. (Paragraph.) We are very much afraid that we cannot get to the Elliott order before the latter part of the week Will you advise us what sizes he wanted first Yours truly Jones Paper Co per Tyler. SOME SPECIAL POINTS. g» Some Special Poustts. Errors ill Letters. — Anything in a letter that indicates a lack of care shows a degree of disrespect to the one written to, and for this reason especially, such tendencies should be avoided. Blots and other errors due to mere slovenliness, are not excusable in letters, but stamp the writer as wanting in some of those graces that make the cultured gentleman. Errors in grammar, errors in spelling, or in the use of capital letters, show a lack of education that the circumstances may in a measure excuse; but with all the advantages for acquiring such knowledge in these days, in the young especially, such ignorance is more apt to be due to a lack of appreciation of the value of such information than a lack of opportunity to acquire it. For these and other reasons, a letter is usually an index to the man. If errors are discovered after the letter is written, it is, as a rule, much better to rewrite it than to send it away disfigured by one's own corrections. The habit of interlining should also be avoided, which can be done by rewriting all letters having iTiterlineations in them. One. should be especially careful not to make such palpable errors in the super- scription of letters as may possibly subject correspondents to humiliation and embarrassment, should they receive letters through a third party. Imperfect Addresses. — More than five million letters and parcels, containing more than £10,000,000, go to the dead letter office every year. Why do so many go astray? For the reason that the-addresses are absent altogether, or because they are illegible, incomplete, or incorrect. The most common error in addresses is made in writing the state illegibly, incor- rectly, or by omitting it entirely. Such letters, if the writer's name cannot be determ- ined, are sent at once to the dead letter office. Another reason why many letters go astray is on account of the name of the post-office being omitted, illegibly or incorrectly written, or misspelled; and many letters never reach the proper destina- tion because the name of the party written to is illegible, or written incorrectly by dividing the name in an unusual way, by not spelling it correctly, or omitting or mistaking the initials. Thousands of letters are every year posted without any directions whatever, and, of course, go direct to the dead letter office, if they do not have the address of the writer on them. It is certain that a large proportion, if not a majority, of letters go wrong for the simple reason that, in directing replies, given post-office directions are not followed to the letter. Spelling. — Bad spelling is one of the worst faults that letters contain. With dictionaries so cheap and accessible as they are, there is simply no excuse for one who habitually misspells words in an ordinary letter. Many a young man fails to gain positions because of his misspelling in his letters of application, and the unfortu- nate fact regarding it is that generally he does not know that it was his poor spelling that disqualified him. Excellent penmanship and composition only serve to make poor spelling more conspicuous. Look up every word of your letter rather than send it out with one word misspelled. A habit of using the dictionary will correct the very worst spelling. 30 CORRESPONDENCE. Penmanship. — One of the indispensable elements of a perfect letter is good penmanship. Good penmanship is that which is legible, easily and rapidly written, and pleasing in appearance. One who aspires to become a good correspondent must e careful attention to this subject. Improvement can be made in this, as well as* in other branches, by correct and persistent practice. Good writing is not only desirable as an accomplishment, bnt it is also many timed a means of securing material advancement. Few acquisitions are more appreciated by the possessor, or are more valuable, than the ability to write a legible, rapid hand. Mixing Business and Friendship. — In case both parties to a letter are on terms of friendly intimacy, the temptation to interject matter which should never appear in a business letter is very strong. The chief objection to be urged against such a dual character in a business letter lies in the fact that, in looking over the letter-tile afterward, which is frequently clone, it becomes necessary to consume time in reading matter which has no relation to the information sought. Again, the writer cannot always be sure that the recipient will have time during business hours to cull a few necessary particulars from such a quantity of foreign matter. While there exists no valid objection to the same envelope covering two letters, one a. busi- ness communication and the other one of social character, it is advised that the two features be divorced, at least to the extent of occupying separate sheets. Verbiage. — A very common error with business men who are not pressed for time, lies in the inclination to write long letters, when shorter ones would meet every requirement. While the writer may have abundant time to beat about the bush in making an order, in acknowledging a remittance, or in the construction of any kind of a business letter, the man at the other end of the line may not be so fortunate, or unfortunate. He may find it a positive hardship to be compelled to wade through a number of tortuous sentences to get at the gist of a very simple matter, and it ia quite probable that frequently he will find it difficult to determine the writer's mean- ing, from the very fact of the unnecessary multiplication of words. Hasty Replies. — Many perplexing and provoking matters arise in the corres- pondence of a business house, and a judicious correspondent will be constantly on bis guard lest he write something in haste, and perhaps in anger, that he would afterward deeply regret. It is wise to consider carefully and act deliberately. When constrained to write severe things, the letter should be permitted to lie over night for review before mailing. If this be done, it is probable that the character of the letter will be changed radically, or perhaps it will remain unmailed. Many letters which would seem ample provocation for a sharp reply had better go unanswered. Kind words make and hold friends, while hasty or vindictive words alienate friends and injure business. Copying Letters. — Copies of all letters containing matter of importance should be preserved. Afac simile, made with a copying-press, is a most satisfactory means of preserving a copy of a letter. If the communication be dictated to a stenogra- pher, the short-hand notes may be preserved, and if the communication be a reply to one received, the chief points of the reply may be minuted on the letter to which the one sent is a reply. Style of Expression. — The style of expression most suitable for business lettere is essentially different from that of other correspondence, requiring greater brevity, accuracy, and force of statement. What would be regarded a good literary styla SOME SPECIAL POINTS. 31 might be considered quite objectionable in business, where time is too precious to be wasted on words, and the sooner the point can be reached the better, both for the writer and his correspondent. It is necessary to cultivate acquaintance with the terms and phrases peculiar to the line of business in which one is engaged, as by their proper use the correspondent is greatly assisted in making his letters brief and distinct. Aside from these technical terms, the more natural and original the style of expres- sion the better. A person who has acquired the ability to express his thoughts clearly and effectively on general questions will find less difficulty in adapting him- self to the language peculiar to any business than one who has not cultivated this faculty; hence the value of training upon general exercises in letter writing. As an aid to the cultivation of originality and directness in business letters, it is suggested that the writer imagine his correspondent to be standing at his side, and that he write in his letter what he would say in person if he were explaining the matter. Such a course would be a Avise one for all persons in their correspondence, as it would not only encourage a natural and original style, but would act as a restraint to the hasty and bitter words one is perhaps more liable to use in letters than in conversation. The several specimen letters presented in this work are to be considered more ia the light of suggestions than of absolute standards. While they cover but a limited portion of -the ground of general correspondence, it is believed that they contain sufficient variety to form a good foundation from which to work out into successful practice upon any line of correspondence that may be required. The examples selected contain some of the most difficult tasks in letter-writing a correspondent will be called upon to perform. Modifying Words. — The modifying words, phrases, and clauses should be so placed as ro make it clear what they modify. The following sentence (taken from a bona-fide letter) — "We hand you Fifteen ($15) Dollars in payment for the conrpendiurus received yesterday which please acknowledge and receipt bill you will find enclosed as soon as convenient," directs the correspondent to acknowledge the compendiums and requests him to find the bill enclosed as soon as convenient. Such ambiguity may be avoided thus; 'The compendiums -were received yesterday. In payment we hand you Fifteen ($15) liars, which please acknowledge as soon as convenient by returning enclosed bill receipted. < Dollars The following is more concise: '& The comijendiums came yesterday. Enclosed find Fifteen ($15) Dollars in payment as per your bill herein. Please acknowledge and oblige. "If you Avill pay your note for $750 due in ten days which we hold to-day, we will discount Twenty-five ($25) Dollars and the accrued interest," states that we hold the note to-day, and that we will discount the interest. Although the correspondent may have no difficulty in understanding the meaning, such clumsy expressions should never be used. Make short sentences, as: "We hold your note for Seven Hundred Fifty Dollars ($750) due in ten days. If you will pay it to-day wo will allow you a discount of Twenty-five Dollars ($25) and the accrued interest." 3'2 CORRESPONDENCE. Or change the order of statement, as: "We mil allow yon a discount of Twenty-five Dollars ($25) and the accrued interest o your note Eor Seven Hundred Fifty Dollars ($750), due in ten days, which, we hold, if yo will pay it to-day." It is \ ery annoying to receive letters containing such ambiguous statements. The writer knows just what he meant, but his correspondent may not, and if the latter cannot guess at the meaning with tolerable certainty, lie is caused the trouble and delay of writing for an explanation. Such cases occur frequently. Courtesy. — The words chosen should be courteous and should maintain the degree of respect due the party addressed. By a careless or thoughtless use of even one word, it is easy to make a statement very abrupt, if not actually offensive. For instance, a request couched in such terms as the following : Gents, — "Send me at once Cat. of your Bus. Coll. and oblige etc." stamps the author as entirely uninformed or utterly regardless of the usual cour- tesies, and in this enlightened age the disposition will probably be to favor the latter opinion. Or again to write: "When you are ready to settle your account, you will call at nry office and I will look it over with you." may not be intended to be imperious in its tone, but the use of the w r ords " You will" make it liable to be so understood, especially when it may be so easily rem- edied by saying "please call," or "if you will call." Choice of Words. — The words selected for business letters should be terse and vigorous, and such as express the exact meaning in as brief a form as is consistent with clearness and courtesy, avoiding words or phrases not directly concerning the matters treated in the letter. As an aid to directness of statement, and as a means of avoiding the repetition of conjunctions, pronouns, etc., short sentences are recommended, especially if the writer is not well versed in the use of infinitives and participles. For example : Dear Sir, — I wish you would send me a copy of the latest edition of your "Guide" as I an) preparing a paper on Rose Culture and I expect to get some valuable hints from yoiu* book, and my paper must be ready by the 12th as the Convention meets on the 20th, and all the papers must be in the hands of the committee not later than the 15th, so I hope you will send the "Guide" at once. Which might be corrected as follows : Dear Sir, — Please send me at once a copy of the latest edition of your "Guide." I an preparing a paper on Rose Culture, to be read at the Convention which meets on the 20th, and I expect to get valuable help from your book. All papers must be submitted to the Com- mittee not later than the 15th, and, to enable me to do so, mine must be ready by the 12th. But the writer Avould be more likely to receive a prompt reply if he refrained from troubling the publisher with information of no interest to him, and simply wrote: Dear Sir, — Please send me by return mail a copy of the latest edition of your "Guide.'' if it does not reach me by the 10th inst., it w r ill be too late. LETTEKS ORDERING GOODS. 33 Business Letters. LETTERS ORDERING GOODS. Letters Ordering Goods should carefully specify the articles wanted, contain full directions for shipping, and give the name and address of the party ordering, so as to leave no possibility of a mistake in filling the order. The uncertainty which the lack of proper instructions in these particulars causes shippers is very annoying and frequently occasions delay and loss. If goods are advertised by number, or designated in any way, parties ordering should be careful to observe and follow such instructions in every particular. In renewing an order, the directions should usually be as explicit as if it were the first. Fo.r instance, to say : " Send us another gross same as our last order" neces- sitates the finding of the last order; and in looking it up, much valuable time may be lost, possibly delay caused in filling the order and certainly less favorable feeling will be entertained towards the party ordering ; whereas, if be had written his order in full, very little more time would have been required on his part, and he would have been more than compensated for the extra labor by avoiding possible delay, and by the favorable impression his business-like and careful methods would create. It should be remembered that it is always much easier to enter an order from an order sheet than from the books of the firm filling it. Acknowledging Orders. — The practice of acknowledging all orders is a com- mendable one. It is very satisfactory to a purchaser to receive a prompt acknowledg- ment of the receipt of his order, and the assurance that it is receiving attention, especially where the articles ordered require some preparation to put them in proper condition for shipment. Even if the goods are ready and the order can be filled at once, if a letter of acknowledgment reach the customer before the receipt of the goods, the favorable effect of such a letter will be worth more than the time and labor required to write it. "With many firms the custom is to acknowledge an order by sending an invoice, but unless the invoice states the date or probable date of shipment, the purchaser is left in a state of uncertainty and suspense not by any means desirable, as his customers are quite apt to charge him with a delay, for which the shipper or the transportation company may be responsible. EXERCISES. 1. Observing the arrangement of the specimen letter on page 35, write a letter and address an envelope to J. II. Lansing, Boston, Mass., ordering, by American Express, ten copies of Watson's Readers. Numerals are usually employed in orders, instead of writing the number in words, as. 10 for ten. Sign your own name to th« letter. 3 34 CORRESPONDENCE. 8. Write a Letter and envelope to Eugene Sloeum, Maiden, Mass., ordering foui Wire Tooth Rakes and seven Corn Cultivators, to be shipped by freight. 3. Write a letter and envelope addressed to P. II. Gardner, Dayton, 0., ordering two dozen number five Ice (ream Freezers, three dozen number two Dairy Churns, and one-half dozen number one Rotary Tumps. Numerals and abbreviations should be employed as follows: v doz. No. 5 Ice Cream Freezers. 3 « " 2 Dairy Churns. i " " 1 Rotary Pumps. When the kind of goods ordered is so well understood that no liability to error exists, such an order might be still further abbreviated, as: 2 doz. No. 5 I. C. Freezers. 3 " "2 D. Churns. | " "1 R. Pumps. 4. Order by letter, of Ingham, Black & Co., New York, 24 Robinson's Prac- tical Arithmetics, list price 75^; 12 Swinton's Fourth Readers, list $1.25; 6 Web- ster's High School Dictionaries, list $2.50; and 12 gross No. 1 Pens, list $1.10. You receive a discount of 10 and 5 per cent, from the list prices. Write the order. 5. Write a letter to F. R. Jameson & Co., Boston, ordering 2 piece3 Black Dress Silk, 3 pieces Ponson Silk, 2 pieces Black Dress Velvet, 1 piece Black Trimming Velvet, 2 pieces Black Satin, 1 piece Teillard Silk, and 2 pieces C. L. Gingham. Request that the goods be shipped by earliest express. The greatest care should |be taken that the order be correctly made. 6. Copy the following letter, giving to each of the different parts its proper position: Buffalo, N. Y., June 20, 1889. Messrs. Lemon, Bache & Co., 443 Greenwicn St., New York City. Gentlemen, — Please send per Merchants' Dispatch, N. Y, 0. & H. R. R. R., original boxes (there is less breakage where you do not have to repack) 4 cases 14 x 26 French Plate clear; 5 cases 12 x 24 French Plate clear; 18 cases 12 x 22 French Plate clear. The 4 cases to be first quality, double thick; the rest second quality, single thick. We prefer you would not draw on us, as we will remit at maturity (four months from date of bill) or add interest if we do not. Yours truly, The Standard Chem. Co. per (your own name). 7. Write a letter ordering three different articles, giving shipping directions, and state when and how you will make payment. 8. Write a letter to White Star Oil Co., Olean, ordering the following goods, if they will furnish them at prices you quote. Instruct them not to forward goods unless they will warrant that you will receive them within twenty days. Also instruct them to ship C. O. D., if they prefer, or you will remit upon receipt of goods, if they allow you the usual two per cent, off for cash. 2000 Gallons White Neutral, 16 cts., F. O. B., Olean. 600 Gallons Filtered Neutral, 17 cts., F. O. B., Olean. LETTERS ORDERING GOODS. 35 / / 30 CORRESPONDENCE. LETT K US CONTAINING INCLOSUKES. A Letter Containing an Inclosure should explain what the inclosure is, and if it be a remittance, should state I lie amount and whether it is a note, draft, check, or money order, also how it- is to be applied. The letter of reply should acknowledge receipt, and if the remittance has been made in payment of an account, or a note, should inclose the bill receipted or the note cancelled. The inclosure in either case, especially when in the form of a note, draft, or check, should be folded within the letter, as shown in the accompanying diagram. It should not be placed within t he envelope separately, as it is liable to be cut or torn when the letter is being opened, or to remain within the envelope after the letter is removed, causing delay and inconvenience, and sometimes loss. DIAGRAM OF LETTER WITH INCLOSURE. Promptness. — A very important factor in correspondence is the promptness with which letters requiring reply are answered. This is true of all correspondence, social or business, but in no class of letters is promptness more desirable than in letters acknowledging remittances. The correspondent who sends a remittance by mail knows about how long it will take his letter to reach its destination and when he should receive an acknowledgment of its receipt, and if even a day longer than the necessary time elapses, he does not fail to note the delay, though he may not think of mentioning it; and on the other hand he is just as sure to note the prompt- ness of parties who systematically acknowledge all remittances on the date of their receipt. The man also who always remits promptly is sure to please his corre- spondents, and they will invariably be found ready to overlook any defects in his letters, or to extend him favors, although, it may be added, such a man is usually the last to find it necessary to ask for favors. LETTERS CONTAINING INCLOSURES. 37 There is great diversity of practice among business letter-writers in the ctse of capital letters in expressing an amount of money in a letter, as well as in such commercial documents as notes, drafts, and checks. It is believed, however, that the custom prevailing with those whose opinion and example naturally command the greatest respect, is to capitalize every word, unless the amounts be very long, and write the cents as a fractional part of a dollar ; as, Nine Hundred Sixty-one and fVo Dollars. In writing a letter it is also a common and commendable practice to repeat the amount in numerals, in parenthesis, after writing the amount in words, thus: Four Hundred Forty Dollars (1440). LETTER INCLOSING REMITTANCE. '&CU /^*w?%<^^ ^^z^/y/Z/rr^. NEW YORK DRAFT. -m^ Farmers National UanR, tl OF EOCHESTEE. g pa^/ to tKe/§rc}er of I J[. 9 Jy^^z^/../^-.is8f. 'z^yz<&22j/-L .©.offarA, 3S C0HKKS1'0NDKN"CE. EXERCISES. 1. Write a letter to James D. Johnson, Dickinson, Cal., informing him that you have effected a lease of his farm for a yearly cash rental of $G00, to William B. Hovey, whom you know to be a capable and reliable man. Inclose a draft on New York for the amount of the first quarter's rent, less your commission of two per cent., $12, for transacting the business. Write the draft as well as the letter. 2. Write a letter to Harper & Brothers, Franklin Square, New York, inclosing an American Express money order for Four Dollars, for Harper's Magazine for one year, saying that you desire the subscription to begin with the first number of the present volume. 3. Write the letter that should accompany a remittance of a check for Three Hundred Dollars and a note at thirty days for Two Hundred Dollars on account. 4. Write a letter to Benton & Brown accompanying the proceeds of the sales of Consignment No. 4. Eemittance sent by a New York draft. Amount of draft Nine Hundred Sixty-eight Dollars. Thank them for favor, etc. 5. Write a letter to Warren L. Morrison, Dover, Miss., inclosing a draft drawn by the First National Bank of your place upon the Chemical National Bank of New York for £300.00, in settlement of account. Write the draft made to your order and indorsed by you to Warren L. Morrison. See illustration below. DRAFT SHOWING INDORSEMENT. The advantage in having a. draft sent as a remittance made payable to your order is that, by indorsing it payable to Morrison's order, he will also be required to indorse it before he can either collect or negotiate it, and his indorsement shows that he has received from you the amount of money covered by the document. In the absence of any other acknowledgment of the remittance, this draft, which may be procured within any reasonable time from the bank by which it was drawn, is the very best evidence of payment. A draft or check used for the purpose of making a remittance by mail should never be made payable to bearer, either on its face or by blank indorsement, as such paper, in the hands of dishonest persons, is much easier to negotiate than if payable to order. LETTERS CONTAINING INCLOSURES. 39 6. Write a letter to J. W. Fleming & Co., 93 Great James Street, Toronto, Ont., inclosing yonr check on the Fifth National Bank of your place for $961,45, the amount of your note of $900 and interest, in their favor. Write the check as well as the letter. 7. Write a letter to Byron N. Sherman, Geneseo, 111., inclosing your note for $596.73, on account, at three months from date, payable at Baldwin & Co.'s Bank. See form of note below. PROMISSORY NOTE. v>3 %^kn (■]•:. 9. "Write a letter to Ingham, Black & Co., inclosing a draft on Third National Rank, New York, for the amount of the foregoing statement. See form of draft on page oT. Acknowledge in the letter the receipt of a circular describing their Silverine Ten, and inquire as to its merits compared with the No. 1. 10. You receive a letter from Ingham, Black & Co., acknowledging receipt of your draft and explaining that the Silverine Pen is somewhat more flexible than the No. 1. and (hat it is regarded as more durable, being less susceptible to the corrosive properties of ink. "Write the letter of Ingham, Black & Co. An Invoice is a written statement in detail of articles sold. It should state the date of the sale, the names of the buyer and seller, the terms of credit, the name, quantity and price of the articles, and the total amount. The invoice is said to be receipted when the words " Received payment," or the word " Paid," and the seller's signature have been written at the bottom. Copy the following invoice, exercising the utmost care in penmanship, figures, and arrangement. INVOICE OF GOODS. s^W!^^W43^ Z&i^K^ZW'^ J& .3 -2/, • // -2// J // 61 < ■-((>• Sir, — This will introduce to you my friend, Mr. J. S. Brim, who represents the Hall "Manufacturing Co., Avell known to you as leading casket builders, and who intend to erect a warehouse in your city, Any assistance you may render Mr. Brim in his search for a site will he greatly appreciated by me. Yours very respectfully, A. B. Cantteld. EXERCISES. 1. "Write a letter to Mr. L. TV. Craig, 1414 Troost Ave., Kansas City, Mo., introducing your friend Mr. David C. Glass, who is looking for a place to locate in business there. 2. Write a letter to Mr. James P. "Willis, Secretary of the Board of Trade. Fremont, Nebr., introducing your friend Dr. "W. J. Howe, a recent graduate of Bellevue Medical College, New York, who has commenced to practice medicine in his city. LETTERS OF INDORSEMENT. A communication introducing a business acquaintance, who wishes to open trade with the party addressed, should be very guardedly worded. It is very easy for the writer to incur a moral obligation to perform agreements made by a bearer of such a letter, if, indeed, he does not become legally liable. If the person requesting such a letter is known to be financially responsible, and a man of irreproachable character and business ability, but little risk of any kind is assumed ; but, unless he is known to possess such qualities, the letter had better be withheld. Letters of indorsement should not be sealed if given to " bearer." The following is a safe and proper form: Office of BILLINGS, MONTGOMEBY & CO., pHrLADEiiPHiA, Pa., June 16, 1889. James C. Morse & Co., Meriden, Ct. Gentlemen, — The bearer, Mr. Bobert C. Springer, is preparing to engage in a genera] hardware and house furnishing goods trade, in Duluth, Minn. , and visits you for the purpose of examining your stock of pressed and plated ware. Intimate acquaintance with Mr. Springer's energy and business ability, as well as knowl- edge of the excellent field for trade in which he is about to locate, convinces us that you will "find it profitable to extend him every reasonable courtesy. Yery respectfully yours, Billings, Montgomery & Co. LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION. 45 EXERCISES. 1. Write a letter to W. H. Gould & Sons, wholesale dealers in crockery and china ware, Providence, R. I., introducing Mr. Charles J. Hunter, who intends to carry a line of their goods in addition to his present stock of groceries. Refer to Mr. Hunter's career as a merchant, and mention reasons for your confidence in him. 2. Write a letter to the manager of the Great Western Type Foundry. Chicago, 111., introducing your friend Mr. James H. Fields, who has been connected with the " Morning Herald " of your city for several years, and is about to open a general printing establishment in Helena, Mont. LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION. The utmost caution should be exercised in the preparation of a letter of recom- mendation. While the natural impulse of every kind-hearted person is to write such a letter when called upon, especially by one in whom he feels interested, and the temptation is often strong to give the virtues of the applicant all the prominence warranted by fact, and to ignore his weaknesses, it should be borne in mind that such a transaction may have a wider significance than was intended. The applicant might be intrusted with duties or responsibilities, upon the strength of such a letter, which the writer (fid not suppose were within his reach, and the person or firm engaging him might be subjected to great inconvenience or loss through his incom- petency or dishonesty. Thus the applicant, instead of having been benefited, as the writer hoped, would be disgraced, and the writer's reputation for good judgment, ami perhaps for veracity, would be lost. If the applicant for such a letter merits commendation, it should never be with- held ; but it should never state more than the most conservative man into whose hands it may fall will find amply justified. If a letter of recommendation is to be delivered by the party recommended, it should not be sealed. The engraved letter of recommendation on next page is believed to be in good taste and form. EXERCISES. 1. Make an exact copy of the engraved letter of M. E. Keeler on page 4''.. 2. Write the letter of J. B. West, Son & Co. to M. E. Keeler, making inquiry regarding Henry Will. Write the letter in such form as will make the answer of M. E. Keeler appeal - complete mid consistent as a reply. :;. Wd-if a letter to John II. White & Co., Newton. la., commending William II. Browning, who has been in your service during the last two years, and who has proved himself a thoroughly competent book-keeper and correspondent, as well as a man of excellent business judgment. He leaves you owing to a change in the pro- prietorship of your business. 4. Write a letter to your former employer, Mr. John II. Crane. Lewiston, Me., asking For a letter covering your connection with his business, and requesting him to speak, if possible, particularly of your application to duty, and your ability as a salesman. ."». Assuming thai a reply has been received from Mr. Crane, inclosing a satisfac- tory letter of recommendation, you will write a letter to him in reply, express your appreciation of his kindness. 6. Yon will also write the letter which you are supposed f<> have received from Mr. Crane. 46 CORRESPONDENCE. ^l^Z^c^C^yl/ y^> ^rl^y J2,2sfiy ^^1<4k yU^z^stZ^yz^z •zust^- ^u/zzJy ^^yeJzy tzr as possible, the suggestions offered 48 ( OKKKSl>ONl)KNCe>. A letter of application, in reply to an advertisement, should state wnen and where the advertisement was seen, should make application for the position advertised, and should answer all the requirements called for. The tendency is common, among fresh graduates of schools and institutions of all kinds, to make the fact of their graduation their sole recommendation in applying for any position. The fact is, every school inevitably graduates some who just man- age, by hook or crook, to get through, and these are the ones who go up and down the land nourishing their diplomas and demanding that the business world recognize them. A diploma from a good school is a good thing and a life-long satisfaction, but business men are apt to pass by a young man who depends too much upon a diploma as an evidence of what he can do. EXERCISES. Write answers to the following genuine newspaper advertisements: 1. "ITT ANTED. — A young man to assist in office and who is competent to VV keep books. Address, H. C. G., Letter Carrier 4. 2. TIT ANTED. — Bright, intelligent boy, for office; must write a good W hand and figure correctly. Wages $9. Address, with references, Post Office Box 1526. 3. TIT ANTED. — A young lady stenographer who understands bookkeep- VV ing. Address, in own handwriting, G. C. H., Letter Carrier 6. 4. T300K-KEEPER AND CORRESPONDENT. — Wanted, a book- ie keeper, competent to keep the accounts, and assist in conducting the correspondence of an establishment. Address, stating experience and giving references, " Business," care of this office. 5. ITT ANTED. — A young man 18 or 19 years of age, to act as billing VV clerk. Must write a good hand. Address, giving references and experience, Drawer 206. 6. Write a letter to Hogg, Brown & Taylor, Boston, Mass., applying for a position in their office, saying you have heard there would be a vacancy soon. Give references and state experience. 7„ Write to the chairman of the Board of Education, Nunda, 111., applying for the position of principal of the public schools of that place. State what experience you have had in teaching, what grade of certificate you hold, what reference you can give, etc. 8. Make application, by letter, for a position as traveling salesman for the Johnson Manufacturing Co., Jersey City, N. J. Give references, state experience and what territory you are familiar with, and ask for a personal interview. 9. Write a letter applying for position as first mate on lake steamer Ben Hur. Address letter to Union Steam boat Co., Chicago, 111., giving such particulars as would be likely to be required. 10. Apply for position as manager of millinery department of Smith Bros., & Smith's dry goods store. Give such particulars as would usually be required. 11. Apply for a position as cashier for J. H. Bonny & Go's clothing house. 12. Apply for a position as teacher in a commercial college. Say what branch you think you are best qualified to teach and the one in which you are most deficient. 13. Write a letter applying for some position you would like to obtain. PEKPLEXIKG BUSINESS LETTEKS. 49 PERPLEXING BUSINESS LETTERS. The business man is frequently confronted by circumstances tbat make the writ- ing of explanatory letters a very difficult task; and perhaps the most perplexing ones to write are those regarding complaints or misunderstandings, in which it may become necessary to conciliate or censure persons whose business and good will it is desired to retain. Misunderstandings sometimes arise in business, and careful treatment of disputed points at the critical time may effectually avert difficulties which another course might precipitate. The complications that may arise in any business are peculiar to itself, and no correspondent is competent to deal with them until he has acquired a good knowledge of the business, and of the parties with whom he is dealing. Sometimes, though rarely, a man may be subjected to so much trouble and annoyance by the unbusiness-like methods of another, that he ceases to care whether business relations are sustained or not, and writes very point- edly; this could not excuse or justify him, however, in descending to write anything discourteous. Dunning Letters. — The composition of an effective dunning letter is many times a very ]:>erplexi»g task, and requires much skill. Such a letter, to be perfect in its wording, must not only obtain the money due, but accomplish this, if possible, without offending the delinquent debtor. As a rule such letters should not be abrupt or blunt, but should courteously and clearly state the circumstances and give the best existing reasons for the request, and especially should not be dictatorial or imperious in tone. If it become necessary to suggest the using of forcible meas- ures, this suggestion should usually be put in such form as will not be construed as a threat but rather a reluctant act that the force of unavoidable circumstances necessitates. Letters of Censure.— Letters of censure should always be written with care, that they may accomplish their purpose without giving undue offense. Such letters should never be written without abundant provocation and unless they are likely to accomplish some desirable purpose. The following letter, to an agent who has exceeded his instructions, is an illustra- tion of this class of letters: Secretary's Office, Pittsburgh, Pa., Aug. 13, 1889. Mr. J. H. Bartram, Brooklyn, N. Y. Dear Sir, — Acting upon advice from the Company, I write this letter to call your attention to rules 4 and 5 of our "Instructions to Managers." While the Company recognizes and duly appreciates ambition on the part of its agents looking to the legitimate building up of its business, yet it objects most emphatically to their pursuing any policy other than that prescribed in its rules, even though a temporary gain may result therefrom. Such a course, -we regret to note, is still being followed in your office, in violation of the spirit and letter of the rules above quoted. After we had once signified our disapproval of this course, which you will find in our letter to you under date of May 15, we had hoped that we shoiUd not have occasion to refer to the matter again, especially in view of your otherwise faithful and satisfactory services. But in this we have been disappointed, and I am now authorized to notify you that if your methods in the future conduct of our business in your office do not conform to our wishes, as expressed in our rales, we shall be compelled, very much against our inclination, to ask for your resignation. Respectfully, John D. Mills, See'y. 4 50 COR RES PO N I ) E \ OE. EXERCISES. 1. Yon are a wholesale .hardware merchant, and one of your traveling men is not sending in as large and frequent orders as you are justified in expecting from him, considering the season, the salary he is getting, and the territory assigned him. You have compared his sales with those in the same territory during his former trips, and find he is falling below all previous records; whereas, the general prosperity of trade naturally causes you to look for a considerable increase in his orders. Write a letter stating the above facts as mildly as possible, and tell him you are willing to listen (o any explanation he may give for the light business he is doing, and to allow him a little time to improve before permitting yourself to believe he is responsible for it. Make him feel that you are writing a letter of complaint, but expressed in such moderate terms that he will understand you are disposed to be patient with him. 2. Write a reply from the salesman, admitting that he was aware of the compar- ative condition of his sales before receiving your letter, and that he is at a loss to account for it, unless it is due to last year's overstocking; that he has never worked more faithfully in past years than he is now working, and that, if you will permit it, he would like to report in person some time soon and talk matters over with you. 3. Write to the salesman in a different strain from the first letter, but stating the same facts. Charge him with lack of energy, and tell him that you cannot afford to continue him in his position if the situation does not begin to improve speedily. Be careful that, in your censure of his slackness in business, you write nothing disrespectful. 4. Write the salesman's reply, in which he refers you to a former letter asking for a rest for a week or two, and stating that the present trip has been a very trying one in some respects (mention them), and that he cannot hold out any hope of doing better unless he be allowed a time for rest and recuperation. Write in a strain that indicates injured feelings, but free from undignified language. 5. A customer who buys freely, but is sometimes slow in remitting, is more than usually delinquent, several amounts being considerably overdue. lie has received several statements of account with request to remit, but has paid no attention to them. Write him a dunning letter, pressing him for payment as closely as you think you can without offending him. The two points that have about equal weight with you as you write are, that you really need the money, and that you do not wish to lose his trade. 6. You are a shoe manufacturer and guarantee certain lines of your goods. A customer writes that the goods he bought of you are not equal to your agent's guar- antee (mention particulars), and claims a discount according to the terms of his purchase. Write the letter of your customer. 7. Write a reply to the foregoing letter. The circumstances are these: Y"ou are not very well acquainted with this customer, not having dealt with him until recently, and you do not know how much confidence to place in his honesty and fairness in making his claim, and you write him evasively but courteously, stating that you will hold your decision until you have seen Mr. True (your agent), but assuring him that whatever agreement Mr. True made with him shall be faithfully fulfilled. 8. You are engaged in the manufacture of farming implements, and receive a letter from a distant firm enclosing a large order, the first they have ever sent you. TELEGKAPH1NG* 5] The task of replying is rather delicate and difficult, because you wish to secure their trade, but you cannot satisfy yourself as to their standing, and you do not wish to run any risk. Tell them that, while you would like to do business with them, yet as they are strangers to you and have no report in the commercial agencies' books, you will be glad to fill their order C. 0. D. 9. Write a letter and rej^ly regarding some troublesome business matter, supply- ing the circumstances from your own experience or observation; as, for example, rival companies or agents infringing upon each other's rights, losses caused by delays in shipment, etc. 10. "Write a letter to J. Wood Davis, calling his attention to the fact that hia account is now past due, and asking for a remittance. 11. Write the second letter, one month later, again calling Mr. D.'s attention to his unpaid account, referring to former letter from which you have had no response, and asking for at least an explanation. Give the amount of indebtedness in letter. 12. Write a third letter to Mr. D., referring to two former letters, and inform him that if you do not receive a remittance or a satisfactory letter of explanation within ten days you will be obliged to try other means to collect the account. 13. Write a letter in answer to No. 12, making some kind of an explanation of the matter. TELEGPxAPHIN"G. The writing of telegraphic dispatches or telegrams is a peculiar branch of compo- sition and requires special practice. The matter of importance is to say the most in the fewest words, and this is done without regard to ordinary rules of composi- tion. No salutation or complimentary closing is usually employed, as in letters, and any words may be omitted from the message that will not leave the meaning indistinct. Beginners should first write the message out in full, and then strike out all words that will not affect the clearness of the meaning of the remaining words, till the matter cannot be further reduced or the required brevity is reached, and the message should then be copied. Nothing is gained by reducing a message below ten words, as the charge is the same for a less number; but an additional charge is made for every word above ten, and hence the necessity for condensation. Numerals and characters in the message must be written in words. For example, "80/o" must be written "eighty per cent," "$50"— "fifty dollars." An order for goods by telegraph especially should not be so brief as to sacrifice clearness of statement. The language should be made as concise as possible, but obscurity or uncertainty of meaning should not be allowed to arise from an undue cutting down of the number of words. A telegram is resorted to only when time is to be gained and business hastened, and to insure this the wording must be unmistakable. The following actual circumstance forcibly illustrates the danger of the extreme shortening of a dispatch : Tbe price of wheat delivered at Rochester was asked for by a Rochester broker. The reply waa wired from Chicago in these words, "Ninety-four Rochester." The receiving operator misspelled four and made it read, "Ninety for Rochester," on which basis a purchase was made, aud the broker lost $85 in the transaction, involving a suit to recover from the telegraph company. Had the little word "at "been inserted, the trouble would have been prevented, as "Ninety for at Rochester" would have been meaningless. 52 CORRESPONDENCE. Even when the dispatch requires more than ten words, it is poor economy to incur the risk of mistake, delay, or loss by the obscurity of a message which the use of a few more words, at a slight expense, Mould obviate. On the other hand, a needless multiplying of words when a less number would answer the purpose is to be discouraged on general principles. The faculty to express one's meaning clearly in a i'rw words is desirable in all business correspondence, but especially so where the transact ion of business involves the use of the telegraph. For instance, the following dispatch : " When will you ship balance oak timber we ordered last month ? Answer before five this afternoon. Contractor must lay off his men to-night. Wants to tell them when to return," can be made to convey all the information the lumber merchant reauires or cares to receive by writing the following: " When will you ship balance oak ordered last month ? Answer before five to-day. Con- tractor must notify men." Or again : "Your offer to take our stock of Tapestries at twenty per cent, discount accepted. Will ship first lot to-morrow. Cannot ship balance till next week," may be reduced to * ' Offer for Tapestries twenty off accepted. First shipment to-morrow. Balance next week. " It is not always desirable that a message be intelligible to others than those inter- ested. For instance, a dispatch reading as follows: " Paid Harrison ninety to-day," might mean that Harrison was paid $90 on account, that he was paid ninety cents a bushel for wheat, or that he was paid 90$ for railroad stocks, and yet be perfectly clear to the parties concerned, but unintelligible to outsiders, an element very desira- ble in many telegrams. In fact, no small portion of the telegraphing of the world is carried on in cipher, making it possible to communicate the most important intelli- gence and to discuss the most private affairs between points hundreds of miles distant from each other, with nearly as much safety and secrecy as they could be talked over in the private office. The cipher is used also to lessen the expense, as a word is often made to represent a sentence, or sometimes even an order for goods. A brief message by telegraph is usually followed by a letter containing full particulars, and precedes the letter for the purpose of accelerating business, or withholding a decision. If such telegrams are not answered by wire, they should be noted in the reply letter in words similar to the following : "Your letter of the 10th hist, confirming telegram of the 8th, received." EXERCISES. Write the following telegrams: 1. "Write a dispatch to Most & Stevens, Springfield, Ohio, ordering by American Express, to be sent at once, one No. 4 Mower. 2. Write a dispatch to Davis, Lord & Co., 90 Grand St., Chicago, asking them how they wish their order for paper of 1st inst. shipped. 3. Write a dispatch to Capt. E. P. Allen, Ypsilanti, Mich., saying you will pass through his place at 9 a. m., and that you would like to see him at the station. 4. Write a dispatch congratulating a friend upon his election as senator. TELEGRAPHING. 53 5. "Write a ten-word dispatch to James Lawrence, Byron, 1ST. Y., saying that yourself and brother and one trunk Avill arrive at that place at 6 p. m., and that you wish him to meet you at the station. 6. Write a dispatch to Willotson & Co., 94 Greene St., Cleveland, 0., saying that the shipment of oats is not equal to sample, but you will accept if they will allow you a reduction of twenty dollars. ~. Write a dispatch to conductor of train 9, at Albion, N. Y., saying you left a satchel, marked with your initials, on train. Instruct him to forward it to Koch- ester at your expense. 8. "Write a dispatch to your brother at Toledo, 0., 4G4 Fourth St., saying that the frightful accident on the railroad on which you are traveling was on the train ahead of yours, and that you are safe and well. 9. Write a dispatch to Proprietor Hotel Brunswick, Cincinnati, 0., asking him to reserve for you a good single room, one on the north side preferred, from Wednes- day noon. 10. Write a dispatch to Howe, White & Co., Produce Exchange, New York, ask- ing permission to draw at ten days for Five Hundred Dollars, and when they will remit if they do not wish to honor draft. 11. Write an answer to above, instructing you not to draw, and that they will remit in ten days. 12. Write a dispatch to your traveling agent, Mr. H. J. Sanford, Commercial Hotel, Toledo, Ohio, instructing him to skip Detroit, go on to Chicago, and return by the way of Pittsburg. Also state that a letter, which will give full instructions, follows. 13. Write a dispatch to H. W. H. Jaynes, 14 Stamford St., Providence, B. I., asking him to telegraph you, at once, an order for One Hundred Forty-two Dollars. 14. Answer the foregoing, saying order is sent, and that Eichard Eipley will identify if necessary. 54 CORRESPONDENT!: a BUSINESS LETTER., ^L^2^Lx^ 6^^/ ~&4s /^ /fr- iz- djc -^tz^t/. ^U^cJ^r ^C^ie^ z^n^i^a^z^y <#-£<■ /~z 67^*-^ a^z^y ^ynA%t£dA> a^cA^u^-t^ ^^w??4izJ/^U>4s^^ (O^zy -T^ j//^°- ^~ <%^^ / /£rus ^kJ^ MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 1. Write a letter to your employer, resigning your position as shipping clerk. Give reasons for your action, and say that you would be glad to receive a letter of recommendation from him, if he considers you worthy of it. 2. Write a telegram, not to exceed ten words, to be sent to Messrs. Wright & Allen, Lumber Dealers, Buffalo, N. Y., countermanding your order for clear pine sent them yesterday. Tell them that a letter follows your dispatch. 3. Write a letter to a friend who has for some time used a graphophone in his MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 55 office in connection with a type-writer, asking him if he finds the graphophone adapted to and an aid in correspondence work, and what its special advantages are, or the objections to it. 4. Write an answer to the above. 5. Write the letter making the inquiries regarding stock, prices, terms, and references answered in the following letter: 144 Exchange Street, Beading, Pa., June 13, 1889. J. B. French, Esq., Morning News, Savannah, Ga. Dear Sir, — Your esteemed favor of the 9th inst. received. We can supply you with paper delivered at either Savannah or Macon, Ga., in carload lots, for 3f s cents per lb. cash, — set- tlements to be made each month for paper used the previous month. We inclose you samples of our stock, and can refer you to any of the newspapers named in our circular, also inclosed. We would say that, apart from those who are under contract to us now, we have supplied within a few years past such papers as the N. Y. Herald, N. Y. World, and Philadelphia Item. We are very careful in the preparation of our roll paper, regrinding a great deal of it to insure its perfect quality in every particular, and we have no doubt that our stock would be entirely satisfactory to you. Yours respectfully, The Superior Paper Co. 6. Write also a reply, inclosing a trial order. 7. Write a reply to the following letter, explaining the apparent neglect. Manchester, Mich., June 10, 1889. S. S. Colton, Emporia, Kas. Dear Sir, — Our draft on you of May 29, for invoice of goods shipped for your account March 23 last, $22.25, and goods delivered by Agent, 75 cts. — total $23., has been returned to us with the indorsement, "No Attention." The account being now some ten days or two weeks past due, we would request that you make us a remittance by N. Y. Draft or Money Order to balance same, by return mail, and oblige, Yours truly. Standard Chesi. Co. 8. Write a letter to a friend, telling him you are about to buy a type-writer, and asking his opinion of the different kinds on the market. 9. Write an answer to the above, recommending some machine, and giving your reasons. 10. Write to the publisher of some paper, asking him to change the address of the paper sent you. Give both addresses in full. 11. You have found, on a North Avenue street car, a large leather purse con- taining a twenty dollar gold coin, a ten dollar national bank note on the Bank of Middletown, N. Y., three silver dollars, and fifty-five cents in change, Write proper advertisement for the daily papers. 12. Write a letter to a friend in Cleveland, 0., asking his opinion as to the' value or practical utility of electricity as a motive power for street cars, as compared with horses. 13. Write an answer to the above. 14. Write a letter to an employee regarding his intemperate habits, saying you will regret to lose him, but that you cannot longer tolerate his weakness or vice, and that, unless there is a change for the better at once, you will be obliged to discharge him. COKRESPONDENCE. 15. "Write to a friend., congratulating him upon the success of a book written by him, that you have just read and are highly pleased with. 16. Write a letter to the patentee of a valuable invention, applying for the gen* oval agency for your state. Give references and experience, and what salary or commission you will require. 1 ?. Write an answer to the above. 18. Write a letter from J. W. Atwater, Buffalo, N. Y., to W. H. Young, 643 Broadway, New York, asking him to be at the Long Distance Telephone office, 600 Broadway, on Saturday afternoon at three o'clock, as he wishes to talk to him five minutes on business matters. 19. Write the engraved letter of 0. K. Dunton, page 54, in good form, making it as different in wording as possible from letter given, but expressing the same ideas. 20. Write a letter to the chief of police of Rockland, Ind., asking for any inform- ation regarding the character or financial standing of one H. C. Calhoun, a former resident. 21. Write an answer to letter called for above. 22. Write a letter to J. C. Lord, Esq., chairman Texas Congress of Commerce, St. Louis, Mo., stating you are advised that he is the proper person to whom to apply for guaranteed rates to San Francisco, covering the year. Mention a contract you have a prospect of obtaining, calling for about fifteen car loads of paper a month, but will not close it till rates can be settled upon, on account of the fluctua- tion in through rates. Ask him to advise you whether you can be protected in any- way. Sign the letter, American Paper Co., per (your name). 23. Write a letter you are supposed to have received from a friend traveling in Europe, giving an account of the places he has visited. 24. Write a letter asking a customer to settle his account to some definite date, instead of sending small remittances on account. Book-keeper has great trouble and annoyance in rendering statements. 25. Write a letter to a patron who claims that his right to the exclusive sale of your goods given him by your Mr. Judson, is infringed upon by other dealers. Not knowing positively, write as fairly and in as conciliatory a spirit as possible, stating that Mr. Judson has no doubt acted in good faith, but do not commit yourself till you have seen Mr. Judson. 26. Write a letter to a railroad company regarding overcharge. Freight was prepaid to Denver and Denver agent paid additional charges, which were excessive. Ask to have the amount of the overcharge refunded. 27. Write a letter to agent. Report of sales does not agree with footing. Ask for explanation. 28. Write a letter expressing your approval of plan proposed by partner. 29. Write a letter explaining that the recent loss of stock, etc., by fire, will cause delay in filling orders. 30. Write a letter to publisher, stopping subscription to paper. Give reason. To Teacher. — The following outlines will tend to develop originality, as they call for letters regarding actual circumstances. 31. Yv r rite a letter to your teacher, stating that you have been requested by your parents or guardian to ask that reports of your attendance, daily work and progress be sent to your home at regular intervals. To Student. — Avoid as much as possible using the words and phrases employed in giving the exercises. Try to catch the ideas and clothe them in your own language. The exercises will become much more valuable to you if you follow this plan. MISCELLANEOUS EXEECISES. 57 32. Write a letter to the principal of the school, giving your programme of study both in and out of school, your hours and methods of recreation, hours for retiring and rising, and any other information regarding the employment of your time. 33. Write a letter to the principal, giving an account of the last examination you had in book-keeping, law, arithmetic, penmanship, or other subject as the case may be. Give him your opinion as to any special value such examinations possess for you as a mental drill, review exercise, or any other benefit you derive from them. 34. You have received from your father, or guardian, a letter inclosing a check on the bank through which he usually transacts his business, to be applied by you in defraying your expenses. Reply to the letter, acknowledging receipt of check and stating what disposition you have made of it; whether you had it cashed by the secretary of the college, or obtained his indorsement so that the bank cashed it for you; whether you took a certificate for it, or what you did with it; and state that you are keeping an account of your receipts and expenditures, so that at the close of your term you can show him how the money supplied you has been used. 35. Write a letter to the principal, inclosing the bank check just received, and asking him to identify you by indorsement or to cash it for you as he prefers, and stating that if he prefers the latter, you will call at his office for the money at any time he will be kind enough to appoint. 3G. Write a letter to your teacher, explaining that you wish to be absent from school for a week on a visit to your home. Briefly state the condition in which your work will be left if you go now, and tell him that you cannot see a better opportu- nity for breaking off for a week without interfering with your progress and discom- moding him, but that if he has any suggestions to make you will be glad to receive them. 37. Write to the teacher from your home, stating that the sudden and serious illness of your father (or some other cause) will compel your absence from school for an indefinite period, but that as soon as you can learn with any definiteness the probable duration of your absence you will notify him. Ask him, in the meantime, to take charge of your books and papers. Xote. — The student is reminded to use language original with himself. It will he very easy to write almost the whole of this letter by simply introducing a few words to join the sentences as they stand in the exercise, and the teacher who accepts such work does his students great injury. 38. Write a letter to the teacher, stating that your lack in arithmetic or writing is so great that you think the best thing you can do is to drop all other work for a time and give your whole attention to the subject named. Ask his advice in the matter. 39. Write a letter to the principal, asking him to advise you as to your securing employment after completing the course. Tell him frankly what your inclinations or preferences are, and request him to give you his best judgment in the case, even if it antagonize your choice. 40. Write a letter to the principal, stating that you have completed the work of the course, and believe yourself to be entitled to the honors of graduation. Inclose the required fee for your diploma, and write your name as you wish it to appear thereon. 5S coiu;i;6ro.sL>i;.Nc;is. Social Correspondence. That the ability to write good business letters is a very desirable acquisition, and that its importance can scarcely be over-estimated, is unquestioned. But the ability to write desirable letters of friendship is also valuable, and a few suggestions are offered, important, we believe, not only to those who have acquired skill and readi- ness in the use of the concise, expressive forms of statement required in business correspondence, but also to that large class of persons not engaged in business, and who will have occasion to write few, if any, business letters. All will have more or less of social or friendly correspondence, and while many persons may write suitable business letters, they may find it necessary to cultivate greater ease and felicity of expression in their social letters than the briefer and more exacting style at their office desks. Materials and Form. — The paper and envelopes suitable for social correspond- ence are described on pages 7 and 8, and while the same general rules as to the form and position of the various parts of a letter apply here as in business corres- pondence, the difference in the size and shape of the sheet generally used, as well as in the familiarity of the communication, causes the social letter to differ some- what in form from the business letter, as explained below. 1. Heading. — Form and position as in business letters illustrated on page 4. 2. Address. — "When the address is given in social letters, its proper position is after the body of the letter on the line below the signature and commencing about half an inch from the left side of the sheet. The following form illustrates the proper position of the address: I shall write you again soon after we reach the mountains, which will require about ten or twelve days, at our present rate of travel. Your sincere friend, T. T. Festlay, J. W. Cabon. Fort Wayne, Ind. Probably not more than ten per cent, of the social letters written in this country nowadays contain the address, the salutation being made to do duty for both. While in such correspondence as that between brothers and sisters, intimate friends, or schoolmates, the address may be unnecessary and may be omitted without offend- ing good taste, yet there are many letters in which the address placed at the close shows a deference and imparts a tone of respect so fitting and appropriate as to render it very desirable to place it there. Letters to parents, or elderly relatives, and letters in general written to our seniors or superiors who favor us with social or friendly correspondence, may be included in this class. 3. Salutation and Closing. — The position of the salutation is on the next line below the date, commencing about one inch from the left side of the sheet. On page 14 are pointed out the ruling forms of salutation in business letters, with SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. Di* reasons for their choice, and the same general principles apply in social letters. The familiarity and warmth of expression of the salutation and complimentary closing depend upon the nature of the correspondence, and the intimacy of the friendship, or the closeness of the relationship of the parties. It is not imperative that they should be equal in the letter and the reply, as a disparity in the ages or positions of the correspondents may justify a reserve on the part of the senior or superior which would be unbecoming and improper in the other. It is safe to say that in corres-= 2"»ondence, a person is entitled to at least an equal degree of respect to that accorded him in personal association. As we adapt ourselves, therefore, to the circumstances of age and position of our relatives and friends in social life, and demean ourselves accordingly, so we vary our style correspondingly in our letters. A point never to be overlooked in a letter is the suitability of its style to the subject-matter, and to the party to whom it is addressed. Ordinary letters of friendship properly commence with the word ' ' Friend " written before the surname, as "Friend Harris" and close with "Your Friend" or "Yours truly" preceding the surname of the writer. Greater familiarity would justify the use of the given name instead of the surname, as "Friend Fred.," closing with the writer's given name' as, "Your Friend Ralph." In just what cases these familiar terms may be used without presumption remains for the writer to decide. Many a correspondent, uneducated in this respect, is ignorant of the effect produced by his improprieties upon persons of refined manners and tastes, and would probably be surprised if he knew just how far such matters enter into and affect the general estimate of his standing and worth. . The same qualities that combine to make the agreeable associate are required to make the desirable correspondent, and over- familiarity is not one of them in either case. If any doubt exists as to the pro- priety of using a given form or term, care should be taken to respect the doubt and avoid the questionable term. The very great variety of expression m salutations and complimentary closings of friendly letters makes it possible to give as examples only a very small portion of those in actual use, as the shades of expression to suit the particular feeling, spirit, or temper of the writer are almost unlimited. 4-. Body of Letter. — The body of the letter in social correspondence usually begins at the right of the salutation, on the next line below. In social letters, both sides of the sheets are written on, if the letter is more than one page in length, and the j>ages are not numbered unless the sheets are separate. LETTERS OF AFFECTION. Letters of Affection are such as grow out of our regard for others. They are as varied as our relations to others are varied, and may be simply the expression of kindly feeling or they may be dictated by the strongest impulses that move the human heart. Letters of affection add much to human happiness, and more of them should be written. To father, mother or sister at home, what a joy there is in a letter from a loved one who is away. From one for whom we have a high regard, what a pleasure it is to receive a good letter! Our pleasure in receiving such letters suggests to us most forcibly our duty as regards writing them. 60 CORRESPONDENCE. LETTERS OE FRIENDSHIP. Letters of Friendship make up that large class of written messages that perpel aate the i ies of friendship and regard of those who are absent from each other. The chief charm of a Letter of friendship is its natural, conversational stylo. It should cause the recipient to feel that he has been favored with a delightful visit, not a formal call, that the little matters of mutual interest have been talked over, and that the common experiences and details of every-day life have not b en for- gotten. The very heartiness and animation put into the letter work their way into his life, and fill a place in his heart that would be wanting if the style were strained or formal or borrowed. Thus, Bayard Taylor, while in Germany, writes to an intimate friend in America : "Your letter came four or five days ago, and I take my first leisure to answer it. I take it for granted that this ■will find you in your Tenth Street rooms, which are so clear in my memory that a letter is more like a personal meeting to me than when you were in Ron- dout. You somehow manage to bring your own bodily self before me when you write : I see your eyes and the changing expression of your face, as I read, and the sound of your voice accompanies the written words. Thus your letters are most welcome, no matter what you write. * * * " Again, in reply to a cheering letter sent him while under a cloud of trouble and disajrpointment, he writes : "Your letter really cheered both of us, and some cheer (although the worst was over) was needed. I feel entirely free to give you always an honest picture of my mental and moral condition, and you must not withhold your depressions in return,. for they belong to your life. This is the great relief and blessing of our correspondence, and any feeling of restraint, on either side, would take away from its value. * * * " To another : "You made your short note so pleasant that I can't scold you for its brevity ; yet I should like to. There might have been so much more of what may seem personal or domestic ' nothings ' to you, yet have such value at this distance. * * * " But while a formal style in friendly letters is to be discouraged, a familiarity that may be safely indulged in conversation may be altogether out of good taste in a letter. We do not always measure what is spoken to us by the exact, literal meaning of the words uttered, as they are usually modified by the look, tone of voice, or gesture of the speaker. But in the letter these are absent, and however thoroughly we may think we understand the spirit of our correspondent, we should not allow ourselves to write carelessly or thoughtlessly. An impression produced by a hasty, inconsid- erate word is hard to dislodge, and we should write with the idea constantly before us that a word written is much more difficult to recall than a word spoken, remem- bering, also, that our letters may be seen by others than those for whom they are intended — a circumstance not infrequently caused by accident or necessity. As in conversation so in correspondence, the subject-matter, while dealing with events, persons, and things of mutual interest, should be free from gossip. Nothing either in conversation or correspondence more certainly indicates shallowness and poverty of mind than the tendency to dwell upon the real or fancied faults and failings of others; and the inclination to join in the whisperings and idle talk too commonly indulged in should be promptly and effectually checked. The smallest occurrences may be noted, but opinions or thoughts original with the writer serve to stamp his letters with his own individuality and add interest and value to his corres- SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 61 pondence. Freshness aud originality in expression should be cultivated, especially in the opening and closing sentences, avoiding the old, time-worn phrases, as : " I thought I would write you letting you know," " I now take my pen in hand," etc. How refreshing to receive a letter from a friend who begins to talk to us from the first line ; for instance, " It was kind in you to send me a good, long letter while I was lying all alone in my room with nothing else to do but take villainous doses of medicine ; " 1 ' It was a delight to me to see your hand on an envelope again ; " "I found your letter waiting for me on Monday when my holiday closed." Compare also such closing sentences as : " Having told you all I know or care to write, I will now close ; M " I must bring my letter to a close as I have nearly filled the sheet ; " with such as : " Recollect that I am absent and you are at home, so your letters are worth the most ; " " Remember me very kindly to your brother and my old friends on the hill, and believe me, Yours very sincerely, Sometimes, in the desire to be perfectly free and unrestrained in familiar letters, forms are made to give way in a most pleasing manner, especially in beginning the letter. This is charmingly illustrated in the letters of some of our best authors. We give a few examples: Boston, Dec. 10, 1840. Don't, dear Lieber, be offended by my long silence. For the last few days I have been all the time in court. ****** Ever and ever yours, Chas. Sumner. (Sumner to Mr. Tower.) Never, my friend, when the heavens have been dressed in their scorching robes of brass for weeks, was a drop of run more grateful than your timely epistle. * * * * (Sydney Smith to Lady Grey.) Dec. 8, 1838. Awkward times, dear Lady Grey ! However you see those you love sooner than you other- wise would have seen them. * * * (To Lady Holland.) If all the friends, dear Lady Holland, who have shared in your kindness and hospitality » * * (To Miss .) Lucy, Lucy, my dear child, write as your mother writes; act as your mother acts, and don't * * * * When Dickens arranged to come to America to give his course of readings, his friend Fields wrote him a letter inviting him to be his guest on his arrival. We give the characteristic renly of Dickens: Gad's Him,, Oct. 3, 1866. My Dear Fields, I cannot tell you how much I thank you for your kind little letter which is like a pleasant voice coming across the Atlantic, with that domestic welcome in it which lias no substitute on earth. If you knew how strongly I am inclined to allow myself the pleasure of staying at COREESPONDEN-CrK. vcnu* house, you would look upon me as a kind of ancient Roman (which I trust I am not) for having the courage to say no. But if I gave myself that gratification in the beginning, I could scarcely hope to get on in the hard "reading" life, without offending some kindly dis- posed and hospitable American friend afterwards; whereas, if I observe my English principle on such occasions, of having no abiding place but a hotel, and stick to it from the first, I may perhaps count on being consistently uncomfortable. The nightly exertion necessitates meals at odd hoiu's, silence and rest at impossible times of the day, and a general Spartan behavior so utterly inconsistent with my nature, that if you were to give me a happy inch, I should take au ell, and frightfully disappoint you in public. 1 d< »n't want to do that, if I can help it, so I will bo good in spite of myself. Ever your affectionato friend, CHABLES DlOKENS. Extract from one of Sydnev Smith's familiar letters : Eoston, Sep. 16, 1821. Mr Bear Lady Grey, How do you do? Have you got the iron back? Have you put it up? Does it make the chimney worse than before? Eor this is the general result of all improvements recommended by friends. * * * * * * Let me beg of you to take more care of those beautiful geraniums, and not let the pigs in upon them. Geranium-fed bacon is of a beautiful color, but it takes so many plants to fatten one pig that such a system can never answer. I cannot conceive who put it into your head. Charles Sumner wrote to his Cambridge classmates on receiving a letter that had been forwarded to several points, Tour missile hit the mark; though from its early date and late com i ng one would think that the post-office powder was not of the best proof. Letter from Washington Irving to his nephew: -, _ _ Paris, March 29, 1825. My Dear Pierre, I am very much gratified by your letter. It is full of good sense and good feeling. You They ... warn you for the future, not to censure you for the past ; I had felt in my own case "ho wTnsen" sibly a young man gets beguiled away by the imagination and wanders from the safe beaten path ot lite to lose himself m the mazes of literature. Scarcely any author ever set forth with the intention or surmise of becoming such ; he becomes so by degrees ; and I have seen enough of literary life to warn all of those who are dear to me should I see any danger of their stray- I am glad you do not relinquish your studies. On the contrary, task yourself to become a valuable man at all points. When you have leisure, do not waste it in idle society; by idle I mean what is termed fashionable society. How many an hour of hard labor and hard study have I had to subject myself to, to atone in a slight degree for the hours which I suffered society to cheat me out of! Young people enter into society in America at au age at which they are cooped up in schools in Europe. ***** I again repeat, devote as much of your time as you can spare from business and healthful exercise, to storing your mind with valuable information, such as will make you a useful man and an important factor of a busy community. Your affectionate uncle, Washington Living. Note.— The "former letter" alluded to may be found in Vol. II. of the People's Edition of the Life and Letters of Washington Irving. We regret that its length forbids its reproduction here, but it is worthy to be read by every young person who would receive good practical advice from so charming and distinguished a writer. EXERCISES. 1. Write a letter to your parents or to one of your relatives, describing your trip to the city, your experience in finding the school, your impressions of the school and its appointments, and of the city in general. LETTERS OF CONGRATULATION". G3 Note. — You are requested to write this letter with a view of mailing it, after inspection and suggestions from the teacher, to some relative to whom you intend to write during your stay in the school. Avoid using the pronoun "I" as much as possible. Do not hesitate to express your opinion regarding any feature or particular that strikes you, and remember that your friends are interested in any little details that interest you. 2. Answer your father's (or some friend's) latest letter to you, or such part of it as you care to hand in for inspection. Write just as freely and familiarly as you do when writing ordinarily to him, as your letter will be criticised, not only from the standpoint of correct spelling and expression and good writing, but the style, spirit, and feeling will be considered as well. 3. Write to your little brother or sister or cousin, who is, say, under ten years of age, and who has been promised a letter from 3^ou. Write such a description of the school and the city as a child can comprehend and be interested to receive. 4. Write a letter to a friend who thinks of taking a commercial course and has written you for a synopsis of the work done here. Give him as complete and con- nected a description of the course of study, examination, requirements for the various departments, and work in general, as you can, and assure him that you are describing these features just as you have found them. Add any friendly communications you choose to write him. 5. Write to a friend or relative, accepting his invitation to spend a few days with him on' completing your course in the school. LETTERS OF CONGRATULATION. Letters of congratulation are those written to friends who have achieved suc- cess or haye been in some way specially favored. As we should not write letters of condolence unless we can join in the grief of our friends, so we ought not to write letters of congratulation unless we can rejoice in their happiness. There must be no feeling of grudging or jealousy, — nothing but the most natural, hearty, and genuine feelings of joy, expressed in your happiest style. Even those who are enemies, in the sense that they represent opposing interests, sometimes sink their common differences, and laying aside all antagonisms for the time, join in the general expression of congratulation. Letters of congratulation are generally brief, frequently a telegraphic dispatch, and contain no news or intelligence of other matters. This, however, depends somewhat upon the occasion, as, for example, the following letter from Charles Sumner to a friend who had just rejoined his family after a term of absence from them: Hudson, on the North River, Tuesday Evening, Sep. 28, 1841. Dear Lteber, — Here I am imprisoned by the rain in the inn of a Yankee village. Longing for companion- ship I write to you, and while I write, imagine that I have it — as the ostrich supposes himself free from danger when he has thrust his head into the sand. ***** I trust you have had fair breezes and this letter will rind you with her who loves you so well and with your boys frolicking about you. Ah ! my dear Lieber, are you not happy ? I know where you live. I wish your home were more according to your heart ; but you have sources of the highest happiness — domestic bliss of the rarest kind ; constant and honorable employment for your time ; a distinguished name ; and the consciousness of doing good, of aiding the cause of truth, of education, and government. I know few persons who have such reasons for blessing God as you. ***** Ever yours, Charles Sumner. 64 COKKESPONDENCE. When Sumner won the Bowdoin prize, his friend Hopkinson wrote him as follows: ***** Congratulations are matter of oourse; but I hope you will consider it equally a matter of oourse that a friend should feel great joy in your success. * * * * Be this a foretaste of niauy smvesses iu laudable uudertakings. ***** Congratulations from an old friend to a successful competitor for university honors, upon his winning the gold medal : Fair Haven, N. H., July 29, 1889. Mr Dear Hudson, This moment I receive the news of the glorious termination of your college course. Accept my heartiest congratulations. I was sure you would win, and you deserve every bit of your success. The goal you fixed your eyes upon four years ago is reached, and you settle down with light heart and step to the enjoyment of your well-earned reward. Shake hands, old boy ! while I say, well done ! and may this success be only the forerunner of many others awaiting you. Ever your friend, Chas. J. Harper. EXERCISES. Write the following letters of congratulation : 1. To your representative in Congress, congratulating him upon his election. 2. Congratulate a friend upon his bravery in rescuing a child from a burning building at the peril of his own life ; upon his saving a drowning man ; or upon his heroism in risking his own life to save others under any circumstances you may choose to supply. 3. A friend has worked for several years upon an invention. Ke has struggled against poverty, the ridicule of enemies, and the estrangement of friends. But he has succeeded at last, and his invention promises to revolutionize the methods of labor in its line, and to yield him the rich reward of an assured fortune and an honored name. Write him a letter, congratulating him upon his complete triumph. (Call to mind some of the inventors m the history of steam, electricity, and labor- saving machinery.) 4. Recall any circumstance that you may have knowledge of in which some friend deserved congratulation, and write him a letter that shall be self-explanatory; that is, that shall give a reader who is unacquainted with the circumstances a clear idea of what took place. LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION'. A Letter of Introduction is one in which a person introduces the bearer to a friend who is absent. It should not be considered necessary to say anything in the letter commendatory of the bearer, though there is no objection to a few words in his favor, the letter itself being sufficient guarantee of the writer's good opinion of him. A letter of introduction is usually presented in person, and should not be lengthy, the envelope should be addressed as shown in the fourth illustration, page 25; it does not require a stamp, and should not be sealed. LETTERS OF CONDOLENCE. 65 The following is a proper form of a letter of introduction: Waupon, Wis., Oct. 16, 1889. Mk. J. C. Remington, Osceola, S. C. My Dear Sir, — I have much pleasure in introducing to you the bearer, Mr. Lansing C. Warren, who visits your State in the interests of his health. Any courtesy you may kindly extend to Mr. Warren I shall regard a personal favor to mv- self. Sincerely yours, Frank H. Hudson. EXERCISES. 1. Write a letter to your friend W. A. Spalding, Los Angeles, Cal., introducing Mr. D. W. Darling, an old college friend who is in Southern California on account of his health. Eefer to Mr. Spalding's knowledge of the best points in the state for the kind of climate your friend requires. 2. Write a letter to Mr. R. C. Sparrow, Ocean Grove, N". J., introducing your friend Wm. H. James, who is spending a few weeks at the resort. 3. Write a letter to Mr. J. H. Whitney, 27 River St., Niagara Falls, N. Y., introducing your friend W. W. Carson, who has a few hours which he wishes to spend to the best advantage in viewing the great cataract. LETTERS OE CONDOLENCE. Letters of Condolence are such as express sorrow and sympathy for friends who have suffered reverses, looses or bereavement. The task, especially in the latter case, may be a difficult one, yet to refrain from attempting it might be interpreted in the light of neglect or indifference. If we hesitated to write such a letter it would not be owing to our unwillingness to do anything in our power to bring com- fort to the sorrowing one, but to the fear that our very attempt might have the effect of intensifying the grief we seek to assuage. This should not, however, excuse us from taking up the duty and performing it to the best of our ability. The following suggestions are offered regarding the writing of such letters. Do not enter into argument to show the disconsolate one his duty to submit uncomplainingly to his lot. Such letters, however clear and logical, seem hard and unfeeling to one who is seeking for some crumb of comfort. Do not write a long letter. Let your own grief and fellow-suffering be shown in a few lines coining from your heart. Be very considerate in the use of words, and omit mentioning names or details of the sorrow, as they serve to harrow the feelings and open afresh the fountains of grief. Do not suggest what might have been if only such and such had been done, no matter how firmly you may be grounded in such an opinion; rather strive to divert the sufferer's mind to something he did, the memory of which will always yield him comfort, A fine example of this occurs in the correspondence of Charles Sumner, whose letters on all occasions seem to find every possible opportunity for the expression of sympathetic feeling. We quote part of his beautiful letter to his friend Charle- 66 CORRESPONDENCE. magne Tower, on receiving from him a letter communicating the intelligence of the death of Mr. Tower's father: Cambridge, Friday Morning, May 11, 1832. My Dear Friend, The moment I saw the black seal of your letter, my mind anticipated the sorrowful intelli- gence it bore. Permit me to join with you in grief. I offer you my sincere sympathies. The loss of a father I can only imagine ; may God put far distant the day when that affliction shall come upon me ! You have been a faithful son, and I know a joy to his eyes. I rever- ence the spirit with which yon have sacrificed all your professional and literary predilections.* You did that for your father's sake, and the thought that you did it on his account must be to you a spring of satisfaction and consolation as hallowed as the grief you feel. ***** Believe me ever your true friend, Charles Sumner. * Mr. Tower, who died July 25, 1889, was a famous Philadelphia capitalist and lawyer. Sometimes we may wish to convey our sympathy when we feel that the circum- stances of our acquaintance scarcely justify a direct communication. An example of such a case occurs in another of Sumner's letters, which we quote. Writing to Longfellow in 1841, he says: "This moment comes to hand a letter from my brother Albert, communicating the intelli- gence of the death of the wife of our friend . My heart bleeds for him. I think of his wife — simple, cheerful, sweet-voiced, and more than all tilling his heart. If you write to him, pray assure him of my deep sympathy. I would write myself but that I have not that length of acquaintance with him which would seem to justify my approaching him in such a terrible calamity. It is on such occasions that the chosen Mends of years only, heart-bound and time-bound, assemble and knit themselves about the sufferer. I have received no intelli- gence for a long time that has grieved me so much." Perhaps no better specimen of a letter of condolence can be found than the follow- ing, from the pen of the lamented Lincoln. The original letter adorns the walls of a hall in the College of Brasenose, at Oxford, where it is looked upon with deep interest by American visitors and is treasured by the authorities of the college. It explains itself : Executive Mansion, Washington, Nov. 21, 1864. Dear Madam, — I have been shown in the files of the War Department a statement of the Adjutant-General of Massachusetts that you are the mother of five sons who have died glori- ously on the field of battle. I feel how weak and fruitless must be any word of mine which should attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss so overwhelming. But I cannot refrain from tendering to you the consolation that may be found in the thanks of the Republic they died to save. I pray that our Heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of your bereave- ment, and leave you only the cherished memory of the loved and lost, and the solemn pride that must be yours to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom. To Mrs. Bixby, Yours very sincerely and respectfully, Boston, Mass. Abraham Lincoln. EXERCISES. 1. Write a letter to a friend who has received serious injuries in a railroad collision, 'compelling the amputation of a limb. Try to comprehend the situation in which he is so sadly and suddenly placed ; let your thoughts be active, and anticipate, if possible, his anxieties for the future. Make your letter cheery and hopeful, and write at least three or four pages, remembering that he has time to read or listen to just such letters while lying upon his couch day after day. 2. Write to a friend Avho has had his home, representing the savings of years, destroyed by fire, barely escaping with his family, and losing valuable relics and souvenirs which money cannot replace. Assure him of your sympathy. SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 67 3. Write to a friend who has lost an only child. Write in such a strain as to show that you feel the loss and that you suffer with him, pointing him to a Source from which you derive consolation. Make the letter brief, indicating a heart too full for lengthy writing. 4. Recall some actual event in your recollection in which a friend or relative suffered serious loss or bereavement. Let it he a case in which your own grief and sympathy would constrain you to offer your condolence, and write the letter you would send under such circumstances. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 1. Write a letter inviting a friend to join you in a trip to the mountains for a few weeks. Mention your plans for amusement, recreation, or rest, and give a glow- ing account of the advantages of the place for obtaining them. 2. Write a letter inviting a friend to spend a few days at your home. Mention some special entertainment that you are to have and which you wish your friend to share. 3. Write a letter to one of your regular correspondents; let it be a friend who writes good letters to you, which you always strive to answer in your best style. After completing the letter, substitute other names and places (if you wish) and hand to the teacher. 4. Write a letter to a friend in Boston, accepting an invitation to spend a week in the city. Eefer to a former pleasant visit, and say at what time you will arrive and by what line. 5. Write an answer to above, saying you will be delighted with a visit from your friend, and that you will be at the station. Refer to some pleasant trips you have in view, and the delight you anticipate in having an old friend with you. 6. Write an answer to No. 4, saying the sudden illness of one of your family compels you to deny yourself the pleasure of a visit from your friend at the present time; that you hope you will be able to send word in a few days bidding him "Come,'' and that you are much disappointed. 7. Write a letter declining an invitation. 8. Write a letter from a summer resort to a friend, urging him to join you. Describe the attractions. 9. Write a letter of friendship to a former teacher, saying where you are and what you are doing, and how frequently and how much you appreciate the kindly help and advice he gave you. 10. Write a letter to your sister or brother at home, in answer to one just received about home matters. Ask after all at home and what is being done, saying how great an interest you have in all that is happening there. 68 CORRESPONDENCE. Postal Information. The post-office department desires that the public be well informed on postal matters, and orders the annual publication of the United States Official Postal Guide, with monthly supplement, which may be consulted at any post-office or obtained t h rough any bookseller. The following extracts from the Guide contain many valu- able suggestions of general interest to the public: How to Direct and Mail Letters.— Mail-matter should be addressed legibly and completely, giving the name of the post-office, and, if to a city having a free delivery, the street and number; and the post-office box of the person addressed should be added, if he have one. It is well to give the county also, and to spell the name of the State in full. (This is not the usual custom.) To secure return to the sender in case of misdirection or insufficient payment of postage, his name should be written or printed upon the upper left-hand corner of all mail- matter. The matter will then be returned to the sender, if not called for at its destination, without going to the dead letter office, and, if a letter, it will be returned free. Dispatch is hastened by mailing early, especially when large numbers of letters, newspapers, or circulars are mailed at once. "When numbers of letters or circulars are mailed together, addressed to the same destination, it is well to tie them in bundles with the addresses facing the same side. On letters for places in foreign countries, especially Canada and England, in which many post-offices have the same names as offices in the United States, the name of the country as well as post-office should be given in full. Letters addressed, for instance, merely to "London," without adding "England," are fre- quently sent to London, Canada, and vice versa, thereby causing delay, and often serious loss. Let- ters addressed to Burlington, N. S. (Nova Scotia), often go to Burlington, New York, on account of the resemblance between S and Y when carelessly written. Avoid Thin Envelopes.— Thin envelopes, or those made of weak or poor, unsubstantial paper, should not be used, especially for large packages. Being often handled, and in the mail-bags sub- jected to pressure and friction, such envelopes are frequently torn open or bursted without fault of those who handle them. Register Valuable Matter. — All valuable matter should be registered. Registry fee is ten cents, which, with postage, must be prepaid, and name and address of sender must be given on the outside of the envelope or wrapper. Money should be sent by a money-order or registered letter, otherwise its liability to loss is greater, and a temptation is put before those postal employees through whose hands it passes. Postmasters, before receiving a letter for registration, must require the sender to have it securely sealed with its contents; to have it fully and legibly addressed; to have his or her name and address indorsed across the end; and to have affixed the necessary stamps to fully prepay postage and fee. Postmasters and then employees are forbidden to address a registered letter or package for the sender, to place contents therein, to seal it, or affix the stamps thereto; this must be done by the sender, or for him by some other person. (Any letter or postage may be registered, and in cases in which the writer wishes to know posi- tively whether his correspondent received his letter, the receipt returned to him from the office of delivery furnishes the proof.) The Convenience of Letter Boxes. — Patrons in cities where letter carriers are employed are advised to provide letter boxes at places of business or private residences, thereby saving much delay in the delivery of mail-matter. The Use of Mailing Boxes. — When dropping a packet into a mailing box, or into the receptacle at the post-office, care should be taken that the packet falls into the box, and does not stick in the passage. Mail-matter deposited in any receptacle erected by the Department, such as street mail- ing boxes for the reception of mail matter to be collected by letter carriers, or boxes in railroad POSTAL INFORMATION. 69 depots for the reception of matter to be collected by employees of tbe railway mail service, cannot be reclaimed by any one under any circumstances. On such receptacles erected in railroad depots a notice should be affixed that they are not intended for reception of matter for city delivery. Persons depositing drop letters therein, intended for city delivery, do so at their own risk, and cannot reclaim them, except through the dead letter office. Affix Stamps Firmly. — Postage stamps should be placed on the upper right-hand corner of the address-side of all mail-matter, care being taken that they are securely affixed. What Postage may be Paid With. — Postmasters are not required to accept in payment for post- age stamps, etc., any currency which may be so mutilated as to be uncurrent or as to render its genu- ineness doubtful. Xor are they required to receive more than twenty-five cents in copper or nickel coins, nor to affix stamps to letters, nor to make change, except as matter of courtesy. They must not give credit for postage. Penalty for Evasion of Payment of Postage. — Any person who shall conceal or inclose matter of a higher class in that of a lower class, and deposit or cause the same to be deposited for conveyance by mail, at a less rate than would be charged for both such higher and lower class matter, shall, for every such offense, be liable to a penalty of ten dollars. GEKERAI. SUGGESTIONS. A subscriber to a newspaper or a periodical who changes his residence and post-office should at once notify the publisher, and have the publication sent to his new address. The delivering of letters is net controlled by any statutory provision, but by the rules and regula- tions of the Post-Office Department; and the object of the Department is to insure and facilitate such delivery to the persons for whom they are intended. In the case of money-orders and regis- tered letters, the parties applying for them, if not known, should be required to prove their identity in the same manner as in banking institutions, where parties presenting drafts, checks, etc., who are not known, are required to prove their identity. In the case of advertised letters, parties applying should be questioned as to the place or places from whence they may be expect- ing correspondence. In the general delivery of a post office, the postmaster shall exercise a sound discretion in the delivery of letters to persons claiming to be the persons named in the address, and who may not be known to him. Hotel matter should be returned to the post-office as soon as it is evident that it will not be claimed. Proprietors of hotels, officers of clubs and of boards of trade or exchanges, should not hold unclaimed letters longer than ten days, except at the request of the person addressed. When snch letters are returned to the post-office they should be re-directed for forwarding; and in the absence of more definite information as to where the person addressed may be found, the new address may be taken from the hotel register. All inquiries, whether from postmasters or the public, relative to lost or missing mail-matter of every description, both foreign and domestic, ordinary and registered, should be addressed to the Chief Post-Office Inspector, Post-Office Department, Washington, D. C, to whom all losses or irregularities should be reported as soon as knowledge is had of their occurrence. All inquiries or communications relative to mail-matter which is supposed to have been sent to the dead letter office should be addressed to the Superintendent, dead letter office. In such cases the letter of inquiry must state to whom and what post-office the article was ad- dressed, and give the name and full address of the writer or sender, the date and place of mailing, and a brief description of the contents. If it is known when the missing matter was sent to the dead letter office, the date and the reason for sending should be given. If registered, the num- ber should also be furnished. If losses are promptly reported it will be the means of correcting irregularities, and the interests of the public, as well as the efficiency of the postal service, will be enhanced thereby. Letters addressed to persons temporarily sojourning in a city where the free delivery system is in operation should be marked " Transient" or " General Delivery " if not addressed to a street and number or some other designated place of delivery. Postal employees are not permitted to change the address upon misdirected letters and other mail-matter. Matter not addressed to any post office cannot be forwarded in the mails, but must be returned to the sender, if known, for better direction, or else sent to the dead letter office. It is easier for the public to address their mail-matter to a post-office than it is for the Department 70 CORRESPONDENCE. to ascertain -where matter not addressed to a post-office should he sent. Postmasters have heen instructed to inform senders of t lie proper post-office address of matter returned to them because not addressed to a post-office, or, if the proper address is not known, to advise them to apply to the nearest division superintendent of railway mail service for the desired information. Book manuscript, manuscript for magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and music manuscript, are now subjeel to full letter rates of postage, except they be accompanied by proof sheets or cor- rected proof-sheets of such manuscripts, or of which proofs such manuscript is a correction or addition, when the rate will be one cent for two ounces or fractional part thereof. Manuscript, as above stated, may be sent otherwise than in the mails. All mail-matter arriving at destination, upon which postage is collected in money from the recip- ient, upon delivery, must have affixed thereto a brown postage-due stamp or stamps equal to the sum collected. Persons from whom such postage is required may, and are requested to, demand that such postage-due stamps be affixed by the postmaster or his representative when payment is made. Proprietors of hotels should omit the return-request from envelopes supplied gratuitously to their guests; and guests using such envelopes should be careful to designate what disposition should be made of letters sent by them in case they cannot be delivered. RATES OF POSTAGE, ETC. First-Class. — Letters, and all other written matter, whether sealed or unsealed, and all other matter sealed, nailed, sewed, tied, or fastened in any manner, so that it cannot be easily examined, two cents per ounce or fraction thereof. Postal cards one cent each. Postal cards are unmail- able with any writing or printing on the address-side, except the direction, or with anything pasted upon or attached to them. Second-Class. — Newspapers and periodical publications, when sent by publishers or news-agents, one cent a pound or fraction thereof. Newspapers and periodical publications, when sent by per- sons other than the publishers and news-agents, one cent for every four ounces or fraction thereof. Third-Class. — Printed matter, in unsealed wrappers only (all matter enclosed in sealed envelopes notched on the sides or corners must pay letter rates), one cent for each two ounces or fraction thereof, which must be fully prepaid. This includes books, circulars, chromos, hand-bills, en- gravings, lithographs, magazines, music, pamphlets, proof-sheets and manuscripts accompanying the same, reproductions by the electric pen, hektograph, metallograph, papyrograph, photographs, and "blue prints," and, in short, any reproduction upon paper by any process, except hand- writing, type-writing, and the copying-press, not in the nature of a personal correspondence. Limit of weight four pounds, except for a single book, which may weigh more. Third-class matter must be fully prepaid or it will not be forwarded. Fourth-Class. — All mailable matter not included in the three preceding classes which is so pre- pared for mailing as to be easily withdrawn from the wrapper and examined. Rate, one cent per ounce or fraction thereof. Limit of weight, four pounds. Full prepayment compulsory. Circulars Defined. — The term " circulars " is defined to he a printed letter, which according to internal evidence, is being sent in identical terms to several persons. A circular shall not lose ite character as such when the date and the name of the addressed and of the sender shall be written therein, nor by the correction, in writing, of mere typographical errors. Postmasters may Remove Wrappers of Packages. — Postmasters at the office of delivery mav remove the wrappers and envelopes from mail-matter not charged with letter-postage, when it can be done without destroying them, for the purpose of ascertaining whether there is upon or con- nected with any such matter anything which would authorize or require the charge of a higher rate of postage thereon. Over-weight letters or other first class matter deposited for mailing in a post office with one full rate of postage prepaid thereon will be marked "Due 2 cents," or whatever the amount may be due, and forwarded as other letters. Unmailable matter.— Obscene books, letters, papers, pictures, and postal cards; lottery circulars and letters; liquids (except as permitted in the Regulations); gunpowder, and other explosives; live reptiles, animals and insects ( except queen bees) ; poisons, and any article liable to injure the mails or the persons of those handling them; also, matter without address, or so incorrectly, insuf ficiently, or illegibly addressed that it cannot be forwarded to its destination. POSTAL INFORMATION". 71 Weighing Packages. — If you have no scales, have all packages weighed at the post-office. Postage must be prepaid in full, or the package will not be forwarded. Re-forwarding. — Letters will be re-forwarded from one post-office to another upon the written request of the persons addressed, without additional charge for postage; but packages of third and fourth class matter cannot be forwarded or returned without a new payment of postage. Money Orders. — Parties procuring money orders should examine them to see that they are properly filled out and stamped. This caution is necessary to avoid difficulties in the way of pay- ment. The maximum amount for which a single money order may be issued at a Full Money-Order office is $100, and at a Limited Money-Order office is $5; and no more than three orders may be issued in one day to the same remitter, in favor of the same payee, payable at the same post-office. Every person who presents a money order for payment is required to prove Ms identity to the post- master, unless tlie latter is satisfied, without such propf, that the applicant is the rightful owner of the order. If an order be paid to the wrong person, through lack of necessary precaution by the postmaster he will be held accountable for such payment. Care should be taken that the signature of the payee be as full as the name given in the letter of advice, and in no way inconsistent therewith. When a money order has been lost by either the remitter, payee, or indorsee, a duplicate thereof will be issued by the Department, free of charge, to the owner of the original, upon his making application (stating the circumstances of the loss), to be forwarded by the issuing or the paying postmaster, from each of whom he must obtain and furnish a certificate that the original order had not been and would not be paid or repaid as the case may be. Special Delivery. — The special delivery system is intended to secure, by means of special messengers, the immediate delivery, at all post offices, of letters or other articles of mail-matter, bearing the special delivery stamps provided by law. Any article of mailable matter bearing a ten-cent special delivery stamp in addition to the lawful postage, is entitled to immediate delivery on its arrival at the office of address, between the hours of 7 A. M. and IIP. M., if the office be of the free delivery class, and between the hours of 7 A. M. and 7 P. M. if the office be other than a free delivery office. To entitle such a letter to immediate delivery, the residence or place of business of the addressee must be within the carrier limits of a free delivery office, and within one mile of any other office. Special delivery stamps are not available for the payment of postage, nor can ordinary postage stamps be used to secure immediate delivery of mail matter. Special delivery matter must be delivered to the addressee, or to any one specially authorized to receive his mail-matter. In his absence and that of any one having such special authority, such matter may be delivered to any responsible member of the addressee's family, or any partner or clerk of his, or responsible person employed in his office; and to the officer or agent of any firm, incorporated company, or public institution to which addressed. In the case of registered matter received for special delivery, the usual registry receipts, in addition to the special delivery receipts, must.be taken, and all other requirements of the registry regulations must be observed. Letters " Opened through Mistake." — If there be two or more persons of the same name, and a letter intended for one is delivered to another, and returned by him, the postmaster will re-seal the letter in the presence of the person who opened it, and request him to write upon it the words opened by me throdgh mistake, and sign his name ; he will then replace the letter in the post-office. Withdrawal of Letters from Mailing Post-Office. — To prevent fraud the postmaster must not permit any letter put into his post-office for transmission by mail to be withdrawn by any person except the writer thereof, or, in case of a minor child, the parent or guardian of the same and the utmost care must be taken to ascertain that the person applying for such letter is really the writer, or parent or guardian entitled to withdraw the same. The postmaster acts at his peril in permitting such withdrawal, and would be liable to the party injured, and could not plead honest intentions as a defence to the action. Withdrawal by Sender after Dispatch.— After a letter has passed from the mailing post office, the delivery of the same may be prevented, and its return to the writer secured, by an application by the writer to the postmaster at the office of mailing, stating reasons therefor, identifying the letter, and supporting such application by sufficient proof in writing. Upon such application and evidence, and upon a deposit being made by the writer of a sum sufficient to cover all expenses incurred, the postmaster shall telegraph a request for the return of such letter to his office, if it has CORRESPONDED K. been torwarded, to the postmaster at the office of address, carefully describing the same, so as to identify it ami prevent the return of any other matter. Letter Carriers. — A letter carrier is forbidden to deliver mail matter in the streets, even to the owners, unless they are personally known to him, and it can be done without unreasonable delay, but must deliver all matter at the houses to which it is addressed. Carriers are forbidden to deliver any mailable matter which has not passed through the post office or station with which they are connected, or to exhibit any mail-matter entrusted to them (except on the order of the postmaster or someone authorized to act for him) to persons other than those addressed, or to deviate from their respective routes, or to carry letters in their pockets, or to engage in any business not connected with this service during their hours of business. ( liners are required, while on their rounds, to receive all letters prepaid by postage stamps that may be handed to them for mailing, but are strictly forbidden to delay their deliveries ly waiting for such letters, or to receive money to pay postage on letters handed them for mailing. A letter carrier has fulfilled his duty when he has delivered mail to the number of the house to which it is addressed. If parties in the house read postal cards before delivery to the parties addressed, the Department cannot control the matter. The courts can be appealed to, if relief is sought. ABBREVIATIONS OP NAMES OP STATES AND TERRITORIES. Ala Alabama, . 1 'aska, . - - Alaska Ter. Ariz.,.. Arizona Ter. Ail-.,. Arkansas. California. ' _ _ Colorado. Conn. ,. - .Connecticut. Del Delaware. D. ft, District of Columbia. Fla.,... - - Florida. Ga.,.. Georgia. Idaho, Idaho. Ill Illinois. Ind. , -.- Indiana. Ind. T., .Indian Ter. Iowa, Iowa. Kans. , Kansas. Ky. , Kentucky. la. ,. Louisiana. Me. , _ Maine. Md. , - .Maryland. Mass. , Massachusetts. Mich. , Michigan. Minn. , Minnesota. Miss., _ _ Mississippi. Mo., Missouri. Mont. ,. .Mantana. JSfebr ,-.. Nebraska. Nev. ,.. Nevada. JSf. H., New Hampshire. JSf. J.,.. New Jersey. JSf. Mex.,.. .. New Mexico Ter. JSf. Y.,... ...New York. JSf. ft , North Carolina. JSf. Dak., North Dakota. Ohio, Ohio. Ohio. T., Oklahoma Ter. Oregon Oregon. Pa. , Pennsylvania. B. I, Rhode Island. 8. ft, South Carolina. 8. Dak., South Dakota. Tenn., Tennessee. Tex. , _ Texas. Utah, Utah. Vt. , Vermont. Va. ,.. Virginia. Wash., Washington. W. Va.,.. West Virginia. Wis.,. Wisconsin. Wyo. , Wyoming Index. Abbreviations of names of states and terri- tories, 72. Acknowledging orders, E' 3 • remittances, 36 ; form of acknowledgment, 41. Address, what it consists of, position, 11; inside address, reasons for use, 11, 12; script illus- trations of, punctuation of, exercises, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 28, 58; omission, 12, 26; im- perfect addresses, 29. Advertisements, answering, 48. Affection, letters of, 59. Application, letters of, suggestions, exercises, 47, 48. Bearer, drafts and checks made payable to, 38; letters of indorsement to, of introduction to, 44 ; of recommendation to, 45. Body, definition, beginning, 17; margin para- graphing, 17, 18; punctuation, 18, 59. Business letters, definition of, 7. Capitalizing of complimentary closing, 19, 20; of amounts written in words, 37. Censure, letter of, specimen letters, exercises, 49. Complimentary closing, definition, position, wording, 18; omission, 51; script illustra- tions, 19; punctuation, 20, Condolence, letters of, suggestions, specimen letters, exercises, 65 66, 67. Congratulation, letters of, specimen letters, suggestions, 63; exercises, 64. Copying letters, 12, 30. Corrections, necessity for, how made, 6, 11, 27; illustration of corrected letter, 27. Correspondence, definition of, 7 ; importance of. 5. Courtesy, 32 titles of, 12. Dead letter office, letters that go to, why, 29, 68, 69. Dickens, letter of, 61. Directions (see envelope address). Draft, New York, form of, 37; showing indorse- ment, 38. Dunning letters, how to write, 49; exercises, 51. Envelope address, definition, position, how name should be written, 23, 68; illustra- tions, 25; imperfect addresses, 29; exer- < is<-s 26. Envelopes proper for business correspondence, for official, for social, color, size, shape, 9, 68. Errors, 29; errors corrected, 27. Exercises uuder address, heading salutation, paragraphing, and complimentary clos- ing, 28. Expression, style of in business letters, 30, 31; in social letters, 60, 61. Folding, manner of, 22; illustration, 22; with inclosure, 36. Friendship, letters of, description, style, ex- amples, 59, 60 ; opening and closing sen- tences, 60, 61. General delivery (see transient). Heading defined, what it contains, position, 9 : script illustrations of, 10, 11; punctuation of, remark, exercises, 11. Inclosures, letters containing, manner of insert- ing, illustration, 36; opening letters with, 26; exercises, 38. Indorsement, advantage of, 38; script illustra tion, 38; letters of, specimen letter, 44; ex. ercises, 45. Ink, color and properties discussed, 8. Inserting, manner of, 22. Inside address (see address). Introduction, 5, 6; letters of, exercises, 44, 64 65; specimen letter, 64. Invoice, specimen of, 40. Irving, Washington, letter of, CI. Letter, definition of a, classes of, 7. Letter paper (see paper). Lincoln, letter of, 66. Margin, 17. Materials ordinarily used, 7, 58. Miscellaneous exercises in letter writing, 54, 55 56, 57. Modifying words, where placed, 31. Neatness, in folding, 22 ; in sealing, 23 ; it addressing, 23 ; in penmanship, 29, 30 in affixing stamp, 24; in letters of applica tion, 47. Note, promissory, illustration, 39. Official letters, definition of, 7. Opening letters, manner of, 26. 73 74 INDEX. Ordering goods, letters, 33; script illustration, 35; exorcises, 33, 34. Originality, how cultivated. 81; exercises, 57; in openings and closings of social letters, 60, 61. Overweight, letters, 29, 70. Paper, proper kind, styles and sizes (note), 8; color, !». Parts of a letter, named, 9. Pen, proper kind described, 7. Penmanship, necessity for good, 30; relating to signature, 20, 21. Perplexing letters, 48. Postage, insufficient, 25, 68; rates of, 70. Postal information, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72. Postal cards, what used for, how written, 26. Post-office, references to, 26, 29 (see postal in- formation). Private letters, definition, 7. Promptness, importance of, 36. Public letters, classes of, 7. Punctuation, 11, 13, 15, 18, 20. Rates of Postage, 70. Recommendation, letters of, 45; specimen let- ter of, 46; exercises, 45; open letters of, exercises, 47. Registry, value of, object of, 68. Remittances, letters with, 36, 37 ; drafts sent as, 38; letters asking for, 49; exercises in, 51. Replies, how name should be written, 20, 23, 29; hasty, 30 ; promptness, 36 ; to advertise- ments, 48; to perplexing letters, 49. Salutation, definition, wording, position, 14, 58, 59; omission, 15, 51, 58; script illustra- tions of, 14, 15, 16; exercises, 15. Sealing, manner of, wax, 23; omission, 23, 44, 45. Signature, definition, position, style of writing, title, form, uniformity, script illustrations, 20; exercises, 21, 22, 28. Smith, Sydney, letters of, 61, 62. Social letters, definition, classes, parts, 58; style, examples, 59, 60; exercises, 62, 63. Special favors, letters requesting, script illustra- tion, 42; suggestions, 42, 43; exercises, 43. Specimen letters, object of, 11, 31; corrected letter ( script ), 27 ; inclosing remittance (script), 37; ordering goods (script), 35; re- questing favor (script), 42; introduction, 44 ; indorsement, 44 ; recommendation (script), 40; recommendation, open, 47; censure, 49 ; condolence, 66 ; congratula- tion, 63; business letter (script), 54. Spelling, suggestions regarding, 29. Stamp, where placed, overweight letters, in closed stamps, 24, C9. State, errors in writing, 29, 68> Statement, form of, 39. Style, in letters of friendship, 60, 61; business letters 30, 31. Sumner, Charles, letters, 61, 62, 63, 66. Superscription (see envelope address). Taylor, Bayard, letters of, 60. Telegraphing, suggestions regarding, 51, 52 j exercises, 52, 53. Titles, proper use discussed, 12, 20. Transients, letters for, 24, 69. Verbiage, 30. Words, choice of, 32. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below OCT 11 1932 oct r iw* 'M 3 1935 OCT i 6 , s ,?R a 1931 ^ JUL 2 7 1937 Form L-9-35m-8,'28 ?T 2 8 193? WAY2 4194S DEC 1:41949 MAR 1 1950 ft/".: :. o i.qsr: MAY 4 ^53 IjOV 3 1956 OCT l 2 fiECO PE 1111 iV6? TT Vfi Hi am.s - New practical English grammars Kar 1 lkgQ PE mi id, i as ttnaeies L 007 617 534 8 mmmwl^.lP m LIBR AW FACILITY AA 000 357 425