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BOILWS ARTISTS' LIBRARY. 
 
 A CONCISE 
 
 HISTORY OF PAINTING. 
 
A. CONCISE 
 
 HISTOEY OF PAINTING; 
 
 BY MRS. CHARLES HEATON, 
 
 AUTHOB OF " THE HISTORY OF THE LIFE OF 
 A13BECHT DiJBEB OF NURNBERa." 
 
 NEW EDITION REVISED 
 
 COSMO MONKHOUSE. ...mnviu 
 
 mm 0^ ^^^^^^^^ 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 GEORGE BELL & SONS, YORK ST., CO VENT GARDEN, 
 
 NEW YORK: 112, FOURTH AVENUE. 
 
 1893. 
 
HiSlOhE I 
 
 "7 3g 
 
 CHISWICK I«KS§t-|C.',^K^T<l\NOHAM AND (iO.J. TOOKS COURT, 
 
PREFACE TO THE PRESENT EDITION. 
 
 IN the fifteen years which have elapsed since the late 
 Mrs. Charles Heaton's " Concise History of Painting " 
 was pubHshed, the labours of art- scholars have been very 
 extensive and searching, and the mode and temper of art 
 criticism have greatly changed. Nevertheless, this book, 
 as it left the hand of its authoress, remains still the most 
 readable and comprehensive of all short histories of 
 Painting. 
 
 It has been my aim in the present edition not to impair 
 its precious quality of read^bleness, and to increase its 
 comprehensiveness by adding notices of many artists whose 
 exclusion would, at the present date, mar its value as a 
 text-book. To effect the latter object without forfeiting 
 the title of " concise," it has been necessary to reduce the 
 original text by the excision of such passages as appeared 
 redundant or least valuable. 
 
 Otherwise the present edition differs from the first 
 mainly in the following respects. Dates and other matters 
 of fact have been revised throughout. The notices of Claude 
 and the Poussins have been transferred from the Italian 
 to the French School. These and the notices of several 
 other painters have been re-written, and notes through- 
 out the book have been added. The chapter on " The Last 
 Efforts and Extinction of Painting in Italy " (Book iv., 
 chap. 5) has been re- written, and a concluding note on the 
 English School, and Chronological lists of the painters of 
 each country have been added. With the exceptions of 
 the chapter, note, and lists mentioned in the preceding 
 sentence, and of alterations of date and other slight changes, 
 all new or re- written matter will be found included within 
 square brackets [ ]. 
 
 37405S 
 
VI PEEPACE TO THE PRESENT EDITION. 
 
 These brackets are the limits of my responsibility in 
 matters of opinion, but not in matters of fact. How heavy 
 the latter responsibility is, and what labour it entails, 
 only those who have been engaged in a similar task can 
 appreciate, for it is not too much to say that there is 
 hardly a fact or a date in the History of European Art 
 before the seventeenth century which has been left un- 
 turned during the last fifteen years, and a great number 
 of them have been the subject of warm dispute between 
 the "very latest authorities." The approximate accuracy 
 which comes of consulting these " doctors," and weighing 
 probabilities when they differ, is all I can hope to have 
 achieved, and while I am writing perhaps Dr. Eichter is 
 recording the discovery of Schongauer's tombstone, and 
 Signer Morelli is proving that Masaccio was living in 
 1431. 
 
 It only remains to record my thanks for the valuable 
 assistance rendered to me throughout the book by Miss 
 Annie Evans, especially in the last chapter of Painting in 
 Italy, which was entirely re-written by her, and in the 
 chapters on Painting in the Netherlands. 
 
 Cosmo Monkhoxjse. 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 THE more general exhibition of works of art and the 
 increased habit of travelling in our age, have assisted 
 in spreading a taste for art which was formerly conj&ned to 
 the very few. With this wider taste, the desire has natu- 
 rally arisen for wider knowledge ; for it is at once the diffi- 
 culty and the advantage of art, that a certain amount of 
 culture is necessary for its true enjoyment ; the difficulty, 
 because the means and the capacity for culture are wanting 
 to many, and the advantage, because such culture is in it- 
 self a valuable mental training. 
 
 But even now, notwithstanding this growth of interest 
 in art, it is painful in walking through a G-allery to mark 
 the utter want of appreciation with which the majority of 
 visitors gaze at the pictures, and at the same time to think 
 of the keen intellectual and even emotional pleasure those 
 pictures are capable of yielding. This lack of appreciation 
 is generally the result of want of knowledge, and disap- 
 pears as soon as something is known of the painters whose 
 names appear on the picture frames. " Even in the highest 
 works of art," says Carlyle, " our interest, as the critics 
 complain, is too apt to be strongly, or even mainly of a 
 biographic sort. In the art, we can nowise forget the 
 artists." 
 
 And yet art-history, which is so important a portion of 
 art-culture, is almost the only history entirely untaught in 
 our schools. Surely such teaching is needed, for the stern 
 pursuit of science, to which an age that calls itself practical 
 incites its children, tends, if unrelieved by the cultivation 
 of aesthetic tastes, to blind us to much that is great and 
 beautiful in our lives. 
 
 This book is written in the hope that it may help some 
 
Till PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 few in learning to enjoy good art. Its arrangement is very 
 simple. The art of each country occupies a separate book, 
 most of the books being again divided into chapters de- 
 voted to different schools and periods. The pictures men- 
 tioned as examples of each master's work are chosen, as 
 far as possible, from such as are easily accessible to the 
 English student; in particular those of the National 
 Gallery are quoted whenever they are suitable. 
 
 The classification according to schools has been simplified 
 as much as i3ossible, and many obscure and even some 
 well-known masters have been omitted to avoid confusing 
 the reader with too long a string of names. Those, how- 
 ever, who desire fuller information will find references in 
 every chapter to more important works that may be pro- 
 fitably studied by the advanced student : this, it must be 
 remembered, is only intended as an introduction to the 
 subject. 
 
 M. M. H. 
 
 Lessness Heath, Kent. 
 October, 1872. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 BOOK I. 
 
 EGYPTIAN AND ASIATIC PAINTING. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A WAKENING of the Artistic impulse. The idea of the Deity 
 -**■ first clothed in visible form. The Stone, Bronze, and Iron 
 Ages. Egypt : antiquity of Egyptian Painting. Paintings in the 
 Tombs. Representation of the Last Judgment. The Book of the 
 Dead. Egyptian painting only hieroglyphic writing. One fixed 
 type in every age. Dead and not Living Art. The Pictorial Art 
 of other early Eastern civilizations 1 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 CLASSIC PAINTING. 
 
 The Greek Religion a pure Nature Worship. The Greek Ideal. 
 Exaltation of the physical side of human nature. Painting later 
 than Sculpture in becoming an independent art. First age of 
 Greek Painting. Poltgnotos " the painter of noble characters." 
 Second Age. Aiollodoros. Zeuxis. ArErxES, the hero- 
 painter of antiquity. Rapid fall of Greek Art. Rhiiparographia. 
 Etruscan Painting a branch of Greek, but with distinctive charac- 
 teristics. No independent Roman Art. The Graeco-Roman School. 
 Landscape under the Empire. Pompeian Decoi-ation. Degenera- 
 tion of Classic Art 8 
 
 BOOK III. 
 
 EARLY CHRISTIAN PAINTING. 
 
 Use of Symbols to express Divine things. The Paintings in the 
 Catacombs. Classico-Christian School. The By/antine type of 
 Christ unlike the Greek ideal of the Godlike. Byzantine Art as 
 stationary as Egyptian. Degradation of Art in the eleventh cen- 
 tury. A new epoch commencing in the thirteenth century. 
 Nicola Pisano. Cimahle. The Church of St. Francis at 
 Assissi .21 
 
X TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK IV. 
 
 PAINTING IN ITALY 
 
 Chapter I.— The Rise. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Revival of Art accomplished by Giotto : return to Nature 
 for Instruction ; Giotto in Rome ; iiis frescoes in the Church of 
 the Arena, Padua; his works in the Church of Santa Croce, 
 Florence; at Naples; the Campanile. The Giotteschi. The 
 Campo Santo at Pisa. Orcagna. The Sienese School — dis- 
 tinguished for its dreamy Relij^ious Sentiment .... 33 
 
 Chapter II. — The Development. 
 
 The Fifteenth Century an Age of Progress. The artists of this 
 age prepared the way for the artists of the next. Lorenzo Ghi- 
 UERTi : the Ghiberti gates mark a new era in the progress of art ; 
 perspective first studied. Uccello and Piero deixa Fran- 
 CESCA. The Revival of learning ; its effects on art. Masaccio : 
 his manly classic naturalism. Fra Angelico : his feminine 
 purism. Fra Filippo Lippi — Inti-oduced the element of sensuous 
 beauty into his paintings. Botticelli. Filippino Lippi. 
 Ghirlandajo. Mantegna. Luca Signorell. The Renaissance 
 triumphant in Rome and Florence. Umbrian School — preserved 
 a religious sentiment; devoloped from the Sienese. Perugino. 
 Francia — both religious painters. Contemporary Veronese and 
 Milanese painters 49 
 
 Chapter III. — The Blooming Time. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci the representative artist of the sixteenth 
 century : his versatility ; the Last Supper ; letter to Ludovico 
 Sforza ; established at Milan ; his female portraits ; rivalry with 
 Michael Angelo ; goes to France ; death ; great excellence of his 
 pupils. The later Milanese School. LuiNi, Solario, Ferrari. 
 Bartolommeo: purity and religious sentiment of his works. 
 Raphael : pupil of Perugino ; goes to Florence ; Umbrian, 
 Florentine, and Roman periods ; invited to Rome by Julius II j 
 his frescoes in the Vatican ; the Cartoons ; the Ideal in Art ; the 
 San Sisto Madonna. Michael Angelo : his genius recognized 
 by Lorenzo de' Medici ; goes to Rome in 1596 ; returns to Florence 
 and executes the David and the Cartoon of Pisa ; begins to work 
 on the Mausoleum of J ulius II. ; takes flight in anger to Florence j 
 compelled to return to Rome; his frescoes in the Sistine Chapel; 
 takes part in the resistance of Florence to the Medici ; executes 
 the tombs of the Medici ; his sardonic melancholy ; the Last Judg- 
 ment a pagan rather than a Christian conception ; death: the painful 
 distortions of his followers ; the followers of Raphael and Michael 
 Angelo — Sebas riANO del Piomho. Giulio Romano, Painters 
 in Ferrara, Dosso Dossi, and Garofalo. Andrea del Sarto 
 an independent master. Rapid decline and fall of Italian Painting 86 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI 
 
 Chapter IV. — School of Venice. 
 
 PAoe 
 Venetian Painting later than Florentine in development. Early 
 Venetians. School of Murano. The Vivarini. Crivelli. Anto- 
 NELLA DA Messina tcaches the Flemish method of Oil-painting. 
 The Bellini. Giovanni Bellini : moral qualities of his ai-t 
 separate him from the School that lie founded. Giorgione : his 
 Heroic Ideal ; poetical style. Titian : his unfathomable colour ; 
 the Nude again glorified ; the " Assumption of the Virgin ; " 
 magnificence of Titian's Life ; intei-view with Charles V. ; his 
 Portraits — pages of History. Schools of Brescia, Cremona, and 
 Vicenza. Moretto, Moroni, Montagna. Tintoretto: his 
 furious style. Painters of Verona. Veronese : sought to ex- 
 press the Pomp and Pageantry of Earth ; his gorgeous style and 
 colouring; the Marriage of Cana. Bassano a genre painter. 
 CORREGGio : his understanding of chiaroscuro ; sensuous beauty 
 of his painting ; the Cupola at Parma. His Mythological Nudities. 
 Parmigiano — too graceful 142 
 
 Chapter V. — Last Efforts and Extinction. 
 
 Eclecticism. Exceptions to the general decadence. The Car- 
 RACCi : their Eclectic sonnet ; their individuality ; Annibale's 
 frescoes ; his landscape. Domenichino : sensational religious 
 pictures. Guido Reni : his feeling for beauty of line ; the por- 
 trait of Beatrice Cenci ; poverty of his later works. Gdercino : 
 the colourist of the Bologna school. Other eclectic schools. The 
 Naturalistic represented nature without selection; opposed 
 lights and shades. ^-^aravaggio : his fierce power ; his influence 
 upon genre paintmg of Northern Eui'ope ; his popularity and 
 rivalry with the Bolognese; his restless life; his pupils. The 
 Neapolitan school. Si'agnoletto : his ferocious style ; his style 
 essentially Spanish ; his painting of the nude ; his followers. Fal- 
 cone, the " oracle of battles." Salvator Rosa : his ideal land- 
 scapes; his pupils. Giordano one of the Macchinisti : final 
 extinction of Italian art in the eighteenth century. Canaletto. 
 Rome as an art centre . 181 
 
 BOOK V. 
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN 
 
 Spanish masters but little known. Early Spanish painters. In- 
 fluence of Italian art in the sixteenth century. Flemish influence 
 at Barcelona. Luis de Morales : asceticism of Spanish art ; 
 power of the Inquisition j no free development possible. J uan de 
 LAB KoELAS: his style founded on that of Tintoretto. Ecclesias- 
 tical element in Spanish painting. Pacheco : his " Arte de Pin- 
 tui*a." Alonso Cano : the third greatest artist of Spain. Zur- 
 
Xii TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGK 
 BARAN : the painter of Monks. Vklasquez : educated in Pa- 
 checo's Academy ; called to Madrid ; becomes Court Painter to 
 Philip IV.; the dignity of his portraits. Murillo : iX)or in 
 his youth ; kindly received by Velasquez at Madrid ; returns to 
 Seville ; decorates the cloisters of San Francisco ; the emotional 
 character of his works ; the Immaculate Conception his favourite 
 subject ; his biblical-genre style. Fall of Spanish art. Goya's 
 caprices. Modern " Bric-k-Brac " School 199 
 
 BOOK VI. 
 
 PAINTING IN GERMANY. 
 
 Chapter I. — The Catholic Period. 
 
 Gothic architecture an expression of the mediaeval mind : its 
 ideal beauty. School of Bohemia. Schloss Karlstein. School 
 OP NiJRNBERG. School of Cologne. Meister Wilhelm and 
 Meister Stei-han. Influence of the Flemish School. The 
 Master of the Lyversberg Passion and other unknown Masters. 
 German Art casts off the traditions of Rome 231 
 
 Chapter II. — The Reformation Period. 
 
 Martin Schonoauer. The Fantastic Spu'it of German Art. 
 Wohlgemuth : the unequal works that pass with his name. Al- 
 BRECHT Dl;rer : the German character reflected in his works ; 
 his visit to Venice ; the Four Apostles ; portraits of himself; his 
 pupils ; the Little Masters. Hans Burgkmair. Hans Holbein : 
 recent Biographies ; the " Meier Madonna ;" Holbein in England ; 
 Court Painter to Henry VIII. ; number of portraits wrongfully 
 attributed to him ; his Dance of Death. Lucas Cranach : his 
 Art thoroughly National; his Female Portraits; "Crucifixion" 
 at Weimar ; best known by his Engravings ; German Italianisers. 
 Denner : his laborious finish. Raphael Mengs : his lofty aims 
 and cold eclecticism. Revival of German Art in the pygsent cen- 
 tury. The Munich School. Its Monumental works. /^he genre 
 School of Dusseldorf. K. F. Lessing ; modern German painters. 241 
 
 BOOK vn. 
 
 PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 Chapter I. — The School of Bruges. 
 
 Eai'ly Art of the Netherlands. Melchior Broederlain. 
 New Impulse given to Art by the Van Eycks. The invention of 
 Oil-painting; some method known before the fifteenth century; 
 Vasari's account of the Van Eyck invention ; in what it consisted. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XUl 
 
 PAGE 
 HnBEBT VAN Eyck. Jan van Eyck : Court Painter and Valet 
 de Chambre to Philippe le Bon ; goes to Portugal ; the Mystic 
 Lamb; altar-piece at Madrid; pictures in England ; "Mobiliza- 
 tion " of Painting ; followers of Van Eyck. Rogier Vander 
 Weyden. Memling : his poetical style and refined colour. 
 Gerard David : his works at Bruges. Dierick Boots : his paint- 
 ings for the Town Hall of Loiivain, now in the Brussels Gallery . 268 
 
 Chapter II. — The School of Antwerp. — Early School 
 OF Holland. 
 
 School of Antwerp: how distinguished from the School of 
 Bruges; Quentin Ma ssys its founder; the Entombment of the 
 Antwerp Gallery; his tendency to caricature ; his money-pieces. 
 Mabuse : led the way to Italy. Van Orley. The Antwerp 
 Italianisers. The three Bredghels. Portrait painters. Land- 
 scape painters. Early school of Holland. Lucas van Leyden : 
 his whimsical fancy ; known by his engravings more than by his 
 paintings ; his style the uniting link between the art of the Nether- 
 lands and that of Germany -297 
 
 Chapter III. — Flemish School of the Seventeenth 
 Century, 
 
 The religious spirit of early art utterly dead. A new school 
 founded by Rubkns : the Descent from the Cross of Antwerp 
 Cathedral ; visit to Spain and England ; absence of the spiritual 
 in his works ; his paintings at Munich. Anthony Vandyck : 
 his aristocratic portraits ; goes to England; portraits of Charles I. 
 and his Court. Grayer : more appreciated in his own day than 
 in ours. Animal painters. Tenters : more allied by his style to 
 the Dutch School than to that of Rubens ; vulgar realism of his 
 religious subjects ; facile execution ; admirable pourti'ayals of 
 peasant life. Modern Belgian painters : Gallait, Leys . . . 315 
 
 Chapter IV. — The Dutch School. 
 
 Rembrandt : his powerful light and shade ; his ideality ; his 
 biographers — their mistakes ; the true facts of his life only recently 
 discovered ; the Night Watch ; the Anatomy Lesson ; his land- 
 scapes. Contemporaries and precursors of Rembrandt. Frans 
 Hals. Van der Helst. Followers of Rembrandt. The Little 
 Masters of Holland. Vermeer. De Hoogh. Gerard Dou, 
 the genius of littleness. Terburo : his love of white satin. Jan 
 Steen. Brauwer Oslade. The Cattle Painters of Holland : 
 Paul Potter. The Landscape Painters : Cuyp. The Sea Paintei-s : 
 Vandevelde. Want of mind in Dutch Paintings. Dutch Italia- 
 nisers. Berchem. Karl du Jardin. Both. Adrian Vander 
 Werff. Kitchen Pieces. Death of Dutch art, preceded by the 
 fall of Dutch freedom. Modern Dutch School .... 
 
 360 
 
XIT TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK YIIL 
 
 PAINTING IN FRANCE. 
 
 FAQB 
 
 Illuminators and glass-painters of the fourteenth century. Early 
 painters. Jean Fouuqet. Jehan Cousin. The Fontainbleau 
 School. National art in the Le Nains, Callot, and Valentin. 
 P0U88IN : his classical taste. Claude : his landscapes. Le 
 Brun: the representative painter of the Court of Louis XIV. 
 Watteau : artificiality of his works, Boucher : the painter of 
 " Dubarrydom." "'^reuch genre. Chardin. Greuze. David : 
 the revolution he accomplished; the worship of heathen anti- 
 (luity ; his exaggei'ated classicism j cold colour ; no lasting in- 
 fluence ; re-action. Gericault : the Raft of the Medusa. Ingres. 
 Ary Scheffer : his commonplace ideas. The Romantic School. 
 Delacroix. Horace Vernet. Paul Delaroche. The 
 Modern French Landscape School. Huet. Corot. Millet. 
 Rousseau 358 
 
 BOOK IX. 
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 
 
 Long delayed birth of art in this country. English painting of 
 recent growth. Painters before Hogarth. Hogarth : the first 
 original genius amongst English painters ; his pictorial dramas ; 
 his path between the sublime and the grotesque. Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds: the ideality of his portraits. Thomas Gainsborough : 
 first painted English landscape; "High Art;" its unfortunate 
 votaries. David Wilkie : greatest painter of familiar life of the 
 English School. Mulready. Etty. Turner : his three styles 
 or periods ; his ideal founded on the real ; in his art, as in his life, 
 a mystery. The English School pre-eminent in landscape. Pro- 
 mise of the present day. Concluding note : landscape art in Eng- 
 land. Water-colour. Crome. The Norwich School. Blake. 
 The Pre-Raphaelites. D. G. Rossetti 385 
 
 Chronological Lisis 429 
 
 Index ••..., 459 
 
BOOK I. 
 EGYPTIAN AND ASIATIC PAINTING. 
 
 THE daughter of Dibutades, a potter of Corinth, whilst 
 bidding farewell one evening to her lover, was struck 
 by the distinctness of his shadow cast by the light of a 
 lamp on the plaster wall of her dwelling. The idea oc- 
 curred to her to preserve the image of her beloved by 
 tracing with a pointed implement at hand, the outline of 
 his figure on the wall ; and when her father the potter 
 came home, he, appreciating the importance of her work, 
 rude though it was, cut the plaster out within the drawing 
 she had thus accomplished, took a cast in clay from it, and 
 baked it with his other pottery. 
 
 Such is the well-known Greek tradition, assigning a 
 simultaneous origin to the graphic and plastic arts, and 
 claiming both as of Greek invention. 
 
 But unfortunately for the truth of this pretty story, 
 these arts were known and practised long before even the 
 original Pelasgians had settled in Greece ; indeed, it seems 
 certain that they were merely transmitted to Greece from 
 Egypt, in which country they had been long cultivated before 
 they were acquired by any of the Indo-European nations. 
 
 We must, however, look still further back than Egypt 
 if we would discover the first dawnings of the artistic idea 
 in the human mind. An impulse towards expression by 
 means of art is felt at a very early period of human de- 
 velopment. One of the first steps in the civilization of the 
 savage is his attempt to improve and to ornament the rude 
 weapons and utensils of his daily life, and to clothe his 
 idea of the Deity with a definite and visible form. This 
 
2 HIJiTpEY OP PAINTING. [bOOK I. 
 
 form, it is true, is at first monstrous and distorted, but it 
 implies a progress beyond mere fetishism, the first stage, 
 probably, of religious belief. " When men are emerging 
 from fetishism they carve matter into the form of an in- 
 telligent being, and then only attribute to it a Divine 
 character." ^ 
 
 Amongst the remains that have been discovered in 
 various countries of Europe, belonging to those early pre- 
 historic periods, called by archaeologists respectively the 
 Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages, many vessels, utensils, 
 metals, and ornaments have been found engraved with rich 
 and delicate tracery, and remarkable for their graceful 
 shape and elegant proportion, provmg that there must have 
 been a distinct recognition of artistic beauty and fitness 
 even at that early period. These belong, certainly, more 
 especially to the bronze age ; for the rough earthenware 
 vessels and flint arrow heads of the stone age cannot 
 strictly be reckoned as works of art ; but even the poor 
 stone man hewing his square coffin may have been moved 
 to give a greater finish and merit to his work, in obedience 
 to an impulse, unrecognized, no doubt, towards artistic 
 perfection.^ 
 
 No statues or idols have as yet been discovered amongst 
 these remains, so that it would seem that the stage of 
 idolatrous belief had not yet been reached by our pre- 
 historic ancestors any more than by some of the savages of 
 the present day. 
 
 Looking onward from these dimly seen ages, whose exis- 
 tence is only revealed to us by means of such works as have 
 been mentioned, we come next upon the gigantic monu- 
 ments of Egypt, which stand at the beginning of history, 
 as if to mark the boundaries of our knowledge. Before 
 them everything is vague and mythical, but after their 
 erection we are enabled to proceed upon something like 
 historical data, and to reckon the succession of centuries 
 and dynasties. 
 
 ^ Lecky, " History of Eationalism," vol. i. 
 
 ' Sir John Lubbock, " Pre-historic Times and the Origin of Civihza- 
 tion." [The Palaeolithic man had a wonderful artistic gift ; see " Early 
 Man in Britain," by Prof. Boyd Dawkins, and the sketches of animals 
 on bits of bone pi'eserved in the British Museum.] 
 
BOOK I.] EGYPTIAN AND ASIATIC PAINTING. 8 
 
 But we must not forget that the pyramids, whilst they 
 thus form the starting point of history, point back also to 
 long ages of endeavour, before the wonderful knowledge 
 ^nd skill displayed in their construction could have been 
 attained. It is strange, perhaps, that no archaic remains 
 of Egyptian art have ever been discovered ; no traces of 
 the rude and simple efforts of an early people. But so it 
 is. Everything in Egypt, at the moment we first catch 
 sight of it, seems to have been long established on the 
 same basis that we find enduring until the end of its 
 history. 
 
 Even the origin of painting, the youngest bom of the 
 three sister arts, dates back beyond our knowledge. It is 
 impossible to say when the Egyptians first practised it, but 
 the paintings in the tombs, many of which are referred to 
 the fourth and fifth dynasties, that is to say, to a period 
 not less than 2,400 years before our era, or upwards of 
 4,000 years ago, reveal an art already far advanced beyond 
 infancy. Pliny, indeed, tells us that the Egyptians boasted 
 of having been masters of painting for more than six thou- 
 sand years before it was acquired by the G-reeks, and pos- 
 sibly this was not such a " vain boast," as he imagined.^ 
 
 Painting, it seems probable, was first appHed to the 
 <iolouring of statues and reliefs, which practice may again 
 have arisen from the custom amongst many savages of 
 •colouring the living body, as our ancestors, the ancient 
 Britons, are known to have done. The Ethiopians were 
 accustomed to paint their warriors and nobles half with 
 gypsum and half with minium,^ and it is possible that the 
 early Egyptians had the same practice. But when we first 
 meet with painting amongst them, it is already applied to 
 ilat wall surfaces, and is employed to represent much the 
 same subjects as in after times. 
 
 The earliest paintings that have been brought to light 
 in Egypt are those in the tombs around the pyramids, 
 supposed to be those of individuals living in the reigns of 
 the founders of the pyramids and their immediate suc- 
 cessors. Next come those of the sepulchral grottoes of 
 Beni Hassan, of the twelfth dynasty which afford a variety 
 
 ^ riiny, " Hist. Nat." 
 
 ' Pliny, xxxiii. 36. Herodotus, vii. 69. 
 
4 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK I. 
 
 of representations of private life. From these and similar 
 works in other places, much of our knowledge of the 
 manners and habits of the ancient Egyptians is derived. 
 Scenes of husbandry, such as ploughing, reaping, gather- 
 ing and pressing the grapes ; beating hemp ; the various 
 trades of carpenter, boat-builder, potter, leather-cutter^ 
 glass-blower, and others ; scenes of fashionable life, amongst 
 which a favourite one is the reception of guests at a 
 banquet; hunting-parties, duck catching, and fishing, 
 everything that is killed being in each case registered by a 
 scribe; wrestling exercises, comprising games of various 
 kinds ; dancing ; musical entertainments, the instruments 
 being principally harps, lyres, guitars, drums, and tam- 
 bourines; funeral processions, chariots and articles of 
 furniture belonging to the deceased, are some of the prin- 
 cipal subjects that occur on the walls of these tombs, ^ But 
 the subject most frequently met with is a representation of 
 the Last Judgment, where the deeds of the deceased, typi- 
 fied by a heart or the fimeral vase containing it, are 
 weighed in a balance by Anubis and Horus against a figure 
 of Thmei (Truth) placed in the opposite scale, a symbolism 
 that reminds one forcibly of the mediaeval representations 
 of the same subject, in which St. Michael, in like manner, 
 weighs the souls of the departed in his balance ; but it is. 
 remarkable, that in the Egyptian symbolism we have not 
 the detailed representation of the tortures of the wicked 
 that the mediaeval artist delighted to depict. Only Cer- 
 berus, the guardian of the Hall of Justice, crouches before 
 Osiris, the Supreme Judge, to prevent any from entering 
 his presence who have been found wanting in the balance 
 against Truth. Eorty-two assessors of the dead, or 
 avengers of crime, also are represented assisting at the 
 trial as witnesses for and against the deceased. 
 
 The transport of the body after death over the sacred 
 lake in a boat, is another subject often met with, and was 
 no doubt the origin of the river Styx and the feriy-boat of 
 Charon, of G-reek symbolism. Sacrifices to the dead some- 
 times occur. 
 
 Besides these wall-paintings in the tombs, we have the 
 
 ^ Sir Gardner Wilkinson, " Popular Account of the Ancient Egyp- 
 tians," vol. i. 
 
BOOK I.] EGYPTIAN AND ASIATIC PAINTING. 6 
 
 paintings on the cloths and cases of mummies, and those 
 on the papyrus rolls, — the illuminated manuscripts of 
 Egypt, — all of which help us to form an estimate of 
 Egyptian painting. 
 
 Amongst these latter have been found several rolls taken 
 from mummy-cases, which appear to be transcripts of 
 different chapters of some very ancient sacred book called 
 ^' The Book or Litany of the Dead," ^ each roll having a 
 symbolic picture at the end which has helped materially 
 in the deciphering of the text. 
 
 The paintings of the mummy-cases are often excellent 
 specimens of Egyptian art. They are mostly of much 
 later date than the tomb-paintings above described, and in 
 some of them we recognise a distinct attempt at portrai- 
 ture of the person embalmed. The earliest portrait on 
 record, however, is one mentioned by Herodotus as having 
 been sent by Amasis, king of Egypt, to the G-reeks at 
 "Cyrene, about 600 b.c. This portrait was not improbably 
 j^ainted upon panel (wood) in the manner of portraits of 
 later times ; for the art of painting upon panel, as proved 
 by some of the works at Beni Hassan, was known to the 
 Egyptians 2,000 years before our era.^ 
 
 But although the Egyptians were thus acquainted with 
 several methods of painting at an extraordinarily early 
 date, painting never rose with them to any true im- 
 portance. Their painting, in fact, was at best httle more 
 than hieroglyphic writing, setting forth a symbol for the 
 thing, and not an image of it, as conceived by the artist. 
 We do not find in any Egyptian work of art a free expres- 
 sion of the artist's own mind. No scope, indeed, was 
 allowed for individual talent by the rigid rules laid down 
 by the governing priesthood, who regulated the mode of 
 art representation as it regulated everything else in the 
 <!Ountry, and allowed of no innovation on the orthodox and 
 established type. In other countries we see art rising, 
 
 ^ The best preserved copy of this Ritual, or Egyptian Service for the 
 Dead, is now in the Museum at Turin. It has been translated into 
 Enghsh by Dr. Birch, and into French by M. Rouge, " Revue Aruh6)- 
 logiqiie." There ai-e some portions of Papyri with extracts from it in 
 the British Museum. 
 
 ^ Wilkinson, " Ancient Egyptians." 
 
6 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [cOOK I. 
 
 flourishing, and declining ; but in Egypt we see no- 
 development and no decline.^ One fixed type meets us in 
 every age and under each succeeding dynasty, until we 
 grow utterly weary of the everlasting sameness, and are 
 inclined to believe that the interminable stereotyped forms 
 were the work, not of artists, but of slaves. And this to 
 a great extent was the case. The pyramids and the other 
 gigantic works of Egyptian architecture would have been 
 impossible achievements except under a despotic system 
 that took no count of the individual man, but reckoned its. 
 workmen in masses. The intelligent mind of the work- 
 man, as revealed to us for instance in a mediaeval cathe- 
 dral, is nowhere apparent in them ; and without this ex- 
 pression of independent thought, art soon becomes 
 paralysed, and repeats, as we find in Egypt and most 
 oriental nations, and as we shall afterwards find in Byzan- 
 tine work, the same fixed type for centuries. It is dead, 
 and not living art. 
 
 There are several Egyptian paintings of great interest 
 preserved amongst the numerous other remains of Egyptian 
 art in the British Museum. Unfortunately, the originally 
 brilhant colours of these have faded, and many of them 
 are now fast decaying ; but when first discovered, such at 
 least as had not been exposed to the influence of the 
 atmosphere, their colours were as bright and pure as when 
 they were first painted. Red, yellow, green and blue, 
 with black and white,^ were the colours employed. These 
 were applied singly, so that no variety of tint was pro- 
 duced. Different colours were used for different things, 
 but almost invariably the same colour for the same thing. 
 Thus men and women were usually red,^ the men several 
 shades darker than the women, water blue, birds blue and 
 green, and so on. 
 
 The Egyptian Court at the Crystal Palace affords the 
 student an excellent idea of the manner in which the 
 Egyptians covered their buildings with painting. They 
 painted their walls, they painted their roofs, their pillars, 
 
 [^ This is only comparatively true, see " History of Painting," by 
 Wi)ltraann and Woermann, edited by Sidney Colvin, toI. i. p. 415.] 
 [' And brown.] 
 P Reddish-brown.] 
 
BOOK I.] EGYPTIAN AND ASIATIC PAINTING. 7 
 
 their obelisks, their bas-reliefs,^ and their sphinxes. Even 
 granite was painted except when its surface was so polished 
 as to have sufficient colour of itself. 
 
 Painting on glass, on terra cotta, and on metal, was 
 also practised by the Egyptians. 
 
 [Notwithstanding, however, the number and vastness of 
 Egyptian works of art, the effect of which was increased 
 by colour, the art of " painting," as we understand it, was 
 never practised by this nation, nor as far as we know, by 
 any nation before that of ancient Greece. For this reason 
 the arts of the great nations of Mesopotamia — Chaldaea, and 
 Assyria, with all the wonders that have been unearthed at 
 Babylon and Nineveh, require but a passing notice here, 
 nor is there any sufficient reason to dwell upon the pictorial 
 art of other early Eastern civilizations, Persian, Indian, 
 Hebrew, Phoenician, or Chinese, while that of Japan has 
 been recently proved to be no older than that of modern 
 Europe. Those who wish to pursue inquiries upon these 
 subjects are referred to the works of Rawlinson, Layard, 
 Place, Botta and Flandrin, Lenormant, Oppert, Perrot and 
 Chipiez, and William Anderson.] 
 
 ' The Egyptian reliefs are rarely bas-reliefs, properly speaking, being 
 merely figures rising from a slightly depressed surface, usually coloured. 
 They were called, koilanaglyphi, — bas-relief a en creiix. 
 
BOOK 11. 
 CLASSIC PAINTING. 
 
 THE Grreek religion was a pure nature wors"hip. Tlie 
 mystic element that we have seen prevailing so largely 
 in the religions and art of the Eastern nations was banished 
 as far as possible by the clear and active Greek mind, 
 which did not strive to express its idea of the Deity by 
 means of symbols and fantastic forms, but clothed it with 
 a definite human shape. 
 
 Homer had indeed represented the gods as beings like 
 ourselves, endowed with human passions and sensibilities, 
 moved by anger, jealousy, revenge ; sorrowing, rejoicing, 
 even suffering as we do. Here, then, in the national reli- 
 gion, the Greek artist found a true basis for a naturalistic 
 art, and instead of the monstrous gods of Egypt and 
 Assyria, with heads of animals and wings of birds on 
 human bodies, or with human heads on animal bodies, he 
 fashioned the gods that he conceived in his own image — 
 
 " And then most godlike, being most a man." 
 
 This ideal of the perfectly harmonious man in the free 
 exercise of all his physical and mental powers was in truth 
 the highest ideal of Greek life as well as of Greek art. 
 No nation ever exalted to such an extent the physical side 
 of human nature, nor paid so much attention to the educa- 
 tion of the body, which it esteemed fully as important as 
 that of the mind. And no people ever worshipped beauty 
 as the Greeks did. They honoured the fortunate possessor 
 of a beautiful form and face, without reference to any 
 mental quality, and even instituted prizes at various public 
 
BOOK II,] CLASSIC PAINTING. 9 
 
 f.stivals to be bestowed on whoever was decided to bear the 
 palm of beauty.^ 
 
 The artists were commonly the judges on these occasions, 
 and here and at the gymnasium had unbounded opportu- 
 nities of studying the human form in its most beautiful 
 developments. An accurate knowledge of the human body 
 in movement and repose thus formed the basis of Greek 
 plastic art, but from this study of the individual human 
 body the Greek artist gradually rose to the conception of a 
 lofty ideal form, uniting the beauties of various individuals, 
 but transcending each by the perfection and harmony of 
 the whole. The noblest Greek statues are never mere 
 portrait-like representations of athletic youths or beautiful 
 women, but they are the visible expression of the idea or 
 mental image, which by the imagination of the artist had 
 been built up from many simpler impressions in his mind. 
 
 In this ideal beauty ^ lay the overwhelming superiority 
 of Greek art over Egyptian. The Egyptian artist never 
 rose to the conception of an idea. When not employed in 
 copying as accurately as he knew how the scenes of actual 
 life around him, he worked from a type set before him by 
 previous ages, and this he never developed into new forms. 
 But no sooner was this type transplanted into Greece, than, 
 uncontrolled by priestly despotism, it took different form 
 in each artist's mind, and a glorious art was produced 
 which expanded in intellect and beauty with the nation 
 that created it. The material body of this art was doubt- 
 less received from Egypt, but to the Greek belongs the 
 glory of having first endowed that body with intellectual 
 life, and of having raised it from being the slave of priests 
 and despots to be the interpreter to mankind of some of the 
 
 ^ " At the festival of the Philesian Apollo a prize for the most ex- 
 quisite kiss was conferred on the youthful." — J. Winckelmann. Gcs- 
 chichte der Kuiist des Alterthums. 
 
 ' The Ideal in art is not necessarily le beau ideal, to which many 
 seem to limit it. We may have ideal ugliness as well as ideal beauty, 
 but the Greeks, the greatest idealists that the world has ever seen, in 
 their worship of the beautiful tolerated no deformity or ugliness. They 
 even represented the Fates and Furies as young and beautiful virgins, 
 and from them the word ideal in art is generally used to signify an 
 ideal of beauty and harmony, rather than of ugliness and deformity, 
 lor explanations of the terms Real and Ideal, see note, infra. 
 
10 HISTORY OF PAINTIXG. [bOOK II. 
 
 noblest thoughts and aspirations of the human mind. The 
 divine Pallas Athene of the Parthenon, and the Zeus 
 Olympios at Elis, were not merely, one may well believe, 
 the expression of the mind of the one man Pheidias alone, 
 but rather the sum of the thoughts of a whole people con- 
 cerning its gods, imaged in the mind and chiselled into 
 visible form bj its greatest artist. " If the gods had made 
 their appearance in life," says Aristotle, " all others would 
 have looked like slaves beside them, as the barbarians be- 
 side the Greek," and this is what we insignificant modems 
 really look beside even the mutilated remains of the greatest 
 of the Greek sculptures. 
 
 The period of the highest development of Greek art came 
 after the ever-memorable victories over the Persians, when 
 not only Darius and Xerxes were defeated, but the ancient 
 despotism of the East received its first blow from young 
 European liberty. It was after Marathon, Thermopylae, 
 and Salamis, when Athens was being rebuilt under Pericles, 
 that the Parthenon, the Erechtheion, and the temple of 
 Theseus arose, and Pheidias and his contemporaries called 
 into life a world of marble forms of imperishable beauty. 
 
 Painting was much later than sculpture in becoming an 
 independent art in Greece. At first, as we have seen it in 
 Egypt, it was chiefly employed in colouring statues and 
 reliefs of clay or wood. Homer does not allude to it except, 
 indeed, by his simile of the " red-cheeked ships ; " but no 
 doubt some rude kind of painting was practised, especially 
 at Corinth, " the city of potters," from a very early time ; 
 but it seems to have been principally applied to vase- 
 painting.^ 
 
 It was not, indeed, until sculpture had reached its highest 
 perfection, that Greek painting assumed any great impor- 
 tance. We hear, it is true, of several early masters, such 
 as Cleanthes and Cleophantos of Corinth, Telephanes 
 of Sicyon, Eumaros of Athens, famed by Pliny as having 
 been the first to distinguish the figures of men and women, 
 and CiMON of Cleonse, who seems to have made a conside- 
 rable advance on preceding methods ; but the first painter 
 af any great renown was Polygnotos of Thasos, who was 
 
 ^ Muller, " ArchaologtC rkr Kunst." 
 
BOOK II.] CLASSIC PAINTIXG. 11 . 
 
 called to Athens about the year 462 b. c, by Cimon, the 
 son of Miltiades, and was there employed in adorning 
 several of the public buildings with paintings. His style 
 was exceedingly simple, only coloured outlines on a coloured 
 ground, without shade, without perspective, in sculpture- 
 like relief ; yet such was his power of expression, that it. 
 was said of his Polyxene, that " the whole Trojan war lay 
 in her eyelids." Aristotle also speaks of him as "the 
 painter of noble characters." His most famous works were 
 in the Leschd, or public open hall at Delphi, where he re- 
 presented the taking of Troy and the visit of Odysseus to 
 Hades in large wall paintings. These paintings are so 
 minutely described by Pausanias, who saw them six hun- 
 dred years after their execution, that not a few artists and 
 scholars have attempted to reproduce them from his 
 description.^ 
 
 Unhappily, no remains have been found either of these 
 or of any of the other great works of Grreek painting 
 whereby to judge of their merit. We only know that the 
 critical Greeks, whose refined and cultivated taste was not 
 easily satisfied, bestowed as many praises on their painters 
 as on their sculptors ; and as the surpassing excellence of 
 their sculpture is universally acknowledged, it is naturally 
 inferred that their painting did not fall far below it in 
 beauty.^ Moreover, from the relics of inferior works, such 
 as the lovely vase-paintings found in every museum, and 
 the wall- decorations of Pompeii and other places, that 
 have been preserved, and which must be considered the 
 work of the artisan rather than of the artist, we are 
 enabled to form some slight notion of the grandeur and 
 beauty of the greatest creations of Greek iminting; al- 
 though, alas, not one remains. 
 
 Mythical legends and mythological and heroic histories 
 were the usual subjects of the early Greek painters, the 
 
 [^ "Woltmann and Woermann, English translation, vol. i., p. 41, and 
 note.] 
 
 [^ It did not, however, in the school of Polytjnotos get beyond the 
 tinting of an outline design, knew nothing of chiaroscm-o or perspective, 
 had a flat monochrome background, and represented natural objects 
 such as trees and water symbolically. Much improvement in these 
 res] ects were due to Agatharchos of Samos, who was firat of all a scene- 
 painter.] 
 
tl2 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK II. 
 
 representation of the gods being left more especially to the 
 sculptors. Poljgnotos seems to have worked in an earnest 
 ireligious spirit. 
 
 MicoN of Athens, distinguished for his painting of 
 horses ; ' Dionysios of Colophon, who seems to have given 
 a more portrait-like character to his figures than Poly- 
 gnotos, Aristotle having recorded that he " painted men as 
 they were ; " Pan^nos of Athens, and several other 
 painters of lesser note, belong with Polygnotos to the 
 earlier and severer development of G-reek painting, which 
 took place about 600 b.c. ** We see," says Liibke,^ " in 
 this epoch, painting applied to great monumental objects, 
 simply and strictly directed to the representation of heroic 
 events and to the spiritual and thoughtful element they 
 contain; yet still far from realistic perfection — aiming 
 rather at simple grandeur, worth, and solemnity, than at 
 sweetness and variety. In sober severity of execution it 
 consequently appears allied with the works of Christian 
 art in the early Middle Ages, but in the delicacy of its 
 forms, and in the delineation of various expressions of the 
 mind, it is indisputably superior to it." 
 
 The second age of Greek painting was ushered in by 
 -Apollodoros of Athens, who lived about a generation 
 later than Polygnotos, and was the first to study the 
 various phenomena of light and shade. For this reason 
 he had the name of the Shadower, or Shadow-painter, 
 given to him. 
 
 But the most celebrated painter of this time was the 
 famous Zetjxis of Heracleia, born about 450 b.c. With 
 him painting attained to a marvellous expression of 
 sensuous beauty, and to a perfection of illusory effect that 
 was almost complete.^ His chief charms lay in the 
 soft grace and delicate expression that he gave, especially 
 to his female figures, and in a dramatic power of expres- 
 sion that has never perhaps been equalled. One of his 
 
 ^ A celebrated judge of horseflesh could find, it is said, no other fault 
 -with Micon's horses than that he had painted eyelashes to their under 
 -eyelids, which horses have not. 
 
 2 Liibke's " History of Art," trans, by F. E. Bunnett, 1868. 
 
 ^ As, for example, the story of the grapes, at which the birds came 
 •and pecked; and the curtain painted by his x'ival Parrhasios which 
 deceived even Zeuxis himself. 
 
BOOK II.] CLASSIC PAINTING. 1$' 
 
 most extolled works was the Centaur family, so minutely 
 described by Lucian, in which he succeeded in blending the 
 human and animal nature so intimately, that "it wa& 
 impossible to discern where the one ceased and the other 
 began." His Helen, painted for a temple of Hera at 
 Croton also, for which the people of Croton allowed him 
 to select five of their noblest and most beautiful maidens 
 for models, was one of the most famous pictures of the 
 ancient world, Zeuxis, it is said, exhibited this picture to- 
 the public, charging so much a head for seeing it, after the 
 manner of modern exhibitions. 
 
 Penelope bemoaning Odysseus, the infant Heracles strang- 
 ling the serpents, Menelaos mourning for Agamemnon, 
 Zeus on the throne surrounded by gods, are among other- 
 subjects chosen by him for representation. He frequently 
 invented the subject of his pictures himself, and even 
 when he did not, he always, we are told, represented it 
 in some new and striking manner, setting it, in fact, in 
 the light of his own mind. The life-like character of his 
 painting is well exempHfied by the absurd story that he 
 died of laughing at the portrait of an old woman which he 
 had painted. 
 
 Parehasios of Ephesos was a formidable rival even to 
 Zeuxis. He styled himself indeed the prince of painters, 
 and boasted of descent from Apollo. According to Pliny 
 he was the first to study the rules of proportion, and he 
 came very near Zeuxis in his power of depicting passion 
 and feeling. An allegorical painting by him of the Attic 
 State or Demos, wherein he set forth all its good and evil 
 qualities, is especially celebrated. 
 
 Both Zeuxis and Parrhasios belonged to what is usually 
 called the Ionic school of painting, but they and their 
 followers may be more conveniently classed under the 
 general name of the Asiatic school ; for after the troubles 
 of the Peloponnesian war, art no longer found a home at 
 Athens, which had been the chief seat of the previous or- 
 Attic school, but made its resting place in the cities of 
 Asia Minor, especially in Ephesos. 
 
 An opposed school to the Ionic or Asiatic was that of 
 Sicyon, of which the principal representatives are Timan- 
 THES of Cythnos, distinguished for his inventive faculty 
 
14 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK II. 
 
 and his expression of passion and emotion ; ^ Eupompos, 
 the founder of the Sicyonic school ; Melanthios, one of 
 its most thoughtful artists ; Euphranor, a painter of gods 
 and heroes ; and Pausias, distinguished for his foreshorten- 
 ing, and his painting of ceilings,^ and for his encaustic 
 painting, which method was likewise practised by Aris- 
 teides "" of Thebes. 
 
 Uniting the sensuous beauty and rich colouring of the 
 Ionic school with the severer intellectual qualities of the 
 Sicyonic, we next come to the great Apelles of Cos, the 
 hero-painter of the ancient, as Raphael of the modern 
 world. (Painted probably between 350 and 310 b.c.) As 
 with Zeuxis, grace and beauty formed the distinguishing 
 charms of his works, but he seems more than any other 
 painter, except perhaps Leonardo da Vinci, to have united 
 and harmonized in himself all the various gifts and facul- 
 ties of the artist nature.^ It was this marvellous harmony 
 doubtless that rendered his celebrated Venus Anadyomene 
 so perfect. The goddess was represented rising from the 
 sea, wringing the water from her hair, which fell in a veil- 
 ing shower around her lovely form. There was nothing 
 more than the single figure of the goddess, but the ancients 
 seem to have lost themselves in admiration of it^ Ovid 
 even declared that but for this picture Venus would for . 
 ever have remained hidden beneath her native :waters.* 
 
 ' His famous picture of the Sacrifice of Iphigeneia, in which he ex- 
 -pressed the overwhelming grief of Agamemnon by hiding his face from 
 view, has given rise to more criticism than any other painting ever 
 evoked ; and " the trick," as Sir Joshua Eeynolds calls it, of Timanthes, 
 has been i-epeatedly copied by lesser men, who forgot that what in him 
 may be esteemed an evidence of latent power, became with them an 
 ■evidence of actual weakness. A wall-painting, probably derived from 
 this great work, has been preserved at Pompeii. 
 
 ^ " He introduced the decorative ceiling paintings, afterwards common, 
 consisting of single figures, flowers, and arabesques." — Muller, Archdo- 
 logie der Kunst. 
 
 P Euphranor and Aristeides his master are now generally classed in 
 a third Greek school of the fourth century b.c, called the Theban- 
 Attic] 
 
 * It was originally painted for the Temple of Asclepios at Cos, but 
 was subsequently carried to Rome by Augustus, who remitted a hundred 
 talents of tribute, imposed upon the island, in consideration of it. It 
 was in a decaying state as early as the time of Kero, but no artist 
 Tentured to restore it. 
 
BOOK II.] CLASSIC PAINTING. 16 
 
 Besides heroic and mythological subjects, Apelles 
 l>aiuted many portraits, one in particular of Alexander of 
 Macedon, to whom he was, as we should call it, court 
 painter. The great king was represented in the character 
 of Jupiter, with the thunderbolt in his hand ; which hand, 
 Pliny records, stood out in a wonderful manner from the 
 picture. Alexander admired Apelles' style so much that 
 he would not be painted by any other master, and was 
 wont to say that " there were two Alexanders, one the un- 
 conquered son of Philip, and the other the unrivalled 
 work of Apelles." He paid the painter, we are told, as 
 much as twenty talents (about <£5,000) for this portrait. 
 Perhaps in this instance something was paid for the flattery 
 of being represented as Jupiter, as well as the likeness, 
 still it is in other cases astonishing to read of the enormous 
 sums that Greek artists received for their works, and of 
 the sumptuous style in which many of them lived and 
 dressed. Zeuxis made presents of his pictures in his later 
 life because their price could not be estimated.^ ApoUo- 
 doros wore a lofty tiara after the Persian fashion, and 
 Parrhasios rivalled both him and Zeuxis in the ostentation 
 I of wealth. Apelles possibly led a simpler life, at all events 
 he was famed for his industry, and to him is referred the 
 origin of the proverb " Nulla dies sine linea." 
 
 Protogenes was the contemporary and friend of Apelles, 
 and owed to his friend's generous nature, which raised 
 him above every low feeling of jealousy, the recognition of 
 his talents. He was chiefly praised for the elaborate 
 detail and minute finish of his works. His most celebrated 
 picture — that of the Rhodian hero lalysos and Ms dog, is 
 said to have transfixed Apelles with admiration. 
 
 Theon of Samos, also of the same epoch, is ranked 
 sometimes among the great painters of Greece. 
 
 But with Apelles, Greek painting reached its highest 
 point of perfection. After this short blooming time, the 
 inevitable decay began, and when once it began it pro- 
 ceeded with such fearful rapidity, that soon representa- 
 tions of barbers* shops, cobblers' stalls, and similar genre 
 -subjects, as well as caricatures of mythological histories, 
 
 * Pliny, XXXV. 36. 
 
16 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOZ I: 
 
 and worts of a still more reprehensible and sensual cha 
 racter, were the chief productions of the art that ha 
 formerly delighted in setting forth the deeds of gods an 
 heroes. Even before the age of Alexander, Greek paintin; 
 had declined from its early epic grandeur; it was no longe 
 regarded as an embodiment of the religious ideas of th. 
 people, but it was still an embodiment of their ideas o 
 beauty, and its greatest perfection was thus attained 
 After the Alexandrian period, however, neither religioi 
 nor beauty were much desired, for such was the depravity 
 of the public taste, that the low-life pictures that th( 
 masters of that time produced were more esteemed thai 
 the great creations of earlier times. 
 
 Greek art rose and fell, in truth, with Greek freedom 
 Its noblest development was in the time immediately fol 
 lowing the Persian wars, when Greek life had been straine( 
 to its highest pitch of heroism ; its greatest beauty wai 
 reached when intellectual culture and philosophic inquir 
 had taken the place of simple faith, and the Beautiful wai 
 worshipped as the Good ; and its fall came when luxur 
 and sensuality had done their work, and the Greece tha 
 had so nobly defeated Persia could offer no resistance t< 
 the arms and power of Rome. 
 
 The last painters of Greece were genre painters, and s< 
 numerous were they that the Greeks invented a name fo: 
 their style of art. They called it " Rhuparographia,' 
 which in its literal signification is dirt painting. 
 
 Etruscan Painting can only be regarded as a brand 
 of Greek, but it developed several peculiar characteristics 
 The plastic genius of the Greeks, which, to a certain exten 
 dominated even in their paintings, was not so conspicuou 
 with the Etruscans ; instead of sculpturesque relief the; 
 sought after picturesque effect, and painting was earl; 
 cultivated by them in preference to sculpture. Still, how 
 ever, no Etruscan painters ever attained to the celebrity o 
 the Greek artists, nor have the names of any been handec 
 down to us. On the other hand, a few remains of Etrus 
 can wall paintings have been discovered in subterraneai 
 passages, and such like places, which give us a genera 
 idea of their style of art. These wall paintings generally 
 
BOOK II.] CLASSIC PAINTING. 17 
 
 represent scenes from ordinary life in simple coloured 
 outline, but a frequent subject, as in Egypt, is the destiny 
 of the soul after death. In many respects, indeed, Etrus- 
 can painting seems to have adhered more faithfully to its 
 Egyptian parentage than Greek. One singular cha- 
 racteristic of it is that green trees, or branches of trees, 
 sometimes with birds on them, are usually placed between 
 the separate figures, in order, it would appear, to divide 
 the picture into compartments. 
 
 EoMAN Painting. — Eome accepted her art from Greece 
 with more subservience than the Oriental nations had 
 shown towards Egypt. She did not invent one new type 
 nor conceive one new idea. The practical sense of the 
 Romans urged them, it is true, at an early period, towards 
 the construction of mihtary roads, fine aqueducts, strong 
 bridges, and other useful works for the good of the com- 
 munity ; but when they turned their attention to artistic 
 works they were content to imitate the style of other 
 countries, Etruria first and then Greece. The Eomans, in 
 fact, utterly lacked that artistic faculty which, as we have 
 seen, the Greeks possessed in so high a degree. With the 
 latter, every citizen was an amateur and critic, a lover and 
 a judge of art, and had as much national pride in the 
 production of a master- work as in the conquest of a town ; 
 but the encouragement of art with the Romans seems to 
 have been more a matter of ostentation than of love, or 
 rather, they loved it as a means of displaying their mag- 
 nificence, not from any true vocation to its service. 
 
 The name of no Roman-born artist of any extraordinary 
 merit has been preserved. There were, in fact, but few 
 Roman artists, for with an understanding, perhaps, of 
 their own deficiencies, the masters of the world left all 
 their great artistic undertakings to the Greeks, who, espe- 
 cially after the degradation of their own country, flocked 
 to Rome in great numbers, and vied with one another in 
 executing grand and beautiful works for their conquerors. 
 
 A Graeco-Roman school was thus founded which in 
 architecture and sculpture, at all events, has achieved a 
 lasting fame. Under conditions of dependence and national 
 slavery the Greek artists in Rome tried hard to revive the 
 
 c 
 
18 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK II. 
 
 glory of the former days of their plastic art, and although 
 this was impossible, the free spirit of that art having de- 
 parted, yet they succeeded in producing works of such 
 grandeur and beauty that they have remained the admira- 
 tion of all succeeding ages. 
 
 In painting, the Grraeco-Roman school was of less im- 
 portance than in sculpture, but on the other hand the 
 Eomans themselves evinced a greater capacity for painting 
 than for the other arts. Even as early as the days of the 
 Republic, Fabius Pictor is mentioned as having painted 
 the temple of Salus (about 300 B.C.) in a masterly manner.^ 
 The Poet Pacuvius also painted the Temple of Hercules 
 (200 B.C.). But in the time of the emperors painting had 
 sunk from the service of the gods to be the mere slave of 
 wealth and luxury. Under Caesar, it is true, it had a 
 short period of revival, Timomachus of Byzantium being 
 extolled as a painter of passion, comparable to those of 
 the palmy days of G-reek art ; but he must be regarded 
 rather as one of the last of the distinguished masters of the 
 native Greek school, than as belonging to the Graeco- 
 Roman. It is not recorded that he was ever at Rome.^ 
 Pliny regards painting in the age of Vespasian as an art 
 fast dying out. With the exception of portrait-painting, 
 for which there was a constantly increasing demand, 
 nothing beyond mere decorative works seems to have been 
 produced, and even portraiture, which when nobly con- 
 ceived is one of the greatest achievements of art,^ fell to 
 such follies as representing the Emperor Nero 120 feet 
 high, and executing likenesses inlaid in silver, and even in 
 pearls and precious stones, the richness of the material 
 being evidently esteemed more than the art. A woman 
 artist named Laia or Lala of Cyzicus was especially 
 famous for her portraits. 
 
 ^ Liry, x. 1. Pliny, xxxv. 7. 
 
 ^ His Ajax and Medea, a picture greatly celebrated in epigrams, was 
 purchased by Julius Caesar for eighty talents, and dedicated in the 
 Temple of Venus Genetrix. It is doubtfnl, however, whether the 
 painter was alive at this time; more probably it was purchased from 
 the Cyzicans. 
 
 ^ " The highest thing that art can do is to set l)efore you the true 
 image of a noble himian being. It has never done more than this, and 
 it ought not to do less." — Ruskin, Lectures on Art. 
 
BOOK II.] CLASSIC PAINTING. W 
 
 Landscape painting was also practised under the em- 
 pire, but only, it would seem, for decorative purposes. A 
 painter named Ludius, in the time of Augustus, " invented 
 this charming art," Pliny tells us, for the decoration of 
 walls, " upon which he scattered country-houses, porticoes, 
 shrubs, thickets, forests, hills, ponds, rivers, and banks, in 
 a word, all that the fancy of any one could desire." 
 
 We have, however, a better means of judging of the 
 nature of these wall decorations than from Pliny's account. 
 The paintings that have been discovered at Pompeii and 
 Herculaneum and a few other places, although undoubtedly 
 the work of inferior artists, in an age when art was greatly 
 degraded, yet possess such a wonderful charm in their 
 correct design, their perfectly harmonious colour, and their 
 easy classic grace, that we are enabled to form some notion 
 of the perfection that painting must have attained in the 
 palmy days of G-reek art, when we reflect that even in the 
 time of its degeneracy, and in a foreign country, it was 
 enabled to produce works such as these. It is true that 
 these paintings are often copies and imitations of older 
 Greek works, so that the conception can scarcely be 
 reckoned as belonging to the age in which they were painted, 
 but their execution, harmony of colour, and graceful archi- 
 tectural effect, are qualities peculiarly their own. They were 
 mostly painted in tempera on a coloured ground, generally a 
 deep red or a soft yellow. The subjects chosen were usually 
 from the mystic history of Greece, but perhaps the most 
 beautiful of all the representations are the figures floating, 
 as it were, above the earth, of gods, dancing girls, genii, 
 and fluttering winged forms, interspersed generally with 
 garlands and other floral decorations. Nothing indeed can 
 well be conceived of greater elegance and beauty than 
 many of these Pompeian decorations, and yet this art 
 lacked all the qualities that constitute noble intellectual 
 work. 
 
 During the whole of the Graeco-Roman period we must 
 indeed regard art, in spite of its many lovely productions, 
 as becoming more and more degenerate, until at last, about 
 the time of the Christian era, it sank into a state of utter 
 exhaustion. The old classic life was at an end, with all its 
 physical and intellectual beauty and moral deformity, the 
 
20 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [eOOK II. 
 
 old forms of belief were no longer credible, the old gods had 
 fallen from Olympus ; it is not to be wondered at there- 
 fore that the conditions that had produced classic art 
 having ceased, the art itself should likewise die out. A 
 new religion was needed to express the new ideas of the 
 Deity that were gradually gaining possession of men's 
 minds, and a new art was needed to embody these ideas. 
 This religion and this art were found in Christianity. 
 
BOOK III. 
 EARLY CHRISTIAN PAINTING. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY, in its first noble protest against the 
 idolatry of the world, wholly rejected art from its 
 service ; it even shrank from it in horror as having proved 
 so efficient an embodiment of the pagan religion. The 
 commandment, "Thou shalt not make to thyself any 
 graven image," was still binding on the Jewish converts, 
 and their Gentile brethren although educated in the wor- 
 ship of visible forms, when they first attained to the con- 
 ception of the one true and invisible God, turned to Him 
 in the spirit without the aid of any material representations 
 such as the old religion had supplied them with by means 
 of art. 
 
 Instead, therefore, of imitating the bold naturalism of 
 the Greeks, the early Christians adopted the use of symbols 
 to express Divine things. 
 
 At first these symbols were extremely simple, being, in 
 fact, merely a mode of hieroglyphic writing such as we have 
 seen practised in Egypt. Thus, the Cross and the mono- 
 gram of Christ cemposed of the Greek letters, X P, gene- 
 rally in the form \p signified redemption by Christ's suffer- 
 ing. The lamb and the wine were the hieroglyphs for 
 Christ himself, as also the fish, from the Greek word for 
 it, ichthus, 1X0Y2, containing the initial letters of the 
 name of Christ, and the words that signify his divine mis- 
 sion (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour).^ The ship sym- 
 bolized the Church, the dove the Holy Spirit, or with 'the 
 
 ^ The fish denotes ns well, sometimes, the regenerating water of 
 baptism. 
 
22 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK III. 
 
 olive-branch, peace ; the cock, watchfulness ; the anchor, 
 hope ; the phcenix and peacock, eternity ; the palm-branch, 
 victory ; and so on through a great number of outward 
 signs used to denote spiritual ideas. 
 
 But after a time, when the Christians had ceased to be 
 a persecuted minority, and were rising into power in the 
 state, declining at the same time from the purity of their 
 early faith, these simple signs failed to satisfy their artistic 
 instincts. The Church also, there being now less danger of 
 lapse into idolatry, began to perceive the value of art in 
 embodying its ideas and teaching its doctrines. It took, 
 therefore, such degenerate Classic art as it found at hand, 
 fostered it, and turned it to Christian purposes ; for the 
 broad line of demarcation drawn by many historians be- 
 tween Pagan and Christian art did not exist in these first 
 centuries of Christianity. The first Christian artists were 
 probably converted pagan artists, or had learnt from pagan 
 teachers, and naturally their work as Christians bore the 
 impress of their previous modes of thought. This is espe- 
 cially seen in the Catacomb paintings. 
 
 But although the outward forms of Pagan art were thus 
 transmitted to Christian, the spirit of the one was wholly 
 different from that of the other. The ideal of the Christian 
 was indeed totally unlike that of the Greek ; and this diffe- 
 rent ideal gradually developed a new art. For a time, how- 
 ever, it almost seemed as if the Christian ideal would lack 
 original expression, and that in the domain of art, if in no 
 other, the spirit of Greece and Eome would retain its hold 
 even over the followers of Christ. 
 
 The paintings in the Catacombs at Eome and Naples, 
 the earliest examples of Christian painting of which we 
 have any knowledge, are conceived completely in the spirit 
 of antique art, and in all cases we find a classical treatment 
 of Christian subjects the distinguishing feature of the early 
 Christian school at Rome. 
 
 Christ, under the figure of Orpheus taming the wild 
 beasts of the forest by the sound of his lyre ; ^ Christ as 
 the good shepherd; a beautiful beardless youth in a short 
 shepherd's garb carrying the recovered lamb over his 
 
 ^ Christ is depicted under this figure no less than three times in the 
 Catacomb of St. Cah'xtus. 
 
BOOK III.] EARLY CHRISTIAN PAINTING. 23 
 
 shoulders ; Christ as the teacher, with disciples in antique 
 garb on either side of him, and a gracefully conventional 
 vine, with winged boys or genii gathering the grapes, filling 
 up the tympanum of the arch. Noah in the ark, Daniel in 
 the lions' den, Moses striking the rock, and Elijah ascend- 
 ing to heaven in a chariot resembling that of Apollo, are 
 some amongst the many paintings in the Catacombs in 
 which the direct influence of classic models is clearly 
 apparent. 
 
 The meaning of all these subjects was still no doubt 
 entirely figurative. Thus, Elijah is supposed to have 
 typified the resurrection of the body ; Moses striking the 
 rock, the living water of the Gospel, and Orpheus probably 
 its attractive power — but it is clear that in this pictorial 
 and figurative language, there was already an immense 
 advance upon the earlier system of signs and hieroglyphs. 
 There was only one step more, in fact, to the actual repre- 
 sentation of the idea itself, and the disuse of symbolism 
 altogether, and accordingly we find that at the Council of 
 Constantinople, in the year 692, the substitution of the 
 human figure of Christ for his figurative representation, 
 was permitted to the Christian artist.^ From this time 
 there was manifested by the artist a constantly increasing 
 tendency to represent directly the object of worship, and 
 soon to the image thus established, there began to be 
 attached a pecuHar sanctity. It became, in fact, an object 
 of worship.^ 
 
 The traditional head of Christ with which everyone is 
 familiar, we owe to Byzantium rather than to Rome, al- 
 though the first time we meet with it is in the Catacombs.^ 
 All the efforts of the Emperor Constantine to revive in his 
 new capital — 
 
 " The glory that was Greece, 
 And the grandeur that was Kome,* 
 
 proved in the end as unavailing as those of Julian to rein- 
 state the old religion. " The Galilean had conquered," as 
 
 1 Earlier than this, by the Council of Ephesus, in a.d. 431, the man- 
 ner in which the Virgin was to be represented by art had likewise 
 been defined. 
 
 ^ Lecky, " History of Rationalism," vol. i. 
 
 ' See article in " Quarterly lieview," Oct. 1667, " Portraits of Christ." 
 
24 HISTOEY OF PAINTING. [bOOK III. 
 
 Julian is said to have acknowledged on his death-bed, and 
 classic art fell with the religion that it had embodied. 
 Henceforward a new idea found expression in the art as 
 well as in the life of mankind, and a Christian type was 
 founded by the Byzantine monks '■ that gradually developed 
 from the rigid staring sorrow of the Christs and Madonnas 
 of Byzantine art to the tender love of Leonardo, and the 
 holy purity of Eaphael. The whole teaching of Christianity 
 as distinguished from Paganism lies, one may almost say, 
 within the Byzantine conception of Christ. It is the Man 
 of Sorrows and acquainted with grief ; the Saviour, who 
 suffered death for his people ; the Redeemer, who paid the 
 penalties of our sins, who is here represented, and not any 
 G-od of Greek mythology. Nothing indeed can well be 
 more unlike the Greek ideal of the godlike. Sorrow and 
 suffering were never, except in rare instances, made pro- 
 minent in Greek art, and even in these instances they were 
 idealized ; but in Byzantine art their expression is one of 
 its chief characteristics. All Christian art, in fact, is sad 
 and incomplete, producing in us a sense of some deep 
 underlying mystery, whereas Greek art is always complete, 
 harmonious, and well-defined. Beauty even was not a 
 necessary element in the Christian ideal ; one party in the 
 Church indeed went as far as to propose that the outward 
 form of Christ should be depicted by art in as repulsive a 
 manner as possible, in accordance with the prophet's words, 
 " He hath no form nor beauty that we should desire him." 
 Happily, in the controversy that took place on this point, 
 the fathers who contended for the personal comeliness of 
 Christ, gained the day, and Adrian I. decreed in the eighth 
 century that he should be represented under as beautiful a 
 form as art could bestow. 
 
 The type being once founded, endless repetitions of it 
 were soon produced, and jDictures and images multiplied to 
 such an extent in a church that had begun by condemning 
 their use, that the Iconoclasts, whose work of destruction 
 began in the year 728 and was continued until the follow- 
 ing century, found ample employment in casting down the 
 images and destroying the pictorial representations of 
 
 ^ It is at all events in their works, and not in those of the early Cata- 
 comb artists, that the spirit of Christian art first becomes apparent. 
 
BOOK III.J EARLY CHRISTIAN PAINTING. 25 
 
 sacred persons which had been set up in almost every 
 church both in the east and the west. 
 
 This extraordinary multipUcation of pictures did not, 
 however, by any means imply a taste for art among the 
 early fathers and children of the Christian church. On 
 the contrary, artistic merit for its own sake was the last 
 thing required in these works. ^ Almost all the artists 
 were, as before said, monks, shut into their convents, and 
 pursuing their j^eacef ul avocations, whilst the wild chaos 
 that succeeded the overthrow of the ancient world was 
 gradually becoming moulded into the new forms of the 
 modern world. Their chief aim seems to have been to copy 
 as closely as possible the type that had been set before 
 them as exi)ressive of religious ideas, and from this type 
 they never deviated. Progressive development was thus 
 rendered impossible, and Byzantine art became as stationary 
 in its character as Egyptian. Melancholy Christs, with 
 large ill-shaped eyes, looking forth into space and seeing 
 nothing ; Madonnas, with a deep olive green complexion, 
 suggesting a bilious temperament ; ^ infant Saviours, whose 
 attenuated limbs and old-looking faces, would seem to 
 speak of the most direful effects of starvation ; saints with 
 distorted arms and legs, and emaciated to a degree that 
 even S. Simeon Stylites might envy ; these are the well- 
 known features of Byzantine painting. Nor are such fea- 
 tures to be wondered at when we consider the asceticism 
 to wliich this curious ideal of the Byzantines owed its birth. 
 How could a poor half- starved monk who considered that 
 the mortification of his body was his primary duty, under- 
 
 [^ The author in these and the following remarks is evidently thinking 
 of the Byzantine pictures of comparative! j late date, and is leaving out 
 of account (see note 4, on p. 27) the grand mosaics of the fourth, 
 fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries. These possessed great artistic merit, 
 especially of a decorative kindj and, therefoi-e, for its own sake. It 
 must also be remembered that it is to Byzantine artists that we owe the 
 dramatic conception of the leading events of the Bible narratives <»f buth 
 the Old and New Testaments, which formed the basis of Italian religious 
 design from Giotto to Kaphael.] 
 
 [^ The " green complexions " so common in old paintings do not repre- 
 sent the oi'iginal appearance of the faces when painted, but are caused 
 by the green ground upon which it was accustomed to lay the flesh-tints 
 predominating either by chemical action, or by the removal of the glazes 
 by over cleaning.] 
 
26 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK III. 
 
 stand humanity in its broad, natural, and healthy charac- 
 teristics. The art of these men was necessarily as restrained 
 as their lives, prej ing on its own forms for generation after 
 generation. This asceticism, however, was not altogether 
 an evil. The Greeks, we must remember, had fallen at last 
 into base sensuality by their glorification of the human 
 body. To represent the naked body in all its strength and 
 beauty had been the highest aim of their art, but the 
 Christians regarded the body as a temj)tation to evil, and 
 sought on all occasions to mortify and subdue its passions 
 and desires. Their aim, in direct contrast to that of the 
 Greeks, was to subjugate the animal nature of man, and 
 thereby, as they imagined, exalt his spiritual nature, and 
 this aim is manifestly attained by their art. 
 
 Those solemn dark-visaged Madonnas, weird Infants, 
 and long-Hinbed lean saints have often a mysterious super- 
 natural life that awes us more than the natural and earthly 
 beauty of more perfect works, and in time Christian artists 
 arose who developed the ascetic type created at Byzantium 
 into the highest forms of spiritual beauty. But before de- 
 veloping. Christian art sank to a very low ebb. 
 
 But with the thirteenth century a new epoch commenced 
 in the intellectual history of Europe. Modern painting 
 dates its birth from this century ; but in modern Europe, 
 as in ancient Greece, we find that sculpture preceded it in 
 artistic development. 
 
 Nicola Pisano (born about the beginning of the thir- 
 teenth century, worked until 1280) was undoubtedly the 
 first who gave expression in art to the forward movement 
 of his age, for, casting aside the traditions of Byzantine art, 
 he turned back to the antique for inspiration, and formed 
 by its teachings a new and nobly classic style. Eor it was 
 not that he copied antique forms in the manner of the 
 early Catacomb artists, who did so because at that time 
 they had no others to copy, and were not original enough 
 to invent, but that, deeply imbued with the spirit of antique 
 sculpture, he attained to a feeling for form such as no pre- 
 vious Christian artist had ever manifested. This is es- 
 pecially visible in his celebrated pulpit (completed 1260) 
 in the baptistery at Pisa,^ where many of the rehefs, es- 
 ^ A cast from this pulpit is in the South Kensington Museum. 
 
BOOK III.] EARLY CHRISTIAN PAINTING. 27" 
 
 ])ecially the one representing the Last Judgment, show a 
 knowledge of the human form, which, although imperfect 
 enough compared with Greek knowledge, or even with that 
 to which Christian artists afterwards attained, is yet sur- 
 prising when we consider the early days of art in which 
 he worked. But, as Lord Lindsay says,^ he was "the 
 bright harbinger of the morning." He did not, it is- 
 true, go like Griotto straight to nature for instruction, but 
 he did the next best thing — he studied the Grreek expres- 
 sion of her beauty,^ and gave the first shake to the hitherto 
 immobile Byzantine type. 
 
 Byzantine art,^ indeed, it soon became evident, was. 
 awakening from the long sleep of the dark ages, and be- 
 ginning to manifest signs of life. 
 
 The CosMATi, a family of mosaic artist at Eome, at the 
 beginning of the thirteenth century, worked in a much freer 
 spirit than their predecessors ; and at Venice, also, many of 
 the magnificent mosaics of St. Mark's, supposed to have 
 been executed about this time, show a distinct impulse 
 towards nature. 
 
 But more especially in Tuscany, the ancient Etruria, 
 which was to witness the full glory of the revival, these 
 first stirrings of a new life in art were early apparent.. 
 
 Andrea Tafi, " Painter of Florence," (still living in 
 1320), the earliest artist to whom Vasari accords a separate 
 biography, executed many works in mosaic which were 
 greatly admired, and was considered ** an excellent, nay, a 
 divine artist by his contemporaries." Mosaic workers 
 were then, we must remember, fully entitled to be ranked 
 as artists, for they generally worked from their own de- 
 signs, and did not, as in later times, simply copy pictures. 
 
 The Byzantines excelled all others in this rich style of 
 work, which was, in fact, extremely well suited for the 
 mas:nificent ornamentation of their churches.* 
 
 ^ " Sketches of the History of Christian Art," vol. ii. 
 
 P Not directly from Greek work. His models were probably bas- 
 reliefs on Eoman sarcophagi.] 
 
 P Or rather, perhaps, Italian art under fresh Byzantine influence.] 
 
 ^ It was likewise practised by the early Christian artists at Rume as 
 early as the fourth century ; indeed, although the limits of this work 
 would not allow me to dwell upon them, the remarkable mosaics at 
 
28 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK III. 
 
 Gaddo Gaddi (still living 1333), was another mosaicist 
 of Florence of considerable merit for his time. Both 
 he and Andrea Tafi were contemporaries and friends of 
 Cimabue, but they did not attain to the same degree of 
 fame, although they also had the advantage of the " sub- 
 tilty of the Florentine nature, which is wont to produce 
 fine and ingenious spu'its." 
 
 Besides Andrea Tafi, G-addo Gaddi, and a few other 
 mosaicists, there were several fresco painters deserving of 
 mention, who lived before or were contemporary with 
 Cimabue. Not only in Florence, but in Pisa, and also in 
 Siena and Arezzo, schools of art existed at an early date. 
 Siena seemed indeed, at first, as if it would rival Florence 
 in its achievements, but the Sienese school produced no 
 Giotto, that is to say, no artist quite great enough to free 
 it from Byzantine bondage. It continued, therefore, long 
 after the Florentine school had put it forth ; its new gained 
 energies still perpetuating the old forms, although it in- 
 fused into them a wonderful grace and tenderness. 
 
 GuiDo of Siena, supposed to be the painter of a large 
 Madonna and Child, in the church of S. Domenico, at 
 Siena, was the predecessor of Duccio, Ugolino, Simone 
 Martini, and other artists of the Sienese school in the 
 fourteenth century. The Madonna of S. Domenico, by 
 Guido of Siena, is superior to Cimabue' s celebrated work ; 
 but there seems to be some doubt as to whether Guido was 
 really the painter of it.^ 
 
 GiUNTA of Pisa, although contemporary with and work- 
 ing in the same city as the great Nicola, was not influenced 
 by him in any degree. His reputed works are entirely 
 Byzantine in style. 
 
 Another doleful Byzantine of this date is Maegaritone 
 of Arezzo, bom 1216, died 1293. A specimen of this 
 I)ainter's work was added in 1857 to the National Gallery, 
 and will enable students to judge of his curious style. It 
 
 Rome and Ravenna afford as good an evidence of the classic proclivities 
 of the early Roman school as the paintings in the Catacombs. 
 
 ^ It is engraved in the handbooks of Kugler, and Crowe and Caval- 
 caselle. The latter critics consider it to be the work of a later artist. 
 [The date it bears (1221) is nuw proved to be a forgery, it was probably 
 painted 1281.] 
 
BOOK III.] EARLY CHRISTIAN PAINTING. 29 
 
 is said to be " a characteristic " work, and is mentioned by 
 Vasari, who praises its small figures, which he says are 
 executed "with more grace and finished with greater deli- 
 cacy " than the larger ones. G-race seems to us a curious 
 word to apply to such a work, yet Margaritone was not 
 more rigid than most of his brother artists, and was 
 accounted an excellent painter in his day. Nothing, how- 
 ever, can be more unlike nature than the grim Madonna of 
 the National Gallery, and the weird starved Child in her 
 arms. 
 
 Giovanni Cimabue, born at Florence in 1240, ends the 
 long Byzantine succession in Italy, which had continued 
 uninterrupted from the time of Constantino until the 
 thirteenth century.^ In him, ** the spirit of the years to 
 come " is decidedly manifest ; but he never entirely suc- 
 ceeded in casting ofE the hereditary Byzantine asceticism, 
 although, in his later years, he attained to much [greater 
 freedom of drawing, and even, in some of his works, to 
 something like a natural expression. Whether this 
 was owing to the influence of his great pupil Giotto, or 
 whether he himself had a dawning perception that nature 
 was more likely to be right than tradition, it is difiicult to 
 say : but at all events, the progress in his art is so distinct, 
 
 ^ Strange to say, this succession is still continued in Greece up to the 
 present day. M. Didron, the French traveller and archaeologist, actually 
 saw a monk-painter of Mount Athos, in 1839, pursuing exactly the 
 same method, and working from exactly the same types as his early 
 Christian forefathers. Mount Athos, which was formerly called the 
 Holy Mount, and is still " a perfect warren of monasteries," is the prin- 
 cipal school from which issue the saint pictures of the Greek church. 
 No revolutionary ideas have ever disturbed the traditions of this holy 
 school. Nature has never ventured to intrude on its sacred ground, 
 and anything like invention is regarded as sacrilege. ;M. Didron found, 
 in fact, in the bands of the monks a manuscript which had been com- 
 piled in the fifteenth century from older treatises, in which not only the 
 whole technical process of Byzantine painting is described, but likewise 
 the rules to be adopted in the treatment of sacred subjects are rigidly 
 laid down. This manuscript, which has been published by M. Didron, 
 under the title of" Manuel d'Iconographie Chretienne," is the sole text- 
 book of these wonderful modem painters, who faithfully reproduce not 
 only the same type of beauty, but even the very same folds of drapery 
 as their early Byzantine predecessors. [M. Didron's book has been 
 translated into English, and published in Bohn's Library under the title 
 of " Christian Iconography " (Bell and Son^.l 
 
so HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK III. 
 
 that most writers place him at the beginning of the new 
 epoch, and Vasari extols him as having given " the first 
 light to the art of painting." So much praise has indeed 
 been accorded to Cimabue, and Yasari's enthusiasm is so 
 ■catching, that we can scarcely help believing that he was a 
 great artist ; yet it must be owned, that when we come to 
 study his works, they produce a feeling of disappointment, 
 and when we compare his feeble efforts at naturalism with 
 the noble achievements of Griotto, we can scarcely avoid 
 thrusting him back amongst his Byzantine predecessors, 
 rather than setting him forward as the father of such a 
 great race as the Italian painters. 
 
 But the Florentines of that time were more than satis- 
 fied with the achievements of their high-born artist, and 
 stiff and melancholy as his Madonnas appear to us, they 
 were then reckoned marvels of grace and beauty, and 
 awoke the warmest feelings of love and devotion in simple 
 pious minds. One of these Madonnas, Vasari tell us, was 
 carried in solemn-procession with the sound of trumpets, 
 and other festal demonstrations from the house of Cimabue 
 to the church of Santa Maria Novella, the people shouting 
 with joy on the occasion. 
 
 This colossal Madonna, the largest that had as yet been 
 attempted by art, still exists, and, strange to say, in the 
 same church — namely, S. Maria Novella — for which it was 
 originally painted. There is no doubt of its authenticity, 
 :and therefore it is fair to take it as a standard of his at- 
 tainments. The Virgin, alas ! is incorrigibly doleful, but 
 there is a soft human expression in her countenance dif- 
 ferent to the hard staring grief of preceding artists. The 
 Child, also, has come to life, and stretches out his little 
 ^rm in quite a natural manner. Still, however, in spite of 
 these merits, the Byzantine type is faithfully preserved. 
 The hands of both Virgin and Child are painfully thin and 
 •unnatural, and the angels surrounding the chair have all 
 got stiff necks, notwithstanding that there is a slight in- 
 tention of motion apparent in their attitudes. The features 
 are in all cases traditional, but pleasantly softened. 
 
 Another and earher Madonna in the Florentine Academy 
 is much more Byzantine in character than this. The 
 Maria Novella Virgin is indeed always considered his most 
 
BOOK III.] EARLY CHRISTIAN PAINTING. 31 
 
 advanced work,^ and it is certainly a most imi^ressive picture. 
 Not only its large size and majestic aspect, but likewise its 
 solemn religious feeling, produce a powerful influence upon 
 the beholder ; indeed, whatever artistic qualities Byzantine 
 works may lack, a fervent religious belief is always ap- 
 parent in them. For this reason, no doubt, they were 
 more effective in exciting the emotions of the pious, which 
 we must remember was their chief aim, than the more 
 beautiful and realistic productions of later times. ^ 
 
 It is always pictures of this class that gain the reputa- 
 tion of being miracle-working. We never find a Madonna, 
 by any great Italian painter, winking her eyes or healing 
 the sick. 
 
 Besides his Madonnas, Cimabue was no doubt the master 
 who executed many of the earlier wall paintings in the 
 Church of S. Francis, at Assisi. This church has a peculiar 
 interest in the history of art, for the whole progress of 
 painting in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries may 
 be studied on its walls. It was built during the first half 
 of the thirteenth century, when the worship of S. Francis, 
 the patron saint of poverty, had grown to be second only 
 in importance to that of Christ. It is remarkable as con- 
 sisting of two churches built one over the other, the lower 
 containing the remains of the saint, whilst the upper was 
 devoted to the service of his order. Both the upper and 
 lower church were adorned with paintings, and all the 
 artists of note of that time were summoned by the monks 
 of Assisi to execute these works.' The church formed in 
 
 ' It is engraved in Kugler's Handbook, in Crowe and Cavalcaselle's 
 History, and in Woltmann and Woermann. 
 
 ^ It is related of one of the later Italian painters that although he 
 painted beautiful Madonnas himself, and had those of Raphael and other 
 great masters constantly before his eyes, he always preferred to say his 
 prayers to an ugly little olive-coloured Virgin of the Byzantine school ; 
 and this feeling is quite comprehensible. 
 
 ^ It is impossible in the limits of this work to give any idea of these 
 marvellous series of paintings. In the upper church alone in three lines 
 along the walls of the nave were depicted, 1. The History of the Jews, 
 from the Creation to the finding of Benjamin's cup, in sixteen frescoes ; 
 2. The History of Christ, from the Annunciation to the Descent of the 
 Holy Spirit, in twenty frescoes ; and 3. The History and Miracles of 
 S. Francis, in twenty-eight frescoes. The roof, the transept, and the 
 portals were likewise painted. 
 
32 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK III. 
 
 fact a vast history book for the unlearned, wherein all 
 might read, without the help of letters, the events recorded 
 in the Bible, and the legendary history of their saints. It 
 is impossible to over-estimate the educational value of such 
 works as these before the introduction of printing. 
 
 The frescoes at Assisi were not executed all at one time,, 
 nor, as before said, by one hand. They were probably 
 begun before Cimabue, but he no doubt had the entire 
 superintendence of them in his day, although assisted in 
 the actual work by other artists. Giotto seems to have 
 worked at Assisi at two different periods — first, when still 
 young, and under the influence of Cimabue, and lastly in 
 the fulness of his fame, when he executed the latter scenes 
 in the history of S. Francis, and the noble allegories illus- 
 trating the vows of the Franciscan order — namely. Poverty, 
 Chastity, and Obedience, in the Lower or Sepulchral 
 Church. 
 
 Many of the paintings thought to be by Cimabue, are so 
 obliterated that it is impossible to judge of them ; a few, 
 however, remain, one of the best preserved being, the 
 Betrayal of Christ, belonging to a series representing the 
 Passion. The Christ in this remarkable work is of the 
 Byzantine type — the bullet-shaped head, the staring eyes, 
 the totally expressionless countenance, and the little tufts 
 of hair coming down on to the forehead, being all faith- 
 fully repeated from the earliest portraits, but several of 
 the Roman guards betray an unwonted amount of anima- 
 tion, and an individual character is perceptible in many of 
 the heads. ^ 
 
 Here then was a considerable advance made upon tra- 
 ditionary art, and it is further stated that Cimabue 
 actually painted a head of S. Francis " after nature." 
 This could not mean from S. Francis himself, who died in 
 1226, but from a living model instead of a traditional type. 
 
 The increasing light of the centuries was in fact every 
 year revealing new truths to artists as well as to othei' 
 men, and gradually to the early morning time of Cimabue 
 succeeded the full noonday of art in the sixteenth century. 
 
 ^ The Madonna in the National Gallery, although supposed to be 
 genuine, is too much injured by time and retouching for it to be taken 
 as a fair sample of his work. 
 
BOOK IV. 
 PAINTING IN ITALY. 
 
 Chapter I. 
 
 THE EISE. 
 
 Giotto — The Giotteschi — Orcagna — The Sienese School. 
 
 WITH Giotto, the revival of art was finally and fully 
 accomplished, and a noble Christian school founded. 
 He was in truth the first master of real creative genius 
 that Christianity had as yet produced, and the impulse 
 given by him was transmitted through succeeding cen- 
 turies, until the highest perfection of Christian art was 
 reached. 
 
 The romantic story of his life has been often told. The 
 son of a simple husbandman ^ of Tuscany, named Bondone, 
 Giotto (1266-1337) spent his early years in tending his 
 father's flocks, and might possibly have remained a shepherd 
 to the end of his days, had not the famous artist Cimabue, 
 as he was riding one day along the valley of Vespignano, 
 chanced to notice the youthful shepherd-boy intently occu- 
 pied in drawing one of his sheep upon a smooth piece of 
 rock, with no better instrument than a slightly pointed 
 stone. Struck with the truthfulness of the drawing, Cimabue 
 asked him whether he would not like to be an artist, and 
 receiving a joyful assent, and the father's permission 
 
 [^ From documents recently discovered it would appear that Bondone 
 was of good family and a man of some property.] 
 
 D 
 
34 HISTOEY OP PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 being gained, he took Giotto back with him to Florence, 
 and instructed him in all the mechanical methods of 
 painting.^ 
 
 Such instruction was no doubt very valuable, and al- 
 though Cimabue's " name is now eclipsed," ^ we must not 
 forget that Giotto doubtless owed much to his prompt 
 recognition and training ; still, it is evident from the first 
 that he had a wiser and greater teacher than even the 
 father of painting, no other, indeed, than Nature herself, 
 from whom, as we know, he had received his earhest les- 
 sons on the hillside, and whose guidance he never after- 
 wards forsook. 
 
 It is not, indeed, surprising that the worn-out traditions 
 of ascetic art should have failed to satisfy this young 
 artist, who had been accustomed to watch the sun rise on 
 the hills of Yespignano, who had drawn the flowers of the 
 valley, and had studied the forms of real living sheep, so 
 unlike those of the twelve holy sheep of Byzantine paint- 
 ing. His genius could not work in such fetters, therefore 
 he boldly broke through them, and by his daring naturahsn 
 effected a total change in the art of his time. 
 
 It is evident how much this return to nature was needed 
 by the admiration that Giotto's innovations excited amon^ 
 his contemporaries. The feeblest attempt to represeni 
 anything like passion or emotion was then esteemed a 
 marvel, and for two hundred years, Vasari affirms, such a 
 thing as drawing living persons from nature had not been 
 attempted.^ 
 
 [^ This is Vasari's account. According to another, by an anonymous 
 commentator on Dante at the end of the fifteenth century, Giotto was 
 placed with a wool merchant at Florence before he was apprenticed to 
 Cimabue.] 
 
 ^ " Credette Cimabue nella Pittura 
 Tener lo campo, ed ora ha Giotto il grido j 
 Sicche la fama di colui oscura." 
 
 " Cimabue thought 
 To lord it over painting's field ; and now, 
 The cry is Giotto's, and his name eclipsed." 
 
 Dante, Purg., xi. 93. 
 
 [^ Vasari adds, " Or, if some had attempted, it was not by any 
 means with the success of Giotto."] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 35 
 
 It is difficult to trace Giotto's development, for so many 
 of yhis works have perished by time and neglect, that we 
 waiit the links that would connect the boy-shepherd pupil 
 of jfche Byzantine Cimabue with the great inaugurator of 
 modern painting. Some of his earliest works were exe- 
 cuted, we are told, in the Abbey (Badia) of Florence, but 
 none of these remain. Vasari celebrates an Annunciation 
 among them as having given an expression of fear and 
 astonishment to the Virgin. 
 
 In 1298, Giotto was invited to Rome by Boniface VHI.,^ 
 where he executed, besides other works, the celebrated 
 Mosaic of the Navicella for S. Peter's. This mosaic is 
 still to be seen in the portico of S. Peter's, although so 
 greatly altered and restored that it is doubtful whether 
 any of Giotto's original work remains. It represents alle- 
 gorically the Holy Catholic Church under the similitude 
 of a little ship (Navicella) — manned by the Apostles driven 
 on a stormy sea, with the winds in the form of demons 
 blowing upon it. Christ walks on the waves and saves 
 Peter from sinking. 
 
 After a short period in Rome, Giotto probably returned 
 to Florence, which he appears to have made his head- 
 quarters. He could never, however, have stayed for any 
 long time together at one place, for we find him travelling 
 throughout the length and breadth of Italy, visiting 
 Padua, Verona, Ravenna, Assisi, Milan, and Naples, doing 
 his work, and earning his wages wherever he went. In 
 
 ' His visit to Rome was the occasion of a joke which has been per- 
 petuated even to the present day. Boniface VIII. desiring to know 
 what manner of artist Giotto was, before he took him into his service, 
 sent one of his courtiers to Florence to visit him, and to gain, if possible, 
 some proof of his skill. The courtier accordingly appeared one morning 
 at Giotto's bottcga,oT workshop, and asked him for a drawing to send to 
 his Holiness. Whereupon " Giotto, who was very courteous, took a 
 sheet of paper and a pencil dipped in red colour ; then resting his elbow 
 on his side, to form a sort of compass, with one turn of his hand he 
 drew a circle so perfect and exact that it was a marvel to behold. This 
 done, he turned to the courtier, saying, * Here is your drawing.' " The 
 courtier seems to have thought that Giotto was fooling him; but the 
 l*ope was easily convinced, by the roundness of the O, of the greatness 
 of Giotto's skill, and the feat gave rise to the saying, " Piu tondo che 
 rO di Giotto" (Rounder than the O of Giotto), the point of which lies 
 in the word tondo signifying dulness of intellect as well as a circle. 
 
36 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 fact, Giotto, says Ruskin,^ " like all the great painters of 
 the period, was merely a travelling decorator of walls at so 
 much a day, having at Florence a bottega or workshop, for 
 the production and sale of small tempera pictures." This 
 " travelling decorator of walls," had, however, a creative 
 genius of the highest order, and the walls he painted were 
 not filled with grim Madonnas, ascetic saints, and instruc- 
 tive Scripture histories as heretofore, but were made alive 
 with human thought and human emotion ; his whole art 
 was a " protest of vitality against mortality, of spirit 
 against letter, and of truth against tradition." In the 
 frescoes of the Church of the Arena at Padua his powers 
 were first brought into full play, and scope given for the 
 inventive and dramatic qualities of his art. 
 
 The Scrovigni chapel in the Church of the Arena, at 
 Padua, was built in 1303, by Enrico Scrovigno, a noble 
 citizen of Padua,^ who employed Giotto to adorn it with 
 paintings. In a series of thirty-eight magnificent frescoes 
 the lives of the Virgin and of her Son are unfolded in a 
 triple course along the walls, many of the old incidents 
 being rendered in a new manner. Beneath the lines of 
 these frescoes are placed thoughtfully conceived allegorical 
 figures of the antagonistic virtues and vices. The Last 
 Judgment is depicted above the arch of the entrance, and 
 the Annunciate Virgin, to whom the chapel was dedicated, 
 above another arch. The chapel forms, in fact, one lovely 
 painted poem, which, in its first beauty, must have been 
 almost worthy to rank with the written one of Dante. 
 Dante himself, indeed, it is possible, may have had some 
 share in its production, even beyond the influence that his 
 mind always exercised over Giotto ; for we know that he 
 visited Giotto whilst he was working at Padua,^ and it is 
 natural to suppose that he would have aided his friend 
 with many suggestions and imaginations. Several of the 
 
 ^ " Giotto and his Works at Padua," Printed for the Arundel 
 Society. 
 
 ^ With the money that his father had accumulated by means of an 
 avarice that handed him down to posterity in the seventh circle of the 
 '• Inferno." 
 
 5 Benvenuto da Imola, " Antiquitates Ital." [The date of Dante'* 
 visit to Padua was 1306.] 
 
EOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 37 
 
 subjects, at all events, have a certain Dantesque expres- 
 sion, and many of the allegorical figures are conceived in 
 the style of the poet. Amongst them may be mentioned 
 Justice, a noble female figure, who holds the discs of her 
 balance evenly poised in her hands, whilst Industry in one 
 scale, working at an anvil, is crowned by an angel, and the 
 execution of a criminal takes place in the other. Prudence 
 has two faces, one old and the other young, looking behind 
 and before ; she holds a mirror and a pair of compasses in 
 her hand. Faith plants her cross upon a prostrate idol. 
 Unbelief — the contrasted vice — is fastened, by means of a 
 chain round his neck, to an idol that he holds in his hand, 
 tind which is gradually drawing him towards the flames of 
 hell, springing up in his future path. A grave spirit above 
 tries to counsel, but in vain, for the ears of Unbelief are 
 tied down by the strings of his helmet-like cap. Several 
 other of these allegories evince a similar fertile and poetical 
 imagination, and if he owed something of the conception 
 of this work to Dante, the thoughtful execution of it was 
 entirely his own. His forms are dignified and graceful, 
 his drawing free, the folds of the draperies simple and 
 flowing, in strong contrast to the stiffness and complexity 
 of Byzantine draperies, and the expression of the faces 
 varied and emotional. " The personages who are in grief 
 look melancholy, and those who are joyous look gay," says 
 tin old writer (quoted by Mrs. Jameson) in a tone of ad- 
 miring surprise. 
 
 From Padua, when the painting of the Scrovigni chapel 
 was finished, Giotto returned to Florence, where he painted 
 no less than four family chapels in the newly-built church 
 •of Santa Croce. All these frescoes had disappeared under 
 the barbarous hand of the whitewasher, but those in the 
 Bardi and Peruzzi chapels have been partially recovered. 
 
 In 1841 what remained of the celebrated fresco of the 
 Dance of the daughter of Herodias, in the Peruzzi chapel, 
 was brought to light, and after this the whole chapel was 
 restored, and a grand series of frescoes, illustrating the 
 lives of St. John the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist 
 revealed. In the Bardi chapel a set of frescoes, illustrating 
 the history of St. Francis, were disclosed in 1853. Like those 
 in the Peruzzi chapel, they have suffered much from bad 
 
38 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV, 
 
 " restoration." The subject is the same as in the twenty- 
 eight frescoes of Assisi/ but the treatment is somewhat 
 different. 
 
 The Death of St. Francis, in the Bardi chapel, became a 
 standard type for the representation of this event with 
 succeeding artists. Ghirlandaio, in the fifteenth century,, 
 copied Griotto's composition almost exactly, only he left out 
 the ascending spirit of the saint, which in Giotto's concep- 
 tion is carried by angels to glory. 
 
 [The church of Santa Croce also contains the celebrated 
 Baroncelli altar-piece, one of the few existing panel pic- 
 tures by Giotto. It is composed of five panels, and repre- 
 sents the Coronation of the Virgin, with the angelic choir, 
 and patriarchs, prophets, and saints in glory.] 
 
 Like Dante, Giotto was devoted to the Franciscan 
 order ; ^ indeed the two powerful orders of Dominicans and 
 Franciscans at that time divided the genius of the wholo 
 world between them. Giotto, as we have seen, probably 
 worked at the great church of St. Francis, at Assisi, in his 
 youth, but whatever doubt there may still be about the 
 masters of the upper church, there can be little about the 
 painter of the Lower or Sepulchral Church, for here the 
 magnificent allegorical representations of the vows of the 
 Franciscan order — Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience — and 
 St. Francis in Glory, a rich composition, painted in the 
 fourth compartment of the vaulted roof, reveal Giotto in 
 the full exercise of his powers. 
 
 Although an important series of frescoes at Naples has 
 been attributed to Giotto, it has at the same time been 
 doubted by many critics whether he was ever in that city. 
 The recent researches of Crowe and Cavalcaselle have, 
 however, brought to hght a document which certainly 
 proves that Giotto was in Naples in the year 1333, but 
 whether he executed the well-known " Seven Sacraments 
 of the Church," in the Incoronata, is still open to doubt.^ 
 
 ^ See p. 30, note. 
 
 ^ A satirical poem, however, still exists, ascribed to him, entitled, "A 
 Canzone on Poverty.-' But if he ridiculed the Bride of St. Francis ia 
 his verse, he certainly exalted her in kis art. 
 
 [^ The cliapel was not founded till 1352. There are no existing: 
 Works of Giotto at Naples.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 39 
 
 His last work in Florence was not as a painter, but as 
 an architect.^ In 1334 he was appointed by the Kepublic 
 to superintend the works of S. Maria del Fiore, and it 
 was from his design that the beautiful bell-tower arose 
 which — 
 
 " Soars up in gold its full fifty braccia, 
 Completing Florence as Florence Italy." 
 
 Several amusing stories are related of Giotto, which show 
 him to have been a man of genial humour, happy disposi- 
 tion, and well skilled in repartee. He married in the first 
 years of the century, Ciuta di Lapo di Pelo, and had six 
 children, who seem to have been remarkable only for their 
 ugliness.^ 
 
 Giotto was favoured with very intelligent pupils, who 
 spread his teaching far and wide, and diffused the " new 
 method," as his style was called, throughout most of the 
 schools of Italy. In one sense, indeed, all the great 
 painters of the modem world may be said to be followers 
 of Giotto, for he was the earliest pioneer to that vast king- 
 dom of Nature from which succeeding artists have drawn 
 their noblest inspirations; but the term is more con- 
 veniently limited to his immediate successors, " The Giot- 
 TEscHi," as they are generally styled. 
 
 Foremost amongst these stands the name of Taddeo 
 Gaddi ' (b. 1300, living in 1366), the son of Gaddo Gaddi, 
 
 [^ He was also a sculptor. Of the basreliefs on his Campanile, all 
 of those in the lowest range are supposed to be more or less after his 
 designs ; two of them (Sculpture and Architecture) were executed by 
 him, the rest were cut \gf Andrea Pisano and Luca della Robbia after 
 his death. They are remarkable for their vigour and simplicity, and for 
 the illustration of ideas by subjects taken from real life. He also made 
 designs for the bronze door of the Baptistery at Florence, which was 
 afterwards executed by Andrea Pisano.] 
 
 ^ The single fragment of a painting that represents Giotto in our 
 National Collection, was saved with a few other pieces, when the church 
 of the Carmine, in Florence, was burnt down in 177 1. A knowledge of 
 some of the frescoes in this church has been preserved by the means of 
 the drawings Thomas Patch had previously made of them. 
 
 3 Rumohr, " Italienische Forschungen." [His principal wall painting 
 is in the Bai'oncelli chapel of Santa Croce, Florence. There is an ahar- 
 piece by him in the Berlin Museum, and another in the gallery at Siena, 
 and remains of wall paintings in S. Francesco at Pisa.] 
 
40 HISTORY OF PAINTING, [cOOK IV. 
 
 and the godson of Giotto, and for a long time his pupil 
 and fellow-worker. His son ^gnolo ^ was likewise a 
 painter, thus carrying on the calling to the third genera- 
 tion. Taddeo Gaddi was an architect as well as i)ainter,- 
 and was on the Council of Works of S. Maria del Fiore 
 after Giotto's death.' Giottino (1324-1396), or the Httle 
 Giotto, is the name given to a master whose real name is 
 not very certain. Yasari calls him Tommaso di Stefano, 
 [and says that he greatly improved on the manner of 
 Giotto.'] 
 
 Stefano (1301 P-1350), supposed to be the father of 
 Giottino, is extolled by Vasari as having left Giotto him- 
 self far behind, but [we have no certain information about 
 the works of himself or his son]. He was called II Scimia 
 della Natura — the ape of nature — by his contemporaries. 
 Puccio Capanna, Buonamico Christofani, called Buf- 
 FALMAcco, Calandrino, and several other Giotteschi are 
 known by name, to whom few if any works can with any 
 certainty be attributed; on the other hand, numerous 
 works exist which can only be assigned arbitrarily to 
 painters of the fourteenth century working under the in- 
 fluence of Giotto.* 
 
 This influence extended far beyond his immediate school. 
 The effects of the revival that he had inaugurated were 
 felt all over Italy, and even architects, sculptors, and 
 mosaists became impregnated with his teaching as well as 
 those artists whom we more directly recognize as his fol- 
 
 [^ His most important frescoes are in the Cathedral at Prato, and 
 Santa Croce, Florence.] 
 
 [•^ There are three works of his school in the National Gallery. He 
 was the master of Jacopo Lakdini da Casentino (1310?-1393)5 by 
 whom there is an altar-piece in the National Gallery (No. 580), and 
 GiovANKi da Milako, a few works by whom still exist at Prato and 
 Florence, which justify Vasari's opinion of his merits.] 
 
 [^ The most important of the few works usually attributed to Giottino 
 are some frescoes representino^ scenes from the legend of Constantine, in 
 the chapel of S. Sylvester in Santa Croce, Florence ; but these, as well 
 as two frescoes of the Birth and Crucifixion of Christ, are now supposed 
 to be by INIaso, a celebrated pupil of Giotto, who was confused with 
 Giottino by Vasari.] 
 
 [^ The name of a forgotten pupil of Giotto, Bernardo di Daddo 
 (painted 1320-1347) has recently been resuscitated. He painted the 
 Madonna of Urcagna's Shrine in Or San Michelej Florence.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 41 
 
 lowers. Especially at Pisa, where the revival was begun 
 even before his time, bj Niccola Pisano, we see how com- 
 pletely Giotto ruled the art of the fourteenth centurv. 
 Andeea Pisano,^ a sculptor of high excellence, who carried 
 on the revival began by Niccola, was a pupil of Griotto, and 
 worked completely in his spirit, as did also his son Nino 
 Pisano. 
 
 Pisa, in the fourteenth century, was undoubtedly the 
 greatest school of sculpture in all Italy, but, strange to say, 
 she produced no great native painter. 
 
 Yet we have at Pisa some of the most remarkable 
 painted works in the world, the far-famed frescoes of the 
 Campo Santo. 
 
 " There are few places in the world," writes W. B. Scott,^ 
 " likely to make a deeper impression on the traveller than 
 the Campo Santo of Pisa. . . . Singleness of aim, simpli- 
 city of execution, and the absence of small things, make 
 one feel stronger and breathe freer than in a modern exhi- 
 bition." This cemetery was founded at the close of the 
 tweKth century, by the Archbishop Ubaldo, who is said to 
 have brought home fifty-three vessels laden with earth 
 from Palestine, and to have formed with it the Campo 
 Santo, so that the bodies of the departed Pisans might 
 rest in holy ground. A cloister was built ^ round the sacred 
 burial-place, and during the two following centuries 
 numerous artists were employed by the Pisans to adorn it 
 with paintings. Like the Church of S. Francis at Assisi, 
 the Campo Santo thus contains a grand pictorial history 
 of early Italian art ; indeed, were there no other remains 
 of the works of the artists of the fourteenth century^ we 
 should be able to form a very good idea of their style and 
 capabihties from these two places alone. A painter named 
 Datus is supposed to have been the earliest artist of the 
 Campo Santo,"* but what he executed is not now discover- 
 able : other painters, some of whose names are mentioned 
 
 [^ Andrea di Ugolino, of Pontedera, commonly called Andrea Pisano, 
 was also a pupil and assistant of Giovanni Pisano, the son of JSiecoIa.] 
 
 ■■* " Half- hour I^ec;turcs on the Fine Arts." 
 
 [^ By Giovanni Pisano between 1278 and 1283.] 
 
 * He is considered by Forster to be the same as Deodati Orlandi of 
 Lucca. See "Kunstblatt," 1833. 
 
42 HISTOET OP PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 in the records of tlie Duomo di Pisa, succeeded, but it was 
 not until late in the fourteenth century that any important 
 work was undertaken. The frescoes illustrating the trials 
 of Job were then produced, probably by an artist named 
 Francesco da Volterra,^ who, although not a Pisan by 
 birth, had been long settled in Pisa in 1370, when we find 
 a record of payment being made to him for work in the 
 Campo Santo. In the Trials of Job a certain dignity of 
 thought elevates into poetry the quaint realistic treatment 
 of the subject, and the religious earnestness of the painter 
 always impresses the mind of the beholder. These works 
 were long attributed to Giotto, and his spirit undoubtedly 
 animates them, but it is nearly certain that they are by a 
 disciple and not by the master himself, who does not seem 
 ever to have worked at Pisa.^ 
 
 Another seemingly earlier series of frescoes represents 
 the Passion of Christ and the subsequent scenes of his 
 history. These works have been ascribed to Buffalmacco, 
 but without any real evidence ; on the other hand, Pietro 
 di Puccio is known to have executed the scenes from 
 Genesis, and Spinello Aretino and Andrea da Firenze 
 illustrated the lives of several saints.^ 
 
 But the most remarkable frescoes at the Campo Santo 
 are those erroneously attributed by Vasari to the Floren- 
 tine artist Andrea Orcagna, or more correctly Arcagnolo, 
 son of the goldsmith Cione (about 1308-1368). Orcagna 
 was undoubtedly an artist of powerful original genius ; 
 and for this reason he cannot be, strictly speaking, classed 
 with the Giotteschi, who, although many of them were 
 good painters, were all directly dependent on Giotto for 
 their inspiration. Orcagna, on the other hand, although 
 
 \} There is now no doubt about this. They were painted by Fran- 
 cesco between 1370 and 1372.] 
 
 ^ The earliest paintings in the Campo Santo are now almost all 
 ruined and obliterated by time, damp, and neglect. Of this history of 
 Job only a few ghastly fragments remain visible at all, and the same 
 with many of the other frescoes ; but fortunately the memory of these 
 weird frescoes is preserved in Lasinio's " Pitture del Campo Santo," and 
 there are outlines of them in several works on Italian Art. 
 
 [3 The scenes from the legends of SS. Ephysius and Hippolytus were 
 executed by Spinello, those from the legend of S. Ranieri by Andrea da 
 Firenze and Antonio Veneziano.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 4S 
 
 he owed much to Giotto, had his own thoughts and ex- 
 pressed them in his own style. 
 
 The two frescoes that Vasari attributes to him in the 
 Campo Santo are the well-known Triumph of Death and 
 The Last Judgment. These works are evidently by an 
 artist of considerable merit and of an imaginative turn of 
 mind, but whether this artist was Orcagna or not, it is. 
 difficult to determine in the absence of all external evidence 
 excei)t Vasari' s statement.^ 
 
 The Triumph of Death was probably meant to set forth 
 the advantages of an ascetic Hfe. On the right, Death, a 
 fearful harpy-like woman, descends swinging a scythe in 
 her hand upon a company of gay ladies and cavaliers who 
 are listening to the songs of a troubadour. On the left, a 
 merry hunting party is stopped on its way by an old 
 hermit (S. Macarius), who points to three corpses lying by 
 the road-side, as a memento mori. The careless party do 
 not, however, seem much concerned, only one fashionable 
 young gentleman holds his nose, as if the smell of mor- 
 tality were too much for him. Other hermits are seen in 
 the background, and a heap of dead bodies lies in front, 
 from which the souls, rising in the form of new-bom 
 babes, are received by angels or devils according to their 
 appointed destination. 
 
 The Last Judgment is a grand conception of this oft- 
 repeated theme, and its composition has often been adopted 
 by succeeding painters. Even Michael Angelo did not dis- 
 dain in his celebrated version of the subject to take ideas 
 from the earlier master. A severe dignified treatment dis- 
 tinguishes this fresco from the extravagant representations 
 we so often meet with in early art. There is nothing 
 trivial, no exaggerated horror, and a singular absence of 
 that element which for want of a better word we call fan- 
 tastic or grotesque. 
 
 Li a third fresco representing Hell, this element, how- 
 
 ^ Crowe and Cavalcaselle and Forster decide in the negative, from 
 internal evidence, but in the present ruined state of these frescoes, it ia 
 next to impossible that any critics should be able to detei-mine the point 
 with certainty. [C. and C. and other authorities now ascribe these 
 frescoes to the brothers Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti. Vide Sienesc 
 School, p. 47.] 
 
44 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 ever, largely prevails. Hell is depicted as a huge cauldron 
 divided into four parts, all full of devils and the souls they 
 are tormenting. Satan, a monstrous giant with flames 
 issuing from his hair and from all parts of his body, ap- 
 pears to gloat in savage delight over the work he has 
 accomplished. 
 
 Such are Orcagna's reputed works in the Campo Santo, 
 the most important, perhaps, of all the frescoes there, but 
 still far below his undoubted paintings of the same sub- 
 jects in the Strozzi chapel of S. Maria Novella in Florence. 
 These latter frescoes are the work of an artist " who had 
 profited so well by the teaching of Giotto, that he was en- 
 abled in his turn to become a teacher to his successors. 
 His simple, dignified forms, his graceful female heads, his 
 self-restraint, and his excellent execution, entitle him, 
 indeed, to rank far above the other followers of Giotto." ^ 
 
 There is a large altar-piece by Orcagna in the National 
 Gallery, which Wornum points out as " thoroughly illus- 
 trating the character of the great altar decorations of the 
 period, architecturally and aesthetically, as to the conven- 
 tional religious style of pictorial representation." There 
 was still, we must remember, very little room for the artist's 
 own invention in these grand religious displays ; for al- 
 though the bold innovations of Giotto had given a blow to 
 traditional forms, still it could not be expected that the 
 Church should at once give up the direction of her artists, 
 a,nd they were, for a long time to come, content to express 
 her teaching with siinj)le undoubting belief in its truth. 
 
 Orcagna was one of the architects of the magnificent 
 ■church of Or San Michele at Orvieto. Francesco Traini 
 was his pupil. 
 
 Spinello di Luca Spinelli, called Aretino, about 
 1333-1410, before mentioned as one of the artists of the 
 Campo Santo, is principally known by his Fall of the Eebel 
 Angels, a fresco in the church of S. Maria degli Angeli, at 
 Arezzo. Vasari relates that Lucifer was highly affronted 
 at his portrait in this picture, and appeared to the artist in 
 the form under which he had represented him, and de- 
 manded to know why he had made him so ugly. Si^inello 
 
 * Crowe and C vr.ljaselle. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 45 
 
 never recovered from the friglit of this dream, but " fell 
 into a dispirited condition, with eyes from which all intel- 
 lifT^ence had departed." The original fresco has now en- 
 tirely disappeared, but many drawings and engravings of 
 it exist. The fantastic element largely prevails in it.. 
 [Spinello was a pupil of Jacopo da Casentino. His Death 
 of S. Benedict, in S. Miniato, Florence, his best preserved 
 work, shows a mixture of Sienese feeling with the vigorous 
 manner of Giotto. There is a picture ascribed to him in 
 the National Gallery (No. 581), and three fragments of 
 frescoes (No. 1216).] 
 
 [Signs of Giotto's influence in the fourteenth century are 
 visible in many places in Italy, but it is at Padua that the 
 signs are most marked. Here worked together two artists 
 of much power and originality, Altichiero da Zevio of 
 Verona and Jacopo d'Avanzo. Theirmost important works 
 are a series of paintmgs in the chapel of S. Felice, in the 
 church of S. Antony at Padua, and another in the con- 
 tiguous but independent chapel of S. George. These were 
 executed probably between 1375 and 1380. A contem- 
 porary of theirs was Giusto di Giovanni de' Menabuoi of 
 Florence, called Justus of Padua (about 1330-1400), who 
 was a follower of Giotto of some originality. His small 
 triptych in the National Gallery, dated 1367 (No. 701), is the 
 most perfect example we possess of a follower of Giotto.] 
 
 The Sienese School. While the followers of Giotto at 
 Florence and Pisa were thus successfully pursuing the 
 course that their master had pointed out, the painters of 
 Siena were steadily infusing life, grace, and beauty into^ 
 the rigid Byzantine forms. 
 
 The Sienese masters are chiefly distinguished by a- 
 dreamy religious sentiment, which gives a pecuhar melan- 
 choly beauty to their works. Their school never produced 
 any great genius like Giotto, but it went on from one 
 master to another, gradually softening and improving the 
 old types, until the hard staring grief of the earlier masters 
 became holy pensive sorrow in the later ones ; indeed, the- 
 holy beauty of Fra Bartolommeo, Perugino, and Raphael, 
 was but the perfection of what these early Sienese masters, 
 attempted. 
 
46 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 Duccio Di BuoNiNSEGNA (about 1260-1340), was con- 
 temporary with Ciinabue and Giotto. [His principal work 
 was a very large altar-piece for the Cathedral of Siena, 
 where the greater portion of it is still preserved. It was 
 painted on both sides of the panels, but has been sawn in 
 two, so that back and front are now detached. In the 
 centre of the front are the Madonna and Child, surrounded 
 by twenty angels and six saints, and four patrons of the 
 -city on their knees ; on the back were twenty-six scenes from 
 the Passion. In addition were predellas on both sides, and 
 other pictures which ornamented the top, eighteen in all, 
 -all of which still exist. This altar-piece was honoured as 
 Cimabue's Madonna had been at Florence, and carried in 
 triumph from the artist's studio to the church. Duccio 
 had more sense of natural grace and gentle sentiment than 
 •Cimabue. The three works in the National Gallery (Nos. 
 566, 1139, and 1140) show personal observation of natural 
 form, sweetness of expression, animation in the action of 
 the figures, a feeling for beauty of line in the drapery, and 
 :a careful skill in execution far in advance of any of his 
 predecessors. In No. 1140, Christ Healing the Blind, great 
 advance is shown by a street scene replacing the usual 
 gold background.] 
 
 [Ugolino da Siena, of whose life nothing is known, 
 worked in Florence, where he painted an altar-piece for the 
 church of Santa Croce. Two portions of its predella are now 
 in the National Gallery (Nos. 1188 and 1189), and show his 
 execution to have been even more elaborate than Duccio' s, 
 whilst the same germs of naturalism and tender sentiment 
 are visible. Segna di Buonaventura was a pupil of 
 Duccio. There is a Crucifixion bv him in the National 
 Gallery (No. 567).] 
 
 [Of NiccoLO BuoNACORSO, another early Sienese painter 
 •of the fourteenth century, of whom nothing is kno\vn, the 
 National Gallery possesses an interesting Marriage of the 
 Virgin (No. 1109). 
 
 But perhaps the greatest Sienese painter of the fourteenth 
 .century was Simone Martini, often called Simone Memmi 
 (1284-1344), from following an error of Yasari, who took 
 him for the brother, instead of the brother-in-law, of Lippo 
 Memmi, his fellow-worker. He holds the same place in the 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 47 
 
 iSchool of Siena that Giotto holds in the School of Florence, 
 and his genius seems to have been quite as independent. His 
 <;hief work at Siena is a fresco in the Pubhc Palace cover- 
 ing a whole side of the Council Chamber. It was com- 
 pleted in 1315. It represents the Virgin enthroned, with 
 the Child standing on her knee, surrounded by thirty saints 
 and angels. The Virgin, with delicate oval face, is full of 
 sweetness and dignity, the angels are lovely, and the arch- 
 angels noble. On the opposite wall is a spirited equestrian 
 portrait of the famous warrior, Guidoriccio Fogliani. 
 Simone also painted at Assisi, Naples, Orvieto, Pisa, and 
 Eome. The frescoes in the lower church at Assisi (attri- 
 buted by Vasari to Puccio Capanna) are the work of Simone. 
 In 1339 he painted at Avignon, in the cathedral and in the 
 pontifical palace, in both of which portions of his work 
 still exist. A picture dated 1342 (when Simone was at 
 Avignon), in the Liverpool Institute, is a charming small 
 example of the master, representing the youthful Christ's 
 return to his parents. His mother receives him with an 
 expression of gentle reproach. The conception of the scene 
 is thoroughly natural and original. Another panel of the 
 same period is in the Museum at Antwerp.] Petrarch 
 celebrated Simone in two of his sonnets, in return, Vasari 
 says, for the painter having portrayed the image of his 
 Laura, " beautiful as he could imagine or desire." 
 
 Lippo Memmi (died 1356), the brother-in-law of Simone, 
 aided him in his works, and completed those he left un- 
 finished. [There is a picture of the Madonna and Child, 
 signed by him, in the Royal Museum, Berlin.] 
 
 [PiETRO and Ambrogio di Lorenzo, known as the 
 LoRENZETTi, wcre painting at the same time as Simone, 
 and the latter is considered by many to be a greater artist 
 than Martini. His type of female beauty was more clas- 
 sical and less sentimental, his conceptions more forcible and 
 manly. The greatness of his manner is still perceptible in 
 the vast frescoes representing allegories of Good and Bad 
 Government in the Sala del Nove of the Public Palace at 
 Siena (1339). Amongst the numerous figures that of 
 Peace is specially celebrated for its natural grace and clas- 
 sical style. A full account of this elaborate and monu- 
 mental work (now in a sad state of decay) will be found in 
 
48 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 Woltman and Woerman's " History of Painting," Part I.^ 
 Book II., sec. 3, cap. 5 (Kegan Paul, 1880). Of Am- 
 brogio's pa.nel pictures there are existing a Presentation in 
 the Temple in the Academy at Florence, and an Annuncia- 
 tion, and some small pictures, in the Academy at Siena. 
 A fine and genuine fragment of one of his frescoes is in the 
 National Gallery (No. 1147). Pietro often worked with 
 Ambrogio, and to the two brothers are now ascribed the 
 Last Judgment and the Triumph of Death, in the Campo 
 Santo, formerly ascribed to Orcagna.^ According to Vasari, 
 Pietro was also the author of another fresco in the Campo 
 Santo, representing Hermit Life, or the Fathers in the 
 Desert. Of Pietro' s pictures on panel the finest is a Birth 
 of the Virgin, in the Sacristy of the Cathedral at Siena 
 (1342). There are others at Siena, Florence, and Arezzo; 
 and to our National Collection has lately been added a 
 small panel legendary in subject (No. 1113).] 
 
 [The splendid promise of Sienese art shown in the works 
 of Martini and the Lorenzetti was never fulfilled. Severe 
 dearth, followed by the plague in 1348, which is said to have 
 been fatal to both the Lorenzetti, reduced the state to 
 beggary and carried off three-fourths of the population.^] 
 
 [Taddeo di Bartolo (1362-1422) was the best artist of 
 the decadence. His principal work, frescoes from the life 
 of the Virgin in the chapel of the Public Palace at Siena, 
 are fine in composition, expression, and colour.] 
 
 Antonio Veneziano ^ is spoken of by Vasari as a Vene- 
 tian, but is considered by Lanzi and other historians to 
 have been a Florentine by birth. He executed some of the 
 frescoes of the Campo Santo in 1386-87,^ and seems to have 
 united the Sienese and Florentine styles with happy effect. 
 He was " no less expert as a physician than excellent as a 
 painter," Vasari tells us, but Vasari's statements about this 
 painter require to be received with caution, as many of 
 them have been found to be utterly wrong. 
 
 Gherardo Starnino ^ (born about 1354) was a pupil of 
 
 ^ See page 43. 
 
 [2 Bevir's " Guide to Siena."] 
 
 [' Neither Antonio nor Starnino belongs to the Sienese School. They 
 worked in the traditions of Giotto.] 
 * See note to p. 42. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 49 
 
 Antonio Veneziano. Becoming involved in one of the 
 many political disturbances of Florence, he escaped to 
 Spain, where he acquired great wealth in the exercise of 
 his calling, and likewise learnt from the Spaniards " to be 
 L^entle and courteous," a lesson, it would appear, that he 
 stood much in need of. Starnino is principally important 
 from the fact that Masolino was his pupil, a name which 
 brings us to the fifteenth century in Florentine art, and to 
 a new period in its development. 
 
 The painters mentioned in this chapter are sometimes 
 called the Trecentiati, or masters of the fourteenth century. 
 The next chapter will be devoted to the Quattrocentisti, or 
 masters of the fifteenth century, who prepared the way 
 for the great masters of the sixteenth century, the Cinquo- 
 centisti. 
 
 Chapter II. 
 THE DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 MaSACCIO — FbA AnGELICO — MaNTEGNA — LUCA SiGNORELLI — 
 
 Perugino — Fbakcia. 
 
 THE fifteenth century was an age of rapid intellectual 
 growth. Everywhere the germs that had been planted 
 in the two preceding centuries started into vigorous life, 
 and sent forth shoots in new directions. With this age, 
 indeed, the history of the modern world may fairly be said 
 to begin, for with the knowledge of the true solar system, 
 the discovery of America, and the invention of printing, 
 the mitid of man first attained its enfranchisement from 
 ignorance and superstition. Yet in all paths of knowledge 
 the works of the fifteenth century can only be regarded as 
 the preparation for those of the sixteenth. In art espe- 
 cially this was the case. The great artists of this age were 
 the forerunners of the still greater artists of the next. 
 Masaccio and Mantegna prepared the way for Mich a/el 
 Angelo; Fra Angelico and Perugino for Raphael, and 
 Bellini for Titian. 
 
50 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 At the beginning of the century Florence, so soon to fall 
 under the golden yoke of the Medici, was still a free re- 
 public, constantly torn, it is true, by the struggles of her 
 factions, but enjoying a large amount of material pros- 
 perity. It is a theory with many writers that a settled and 
 beneficent government is necessary to material and intel- 
 lectual progress, but the growth of the cities of Italy in the 
 thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries gives a rude 
 shake to this opinion. The government of Florence, for 
 example, may be compared to a fiery volcano that was con- 
 stantly emitting smoke and flames, and from which every 
 few years torrents of lava burst forth and desolated the 
 whole city ; and yet we not only find commerce prospering 
 amidst the struggles of aristocratic factions and the fearful 
 outbursts of popular feeling, but we also find the restless 
 intellectual activity of the Florentines seeking vent in the 
 more lasting channels of literature, science, and art. 
 
 Florence, the city of the Lily, Florence republican, 
 Florence oligarchical, or Florence Medicean, seems indeed, 
 under whatever form of government she chose, to have still 
 remained the loved abode of the arts. In architecture, 
 sculpture, and painting she expressed her thoughts with a 
 power and a beauty that no other city ever before had done, 
 except indeed Athens, to which she has often been compared. 
 
 The history of Italian art now limits itself, for a time, 
 almost exclusively to the history of Florentine art, for the 
 schools of Siena and Pisa, which seemed to be putting forth 
 their energies in the preceding century, had no develop- 
 ment in this.^ It is true that the Venetian School arose 
 during this period, and made considerable progress under 
 the Bellini, but the Venetian School in its aim and mode of 
 expression is so totally different from the Florentine, that 
 it will be best to consider it apart, and to follow the line of 
 
 ^ The religious feeling of the Sienese School was, however, trans- 
 mitted to the Umbrian. [The Sienese painter, Matteo di Giovanni (b. 
 about 1435, d. 1495), is the best of his time, and although his work is 
 archaic in comparison to contempoi'ary Florentine painting, it possesses 
 much beauty and tenderness of feeling. In the National Gallery there 
 is an Assumption (No. 1155) by him and an Ecce Homo (No. 247), and 
 by a contemporary, Benevenuto da Siena (b. 1436, living 1517), a 
 Madonna and Child Enthroned (No. 909), which is a good example of 
 fifteenth century Sienese work.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 51 
 
 Florentine painters through the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries unbroken. 
 
 As in the thirteenth century we saw sculpture preceding 
 painting in artistic development, so in the fifteenth cen- 
 tury we again find a sculptor at the head of the foi'ward 
 movement of the age. Lorenzo Ghiberti occupies, in 
 fact, the same position with regard to Masolino, Masaccio, 
 and their followers, as Niccola Pisano with regard to Giotto 
 and the Giotteschi. Each was the herald of progress, and 
 of a progress that was to be achieved by painting as well 
 as by their own plastic art. 
 
 The celebrated Ghiberti gates of the Baptistery of San 
 Giovanni, at Florence, of which Michael Angelo said " that 
 they were worthy to be the gates of Paradise," were begun 
 by Ghiberti in 1402,^ when he was not quite three-and- 
 twenty, and were only finished after forty-two years' labour, 
 labour on which he bestowed " the greatest diligence and 
 greatest love " — grandissima diligenza e grandissimo amore, 
 as he himself tells us in his Commentario sulle Arti, the 
 earliest memoirs we have relating to Italian art.^ 
 
 These gates may be taken as inaugurating the new era 
 in the progress of art, for the scientific principles which 
 were now for the first time applied to art were fully carried 
 out in them, and the rules of perspective intelligently 
 obeyed. 
 
 The knowledge of perspective seems to have come to the 
 early painters of this century almost as a new revelation. 
 Giotto, indeed, had often obeyed its rules, but we may pre- 
 sume that he did so to a certain extent unconsciously, for 
 there was no science of perspective in his day. 
 
 Now, however, when mathematical science was being 
 pursued with untiring energy by several distinguished 
 scholars, the painters and sculptors of the age seized upon 
 perspective with the utmost enthusiasm, and especially it 
 was studied with indefatigable zeal by a band of young 
 artists who worked in Lorenzo Ghiberti' s workshops. 
 
 Foremost amongst these devotees to perspective was 
 
 [^ Ghiberti executed the Northern Gates of the Baptistery about this 
 time, if not earlier. The Eastern Gates, the " Gates of Paradise," were 
 not begun till 1439, and were unfinished at his death in 1456.] 
 
 =* Partly printed in Cicognara, " Storia della Scultura," vol. ii. 
 
52 HISTOEY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 Paolo Doni (1396-7-1475), caUed Uccello, from his fond- 
 ness for painting birds, who nearly went mad in the pur- 
 suit of his favourite study. He sacrificed eveiy other 
 branch of his art to this, and Yasari relates that he was so 
 engrossed by it, that when implored by his wife to take 
 necessary rest and sleep, he would only answer, " Oh ! what 
 a charming thing this perspective is " — Oh ! che dolce cosa 
 e questa prospettiva. There is a most remarkable battle- 
 piece by Uccello in the National Gallery (No. 583), in which 
 his efforts at perspective are to modern eyes somewhat 
 amusing, but he accomplished good work in his time, by 
 which succeeding painters greatly profited. 
 
 [PlERO DELLA FrANCESCA, Or PlERO BORGHESE (1423- 
 
 1492), whose real name was Piero di Benedetto, although 
 some five-and- twenty years the junior of Uccello, and 
 Umbrian by birth and sentiment, approaches Uccello in his 
 professional spirit, and belongs intellectually to the scien- 
 tific school, whose centre was Florence. Chiefly employed 
 in religious art, he, while simple and reverent in composi- 
 tion and expression, would paint saint. Madonna, or angel, 
 from the men and women around him. He was an earnest 
 student of anatomy and perspective, and of nature gene- 
 rally, and endeavoured to substitute for traditional modes 
 of representation others founded upon knowledge and 
 observation. He was also noted as a 2X)rtrait painter, and 
 was an original colourist of a high order. He was one of 
 the first Italian painters in oil. His finest frescoes are at 
 Arezzo, and at his native city of Borgo San Sepolcro. In 
 the National Grallery are two undoubted works of his, Nos. 
 908 and 665.] 
 
 Masolino da Panicale ^ was another scientific painter of 
 this time, but he did not study perspective so much as 
 chiaroscuro (light and shade), which likewise had hitherto 
 been but little understood. Some important frescoes by 
 him in the church at Castiglione d'Olona have recently ^ 
 been recovered from whitewash, but those attributed to 
 him in the Brancacci chapel, at Florence, are now con- 
 sidered, on strong evidence, not to be his work.^ 
 
 [^ Now supposed to be identical with Tommaso, son of Christofano di 
 Fino of Florence (1383-1447 ?).] P About forty years ago.] 
 
 3 Crowe and Cavalcaselle. [See, for contrary evidence, " Geschichte 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 53 
 
 The intellectual spirit of the age is, however, most clearly 
 apimrent in Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Castel San 
 Giovanni (1401-1428), better known as Masaccio, a name 
 given him, it is said, by his companions in boyhood on ac- 
 count of his abstracted, air and slovenly appearance, and 
 which has remained to him through posterity. Masaccio, 
 or " Slovenly Tom," ^ is undoubtedly the representative 
 painter of his age, as Brunelleschi is the representative 
 architect, and Ghiberti and Donatello the representative 
 sculi)tors. 
 
 In him the revival of ancient learning, to which the great 
 scholars of that time were devoting their whole attention, 
 first bore fruit in painting. The scientific principles that 
 all the other artists were reaching after were by him 
 attained, and we have an intelligent apj^lication of perspec- 
 tive, a boldness of foreshortening, that even Paolo Uccello 
 never reached, a masterly modelling of the nude, an effec- 
 tive knowledge of chiaroscuro, and a noble naturalism 
 which never descends to the trivial. The spirit of classical 
 antiquity lives again, in fact, in his works, but the spirit of 
 Christianity, such as we have seen it in the Giotteschi and 
 the Sienese painters, and as we shall see it again in Fra 
 Angelico, and several other religious painters contemporary 
 with Masaccio, is fast dying out. 
 
 The painters of the fifteenth century may, in fact, be 
 divided into two great classes, those in whom reason, and 
 those in whom faith predominated: those who, having 
 studied the works of Greek art, became, like Masaccio, 
 imbued with the same desires as the artists of the old 
 world ; and those (chiefly monks) who remained attached 
 to the Christian school, and only sought to express the 
 teachings of the Roman Church. 
 
 Masaccio's earliest works are supposed to be the frescoes 
 
 der Italienischen Kunst," by Ernst Forster ; "Masaccio og den Floren- 
 tinske Maleikonst paa haus Tid," by F. G. Knudtzon ; " Masaccio und 
 Masolino," by Dr. Thausing, " Zeitschrift fiir bildende Kunst," May, 
 1876, and Dr. Itichter's notes to Vasari, forming vol. vi. of Vasarrs 
 " Lives of the Painters" (George Bell and Sons, 1885), pp. 49-50 ; and 
 for an able summary of the controversy see Woermann's " Masaccio " in 
 " Kunst und Kiinstlcr."] 
 
 [' Masaccio is formed of Maso (short for Tommaso) and " accio," a ter- 
 mination of contempt.] 
 
54 HISTORY or PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 in the church of S. Clemente/ at Eome, where he repre- 
 sented various scenes from the life of S. Catherine [of 
 Alexandria, and a Crucifixion] ; but those by which he is 
 best known are the celebrated paintings of the Brancacci 
 chapel, in the church of the Carmelites at Florence. Here 
 his powers had full room for their exercise, and here in a 
 noble series of frescoes illustrating the life of S. Peter, 
 he clearly proved himself the first artist of his age. He 
 died at the early age of twenty -seven, so that his remark- 
 able works must be regarded, not as the matured produc- 
 tions of a long course of study, but as the efforts of his 
 youth. His naturalistic style, which Rio has characterized 
 as " naturalisme classique," was adopted by all the pro- 
 gressive artists of his own age, but received its fullest 
 development in the succeeding century. There is scarcely 
 any term, indeed, that more nearly expresses the grand 
 style of Michael Angelo, and of Raphael in the cartoons,, 
 than this same one of " naturalisme classique." 
 
 There is a vigorous portrait, stated to be by Masaccio, 
 and to be his own likeness, in the National Gallery ; un- 
 fortunately there is no proof of this, and Wornum and 
 several others are of opinion that it is really by Filippino 
 Lippi.^ Whoever it is, and whoever it is by, it is certainly 
 a most masterly work of the age. 
 
 Very little is known of the outward circumstances of 
 Masaccio' s life, even Vasari relates little concerning him, 
 though he does tell us that it was not from any vice of 
 disposition he acquired the nickname Masaccio, " for he 
 was goodness itself, so ready to oblige and do service to 
 others, that a better or kinder man could not be desired." 
 Let us hope Vasari was correct in this estimate of his 
 character as well as in his statement of the date of his 
 death, which, after having been long discredited, is now 
 proved^ to be right after all. 
 
 The struggle between the spirit of classic G-reece and 
 the spirit of Christian Rome, which, dating from the re- 
 
 [^ Vasari ascribes them to Masaccio, and Crowe and CaA-alcaselle and 
 Woermann accept this ascr'iption ; others give them to Masolino. See- 
 authorities quoted in note to p. 52.] 
 
 [^ No. 626. Others ascribe it to Botticelli.] 
 
 P Scarcely " proved " yet.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 55 
 
 vival of ancient learning, marked not only the literature, 
 but, as we have seen, the art of this period, disturbed not 
 the peaceful mind of Gtiovanni da Fiesole, called Fra 
 Angelico (1387-1455). Although a contemporary of 
 Masaccio, and the other intellectual artists of this time, he 
 belonged in feeling entirely to the preceding century. He 
 remained, therefore, true to the traditions of Catholic art, 
 but he infused into its ascetic types a holy cheerfulness 
 and beauty that were the direct expression of his own 
 happy and holy life. With him, to paint was to pray ; it 
 was the expression of his heart to his Grod, the service of a 
 child to its Father. He lived like all visionaries in a 
 world of his own, more peaceful than even the cloisters 
 of Fiesole, and peopled with holy beings, with whom, says 
 a monk of his order, "he conversed, wept, and prayed 
 by turns." When by means of a long course of prayer 
 and fasting he had gained a satisfactory conception of 
 his subject, no after consideration would ever induce 
 him to alter it. His ideal, so he imagined, had been 
 revealed to him from above, and not built up in his own 
 mind. 
 
 Such a painter, it is not surprising to find, missed alto- 
 gether the intellectual development that was going on 
 around him. Shut in his convent away from the tumults 
 of Florence, he took no heed of the signs of the times in 
 which he lived. He desired inspiration and not knowledge, 
 and the restless spirit of inquiry which had taken posses- 
 sion of men's minds, and was so soon to trouble even the 
 hearts of holy monks, never suggested any doubts to his 
 childlike faith. 
 
 Nowhere, perhaps, are the two opposed schools of Faith 
 and Reason more strongly contrasted than in his works 
 and those of Masaccio. 
 
 A delicate feminine purism charms us in Fra Angelico, 
 and a strong masculine naturalism in Masaccio. Each 
 excels in exactly the qualities in which the other is 
 deficient. 
 
 Vasari tells that Fra Angelico began his artistic career 
 as a miniaturist, and even in his larger works the cramp- 
 ing effects of this style of painting are often apparent. 
 The design, though graceful, is frequently feeble, and 
 
5G HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 there is a total absence of that dignity and grandeur that 
 strikes us in the works of Masaccio. Era Angelico's 
 knowledge of the human form was in fact extremely de- 
 fective ; it is not only that he had not studied it anatomi- 
 cally, as the artists of his time were beginning to do, but 
 he seems to have been utterly unable to draw a vigorous 
 human being. 
 
 Yet Fra Angelico's works possess a charm that defies 
 criticism. They are the expressions of a pure and lovely 
 nature, and were never meant to be subjected to the bold 
 sacrilegious stare of the critic, who coldly comments on 
 their incorrect drawing and defective anatomy, but does 
 not open his heart to their mystical loveliness. Those 
 exquisitely beautiful Virgins and female Saints, painted, 
 not as some common-sensible critic avers, from the graceful 
 maidens of Florence, but from an ideal in the artist's 
 mind, revealed to him, as he believed, in answer to prayer, 
 can only be appreciated by an enthusiasm resembling that 
 of their painter. " They sink into the heart," writes Lord 
 Lindsay, who undoubtedly possesses this requisite enthu- 
 siasm, " and dwell there in the dim but holy light of 
 memory, in association with looks and thoughts too sacred 
 for sunshine, and * too deep for tears.' " 
 
 One of the most important and best known of Era 
 Angelico's Virgin pictures is that rich composition, the 
 Coronation of the Virgin, in the Louvre. Of this picture, 
 which was originally painted for the Convent Church at 
 Fiesole, Vasari speaks in tones of rapturous admii'ation. 
 " One is convinced," he says, " that those blessed spirits 
 can look no otherwise in heaven itself ; or, to speak under 
 coiTection, could not if they had forms appear otherwise ; 
 for all the saints male and female assembled here, have 
 not only life and expression, most delicately and truly 
 rendered, but the colouring also of the whole work would 
 seem to have been given by the hand of a saint, or of an 
 angel like themselves." 
 
 Still more beautiful, though not so rich in composition 
 as the celebrated Coronation of the Louvre, is a smaller 
 picture of the same subject in the Convent of S. Marco, in 
 Florence, a convent to which the monks of Fiesole re- 
 moved in 1438, at the invitation of Cosmo de' Medici, who 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 67 
 
 gave it Tip for their use. The tender dreamy spirituality of 
 this work is the true product of poetical mysticism.^ 
 
 Era Angelico was the chief painter of the Dominican 
 order, as Giotto was of the Franciscan. Giotto, however, 
 was a shrewd man of the world, and it was the age rather 
 than the artist which is reflected in the religious sentiment 
 of his pictures, but Fra Angelico would have been a reli- 
 gious artist even if he had lived in the eighteenth century, 
 for it is the individual holiness of the monk that is breathed 
 forth in his works. He was so simple-minded, we are told, 
 that he refused to be made Archbishop of Florence, 
 because he did not consider himself fit for so great a 
 dignity, and once, when invited to breakfast with the Pope, 
 he scrupled to eat meat of which his holiness was partak- 
 ing, because although he had the Pope's permission, he 
 had not that of his own spiritual director. 
 
 Besides his works at Fiesole and Florence, Fra Angelico 
 executed others at Orvieto and Rome. In the latter city 
 he painted two chapels of the Vatican, but only one of 
 them, known as that of Nicholas V., now remains. Here 
 in one of his finest series of frescoes, he has represented 
 scenes from the histories of S. Lawrence and S. Stephen. 
 Although painted after he had attained the age of sixty, 
 there is no deterioration perceptible in these works. Such 
 a mind as Fra Angelico' s could indeed never grow old. 
 He died at Rome, at' the age of sixty-eight, and was after- 
 wards raised to the ranks of the beatified. He is therefore 
 called by Italians, " II Beato Angelico," a title only one 
 degree below that of saint. The Predella of the Dominican 
 altar-piece in the National Gallery (No. 663, containing 266 
 figures), is a marvellous piece of work, and affords an ex- 
 cellent idea of his style.^ 
 
 Lorenzo, usually styled Lorenzo Monaco (1370?- 
 1425 ?), a monk of the order of the Camaldoles, is another 
 religious painter who was not in the least influenced by the 
 forward impulse given to painting in his century. He be- 
 longs, indeed, even in date to the very beginning of the 
 century, before this impulse was really felt. He adliered 
 to the style of Taddeo Gaddi, says Vasari, but Fra Angelico 
 
 * It has been engraved in outline by the Arundel Society. 
 ' The altar-piece is still at S. Domenico, Fiesole. 
 
58 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 seems likewise to have influenced him. The side wings of 
 an altar-piece in the National Gallery, representing various 
 saints, Nos. 215 and 216, are supposed to be wings of a 
 known altar-piece by him.^ 
 
 Benozzo G-ozzoli, the son of Lese di Sandro (1420-1498), 
 was a pupil of Fra Angelico, but he was not a monk, and 
 regarded life from a less ascetic point of view. His works 
 are much more human in character than his master's, and 
 although he remained a religious painter, it is evident that 
 the naturalism, and even the classicism of Masaccio, pro- 
 duced a greater effect upon his art than the mysticism of 
 Angelico. 
 
 In 1468 Gozzoli was called to Pisa, where he was em- 
 ployed to continue the work that the artists of the preced- 
 ing century had so nobly begun in the Campo Santo, but 
 which had been set aside for a long period, owing to the 
 political disturbances and ceaseless misfortunes of that 
 city. Here, in a series of twenty-four frescoes, he set forth 
 in a dramatic manner the whole history of the Old Testa- 
 ment, from Noah to the visit of the Queen of Sheba to 
 Solomon. " The endless fertility of fancy and invention," 
 says Mrs. Jameson, " displayed in these compositions ; the 
 jjastoral beauty of some of the scenes, the Scriptural sub- 
 limity of others ; the hundreds of figures introduced, many 
 of them portraits of his own time ; the dignity and beauty 
 of the heads ; the exquisite grace of some of the figures, 
 almost equal to Raphael ; the ample draperies, the gay 
 rich colours, the profusion of accessories, as buildings, land- 
 scapes, flowers, animals, and the care and exactness with 
 which he has rendered the costume of that time — render 
 this work of Benozzo one of the most extraordinary monu- 
 ments of the fifteenth century." 
 
 These frescoes were finished after sixteen years of labour,^ 
 in 1484. G-ozzoli is the first among the Italian painters 
 who seems to have had any true feeling for landscape.^ 
 
 ^ Crowe and Cavalcaselle. [One of the few works known to be his is 
 a Coronation of the Virgin, found in an abbey of his order at Cerretto, 
 near Certaldo, executed in 1413. It is now in the Uffizi at Florence.] 
 
 ^ It appears that he contracted to paint these frescoes at the rate of 
 three a year, for the small sum of ten ducats each, about equal to ^£'100 
 at the present day. 
 
 [^ Masaccio showed a truer feeling, and Piero della Francesca and 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 59 
 
 His landscape backgrounds, although unfortunately often 
 filled with architectural details, show a real appreciation of 
 the beauty of the earth, and an honest endeavour to express 
 it. The Pisans, it appears, were so delighted with his work 
 in their Campo Santo, that they presented him in 1478 
 with a grand tomb there, in order that he might enjoy the 
 advantage of resting in their holy ground. The date of 
 the gift of this tomb has long been supposed to have been 
 that of his death, but he hved some time after this sugges- 
 tive present. [Of the many other works executed by 
 Benozzo at Pisa scarcely any remain, but the little chapel 
 of the Medici in their palace at Florence is covered with a 
 finely-presei-ved fresco representing, under the guise of the 
 story of the Magi, a magnificent hunting-party, in which 
 portraits on horseback of the Emperor of the East, the 
 Patriarch of the Greek Church, and several of the Medici 
 family, from Cosmo Vecchio to the young Lorenzo, are in- 
 troduced. At San Gemignano, in the church of S. Agos- 
 tino, there is a series of beautiful frescoes by his hand, re- 
 presenting scenes from the life of the saint, full of incidents 
 of real life. Many of these are well preserved.] Besides 
 the grand altar-piece by Gozzoli in the National Gallery, 
 there is a very quaint little picture by him, assumed to re- 
 present " The Rape of Helen." There is certainly not 
 much evidence of the influence of classicism in his render- 
 ing of this classic subject. It is impossible to help laughing 
 at the grandly attired Helen, who sits composedly on the 
 back of Paris, her flowing blue dress hiding to some extent 
 his bright green coat, but not his ridiculously slender legs 
 encased in scarlet stockings. Other ladies are borne off by 
 the heroes in a similar manner. 
 
 CosiMO EossELLi (1439-1507), is another follower of 
 Era Angelico, who is deeply tinged with the naturalism 
 of the opposed school ; in fact Masaccio, having by far the 
 more powerful genius, quickly drew into his lists all the 
 rising artists of the time, even the undoubted pupils of 
 the holy mystic. Artists of other schools continued in 
 many cases faithful to the old traditions ; but after Era 
 
 other artists might be named whose feeling was as sincere as that of 
 Gozzoli, but in the etfective scenic treatment of landscape as a back- 
 ground Gozzoli made a great advance.] 
 
€0 HISTORY OF PA.INTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 Angelico, we do not find any other Florentine who was 
 not influenced, more or less, bj the prevailing naturalism 
 of the age. Not even monks, as we shall see, escaped the 
 general infection. 
 
 Fra Filippo Lippi (b. about 1412, d. 1469) was in no way 
 allied to his Dominican brother, Fra Angelico. No greater 
 contrast can indeed be afforded than between the charac- 
 ters and artistic styles of these two contemporary monks. 
 Fra Filippo Lippi, a poor orphan, thrust into a Carmelite 
 convent by his aunt when he was only eight years old, early 
 made it apparent that if he had no vocation for a holy life, 
 he had a decided vocation for art, and the prior of the con- 
 vent, conceiving that an artistic brother would be useful to 
 the order, gave him every facility for practising painting. 
 The young artist soon made such progress " that many," 
 says Yasari, " affirmed that the spirit of Masaccio had 
 entered into the body of Fra Filippo." ^ His paintings, 
 however, seem totally wanting in that calm dignity that 
 distuiguishes those of Masaccio ; on the other hand, he in- 
 troduced a new element into them, that not even Masaccio 
 had arrived at — the element of sensuous beauty. It is 
 easy to understand the shock that Filippo's daring natura- 
 lism — "un naturalisme gracieusement scandaleux," Eio 
 calls it — must have given to pious souls accustomed to the 
 set formulae of religious expression, and to Fra Angelico' s 
 spiritual beings. Fra Filippo's virgins are by no means 
 spiritual,^ but painted simply from the most beautiful 
 faces he saw around him, and especially, it is said, from the 
 beautiful Lucretia Buti,^ a young novice with whom he fell 
 in love as he was painting her portrait as a Madonna, and 
 whom he induced to run away with him from her convent. 
 The scandal that this caused was great, but the friendshii> 
 
 \} Masaccio commenced liis frescoes in the Carmine, which adjoined 
 Lippi's convent, in 1421, the year after the latter'sname appears on the 
 convent's register, and Lippi's first frescoes, now destroyed, were painted 
 on the walls of this church.] 
 
 [^ This is not true of his earlier works. See Woermann in " Kunst 
 and Kiinstler." In the National Gallery are two exquisite examples of 
 the master painted for Cosmo de' Medici (Nos. 666 and 667), full of re- 
 verence and spiritual expression.] 
 
 P In 1461, Pope Pius II., at the instance of Cosmo de' Medici, granted 
 him a dispensation, thereby recognizing them as a married couple.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 61 
 
 of Cosmo de' Medici shielded the monk-painter from the 
 consequences of his sacrilegious deed, and he continued to 
 live with Lucretia, and to make her serve as a model for 
 his Madonnas, without, it would seem, drawing down upon 
 himself the thunders of the Church, as he assuredly would 
 have done had he not been the favourite painter of the 
 Medici, who only laughed at his error. ^ 
 
 Fra Filippo's principal works are in the Duomo at Prato, 
 where in a series of frescoes he set forth the lives of S. 
 John the Baptist and S. Stephen. " These works," says 
 Kugler, " are full of character, and sometimes show a 
 humorous conception of life ; the artist has even intro- 
 duced sharpers and low characters painted from nature, 
 though it must be confessed, not always in the appropriate 
 place. The compositions, considered generally, display 
 feeling, and an impetuous ardent mind. It is worthy of 
 observation that the drapery now also underwent a trans- 
 formation consistent with the realizing tendency of the time. 
 Not only is the costume of the day introduced into the 
 most sacred scenes, so that the angels themselves appear in 
 the gay Florentine garb, but even the ideal drapery of the 
 Virgin and of the First Person of the Trinity is treated in a 
 realistic style, and that without any particular skill to* 
 recommend it." 
 
 If this realism of Fra Filippo's shocked a few consei-va- 
 tive and pious minds, it is evident that it pleased the great 
 majority of his contemporaries, for he was not only the 
 favourite painter of the Medicis, but received commissions 
 from many religious houses, and was greatly esteemed as 
 a painter of altar-pieces. His Madonnas were most in de- 
 mand, Madonnas whose human sensuous beauty now 
 attracted more admiration than the ideal spiritual beauty 
 (which was sometimes, it must be admitted, remarkably 
 like human ugliness) of the earlier religious painters. 
 
 But, said Fra Filippo — 
 
 " If you get simple beauty and nought else, 
 You get about the best thing God invents." * 
 
 ^ In a letter written by Giovanni de* Medici, in ^lay, 1458, he says: 
 " E eosi dello errore di Fra Filippo n'aviamo riso un pezzo " (And so 
 we laughed a little at Fra Filippo's error). Gaye, " Carteggio." 
 
 ^ Robert Browning, " Men and Women," 
 
62 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOZ IV. 
 
 And so he painted the beauty he saw around him, nor 
 strained his eyes after an ideal that was not revealed to his 
 oominonj)lace nature. The difference between him and Fra 
 Angelico lies perhaps in this, that Fra Angelico as an 
 ascetic painter and religious purist, and follower in spirit, 
 if not wholly in type, of the Byzantines, desired to paint 
 only just so much of body as would make soul tangible, 
 whereas Fra Filippo delighted in making the body excellent, 
 careless perhaps whether the soul shone through it or not. 
 
 Fra Filippo' s personal history as given by Vasari reads 
 more like a romance than genuine fact, yet recent investi- 
 gation does not seem to have done much to disprove its 
 substantial accuracy. He died whilst executing some 
 frescoes in the choir of the cathedral at Spoleto, in 1469. 
 Vasari states that it was thought by some that he was 
 poisoned by the relations of his mistress, but this seems 
 improbable, as his death did not occur until many years 
 after the scandal that her abduction had caused. He had 
 a son by her, who was twelve years old at the time of 
 his father's death, and was afterwards distinguished as 
 Filippino Lippi. 
 
 Such were the painters, and such was the development 
 of art during the first half of the fifteenth century. In the 
 latter half of the century the Renaissance, both in litera- 
 ture and art, was triumphantly established in Florence, 
 under the rule of the Medici, who had been from the first 
 the devoted admirers of classic learning and ancient art. 
 
 Cosmo de' Medici, the patron of Paolo Uccello and Fra 
 Filippo, died in 1464, but his son Piero, in spite of strong 
 opposition, succeeded him in the government. At Piero' s 
 death, which happened in a few years, his two young sons 
 Giuliano and Lorenzo, known as Lorenzo the Magnificent, 
 became rulers of Florence, the freedom of the republic now 
 existing only in name. " But," says Hallam, *' if the 
 people's wish to resign their freedom gives a title to accept 
 the governmeut of a country, the Medici were no usurpers. 
 That family never lost the affections of the populace." 
 
 The name of Lorenzo the Magnificent calls up the re- 
 membrance of a grand constellation of scholars, politicians, 
 poets, historians, architects, sculptors, and painters of 
 which he was the central star, although, perhaps, of less 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 63 
 
 real magnitude than many of the others. It is only with 
 the painters that we have here to do, but it is as well to 
 remember that the achievements of art at this time were 
 but one part of the general achievements of the human 
 intellect. 
 
 Besides the internal development that art was under- 
 going at this period, two especial inventions of man's 
 genius gave it a strong external impulse — namely, the in- 
 vention of engraving, whereby works of art were multiplied 
 and diffused abroad, and the invention of oil painting, 
 which greatly added to the beauty and durability of paint- 
 ings. The latter invention was made in Flanders by the 
 famous brothers Van Eyck,^ but the process was quickly 
 introduced into Italy, and was at once practised by all the 
 great painters of the time, for whereas in the first half of 
 the fifteenth century we have no Italian oil painting, in the 
 latter half we find that mode even more general than fresco 
 and tempera. 
 
 Engraving on copper it is now tolerably certain was an 
 Italian invention, and due, as Vasari states, to a goldsmith 
 of Florence named Maso Finiguerra. At all events the 
 famous Pax, the oldest ^ copper engraving known to exist, 
 is by Finiguerra, and is dated 1452. Wood engraving is 
 of earlier date, and is undoubtedly of G-erman origin. Both 
 modes were employed by German artists, and aided greatly 
 in disseminating a knowledge of northern art in Italy. 
 
 [Sandro Filipepi, called Botticelli, after the goldsmith 
 to whom he was apprenticed (1446-1510), was the most 
 celebrated pupil of Fra Filippo. He also worked in connec- 
 tion with the Pollaiuoli, goldsmiths, sculptors, and painters, 
 and the influence of plastic art in his work is visible in the 
 strong definition of his forms. He was of an ardent and 
 imaginative temperament, and his best work is marked by 
 a poetic fire peculiar to himself, sometimes restrained, as 
 in the faces of his brooding Madonnas, sometimes breaking 
 out into fantastic ecstasy, as in the remarkable picture of 
 the Nativity (No. 1034) in the National Gallery. He was one 
 of the first artists who delighted to paint scenes from clas- 
 
 [^ Rather perfected than invented.] 
 
 [' No longer regarded as the oldest. See Duplessis, " Ilistoire de la 
 Gravure."] 
 
64 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 sical mythology, and though his ideal of beauty was very- 
 different from that of the Greeks, it has a strange fantastic 
 charm of its own which, combined with the vigour of his 
 fancy, has made his works specially attractive to the pre- 
 sent generation. He was perhaps the first illustrator of a 
 modem work of imagination, illustrating both Dante and 
 Boccaccio, and was perhaps one of the first engravers on 
 metal.^ His most important frescoes are in the Sistine 
 Chapel at Rome, where he was summoned by the Pope in 
 1481, and appointed, according to Yasari, to superintend 
 the pictorial decoration of the chapel. Besides numerous 
 frescoes of the Popes, he executed two of the series from the 
 life of Moses, and one from the life of Christ. The other 
 jDainters were Signorelli, Perugino, Eosselli, and Ghirlan- 
 daio. Amongst the finest of his religious pictures are the 
 Coronation of the Virgin in the Academy at Florence, and the 
 Adoration of the Magi in the Uffizi ; of his works of poetry 
 and allegory, the Birth of Venus in the Ufiizi, the Spring 
 in the Academy, Florence, and the little exquisitely finished 
 Calumny in the Uffizi, are perhaps the most celebrated. 
 He is well represented in the National Gallery, but there 
 is so much dispute as to which of the pictures there can be 
 properly ascribed to him that we shall only mention the great 
 Assumption of the Virgin (No. 1126), the Virgin and Child 
 (No. 275), thoroughly representative in the expression of the 
 Virgin, though by some considered to be a " school " pic- 
 ture, the Mars and Venus (No. 915), and the Nativity already 
 mentioned. The two beautiful Adorations (Nos. 592 and 
 1033) have been variously ascribed by different authorities, 
 but according to Morelli and others are the work of Botticelli. 
 They are given to Filippino Lippi in the catalogue. (See 
 Dr. Richter's " Italian Art in the National Gallery.")] 
 
 Filippino Lippi (1460-1504), the son of Fra Filippo, and 
 the pupil of Botticelli, was undoubtedly an artist of great 
 power. He added to his father's bold naturalism a dra- 
 matic talent in composition, which places his works above 
 the mere realisms of Fra Filippo, and renders him worthy 
 
 [^ The designs of the Florentine edition of Dante, 1481 , are ascribed to 
 him, and a copy of Dante with original drawings by him of great imagi- 
 native force, was purchased by the German Government from the Ash- 
 burnham collection.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 65 
 
 to be placed next to Masaccio in tlie line of progress. He 
 continued the frescoes that Masaccio had left unfinished in 
 the Brancacci chapel of the Carmine ; and of him, far more 
 truly than of Fra Filippo, it might be said that " the spirit 
 of Masaccio dwelt in his body." The figure of the naked 
 boy in the Raising of the King's Son, has been praised as 
 not inferior in any respect to Masaccio,* and the sleeping 
 guard also, in Peter delivered from Prison, has a forcible 
 reality -which at the same time is far removed from vulgar 
 imitation of human nature. Another series of frescoes was 
 undertaken by Filippino in the Strozzi chapel of S. Maria 
 Novella, where he set forth the histories of S. John and 
 S. Philip. The most remarkable painting of this series 
 has for its subject the Resuscitation of Drusiana ^ by the 
 Apostle S. John, wherein the painter's dramatic powers are 
 exhibited in their highest degree. 
 
 The expression of returning life in the face of the reviv- 
 ing Drusiana is very fine, but S. John scarcely realizes one's 
 idea of the loved disciple of Christ, and the fright evinced 
 by the bystanders somewhat disturbs the solemnity of the 
 scene. Too often, indeed, the solemn grandeur of Filip- 
 pino' s central idea is marred by the introduction into his 
 pictures of trivial accessories that disturb the mind of the 
 spectator without adding to the general imj^ression. He 
 delighted in architectural details, especially in that archi- 
 tecture of the Renaissance which was now everywhere 
 triumphant in Italy. Besides this, he had imbibed in 
 Rome, where he had painted a chapel for Cardinal Caraffa, 
 a taste for the antique remains of the capital, and we often 
 find ruined classical buildings introduced into his pictures. 
 He frequently introduced the portraits of his contempo- 
 raries into his works. Altogether we may safely say of 
 Filippino that although he missed the simple classic gran- 
 deur of Masaccio, his works display a richness of composi- 
 tion, an effective colouring, and a dramatic skill that the 
 
 f ^ This picture was commenced by Masaccio, and Filippino may have 
 had Masacctio's sketches to guide him ; but the opposite large fresco of 
 the trial and crucifixion of S. Peter is entirely by Filippino, and his 
 greatest work.] 
 
 2 See Legend of Drusiana, given in Mrs. Jameson's " Sacred and 
 Legendary Art." 
 
66 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 earlier master never attained. The picture of the Virgin 
 and Child with S. Jerome and S. Dominic, in the National 
 Collection (No. 293), is an undoubted work of FiHppino's. 
 
 Another pupil of Fra Filippo's was Francesco di Ste- 
 FANO, called Pesellino (1422-1457). He has been con- 
 fused with his grandfather Gitjliano d'Arrigo Pesello 
 (bom in 1367), who is said by Vasari to have been clever 
 in the delineation of animals. Pesellino painted so well 
 that his works are often mistaken for Gozzoli's and those 
 of Pollaiuolo. A Trinity in the National Gallery (No. 727) 
 is a fine specimen of the most skilful work of the time. 
 
 But the painter upon whom the spirit of the Eenais- 
 sance took the strongest hold, was Domenico Carrado 
 DI BiGORDi, called Ghirlandaio,^ or the Garland-maker 
 (1449-1494), a name given him, says Vasari, because he was 
 the first to invent the beautiful silver bands or garlands 
 that the Florentine maidens of that day wore on their 
 heads. This statement cannot be quite correct, for the 
 Florentine maidens wore these ornaments long before this 
 date, but he may very likely have added to the beauty of 
 their design, or the name may simply have clung to him 
 from his having first practised art in the workshop of 
 his father, who was a broker and goldsmith of Florence. 
 Much in Ghirlandaio's style tends to show that he was 
 thoroughly acquainted with the laws of modelling, whether 
 he was brought up as a goldsmith or not. 
 
 His draperies have a peculiarly sculpturesque character, 
 and his forms have a hardness and want of flexibility as 
 though he were limited in painting by the same restraints 
 as in the plastic art. " Without adding anything specially 
 to the total amount of experience acquired by the efforts of 
 successive searchers, he garnered the whole of it within 
 himseK and combined it in support and illustration of the 
 great maxims which he had already treasured up, and 
 thus conduced to the perfection of the masculine art of 
 Florence, which culminated, at last, by the joint energy and 
 genius of himself, Fra Bartolommeo, Raphael, and Michael 
 Angelo." ' 
 
 ^ Pronounced Grillandaio by the Florentines. [He was a pupil of 
 AlessD Baldovinetti and master of Michael Angelo.] 
 ' Crowe and Cavalcaselle. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 67 
 
 One of his finest series of frescoes (completed 1485) is in 
 the chapel of the Sassetti in the S. Trinita, at Florence, 
 where he has set forth the life of S. Francis. The progress 
 of art, and the different conceptions of the same subject in 
 the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are made strikingly 
 manifest by comparing the history of S. Francis as con- 
 ceived by G-iotto in the church of Assisi, and as conceived 
 by Ghirlandaio in the church of S. Trinita. In the latter 
 the art has, it is true, progressed, the laws of perspective 
 are understood, the composition is more dramatic, the 
 pride of Renaissance architecture is fully displayed, and 
 the skill of the painter made manifest, but we look in vain 
 for the noble thought and singleness of aim of G-iotto, and 
 the reverent forgetfulness of the art in the subject of the 
 art, which characterizes the earlier Christian painters. 
 
 The Death of S. Francis is one of the finest subjects of 
 the Sassetti series. In it he has adhered to a great extent 
 to the traditional mode of representation of this scene, as 
 established by Giotto, but it is not without significance 
 that in the faithless fifteenth century, the glorious ascent 
 of the spirit of the saint, which forms one of the most 
 striking episodes in G-iotto' s rendering, is left out. One of 
 the attendants round the dead saint's bier, however, looks 
 up in surprise, as though he saw something more than 
 Renaissance friezes and capitals. The distant landscape 
 seen through the pillars of the building is very beautiful. 
 Ghirlandaio, as was his wont in all his works, has intro- 
 duced the portraits of several distinguished Florentines 
 into this fresco, and a bishop, no doubt a portrait, who is 
 standing chanting litanies at the head of the bier, wears 
 spectacles, which at that time had been only recently in- 
 vented. But in spite of this little touch of realism, there 
 is a grandeur and elevation of sentiment in this work that 
 lifts it entirely out of the region of the common-place. 
 Layard, who has given an interesting description of the 
 Sassetti frescoes,^ says of the death of S. Francis, that it 
 is " one of those works of the fifteenth century which is 
 especially characteristic of an epoch in the history of 
 painting, when the imitation of nature was no longer con- 
 
 ' In his "Domenico Ghirlandajo." Printed for the Arundel Society. 
 
68 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IT. 
 
 trolled by the conventional and religions spirit which had 
 distinguished the fourteenth century, and had not yet 
 yielded to the influence of the Academies, who took their 
 models from the stagnant pools of artificial life, and not 
 from the fresh and living springs of nature. In the works 
 of the painters of this period, and especially in those of 
 Masaccio, Ghirlandaio and the two Lippi, we have the 
 source from which Raphael and the greatest masters of 
 the golden age of painting drew some of their noblest in- 
 spirations, when they combined with the strictest imitation 
 of nature the most poetical and elevated treatment of it, 
 and before they felt the influence of the new and evil taste 
 gathering around them." 
 
 Another great series of frescoes (completed 1490) was 
 executed by Ghirlandaio in the choir of S. Maria Novella, 
 where the paintings of Andrea Orcagna had already fallen 
 into decay. Here he depicted on one wall the life of 
 S. John the Baptist, and on the other, incidents from 
 the life of the Virgin. The most celebrated fresco of the 
 latter series represents the birth of the Virgin, a scene 
 into which he has introduced the portrait of Grinevra de* 
 Benci, a celebrated Florentine beauty of that time, who, 
 attired in the magnificent dress of a fashionable Florentine 
 lady, advances to pay a visit of congratulation to Anna, 
 the mother of the newborn Virgin. 
 
 Besides these and some other important frescoes in the 
 Vespucci chapel of the Ognisanti (painted 1480), in one of 
 which, now unfortunately destroyed, he depicted the cele- 
 brated Amerigo Vespucci, who first sailed to the West 
 Indies, and gave his name to a continent, Ghirlandaio 
 painted altar-pieces for numerous churches in Italy.^ His 
 industry, indeed, was indefatigable, and he is said to have 
 advised his pupils to paint everything that was offered to 
 them, even if it were only '* for a lady's petticoat pan- 
 niers." He worked in mosaic also with his two brothers 
 
 [^ He also painted numerous other frescoes. The finest existing ia 
 The Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew, in the Sistine chapel 
 at Eome, but there are some interesting ones at San Gemignano, in 
 which he was assisted by his brother-in-law, jVIainardi. His most im- 
 portant altar-pieces are in S. Spirito, the Uffizi, the church of the 
 Innocenti, and the Academy, Florence ; that once in the choir of S. 
 Maria Novella is half at Berlin and half at Munich.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 69 
 
 David and Benedetto, and was wont to declare that the art 
 of mosaic was eternal, whilst that of painting was fleeting. 
 
 [By his son Eidolfo del Ghirlandaio (1483-1561) 
 we have a work in the National Gallery (No. 1143). He 
 studied under his uncle David, and in later life became an 
 imitator of his friend Eaphael.] 
 
 Antonio Pollaiuolo (1429-1498) was a sculptor and 
 goldsmith more than a painter ; still he has left us suffi- 
 cient examples of his painting to prove that he did not, 
 €ven in this art, miss the development of the period in 
 which he lived, and decidedly, in his plastic works, he 
 carried on that development to a considerable extent. 
 
 His master-work in pictorial art is the Martyrdom of 
 S. Sebastian, No. 292 in the National Gallery, painted for 
 the Pucci chapel in the church of San Sebastiano de' Servi, 
 at Florence.^ " This painting," says Vasari, " has been 
 more extolled than any other ever executed by Antonio." 
 It is, however, unpleasantly hard and obtrusively anatomi- 
 •cal. Pollaiuolo is said to have been the first artist who 
 studied anatomy by means of dissection, and one of his 
 aims in this picture seems to have been to display his 
 knowledge of muscular action. He was an engraver as 
 well as goldsmith, sculptor, and painter. 
 
 PiERO Di CosiMo (born about 1462, died 1521), an 
 eccentric and fanciful artist of this time, was scarcely as 
 important a painter as those before mentioned. There is, 
 however, a most charming picture by him, the Death of 
 Procris, in the National Gallery, No. 698. The tender 
 ■dreamy melancholy of the landscape, the surprised grief of 
 the simple-natured faun, and the pathos that is thrown into 
 the whole scene, reveal an artist of true poetic feeling. 
 Piero was a pupil of Cosimo Rosselli, but his works differ 
 greatly in character from those of his master. He usually 
 painted fantastic subjects from pagan mythology.* 
 
 [' Painted in oils ; remarkable for its fine landscape and sombre 
 liarmony of colour. The likeness of the pathetic figure of the saint to 
 that sculptured by Civitale at Lucca has been pointed out. Antonio was 
 •often assisted by his brother riERO (1441, d. before 1496), who had 
 studied under Andrea dal Castagno, and whose only signed work is a 
 •Coronation of the Virgin at S. Gemignano.] 
 
 ' George Eliot has introduced Piero di Cosimo into '* Romola." 
 
70 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 We must now turn from Florence for a time and look 
 to Padua for the next great artist of this age. The Uni- 
 versity of Padua was at this time one of the most con- 
 siderable in Europe, and the revival of ancient learning 
 was carried on there by a great number of scholars. The 
 classical taste thus created soon communicated itself to 
 the art schools, and the study of the antique was prose- 
 cuted with as much eagerness as at Florence. Especially 
 was this the case in the school of Francesco Squarcione 
 (1394-1474), a master not so much remarkable for the 
 works he himself accomplished, as for the numerous dis- 
 ciples who issued from his classic school, and who spread 
 his principles in all parts of Italy.^ 
 
 The most important of all these scholars was Andrea 
 Mantegna (1431-1506). Mantegna perhaps is the most 
 pagan of all the pagan painters of his age, yet his religious 
 pictures have such a forcible reality, that they affect us 
 more powerfully than the weak spiritualisnib of many of 
 the religious painters of the Christian school. 
 
 Squarcione was the first to perceive Mantegna' s powers,, 
 and taking him, as Cimabue did Giotto, from his calling 
 as a shepherd-boy, he had him instructed in art and 
 adopted him as his foster-child.^ Whatever teaching the 
 school of Squarcione afforded, it is evident that Mantegna 
 soon supplemented it by the study of such Florentine art 
 as came within his reach at Padua. Especially he seems 
 to have been influenced by the works of Donatello. So 
 deeply, indeed, was he imbued with a feeling for sculpture, 
 that too often his figures have the coldness and rigidity of 
 marble, and many of his designs seem as though intended 
 for bas-reliefs.^ Squarcione, when he quarrelled with 
 Mantegna, severely criticised this peculiarity, saying that 
 he should have coloured his figures white in order to com- 
 plete the effect,* and Mantegna himself saw and to a 
 
 ^ In the course of his career he taught no less than 137 pupils, and 
 won the title of the Father of painters. 
 
 ^ He was thus registered in the Paduan Guild, Xov. 6, 1441. 
 
 P There are three works of this kind in the National Gallery (Nos. 902^ 
 1125, and 1145).] 
 
 [* This is what Yasari says ; but, as has been pointed out, such a re- 
 proof would come badly from Squarcione's mouth, for it was Mantegna^ 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 71 
 
 certain extent remedied this fault, for although he always 
 made form his principal study, and kept his tones of 
 colour at a low pitch, yet in his later works the colouring 
 is thoroughly harmonious and well balanced, and therefore 
 does not produce snch a chilling effect.^ 
 
 Mantegna, however, was never in any sense a colourist ; 
 and this is strange, considering that he was intimately 
 associated with the Bellini family, and might be supposed 
 to be acquainted with Griovanni's method.* It was this 
 association with the Bellini and marriage with Niccolosia, 
 the daughter of Jacopo Bellini, that divided, so Yasari says, 
 Mantegna from his foster-father and master, Squarcione ; 
 the Bellini belonging to the rival, or Florentine faction in 
 Padua, with which Mantegna henceforward united himself. 
 
 The most important of Mantegna's early works are some 
 frescoes setting forth the history of S. James in the chapel 
 of the Eremitani at Padua, a chapel which occupies the 
 same position with regard to Paduan art as the Brancacci 
 with regard to Florentine. It was Squarcione who received 
 the commission to decorate this chapel, but, as was usual 
 with this master, he did not work there himself, but em- 
 ployed his pupils, several of whom, besides Mantegna, 
 executed important works there. 
 
 In 1459 Mantegna entered the service of Ludovico 
 Gonzaga, Margrave of Mantua,' from whom he received a 
 pension of seventy-five lire a month, equal to about <£30 a 
 year of our money,* at that time a considerable salary for an 
 artist. After this, he spent the greater part of his time at 
 Mantua, but in 1488-90 he was called to Rome for a time, 
 where he executed some frescoes for Innocent VIII. in the 
 Vatican, that were afterwards destroyed. 
 
 who animated the cold sculpturesque style taught by Squarcione with 
 real life.] 
 
 [^ The National Gallery possesses a beautiful painting of the Virgin 
 and Child enthroned, with S. John the Baptist and the Magdalen 
 (No. 274). In this the colour, though subdued, is varied and harmonious.] 
 
 [^ They painted so much alike at first, that some of Bellini's early 
 works have been attributed to Mantegna.] 
 
 [•' He had previously painted the magnificent altar-piece at S. Zeno, 
 Verona, the greatest of his works in his earlier or Paduan style.] 
 
 [^ He had also a dwelling assigned to him, with corn and wood and a 
 barge.] 
 
72 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 One of his most famous works is the celebrated Triumph 
 of Julius Caesar, now at Hampton Court. It consists of 
 nine water-colour drawings, each nine feet square, originallj 
 executed for a saloon in a palace of Ludovico Gronzaga.^ 
 They exhibit the powers of the artist in their highest exer- 
 cise, " In their present faded and dilapidated condition," 
 writes Mrs. Jameson, "hurried and uninformed visitors 
 will probably pass them over with a cursory glance, yet, if 
 we except the cartoons of Raphael,^ Hampton Court con- 
 tains nothing so curious and valuable as this old frieze of 
 Andrea Mantegna, which, notwithstanding the frailty of 
 the material on which it is executed, has now existed for 
 three hundred and sixty- seven years,^ and having been 
 frequently engraved, is celebrated all over Europe." 
 
 The great Madonna della Yittoria of the Louvre is 
 another of Mantegna' s important works. It was painted 
 in commemoration of a victory of the Marquis of Mantua 
 over the retreating army of Charles VIII. of France after 
 his unfortunate invasion of Italy. 
 
 Like so many of the fifteenth century artists, Mantegna 
 excelled, not in one branch of art alone, but in several. 
 He was a sculptor, architect, and engraver, and likewise we 
 are told a poet. " He found great pleasure," says Vasari, 
 *' in engraving on copper," and indeed his style is better 
 suited for engraving than painting. He did not, however, 
 begin to engrave until late in life, but there are a good 
 number of prints by his hand in existence, although, of 
 course, not nearly so many as are attributed to him : they 
 are among the earliest examples of engraving in Italy. 
 
 [Another interesting but very inferior pupil of Squarcione 
 was Geegoeio Schiavone, by whom there are two pictures, 
 Nos. 630 and 904, in the National Gallery. 
 
 Cosmo TuRA (1420 P-1498) was the first master of im- 
 portance in the school of Ferrara. The examples in the 
 National Gallery are more distinguished for a hard and 
 
 ^ They were sold by one of the descendants of the Marquis to our 
 Charles I., and came to England with other pictures bought by him 
 from the Gonzaga family. "NVhen the Parliament disposed of the Rojal 
 Collection, Mantegna's "Triumph" was sold for ^"IjOOO. 
 
 ' Now in the South Kensington Museum. 
 
 ^ This was written in 1845. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 73 
 
 somewhat coarse vigour than for beauty of form or concep- 
 tion, but (No. 773) S. Jerome in the Wilderness is a master- 
 piece of severe art. 
 
 Melozzo da Forli (1438-1494) is an artist of whom 
 little is known, and very little remains of his work. But 
 it is certain that he was a master of considerable power, 
 celebrated for his fine foreshortening and skill in perspec- 
 tive. A fresco transferred to canvas, now in the Vatican, 
 representing the installation of Platina (Bartolommeo 
 Sacchi) as Prefect of Sixtus IV., is the finest existing 
 example of his art, and almost the only one which is of un- 
 doubted authenticity. Melozzo worked at the decoration 
 of the Duke of Urbino's palace in 1470-80, and the National 
 Gallery possesses two pictures ascribed to him — (No. 755) 
 Rhetoric and (No. 756) Music — and said to have been 
 executed for that purpose. 
 
 He and Mantegna are both credited with being among 
 the first to master the difficulty of representing figures and 
 architecture as seen from below, an ai*t brought to perfec- 
 tion by Michael Angelo in the Sistine Chapel.] 
 
 But far more than Melozzo, Luca d'Egidio di Ventura, 
 called SiGNORELLi DA CoRTONA (1441-1523), may be called 
 the Michael Angelo of the fifteenth century. He aimed at 
 what none but Michael Angelo ever attained, but his aim 
 came so near attainment, that even Michael Angelo' s inde- 
 pendent genius was obliged to f oUow obediently in the path 
 in which he had led the way. Strength of intellect is the 
 quality predominant in Signorelli's works, as in those of 
 his great follower, and his daring foreshortening and 
 powerful naked forms are but the expressions of a mind 
 delighting to put forth its strength. He [was the pupil of 
 Piero della Francesca, and] one of the early painters of the 
 Sistine chapel of the Vatican.^ His frescoes there repre- 
 sent scenes from the history of Moses. But his genius was 
 called forth to its highest exercise, not in the Sistine 
 frescoes, but in the decoration of the Cathedral at Orvieto, 
 a work that had been begun by Fra Angelico, but never 
 finished. " Seldom," says Liibke,^ " have such contrasts 
 been combined in the execution of the same work in so cir- 
 
 [* See account of Bottictlli, p. 6r.] 
 * " History of Art," \o\. ii. 
 
74 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 cumscribed a space. Beneath the pure and blessed figures 
 of Fiesole, which look down from the vaulted ceiling, the 
 powerful creations of Signorelli cover the walls like a race 
 of mighty beings struggling against the imiversal annihila- 
 tion. The demon-like and gloomy representation of Anti- 
 christ, the Resurrection of the Dead, Hell and Paradise, 
 are all the productions of his hand. In the Resurrection 
 he evidences his correct knowledge of the human form in 
 a number of naked figures, who appear in the most diffe- 
 rent attitudes in bold foreshortening. The representation 
 of the condemned is especially rich in powerful touches, 
 the horror of those struck by the avenging lightning from 
 heaven is well depicted." Different, indeed, from the 
 mystic beauty of Fra Angelico, who excelled in Paradises 
 only, and was very weak in his rendering of the horrors of 
 Hell. Several of the figures in Luca's Last Judgment,, 
 judging at least from engravings, are as powerful as any 
 of Michael Angelo's ; indeed, the great master borrowed 
 many ideas from his predecessor, or rather contemporary, 
 for the two artists were working in the same period, 
 although the one so long outHved the other. Luca Sig- 
 norelH's works may be taken as the farthest expressions in 
 painting of the knowledge of the fifteenth century.^ 
 
 Masaccio had opened the century with his simple classic 
 naturalism, which set forth the human form with a certain 
 dignity under given conditions, but was not yet perfect in 
 a knowledge of the nude, Luca Signorelli closed it with a 
 knowledge of form inferior only to that of Michael Angelo. 
 
 The end of the fifteenth century is perhaps the most 
 brilliant era in the history of Florence. Under the splendid 
 rule of Lorenzo the Magnificent, every branch of human 
 knowledge was cultivated with an enthusiasm that has no 
 precedent in history ; and art especially, under his direct 
 personal superintendence, was stimulated to ever greater 
 achievements. 
 
 The Renaissance in Rome, as well as in Florence, was 
 completely triumphant, being especially manifest in grand 
 
 [^ His picture of the Circumcision in the National Gallery (No. 1128) 
 affords an example of his bold conception and mastery of the human 
 figure. The Nativity (No. 1 133) is inferior ; he was unsuccessful in 
 rendering the expression of tender sentiment.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 75 
 
 architectural works in which the severe classicism that at 
 first marked the revival was already giving place to a more 
 luxuriant and decorative style. 
 
 But notwithstanding the outward magnificence of Italy 
 at this period, and especially of Florence under the Medi- 
 cean government, the whole fabric of Italian society was 
 utterly rotten, and the utmost moral foulness existed side 
 by side with the highest intellectual culture and the 
 greatest refinement of manners that had as yet been at- 
 tained. 
 
 Already, indeed, the great Savonarola was warning his 
 loved city of the doom that would assuredly overtake her 
 in her wickedness, and although his voice was too weak to 
 stem the torrent of her iniquity, yet his words bore fruit 
 in the lives of many thoughtful men, and his teaching exer- 
 cised a powerful influence over the art of his time. The 
 Renaissance, it is true, still went on pursuing its victorious 
 course, but a reaction against it now set in, and the spiri- 
 tual, or Christian school, which had languished since the 
 time of Era Angelico, assumed a new and deeper signifi- 
 cance. 
 
 The early school of Siena, which in the fourteenth cen- 
 tury numbered several excellent masters, missed as we 
 have seen the development that Florentine art underwent 
 in the fifteenth. It had never, in fact, the vigorous manly 
 qualities of its rival, and its tenderness was apt to dege- 
 nerate into weakness, and its grace into affectation. Its 
 deep religious sentiment and its mystic spirituality were 
 destined however to find a lasting expression in the works 
 of the favourite painter of Christianity, for although 
 Raphael is not generally reckoned as a master of the 
 Sienese school, yet the tJmbrian school, from which he 
 gained all the spiritual qualities of his art, grew naturally 
 out of the Sienese, as the Sienese out of the Byzantine ; 
 the ugly and ascetic ideal of Byzantium gradually deve- 
 loping into the lovely, and at the same time spii'itual ideal 
 of Perugino and Raphael. The TJmbrian painters, like 
 Fra Angelico and the early religious painters before the 
 revival, strove above all things to express the mystic beauty 
 of the Christian soul, but they clothed this beautiful soul 
 in a fitting garment of flesh. Their art in fact was no 
 
76 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 longer ascetic, but was the expression of the purest and 
 holiest aspirations of the Christian life. 
 
 This grand development of religious art occurred, as be- 
 fore stated, at the very time when the worship of the an- 
 tique was at its height, and the Eenaissance was in its full 
 glory, but, as we might expect, it was not in intellectual 
 Florence that this development was first made manifest, 
 but in a place farther removed from the effects of that re- 
 Tival of classic learning, which both for good and for evil 
 had so powerfully affected the culture of the age. 
 
 TJmbria, a country district of the Upper Tiber, had been 
 from an early period the chosen seat of mysticism. It was 
 here that S. Francis, the favourite saint of the middle ages, 
 was born, and here at Assisi was the most celebrated con- 
 vent and church of his order. It is not so much to be 
 wondered at therefore that the simple inhabitants of the 
 quiet valleys of the Tiber, who were thus placed, as it were, 
 in direct personal intercourse with their miracle-working 
 «aint, should have maintained a more fervent religious 
 belief than their rationalistic neighbours.^ 
 
 In art, at all events, we find that they preserved tradi- 
 tional types long after other schools had adopted natura- 
 listic ones, and whilst Florentine art reflected that strong 
 •desire for knowledge that was one of the most marked ten- 
 dencies of the age, Umbrian art reflected that mystical de- 
 Totion which, as evinced by the lives of so many ecstatic 
 visionaries, was another and an opposite tendency. The 
 Umbrian conception of human life also was totally diffe- 
 rent from the Florentine. The keen-eyed Florentines re- 
 garded life ever from a cheerful point of view, and like the 
 Greeks strove to drive mysticism and sadness away from 
 their lives and their art, but the Umbrian character was 
 less vivacious, and that deep religious enthusiasm, which 
 was awakened only at times of excitement in the Floren- 
 tines, was with them a normal characteristic. 
 
 NiccoLO DA FuLiGNO, Called by Vasari Niccolo 
 Alunno (painting between 1458 and 1499), is the first 
 master in whom the distinct Umbrian characteristics be- 
 
 [^ Piero della Francesca, Melozzo da Forli, and Luca Signorelli be- 
 long to the Umbrian school, though they shared the science of the 
 Florentine.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 77 
 
 come apparent.^ His works have a dreamj religious feel- 
 ing closely allied to the Sienese school, but expressed in 
 purer and brighter colour, and with more natural beauty.^ 
 
 But PiETEO Vanntjcci (1446-1524), better known as II 
 Peruqino, from the place where he principally worked,, 
 is beyond all others the representative master of the* 
 Umbrian school. 
 
 Pietro's father, Christofano Vannucci, although poor,, 
 was not of low condition, as Vasari implies, but he had 
 several children for whom, no doubt, it was difficult to pro- 
 vide, and at nine years of age Pietro was sent to Perugia, 
 and articled (" given as a shop-drudge," says Yasari) to a 
 painter in that city.^ But he soon found " that Florence 
 was the place above all others wherein men attain to per- 
 fection in all the arts, but more especially in painting." To 
 Florence, accordingly, he went, where the greatest artists 
 were then working. He is said to have studied under 
 Andrea Verrocchio, the master of Leonardo.* After acquir- 
 ing a considerable reputation in Florence, he was called to 
 
 [* Gentile da Fabriano (see Venetian School) was an Umbrian and had 
 Umbrian characteristics. So had Lorenzo di San Severing (early 
 fifteenth century), by a descendant of whom there is a fine altar-piece in 
 the National Gallery (No. 249).] 
 
 [^ He is supposed by Morelli (" Italian Masters in German Galleries ") 
 to have been a pupil of Benozzo Gozzoli. An altar-piece in the National 
 Gallery (No. 1107) of the Crucifixion and other scenes from the life of 
 Christ is violent in expression of intense grief. The landscapes show study 
 of nature remarkable for the time. Morelli says : " In his later works, 
 when left to himself, Niccolo da Foligno always betrays that tendency to 
 exaggeration which marks the inhabitant of a provincial town." By 
 Niccolo's contemporary Fiorenzo di Lorenzo there is a fine altar-piece 
 in the National Gallery (No. 1103), which shows the influence of Benozzo 
 Gozzoli.] 
 
 ^ Frobably Benedetto Buonfigli, a painter of some reputation in 
 Perugia. [He early acted as assistant to Piero della Francesca at 
 Arezzo. Niccolo da Fuligno and several other artists are also allotted to 
 him as masters.] 
 
 * Andrea Verrocchio (1435-1488) is best known as a sculptor; he 
 was besides a painter, a goldsmith, and a musician. His grand equestrian 
 statue of Bartolommeo Coleoni at Venice bears witness to his skill as a 
 modeller. His painting of the Baptism of Christ, at the Academy of 
 Fine Arts in Florence, is the only known authenticated work in that 
 branch of art. As a teacher, Verrocchio ranks very high; at his school 
 in Florence, Leonardo da Vinci, Perugino (perhaps), and his favourite- 
 Lorenzo di Credi studied under his direction.] 
 
78 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 Rome, where lie executed the frescoes before mentioned in 
 the Sistine chaj^el. The greater part of these were de- 
 stroyed to make room for the Last Judgment of Michael 
 Angelo ; but in one that remains, the DeHvery of the Keys 
 to S. Peter, there is a stronger affinity to the Florentine 
 style than in any other of his works. It would have been 
 difficult, indeed, for any painter residing at that time in 
 Florence to have remained uninfluenced by the grand and 
 noble works that he saw going on around him. After- 
 wards, however, when Perugino returned to Perugia, he fell 
 back into his Umbrian manner, only he added to the religious 
 sentiment of that school a more perfect mode of execution 
 and a pure beauty of colour such as no Italian painter had 
 ^ver before attained. He was one of the earliest painters 
 on the south of the Alps who adopted the Flemish method 
 of oil painting, and his success in it was almost as great as 
 that of his Flemish contemporaries. 
 
 His school at Perugia was one of the most celebrated in 
 Italy, numerous students from all parts being attracted 
 to it to learn the secret of the rich oil colouring of the 
 master. None of his scholars, however, except perhaps 
 Raphael, attained anything like the deep purity of Peru- 
 gino's colour. He and Francia are, indeed, distinguished 
 beyond many of their greater contemporaries for this one 
 quality. 
 
 Michael Angelo is said to have spoken with much con- 
 tempt of Perugino, calling the soft Umbrian, indeed, a 
 " dunce in art " {goffo nelV arte), for which insulting ex- 
 pression Perugino summoned him before a magistrate, but 
 got, as one might suppose, nothing but ridicule by his 
 action. The style of these two painters was so essentially 
 different, that it was no doubt difficult for them to arrive 
 at a just appreciation of each other's art. Perugino was 
 quite as bitter about Michael Angelo, whose fame was now 
 growing so much greater than his own. Towards others 
 also he seems to have acted in a quarrelsome manner, and 
 the records of Florence prove that once, in company with 
 a man of most violent character, he actually laid wait in a 
 dark street to attack and beat with staves someone to 
 whom he owed a grudge.^ Vasari also tells us that " he 
 ^ Crowe and Cavalcaselle, vol. iii., p. 184. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 79 
 
 was an irreligious man, and could never be made to believe 
 in the immortality of the soul, nay, most obstinately did 
 he reject all good counsel with words suited to the stub- 
 bornness of his marble-hard brain." It was, therefore, not 
 from the religious enthusiasm of his own nature, as was 
 the case with Fra Angelico, that the exalted devotion of 
 his works was derived, but it must be taken as an expres- 
 sion of the school to which he belonged rather than as the 
 individual expression of the painter's own mind. Peru- 
 gino, indeed, gives a rude shake to the theory that the art 
 of the painter is an accurate exponent of his ethical state.^ 
 It is so in many instances undoubtedly ; but here we have 
 a violent-tempered and low-minded man producing some of 
 the holiest works that art has ever accomplished. 
 
 All English students know, or ought to know, Perugino's 
 lovely altar-piece in the National G-allery (No. 288), origi- 
 nally painted for the Certosa, or Carthusian convent at 
 Pavia (about the year 1504 or 1505).* It is perhaps my 
 love and admiration for this work that make me rank Peru- 
 gino so high as a Christian painter ; for it must be con- 
 fessed that too many of his works fall very short of expec- 
 tations founded on this Certosa Madonna. Several critics 
 account for the exalted beauty and purity of this work by 
 assuming that Eaphael aided in its execution. "It is 
 RaphaeUzed throughout," says Eumohr, and Passavant 
 also speaks of the " Eaphaelesque feeling which pervades 
 every part." But it seems more just to speak of Raphael's 
 early works as Peruginized, than of Perugino's as Raphae- 
 Uzed. No doubt master and pupil had to some extent a 
 reciprocal influence; but the tender and pure sentiment 
 of Raphael's Madonnas was a quahty derived entirely 
 from tJmbria, and one in which Perugino had previously 
 excelled. 
 
 It is possible, of course, that Raphael assisted in the 
 execution of this work, but to assume that, because the 
 sentiment of it is pure and holy, that therefore it must 
 have emanated from Raphael, is unfair to the older master, 
 in most of whose other works the same holy feeling is 
 
 ^ See Ruskin's " Lectures on Art," " Relation of Art to Morals." 
 ^ There are several reproductions of this picture by Perugino's own 
 hand, but none come up to our English original. 
 
80 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 manifested. In beauty and brilliancy of colour it far sur- 
 passes Raphael, who never reached to real greatness of 
 colour, whereas Perugino is, even in this particular, worthy 
 to be placed side by side with Bellini, the founder of the 
 Venetian colour school. 
 
 [Besides this masterpiece the National Gallery contains 
 an interesting early Virginand Child (No. 181), and a large 
 but rather conventional Virgin and Child with S. Jerome 
 and S. Francis (No. 1075). There are important frescoes by 
 him at Perugia and at his birthplace, Castello (now Citta) 
 delle Pieve. Of his oil pictures. Madonnas in the Vatican 
 and the Louvre, at Bologna and Vienna, a Deposition in 
 the Pitti, an Agony and Crucifixion in the Academy, 
 Florence, are among the best. His Marriage of the Virgin, 
 on which Eaphael modelled his Sposalizio, is at Caen, and 
 at Lyons is the Ascension of Christ, formerly part of the 
 altar-piece in S. Pietro Maggiore, in Perugia.^] 
 
 [Of Perugino' s pupils, Lo Spagna, properly named Gio- 
 vanni di Pietro, after his master, was, excepting Raphael, 
 the most worthy. A Spaniard by birth, he became a citizen 
 of Spoleto. His best work was painted at Assisi in 1516, in 
 the manner of Raphael's early works. He died before 1530. 
 His fine picture in the National Gallery (No. 1032), The 
 Agony in the Garden, is a free rendering of one by Peru- 
 gino in the Academy at Florence. Another pupil of Peru- 
 gino, GiANNicoLO DI Paolo Manni, is represented in the 
 National Gallery by an Annunciation, No. 404.] 
 
 Bernardino di Betto, called Pinturicchio (bom 1454, 
 died 1518), [is the most important follower of Perugino 
 who cannot be called a pupil. He was an accomplished 
 artist, though hedidnot reach Perugino' s depth of] religious 
 feeling, nor his beauty of colour. [His types are more 
 varied, and sometimes very beautiful.] He worked for a 
 long period under Perugino, with whom he entered into a 
 sort of artistic partnership, he receiving a third part of the 
 gains of their joint labours. His principal works are at 
 Siena, where he decorated with frescoes the great Piccolo- 
 mini library. [These frescoes are almost as fresh as when 
 
 * This altar-piece was taken away by the French. The central portion 
 is now in the Museum at Lyons, and is painfully restored. The other 
 parts are scattered in different towns in France and Italy. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 81 
 
 painted, and the best preserved works of the kind in the 
 world. The great beauty of some drawings still extant of 
 their designs have induced the supposition that Eaphael 
 had a large share in their design, but there is now no 
 doubt that the drawings are by Pinturicchio. A specimen 
 of his later fresco work is in the National Gallery (No. 
 911), being a portion of the History of Penelope, painted 
 on a wall for Pandolfo Petrucci of Siena after 1507. 
 Pinturicchio was especially noted for his landscape back- 
 grounds.^] 
 
 Francesco Eaibolini, called Francia (1450-1517), is 
 so closely allied in sentiment, expression, and colour to 
 Perugino, that, although he belongs in point of birth and 
 education to the early school of Bologna, he seems naturally 
 to rank in his art with the Umbrian painter. 
 
 He was originally a goldsmith and worker in niello, and 
 adopted the name of Francia out of love, it is said, for a 
 master of that name to whom he was apprenticed. It was 
 not until he was nearly forty years of age, according to 
 Vasari, that he turned his attention to painting, being 
 stimulated thereto by his acquaintance " with Andrea 
 Mantegna and many other painters who had attained to 
 riches and honours by means of their art." 
 
 The same fervent religious exaltation that marks the 
 works of the Umbrian school is apparent in those of Francia, 
 but whereas the Umbrian painters, Perugino especially, are 
 apt to fall into the old Byzantine melancholy, Francia is 
 ever cheerful and contented. His mind seems untroubled 
 even whilst painting a Pieta, and his sorrow is full of 
 hope.* 
 
 ^ Vasari, who is fond of making his artists die of grief or " vexation," 
 tells an absurd story about the cause of Pinturicchio's death. He was 
 working, he tells us, one day in a room in a convent, in which there was 
 an old chest. Finding this in his way, he insisted on its removal ; but 
 when the monks came to take it away, one of the sides broke, and it was 
 found to be full of gold. " This discovery so vexed Pinturicchio, and he 
 took the good fortune of those poor friars so much to heart, and so 
 grievously did this oppress him, that not being able to get it out of his 
 thoughts, he finally died of vexation.'' [Another version is that his wife 
 deserted him, and that he died of neglect and starvation.] 
 
 * A " Pieta" is the name given by Italians to a composition repre- 
 senting the dead body of Christ moiu-ned over by the Virgin, or other 
 holy women, or disciples. 
 
 a 
 
82 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 This agrees with his character as drawn by Vasari, who 
 says " that he kept all around him in good humour, and 
 had the gift of dissipating the heavy thoughts of the most 
 melancholy by the charms of his conversation." Francia, 
 as well as Perugino, excelled in the new process of oil- 
 painting, and his colours have a depth and beauty that 
 exceed all the Florentine masters of his time. Colour, an 
 important element in rehgious art, was never satisfactorily 
 attained by any of the scientific painters of Florence, who 
 made form their exclusive study. Francia painted in 
 fresco as well as oils : his most important wall-painting is 
 a large fresco of Judith and Holof ernes m the palace of his 
 friend Griovanni Bentivoglio. Scenes from the history of 
 S. Cecilia were also executed by him in a beautiful series of 
 wall-paintings in the church of S. Cecilia in Bologna, but 
 it was in oils that he attained his greatest celebrity, and the 
 influence of the Venetian school is clearly apparent in his 
 deep warm colouring. 
 
 Francia' s Madonnas are to be found in most galleries on 
 the Continent, but he was so well imitated by several pupils, 
 especially by his son and nephew, that it is often difficult to 
 decide whether the paintings ascribed to him are really the 
 work of his hands. There is a perfectly lovely Madonna 
 at Munich, about which there can be but Httle doubt. It 
 is a so-called " Madonna in a Rose garden." Tlie Virgin 
 sinks on her knees in loving adoration of her child, who 
 lies before her on a plot of grass surrounded by a hedge of 
 roses. 
 
 The quiet peaceful beauty and depth of feeling in Fran- 
 cia' s works were never reached by any of his pupils. The 
 ablest of them, Lorenzo Costa of Ferrara, however, came 
 very near to his master in style and colour.^ 
 
 The two beautiful paintings by Francia in the National 
 G-allery, the Virgin and S. Anna, and Saints, No. 179, and 
 the Pieta, 180, originally formed one altar-piece. 
 
 ' P Lorenzo Costa (1460-1535), of Ferrara, is thought by Morelli to 
 have been rather the leader than the follower in painting of Francia, but 
 he was ten years the junior of the latter ; at all events he was an artist 
 of much originality. He is said to have studied under Gozzoli at 
 Florence. He afterwards worked with Francia at Bologna. Tliere is a 
 specimen of his religious art in the National Gallery (No. 629).] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 83 
 
 Shortly before Francia's death, Eaphael gave into his 
 friend's charge his celebrated painting of S. Cecilia, destined 
 for the same church of S. Cecilia at Bologna which Francia 
 himself had formerly decorated with frescoes. Francia re- 
 ceived this picture, we are told, with the greatest dehght, 
 and took care to see that it was properly placed. He 
 seems, indeed, to have had the fullest appreciation of 
 Raphael's genius, and in a sonnet he wrote to him after 
 receiving the promised portrait, he calls him the painter of 
 painters. 
 
 " Tu solo il Pittor sei de' Pittore." 
 
 It is therefore absurd to suppose, as Vasari does, that his 
 death was caused by grief at seeing himself, in this picture 
 of S. Cecilia, so far outstripped by his youthful rival. He 
 seems, as we have seen, to have cordially admitted Raphael's 
 superiority long before seeing the S. Cecilia, and as he was 
 nearly seventy years of age at the time of his death, other 
 causes than jealousy, we may hope, were in operation. 
 
 With Francia, whose death, according to a document 
 discovered by J. A. Calvi, took place on the 6th of January, 
 1517, this chapter may fitly close. The progressive art of 
 the fifteenth century had now reached its highest point of 
 development — Renaissance art in Ghirlandaio, Mantegna, 
 and Luca Signorelli, and religious art in Perugino and 
 Francia. The art of the sixteenth century is not progres- 
 sive. It reaches perfection all at once in the works of 
 several painters, has a short flowering season, and then, 
 alas ! according to the universal law, falls into decay. Its 
 history and laws must be studied in another chapter. 
 
 [There are a few more painters who should be mentioned 
 in this chapter of Development. Two artists of Florence, 
 Andrea del Castagno (1390-1457), and Domenico 
 Veneziano (died 1461), are supposed to have been 
 among the first in Italy to practise painting in oils. Few 
 of their works now exist, but there is a small crucifixion 
 in the National Gallery, No. 1138, ascribed to Andrea, 
 and three works in fresco by Veneziano, two heads of 
 Saints, and a Madonna and Child, Nos. 766, 767, and 
 1215. Two artists of Ferrara, named Eecole Grandi, 
 must not be confused. The earher Ercole di Roberti 
 
84 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 (died before 1513) shows strong Mantegnesque feelings 
 the other, Ercole di Giulto (died 1531), was a pupil 
 of Lorenzo Costa. There are two works, probably by 
 Ercole di Roberti, in the National Gallery, No. 1217, 
 which is ascribed to him in the Catalogue, and No. 1127, a 
 little picture of The Last Supper, which has recently been 
 ascribed to him by Mr. Walter Armstrong. 
 
 ViTTORE PisANO, Called PisANELLO (1380-1450) was 
 probably the pupil of Altichiero (see p. 45), and was the 
 greatest Veronese artist of the early fifteenth century. Ho 
 is best known now as the greatest of ItaHan medallists, 
 but his reputation when alive was great as a painter, and 
 it is sustained by the remains of his wall paintings at 
 Verona, and his skill as a draughtsman of animals is 
 attested by drawings in the Louvre. Of his rare easel 
 paintings, the National Gallery possesses one (No. 776)^ 
 S. Anthony and S. George in conversation. In the same 
 Gallery are also specimens of Bono of Ferrara, and 
 Giovanni Oriolo, pupils of Pisanello, of Domenico- 
 MoRONE (b. 1442), Francesco Morone (1473-1529), and 
 of LiBERALE DA Verona (1451-1536).^ 
 
 An important painter of this period was Vincenzo^ 
 FoppA (first dated work 1458, died 1492), a native of 
 Brescia, and the founder of the Lombard School. He is- 
 supposed to have been a fellow- student of Mantegna in 
 the school of Squarcione, and his works are remarkable for 
 the study of nature and the antique, and for knowledge of 
 perspective. Most of his frescoes have perished, but one 
 of S. Sebastian in the Brera, attests his claim to be the 
 greatest artist of the Lombard School before the coming of 
 Leonardo da Vinci to Milan. Other works in fresco and 
 easel pictures by Foppa exist at Brescia, Milan, and other 
 places in Northern Italy. In the National Gallery the 
 picture ascribed to Bramantino, No. 729, is now considered 
 to be by Foppa. The principal pupils of Foppa were the 
 Brescian Ferramolo (the Master of Moretto), Bernar- 
 dino Jacobi (called Buttinone), Bernardino Martini 
 (called Zenale), Bernardino de' Conti, and AMBROOia 
 DA FossANO (called Borgognone). All of these, except 
 
 ^ For other Veronese painters, see p. 45 and p. 173. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 85 
 
 Ferrainolo, belonged to the earlier Milanese school. The 
 most important of these pupils was Ambrogio Boegog- 
 NONE (painted from 1485 to 1522), an artist remarkable 
 for the unaffected sweetness of his Madonnas and female 
 saints, and the realistic power of his male figures. There 
 are early frescoes and altar-pieces by him in the Certosa of 
 Pavia, of which the Crucifixion of 1490 (an altar-piece) is 
 considered the finest. There are many works of his at 
 Milan and other places in North Italy. He is represented 
 by two pictures in the Berlin G-allery, and four in the 
 National G-allery. Of the latter the finest is The Marriage 
 of S. Catherine, No. 298. Borgognone was one of the 
 yery few Milanese painters of his time in whose works the 
 influence of Leonardo da Vinci is not felt. His originality 
 was not affected by the genius, nor his technique by the 
 example and precept of that great artist. 
 
 Another artist of the end of the fifteenth and beginning 
 of the sixtenth century, who was influenced by Foppa, was 
 Bartolommeo Suardi (called Bramantino). He after- 
 wards studied under Bramante, the great architect (but 
 also before he left Milan, a painter), and went with the 
 latter to Rome, where he painted some pictures in the 
 stanze of the Vatican, subsequently removed to make 
 room for those of Raphael. He returned to Milan and 
 founded a school there. The influence of the old Milanese 
 School is also seen in the works of Girolamo Giovenone 
 and Macrino d'Alba, which can be best studied at 
 Turin. There are two groups of saints by the latter artist 
 in the National Gallery, Nos. 1200 and 1201.] 
 
86 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV» 
 
 Chapter III. 
 
 THE BLOOMINa TIME. 
 
 Leonardo da Vikci — Eaphael — Michael Angelo. 
 
 LEONAEDO DA VINCI, rather than Raphael, Michael 
 Angelo, or Titian, may he taken as the representative 
 artist of the sixteenth century. 
 
 In point of date it is true he helongs to the fifteenth 
 more than to the sixteenth century ; but whilst thrusting 
 his contemporaries, Perugino and Francia, back amongst 
 the quattrocentisti,^ we naturally place Leonardo forward 
 in that brilliant period when the lovely flower of Italian 
 art, that we have watched gradually expanding through 
 two centuries, at last bloomed in its fullest and final per- 
 fection. 
 
 In him the two lines of artistic descent, tracing from 
 classic Eome and Christian Byzantium, meet. We cannot 
 say of his art that it is either pagan or Christian, realistic 
 or ideal, intellectual or spiritual. It is simply the perfect 
 art of Leonardo da Vinci. All the various elements that 
 we have seen striving for mastery in the fourteenth and 
 fifteenth centuries are blended by him into one harmonious, 
 whole. Thus his style is, in a certain sense, eclectic ; but 
 nothing can well be more unlike the forced egotistic eclec- 
 ticism of the later schools than Leonardo's unconscious 
 assimilation of all that is excellent in the works of his 
 predecessors. 
 
 This " truly admirable and divinely endowed Leonardo 
 da Vinci," ^ as Vasari calls him, was the illegitimate son of 
 a notary of Florence, and was born at Vinci, in the Val 
 
 ^ Perugino lived farther into the sixteenth century than Leonardo^ 
 and Francia nearly as far. 
 
 ^ Vasari is rapturous in his praise of this master. *' Whatever he did," 
 he says, " bore an impress of harmony, truthfulness, goodness, sweet- 
 ness, and grace, wherein no other man could ever equal him." 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 87 
 
 d'Amo, below Florence, in 1452. His genius was marvel- 
 lously precocious, and his bent towards art so early appa- 
 rent, that bis father, struck by some remarkable designs 
 that he had made at a very young age, placed him with 
 Andrea Verrocchio^ to study painting The pupil soon 
 ecUpsed the master, who " took this so much to heart, that 
 a mere child should do better than he had done, that he 
 would never touch colours more," but continued to work in 
 marble, and also to execute those exquisite little works in 
 metal for which he was greatly celebrated, although unfor- 
 tunately but few of them now exist.^ 
 
 [He was entered in the Red-book of the Painters' Guild 
 of Florence m 1472, and in 1476 is still mentioned as 
 Verrocchio's assistant. 
 
 In 1478 he was commissioned by the Signoria to paint a 
 picture for the chapel of S. Bernard in the Palazzo 
 Pubblico at Florence, and two years later the monks of 
 S Donato in Scopeto ordered him to paint them an altar- 
 piece. The former commission was never executed. For 
 the second, the half- finished Adoration of the Magi in the 
 Uffizi was probably commenced. 
 
 From this time until 1487 we have no record of Leo- 
 nardo's work or whereabouts. In 1487 he was in Milan, 
 employed on the cathedral there. In the meantime it is 
 thought he must have spent some time in the East, as 
 engineer in the service of the Sultan of Cairo.] 
 
 Nothing exceeded the powers of Verrocchio's astounding 
 pupil. Not only was he the greatest painter and sculptor 
 of his day (for Raphael's and Michael Angelo's stars had 
 as yet scarcely risen), but he likewise ranks as one of the' 
 earliest leaders in science. Mathematics, geometry, phy- 
 sics, chemistry, astronomy, geology, botany, were all studied 
 by him with an ardent love of knowledge that would not 
 allow him to rest content with mere superficial acquire- 
 ments, but led him to search out the secrets of nature for 
 himself. His scientific theories are often strangely in ad- 
 vance of the knowledge of his time ; indeed, many of his 
 treatises reveal a dim insight into natural phenomena 
 which have only been understood rightly at the present 
 
 ^ Before mentioned as the master of Perugino. 
 * Kio, " Leonard da Vinci et son Ecole." 
 
88 HISTOEY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 day. "The discoveries," says Hallam/ "which made 
 G-alileo, and Kepler, and Maestlin, and Maurolycus, and 
 Castelli, and other names, illustrious, the system of Coper- 
 nicus, the very theories of recent geologists, are anticipated 
 by Da Vinci within the compass of a few pages, not per- 
 haps in the most precise language or on the most conclu- 
 sive reasoning, but so as to strike us with something like 
 the awe of preternatural knowledge. In an age of so much 
 dogmatism he first laid down the grand principle of Bacon, 
 that experiment and observation must be the guides to just 
 theory in the investigation of nature." 
 
 Nor did he rest content with " just theory" alone. He 
 applied his scientific knowledge to several branches of 
 practical and mechanical science, and carried out engineer- 
 ing works that were a triumph of human skill. In a letter 
 hereafter quoted, he boasts, indeed, that he could invent 
 machines, build fortresses, construct bridges, and " equal 
 any other as regards architectural works." 
 
 More especially, however, he turned his attention to 
 those sciences that bear upon art, and in his celebrated 
 treatise on painting has left us a most valuable record of 
 his investigations. Anatomy he made a profound study ; 
 perspective likewise engaged his attention, and even 
 geology and botany were attacked by him with fruitful 
 results.^ In fact, there is scarcely any branch of natural 
 science to which he did not contribute some pregnant 
 thought. 
 
 In the lighter accomplishments of society he was no less 
 distinguished. The charm of his conversation was such, 
 'we are told, that all were fascinated who heard it, and his 
 rare beauty of face and dignity of form seemed to be only 
 a fitting setting for the beauty and dignity of his intellect. 
 He was a poet and a skilful musician, and used to play on 
 a kind of lyre invented by himself, often improvising both 
 words and music. Added to these versatile mental powers, 
 he possessed physical ones no less remarkable. His 
 strength was prodigious, and he excelled in all manly exer- 
 
 ^ " Literature of the Middle Ages," vol. i. 
 
 ^ In the latter scieuce it appears that he anticipated the discovery of 
 certain botanical laws with which botanists of a much later age have 
 until recently been accredited. See "Nature," May 19, 1870. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 89 
 
 cises, especially in horsemanship, of which he was an 
 accomplished master. 
 
 Such was this "divinely endowed" Leonardo, of whom 
 it might fitly be said that his was — 
 
 " A life that all the muses deck'd 
 With gifts of grace, that might express 
 All-comprehensive tenderness, 
 All-subtilizing intellect." 
 
 Of the works of this great master but few and faint 
 reUcs now remain — rehcs whose sweet lingering beauty only 
 makes us mourn the more for that which is lost. 
 
 His Last Supper, which ranks, perhaps, as the best 
 known and most famous picture in all the world, and which 
 may be taken as the highest expression of Christian art, is 
 now a hopeless ruin. Only the dim outline of a few of the 
 heads can still be traced of the original work, and yet by 
 means of copies and engravings, which have found their 
 way alike into the poorest cottages and the richest palaces, 
 it is known to almost every Christian child. And often as 
 we see it, in coarse woodcut or in Eaphael Morghen's noble 
 engraving, it ever speaks to us with some new significance, 
 so unfathomable is its solemn beauty. 
 
 Endless criticisms have been written upon it. Fuseli, 
 lecturing on the celebrated copy belonging to the Eoyal 
 Academy, says, " The face of the Saviour is an abyss of 
 thought, and broods over the immense revolution in the 
 economy of mankind which throngs inwardly on his 
 absorbed eye, as the spirit creative in the beginning over 
 the water's darksome wave, undisturbed and quiet. It 
 could not be lost in the copy before us ; how could its 
 subUme conception escape those who saw the original? . . . 
 I am not afraid of being under the necessity of retracting 
 what I am going to advance, that neither during the 
 splendid period immediately subsequent to Leonardo, nor 
 in those which succeeded, to our own time, has a face of 
 the Redeemer been produced which, I will not say equalled, 
 but approached the sublimity of Leonardo's conception, 
 and in quiet and simple features of humanity embodied 
 divine, or, what is the same, incomprehensible and infinite 
 powers." 
 
90 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 And yet this divine face is but the perfect development 
 of the type founded at Byzantium. We have the same 
 cast of features, the same oval face and melancholy expres- 
 sion ; but instead of the hard staring ugliness and crude 
 art of the early Christian artist, we have the deepest soul- 
 beauty expressed by an art that has reached its final 
 perfection. Of all the representations of Christ, none has 
 ever satisfied the heart like this, for we find in it at the 
 same time divine intelligence and yearning human love. 
 
 There is a strange contrast m this solemn " brooding " 
 head of the Saviour to the dramatic rendering of the other 
 characters in the scene ; for Leonardo has not treated the 
 subject according to the set tradition that other painters 
 had followed, but has given it a deeply tragic significance. 
 Each one of the disciples is moved in a diiferent manner 
 by the Master's fearful words : " One of you shall betray 
 Me," so that their different characters mount, as it were, 
 to the surface, and can be easily read on their countenances. 
 Only the Master himself sits unmoved and calm in the 
 storm of feeling around him. 
 
 The Last Supper was painted on the wall of the refec- 
 tory of the convent of S. Maria delle Grazie, at Milan. It 
 was painted in oils, a more perishable process for wall 
 painting than fresco, but still it is more from neglect and 
 barbarous ill-usage that it has perished than from natural 
 decay. ^ 
 
 It was [probably not before 1485] that Leonardo esta- 
 bhshed himself at Milan, having been summoned there by 
 
 ' No picture has ever suffered more shameful ill-treatment. Its first 
 injury arose from an inundation in the hail in which it was painted, 
 when it remained for some time under water. Then a door was cut by 
 some unfeeling Prior right through its lower centre, destroying the feet 
 of the Christ ; next it was given up to two misei'able bunglers, named 
 Belotti and Mazza, who added insult to the injury that it had already 
 received, by completely painting it over by way of restoration ; and 
 finally, when Napoleon entered Italy, his generals, in spite, it seems, of 
 his orders to the contrary, used the refectory of S. Maria delle Grazie 
 for a stable, and aftex-wards for a magazine for hay. Now, when only 
 the mouldering relics of the work remain, the greatest care is taken to 
 preserve them. " But even now," says Liibke, who seems to have seen 
 the picture quite recently, " the gleam of its former beauty is so inde- 
 structible that the effect of the original still surpasses that produced by 
 Eaphael Morghen's engraving." 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTIXG IN ITALY. 91 
 
 Ludovico Sforza, then the Regent, and soon after the 
 usurping Duke of Milan. 
 
 Vasari implies that he was onlj invited by the Duke on 
 account of his musical and social powers, and " because he 
 was one of the best improvisator! of his time," but the 
 letter happily is still extant in which he offers his services 
 to the Duke, and proves that he had quite other ideas than 
 of improvising verses and " amusing " his patron.^ 
 
 The equestrian statue of Francesco Sforza, the father of 
 
 ^ This remarkable letter begins by offering to make known to Ludo- 
 vico various engineering secrets that he thmks will be useful in war. 
 '• Having seen," he says, " and sufficiently considered the works of all 
 those who repute themselves to be masters and inventors of instruments 
 for war, and found that the form and operation of these works are in no 
 way different from those in common use, I permit myself without seek- 
 ing to detract from the merit of any other, to make known to your ex- 
 cellency the secrets I have discovered, at the same time offering with 
 fitting opportunity, and at your good pleasure, to perform all those 
 things which, for the present, I will but briefly note below. 
 
 " 1. I have a method of constructing very light and portable bridges 
 to be used in pursuing of, or retreat from, the enemy, with others of a 
 stronger sort, proof against fire or force, and easy to fix or remove. I 
 have also means for burning and destroying those of the enemy. 
 
 " 2. For the service of sieges I am prepared to remove the water from 
 the ditches, and to make an infinite variety of fascines, scaling ladders, 
 etc., with engines of other kinds proper to the purposes of a siege. 
 
 " 3. If the height of the defences or the strength of the position 
 should be such that the place cannot be effectually bombarded, I have 
 other means whereby any fortress may be destroyed, provided it be not 
 founded on stone. 
 
 " 4. I have also most convenient and portable bombs, proper for 
 throwing showers of small missiles, and with the smoke thei'eof causing 
 great terror to the enemy to his imminent loss and confusion. 
 
 " 5. By means of excavations made without noise, and forming tor- 
 tuous and narrow ways, I have means of reaching any given . . (point?), 
 even though it be necessary to pass beneath ditches or under a river. 
 
 " 6. I can also construct covered waggons, secure and indestructible, 
 which, entering among the enemy, will break the strongest bodies of 
 )nen ; and behind these the infautry can follow in safety and without 
 imi^diment. 
 
 " 7. I can, if needful, also make bombs, mortars, and field-pieces of 
 beautiful and useful shape, entirely different from those in common use. 
 
 '• 8. Where the use of bombs is not practicable, lean make cross-bows, 
 mangonels, and balist£e, and other machines of extraordinary efficiency, 
 and quite out of the common way. lu fine, as the circumstances of the 
 case demand, I can prepare engines of offence for all purposes. 
 
 " 9. In case of the conflict having to be maintained at sea, I have 
 methods for making numerous instruments offensive and defensive, with 
 
'92 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 Ludovico, wliicli in the letter given below Leonardo pro- 
 fesses his willingness to undertake, was actually modelled 
 by him in the most perfect manner, but owing either to its 
 ^colossal size, which necessitated a vast amount of metal,^ or 
 some other cause, it was never cast in bronze, and the clay 
 model, which had excited the utmost enthusiasm, was 
 wantonly destroyed by the French when they took Milan 
 in 1499. Only the anatomical studies which Leonardo 
 made for this great work are now in existence. 
 
 One of his celebrated female portraits, that in the Louvre, 
 known by the title of La belle Ferroniere, was likewise 
 executed during his residence at Milan. It is supposed to 
 represent Lucrezia Crivelli, a mistress of Ludovico Sforza.'^ 
 
 The other famous portrait of the Louvre is the enchant- 
 ing Mona Lisa, the wife of his Florentine friend Francesco 
 del Giocondo. "Who that has seen Mona Lisa smile," 
 says an enthusiastic critic, " can ever forget her ? " " It 
 fascinates and absorbs me," says another.^ " I go to it, 
 in spite of myself, as the bird is drawn to the serpent." 
 
 vessels that shall resist the force of the most powerful bombs. I can also 
 make powders or vapours for the offence of the enemy. 
 
 " 10. In time of peace I believe that I could equal any other ; as re- 
 gards works in architecture, I can prepare designs for buildings whether 
 public or private, and also conduct water from one place to another. 
 
 "Furthermore, I can execute works in sculpture, marble, bronze, or 
 terra cotta. In painting I can do what may be done as well as any 
 other, be he who he may. 
 
 " I can likewise undertake the execution of the bronze horse, which is 
 a monument that will be to the perpetual glory and immortal honour of 
 my lord your father of happy memory, and of the illustrious house of 
 Sforza. 
 
 " And if any of the above-named things shall seem to any man im- 
 possible and impracticable, I am perfectly ready to make trial of them 
 in your excellency's park, or in whatever other place you shall be 
 pleased to command. Commending myself to your service with all 
 possible humility." 
 
 ^ Computed at 100,000 lbs. weight. 
 
 ^ This is by no means proved, and Crowe and Cavalcaselle have re- 
 cently brought forward evidence to show that Leonardo did not return 
 •direct to Florence from Milan, but passed some time in other cities, and 
 ithat whilst in Venice in 1500 he delivered a portrait of Isabelle d'Este, 
 Duchess of Mantua, to the agents of the Gonzagas. Is this La belle 
 Ferroniere ? See " Academy," " Two lost years in the life of Leonardo 
 -da Vinci," vol. i., page 123. 
 
 ^ Michelet, "La Renaissance." 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 9^' 
 
 Excelling thus in depicting the charm of female beauty, 
 it is natural that he should have painted the most exquisite 
 Madonna pictures. Unfortunately, there are not many of 
 these in existence. That known as La Vierge au Bas-relief 
 is a lovely conception that has been often repeated, but 
 the original is usually thought to be in England, in the 
 possession of the Earl of Warwick.^ 
 
 La Vierge aux Rochers also, where the Virgin and Child, 
 the little S. John and an angel, are seated in a rocky cleft 
 by the seashore, is to be found both in the Louvre and in 
 the gallery of the Earl of Suffolk,^ but although both claim 
 to be original, it is very doubtful whether either of them is- 
 really by his hand. 
 
 The truth is that Leonardo conceived much more than 
 he executed. His fertile mind was perpetually throwing 
 out great ideas, but owing to the perfection he aimed at he 
 worked but slowly,^ and he often, in the excitement of new 
 creations of his genius, allowed the old to remain unfinished, 
 or to be finished by his pupils. It is partly owing, no 
 doubt, to this prodigality of his mind that the works of his 
 pupils and followers approach so closely to those of the 
 master. It is not merely his manner which his disciples 
 caught, as is the case in most schools, but it is his spirit 
 that animates their works. 
 
 In 1499, after Milan had submitted to the French, and 
 his patron Ludovico Sforza, defeated in battle, had been, 
 taken prisoner by the enemy, Leonardo [spent some sixteen 
 years in working for different princes in various parts of 
 Italy, settling in Florence from 1503 to 1506]. 
 
 The first work that he executed after his return to 
 Florence was the chalk drawing of the Holy Family, called 
 the Cartoon of S. Anna,* which was publicly exhibited in 
 Florence after it was finished. Old and young, men and 
 women, flocked to see it. 
 
 [^ Now in possession of Lord Monson, and ascribed by some critics to 
 Cesare da Sesto. It was exhibited at the Koyal Academy (Old Masters) 
 in 1885.] 
 
 ^ [Now in the National Gallery. There is a large early copy in the 
 Naples Gallery.] 
 
 ■' He took four years, it is said, to paint the !Mona Lisa. 
 
 * This, as Avell as Marco d'Oggione's invaluable copy of the Last 
 Slipper, is now in the safe keeping of the Koyal Academy, and is in a. 
 
•94 niSTOEY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 After this, and when his fame was at its height, he was 
 ■chosen by the Council of Florence to prepare a cartoon for 
 the decoration of one of the walls of the Palazzo Vecchio,^ 
 the other wall being assigned to Michael Angelo. With 
 this commission began the rivalry of these two great artists. 
 Leonardo chose for his subject the victory of the Floren- 
 tines over Nicolo Picinnino in 1440, whilst Michael Angelo 
 chose an incident from the Pisan campaigns, and repre- 
 sented some Florentine soldiers surprised by the enemy 
 whilst bathing. Both cartoons have now perished, but the 
 memory of Leonardo's is preserved in a powerful group, 
 that Rubens copied from it, of four horsemen fighting for 
 a standard, whilst a small copy exists to show the strength 
 of Michael Angelo's conception. 
 
 Two more opposite natures than those of Leonardo and 
 Michael Angelo could perhaps scarcely be found. The rich, 
 generous, handsome Leonardo, with his trains of servants 
 a,nd studs of horses, living in the most extravagant manner, 
 and attracting everyone, rich and poor, by the spell of his 
 manners and conversation ; and the proud, repellant, 
 bitter-tongued Michael Angelo, whose real heart lay too 
 deep for men to discover, and whose solitary soul found 
 expression only in his works and not in his words. 
 
 G-reat was the excitement and interest in art-lovmg 
 Florence, when the rival cartoons of these two men were 
 ■exposed to view, and every artist ranked himself with one 
 or the other master. Raphael appeared in Florence about 
 this time, drawn there perhaps by the news of this very 
 contest, and the influence of Leonardo was soon perceptible 
 in his art. 
 
 [Leonardo returned to Milan in 1506, where he entered 
 the service of Louis XII. He paid visits to Florence from 
 time to time, and in 1514, at the invitation of Leo X., he ac- 
 companied Griuliano de' Medici to Rome.] He was kindly 
 received by Leo, and commissions were given to him, but 
 from some cause he did not stay long. Either he was 
 offended by a remark of the Pope, who, on hearing that he 
 
 remarkably good state of preservation. [The cartoon was for an altar- 
 piece commissioned by the Servite brethren. Leonardo afterwards ceded 
 "this commission to Filippino Lippi.] 
 [^ This cartoon was finished in 1505.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 95 
 
 Tvas distilling oils for the varnishing of a picture before he 
 had begun to paint it, is reported to have said, " Alas the 
 while ! this man will assuredly do nothing at all, since he 
 IS thinking of the end before he has made a beginning," or 
 else he who had been first in Milan, found it difficult to 
 share his honours with Michael Angelo and Raphael, who 
 already held the field in Rome. 
 
 However this may be, he left Rome and joined the bril- 
 liant French king, Francis I., at Pavia, and [in 1516] re- 
 turned with him to France. Honours and commissions 
 were showered upon him by Francis I., but his health and 
 spirits seemed to fail from the moment he entered France. 
 After five years of languor and exhaustion, during which 
 he was unable to accomplish any of the great works he had 
 undertaken, he died on May 2, 1519, breathing his last, 
 not in the arms of the French king, as Vasari and tradition 
 relate, but probably as a reconciled child in the arms of 
 Mother Church, from whom in life he appears to have 
 strayed away. 
 
 Leonardo's pupils and followers have a rare excellence, 
 which must in part be attributed to the master. There is 
 no man amongst them of distinct original thought, but the 
 purity and beauty of the language that they learnt in 
 Leonardo's school enables them to express their ideas with 
 a poetical grace that is very charming, even though the 
 ideas themselves seldom rise to greatness. 
 
 [Of his pupils Andrea SALA,or Salaino (died after 1519), 
 and Francesco Melzi (1493-1568) httle is known ex- 
 cept that they were friends as well as scholars of Leonardo. 
 Melzi went with Leonardo to France, and inherited his 
 drawings, MSS., &c. Salaino is mentioned in his will. 
 Marco d'Oggione (1470-1549) and Giovanni Antonio 
 Beltraffio (1467-1516) are better known by their 
 works. Marco painted the fine copy of Leonardo's Last 
 Supper which belongs to the Royal Academy, and there 
 are several paintings by him in the Brera at Milan. Bel- 
 traffio was a more original master, and first studied under 
 Foppa and Civerchio. He afterwards lived and worked 
 with Leonardo. He was of noble family, and his pictures 
 are remarkable for their careful modelling, their refine- 
 ment, and sweet, but unaffected expression. There is a 
 
96 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 beautiful Madonna and Child by this artist in the National 
 Gallery, a portrait at Chatsworth, and other fine examples 
 of his art at Berhn, Pesth, Milan, &c. Cesare da Sesto 
 (born between 1475 and 1480, died 1524,) was another ac- 
 complished painter of tender sentiment peculiar to himself, 
 who felt Leonardo's influence strongly, but he was after- 
 wards influenced by Raphael. Most of his known pictures 
 are at Milan, but there are examples of his art at St. 
 Petersburg, Vienna, and Naples.] 
 
 [Bernardino Luini, or di Ltjvino (bom between 1475 
 and 1480, died after 1533), Andrea Solario (born about 
 1460, died 1530), Gtatjdenzio Ferrari (bom about 1481, 
 died about 1545), though belonging to the late Milanese 
 school as influenced by Leonardo, were not his pupils. The 
 reputation of Luini has suffered much from the similarity of 
 his works to those of Leonardo ; even now many of his pic- 
 tures pass for the works of Da Vinci, and his individuality is 
 still under-estimated. It was not till 1500, when he was 
 already a master in his art, that he came to Milan, and 
 Leonardo had at that time left the city, not to return to it 
 till 1506. He no doubt felt strongly the effect of Leo- 
 nardo's work which he saw, and the principles of his 
 teaching which were active at Milan, for Leonardo had 
 been Director of the Academy at Milan since 1485, and 
 many of his treatises appear to have been written for the 
 instruction of his pupils there. He also executed a copy 
 of The Last Supper (now lost) for Francis I. But of 
 Leonardo's personal guidance he must have known little 
 or nothing. It is from 1510 to 1520 that the influence of 
 Leonardo is paramount in his works, but there was a 
 period before unaffected by it, a period after in which his 
 individuality emancipated itself. To the last period 
 belong his finest works, like the fresco of the enthroned 
 Madonna in the Brera, the frescoes in the church at 
 Saronno, and S. Maria degli Angeli at Lugano. To the 
 Leonardesque period belongs the Christ disputing with 
 the Doctors in the National Gallery, which was long 
 attributed to Leonardo. In colour bright and beautiful,, 
 he was always original, and if he did not possess the 
 subtlety and profundity of Leonardo, in the purity of reli- 
 gious sentiment and the perception of a tender loveliness 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 97 
 
 he was scarcely surpassed by any master. Of his early 
 ■works, perhaps the most famous is the fresco of the Body 
 of S. Catherine borne by Angels, now in the Brera, but 
 once with many others on the walls of the Casa la Pelluca, 
 near Monza ; the finest of the last period, the Crucifixion in 
 the church at Lugano. It is only at Milan and in its 
 neighbourhood that the artist can be fully studied. The 
 Brera contains a number of his frescoes, and three easel 
 pictures, including a lovely Madonna with the Eoses ; 
 in the Poldi-Pezzoli collection are the beautiful Tobit and 
 the Angel, and Marriage of S. Catherine, and in the 
 Ambrosiana a fresco of the Flagellation. 
 
 Gatjdenzio Ferrari was a Piedmontese by birth, who 
 is said to have studied under Griovenone, Luini, Leonardo, 
 Perugino, and Eaphael, but it is probable that he received 
 the influence of Leonardo through Luini, and of Eaphael 
 through engravings. His best works are marked by a pure 
 and elevated religious sentiment, brilliant, but gaudy 
 colouring. According to Woermann "he ranks high 
 among the second-rate painters of his time ; he is inven- 
 tive, energetic, dramatic ; what he lacks is balance of 
 mind, and when he most strives after ideal and simple 
 treatment, he too often sinks into bathos, or verges on 
 extravagance." There are fine frescoes by him at Varello, 
 Vercelli, Saronno, and Milan. At Turin are some small 
 early easel pictures, and some grand cartoons at the 
 Brera, besides frescoes a late Martyrdom of S. Catherine. 
 Of his beautiful altar-pieces at Arona, Novara, and 
 Canobbio, the last is considered the finest. One of his 
 pupils was Bernardino Lanini, by whom there is a very 
 beautiful Holy Family in the National O-allery (No. 700). 
 
 Andrea Solario was born probably at Milan about 1460, 
 and died after 1515. He was strongly influenced by Leo- 
 nardo, and it is the opinion of Signor Morelli that no 
 Lombard painter comes so near Leonardo as he. The 
 same writer thinks the influence of Bramantino may be 
 seen in an early Madonna in the Brera, and that probably 
 the superb modelling of his heads is due to the schooling 
 of his brother Christopher, a sculptor. He went to Venice 
 in 1490 and perhaps afterwards, and the influence of 
 Giovanni Bellini and Antonella da Messina is evident in 
 
98 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV, 
 
 the fine Portrait of a Yenetian Senator (No. 923) in the 
 National G-allerj. To the period after his return to Milan 
 belongs the other fine example of Solario in the same col- 
 lection — the portrait of his friend Gio. Christophoro 
 Longono (No. 734), which is dated 1505. He was afterwards 
 employed to decorate a chapel at the castle at Gaillon, 
 now destroyed. In the Louvre are several of his works, in- 
 cluding the famous Yierge au coussin vert. In the Poldi- 
 Pezzoli collection at Milan are a wonderfully modelled 
 Head of Christ, and a Eiposo, dated 1515, his latest 
 signed picture. There is an altar-piece in the Brera, and 
 another at the Certoza at Pavia, which he left unfinished. 
 Leonardo's influence extended also to Siena. The cele- 
 brated painter of the Sienese school, Giovanni Antonio 
 Bazzi, called Sodoma (1477-1549), was bom at Yercelli, 
 and studied under Leonardo. He worked at Siena from 
 1501 to 1507, when he went with Agostino Chigi to 
 Eome, where Julius II. commissioned him to paint the 
 Stanza della Segnatura. His frescoes, with the exception 
 of the ceiling, were destroyed to make room for those of 
 Eaphael, who painted his portrait close to his own in the 
 School of Athens. In 1510 he was again at Siena, and 
 to this time belongs the fine but ruined Flagellation, 
 painted for S. Francesco, and now in the gallery of Siena. 
 He afterwards returned to Eome, and painted the beauti- 
 ful Marriage of Alexander and Eoxana, and other fres- 
 coes in the Chigi bedroom in the Farnesina. He was 
 knighted by the Pope for a picture of Lucretia, now lost. 
 After 1515 he worked principally in Siena, though between 
 1518 and 1525 he appears to have visited many other 
 places. In 1525 he executed the decorations in the chapel 
 of S. Catherine, in the church of S. Domenico at Siena, 
 perhaps his finest works, in which he shows himself 
 thoroughly imbued with the classical sj^irit of the Eenais- 
 sance and a master of expression. Another work, in 
 which saintlike ecstasy of feeling and beauty of form are 
 combined in an exceptional degree, is the banner now in 
 the Uffizi, painted on one side with the Yirgin and Saints, 
 and on the other with S. Sebastian. The latter is rightly 
 considered by Woermann as one of the finest figures in 
 the whole range of Christian art. It is impossible here to 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 99 
 
 enumerate more of the very numerous works of this prolific 
 master, whose rank is on a level only lower than the highest. 
 They are chiefly at Siena. The National G-aUery possesses 
 one genuine but unimportant example of Bazzi (No. 1144). 
 His principal pupils were G-iacomo Pacchiarotti (1474- 
 1540) and Gtirolamo della Pacchia (b. 1477). By the 
 latter there is a Madonna in the National Gallery (No. 246). 
 Under his influence, as well as that of Pinturicchio and 
 Eaphael, came also Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1537), 
 an architect, decorator, and painter second to few of his 
 time. His work is chiefly to be studied at Rome, and at 
 and near Siena. There is a fine drawing of the Adoration 
 of the Kings by him in the National G-allery (No. 167).^ 
 Domenico di Jacopo di Pace, called Beccafumi and Meca- 
 rhio (b. about 1486, d. 1551), was also a pupil of Sodoma. 
 He also studied under Eaphael and Michael Angelo. He 
 was an able but conventional artist, and a skilful deco- 
 rator. The designs from sacred history inlaid in the 
 marble pavement of the cathedral, some frescoes in S. Ber- 
 nardino, and a ceiling in the Palazzo PubbHco, at Siena, 
 are his principal works.] 
 
 Lorenzo di Credi (1459-1537), a Florentine artist and 
 the fellow-pupil of Leonardo and Perugino, in the school 
 of Yerrocchio, owed much to the former. The best 
 example of his work is in the Louvre. The two Madonna 
 pictures in the National Gallery, Nos. 593 and 648, are 
 strained in expression, because he seems in them to be 
 striving after ease and grace, but has not quite got rid of 
 the old religious formality. 
 
 Lorenzo di Credi was one of the band of artists in 
 Florence who were moved by the words of Savonarola, 
 who was at that time thundering forth his eloquence 
 against Florence. But foremost among the painters who 
 went to hear the Florentine Jeremiah, was a young man 
 called by his Tuscan associates Baccio della Porta, 
 because he lived with his mother near one of the gates of 
 the city,'' but who is better known to posterity by the title 
 
 \} The painting from this drawing, also in the National Gallery, No. 
 218, is not by Peruzzi. The three kings are portraits of Titian, Raphael, 
 and Michael Angelo.] 
 
 ^ His family name was Bartolommeo di Pagholo del Fattorino. 
 
100 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 of Era Bartolommeo (1475-1517). The mind of Bar- 
 tolommeo, in the impressionable season of youthful aspi- 
 ration, was completely subjected to the influence of 
 Savonarola, and when, in the Lent of 1495, the words of 
 the preacher excited the Piagnoni, as his followers were 
 called, to fanatic extremes, he, as well as other young 
 artists, threw all the drawings and studies he had made 
 from the antique upon one of those " pyramids of vani- 
 ties " which were lighted by the excited Piagnoni, and 
 which, unfortunately, burned up many things besides, 
 rouge-pots, false hair, playing-cards, and other even less 
 reputable " anathema." 
 
 Bartolommeo, however, though thus renouncing profane 
 studies, still pursued his art ; but happening to be in the 
 convent of San Marco when it was besieged by the mob, 
 and Savonarola dragged forth, his mind was so completely 
 unhinged by the fearful scenes that then occurred, and by 
 the subsequent martyrdom of Savonarola, that after that 
 event he took the vows of a monk and entered the Do- 
 minican order, entirely abandoning painting, and leaving 
 his friend Albertinelli [who had been his comrade in the 
 workshop of Cosimo Eoselli] to finish all the works he had 
 in hand. 
 
 Mariotto Albertinelli (1474-1515), although the 
 intimate friend and assistant of Fra Bartolommeo, was a 
 manof a totally different stamp of mind. In politics, as in. 
 everything else, these two artists took opposite sides, 
 Albertinelli being an adherent of the Medici and a scoffer 
 at Savonarola and his mission. Nevertheless, in spite of this 
 contrast in their characters and opinions, he and Fra Bar- 
 tolommeo seem to have been much attached, and when, 
 after spending four years in religious melancholy in the 
 convent he had entered, Bartolommeo again began to 
 paint, he summoned his old associate, Albertinelli, to 
 work with him in the monastery, and the layman and 
 the monk entered, as it were, into partnership,^ the monas- 
 tery dividing the profits with Albertinelli. [There is a 
 small picture in the National Gallery (No. 645) by Alberti- 
 nelli.] 
 
 ^ Ci'owe and Cavalcaselle, vol. iii. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING W ITALY. 101 
 
 Fra Bartolonimeo's principal Subjects are Madonnas, 
 generally surrounded by cherubs or boy angels of ex- 
 quisite beauty. In the pure loveliness of his Madonna 
 pictures, indeed, not even Eaphael or Leonardo excel him. 
 He evinces in them the tenderness of feeling and the 
 mystic devotion of his predecessor, Fra Angelico, and the 
 same spiritual beauty illumines the features of his Virgins ; 
 but Fra Bartolommeo is a far greater artist than the holy 
 Angelico. To beauty of soul he added the dignity of 
 human life, and his pictures are not mere expressions of 
 asceticism or religious ecstasy, but the calm and thoughtful 
 expressions of a sincere but not fanatic belief in the teach- 
 ings of Christianity. He is the only monk-painter (unless 
 we reckon Fra Filippo) who comprehended humanity in 
 its broader characteristics, and did not confine his sym- 
 pathies within the convent walls. His genius was, in 
 truth, too large for any such curtailment, and although in 
 the horror of his mind at the wickedness of the city that 
 had put its noblest teacher to death, he sought refuge from 
 the impending woe in a religious life, he was yet in heart 
 and soul an artist, and only, we are told, regained his 
 cheerfulness when he regained his brush. 
 
 Yet, in spite of this sympathy with the world outside 
 his pictures have the same holy purity and deep religious 
 sentiment as those of the TJmbrian school. He never 
 shocks by " un naturalisme gracieusement scandaleux," like 
 Fra Filippo, but gives to his naturalism a solemn religious 
 dignity. It is the sentiment of Umbria, in fact, expressed 
 by the developed art of Florence, and thus it is that we 
 find many points of similarity between the Madonnas of 
 Bartolommeo and those of Raphael. 
 
 Raphael, indeed, whose receptive mind received impres- 
 sions from every artist with whom he associated, gained 
 much from his intercourse with Fra Bartolommeo. On 
 his arrival in Florence in 1504, he entered into a cordial 
 friendship with Bartolommeo, and received from him 
 many valuable hints on the management of drapery, 
 learning also the secret of his pure and harmonious colour ; 
 for, like Perugino and Francia, Bartolommeo was a good 
 colourist.^ . . \r ^^^^^ 
 
 The great influence of Bartolommeo oyer Raplia^^ smkinjiy^^ 
 
 Of 
 
 -!*:«v^^- 
 
102 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV, 
 
 The good Frate, on the other hand, also learned much 
 from his youthful rival, who seems to have excited him to- 
 fresh efforts, and so have re-awakened in his mind the 
 desire for fame ; at all events, from this time his art, long 
 dormant, budded anew. 
 
 A visit to Rome proved likewise fertile of results, for 
 although whilst he was there he was so overpowered, we 
 are told, by the great works that Michael Angelo and 
 Eaphael had already achieved, that he returned to 
 Florence leaving Eaphael to finish two grand figures of 
 SS. Peter and Paul that he had designed with a majesty 
 that Eaphael alone could have equalled, yet on his return 
 to his native city he showed that this visit to the capital 
 had borne fruit in his mind, even though he had not been 
 able to accomplish any great work whilst there. For, over- 
 coming his Piagnoni prejudice against the nude, he now 
 executed a large undraped S. Sebastian (under the in- 
 fluence, no doubt, of Michael Angelo), which was so truth- 
 ful and beautiful that the poor monks found it necessary 
 to remove it from their church, fearing that it might give 
 rise " to the sin of light and evil thoughts." 
 
 But the greatest work that he accomplished at this time^ 
 indeed the master-work of his art, is the celebrated 
 Madonna della Misericordia, in the church of S. Eomano,. 
 at Lucca. ^ The Virgin in all the beauty of holiness, and 
 with the solemn dignity that Bartolommeo has always 
 given her, stands with her arms outstretched and her eyes 
 uplifted to her son, whom she beholds in glory. At her 
 feet kneel groups of suppHants who look to her, as she to 
 her son, beseeching her to shelter them from his wrath. 
 There are forty-four heads in all in this picture, and many 
 of them of wonderful grace and beauty. 
 
 The Madonna Enthroned, of the Louvre, was painted 
 for Bartolommeo' s own convent of S. Marco, but was^ 
 afterwards sent as a present to Francis I. We have un- 
 fortunately no example of Fra Bartolommeo in the National 
 Collection ; his pictures, indeed, are rare out of Italy, but in 
 
 evinced in the only work that he executed at this period in Florence — 
 the Baldachino Madonna — which might well be mistaken for a work o£" 
 Bartolommeo's. 
 
 [^ Now in the public gallery at Lucca.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 103 
 
 the collection of Lord Cowper, at Panshanger, there is a 
 lovely Holy Family, one of his most exquisite productions. 
 He worked principally in oils, and his colouring has a 
 purity and soft harmony almost equal to Leonardo. He 
 executed a few works, however, in fresco, of one of which, 
 the Last Judgment, in the Hospital of Santa Maria Novella, 
 at Florence, there are still faint relics : all the others have 
 perished. 
 
 We now come to the two most famous names in the 
 history of art. By some singular affinity the names of 
 Michael Angelo and Raphael always rise in our minds to- 
 gether when we think of Italian art, and yet, perhaps, two 
 artists more diverse in their tendencies can scarcely be 
 found. The two opposed schools that we have seen uniting 
 in Leonardo da Vinci, separated again in these two men. 
 In their works the full-blown flower of Christian art, and 
 the full-blown flower of pagan art, bloomed for a short 
 moment side by side before falling into decay. 
 
 All that the artists of progress from the time of 
 Masaccio had been aiming at, was attained by Michael 
 Angelo : — Masaccio, Ghirlandaio, Mantegna, Luca Signo- 
 relli, Michael Angelo, — the line is complete. It is pre- 
 sided over by the classic spirit of antiquity. It delights in 
 form, life, movement, as the expression of human power. 
 It seizes on the nude human body as the best means of 
 displaying its knowledge and skill. It studies perspective, 
 anatomy, geometry, and turns these sciences to use in bold 
 foreshortening, in correct disposition of muscles, and im- 
 posing architectural displays, but above all it glories in 
 its intellectual strength, and achieves feats of daring that 
 no other school ever attempted. 
 
 The other line begins with the Byzantine painters, and 
 continues through Fra Angelico, Francia, Perugino, Bar- 
 tolommeo, until it culminates in Raphael. It strives to 
 express not so much the triumph of man's intellect as the 
 subjugation of that intellect to his higher spiritual nature. 
 It exalts not reason but faith, and yearns after a spiritual 
 beauty of which it catches now and then an image, an 
 idea. It is by no means so daring as its worldly rival, it 
 seldom soars to the sublime, its conquests are over the 
 
104 HISTOEY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 heart and not over tlie intellect. The spirit of Christianity 
 dwells with it, and its loveliness is that of the soul and not 
 of the mere physical being of man. 
 
 Raphael, it is true, as his mind and art developed, 
 broke more and more away from the restraints that the 
 school to which at first he belonged imposed uj^on his art, 
 but even at the last, when deeply imbued with the 
 paganism of Eome, he never wholly forgot his early 
 training, and he therefore remains, above all others, the 
 beloved painter of Christianity. 
 
 Raphael Santi (1483-1520) was born on the 6th of 
 April, 1483, in the elegant city of Urbino, where the Santi 
 family had for some time been settled. His father, Gio- 
 vanni Santi, (d. 1494), was an XJmbrian painter of some 
 little reputation, and must likewise have been a' man of 
 cultivated taste, for a long poem of his still exists written 
 in terza rima, celebrating the deeds and virtues of his 
 patron, Federigo da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino, which, 
 although tedious to modem readers, is well-stored with the 
 learning of his time.^ 
 
 Of the young Raphael's early productions nothing is 
 known for certain, although much is imagined by his bio- 
 graphers. There seems no reason for doubting, however, 
 that, his father being an artist, he learnt to paint as soon 
 as he learnt anything. At nine years of age he accom- 
 panied his father to Cagli, and it is not improbable that he 
 assisted him in the execution of a fresco that still exists in 
 the church of S. Domenico.^ 
 
 A beautiful boy angel in this fresco is said by tradition 
 to be the portrait of the child Raphael, and Passavant con- 
 jectures likewise, that a Madonna and Child in Santi's 
 house at Urbino, are portraits of Rai3hael and his mother 
 Magia Ciarla, who died when he was but a child. In 1494, 
 his father died also, and Raphael, whose inclination to- 
 
 ' This poem, or rliyming chronicle, a class of production in great 
 favour in the middle ages, is principally interesting to us from the num- 
 ber of artists whom he mentions in it. It will be found quoted several 
 times in this volume. [There is a Madonna by Giovanni Santi in the 
 National Gallery (No. 751).— Ed.] 
 
 ^ " Giovanni Sanzio and his fresco at Cagli," by A. Layard. Printed 
 for the Arundel Society. 
 
BOOK IV,] PAIXTING IN ITALY. 105 
 
 wards art was now decided, was placed by his uncles, when 
 he was twelve years of age, in the school of Perngino, the 
 most celebrated painter in Umbria/ Here the quick genius 
 of the boy soon caught the style of the master, and before 
 long even excelled him in that dreamy poetic sentiment 
 which is the chief charm of Perugino's art. He was thus, as 
 it were, steeped in Umbrian sentiment from the beginning. 
 
 Eaphael's early works, indeed, resemble so closely those 
 of Perugino, that it is difficult to distinguish them, espe- 
 cially as we know that the master was wont to employ the 
 pupil on works for which he had received the commission ; 
 still, as before said, it seems more likely that Raphael imi- 
 tated Perugino, than that Perugino in the height of his 
 fame adopted the style of his rising pupil, as some have 
 supposed. Raphael had at all times a curious talent for 
 imitation ; curious, that is, considering the undoubted origi- 
 nality of his mind. He could never come within the sphere 
 of any great artist or great work of art without the in- 
 fluence being at once perceptible in his works. It was not 
 perhaps so much that he imitated, as that he assimilated 
 the style of any artist whom he admired, and carried it to 
 perfection ; and thus it was with Perugino — the most per- 
 fect expression of his art is by Raphael. 
 
 It is said that the first independent commission Raphael 
 received was for one of the great religious banners to be 
 carried in procession.^ This banner is still preserved at 
 Citta da Castello, as well as some others of his early paint- 
 ings in Perugia, but his most celebrated work of this period, 
 the Sposalizio, or Marriage of the Virgin, so well known by 
 means of Longhi's fine engraving, is now at Milan. It is 
 one of the noblest pictures of the Umbrian school. A 
 Crucifixion, in Lord Dudley's collection in London, entirely 
 resembling Perugino, a Coronation of the Virgin, in the 
 Vatican, and several Madonna pictures of deep sentiment, 
 also belong to this early epoch. 
 
 [^ It is now supposed that Raphael studied under Timoteo Viti at 
 Urbino before he entered Perugino's school, and the date when he be- 
 came a scholar of Perugino is disputed. (See Morelli's *' Italian Mas- 
 ters," Woltmann and Woermann's " History of Painting," &c.)] 
 
 " Rio, " De I'Art Chretien," Ecole Ombrienne. Speciality de la 
 banniere. [This is now disputed.] 
 
106 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [BOOK IV. 
 
 In the autumn of 1504, when he was twentj-one years 
 of age, Raphael, a youth already " known to fame," quitted 
 the school of Perugino, whose teachings he had exhausted, 
 and repaired to Florence ; attracted there, no doubt, by the 
 report of the mighty works that Leonardo and Michael 
 Angelo were executing in that city. " When," says Yasari, 
 " he first saw Leonardo's works, he stood before them per- 
 fectly amazed and astonished. They pleased him at once 
 better than all he had seen before, and he felt therefore 
 impelled to a deeper study of them." The effects of this 
 study were soon visible. 
 
 Raphael's life and art divides itself naturally into three 
 distinct epochs and styles. The Umhrian, already noticed, 
 when he was under the influence of Perugino ; the Floren- 
 tine, upon which he now entered, and to the forming of 
 which, not only Leonardo, but likewise Era Bartolommeo, 
 greatly contributed ; and the Roman, when he had felt the 
 power and had studied the works of his great rival, Michael 
 Angelo. 
 
 But although we talk of Raphael's early, late, and middle 
 manner, we must be careful not to draw any harsh lines of 
 demarcation between them. He did not suddenly, as some 
 writers would lead us to suppose, change his whole mode 
 of thought and style of painting, and never revert to the 
 old style that he had dropped ; on the contrary, in some of 
 his late Roman works we find the purest TJmbriaD senti- 
 ment expressed with all the power of his developed lan- 
 guage, and the beauty of the works of the Florentine period 
 lies chiefly in this, that whilst adopting the cheerful grace 
 of Leonardo, and the freedom of drawing of the Pagan 
 school, he nevertheless retained the purity and tender de- 
 votional feeling of the Umbrian school, in which he had 
 first been educated. 
 
 His Umbrian education, in fact, was of the utmost impor- 
 tance to him as a Christian painter, but he had now gained 
 from it all it could give, and on beholding the more vigorous 
 art of Florence, he at once felt that here alone could his 
 genius have free and full development. He did not, however, 
 stay long at Florence at this time, being obliged, in the 
 spring of 1505, to return to Perugia, where he had under- 
 taken several important commissions, but the effect that 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 107 
 
 the study of the great masters of Florence had produced 
 on his mind was immediately apparent in his art. In his 
 beautiful Madonna del Granduca, now in the Palazzo Pitti 
 at Florence, the only work of importance that he executed 
 during his short visit, he so completely assimilated the 
 style of Leonardo, that the picture might almost be taken 
 for one by that master, were it not for the peculiar 
 Raphaelesque spirit that looks forth from the eyes of the 
 Madonna. It is a simple work, only a three-quarter stand- 
 ing figure of the Virgin with the Child held on her arm, 
 but it has the charm of a deeply felt and thoughtful poem, 
 for in this, as well as in his subsequent and more famous 
 Madonnas, there is the expression of intellect as well as of 
 holiness. This intellectual power he put forth first at this 
 time. In all Perugino's Madonnas we have tender, simple- 
 minded, pure-hearted women, but although they have 
 loving souls, they have no powers of mind ; they might be 
 capable of ecstatic devotion, but not of logical reasoning ; 
 but from this time Eaphael's Madonnas think as well as 
 feeh TJmbrian faith is united in them with Florentine 
 reason, and thus they have a far wider and nobler life than 
 the merely spiritual beings of Fra Angelico's and Peru- 
 gino's imagination. 
 
 On his return to Perugia, Eaphael executed his first 
 fresco, a painting of the Holy Trinity, in the church of San 
 Severo. This work, it is said, is strongly reminiscent of 
 Fra Bartolommeo's fresco in Santa Maria Novella ; but 
 Raphael afterwards carried out the same composition in 
 the fulness of his power in his celebrated Disputa del Sac- 
 ramento, and thus made it his own for ever. Several 
 altar-pieces were likewise executed at this time, among 
 which may be mentioned the Madonna and Child with the 
 Baptist and S. Nicholas di Bari, now known as the Blen- 
 heim Madonna, from its being in the possession of the 
 Duke of Marlborough, at Blenheim House.^ 
 
 But it is evident that Raphael, having once become ac- 
 quainted with the achievements of Florence, was anxious 
 to return to that stirring and art-loving capital, and accor- 
 dingly, neglecting a commission he had received from 
 
 [* The " Ansidei Madonna," now in the National Gallery.] 
 
108 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 tlie nuns of Monte Luce, who desired an altar-piece by 
 "the best painter," we find him at the close of 1506 
 again in Florence, after having made, probably, a short 
 visit to Bologna, where he gained the friendship of 
 Francia.^ 
 
 His stay in Florence, however, was again not destined to 
 be long, although he seems to have gone there with the in- 
 tention of settling, and the development of his art under 
 Florentine influences was steadily progressing. Some of 
 his most lovely and famous Madonnas were executed at 
 this period, and evince the fullest comprehension of the 
 aims of the Florentine school. 
 
 The Madonna del Cardellino (with the goldfinch), in 
 the Ufiizi at Florence, the Madonna with the Palm-tree, in 
 the Bridgwater Gallery, the Madonna in the Meadow, at 
 Vienna, the Madonna of the Tempi family, at Munich, the 
 Holy Family of the House of Canigiani, also at Munich, 
 the Madonna with the Pink, and the famous Belle Jar- 
 diniere, of the Louvre, as well as several others less known, 
 are all considered to have been painted at Florence before 
 he had attained the age of five-and-twenty. 
 
 The noble S. Catherine, of the National Gallery,^ be- 
 longs also to this Florentine time. It is curious to note in 
 this figure how the mysticism and sentiment of the Um- 
 brian school is subordinate to the more intellectual ideal 
 that Raphael is now reaching after. The saint is no mere 
 ecstatic devotee, but a noble intellectual woman, raised 
 above the commonplace by the holy enthusiasm that carries 
 her thoughts beyond the earth, as she feels the ray of 
 heavenly light descending upon her. 
 
 But the work above all others that most strikingly re- 
 veals his study and comprehension of the progressive 
 Florentine masters is the Entombment, of the Palazzo 
 Borghese at Eome. Here his dramatic powers, afterwards 
 so strongly called forth in the cartoons, and in the paint- 
 ings of the Vatican, are first displayed. The vehemence 
 of action in the figures who bear the body of Christ to the 
 tomb, as contrasted with the lifeless body they carry, is 
 £nely expressed, and the design is more studied than any 
 
 ^ Passavant, " Rafael von Urbino." 
 
 * Formerly in the Aldobrandini Gallery at Rome. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 109^' 
 
 he had as yet accomplished ; yet, somehow, we miss in this- 
 work the true Kaphael charm. At the most, it can only 
 be considered a feeble imitation of Michael Angelo, whose- 
 cartoon of Pisa was being exhibited in Florence at the time 
 he prepared the cartoon for it.* 
 
 It was not Florence, however, that was destined to be- 
 the theatre of Raphael's greatest triumphs. About the 
 middle of 1508, after he had spent about a year and a half 
 at Florence, during which time he had achieved a sur- 
 prising amount of work, he was called to Eome by that 
 extraordinary old pope, Julius 11., who, although he had 
 Bramante and Michael Angelo already in his service, could 
 not rest content without securing also the rising genius of 
 Raphael to decorate his magnificent palace of the Vatican, 
 which Bramante had now reconstructed with unsurpassed 
 skill, and in an incredibly short space of time. Buildings 
 and other works of art rose, indeed, as if by magic in the 
 Rome of Julius II., for such was this pope's impatience to 
 see the great works that he had planned completed before 
 his death, that he left those he employed no peace until 
 they executed his commissions. 
 
 Papal Rome, at the time when Raphael entered it at the- 
 age of five and twenty, was at the height of its temporal 
 power, but the spirit of Christianity had long been chased 
 from its splendid palaces, and instead, the spirit of 
 paganism reigned suj^reme in the art of its artists as well 
 as in the lives of its popes. 
 
 The glorification of the power of Rome, both in its tem- 
 poral and spiritual extension, was probably the idea of 
 Raphael in those world-famous frescoes in the Vatican 
 that he was now called upon to execute. Never did 
 youthful genius receive such a stimulus before, and never 
 did it rise more adequate to the task. Three chambers in 
 a large saloon, now known by the name of the Stanze of 
 
 ' The studies that still exist for this work prove that it was the con- 
 scious intention of Kaphael to emulate the great artists then at work in 
 Florence in their own style of art. " Nine drawings," says Eastlake, 
 " of different arrangements for the subject, or particular portions, are in 
 the Lawrence Collection. Another, still differently composed, is in the 
 possession of Mr. Rogers, and seven or eight more exist in various col- 
 lections on the Continent." 
 
110 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOZ IV. 
 
 Raphael, were covered by him, ceilings and walls, with 
 paintings. 
 
 In the first chamber — Camera della Segnatura — is sym- 
 bolized the power of Intellect. Theology, Poetry, Philo- 
 sophy, and Jurisprudence, the highest pursuits of the culti- 
 vated mind, are represented by noble allegorical figures on 
 the ceiling. Beneath Theology, on the walls of the cham- 
 ber, is the great exj)ression of the power of the Church of 
 Rome, known as La Disputa. The upper part of this fresco 
 represents the Church Triumphant, with Christ in glory. 
 Rays of light glorifying angelic forms, beam down on the 
 Son, the Virgin, and S. John. The Dove of the Spirit flies 
 beneath, shedding rays downwards on the altar in the lower 
 portion. Above, in the midst of the glory, is the grand 
 figure of the Father, represented according to the tradition 
 of earlier painters. The lower half of this subject shows 
 the fathers, bishops, and doctors of the Church grouped 
 on either side of an altar bearing the Host, or mystical 
 embodiment of Christ on earth. The liveliest action is 
 displayed by these figures, who seem to be arguing (hence 
 the name, La Disputa,) about some of the doctrines of the 
 Church. 
 
 But it is in vain to attempt to describe the varied 
 character of this remarkable composition. " Here," says 
 Liibke, "with incomparable power and depth of charac- 
 terization, we find lively action, enthusiastic belief, and pro- 
 found investigation, fervent devotion, dispute, and doubt. 
 The picture stands at the head of all religious symbolic 
 painting, and yet at the same time is full of true life and 
 enchanting beauty. The execution exhibits careful finish, 
 even in the smallest details ; the colouring is charming, 
 clear, and fresh." There has been much controversy con- 
 cerning the meaning of this work, and different interpreta- 
 tions have been given of it ; ^ but there seems little doubt 
 that Christian theology, as ojjposed to pagan philosophy, 
 was in his mind when he executed La Disputa and the 
 School of Athens, which occupies the opposite wall. The 
 Disputa, however, need not be limited to any particular 
 
 ^ Grimm, whose criticisms are remarkable for their philosophic insight, 
 agrees with Vasari regarding the general meaning both of La Disputa 
 and the School of Athens. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. Ill 
 
 •allegory, but may be taken, as Mrs. Jameson remarks, to 
 represent " the whole system of Eevelation, like a grand 
 j)oem combining heaven and earth." 
 
 The School of Athens, as the well-known fresco is called 
 that was placed by Raphael beneath the symbolical figure 
 of Philosophy, is a no less marvellous production, embody- 
 ing, as it does, the whole spirit of classical antiquity. 
 
 The Church of Rome, after having tried hard to shut out 
 the knowledge of the Aristotelian philosophy, had ended by 
 taking the Greek philosopher into her service, and it was, 
 in the sixteenth century, as dangerous to deny the induc- 
 tions of Aristotle as the authority of the Church. The 
 Platonian philosophy had also found enthusiastic admirers, 
 not only at the court of the Medici at Florence, but like- 
 wise at Rome ; but, in spite of the endeavours of Marsilius 
 Ficinus and the Platonic Academy, in which Lorenzo de' 
 Medici took such interest, it never took so strong a hold as 
 the Aristotelian on the mind of Europe in the middle ages. 
 Aristotle, in fact, after having been long looked upon with 
 suspicion, had become the orthodox teacher of scientific 
 truths, and, therefore, it was quite in harmony with the 
 spirit of Rome, at that time, that Raphael placed the two 
 greatest teachers of the ancient world, surrounded by the 
 other philosophers of antiquity, in juxtaposition to the 
 great teachers of the Christian world, who, as intimated 
 by the heavenly vision above, had truths made known to 
 them by revelation, that the science of Greece and Rome 
 had been imable to reach. 
 
 The third fresco. Poetry, represents Apollo with the 
 Muses, on the heights of Parnassus, with the poets of the 
 ancient and modern world ranged on either side. 
 
 The fourth. Law or Jurisprudence, painted, like the 
 Poetry, above and on each side of a window, represents 
 Gregory XI. dispensing ecclesiastical justice, whilst at the 
 other side Justinian delivers his famous pandects to Tri- 
 bonianus. Above are the symbolical figures of Prudence, 
 Fortitude, and Temperance. This is the least important 
 of these subjects, and the personification of the virtues is 
 much the same as we have seen in early art. 
 
 Li the next stanza — Stanza of Heliodorus — the frescoes 
 are more directly historical in character, but they have all 
 
112 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV, 
 
 reference to the power of the Church and the overthrow of 
 her enemies, both by her temporal and spiritual power. 
 Thus Julius II. is introduced into the expulsion of Helio- 
 dorus from the Temple, the underlying meaning of which 
 work probably was the triumph that the warlike old pope 
 Julius and the papal party had gained over the enemies of 
 the Papacy, both at home and abroad, and the fate that 
 would surely overtake those who endeavoured to place 
 some boundaries to stop the ever-growing pretensions of 
 the Roman See. 
 
 The Mass of Bolsena, at which Julius is likewise present, 
 although the reputed miracle occurred some centuries be- 
 fore his time, is in like manner aimed at the unbelievers of 
 the sixteenth century, who were already troubling the 
 Mother Church with difficult questions, and from amongst 
 whom Luther was soon to arise to shake the very founda- 
 tions of her power. But meanwhile Julius, in the inter- 
 vals of his wars with France and struggles with his car- 
 dinals, was inciting his artists to ever greater achievements. 
 Michael Angelo was painting in the Sistine chapel, whilst 
 Raphael was working in the Vatican, and often the old 
 Pope looked in upon one or the other, and bade them 
 make haste. Raphael, of course, was his favourite — he 
 was the favourite of all men — and he seems always to have 
 given his patron smooth answers, whereas Michael Angelo 
 often irritated him by the rough truth of his speeches. 
 
 Great must have been the satisfaction of Julius 11. when 
 he looked round upon the works that his commands had 
 incited the two greatest artists of his age to produce. But 
 whilst planning still greater achievements, he died in 1513, 
 at a great age, his energy and intellect undiminished to the 
 last. We seem to know the man from Raphael's magnificent 
 portrait. His shrewd understanding looks forth from the 
 small piercing eyes, and his inflexible will is set in the firmly 
 compressed mouth. A grand old man, who subjugates us 
 even now, as we look at him with his fine snow-white beard 
 falling on to his velvet cape, and with his great ruby ring 
 flashing from his finger as he grasps the arm of his chair. ^ 
 
 ^ One of the uumerous repetitions of this portrait, of which Passavant 
 enumerates nine, is in the National Gallery. The original is considered 
 to be that of the Pitti Palace, at Florence. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 113 
 
 At the time of the painting of this portrait (1511), 
 Raphael's reputation was already greater than that of any 
 other artist, not even excepting Michael Angelo, who seems 
 to have felt some bitterness at the astounding success of his 
 youthful rival. Much has been said of the jealousy exist- 
 ing between these two artists ; but we may hope that it 
 was more the foolish party-spirit of their followers and 
 scholars that produced this impression than any unworthy 
 feeling in the minds of the men themselves. Vasari, in- 
 deed, although a most partial adherent to his master, 
 Michael Angelo, bears the warmest testimony to the 
 amiable character of Eaphael. " Among all his rare gifts," 
 he says, " I consider one to be so wonderful, that it fills me 
 with amazement : that, namely, with which nature has in- 
 vested him — the power to awaken that feeling in our circle 
 which is at variance with the nature of painters ; for all, 
 not only the lesser artists, but even those who claimed to 
 be great, were of one mind as soon as they worked in 
 Raphael's presence. All ill-humour disappeared when 
 they saw him ; every low, common thought was banished 
 from the mind. Such harmony has never reigned but in 
 the time in which he lived, and the cause of this was that 
 they felt themselves overcome by his kindliness, by his art, 
 and still more by his noble nature." 
 
 The charm of this ** noble nature " extended itself not 
 only over the artists, but likewise over the great and 
 powerful nobles in Rome. Popes, cardinals, and princes 
 sought his fascinating society, and commissions for paint- 
 ings flocked in upon him so fast, that he was obliged to 
 leave the execution of his frescoes for the most part to his 
 pupils, he himself only preparing the cartoons. Fortu- 
 nately the death of Julius II. did not at all interfere with 
 the work which was going on in the Vatican ; for Leo X., 
 who succeeded him, encouraged art and learning with still 
 greater intelligence than Julius, and immediately extended 
 his patronage to Raphael. No break, therefore, occurred 
 in the plan that the old pope had proposed ; only in honour 
 of the new pope, Raphael's two next frescoes, the Delivery 
 of S. Peter from Prison and the Vision of Attila, had 
 direct reference to the personal history of Leo; the De- 
 liverance of St. Peter referring to the Cardinal de' Medici's 
 
114 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 escape from prison after the battle of Ravenna, and tlie 
 Attila being suggested by the retreat of the French from 
 Italy in the same year. 
 
 In the third chamber of the Vatican — Stanza dell' In- 
 cendio — begun about 1515, Eaphael represented an event 
 that had taken place in the ninth century : a fire in the 
 Borgo Yecchio, which had been miraculously extinguished 
 by the intercession of Pope Leo IV. The influence of 
 Michael Angelo in the terrified and vigorous naked figures 
 in this work is very apparent, but the wonderful dramatic 
 power of it was given by Raphael alone, and although 
 the work was doubtless executed in great part by his 
 scholars, it must be ranked as one of his finest composi- 
 tions.^ 
 
 The frescoes of the Sala di Constantino, as the large 
 hall is called, can scarcely be reckoned as Raphael's work, 
 though Raphael's mind is visible in them. They were 
 executed after his death by his scholars under the direc- 
 tion of Giulio Romano, from drawings previously pre- 
 pared by the master. They represent events from the 
 history of the Emperor Constantine, the first Christian 
 emperor and the founder of the temporal power of the 
 Church. The glorification of the power of Rome is thus, 
 it is evident, the underlying meaning of all the works of 
 the Vatican. 
 
 Besides these works in the rooms of the Vatican, Raphael 
 executed others in the Loggie or open galleries round the 
 old court of S. Damasus. These Loggie were begun by 
 Bramante under Julius II., but were afterwards finished 
 by Raphael, " and if," says Kugler, " we consider the 
 harmonious combination of architecture, modelling, and 
 painting displayed in these Loggie — all the production of 
 one mind — there is no place in Rome which gives so high 
 an idea of the cultivated taste and feeling for beauty which 
 existed in the age of Leo X." And there is no place, also, 
 
 ^ Eastlake points out in his notes to Kugler's " Handbook '* that it is 
 not a storm, as is generally supposed, that agitates the draperies of 
 the figures bearing vessels of water in the iresco, but that Eaphael 
 probably intended to express the rush of air always observable in tne 
 vicinity of a conflagration. If this is the case, it proves that he must 
 have been, like Leonardo, an observant student of natural phenomena. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 115 
 
 that reveals more fully the growth of the pagan element in 
 Raphael's mind. Even in the subjects from Scripture 
 historv, known as Raphael's Bible, the feeling for classical 
 antiquity is strongly displayed/ and in the various ara- 
 besques and ornamental festoons, we have all the cheerful 
 variety and beauty of the old classic time. Unfortunately 
 these works have now fallen into a sad state of decay, and 
 only a shadow of their original beauty remains. They 
 were executed, no doubt, entirely by his pupils ; but, as in 
 all the works executed by his pupils during his lifetime, 
 the thought of the master as well as his style of expression 
 is thoroughly apparent. 
 
 Among Raphael's other famous works of the Roman 
 period are the Cartoons so well known to English students. 
 Leo X., wishing still further to decorate the Sistine chapel, 
 where Michael Angelo had already produced his mighty 
 Prophets and Sibyls, as well as the History of Creation, on 
 the ceiling, desired that the walls should be hung with 
 tapestry woven in the famed looms of Arras, in Flanders. 
 Raphael was accordingly called on to prepare the designs 
 or cartoons for the weavers, and the seven grand works 
 that now hang in the South Kensington Museum,^ tell us 
 sufficiently how he fulfilled his task. 
 
 There were originally ten of these cartoons, and an 
 eleventh intended for an altar-piece, representing the Coro- 
 nation of the Virgin, but only seven now remain,^ and, in- 
 deed, it is wonderful that any should remain, considering 
 the various vicissitudes and shameful ill-treatment to which 
 they have been subjected.* 
 
 The original tapestries, ten in number, now hang in the 
 
 ^ The three angels, for instance, appearing to Abraham are noble 
 graceful forms belonging to Greek art, as different as possible from the 
 pensive Umbrian types of his earlier works. 
 
 * Formerly at Hampton Court. 
 
 3 *' Notes on Raphael's Cartoons now in the South Kensington 
 Museum," by Charles Kuland. 
 
 * In the first instance they were cut into narrow slips by the weavers 
 of Arras, so as to adapt them to their looms, no greater care being taken 
 of them than of any ordinary pattern. As early as 1630 four of them 
 appear to have been lost, for at that date Rubens informed Charles I. of 
 the existence of the remaining seven, and soon afterwards the King 
 scoured them at a considerable expense (*' magno pretio ") for himself. 
 
116 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 Vatican, but they are greatly injured and badly restored, 
 and so faded that the effect of the colouring is quite lost. 
 This makes the cartoons all the more valuable, for in them 
 Raphael's genius still stands forth in all its surprising 
 power. The Miraculous Draught of Fishes, indeed, is 
 admitted by almost all authorities to bear the direct- 
 evidence of Raphael's own hand having been at work upon 
 it, and many of the grand figures and expressive counte- 
 nances in the other cartoons, such as the Lame Man at the 
 Beautiful Gate of the Temple, and the Christ, S. Peter^ 
 and S. John in the Charge to Peter, were doubtless painted 
 by him ; though for the most part we must suppose that 
 the execution of these large cartoons from the small draw- 
 ings that Raphael in the first instance made for them, was 
 left to his pupils. Fortunately these pupils were them- 
 selves excellent painters — men, indeed, who would have 
 made an independent position at any other time and 
 under any other master, but who were fully content to- 
 rank themselves under Raphael, seeking only to catch the 
 ideas that he scattered amongst them, without adding 
 much of their own. After his death they all fell more or 
 less into mannerism and weakness, and finally into utter 
 vapidity, but while the master lived, his spirit, as Yasari 
 says, seems to have been infused into all around him, and 
 
 When the collection of Charles I. was sold, the Commissioners valued 
 the cartoons at d£300, but Cromwell appears to have prevented the actual 
 sale of them, a good deed that ought to reckon against the many acts of 
 vandalism attributed on very slight foundations to the great Protector. 
 Far less creditable was the conduct of Charles II., who actually sold 
 them to Barillon, the Minister of Louis XIV., the purchase being all but 
 concluded, when they were again preserved to England, this time by 
 Lord Danby, who entreated Charles II. not to part with such inestimable 
 treasures. All this time they remained in the same condition in which 
 they had been left by the weavers ; and, strange to say, it was Dutch. 
 William III., who is not generally credited with a taste for art, who had 
 all the slips reunited, and laid down upon canvas under the direction of 
 the painter William Cook, and then had them placed in the gallery at 
 Hampton, which was especially erected for their reception by Sir Chris- 
 topher Wren. From thence they were removed to London, and then to 
 Windsor, but were returned to Hampton Court in 1814. In 1865 they 
 were lent by the Queen to the South Kensington Museum, thus bringing 
 them within the easy reach of students and sightseers, to whom it is to 
 be hoped they will prove an important means of art education. No on& 
 can study these cartoons of Eaphael without having his ideas enlarged. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 117 
 
 to *' have made them of one mind." It is amazing, also, 
 however much work we allow to have been executed by 
 liis pupils, and this is probably less than many critics 
 imagine, to find how much remains that could only have 
 been accomplished by himself. His industry must have 
 been unflagging, and amidst all the pleasures and dissipa- 
 tions of the gay Roman Ufe into which he was thrown, he 
 seems to have ever remained devoted to his art, a fact 
 which in itself would go far to prove, were there no others, 
 that Vasari's insinuations respecting the immoral life of 
 the brilliant young artist were unfounded, or at all events 
 went beyond the truth. 
 
 The love of Eaphael, as expressed in several sonnets 
 found scribbled on the back of some of his sketches for La 
 Disj^uta, seems rather the natural expression of a sensitive 
 youthful heart, than of an "overwhelming passion," to 
 which Wolzogen attributes it. The beloved one of Eaphael, 
 according to Passavant, was named Margarita, and it is her 
 j^ortrait, probably, that is so well known to the world by 
 the title of "La Fomarina," a name acquired from some 
 vague and utterly unfounded story about her having been 
 a baker's daughter. This wonderful portrait ^ has called 
 forth endless criticisms. " It has about it," says Grimm, 
 *' in a high degree, the character of mysterious unfathom- 
 ableness." Perhaps that is the reason why it affects diffe- 
 rent minds with such different emotions. Each one reads 
 his own thoughts into those large bold black eyes, but 
 what were the thoughts or passions of the woman's soul 
 that lay beneath them none can now tell. To me, the por- 
 trait is repellant, I turn away from it with dislike, but 
 Orimm a^ers, "we like to contemplate it again and again." 
 Certainly as regards the skill of the artist, it is one of 
 Eaphael' s finest works, and this, no doubt, has led to the 
 supposition that it could only have been the magician Love 
 that prompted his hand to such an achievement. 
 
 After the death of Bramante, Eaphael was appointed 
 iircliitect of S. Peter's, a position which seems to have 
 afforded him great satisfaction, though one would have 
 
 * Now in the Barberini Palace at Rome. Passavant considers that 
 tho lovely woman's portrait in the Pitti Palace, at Florence, represents 
 tlic same individual, call her the Fomarina or by what name you will. 
 
118 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 supposed, considering the multitude of works with which 
 he was then occupied, that one more, and such an one, 
 would have completely overwhelmed him. Nothing, how- 
 ever, seemed too vast for his genius and industry. " With 
 respect to my residence in Eome," he writes to his uncle 
 Ciarla, who had been one of his guardians in his youth, 
 and for whom he always evinced a great affection, " my 
 love for the building of S. Peter's would always prevent 
 my remaining anywhere but here, for I am now in Bra- 
 mante's place. But what city in the world is more glorious 
 tlian Rome? What undertaking more noble than S. 
 Peter's ? Por this is the first temple in the world, and the 
 greatest building ever seen ; it will cost more than a mil- 
 lion of money." And again, in the same letter, he says, 
 " 100 ducats are more worth having here (all things con- 
 sidered) than 200 in Urbino." 
 
 One sees by this how deeply he had become impregnated 
 with the prevailing Roman taste. More and more, indeed, 
 in his frescoes and grand decorative works do we see the 
 spirit of Paganism at work. The mania for works of clas- 
 sical antiquity then at its height, under the Medicean 
 Pope, had taken hold of the Christian artist and led him 
 far away from his early faith, but whilst executing Cupids, 
 Yenuses, and Psyches in the Farnesina, and even surpassing 
 the beauty of Greece in the flowing grace, serene dignity 
 and infinite variety of his forms, he yet, in his Madonna 
 pictures, which throughout his life he never ceased to paint, 
 remained true at the bottom of his heart to the old Um- 
 brian sentiments which had inspired his first works. It 
 may be, that sometimes, like other painters of his time, he 
 painted his mistress as a Madonna, but even when he did 
 this, it was not the mere earthly woman that he painted, 
 but the glorified image of her that he had called up in his 
 mind, and which with marvellous truth and skill he was 
 able to transfer to his canvas. This, I think, is what we 
 mean when we talk of the ideal beauty of Raphael's crea- 
 tions. It is a totally different ideal from that of the old 
 Grreek artist,^ whose aim it had been to reach the Godhke 
 through the perfection of the physical nature of the man. 
 
 ^ See page 9. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. ] 19 
 
 The image that presented itself to the Greek mind was of 
 a glorious and perfect animal, free in the exercise of all his 
 jDowers, but the image that rose before the Christian artist 
 was of a spiritual essence imprisoned in the animal body, 
 but often, shining through it and making itself dimly visible 
 to those who had eyes to perceive it. This, as I have said 
 before, was what the early Christian painters strove to ex- 
 press, but none before Raphael, not even Era Bartolommeo, 
 to whom a lovely idea or mental image was likewise visible, 
 was able to express it with such entire beauty and truth. 
 Raphael's Madonnas have a mysterious soul-beauty, such 
 as no other painter has ever been able to give to his con- 
 ceptions of the Virgin-mother. It is not their loveliness of 
 face or grace of attitude, or even their loving maternity, 
 that gives them their peculiar charm, but it is the indwell- 
 ing spirit, and this is even more apparent in his represen- 
 tations of the Christ-child. The Infant Saviour is not the 
 mere representation of a beautiful boy. A marvellous pre- 
 science lies in his mind beneath the tender innocence of 
 childhood. Coleridge has remarked this; he says, "The 
 Infant that Raphael's Madonna holds in her arms cannot 
 be guessed of any particular age ; it is Humanity in in- 
 fancy. The * Babe in the Manger ' in a Dutch painting is 
 the facsimile of some newborn bantling ; it is just like the 
 little rabbits we fathers have all seen, with some dismay at 
 first burst." ^ 
 
 No doubt Raphael had gained something of this from 
 the Platonian philosophy so eagerly studied by many of 
 the cultivated men at the Medicean court, with whom he 
 was thrown into constant intercourse. In writing to his 
 friend, the distinguished Count Castiglione, he makes use 
 of an expression which has been often quoted. " To paint 
 a beautiful individual," he says, "I should want to see 
 several beauties, with this condition, that your lordship 
 should be with me to select the best ; as there is, how- 
 ever, a lack both of discriminating judges and beautiful 
 women, I make use of a certain idea (certa idea) that presents 
 itself to my mind. Whether this has any excellence as re- 
 gards the art, I do not know ; I labour strenuously to at- 
 
 ^ Coleridge's " Table-Talk." 
 
120 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 tain it." Thus Plato taught, that the fleeting phenomena 
 of this world are only faint shadows of eternal truth — 
 images of true existences — that there is a certain abstract 
 Beauty, Goodness, and so forth, beneath the visible forms 
 revealed to our senses, or, as Spenser has it : 
 
 " That Beautie is not as fond men misdeeme, 
 An outward shew of things that only secme," 
 
 but rather that " wondrous pateme " of which every earthly 
 thing partakes, but 
 
 " Whose face and feature doth so much excell 
 All earthly sence, that none the same may tell." 
 
 The more nearly the image or idea in the painter's mind 
 approaches to this " wondrous paterne," the more truly 
 he represents the ideal of perfect beauty; therefore the 
 superior beauty of Raphael's conceptions seems to lie, not 
 in any radical difference between his mode of conception 
 and that of other ideal painters, both before and after 
 him, but in the nearer approach of the image that pre- 
 sented itself to his mind to abstract beauty.^ 
 
 Many of his most beautiful Madonna pictures belong to 
 
 ^ The words Eeal and Ideal are used so loosely, and with so many 
 variations of meaning, that it will be as well to define, as nearly as may 
 be, the sense in which they are used here. The mind may be compared 
 to a book, written from minute to minute, and constantly illustrated by 
 fresh pictures. Of these pictures some are merely the images of the 
 perceptions of Sense, while others are images formed by aid of the 
 Imagination and Eeason. Shutting our eyes, we call up in endless 
 number images of objects we saw the minute before, yesterday, or years 
 ago. These ai"e images of sense, and when an artist reproduces them 
 on canvas or in marble, he is properly called a realist. The merit of an 
 artist, as a realist, depends first on the truth and depth of his observa- 
 tion — the extent to which he sees into nature — and the accuracy of his 
 memory; secondly, on his mechanical skill; and, thirdly, on his judg- 
 ment in selecting scenes worthy of his brush or chisel. 
 
 But there are mental pictures of a different kind, often as vivid as 
 those of perception, and like them capable of objective reproduction. 
 They are the products, the records, of the thoughts and imaginings of 
 the individual mind. Looking at a ruined castle, we all know how easy 
 it is to restore its walls and battlements, and to people its court with the 
 knights and ladies of a feudal age. In like manner we all find that we 
 cannot read a book of " Paradise Lost " without building up an almost 
 visible representation of the scene in our minds. The artist who paints 
 from these creations of his mind, these ideal images, is an idealist. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 121 
 
 the later Roman period — easel pictures and altar-pieces 
 executed in the intervals of his vast monumental works. 
 The Holy Family, known by the name of The Pearl, the 
 treasure of the Madrid Grallery ^ ; the magnificent Madonna 
 di Fuligno, painted in 1511, now in the Vatican ; the ever- 
 lovely S. Cecilia, of which Francia took charge ; ^ the well- 
 known Madonna della Sedia, painted in 1516, now in the 
 Pitti Palace at Florence ; the Madonna del Pesce at Madrid; 
 the Holy Family of the Louvre ; the Madonna of the Aldo- 
 brandini family, now called the Grarvagh Eaphael, in the 
 National Gallery, and numerous other Madonnas, many of 
 which were doubtless executed by his pupils, are all re- 
 ferred to the last few years of his life, when the sentiment 
 he had gained from IJmbria was expressed with the in- 
 tellectual knowledge of Florence and the calm power of 
 Eome. 
 
 Last and greatest of all his Madonnas is the world- 
 famed Madonna di San Sisto, the glory of the Dresden 
 Gallery. Constantly as we see reproductions of this mar- 
 vellous work, it ever gleams upon us, even in an engraving 
 or photograph, like some vision of heavenly beauty. Sur- 
 rounded by a glory of exquisite angel-heads, the Virgin 
 stands in simple majesty on the clouds, with the Child 
 enthroned upon her arm. She looks forth into infinity 
 with no shade of sorrow on her countenance such as 
 
 Of course the merit of the idealist may vary within wider limits than 
 that of the realist. His creations may be commonplace, disgusting, or 
 monstrous, or they may be original and sublime ; and whatever the value 
 of his ideas, the qualities of skill, judgment, and insight into nature are 
 as necessary to him as to the realist. It may be added that scarcely any, 
 if any, painter can be reckoned as a pure realist or a pure idealist. 
 
 He who, instead of drawing the images of sense or imagination from 
 his own mind, is content to borrow the work of others, is properly called 
 a copyist. In one sense, however, the pure realist may be said to be a 
 copyist, but then he is a copyist of nature. 
 
 This was formerly in the collection of our Charles I., and w^as 
 bought at the sale of his pictures by Philip IV. of Spain, who is said to 
 have exclaimed on seeing it, " This is my pearl." Hence arose its 
 name. 
 
 =» Goethe wrote of this picture, "He," that is Raphael, "always 
 achieves exactly what others would wish to achieve, and I will not say 
 more regarding this painting than that it is by him. There are five 
 saints side by side whose existence is so perfect that we wish the picture 
 could endure for ever until we also are ready to depart." 
 
122 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 Raphael lias sometimes cast into his representations of her 
 as the earthly mother, but as if now beholding the mean- 
 ing of those things she had " pondered in her heart " on 
 earth. The Child also has a supernatural beauty that we 
 can only express by the word divine. "It is," writes 
 Liibke, " as if Raphael had wished to combine in this in- 
 comparable creation his deepest thoughts, his most sub- 
 lime ideas, and his most perfect beauty, that it might be, 
 and might remain the highest production of all religious 
 art." S. Sixtus and S. Barbara on either side of this 
 picture are meant as offering the love and worship of the 
 holy Catholic Church.^ 
 
 The San Sisto Madonna was painted about 1518, when 
 the painter's brilliant but short summer-life was drawing 
 towards its close. To the same time belong two other 
 grand altar-pieces, in which his dramatic powers are more 
 fully displayed, namely, Lo Spasimo di Sicilia, or Christ 
 bearing the Cross, now at Madrid, and the Transfigura- 
 tion, painted in rivalry with Sebastian del Piombo, which 
 was still unfinished at the time of his death, and was 
 placed as a fitting memorial at the head of his bier, whilst 
 his body lay in state in the church of Santa Maria della 
 Rotonda. He died in 1520, on his birthday, the 6th of 
 April, after a short illness caused by cold followed by fever. 
 He was never m arried, but was betrothed for some time to a 
 niece of the Cardinal Bibiena. She however died before 
 him. It seems certain that she was not the beloved one of 
 the sonnets, for in a letter to his uncle he speaks of the 
 Bibiena alliance as if it were a mere matter of business. 
 
 The sorrow caused by Raphael's death was felt by all 
 classes of society in Rome. " No eye," says Vasari, " was 
 tearless at his burial," and Count Castiglione wrote to his 
 mother some months afterwards, " I am well, but I cannot 
 fancy myself in Rome now that my poor dear Raphael is 
 no longer here." 
 
 His delicate beauty, as we see it in the portrait supposed 
 to be his own, must have gone far to win men's hearts ; 
 
 • Eastlake remarks that S. Sixtus in this picture, as well as S. 
 Francis in the Madonna di Fuligno, points out of the picture, as if inter- 
 ceding for the spectator. He is not presenting a votary to the Madonna. 
 — " Contributions to the Literature of the Fine Arts." 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 12S 
 
 but he preserved their love by the goodness of his nature 
 and the fascinating charm of his society. 
 
 " All he had loved and moulded into thought 
 From shape, and time, aud odour, and sweet sound 
 Lamented Adonais." 
 
 On the 6th of March, 1475, Michael Angelo^ Buona- 
 KOTTi was born at Castel Caprese, near Florence, of which 
 small fortified town his father, Ludovico Buonarotti, was 
 the podesta, or governor. On his parents' return to 
 Florence he was put out to nurse with the wife of a stone- 
 mason, thereby imbibing, as he was wont in jest to assert, 
 his love for his profession with his nurse's milk. His taste 
 for art being at all events unmistakably declared at an 
 early age, his father in 1488, when Michael Angelo was 
 only thirteen, bound him for three years to the masters- 
 Domenico and David G-hirlandaii. 
 
 Domenico Ghirlandaio was at this time employed on his 
 frescoes in the choir of S. Maria Novella, so that his young 
 pupil found himself at once in the midst of great under- 
 takings. His progress was soon so remarkable that his 
 master, on seeing a drawing of some scaffolding, with men 
 working on it, that Michael Angelo had executed, exclaimed 
 in surprise, " This boy knows more than I do ! " " Stand- 
 ing in amaze," adds Yasari, " at the originality and novelty 
 of manner which the judgment imparted to him by heaven- 
 had enabled a mere child to exhibit." 
 
 His first attempt at painting, according to Vasari, was a 
 copy of the celebrated plate of Martin Schongauer, the 
 Temptation of S. Anthony,^ which he reproduced in colours, 
 and on a larger scale than the original. This gained him 
 great credit, and, although copied from the German en- 
 graver, he doubtless threw somewhat of his own mind into- 
 it. We are told he studied attentively the fish exposed in 
 the market at Florence, in order thoroughly to compre- 
 hend the fishy nature of Schongauer' s devils. 
 
 His genius, however, in spite of his early education as a 
 painter, turned naturally towards the plastic art, in which 
 
 ' More correctly Michel Agnolo, but the ordinary form is generally^ 
 usod. 
 ^ See Book VI., Chap. L 
 
124 HISTOET OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 his love of form could more freely be exercised ; but the 
 sight of the treasures of classic art in the famous gardens 
 of Lorenzo de' Medici seems first to have given him a 
 powerful impulse towards sculpture. 
 
 These gardens formed a sort of art-nursery for the 
 young artists of Florence, and Lorenzo himself took 
 especial interest in the development of any youths among 
 them whom he perceived to possess talent. Thus it was 
 that Michael Angelo fell under his observation. Passing 
 one day along the garden he noticed the young sculptor as 
 he was copying the antique mask of a faun, one of the 
 statues in the garden. He had not, however, copied the 
 original implicitly, but had given his representation a 
 wide-open mouth, in which the teeth could be seen. " Thou 
 shouldst have remembered," remarked Lorenzo, " that old 
 folks never retain all their teeth — some of them are always 
 wanting." The hint was taken, and the next time Lorenzo 
 passed that way he found that one of the faun's teeth had 
 been knocked out and the gum filed away in such a 
 manner as to look as if it had dropped out naturally.^ 
 
 Prompt to remunerate genius as well as to recognize it, 
 Lorenzo immediately took Michael Angelo into his own 
 house, making arrangements with his father, upon whom 
 he bestowed a small post in the Customs, that his son 
 should be given up entirely to his care. Thus the early 
 artistic life of Michael Angelo bloomed under the sunny 
 skies and amidst the refined splendour of the court of the 
 Medici. Every day there was a grand public banquet in 
 the palace, at which Lorenzo the Magnificent, the poli- 
 tician, the philosopher, the poet, the rewarder of genius, 
 and the destroyer of the virtue and freedom of Florence, 
 sat at the head of the table, the place at his right hand 
 being free to whoever should come first, regardless of rank. 
 Thus it sometimes happened that Michael Angelo sat next 
 his patron, who always showed him great favour, and once 
 " presented him, for his gratification, with a violet-coloured 
 mantle." 
 
 But these prosperous times were not of long duration. 
 
 ^ [What is believed to be this mask, or a copy of it, is in the Uffiz 
 and there is no tooth missing.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 125" 
 
 In 1492 Lorenzo died, and althougli his son Piero suc- 
 ceeded him in the government of Florence, it soon became 
 evident to everyone that the overthrow of the Medici was. 
 near at hand. Michael Angelo, like many other of their 
 adherents, left the city before the storm broke, and retired 
 to Bologna, where Piero himself was soon after obliged to- 
 take refuge. 
 
 After passing a year in Bologna under the protection of 
 the noble and generous family of the Aldovrandi, Michael 
 Angelo returned to Florence, where Savonarola was utter- 
 ing his warnings and exhorting his fellow-citizens to re- 
 pentance. He is said to have been one of the adherents of 
 the Florentine prophet, but he could scarcely have been 
 such a devoted disciple as Bartolommeo and several other 
 well-known artists, for in the midst of the wild religious 
 excitement of the Lent of 1496,^ when statues of pagan 
 gods and other antique relics were especial objects of ab- 
 horrence, and when, as we have seen, Fra Bartolommeo- 
 threw all his drawings from the nude, as " vanities," upon 
 the fanatical bonfire Hghted by the Piagnoni, he executed 
 a small figure of Cupid of such classic beauty that he was 
 advised to keep it under groimd for a time, until it had 
 assumed a weather-worn and ancient look, and then to 
 pass it off as a genuine antique. This was done, and the 
 Cupid was bought as an antique by the Cardinal San 
 Giorgio, who afterwards, on fin^g out that it was really 
 the work of a young Florentine sculptor, instead of resent- 
 ing the cheat, immediately invited Michael Angelo to 
 Kome. 
 
 It was in June, 1496, when he was just one-and-twenty, 
 that Michael Angelo entered the capital, which was hence- 
 forward to be the chief theatre of his labours, his con- 
 tentions, and his triumphs. His fame was not at this 
 time so great as that of Raphael when he also came ta 
 Rome, at about the same age, twelve years later. 
 
 Michael Angelo' s genius was slower in development than 
 that of Raphael, whose fertile imagination and industrious 
 hand produced numberless beautiful works almost in his 
 boyhood. Michael Angelo had done but little at this time^ 
 
 p Michael Angelo's Cupid was executed in 1496.] 
 
126 HISTOEY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 but sucli works as he had executed showed already the 
 power and intellectual greatness of his mind. Power and 
 intellect, these are the two characteristics that mark his 
 works. He awes us by his grand ideas ; often our minds 
 can scarcely reach up to his meaning, yet when, after deep 
 study, we do at last attain to it, we are forced to o^vn that 
 no master ever had greater thoughts, or expressed them in 
 greater language. The language was gained, it is true, 
 from ancient G-reece and Rome ; but he made it his own, 
 as every great original genius does, by expressing his own 
 thoughts in it ; he did not weakly copy classic art, but the 
 same spirit as had formerly animated the old Grreek sculp- 
 tors took possession of him, and led him on to similar 
 achievements. For Michael Angelo's ideal is essentially a 
 pagan ideal. He derives his artistic descent, not, like 
 Raphael, from Christian Byzantium, but from pagan 
 Rome. It is not, that is to say, the spiritual and moral 
 nature of man that he seeks to represent, but his physical 
 and intellectual nature, his strength and his reason. 
 Therefore it is that he delights in the nude, as the best 
 means of displaying man's physical power and beauty. 
 He studied anatomy, we are told, for twelve years, and his 
 knowledge of the human form was profound, yet we find 
 him often violating the rules of proportion, exaggerating 
 size, placing figures in impossible positions or constrained 
 attitudes, if so be that they were thus wanted to carry out 
 his idea. For, equally as much as Raphael, Michael 
 Angelo painted and chiselled his forms in accordance with 
 a certain image that presented itself to his mind. In spite 
 of his deep study of nature, he is not a great naturalist, 
 but the greatest of ideahsts. His men and women, his 
 prophets and sibyls, are not transcripts of common nature, 
 any more than Raphael's Madonnas, but are his own crea- 
 tions, and live their powerful life by virtue of the mighty 
 spirit he has breathed into them. 
 
 The first important work that he executed at Rome was 
 the statue of Bacchus, now in the Bargello, at Florence. 
 Critics disagree greatly in their judgment of this work, 
 some considering it the perfection of manly beauty, and 
 others, among whom may be mentioned Shelley, calling it 
 ""nothing but a detestable representation of a drunken man." 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 127 
 
 His famous Pieta, however, a noble marble group repre- 
 senting the Madonna mourning over the dead body of her 
 Son, executed about the same time, at once raised him to 
 the position of the first sculptor in Italy. ^ 
 
 After acquiring great fame for this work in Eome, he 
 again returned in 1500 to Florence, where the storm had 
 broken in his absence, and had kindled the faggots in the 
 market-place for the martyrdom of Savonarola and his 
 companions. How Michael Angelo was affected by this 
 does not appear, but in his old age he still remembered the 
 mighty voice of the preacher whom he had heard in his 
 youth, and it is impossible, as Grimm says, to avoid the 
 thought, that the sufferings and death of such a man 
 " were not without their influence upon the creative mind 
 of the painter." 
 
 The greatest work that he executed at this time was his 
 colossal statue of David, which still stands in front of the 
 Palazzo Vecchio, at Florence, and is hewn out of a single 
 block.^ 
 
 Soon after the triumphant erection of the David, in 
 1504, Michael Angelo received the order for the painting of 
 one wall of the Palazzo Vecchio, the cartoon for the other 
 wall having been already prepared by Leonardo da Vinci, 
 who had returned to Florence about the same time as him- 
 self. The subject of this work, Florentine soldiers sur- 
 prised whilst bathing in the Arno, has been already men- 
 tioned,^ as well as the rivalry that arose out of it between 
 Leonardo and himself. Before he could finish even the 
 ■cartoon for this work, he was summoned to Eome in great 
 haste by Julius 11. , who hearing that Michael Angelo was 
 the greatest sculptor in Italy, at once felt a desire to secure 
 his services for the execution of a colossal monument which 
 he desired to have erected for himseK in S. Peter's. 
 Michael Angelo's design for this monument greatly de- 
 lighted the Pope, and he was ordered to proceed to Car- 
 rara forthwith to arrange about the transmission of the 
 marble for its execution. 
 
 Whilst he was gone, however, Bramante, who was then 
 
 [^ Now in S. Peter's.] 
 
 [" Now removed to the Academy.] 
 
 ^ Page 92. 
 
128 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV, 
 
 the architect of S. Peter's, and who appears to have always 
 opposed Michael Angelo, did his utmost to dissuade the 
 Pope from the idea of this mausoleum, suggesting that it 
 was an evil omen to build himself a tomb in his lifetime ; 
 so that when Michael Angelo returned, he found the ar- 
 dour of Julius for this Undertaking considerably abated, 
 and, when the marble finally arrived in Rome, he could not 
 obtain the money to pay the marble cutters.^ 
 
 In terrible anger at this, and also at not being able to 
 gain admittance to his Holiness, who had before been so 
 gracious to him, he suddenly took flight from Rome,^ and 
 rode without ceasing until he was upon Florentine terri- 
 tory. " If you require me in future," he said in a letter 
 he left for the Pope, " you can seek me elsewhere than in 
 Eome." He must have been a brave man who could thus 
 defy the power of Julius II. Messengers were sent after 
 him, who commanded, entreated, threatened, implored in 
 vain. He would not return, maintaining that he was re- 
 leased from his engagement respecting the mausoleum, by 
 Julius neglecting to fulfil his part of the contract, and that 
 he had no wish to execute any other commissions in Eome. 
 
 At last, Julius wrote to the Signiory of Florence, re- 
 questing that his refractory artist should be sent back to 
 him, but promising that he should go " free and untouched," 
 for " we entertain no anger against him, knowing the habit 
 and humour of men of this sort." Julius, in fact, did not 
 care to offend the man whom he recognized as the greatest 
 genius in his capital. 
 
 Still, however, Michael Angelo refused to trust these 
 fair promises, and it was not until Soderini, who was 
 then Gronfalonier, or chief magistrate of Florence, sent for 
 him and told him plainly that he would not go to war 
 with the Pope on his account, that he returned to his alle- 
 giance. 
 
 After executing a large bronze statue of the Pope at 
 Bologna, where Julius was then residing,^ he obediently 
 
 * Grimm, " Life of Michael Angelo." 
 
 [2 In 1506.] 
 
 [^ In 1507.] The greater part of the letters of Michael Angelo to his 
 family in Florence, during his stay at Bologna, are preserved in the 
 British Museum. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 129 
 
 took up his residence in Eome, where, instead of being al- 
 lowed to finish the mausoleum as he desired, he found that 
 Julius was now bent on employing him as a painter, and 
 that the work allotted to him was no less than the decora- 
 tion with frescoes of the whole vaulted roof of the Sistine 
 chapel. The task presented many difficulties. He had 
 never before worked in colour,^ and it was difficult to get 
 artists to assist him. But Julius overruled all objections, 
 and, in the end, the Sistine chapel was covered with those 
 marvellous frescoes which have been the wonder and admi- 
 ration of all succeeding ages. "Words are utterly inade- 
 quate to convey any idea of the profound thought and ma- 
 jestic utterance of Michael Angelo in these works, and 
 space will not permit of any detailed description of their 
 subjects being entered on here. Suffice it to say, that in 
 one comprehensive poem he sets forth the history of crea- 
 tion as told in the book of Genesis, and the various deli- 
 verances of the people of Israel, expressed by the Brazen 
 Serpent, Gohath, Esther, and Judith. The Creation of 
 Light, wherein the Father, upborne as it were on the wings 
 of the wind, and surrounded by spirits, divides the light 
 from the darkness, and sets the sun and moon for lights 
 in the firmament of heaven, and the Creation of Adam, 
 are especially remarkable for their solemn grandeur of 
 conception. 
 
 In the triangular compartments of the vault are placed 
 those figures of the Prophets and Sibyls, with which his 
 name is for ever associated. These idealizations have all an 
 underlying reference to the subject of the world's redemption 
 by Christ. They signify the waiting and longing of the 
 world for his advent, as do also the groups of the ancestors 
 of Mary. 
 
 JuUus n., as usual, was extremely impatient to see the 
 work he had commissioned finished ; but as Michael An- 
 gelo worked almost without assistance (for he found the 
 few painters who adhered to him unable to carry out his 
 ideas), his frescoes in the Sistine naturally did not progress 
 
 [^ Never at least on a very important composition of his own, but he 
 had been the assistant of Ghirlandaio, and the Holy Family in the 
 UflSzi is supposed to have been painted about 1503. The unfinished 
 picture in the National Gallery (No. 809) belongs to a still earlier date.] 
 
 K 
 
130 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 SO fast as those of Eaphael in the Vatican, who was helped 
 by a number of first-rate scholars. One day, it is related, 
 Julius came to him, and demanded to know when he 
 would have finished. "When I can," replied Michael 
 Angelo. " When thou canst ! " thundered the fiery old 
 pope. " Hast thou a mind that I should have thee thrown 
 from this scaffolding ? " 
 
 Michael Angelo dared not brave the lion's anger any 
 further, and accordingly allowed the scaffolding, which he 
 had constructed on a peculiar plan of his own, to be taken 
 down, and on All Saints' Day, 1509, the whole of Rome 
 crowded to the chapel, the pope first, "who, indeed, had 
 not patience to wait until the dust caused by removing the 
 scaffolding had subsided." ^ 
 
 When Leo X. succeeded to the papal throne, Raphael, 
 as we have seen, was the favoured artist. Michael Angelo 
 himself desired nothing more than to be permitted to work 
 on at the mausoleum of Julius II., for which he had already 
 executed his great figure of Moses, and he even went on 
 with this mausoleum on his own account, without receiving 
 payment ; but hindrances were constantly thrown in his 
 way, and at last he was sent to Florence to superintend 
 the building of the facade of San Lorenzo, and to execute 
 the sculptures for it. This was a most important commis- 
 sion ; but he contrived to quarrel with the pope, and also 
 with the people of Carrara about the marble, and in the 
 end nothing was accomplished. Indeed, the ten years of 
 Leo's pontificate seem to have been wellnigh lost years in 
 Michael Angelo' s life. 
 
 In 1527 occurred the fearful sack of Rome under the 
 Constable de Bourbon. Michael Angelo, more fortunate 
 than many artists, was at Florence during the dreadful 
 days succeeding the siege, when the hideous moral foulness 
 of the holy city was being purged by those retributive 
 scavengers, Grerman soldiery, pestilence, and famine. Some 
 years afterwards, however, when Clement "VTI., with the 
 aid of the imperial cannon, gave the final blow to the free- 
 dom of Florence, or rather, when the city which fire and 
 famine had been unable to subdue, was treacherously 
 
 [^ The whole ceiling was not finished till about three years after this.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 131 
 
 yielded to the Medici, Michael Angelo was in great danger, 
 for he had taken an important part in the defence of the 
 ■city against his early patrons. He remained for a time 
 <;oncealed ; but Clement VII., who seems to have recognized 
 the advantage of having such a man in his service, pro- 
 mised him not only perfect security, but a continuance of 
 the commission he had received from Leo for the sculp- 
 tures of San Lorenzo. He accordingly came forth from 
 his hiding-place, and worked with such " morbid haste," 
 that in a few months he had achieved the four great re- 
 cumbent figures of Night, Morning, Dawn, and Twilight 
 on the tombs of Lorenzo and Giuliano de' Medici, which 
 are considered by many critics to be his greatest works in 
 flculpture. 
 
 In reply to some verses affixed to the statue of Night, 
 alluding to the figure as " sleeping," Michael Angelo made 
 " Night " answer, with gloomy bitterness, " Sleep is dear 
 to me, and still more that I am of stone, so long as dis- 
 honour and shame last among us. The happiest fate is to 
 see, to hear nothing ; for this reason waken me not : I pray 
 you speak gently." ^ 
 
 "We see in these verses something of the bitterness of 
 feeling in which Michael Angelo was wont to indulge. No 
 doubt pohtical events contributed much to foster his some- 
 what sardonic melancholy ; but, besides outward events, a 
 •deep personal grief seems at some time of his life to have 
 been laid on his heart. We have no hint as to the nature 
 of this grief, only, in a profoundly sorrowful poem on the 
 death of his father, he tells us that, although yielding to 
 reason's teaching, he hides his pain, yet — 
 
 " That greater torment springs from the restraint." 
 
 Hopeless love is imagined by several of his biographers 
 to be dimly shadowed forth in his sonnets ; but with the 
 ■exception of the noble Princess Vittoria Colonna, whose 
 sympathetic friendship cheered his later life, no woman's 
 name is in any way associated with his. 
 
 ' " Grate m' e'l sonno, e piu lesser di sasso 
 Mcntre che '1 danno e la vergogna dura ; 
 Non veder, non sentir m' e gran ventura ; 
 Pero non mi destar, deh I parla basso." 
 
132 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 He dwelt alone, a gloomy, self-centred man, with tliouglits 
 too great sometimes for utterance, but Condivi and Vasari, 
 and others who knew him best, testify to the real goodness, 
 of heart of the bitter-tongued old man, and many kind 
 deeds are recorded of him. His style of living, very diffe- 
 rent from that of Leonardo and Eaphael, was almost ascetic- 
 in its abstinence. " Rich as I am," he once said to Con- 
 divi,^ " I have always lived as a poor man." Yet he was 
 never a miser, but contributed freely to the support of hia 
 relations, many of whom seem to have needed his help. 
 
 Before the Medicean chapel of San Lorenzo could bo 
 completed, Clement VII. died, and Paul III., who succeeded, 
 not being a Medicean pope, was desirous that Michael An- 
 gelo should leave the works he had begun for that family, 
 and undertake others for him. Michael Angelo, also, was 
 anxious to leave Florence, over which Alessandro de' 
 Medici now reigned as duke, and accordingly, in 1534, he 
 came back to Eome, where, at the pope's request, he was 
 again obliged to lay aside sculpture for painting. 
 
 The Last Judgment, the work which Michael Angelo 
 now undertook, to complete the decoration of the Sistine 
 chapel, has suffered more fatally from time, neglect, and 
 injury, than any other of his works. The paintings on the 
 roof, it is true, are faded by time, and blackened by dirt 
 and clouds of incense- smoke. Large cracks also run across 
 them, and the rain has oozed through in many places, but 
 in their inaccessible position they have at least been safe 
 from the ravaging hand of man. Not so the Last Judgment, 
 which has been subjected to every species of ill-treatment, 
 but has received its most fatal injury from the purism of 
 a later pope, who, offended with the nakedness of Michael 
 Angelo' s figures, had most of them painted over with gaudy 
 drapery. 
 
 It is now, indeed, easier to form a correct idea of this 
 work by means of good engravings, and the sketches of 
 many of the groups which still exist in various museums, 
 than from the painting itself ; yet, perhaps, no work of 
 the master more fully expresses his great creative genius. 
 
 * Ascanio Condivi was a pupil of Michael Angelo, and lived in his 
 house. He published a biography of him about the same time as 
 Vasari. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 133 
 
 All traditionarj types for the representation of this event 
 were thrown aside by him. We are struck at once, in look- 
 ing at it, at the immense difference that lies between his 
 conception of the scene, and that of Orcagna, Era Angelico, 
 and other religious painters. The grotesque element which, 
 to a certain extent, was apparent in the works of these men, 
 is no longer at work here. All is terrible, is sublime; 
 Christ is no longer the Eedeemer, but the Avenging Judge, 
 with whom even the Virgin dares not now intercede. 
 Fear, rage, and despair are the prevailing emotions. It is 
 truly the " Dies irse " of the old hymn, the joys of the 
 blessed being entirely lost sight of in the convulsive 
 struggles of the damned, who in every attitude of fore- 
 shortening are thrust by avenging angels, and drawn by 
 devils, down to hell. But although this idea of a day of 
 wrath is pre-eminently a Christian one ; one, indeed, upon 
 which the theologians of the middle ages especially loved 
 to dwell, Michael Angelo has conceived the scene in a 
 wholly pagan spirit. These are not companies of the 
 faithful, redeemed by the blood of the Lamb ; these are 
 not worshippers of the Beast cast into the lake of fire, but 
 rather " some antique race of Titans and Giants dashed 
 into the abyss by the Thunderer Jupiter." It is a tragic 
 l^oem, such as ^schylus'or Euripides might have sung, but 
 not such as we read in the Revelation of S. John the 
 Divine. 
 
 This was Michael Angelo' s last work in painting. In 
 1547 he was appointed by Paul III. chief architect of S. 
 Peter's, an office which he undertook at the age of seventy- 
 two " for nothing but the honour of God." From his 
 plan was raised the great dome of S. Peter's, and the 
 whole of the remainder of his life was occupied with this 
 building. 
 
 Almost all his poems ^ express a weary longing for the 
 
 ^ These poems have been translated into English, and published in a 
 small volume, entitled '• Michael Angelo a Poet," by John Edward Tay- 
 lor. Many of them arg given in Herman Grimm's " Life of Michael 
 Angelo." They are mostly deeply melancholy in sentiment, and have 
 great poetical beauty. Wordsworth also has translated several of his 
 sonnets. [Mr. J. A. Symonds' " Sonnets of Michael Angelo Buonarroti 
 nnd Toramaso Campanella," published in 1878, contains the first trans. 
 Jations into English of the sonnets of Michael Angelo from a pure text.] 
 
134 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IT. 
 
 release of his soul from its prison-house,, but it was not 
 until he had reached his ninetieth year that the Angel of 
 Death brought him the desired rest. 
 
 He died at Rome on the 17th of February, 1564. His 
 body was carried to Florence by his own desire to be buried,, 
 although he had been a voluntary exile for thirty years 
 from his native city. 
 
 Much false enthusiasm is often expressed regarding 
 Michael Angelo's art. People know that he is a great 
 artist, and therefore they feel bound to admire his works,, 
 but the truth is that it needs a severe course of artistic 
 training before the true greatness of his style can be arrived 
 at. He never appeals to the popular taste. Leonardo and 
 Raphael all can appreciate; even the uneducated mind 
 feels their charm, if it does not understand their merits^ 
 but I might almost say that it requires an artist fully to- 
 appreciate Michael Angelo's surpassing greatness. 
 
 The National Grallery made, in 1868, an important acqui- 
 sition in the unfinished picture by Michael Angelo, of tha 
 Entombment of Christ, No. 790. Even in its unfinished 
 state it reveals the power of the master's hand,^ There is 
 also one of the several repetitions of the so-called Dream of 
 Michael Angelo in the National Collection, No. 8, probably 
 executed by Sebastian del Piombo. 
 
 Sebastiano Luciani, called del Piombo, from his 
 clerical ofB.ce at the papal court of Keeper of the Leaden 
 Seals (1485-1547), was undoubtedly the greatest of Michael 
 Angelo's assistants. He was a Venetian by birth, and 
 learnt the secret of Venetian colour in the schools of 
 Bellini and Giorgione. On coming to Eome he made the 
 acquaintance of Michael Angelo, and was employed by 
 him to colour some of his designs. The soft brilliancy 
 of his tones, a quality gained from Giorgione, was much 
 admired in Rome, where Venetian art was but little 
 known, and, when furnished with designs by Michael 
 Angelo, he was held by many to be no mean rival to 
 Raphael. It is asserted, indeed, that Michael Angelo, too 
 
 [^ The National Gallery also contains (No, 809) another fine un- 
 finished picture by Michael Angelo, The Madonna and Infant Christy 
 S. John the Baptist and Angels, purchased from Lord Taunton's, 
 executors in 1870.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTINa IN ITALY. 135 
 
 disdainful himself to enter into competition with the popu- 
 lar Raphael, yet pushed the Venetian forward, and helped 
 him in his art to the end that Raphael might be distanced. 
 If this were so, the attempt was a signal failure, although 
 Sebastiano's works have many qualities that Raphael's do 
 not possess. His colouring is forcible, and his composition 
 effective. We have also some very fine portraits by him.^ 
 The Raising of Lazarus, the well-known picture of the 
 National Gallery, is considered to be his greatest work. It 
 was painted in direct rivalry with Raphael, and was exhi- 
 bited at the same time as the Transfiguration in the hall of 
 the Consistory at Rome. Michael Angelo most likely pre- 
 pared the cartoon for this work, and undoubtedly drew the 
 grand figure of Lazarus.^ 
 
 Jacopo Carucci, or da Pontormo (1494-1557), a 
 scholar of Andrea del Sarto, likewise painted from Michael 
 Angelo's designs, but with less powerful colour than Sebas- 
 tiano. His portraits, as with so many inferior masters, 
 are far better than his composed works. There is a good 
 portrait of a boy by him in the National Collection.^ 
 
 Marcello Venusti (about 1515-1580) was an imitator 
 of Michael Angelo and of Sebastian del Piombo.* 
 
 Daniele Ricciarelli, or da Volterra (bom about 
 1509, died 1566), is more original, but his originality is 
 unpleasant. He exaggerates Michael Angelo's peculiari- 
 ties ; treads on the dangerous heights of sublimity, and, 
 not possessing his master's calm power, is apt to slip 
 down to the ridiculous. His principal work is the Descent 
 from the Cross, in the Church of the Trinita de' Monti, 
 at Rome. 
 
 The other followers of Michael Angelo fell more and 
 more into painful mannerism and exaggerated anatomical 
 
 [' Modem criticism assigns to Sebastian the so-called Fornarina at 
 the Uffizi, formerly attributed to Raphael.] 
 
 P It is now known that Michael Angelo was absent in Florence at the 
 completion and during the progress of this painting ; it is scarcely pro- 
 bable that he furnished more than the merest sketches for it.] 
 
 [' This portrait is ascribed by Dr. J. P. Richter to Bronzino, but a 
 picture of Joseph and his kindred (No. 1131) is an undoubted example 
 of Pontormo.] 
 
 [* There is a picture of Christ driving out the Traders from the 
 Temple, by Venusti, in the National Gallery (No. 1194). 
 
136 HISTOEY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 displays. They produced immense paintings with nude 
 figures in every variety of attitude, but instead of the grand 
 ideal of Michael Angelo, which was based on a profound 
 knowledge of the real, we have in them feeble imitations, 
 which strive to reach the ideal by despising the real. Even 
 such qualities as bold drawing and correct anatomy are 
 wanting in these masters, to say nothing of mind, which is 
 entirely absent. Their colouring also is cold and untruth- 
 ful in the extreme ; in fact, their art scarcely possesses one 
 attractive feature. The reason of this, perhaps, was that 
 Michael Angelo' s style was altogether too great for any 
 lesser artist to attain. He could express his ideas in power- 
 ful language, because his ideas were powerful, but when 
 weaker men strove to make use of that language to express 
 trivial ideas, the language itself became absurd. 
 
 The two brothers, Taddeo and Federigo Zuccaeo, are 
 perhaps the best illustrations of the great fall from Michael 
 Angelo to his followers. 
 
 Giorgio Vasari (1512-1574) was another instance of a 
 tasteless painter, who strove hard to attain his master's 
 " grand style," but failed most deplorably. Perhaps, how- 
 ever, had he been a greater painter (I do not mean a 
 larger one, he seems to have covered acres of canvas), 
 he might not have left us his delightful biographies, 
 which amply atone for all his deficiencies. Federigo Zuccaro 
 was likewise an author, but his written works are said to 
 be as empty and inflated as his painted ones.^ 
 
 Raphael's pupils and followers approach nearer to their 
 master than Michael Angelo's. During Eaphael's lifetime, 
 indeed, and whilst his influence was still strong, many of 
 them produced works which are almost equal to his in 
 beauty and grace, but very soon they fell into mannerism 
 and weakness, and their later works are sadly degenerate 
 in sentiment from those of the earlier time. The prevail- 
 ing paganism of the age, by which as we have seen even 
 Raphael was influenced in his later time, reaches its height, 
 perhaps, in the works of his most celebrated pupil, Giulio 
 Pippi, called GiTJLio Eomano (1498-1546).* 
 
 ^ His principal work is a philosophical treatise on art, " L'idea ds' 
 Sciiltori, Pittnri e Architetti." 
 
 [2 He was left executor to Eaphael and heir to his designs.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 137 
 
 Giulio Romano was an artist of great talent, and of con- 
 siderable fertility of invention. During Raphael's lifetime 
 he copied liis style so closely, that it requires a good judge 
 to tell the work of the pupil from that of the master, and 
 in the frescoes of the Sala di Constantino also, which he 
 executed after Raphael's death from his drawings, the same 
 close resemblance to Raphael's style is apparent. But very 
 soon after this he broke loose from the restraint that 
 Raphael's pure style had imposed upon him, and indulged 
 in the riotous imaginations of his own mind. His taste 
 became, indeed, utterly depraved, and his classicism fol- 
 lowed not the severe art of ancient Grreece, but the debased 
 art of the Roman period, the art of Pompeii and Hercu- 
 laneum. 
 
 In 1524, he was summoned to Mantua, by the Marquis 
 Federigo Gonzaga, in whose service he passed the rest of 
 his life, directing works in architecture as well as painting. 
 In the frescoes of the Palazzo del Te that he built and de- 
 corated for his patron, his unbridled style is more fully 
 displayed than in any other of his works. These frescoes 
 are often, it may be admitted, powerful in conception and 
 rich in invention, but there is a coarseness of mind appa- 
 rent in them that it is peculiarly unpleasant to find in the 
 pupil of the refined Raphael. Eastlake speaks of many of 
 these frescoes as being " decidedly bad," and " uselessly in- 
 decorous," and in others, such as the well-known Overthrow 
 of the Giants, the style of Michael Angelo is carried to an 
 immoderate excess. His simpler decorative works are 
 much more pleasing. They have generally a charming 
 antique grace and beauty. 
 
 But, in spite of this antique grace, Giulio Romano did 
 more to hasten the fall of art, which proceeded with 
 terrible swiftness after the death of Raphael, than any 
 other artist, for he had an immense number of scholars 
 and assistants,^ all of whom copied the vicious qualities 
 of his art, rather than its excellences, and, without his 
 faculty of invention, attempted similar flights of pagan 
 fancy with miserable results. Pbimaticcio (1504-1570) 
 
 [^ One of these was Rinaldo Mantovano, to whom, and not to Giulio 
 K'linano, Messrs. Crowo and Cavalcaselle ascribe Nos. 643 and 644 in 
 the National Gallery.] 
 
138 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOZ IV. 
 
 has the glorj of having imported Giulio's style into 
 France, where he decorated the palace of Fontainebleau for 
 Francis I. 
 
 [We have spoken in a former chapter of the early 
 painters of Ferrara. In the beginning of the sixteenth 
 century the principal painters of that school were Dosso 
 Dossi and G-arofalo. Dosso Dossi, whose real name 
 was Giovanni Niccolo di Lutero (1479-1542), studied 
 Tinder Lorenzo Costa, and his essentially Ferrarese style 
 was in some degree influenced by the Venetians. His 
 most important works are at Modena and at Ferrara, 
 where he was court-painter to Alfonso d'Este. Two are 
 at Hampton Court, and a small Adoration of the Magi in 
 the National Gallery (No. 640) is a good example of his 
 vivid colouring and original conception. No. 82 at the 
 Liverpool Institution is ascribed to Dosso. Benvenuto 
 Tisio, called from his birthplace Garofalo (1481-1559), is 
 a less original artist than Dosso. He spent his life in many 
 cities of North Italy, and at one time visited Eome, where 
 he was not unaffected by the school of Eaphael. He 
 painted a great deal and mostly religious subjects. Four 
 of his works are in the National Gallery. No. 671, The 
 Madonna Enthroned, is a fine example of his large altar- 
 pieces. No. 669 in the National Gallery is ascribed to 
 Giovanni Battista Benvenuti, called L'Ortolano (about 
 1500-1525), a contemporary of Garofalo's, about whom 
 nothing is known. Ludovico Mazzolino (1481, died about 
 1528-30) was a Ferrarese of Garofalo's time who painted 
 mostly religious subjects upon a small scale, of which there 
 are two fair examples in the National Gallery.] 
 
 There yet remains to notice one other artist, a Florentine,, 
 who was not a scholar of Leonardo, Eaphael, or Michael 
 Angelo, but who maintained, like Fra Bartolommeo, an in- 
 dependent position, while all lesser men were irresistibly 
 attracted into the schools of one or other of these three 
 great masters. This artist was Andrea del Sarto, or 
 more correctly Andrea d' Angelo (1486-1531). He was the 
 son, as his cognomen implies, of a tailor, and received his 
 earliest education in art from the eccentric old Piero di 
 Cosimo. 
 
 It is difficult to understand why Andrea del Sarto- 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 139' 
 
 does not rank with the very greatest masters of his time ; 
 in many respects he was their equal, and yet in the bril- 
 liant constellation of painters that rose and set in Italy in. 
 the sixteenth century, he can only be reckoned as a star of 
 the second magnitude. Such a classification affords a 
 strong proof of the surpassing greatness of those few 
 masters whose names shine so brightly in art history, that 
 beside them even that of Andrea del Sarto, " the Fault- 
 less Painter," grows pale.^ 
 
 His works have many of the elements that usually con- 
 stitute greatness. His drawing is masterly, his modelling 
 perfect, his style dignified, and, above all, his colouring 
 lovely and harmonious ; in this latter quality, indeed, he- 
 exceeds nearly every master of the Florentine school, and 
 approaches closely to the excellence of Correggio and the 
 Venetians. What is it, then, that is wanting in his art, 
 for all feel that there is something wanting, although 
 unable to define exactly what that something is ? Mrs. 
 Jameson says, that "he would have been a far greater 
 artist, had he been a better man," ^ but this confoimding 
 the moral state of the man with the artistic expression of 
 the artist, is somewhat dangerous, although sanctioned by 
 Ruskin. 
 
 The truth probably is, that Andrea was an artist of ex- 
 traordinary talent, but of very little real genius. It is in- 
 spiration that is lacking in his works, that mysterious 
 breath of the spirit breathed in and breathed forth again 
 in words or visible images, that we dimly perceive in all 
 those works of man's genius that we truly call inspired. 
 
 Andrea del Sarto' s was, after all, but the " low-pulsed 
 forth-right craftsman's hand," and therefore his perfect 
 art does not touch our hearts like that of Fra Bar- 
 tolommeo, who occupies about the same position with 
 regard to the great masters of the century as Andrea del 
 Sarto. Fra Bartolommeo spoke from his heart. He was 
 moved by the spirit, so to speak, to express his pure and 
 holy thoughts in beautiful language, and the ideal that 
 presented itself to his mind, and from which he, equally 
 
 ^ Vasari states that he was called even in his own time, " Andrea, 
 senza errori." 
 
 ^ *' Early Italian Painters." 
 
140 HISTORY OF PAINTING, [bOOK IV 
 
 with Raphael, worked, approached almost as closely as 
 Raphael's to that abstract beauty after which they botl] 
 longed. Andrea del Sarto had no such longing : he was 
 content with the loveliness of earth. This he could under- 
 stand and imitate in its fullest perfection, and therefore 
 he troubled himself but little about the " wondrous pa- 
 terne " laid up in heaven. Many of his Madonnas have 
 greater beauty, strictly speaking, than those of Bartolom- 
 meo, or even of Raphael ; but we miss in them that mys- 
 terious spiritual loveliness that gives the latter their chief 
 charm, and, at the side of a Madonna and Child by either 
 of these painters, one by Andrea del Sarto looks coarse 
 and vulgar. 
 
 Most people know something of the sad history of 
 Andrea's life. How he was married [in 1513] to a beautiful 
 but faithless woman, who exercised a sort of fatal fascina- 
 tion over him ; how he was invited to France by Francis I., 
 where he executed a number of works for the king and his 
 court, especially the splendid picture of Charity, in the 
 Louvre (1518) ; but how, after having pledged himself to 
 execute many commissions, he returned to Florence at the 
 sohcitations of his wife, and not only thought no more of 
 his promises to Francis and his nobles, but [it is said] 
 even used the money with which the French king had 
 entrusted him to purchase works of art in Italy, for his 
 own purposes. This breach of trust does not seem to 
 have met with any direct punishment, [for he was highly 
 esteemed in Florence, and was kept fully employed till his 
 death. ^] 
 
 Besides his easel-pictures — Madonnas, Holy Families, 
 and similar subjects for altar-pieces — Andrea executed 
 several important series of frescoes. Those in the SS. 
 Annunziata at Florence are the most celebrated. He 
 seems to have painted here at three distinct periods ; fii'st, 
 when he painted a series of five frescoes, setting forth the 
 history of Filippo Benozzi ; ^ next, when he executed the 
 Adoration of the Kings and the Birth of the Virgin, a 
 
 ^ His supposed state of mind at this time is set forth in Robert 
 IBrowning's di-amatic poem, " Andrea del Sarto," in " Men and Women." 
 
 [2 The founder of the Order of the Servites, to whom the church 
 belonged.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 141 
 
 composition of great dignity, and beautiful in colour, and, 
 lastly, when he executed his famous Madonna del Sacco ^ 
 in the lunette above the entrance to the court of the- 
 convent. A Last Supper, painted in the refectory of the- 
 convent of S. Salvi, is also spoken of as being a very 
 grandly composed work.^ 
 
 It is by his oil-paintings, however, that Andrea is best 
 known. These are to be met with in almost every gallery, 
 and although no doubt many ascribed to him are not 
 genuine, still, considering the shortness of his life (he died 
 at the age of forty-two), he must have executed a great 
 amount of work. In all his representations of the Virgin 
 we have the same type of beauty ; indeed, it is said that 
 he was so completely absorbed by his wife, the lovely 
 Lucretia, that unconsciously, as well as consciously, he re- 
 produced her features in every woman he painted, whether 
 Virgin, saint, or goddess.^ 
 
 The portrait in the National Gallery, said to be his own 
 likeness, is extremely interesting. There is a sad, weary 
 look in the face which, knowing as we do the artist's his- 
 tory, becomes wonderfully expressive. Mrs. Jameson also^ 
 speaks of another portrait in Lord Cowper's collection at 
 Panshanger,* in which she notices the same melancholy ex- 
 pression of countenance. " One might fancy," she says,, 
 " that he had been writing to his wife." 
 
 The Holy Family, No. 17 of the National Gallery, is not 
 a good example of his work, if indeed it be his work. 
 
 [One of the best of Andrea's scholars, and his constant 
 assistant in his frescoes, was Francesco di Cristopano 
 BiGi, commonly called Francia Bigio (1482-1525), who,, 
 after studying under Albertinelli, worked with Andrea del 
 Sarto. Many of his portraits, sometimes signed F. B., are 
 
 ^ So called because Joseph is represented leaning on a sack. 
 
 [» Painted 1526-27.] 
 
 3 We must not forget that the belief regarding the infidelity and over- 
 bearing temper of Lucretia del Fede rests entirely on Vasari's evidence, 
 who was in his youth apprenticed to Andrea del Sarto, and who, as well 
 as his fellow-apprentices, had much to suffer from the lady's violent 
 temper. It is quite possible, therefore, that he may have been prejudiced 
 against her. 
 
 [* Lent to the Royal Academy Winter Exhibition in 1881. It is- 
 doubtful whether it be a portrait of the artist.] 
 
142 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 variously ascribed, to Del Sarto, to Raphael, and to Sebastian 
 del Piombo. There is a portrait in Del Sarto' s manner in 
 the National G-allery (No. 1035), which, though darkened, 
 is an excellent example of Bigio. 
 
 Other disciples or fellow-workers with Andrea were 
 Pontormo, already mentioned ; G-io. Battista di Jacopo, 
 called II Eosso (1494-1541), who worked principally in 
 Prance, and was painter to Prancis I. before Primaticcio. 
 In his later works he was an imitator of Michael Angelo ; 
 DoMENico PuLiGO (1492-1527), and Prancesco d'Uber- 
 TiNO, called Bacchiaca (1494-1557), a pupil of Perugino, 
 by whom there are two pictures of the History of Joseph 
 in the National Gallery, Nos. 1218 and 1219]. 
 
 The blooming time of Italian art in Florence and Eonie, 
 even before the death of Michael Angelo, who survived, so 
 to speak, his age, drew to its close. Before the death of 
 Raphael, indeed, symptoms of decay had begun to show 
 themselves, and these increased so rapidly, that by the end 
 of the century the art of Leonardo, Raphael, and Michael 
 Angelo lay dead in the dust. These artists had no suc- 
 cessors. It seemed as though they had reached the per- 
 fection of art, and from them only decline was possible. 
 
 We must now turn to the North of Italy, and watch the 
 flower of Italian art unfolding, blooming, and declining in 
 •a similar manner there. 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 SCHOOL OF VENICE. 
 
 The Bellini — Giorgione — Titian— Tintoretto — Paolo 
 Veronese — Correggio. 
 
 VENETIAN painting was considerably later than Flo- 
 rentine in its development. The influence of G-iotto 
 was, indeed, less felt in Venice than almost any other city 
 of Italy, and the Byzantine style, or " Greek manner," as 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 143 
 
 Vasari calls it, continued in favour until far into the fifteenth 
 ■century; such artists as Jacobello del Fiore, Negeo- 
 PONTE, DoNATO, and GiAMBONO, although called some- 
 times early Venetians, being, strictly speaking, only Veneto- 
 Byzantine painters. 
 
 It was not, in fact, until Antonello da Messina (living 
 probably from about 1444 to 1493) introduced into Italy the 
 Flemish method of oil-painting that he had learnt in the 
 school of the Van Eycks, that the true colour school of 
 Venice can be said to have been really founded. 
 
 Before this time, however, there were several painters 
 working in Venice who claim some mention. Especially 
 in the island of Murano, separate from Venice by a narrow 
 channel, a school of painting seems to have been established 
 from the commencement of the fifteenth century. [It was 
 here that a painter who signed himself sometimes Johannes 
 Alamanus, and sometimes Johannes da Murano, worked 
 together with Antonio Vivabini da Murano for some years 
 after 1440. Some have traced a G-erman influence in their 
 joint work, but it is rather that of Gentile da Fabriano 
 that is evident in the finest work of the two masters, an 
 Enthroned Madonna in the Venice Academy, dated 1446, 
 and in Antonio's Adoration of the Kings in the Berlin 
 Museum. Antonio afterwards worked in Venice with his 
 younger brother, Bartolommeo Vivarini. Of the numerous 
 altar-pieces with which Antonio, first with Johannes and 
 afterwards with his brother, decorated the churches in 
 Venice and the neighbourhood, most are dilapidated. An 
 altar-piece by the brothers in the Pinacoteca at Bologna is 
 dated 1450. When they worked alone, Bartolommeo 
 showed the greater independence. He adopted much of 
 the style of the school of Padua, aimed at greater natu- 
 ralism, and decorated his pictures with gay flowers and 
 coloured marbles. His latest works are dated 1499. An- 
 tonio died in 1470. In the National Gallery he is repre- 
 sented by a picture of SS. Peter and Jerome (No. 768), 
 and Bartolommeo by a Virgin and Child with S. Paul and 
 S. Jerome (No. 284). A younger member of the Vivarini 
 family, Luigi or Alvise (died before 1503), made advances 
 beyond his master Bartolommeo. The Enthroned Mary 
 with the Child and Saints, at Berlin, is considered by 
 
144 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV 
 
 Morelli ("Italian Masters") to be one of the most im 
 portant productions of Venetian art in the fifteenth cen 
 tury.] 
 
 Carlo Crivelli (working as late as 1495) is said bj 
 Ridolfo to have been a pupil of Jacobello del Fiore, [and b^ 
 others to have learnt from Bartolommeo Vivarini; but 
 indeed, he also was very strongly influenced by the schoo! 
 of Squarcione at Padua.] He is well represented in th( 
 National Collection, which contains no less than eight oi 
 his works, including a magnificent altar-piece in thirteer 
 compartments, formerly in the Church of S. Domenico, a1 
 Ascoli.^ The Enthroned Madonna between S. Francis and 
 S. Sebastian, No. 807, is far beyond his usual level oi 
 merit.^ It is dated 1491, and was therefore painted at a 
 time when several of the great painters of Venice were 
 working around him. He always, however, adhered to the 
 hard quattrocentisti style, and belongs, therefore, by his 
 art, to an earlier date than that at which he painted. 
 He remained faithful, also, to the old tempera method, 
 whereas all the other painters of Venice were then using 
 oils. 
 
 The brilhancy and richness of oil-painting seem from the 
 first to have been peculiarly attractive to the Venetian taste, 
 and no sooner was the secret of Van Eyck's invention 
 known in Italy that his method was almost universally 
 adopted. Antonello, a painter of Messina, has the reputa- 
 tion, as before stated, of having first taught the Venetians 
 the Flemish method, which evidently, by the enthusiasm 
 which it excited, was an immense improvement on all that 
 had preceded it.^ 
 
 Vasari gives a most graphic and interesting account of 
 Antonello' s proceedings, only, unfortunately, as is usual 
 with the old chronicler, he has blundered in his facts, from 
 his easy habit of setting down every anecdote that was re- 
 lated to him, without taking the trouble to verify it. 
 
 ^ In the collection of the Earl of Dudley there are also a number of 
 paintings by him. 
 
 [^ The National Gallery is richer than any other gallery in the works 
 of this highly accomplished, fantastic, and elaborate master. The An- 
 nunciation, No. 739, is by some considered his finest work.] 
 
 3 For the history of Van Ejck's invention, see Book VII., Chap. I. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 145 
 
 Antonello, he says, " a man of lively genius, of much 
 sagacity, and of considerable experience in his calling," 
 having heard of a picture that Alfonso, king of Naples, 
 had received from Flanders painted in oils by Jan Van 
 Eyck, obtained leave to see it, and was so forcibly im- 
 pressed by the vivacity, beauty, and harmony of its colour- 
 ing, that, laying aside all other business, he at once re- 
 paired to Flanders, where he sought the acquaintance of 
 Jan Van Eyck, and learnt from him, apparently without 
 any jealous difficulty being thrown in his way, the whole 
 secret of his process.^ 
 
 Returning first to Messina, but soon after settling in 
 Venice, it soon became known that he had brought the 
 Flemish secret back with him, and his society was greatly 
 courted, not only by artists, but by " the magnificent 
 nobles of Venice, by whom he was much beloved and 
 amicably treated." [Of his three works in the National 
 Gallery, the earliest, the Salvator Mundi, No. 673, is in oil, 
 Flemish in style, and of comparatively feeble execution. 
 It is dated 1465, and is the earliest dated picture by him 
 that is known. The Crucifixion (No. 1,166) is equally 
 Flemish in its minute detail and carefully executed land- 
 scape. The portrait of a young man, supposed to be the 
 painter himself (No. 1,141), is far more Venetian in colour, 
 and is besides a marvel of firm modelling and realistic 
 characterization, showing as complete a mastery over the 
 materials as the great Flemings themselves possessed.] 
 Antonello da Messina is essentially Flemish in his style. 
 It is difficult, indeed, to tell his paintings from those of the 
 Bruges school. His outlines are even harder than those of 
 Rogier Vander Weyden, and his details are as minute and 
 carefully worked. The landscapes in his religious subjects 
 are often predominant, and although not always Flemish 
 views have entirely the Flemish character. His colouring 
 is solemn and powerful, but scarcely equal to that of the 
 
 [* For the controversy on this subject see especially Morelli (" Italian 
 Painters"), pp. 376-390. Jan Van Eyck probably died before Anto- 
 nello was born. There were several Flemings in Italy from whom 
 Antonello might have learnt their method of oil-painting. Antonello was 
 in Venice in 1473, probably before, and this is the nearest date we can 
 fix for the introduction of the oil method into Venice.] 
 
 L 
 
146 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 school in which he had learnt. One of his finest works is 
 in the Antwerp Academy — a Crucifixion with a distant 
 and detailed landscape. There is also a fine portrait, said 
 to be of himself, in the same gallery. [Belonging to 1475, 
 and showing Venetian influence, are a portrait in the Louvre 
 and a Crucifixion at Antwerp, both fine examples of the 
 master. A splendid portrait in the Berlin Museum (No. 
 18) bears the latest date (1478) of any picture by him, and 
 is quite Venetian.] 
 
 Beyond all other early Venetians, however, the Bellini 
 are the representatives of Venetian art at this time, and 
 must be reckoned as the founders of its true greatness. 
 
 Jacopo Bellini (bom about 1400, died about 1464), 
 the father of the more renowned Grentile and Giovanni, was 
 a pupil of G-ENTiLE DA Fabriano,^ an Umbrian master of 
 the early part of the fifteenth century, who resided for 
 some time at Venice, and appears to have exercised a con- 
 siderable influence over early Venetian art. His style 
 somewhat resembles that of Fra Angelico, but, not being a 
 monk, his ideas were less cramped, and his view of human 
 life broader. Not only Jacopo, but likewise several of the 
 Muranese painters studied under him. But although the 
 effects of his teaching are often discernible, it was after all 
 from the Paduan school that the Bellini received their 
 early training. Jacopo Bellini was evidently much attached 
 to his master Gentile, whom he followed to Florence ^ (in 
 1422), and after whom he named his eldest son, but such 
 of his works as remain reveal for the most part a decided 
 leaning towards Paduan art, as expressed in the works of 
 his son-in-law Mantegna, whose influence became still more 
 apparent in the early art of his sons. Mantegna, in fact, 
 was too powerful a genius for any less original minds to 
 come in contact with him without receiving deep impres- 
 sions, and accordingly we find that the Bellini, both father 
 and sons, who were, as we have seen, intimately associated 
 
 [^ The picture by which he is best known is in the Academy of Fine 
 Arts at Florence, an Adoration of the Kings, signed, and dated 1423. 
 Little else of his works remains.] 
 
 ^ The records of Florence bear evidence that Jacopo was once prose- 
 cuted and ordered to do penance for having beaten someone who had 
 insulted Gentile. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 147 
 
 both in relationship and art with Mantegna at Padua, 
 where they long resided, brought back to Venice when they 
 returned there many of the characteristics of his style. 
 Jacopo Bellini is perhaps more important as the father and 
 teacher of Gentile and Giovanni than as an independent 
 master, but he is spoken of by Vasari as having been held 
 in high repute in his day. Unfortunately, scarcely one 
 authentic painting by him is preserved.^ 
 
 [There are two pictures of the Virgin and Child, signed 
 by Jacopo, one in the Accademia, the other in the collec- 
 tion of Count Tadini at Lovere ; one of the Crucifixion, 
 signed, at Verona. An engraving of a Crucifixion by Paul 
 Veronese reproduces a fresco by Jacopo Bellini, formerly in 
 the Cathedral at Verona.] 
 
 Gentile Bellini (about 1426-1507) probably excelled 
 his father as much as he, in turn, was excelled by his 
 younger brother Giovanni. This, we are told, was what 
 the good father desired, who " encouraged his sons, con- 
 stantly telling them that he desired to see them do as did 
 the Florentines, who were perpetually striving among 
 themselves to carry off the palm of distinction by out- 
 stripping each other, that so he would have Giovanni 
 surpass himself, whilst Gentile should vanquish them 
 both."^ 
 
 It was, however, Giovanni who " vanquished them both," 
 but Gentile also accomplished excellent work in his day. 
 Both brothers were highly esteemed in Venice, and in 1474 
 Gentile was honoured by the government with a commis- 
 sion to decorate the Great Hall of Council of the Ducal 
 Palace with frescoes, representing events of Venetian his- 
 tory. Gentile da Fabriano had before this executed some 
 frescoes in this Hall, but it appears that they had already 
 fallen into decay when his godchild Gentile Bellini was 
 appointed to " renew and restore them." 
 
 He was interrupted in this work by an appointment in 
 
 ^ A most valuable volume of sketches, however, now safely treasured 
 in the British Museum, tells us probably more of his mode of design 
 than more finished works might do. It is by these sketches that Man- 
 tegna's inHuence is revealed, many of them being completely in his 
 «tyle. 
 
 '■' Vasari. 
 
148 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV, 
 
 1479 to go to Constantinople, whither he was sent by the 
 Doge, in compliance with a request of the Sultan that the 
 Venetians would supply him with a good painter ; — for the 
 Venetians, who had been regarded as the outposts of Chris- 
 tianity, had, after the taking of Constantinople by the 
 Turks, with their ever keen desire for profit, entered into 
 friendly commercial relations with their infidel neighbours ;. 
 — and Gentile, when he arrived at Constantinople, was re- 
 ceived with great honour. He painted whilst there the 
 admirable portrait of the wily old Sultan Mehemet 11.,^ 
 and the portraits, it is said, of several ladies of his harem. 
 The large painting in the Louvre also, representing the 
 reception of the Venetian Embassy at Constantinople, was 
 doubtless composed if not painted on the spot. But Gen- 
 tile did not stay long at Constantinople,^ for in the follow- 
 ing year we find him again in Venice, and at work on the 
 frescoes of the Council Hall, which his brother Giovanni 
 had been commissioned to continue in his absence. 
 
 The two brothers now worked together, and accomplished 
 some great works, all of which, however^ perished by fire in 
 1577. 
 
 The most important works that now remain by Gentile,, 
 are the pictures in the academy at Venice, representing the 
 Miracles of the Cross. In one, a fragment of the true 
 Cross, borne in solemn procession, effects a miraculous 
 cure, and in the other the same fragment, having fallen into 
 
 ^ Now in the possession of Sir A. H. Layard. 
 
 ^ A remarkabJe but doubtful story is told by Ridolfi, in his " Mara- 
 viglie deir Arte," concerning the reason of Gentile's hasty return to- 
 Venice. 
 
 Gentile had presented the Sultan, so Eidolfi relates, with a painting- 
 of S. John the Baptist's head on a charger. His Majesty was much, 
 pleased with the subject, but criticised the drawing of the neck, which, 
 he said, projected too much from the decapitated head. The painter 
 seemed doubtful ; so by way of showing him the natural appearance in 
 such cases, he ordered a slave to be brought in, whose head he instantly 
 had struck off, thereby forcibly proving the correctness of his know- 
 ledge. Gentile after this, fearing that perhaps some day he might be 
 recjuired in like manner to illustrate a despot's lessons in anatomy, made- 
 all the haste he could back to Venice. It seems more probable, however, 
 that Mehemet's death, which happened in 1480, was the cause of his 
 return. Vasari, who mentions Gentile's voyage, does not relate this- 
 story. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 149 
 
 the canal, can only be recovered by the hands of the pious 
 brother Andrea Vendramin.^ 
 
 S. Mark preaching at Alexandria, in the Brera at Milan, 
 is also one of his principal works. It was left unfinished 
 at the time of his death, in 1607. Gentile never attained 
 to the same development as Griovanni, but his paintings are 
 remarkable for their scientific perspective and general truth- 
 fulness to nature.^ 
 
 We must turn to the younger but greater brother, to 
 find the true founder of the Venetian school. 
 
 The name of Giovanni Bellini (born about 1428, died 
 1516) stands at the head of that great cluster of painters, 
 who, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, illumined the 
 dark walls of the churches and palaces of Venice with a 
 glorious revelation of colour to which no previous masters 
 had ever attained. 
 
 Yet, in the first instance, as before said, Giovanni as 
 well as Gentile was much influenced by Mantegna, whose 
 chief characteristic was, as we have seen, form and not 
 colour. We have two examples of his early style in the 
 National Gallery, the Virgin and Child, No. 280,^ which is 
 cold and brown in colour, and the Agony in the Garden, 
 No. 726, which is so thoroughly Mantegnesque in style, that 
 it was formerly ascribed to Mantegna. 
 
 It was not, indeed, until after he had adopted the new 
 method of oil-painting, that the original qualities of his 
 genius became apparent. His greatest works all belong to 
 the later period of his life, for, unlike most painters, his art 
 knew no stand-point, but went on progressing even in his 
 great old age, when, in fact, he still continued learning from 
 the pupils he had formed. 
 
 When Gentile was chosen by the state to go to Constan- 
 tinople, Giovanni was not only appointed to carry on the 
 great works in the Hall of Council, but also to fill the 
 
 ^ There is an engraving of this latter subject in Crowe and Caval- 
 -caselle's " Hist, of Painting in North Italy." 
 
 * Tlie L-iuvre possesses two heads that are portraits, it is asserted, of 
 Gentile and Giovanni, ])ainted by the former. He was evidently a good 
 portrait painter. [The Head of S. Peter Martyr in the National 
 Gallery (No. 808) is ascribed to Gentile by Morelli.] 
 
 [' This is not considered an eai'ly picture by Dr. Richter ("' Italian 
 Art in the National Gallery ").] 
 
150 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK IV» 
 
 office of Senseria, one of the duties of which was to paint 
 the portrait of each successive doge, and introduce it into 
 a frieze round the hall. He painted in his time a great 
 many doges, one of them being the Doge Leonardo Lore- 
 dano,^ of which there is an admirable repUca in the 
 National Gallery, No. 189. 
 
 With him, the custom of portrait-painting became ex- 
 ceedingly popular in Venice. Hitherto, distinguished 
 patrons of art had been content to have their portraits 
 introduced incidentally into an historic subject, or to be 
 represented as donors in a votive family altar-piece ; but 
 now it became the fashion for every person of distinction 
 to sit for his portrait, and Venetian palaces became filled 
 with the likenesses of their owners, often painted by the 
 greatest masters. Bellini's portraits are distinguished 
 from those of Titian and the later Venetians by a harder 
 outline, and perhaps less power of characterisation ; but 
 there is a dignity and thoughtful repose in them, as well 
 as in his other works, that in some degree make up for the 
 full glowing life and energy of his successors. 
 
 He remained, in fact, to the end, a religious painter, and 
 to a certain extent his ideal was the ascetic ideal of all 
 religious painters, only, as we have seen with Perugino and 
 Era Bartolommeo, the ascetic type developed with him 
 into one of sweet and solemn human beauty, a beauty 
 entirely different from the sensuous life and passion of the 
 worldly painters of Venice who came after him. 
 
 The stirring events of the times in which he lived, events 
 which produced a powerful effect on the minds of his 
 younger contemporaries, had but httle influence over their 
 patriarch, who was already sixty years of age when the 
 powerful league of Cambray overwhelmed the Venetian 
 states with calamity. Venice alone, protected by her 
 waters, was spared the invasion of the terrible G-ermans ;, 
 and her children, with a heroism almost beyond their 
 strength, rose equal to the crisis, and finally threw off the^ 
 yoke of their conquerors. The exaltation of the national 
 character that such struggles for life and liberty usually 
 produce, maintained Venice, it is true, for a short time at 
 
 [1 Doge from 1501 to 1521.'| 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 151 
 
 a high pitch of greatness, hut the decline of her power had 
 begun, and the hideous moral corruption that existed 
 beneath her splendid exterior could not be arrested by 
 individual acts of self-sacrifice and heroism. Her fall, 
 in fact, was already decreed, and before the line of her 
 painters was extinct she was already tottering on her 
 foundations. 
 
 Bellini lived to see peace restored to his country, but 
 died in the same year that the treaty of Noyon ended the 
 disastrous wars that had called forth her fortitude and 
 valour. No decrease of power is shown even in his latest 
 works, many of which were painted after he had attained 
 the age of eighty, and in warmth and splendour of colour, 
 many of them rival even Titian. 
 
 The moral qualities of his art, however, separate him 
 completely from the school of which he may be said to 
 have been the founder, " There is no religion," says 
 Ruskin, " in any work of Titian's ; there is not even the 
 smallest evidence of religious temper or sympathies, either 
 in himself or in those for whom he painted ; and this is 
 not merely because John Bellini was a religious man and 
 Titian was not. Titian and Bellini are each true repre- 
 sentatives of the school of painters contemporary with 
 them, and the difference in their artistic feeling is a 
 consequence, not so much of difference in their own 
 natural characters as in their early education. Bellini was 
 brought up in faith, Titian in formalism. Between the 
 years of their births, the vital religion of Venice had ex- 
 pired." ^ 
 
 One of Bellini's greatest works is the Christ at Emmaus, 
 a large altar-piece in the Church of S. Salvatore at Venice. 
 The discijjles here are men of noble dignified bearing, of a 
 race not yet quite extinct in Venice. The divine figure of 
 the Master, conceived at the moment of his disciples' 
 recognition, awes us by its solemn grandeur and thought- 
 fulness. With the strange incongruity that we so often find 
 in the pictures of this time, and particularly of this school, 
 Giovanni, besides the disciples and their Divine Com- 
 panion, has introduced a Venetian senator and a man in a 
 Turkish dress into the scene. 
 
 ' Ruskin, " Stones of Venice," vol. i. 
 
152 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 Euskin accords liigh praise to Bellini's landscapes, one 
 of which in particular — namely, that forming the back- 
 ground to the S. Jerome in the Church of S. Crisostomo 
 at Venice, he recommends to the study of the young artist 
 as " a nearly faultless guide." The saint in this grand 
 work (painted by Bellini in his eighty- seven th ^ year, 
 1513) is seated amongst rocks studying in a book. In the 
 foreground are S. Augustine and S. Christopher, the 
 latter looking up lovingly to the beautiful Child, who 
 grasps his short curly hair. The masterly power and deep 
 beauty of colour, as well as the religious feeling of this 
 work, are worthy of almost any master of the time. There 
 are several excellent examples of Bellini in England, among 
 which may be mentioned the celebrated Bacchanal, with 
 the landscajDO by Titian, now in the possession of the Duke 
 of Northumberland.^ 
 
 Venice, whatever other crimes she may have been guilty 
 of, cannot be accused of having neglected her painters. 
 Giovanni Bellini, especially, was revered by all, and his 
 society courted by the highest in the state, as well as by 
 most of the painters, men of letters, and collectors of the 
 time. Ariosto has celebrated him in his verse, and the 
 celebrated Pietro Bembo wrote rapturous sonnets upon liis 
 portrait of his mistress. Albrecht Diirer also, who visited 
 Venice in 1507, speaks of him in one of his letters as 
 " very old, but the best painter of them all." 
 
 His influence was undoubtedly great over the art of his 
 time in Venice, but it scarcely extended beyond, and al- 
 though several of his pupils preserved for a period some- 
 what of his religious feeling, yet very soon, in the worldly 
 current that was now setting in, his spiritually ascetic 
 ideal was lost to view, and in its place was set up the sen- 
 suous ideal that we have seen as the latest development of 
 G-reek art. 
 
 As in artistic Greece, in fact, aesthetic perfection had 
 become in Christian Europe the sole thing that was looked 
 for in a painting. Its moral and religious teaching were 
 now unheeded, or rather it no longer existed, for when 
 religion was no longer in demand, artists naturally left it 
 
 P More probably eighty-fifth.] 
 
 [* Painted 1514, or two years before the painter's death.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 153 
 
 out of their works. Thus it happened that Italian art in 
 the sixteenth century became wholly secular in its tone, 
 and that henceforward we do not find an expression of 
 rehgious faith in paintings, but simply an expression of 
 the highest worldly beauty. Not that religious subjects 
 were by any means set aside by artists. On the contrary, 
 they went on painting virgins, saints, martyrdoms, and 
 other Catholic themes for a century to come, as well as 
 their beautiful mistresses, large-limbed goddesses, and las- 
 civious gods ; but as Euskin has so well pointed out, their 
 faith had become carnal, and they chose a religious subject, 
 not Hke the earlier Christian painters, for the purpose of 
 touching men's hearts, but for the purpose of pleasing 
 men's eyes: arraying their mistresses in splendid attire, 
 and painting them as Madonnas or goddesses, according as 
 it suited their purpose, caring only for the exhibition of 
 their own marvellous powers. But it must be owned that 
 this pagan spirit in art was immensely favourable to its 
 development. Painting, as we have seen, whilst under the 
 control of the Church, remained almost stationary, and 
 was cramped and somewhat feeble in expression, but 
 gradually as it threw aside its first ascetic garb it bloomed 
 into fresh beauty, until with these worldly painters of 
 Venice, by whom Christian asceticism was entirely forgotten, 
 it assumed its highest perfection. Never were there such 
 painters, considered only as painters, as these of Venice in 
 the sixteenth century, 
 
 Poremost of these great masters stands the brilliant 
 Giorgione, but before considering his work it v,dll be as 
 weU to glance at a few other artists of less original genius, 
 who also belonged to the school of BelHni. Many of these 
 men were very good artists, but in the superlative excel- 
 lence that marks this period, their works are apt to be 
 slighted, or, as frequently happens, attributed to greater 
 names. 
 
 ViTTOEE Cabpaccio (painter in the last quarter of the 
 fifteenth and first quarter of the sixteenth century) was 
 a follower of Gentile rather than of Giovanni Bellini. 
 There are several large historical paintings by him in the 
 academy at Venice, of much the same character as those 
 by Gentile. 
 
154 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOZ IV. 
 
 [He is supposed to have studied with Luigi Vivarini. 
 His works are distinguished by their grand architectural 
 backgrounds, and the careful painting of elaborate detail, 
 freedom of composition, and rich purity of colour. The 
 History of S. Ursula, and other large works, in the academy 
 and elsewhere at Venice, afford interesting illustrations of 
 the costumes of the East and of old Venice. A votive 
 picture in the National Grallery (No. 750) testifies to his 
 powers as a colourist, and to his likeness to the BelHni in 
 design, and there are good examples of the master at Paris, 
 Berlin, Stuttgart, and Milan.] 
 
 GriovANNi Mansueti, Lazzaro Sebastiani, and Marco 
 Marziale may likewise be ranked as followers of Grentile. 
 Of Marziale there are two good examples in the National 
 Gallery, Nos. 803 and 804. Gtiovanni Battista or Cima 
 DA CoNEGLiANO (painted 1489-1517), on the other hand, 
 owes his excellence entirely to his study of G-iovanni, and 
 belongs therefore to the true Venetian school. In beauty of 
 colour and serene dignity of expression, he often, indeed, 
 rivals his master. His finest works are two Madonnas with 
 Saints, in the Gallery of Parma. There are two charming 
 Madonnas with landscape backgrounds by him in the 
 National Collection [and a finely-finished small S. Jerome], 
 but the larger picture of the Incredulity of S. Thomas is stiff 
 in treatment and cold in feeling. [He painted as back- 
 grounds to nearly all his pictures the hills and towers of his 
 native Conegliano. Cima's works largely influenced the art 
 of his native province, Friuli, where his most important 
 follower was Martino of Udine, called Pellegrino da San 
 Daniele, who, however, later on studied in Venice, and 
 successfully adopted some of the grand characteristics of 
 Venetian art. Pellegrino's frescoes in the church of St. 
 Anthony (executed 1498-1522), in San Daniele, approach 
 in merit the works of Pordenone and of Giorgione. The 
 large altar-piece in the National Gallery (No. 778) is a good 
 specimen of his style when Venetian influence began to 
 soften his Cimaesque hardnesss of outline, and to illumine 
 his Friulian dryness of tone. He died in 1547. Worthy of 
 mention is his contemporary, Girolamo da Treviso, son 
 of Pier Maria Peimacchi (also a painter), bom at Treviso in 
 1497. An imitator of Pordenone and of Giorgione, his best 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 155 
 
 work was, however, painted at Bologna, under the influence 
 of the followers of Raphael, and is now in the possession 
 of the National Gallery (No. 623). About 1538 Girolamo 
 entered the service of Henry VIII. of England, as architect 
 and engineer, and he was killed at the siege of Boulogne in 
 1544.] 
 
 Both Andrea Previtali, bom about 1480, died 1528),. 
 and Vincenzo di Biagio, known as Catena (still living in 
 1531), have suffered somewhat from their too near ap- 
 proach to the excellence of G-iovanni Bellini, many of their 
 best works having been attributed to him. There is a. 
 small but good example of Previtali in the National Gal- 
 lery, No. 695. Catena was likewise greatly influenced in 
 his later life by Giorgione, but he never entirely deserted 
 the traditions of religious art. The Warrior adoring the 
 Infant Christ, No. 234, of the National Gallery, formerly 
 ascribed to Giorgione, but now catalogued as of the school 
 of Giovanni Bellini, is considered by Crowe and Cavalcaselle 
 to be by Catena, and one of the most important of hi& 
 works, illustrating the latest and Giorgionesque phase of 
 his imitative career. The admirable S. Jerome in his 
 Study, No. 694, these critics likewise suggest may be by 
 him. 
 
 Marco Basaiti, Pietro Francesco Bissolo, Fran- 
 cesco Rizo DA Santa Croce,^ and several other lesser 
 painters among the " Bellinesques," as they are called, are 
 distinguished by much the same characteristics ; that is to 
 say, they are all harmonious and powerful in colour, solemn 
 and dignified in expression, and truly religious in feeling. 
 It is this latter quality that most effectually separates them 
 from the next group of painters whom we have to consider, 
 and in whom, as before said, the religious element entirely 
 disappears. 
 
 [Basaiti began his career as assistant to Luigi Yivarini, 
 and later on assisted Giovanni Bellini. A beautiful speci- 
 men of his style is in the National Gallery (No. 281), St. 
 
 [* GiROLAMO DA Santa Croce assisted Francesco, and painted in the- 
 years 1520-49. There are two pictures of Saints in the National 
 Gallery by him (Nos. 632 and 633). Another little-known follower of 
 the Bellinis, Bartolommeo Veneziano (painted 1505-30), is repre- 
 sented by a portrait in the National Gallery (No. 287).] 
 
156 HISTOEY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 Jerome reading, and still more beautiful is the Virgin and 
 •Ohild, No. 599. 
 
 There is a portrait ascribed to Bissolo in the National 
 •Gallery, No. 631.] 
 
 Giorgio Barbarelli, called Giorgione, because of the 
 greatness of his stature (born before 1477, died 1511), is 
 reckoned bj Ruskin as one of the " seven supreme colourists 
 of the world," ^ and truly from what tradition tells us of 
 his pictures, they must in their first beauty have been 
 miracles of glowing loveliness. Unhappily, his greatest 
 works were executed in fresco on the walls of the palaces 
 at Venice, and even in Vasari's time were already falling 
 into decay. Now, effaced by time, and the salt damps of 
 the lagoon, scarcely a trace of them exists. 
 
 Bom at Castelf ranco,in the province of Treviso, Giorgione 
 <;ame to Venice at an early age, and entered the school of 
 the Bellini, where he and Titian, who was his fellow student, 
 soon asserted their superiority, and became, so to speak, 
 •the masters of the master, for undoubtedly Bellini's genius 
 in his later years was stimulated to ever nobler exertions 
 by the works of his great pupils. Their influence over 
 each other is still more apparent, although their minds 
 were of a different stamp, and their view of human life 
 -dissimilar. 
 
 For Giorgione, above all things is a poet. His concep- 
 tions, even of biblical or historical scenes, are never com- 
 monplace, but surprise us by the introduction of some 
 unknown and romantic element. They are tinged with the 
 peculiar colour of his mind, as well as with that of his brush, 
 and thus have a mysterious charm that is lacking in 
 Titian, and other masters of the school, who are for the 
 most part essentially objective in their style. 
 
 One of his earlier works was a Madonna altar-piece for 
 the church of his native town Castelf ranco, a painting that 
 has happily escaped the fate of so many of his works.^ 
 The Madonna is here represented between S. Liberale and 
 
 ^ The other six being Titian, Veronese, Tintoret, Correggio, Rey- 
 nolds, and Turner. 
 
 2 Vasari tell us that in his youth he painted many Madonnas, 
 but only this and two or three others of doubtful authenticity now 
 a*emain. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 157" 
 
 S. Francis, and the sketch for the noble young figure of 
 S. Liberale is now in the National Gallery.' 
 
 Giorgione's skill in fresco-painting was first put forth, 
 it is said, on the front of his own house, which he adorned 
 with beautiful frescoes. After this, in 1504, he was com- 
 missioned conjointly with Titian, to paint the exterior of 
 the Fondaco de' Tedeschi, or Hall of Exchange of the 
 German merchants in Venice. Vasari gives but a vague- 
 account of the great works which the two rival young 
 artists here executed, the significance of whose meaning 
 seems to have been lost, even when he saw them. " I, for 
 my part," he says, " have never been able to understand 
 what they mean, nor could I find any one who could 
 explain them to me." They probably formed some poetical 
 allegory, the key to which, once lost, could not be ref ound.^ 
 Many of Giorgione's works are thus allegorical, and puzzle 
 us to decij)her their meaning. [One of these is the un- 
 doubtedly genuine picture of three philosophers in an open 
 landscape, in the Imperial Gallery at Vienna, and known 
 by the name of the Three Eastern Sages. It has also been 
 called the Astronomers, or Chaldean Sages. Another 
 thoroughly authenticated picture is that called the Family 
 of Giorgione, in the Giovanelli Palace at Venice, described 
 by the Anonymus of Morelli^ as " the landscape (on canvas) 
 with the storm, the gipsy woman, and the soldier." 
 
 These are the three works of Giorgione now existing 
 the authenticity of which is indisputable. 
 
 The following pictures are also ascribed to him by Signor 
 Morelli ("Italian Masters"): two early works — the Moses- 
 with the Burning Bush (No. 621), and Judgment of Solo- 
 mon (No. 630)— and the Knight of Malta (No. 622)— all in. 
 the TTffizi ; Christ bearing the Cross, belonging to Countess 
 Loschi at Viceuza ; Madonna and Child, with S. Anthony 
 and S. Koch (No. 418), in Madrid Museum, and ascribed. 
 to Pordenone by the catalogue; the small Daphne and 
 
 ^ A Knight in Armour (No. 269). It is said by some that in this 
 figure the painter drew his own portrait, by others that the warrior 
 saint was a portrait of Matteo Costanzo, a promising young soldier of 
 the Republic, who met with an early death. 
 
 ^ These frescoes are now wholly obliterated. 
 
 ' [See Nolizia d'Opere di disegno publicata e illustrata da D. Jacopo- 
 Morelli ed : Gustave Frizzoni. Bologna, 1774.] 
 
158 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 Apollo, in the Seminario Vescovileat Venice; Three Stages 
 of Life, in the Pitti (No. 157), ascribed to Lorenzo Lotto 
 in the catalogue ; the Concert, in the Louvre ; a picture of 
 two Young Men in a Landscape, in the Esterhazy G-allery 
 at Pesth, supposed by Signor Morelli to be a fragment of 
 a picture of the Birth of Paris, which is mentioned by the 
 Anonymus of Morelli; and the Sleeping Venus (No. 262), 
 m the Dresden Gallery, till lately described in the catalogue 
 as " a copy of Titian, probably by Sasso Ferrato." All 
 these are now generally accepted as genuine works of 
 Giorgione, and of all Signor Morelli's discoveries that of 
 the Sleeping Venus must rank as the most remarkable. It 
 is in very bad condition, but if properly restored would, in 
 the opinion of Signor Morelli, and not only of Signor 
 Morelli, rank among the most precious gems, not only of 
 the Dresden, but of all galleries in the world. It is en- 
 graved in Sir H. Layard's new edition of Kugler. Messrs. 
 Crowe and Cavalcaselle doubt the Concert (a pastoral 
 picture) in the Louvre, but believe in the Concert in the 
 Uffizi. As to the more or less doubtful pictures the 
 reader is referred to Morelli's " Italian Painters," Wolt- 
 mann and Woermann's " History of Painting," and Sir H. 
 Layard's new edition of Kugler, in all of which books they 
 will find a summary of recent controversy, besides refe- 
 rences to other authorities. The Concert of the Pitti is an 
 exquisite picture, and whether by Giorgione or not quite 
 justifies the following description.] Here are simply three 
 half-length figures, probably portraits, standing together, 
 one of whom, an Augustine monk, touches the keys of an 
 harpsichord with his fingers, looking round the while to 
 one of his companions as if to ask him some question. 
 Nothing can well be more simple, and yet so fully is the 
 genius of the painter shown in the work, and so subtle and 
 harmonious is its varied colour, that we at once recognise it 
 as one of the master- works of that wonderful age. 
 
 The Concert of the Louvre is a pastoral idyll, wherein are 
 set shepherds and scantily attired nymphs, who have evidently 
 merely cast aside their clothing in order to give the painter 
 an opportunity of displaying the richness of his carnations. 
 Several such idyllic scenes were, no doubt, painted by 
 Giorgione, but he is by no means responsible for all that 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 159 
 
 are now attributed to him. If we wonder at the rarity of 
 his undisputed works, we must remember his life only 
 reckoned thirty-three years, and he does not appear to 
 have been, like Eaphael, a remarkably industrious painter. 
 
 Eidolfi tells us that he died of a broken heart, in con- 
 sequence of the unfaithfulness of his mistress, who deserted 
 him for his friend, Morto da Feltre. Vasari also speaks 
 of his fondness for " love-passages," and hints at a similar 
 cause for his death to that which he carelessly assigns for 
 Kaphael's. It is, however, tolerably certain that, whether 
 broken-hearted or not, Giorgione died of the plague in 
 1511. But even though the broken heart be a poetical 
 fiction, it seems not improbable that at some period a 
 shadow of sorrow crossed the painter's brilliant life, for 
 even in his gayest subjects, there is often an underlying 
 element of sadness and mystery — a " prophecy of sorrow," 
 as Mrs. Jameson calls it — that is very different to the clear, 
 defined expression of the enjoyment of human life that we 
 find in Titian and other masters of this school. 
 
 Of the masters who were influenced by Giorgione 
 (he had no direct pupils), Sebastiano del Piombo, before 
 mentioned as having gone to Rome, where he became a 
 follower of Michael Angelo, is undoubtedly the most 
 important. 
 
 A more powerful master of this time, whose style was 
 likewise formed to a certain extent upon that of Palma 
 Vecchio and Giorgione, was Giovanni Antonio da Por- 
 DENONE (1483-1539), a painter who is thought by some to 
 have rivalled even Titian in the glow of his colouring and 
 the beauty of his flesh-painting. His pictures are generally 
 of large size and spirited treatment. 
 
 David with the head of Goliath, the Daughter of Hero- 
 dias with the head of S. John the Baptist, and Judith 
 with the head of Holof ernes, are among the subjects he 
 has chosen. His principal frescoes are in the Church of the 
 Madonna di Campagna, at Piacenza.^ 
 
 Two pictures at Burleigh House, the Finding of Moses 
 
 ' Crowe and Cavalcaselle, " History of Painting in North Italy." 
 [Other important works of this highly dramatic and decorative painter 
 are in the church of Salvatore at Colalto, the cathedrals at Treviso and 
 Cremona, in the Doria Palace at Genoa, &c.] 
 
160 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 and the Adoration of the Kings, are assigned to Pordenone 
 by Dr. Waagen, but besides these, which are doubtful, 
 there are few examples of his work in England. The Apostle 
 in the National G-allery, No. 272, if genuine, is not a 
 fortunate specimen of his powerful and colossal style. 
 
 Bernabdino Licinio (painted 1624-1541), a relation of 
 Pordenone's, and several other lesser artists cojjied and 
 carried on this style. [To Licinio may be attributed a 
 large number of the portraits ascribed in galleries to 
 Pordenone, of which the so-called Family of Pordenone 
 at Hampton Court, No. 152, is an example.] 
 
 Another master who came very near to the highest point 
 of Venetian greatness, but who just fell below the surpass- 
 ing excellence of Giorgione and Titian, was Jacopo Palma 
 (bom probably about 1480, died 1528), or Palma Vecchio,. 
 as he was called, to distinguish him from a younger painter, 
 his nephew of the same name. 
 
 Although influenced, like almost every master of his 
 time, by the seductive Griorgione, he yet preserved a 
 thoroughly independent position. His pictures have not 
 indeed the coarse power of Pordenone's, but they have a 
 soft sensuous beauty, never falling into sensuality, which is 
 peculiarly attractive. Strange to say, although tempted, 
 one might suppose, by his exquisite perception of female 
 loveliness, we have scarcely any mythological subjects by 
 his hand ; ^ no naked goddesses or nymphs. He simply 
 painted the daughters of Venice in their own splendid and 
 voluptuous beauty, without ideaUsing them or spiritualising 
 them in the least. The enchanting Graces of the Dresden 
 Gallery, so well known by engravings, and considered to be 
 the daughters ^ of the master, exhibit his powers in their 
 highest perfection. The magnificent female portrait, known 
 as La Bella di Tiziano, in the Sciarra Gallery at Eome, 
 though ascribed to Titian, is now generally supposed to be 
 by him. His Madonnas and Saints are of the same ripe 
 type of human beauty as his female portraits. 
 
 His most important religious work is the altar-piece of 
 
 ^ There is a Venus at Dresden, but it is not certain that it is authentic. 
 [It is not doubted now. The Dresden Gallery has four or five good 
 examples of this fine painter.] 
 
 [2 Palma had a niece named Magdalena, but had no daughters.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 161 
 
 the chapel of the Bombardiers in the church of S. Maria 
 Formosa, where S. Barbara is represented as a magnificent 
 heroine, not unlike the proudest of the three sisters in the 
 Dresden Gallerj. 
 
 [A contemporary of Palma's, and probably a fellow 
 student of his under Griovanni Bellini, was Lorenzo Lotto, 
 who was bom at Treviso about 1480, and died about 1558. 
 His chief works are at Bergamo and Venice, at both of which 
 places he resided many years. Those at Bergamo resemble 
 Correggio in grace and chiaroscuro, those in Venice are 
 Titianesque. His early works show the influence of Bellini. 
 Though various in style, and much affected by other artists, 
 he was a painter of originaHty and skill, a fine colourist, 
 and though not rising to the highest rank, an artist of an 
 importance that has been only lately recognised. The 
 splendour of his best work, as a religious painter, can only 
 be seen in Italy, but there are examples of it in the 
 Louvre, St. Petersburg, Vienna, Madrid, and the Bridg- 
 water Gallery. There are two of his pictures in the 
 National Gallery, the fine Portraits of Agostino and Niccolo 
 della Torre, No. 699, and A Family Group, No. 1047, and 
 at Hampton Court there is A Portrait, No. 114, till lately 
 ascribed to Correggio.] 
 
 [Giovanni Busi Cariani (painted 1508-1541), was 
 another painter of this period whose claims to notice have 
 been recently advocated by Messrs. Crowe and Cavalcasselle. 
 He was a close imitator of Palma and of Lotto, and some 
 of his works are ascribed to Bellini and to Giorgione. Most 
 of his works are at Bergamo.] 
 
 We now come to the greatest of the Venetians, the 
 greatest painter perhaps, considered only as a painter, of 
 all time; for whilst Leonardo, Kaphael, and Michael 
 Angelo claim our reverence as artists, and by the beauty 
 and nobility of the ideas that they set forth in their works. 
 Titian calls forth our admiration by the magnificence of 
 his language alone, independently of the thoughts ex- 
 pressed in it. He remains, therefore, the supreme painter 
 — master of the art of laying colour — of Italy, and after 
 his day, painters could desire nothing more than " the 
 drawing of Michael Angelo, and the colouring of Titian." 
 
 TiziANO Vecellio (born at Pieve, in the province of 
 
162 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 Cadore, in the Friuli. in 1477, died at Venice, 1576), 
 entered the school of Griovanni Bellini shortly after Grior- 
 gione, and quickly deserted the religious traditions of the 
 teacher to follow the more brilliant and daring style of his 
 fellow student, who had already achieved success. Titian's 
 early works so closely resemble those of G-iorgione, that 
 critics often disagree as to the master to whom they be- 
 long ; indeed, had G-iorgione lived to the same ripe age as 
 Titian, it would probably have been difficult to tell which 
 was the greater master of the two, but Giorgione's early 
 death left Titian to pursue the road to perfection without a 
 rival. 
 
 The frescoes already mentioned, that he executed with 
 Giorgione, on the outside of the Fondaco de' Tedeschi, 
 brought him early fame, but caused, so Vasari states, a 
 jealous feeling in Giorgione' s mind, which separated the 
 two friends. After Giorgione's death, Titian continued 
 these frescoes alone, but all have now unfortunately 
 perished. 
 
 In 1514, he was invited by Alfonso I., Duke of Ferrara, 
 to his brilliant court, where he formed a lasting friendship 
 with Ariosto, who has celebrated him in his immortal poem. 
 From this time forth, indeed, his life was one continued 
 series of triumphs. Popes, kings, and emperors vied with 
 each other in showing him honour, and poets and philoso- 
 phers were proud to reckon him their friend. " The Friend 
 of Titian, and the Scourge of Princes," was, in fact, a title 
 that the worthless but clever Aretino bestowed upon him- 
 self. 
 
 For his patron, the Duke of Ferrara, Titian painted two 
 of the most celebrated of his early works, namely, the 
 Tribute Money (Cristo della Moneta), of which the original 
 is in the Dresden Gallery,^ and the Bacchus and Ariadne 
 of our National Collection, which has been justly extolled 
 as one of his finest works.^ 
 
 Besides this, and several allegorical compositions, one of 
 
 ^ There are numerous repetitions of this famous piece, all going by the 
 mme of Titian. 
 
 ^ It was pointed out to young students by Sir Joshua Reynolds as a 
 wonderful example of harmony of colour. Discourse VIII. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 163 
 
 -wliich, a Sacrifice to the Goddess of Fertility, afterwards 
 supplied Rubens with ideas, he likewise executed at this 
 period the well-known picture in the Louvre, to which the 
 title of Titian and his Mistress has been given, but which 
 is more probably the portraits of Alfonso and his second 
 wife Laura. ^ 
 
 On his return to Venice, about the year 1516, Titian was 
 appointed to continue the works of the Hall of Council, and 
 also to the office of Senseria, which Bellini's death at this 
 time left vacant. His period of highest excellence begins 
 about this date. 
 
 His powers were now fully developed, and his colouring 
 became, as Kugler says, " the expression of life itself." 
 Nothing, in fact, in painting, transcends its deep glory of 
 gold and purple, and its glow of light and heat : it is as 
 -unfathomable as the life it expresses. The beauty and 
 significance of colour had, as we have seen, for a long time 
 been revealing itself to the minds of the Venetians. Bellini 
 had expressed himself in pure and tender tones, Giorgione's 
 poetic nature revealed itself in more striking and brilliant 
 •chords. Pordenone had struck the keys with coarse power, 
 and Palm a Vecchio with mild sweetness ; but it was re- 
 served for Titian to bring out the full harmonies of the 
 whole gamut of colour. This he played upon as no master 
 ever before or since has done, producing no startling effects, 
 no vivid surprises, but simply the life-tones of nature, 
 especially as seen pulsating in the naked human form. 
 
 It was beauty only, not religion, that was now demanded 
 of painters, and sensuous — indeed, I might say sensual — 
 beauty was naturally better understood and appreciated in 
 a city like Venice, where vice and immorahty reigned im- 
 checked,^ than that higher spiritual beauty after which 
 the early religious painters strove. 
 
 The nude accordingly rose into favour. Michael Angelo 
 •gave it its most scientific, Titian its most sensuous expres- 
 sion. Like the Greek painters, he sought to represent 
 human life in its full enjoyment and animal perfection. 
 Even his Madonnas have no existence above this earth, 
 
 * His first wife was the notorious Lucrezia Borgia. 
 - Roger Ascham has recorded that he saw more crime and infamy 
 in eight days in Venice, than he had seen in all his life in England. 
 
164 DISTORT OF PAINTING. [eOOK IV. 
 
 and his Venuses are simply splendid women, whose love- 
 liness is enhanced by the subtle charms of the artist's 
 colouring. 
 
 ** The Venetian mind," says Euskin, " and Titian's espe-^ 
 cially, as the central type of it, was wholly realist, universal, 
 and manly. In this breadth and realism the painter saw 
 that sensual passion in man was not only a fact, but a 
 divine fact. The human creature, though the highest of 
 the animals, was nevertheless a perfect animal, and his 
 happiness, health, and nobleness depended on the due 
 power of every animal passion, as well as the cultivation of 
 every spiritual tendency ." 
 
 The magnificent picture of the Assumption of the Virgin,, 
 now in the academy at Venice, was painted by Titian, in 
 1516, for an altar-piece in the Church of Santa Maria de*" 
 Frari, and exhibits the full grandeur of his developed 
 style.^ The powerful figure of the Virgin is caught up, as. 
 it were, into the sky, where an angel, directed by the- 
 Father, waits to place the crown upon her head. Charming 
 groups of youthful boy angels surround her, whilst below 
 the amazed apostles who watch her upward flight exhibit, 
 the most varied emotions and longings. It is truly a work 
 of the utmost beauty of effect and colour, and amazes us- 
 by its wonderful life and energy ; but compare this Assump- 
 tion with the Madonna di San Sisto of Raphael, and we at 
 once perceive the difference between religious and worldly 
 art, between spiritual and sensual beauty. The truest ex- 
 cellence in art is only reached by uniting these two, but 
 this has been seldom attained, never perhaps wholly, except 
 by Leonardo. 
 
 In 1530 Titian was invited by the Cardinal Ippolito de*^ 
 Medici to Bologna, where the Emperor Charles V. and 
 Clement VII. were then holding a conference. Here in 
 1532 he painted his first portrait of the Emperor, repre- 
 senting him on horseback, in complete armour, and also a 
 
 ^ The brothers of Santa Maria, it is said, were at first somewhat 
 scandalised by the bold beauty and life of their altar-piece, used as they 
 had been to the calm conventionalities of religious art, but they decided 
 to keep their pictm-e when they were offered a much larger sum than 
 they had given for it by one of the ministers of Charles V. [Painted in 
 1518, Woermann.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 165 
 
 fine one of Clement VII., which now forms part of the 
 Bridgewater collection. From Bologna he proceeded to 
 Mantua, where he executed several commissions for Fede- 
 rigo G-onzaga. In 1545 he likewise went to Eome during 
 the pontificate of Paul III., of whom he has left two por- 
 traits. 
 
 Whilst at Eome he made the acquaintance of Michael 
 Angelo, and of Michael Angelo's biographer, Vasari, who 
 has left on record the great Florentine's judgment of the 
 great Venetian. " Now it chanced," writes Vasari, " that 
 Michelagnolo and Vasari going one day to see Titian, in 
 the Belvedere, beheld a picture which he had just then 
 finished, of a nude figure of Danae, with Jupiter trans- 
 formed into a shower of gold in her lap. Many of those 
 present began to praise the work highly, as people do when 
 the artist stands by, and Buonaroti, talking of Titian's 
 ivork when all had left the place, declared that the manner 
 ;and colouring of that artist pleased him greatly, but that 
 it was a pity that the Venetians did not study drawing 
 more, * for if,' he added, ' this artist had been aided by art 
 ^nd a knowledge of design, as he is by nature, he would 
 have produced works which none could surpass.' " 
 
 Of Titian's domestic life httle is known ; he appears to 
 liave been married about 1512, but to have lost his wife 
 l)efore 1530. He had three children — a profligate and 
 worthless son, named Pomponio ; Orazio Vecellio, a portrait- 
 painter ; and a daughter named Lavinia, who still lives for 
 lis in the magnificent portraits that her father has left of 
 her under various impersonations. One of the finest of 
 these is that in the Berlin Museum, where the splendidly- 
 .attired girl is holding up a plate of fruit. 
 
 The magnificence of Titian's style of life in Venice was 
 more that of a prince than an artist. He assembled around 
 him the most brilliant and intellectual society, and reckoned 
 amongst his friends, not only the poet Ariosto, the liber- 
 tine wit Aretino, and the sculptor Sansovino, but most of 
 the distinguished artists and men of letters of his day, who 
 used frequently to meet at his house. One of these friends, 
 in a letter quoted by Ticozzi, gives a description of a de- 
 lightful festival, "Ferrare Agosto," held to usher in August, 
 ■which was celebrated in Titian's garden, and at which the 
 
166 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOZ IV. 
 
 charms of wit, teauty, music, and wine were united in their 
 highest perfection. 
 
 He was already seventy-three years of age when his last 
 interview took place with Charles V. at Augsburg. Aretino 
 has described the scene that took place, when it was known 
 that Titian was about to depart from Venice. ** It was," 
 he says, " the most flattering testimony to his excellence to 
 behold, as soon as it was known that the divine painter was 
 sent for, the crowds of people running to obtain, if possible, 
 the productions of his art ; and how they endeavoured to- 
 purchase the pictures, great and small, and everything that 
 was in the house, at any price ; for everybody seems as- 
 sured that his august majesty will so treat his Apelles, that 
 he will no longer condescend to exercise his pencil except to- 
 oblige him." The painter, in fact, was at that time almost 
 as great a man as the Emperor, who, according to the well- 
 known story, picked up his pencil, and rephed to his apolo- 
 gies by affirming that " a Titian was worthy of being served 
 by a Csesar." 
 
 Although Titian was an old man at this time of triumph,, 
 he had still many long years of life before him, and some 
 even of his greatest works were painted after this date ; it 
 was not, indeed, until after he had attained his ninetieth 
 year that his hand lost its accustomed power. Even then, 
 his princely mode of life was maintained, for we learn that 
 when Henry III. passed through Venice he was magni- 
 ficently entertained by Titian at his own house, and that on. 
 the departure of the royal guest his munificent host pre- 
 sented him with all the pictures that had called forth his. 
 admiration. Vasari, who visited Venice in 1566, relates 
 that he found the patriarch still with pencils in his hand 
 and painting busily, and " great pleasure had Vasari in. 
 beholding his works, and in conversation with the master." 
 Finally, this marvellously prolonged and successful life 
 came to a close in 1576, when Titian, in the hundredth 
 year of his age, fell a victim to the plague that broke out 
 in that year. His son Orazio died of the same disease 
 during the same outbreak. Such was the universal terror 
 that prevailed at this time, that even burial in the churches 
 was denied to those who died of the plague ; but this pre- 
 caution was set aside in the case of Titian, who wa& 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 167 
 
 honourably interred in the church of the Frari, for which 
 he had so long before painted his famous Assumption. 
 
 As a portrait painter Titian stands unrivalled, perhaps, 
 in all ages. His portraits are pages of history, and he has 
 the merit that so few historians possess, of seizing all that 
 is most important and significant in the characters of his 
 sitters, and leaving out all that is trivial or meaningless. 
 He has left us portraits of many of the most celebrated 
 men of his time. The Emperor Charles V., whom he 
 painted several times, his son Philip II., the Duke of Alva, 
 Francis I. of France, the Constable de Bourbon, Caesar 
 Borgia, Ippolito de' Medici, all the Doges of his time 
 (whom he painted by virtue of his office), three Popes, 
 namely, Clement VII., Paul III., and Paul IV., as well as 
 his friends Aretino, Ariosto, and Sansovino, and many 
 other men of almost equal note, are all revealed to us by 
 his master power; they live, so to speak, on his canvas. 
 And last, not least, there are the portraits of himself. 
 These always represent him in his old age, but in the 
 searching eyes which shine from beneath the massive fore- 
 head and wrinkled brows, the intense, vigorous life, and 
 wonderful intellect of the old giant are seen even to the last. 
 
 No estimate of Titian's art would be sufficient without 
 mentioning the marvellous beauty of his landscapes. Like 
 Giorgione, he made his landscape backgrounds of great 
 importance, and has thrown into them a more poetical 
 expression than we usually find in his works. The land- 
 scape of the S. Peter Martyr, for instance, immensely 
 enhances the solemn effect produced by that powerful 
 work.^ The borders of the dark wood, the tall trees bend- 
 ing above in the wind, whilst through their interlaced 
 boughs the light of Heaven streams down on the mur- 
 dered man, the distant hills and the purple banks of 
 evening cloud, are all in poetic harmony with the awful 
 scene that is being enacted amidst their solemn beauty ; 
 and in the landscapes of many other of his works, also, the 
 same poetic feeling is manifest. 
 
 ' Unfortunately this work, one of Titian's most celebrated paintings, 
 was destroyed by tire in 1867 in the church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo. 
 All critics agreed in placing it amongst the highest productions of his 
 art. 
 
168 HISTORY OF PAINTIXG. [bOOK IV. 
 
 It would be impossible Here to enumerate even the most 
 famous of Titian's famous works. Suffice it to say that 
 they may be found in almost eveiy important gallery — 
 that the Louvre contains no less than eighteen examples, 
 including the noble Crowning with Thorns, formerly at 
 Milan ; the Entombment, a replica of that in the Man- 
 frini Palace ; and the Jupiter and Antiope, known as the 
 "Venus del Pardo" — that the Dresden Gallery has not 
 only the Tribute Money, but a charming Holy Family 
 with saints, and a Venus crowned by Love, of exquisite 
 beauty of flesh, and several other lesser works — that 
 Munich has seven paintings, principally portraits — Vienna, 
 the great Ecce Homo, several portraits, and other small 
 works — Madrid, most of the master-pieces painted for 
 Charles V. and Philip II., including the Diana and Cal- 
 listo, of which there is a good copy in the Bridgewater 
 Gallery — and that the National collection, besides the 
 Bacchus and Ariadne, and the Madonna with S. John the 
 Baptist and S. Catherine, examples of his earher period, 
 has the splendid portrait of Ariosto, equal in character 
 and colour to almost any portrait by his hand. The 
 Bridgewater Gallery likewise contains one of his celebrated 
 Venuses. 
 
 Although Titian had few real pupils, not having, as 
 Vasari tells us, " the disposition to instruct disciples, even 
 though encouraged thereto by their patience and good 
 conduct," yet, as might be expected, he had a great number 
 of followers, who all more or less successfully adopted his 
 style and colouring, and produced works whose rare excel- 
 lence can only be attributed to his powerful and beneficial 
 influence. In no other school, except perhaps that of 
 Leonardo da Vinci, do the works of the lesser men ap- 
 proach so near to the greatness of the master. 
 
 Amongst those painters who were more immediately 
 under Titian's influence may be mentioned Paris Bor- 
 DONE (1500-1570), who, in the exquisite beauty and warm 
 hfe of his flesh-painting, often equals Titian himself. His 
 female portraits, of which there is a magnificent examj^le 
 in the National Gallery,^ are splendid representations of 
 
 [^ (No. 674.) The gallery also contains another fine e.^:ample of this 
 master, " Daphnis and Chloe " (No. 637).] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 169 
 
 the proud, passionate, golden-haired, voluptuous beauties 
 of Venice. 
 
 BoNiFAzio DA Verona the elder ^ (about 1491-1540) 
 confined himself almost entirely to religious subjects. 
 [There is a picture by him in the National Gallery, No. 
 1202.] 
 
 [Certain artists of Brescia, though influenced by the 
 ^reat painters of Padua and Venice, retained sufficient in- 
 dependence of style to be separated from the rest of the 
 artists of North Italy. A simpler naturalism, a key of 
 colour inclined to silver rather than gold, prevails through 
 their more distinctive works. 
 
 One of these was Gtian Gironimo Savoldo, of Brescia 
 (died after 1548), who studied at Florence and Venice. 
 His most important work is in the Brera. At Berlin is a 
 Venetian Lady or S. Magdalen, of which a replica is in 
 the National Gallery.] 
 
 Better known is Alessandro Bonvicino, of Brescia, 
 called II Moretto (born in 1498, died about 1556). He 
 likewise eschewed worldly themes for his art, and although 
 undoubtedly owing much of his excellence of colouring to 
 the study of Titian, he managed to maintain a distinct 
 originality. [His great genius can only be thoroughly 
 studied in the churches of Brescia. But there are a few 
 good examples of his work in the public galleries of 
 Europe. At Milan and Venice, at Paris and St. Peters- 
 burg, he is well represented.] The Stadel Museum at 
 Frankfort possesses a magnificent symbolic altar-piece by 
 him, representing the four Latin Fathers and other sup- 
 porters of the Holy Catholic Church around the throne of 
 the Madonna. The National Gallery also has a grand 
 altar-piece, representing the Vision of S. Bernard, No. 
 625, another with the birth of the Virgin and two 
 Saints, No. 1165, and two fine portraits, Nos. 299, and 
 1025.] 
 
 [GiROLAMo RoMANiNO (about 1485 to about 1566), 
 though not equal to Moretto, was also a great artist. 
 His colouring is warm and Giorgionesque in his early 
 
 [' There were two Bonifazios called Veronese, and one Bonifazio 
 Veneziano. The elder Bonifazio Veronese was the best painter of the 
 f three.] 
 
170 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 works, and is always rich and harmonious. He is also 
 fine in composition, but often faulty in drawing. His 
 greatest works are at Brescia. In the National Gallery is 
 a large composite altar-piece of great beauty. No. 29.] 
 
 G-iAMBATTisTA MoRONi (about 1510-1578), studied 
 under II Moretto. His chief excellence lay in portraiture, 
 in which he surpassed almost every master of the period, 
 and all the Venetians were great in this particular line of 
 art. [His portrait of a tailor in the National Gallery, 
 No. 697, is a masterpiece of simple naturalism, and his 
 other portraits there, Nos. 742 and 1022, are little inferior 
 to it. 
 
 Although not belonging to this group of Brescian 
 artists, it was near Brescia that another painter of 
 dignity, simplicity, and originality was born. This was 
 Bartolommeo Montagna, the great master of Vicenza, 
 where he worked from about 1484 till 1517. Of his 
 numerous works, the best is the altar-piece with the 
 Madonna, enthroned now in the Brera, Milan, which, ac- 
 cording to Signor Morelli, shows the influence of Car- 
 paccio. The half-length of the Madonna and Child (No. 
 1098) in the National Gallery is accounted genuine, but 
 not No. 802. 
 
 Two painters of the Milanese school, the brothers Alber- 
 tino (died before 1529) and Martino Piazza, of Lodi, 
 may be mentioned here. There is a fine example of 
 Martino' s work in the National Gallery (No. 1152), a S. 
 John the Baptist in a cave, beyond which are seen snow- 
 capped mountains of great beauty. 
 
 Francesco Tacconi (painted 1464-1490) and Boccacio 
 BoccACCiNO (1460, died about 1518), two painters of Cre- 
 mona, are also represented in the National Gallery ; and by 
 Altobello Melone, a pupil of Eomanino, who worked 
 chiefly at Cremona, there is a remarkable picture of 
 Christ and his disciples going to Emmaus, No. 753.] 
 
 The germ of sensual evil that, as we have seen, was 
 planted by Giorgione and Titian, and grew with Paris 
 Bordone, was more fully developed in the meretricious art 
 of Andrea Schiavone, whose simpering and affected 
 beauties, so perfectly conscious of their nakedness, contrast 
 painfully with the calm, splendid goddesses of Titian, who 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 171 
 
 stand clothed in their own serene majesty and womanly 
 beauty/ 
 
 The drawing of Michael Angelo, with the colouring of 
 Titian, was the aspiring motto of Jacopo Robusti, known 
 as II Tintoretto, from the circumstance of his father 
 having been a dyer by trade (born 1518, died 1594). 
 Whether he ever attained to this much-desired union of 
 the peculiar characteristics of the two greatest masters is 
 a question that is much disputed by critics, some asserting 
 that his daring art really reached the heights it was ever 
 seeking to climb, and others that his genius 
 
 " But to sink the deeper rose the higher." 
 
 Both are perhaps in part correct in their judgment, for no 
 master's works were ever so unequal in their merit, or at 
 all events, no master ever had such unequal works attri- 
 buted to him. This inequality, though increased to us, no 
 doubt, by works wrongly ascribed, must, however, have 
 existed to some extent in the painter himself, for we find 
 that the Venetians were accustomed to say that " he had 
 three pencils — one of gold, one of silver, and a third of 
 iron." From his rapid mode of painting he acquired the 
 name of II Furioso. Covering walls and ceilings with the 
 boldest designs in less time than the mere decorator would 
 have spent over the work, it is not surprising that the 
 execution of some of these wonderful paintmgs was as 
 rough and mechanical as that of the decorator, whose 
 mode of proceeding he imitated. Much of his painting,, 
 indeed, could have been nothing more than the bold deco- 
 ration of a skilful journeyman. 
 
 On the other hand, there are several works by him in 
 which the highest artistic excellence, not only of conception 
 and composition, but likewise of execution, is reached. The 
 celebrated Miracle of S. Mark, now in the academy at 
 Venice, wherein the saint, a powerful-bodied man, descends 
 head downwards from Heaven to rescue a Christian slave 
 from his executioners, is a painting that is astounding,, 
 alike by its boldness of design, its marvellous effects of 
 
 ' Andrea Schiavone must not be confounded with another painter of 
 the name, Gregorio Schiavoxe, the pupil of Squarcione, v. page 72. 
 
.172 HISTOET OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 light and shade, and its powerful colouring. " C'est un 
 ■oeuvre de coloriste," says Charles Blanc, " qu'aucune autre 
 meme a Venise ne ferait pftlir." 
 
 The same, possibly, might once have been said of his 
 Paradise, a gigantic oil painting seventy -four feet long by 
 thirty feet high, in the Ducal Palace, which was executed 
 "by Tintoretto when he was seventy-six years of age (assisted 
 only by his son Domenico), in the incredibly short space of 
 three or four years. Whatever may have been the former 
 beauty of this enormous work, it has now completely dis- 
 appeared, and nothing is left but an inextricable mass of 
 <jonfusion. 
 
 Sacred subjects were treated by Tintoretto with a coarse 
 realism entirely opposed to the feeling and dignity of 
 religious art. He even degraded the mystery of the Last 
 Supper into a scene of vulgar carousal, and travestied the 
 Last Judgment until, as Vasari says, notwithstanding the 
 power displayed in it, " it had all the appearance of having 
 been painted as a jest." Mythological subjects were more 
 suited to his bold style, and his rendering of these was 
 often gracefully antique. 
 
 Like Titian, he lived to a great age, and painted with 
 vigour to the last. His fine portraits are now about the 
 best specimens of his art that remain ; for unfortunately 
 but few of his great works have escaped destruction. The 
 paintings assigned to him in galleries are very seldom 
 genuine. There is a fine etching by him (the only one 
 he is known to have executed) of the Doge Paschalis 
 Oiconia. 
 
 [The National G-allery contains two works by Tintoretto 
 — S. G-eorge and the Dragon (No. 16), a fine examj^le 
 of the master's force and colour, and Christ washing the 
 feet of His Disciples, No. 1130]. 
 
 Besides his son Domenico, Tintoretto had a daughter, 
 a portrait painter, known as Tintoretta. He had very 
 few followers ; his son, a German named Jacob Eotten- 
 HAMMEE, and Antonio Vasitacchi, called Aliense, were 
 indeed about the only masters who attemj^ted to imitate 
 liis outrageous style. 
 
 Paolo Cagliaei, usually known as Paolo Veeonese 
 ^orn 1528, died 1588), was, as his name implies, a native 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 173' 
 
 of Verona. The Veronese school had for some time past 
 been rising into note,' and even in the fifteenth century 
 had produced such men as Francesco Bonsigngei,^ 
 Francesco Caroto,^ Francesco Morone,* Girolamo 
 DAI LiBRi,' Paolo Morando," who, in Vasari's opinion, 
 had he lived, would have acquired an immense reputation, 
 Girolamo Mocetto, who principally devoted himself to 
 copper engraving, Giolfino, Torbido, and several others 
 of lesser merit. Many of these Veronese masters had studied 
 at Padua, and all, it would seem, were more or less in- 
 fluenced by Mantegna's art. The Veronese school, in fact, 
 was not much more than a branch of the Paduan until it 
 culminated in Paolo Veronese, who drew it at once to Venice- 
 He is, indeed, a Venetian painter in every characteristic, and 
 as Giovanni Bellini begins the ascending arc of Venetian 
 colour, so Paolo Veronese ends it, bringing it back to 
 earth to have its rich beauty trailed in the dust by suc- 
 ceeding masters. 
 
 Veronese went to Venice in 1555, having studied pre- 
 viously under Antonio Badile, his uncle, a painter of some 
 reputation in Verona. He does not, however, appear to 
 have attracted much attention in Venice at first, for we 
 find an author of the period regretting that there were no 
 rising young painters to carry on the glories of Titian's 
 art, and Vasari accords him but a sHght notice, having 
 evidently no notion of the fame he was afterwards to 
 acquire. 
 
 [^ For earlier painters of Verona, see pp. 45 and 84.] 
 
 [^ (1455-1519) pupil of Mantegna. A fine head in the National Gal- 
 lery, No. 736.] 
 
 [^ (1470-1546) pupil of Liberale and Mantep;na, called " The Proteus 
 of Veronese art" from his various styles. Principal works at \'erona.] 
 
 [* (1473-1529). Finest works at Organo. Examples in the Brera, 
 Berlin Museum, and National Gallery, No. 2S5.] 
 
 [' (1474-1556). Painted with Francesco Morone. Principal works 
 at Verona. Represented in National Gallery by a richly -coloured and 
 characteristic picture, No, 748.] 
 
 [•^ (1486-1622). The greatest of these forerunners of Paul Veronese. 
 There are two beautiful pictures by this refined master in the National 
 Gallery, No. 735 and 777.] 
 
 [^ Titian recommended him to assist in the decollation of the Council 
 Hall of the Doge's palace (destroyed by fire in 1579), for which work he- 
 received a gold chain from the Senate.] 
 
174 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 His first important work still existing is that executed 
 for the church of San Sebastiano, where he depicted on the 
 •ceiling some gorgeous scenes from the history of Esther. 
 These paintings attracted so much admiration, that the 
 monks engaged him for further work, and their church 
 was soon decorated with three large paintings, representing 
 the Martyrdom of S. Sebastian. In the first, where the 
 :saint is j^roceeding to the place of martyrdom with his 
 fellow- sufferers, Marcus and Marcellinus, the most tumul- 
 tuous life and excitement prevail, people crowding forward, 
 climbing on to balustrades, and clinging to jjillars, in order 
 to get a better view of the scene of execution. The other 
 two, in which the saint is stretched on the rack, and 
 pierced with arrows, are quieter in composition, and must 
 therefore have been less to the artist's taste. 
 
 For what Paolo Veronese sought above all things 
 to express, was the pomp and splendour of earthly pa- 
 geantry, the riches of this life, the vain-glory of mortal 
 man. There is no hint in any one of his works] of a belief 
 in any higher life than that of the beautiful Venetian city 
 in which he dwelt. 
 
 Quite naturally, therefore, he brings down his Madon- 
 nas, Saints, and most sacred characters to dwell -with him, 
 in this same splendid Venetian world, with its magnificent 
 Renaissance halls, its gorgeous costumes, and festive cele- 
 brations. He has no notion of anything more to be de- 
 sired than such happiness, and accordingly he seeks to 
 solace the pale martyrs, whom early art had represented in 
 mystic beatitude, by bringing them home to his own house 
 in Venice, where, clothed in rich apparel, they receive the 
 homage of his equally richly-attired wife and children, as 
 in the well-known picture in the Dresden Gallery. 
 
 But strange and incongruous as such a mode of repre- 
 senting sacred characters appears to us, it does not neces- 
 sarily betoken any irreverence in the mind of the painter. 
 Religion in Venice, even in the sixteenth century, was 
 m.ore a part of everyday life than it is with us English at 
 the present day, who j)ut it aside as something to be at- 
 tended to on Sundays and solemn moments, and deem it 
 irreverent for it to be introduced into our domestic con- 
 cerns or mercantile transactions. But with the Venetians, 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 175 
 
 the saints were regarded as a real power in the state, to be 
 <?ntreated, propitiated, or even, it may be, cheated on 
 occasion, but not as yet, at all events, to be shoved aside as 
 useless and incapable. 
 
 Paolo Veronese accordingly saw no more harm in intro- 
 ducing his Saviour at a lavish tumultuous Venetian ban- 
 quet, than he did in introducing Eleanor of Austria, 
 Charles V., Erancis I., Queen Mary of England, the Sultan 
 Achmet II., all of whom, as well as the most famous 
 painters then working in Venice, he has represented as 
 present at the Marriage of Cana. 
 
 This celebrated picture is so well known, that it needs 
 no description. Every one has formed some idea of the 
 painter's gorgeous style and colouring from it, and no 
 better example, perhaps, could have been taken. It was 
 originally painted for the refectory of the Convent of 
 S. Griorgio Maggiore, but now hangs in the Louvre. 
 
 Almost comparable to the Marriage of Cana, in point of 
 size, though perhaps not in general effect, is the Feast of 
 the Levite, of the Venetian Academy. The Supper at 
 Emmaus, was likewise a favourite subject with tliis master. 
 In one of his representations of it, that, namely, in the 
 Louvre, he has introduced himself and his family into the 
 solemn scene ; two of his little girls play with a large dog, 
 at the very feet of the Saviour. 
 
 Besides his festal banqueting scenes,^ his Adorations of 
 the Magi, and his grand altar-pieces, generally representing 
 some stirring biblical or legendary history, Paolo Veronese 
 has likewise painted a great number of mythological sub- 
 jects, with great splendour of colouring, but without much 
 taste. 
 
 He is wonderfully well represented in the National Gal- 
 
 * His fondness for these is amusingly illustrated by a memorandum 
 that, according to liidolfi, was found at the back of one of his drawings. 
 " If ever I have time," it states, " I will represent a sumptuous repast in 
 a superb gallery, at which the Virgin, the Saviour, and Joseph shall be 
 present, served by the richest cortege of angels that it is possible to 
 imagine, who shall offer to them, on plates of silver and gold, the most 
 exquisite viands, and an abundance of superb fruits. Others shall be 
 occupied in presenting to them, in transparent crystal and gold cups, 
 precious liqueurs, to sliow the zeal with which happy spirits serve their 
 Lord." 
 
176 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [eOOK IV. 
 
 lery, where tliere is not only his important hut unin- 
 teresting Family of Darius, but one of his Adorations, a 
 splendidly coloured Consecration of St. Nicholas [and the 
 beautiful Vision of S. Helena]. A study for the Eape of 
 Europa, which subject he painted several times, is also in 
 the Gallery. 
 
 He died in Venice shortly before Tintoretto, and a few 
 years after Titian. His brother Benedetto, his son Carlo,. 
 and a painter named Battista Zelotti,^ were his principal 
 followers. They signed themselves collectively as his heirs, 
 completed his unfinished works, and executed others in a» 
 similar style, but without his power, imagination and 
 colouring. 
 
 With Veronese and Tintoretto the glory of the great 
 colour school of Venice departed ; but before tracing its fall, 
 there remains to be noticed one other master, who like 
 Titian and Veronese, went to nature for instruction, but 
 who, unlike these masters, who only delighted in her glory 
 of purple, crimson, and gold, loved her in her most homely 
 garb. Instead of kings and queens, splendid architecture 
 and rich banquets, Jacopo da Ponte, called Bassano, from 
 his native town (1510-1592), painted peasants, beggars, 
 cottages, cattle, poultry, and even the pots and pans that 
 were afterwards such favourite subjects of the Dutch still- 
 life painters. In fact, he drew the dignified art of Venice 
 down to mere genre-painting, and without any attempt at 
 ideality, simply imitated the ordinary types he saw around 
 him. Thus, whether he represented a saint or a peasant 
 girl, it was all the same, one model did for both, or for the 
 Queen of Sheba if the occasion required it. But yet his 
 execution is so clever, and his colouring so radiant, that his 
 simple scenes of country life are not unworthy to be placed 
 beside Veronese's elaborate representations of pompous city 
 life. In truth, there is not much difference between the 
 aims of these two masters, different at first sight as their 
 styles appear. Veronese, it is true, surrounded his sacred 
 characters with all the attributes of wealth and dignity, 
 and Bassano placed them not unfrequently amidst the ac- 
 
 [^ Born at Verona about 1532, d. 1592. There is a portrait of a lady 
 in a green dress in the National Gallery which is doubtfully ascribed to 
 this master.] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 177 
 
 companiments of poverty, but they each brought them 
 down to earth, and made them of the earth, earthy. 
 
 The Good Samaritan, No. 277, of the National Gallery, 
 is a very fine example of Bassano's style and gem-like 
 colouring. 
 
 Bassano had four sons, all of whom he brought up as 
 painters, and who, after his death, inundated the markets 
 with pictures of familiar life, all cast, as it were, in the 
 same mould. 
 
 There yet remains one great master of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury who stands alone, as it were, amidst the painters of 
 histime,^ but who, by the sensuous character of his art, is 
 more nearly allied to the school of Venice than to the 
 severer intellectual schools of Padua or Florence, or to the 
 religious school of TJmbria. This master is Antonio Al- 
 LEORi DA CoRREGGio (bom 1494, died 1534). " If," says 
 Herman Grimm,* " we were to imagine streams issuing from 
 the minds of Eaphael, Michael Angelo, Leonardo, and Titian, 
 meeting together to form a new mind, Correggio would be 
 produced." And yet his genius is original, and even pecu- 
 liar in character, and his style — his eigenart, as the Ger- 
 mans call it — is thoroughly individual. Educated in one 
 of the schools of Lombardy, where Leonardo's influence 
 was predominant, he owed more to him, undoubtedly, than 
 to any other master ; but the exquisite grace that but gives 
 an additional charm to Leonardo's works, becomes in those 
 of Correggio a principal feature. The intellectual qualities 
 of Leonardo's art also disappear, and the sensuous are 
 exaggerated. 
 
 But what above all else distinguishes Correggio from 
 every other painter, is his wonderful understanding of 
 chiaroscuro, — his delicate perception of the minutest gra- 
 dations of light and shade. Here he is without a rival. 
 He has no lofty ideal, no deep thoughts to express ; but his 
 works diffuse such a marvellous atmosphere of light and 
 joy, that we forget altogether to criticise them, so pene- 
 trated are we by their beauty. His figures seem to live in 
 the serene happiness of a golden age, unstained by sin or 
 
 ^ Vasari calls him " pittore singularissimo." 
 » '• Life of Michael Angelo," vol. ii. 
 
178 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 sorrow. They are literally bathed in soft dreamy bliss as 
 they— 
 
 " Lie reclined 
 On the hills like gods together, careless of mankind." 
 
 or are filled, as it were, with passionate rhythmical move- 
 ment. 
 
 His father was a merchant of good position in Correggio, 
 and destined his son for a learned career, but he early 
 showed a taste for painting, which was probably cultivated 
 by his uncle Lorenzo Allegri, a painter of Correggio, other- 
 wise unknown to fame. 
 
 In 1514, when he was only twenty years of age, he had 
 already executed the large altar-piece of the Madonna with 
 Saints, in the Dresden Gallery. This was painted for the 
 Franciscan convent at Correggio, for the sum of 100 ducats, 
 equal to about £15 of our money.^ 
 
 In 1518 he was called to Parma, where more important 
 and profitable work awaited him. His first achievement 
 here was the painting of the hall of the Nunnery of S. 
 Paolo, which the abbess, who must have been deeply tinc- 
 tured with the classical taste of the age, chose to have 
 decorated, not, as was customary, with sacred or legendary 
 histories, but with scenes from Pagan mythology. The 
 Virgin Diana, the Three Grraces, and the Fates, all, no 
 doubt, bearing some allusion to the high vocation of the 
 virgin life of the cloister, were accordingly painted in fresco 
 on the walls by Correggio with consummate elegance, the 
 vault being conceived after the manner of classic painting, 
 as a vine arbour, with enchanting little genii peeping 
 through its openings. 
 
 After this he received a commission to paint the cupola 
 of S. Giovanni, at Parma. This work, begun in 1520, 
 represents the Ascension of Christ, who soars to heaven, 
 watched by the twelve apostles, and is remarkable chiefly 
 for its powerful foreshortening. Two years later, when 
 his love of foreshortening had developed into a strong 
 passion, he undertook the great dome of the cathedral, 
 which he covered with a multitude of figures foreshortened 
 in every possible and impossible attitude. 
 
 ^ He received the last payment for it in April, 1515. 
 
:B00K IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 179 
 
 In the principal group, the ascending Virgin is borne 
 on the clouds in triumph by the angelic host, whilst Christ, 
 ^ violently foreshortened figure, precipitates Himself from 
 heaven to meet her. Such is the rapturous scene that fills 
 the centre of the dome ; lower stand the apostles gazing 
 into the heaven of light that is opened above them. It is 
 unquestionably a work of boundless power and skill, but 
 unfortunately the effect on the mind of the spectator is too 
 bewildering for him to form any just appreciation of its 
 merits ; and as, in consequence of its excessive display of 
 foreshortening, more limbs than bodies are seen when it is 
 looked at from below, the painter, even in his life-time, 
 was not inaptly accused of having painted a ** ragout of 
 frogs " — only the legs of frogs, as is well-known, being used 
 in cookery. 
 
 Although these marvellous frescoes will always excite 
 "the admiration of the critic, it is nevertheless by his 
 smaller easel pictures that Correggio is best known, and 
 most truly to be appreciated. The soft beauty and tender 
 grace of many of these is beyond compare ; and the magic 
 of light shed over them transports us, as it were, into a 
 more radiant world. Take, for instance, the celebrated 
 S. Jerome, or the Day, of the Parma Gallery, where the 
 figures seem literally enveloped in an atmosphere of light, 
 or the not less famous Notte, at Dresden, in which the 
 mystic light emanating from the body of the divine Child 
 glorifies the entire scene, the corporeal forms of the angels 
 iSeing almost lost to view in its effulgence. 
 
 The Marriage of S. Catherine was a subject frequently 
 painted by Correggio, but never, perhaps, with such ex- 
 quisite grace and sentiment as in the well-known picture 
 in the Louvre. The Magdalen, also, was one of his 
 favourite heroines, doubtless because he could bestow upon 
 this type of frail but loving womanhood all the charms 
 of sensuous beauty. The magnificent Magdalen of the 
 S. Jerome is characterized by Wilkie as being, "for 
 •colour, character, and expression, the perfection, not only 
 of Correggio, but of painting." 
 
 More suitable, perhaps, to Correggio's "picturesque 
 sensuality," are his mythological nudities, in which he has 
 4ittained to a charming expression of love and physical 
 
180 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 beauty. Leda with the Swan, in a wooded landscape with 
 her bathing companions, in the Berlin Gallery ; the 
 Jupiter and Antiope of the Louvre; the Ganymede at 
 Vienna ; the Danae in the Borghese Palace at Rome ; and 
 the Education of Cupid in our National Collection, No. 10, 
 are among the most famous of these mythological subjects. 
 He has reached in them, perhaps, the utmost development 
 of sensuous life that could be gained without falling intO' 
 base sensuality.^ 
 
 Correggio formed a few scholars, but none of much note, 
 except Peancesco Mazzuola, called II Parmigianc 
 (1503-1540), and even he merely caught his master's super- 
 ficial manner, which he exaggerated to a disagreeable 
 excess, without acquiring the serene beauty of his style.^ 
 Instead of going to nature for instruction, Parmigiano- 
 tried to improve nature by clothing her in an elegant garb 
 of his own fashioning, and thus doubtless arose the aifec- 
 tation and unnatural straining after effect that we notice 
 in his works. 
 
 The Vision of S. Jerome, in the National Gallery, is a. 
 very good example of his style. As usual, grace is exagge- 
 rated by Parmigiano in this picture, and its greatest fault 
 is its too great elegance. 
 
 No painter of any merit succeeded to Parmigiano at. 
 Parma; but Federigo Baroccio (1528-1612), who is 
 usually reckoned as belonging to the Koman school, was 
 formed quite as much by the study of Correggio as of 
 Raphael, and his works evince much the same affectation 
 as those of Parmigiano.^ Both masters belong, in fact, by 
 their art, to the period of decline, although the decline is. 
 not so visible in their works as in those of many of their 
 contemporaries, and most of their successors. They may be 
 
 [^ In the National Gallery are also the exquisite little Holy Family 
 known as La Vierge au Panier, No. 23 ; the Ecce Homo, No. 15^ 
 which recent criticism has again restored to the master ; and a replica, or 
 more probably a copy, of the Duke of Wellington's Agony in the Garden, 
 No. 76.] 
 
 [^ It is doubtful whether he actually worked with Correggio. — W. 
 and W.] 
 
 [^ One of his best pictures, known as Madonna del Gatto, is in the- 
 National Gallery (No. 29).] 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 181 
 
 •said, in fact, together with Eaphael's more immediate 
 scholars, already noticed, to have somewhat broken the fall 
 of Italian art as it descended from the greatest heights 
 to the lowest degradation. 
 
 Chaptee V. 
 LAST EFFOETS AND EXTINCTION. 
 
 Eevival of Art — Eclecticism— The Carracci — Gdido Reni — 
 Caravaggio— Spagnoletto— Salvator Rosa. 
 
 TOWAEDS the end of the sixteenth century there was 
 a reaction in the article world against the "frothy 
 pathos and empty daring of the mannerists," the merely 
 superficial copyists of the great painters of the beginning 
 of the century ; a reaction in favour of a deeper study of 
 all preceding works of art and of nature itself ; and, as the 
 result, the schools of art known as the Eclectic arose. 
 
 At the head of this movement for simpHcity and truth 
 stood LoDOvico Cabeacci, of Bologna, and to him belongs 
 the credit of having given Italian art a fresh and powerful 
 impulse at a time when stagnation seemed imminent. 
 
 In Venice the glories of "Kntoretto and Veronese blinded 
 their contemporaries to the symptoms of decay in their 
 works, and the positive decline in those of their followers. 
 "Throughout the rest of Italy painting was at a low ebb, 
 but three artists at least formed exceptions to the general 
 decadence, or were only partially affected by it, viz., 
 Bronzing at Florence, Lanini at Milan, and Baeroccio, 
 who has been already mentioned, at Eome. Angelo 
 Bronzing (1502-1572), the friend of Vasari, and a pupil 
 of Pontormo, painted some good portraits and frescoes in 
 Florence. His fine feeling for form is sometimes marred 
 by affectation. The allegory in the National Gallery (No. 
 <551) is one of his best works. A follower of Gaudenzio 
 Ferrari, Bernardino Lanini (1508-1578), in his later 
 
182 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 style approaches that of Luini, though his sentiment is 
 exaggerated, and his colouring faulty. In his altar-piece 
 in the National Gallery (No. 1700), the head of the Mag- 
 dalen is an example of the Luiniesque sweetness of expres- 
 sion often attained by him. Gio. Paolo Lomazzo, author 
 of the Trattato della Pittura (1584), was one of the best of 
 Lanini's scholars. At Bologna the manneristi Prospeeo 
 FoNTANA (1512-1518), DoMENico TiBALDi (bom in 1540), 
 and Bartolomeo Passerotti (about 1540-1595), were not 
 wholly unworthy the esteem in which they were held by 
 their fellow-citizens. In Bologna the new school was 
 founded. 
 
 LoDOvico Carracci (1555-1619), the son of a master- 
 butcher, disappointed his master, Fontana, it is said, by 
 his lack of facility. This want determined the young 
 painter to a course of strenuous endeavour and untiring^ 
 study. During his wander jahre as journeyman-painter,. 
 Lodovico visited the cities of the north and central Italy, 
 diligently studying in each the peculiar excellences of the- 
 great masters of his art. In Venice he made acquaint- 
 ance with Tintoretto, and was particularly attracted by 
 the Venetian mastery of technic, and by Correggio's chiaro- 
 scuro. Keturning in 1578 to Bologna, Lodovico entered 
 the guild of painters, and inspiring his two cousins in the 
 second degree, Agostino (1557-1602), and Annibale 
 Carracci (1560-1609), with a like ambition for hard work 
 and thoroughness of knowledge, he sent them on their 
 travels at the expiration of their apprenticeships. In 
 1582 the brothers returned to Bologna, and there, with 
 Lodovico, and under his direction, were engaged in seve- 
 ral public works which brought them much credit, despite 
 the jealous opposition all three met with from many of the 
 manneristi. 
 
 Having formulated those principles of art which to this; 
 day form the basis of all art instruction, Lodovico opened 
 his academy at Bologna in 1589. This " Accademia degli 
 Incamminati," i.e., academy of those who are on the right 
 road,^ boldly professed to teach painting on a scientific 
 system, which, besides drawing from the antique and the 
 
 ^ Woermann, " Geschichte der Malerei," vol. iii., p. 118. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 183 
 
 life, included practical anatomy, dissection, and lectures 
 on theory. In spite of the antagonism of the older schools, 
 the academy soon became the most important of the time 
 in Italy, artists from all parts of the country being attracted 
 to it by the fame of Lodovico's teaching, and the success 
 of his pupils. 
 
 The eclectic principles of this school are set forth in the 
 well-known sonnet addressed by Agostino to Nicolo dell' 
 Abbati,^ wherein the artist who desires to be a good painter 
 is recommended to acquire " the design of Rome, Venetian 
 shade and action, the dignified colouring of Lombardy, the 
 terrible manner of Michael Angelo, Titian's iruth to na. 
 ture, the pure and sovereign style of Correggio, Raphael's 
 true symmetry, the decorum and fundamental know- 
 ledge of Tibaldi,^ the invention of the learned Primati- 
 cus, and a little of Parmigiano's grace, but without so 
 much study and so much toil let him apply himself to 
 imitate the works our Nicolino (dell' Abbati) has left us 
 here." ' 
 
 The Carracci themselves were far greater artists than 
 the four painters last named in their sonnet, and it is 
 only in their earlier works that the patchwork practice 
 possible from a too literal adherence to the eclectic principle 
 
 ^ NicoLO dell' Abbati (1512-1571)ofModena, a follower of Raphael, 
 whose Nativity, in the Leoni Palace, and other works, brought him a 
 high reputation in Bologna, assisted Primaticcio at Fontainebleau after 
 1552. 
 
 ' Pellegrino Tibaldi (1527-1596) achieved a great reputation as an 
 architect and painter, his conventional style was greatly admired. He 
 was invited to Spain by Philip II. 
 
 • " Chi farsi un buon pittorcerca, e desia, 
 II disegno di Roma abbia alia mano, 
 La mossa coll' ombra Veneziano 
 E il degno colorir di Lombardia 
 Di Michelangiol la terribil via, 
 II vero natural di Tiziano, 
 Del Correggio lo stil puro e sovrano 
 E di un Ratfael la giusta simmetria 
 Del Tibaldi il decoro, e il fondamento, 
 Del dotto Primaticcio I'inventare 
 E un po di grazia del Parmigianino, 
 
 Ma senza tanti studi, e tanto stento, Vt^^^Uv 
 
 Si ponga I'opre solo ad imitare ^ ^^^ Vvi\,\\"' 
 
 Che qui lasciocci il Dostro Niccoli^o." 
 
 l^\ ^^ " 
 
 :N\t^'^ 
 
 0' 
 
 tv^ 
 
 
184 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 is visible. The individuality of the Carracci asserted itself 
 in their maturer work, and the vigorous personality and 
 naturalistic tendency of Annibale made themselves felt 
 even in the early frescoes of the Fava Palace at Bologna, 
 where Annibale was accused of forsaking the classic ideal 
 so far as to paint in figures taken direct from street models. 
 The triumph of the eclectics is to be seen in the great hall 
 of the Farnese palace at Rome, which Lodovico was called 
 upon to decorate in 1597. He, however, made over the 
 work to his two cousins. Agostino, after designing much 
 of the decoration, and executing several of the finest paint- 
 ings, was induced by disagreements with his brother to 
 retire to Parma (about 1600), where he died two years 
 later. Two of Agostino' s cartoons, the Triumph of G-alatea 
 and Cephalus and Aurora, are to be seen in the l!^ational 
 Gallery, 
 
 The Farnese frescoes were finished by Annibale and his 
 pupils, Domenichino and others, in 1607 or 1608. Un- 
 rivalled in perfection of technique, monumental in grandeur 
 of composition and harmony of style, these frescoes of sub- 
 jects from the heathen mythology are set in richly decora- 
 tive designs in monochrome of fruit, flowers, caryatids, 
 etc., in keeping with the over-laden style of the sixteenth 
 century Italian architecture. Annibale' s vigorous Triumph 
 of Bacchus became the model for the many compositions 
 of that theme painted during the next hundred years.^ 
 
 Lodovico Carracci who occupies more the position of a 
 teacher than a painter, has executed works remarkable for 
 their severe drawing, and despite heaviness, for much indi- 
 vidual beauty and pathetic sentiment. A not very favour- 
 able example is in the National Gallery. His cultivated 
 mind and accurate taste exercised a beneficent influence 
 over the art of his time, and the impress of his teaching 
 endured for nearly a century after his death. 
 
 Agostino's varied accomplishments^ and highly de- 
 veloped critical faculty were of service to the academy, 
 whilst his amiable social quahties and intercourse with 
 
 • For a detailed criticism of the Farnese frescoes, and the ascription of 
 the parts to the Carracci and their pupils respectively, see "Woermann. 
 Also Janitschek in Dohmc's " Kunst u, Kiinstler." 
 
 2 Malvasia, " Felsina Pittrice," vol. i., p. 266. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 185 
 
 men of letters and of science of the University of Bologna 
 assisted the school to hold its own against old and new 
 rivals. His colour is fresher than Lodovico's. Amongst 
 his rare easel pictures is a landscape at Berlin, but he is 
 best known by his engravings on copper.^ 
 
 In technique and in versatility of talent Annibale is equal 
 to the other two Carracci ; in vigour and originaHty of con- 
 ception he far surpasses both. In his earlier works, whilst 
 under the influence of his master, Lodovico, he is strongly 
 reminiscent of Correggio, and sometimes of the Venetians. 
 Examples of these manners are No. 9 and the sorely abraded 
 No. 88 in the National G-allery. Later on, Annibale's 
 individuality asserted itself, and his leaning to naturalism 
 is observable in the genre-like conception of some of his 
 small religious easel pictures, and in the few pieces of 
 actual genre by his hand. Amongst these last, II Masca- 
 tone, in the Uffizi, and the Greedy Eater, of the Colonna 
 Palace at Rome, show some sense of humour. His portraits 
 of the Carracci family seated in a butcher's shop (Christ's 
 College, Oxford) is the coarsest and most realistic work of 
 his hand. Amongst his drawings at the British Museum 
 are several which, for their realism, might belong to that 
 new school of " naturalisti " which sprang up beside 
 successful eclecticism, and largely re-acted upon it. 
 Amongst Annibale's finest religious pictures are the Three 
 Marys at Castle Howard, and S. Eochus in the Dresden 
 Gallery. 
 
 Annibale Carracci was the first Italian master who 
 practised landscape for its own sake, and made it a separate 
 branch of art. The great Venetians had all manifested a 
 deep feeling for landscape beauty, and Titian's landscapes 
 especially are among the finest that have ever been painted ; 
 but they never ventured upon them except as a setting for 
 their figures, whereas Annibale, without any true feeling 
 for landscape, made it a chief study, and founded the 
 school of conventional landscape, which was afterwards 
 more fully developed by Claude and Poussin. The two 
 
 ^ Agostino left a son Antonio, a promising painter, who died young, 
 by whom there is a painting in the Louvre. Paolo, brother of Ludovico, 
 and Francesco Carracci, nephew of Agostino, were also painters in 
 Bologna. 
 
186 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 landscapes in the National Gallery by him are obscured 
 by dirt. In the same gallery are two little poetical mytho- 
 logical paintings ; one, Pan and Apollo, possesses an idyllic 
 charm lacking in his larger mythological compositions, 
 which are often cold and heavy. These, and the small 
 Pan and Bacchante in the TJffizi, are forerunners of Nicolas 
 Poussin's joyous crews of nymphs and satyrs, if less redo- 
 lent of animal spirits and sylvan abandon. 
 
 Disappointed with the payment of only 500 scudi for 
 his great work in the Farnese, Annibale left the execution 
 of the greater part of his next work in the chapel of S. 
 Griacomo degli Spagnuoli to his pupil Albani. In 1609 he 
 went to Naples, where the jealous persecution of the local 
 painters is said to have added to his vexation of body and 
 spirit, so that he returned to Rome, where he died of 
 malaria, some said of poison, that same year.^ 
 
 It was in the school of the Carracci that the practice of 
 painting on copper and on slate became common, though 
 Sebastian del Piombo had experimented upon marble, 
 slate, and other stones. 
 
 Several of the numerous pupils of the Carracci, or 
 painters formed in their school — Gruido, Albani, Domeni- 
 chino, Lanfranco, and Gruercino — attained to almost equal 
 distinction with the masters, striking oiat for themselves 
 side paths from the " right road " of the eclectics. 
 
 DoMENico Zampieri, better known as Domenichino 
 (1581-1641), is, for example, held by many to be superior 
 to Annibale ; but although his works are charged with 
 more sensation and livelier sentiment, he has a less power- 
 ful individuality. His most important painting is the Com- 
 munion of S. Jerome, reproduced in most works on Italian 
 art, and esteemed by the critics of the eighteenth century, 
 by whom these later Italian masters were so greatly exalted, 
 as the greatest altar-piece in Eome, with the exception 
 of Raphael's Transfiguration. At the age of fourteen 
 Domenichino deserted the school of the rough Fleming, 
 Denis Calvert, in Bologna, for that of the suave and cul- 
 tured Carracci family. An earnest and industrious scholar, 
 he assisted Annibale in the Farnese frescoes at Eome, and 
 
 ^ Janitschek, " Kunst u. Kiinstler." 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 187" 
 
 at one time rivalled the popular G-uido there. He executed 
 many important religious series in fresco in Rome, Bologna,,, 
 and 'finally in Naples, where, emboldened by special pro- 
 tection, he braved the threats of the jealous Neapolitan 
 painters for ten years. At the end of this time he died 
 suddenly. His wife asserted that he was poisoned. 
 
 One of the most pleasing of his easel pictures is the 
 Diana Hunting, of the Borghese Gallery, Rome, distin- 
 guished for its life-like modelling of the nude and lively 
 colour.^ He decorated the Villa Ludovisi with landscapes 
 in fresco, but his landscapes in oil are usually small, like 
 the bright little S. George and the Dragon, and the softer 
 Tobias with the Angel, in the National Gallery. 
 
 Domenichino, though not so facile as Guido, supplied a 
 large number of the Pietas and Matres Dolorosae display- 
 ing passionate grief, for which Lodovico Carracci had set 
 the fashion. Energetic, if sometimes rather heavy of 
 hand, he depicted with effect harrowing martyrdoms — 
 pictures which were demanded by the taste of the time. 
 Tor the Church of Rome, from which, as we have seen, art 
 had become alienated in the sixteenth century, had once 
 more, after the deep wounds she had received from 
 Rationalism and Protestantism, taken her early handmaid 
 into her service ; but she now no longer demanded from 
 her the calm devotional productions of the early time, but 
 admitted passionate and sensational pictures into her 
 churches, seeking to satisfy with such drugs the emotional 
 cravings of her children. 
 
 Francesco Albani (1578-1660) and Guido Reni also 
 forsook the school of Calvert for that of the Carracci. 
 They worked together in Rome until the jealousy of the 
 usually amiable Guido drove Albani to abandon the decora- 
 tions in the Quirinal.' Albani then worked with Domeni- 
 chino at Bassano, and again in Rome for Annibale. With 
 neither of these latter had his art much in common ; his 
 religious works are eminently superficial and dry, but in 
 his more numerous and popular paintings of pseudo- 
 classical allegories and myths he attained his ideal of 
 classic prettiness, and displayed a finely-decorative taste^ 
 
 ^ Woermann, p. 160. 
 
 ^ See Woermann, vol. iii., p. 144. 
 
188 HISTOEY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 His arcli baby-angels and naive cupids, gracefully set in 
 artificial landscapes, sometimes rival in cbarm tbe Pompeian 
 wall-decorations of the Roman decadence. Whilst he 
 painted " amorini " and " putti," for which his own children 
 were the models, Giovanni Battista Mola (1616-1662) 
 and some others painted in most of his landscape back- 
 grounds. His allegory of The Four Elements, of which 
 there are replicas in the Borghese Gallery at Rome, are 
 amongst his best works. 
 
 Another eclectic whose work was purely decorative, but 
 devoid of any other aim than the exhibition of his super- 
 ficial skill, was Giovanni Lanfranco (1580-1647). A 
 native of Parma, he imitated Correggio, and outdid him in 
 daring foreshortening, attaining great fame as a painter 
 of cupolas and ceilings. The chief of his tumultuous 
 compositions are in the church of S. Andrea della Valle at 
 Rome. One of the most popular painters of his school, he 
 long held his own against the inimical party at Naples. 
 
 GuiDO Reni (1575-1642) was the greatest of the Car- 
 racci pupils, and in his study of the antique became more 
 thoroughly imbued with classic feeling for beauty of line 
 than any other. He early attained to a masterly ease of 
 execution and great popularity, and at the age of twenty- 
 three, in a composition, carried off the palm from Master 
 Lodovico himself. In Rome, in 1605, he was for a short 
 time attracted to the powerful and original style of Cara- 
 vaggio.^ Under that influence he painted the Crucifixion 
 of S. Peter, in the Vatican, and a few other altar-pieces ; ^ 
 but his feeling for the beautiful and his refined, if some- 
 times weak idealism, formed a style of his own, — a strong 
 •contrast to the coarse realism of Caravaggio, to whom, as 
 •to every other painter of note in Rome, he soon proved a 
 formidable rival in popular favour. 
 
 Paul v., ambitious of making his pontificate as illustrious 
 in the history of art as that of Julius II. or Leo X., with 
 'Guido for his Raphael, employed the painter to execute 
 decorations for the Quirinal and other private chapels for 
 liim, works which Guido executed with much taste and 
 
 ^ See Malvasia, " Felsina Pittrice," vol. ii., p. 13. 
 * An example is the piece of biblical genre in the National Gallery, 
 2so. 193. 
 
 f:^ 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 189^ 
 
 skill. His frescoes and light decorative paintings of clas- 
 sical subjects are superior to his altar-pieces and semi- 
 religious sentimental easel pictures. His masterpiece, 
 Phoebus and Aurora with the Hours/ painted in the garden- 
 house of the Rospigliosi Palace at Rome, in 1609, is "a. 
 work unequalled in the seventeenth century for nobility of 
 line and poetry of colour." His colouring was, in his- 
 middle period, light and smooth, with a golden tone, which 
 in later years he changed for a silvery one. To his best 
 period belong the Christ Crowned with Thorns, of the* 
 Dresden Gallery, and the beautiful portrait in the Barbe- 
 rini Palace traditionally described as Beatrice Cenci, the 
 face of which is touched with a melancholy congenial to 
 the painter's own disjjosition. This face and that of the 
 classic Niobe seem to have furnished the model for 
 Guido's popular weeping Madonnas and Magdalens. There 
 are eight of his works in the National Gallery, fairly exem- 
 plifying his different manners. In 1612 Guido left Kome 
 to settle in Bologna, but after ten years there his attempts 
 to get work again in Rome and in Naples were defeated in 
 both places by the intrigues of professional jealousy. 
 Guido therefore returned to Bologna, where, after 
 Lodovico's death, he became the honoured head of the 
 Academy. 
 
 A generous nature, but melancholy and mysogynistic, he 
 was in his latter years reduced to want by gambling, his 
 only vice ; and, trading upon his name, he produced a large 
 number of vapid repetitions of carelessly-executed, poorly- 
 coloured heads, and half-lengths of affectedly sentimental 
 saints and sybils, which have done much to militate against 
 his earlier reputation. 
 
 As head of the school of Bologna he was succeeded by 
 .Giovanni Francesco Barbieei, known from a squint as 
 GuERCiNO (1590-1666), who, although not of the Carracci. 
 school, studied much after the Carracci method, and in his 
 travels fell especially under Venetian influence. Guercino 
 is considered the finest colourist of the school or of his 
 time, and his fresco of Fame, painted on a ceiling in the 
 Villa Ludovisi, eclipses Guido's Aurora in richness of 
 
 » Engraved by Raphael Morghen, 
 
190 HISTOET OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 •colour as mucli as it falls below that work in beauty of 
 line and composition. The colouring of his earlier period 
 was, however, often strong and crude, with heavy shadows, 
 imitated from Caravaggio; later on, when settled in 
 Bologna, like G-uido, he adopted a more silvery tone and a 
 softer style. There is a good example in the National 
 Gallery, but his great work in his first manner is the 
 immense altar-piece of S. Petronilla in the Capitol at 
 Eome. The British Museum possesses a good collection 
 of his drawings. 
 
 LiONELLO Spada (1576-1622), is one of the less-known 
 pupils of the Carracci, who, for a time the pupil and 
 famihar friend of Caravaggio, united some of the charac- 
 teristics of the eclectics and the naturalisti with consider- 
 able power. 
 
 Of the noble efforts of the Carracci, their own works and 
 those of their immediate followers were the only worthy 
 result. The eclectic schools founded in imitation of the 
 Accademia degli Incamminati at Cremona, under G-iulio 
 Campi (1500-1572), and at Milan under Ercole Peo- 
 CACCiNi (1596-1676), produced no great works. Through- 
 out Italy a number of mediocre talents devoted themselves 
 to the painting of decorations then in vogue in the palaces 
 of the nobility. Landscape, still life, and all branches of the 
 art were drawn into this service and developed character- 
 istics accordingly. The better-known of these painters were 
 G-iovANNi CuRTi, called n Dentone (about 1570-1631); 
 PiETRO Paulo Bonzi (died between 1623 and 1644), sur- 
 named II Gobbo de' Frutti; Gio. Battista Viola (1576- 
 1622), the first to practice landscape exclusively; Gio. 
 Prancesco Grimaldi (1606-1680); and Agostino Tassi 
 (1566-1642), the teacher of Claude Gelee of Lorraine, at 
 Bome. In Florence, Matted Eoselli (15 78-1680), formed 
 numerous scholars. His Triumph of David, in the Pitti 
 Palace, may rank with the Judith by Cristofano Allori 
 (1577-1621) for beauty and animation. Allori, the grand- 
 nephew of Bronzino, was one of the best artists of his time. 
 There is a portrait by him in the National Gallery. The 
 most distinguished of Eoselli's pupils was Carlo Dolci 
 (1616-1686), who has, by a large number of half-lengths 
 and heads of saints in languishing ecstacy, smoothly 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 191 
 
 painted and poorly coloured, gained a reputation for a 
 sickly affectation of which he is not often guilty. Many 
 of the inferior works attributed to him are by his daughter 
 Agnese and other copyists. The best type of religious 
 sentiment is the S. Cecilia in the Dresden Gallery. There 
 are many of his works in English collections, though but 
 •one poor example in the National Gallery. His art, so 
 popular in its day, was determined by the Catholic revival, 
 in which intemperate zeal and fervent sentiment took the 
 place of piety, and Dolci excelled in the gentler quality. 
 Another popular painter was Pieteo Fbancesco Mola 
 •(1612-1668), a scholar of Albani, by whom there are two 
 small paintings in the National Gallery. Pietro Berre- 
 tini, of Cortona (1596-1669), was the leader of the "mac- 
 chinisti " in Eome and Florence, where he manufactured 
 huge sprawling decorative frescoes, light in colour and 
 tone, superficial and incorrect, but facile in form. He had 
 a large number of followers. His landscape at Devon- 
 shire House is a rich composition, though cold and dull in 
 •colour. In Perugia Gio. Battista Salvi, called Sasso- 
 FERRATO (1605-1685), copied Perugino and Raphael, and 
 studied in Rome with Domenichino. He executed a large 
 number of Madonna pictures, smooth and sentimental, 
 but imbued with some of the pious feeling of the fifteenth 
 century. There are two of these pictures in the National 
 Gallery. His most original work is the Madonna with 
 the Rosary in S. Sabina at Rome. Carlo Maratta 
 <1625-1713), called the last of the Romans, followed 
 neither of the rival schools of the day, but went direct to 
 the study of Raphael. His numerous works are pure in 
 form but devoid of style. He restored the Stanzi of 
 Raphael in the Vatican with much skill and self-control. 
 There is a portrait by him in the National Gallery. 
 
 The Venetians, though not insensible to the Bolognese 
 revival of art, retained in the seventeenth century the chief 
 characteristics of their school. Principal amongst them 
 were Jacopo Palma, " II Giovine " (1544-1628), a grand- 
 nephew of Palma Vecchio, and Alessandro Varotari, of 
 Padua (1596-1650), called II Padovanino. Two of the 
 latter's works, of some dignity of colouring, are in the 
 National Gallery ; Palma's works are mostly at Venice. 
 
192 HISTOKY OP PAINTING. [bOOK IV» 
 
 A second phase in tlie sixteenth century revival of art 
 is that of Naturalism, which grew alongside and rivalled 
 in its abiding inJfluence the Eclecticism of the CaiTacci. 
 The naturalisti professed to throw off all tradition, and to 
 paint Nature as they saw her, relying for pictorial effect 
 upon the force of their chiaroscuro, the boldness of their 
 technique, and the individuality with which they sought to 
 endow their figures. 
 
 Michelangelo Merisi,^ or Amerighi, called from his 
 birthplace, near Bergamo, Caravaggio (1569-1609), was 
 the chief of the naturalisti, who abode chiefly in Rome and 
 in Naples. His vigorous art induced many imitators, 
 penetrated the very heart of eclecticism, and imparted 
 essential impulse to the gre?ire painting of northern Europe.^ 
 The first Italian painter to make genre painting his prin- 
 cipal practice, his forcible style and the novelty of such 
 subjects as his life-size, half-length groups of the Youth 
 and the Eortune-teller (in the Capitol), the Cardsharpers 
 (in the Sciarra Palace), and the Musicians (Lord Ashbum- 
 ham, London), took the Roman art-world by storm. 
 Coarser in subject and in conception than the few elegant 
 genre pieces by Titian or G-iorgione, their boldness and 
 originahty of chiaroscuro and colour, their absolute realism 
 and occasional vulgarity, stood out in strong relief against 
 the classic ideal of the Eclectics. Caravaggio spent his 
 early life in Milan and in Venice, where he painted por-- 
 trait, genre, and decorations for a liveHhood. On coming 
 to Rome he worked for a short time in the school of the 
 Cavahere d'Arpino, with whose feeble mannerism the 
 original genius and rugged, violent nature of the young 
 northerner could ill accord. Popular favour soon made 
 Caravaggio the rival of the Bolognese artists, and party 
 feeling caused ill words and deeds between the two factions 
 of the realists and idealists of the day. In his earlier 
 works the colouring is of an agreeable golden tone, remi- 
 niscent of the Venetians ; but as the influence of his Vene- 
 tian sojourn passed away, he exaggerated his Lombard 
 
 ^ Woermann. 
 
 ^ See Rembrandt's etching after the Interior, with St. Anne winding 
 yarn, and the Virgin sewing, in the Spada Palace, Rome, by Caravaggio, 
 and Vouet and Valentin in the French school. 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 193 
 
 heritage of strong modelling into the glaring lights and 
 black shadows, which gained for him and his followers the 
 name of Tenebrosi. Amongst his earlier works, besides 
 those already enumerated, may be mentioned the Flight 
 into Egypt, in the Doria Palace, by some attributed to 
 Saraceni. His charming Girl with a Lute, in the Liechten- 
 stein Gallery, Vienna, is the most refined of his genre 
 pieces, and " the veritable ancestress of all similar subjects, 
 even those much smaller ones painted by the Netherlanders 
 during the seventeenth and in the beginning of the eigh- 
 teenth century," the Ter Borchs, the De Hooghs, and the 
 Brekelenkams of Holland. In his Cardsharpers the con- 
 trast of low cunning with simplicity is painted with con- 
 siderable sharpness of characterisation. Of the numerous 
 religious subjects in his second manner, an altar-piece of 
 the Calling of S. Matthew was rejected as too vulgar for 
 a religious edifice ; it is now in the Berlin Museum. Such 
 another is the Supper at Emmaus in the National Gallery, 
 a gipsy-like group, in which a roast fowl is a prominent 
 part of the composition. In his masterpiece in the Vatican, 
 the Burial of Christ, the powerful portrayal of violent 
 grief redeems the coarse types and heavy grouping from 
 any such reproach. The Musical Party, at Devonshire 
 House, is an example of genre in his second manner. His 
 naturalism stood him in good stead in portraiture, of 
 which the Grand Master of Malta, in the Louvre, and a 
 portrait of himself in the Uffizi at Florence, are excellent 
 specimens. 
 
 In the year 1606, Caravaggio, charged with homicide, 
 fled to Naples. It is said that similar causes had driven 
 him successively from Milan and from Venice. In Naples, 
 where he took the lead amongst the local artists, he did 
 not live long in peace, and was compelled to flee to Malta, 
 whence he subsequently fled to Sicily and thence to Naples 
 again, driven from one place to the other by the quarrels 
 and consequent differences with the authorities in which 
 his violent temper embroiled him. Nevertheless, he en- 
 joyed high favour in each of his resting-places, and left in 
 each a large number of paintings. In Naples, in 1609, he 
 sought permission to return to Rome ; and at last receiving 
 the Papal pardon, fled in an open boat from Naples, but 
 
 o 
 
194 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 landing, was arrested upon Neapolitan territory, lost his 
 boat and belongings, fell ill, and died at the age of forty, 
 alone and ill-tended, at Porto d'Ercole. His powerful in- 
 dividuality attracted lesser talents wherever he went, 
 though his irregular life helj^ed to prevent his forming a 
 school. Spada, already mentioned, followed his master to 
 Malta and in Sicily, and the SiHcian, Mario Menniti 
 (1577-1640), was his pupil. 
 
 His followers, Bartolommeo Manfredi (about 1580- 
 1617), Carlo Saraceni (1585-1625) and Angelo Caro- 
 SELLi (1585-1653), imitated him so closely that their works 
 are often scarcely distinguishable from Caravaggio's. 
 
 Caravaggio's influence was felt in Naples, but he cannot 
 be regarded as the founder of the Neapolitan school. His 
 dark and rugged conceptions had, however, much affinity 
 with the gloomy character of Neapolitan art, and with 
 that love of strong effect, to the neglect of detail and back- 
 ground, which it had assimilated together with the rich 
 dark colouring of the Spaniards, who had long been poli- 
 tically and socially dominant in Naples. The veritable 
 head of this Hispano-Neapohtan school was the greater 
 painter, Jusepe Eibera (1588-1656), called Lo Spagno- 
 letto, who, after studying under the Eibaltas in Valencia, 
 came at an early age to the Spanish vice-kingdom of 
 Naples. Eibera travelled for a time in North Italy, rest- 
 ing at Eome and Parma, but his studies there seem not in 
 any marked degree to have affected his art, which was 
 essentially Spanish in feeling and colour. Eibera has been 
 reputed the pupil of Caravaggio, but there is no evidence 
 that the two painters ever came into personal contact. 
 Eibera was but twenty-one years of age when the Lombard 
 master died, but he quickly took up the position of the 
 first painter in Naples, formed many puj^ils, and was recog- 
 nized as the head of the anti-Carracci faction, some 
 members of which, by dint of violent threats and even 
 deeds, succeeded in preventing several of the Bolognese 
 school from practising their art in Naples. Under the 
 patronage of the Viceroy Eibera painted the greater num- 
 ber of his pictures for the Spanish market, supplying the 
 churches with saints in ecstasy and martyrdoms, such 
 as the celebrated and oft-repeated S. Bartholomew, of 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 195 
 
 which the finest example is in the Prado Gallery, Madrid. 
 A master of technique, he painted the nude with a fire 
 and life unequalled in his century, his broad, melting 
 touch invested his Marys and Magdalens with a soft 
 golden glow, whilst his sombre shadows enhanced the 
 horror of his scenes of martyrdom — scenes which drew 
 upon him the one-sided criticism of Byron : — < 
 
 " Spagnoletto tainted 
 His brush with all the blood of all the sainted." 
 
 In these he pictured individual passions, the exaltation 
 of the rapt martyr, the brutal triumph of the executioner, 
 with a demoniac power of reahsm which strongly appealed 
 to the already-mentioned sensational religious taste of the 
 time. The S. Mary of Egypt, at Madrid and at Dresden, 
 exemplify his aesthetic side, his mastery of the brush 
 and beauty of expression. The two pictures by him in 
 the National Gallery are not of first rank. He painted a 
 few mythological subjects in the same taste as his religious 
 ones, viz., the Ixion and the Prometheus at Madrid, and a 
 number of life-size half-lengths of philosophers, profane 
 pendants to his hermits and apostles ; there are several at 
 Vienna, at Naples a Silenus, and there is a curious Homer 
 as a Fiddler at Turin. Eibera was an excellent en- 
 graver. 
 
 The most talented of Eibera's scholars was Massimo 
 Stanzioni (1585-1656). After sojourning in Eome and 
 studying Guido he became an important painter in Naples, 
 where most of his works are to be seen. He blended the 
 mild beauty of Guido with the force of his Neapolitan 
 style. His Pieta, in the monastery of San Martino, Burck- 
 hardt calls ** one of the most beautiful productions of the 
 seventeenth century," despite its imperfect state of pre- 
 sirvation. Stanzioni's friend, Andrea Vaccaro (1598- 
 ItiTO), began by imitating Caravaggio, but influenced by 
 ."^tanzioni, later formed his own style by a union of Bolog- 
 111 so form and composition and the "genuine Neapolitan 
 i<»ne-painting, dark and passionate, but harmonious.'* 
 AN'orks by Vaccaro are frequent in Neapolitan churches, 
 and there is one in the Dresden Gallery. 
 
 The knight of Malta, Fra Mattia Preti (1613-1699), of 
 
196 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV. 
 
 Calabria, called II Calabrese, earned a great reputation 
 in Rome, Naples, and Malta. Of his numerous religious 
 paintings, the chief is the Incredulity of S. Thomas, in 
 Naples Museum. 
 
 Ribera's scholar, Aniello Falcone (1600-1665), called 
 the " Oracle of Battles," founded the school of landscape and 
 battle-painting in Naples. Being concerned in the revolt 
 of Masaniello, in which he led his friends and his pupils, 
 banded together under the name of the " Compagnia della 
 Morte," he fled to Paris. There his biblical and historical 
 battle-pieces made him famous. The few pictures as- 
 cribed to him are doubtful, and only one engraving 
 (Bartsch, No. 18) is signed. Michelangelo Cerquozzi 
 (1602-1660) painted battles and genre in Naples and in 
 Rome, where he adopted something of the Netherlandish 
 manner. The greatest painter of the Neapolitan school 
 was the scholar of Aniello, Salvator Rosa (1615-1673). 
 An excellent poet, satirist, and musician, and a spirited 
 engraver in the manner of Ribera, Salvator stands in the 
 first rank as a painter of ideal landscape and of battle- 
 scenes, in which, like the one in the Louvre, landscape 
 forms an important part of the composition, harmonizing 
 in its wild or gloomy features with the fiery groups of 
 struggling human and equine forms. His best landscapes 
 are in the TJffizi and in the Pitti, but there are two fine 
 examples in the National Gallery. The larger of the two,. 
 Mercury and the Dishonest Woodman, is considerably 
 darkened by time, but it is of gloomy character, with 
 heavy masses of foliage, and characteristically Neapolitan 
 sombre colouring and effect. His colouring is always cool ; 
 and the beauty of his compositions depends, not on line, but 
 on effect, and on that complete expression of mood to 
 which every natural detail contributed when amalgamated 
 by his highly- wrought imagination into an ideal romantic 
 scene. In his youth he wandered much alone in the 
 mountainous regions of the Abruzzi, and studied coast 
 scenery from an open rowing-boat off the shores of south 
 Italy. From the sketches thus taken he patched together 
 little landscapes, and thereby gained a living. These soon 
 attracted attention : Lanf ranco patronized him, and he was 
 introduced into the school of Ribera to study figures. His 
 
BOOK IV.] PAINTING IN ITALY. 197 
 
 liistorical and religious pictures bear the impress of these 
 studies. A group of soldiers in the Dulwich Grallery, 
 much blackened by time, is drawn with great force. Sal- 
 vator left Eibera to paint battles under Aniello Falcone ; ^ 
 but his peculiar genius for landscape was self-taught, and 
 his keen eye for the j^icturesque discovered his material in 
 nature itself — in the i3recipices and waterfalls, gloomy caves, 
 rained castles, ambushed banditti, and belated travellers of 
 the Abruzzi. He painted a few sunnier and simpler 
 harbour scenes in a manner betraying the influence of 
 Claude. Salvator spent many years between Naples and 
 Rome, where he consorted with the young Italy of his 
 time — free-thinkers and satirists of church and state ; and 
 he is said to have made one of Aniello' s Compagnia 
 della Morte in 1647. He spent nine years at the grand 
 ducal court of Florence, much courted and honoured, but 
 lived the last twenty years of his life at Rome, where his 
 industry brought him riches and his art made him friends 
 in honourable society. 
 
 Salvator's three pupils, Bartolommeo Torreggiani, 
 Marzio Masturzio, and Giovanni Gthisolfi (about 1623- 
 1680), imitated him closely, without equaUing him. A 
 more important painter was Domenico Gtargiulo (1612- 
 1679), called Micco Spadaro, the friend and companion 
 of Salvator in the school of Aniello. His frescoes in Naples 
 Museum are slight and decorative in style, but he is famed 
 as a battle and landscape painter. His small easel pictures, 
 somewhat dull in colour, record the revolt of Masaniello, 
 the plague at Naples, an eruption of Vesuvius, and other 
 interesting local events. 
 
 A successor to the popularity and to the mannerism of 
 Pietro Berrettini of Cortona was the brilliantly-gifted but 
 eminently superficial painter Luca Giordano (1632-1705), 
 esteemed the marvel of his age for the rapidity with which 
 he covered with frescoes vast ceilings, domes, and walls 
 in Florence, Naples, Rome, Venice, and finally in the 
 Escurial, whither he was invited by the King of Spain. 
 He was a pupil of Ribera, and painted completely in that 
 master's style in his early years, but later attached himself 
 
 ^ See Dominici, " Vite dei Pittori," &c., vol. iii., p. 435. 
 
198 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IV, 
 
 to Cortona at Florence, and adopted his flowing, decorative 
 manner, always, however, retaining some traces of his 
 Neapohtan richer colouring, and, here and there, more 
 powerful drawing. His great talents otherwise directed 
 might have made him something better, but his wonderful 
 facility of hand gained him the name of Fa Presto, and 
 made him the chief of the machinisti, as the popular 
 quick-painting decorators came to be called. 
 
 The effects of the revival of art of the Carracci and the 
 naturalisti died away in the eighteenth century, and art 
 stood at a low level throughout Italy. The only painters 
 worthy of mention are Venetians. 
 
 Antonio Canale (1697-1768), called Canaletto, painted 
 with considerable skill and accuracy the palaces and canals 
 of Venice, generally in a cold and formal manner, with 
 a dead colouring. He visited England, and painted 
 views of London, One of Eton College, dated 1746, is 
 in the National Gallery, where there is also a fine View 
 in Venice (No. 127), of a much freer composition, 
 warmer in colouring, and with a sense of atmosphere and 
 life absent in his grand Regatta on the Grand Canal (No. 
 938) in the same gallery. The figures in his pictures 
 were sometimes painted by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo 
 (1696-1770), well known as a fresco painter in Venice and 
 at Madrid. There are two oil sketches by him in the 
 National Gallery. Another architectural painter, Fran- 
 cesco GuARDi (1712-1793), painted in a similar style to 
 Canaletto, but with more colour and less truthfulness of 
 detail. There are two clever little pictures by him in the 
 National Gallery. Pieteo Longhi (1702-1762) painted 
 genre and portraits, of which there are examples in the 
 National Gallery. 
 
 For want of space, the flower and still-life painters, and 
 the few followers of Eaphael Mengs and of David at Rome, 
 must remain unnoticed. Rome still remained the great 
 art centre, but it is of the art of the dead rather than that of 
 the living. The modern Venetian school is composed mainly 
 of foreigners; and although Italy has shared to some 
 extent in the modern revival of art, she still remains far 
 behind the more northern nations. 
 
BOOK V. 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 
 
 Eakly Spanish Painters — Alonso Cano — Zurbaran— 
 Velasquez — Mdbillo. 
 
 THE acquaintance of most persons with Spanish art is 
 limited to the names and works of two or three pre- 
 eminent masters. When they have enumerated Velasquez, 
 Murillo, Zurbaran, and, perhaps, Alonso Cano, they find 
 their knowledge nearly exhausted, and are unable to fill 
 up the list. Nor is this much to be wondered at, for in 
 truth these are the only Spanish painters whose works are 
 to be met with in any number out of Spain ; and as com- 
 paratively few students have the opportunity of studying 
 Spanish painting in its native home, their knowledge of it 
 must necessarily be limited to those few painters whose 
 popularity and high excellence have induced the plunder 
 and acquisition of their works by foreign nations. This 
 would be the more to be regretted, but that from all 
 accounts the greater number of the masters whose works 
 Spain shrouds in her dark churches and neglected museums 
 are not worthy of a much better fate. The general igno- 
 rance that prevails concerning the Spanish painters of the 
 fifteenth and sixteenth centuries may, after all, be better 
 for their reputation than if their feeble asceticisms were 
 dragged forth into the glaring light of modern criticism 
 and art exhibitions. 
 
 The painters of the seventeenth century whose works 
 have penetrated more or less into foreign countries are, we 
 may feel pretty sure, the greatest artists whom Spain has 
 produced ; indeed, by many -writers on the subject, the 
 history of Spanish painting is not reckoned to begin until 
 the period when these men flourished. 
 
200 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK V. 
 
 But although Spain produced no Giotto to give a free 
 and natural development to the Byzantine style, and al- 
 though for a long time Spanish art seemed entirely depen- 
 dent upon Italian teaching, yet there were several early 
 Spanish masters whose names and characteristics it is de- 
 sirable for the student to know. 
 
 [For our scanty knowledge of the early history of 
 Spanish painting we were until lately dependent upon 
 Stirling's " Annals of Painting in Spain," Head's " Hand- 
 book of the Spanish School," and Ford's " Handbook for 
 Travellers in Spain." For further information we are 
 mainly indebted to the learned Professor Woermann, the 
 results of whose individual research in the Peninsula are 
 embodied in the Spanish section of Messrs. Woltmann and 
 Woermann' s admirable " History of Painting."] 
 
 The Moors, in their invasion of Spain in the eighth 
 century, seem, in their barbaric fury, to have destroyed 
 nearly all works of early Christian art that we may sup- 
 pose existed there at that time. A few faint relics of 
 previous artistic work remained,^ however, when the Ma- 
 liomedan power was at last broken, sufficient to indicate 
 that in the early centuries of Christianity the universal 
 Byzantine style i^revailed in Spain as in the other coun- 
 tries of Christian Europe. 
 
 Under Mahomedan inspiration magnificent architectural 
 and decorative works, such as the Alhambra, were executed, 
 but no pictures [if we except the remarkable paintings on 
 leather in the Hall of Council at Granada, representing 
 ten Moors seated in council. They are apparently of the 
 fourteenth century, the time of the Moorish decadence]. "^ 
 
 Strange to say, the first Spanish painter of whom we 
 have any record is met with in England, where, in 1253, 
 in the reign of Henry III., we find that one Petkus de 
 HisPANiA was ordered to repair " the painting in the 
 king's oratory, near his bed," and received " sixpence a day 
 for his wages in the king's service." ^ 
 
 ^ Such, for instance, as the paintings in the Church of St. Peter at 
 CordoA-a, spoken of by Pablo de Cespedes as still existing, though much 
 decayed in his time. Dictionary of Cean Bermudez. 
 
 '■^ Washburn's '' Early Spanish Masters." 
 
 ^ Gage Rokewood, " Account of the Painted Chamber at "West- 
 minster," qiioted in Head's " Handbook of the Spanish Schools." 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTING IN SPAIN. 201 
 
 The name of Eodeigo Esteban is likewise on record as 
 having been painter to King Sancho IV. in the years 1291 
 and 1292. And Cean Bennudez mentions the names of 
 live-and-twenty Sj^anish painters who worked before 1500, 
 consequently before the conquest of Granada and final 
 overthrow of the Moorish kingdoms, which took place in 
 1492. 
 
 After this date, when Catholic Spain was gradually 
 rising in power and tyranny, it is natural to suppose the 
 arts would be cultivated. Indeed, the magnificent cathe- 
 drals that arose about and before this period, prove that 
 the Grothic impulse was felt in Spain quite as fully as in 
 Italy and the North. Still, however, no Sj^anish painter 
 of any great merit seems to have arisen, and for the most 
 part foreigners were employed upon all important works. 
 Vasari mentions two Florentine artists who, at the begin- 
 ning of the fifteenth century, were treated with great dis- 
 tinction in Spain. One of these was G-herardo Stamina, 
 who, as we have seen, improved in his manners as well as 
 his art during his residence in Spain,' and the other was 
 Dello Delli,^ a sculptor in terra-cotta as well as a painter, 
 who, although it would appear but slightly esteemed in 
 artistic Florence, achieved a great reputation in Spain, 
 where he was knighted by Juan 11. of Castile. Other 
 Itahan masters seem likewise to have been employed; and 
 the close union of Spain with the Netherlands caused 
 many Flemish artists ^ to come over, so that perhaps 
 native talent had scarcely a fair chance of assertion.' 
 
 ' See page 48. 
 
 [2 Delli was still living in Spain in 1455.] 
 
 [3 John Van Eyck visited Spain, and Petrus Christusand Eogior Van 
 der Wejden painted some of their most important works for Spanish 
 churches. (VVoermann.)] 
 
 [* What there was seems to have been a mixture of Flemish and 
 Italian styles, but the Flemish style predominated. At Barcelona, one 
 of the seats of Provencal culture, intercourse with the French and 
 Flemish artists was maintained, and the Flemish method of oil painting 
 was established in Spain earlier than in Italy. A small oil painting by 
 Ludovico Dalmau (1445), from its manner, according to MM. Crowe and 
 Cavalcaselle, might have come out of Van Eyck's workshop. At Sala- 
 manca Gallegos painted in Flemish manner. Pedro of Cordova (1475) 
 painted in the style of Petrus Cristus, and Pedro Merzal worked in like 
 fashion at Seville. There is reason to think that many works in old 
 
202 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK V. 
 
 There are, however, a goodly number of Spanish painters 
 whose names are known to ns, belonging to the fifteenth 
 and beginning of the sixteenth centuries. The most im- 
 portant of these are Juan Sanchez de Castro, Pedro- 
 Fernandez DE G-uadelupe, Juan Nunez and Gonzalo 
 Diaz, of Seville, Garcia del Barco and Juan Rodriguez, 
 of Castile, and Juan Alfon, Pedro Berruguete and 
 Antonio del Eincon, of Toledo. But as almost all the 
 works of these masters have perished under the influence 
 of time and neglect,^ it is nearly impossible to judge of 
 their merits. 
 
 The influence of Italian art became more predominant 
 towards the middle and at the close of the sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 Nearly all the Spanish masters of this time studied in 
 Italy, and, like the Flemish Italianisers of the same period, 
 fell into a weak imitation of the great masters. Thus we 
 have Spanish Eaphaels, Spanish Michael Angelos, Spanish 
 Titians, and, above all, Spanish Caravaggios, but no master 
 of powerful original genius. 
 
 From this general Italianisation in the sixteenth century^ 
 one painter must, however, be excepted. Luis de Morales, 
 called by his countrymen " El Divino," on account of the 
 ascetic piety of his works (about 1510-1586), was in feeling 
 a genuine Spaniard, and in style, also,- owed but little to 
 Italy. His works, more, perhaps, than those of any other 
 Spanish painter (although all Spanish painters were more 
 or less under the same influences), exemplify the narrowing 
 effects of Eoman Catholic teaching upon the intellect. We 
 find in them, indeed, as in the older Byzantine works, 
 
 churches and museums, ascribed to Flemings, are really by Spanish 
 imitators.] 
 
 ^ Most of those which still exist are described in Ford's " Handbook 
 for Travellers in Spain." 
 
 [By Juan Sanchez de Castro there is a colossal St. Christopher 
 (1484) in the church of S. Julian, Seville; by Juan Nuiiez, his pupil 
 (living 1507), a Pieta in a chapel of the cathedral at Seville (engraved in 
 Woermann) ; by Pedro Fernandez an altar-piece in the same cathedral ; 
 by Pedro Berruguete (d. about 1500), part of an altar-piece at Avila, 
 finished by Santos Cruz and Juan de Borgona (l495-15o3). At the 
 South Kensington Museum there is a remarkable old Spanish altar-piece 
 f>f the fifteenth century from Valencia, repi'esenting the history of S. 
 George.] 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTING IN SPAIN. 205 
 
 merely an expression of asceticism, and of an asceticism 
 that was no longer inspired by lofty ideas, as in the first 
 ages of Christianity, when the ascetic life was often adopted 
 as a personal protest against the foul immorality of the 
 heathen world, but was the result of an abject and slavish 
 state of fear and superstition. 
 
 The Inquisition, in truth, exercised its tyrannic power 
 over the art of Spain, as well as over every other province 
 of man's intellect; and in such a manner, that no free 
 development was possible. Everywhere the individual 
 thought of the artist was curbed, and his mode of repre- 
 sentation limited by the rules prescribed for his guidance 
 by holy church. In Italy at this time, as we have seen, 
 art was no longer in the service of the church, but claimed 
 to be judged entirely from an aesthetic point of view ; but 
 it was very different in Spain, where assthetic considera- 
 tions were but little regarded in comparison with an 
 orthodox expression of belief, and where the Inquisition 
 decided upon what was orthodox and what was heretical, 
 and even appointed an official inspector to examine pictures 
 for this purpose. 
 
 Luis de Morales had certainly no need of the supervision 
 of the holy office, for his works are the very type of bigoted 
 and dismal asceticism. A deep religious enthusiasm, it is 
 true, animates them ; but it is the enthusiasm of a melan- 
 choly fanatic, rather than of a hopeful Christian. Madonna 
 dolorosas and Ecce Homos were his favourite subjects, de- 
 picted in the passionate delirium of grief, or in exhausted 
 despair. He seems, so far as one can discover from descrip- 
 tions and catalogues, to have rarely indulged in more 
 cheerful themes, but alternated between these, Crucifixions, 
 Descents from the Cross, and Pietus. 
 
 His works, it is needless to say, are rarely to be met 
 ^vith out of Spain.^ 
 
 Amongst the other masters of this time, which is usually 
 reckoned as the middle period of Spanish art, may be 
 mentioned Alonso Bereuguete (about 1480-1561), who- 
 
 ^ Even in Spain it is very difficult to study them, for like those of 
 most other Spanish masters of this date, they are scattered in remote 
 churches and convents, to which the traveller seldom penetrates. There 
 are six paintings by him, however, in the Koyal Gallery at Madrid. 
 
'204 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK V. 
 
 was one of the first to import Italian Renaissance into 
 Spain. He had studied in the studio of Michael Angelo, 
 and, like, that master, was an architect and sculptor as well 
 as a painter. Several of his architectural works remain, 
 but the only paintings now to be identified are eight pic- 
 tures of the Passion in the College of Santiago at Sala- 
 manca. He also studied with Andrea del Sarto, and re- 
 turned to Valladolid from Italy in 1520. 
 
 Pedro Campana (Pieter de Kempeneer) was born at 
 Brussels, 1503. He went to Bologna and Rome in 1530, and 
 ;after studying in Italy, settled in Seville sometime before 
 1548, which date is upon his great Descent from the Cross,^ a 
 picture showing Flemish rather than Italian power of 
 'execution and expression.^ His talents' were higbly honoured 
 in Spain, Murillo was a great admirer of this master. He 
 used sometimes, we are told, to stand for hours before Cam- 
 pana's master-work, the Descent from the Cross, now in the 
 -cathedral at Seville, and once replied to someone who asked 
 him why he stayed so long, " I am waiting till these holy 
 men have taken our Lord down." He likewise desired to 
 be buried in front of this altar-piece. Its power must cer- 
 tainly have been remarkable, for Pacheco tells us that he 
 was afraid to remain alone with it in the gloomy chapel, 
 where it originally hung, in the church of Santa Cruz, 
 
 Alonzo Sanchez Coello (1515-1590), supposed by 
 ;Some to have been a Portuguese, and called by PhiHp II,, 
 to whom he was painter in ordinary, " his Portuguese 
 Titian." [His portraits resemble those of Antonio Moro, 
 with whom Coello journeyed to Lisbon in 1552. His best 
 j)upil was Pantoja de la Cruz (1551-1609), a good por- 
 traitist, with a " thin and precise, but masterly execution." 
 There are three portraits by Coello in the Museum of 
 Brussels, and one of Philip II. in the National Portrait 
 Gallery.] 
 
 Pedro Machtjca, Pernando Yanez, GtAspar Becerra, 
 Luis de Vargas, who introduced oil painting into Seville 
 (1502-1568), and Vicente Juanes (1507-1579), the head 
 of the school of Valencia, belong to the schools of Rome 
 and Florence in their decadence after the death of Raphael. 
 
 [' " La peinture riamande," p. 180 (A. Wauters).] 
 [^ " Geschichte der Malerei," p. 39 (K. Woermann).] 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTING IN SPAIN. 205" 
 
 Those now about to be considered were more especially 
 imder the influence of the great masters of Venice, Titian, 
 as we might naturally expect, considering the great number 
 of his works in Spain, even if he were never there himself, 
 being the chief model of their style. 
 
 Juan Fernandez Navarrete, surnamed El Mudo, or 
 the Dumb (1526-1579), worked, it is said, in Titian's 
 studio, where he acquired something of that master's rich 
 colouring. He was one of the painters of Philip II.'s 
 magnificent palace of the Escurial, upon the decoration of 
 which that gloomy bigot employed all the artistic talent 
 he could gain over to his service. There is a small picture 
 by Navarrete in the possession of Lord Landsdowne, at 
 Bo wood. 
 
 DoMENico Theotocopuli (1548-1625), known as Ii^ 
 Greco, although, as it would seem, a Greek by birth, i& 
 usually reckoned as a Spanish painter. His style seems 
 to have been essentially Venetian, and he attained to very 
 high excellence in colour. Like many painters who mado 
 colour their chief study, he underrated Michael Angelo, of 
 whom he is reported to have said that he was " a good sort 
 of man, but did not know how to paint." ^ 
 
 Luis Tristan and Juan Bautisti Matno, who became 
 a Dominican monk, and Pedro Orrente, called " the Spanish 
 Bassano," were pupils of El Greco. 
 
 Juan de las Roelas (about 1558-1625) was one of the 
 most important of the sixteenth century Spanish masters. 
 His style, it would appear, must have been founded upon 
 that of Tintoretto, his works having sometimes been mis- 
 taken for those of the gorgeous Italian ; but he has decided 
 original talent, and his works are spoken of by critics in 
 terms of high praise. Unfortunately " it is at Seville, and 
 Seville alone, hat this master can be properly appreciated." '^ 
 One of his principal works is a grand painting of Sant lago 
 riding over the moors at the battle of Clavigo, in the 
 cathedral at Seville. 
 
 Roelas was loudly condemned by Pacheco, who, as we 
 shall see, held the office of Inspector of Paintings for the 
 
 • Pacheco, " Arte de la Pintura." [There is a S. Jerome by II Greco 
 in the National Gallery (No. 1122).] 
 » Head, " Handbook of the Spanish School." 
 
206 HISTOBY OF PAINTING. [bOOK V. 
 
 Inquisition, for having in a picture of the Nativity repre- 
 sented the Christ-child naked. "How dare artists," he 
 exclaims, in virtuous indignation, " paint him thus, — even 
 if the Holy Scriptures did not tell us so [that he was 
 wrapped in swaddling clothes], no one could presume so 
 little prudence and so little compassion in his most holy 
 Mother as to imagine that she would expose her Child in 
 such a rigorous season, and in the middle of the night, to 
 the inclemency of the weather." 
 
 This amusing piece of prudery is but a sample of the 
 sort of criticism to which all Spanish art was exposed, and 
 to which, strange to say, all Spanish painters appear to 
 have submitted; for although I have spoken of the 
 Italianisation of Sj^anish art at this period, it must be 
 borne in mind that this Italianisation extended only over 
 the style and execution of the Spanish masters, and not by 
 any means over their choice of subjects or mode of repre- 
 senting them. 
 
 The license that characterises Itahan art in the sixteenth 
 century was never admitted into Spanish. No naked 
 Venuses, no frail nymphs, were allowed to seduce mankind 
 by their charms, and the saints and other holy personages 
 were so rigorously draped that it was considered highly 
 indecorous to permit the Virgin's naked feet to be seen.^ 
 Such an improi)riety was, in fact, " corrected " by the Holy 
 Inquisition, and not even Murillo dared to commit it. In 
 his Immaculate Conceptions the feet are always hidden. 
 
 In spite, therefore, of the Italian education of most of 
 the Spanish masters, and of the Italian taste that every- 
 where prevailed, the religious, or rather, perhaps, the 
 ecclesiastical element predominated at this time far more 
 in Spanish art than in the contemporaneous art of any 
 other country. Several of the masters that have been men- 
 tioned were men of the most fervent and orthodox piety, 
 and superstitious to such a degree as to believe in their 
 own pictures being inspired and miracle-working. Luis 
 
 * Carducho points out the want of truth as well as the want of de- 
 cency in those painters who have represented the Virgin unshod, inas- 
 much, he says, that it is certain our Blessed Lady wore shoes, " the 
 much venerated relic of one of them being still preserved in the Cathe- 
 dral of Burgos." 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTING IN SPAIN. 207 
 
 •de Vargas, for instance, was almost an ascetic in life, and 
 used, we are told, to lie in a cofl&n some hours every day- 
 considering his latter end. Vicente Joanes, a thorough 
 Italianiser, yet produced a picture of the Virgin that had 
 the reputation of being miracle-working,^ and which he 
 beheved to have been revealed to him in a dream. He 
 never began a religious work without taking the sacrament 
 and confessing. Becerra, likewise, although an admirer of 
 Michael Angelo and a diligent student of anatomy, was 
 the sculptor of "the portentous image of our Lady of 
 Solitude," which, draped in widow's weeds, worked miracles 
 in a convent in Madrid " to the great gain of her masters," ^ 
 until her solitude was disturbed by the French during the 
 war of independence, since which time she has disappeared. 
 In truth, the pagan and rational spirit that we have 
 seen in Italy triumphing over the spirit of asceticism that 
 in earlier times animated Christian art, never gained any 
 real hold over the Spanish intellect, which was always 
 more or less faithful to the national religion. Nor had 
 art in Spain any such incentives to throw off the discipline 
 of Kome as in Italy, where the revival of the classic learn- 
 ing, and the discovery of the beautiful remains of the 
 antique world, brought to an end the long night of me- 
 diaevalism, and caused " the spirit of ancient Greece to 
 arise from the tomb, and the fabric of superstition to 
 crumble and totter at her touch." * 
 
 ^ It has been ab^ady remarked that most miraculous pictures are'bad 
 works of art. 
 
 ' Palomino de Castro y Velasco. Palomino was the Vasari of Spain. 
 Besides his learned and dull disquisitions on the art of painting, he 
 wrote the earliest biographies of the Spanish painters, which formed the 
 foundation for the great work of Cean Bermudez and all subsequent 
 historians. Like Vasari, he was fearfully inaccurate and careless con- 
 cerning dates, and his statements need the most careful verification. He 
 was also very superstitious, and believed with the fullest faith in the 
 miraculous origin of many of the works (such as our Lady of Solitude) 
 that he describes. The biographical portion of his great work, the 
 " Museum Pictorium," has been translated into English, with the title, 
 " An Account of the Lives and "Works of the most eminent Spanish 
 Painters, Sculptors, and Architects." London, 1739. He was himself 
 a painter, but his reputation is greater as an historian than as an artist. 
 lie was born in 1653. 
 
 ^ Lecky, ** Hist, of Rationalism," vol. i. 
 
208 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK V. 
 
 In Spain, on the contrary, the effects of the revival of 
 learning where felt less, perhaps, than in any other country 
 of Europe. Classic art was scarcely known, and " the fabric 
 of superstition" was upheld by a strong and tyrannic 
 arm. 
 
 It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that the Church, 
 which effectually crushed every effort at free thought and 
 philosophic enquiry in every other direction, should have 
 forbidden it also in painting : it is only remarkable that 
 under such despotic supervision the great painters that 
 Spain undoubtedly produced should have been developed. 
 
 Roelas, who was a licentiate of holy orders, and there- 
 fore often styled El Clerigo Eoelas, was one of the earliest 
 masters of the school of Seville, a school which afterwards, 
 as we shall see, rose to the highest importance. He was 
 excellent as a portrait painter, and " no one," says Ford, 
 " ever painted the sleek grimalkin Jesuit like Eoelas." 
 
 Pablo de Cespedes, of Cordova (1538-1608), was an- 
 other distinguished master of the early school of Seville ; 
 he is earlier in date, in fact, than Eoelas. Pacheco calls 
 him " a great imitator of the beautiful manner of Correggio, 
 and one of the best colourists in Spain." He was also 
 admired for his masterly chiaroscuro. He enjoyed a lite- 
 rary as well as an artistic reputation, being known as a 
 learned linguist and scholar, and a philosophical writer on 
 art.^ But few, unfortunately, either of his painted or 
 plastic works remain. (He was a sculptor and architect 
 as. well as painter). Even his grand painting of the Last 
 Supper in the cathedral of Cordova, considered his master- 
 work, has been suffered to fall into decay.^ 
 
 [Feancesco Collantes, of Madrid (1599-1656) was 
 
 ^ His treatises on art were published by Cean Bermudez, in an appen- 
 dix to the fifth volume of his " Dictionary." They comprise " A Com- 
 parison between the Ancient and Modern Arts of Painting and Sculp- 
 ture, a Poem on Painting, a Letter on the Ancient Methods of Painting, 
 and an Essay on the Temple of Solomon." Stirling has translated a few 
 verses of his poem on painting. 
 
 2 Ford, " Handbook for Travellers in Spain." [Now in Seville Mu- 
 seum. There is an Ascension of the Virgin in the Museum S. Fer- 
 nando, Madrid, in which, according to Woermann, little trace of beau- 
 tiful colouring remains, though it is well drawn, and the faces are of 
 noble type.] 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTING IN SPAIN. 209 
 
 celebrated for liis landscapes, some of the best in the 
 Spanish school. There is one in the Louvre.] 
 
 Feancisco Ribalta (about 1551-1628) was a painter 
 of Valencia, to whose name a romantic history is attached. 
 He fell in love, we are told, like many other apprentices, 
 with his master's daughter, and the father being of course 
 unpropitious, he went away to Italy to improve himself in 
 art, the young lady promising meanwhile to remain faith- 
 ful. On his return, after an absence of some years, he 
 sought out his beloved one, but instead of spending his 
 time in fruitless love-making, he entered the old studio, 
 and the obdurate father being from home, boldly finished 
 a sketch that was standing on an easel, and left it there as 
 a silent witness of his visit, his faithful love, and his im- 
 proved powers as an artist. When the father returned he 
 was astonished at the excellence of the work, and exclaimed 
 to his delighted daughter, " If this man were your lover, 
 you should marry him with my full consent, but not that 
 poor bungler, Eibalta." Thus Ribalta won his wife and 
 fame at the same time, for this story soon spread abroad, 
 and others besides his father-in-law admitted his talents, 
 and gave him commissions. 
 
 The altar-piece in the chapel of Magdalen College, 
 Oxford, Christ bearing the Cross, is considered by Ford to 
 be by him, and to be a grand example of his style. It was 
 formerly attributed to Morales, but there seems no real 
 ground for so attributing it, any more than for assigning 
 it to Lodovico Carracci or other eclectics, as some writers 
 have done. Ford describes Eibalta's style as being a com- 
 bination of that of Domenichino and Sebastiano del Piombo, 
 so that it is likely that his work might easily pass for that 
 of an Italian master.^ 
 
 Ribalta's chief works are in the College of Corpus 
 Christi, at Valencia, which Ford describes as " a museum 
 of Ribaltas." 2 
 
 ' Tlie Magdalen altar-piece was brought from Spain in 1702 by the 
 last Duke of Ormonde, and there seems but very little reason to doubt 
 that it is really Spanish. 
 
 P Notwithstanding his Italian education, Ribalta's later works are 
 "thoroughly Spanish in feeling and style, worthy in colour, Jind freedom 
 from the archaisms of the transition masters, to be classed with the jjreat 
 
 P 
 
210 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK V. 
 
 GuiSEPPE DE EiBEEA (born at Valencia, 1588, died at 
 Naples, 1656), already mentioned amongst Italian masters, 
 is said to have been in the first instance a pupil of Ribalta, 
 but he went early to Italy, where he was known as Lo 
 Spagnoletto, by which designation he is likewise best 
 known at the present day. There are a good number of 
 works by him in Spain, but he may be better studied in 
 other countries. [There are two works of his in the National 
 Gallery.] 
 
 Juan de Ribalta (1597-1628), the son of Francisco, 
 died in the same year as his father, but not before he had 
 achieved an almost equal success as an artist. The paint- 
 ings in the Madrid G-allery bearing the name of Ribalta 
 are now considered to be the works of Juan, which con- 
 noisseurs find very difficult to distinguish from those of 
 Francisco. 
 
 Jacinto Gteronimo de Espinosa (1600-1680), studied 
 under Ribalta and afterwards in Italy. " No painter,'* 
 says Stirling, " was ever more industrious or more popular, 
 and few more prolific or more pious," The greater number 
 of his works are now in the Museum at Valencia. 
 
 The name of Francisco Pacheco (1571-1654), has 
 been already mentioned several times. It is in truth a 
 celebrated name in the history of Si)anish art, but its 
 owner is best known to fame, not by any great achievements 
 of his own, but, like the Paduan Squarcione, by the great- 
 ness of one of the pupils who emanated from his school, 
 and by the influence that he exerted over the art of his 
 time. His work upon painting, before quoted,^ is charac- 
 terised by Stirling as " pompous, prolix, and wearisome,'* 
 and such we may surmise the author likewise to have 
 been : but his book was not written until he was, accordirisr 
 to his own account, seventy years of age, when a little 
 dogmatism may be permitted to man. The book is divided 
 into three parts, treating of the history, theory, and prac- 
 tice of art, and in it he lays down especial rules for the 
 guidance of artists in painting religious subjects, rules to 
 which no doubt his official position as Commissioner of the 
 
 ones of the seventeenth century. (Woermann, and '* Catalogo de los 
 cuadros del Museo del Prado de INIadrid.")] 
 
 ^ ''Arte de Pintura, su Antigiiedady Grandezas." Seville, 1649. 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTING IN SPAIN. 211 
 
 Holy Inquisition gave peculiar authority. Thus he gives 
 the young painter " salutary counsel " concerning the 
 painting of the nude figure, of which he recommends that 
 " the face and hands should be painted from nature, with 
 the requisite beauty and variety, after women of good 
 character ; in which," he graciously admits, " in my opinion, 
 there is no danger." " But with regard to the other parts," 
 be says, " I would avail myself of good pictures, engravings, 
 models, ancient and modem statues, and the excellent 
 designs of Albert Diirer, so that I might choose what was 
 most graceful and best composed without running into 
 danger." Caring little, evidently, for the danger that 
 Diirer and other heretics must have run in preparing these 
 excellent designs. He likewise gives in structions concerning 
 the proper mode of representing the Virgin in her various 
 characters, and the traditional mode of representing certain 
 Saints. In the Last Judgment the nakedness of the risen 
 souls greatly perplexes his mind, it being correct from an 
 aesthetic point of view, but inadmissible from an orthodox. 
 He gets over the difficulty by saying that " as angels with- 
 out wings are not known to us, and our eyes do not allow 
 us to see the saints without clothes, as we shall do here- 
 after, therefore there can be no doubt that to paint them 
 BO is improper." 
 
 With such restrictions as these it is wonderful that 
 Spanish painters should have ever achieved anything be- 
 yond the most narrow and conventional works, for most 
 of them abided by Pacheco's authoritative injunctions, 
 apparently as much from their own sense of propriety as 
 from any fear of the Inquisition. Velasquez, it is true, 
 once painted a naked Venus,* but it was for a private 
 patron, and was doubtless not allowed to imperil the souls 
 of the orthodox. And then Velasquez was the son-in-law 
 of Pacheco ! No other Spanish painter would have dared 
 to have done so. 
 
 Pacheco's greatest triumph in his later years seems to 
 have been in the genius and success of his pupil and son- 
 in-law, Velasquez, whom he accompanied to Madrid in 
 1623, and whose brilliant career shed upon his master a 
 
 1 Stirling's " Annals," p. 685. 
 
212 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK V. 
 
 sort of reflected glory. But few of Pacheco's pictures now 
 remain. Such as there are, are said to be painted in the 
 hard manner of early art, and to show no original talent. 
 
 Francisco de Herrera el Viejo (1576-1656), the 
 rival of Pacheco in the school of Seville, was in all things 
 the very opposite of that learned, gentlemanly, but some- 
 what incapable master. His manners were as coarse and 
 his temper as violent as the execution of his pictures. He 
 flung his paints on his canvas in a rage, and worked up his 
 vigorous sketches in a passion. He beat and drove away 
 his pupils [Velasquez and Alonso Cano were pupils of 
 his], ill-treated his son, who robbed him and fled to Eome, 
 was accused of coining, and in general behaved in an 
 utterly reckless and disreputable manner. At the same 
 time his art is bold, truthful, and original, qualities entirely 
 lacking in Pacheco's learned productions. [He painted 
 much in fresco and engraved on copper.] His principal 
 work is a picture of S. Hermengild, now in the Museum 
 at Seville. This picture, it is said, obtained his pardon 
 when he was charged with coining ; for Philip lY. happened 
 to see it at Seville, and inquiring for the painter, extended 
 him his forgiveness, with the admonition, however, that 
 such powers as his ought never to be abused. [There is a 
 Saint Basil dictating his Doctrine by him in the Louvre.] 
 
 Herrera el Mozo (or the younger) (1622-1685), the 
 son of the elder Herrara, fled to Eome, as before stated, to 
 escape from his father's ill-usage, and became known there 
 as a painter of still-life subjects, or, as the Spaniards call 
 them, Bodegones. Especially he was noted in Italy for his 
 painting of fish, by which he acquired the title of il Spag- , 
 nuolo del Pesci, but on his return to Seville at the death i 
 of his father he adopted a more ambitious style, and 
 executed large altar-pieces — Saints, Virgins, and even Im- 
 maculate Conceptions, the favourite theme of Spanish art 
 at this time. He was, it is recorded, a man of an envious, 
 satirical nature, and was especially jealous of Murillo, of 
 whom he was a contemporary in Seville, and whose fame 
 far eclipsed his own. For this reason, it is said, he removed 
 to Madrid in 1661, and was soon after appointed painter 
 to Philip IV. 
 
 EsTEBAN March (end of sixteenth century — 1660) was 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTING IN SPAIN. 2V6 
 
 a painter of the same violent stamp as Herrara. He only 
 painted when he had lashed himself into a fury ; but as 
 his principal subjects were battle-pieces, his furious moods 
 were not, perhaps, inappropriate ; at all events, by dint of 
 breaking heads and furniture he succeeded in producing 
 many bold and spirited representations of battle-fields. 
 
 Alonso Gang (1601-1667) [pupil of Pacheco] was an- 
 other violent-tempered artist of this period, but he did 
 not, like Herrara and March, carry his violence into his 
 manner of painting, for his pictures, although vigorous in 
 design, are soft and rich in colouring, tender in sentiment, 
 and careful in execution, with none of the broad, dashing 
 effects and contrasts that so many Spanish masters loved 
 to produce. Alonso Cano was, in truth, a painter of strong 
 original genius, and ranks next to Velasquez and Murillo 
 as the third greatest artist of Spain. 
 
 Like Berruguete and several of the artists of the fifteenth 
 century, he was proficient in the three arts of architecture, 
 sculpture, and painting, and for this reason, it may be 
 supposed, he obtained the title of the Spanish Michael 
 Angelo, for in no other respect can he be said to resemble 
 the great Italian. 
 
 His coloured retablos and small carved statues are highly 
 praised by Ford, and Stirling speaks of one of his Madonnas, 
 **^vith deep blue eyes and mild melancholy grace," as 
 " one of the most beautiful pieces of the coloured carving 
 of Spain." 
 
 His paintings, with the exception of a few admirable 
 portraits, are exclusively religious, and full of sentiment 
 and pathos ; the tender grace of many of his Virgins sur- 
 passes even that of Murillo. 
 
 In 1637 Cano had to escape from Seville in consequence 
 of a duel with another painter, in which he severely wounded 
 his adversary. He settled at Madrid, where Velasquez 
 shielded him from the consequences of his act. Soon, 
 however, he fell into far greater trouble, being accused, 
 whether justly or not it seems now impossible to determine, 
 of the murder of his wife, who was found stabbed in her 
 bed with fifteen wounds upon her. Suspicion, by some 
 means, fell upon the husband, in spite of contradictory 
 circumstances, and without waiting for a trial he fled from 
 
214 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK V. 
 
 Madrid and took refuge in a Franciscan convent of Valencia, 
 where he remained for some time, and painted several re- 
 markable works for the Franciscan friars. At last he 
 ventured to return to Madrid ; but the suspicion against 
 him had not been forgotten, and he was seized and put to 
 the torture as a means of discovering the truth. By the 
 especial favour of Philip lY. his right hand, on account of 
 its skill, was exempted from ligatures,^ and " as he passed 
 through the ordeal without uttering a cry, he was set at 
 liberty with a character judicially spotless." 
 
 Nor did this exciting little episode in his history interfere 
 in the least degree with the success of his future career. 
 It would seem that the charges brought against him could 
 not have been very generally believed, for he was still 
 patronized, not only by the Court, but also by the Church, 
 and was even permitted to occupy the stall of a minor 
 canon in the cathedral of Granada, with the permission of 
 exchanging its religious duties for those of superintending 
 the works going on in the cathedral, and adorning it with 
 paintings. Cano, however, by the violence of his conduct, 
 managed to offend a high functionary of Granada, who, by 
 his influence, caused him to be deprived of this benefice, 
 on the ground that he had neglected to take orders within 
 the specified time. Upon this he appealed to the ever- 
 accessible Philip rV., and obtained from him a chaplaincy 
 which entitled him to full orders, whereupon he returned 
 in triumph to Granada, and, without oi^position, again 
 took possession of his benefice, armed with a Paj^al dis- 
 pensation from the duties of saying mass. He never, 
 however, forgave the chapter for the attempt to dispossess 
 him, nor would he ever afterwards execute any work for 
 the cathedral. 
 
 The stories that are told of Cano's eccentric and im- 
 pulsive conduct prove him to have been a most singular 
 man. Although very violent towards those who offended 
 him, he was full of kindly feeling, and exceedingly cha- 
 ritable to the poor. His purse was always open to the 
 widow and orphan, and often, when he had no money to 
 bestow, he would execute some rough sketch and give that 
 
 ^ Philip IV. was, as we have seen, always ready to befriend an 
 artist. 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTING IN SPAIN. 215 
 
 to the claimant of his charity, telling him where to obtain 
 money for it.^ He had the strongest aversion to Jews, 
 and deemed himseK so contaminated if by chance a child 
 of Israel brushed against him in the street, that he would 
 never afterwards put on the garment that was thus ren- 
 dered unclean. Once he found one of the obnoxious tribe 
 in his house, which obliged him to repave the floor upon 
 which the poor hawker, who had hoped to make a bargain 
 with his housekeeper, had walked. The shoes in which he 
 himself had trodden in the Jew's footsteps were likewise 
 cast away. Nay, so great was his prejudice against the 
 Chosen Race, that he positively refused when dying to 
 receive the Sacrament from the hands of a priest whom he 
 found was accustomed to administer it to Jews condemned 
 by the Inquisition. 
 
 Francisco de Zurbaran (1598, about 1662) [pupil of 
 Roelus], is pre-eminently the painter of monks. His pic- 
 tures of dark, lean ascetics are to be met with in almost 
 every gallery, and produce an unpleasant shudder as we 
 look at them, so powerful is their ghastly effect. It would 
 not, we feel, be safe to remain alone in a dark church with 
 one of those unearthly Franciscans, for fear the dismal 
 fanatic should step out of his frame and find it his duty 
 to apply the tortures of the Inquisition for the good of 
 our souls. 
 
 In his strong contrasts, and powerful effects of Ught and 
 shade, Zurbaran evidently imitated the style of Caravaggio 
 — indeed, he has been called the Caravaggio of Spain — but 
 he applied his art almost exclusively to religious subjects, 
 and has left us none of those coarse dramatic representa- 
 tions of low and evil life in which the Italian took especial 
 delight. 
 
 The fashionable Zurbaran, "painter to the king," was 
 in truth more of a gentleman than Caravaggio, and, being 
 a Spaniard, he was also necessarily more under the in- 
 fluences of the Church of Rome ; otherwise, it must be 
 admitted that his works bear a strong similarity to those 
 of the chief of the Tenebrosi, and he may be reckoned as 
 one of that school. 
 
 * ** Palomino," torn. iii. 
 
216 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK V. 
 
 Zurbaran did not, however, always choose the dark 
 monkish subjects for which he is most famed. Occasionally 
 he painted female saints, with charms reminiscent, Stirhng 
 imagines, of the reigning beauties of Seville, with "the 
 rouge of good society " on their cheeks. His Virgins are 
 rare, but there is one very pleasing Holy Family at 
 Stafford House, which contrasts remarkably with his 
 gloomy saints in the same collection. 
 
 His most important work is a grand allegorical com- 
 position known as the S. Thomas Aquinas, originally 
 painted for the college of that saint, but now hanging in 
 the museum at Seville. Like Eaphael's Disputa, it re- 
 presents the Holy Trinity in the opening Heaven above, 
 whilst on the earth beneath, the Emperor Charles V. and 
 the Archbishop Diego de Deza, attended by a train of 
 ecclesiastics, kneel in adoration. Midway between heaven 
 and earth, the four doctors of the Latin Church sit on 
 cloudy thrones ; but S. Thomas Aquinas is leaving them 
 and rising to join the glorious company above, amongst 
 whom S. Paul and S. Dominic are conspicuous. This 
 picture is much praised by critics, who speak of its effective 
 colouring, magnificent draperies, and admirable atmo- 
 spheric depth. It is considered, indeed, one of the finest 
 productions of Spanish art, and equal to any Italian work 
 of the seventeenth century. The figures in it are some- 
 what larger than life. 
 
 The Louvre formerly catalogued no less than ninety- two 
 pictures assigned to Zurbaran.^ There is a picture by 
 Zurbaran, of a Franciscan Monk, in the National G-allery, 
 No. 230. 
 
 We now come to the two greatest and best-known names 
 in Spanish art — Velasquez and Murillo — painters whose 
 genius, whilst shedding its fullest light upon their own 
 native land, has yet thrown many rays across to us in 
 foreign countries. 
 
 Diego Rodriguez de Silva y Velasquez (bom at 
 Seville in 1599, died at Madrid, 1660) was the first of 
 these two Spanish stars to arise above the horizon of the 
 
 [' This large collection of Zurbarans has been dispersed. There are 
 only three in the catalogue now, and these all came from the collection 
 of Napoleon III,] 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTING IN SPAIN. 217 
 
 seventeenth century. He was of gentle bir1;h, and boasted 
 of long illustrious descent, but his parents do not appear 
 to have been rich. They gave their son, however, "the 
 best scholastic education that Seville afforded ; " but, 
 although he made satisfactory progress with his other 
 studies, his predilection for art was early apparent, and 
 his father wisely acceded to his desire to become a painter. 
 His first studies were made in the school of Herrara the 
 elder, but that master's brutal manners soon disgusted his 
 gentle pupil, and he renounced his teaching for that of the 
 more gentlemanly Pacheco, whose school at Seville was 
 then largely attended. Here, however, he quickly found 
 that nature was a better instructor than the learned and 
 theoretical Pacheco, who could teach, it is true, the rules 
 and precepts of the ancients, but was himself incapable of 
 expressing the varied aspects of nature. He resolved, 
 therefore, like all great naturalists, to study real life in its 
 common and ordinary phases, and not as reflected in the 
 works of any master, however great ; and for this purpose, 
 says Pacheco, " he kept a peasant lad as an apprentice, 
 who served him for a study in different actions and pos- 
 tures, sometimes crying, sometimes laughing, till he had 
 grappled with every difficulty of expression ; and from him 
 he executed an infinite variety of heads in charcoal and 
 chalk on blue paper, by which he arrived at certainty in 
 taking likenesses," and thus laid the foundation of his 
 future fame. He likewise seems, at this time, to have 
 been attracted towards the picturesque scenes of low street- 
 life, which, when not employed upon exalted rehgious 
 themes, Murillo and several other Spanish painters were 
 fond of choosing for their subjects. One of his early 
 works of this class is the celebrated Water Carrier of 
 Seville, a most powerful and skilful work. This picture, 
 which is mentioned by Cean Bermudez, Palomino, and 
 others, is now one of the trophies at Apsley House, having 
 been presented to the Duke of Wellington by Ferdinand 
 VII. at the termination of the Peninsular war.^ 
 
 * It had previously been stolen by King Joseph when he found it 
 necessary to Hy from Madrid, but was retaken in his carriage, together 
 with a quantity of similarly appropriated Bourbon plate, after thedel^at 
 at Vittoria, 
 
218 HISTOEY OF PAINTING. [bOOK T. 
 
 After five years spent in Pacheco's " academy of good 
 taste," Velasquez married his master's daughter, Dona 
 Juana, " moved thereto," says her father, " by her virtue, 
 beauty, and good qualities, and his trust in his own great 
 natural genius." Pacheco, who, says Stirling, " had some- 
 thing of the tendencies of a Bos well," was intensely proud 
 of his great pupil and son-in-law, whose abilities he at all 
 events has the merit of having early discerned ; and when, 
 soon after his marriage, he was invited by the Minister 
 Olivarez to the Court at Madrid, and the connoisseur-king, 
 Philip lY., sat to him for his likeness, the happy master's 
 and father-in-law's delight and triumph broke forth in a 
 wonderful sonnet, in which, whilst calling the royal patron 
 a " greater Alexander," he promises Velasquez " the praise 
 of old Apelles." 
 
 Velasquez's fortune was, in truth, made from this mo- 
 ment. The king was so delighted with his portrait, which 
 represented him in armour and on horseback, that he de- 
 termined never to be painted by any other master, and 
 Velasquez was, accordingly, in 1623, appointed his Painter- 
 in-ordinary, with a monthly salary in addition to the pay- 
 ment of his works ; moreover, the attendance of the royal 
 physician, surgeon, and apothecary was granted him, as 
 well as the sum of 300 ducats to defray the expenses of 
 his family's removal to Madrid. 
 
 From this time forth his chief employment lay in painting 
 the royal family of Spain in every variety of attitude and 
 attire. Innumerable are his portraits of Philip IV., who, 
 if he never sat to any one else,^ must have wearied him- 
 self, one would think, in sitting to his favourite master. 
 "VVe have portraits of him on horseback, at his prayers, in 
 gold and steel armour, in sporting costume, in shooting 
 dress with dog and gun, in black robes, in crimson and 
 ermine, in youth, in middle age, and advanced life ; por- 
 traits — bust-length, full-length, Hfe-size, and mere heads ; 
 altogether, Stirling in his catalogue enumerates no less 
 than twenty-four.^ The chief minister, the Count Duke 
 
 ^ Stirling affii'ms that he only depai'ted from this resolution in favour 
 of Rubens and Grayer. 
 
 [^ In Mr. Curtis's catalogue of the works of Velasquez and Murillo, 
 thirty-four portraits by Velasquez of Philip IV. ai-e described, besides 
 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTING IN SPAIN. 219 
 
 Olivarez, to whom Velasquez owed his first introduction at 
 court, was likewise many times painted by him, as well as 
 the two Queens of PhiHp IV. and all the small infants 
 and infantas of Spain, especially the Infant Balthazar 
 Carlos, whom he painted several times as a boy upon his 
 
 All these portraits are characterised by a certain dignity 
 and courtly ease that no other painter, except perhaps 
 Titian or Vandyck, has infused into his works of this kind 
 without sacrificing truth to nature. Velasquez never makes 
 this sacrifice; he is as faithful in painting a king as a 
 peasant ; and yet we feel at once, without the help of dress 
 and insignias, that the one is a monarch and the other a 
 boor, so admirably has he expressed the " divinity that 
 doth hedge a king," and which is in some degree reflected 
 on all his surroundings. 
 
 Although most exclusively occupied with portraits of 
 princes, he occasionally found time to devote to less exalted 
 subjects, as, for instance, in 1624,^ when he produced his 
 celebrated painting of Los Borrachos, or the Topers, now 
 in the Eoyal G-allery at Madrid, which represents a coarse, 
 brutish Bacchus surrounded by eight boon companions of 
 the low Spanish type, all in various stages of inebriation. 
 One drunken ruflSan (they are all of a singularly villanous 
 cast of countenance, and look capable of perpetrating any 
 crimes) kneels before the half- naked representative of 
 Bacchus, and receives with mock gravity a crown of vine- 
 leaves on his rough, and one may presume, dirty head. 
 This picture is said to be wonderful in its force of cha- 
 racter and strength of colouring ; its humour also is praised ; 
 still it must be owned that m the engraving ^ it does not 
 make a favourable impression. It is not merely that the 
 subject is unpleasant, but that it is treated in a coldly 
 sarcastic rather than a genial spirit. There is no re- 
 
 sixteen doubtful ones, and twelve of Olivarez, besides four doubtful 
 
 ones.] 
 
 [' This date is doubtful (see Curtis). It was paid for in 1629.] 
 
 ■■' It has been engraved by Cannona, and etched by Goya, and a 
 
 smaller plate of it may be found in Stirling, and several works on 
 
 Spanish art. The original sketch for it is in the possession of Lord 
 
 lleytesbury, in Wiltshire. 
 
220 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOZ V. 
 
 deeming touch of kindly feeling, such as we often see, for 
 instance, in Tenier's drunkards, in any of these thirsty 
 rascals ; they are unmitigated scoundrels, whether drunk 
 or sober. 
 
 A picture of a different class is the great historical com- 
 position representing the Surrender of Breda, wherein the 
 Marquis of Spinola receives the keys of Breda from Prince 
 Justin of Nassau, a work especially noteworthy for the 
 number of fine portraits that it contains. 
 
 The painting known as Las Meninas, or the Maids of 
 Honour, is likewise one of his most esteemed works ; in- 
 deed, it is often reckoned his masterpiece. It depicts 
 Velasquez himself in his studio painting [the united por- 
 traits of Philip IV. and his wife Mariana, which are seen 
 reflected in a mirror. There are nine figures in the picture], 
 including the little Infanta Margarita Maria and her 
 Meninas, or maids of honour. It was not painted until 
 1656, when the prosperous career of the artist was near its 
 close ; and tradition relates that the red cross of Santiago, 
 which is conspicuous on the breast of the painter, was 
 painted there by Philip IV., who, coming one day to see 
 how the picture progressed, remarked that there was but 
 one thing wanting in it, and, taking up the brush, gra- 
 ciously painted the insignia of the great Spanish order 
 upon the portrait of Velasquez.^ 
 
 Like most other Spanish painters, Velasquez spent some 
 time in Italy, but he did not go there until 1629. His 
 style was then thoroughly formed, and he appears to have 
 studied and profited by the works of the great Italians 
 without any sacrifice to his own originality. On his return 
 to Madrid he was made Aposentador-mayor of the king's 
 household, an important and lucrative office, but the duties 
 of which, unfortunately, drew away much of his time from 
 painting.^ 
 
 In 1660 took place the celebrated conference on the Isle 
 of Pheasants, between the kings of France and Spain, 
 which, following the treaty of the Pyrenees, was meant to 
 ratify a lasting peace between the two crowns, which was 
 
 [■ Velasquez was not made a knight of Santiago till 1659, or three 
 years after the picture was painted.] 
 
 [■^ In 1648 he again visited Italy to buy pictures for the king of Spain.] 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTING IN SPAIN. 221 
 
 further cemented on this occasion by the marriage of the 
 Infanta Maria Teresa with Louis XIV. Velasquez, in 
 virtue of the office that he held of Aposentador, was bound 
 to provide for the entertainment and lodging of the huge 
 cavalcade that escorted the king and the bride ^ to meet 
 the French monarch. He likewise played an important 
 part in the august ceremonials and festivities that took 
 place on the occasion, and it is supposed that the excite- 
 ment and worry that he thereby underwent was too much 
 for him, for immediately on his return to Madrid he fell 
 ill, and, in spite of the attendance of the royal physicians, 
 breathed his last on the 6th of August, 1660, in the sixty- 
 first year of his age. His wife, Juana Pacheco, followed 
 him in a week to the grave. 
 
 The family picture, now in the gallery at Vienna, in 
 which Velasquez has depicted himself and his wife sur- 
 rounded by their children, is one of the most masterly of 
 his works. The painter Mazo, who married Velasquez's 
 eldest daughter, is included in the family group, and a 
 portrait of Philip IV., hanging on the wall, and a full- 
 length likeness of the Queen, on the easel before which 
 Velasquez is standing, serve to connect the painter, even 
 in this pleasant representation of his domestic life, with 
 his royal patrons.'* 
 
 It is, of course, as a portrait painter that Velasquez is 
 chiefly famous. His detractors, indeed, were wont to say 
 that he could paint nothing but heads, as if this were not 
 enough. He has certainly left but few religious pictures, 
 and such as there are by him cannot rank among his best 
 works ; ^ but his powers were so versatile, that it is evident 
 that, had he chosen, he might have excelled in any branch 
 of his art. His landscapes are uniformly good, and have, 
 
 * " Three thousand five hundred mules, eighty-two horses, seventy 
 coaches and seventy baggage-wagons, accompanied the royal party from 
 Madrid to the place of rendezvous. The procession was six leagues in 
 length, and the van had reached the first day's halting-place before the 
 rear had issued from the gates of Madrid." (Stirling.) 
 
 ' [See, however, Curtis, " Velasquez and Murillo," p. 16, who suggests 
 that this picture is not by Velasquez but by Maso, and that it represents 
 not the family of Velasquez, but that of Maso, or one of his friends or 
 patrons.] 
 
 ' Except, perhaps, a Crucifixion, in the Nunnery of San Flacido, 
 
222 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK V. 
 
 as Wilkie remarks, " the very soul and spirit of nature." 
 The landscape, for instance, in the Boar-hunt, in the 
 National Gallery, No. 197, is by far the best portion of 
 the picture.^ Of the Adoration assigned to him, in the 
 same gallery, nothing can be said but that it is to be 
 hoped that it is not genuine.^ It is nothing more than a 
 vulgar imitation of the vulgar Eibera; but the picture 
 recently acquired from the Pourtalcs Collection, and known 
 as El Orlando Muerto, the Dead Orlando, No. 741, is 
 undoubtedly, whether by Velasquez or not, a most power- 
 ful and striking work. [There are also two splendid 
 portraits of Philip IV., a bust, No. 745, and a full-length. 
 No. 1129 ; and Sir John Savile Lumley has recently pre- 
 sented to the gallery the celebrated picture of Christ at 
 the Column, No. 1148.] 
 
 [Velasquez is represented in the Louvre by a portrait, 
 the Infanta Maria Margarita, and a small group of thirteen 
 portraits, known as the Conversation of Velasquez, in which 
 the artist and Murillo are said to be introduced. There 
 are two or three other portraits of doubtful authenticity 
 there.] 
 
 Baetolome Esteban Murillo, the second famous 
 painter of the Spanish school, was born at Seville, or at 
 least was baptized in that city, on the 1st of January, 
 1618.^ Like Velasquez, he received his early education in 
 his native city, in the already well-established school of 
 Seville, where Juan del Castillo, who was also the master 
 of Alonso Cano, gave him his first instruction. He im- 
 proved so rapidly that he soon rivalled his master, but 
 not being, like Velasquez, of noble birth, and his parents 
 
 which is engraved in Stirling's " Annals," and is spoken of by him as 
 one of Velasquez's noblest works, and as proving that, " although from 
 choice his pencil dealt chiefly on subjects of the earth, it could rise to the 
 height of the loftiest theme." 
 
 [^ Some of the figures in this picture were restored or put in by Lance, 
 but the figures and dogs on the left are masterly.] 
 
 [^ There is no reason to doubt that this is an early work of "Velasquez. ] 
 ^ The registry of his baptism was discovered by Count Aguila, which 
 disproved Palomino's statement that he was born in 1613, atPilas. [The 
 custom was to baptise on the day after birth, and therefore he was pro- 
 bably born on December 31, 1617.] 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTING IN SPAIN. 223 
 
 being dead, he was obliged to give up study in order to 
 earn his daily bread by executing rough and hasty works, 
 that he himself sold in the street or the market-place for 
 a few reals to such purchasers as he could find/ 
 
 Having managed to gain a little money by such works 
 as these, and by others that he sold to the American 
 traders for exportation — figures of Saints and Virgin pic- 
 tures that were greatly in demand in the Spanish American 
 states — he determined to proceed to Italy, and there im- 
 prove himself by studying the works of the great Italians. 
 On his way, however, he stopped at Madrid, where he 
 sought out his celebrated fellow- townsman Velasquez, who 
 had already achieved fame and fortune, and asked his 
 advice. Velasquez, who seems to have had no mean 
 jealousy of other artists, received the poor friendless youth 
 very kindly, lodged him at his own house, and gained per- 
 mission for him to study in the Eoyal Galleries. He 
 counselled him, moreover, to wait a little while before 
 going to Italy, and accordingly Murillo spent the summer 
 of 1642, while Velasquez was absent with the court at 
 Arragon, in studying and copying the works of Vandyck, 
 Spagnoletto, and Velasquez at Madrid. On his return, 
 Velasquez was greatly pleased with the progress his protege 
 had made ; and in the following year, when he had already 
 produced works of very high merit, he offered him every 
 assistance to enable him to prosecute his studies at Eome. 
 
 But Murillo' s desire for Italy had now weakened, and in 
 spite of the remonstrances of Velasquez, after three years 
 spent at Madrid, he returned early in 1645 to Seville, 
 where he remained for the rest of his life, refusing, it 
 is said, the invitations to court that came to him in his old 
 age. 
 
 Immediately on his return to Seville, he accepted a com- 
 mission from the friars of San Francisco to decorate their 
 
 > " In ^lurillo's time," says Stirling, " these street artists mustered in 
 prsat numbers. Their works were sometimes executed in the open air, 
 and they always kept brushes and colours at hand, ready to make any 
 alteration on the si)ot that customers might suggest, such as changing a 
 S. Onophrius, bristly as the fretful porcupine, into S. Christopher Uie 
 Ferryman, or Our Lady of Carmel into S. Antliony of Tadua." 
 
224 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK V. 
 
 cloisters with eleven large paintings,^ a commission, it is 
 said, that was not given him without much misgiving on 
 the part of the friars, who doubted the young and unknown 
 artist's competency for so great an undertaking, although 
 they were too poor, or too parsimonious, to pay the sum 
 that a more famed master would have required. The way 
 in which Murillo executed this work soon, however, con- 
 vinced the Franciscan friars that they had made a mo&t 
 fortunate choice, and the fame of his paintings spreading 
 abroad, all Seville hastened to the convent to see them, and 
 were forced to acknowledge that the poor youth, whom 
 they had formerly known as selHng rude daubs in the 
 market-place, had developed into one of the greatest masters 
 of Spain. 
 
 From this moment his success was assured: commis- 
 sions flocked in upon him without end, and in 1648 his 
 position ^ was such as to enable him to marry a lady of 
 property, and to maintain a comfortable establishment at 
 Seville, where his house became the resort of some of the 
 most distinguished men of the city. For the cathedral he 
 next painted several large pictures representing various 
 legends of saints, especially one of S, Anthony of Padua, 
 which is celebrated as one of his most admirable works, 
 and which still, wonderful to say, having escaped the 
 rapacity of Soult, hangs in its place in the baptistery of 
 the cathedral.^ 
 
 Before the execution of these works, Murillo had changed 
 his early style of painting, a style designated by critics as 
 his cold (Jrio) manner, in which many of his beggar-boys 
 
 ^ The cloisters of San Francisco were burnt in 1810, but most of 
 Murillo's paintings had before this been carried off by Marshal Soult. 
 One of the finest of the series, the Death of Sta. Clara, wherein the 
 Virgin, attended by a train of beautiful maidens, bears a shining robe of 
 immortality for the dying saint, passed into the Aguado collection, and 
 from thence into England. It was exhibited by Earl Dudley in the 
 collection of Old Masters, at the Royal Academy, in 1871. [Another 
 S. Diego of Alcula is in the Louvi'e. For list of these pictures and their 
 present possessors, see Curtis's '* Velasquez and Murillo," p. 225.] 
 P The name was Dona Beatriz de Cabrera y Sotomayor.] 
 P The largest of all Murillo's paintings. Painted 1656. On 5th 
 November, 1874, the figure of S. Anthony was cut out of this picture, 
 and stolen. In January following it was recovered in New York, but 
 slightly damaged.] 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTING IN SPAIN. 225 
 
 and other scenes of street-life are painted, for a wanner and 
 more transparent colouring, witli softer outlines and fuller 
 forms. This second or warm (calido) style is more univer- 
 eallv admired. 
 
 The friendless youth who had sought the patronage of 
 Velasquez in 1642, was now universally acknowledged as 
 the caposcuolo or head of the famous school of Seville ; and 
 although Juan Valdes and the younger Herrera, who were 
 painting at the same time in Seville, fondly considered 
 themselves his rivals, he had in truth no real rival in 
 Spanish art, except Velasquez ; and in the present day, if 
 popularity be any test, Murillo is far more widely known 
 and appreciated than even Velasquez.^ The passionate 
 religious enthusiasm of the Spanish nature finds its highest 
 expression in his works, in which the harsh asceticism of 
 the earlier masters is softened by a loving tender senti- 
 ment, that renders them peculiarly well adapted to appeal 
 to the hearts and awaken the devotions of a race whose 
 religion teaches the cultivation of faith at the sacrifice of 
 reason. 
 
 Murillo, in truth, may be taken as the representative in 
 art of the spirit of faith and unquestioning obedience 
 which, in spite of the shock of the Eeformation, still con- 
 tinued to hold its ground in Catholic Spain, even in the 
 seventeenth century ; just as Diirer represents the inquiring 
 and doubting spirit of Protestant Germany ; and Michael 
 Angelo, and Titian, the rationalistic spirit of paganized 
 Italy. The sensuous element also largely prevails in 
 Murillo's works, and colour forms their chief attraction ; 
 nor does this in any way detract from their tender devo- 
 tional character, for the Catholic religion, especially at the 
 time of re-action against encroaching Protestantism that 
 set in in the seventeenth century, sought, by dazzling the 
 senses, and by moving appeals to the emotional side of 
 human nature, to regain the hold it had lost on the human 
 intellect. The effective art of the Carracci, of Guido, and 
 Domenichino, and of many of the Naturalisti and Tene- 
 brosi, was an expression of the same endeavour; but it 
 
 * [This is still true, but the appreciation of Velasjuez has spread 
 greatly since this was written.] 
 
226 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK V. 
 
 is most clearly apparent in the art of Murillo and Zurba- 
 ran, in which unreasoning faith sometimes rises to the 
 heights of religious ecstasy. 
 
 His well-known picture of the Immaculate Conception, 
 in the Louvre, aspires to express this state of heavenly 
 rapture. Whether it does so or not is a question that per- 
 haps the cold northern intellect is incapable of determining, 
 but, compared with the mysterious holy beauty of Eaphael's 
 San Sisto Madonna, or the powerful magnificence of Titian's 
 Assumption, this much-admired work apj^ears like a mere 
 theatrical display of religious sentimentality. 
 
 In many other of Murillo's religious subjects the senti- 
 ment is similarly overstrained, whilst, on the other hand, 
 in many of them we have only a commonplace realism, as, 
 for instance, in his smaller Madonnas, who are merely 
 Spanish peasants with their infants in their arms, without 
 any effort at idealization. Many of his biblical histories, also, 
 do not rank beyond genre painting, so completely are they 
 brought to the level of the Spanish life he saw around him.^ 
 
 It was this picturesque Spanish life, in its poorest and 
 most disreputable aspects, that, as we know, first attracted 
 his attention. His pictures of ragged, dirty urchins, laugh- 
 ing, stealing, eating, and playing cards, are as well known 
 as his more exalted religious conceptions, and strike us by 
 their keen observation and powerful dehneation of youth- 
 ful rascaldom ; indeed, had Murillo chanced to live in Pro- 
 testant Holland in the seventeenth century instead of in 
 SjDain, he would probably have ranked as one of the 
 humourous class of Dutch genre painters, instead of beiag 
 the favourite painter of Inquisitorial Spain, for it was more 
 the influences of country and education that made him a 
 devotee than any natural disposition. 
 
 Of all his great series of paintings, those executed for 
 the hospital of the Holy Charity at Seville are generally 
 reckoned the finest. He painted no less than eleven great 
 canvases for the church of this hospital, but only three 
 
 ^ Such, for instance, as the series exhibited in 1871 of the Old Mas- 
 ters, at the Eojal Academy, from the life of the Prodigal Son, which, 
 but for the title, might have been taken for scenes from some Spanish 
 novel, being nothing more than clever delineations of the career of a 
 spendthrift Spanish youth. 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTING IN SPAIN. 227 
 
 Qow remain in their original places, the others having been, 
 IS was so often the fate of Murillo's pictures, carried off by 
 Marshal Soult, and otherwise dispersed. Two are now in 
 Stafford House, in the possession of the Duke of Suther- 
 land, and are undoubtedly splendid examples of his large 
 liistorical mode of composition, or, as it might perhaps be 
 called, of his biblical-genre style. The first of these great 
 paintings represents Abraham receiving the Angels — the 
 patriarch advancing from the door of his tent to welcome 
 his heavenly visitors. The other depicts with impressive 
 force and reality the Prodigal's Eeturn. The centre group 
 of the repentant son locked in his father's arms, in this 
 latter work, is especially powerful and pathetic, and the 
 management of the colour in both is most excellent, and 
 reveals the painter at his best period. 
 
 Murillo was the founder of the Academy of Painting in 
 Seville, the first that had ever been established in Spain, 
 but he was only its president for one year, namely, in 
 1660. He died in 1682, at the age of sixty-four, from the 
 consequences of a fall from some scaffolding whilst paint- 
 ing the Marriage of S. Catherine in the church of the 
 Capuchin friars at Cadiz. 
 
 Although his industry must have been remarkable, he 
 does not appear, after a life devoted to art, to have amassed 
 any fortune but at his death.^ 
 
 Like Giotto, Murillo is pre-eminently the painter of the 
 Franciscan order. His first important commission was 
 given him, as we have seen, by the Capuchin friars of 
 Seville, for whom he executed many other works. He has 
 frequently represented the legends of S. Prancis, and often 
 depicts his holy personages in the Franciscan dress. 
 Murillo's works are better known abroad than those of any 
 other Spanish painter, the Spanish war and the dissolution 
 of the monasteries having effectually dispersed them. 
 Marshal Soult, indeed, has been undoubtedly a most active 
 agent in disseminating a knowledge of Murillo throughout 
 the civilized world, for the pictures that he acquired 
 (" stole " is the word that Stirling uses) during the Spanish 
 
 ' Palomino. [The amount of property he loft is very uncertain, but 
 he left some. See his will, often printed ; an English translation is given 
 by Curtis.] 
 
228 HI8T0BT OP PAINTING. [bOOK V. 
 
 war, and sold for enormous prices in his famous auction- 
 rooms, are to be found in most public galleries. 
 
 The Louvre naturally possesses a large number of Soult's 
 acquisitions ; and it has other Murillos, acquired in a less 
 questionable manner.^ The Pinakothek at Munich has 
 several excellent paintings of his early time, of beggar 
 boys and similar subjects. Dresden has a fine religious 
 picture, S. E-oderic receiving the Crown of Martyrdom, and 
 a Virgin and Child [and one of S. Juan de Dios]. 
 
 In England, the Dulwich Gallery, especially, boasts of 
 some fine Murillos, the well-known Spanish Mower Girl 
 being one amongst them. The National Gallery has only 
 three paintings, but these are excellent examples of his 
 various styles, the Spanish Beggar Boy (No. 74) being one 
 of his early, and the Holy Family (No. 13) one of his latest 
 works, whilst the S. John and the Lamb (No. 176) be- 
 longs to his middle and best period. This subject was 
 frequently treated by Murillo, who painted children with 
 graceful naivete.^ 
 
 His most frequent theme, however, was the favourite 
 Spanish dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the 
 Virgin, which was established by the Church, and received 
 by the Spanish people with the most enthusiastic joy in his 
 time. Almost all Spanish painters have found in this 
 Catholic mystery a fruitful source of inspiration, but 
 Murillo, above all, is known in Spain as el pintor de la 
 Concepcion, the painter, jpar excellence, of the Sinless Virgin. 
 His two finest paintings of this subject are at Seville and 
 Madrid, although the Conception of the Louvre is more 
 universally known. 
 
 With Velasquez and Murillo Spanish painting reached 
 its highest perfection. Immediately after their deaths it 
 fell even below the standard that it had attained in the 
 sixteenth century, and soon became, like everything else in 
 Spain at this sad period, utterly corrupt, feeble, and 
 worthless. 
 
 [^ Ten altogether ; only a few were in the Soult collection, and these 
 were purchased by the state or Xapoleon III.] 
 
 ^ A picture called the Good Shepherd, of a young and beautiful boy 
 looking up to heaven in a rapture, once formed a companion to the S. 
 John of the National Gallery. It is now in the possession of the Roths- 
 child family. 
 
BOOK v.] PAINTIXa IN SPAIN. 229 
 
 Juan de Yaldes Leal (1630-1691) continued for a few 
 years, it is true, after the death of Murillo, to uphold the 
 famed school of Seville, but the glory of that school had 
 departed, and soon it sunk into mere academic mediocrity. 
 Several painters might be mentioned, who, like the Italian 
 machinists, executed vast decorative works with marvellous 
 rapidity, but no painter of any real power or originality 
 arose [until the advent of Don Francisco Groya y Lucientes. 
 This very original artist was born in 1746, and studied at 
 Saragoza under Luxan Martinez. He was in Italy at the 
 same time as Louis David, and enjoyed the friendship of 
 that painter. Groya's fame for originality rests chiefly upon 
 his etchings and engravings in aquatint, especially the 
 three series of Scenes from the French Invasion, The Bull- 
 ring, and the brutally cynical Caprices, illustrating 
 national traits and incidents. These spirited satirical 
 conceptions are executed with a powerful chiaroscuro, 
 which, in part, conceals the hasty, faulty drawing, and in- 
 vests with force a vivacity of imagination not exempt from 
 a tendency to caricature. His works are full of the revolu- 
 tionary spirit, the fiendish hatred of priestcraft, and the 
 licentiousness which distinguished the man and made his 
 life a reckless one — ever embroiled politically and socially. 
 G-oya was essentially a national painter. His portraits of the 
 family of Charles IV. and others are in Madrid, and there 
 are numerous religious subjects by him in the churches of 
 Spain. In the Louvre there are two portraits (Nos. 534 
 and 535) of the French Ambassador Guillemardet and of 
 a young Spanish girl. Goya died in 1828. 
 
 The few Spanish painters of merit since that time belong, 
 in manner, to the French school rather than to the Spanish. 
 Distinguished above all is the brilliant genre painter, 
 Mariano (Jose-Maria Bernardo) Fortuny.* Bom in 1838, 
 he made himself a European reputation before his early 
 death in 1874. His marvellous dexterity of hand, audacious 
 management of light and colour, combined with fine finish 
 and vivacity, despite the multiplicity of detail, induced 
 many followers, and founded what has been termed the 
 h-ic-d-hrac school. Fortuny studied at Barcelona and in 
 
 [' " Les Artistes Celebres ; Foi'tuny." Par Charles Yriarte.] 
 
230 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK V. 
 
 Rome, but his journey to Moscow in General Prim's train 
 in 1859 furnished material for, and determined the direc- 
 tion of, his art. His best works are La Yicaria (the 
 Spanish wedding), Choosing a Model, the Bibliophiles, 
 the Barocchi, and the Executions in the Alhambra, in all of 
 which the charm rests in the picturesqueness of the subject 
 and its brilliant execution ; his work lacks higher qualities, 
 but is complete in itself. His brother-in-law, Madrazo, is 
 the most gifted of his followers.] 
 
BOOK VI. 
 PAINTING IN GERMANY. 
 
 Chapter I. 
 
 THE CATHOLIC PERIOD. 
 
 School of Cologne — Meister Wilhelm — Meisteb Stephan. 
 
 THE rosy dawn of German art began," says F. Von 
 ScUegel,^ "with. Wilhelm of Cologne," but even if the 
 roseate hues of the dawning are first perceptible in his 
 works, we must not forget that the grey morning of art 
 had broken over the land long before his time. 
 
 We have no evidence, it is true, of any national Teutonic 
 art before the Christian era, the remains of such buildings 
 of an earlier date as exist in Germany, France, and other 
 northern countries, being (with the exception of the 
 Druidical circles) distinctly of Roman construction. But 
 when the Germanic nations had thrown off the yoke of 
 Rome, and when the chaos that succeeded the overthrow of 
 the ancient world had subsided into something like order, 
 the newly-founded kingdoms began to evince their inde- 
 pendence in their art, as well as in their noble national 
 ix)etry, which arose about the same period. 
 
 Gothic architecture, which may be regarded as the petri- 
 licd expression of the religious aspirations, the poetry and 
 the idealism of the mediaeval mind, had its rise in France 
 
 ^ '^ Gemahlde-beschreibungen aus Paris und den Niederlanden.** 
 
232 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 about the end of the twelfth century, and from this date 
 we may trace a continued development in the art, not 
 only of Italy (though by the influence of G-iotto, that 
 country, of course, took the lead in painting), but likewise 
 of less favoured lands. In France, G-ermany, England, 
 the Netherlands and Spain, Gothic architecture bloomed 
 into a more delicate and ideal beauty than even in Italy ; 
 and although, by breaking up the extensive wall-surfaces 
 that the Romanesque style had afforded for painting it 
 hindered to a certain extent the free exercise of the painter's 
 art, it nevertheless burst the fetters which Byzantine 
 tradition had hitherto imposed, and gave a new direction 
 to his thoughts. 
 
 For a time, it is true, the German painter hesitated to 
 obey this impulse, and, as the miniatures and the illumi- 
 nated manuscripts (the only works that we have in paint- 
 ing of the early Gothic period) show, remained under 
 Byzantine influence ; but even in very early northern illu- 
 minations an independent spirit is often visible, which 
 finds its outlet in grotesque shapes, fantastic animals, and 
 other quaint devices. 
 
 Painting on glass was carried to the greatest perfection 
 in this age by northern artists, as the exquisite beauty of 
 the old painted glass in many of our Gothic cathedrals 
 abundantly testifies; still, the restraint that the mosaic- 
 like character of glass-painting necessarily imposed con- 
 trasted unfavourably with the freedom that fresco painting 
 offered to the Italian artist.^ 
 
 The earliest wall-paintings of which we find any men- 
 tion in German history are some said to have been exe- 
 cuted for Queen Theodolinda in the sixth century, and 
 to have represented the Victories of the Lombards, but of 
 these, as well as of the more important paintings with 
 which Charlemagne decorated his church and castle at 
 Upper Ingelheim, we have only the historical record, none 
 of them now existing. 
 
 A few traces of early German wall-painting still remain, 
 
 * Even after the Gothic style was fully adopted in Italy, care was 
 taken to leave spaces for fresco decoration ; as, for instance, in the 
 church of S. Francis at Assissi, built between 1228 and 1253, by a 
 German master named Jacob. 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GEEMANY. 233 
 
 however, in various places, which reveal considerable feel- 
 ing for grace and simple beauty.^ 
 
 More particularly in the early art of Bohemia this feel 
 ing becomes manifest. 
 
 The School op Bohemia is about the earliest school of 
 painting that arose in G-ermany. It dates from the begin 
 ing of the fourteenth century, but chiefly flourished in the 
 timeof the Emperor Charles lY. (1348-1378), who employed 
 several native artists in the decoration of his castle and 
 church at Karlstein, near Prague. The names of three of 
 these artists, namely, Theodorich of Prague, Nicolaus 
 Wurmser, and one Kunz, have been handed down tons, but 
 it is impossible now to assign to them their respective work. 
 
 The School of Nxjrnberg, during the early G-othic 
 period, was a school of sculpture rather than of painting. 
 It produced the most exquisite carved and chiselled works, 
 works which more than rival those of Italy of the same 
 time in their rich fancy, deep f eehng, and original thought, 
 if not in their classic spirit ; but for a long time painting 
 remained entirely subordinate, and was only used to 
 heighten the effect of bas-reliefs, statues, and wooden 
 carvings.^ 
 
 The preference for those richly-carved and coloured 
 wooden altar-pieces, of which we still find so many speci- 
 mens in German churches, had, indeed, at this time, a 
 somewhat depressing influence on the development of 
 German painting. The colouring of these altar-shrines, 
 which were entirely filled with small figures in magnificent 
 gilded and damasked drapery, standing in relief from a 
 gold ground, was often the only employment that even a 
 skilful German master could find.^ 
 
 * The paintings in the apse of the church at Brauweiler, of which 
 there are copies in the Wallraf Museum at Cologne, those once at 
 Ramersdorf, near Bonn, and the important bibhcal series in the monas- 
 tery church at Wifenhauscn, may especially be mentioned, as well as 
 some paintings at Cologne, Hildesheim, and Brunswick. 
 
 * " Nurnbergs Kunstleben in seinen Denkmalen dargestellt." K. von 
 Rettberg, 1854. 
 
 ^ The so-called Rosenkranztafcl, or representation of the Last Judg- 
 ment, in the Burg at Niirnberg, is a splendid example of this kind of 
 work, still one perceives in it the limitations under which the artist must 
 have worked. 
 
234 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI, 
 
 This was especially the case at Niimberg, where, as 
 before said, sculpture was long predominant. We find, 
 however, a few early paintings in Niirnberg, such as the 
 celebrated Imhof altar-piece, executed about 1418-1422, and 
 the beautiful Virgin with Cherubs, in the Lorenz Kirche, 
 that prove that the Niirnberg masters, even in painting, 
 were not behind the other early schools of Grermany in 
 artistic development. The Imhof altar-piece, indeed, is 
 remarkable for its tender sentiment, graceful forms, digni- 
 fied expression, and beauty of colour. Its centre compart- 
 ment represents the Coronation of the Virgin. The name 
 of its painter is unknown. 
 
 In SuABiA, also, German art appears to have developed 
 at an early date ; but here, as at Niirnberg, it was sculp- 
 ture that was principally practised.^ 
 
 In the more celebrated and better-known School op 
 Cologne, on the other hand, painting, although un- 
 doubtedly preceded by architecture and sculpture, rose at 
 a very early date to separate importance. As early as the 
 beginning of the thirteenth century Wolfram von Eschen- 
 bach, in his famous romance of " Percival," in describing 
 the beauty of his knight, declares that — 
 
 " From Koln nor from Maestricht 
 No limner could excel him." 
 
 proving that even at that date Cologne was celebrated for 
 its " limners." 
 
 Cologne, indeed, from the time of Charlemagne, occupied 
 a foremost position amongst the cities of G-ermany, and a 
 constant communication was kept up between her and 
 Italy. It is natural, therefore, to suppose that Italian 
 and Byzantine artists travelling northward would have 
 settled by preference in the city that had most direct inter- 
 course with the south. By such artists, doubtless, paint- 
 ing was first taught and practised in Cologne, and their 
 scholars formed what has been called the Byzantine- 
 Rhenish or Byzantine-Eomantic School, the principal 
 seat of which was in Cologne. 
 
 The chief characteristic of the Byzantine-Eomantic school 
 
 * C. Heideloff, " Die Kunst des Mittelalters in Schwaben." 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 235 
 
 is a deep-seated devotional sentiment. The harsh asceti- 
 cism of Byzantium is softened to a tender spiritual beauty 
 and childlike purity of expression, such as only Fra An- 
 gelico and one or two of the Italian purists ever attained. 
 Added to these spiritual graces, if so they may be called, 
 we find in the early Cologne masters a true feeling for 
 form, a dignified grace, a delicate and soft execution, and 
 a sweet harmonious blending of colour; and although 
 their works lack the accurate drawing and powerful 
 colouring of the great school of the Van Eycks, many of 
 them possess a wonderful charm of their own. 
 
 The first of the ** limners " of Cologne, of whom we gain 
 any real sight, is that patriarch of German art, Meister 
 WiLHELM OF Cologne (painting in the latter half of the 
 fourteenth century).^ 
 
 According to some historians, Meister Wilhelm was 
 bom at Herle, but he appears to have settled at Cologne 
 about the year 1358, and to have formed there a large 
 school. Unfortunately but few of his productions survive, 
 or at least can be identified. A Madonna and Child in the 
 Wallraf Museum at Cologne, however, which is still ascribed 
 to him, evinces the before-mentioned characteristics of his 
 school in a remarkable degree. On the countenance of the 
 Virgin there is an expression of the most heavenly purity 
 and peace. No earthly emotions disturb her holy con- 
 templation, as, with the God-child in her arms, she gazes 
 forth from the gold background which surrounds her. A 
 pure harmony of colour adds to the singular beauty of 
 this old work.* 
 
 But the fame of Meister Wilhelm has of late years 
 paled before the superior merits of another master of the 
 Cologne school, Meister Stephan, or Stephan Lochner, 
 who was, perhaps, one of Wilhelm' s pupils, and flourished 
 in the first-half of the fifteenth century. 
 
 * So called on the authority of the " Limburg Chronicle," which 
 mentions him as " ein berumbt Maler in Colin des gleichens nit ware in 
 der Christenheit j er malet einen wie er lebte. Sein Name war Wil- 
 helraus." 
 
 [* Also ascribed to him — St. Veronica, National Gallery ; the Life of 
 Christ, St. John's Chapel, Cologne Cathedral. Belonging to his school — 
 Madonna and Child adored, and Scenes from the Life of Christ and the 
 Virgin, both in Berlin Museum.] 
 
236 HISTOEY OP PAINTINa. [bOOK VI. 
 
 The name of Meister Stephan was first made known to 
 critics by an entry in the "Journal of Albrecht Diirer," 
 which states : " Item. I have paid two silver pennies to 
 have the picture opened which Meister Stephan painted at 
 Cologne." This picture was the great " Dom-bild," as it is 
 called, an altar-piece still preserved in the cathedral of 
 Cologne, which, until this entry was noticed, had always 
 been attributed to Meister Wilhelm ; but when, in addition 
 to Diirer's assertion, the name of a painter, Stephan Lochner, 
 or Loethener, was actually discovered by M. Merlo in some 
 old registers of the years 1442 and 1448 in Cologne,^ the 
 evidence seemed strong in his favour. Some writers, how- 
 ever, even now hold to the opinion that Meister Wilhelm 
 was the real painter of the Dom-bild. 
 
 The fame of being the painter of such a picture as the 
 Dom-bild, the crowning work of the Cologne school, is 
 truly worth contending for, it being one of the noblest 
 and most beautiful works of early religious art. The 
 spiritual ideal is never for a moment forgotten in it, but 
 the figures are more strongly modelled, and have a greater 
 naturalistic freedom than in most other productions of 
 this school.^ The realism blended with mysticism that 
 produced the Mystic Xamb of S. Bavon, at Ghent, of 
 Hubert and Jan Van Eyck, produced, in fact, likewise 
 this earlier work of G-erman art, which, in many respects, 
 may be compared to the masterwork of the Van Eycks. 
 
 It is divided into three compartments, the centre repre- 
 senting the Adoration of the Kings, whilst on the wangs 
 are S. Ursula and her Virgins, and S. Gereon and his men- 
 at-arms, the figures being all painted on a gold background, 
 with a depth and beauty of colour which almost equals 
 Flemish oil painting in effect, although it seems to be 
 painted in tempera on wood. The dark-green foreground, 
 studded with flowers in the Flemish manner, is most care- 
 fully worked out and extremely beautiful ; but we scarcely 
 
 ' The entries in these registers show that Stephen Lochner was a 
 native of Constance, but owned a house in Cologne, and served in two 
 different years in the town council. Merlo, " Die Meister der Altcbln- 
 ischen Schule." Coin, 1852. 
 
 [■■' Intercourse between Cologne and the Netherlands was frequent in 
 the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and the influence of the Flemish 
 realism strongly marked.] 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 237 
 
 notice details in looking for the first time at this work, so 
 impressive is the mild majesty of the enthroned Virgin, 
 the deep reverence and love of the noble old king kneeling 
 before the Child, and the tender beauty and innocence of 
 S. Ursula and her companions. On the outside of the 
 wings, as was customary in these altar-pieces, the Virgin 
 and the Annunciating Angel are depicted. These figures 
 also have an exquisite tenderness of sentiment and deep 
 spirituality. 
 
 Another highly-finished and beautifully conceived work 
 of the early Cologne school is the Madonna in the Rose 
 Arbour, Madonna in der Bosenlaube, now in the Wallraf 
 Museum in Cologne. There seems but little doubt that 
 this is by the same master as the Dom-bild, for the same 
 majesty, united with childlike simplicity and purity of 
 character, distinguishes the Virgin, who seems to breathe a 
 different air from the foggy atmosphere which surrounds 
 our poor human life. In execution, also, this small picture 
 is very similar to the large altar-piece of the cathedral.^ 
 
 A Last Judgment, conceived with great dramatic power, 
 but with very little knowledge of form, and in that quaint, 
 almost comic spirit of symbolism that usually prevails in 
 early representations of this subject, has also, but not 
 without dispute, been ascribed to Meister Stephan.^ There 
 are many other curious works of the same school in the 
 Wallraff collection, which is peculiarly rich in works of 
 early G-erman art. There are also many scattered in old 
 German churches, but space will not permit of any more 
 being mentioned here, except an altar-piece at Jiefenbronn 
 in Swabia, painted in 1431 by Lucas Moser, which displays 
 a national tendency united with the ecclesiastical forms of 
 l)reviou8 years. 
 
 Before the end of the fifteenth century the influence of 
 the Flemish school was powerfully exerted over the masters 
 of Cologne. Their spiritual idealism gave way before the 
 
 * The learned editor of the Walh*af Museum Catalogue, Herr Niessen, 
 has written two sonnets in praise of this highly-prized work, which forms 
 one of the "jewels " of the Cologne school. The uninstructed observer 
 might, it is true, easily pass it by as " one of those ugly Byzantine 
 things," but a little study reveals its deep feeling and beauty. 
 
 [^ There is a picture ascribed to this artist in the National Gallery 
 (No. 705).] 
 
238 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 noble realism and better technical methods of the Van 
 Eycks, and most of the G-erman painters .of this time be- 
 long to the school of Eogier van der Weyden rather than 
 to that of Meister Stephan. The influence of Flemish 
 realism is especially apparent in the works of a German 
 master who was formerly, but erroneously, called Israel 
 Van Meckenen,^ but who is now usually styled after his 
 principal work, The Master of the Lyversberg Passion 
 (about 1463-1480). The Lyversberg Passion^ is in eight 
 compartments, representing the scenes of the passion of 
 Christ. There is not the elevated feeling in the conception 
 of this work that marks the creations of the earlier Cologne 
 masters, but, on the other hand, there is far greater power 
 of expression and knowledge of form, and much richer 
 colour. Technical execution was, in fact, greatly advanced 
 by this painter, and a more natural life infused into the 
 old types, but the pure religious feeling of the Cologne 
 school is only now and then apparent in his pictures. 
 There are several works ascribed to this master in the 
 cabinets of the Munich Grallery, and there is also one, a 
 Presentation in the Temple, in our National Grallery. 
 
 Another anonymous painter of this time is The Master 
 OF THE Death of the Virgin. He is unfortunately but 
 little known, and consequently but little spoken of, even by 
 G-erman critics ; but the one certain work by which he is 
 known, the Death of the Virgin, and its side wings, repre- 
 senting the Family of the Donor (the male portion under 
 the protection of S. G-eorge and S. Nicasius, and the female 
 portion under S. Christina and S. G-udula), is a painting 
 worthy of being classed with many of the most extolled 
 works of the school of Bruges. It has all the power and 
 colour of Eogier Van Weyden, while in the peaceful beauty 
 of the Virgin, who lies dying on the bed, there is a touch of 
 the ideality of Meister Stephan. The scene is laid in a 
 chamber wherein all the Apostles are assembled, as is 
 usual in representations of this kind. S. Jolm supports 
 
 ^ On the supposition that he was identical with the goldsmith and 
 engraver of that name, who worked in Cologne about the same date. 
 
 ^ So called because it was formerly in the possession of Herr Lyvers- 
 berg. From him it passed to Frau Baumeister, and was gained, in 1864- 
 by the Eichartz-gift, for the Cologne Museum. 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 239 
 
 the dying Virgin, and S. Peter, in full pontifical robes, 
 kneels by her side reading prayers. All the rich details 
 that the Bruges masters loved to introduce into their works 
 are present here : on a footstool in the foreground lies a 
 rosary and an incense pot ; a mirror hangs on the wall, 
 and also a small painted altar-piece, in which one can 
 distinguish that the middle compartment represents the 
 creation of Eve, and the wings the figures of Moses and 
 Aaron. 
 
 There are two repetitions of this work, one in the 
 Pinakothek at Munich, and the other, slightly varied, in 
 the Cologne Museum.^ 
 
 [These pictures are probably by a pupil of Jan Joost op 
 Calcar, who in 1505-1508 painted the wings of a large 
 carved altar-piece at Calcar, near Cleves, in realistic style, 
 with traces of Renaissance forms characteristic of the amal- 
 gamated schools of Flanders and Cologne. Jan Joost bought 
 the freedom of Calcar, and was probably a Dutchman. 
 Some of his family dwelt at Harlem, where he married, 
 and died in 1519.^ The painter of the Annunciation in the 
 cloister of Santa Maria di Castello at Genoa, Justus de 
 Allamagna (1451), belonged to this early school of Cologne 
 influenced by Flemish tradition.] 
 
 Far less Flemish in style is a Westphalian painter who 
 executed some works in the Benedictine Abbey of Liesbom, 
 about the year 1465, and who from these has received the 
 designation of the Meister von Liesborn. Two portions 
 of the great altar-piece of Liesbom have found their way, 
 after various vicissitudes, into our National collection, and 
 will serve to give English students some notion of the 
 character and execution of these early German masters ; 
 but it is only in German galleries, especially at Munich, 
 that their works can be properly studied. 
 
 It must not be supposed that the majesty and sweetness 
 of Meister Stephan, or the powerful realism of the master 
 of the Death of the Virgin, was reached by all or even 
 many of the German masters of this time. A large pro- 
 
 * As an example of the realistic detail of this picture, it may be men- 
 tioned that a corner of the rich carpet, in one of the wings, is positively 
 painted on the frame, as if it hung over it. 
 
 [' Woltmann and Woorman, " Geschichte der Malerei," bk. ii.] 
 
240 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 portion of them continued, even after the revival that art 
 had experienced in Italy and the Netherlands, to work on 
 in the old Byzantine trammels ; and, indeed, we find, even 
 in the sixteenth century, after the free schools of Upper 
 Grermany had attained to a noble national development, 
 that the Byzantine type was, in many instances, still per- 
 petuated in the Lower Rhine schools. 
 
 Bartolomatjs Bruyn (1493-1556), a Cologne master 
 living at the same time as Diirer, in another way also 
 utterly missed the development of the stirring reformation 
 age. His early works are somewhat allied in style to those 
 of the master of the Death of the Virgin, whose pupil he is 
 said to have been, but in his later ones an Italian influence 
 is perceptible, which wholly undermines their genuine 
 character. 
 
 The spiritual life of the Byzantine-Romantic school had 
 by this time, in fact, completely died away. That unques- 
 tioning obedience to the Church of Rome which had been, 
 perhaps, a salutary discipline in the art as well as the life 
 of the Euroi^ean nations in the early ages of Christianity, 
 was felt in Germany sooner than elsewhere as a galling 
 restraint by the enquiring minds of the fifteenth and six- 
 teenth centuries. Reason asserted her claims, and the 
 Teutonic intellect, now advanced beyond childhood, listened 
 to her voice, and was the first to break the chains where- 
 with Rome still sought to bind the nations to her foot- 
 stool. 
 
 In Italy, when under the Medici the spirit of progress 
 and rationalism prevailed, art, as we have seen, turned for 
 inspiration to the classic works of Greece and Rome, and 
 sought knowledge in ancient writers and beauty in antique 
 forms; but German art, in casting off the traditions of 
 Catholic Rome, did not, like Italy, receive the teaching 
 and adopt the language of Pagan Rome, but immediately 
 set to work to express German thought in honest German 
 language. 
 
 It is in its national character and its intellectual and 
 moral dignity that the real worth of German art Hes at this 
 date, and not in classic grace or sensuous beauty. 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GEEMANT. 241 
 
 Chapter II. 
 
 THE EEFOEMATION PERIOD. 
 
 Schools of Upper Germany — Durer — Holbein. 
 
 OF what may appropriately be called the Reformation 
 School of Germany, Albrecht Durer and Hans Hol- 
 bein the Younger were the two chief masters ; but before 
 their time, before even the time of Luther, we find an artist 
 who in no way swerved from his obedience to Rome, but in 
 whose works, nevertheless, we first become dimly aware of 
 the new thoughts and ideas which took distinct shape in the 
 art of his successors. 
 
 This artist was Martin Schongauer, or Schon, so 
 called on account of the beauty, not of his person, but of 
 his art. [Born at Colmar about 1450, the son of a gold- 
 smith, Caspar Schongauer, he died there in 1488.] Like 
 the master of the Lyversberg Passion, the master of the 
 Death of the Virgin, Frederick Herlin,^ and several other 
 German masters of this time, Schongauer appears to have 
 learnt the secret of colouring in the school of Rogier van 
 der Weyden ; but while assimilating all that was important 
 in the Flemish mode of painting, he wholly preserved his 
 German tone of thought, and expressed his ideas with an 
 originality of genius which at once distinguishes him from 
 the subservient followers of the Van Eycks, both in Ger- 
 many and Flanders. 
 
 His paintings, unfortunately, are extremely rare, and 
 such as are certainly known to be by him are mostly at 
 Colmar, where he appears to have long resided, and to have 
 formed a large school.'* 
 
 A Virgin and Child, which forms the altar-piece in the 
 church of S. Martin, at Colmar, is his most important 
 
 ' A Swabian master (records 1449-1499) who studied at Bruges, and 
 imported the Van Eyck method into Swabia. 
 
 [« No picture can with absolute certainty be ascribed to Schongauer. 
 The Virgin in the Rose Garden, in S. Martin's, Colmar, a small Holy 
 Family in the Pinakothek at Munich, and another in the Imperial Gal- 
 lery at Vienna, are amongst the least doubtful.] 
 
 R 
 
242 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 painting. It is spoken of by critics as being exceedingly- 
 graceful, and purely religious in exj)ression, the flesh tones 
 clear and warm, and the execution highly finished. The 
 Virgin is seated on a low wall with the Child in her lap ; 
 behind her is a trellis of roses, in which birds are nestling. 
 Two wings of an altar-piece, in the museum at Colmar, 
 are also said to have a spiritual beauty resembling that of 
 Perugino.^ 
 
 But it is in his engravings that Martin Schongauer's 
 individuality of mind is most fully displayed, and these, 
 happily, are less difl&cult of access than his painted 
 works. ^ 
 
 From these we learn that he had a far truer appreciation 
 of beauty than most German masters. We cannot predi- 
 cate of one of Diirer's Virgins that she will be graceful of 
 form and beautiful of face, but we almost can of one of 
 Martin Schon's. In the refined beauty of his female 
 figures, indeed, he approaches very near to Perugino and 
 Raphael, only the ideal that presented itself to his mind 
 was a G-erman and not an Italian ideal. A deep religious 
 sentiment pervades his works ; but now and then, instead 
 of the traditional mode of treatment of a sacred subject, 
 we have it set forth with wonderful force and life, as, 
 for instance, in the powerful engraving of Christ sinking 
 beneath the weight of the Cross on the way to Calvary,"' 
 in which the motley mediaeval German life is marvel- 
 lously contrasted with the grand figure of the sinking 
 Saviour. To modern taste, the exaggerated hate of the 
 executioners, who urge on the Weary One with blows and 
 cuts with a rope, is, it is true, repulsive, but this exaggera- 
 tion of suffering and evil is too often met with in German 
 art ; even Albrecht Diirer is by no means free from it. 
 
 But what more especially places Martin Schon forward : 
 
 [^ These are now considered to be copies by pupils after parts of 
 engravings.] 
 
 » The British Museum possesses a very fine collection of his prints, 
 but as none of them are publicly exhibited, they are but little known ex- 
 cept to students and collectors. Any one, however, desirous of seeing 
 them, may do so by obtaining a ticket for the Print Room, where also 
 one of the finest collections of Albrecht Diirer's engraved works may be 
 studied. 
 
 ^ Bartsch, " Le Peintre Graveur," No. 21. 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 243 
 
 as the predecessor of Diirer, and the founder of the Refor- 
 mation School of German art, is the weird, or as writers 
 on art usually call it, fantastic spirit that occasionally 
 breaks forth in his works. Even in the early religious 
 times, when the obedient artist strove faithfully to express 
 the teachings of the Church of Rome, this spirit, which we 
 fail to find in Italian or even in Flemish art, is occasionally 
 visible in the works of the German artist. In early Ger- 
 man manuscripts, for instance, often in the midst of 
 Byzantine Madonnas and ascetic saints, we come suddenly 
 across some strange fantastic monster, whose features bear 
 a much stronger resemblance to the creatures met with in 
 the eddas and sagas of the North, than to the orthodox 
 devils of Christian legend. 
 
 It was, perhaps, a lingering remembrance and affection 
 for the old Northern Mythology, with its ice-giants, its 
 world-encircling serpent, and its poetical impersonations 
 of the powers of nature, that gave birth to this strange 
 element in German art. 
 
 Only by degrees did the old religion lose its hold, and 
 even now, in the deeply rooted love of nature, in the weird 
 legends and romantic poetry of the Germans, we still find 
 traces of its spirit. In the art of the sixteenth century 
 this spirit assumed a strange prominence. In the School 
 of Cologne it was, as we have seen, lost to view in the de- 
 votion of the painter to the Church of Rome. We find no 
 trace of it in Meister Stephan. The Last Judgment, for 
 instance, of the Cologne Museum, although quaint and 
 even caricatured in style, has nothing weird about it, no- 
 thing hinted at, that is, that our senses are unable to 
 apprehend; on the contrary, everything is expressed in the 
 plainest matter-of-fact manner. 
 
 But the fantastic or weird spirit in art loves to dwell 
 in the twilight land of romance. It shrouds its meaning 
 in curiously distorted forms ; it delights in the grotesque, 
 but gives it a poetical rather than a comic expression ; it 
 hides its meaning from common sense, but reveals it to 
 children ; it puzzles the wise and delights the foolish ; it 
 is at once playful and serious, earnest and merry, truthful 
 and romancing ; it is neither theological nor rationalistic, 
 spiritual nor intellectual; it is reviled by all exclusive 
 
244 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 lovers of classic beauty and Italian idealism, but Albreclit 
 Diirer lias expressed some of his greatest ideas by means 
 of it. 
 
 A most striking instance of the fantastic treatment of a 
 legendary subject may be found in Martin Schon's cele- 
 brated print of S. Anthony tormented by demons. This, 
 it is said, so drew the admiration of Michael Angelo at the 
 beginning of his career that he copied it in oils, and truly 
 it is a most wonderful work. The saint, who is pulled up 
 into the air by his fiendish tormentors, has a look of holy 
 resignation that forms an effective contrast to the imj^ish 
 spite and fury of the creatures that surround him. One 
 a-miable female devil with bony arms, from which spring 
 fishes' fins by way of hanging sleeves, and with the wings 
 of a flying fish springing from her shoulders, lugs out the 
 few remaining locks that the saint has on his head. An- 
 other, of a goatish nature, beats him over the head with a 
 club, whilst another with a fish's head and bristles sticking 
 out all over him like the quills of a porcupine, and a long 
 snout like a trumpet, assails him with a similar instru- 
 ment. Others claw at his arms, his clothes, and his feet, 
 and persecute him in every conceivable manner, he re- 
 maining passive and submissive to all their ill-treatment. 
 These tricksy fishy fiends are very different to the devils 
 of the bottomless pit of Roman Catholic imagination. In 
 Spinello Aretino's Fall of Lucifer, and a few other repre- 
 sentations of hell of the Early Italian School, we have, it 
 is true, a somewhat fantastic treatment of the subject ; but; 
 for the most part the awful doctrine of the eternity of 
 punishment had taken too great a hold of men's minds to 
 permit of the conception of the devil in any other than a 
 spirit of grim reality. The mouth of hell was no mere 
 figure of speech, but the literal open jaws of a monster 
 who sought to devour men body and soul, and the devils 
 of religious art were not mere creatures of the imagination, 
 but were regarded as direct emissaries from Satan, from 
 whose clutches the soul could only escape by good deeds and 
 an orthodox belief. S. Anthony's tormentors are, how- 
 ever, evidently only phantasmal, and are symbolical 
 perhaps of the animal desires and passions that this saiiil 
 so successfully resisted, for these persecutors have, 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 245 
 
 is plain, no victory over his soul, however much they may 
 afflict his poor body. 
 
 Several other fantastic subjects have been treated by 
 Martin Schon with good effect, and we have also several 
 engravings from scenes of common life, genre pictures they 
 may almost be called, which betray a slight sense of 
 humour, another element hitherto unknown in German 
 art, but for the most part he adhered to religious subjects, 
 treating them in a thoroughly German manner.^ 
 
 His engravings were widely known and esteemed in Italy 
 even in his own day. He was called by the Italians II Bel 
 Martino, and by Vasari, Martin d'Ollanda. He appears to 
 have been a friend of Perugino's and to have exchanged 
 drawings with him, as Albrecht Diirer did afterwards with 
 Raphael. 
 
 Bartolomaus Zeitblom (records 1484-1517), belongs, 
 Uke Martin Schongauer, to the Swabian School. [He was 
 probably a scholar of Hans Schiichlein, of Ulm, his father- 
 in-law, who assisted Zeitblom in an altarpiece.] He did 
 not attain to the same free artistic development as Martin 
 Schon, but his paintings have great spiritual beauty and 
 tenderness of sentiment. His colour also is pure and soft, 
 more like fresco than oil painting. Two paintings by him, 
 S. George holding the white banner of Holiness, and S. 
 Anthony with the Staff, are in a cabinet of the Pinakothek, 
 and there is a Veronica in the BerUn Gallery, but most of 
 
 ^ The painting of the Death of the Virgin (No. 658) of the National 
 Gallery is ascribed in the catalogue to Martin Schongauer ; and J^r. 
 Waagen also speaks of it in Kugler's " Handbook," as being one of his 
 earliest works, executed whilst under the immediate influence of KogiiT 
 Vander Weyden. But Martin Schongauer, so far as we know, never at 
 any pei-iod entirely adopted the Flemish manner. All his engraved 
 works, at all events, are thoroughly Gennan in feeling, and his paintings 
 also are said to have a distinct German individuality. The Death of the 
 Virgin, on the other hand, is thoroughly Flemish in its realism, execu- 
 tion, and colouring. It is worthy, in truth, not only of a pupil of Van- 
 der Weyden, but of Vander Weyden or even Van Eyck himself. If >i 
 German work at all, is it not more likely to be by the before-mentioned 
 Master of the Death of the Virgin, who in all essential points was a 
 Flemish master, rather than by the entirely national Schongauer ? 
 
 In many respects, indeed, the picture of the National Gallery bt ars a 
 striking resemblance to the rendering of the same subject by this n aster 
 in the Munich and Cologne Galleries. E\en the type of several of iLe 
 brads is the same. 
 
246 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOE. VI. 
 
 his works are in the Galleiy at Stuttgard, though some are 
 scattered in the churches of Swabia. ' He never, like Schon, 
 indulged in a fantastic imagination, but was purely a 
 religious painter with no sympathy for the Reformation 
 movement. 
 
 Martin Schapfner (Hving 1499-1535), was a master 
 of the same school as Zeitblom, but somewhat later in date. 
 His art at first was German in feeling, bearing much 
 affinity to Zeitblom' s, but in his later life he yielded to the 
 influence of Italy, to the great improvement of his style, 
 say those critics who only acknowledge merit in German 
 art when it is imitative of Italian. There are six paintings 
 by Schaffner at Munich, all of them excellent works, but 
 falling far below the standard of the great age of German 
 art in which he lived. 
 
 The Niirnberg, or, to speak more widely, the Franconian 
 School of this time, as represented by Michael Wohlge- 
 muth (1434-1519), had not even yet attained to the deve- 
 lopment in painting that it had reached in plastic art. The 
 paintings that pass with Wohlgemuth' s name are widely 
 unequal in merit, some being wretched daubs, and others 
 showing true dignity of thought united with much tender- 
 ness and sweetness of feeling. But if we only receive the 
 best as being really the work of the master, we begin to 
 perceive that he was not altogether the miserable mercenary 
 j)icture-maker that the weary tourist is apt to think him, 
 after having been shown countless ugly wooden altar- 
 pieces in German churches, and having been positively 
 assured that they all were by Michael Wohlgemuth. Un- 
 fortunately he allowed his school to degenerate into a huge 
 manufactory of altarpieces, in which not only paintings 
 were executed, but likewise ma.ny of the remarkable wooden 
 bas-reliefs, for which, as before stated, the Niirnberg School 
 was early famous, were coloured.^ The painting of these 
 wooden carvings was necessarily left to workmen rather 
 
 ^ Wood-cutting also, we know, went on in "Wohlgemuth's manufac- 
 tory. The cuts for the celebrated " Niirnberg Chronicle," which was 
 published in 1493, under the superintendence of Michael Wohlgemuth 
 and Wilhelm Pleydenwurf, were, we may suppose, executed under his 
 supervision. These do not, certainly, increase his reputation, for they 
 are in general badly designed and worse executed. [He is credited with 
 the cupper engravings signed V^.,vide " Life of Albert Diirer/'Tbausing.] 
 
jj HOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 247 
 
 than to artists, indeed, with the exception of Albrecht 
 Diirer, no artist of any note is known to have issued from 
 Wohlgemuth' s school.^ 
 
 Amongst Wohlgemuth' s most important and best authen- 
 ticated works is a large altarpiece in numerous compart- 
 ments, representing the Life and Sufferings of Christ, in 
 the Marien Kirche, at Zwickau.^ 
 
 We find also several paintings by him in different churches 
 in Niirnberg ; four wings of an altarpiece in the Moritz- 
 Kapelle representing four female saints of great dignity 
 and sweetness, and a great altarpiece, broken into parts, 
 setting forth the various scenes of the Passion, now in the 
 Pinakothek at Munich. The outlines in these works are 
 extremely hard and draughtsmanlike, the drapery is broken 
 into angular folds, and the colouring is often crude and in- 
 harmonious. They are, in fact, entirely harsh and Grerman 
 in style, unsoftened by that feeling for ideal beauty which 
 is apparent in the works of Martin Schongauer, Bartolo- 
 miius Zeitblom, and other artists of the Swabian School. 
 The Franconian School, indeed, never attained, even with 
 Diirer, to the softness of outline and harmony of colour 
 that marks the Swabian, but there is a force and indivi- 
 duality of character about most of Wohlgemuth' s works 
 that raises them above the mere dull efforts of mechanical 
 skill, although too often it must be owned this force is 
 expended on harsh and unpleasant types. Only now and 
 then, as in the four saints of the Moritz-Kapelle, does he 
 attain to anything like beauty of form and feature. 
 
 " It was a fatal destiny for the development of German 
 art," says Liibke, after greatly depreciating Wohlgemuth 
 and his school,' " that from this very teacher and this very 
 school that artist was to proceed, who, in depth of genius, 
 in creative richness of fancy, in extensive power of thought, 
 and in moral energy and earnest striving must be called the 
 first of all German masters. Albrecht Diirer, as regards 
 
 * Albrecht Diirer, in his autobiographical sketch, speaks of his fellow- 
 apprentices at Wohlgemuth's as knechten, and says that he had much to 
 suffer from them. 
 
 * J. G. Quandt, " Die Gemalde des Michael Wohlgemuth in der 
 Frauenkirche zu Zwickau." 
 
 » « Hist, of Art," vol. ii. 
 
248 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 artistic gifts, need fear no comparison with any master in 
 the world, not even with Eaphael and Michael Angelo. 
 Notwithstanding, in all that concerns the true means of 
 expressing art, the clothing of the idea in the garment * 
 the exquisite form, he lies so deeply fettered within th' 
 bonds of his own limited world, that he rarely rises to the 
 same height of thought and expression." 
 
 Such criticism is true, perhaps, and yet had Durer had 
 the Italian training that so many of his critics have desired 
 for him, we might not have had another Michael Angelo or 
 Raphael, while we certainly should have missed an Albrecht 
 Diirer. 
 
 We must accept his art, if we would truly appreciate it, 
 as it is, and not be perpetually lamenting over the want of 
 those elements which it does not possess. We do not find 
 in it the classic conception of the nobility and beauty of 
 man's physical life, nor the spiritual ideal of the early 
 religious painters ; we do not find the tender, holy charm 
 of Raphael, the sublime dignity of Michael Angelo, nor the 
 glorious sensuous life of Titian ; but, on the other hand, 
 we find in it the Grerman character reflected in all its lights 
 and shades, in its intellectual aspirations, its restless striv- 
 ings, its fantastic imaginings, and, above all, in its genuine 
 moral worth. 
 
 He is, in truth, pre-eminently the representative artist of 
 the Fatherland. 
 
 Albrecht Dxjrer (born at Niirnberg, 1471, died 1528) 
 was the son of a working goldsmith, and himself worked, 
 for some time, at his father's trade ; but, " his inclination 
 carrying him more towards painting than to goldsmith's 
 work," his father bound him apprentice to Michael Wohl- 
 gemuth, with whom he served for three years. To these 
 student years (Lehrjahre) succeeded four years of travel 
 (Wanderjahre), of which, unfortunately, we have no record. 
 On his return he settled in his native town as a painter, 
 and married Agnes Frey, with whom it is supposed he 
 lived very unhappily.^ 
 
 ' Willibald Pirkhcimer, in a letter written some time after Diirer"s 
 death, tells his correspondent that Agnes Frov by her fretful temper 
 and bitter tongue worried her husband to death. On the other hand 
 Agnes Frey has of late years found several vindicators who attribute 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTINO IN OEBMANT. 249 
 
 In 1505 Burer undertook a journey on horseback to the 
 North of Italy, and was kindly received by the painters of 
 Venice. Especially Giovanni Bellini, whom Diirer calls 
 " the best painter of them all," noticed the German artist, 
 and highly praised his work. 
 
 This visit to Venice formed a bright episode in Diirer's 
 restrained work-a-day hfe. *' I wish you were here," he 
 writes to Pirkheimer, from Venice. " There are so many 
 pleasant companions amongst the Walschen " (an old Ger- 
 man term for Italians) " that it does one's heart good to be 
 with them: learned men, good lute-players, pipers, con- 
 noisseurs in art, — all very noble-minded, upright, vii-tuous 
 people, who bestow on me much honour and friendship." 
 And in another letter he says, " Here I am a gentleman, 
 whilst at home I am only a parasite. Oh, how I shall 
 freeze after this sunshine ! " 
 
 Yet at the end of 1506 he returned to Niimberg, re- 
 fusing an offer of 200 ducats a year that had been made 
 him by the Venetian Government if he would settle at 
 Venice. 
 
 Whilst at Venice he executed a great altar-piece for the 
 guild of German merchants, which, he tells us, effectually 
 silenced the jealous assertion of the Venetians, that 
 " although he was a good engraver, he did not know how 
 to colour." This painting — the Feast of the Eose-garlands 
 — is now preserved in the monastery of Strahof, near 
 Prague. It represents the Virgin with a Pope, an Em- 
 peror (Maximilian), numerous saints and knights, and 
 various members of the German guild kneeling before her, 
 and receiving crowns of roses from her hands, or those of 
 the Child. S. Domenic, the founder of the feast, stands 
 to the right, and also crowns with roses a monk of his 
 order. 
 
 In this painting we see that Diirer had greatly overcome 
 the hard and unlovely manner gained from Wohlgemuth, 
 which characterizes his earlier works, and yet it is strange 
 to notice how very little influence Italian art had over him. 
 " The Venetians," he says, " abuse my style, and say that 
 it is not after the antique," and their criticism was true 
 
 Pirkheimer's ii^urious expressions to malice. See '* Zeitsclirift tiir 
 bildende Kunste," 1869. 
 
250 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 enough. Nothing can well be less antique than his strongly 
 marked individuality and genuinely national mode of ex- 
 pression. Even in the Madonna of the Rose-garlands, 
 which ranks as one of his most beautiful and poetical 
 works, and which was painted while under the immediate 
 influence of the works of the great masters of Venice, we 
 find no trace of imitation of their style, nor adoption of 
 their ideas. On his return from Venice, it is true, he exe- 
 cuted two large single figures of Adam and Eve,^ which, 
 perhaps, might have been intended to rival the nude dis- 
 plays of Italian art ; but, if so, this was but a solitary and 
 probably conscious effort, and did not in the least affect the 
 thorough independence of his genius. 
 
 To the period immediately following his return from 
 Venice belong some of the finest and most original of his 
 works. His powers had now reached their full perfection, 
 and from this time until the journey to the Netherlands in 
 1520, may be reckoned the most productive period of his 
 life — the blooming time of his art. Before this — namely, 
 in 1498 — he had already published the powerful woodcuts 
 of the Apocalypse, in which the mystic and fantastic spirit 
 before spoken of as lingering in German art, first assumed 
 distinct shape. These woodcuts are, moreover, important 
 as marking a period in the history of wood- engraving, they 
 being far superior not only in design, but also in execution, 
 to anything that had previously appeared.^ 
 
 In 1511 he followed up the success of his Apocalypse 
 series by another magnificent set of large cuts known as 
 the Great Passion ; a set of thirty- seven smaller ones, 
 called the Little Passion, and the series of the Life of the 
 Virgin. 
 
 To the same fertile year belongs also the great painting 
 of the Adoration of the Trinity now in the Belvedere at 
 Vienna, which is usually considered to be his finest painted 
 work. In this, God the Eather throned on the double 
 rainbow holds forth for the love and adoration of the 
 Christian church, the form of his crucified Son, while the 
 Dove of the Spirit hovers above. Two bands of the 
 
 ^ Now in the Royal Gallery at Madrid. Passavant, " Christliche 
 Kunst in Spanien." See also an article in " Kunstblatt," 1853. 
 ^ Jackson and Chatto, " History of Wood Engraving.'* 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 251 
 
 glorified elect approach on either side, the female saints 
 being led by the Virgin Mary, who, it is significant to 
 notice, has not the same prominent position accorded to 
 her here as is usual in Catholic art. Below, but still caught 
 up into the air with Christ, are the various classes and 
 conditions of men — emperor, pope, monk, peasant, knight, 
 and burgher, all expressing the same incomprehensible 
 faith, and worshipping the mystic Trinity in unity. 
 
 Another of his greatest religious paintings represented 
 the Coronation of the Virgin. It was painted for the 
 Frankfort merchant Jacob Heller, and several of Diirer's 
 letters respecting it are preserved, but unfortunately the 
 picture itself perished by fire in 1674 An excellent copy 
 of it, however, still hangs in the old Town Gallery at 
 Frankfort, It must have been a grand work. But the 
 masterwork of Diirer's art is undoubtedly found in the 
 Four Apostles of the Pinakothek at Munich. So strikingly 
 contrasted are the characters of the Apostles S. John and 
 S. Peter, S. Paul and S. Mark, that it has been supposed 
 that Diirer meant to symbolize the Four Temperaments 
 by them, but there is nothing beyond this forcible indi- 
 viduahsation of character, and a vague statement of Neu- 
 dorffer's, whereon to found such a theory. In these noble 
 figures, which are the size of life, Diirer has thoroughly 
 overcome all the hardness and mannerism of his early 
 style, and has attained to a simple grandeur of expression 
 and deep harmony of colour that may bear comparison 
 with almost any Italian work of his time. Without ex- 
 aggeration, or mannerism, or Germanism, or Italianism, 
 he has set forth with all the power of his great intellect 
 his conception of the Four Teachers of pure Christian doc- 
 trine before that doctrine had been corrupted by the tra- 
 ditions, superstitions, and vain ceremonies of the Church 
 of Rome. Kugler calls these pictures " the first complete 
 work of art produced by Protestantism," and it is possible 
 that Diirer may have remembered some of his conversations 
 with Melancthon when he painted them, but it is not 
 Protestantism or Catholicism, or any other "ism," that 
 they express, but the artist's own individual thought on 
 the subject, unbound by any creed whatever, and free 
 from the dogmas of any Church. They were executed in 
 
252 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 1526, two years before his death, and as if with a con- 
 sciousness that this was the final expression of his art, he 
 refused to sell these works, but presented them as "a 
 remembrance to his native town." ^ 
 
 But it is less by his paintings than by his engraved 
 works that Diirer is known to the world. His paintings, 
 even if we reckon all that are attributed to him, are but 
 few and scattered, and none of them, except perhaps the 
 Apostles, are equal in dignity of form or harmony of 
 colour to the works of the great Italians of his time, but 
 his engravings are fantastic poems of which we never 
 grow weary, for there is a sense of mystery in them that 
 exerts a powerful fascination over the mind. Everyone 
 knows the celebrated print of The Knight, Death, and the 
 Devil : each time we see it we regard it with fresh interest, 
 and, although we may not be poets like Fouque, who 
 founded upon it his wild and romantic tale of Sintram, 
 yet we cannot help constructing some theory to explain its 
 strange charm. To how many theories, likewise, has that 
 weird conception called Melancholia given rise. The grand 
 winged woman, sitting brooding in darkness of mind over 
 the hidden mysteries of nature, while the insufficient in- 
 struments of human science lie scattered around — symbols 
 of man's futile endeavours to reach heavenly wisdom. In 
 the Coat of Arms, with the Death's Head also, a less 
 known engraving, and many other of his prints, the same 
 sense of mystery prevails. 
 
 "It is the suggestion of this unknown something in 
 art," writes E. S. Dallas,^ "that we are in the habit of 
 signalizing as in a peculiar sense poetical," and it is this 
 " unknown something " that gives a poetic charm to Diirer' s 
 works, although his forms are often harsh and ugly, and 
 the mental image from which he worked had none of the 
 spiritual beauty that Eaphael loved to dwell upon. 
 
 Of the execution of his engravings no praise can be too 
 great. They are often perfect miracles of dehcacy and finish. 
 
 ^ Only copies now hang in the Eath-haus of Niirnberg, the originals 
 having been given up by the Eath, or Town Council, to the Elector 
 Maximilian in the seventeenth centui'y. They are now in the first Saal 
 of the Pinakothek at Munich. 
 
 » The'* Gay Science." 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 253 
 
 In 1520 Albrecht Durer, accompanied by his wife, un- 
 dertook a journey to the Netherlands, probably with a 
 view of gaining from the newly elected Emperor, Charles V. , 
 an acknowledgment or ratification * of the debt due to him 
 from the Emperor Maximilian, and also a continuance of 
 his position as court-painter. The journal that he kept 
 during this tour has been preserved,^ and gives many 
 interesting details of artist-life at that period. Everywhere 
 he was received with high honour and cordial esteem, and 
 his visit appears to have afforded him the greatest satis- 
 faction. At Antwerp the Guild of Painters gave a grand 
 banquet in his honour, at which, he tells us, " they spared 
 no expense." " When I was going in to the dinner," he 
 says, " all the people formed in a line on two sides for me 
 to pass through, as though I had been a great lord. When 
 I was seated at table there came a messenger from the 
 Senate at Antwerp, who presented me with four tankards 
 of wine in the name of the Senators (Baths herrn), and he 
 said that they desired to honour me with this, and that 
 I should have their goodwill. Then I said that I gave them 
 my humble thanks and offered them my humble service." 
 
 These marks of respect from foreigners were, perhaps, 
 the more pleasing to Diirer, as he does not seem to have 
 been held in any high honour in his native town. At all 
 events, in writing once to the Rath of Niimberg he told 
 his noble lords that for thirty years during which he had 
 worked in the town he had never received so much as 600 
 florins of Niimberg money, although both at Venice and 
 Antwerp he had been offered a munificent sum if he would 
 remain in those cities ; in another place, also, he speaks of 
 his circumstances as " lamentable and shameful." Ger- 
 many, indeed, had at this time no munificent patrons of 
 art such as those we have seen in Italy, to give worthy 
 employment to her artists. Holbein, as we know, was 
 forced to come to England to seek his fortune, and Diirer 
 once wrote, " Henceforth I shall stick to my engraving. 
 If I had done so before I should be richer by 1,000 florins 
 than I am at the present day." 
 
 ' *' Confirmatio," Diirer calls it. 
 
 ^ It has been translated into English by W. B. Scott and by myself in 
 our lives of Albrecht Diirer. 
 
254 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 But, altliough he had but few patrons, Diirer was the 
 friend of many of the most distmguished men of his 
 time. 
 
 Melancthon, the most liberal-minded reformer of his 
 age, had the truest regard for him. " I grieve," he wrote, 
 at Diirer's death, "for Germany, deprived of such a man 
 and such an artist," and again he records, " His least merit 
 was his art." Luther, also, appears to have been person- 
 ally known to him, and from an outburst of feeling in his 
 journal on the occasion of Luther's supposed captivity, it 
 is evident how deeply Diirer sympathized with the reform- 
 ing spirit that Luther had evoked, although it is not certain 
 that he ever entirely withdrew from communion with the 
 Church of Rome. For Erasmus, with whom he became 
 acquainted in the Netherlands, he had less respect, but he 
 has given us a most characteristic portrait of him, as well 
 as of Melancthon. 
 
 Like Leonardo da Vinci, Diirer was not limited to one 
 mode of expression. He was an architect and sculptor as 
 well as a painter and engraver. He was likewise the 
 author of several scientific treatises, one in particular, on 
 human proportion, which was for a long time the received 
 text-book on the subject, and was translated into several 
 languages.^ 
 
 The portraits he has left us of himself, more especially 
 the well-known one of the Munich Grallery, show us a 
 noble thoughtful countenance, with large melancholy eyes, 
 far-seeing, and yet full of human sympathy. The hair 
 parted in the middle, flows down in rich curls on to the 
 shoulders, as in the usual portraits of Christ.^ The hand 
 holding the fur collar of the coat, is exquisitely formed. 
 Altogether we recognize, as Camerarius says, that " nature 
 had given him a form well suited to the beautiful spirit 
 which it held within." 
 
 Diirer had a considerable number of pupils and followers, 
 but most of them are better known as engravers than as 
 
 ^ The greater part of the manuscript and drawings for this work are 
 now preserved in the British Museum. 
 
 *■* The likeness of the Munich porti'ait of Durer to the typical head of 
 Christ has been often I'emarked. It has likewise something of the 
 character of the Greek Zeus. 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 255 
 
 painters. The term " Little Masters," which is often made 
 to include the whole following of Diirer, is more correctly 
 limited to seven artists, all of whom worked during some 
 part of their lives in Niimberg under Diirer, or under his 
 immediate influence. These artists were : Heineich Al- 
 DEGREVER (bom 1502, living 1555) ; A. Altdorfer (bom 
 about 1JJ80, died 1538); Bartel Beham, 1502-40; H. 
 Sebald Beham, 1500-50 ; G-eorge Pensz (died 1550) ; 
 Jacob Bin k (died about 1569) ; Hans Brosamer.^ 
 
 These are called the "Little Masters," or "the Little 
 Masters of Niirnberg," on account of the small size of 
 their prints, few of which measure more than three or four 
 inches across, some being much smaller. Their painted 
 works are, for the most part, extremely rare, and not re- 
 markable for any particular excellence.'^ Of Hans Sebald 
 Beham, for instance, only one authentic painting is known,' 
 and scarcely more of any of the others, but their prints are 
 often met with, and are highly prized by connoisseurs. 
 Beham's cuts, etchings, and engravings alone amount to 
 about four hundred.'' They are wonderfully skilful in 
 workmanship, and show a fertile invention, only unfortu- 
 nately they are often coarse, indeed, indecent, in subject, a 
 fault into which many of these little masters fell, although 
 their master, Durer, was singularly free from it. An 
 Italian sentiment prevails in the later works of several of 
 them. As Diirer' s influence faded they became less German 
 and less truthful. 
 
 Standing somewhat apart from the Niirnberg School, or 
 taking, as Kugler says, " a happy half-way position," 
 between it and the Swabian, is Matthias &Rt7NEWALD 
 (about 1460-1530). Though hard in outline, like almost 
 all German painters, he had a truer perception of beauty 
 than was common with his contemporaries, and his colour- 
 ing is especially rich and harmonious. His principal work 
 
 1 W. B. Scott, " Life of Albert Durer." 
 
 [* Those of Altdorfer are remarkable for their landscape backgrounds, 
 which rival contemporary Flemish work. He was the first Gorman to 
 subordinate figure to landscape. V. " Kugler's Handbook," edited by 
 Crowe.] 
 
 • A series of scenes from the life of David f«)rming a square table 
 divided into four triangles. It is now in the Louvre. 
 
 * Wornum, 
 
256 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 is a large altar-piece in the Municli Gullery, of which the 
 centre subject represents S. Erasmus converting S. Maurice, 
 and the side wings the figures of various saints. 
 
 Hans Balding G-rien (1476-1545), is principally known 
 by his woodcuts, of which Bartsch mentions fifty-nine, but 
 he was likewise the painter of a grand altar-piece in tli 
 Cathedral of Freiburg, and several other works. ^ He wa 
 a close imitator of Albrecht Diirer, but it is not knowt 
 whether he ever studied in his school. 
 
 Hans Schaufelin (1490-1539), on the other hand, is 
 known to have been Diirer's favourite pupil. His works 
 are often attributed to his master. 
 
 Hans Suess, of Kulmbach, and Hans Springinklee, 
 must also be mentioned as Diirer's immediate scholars. 
 
 Next to the grey old town of Niirnberg we find the 
 equally ancient city of Augsburg, a central point of G-erman 
 art in the sixteenth century. Here, for two or three 
 generations, the families of Burgkmair and Holbein put 
 forth their artistic skill, until their efforts culminated in 
 the works of Hans Holbein the younger, as he is called, to 
 distinguish him from his father, a master who stands next 
 to Diirer in the annals of German art. 
 
 [Hans Burgkmair, the elder (1473-1531), called the 
 Diirer of Augsburg, the son of Thoman Burgkmair, re- 
 sembles the elder Holbein in his realistic aim and disregard 
 of beauty. In his earlier works the drawing is very in- 
 correct, but he was a skilled miniaturist, and, according to 
 Waagen, the first, with Altdorfer, to work out the detail 
 of his landscape backgrounds after nature. One of his 
 best-known works is a Holy Family, in the Belvedere at 
 Vienna (painted 1529), in which he introduced the portrait 
 of himself and his wife. The wife holds a mirror, in 
 which, instead of a true reflection, death's heads grin at 
 them (Woltmann and Woerman). His fame, however, 
 principally rests on his designs for woodcuts, some of 
 which show astonishing vigour and imagination, as his 
 terrible Death Choking a Warrior ; but for the full variety 
 of his power we must examine his illustrations of the Life 
 of Emperor Maximilian (Weisskunig).] 
 
 ^ Schreiber, " Das Munster zu Freiburg." [^More than fifty of his paint- 
 ings have been catalogued. Vide Woermann, " Geschichte der Malerei."] 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 257 
 
 Hans Holbein, the younger and greater painter of the 
 name was bom at Augsburg, in 1497. His father (1464- 
 1524), was an artist of considerable merit, by whom there 
 are a number of paintings in the Munich Gallery, as well 
 as several at Augsburg. 
 
 His mother was the daughter of Thomaii, and sister of 
 Hans Burgkmair, so that on both sides he may claim an 
 artistic descent. His uncle also, Sigmund Holbein (died 
 1540), was a painter. An excellent, though stiff, portrait 
 of a Lady, with an extraordinary white linen cap, on which 
 a fly has settled, in the National Gallery is ascribed to him. 
 Hans Holbein, the younger, therefore, was born, so to 
 speak, into an art atmosphere in which the hereditary 
 talent that he soon showed for painting was carefully 
 developed and fostered. Among his earliest works, are 
 supposed to be the two portraits at Hampton Court, known 
 as the painter's father and mother, and also four panels of 
 an altar-piece in the Gallery of Augsburg, dated 1512.^ 
 
 In 1515, he left Augsburg, and set up for himself at 
 Basel, where he achieved so great a reputation, that he 
 was employed by the town-council in 1521-22, to paint in 
 fresco, the council-chamber of the new Eathhaus. Unfor- 
 tunately, most of these frescoes have been utterly destroyed 
 by damp, only a few detached fragments being now pre- 
 served in the museum at Basel, but by the sketches and 
 copies that remain of them, they must have been power- 
 fully designed works. They set forth, as was usual in the 
 decorations of council- chambers, the virtue of justice, 
 especially illustrated by examples in ancient and biblical 
 history. 
 
 Eight scenes of the Passion, executed about the same 
 period, and ten scenes of the Passion drawn in Indian 
 ink, manifest still more strikingly his dramatic power and 
 masterly drawing.^ 
 
 But by far the greatest work of Holbein's early or Basel 
 period is the celebrated votive picture known as the Meier 
 Madonna, executed for the Burgomaster Jacob Meier of 
 Basel, and representing him and his family kneeling before 
 
 [' Now restored to the elder Hans, long deprived of credit in order to 
 augment that of his son. — Woltmann.] 
 ' Likewise in the Museum at Basel. 
 
258 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 the Virgin. Two repetitions of it are known to exist, one 
 in the Royal Palace at Darmstadt, and the other the well- 
 known Holbein Madonna of the Dresden Grallery.^ It is 
 one of the noblest works of which G-erman art can boast : 
 earnest in thought, powerful in characterisation, dignified 
 in conception, pure and holy in sentiment, and of a solemn 
 beauty unmarked by the hardness of the German style, 
 and yet withal intensely G-erman in expression. 
 
 Another Holbein Madonna, recently discovered in a 
 private collection at Solothurm,^ is praised in high terms 
 by Liibke. It represents the Virgin enthroned between 
 the German saints, Ursus and Martinus, and is dated 
 1522, and belongs, therefore, also to the Basel period. 
 
 In 1526 Holbein, either because he failed in obtaining 
 a sufficient reward for his labours in Basel, or from some 
 other cause, quitted that city and came over to England, 
 leaving his wife and child behind him. He brought with 
 him a letter of introduction from Erasmus, with whom he 
 had probably become acquainted at the house of the cele- 
 brated printer, Frobenius, at Basel, to Sir Thomas More, 
 who received him most kindly, and lodged him in his own 
 house at Chelsea. 
 
 In 1528 he returned to Basel, in order, it would appear, 
 to finish his paintings in the Eathhaus (1530), but in 1532 
 he was back again in England. England, indeed, at that 
 time, offered a far wider and richer field for his art than 
 the impoverished cities of G-ermany. The Court of 
 Henry VIII. was then about the most magnificent in 
 Europe, and as there were no English painters attached 
 to it, it is not strange to find that Holbein was soon in- 
 stalled as court painter, or " servant of the king's majesty," 
 with a salary of .£30 per annum, besides rooms in the 
 palace. The oft-repeated reply of Henry VIII. to the 
 noble earl who complained that Holbein had kicked him 
 down stairs, illustrates, whether the story be true or not, 
 the estimation in which the painter was held at the court 
 of the bluff Tudor. " I can, if I please, make seven lords 
 
 [^ The picture at Darmstadt is now acknowledged to be the original, 
 and the picture at Dresden is generally admitted to be a copy by another 
 hand.] 
 
 l^ Kuw in the museum of Solothurra.] 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 259 
 
 out of seven ploughmen, but I cannot make one Holbein even 
 out of seven lords ; " and no one but a Holbein, the saga- 
 cious monarch was aware, could have executed those incom- 
 parable portraits of himself and his courtiers which even 
 now, when we look at them, carry us back to tLe days of 
 Wolsey and Cranmer, More and Erasmus, and give us a 
 more vivid idea of the men who surrounded the second 
 Tudor, than we gain even from the portrayals of Froude. 
 
 It is impossible to enumerate the numerous portraits 
 that Holbein executed in England. He confined himself, 
 indeed, almost entirely to portraiture during his English 
 time, but he threw into his portraits a grandeur of thought 
 and a freedom of expression that added to their noble sim- 
 plicity and truth, raises them at once into the highest his- 
 torical works. 
 
 Although Holbein's portraits and religious subjects are 
 characterized by a broad and simple treatment, and a rigid 
 regard for truth, yet it is evident from some others of his 
 works that he did not altogether escape the fantastic spirit 
 which was prevalent in German art in his time. This is 
 especially manifest in his famous Dance of Death, most 
 likely executed during the Basel period, but not pubHshed 
 until 1538, at Lyons. 
 
 The enormous popularity of these death -dances, and 
 similar subjects in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, is, 
 indeed, in itself a striking proof of the deep hold that this 
 fantastic mode of viewing even the most solemn subjects 
 had taken on the imaginations of the people. Tragedy 
 takes the form of burlesque, but the skeleton is none the 
 less appalling because it cuts capers and grins. Nothing, 
 indeed, can be more weird than Holbein's conceptions of 
 this terrible dance, in which popes, kings, emperors, lovely 
 women, children, warriors, priests, and peasants, are 
 obliged to bear part. No one is too high or too low for 
 Death to claim as a partner, except, indeed, the poor leper 
 Lazarus, who vainly implores Death to lend him a helping 
 hand. Holbein employed wood-engraving for this series 
 of designs ; but it is conjectured by some writers that he 
 likewise painted a Dance of Death in fresco either at Basel 
 or in the Palace of Whitehall in London.^ 
 
 ' See *' Hans Holbein's Dance of Death. A concise History of the 
 
260 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 Besides the numerous portraits by Holbein in England, 
 there are also a great many of his drawings in this coun- 
 try. The collection at Windsor Castle is especially rich 
 and noteworthy, and there are some fine specimens in the 
 British Museum.' 
 
 It has always been known that Holbein died of the plague 
 in London, but it has not been proved until recently that it 
 was the plague of 1543 to which he fell a victim. He died 
 some time between the 7th of October (on which day he 
 made his will) and the 29th of November, 1543.^ 
 
 The number of portraits resembling Holbein's in style, 
 that are found both in public and private galleries, would 
 lead to the belief that he had a goodly number of followers 
 and imitators ; but, strange to say, but few of these can, 
 with any certainty, be identified. Amongst them were 
 Christoph Amberger (1490-about 1563), and Nicolas 
 Manuel, generally called Deutsch (1484-1531), a Swiss 
 painter, poet, and reformer. 
 
 A more important and independent master is Lucas 
 Cranach (1472-1553). Like Diirer, Cranach's mind ap- 
 pears to have been deeply stirred by the great religious 
 movement going on around him. He early embraced tli' 
 doctrines of the Reformation, and was the intimate friend 
 of Luther and Melancthon. 
 
 In 1493 Cranach accompanied Frederick the Wise, Elector 
 of Saxony, to the Holy Land, and on his return was ap- 
 pointed court painter to the Electoral House of Saxony, an 
 office that he held under three successive electors, the last 
 being the noble Frederick the Magnanimous, to whom 
 Cranach was so much attached that he preferred sharing 
 that unfortunate prince's five years captivity after the battle 
 of Miihlberg to accompanying the victorious Charles V. to 
 the Netherlands. He spent the greater part of his life at 
 Wittenberg, where it appears he kept an apothecary's shop, 
 
 Origin and subsequent Development of the Subject," by N<x)l Hum- 
 phreys, liondon, 1868. 
 
 ' For a history of Holbein's works in England, see Waagen's " Trea 
 sures of Art in Great Britain," as well as Wornum's biography. 
 
 ^ There is no picture by Holbein in the National Gallery, an omission 
 that is i-emarkable considering that the greater part of his works are in 
 this country. 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 261 
 
 called the " Adler," at the south-west corner of the market- 
 place/ He was a man of high mark in the town, and was 
 twice elected to the of&ce of Burgomaster. On returning 
 from his attendance on the Elector during that prince's 
 imprisonment, an imprisonment that he greatly enlivened 
 bv his art and cheerful society, Cranach, then an old man, 
 retired to Weimar, where he died at the age of eighty. A 
 medal was struck in his honour, with his portrait on one 
 side, and on the other his crest, a dragon with a crown on 
 its head, a well-known mark on his pictures and prints. 
 
 Cranach' s art is thoroughly national. He delights in 
 quaint invention, and sometimes even indulges in caricature. 
 His pictures have a cheerfulness of character, and a certain 
 naive childhke grace that seems like the unconscious ex- 
 pression of the happy disposition of the artist. They do 
 not affect us in the same way as those of Albrecht Diirer, 
 for there is no sense of mystery in them. The mind of 
 Cranach is as clear as that of Diirer is dark to human sight. 
 Even his allegories, although original in treatment, are of 
 the most obvious kind. 
 
 The Fountain of Youth, for example, a painting in the 
 Berlin Gallery, is amusing in its realism. A number of 
 ugly old women are dragged through a barren land down 
 to the large decorative fountain that fills the middle of the 
 picture, and after playing about its waters, turn out as 
 frolicsome young maidens, in the beautiful country that 
 lies on the other side. 
 
 He excelled in the delineation of birds and animals, and 
 was especially fond of hunting scenes. The border drawings 
 by him, in what is known as Albrecht Diirer' s Prayer 
 Book,* are admirable examples of his skill in these subjects. 
 
 ^ This " Cranachhaus " has unfortunately been recently destroyed by 
 fire. " Academy," vol. ii., p. 494. [He also set up a printing press and 
 had a school for every kind of painting, both art and trade work. His 
 sons continued in the same way for some years after him. The most 
 important of these was Ldcas Cranach the todnoer (1515-1586), 
 who finished his father's altar-piece at Weimar, and left numerous works, 
 many of which have been mistaken for those of his father. Examples 
 of his art exist at Wittenberg, Dresden, Leipsig, Vienna, and other 
 places.] 
 
 ' Preserved in the Munich Town Library, and lithographed by 
 Strixner. 
 
262 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 His mytliological pieces are far less pleasing, often, 
 indeed, appearing like Grerman burlesques on classic form 
 and beauty. His portraits, on the other hand, are power- 
 fully conceived, and he has left us portraits of many of the 
 most noteworthy men of his time. His female portraits 
 have especially a peculiar charm. There is a wonderful 
 portrait by him of a young girl, in the National G-allery 
 (No. 291), which gives an excellent idea of his style. 
 Although so richly dressed, and loaded with ornament, the 
 little girl herself is exquisitely sweet and unaffected, and 
 smiles so pleasantly at us from out her magnificent trappings, 
 that we fall in love with her on the spot.^ 
 
 Of Cranach's large religious works, a Crucifixion, an 
 altar-piece in a church at Weimar, is perhaps the most 
 important. The blood from the wounded side of Christ is 
 represented as pouring on to the head of the painter, who 
 stands beneath the cross with his friends Luther and 
 Melancthon, the latter in the character of S. John the 
 Baptist directing the attention of the other two to the 
 G-reat Sacrifice. 
 
 It is by his engravings that Cranach is best known. He 
 executed a vast number of these, both on wood and copper,'' 
 and his execution was so rapid as to gain him the title of 
 " celerrimus pictor " on his tombstone. Heller enumerates 
 eight hundred of his prints. 
 
 After Diirer, Holbein, and Cranach, G-erman art fell 
 from its high independent position to a mere mannered 
 imitation of Itahan. As in Flanders at the same period, 
 the honest national mode of expression was entirely de- 
 serted by the G-erman artists of the seventeenth century, 
 and that " frantic pilgrimage to Italy," as Fuseli calls 
 it, set in, which ended in the utter degradation of all 
 northern art. 
 
 Amongst the G-erman Italianisers, Heineich Goltzius 
 (1558-1617), "whose name," says Eastlake, "is synonymous 
 with the falsest exaggeration," is one of the cleverest, and 
 
 ' The painter's crest, the crowned dragon before-mentioned, may be 
 seen in the left-hand corner of this picture. 
 
 [2 Only a few on copper.] 
 
 [•'' Cranach has been the subject of much research in recent years, and 
 there is a very full account of his works in Woltmann and Woermann.j 
 
J500K VI.] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 263 
 
 at the same time, most offensive. He struggled after 
 Michael Angelo in distorted dreams. 
 
 JoHANN RoTTENHAMMER (1564-1623) also, is another 
 artist who was afflicted with the Italian fever. He chiefly 
 imitated the Venetians, never, however, attaining to any- 
 thing approaching their colour.^ 
 
 Adam Elzheimer (1578-1620) is slightly more original. 
 He is mostly distinguished by his moonlight and torchlight 
 effects, and his small landscapes.^ 
 
 Joachim von Sandrart (1606-1688) was also a painter 
 of some note at this time, although posterity forgets his 
 great historical paintings, and remembers him only as the 
 industrious compiler of one of the first histories of Teutonic 
 art.^ 
 
 The name of Balthasar Denner (1685-1749) has become 
 almost proverbial for minute and laborious detail ; detail 
 sought for its own sake, and not made subordinate to any 
 great end. Old men's and old women's heads were his 
 favourite subjects, of which he painted every little hair 
 and wrinkle with marvellous skiU and accuracy, and yet, 
 strange to say, failed in producing, as the great portrait- 
 painters did with haK the labour, a truthful and powerful 
 likeness. 
 
 The triviality of Denner, contrasts strongly with the 
 lofty aims of Raphael Mengs (1728-1774), who, in the 
 eighteenth century, under the influence of Winckelman, 
 the first modern expounder of the meaning of G-reek art, 
 attempted to revive the severe spirit of classic art, and 
 to return to a purely ideal conception of human nature. 
 He only succeeded, however, in attaining to a cold, lifeless 
 eclecticism, for although his drawing was correct, his forms 
 ideal, and his style classic, he lacked the inspiration neces- 
 sary to the production of aU truly great creative works. 
 
 Christian Dietrich (1712-1774), was in like manner 
 an eclectic; whilst Asmus Carstens (1754-1798), adhered 
 in his severe and noble drawings, which have more the 
 
 [' There is a small picture by Rottenhammer in the National Gallery, 
 Pan and Syrinx, No. 569.] 
 
 [' Represented in the National Gallery by the Martyrdom of S. 
 Lawrence, No. 1014.] 
 
 ' " Teutsche Academie," Niirnberg, 1675, fol. 
 
264 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 character of plastic than of pictorial works, to the lofty 
 teachings of antique art. 
 
 But the classic spirit of G-reece, though always wor- 
 shipped by the few, has never effected any lasting hold on 
 the sympathies of the many, and the attempted revivals 
 of antique art in modem times have generally resulted in 
 a reahstic or a religious re-action. This was the case in 
 Germany. 
 
 In the beginning of the present century, a new and 
 powerful impulse was given to German art by a few youth- 
 ful and aspiring artists who were at that time pursuing 
 their studies at Rome, and who almost simultaneously be- 
 came animated with the desire of reviving not so much the 
 material form, as the true Christian spirit of early religious 
 art. Renouncing the vain worship of sensuous beauty, and 
 rebelling against the cold formalisms of academies, these 
 artists sought once more to awaken that feeling for spiritual 
 beauty which had formerly inspired Italian art, but which 
 had now long lain dormant. Passing by the great masters 
 of the Renaissance, they turned back, therefore, like the 
 English Pre-Raphaelites, to the early religious painters of 
 Italy for guidance in the ways of truth, and endeavoured 
 to found a new Christian school of painting on the old 
 basis of faith and devotion. 
 
 Foremost in this movement stand the names of Peter 
 VON Cornelius (1783-1867), Friedrich Overbeck (1789- 
 1869), Philipp Veit (1793-1877), Wilhelm Schadow 
 (1789-1862), Julius Schnorr (1794-1872), and Joseph 
 FiJHRicH (1800-1876). 
 
 A favourable opportunity was soon afforded to these 
 artists for expressing their principles, by the Prussian 
 Consul Bartholdi, who in 1816 had a room in the Casa 
 Zuccari, at Rome, decorated with frescoes representing the 
 history of Joseph. 
 
 [Upon this followed the Dante and Ariosto series of 
 frescoes in the Villa Massimi, and a lunette in the Vatican, 
 but the " Roman Brotherhood," of which Overbeck was the 
 founder, and Cornelius, by virtue of his wider range of 
 thought and artistic power, the leader, was soon scattered. 
 Many of " the brothers " had joined the Romish Church. 
 Of these, Overbeck and Veit, Hke the fourteenth century 
 
BOOK VI.] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 265 
 
 masters whom they copied, limited their art afterwards to 
 the mere expression of Catholic asceticism/ Schadow 
 followed his bent towards oil-painting and colour, aban- 
 doned fresco, and later on, as head of the Diisseldorf 
 Academy, fostered the reactionary tendency towards genre 
 and the lower style of art, against which Cornelius fought 
 strenuously all his life. 
 
 Cornelius, whose lofty ideal linked the pious classicism 
 of Carstens to the pious romanticism of the Overbeck 
 circle, accomplished, with the aid of Schnorr,^ Yeit, and 
 others, several vast series of frescoes at Munich, works of 
 wide symbolic significance,^ grand composition, and mag- 
 nificent drawing, but inharmonious in colour, and often 
 lacking unity of conception. Cornehus emphasized the 
 intellectual in art, and attempted the didactic at the 
 expense of the aesthetic.^] 
 
 G-erman enthusiasm saw in these ambitious compositions 
 the inauguration of a new and glorious epoch in G-erman 
 art. These were the flowers to which the hard buds of 
 early G-erman art had expanded;' [but in spite of the 
 inventive faculty and feeling for spiritual beauty of what 
 is now called the elder Munich School, its work leaves us 
 cold, the execution falling far short of the endeavour. It 
 pleases most in black and white, and Cornelius' cartoons 
 for the projected Campo Santo in Berlin are the best 
 work he has left us. It influenced German art of the first 
 
 [^ The best works of the so-called " Naasarenes " are Overbeck's 
 Coronation of the Virgin, Cologne Cathedral; Schnorr's Marriage at 
 Cana, private collection, England; andNiike's St. Elizabeth, Naumberg 
 Cathedral. Vide "Geschichte der Kunst in XIX. Jahrhundert." 
 Seemann, 1881.] 
 
 [2 Schnorr, perhaps the finest draughtsman of the group, designed 
 glass windows for St. Paul's Cathedral, London, of which the original 
 cartoons are in Dresden Museum.] 
 
 ^ Especially in those of the Ludwigskirche, where, as in the Sistine 
 Chapel by Michael Angelo, the whole plan of the Christian Redemption, 
 from the creation of the world to the Last Judgment, is set forth by 
 him. 
 
 [* Vide Veit, Valentin, Dohme's " Kunst u. Kiinstler des XIX. Jahr- 
 hunderts."] 
 
 ^ Goethe is said to have remarked, when asked his opinion of the 
 collection of the brothers Boisser^e, not then incorporated with the 
 Munich Gallery, *' I certainly see the buds, but where are the flowers ? " 
 
266 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI. 
 
 half of the nineteenth century, and developed various 
 talents, but was soon combated by a reaction in favour 
 of colour and realistic detail. 
 
 WiLHELM VON Katjlbach (1805-1874), Cornelius' most 
 distinguished pupil, advanced a step towards the realistic 
 art of to-day (Battle of the Huns, 1834), but in his great 
 historical efforts (the wall-paintings on the staircase of 
 Berhn Museum, 1847-1863) he shows poverty of form and 
 conventionality in composition ; his fancy disports itself in 
 less exalted regions than Cornelius', and he has often no 
 greater aim than mere pictorial effect. Kaulbach was in- 
 fluenced by the melodramatic style of the Belgians, Biefve, 
 Wappers, and Grallait, whilst the careful and realistic his- 
 toric detail and rich colour of their countryman Hendrik 
 Leys helped to form Karl Friedrich Lessing (1808- 
 1880). The Diisseldorf School had felt the influence of 
 David Wilkie. KarlHdbner's (1814-1879) genre -pictuTes 
 treated political and social questions (The G-ame-laws), but 
 Lessing struck out a new path in historic art by his 
 brilliant and characteristic pictures of the pre-Ref ormation 
 period (Hussite Conventicle, 1836, Berlin Nat. G-al., No. 
 208). Following him to some extent, Adolf Menzel 
 (bom in 1815) has, in his truthful dehneations of 
 Frederick the G-reat and his times, touched a chord more 
 strictly national, with great originahty and power of exe- 
 cution. LiTDwio Knatjs (1829-1882), the painter of peasant- 
 life and portrait, is remarkable for clever characteriza- 
 tion and facile technique (Kinderfest, Berhn Nat. G-al., No. 
 169). 
 
 Into landscape Josef Anton Koch (1768-1839) intro- 
 duced the historic element (Macbeth and the Witches, 
 Insbruck). His pupil, Karl Eottmann (1798-1850) exe- 
 cuted in fresco a series of twenty-eight Italian landscapes 
 for King Ludwig of Bavaria. His works are distinguished 
 for their delicate observation of nature and breadth of 
 style. Lessing also distinguished himself in romantic land- 
 scape. The original and essentially national genius of 
 MoRiTZ VON ScHwiNDT (1804-1871) found expression in his 
 poetic, fantastic water-colour illustrations of fairy and 
 folk lore (Melusine, The Seven Eavens, 1858). He also 
 took part in some of the great decorative works in fresco 
 
BOOK VI,] PAINTING IN GERMANY. 267 
 
 (Vienna Opera-House, &c.), and designed the glass windows 
 for Glasgow Cathedral (1860). Ludwig Eichter (bom 
 in 1803), an original and humorous illustrator upon wood 
 and copper of great inventive powers, has found many 
 followers. 
 
 The modern Schools of Diisseldorf and Munich are 
 principally distinguished for careful and clever genre 
 painting. The realistic style and daring technique of Karl 
 PiLOTY (1826-1886), " a modern Caravaggio," have helped 
 to form artists such as Hans Makart (1840-1884), Franz 
 Defregger, Gabriel Max, and Michael Munkacsy. 
 In landscape the names of Edtjard Schleich (1812-1874) 
 and the Achenbachs are pre-eminent.] 
 
BOOK vn. 
 
 PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 Chapter I. 
 
 THE SCHOOL OF BRUGES. 
 
 The Van Etcks— Rogier Vander Wkyden— Memlino. 
 
 THE foolish theory, wMcli found at one time a wide 
 acceptance, that the growth of art in a country was a 
 question of climate, and that the sunny skies and balmy 
 air of Greece and Italy were especially favourable in- 
 fluences for its development, receives a decided contradic- 
 tion by the fact, that art developed in Germany and in the 
 foggy Netherlands nearly at the same time as in cloudless 
 Italy. The truth is, that the connoisseurs of the last cen- 
 tury, by whom this theory was started, knew very little of 
 the early art of the Netherlands and Germany, and what 
 little they did know they despised. It was the fashion 
 then to speak contemptuously of everything that was not 
 " antique,^* or " after the antique," and the pseudo- classic 
 pictures of the later ItaHan painters found more admirers 
 than the honest efforts of more homely men. 
 
 Of the early Christian painters of the Netherlands we 
 have but few records, [and in those a Roman origin is 
 traceable. The Byzantine conception of art lost some of 
 its immutable character in the process of transmission to 
 the Netherlands by way of Italy and Germany, and 
 Flemish miniatures of the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 269 
 
 centuries, although composed in Byzantine form, and 
 rudely executed, afford indications of an independent 
 spirit. In the thirteenth century the returning Crusaders, 
 and the Greek marriage of the German Emperor Otho, tu^ 
 helped to spread a new influx of Greek teaching over the 
 west of Europe. This, however, came too late to check 
 the national reaUstic tendency already beginning to deve- 
 lope in the Low Countries. An example of the dawning 
 spirit of the Eenaissance is seen in the paintings of the 
 Chasse or Reliquary of S. Odile, executed at Liege in 
 1292, now at the convent of Huy.'] \/ 
 
 But, dating from the thirteenth century, a gradual im- ^ 
 provement took place in the art of the Netherlands, as well 
 as of Italy, and even before the time of the Van Eycks 
 there were several Flemish artists, whose works manifest a 
 decided advance on the old estabhshed modes of represen- 
 tation. Melchior Broederlain, a Flemish artist of the 
 period immediately preceding the Van Eycks, seems to 
 have had a dawning perception of natural grace and beauty, 
 judging, that is, from two altar-wings painted by him, which 
 are still preserved in the Museum of Dijon (1398). The 
 paintings on this altax-chest are remarkable for their soft 
 and delicate beauty, and several of the figures have distinct 
 individuahty of character. The influence of the Cologne 
 school is, indeed, clearly visible in this work. Broederlain, 
 however, in spite of his greater merit, must be classed, like 
 Cimabue, with the last of the old rather than with the first 
 of the new school of painting in Flanders. 
 
 The new impulse that was given to art at the beginning 
 of the fifteenth century, was given by the two Flemish 
 l)rothers, Hubert and Jan Van Eyck. The great success 
 of these masters, it has been asserted, was wholly owing to 
 their invention of a better medium for painting — to their 
 discovery, as it has been called, of the secret of oil-painting ; 
 but no one who has studied the works of Jan Van Eyck, 
 can doubt that the real secret of his admirable painting lay, 
 not in the mechanical medium he used, but in the genius 
 of the man who used it. 
 
 It is difficult, in fact, to determine in what this invention 
 
 [' Vide '' Le Beffroi," W. J. Weale.] 
 
270 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 of oil-painting, with which the Yan Eycks are credited, 
 really consisted, for it is certain that the idea of mixing 
 oil with solid colours was no new one in their time. In 
 the treatises of Eraclius and Theophilus, written at the 
 end of the twelfth, or beginning of the thirteenth century, 
 we find a process of oil-painting distinctly described ; wal- 
 nut oil, it is proved, was used as a varnish as early as the 
 fifth century, and linseed oil for the same purpose in the 
 eighth.^ Statues and bas-rehefs, also, were constantly 
 painted with oil colours in the Netherlands, long previous 
 to the fifteenth century, and large quantities of oil were 
 supplied to the painters by their patrons, in order that 
 they might produce " de pointure de bonnes couleurs a 
 ole," as a document relating to the erection of the tomb 
 of John III., Duke of Brabant, in 1341, expressly stipu- 
 lates.'^ 
 
 But although undoubtedly some process of painting in 
 oils was in use before the Van Eyck method, it is neverthe- 
 less clear that the process they invented must have supplied 
 a want that had been long felt by painters, for it was at 
 once enthusiastically welcomed and adopted by all to 
 whom it was made known. The greatest anxiety was 
 evinced by the artists of Italy, as well as by those of the 
 Netherlands, to gain possession of the secret, and many 
 stories are told of the furtive maimer in which this was 
 sometimes accomplished. The Flemish brothers seem, in 
 fact, to have solved a problem that had long been vexing 
 painters' brains. This is Yasari's account of the matter : 
 " It happened," he says, " when matters stood at this pass, 
 that Griovanni da Bruggia [Jan Yan Eyck] working in 
 Flanders, and much esteemed in those parts for the great 
 skill which he had acquired in his calling, set himself to 
 try different sorts of colours, and being a man who de- 
 lighted in alchemy, he laboured much in the preparation 
 of various oils for varnishes and other things, as is the 
 manner of men of inventive minds such as he was. Now 
 it happened upon a time, that after having given extreme 
 labour to the completion of a certain picture, and with 
 great diligence brought it to a successful issue, he gave it 
 
 ^ Sir Charles Eastlake, " Materials for the History of Oil Painting." 
 ■^ Preserved in the Archives Municipales de Bruges. 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 271 
 
 the varnish and set it to dry in the sun, as is the custom. 
 But whether, because the heat was too violent, or that the 
 wood was badly joined, or insufficiently seasoned, the picture 
 jT^ave way at the joinings, opening in a very deplorable 
 manner. Thereupon Giovanni, perceiving the mischief 
 done to his work by the heat of the sun, determined to 
 proceed in such a manner that the same thing should never 
 again injure his work in like manner ; and as he was no 
 less embarrassed by his varnishes than by the process of 
 tempera painting, he turned his thoughts to the discovery 
 of some sort of varnish that would dry in the shadow, to 
 the end that he need not expose his pictures to the sun. 
 Accordingly, after having made many experiments on sub- 
 stances pure and mixed, he finally discovered that linseed 
 oil and oil of nuts dried more readily than any others of 
 all that he had tried. Having boiled these oils, therefore, 
 with other mixtures, he thus obtained the varnish which 
 he, or rather all the painters of the world, had so long de- 
 sired. He made experiments with many other substances, 
 but finally decided that mixing the colours with these oils 
 gave a degree of firmness to the work, which not only 
 secured it against all injury from water when once dried, 
 but also imparted so much life to the colours, that they 
 exhibited a sufficient lustre in themselves without the 
 aid of varnish ; and what appeared to him more extra- 
 ordinary than all besides was, that the colours thus 
 treated were much more easily blent and united than when 
 in tempera." 
 
 Here, then, was the solution of the problem. First, a 
 varnish that was drying without being dark, and, secondly, 
 a liquid and colourless medium that could be mixed with 
 the colours, and so do away with the necessity of using the 
 old coloured varnish at all. 
 
 Vasari's graphic description of Jan Van Eyck's proceed- 
 ings is, no doubt, substantially correct, though he sums up 
 in a few words what was probably the result of many 
 years' experiments. Moreover, he attributes the whole 
 merit of the invention to Jan, the younger brother, Hubert's 
 name being scarcely known in Italy, whereas Jan's works 
 were enthusiastically admired. 
 
 It is reasonable, however, to suppose that Hubert, who 
 
272 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 was, it would appear, twenty years older than Jan,' and 
 who " instructed his young brother in drawing, painting, 
 and chemistry,"^ began the researches which led to such 
 happy results. At the date which Yasari and Yan Mander 
 give for the discovery of oil-painting by Hubert (1410), 
 Jan could only have been a pupil working in his brother's 
 school, and although he might have carried out the experi- 
 ments, it seems more probable that the master of the school 
 began and directed them. But the fame of Hubert has 
 been eclipsed for centuries by the greater glory that sur- 
 rounds the name of Jan. In the rhyming chronicle of 
 G-iovanni Santi, Jan is spoken of as " II Gran Jannes," but 
 no allusion is made to Hubert ; yet, judging from the one 
 certain specimen of his work that remains to us in the 
 altar-piece of S. Bavon, at Ghent, he must have been a 
 truly great painter.^ 
 
 This altar-piece is one of the most magnificent produc- 
 tions of Flemish art. It represents the Adoration of the 
 Mystic Lamb (Eev. vii. 9), and depicts the company of the 
 faithful, "a great multitude which no man could number," 
 coming up from all nations, kindreds, and people, to wor- 
 ship the Lamb that was slain. 
 
 The upper portion only of this great altar-piece was 
 painted by Hubert,* the central part and side wings being 
 the work of Jan, who finished the picture after his brother's 
 death. The three large figures of the Father, Mary, and 
 S. John, of the upper central division are, however, quite 
 sufficient to testify to Hubert's genius. They have the 
 same solemn majesty and religious exaltation that the 
 
 [^ There is really nothing to prove what was the difference of age 
 between the brothers.] 
 2 Van Mander. 
 ^ The inscription on this painting is as follows : — 
 
 " Pictor Hubertus e eyck, maior quo nemo repertus 
 Incepit pond us qe Jonannes arte secundus 
 Frater perfecit, Judoci Vyd prece fretft. 
 Vers V SeXta Mai Vos CoLLo Cat aCta tVerl." 
 
 The last line of this inscription contains what is termed a chronogram, 
 the Roman capitals added together making the date 1432, in which year 
 the picture was hung in S. Bavon. 
 
 [* Recent authorities differ widely in opinion as to the share taken by 
 Hubert in this altar-piece.] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 273 
 
 Bjzantine-Roinantic painters infused into their representa- 
 tions of sacred characters ; indeed, the whole treatment oi 
 these figures closely resembles that of the Cologne School, 
 but there is an original power and a noble realism in 
 Hubert's work that lifts him far above these masters, and 
 places him at the head of the school of Bruges. He was 
 truly the Patriarch of Flemish painting, and whether he 
 invented oil-painting or not, he was undoubtedly a com- 
 plete master of the method; for no work of the school 
 surpasses the splendid solemn colouring and detailed 
 execution of his three figures in this altar-piece.^ 
 
 Little is known of his life. It is supposed that he was 
 born at Maaseyck, in the Duchy of Limburg, in the year 
 1366. He entered the guild of painters at Grhent in 1421, 
 and died there on September 18, 1426. He was buried in 
 S. Bavon in the vault of his patron, Jodicus Vydt, who 
 had commissioned him to paint the great altar-piece that 
 he left unfinished. Except his epitaph,^ which gives us a 
 curious insight into the character of the man and of the 
 age in which he lived, we have no further record of Hubert 
 Van Eyck. Even his arm, which was severed from his body, 
 and preserved as a relic in the Cathedral of S. Bavon until 
 the sixteenth century, has disappeared.* 
 
 Of the life of Jan Van Eyck there exists much more 
 
 ^ Besides the three central figures, the panels of Adam and Eve, now 
 in the Brussels Gallery, have been attributed to him. These figures 
 exhibit a wonderful knowledge of anatomy for the time at which they 
 were painted. 
 
 2 The following is a translation of it from Van Mander : — 
 
 *' Take warning from me, ye who walk over me : I was as you are, 
 but am now buried beneath you. Thus it appears that neitlier art nor 
 medicine availed me. Ai*t, honour, wisdom, power, I'iches, are not spared 
 when death arrives. 
 
 " Hubert Van Eyck I was once named, now I am food for worms. 
 Formerly highly honoured in painting, this was shortly turned t(» 
 nought. 
 
 " In was in the year of the Ix)rd one thousand four hundred and 
 twenty-six, on tlie 18th of September, that death put an end to my pain. 
 IVay to G(k1 fur me, ye who love Art, that I may attain to His sight. 
 Flee sin, turn to the best, for you must follow me at last." 
 
 -' Two figures in one of tlie wings of the Mystic Lamb of S. Bavon 
 have been ])ointed out by Van Vaernewyck and Van Mander as por- 
 traits of Hul)ert and Jan Van Eyck. There looks ijuite twenty yeai's' 
 difference of age in these poitraits. 
 
 T 
 
274 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 personal detail. He was born at Maaseyck between tlif 
 years 1381 and 1390. His first patron was the infamous 
 John of Bavaria, the warlike Bishop of Liege, surname^ , 
 from his cruelty to his own subjects, Jean Sans Pitie. On 
 his death-bed, this stormy prelate recommended Jan Van 
 Eyck, "his painter and varlet de chambre," to the magnifi- 
 cent PhiHppe le Bon, Duke of Burgundy. 
 
 "Des ce moment," says Kervyn de Lettenhove, in his 
 "Histoire de Flandre," "I'art place sur un theatre plus 
 eleve partageavis avis de toutes les nations de I'Europe la 
 domination et I'influence que la maison de Bourgognc 
 exercait sans contestation dans I'ordre politique." 
 
 Philippe le Bon was in truth the most powerful, though 
 not the most warlike, prince of this powerful house, as is 
 shown, perhaps, more by the fact that he was able to rule 
 his own turbulent subjects, than by his being able to set up 
 an English or a French king in France at will. 
 
 The Flemish towns in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- 
 turies were in almost constant rebellion against their 
 lords ; but in them, in the history of the middle ages, we 
 meet for the first time with a middle class grown rich by 
 trade. 
 
 The same problem, in fact, meets us as in Florence, where 
 likewise we find commerce flourishing, and the arts culti- 
 vated amid the fiercest internal dissensions. 
 
 Of all the rich and rebellious towns of Flanders, Bruges, 
 in the time of the Van Eycks, was the richest and the 
 most flourishing. Bold Grhent, alas ! had suffered bitterly 
 for its presumption : its walls were destroyed, and many of 
 its municipal privileges taken away. Lille and Ypres had 
 no ports such as Bruges possessed in Sluys, and never rose 
 to the same political and commercial importance. Bruges, 
 in fact, was at this time a depot for all the world. Sjmin, 
 Italy, England, the countries of Africa, Asia, and, when 
 discovered, America, sent their produce to her markets to 
 be exchanged for grain, cattle, and the rich woollen stuffs 
 that were the chief source of her industry and wealth. 
 This prosperous commercial city was, moreover, the 
 favourite residence of the good Duke Philippe, who more 
 frequently held his court there than in any other of his 
 domains. Could there be more favourable conditions for 
 
BOOK VII,] PAINTINO IN THE NETHERLANDS. 275 
 
 the development of the fine arts ? A prosperous city, with 
 a wealthy bourgeois class, and a magnificent court, ruled 
 over by a despotic monarch,^ who loved art for its own sake 
 as well as from motives of ostentation. 
 
 It was to this city and this court that Jan Van Eyck 
 came, in the early part of the fifteenth century, accredited 
 by the recommendation of Jean Sans Pitie, who not only 
 left his painter, but likewise his dominions, to Philippe le 
 Bon. Philippe, who possibly might have known Jan at 
 Liege, and who, at all events, was well acquainted with his 
 merits, received him with much kindness, and in 1425 ap- 
 pointed him to be his " varlet de chambre." This was no 
 menial office, as the term would seem to us to imply, but, 
 on the contrary, one of great trust and importance, and 
 implied personal service to the duke. The courtiers, indeed, 
 complain that the duke often took council of his varlets, 
 " et s'en indignaient nobles hommes," * but the varlets, if 
 not noble, were at least of honourable birth, and their 
 counsels were probably of as much worth as those of 
 courtiers who shaved their heads for love of their sovereign, 
 " pour I'amour de lui," as De la Marche says. 
 
 Each varlet, we find,^ had two horses and a varlet in 
 livery at his service, the difference between a varlet de 
 chambre to the duke, and a varlet a livree, a domestic 
 servant, being here clearly distinguished. 
 
 The salary of Jan Van Eyck as painter and varlet was 
 fixed at 100 livres parisis,* and the duke's treasurers were 
 exhorted to be regular in their payment of that sum half 
 
 ' The despotism of this Court is amusingly illustrated by a little in- 
 ciflent related by the chronicler Olivier de la Marche. Once le bon Due 
 Philippe had an illness, and the doctors deemed it advisable to shave his 
 head. In order not to appear singular, he ordered all his courtiers to 
 shave their heads also, and more than five hundred did so. 
 
 ' Chronicles de Chastelain. Buchon. 
 
 ' De Laborde " Les Dues de Bourgogne." 
 
 ' " A Johan de Heik jadis pointre et varlet de chambre de feu M. S. 
 le due Jehan de Bayviere, lequel M. D. S. pour I'abilit^ et souffisance 
 que par la relacion de plusieurs de ses gens il avait oy et meismes savait 
 et cognoissoit estre de fait de pointure en la personne dudit Jehan de 
 'It'ik . . . et afin qu'il soit tenu d'ouvrer pour lui de painture, toutes les 
 tc)is qu'il lui plaira, lui a ordonn6 prendre et avoir de lui sur sa recette 
 gi'Derale de Flandres la somme de C. livres p. monnoie de Flandres." — 
 Dk Laborde. 
 
276 HISTOET OF PAINTINQ. [bOOK VII. 
 
 yearly. This exhortation was evidently necessary, for 
 twice Philippe had to write to his " trusty and well-beloved 
 people of accounts," reprimanding them for having been 
 negligent in this particular, and ordering that the pension 
 " of our well-beloved Jan Van Eyck " should be paid 
 " without delay, cunctation, variation, or difficulty," 
 
 Over and above this fixed pension, Jan was paid by the 
 Duke for various missions and " secret journeys " that he 
 undertook for him. What these secret journeys were 
 about, we are not told : " no more need be declared about 
 it," says the record of one of them. 
 
 In 1428 he was employed on more open and important 
 service. Philippe, who had already lost two wives, desired 
 again to enter into matrimony, and being pleased with the 
 description he had received of Isabel of Portugal, he sent 
 an embassy to that country to negotiate a marriage. With 
 his ambassadors, Hue de Lannoy, and the Sire de Eoubaix, 
 he associated his painter, who was to paint the portrait of 
 the young princess, and to send it home at once to Flanders, 
 for Philippe to judge of, we may presume, before finally 
 committing himself to the alliance. The ship in which 
 the embassy from Bruges sailed, was driven by reason of 
 bad weather to put into three English ports, Sandwich, 
 Plymouth, and Falmouth, on her outward voyage, so that 
 it is probable England had the honour of a visit from the 
 great Flemish painter. Finally, however, Portugal was 
 reached in safety, December 18, 1428, and Jan Van Eyck 
 obtained sittings from the lovely Isabel, and sent her 
 portrait painted " bien au vif " to her suitor. After having 
 thus accomplished his commission, he went on a pleasure 
 tour through Portugal, and some parts of Spain, returning 
 to Lisbon the following July, when the portrait and the 
 negotiations having proved successful, the marriage of 
 Philippe of Burgundy and Isabel of Portugal, was celebrated 
 by proxy with great splendour, the feasts and rejoicings on 
 the occasion lasting until September, when the youthful 
 bride at last set sail for her husband's dominions. 
 
 The expedition on its return was even less fortunate 
 than on its outward voyage. The ships were scattered hy 
 the winds, and the one bearing the bride was obliged to 
 2jut into Plymouth for shelter, so that she did not reach 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS, 277 
 
 Bruges until Christmas day, 1429. The splendour of her 
 entry into Bruges, is described by several chroniclers ; the 
 celebrated order of the Golden Fleece was founded by 
 Philippe on this occasion, and nothing was wanting to con- 
 vince the Portuguese and their Infanta of the wealth and 
 magnificence of the Burgundian Duke and his Flemish 
 town. 
 
 But it is with the Duke's painter, and not with his bride, 
 that we have here to do, and the only record that we find 
 of him amid these gay proceedings is, that he received one 
 hundred and fifty livres in payment for the portrait of 
 Isabel and *'his confidential service." The journey to 
 Portugal, however, could not have failed to have exercised 
 a considerable influence over his art. How invaluable 
 would now be the sketches he doubtless made in that 
 pleasant trip through Spain, but unhappily not one is 
 known to exist, and the only paintings of which we have 
 any knowledge, as executed at this time are, the portrait 
 already mentioned of Isabel of Portugal, and another 
 mentioned in an old inventory, by the title of " La Belle 
 Portugalaise." 
 
 We have, however, in many of his paintings ghmpses of 
 palm and orange trees, evidently reminiscences of a sunnier 
 land than Flanders. 
 
 Soon after his return from Portugal Jan purchased a 
 house in Bruges, where he continued to reside until his 
 death. He probably married about the same time, but 
 the first notice we have of this event having taken place is 
 in June, 1434, when we find that the Duke stood godfather 
 to the painter's infant daughter, presenting on the occasion 
 with his usual profuse magnificence, no less than six silver 
 cups.^ 
 
 The Duke also used frequently to visit Jan in his work- 
 shop, and on such occasions was wont to distribute all the 
 silver he had in his pocket amongst the apprentices. 
 Indeed, all the records we have of the relations of Philippe 
 
 ' It is to the preservation of the receipt for the payment of these six 
 cups to Jehan rantin, a goldsmith of Bruges, that we are indebted for 
 the above information. It is strange that almost all the knowledge we 
 have of Jan Van Eyck's life should be from records of money paid to 
 him or for him. 
 
278 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 le Bon and his varlet painter tend to prove that there was 
 a cordial intimacy between them. 
 
 The altar-piece of the Mystic Lamb, began, as before 
 stated, by Hubert, was not finished by Jan until 1432, six 
 years after the death of his brother, when it was at last 
 placed, in the presence of an admiring multitude, in its 
 position in the chapel of the Yydt family in S. Bavon, 
 where the two central divisions still remain/ 
 
 Hubert's work on this painting has been already men- 
 tioned, but Jan's work still remains to be spoken of, de- 
 scribed it can scarcely be, for its marvellous fulness of de- 
 tail baffles description. In the centre compartment, the 
 Lamb of Grod, the Mystic Lamb of Eevelation, stands on 
 the Ark of the Covenant, the blood pouring from his 
 wounded side. Above hovers the Dove of the Spirit, and 
 angels • bearing the instruments of the passion, kneel 
 around. The Fountain of living water springs up in front, 
 with a significant little stream running from it to purify 
 the world. The hosts of the redeemed occupy the fore- 
 ground, whilst farther back are choirs of holy maidens, 
 
 * The fate of this celebrated picture has been curiously varied. A 
 predella, representing the tortures of the damned, disappeared as early 
 as the time of Van Mander. It was said to have been painted in tem- 
 pera, and to have been washed out. The picture itself narrowly escaped 
 the fanaticism of the Protestant Iconoclasts in 1566, and it was also 
 nearly destroyed by fire in 1641. After this, Joseph of Austria, ex- 
 pressing his sense of the impropriety of the naked figui'es of Adam and 
 Eve, the altarpiece was closed for a period from the public gaze. Next 
 it was carried off as a prize to France in the Napoleon wars, and placed 
 in the Louvre, where F. von Schlegel saw it in 1802-1804. At the 
 peace it was restored to Ghent and again placed in S. Bavon ; but from 
 some unaccountable reason the wings were not joined to the central 
 parts, but remained in a cellar, where they were found by an undiscri- 
 minating priest, who sold them to M. Nieuwenhuys, the art-connoisseur, 
 for next to nothing. An action was brought for their recovery, but it 
 failed, and M. Nieuwenhuys disposed of them to Mr. Solly, an English 
 connoisseur, for X*4,000. He, in his turn, sold them to the late King of 
 Prussia, and they are now in the Gallery of Bei'lin. 
 
 The offending panels of Adam and Eve, the work of Hubert, mean- 
 while still remained in the cellar, but at last a truer appreciation of 
 works of art having arisen, they were in 1860 placed in the Gallery at 
 Brussels. 
 
 The central portion and two side wings of the Mystic Lamb have 
 been recently published by the Arundel Society as chrome-lithographs. 
 It is also engraved in several works on art. 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 279 
 
 saints, and martyrs. In the distance are tlie towers of the 
 heavenly Jerusalem, the colours of the landscape graduat- 
 ing from green into deep blue. 
 
 On the wings on either side, bands of men and women 
 press forward to the one central point. Soldiers of Christ, 
 holy hermits, bold crusaders, martyred maidens, all coming 
 up to worship the Lamb that was slain, one common feel- 
 ing of love and adoration filling their hearts. The Mystic 
 Lamb may, indeed, truly be compared to some grand old 
 hymn of praise divided into separate verses, each verse 
 being complete in itself, yet forming, when regarded as a 
 whole, one harmonious strain of melody. 
 
 Of the technical qualities of this work, no praise can be 
 too great. The inventors of the new method of oil-paint- 
 ing seem at once to have carried it to perfection, and no 
 after- work of their school exhibits a more thorough mas- 
 tery over the mechanical medium, or a more complete 
 understanding of the harmony of colour than this. The 
 landscape, both in the centre and the wings is delicately 
 and faithfully painted, every soft blade of glass, every 
 flower is depicted with loving care, but we have not the 
 exaggeration of minute accuracy, such as we find in some 
 of the Van Eyck landscapes, those for instance seen through 
 a window or a door, when a microscope is often needed to 
 appreciate the details. 
 
 I have dwelt thus at length on this picture, partly be- 
 cause it is a representative work of the Van Eycks and 
 their school, and likewise because the copies and reproduc- 
 tions of it are accessible to every Enghsh student. These 
 will aid him in forming some idea of the marvellous rich- 
 ness of its composition, even though he should not be able 
 to visit G-hent and Berlin, where only its glorious harmony 
 of colour, and its perfect execution can be appreciated. 
 
 Religious symbohsm, deeply devout feeling expressed in 
 a decidedly realistic manner, solemn beauty and power of 
 colour, and perfect mastery of execution, these are the chief 
 distinguishing features of early Flemish art, and these are 
 seen in their full development in the Mystic Lamb. 
 
 Next in importance to the altar-piece of St. Bavon stands 
 that of the Santa Trinita Museum at Madrid, representing 
 the Triumph of the Catholic Church. This powerful work 
 
280 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 has only recently been attributed to Yan Eyck, and there 
 IS only internal evidence to show that it is by his hand ; 
 but it bears, according to the critics who have examined it, 
 50 strong a resemblance in its composition and painting to 
 the Mystic Lamb, that there seems very little reason to 
 doubt that it was really painted by Jan or by Hubert Van 
 Eyck. Passavant, who was the first to make known its 
 merits,^ ascribes it to Hubert, but later critics are more in 
 favour of Jan. 
 
 There is but one specimen of Jan Van Eyck's work in 
 the Louvre, but that is a most charming one. The picture 
 is usually styled the Virgin and the Donor,^ and represents 
 the Chancellor EoUin kneeling before the Virgin and Child 
 with a missal in his hand. An angel with gorgeous wings 
 places a crown on the Virgin's head. The landscape back- 
 ground, seen through three arcades, has been supposed to 
 represent Jerusalem ; but if so, the holy city, in its towers, 
 spires, and bridges, has a remarkable resemblance to an old 
 Flemish town. A chain of snow-clad mountains in the 
 ethereal distance alone gives it an ideal character.^ The 
 delicacy of finish and minuteness of detail of the work are 
 wonderful. There are said to be two thousand figures 
 in it. 
 
 The Virgin and S. Donat (also called the Pala Madonna, 
 from its having been painted for C-eorge Van der Paele, 
 Canon of S. Donat), in the Bruges Academy,^ is chiefly 
 distinguished by the noble figure of S. Donat. In the 
 same gallery there is an excellent portrait, by Jan Van 
 Eyck, of his wife, painted in 1439, when she was thirty- 
 three years of age. 
 
 S. Barbara, in a landscape with a large tower (her 
 emblem) rising up behind her, is a most interesting 
 though unfinished work. Only the sky is coloured, but 
 
 ^ Passavant " Die Christliche Kunst in Spanien," 1853. There is a 
 detailed description of this work in " Early Flemish Painters," page 92, 
 et seq. Passavant and Crowe and Cavalcaselle imagine that two of" the 
 figures who look on at the overthrow of the Jewish and the triumph of 
 the Christian Church, are portraits of Hubert and Jan [not by either of 
 the Van Eycks according to Woermann and others]. 
 
 2 Louvre Catalogue, No. 162. 
 
 ^ Some say the town represented is Lyons. 
 
 * There is a copy of this painting in the Antwerp Gallery. 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 281 
 
 the drawing in every part is complete, and the admirable 
 care with which this drawing is done, shows how patiently 
 the master worked. It is in the Antwerp Academy. 
 
 The Van Eycks in the National Gallery are of un- 
 doubted authenticity, and the nation is truly fortunate in 
 possessing such excellent specimens of a master whose 
 genuine works are exceedingly rare, although his name is 
 often found in catalogues. The solemn Lady and Gentle- 
 man with joined Hands (Ko. 186) is a marvellous piece of 
 painting. Every object in the room is faithfully depicted, 
 even to the ten compartments in the frame of the mirror, 
 representing the Passion of Christ, and the brass chande- 
 Her, with the candle still burning, is a miracle of execution. 
 And not only are the things in the room thus minutely 
 painted, but we even get a glimpse of things outside, by 
 reason of the reflections in the mirror, which have been 
 studied with a perfect knowledge of the laws of incidence 
 and reflection. 
 
 The merits of this surprising work do not, however, lie 
 merely in this minute rendering of detail which Gerard 
 Dow and many of the Dutch genre painters likewise accom- 
 plished. Its colouring is well nigh perfect, and the quaint 
 figures of the man and woman (considered to be portraits 
 of Jean Arnolfini and his wife) have a real personal interest 
 such as the Dutch painters never infused into their works. 
 The puritanical couple, supposed to be newly married, are 
 in state costume, and the lady wears her wedding-ring half 
 way up the finger. The perfect state of preservation of 
 this remarkable painting is not the least wonderful thing 
 about it, considering that it was painted more than four 
 hundred years ago.^ 
 
 The Turbaned Portrait (No. 222) is another excellent 
 example of the master's firm execution and powerful colour. 
 It is signed on the frame, and bears the date 1433, and 
 above is Jan Van Eyck's motto, " Als ixh Xan " (als ich 
 kan), which seems to be a portion of an old Flemish pro- 
 verb, " As I can, not as I will." This motto is found on 
 many of his works. 
 
 The other National Gallery portrait (No. 290) is inscribed 
 
 ^ For the interesting histoi'y attached to it, see Wornum's " Cutu- 
 loirue." 
 
282 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 Timotheos in G-reek characters, and underneath it the words 
 " Leal Souvenir," and the painter's signature, and the 
 date 1432. 
 
 There are also several good Van Ejcks in England in 
 private hands. Especially may be mentioned a small 
 Madonna and Child, belonging to Weld Blundell, Esq., at 
 Ince Hall (called the Ince Madonna), and another in the 
 possession of the Marquis of Exeter at Burleigh, which is 
 said to be even more minute in detail and finish than the 
 Eollin Madonna in the Louvre.^ 
 
 The date of Jan Van Ejck's death was for a long time 
 as uncertain as that of his birth, but it is now proved that 
 he died at Bruges on the 9th of July, 1440.'"^ The last 
 record of him in the ducal accounts is a payment to the 
 church and convent of Maaseyck in 1448-1449, in order 
 that " Lyennie, danghter of Jan Van Eyck," might enter 
 the convent. 
 
 Margaret Van Eyck, the sister of Hubert and Jan, was 
 likewise a painter. " She devoted herself to art," says Van 
 Mander, " preserving her maidenhood through life." She 
 died shortly after Hubert. We often meet with pictures 
 with her name in galleries, but none of them are proved to 
 be by her. The name of Lambert Van Eyck also, a third 
 brother, occurs in the ducal records. 
 
 The founders of the School of Bruges were undoubtedly 
 its greatest masters. Flemish art did not rise with the 
 Van Eycks, and then proceed to a culminating point of 
 greatness, as we have traced it in Italy from G-iotto to 
 Michael Angelo and Eaphael ; but rising nearly a century 
 later than Italian art, early Flemish art may be said to have 
 had its rise, development, blooming time, and in some 
 degree its fall, all within the lifetime of one master. 
 
 But although no after painters of the school ever excelled 
 the Van Eycks in noble conception, colour, or execution, 
 there were, nevertheless, many excellent masters among 
 their scholars and followers. 
 
 ^ [Other works of Van Eyck in England are, " The Consecration of 
 Thomas a Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury," painted 1431, at 
 Chatsworth, Mr. Beresford Hope's Madonna, and Lord Heytesbury's 
 *' S. Francis," a replica of a picture at Turin.] 
 
 ^ Weale, " Notes sur Jan Van Eyck." 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 283 
 
 A knowledge of the new method of oil-painting had now 
 spread, in spite of the endeavour of the Flemish guilds to 
 keep the process a secret, not only through Flanders, but 
 also in Italy, where it was at once warmly adopted, 
 especially, as we have seen, by the early Venetians. 
 
 It soon, indeed, produced a complete revolution in the 
 mode of painting, and whereas, before the middle of the 
 fifteenth century, we have only a few pictures painted in 
 oils by the Van Eycks and their pupils, after that century 
 we barely meet with one painted in any other way.^ "Ce 
 n'est pas," says Paul Mantz, " dans I'histoire un mediocre 
 evenement que cette mobilisation de la peinture, qui va 
 dcsormais, comme bientot le livre imprime courir de main 
 en main, traverser les mers, penetrer dans les maisons qui 
 jusqu alors lui etaient fermees, et apporter a tous un 
 enseignement, une consolation, une lumiere." 
 
 This "mobilization" of painting had another good 
 effect : it aided in the liberation of art from the exclusive 
 service of the Church. If these pious old Flemish painters 
 could have foreseen such a result as this they would, per- 
 haps, have kept to the previous methods of fresco and tem- 
 pera, and have exercised their skill on the walls of churches 
 and convents, like their Italian predecessors, rather than 
 on those small panels and canvases which have come even- 
 tually to adorn rich men's houses and public galleries. • 
 
 But although the powers of the first oil-painters were 
 solely employed on reHgious subjects or portraits, their 
 successors selected more worldly themes, and painted for 
 other purposes than rehgious instruction and church deco- 
 ration, until at length, in the Dutch genre painters, their 
 true successors in point of execution and finish, we have an 
 entirely worldly school, painting low life, genre subjects, 
 and foolish conversation pieces, as they are called, for rich 
 patrons. 
 
 ^ The earliest oil-painting on record is probably a Head of Christ, 
 exhibited to the painters of Antwerp in 1420 by Jan Van Eyck. This 
 picture spread the fame of the new method. A Madonna, by Petrus 
 Cristus, in the Stiidel Museum at Frankfort, dated 1417, was for a long 
 time pointed out as the earliest picture painted by this method, but it 
 seems now tolerably certain that the date on this work has been falsified 
 by the restorer, and that it really was 1447. Vide an article in " Le 
 Beffroi," vol. i., page 235, and " Catalogue of the Stadel Museum." 
 
284 HISTOEY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI I. 
 
 The followers of the Van Eycks of the School of Bruges 
 had still, however, the same rehgious sentiment as their 
 masters, and expressed it in similar realistic language. The 
 spirit of doubt had not yet stirred their reverent minds, 
 and they went on painting Virgins, Infants, Saints, 
 Martyrs, representations of heaven and hell. Annuncia- 
 tions, and Crucifixions, with fervid belief in the teaching of 
 the Church. 
 
 Among the earliest of these scholars may be men- 
 tioned, — 
 
 Petrus Cristus [born at Baerle, near Grhent, bought 
 ftie freedom of the city of Bruges in 1444, and was still 
 fiving in 1472. His religious pictures resembled those of 
 Van Eyck. His earliest dated work (1446) is a portrait of 
 Edward Grimstone, ambassador to the Court of Burgundy, 
 now in the possession of the Earl of Verulam. The cele- 
 brated S. Eloysius selling a Eiug to a Young Couple, in 
 the Oppenheim Collection at Cologne, has been quoted as 
 the earliest example of genre, but it is probably a votive 
 picture, although it shows the ever increasing realistic 
 tendency of the School of Bruges. There are genuine 
 works by Cristus at St. Petersburg, Berlin, and Turin]. 
 
 G-ERARD Vander Meire is ouly a name in Elemish art, 
 for none of the pictures attributed to him can be satisfac- 
 torily authenticated, and nothing is known of his life but 
 a slight mention of him by Van Mander, who says he 
 lived at Ghent, and the praise of one of his paintings by 
 Sanderus. 
 
 Htjgo Vander Goes [said to be a native of Zealand, 
 was settled in Ghent], and already a distinguished painter 
 in [1465-1466], when he was employed at the marriage of 
 Charles the Bold to Margaret of York to produce the 
 "pleasant devices" and "histories" that were set forth in 
 the streets on that occasion. He likewise had the super- 
 intendence of the " entremetz " ^ at the ducal banquet. 
 
 ' By this word Olivier de la Marche, who has given a detailed account 
 of these wonders, signifies huge whales that cast up dancing mermaids 
 and mermen out of their mouths, lions and dromedaries who made 
 pretty speeches to the bride and bridegroom, and a wonderful pasty 
 containing twenty-eight men inside it, who all played on different 
 instruments. 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 285 
 
 But although Hugo did not disdain to receive fourteen 
 sous a day for work of this kind, he was nevertheless a 
 master of great ability, and several beautiful paintings still 
 remain by his hand. [He was dean of the guild of 
 S. Luke in Ghent in 1473-4-5.] 
 
 Of these the most important is, perhaps, the altar-piece 
 of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence,^ painted for the rich 
 family of the Portinari, a member of which, Tommaso 
 Portinari, was agent for the Medici at this time in Bruges, 
 and by this means doubtless became acquainted with 
 Hugo. In this altar-piece, a Nativity, he has represented 
 rays of light emanating from the Child, and hghting the 
 scene, as in the well-known "Notte" of Correggio. 
 
 Another painting by him, much praised by old writers, 
 was the meeting of David and Abigail, an unusual subject, 
 Flemish painters seldom choosing their themes from the 
 Old Testament. Under the guise of Abigail, it is said, the 
 artist depicted a young lady with whom he was desperately 
 in love, the David being his own portrait. 
 
 Lucas Van Here, in the sixteenth century, wrote a sonnet 
 on this picture, in which Abigail and her fair attendants 
 approve of the manner in which the painter has represented 
 them. They can do everything but speak, " an uncommon 
 fault in our sex," they are made to remark.^ 
 
 But it is to be feared that Hugo Vander Groes did not 
 prosper in his love for his Abigail, for we find that he 
 entered the Augustine Convent, of Rooden Clooster, near 
 Brussels, where [he continued to exercise his art, troubled 
 at intervals by fits of insanity, until his death in 1482.] 
 
 Of Justus of G-hent little more is known than of 
 Vander Meire. [His one known work, The Last Supper, 
 was ordered by the brotherhood of Corpus Christi at 
 TJrbino in 1468, and was completed in 1474. The picture 
 was paid for by a subscription, in which the reigning Duke 
 Pederigo di Montefeltro took part. This important work 
 is ten feet square, and the largest painting known of the 
 early Flemish school. The portraits of the Duke and of 
 Caterino Zeno, a Venetian agent on a mission from Persia, 
 
 ^ This work is still in the church for which it was originally painted, 
 but removed from the altar. It is in a wonderful state of preservation. 
 '^ " Les Peintres Bourgeois." Alfi*ed Michiels. 
 
286 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 are introduced. It is a question whether Justus changed 
 his style sufficiently to have painted the panels of the 
 Duke's library at Urbino, now presei-ved at Eome and in 
 the Louvre.] 
 
 RoQiER Yander Weyden [called Eogier de la Pasture 
 in his native town, and Ruggieri da Bruggia by Vasari, 
 was born at Tournay between the years 1398 and 1400. 
 He was undoubtedly the greatest of Van Eyck's contem- 
 poraries. He was founder of a school which exercised 
 paramount influence on the later painters of Germany and 
 the Netherlands. 
 
 Whilst Jan Yan Eyck was serving the court of Burgundy, 
 and executing royal commissions for other work than 
 painting royal portraits and altar-pieces, his humbler rival 
 was studying the art of painting in the else unknown 
 workshop of Robert Campin, painter of panel and banner, 
 and tinter of statuary, in Tournay. Roger, already a 
 married man, and father of one child, apprenticed himself 
 to Campin in 1426, when he was not less than twenty-six 
 or twenty- seven years of age. After five years and five 
 months study with Camj^in, he took his freedom of the 
 guild of S. Luke at Tournay, and soon afterwards migrated 
 with his family to Brussels, of which city his wife, Eliza- 
 beth Groffaerts, was a native. The master painter obtained 
 the freedom of Brussels, and we find him in April, 1435, 
 established in that city, now possessing additional impor- 
 tance from the residence there of the court of Burgundy, 
 and before the month of May, 1466, he had been there] 
 appointed to the office of town painter. About the same 
 date he received a commission from the municipality to 
 adorn the [partially- completed] town-hall with paintings, 
 and executed for this purpose four large paintings, setting 
 forth the virtues of justice and truth. The legend of 
 Herli-enbald the Magnificent, a just judge of Brussels, in 
 the eleventh century, who cut off his beloved nephew's 
 head with his own hand rather than allow an invasion of 
 the law ; the Emperor Trajan halting at the head of his 
 army to hear the complaint of a poor widow ; Pope Gregory 
 contemplating the remains of Trajan, namely, his tongue 
 which " never told a lie " ; — were the themes chosen by- 
 the painter, and his paintings were for more than two 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 287 
 
 centuries the glory of Brussels, no traveller passing through 
 the city without paying a visit to the Hotel de Ville to 
 behold them. It is supposed that they were destroyed by 
 the French when they besieged Brussels in 1695, but the 
 painter's compositions are not entirely lost, for, frequently 
 rei)roduced in tapestry at the time, in that form they exist 
 still at the Cathedral of Berne, where are preserved three 
 magnificent pieces of arras taken by the Swiss from the 
 Burgundian tents at Morat and Granson in 1476.^ 
 
 Nothing is known of Koger's early life, but the celerity 
 with which he attained such perfection in his art as to 
 induce the magistrate of Brussels to appoint him painter 
 in ordinary (pourtraictenr) to that city, seems to imply 
 some previous artistic education. It is most probable, 
 judging from his manner, that he had attained skill in 
 tinting the statuary, for which Tournay was noted, before 
 entering upon his five years' apprenticeship to painting in 
 Campin's workshop. Such work was done later on in his 
 own workshop in Brussels, if not actually by his own 
 hand, for in 1439 he was paid for tinting a sculptured 
 altar-piece which Philip the Good presented to a church in 
 the city.] 
 
 The Chancellor Rollin, for whom Jan Van Eyck painted 
 the Madonna in the Louvre, was likewise a patron of 
 Rogier Vander Weyden. In 1443 this noble man founded 
 a hospital at Beaune, in Burgundy, and employed Yander 
 Weyden to i3aint its altar-piece. This work is usually 
 reckoned his masterpiece, and is the largest work of the 
 early Flemish school extant.^ It represents the Last Judg- 
 ment, and different scenes of that great event are depicted 
 on the numerous panels that make up the whole. In the 
 centre the Saviour is seated on a rainbow, with his feet 
 resting on the earth, whilst beneath him stands the Arch- 
 angel Michael weighing the souls of men in his balance. 
 The Resurrection of the Just on one side, and of the 
 Wicked on the other, forms the subject of the side panels, 
 the just taking their way to the portal of heaven, a gothic 
 door-way on the extreme right ; while the wicked are 
 
 [' Pinchart, " R. Vander "Weyden et les Tapisseries de Berne."] 
 [• Eighteen feet broad, and seven to eight feet high. In nine panels. 
 Vide Crowe and Cavalcaselle, " Early Flemish Painters."] 
 
238 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 thrown, on the extreme left, into the flames of hell, where 
 their bodies are seen suffering hideous contortion and agony. 
 
 On the outer panels of this altar-piece are two noble 
 figures of S. Sebastian and S. Anthony, as well as the 
 tneeling figures of the donor, Rollin, and his wife, painted 
 with all the faithful reality of early Flemish art.^ 
 
 An Adoration of the Magi, in the Pinakothek, at Munich, 
 is another of Yander Weyden's grand compositions. The 
 foremost of the Magi, who kneels, kissing the hand of the 
 Infant Saviour, is said to be a portrait of Philippe le Bon. 
 A Flemish town, with its quaint streets, towers, spires, and 
 houses, forms the background of the holy scene. [A work 
 that became as popular as the townhall pictures, to judge 
 by the number of repetitions of it extant, is a large com • 
 position painted in 1440 for a church without the walls of 
 Louvain, The Descent from the Cross, ^ now in the Museum 
 at Madrid (No. 1,046), whither it was sent by Mary of 
 Hungary.^ This picture exhibits pre-eminently the peculiar 
 characteristics of Vander Weyden's art, intense religious 
 feeling, with the sorrowful side of religious history ex- 
 pressed in dramatic gesture and expression, often exagge- 
 rated to contortion. A member of the Painters' G-uilds of 
 Tournay, Brussels, Louvain, and Bruges, engaged in the 
 service of citizens rather than of princes, Yander Weyden 
 was not uninfluenced by the popular taste of the time, which 
 was stirred by a zeal for moral reform that laid the first 
 seeds for the great Puritan outbreak of the next century.] 
 
 The most charming of his works in the Pinakothek, a 
 picture of S. Luke painting the Yirgin, was for a long time 
 attributed to Jan Yan Eyck; and truly the noble and 
 thoughtful figure of S. Luke might have been painted by 
 Jan Yan Eyck at his period of highest attainment. It is 
 one of the most expressive portrait figures in Flemish art, 
 and loses none of its merit from its having evidently been 
 painted from some holy pensive brother of Yander Wey- 
 den's acquaintance. We can imagine Fra Angelico with 
 an expression such as this. The landscape background is 
 remarkably like that of the Eollin Yirgin and Child in the 
 
 ^ An outline illustration of this altai'-piece is given in Kugler and 
 Waagen's Handbook. German, Flemish, and Dutch Schools. 
 '^ [ Fi(k Forster's '•' Denkmiiler." j ^ [IbicL] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 289 
 
 Louvre; Vander Weyden [may], indeed, have had that 
 work in his remembrance when he painted it. The colour 
 is soft, lovely, and of pure harmony, resembling Jan's 
 brilliant notes, rather than the deeper chords of Hubert ; 
 its hard outlines, angular draperies, and meagre Child, 
 however, proclaim it the work of the pupil rather than the 
 master. 
 
 Vander Weyden was, probably, the first Flemish painter 
 who journeyed to Italy, a journey which his successors, as 
 we shall see, rarely undertook without bad results ; it does 
 not seem, however, to have produced any perceptible change 
 in his style of painting. He was at Rome in the year of 
 Jubilee, 1450 [having first visited Ferrara, where he painted, 
 early in 1449, a triptych, of which a portion now hangs in 
 the Uffizi at Florence, containing a portrait of Lionel 
 d'Este. A picture in the Staedel, Frankfort (66), painted 
 for Cosmo de Medici about this time, seems to point to a 
 stay in Florence during Roger's Italian sojourn, but the 
 constant commercial intercourse between Italy and Flanders 
 had already spread the fame of Flemish art in the Penin- 
 sula, and a picture at Bologna appears to have been painted 
 for the Duke of Milan before this date.] ^ He died on the 
 16th of June, 1464, and was buried in the Church of S. 
 Gudule, as the register of burials states, " before S. Cathe- 
 rine's altar, under a blue stone." ^ [Of his three sons, Pieteb, 
 a painter (1437-1514 ?), had a son, Goswin (1465-1538), a 
 painter also, whose son Roger is called Roger Vander 
 Weyden the Younger. No known works of these three 
 painters exist, though there are several admirable paintings 
 in the National Gallery ascribed to Roger the Younger, 
 who died between 1537 and 1543.] 
 
 Hans Memling, Memlinc, or Memmelinghe (died 
 1494), was probably the pupil of Rogier Vander Weyden 
 [before settling in Bruges in 1477-78.] His works have 
 less force of mind than those of Vander Weyden, but more 
 beauty and grace. Grace and beauty, with great tender- 
 ness of feeling, are the qualities he added to the school of 
 
 ^ [ ride Crowe and Cavalcaselle, " Lives of Flemish Painters," p. 207, 
 et seq.] 
 
 ^ Van Mander says lie was the first artist who painted on fixed 
 canvas, instead of on panels, for the decoration of rooms. 
 
 U 
 
290 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 Bruges. His outlines are softer, his draperies more flow- 
 ing, and liis Virgins mucli more beautiful than those of his 
 sup230sed master ; he was, in fact, to some extent, an ideal 
 l^ainter, whereas Van Eyck and Vander Weyden were 
 faithful realists. The place and time of his birth have not 
 yet been satisfactorily ascertained, and we have little in- 
 formation about his life. But what history has neglected 
 to tell us is partly made up by tradition, which relates that 
 after the disastrous battle of Nancy, in which the proud 
 hopes of Charles the Bold were finally crushed, a poor, 
 wayworn soldier found his way back to Bruges, and fell, 
 sinking from exhaustion, at the gates of the Hospital of 
 St. John, where he was taken in by the brethren, and 
 nursed back to health and strength. On his recovery he 
 asked for paints and brushes, and left, as a lasting memo- 
 rial of his gratitude, the figure of the Sibyl Zambeth on 
 the walls of the Hospital. Unfortunately, a few stem 
 facts contradict this pretty story. It is unlikely that 
 Memling was ever a soldier, and the Sibyl Zambeth, [dated 
 1480, is the portrait of Maria Moreel, second daughter of 
 William Moreel, the sturdy burgomaster of Bruges in 
 1478 and until 1483, and of his wife Barbara Ylaender- 
 berch, whose portraits, painted at the same time and in 
 the same manner (not Memling's best), were formerly with 
 the Sybil in the hospital of S. Julian, and are now in the 
 Brussels Museum. He was, moreover, a comfortable citizen 
 at this time, married, with three children ; he had property 
 in houses, which ranked him amongst the "notables" of 
 the city. An old writer, Yan Yaernewyck, calls Memling 
 " Duytschen Hans," and it is possible that he was one of 
 the many strangers who came to learn in the Flemish 
 schools, and adopted a country so favourable to his pro- 
 fession].^ 
 
 The Hospital of St. John possesses, besides the Sibyl, 
 three other of Memling's finest works, namely, the Marriage 
 of the Yirgin, the Adoration of the Magi, and the lovely 
 paintings of the Chasse or Ryve of St. Ursula. 
 
 This last work was [finished the 24th October of the 
 year 1489], and Passavant has discovered from some docu- 
 
 1 [\V. H. J Weale, '•' Bcffrui," ii.] 
 
BOOK VII. J PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 291 
 
 ments in the hospital,^ that in 1480 Memling made two 
 journeys to Cologne, the place of S. Ursula's martyrdom, 
 the funds for these journeys being supplied by Adrian 
 Reims, the superior of the Hospital of S. John, who com- 
 missioned him to adorn the shrine. The influence of these 
 journeys to Cologne is clearly visible in this work. Rhine- 
 land views, evidently painted from nature, form the land- 
 scape backgrounds of the various scenes in the life of the 
 saint, who is represented with her attendant virgins. These 
 are eleven, or eleven thousand, in number, according to the 
 faith of the narrator of the legend. Memling, for obvious 
 reasons, chose the smaller number, and told the pathetic 
 history of the British princess and martyr in an exquisite 
 series of little painted poems on her shrine. The shrine 
 itself, a rich gothic ark, is only about four feet in length, 
 so that Memling's paintings on it are little more than 
 miniatures, but they are painted with such feeling and 
 delicacy, and the colour is so soft and lovely, that they 
 rank among the most important of his works. 
 
 One of his few faults was representing too many incidents 
 
 in one painting. He sought to give dramatic effect by 
 
 crowding a number of acts into one scene, but by this 
 
 means often marred the unity of his conceptions. This 
 
 defect of judgment is especially visible in a picture in the 
 
 Pinakothek at Munich, called the Seven Joys of the 
 
 Virgin. Here the central idea of the woman whom " all 
 
 generations shall call blessed," is lost in the maze of detail 
 
 with which the painter has surrounded her history. The 
 
 Bye gets fatigued in contemplating this picture, and the 
 
 tnind refuses to follow the artist's meaning. Yet, taken 
 
 separately, each little incident in the drama has an interest 
 
 [)f its own, and each is so perfectly painted, that it seems 
 
 angrateful to grumble at the artist for having given us too 
 
 oauch of such exquisite work. 
 
 Memling's Madonnas have a wonderful charm; they 
 
 ' li]>proach, in fact, more nearly to ideal beauty than those 
 
 )f any other Flemish master, for the later masters who 
 
 itrained after the Italian ideal missed it, from the very 
 
 jtrain they put forth, whilst Memling attained to it by his 
 
 )wn inherently poetical nature. 
 
 » *' Kunst-blatt," 1813. 
 
292 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 The Virgin, with the donor and S. George (No. 686), of 
 the National Collection, is a lovely example of his manner 
 in this class of subjects. The calm evening landscape is 
 especially beautiful. 
 
 There are more paintings in existence by Memling than 
 by any other master of the School of Bruges. Kathgeber, 
 indeed, enumerates a hundred, but many of these are 
 doubtful. On the other hand, many that he does not 
 enumerate, probably belong to him. 
 
 He appears [after 1477] to have resided principally at 
 Bruges, and possessed a house there in the Rue S. George, 
 so he could not have been so poor as tradition has made 
 bim out. In fact, he was in his later life a man of pro- 
 perty [owning three houses, and ground beside], and in 
 1480 he contributed to a loan raised for the Emperor 
 Maximilian in Bruges. He died in [the first quarter of 
 1494]. 
 
 [The most important follower of Memling was Gerard 
 (or Gheeraert) David, bom at Oudewater, in Holland, 
 about the year 1460. In 1483 he was settled in Bi-uges, 
 where he resided, an honoured citizen and industrious 
 painter, until his death in 1623. In 1488, after the execu- 
 tion of the unjust judges of Bruges, their successors, 
 minded like the magistrates of Brussels and of Louvain 
 before them, to keep the honour of their office in lively re- 
 membrance, commissioned Gerard David to paint two pic- 
 tures for their council chamber, the subject — viz.. The 
 Judgment of Cambyses and The Flaying of the Venal 
 Judge Sissamnes — being duly chosen from Herodotus. 
 Completed in 1498, they are now in the Academy at 
 Bruges. " They are painted vigorously in brownish tone, 
 and with admirable finish." The Baptism of Christ in the 
 same gallery, until lately attributed to Memling, was 
 painted in 1508 for a Bruges magistrate, Jean de Trompes, 
 and is remarkable for its brilliant and truthful execution 
 and minute accuracy of detail. The landscape background 
 is particularly beautiful, distinguished by truthful per- 
 spective and delicate aerial gradations, that have earned 
 him the name of father of landscape. His influence is 
 plainly seen in the works of Patinir and Henrick Metten 
 Bles, the first to subordinate figures to landscape. There is 
 
BOOK VII,] PAIXTINO IN THE NETHERLANDS. 293 
 
 a very fine picture by him in the National Gallery (No. 
 1045). 
 
 Gerard was a member of the Society of Illuminators and 
 Printers, as well as dean of the Painters' Guild of Bruges. 
 Van Mander speaks of his excellent illuminations. Some 
 of the miniatures in the Grimani MS. at Venice are attri- 
 buted to him, and two miniatures in Bruges Academy 
 testify to his skill. Gerard was a faithful son of the 
 Church ; he worked gratis for the nuns of the Carmelite 
 convent of Sion, and presented them with the high altar- 
 piece of the Virgin with Female Saints, now at Eouen, in 
 which two of the faces are said to be " the most beautiful 
 that the Flemish School has realized." 
 
 A school of painting seems to have existed at an early 
 date at Haarlem, founded by Albert Van Oudewater, a 
 contemporary of Rogier Van der Weyden. The paintings 
 of this master were conspicuous, it is said, for the excel- 
 lence of their landscape, but none of them remain. 
 
 Gheerardt of Sint Jans or of Haarlem was a pupil of 
 Oudewater' s, according to Van Mander, and several pic- 
 tures are assigned to him by critics — two wings of an altar- 
 piece in the Belvedere at Vienna (Nos. 58 and 60) — with 
 seeming good reason.^ It is sought to identify him with 
 Gerard David, of Oudewater. 
 
 Van Mander praises highly the landscape backgrounds 
 of Albert and of his pupil, "Httle Gheerardt," or " Gerrit;" 
 the latter, he says, died at the age of twenty-eight, and 
 lived with the knights hospitallers of S. John, though not of 
 their order. He gives no date. The pictures ascribed to 
 Gheerardt are so Flemish in style — seeming to have derived 
 their inspiration from Bruges — that they, with later pro- 
 ductions of Dutchmen working in the schools of Louvain 
 and Antwerp, must be reckoned with the work of Flemings, 
 as totally apart from the later Dutch School proper. 
 
 DiERicK Bouts, formerly confounded with the Louvain 
 family of painters, the Stuerbouts, was born at Haarlem, 
 in 1399 or 1400. He appears to have established himself 
 at Louvain about 1442, residing there until his death, on 
 the 6th of May, 1475. In 1448 the Town Hall of Louvain 
 
 • [Vide Crowe and Cavalcaselle, *' Early Flemish Fainter.s,' and 
 Ilyman's " Livre des Feiutres de Van Mander."] 
 
294 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 was "begun building. For some years previously, and until 
 sixteen years later, when that marvel of Gothic ornament 
 was completed, the ancient capital of Brabant teemed with 
 active artistic life and endeavour. The great master, 
 Eoger van der Weyden, had painted there in 1440-1443, and 
 maybe that Dierick Bouts came to see the master's work, if 
 not to study in his workshop. The imposing dignity and 
 gravity of l)ierick's creations are allied to the earnest 
 melancholy of Van der Weyden' s, though a thicker impasto, 
 and greater mastery over the oil-medium, as well as a 
 certain delicacy of the female faces in Bouts' works, have, 
 in the absence of positive knowledge, caused them to be 
 ascribed to Memling, rather than to him who may be re- 
 garded as the master of both artists. In 1466-1468 Dierick 
 painted for the Brotherhood of the Holy Sacrament a trip- 
 tych of the Last Supper, in the background of which he has 
 represented himself as servant, and four other onlookers, 
 which are, according to recent investigations, portraits of 
 the " vmders," or counsellors of the corporation — portraits 
 which " remind us of the models of John van Eyck," ^ and 
 still more of those of Quentin Massys. This triptych still 
 hangs in the chapel in St. Peter's, for which it was painted; 
 but of the four panels that formed the wings, two — The 
 Meeting of Abraham and Melchisedek and The G-athering 
 of Manna — are at Munich, the other two — Elijah in the 
 Desert and The Feast of the Passover — are in the Berlin 
 Museum. The grouping of The Last Supper is original ; 
 the faces exhibit a studied variety of expression. The 
 Christ is of pleasing and refined type, the whole painted 
 with a conscientious, reverent dignity that is altogether 
 characteristic of Bouts, animated by a force rather moral 
 than religious. The colouring is powerful and harmonious, 
 but, with all minuteness of execution, lacks the tender 
 delicacy of Memling' s. The Martyrdom of S. Erasmus in 
 the same chapel was probably painted before 1466, and is 
 a less disagreeable picture than the subject would promise. 
 The figure of S. Bernard upon one wing is very fine, and 
 the background of the centre panel shows the one tower of 
 S. Peter's, and the vanes of the Town Hall of Louvain, and 
 
 * [Crowe and Cavalcaselle.] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 295 
 
 beyond them the hills of the Kesselberg and Roeselberg, 
 where Bouts possessed a farm and vineyards. In 1468 
 Bouts is mentioned as " pourtraicteur de la ville," and, as 
 town-painter, he received yearly a cloth coat, and money 
 for the lining thereof. He completed his first commission 
 for the Town Hall — a triptych of the Last Judgment (now 
 lost) — in 1473, and, for the further decoration of the 
 council chamber, was ordered to paint four large panels 
 similar in meaning to those that Van der Weyden had 
 executed in the Town HaU of Brussels. A learned man 
 received six florins for selecting a subject illustrating 
 Truth and Justice. The subject chosen was the apocryphal 
 legend of Otho III.] The Empress of Otho, actuated by 
 the same motives as Potiphar's wife, procured not only the 
 imprisonment, but the execution of an innocent Joseph of 
 the court, but Joseph's wife, satisfied of the virtue of her 
 husband, appeared before the Emperor with the murdered 
 man's head in her hand, and proved her innocence by 
 undergoing safely the ordeal of fire, whereupon the guilty 
 Empress was condemned to the flames by her husband. 
 
 [Dierick did not, however, live to fulfil his contract, two 
 panels only (now in the Brussels Museum) being completed 
 at his death. Hugo Yander Goes was sent for from his 
 cloister near Brussels, to decide upon the value of the 
 work done, and he adjudged the heirs three hundred and 
 six out of the five hundred crowns agreed upon. Dierick, 
 despite the respect in which his art was held, did not make 
 a fortune. He owed his comfortable house and gardens, 
 vineyards and farms to his wife, Catherine Metten Gelde, 
 upon whose death he married a well-to-do widow in 
 1473. 
 
 His two daughters had become nuns, and his two sons, 
 Dierick and Albert, were both painters.^ Amongst the 
 notable contemporaries of Bouts in Louvain was Hubert 
 Stuerbottt, whose name long caused confusion to be 
 made l^etween the two painters. Hubert came of an in- 
 dustrious Louvain family of artistic workmen, who turned 
 their hands to every kind of decorative work, from altar- 
 
 [' It is to the researches of Mr. Van Even and M. "Wauters that we 
 owe the small amount of information abodt Dierick Bouts that has been 
 rescued from oblivion.] 
 
296 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [BOOK VII. 
 
 pieces and chasuble patterns, to weather-vanes and Last 
 Judgments for the cemetery gateway. A work showing a 
 popular realistic tendency was a series of 250 Biblical 
 compositions for bas-reliefs on the bases of niches on the 
 Town Hall front, to be executed by a sculptor, Beyart. 
 These designs, roughly as they are executed, show a truth- 
 ful picture of the life, conditions, and costumes of the 
 time. 
 
 G-erard David continued active in Bruges, but] most of 
 the rising artists of the time deserted the school of Bruges, 
 and went over to the more powerful school of Antwerp, 
 which was now becoming important, and which, owing its 
 origin to the [Schools of Louvain, Brussels, and Tournail, 
 developed in a totally different manner to that of Bruges. 
 
 [Jean Peevost, who came from Mons to Bruges in 
 1494, remained there until his death in 1529. Visiting 
 Antwerp, he made the acquaintance of Albert Diirer, 
 whom he afterwards entertained at Bruges in 1521. In 
 1525 he was commissioned to paint for the council chamber 
 of the magistrature the striking picture of the Last Judg- 
 ment, now in the Academy of Bruges. On the curious 
 background of sea and sandy shore groups are embarking 
 on ships of various size, conducted by angels, or driven by 
 demons of grotesque hideousness. These and the con- 
 demned already suffering in the flames, as Mr. Weale 
 says, "rival the inventions of Callot or Breughel" in comic 
 horror. A chariot full of ecclesiastics led to torture was 
 painted over in 1550 by Pieter Pourbus, by command of 
 the magistrates, probably piously mindful of existing 
 ecclesiastical powers. 
 
 Jerome van Aeken, of Bois-le-Duc, from which place 
 he took the surname Bos or Bosch (died 1518), is an artist 
 delighting in weird and grotesque effects, ghostly and de- 
 moniacal subjects, and may in these be regarded as the 
 forerunner of Breughel; but in other respects he bears 
 more resemblance to Lucas Yan Leyden. The Last Judg- 
 ment, Temptation of S. Antony, and Fall of the Damned 
 are favourite subjects for his wild imagination and fan- 
 tastic treatment. M. Wauters mentions several " pictures 
 of very Flemish merry-makings, precursors of the tavern 
 scenes of Brauwer and Jan Steen," and praises his Adora- 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 297 
 
 tion of the Mas^ now at Madrid. No details of his life are 
 known, but he furnished in 1493 designs for glass windows 
 at Bois-le-Duc] 
 
 Chaptee II. 
 THE SCHOOL OF ANTWEEP. 
 
 EARLY SCHOOL OF HOLLAND. 
 QuENTiN Massts — Mabuse — LucAS Van Leyden. 
 
 ALTHOUG-H it is now certain that Qitentin Massys 
 was born at Louvain in the year 1466/ he must never- 
 theless be reckoned as the founder of the School of Ant- 
 werp, rather than as an outcome of the old school of 
 Louvain, in which Dierick Bouts was the only man who 
 rose to any importance. [The School of Antwerp, on the 
 other hand, united the Van Eyck methods of colouring and 
 execution with the qualities of Vander Wey den's art, but 
 was animated by a totally different spirit to that of Bruges 
 or Toumay, and had a far wider aim than either.] 
 
 Quentin Massys' works, especially, are distinguished 
 
 * Antwerp long contended with Louvain for the honour of Quentin 
 Massys' birth, but in 1861 a manuscript work of the learned Louvain 
 doctor, Jean Molanus, was published, which corroborated Guicciardini 
 and other writers in their statement that he was born at Louvain, and in 
 his early life exercised the trade of a blacksmith with much talent in his 
 native town. 
 
 The name of Metsys occurs in the town registry of Louvain ; but this 
 does not prove much, as it likewise occurs frequently in the Antwerp 
 registries. Especially in the archives of Notre Dame, at Antwerp, 
 there is mention made of a certain Jean Metsys, a blacksmith, who 
 executed several works in iron for the church. This might have been a 
 brother of Quentin's, and the beautiful iron tracery ascribed to the 
 painter might have been the work of this Jean. He must likewise have 
 been a clock-maker, for one of the entries records eighteen esculins as 
 having been paid to him annually for keeping the clock of St. Jaques in 
 order {Van der clocken te stellen). Vide "Catalogue of the Antwerp^ ftntt\\ 
 Museum " [and " Ancienne Ecole de Louvain," E. Van EvenX- P \\ \\ uV- *^ 
 
 
 f>AE^'^ 
 
 0? 
 
 av 
 
298 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 from those of the immediate followers of Van Eyck, not 
 only by a greater boldness of style and dramatic effect, but 
 also by the independence of his genius, which stamped with 
 originality everything he undertook. [He is said to have 
 learnt painting from one Master Eoger, of Lou vain, of 
 whom no further record is known. His father, Josse 
 Massys, an ironworker and clockmaker, was settled in Lou- 
 vain in 1459, but probably came originally from Antwerp. 
 Quentin's mother was the daughter of a citizen of Lou vain.] 
 According to the well-known story, Quentin Massys for- 
 sook his first calling of blacksmith from love of a painter's 
 daughter. Her father had refused to bestow her hand on 
 any but a member of his own profession. So the gallant 
 young blacksmith of Louvain turned painter, and won his 
 bride, and a noble fame into the bargain. Thus, as tradi- 
 tion relates, and a tablet set up to his memory in the 
 cathedral records : — 
 
 " Connubialis amor de Mulcibre fecit Apellem." 
 
 [The date of his marriage has not been ascertained, 
 nor whether Alyt Tuylt was of Antwerp or Louvain 
 parentage ; but it] is pleasant to find that this j)retty little 
 narration, which has been long doubted by critics, is in the 
 main really true, so many similar stories about painters 
 having vanished beneath the stern analysis to which recent 
 investigators have submitted the statements of the older 
 art historians. 
 
 [Up to the age of twenty-eight, Quentin worked as 
 journeyman in the smithy still kept by his widowed 
 mother, Catherine Massys.^ In the year 1491, the latter 
 declared her children's majority, and Quentin] was re- 
 ceived into the Brotherhood of S. Luke, at Antwerp, as a 
 free-master " franc-maitre,^^ but he must at that time have 
 been a painter of some note, for a few years only after his 
 reception a medal was struck in his honour. [He did not 
 take up permanent residence in Antwerp until three years 
 later, in 1494, when a division of the maternal family pro- 
 perty was made, and Quentin, with his mother, grand- 
 
 [' According to the vague orthography of the time Quentin's name is 
 spelled variously in the records of the time, and by himself and his 
 children, MassJ^'s, ^Masys, Mase5's, Matsyss, and Metsys.] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 299 
 
 mother, younger brother, and only sister, went to Antwerp, 
 leaving his elder brother, Josse, established in the family 
 liouse and smithy in the Rue Chateau, Louvain. Quentin 
 was received with honours in the flourishing city of the 
 Schelde. Pupils flocked to him, his school became a large 
 one,] and attracted painters to Antwerp from all the towns 
 of the Netherlands, in the same way as they had before 
 been attracted to Bruges [and Louvain]. 
 
 We can readily believe Van Mander when he tells us 
 that Massys, besides being a painter and a good musician, 
 had a great love of letters, for we know that he numbered 
 amongst his friends such men as Erasmus, Sir Thomas 
 More, and Petrus Egidius\ How interesting it would now 
 be if we could learn something of his intercourse with these 
 men. Diirer records in his journal that he went "to 
 Meister Quintine's house," but does not gives us any in- 
 formation about its master. [Quentin lived for many 
 years in the Rue des Tanneurs, and by his industry acquired 
 two other houses ; in one of these he afterwards lived, de- 
 corating the doorway with a coloured figure of S. Quentin, 
 and in 1528 he painted one of the rooms in fresco, a gallery 
 of musicians with flutes, in colour, and all round the columns 
 foliage and sporting amoretti in grisaille.] 
 
 The great altar-piece of the Entombment, now in the 
 Antwerp Gallery, is usually reckoned his master- work. 
 This picture was painted in 1508, in the full vigour of the 
 artist's powers, and exhibits in a striking manner the in- 
 dependent characteristics of his genius. Instead of the 
 delicate miniature painting of Memling, we here have 
 figures nearly the size of life, painted with a power and 
 reality that forcibly impress the mind of the beholder.' 
 
 A strange element of grotesque humour and tendency to 
 caricature crops up in many of Massys' works. It is diffe- 
 rent to the fantastic spirit of early German art, but corre- 
 sponds somewhat with the love of the grotesque evinced by 
 the early Norman sculptors. Often in an earnest impres- 
 
 ' [The portraits of Erasmus and Egidius, Quentin painted upon a panel 
 as a diptych, as a present from Erasmus to More.] 
 
 * [In their solemnity and dignity presenting some characteristics of 
 ])iHrick IJouts's work, which Quentin must have had full opportunity- of 
 studying from his earliest childhood in Louvain.] 
 
300 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 sive representation by him of a solemn event we are moved 
 to a smile by some incongruous bead or feature. 
 
 The Entombment of Christ was painted by Massys as an 
 altarpiece for the chapel of the Gruild of Antwerp Joiners 
 in the Cathderal. He was to receive in payment for it 300 
 florins, equal to about .£25, but even this small sum was 
 not to be paid all at once, but in three parts, and was after- 
 wards commuted into a payment of the interest to two of 
 his children. The Joiners, however, knew how to prize 
 their altar-piece, for we find that they refused enormous 
 sums for it from Philip II. of Spain, and Elizabeth of 
 England, both of whom coveted its possession. However, 
 becoming poorer, they sold it in 1580 to the magistracy of 
 Antwerp for 1500 florins, and, after various changes of 
 place, it has now found its proper position in the Antwerp 
 Grallery. 
 
 Besides his religious paintings, Quentin Massys was 
 celebrated for what may be called his money-pieces. A 
 great many pictures of this class that pass with his name 
 were really painted by his son, and by other copyists of his 
 style ; and his admirable representations of subjects of this 
 kind evidently induced a taste for them amongst wealthy 
 purchasers, and led to the frequent repetitions that we 
 meet with of " Quentin Massys' Misers." The Banker and 
 his Wife in the Louvre, and the so-called Misers of 
 Windsor Castle, are the most noteworthy examples of this 
 class. ^ 
 
 His half-length figures of Christ and the Virgin seem 
 also to have been greatly esteemed, for we usually find 
 several repetitions of them. The Salvator Mundl and 
 Virgin Mary (No. 295), of the National Gallery, is pro- 
 bably a copy, but may stand as an example of these power- 
 fully conceived figures. His female faces are seldom beau- 
 tiful ; in many cases, indeed, they are positively ugly. His 
 outlines are hard, and his colouring lacks the refined 
 beauty of the Bruges masters. 
 
 In the Ufiizi G-allery at Florence there is a portrait (1 
 Quentin Massys and his second wife, Catherine Heyens. 
 dated 1520. His first wife, the painter's daughter, Ade- 
 
 \} The latter is now ascribed to Marinus of Romevswalen, as is also 
 a bimilar picture in the National Gallery, No. 944.] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 301 
 
 laide Van Tuylt, died in 1507, and in 1508 he married 
 again. He had six children by his first wife, and seven by 
 his second. [Of his seven sons Jan is said to have painted 
 in liis father's style, and small works by his hand were 
 " esteemed like precious jewels," but signed works of his 
 that remain are powerfully drawn, large compositions in 
 Florentine style. (Brussels and Antwerp.) A younger 
 son, Cornelius, was also a painter.] Another Quentin 
 Massys, probably a grandson, is mentioned as having been 
 received into the Antwerp Guild in 1574 as " fiU de 
 maitre." 
 
 Quentin lived to a good old age, dying in 1530. His 
 successors very soon departed from his vigorous style of 
 painting, and fell into weakness and imitation. 
 
 [The most powerful and original of these was Marinus 
 Claeszoon of Romerswalen in Zealand (1497, died 
 after 1566). He painted chiefly " money pieces," variations 
 upon the theme given by Quentin Massys in his Miser of 
 the Louvre, and so thoroughly in that master's manner, 
 that all such panels were ascribed to the latter or his son 
 Jan until the recent discovery of Marinus' dated signature 
 upon some of the best of them. Marinus was concerned 
 in the iconoclastic riots in Middleburgh in 1566. 
 
 Jan Sanders, surnamed Van Hemessen, from the place 
 of his birth, worked in Antwerp from 1524 to 1548. An 
 imitator of Quentin Massys, Itahan influence is discernible 
 in some of his works, but his manner is coarse, his colour- 
 ing hard and brown, and his types exaggerated. His 
 daughter Catherine painted in the service of Mary of 
 Hungary in Spain.] 
 
 Jan GrossAERT, or Mabuse, as he is called from the place 
 of his birth, Maubefge (bom about 1470),^ was the first 
 flemish painter who felt the influence of the Italian Renais- 
 sance. It cannot be much wondered at that the quiet 
 realistic painters of Flanders should have been dazzled by 
 T he glory of the art of the sixteenth century in Italy, and 
 that they should have deserted their old traditions and 
 teachers to follow such masters as Leonardo, Michael 
 
 ' Some writers derive tliis name form a Latin word Mabimtis, signi- 
 fying the bourgeois of a Flemish town, but this interpi*etation seems far- 
 fetched. 
 
302 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 Angelo, and Raphael ; but by so doing, they undermined 
 the homely national structure of Flemish art, and did not 
 succeed in building up in its place either an Italian palace 
 or a classic temple. 
 
 It would seem probable that Mabuse studied in the 
 school of Quentin Massys, but we have no information 
 about his early life. His early pictures, however, are all 
 painted in the old Flemish manner, and have a power of 
 colour, and mastery of execution that no master of his 
 school, not even Quentin Massys has excelled. He was 
 undoubtedly a great Flemish painter, but unfortunately he 
 tried to be a great Italian painter, and in this he failed 
 miserably. A journey to Italy ruined him, as it has ruined 
 so many good national painters since. This journey was 
 undertaken about the year 1513, in the suite of his patron 
 the prelate, Philippe of Burgundy, natural son of Philippe 
 le Bon, who being sent by the Em23eror Maximilian on a 
 mission to the Pope, took Mabuse with him, and employed 
 him in copying the remains of ancient art in Eome. He 
 likewise spent much time in studying the works of Leonardo 
 ind Michael Angelo. What better training, it will be said, 
 could a young artist have ? None, if his mind is strong 
 ind original enough to stand it, and if he is wise enough to 
 turn afterwards to nature as his guide, and to drink in her 
 teachings from the fountain head, and not as filtered 
 through other minds. But Mabuse was not a young artist 
 when he went to Italy, and he had a national and individual 
 style of his own at the time, which he gave up to adopt 
 that of the Italians. On returning to Flanders, he indulged 
 in allegory, mythology, and the nude, departing utterly 
 from the old Flemish realism and propriety. He was, 
 however, too good a painter for his representations of such 
 subjects, even as Jupiter and Danae, or Neptune and 
 Amphitrite, to be utterly worthless. [On his return from 
 Italy, he resided at Utrecht, painting and teaching, still 
 under the protection of Philippe of Burgundy.] 
 
 Two pictures in the Antwerp Museum, the Four Maries 
 returning from the tomb of Christ, and the Upright Judges, 
 may be taken as examples of his first or Flemish manner, 
 while a magnificent triptych at Brussels, of Christ in the 
 house of Simon, weakly resembling one of the gorgeous 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 303 
 
 banqueting scenes of Paolo Veronese, is a good specimen of 
 Ids Italian style. 
 
 The Munich Gallery also affords students an excellent 
 opportunity of judging of his two styles, a noble figure of 
 the Archangel Michael, protecting a solemn Flemish donor 
 (the side wing of an altar-piece), standing for his native 
 art, and Danae in the G-olden Shower, and a beautiful 
 Virgin and Child, for his borrowed style. This last, how- 
 ever, is a most charming work, nearly approaching the 
 Italian masters in grace and beauty. It represents, it is 
 said, the wife and son of the Marquis Van Veeren, who was 
 IMabuse's ^ great patron after the death of Philippe of 
 Burgundy. 
 
 It appears probable that Van Mander was correct in 
 saying that Mabuse was in England at some period of his 
 life, but strange to say no record of his stay here can be 
 found. The admirable painting by him at Hampton Court, 
 of three children, long imagined to be the children of 
 Henry VIII., led to the supposition that he was in this 
 country during the reign of that monarch, but that evidence 
 was upset by the discovery that the portraits were those of 
 the children of Christian II., King of Denmark. They are 
 described in an inventory of the pictures of Henry VIII. 
 as " a table with the pictures of the three children of the 
 Kynge of Denmarke, with a curteyne of white and yellowe 
 sarcenette paned together." ^ 
 
 ' An amusing story is told of Mabuse whilst in the service of this 
 nobleman, which certainly, if true, corroborates the careless, jovial 
 character usually ascribed to him. The Emperor Charles V. was ex- 
 pected to visit the marquis, and in order to do honour to his imperial 
 visitor, Van Vet-ren ordered all the officei*s of his household to be clothed 
 in white damask for the occasion. When the tailor came with the 
 damask to measure the painter, the latter begged to be intrusted witli 
 tlie stuff to make up in his own fashion. Having thus gained possession 
 of the costly material, he at once proceeded to sell it, spending the price 
 he received at the nearest tavern. When the day arrived, however, 
 Mabuse appeared with the rest in a dazzling white robe, the splendour of 
 which amazed all beholdei's, and finally drew the notice of the empenn* 
 himself, who requested the wearer to approach nearer, in order that he 
 might examine its peculiar texture. Only then was it found out to be 
 made of pajjcr, painted by Mabuse to imitate damask. This ingenious 
 trick caused the emperor more amusement, we are told, than any of the 
 other efforts made to entertain him. 
 
 ^ This picture is reckoned the earliest of his authentic works. 
 
804 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [BOOK VII. 
 
 Mabuse died at Antwerp, in 1532, and not in the prison 
 of Middleburg, as is stated by his early biographers ; [he 
 left, moreover, ample provision for his wife and children. 
 One of his finest pictures, The Adoration of the King, is at 
 Castle Howard]. 
 
 [Jean Bellegambe, of Douai, was closely allied to G-os- 
 saert in art. His altar-piece, The Adoration of the Trinity, 
 now in Notre Dame of Douai, was painted in 1520, for the 
 Monastery of Anchin. It is rich in colouring, of sumptuous 
 design, but flabby in execution, a characteristic work of 
 this transition period. His son and grandson were painters. 
 Lancelot Blondeel's works are distinguished for their 
 richly gilt architectural backgrounds. Mason, architect, 
 and engineer, he frequently signed a trowel beside his 
 name. He designed the chimney-mantel of the Franc de 
 Bruges, and in 1550, together with Jan Scorel, he restored 
 Jan van Eyck's Agnus Dei. Born at Poperinghe in 1496, 
 he lived much at Bruges, and died in 1561.^ Jan Mostert, 
 bom in 1474 at Haarlem, was, however, a thoroughly 
 Flemish painter, and spent some eighteen years in the ser- 
 vice of Margaret of Austria, painting all the principal per- 
 sonages of her court. His delicately beautiful landscape 
 backgrounds are praised,^ but none of the works ascribed 
 to him are authenticated. He died in 1555 or 1556. Pieter 
 PoRBUS, the elder, who, coming from Grouda, settled in 
 Bruges in 1540, painted sacred subjects in the old Flemish 
 manner, though with some traces of renaissance in the 
 accessories. His Adoration of the Magi in Notre Dame, at 
 Bruges, is very beautiful, and of delicate execution and 
 colouring, less powerful than his portraits. He died 
 1584.] 
 
 Bernard Yan Orley, or Bernard Yan Brussel (about 
 1490-1542), was one of a family of artists, likewise a leader 
 in the unfortunate revolution which overthrew the Yan 
 Eyck succession, and set up a foreign rule in the Nether- 
 lands. Mabuse seems at times to have felt some compunc- 
 tion for his desertion of the national school, and he always 
 remained faithful to it in strength of colour and careful 
 
 [^ Wauters, " La Peinture Flamande."] 
 
 I' Hy man's '•' Le Livre des reintres de Van Mander," and Havard, 
 " La peintiu'e Hollandaise."] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 305 
 
 execution ; but Yan Orley carefully threw over all the old 
 Flemish traditions, and, although he still painted religious 
 subjects, painted them with lukewarm faith and feeble 
 interest. His colouring, also, is sadly degenerate from that 
 of Van Eyck, Vander Weyden, and Quentin Massys. It is 
 cold and yet gaudy, with grating discords in it that are all 
 the more painful after the deep harmonies of his predeces- 
 sors. The superficial brilliancy of some of his paintings, it 
 is supposed, was gained by painting on a gold ground, but 
 even by this means he never arrived at the beauty of colour 
 that was inherent in the older Flemish masters. He 
 studied form, it is true, far more than the Bruges masters, 
 and his drawing is generally skilful, but he had no innate 
 feeling for the beauty of form, and only gained it by work- 
 ing under Raphael, whose manner he imitated as success- 
 fully, perhaps, as many of the Italian mannerists. 
 
 He and Michael Coxcien superintended the manufacture 
 in the Netherlands of the tapestries from the Raphael car- 
 toons, and it must be owned that with such works as these 
 constantly before them, it would have needed powerfully 
 original minds to resist the influence of the great master. "^ 
 We can scarcely wonder, indeed, at feeble painters who 
 never felt the promptings of independent genius, prostrat- 
 ing themselves utterly before the spirit of Raphael. Such 
 men must have some one to bow before and imitate. It is 
 only given to a great master now and then to create and 
 originate; the rest can only follow in the path he has 
 marked out. 
 
 Some followers, however, as we have seen in Italian art, 
 imbibe the spirit of the creating master, and although 
 keeping within his path, walk farther and see wider views 
 than he ; whilst others step servilely in his footsteps, 
 imitating his manner, but not guided by his spirit. 
 
 The " Italianisers of Antwerp " were of the latter class. 
 They understood nothing of the soul of Italian art ; they 
 had no feeling for beauty, no true comprehension of form, 
 and their attempts to express these qualities in their works 
 
 P Miintz says of his tapestries in the Louvre, " Les belles chasses de 
 Guyx," — "They are historic documents, the toix>graphy is of prodigious 
 exactitude, reproducing tvpes, costumes, portraits, and backgrounds of 
 the forest where Charles V. hunted."] 
 
 Z 
 
306 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK YII. 
 
 were pitiably unsuccessful, and wliat is worse, were made at 
 the sacrifice of their own national qualities of colour and 
 execution. 
 
 Diirer met Van Orley at Brussels, at the court of Mar- 
 garet the Eegent of the Netherlands, and records that 
 *' Maister Bernhart " invited him to such a " costly meal as 
 could not be paid for with ten florins ! " 
 
 Michael Coxcien, or Van Coxcten (1499-1592), was 
 the pupil of Van Orley, and imitated his master's imita- 
 tions. He has been styled " the Flemish Raphael " by his 
 admirers, but we might more appropriately use the title in 
 Bcoff. He is, in fact, Raphael many times diluted, and 
 with a slight addition of Flemish vulgarity in the weak 
 liquid. 
 
 Perhaps the best, certainly the most pleasing work he 
 ever accomplished was a copy of the Mystic Lamb of St. 
 Bavon, which he executed for his patron, Philip II. of 
 Spain. It took him two years to paint, and was very faith- 
 fully rendered. 
 
 Michael Coxcien was the son of a painter of the same 
 name, but of whose works nothing is known, and was bom 
 at Malines. His son, Raphael Coxcien, was admitted into 
 the Antwerp G-uild in 1585. 
 
 Jan Schoreel ^ (bom at Schoorl, in Holland, 1495, died 
 1562) [was apprenticed, in 1509, to William Comeliszoon 
 at Haarlem. Whilst working for this master, he spent his 
 leisure in zealous study of nature in the woods without the 
 town. At the close of three years, he wandered as journey- 
 man to Amsterdam, where he worked under the genial 
 painter Jacob Corneliszoon, of Oost-Zaandam, thence to 
 Utrecht, where Mabuse taught him, and probably in- 
 duced him to undertake the journey to Italy. Schoreel 
 travelled by way of Cologne, Spiers, Strasburg, and Basle, 
 working in each city as painter, architect, or engineer. He 
 stayed at Nuremberg to greet Albert Diirer, and arrived in 
 Venice when Titian was in the height of his glory. He was 
 here induced to join a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where he 
 entered the brotherhood of Knights of the Holy Sepulchre. 
 The portraits he painted of tliis fraternity are to be seen at 
 
 [^ Also called Scorel or Schoorl.] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 307 
 
 Haarlem and Utrecht, and, with others, show him a worthy 
 master of Antonio Moro. Jle was at Rhodes in 1520, made 
 the tour of Italy, and arriving in Rome, was induced tc 
 settle there by Adrian VI., who] made him overseer of the 
 art treasures of the Vatican ; but on the death of Adrian 
 he returned to his own country, and was made prebend of 
 the church of St. Mary in Utrecht, in which town he re- 
 sided until his death. 
 
 [A more original painter than Van Orley, or Coxcien, his 
 colouring is more vigorous ; some of his portraits have been 
 attributed to Holbein. His finest work is the recently dis- 
 covered altar-piece of Obervellach, in Styria, painted in 
 1520.^ He should be more j^roperly included in the early 
 Dutch school.] 
 
 He is said to have been a most accomplished man, to 
 have spoken five different languages, and to have been a 
 poet and musician as well as a painter. 
 
 The painting (No. 720) of the National Gallery, the Re- 
 pose in Egypt, with St. Joseph offering a plate of fruit to 
 the Saviour, is ascribed to him. 
 
 His earUer works, which are more German in style, often 
 pass by the name of Diirer. 
 
 Lambert Lombard (1505-1566), was another artist who 
 was ruined by an early visit to Italy. He went thither in 
 1540 in the suite of Cardinal Pole, and made the acquaint- 
 ance of Andrea del Sarto. 
 
 Lambert Lombard, more than any other, perhaps, spread 
 this Italian taste far and wide in the Netherlands. He had 
 a large school in Liege.^ 
 
 Frans van Vriendt, called Frans Floris (1517-18- 
 1570), was the most notable of Lambert Lombard's scholars, 
 and propagated the teachings of his master to an alarming 
 extent. He had, it is said no less than one hundred and 
 twenty scholars in his school at Antwerp, but we do not 
 find one great artist proceeding from this extensive school. 
 
 ' [ Fide Justi's article in the Jahrbuch der Konigliche Kunstsamm- 
 lungen. 1881.] 
 
 ^ A life of Lambert Lombard was wTitten by Dominicus Lampsonius, 
 one of his scholars. It does not, however, give us much information. 
 [Works of his are said to exist in private collections at Libge. No others 
 aro authentic. His style may be judged of by his drawings, which are 
 signed and dated. Vuie Wauters' *• La peinture Flamande."] 
 
303 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII, 
 
 Frans Floris acquired great riches bj Lis facile painting, 
 and was fond of displaying them. He built himself, we 
 are told, a magnificent house in Antwerp, painting the 
 facade with an allegory of the fine arts. Poetry, Labour, 
 Experience, Industry, and Skill being represented by sym- 
 bolical figures. 
 
 The fall of the Angels, in the Antwerp Gallery, is gene- 
 rally reckoned his master- work. 
 
 Amongst later masters of this school the three Breughels, 
 known respectively as Peasant Breughel ^ (1530-69), Heli, 
 Breughel (1564-1638), and Velvet Breughel (1568- 
 1625), from the class of subjects they painted, may be distin- 
 guished. There was a certain amount of original talent in 
 each of these three painters, and their paintings are often 
 full of clever invention. Jan, or Velvet Breughel, in par- 
 ticular, was a painter of considerable dexterity, and his 
 curious representations of fantastic and demoniacal subjects 
 are amusing, at all events, which is a merit that the dreary- 
 mythological canvases and religious genre pictures of his 
 contemporaries do not possess. [Whilst his landscape back- 
 grounds to some of Rubens' pictures are of excellent execu- 
 tion and brilliant colour.] 
 
 From the solemn religious realism of the masters of 
 Bruges, Flemish art had, indeed, fallen when it could ex- 
 press religious events with a vulgarity equal to that of 
 Teniers and the painters of his school, but without any of 
 his redeeming power and execution. 
 
 The portrait painters of this time were, as we often find 
 it to be the case when art is degenerate, far better masters 
 than the subject painters. Indeed, the latter, when they 
 painted portraits, often produced excellent works. It was 
 their taste that was depraved, not their skill of hand that 
 had departed, and taste was less needed in portraits than 
 in mythologies and biblical histories. 
 
 [The portrait painters were for many years the bidwark 
 of the national art against foreign influences. 
 
 Distinguished jn this branch of art were Frans Porbtjs 
 the Elder (1540-84), a pupil of his father, Pieter Porbus, 
 
 \} Peasant Breughel was a good colourist, and his pictures of 
 national gatherings, snow scenes, &c., are well executed and replete with 
 vigdur and fancy, though coarse in expression,] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 309 
 
 and of Frans Moris, a fine colourist. His son, Frans the 
 Younger (1570-1622), -was employed chiefly at the court of 
 France, and was scarcely his father's equal. Martin Vos 
 or De Vos (1513-1603), was considered the best of Floris' 
 puj^ils. Nicholas Neuchatel (at Antwerp, 1539, at Mons, 
 1540, and at Nuremberg before 1561) painted the fine por- 
 trait of a Mathematician and his Son, No. 124 in the 
 Munich Gallery. Adrien Thomas Key, of Breda (1544- 
 90?), painted the triptych in the Antwerp Museum (Nos. 
 228-9-30-1), with the magnificent portraits of the Schmidt 
 family on the wings. Frans Francken the Elder (1544- 
 1616), and GrORTZius G-eldorp, of Louvain. (1533?), were 
 noted.] 
 
 Sir Antonij Moro (1518-1588), is the best known of 
 these portrait painters, especially in England, to which 
 country he was sent by the Emperor Charles Y. to take the 
 portrait of Queen Mary, his son Philip's betrothed wife. 
 Perhaps it was this portrait that first gave Philip such a 
 distaste for his unhappy English wife. Mary, however, 
 with her love of everything belonging to her unkind hus- 
 band, retained Moro as her court painter, and he appears 
 to have remained in England until her death, when he re- 
 turned with Philip to Spain. He finally settled in Brussels 
 imder the protection of the Duke of Alva, [as did likewise 
 a pupil of Lambert Lombard, William Key, of Breda 
 (1520-68), much esteemed for his portraits. That of the 
 Duke of Alva, in Brussels Museum, is assigned to" him. 
 "Whilst painting it, he overheard the order for the execution 
 of Counts Egmont and Hoorn. The shock was so great that 
 the painter went home and died the next day, so it is said.] 
 JoAS Yan Cleve, of Antwerp [(flourished 1530-50), called 
 The Mad,] is another and an earlier Flemish portait painter 
 who settled for a time in England. Holbein gets the credit or 
 discredit of many of Cleve's portraits. [Those of himself 
 and his wife at Windsor Castle are amongst his best works.] 
 
 Landscape painting was another branch of the art in 
 which several of the painters of Antwerp excelled. Joachim 
 DE Patinir (who matriculated in the Antwerp Painters' 
 Ouild in 1515, and died in 1524) is the first master, either 
 Italian or Flemish, who treated landscape purely for its 
 own sake, and not merely as a background to his figures. 
 
310 HISTOKY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 With him the figures are usually subservient to the land- 
 scape, as with the later of the great landscape painters ; 
 but we always have figures, and the landscape is supposed 
 to be only the scene of the event. He was fantastic in his 
 treatment even of sea and mountain, and delighted in 
 jagged rocks, whose formation it would be difficult for 
 geologists to decide. The Landscape (No. 717), of the 
 National Collection, is a fair example of his style. The 
 little imp stealing the poor Evangelist's ink is a charac- 
 teristic piece of northern grotesque humour. [Patinir was 
 probably a pupil of Gerard David.] 
 
 Herri de Bles, or Henrik Metten Bles, that is, with 
 the forelock, was a scholar of Patinir' s, and painted similar 
 scenes. He is called Civetta by the Italians, from his 
 having placed an owl as a mark on his works. [He was 
 born at Dinant, and died at Liege about 1550. 
 
 To Lucas G-assel, of Helmont, who lived at Brussels, 
 and died there about 1560, many works formerly ascribed 
 to Bles and Breughel (Peasant) are now restored. A strong 
 national and individual character is shown in his rare pic- 
 tures of men working in mines, at forges, <fec., amid the 
 picturesque scenery of his native Pays de Liege. His fan- 
 tastic forms are sometimes borrowed from Lucas of Ley- 
 den ; his colouring is dark and coarse.] 
 
 Matthew (1556-80) and Paul Bril (1556-1626) begin 
 the line of modern landscape painters. Their works, or 
 rather those of Paul, for Matthew's are scarcely known, 
 are dreary and uninteresting, but they set the fashion, so to 
 speak, for landscape amongst the Italians of their time, 
 and Paul Bril may be considered the forerunner of Claude 
 and Poussin in landscape art. 
 
 Early School of Holland. 
 
 But whilst the direct artistic descendants of the Van 
 Eycks were thus wasting their powers in attempted rivalry 
 with the Italians, there were a few early Dutch masters 
 who preserved for a longer time their national style and 
 individual originality of mind. The school of painting at 
 Haarlem, founded by Albert Yan Ouwater,^ has already 
 ^ See p. 292. 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 3li 
 
 been mentioned. A tendency towards caricature, such as 
 we have already observed in Quentin Massys, a grotesque 
 humour, and a strange fantastic treatment even of sacred 
 subjects, an element derived probably from Germany, dis- 
 tinguish these early Dutch painters from their Flemish 
 brethren and their Dutch descendants. The early school 
 of Holland is, indeed, so totally separate in style and aim 
 from the later Dutch schools, that for that reason it seems 
 better to consider it here under Flemish art, to which it is 
 at all events allied in point of date, than to refer it to 
 Dutch art, with which it has nothing in common. 
 
 CoRNELis Engelbrechtsen (1468-1533) is the earliest 
 master of Holland of whom we have any authentic record. 
 His father was a wood-engraver, and Cornells, who had 
 probably studied at Bruges, introduced the oil method into 
 Leyden. The greater number of his works were destroyed 
 by the iconoclasts, but a few remain that are thought to be 
 genuine, the most important being a triptych in the town- 
 hall at Leyden.^ [His three sons were painters, and with 
 Lucas Jacobz. were his pupils, viz., Cornelis Cornelisz., 
 Pieter Cornelisz. (surnamed Kiinst), a glass-painter, 
 and Lucas (surnamed Kok).] An earlier master than 
 Cornelis, mentioned by some writers by the name of 
 Gerard of St. John, or Gerard van Haarlem, has been 
 already mentioned, page 292. [Jan Mandyn, of Haarlem, 
 died at Antwerp in 1520. He painted fantastical subjects 
 in the style of Bosch. His pupil, Pieter Aartzen, called 
 LangePier (1507-72-3), wasEchevin of Amsterdam, and 
 painted chiefly kitchens. No. 153, in Brussels Museum, a 
 handsome cook-maid with a page, nearly life-size, is an 
 original and vigorous composition of rich and sober colour- 
 ing, somewhat hard in outline. His son, Aart Pieterz. 
 (1541-1603), was a still-life painter. Jacob Cornelis- 
 zooN, of Oost-Zaandam, is an important painter of the 
 transition period, but is chiefly known as an engraver. In 
 manner he resembles Cornells Engelbrechtsen. He painted 
 between the years 1506-1530. Nothing of his life is known 
 but that he resided at Amsterdam, and was the master of 
 Jan Schoreel. His brother, Buys Cornelisz., and his son, 
 
 p Engraved in outline in Taurel's " L'Art Chretien," 1, xii.] 
 
312 HISTOEY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 Dirk Jacobz, (1493-1567), were painters. By the latt*- 
 are three corporation pictures at Amsterdam. Jac*- 
 Cornelisz'. chief work is a fine Nativity, dated 1512, nri 
 at Naples.^ Two portraits in the National Gallery (N 
 657), are ascribed to him.] But the best known and mo- 
 characteristic artist of this school is Luc Jacobz., the eel- 
 brated Lucas Van Letden (1494-1533), whose rare ei 
 gravings are amongst the most coveted treasures < 
 connoisseurs. His genius must have been remarkabjv 
 precocious in its develojDment, for, before he was twelvt- 
 years of age he was already known as a painter and en- 
 graver, and also, it is said, as a wood carver,^ and amongst 
 his early works are reckoned the curious engraving of the 
 Temj^tation of S. Anthony, and nine circular prints of the 
 scenes of the Passion, executed with extreme care and finish. 
 He is now far better known by his engravings than his 
 paintings, the latter being extremely rare, and for the most 
 part in out-of-the-way places, so that it is difficult to form 
 an opinion about them. His largest known work in paint- 
 ing is a Last Judgment, in the Hotel de Ville at Ley den, 
 which Kugler speaks of as following the traditional mode 
 of representing this subject. There is also a woodcut in 
 Kugler's " Handbook " of a Card Party, of which the 
 original is in the possession of the Earl of Pembroke. The 
 Antwerp Gallery has several paintings ascribed to him, and 
 there are two at Munich, a well-executed Madonna and 
 Child and Mary Magdalen, and a Circumcision of Christ, a 
 small painting on copj^er, where Joseph is allowed the 
 honour of holding the Child, the Virgin and S. Anna beini^- 
 only spectators.^ 
 
 But it is in his prints that the peculiar characteristics of 
 his genius are most strikingly manifested. Here his wild 
 
 P Engraved in outline in Forster's " Deukmaler der bildenden Kiinste," 
 xi. A catalogue of Jac. Cornelisz' works has recently been compiled by 
 I)r, Seheibler, of Bonn ] 
 
 ^ The celebrated print of the Monk Sergius killed by Mahomet, is 
 dated 1508, and must, therefore, have been executed when Lucas was 
 only fourteen. Before this, at the age of twelve, he had painted a St. 
 Hubert in tempera, which had been paid for by a citizen of Leyden with 
 twelve gold pieces — one for each year of his age. 
 
 ^ Kugler does not seem to be aware of this painting. It is the most 
 characteristic work ascribed to him that I have seen. 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHEELANDS. 313 
 
 fancy lias full play, and he treats not only the fantastic 
 legends of the Clmrch of Rome, but also the events of 
 biblical history, in a spirit of grotesque realism that shocks 
 minds accustomed only to the dignity and beauty of Italy, 
 or to the pious realism of the Bruges masters. There 
 seems, indeed, to have been a sort of squint in his mental 
 vision, which prevented him from seeing things in their 
 natural positions, and led him to all kinds of whimsical 
 effects. " His works," says Schlegel,^ " are sometimes like 
 those of a highly intellectual but sickly child, and some- 
 times like those of a wonderful but premature old age." 
 This may be accounted for in part by the circumstances of 
 his life. His genius was, as we have seen, very premature 
 in development, and it was also premature in decline. For 
 the last six years of his life (and he died at the age of 
 thirty-nine) he was a prey to some mysterious disease, 
 which clouded his brilliant life with pain and melancholy. 
 Such works as he then executed were done on a bed of 
 sickness.^ 
 
 Before this, however, his career had been splendid 
 enough. Van Mander accuses him of an extravagant love 
 of show and state, and, judging by the account that has 
 been handed down of his jovial tour through the Nether- 
 lands, it would seem not without reason. Seated in a 
 beautifully painted barge beneath a rich canopy, he rowed, 
 we are told, along the canals of Holland in almost oriental 
 state to visit his brother artists. Arrived at Middleberg, 
 he invited them all to a grand banquet, at which he ap- 
 peared in ** a gorgeous robe of yellow silk that shone like 
 gold." But this time he was quite obscured by Mabuse, 
 who, not to be outdone by the Dutch artist, had come to the 
 banquet in a robe of real cloth of gold, not a paper one on 
 this occasion. 
 
 Bartsch enumerates no less than 174 engravings by his 
 liand. Many of these are extremely rare. Of his famous 
 Eulenspiegel, for instance, not above four or five original 
 impressions are now extant, and these fetch, of course, 
 
 ^ Gemahlde Beschreibungpn aus Paris und den Niederlanden. 
 ■^ The small engraving of Pallas is said to have been his last work, 
 and to have been ou his bed when he died. 
 
314 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VI J. 
 
 enormous sums,^ although it is far from being the "best < .f 
 his prints. The Dance of the Magdalen, Esther aiwl 
 Ahasuerus, the Prodigal Son, and the Adoration of 
 Kings, are the subjects of other celebrated engravings 
 him. 
 
 [There remain a few more names to be mentioned whi< li 
 belong to Dutch art as it was before casting off the yoke ( f 
 foreign masters, and of the Eoman Catholic Church, tlit' 
 national life found expression in its famous painters of 
 portait and genre, and the real Dutch School began. Juu 
 Schoreel has already been mentioned, and his pupil Sir 
 Antonio Moro. Another of his pupils was Martin Yuu 
 Yeen, or Heemskerk (1494-1574), a forcible but extrava- 
 gant painter, who studied Michel Angelo in Italy, aii<l 
 afterwards settled at Haarlem, where (as at Brussels aii<I 
 other places) some of his works are preserved. Otli»r 
 painters who adopted an Italianised style were Corndi.s 
 Comelisz of Haarlem (1562-1638), Abraham Bloemacrt 
 (1565-1647), Pieter Lastman (b. 1562), Dirk and Woutt-r 
 Crabeth, the painters of the famous windows at Gouda, 
 and Gerard Honthorst (1592-1662). More interesting are 
 the names of Hubert (1526-83) and Hendrik Goltsius, the 
 latter (1558-1616) specially celebrated as an engraver ; Jan 
 Vredeman de Yries (b. 1527), and Hendrik van Steenwick, 
 his pupil (1550-1604), celebrated painters of architecture ; 
 and Hendrik Yroom (1556-1640), the first Dutch sea- 
 painter.] 
 
 • Diirer mentions, in his Journal, that he bought a print of the 
 Eulenspiegel for a sum equivalent to a few pence of our money. 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 315 
 
 Chapter III. 
 
 FLEMISH SCHOOL OF THE SEVENTEENTH 
 CENTUEY. 
 
 KuBENS — Vandyke — Teniers. 
 
 WE have watched the religious spirit of early Flemish 
 art gradually dying away in the bold light of 
 Rationalism and Renaissance, and have seen the suc- 
 cessors of the Van Eycks fall into an ostentatious imitation 
 of Italian art, for which they had no real taste or sym- 
 pathy, so that their works became at length utterly devoid 
 of good sense and honest feeling. 
 
 It was time that a new school should be founded, and 
 that art should return once more to nature for instruction. 
 
 Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640), was the master who 
 accomplished this revolution, and again raised Flemish art 
 to a high pinnacle of greatness. He never, it is true, at- 
 tempted to revive the religious spirit that had animated 
 the early Flemish masters. That was now utterly dead, or 
 at all events had no place in Rubens' art ; not that he was 
 in any respect an irreligious man, like many who have, 
 nevertheless, painted deeply devout pictures ; on the con- 
 trary, we know that in private life he was upright and 
 charitable, performing all the moral and social duties of 
 life with the utmost propriety, but there is not the slightest 
 trace in his works of any spiritual emotion ; his mind was 
 never clouded by doubt, carried away by enthusiasm, nor 
 troubled by the mystery of life. His hfe, in truth, had 
 no mystery in it, but was one continued course of success 
 and worldly prosperity, and his art reflects its ease and 
 full enjoyment. 
 
 Rubens was bom at Siegen, a town of Westphalia, on 
 the day of S. Peter and S. Paul, June 29th, 1577. A year 
 after his birth, his parents, who had been driven from the 
 Netherlands by the religious disturbances of that time. 
 
316 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 settled in Cologne, where the young Eubens was brought 
 up until he was ten years old, when, upon the death of his 
 father, his mother returned to Antwerp. Here, as he 
 shoAved a marked predilection for painting, he was placed, 
 after some preliminary instruction by Tobie Van Haecht 
 and Adam Van Noort, with a master of note in his 
 time, Otto yan Veen, called Otto V^nius, whose gaudy 
 and yet cold colouring offers a singular contrast to that 
 of his celebrated pupil. Van Veen, although his art 
 does not rise beyond that of the Italian Macchinisti, was 
 a man of great cultivation and learning, and his pupil 
 probably acquired from him knowledge more valuable 
 than his style in art, which, indeed, he never seems to 
 have adopted. 
 
 Rubens was made free of the Antwerp GTuild" ia 1598, 
 and in 1600 went to Italy, where the colouring of the 
 Venetians failed not to produce a great impression upon 
 his art. His gorgeous style and colouring are, in fact, 
 directly founded on those of Paolo Veronese, who beyond 
 all other Italians seems most immediately to have in- 
 fluenced him. But unlike the other Netherland painters 
 of his time, he profited by his Italian studies without 
 sacrificing his own individuality ; what he took from the 
 Italians, he quickly assimilated and made his own, his 
 powerful originality preventing his ever being an imitator. 
 
 In Italy, he entered the service of Vincenzio G-onzaga, 
 Duke of Mantua, who not only employed him as a painter, 
 but likewise, it is said, entrusted him with a secret mis- 
 sion to Philip III. of Spain. 
 
 On his return from SjDain, he appears to have passed, 
 some time in Eome, where Michael Angelo's works doubt- 
 less contributed to his rich stores of knowledge, and per- 
 haps first led him to attempt that bold dramatic action 
 which so peculiarly marks his works.^ In 1608 he re- 
 turned to Antwerp, being summoned from Eome by the 
 death of his mother, and from henceforth although he 
 made frequent journeys abroad, both for pleasure and on 
 diplomatic missions, he made that city his home. 
 
 [' He went to Genoa also. His copies from Titian, Correggio, Leo- 
 nardo da Vinci, Mantegna, and others, show that he visited Venice and 
 other places in Italy.] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 317 
 
 A rich pension and the appointment of Court painter 
 given him the year after his return by Albert and Isabella 
 the Regents of the Netherlands, bound him, in fact, " by 
 a chain of gold," says one of his biographers,^ to his 
 country, although he often longed for the blue skies and 
 soft breezes of Italy. He stipulated, however, that he 
 should not be obliged to reside at Brussels, the seat of the 
 Court, but built himself a magnificent house in the Italian 
 style at Antwerp, where he soon attracted a large school, 
 and was universally acknowledged as the greatest master of 
 his time. 
 
 The building of his grand Italian mansion was the occa- 
 sion, it is said, of the production of one of his most 
 famous works. Owing to some dispute with the company 
 of arquebusiers about a piece of their ground upon which 
 he had encroached in his building, he agreed as a com- 
 pensation to paint them a picture of St. Christopher, the 
 patron saint of their company. But with his usual muni- 
 ficence he was not content with painting the single figure 
 of the saint, which was all that was demanded from him ; 
 but, as illustrating the name of the saint, — Christopher or 
 the Christ-hearing, he represented all those who had ever 
 borne Christ in their arms, from the aged St. Simeon, who 
 first held the Infant Saviour in the Temple, to the disciples 
 who took down his body from the cross. ^ 
 
 The famous Descent from the Cross, of Antwerp Cathe- 
 dral, which is usually reckoned Rubens' greatest work, 
 formed the centre subject of this grand altar-piece, and 
 whatever may be the faults of conception and sentiment 
 of this picture, certainly, for vigorous colour and effective 
 chiaroscuro, it stands unequalled. Opie, alluding to the 
 bold manner in which Rubens has drawn attention to the 
 body of Christ, by placing a white cloth behind it, calls it 
 an effect "that no man less daring than Rubens would 
 
 ^ Philip Eubens, his nephew. 
 
 ^ The Arquebusiers, it is said, failed at first to appreciate the liberal 
 interpretation that Rubens had given to the old legend, and he was 
 obliged to paint the veritable St. Christopher on one of the wings. Then, 
 at last, they deigned to be pleased ; and well they might be, for they 
 had gained in exchange for a few feet of ground " a miracle of art, of 
 ■which it would now be difficult to compute the value either in money or 
 land." 
 
318 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 have attempted, and no man less consummate as a colourist 
 •would have executed with success." 
 
 And yet, with all these artistic merits, the Antwerp 
 ,_I)escent from the Cross produces an unpleasant impression 
 on the mind. It appeals, in fact, to the eye, and not to 
 the mind, and still less to the heart. Mrs. Jameson has 
 well described it as " an earthly tragedy, and not a divine 
 mystery." It is nothing more than the execution of a 
 common criminal, with all its unpleasant details ; but the 
 terribly realistic scene serves to set forth the marvellous 
 power and skill of the master who painted it, and whilst 
 looking on it we can do nothing but admire this. We can 
 in no wise " forget the artist in the art," for it is the 
 artist's daring effects that we are principally occupied 
 with. But when we turn away from Rubens' master- work 
 the mind refuses to dwell upon it with satisfaction, and 
 the eye being no longer dazzled by its colouring, we turn 
 to think of some simpler, less clever, but more deeply felt 
 rendering of an earlier master. 
 
 Such a work, however, could not fail to increase the 
 €ver-growing renown of the master, and, while puj)ils 
 flocked to his studio, sovereigns and princes vied with one 
 another to show him favour. No j)ainter, except perhaps 
 Titian, was ever so courted by Fortune. 
 
 But it was not only to his artistic abilities that Rubens 
 owed his high position, he was likewise a most successful 
 diplomatist, and although we may regret that his time 
 should have been taken up with affairs of state, the Infanta 
 Isabella, when, at the death of her husband, she was left 
 alone in the government of the Netherlands, found him a 
 valuable councillor. 
 
 In 1628 he undoubtedly went to Spain on state busi- 
 ness, and met with a most flattering recei^tion at the Court 
 of Madrid. The great beauty of his j^erson, the amiability 
 of his character, and the courtly grace of his manners, 
 seem, indeed, to have fascinated all classes. 
 
 In England, likewise, where he was sent in the follow- 
 ing year to negotiate a peace with Charles I., he was 
 eminently successful. No better ambassador, could, per- 
 haps, have been sent to the refined and art-loving Stuart 
 king than a man like Rubens, who united in a singular 
 
JOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 319 
 
 legree the most captivating social qualities with the intel- 
 ect and tact of a statesman, and the genius of a great 
 irtist. At all events, he managed, either by his eloquence 
 IS a painter or a diplomatist, to persuade Charles I. into a 
 Teaty of peace that was highly advantageous for Spain, 
 iiid, of course, equally disadvantageous for England ; but 
 I!liarles was so well satisfied, that before the painter- 
 mibassador's departure from England he bestowed on him 
 the honour of knighthood, presenting him on the occasion 
 with his own sword, and hanging a magnificent chain 
 round his neck, which Rubens ever afterwards wore in re- 
 membrance of the English monarch. 
 
 Whilst in England he executed several great paintings. 
 One of these, an allegory of JPeace and War, as it is called, 
 now in the National Gallery, was artfully presented by the 
 painter to Charles I. in support of the pacific views that he 
 was forwarding. The ceiling at Whitehall, and numerous 
 portraits of his royal and noble friends, were likewise the 
 fruits of his stay in Englaud. 
 
 Soon after his return to Antwerp, in 1630, Eubens 
 married a second time ; his first wife, Isabella Brandt, 
 having died in 1626, leaving him two sons. His second 
 choice fell upon Helene Fourment, a beautiful girl of six- 
 teen, belonging to one of the wealthiest families in Ant- 
 werp. He has left us several portraits of his wives, and 
 Helene Fourment, especially, served him as a model in 
 many of his pictures. Two celebrated portraits of her are 
 at Blenheim. In one the painter is represented walking 
 with her in a flower-garden, she gxiiding a child in leading 
 strings, a picture that Dr. Waagen pronounces to be one of 
 the most perfect family pieces in the world. Even Euskin, 
 who characterizes Eubens as "a healthy, worthy, kind- 
 hearted, courtly-phrased animal, without any clearly per- 
 ceptible traces of a soul," acknowledges an exception when 
 he paints his children. 
 
 The physical, or as Euskin calls it, healthy animal life of 
 Eubens, as distinguished from all intellectual qualities, is 
 in truth the chief characteristic of his style. He is a mag- 
 nificent animal, like one of the lordly lions he was so fond 
 of painting, but he has no sympathy with the intellectual 
 < rnvings, or spiritual aspirations of humanity. Pale saints 
 
320 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 and martyrs, with the " soul shining through the flesh it 
 frays," were not to his taste ; no fear of his trying *' t<y 
 paint soul," without "minding arms and legs." The arms 
 and legs were the very things for his purpose. There was 
 healthy animal life, warm colour, and effective light and 
 shade in a big naked Flemish beauty, whereas the soul, that 
 people talked about, was a poor vaporous evanescent thing 
 that Avould admit of no gorgeous artistic effects, and might, 
 perhaps, draw off the attention of the spectator from the 
 glorious colouring and dexterous execution of the painter. 
 Coleridge, whose casual remarks on pictures and painters 
 are always suggestive, notices this : ** So long," he says, 
 " as Rubens confines himself to space and outward figure 
 — to the mere animal man with animal passions — he is, I 
 may say, a god amongst painters. His satyrs, Silenuses, 
 lions, tigers, and dogs are almost godlike ; but the moment 
 he attempts anything involving or presuming the spiritual, 
 his gods and goddesses, his nymphs and heroes become 
 beasts, absolute unmitigated beasts." 
 
 This absence of the spiritual strikes us, especially, in his 
 grand tragical and dramatic scenes, such, for instance, as 
 the Taking Down from the Cross before mentioned, the 
 Crucifixion of the Antwerp G-allery, and the Crucifixion of 
 S. Peter, at Cologne. Not the slightest emotion seems to 
 have been felt by the painter in painting these moving 
 themes, and none, therefore, is produced in the mind of 
 the beholder. 
 
 But if we set aside this strange want of comprehension 
 of man's higher intellectual nature, no master was ever, 
 perhaps, more perfect in his art than Eubens. " He is the 
 best workman with his tools," says Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
 " that ever managed a pencil," ^ and not only as a work- 
 man, but likewise as an inventive genius of the highest 
 order; a perfect master of composition, and a colourist 
 who ranks next after the great Venetians, he stands pre- 
 eminent. However much, indeed, we may dislike his works 
 at first sight, or after a superficial study, we generally end, 
 as Mrs. Jameson has pointed out, "by standing before 
 them in ecstasy and wonder." Unfortunately English) 
 
 ^ The whole of Sir Joshua's " Fifth Discourse " is devoted to Kubens. 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 321 
 
 students often form an opinion of his style from the speci- 
 mens we have of it in this country, and more especially 
 from those in the National Collection, which, with the ex- 
 ception of the fine landscape (No. 66),^ are scarcely adequate 
 examples of his masterly skill. The truth is, his powers 
 have no room for display in his smaller works, and it is 
 only in such a gallery as that of Munich, where there is a 
 whole Saal as well as a cabinet devoted to his enormous 
 works, that we can form any just appreciation of his genius. 
 There, in such works as the Battle of the Amazons, the 
 Last Judgment, the Lion-hunt, the Rape of the Daughters 
 of Leucippus, and the marvellous smaller picture of the 
 Fall of the Damned, we see him in the full exercise of his 
 strength, and are overpowered with wonder and admiration. 
 There is a sense of rapid movement in the glorious confu- 
 sion of the last-named picture, for instance, which no other 
 painter has ever fully expressed. We have had numerous 
 falls of the damned, expulsions of rebel angels, &c., but 
 none ever fell Hke those of Rubens, with rushing tumul- 
 tuous movement, so that we seem to feel them actually 
 tumbling headlong upon us. In the Battle of the Amazons, 
 likewise, the powerful action carries us along^ with it into 
 the midst of the fearful struggle. 
 
 Like all great masters, Rubens excelled as a portrait 
 painter. His portraits of his wives have been already 
 mentioned ; but besides these, and his portraits of himself 
 and children, he painted many of the most distinguished 
 men of his time. 
 
 His versatile genius is likewise apparent in his landscapes. 
 * Peter Paul Rubens alone," says Coleridge, " handles the 
 every-day ingredients of all common landscapes as they are 
 handled in nature ; he throws them into a vast and magni- 
 cent whole, consisting of heaven and earth, and all things 
 therein," which means in more prosaic criticism, that his 
 landscapes are remarkable for their breadth, and masterly 
 distribution of light and shade. 
 
 Rubens has suffered, like so many other masters, by 
 having too many pictures attributed to him. In spite of 
 what we are told of his marvellous rapidity of execution, 
 
 ^ And the celebrated and most beautiful portrait, known as the 
 ** Chapeuu do Foil," the glory of the lately added Peel Collection. 
 
 T 
 
322 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 we cannot suppose that more than a very small proportion 
 of the thousands of pictures which now bear his name were 
 really painted by him. He had a large school, and reckoned 
 in it such pupils as Yandyck, Teniers, Jordaens, and the 
 great animal painter, Snyders ; it is not, therefore, much 
 to be wondered at that even in his life-time he left many 
 of his designs to be executed by his scholars, and that 
 many of the pictures issuing from his atelier were scarcely 
 touched by the master. This, we may suppose, was the 
 case with the large series of paintings in the Louvre, 
 representing in allegorical style the history of Marie de 
 Medici. The sketches for these pictures at Munich are 
 far preferable to the pictures themselves, in which, pro- 
 bably, only a few of the portraits are the actual work of 
 Eubens. 
 
 Anthony Vandyck (1599-1641) may be called the Velas- 
 quez of Flanders, both artists being especially noted for 
 the dignified air and courtly elegance of their aristocratic 
 portraits. No vulgar or common-place character can be 
 found amongst their sitters; all are courtly gentlemen, 
 gallant soldiers, and delicate ladies, or are transmuted into 
 such by the painter's refined taste, which, whilst preserving 
 to the full the individuality of the likeness, surrounded it, 
 as it were, with the perfumed atmosphere of courts. 
 
 Vandyck entered the school of Eubens, at Antwerp, at 
 the age of fifteen, having studied for five years previously 
 under Van Balen, and his abilities being soon apparent, he 
 received every assistance from his generous master,^ who 
 always sought to further his pupils* interest, even when he 
 was, as in Vandyck's case, in danger of rivalry. 
 
 Before his twentieth birthday he was admitted into the 
 Antwerp Guild of Painters, thus becoming a master himself 
 whilst still working under a master. [He paid a short visit 
 
 ^ A story is told of the manner in which Eubens fii-st became aware of 
 his pupil's skill. One day, while the former was painting his great 
 Descent from the Cross, Vandyck, and some other students who were 
 furtively examining the picture in the master's absence, managed to fall 
 against it and rub an ai"m, that Kubens had just painted, out of the com- 
 position. Vandyck undertook to paint the arm again, hoping that 
 Eubens might not discover the mischief; and truly, -^hen he returned to 
 work the following day, he remarked, " This arr was not the worst 
 thing I did yesterday." 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 323 
 
 to London in 1620, and the following year went to Italy. 
 He visited G-enoa, Eome, Florence, Venice, Turin, and 
 Palermo, and returned to Genoa, where he stayed two 
 years], and where many works by him may still be found. 
 In 1625, however, he must have been again in Antwerp, 
 for an agent of the Earl of Arundel, writing at the close of 
 that year to his lord from Antwerp, says : — " Vandyck is 
 here with Rubens, and his works are beginning to be as 
 much esteemed as those of his master." 
 
 A fine altar-piece representing S. Augustine in ecstasy 
 supported by angels, and accompanied by S. Monica and a 
 monk, painted soon after his return from Italy, for the 
 Church of the Augustines in Antwerp, added to his already 
 achieved reputation, and several other subjects of the same 
 class, such as the Crucifixion, of Mechlin Cathedral, and 
 the Elevation of the Cross, painted for the Church of 
 Notre Dame at Courtray, prove that had he not devoted 
 his talent especially to portraiture he would have been 
 equally successful as a painter of religious history. His 
 paintings, however, entirely lack the impetuous life and 
 fire of Rubens, and he never attained to anything approach- 
 ing his master's brilliant display of colour. 
 
 But it is as a portrait painter that Vandyck has acquired 
 his almost unrivalled fame. A magnificent series of por- 
 traits of all the distinguished painters of his day, executed 
 soon after his return from Italy, proved that this was his 
 true vocation ; and from this time he gave himself up 
 almost entirely to this branch of his art, even his historic 
 and ideal characters always being more or less of an indivi- 
 dual or portrait-like character. 
 
 In the year 1627 Vandyck came over to England, pro- 
 bably moved to do so by the flattering reception that 
 Rubens had recently experienced in this country, but 
 Charles I. seems to have been unaware at this time of Van- 
 dyck's fame as an artist, and his visit created no sensation. 
 In much disgust he returned to Antwerp, but no sooner 
 had he gone, than Charles I. found out what a treasure he 
 had suffered to escape him, and in all haste sent a personal 
 invitation to him to return. Accordingly, in 1632, he 
 a»:^ain came ove^ and this time had no cause to complain 
 of his receptioii. Charles I., delighted to have such a 
 
324 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 painter in his service, gave him at once a salary of .£200 a 
 year, besides raising him to the dignity of knighthood. 
 
 Sir Anthony Vandyck was, in fact, courted and flattered 
 to a dangerous extent by the king and his proud aristocracy, 
 who were indulging in their dignified ease at this time, 
 unmindful of the troubles that were so soon to overtake 
 them. 
 
 Vandyck' s portraits of Charles and his nobles reveal to 
 us much concerning those troubled times. We understand 
 in looking at them, how impossible it must have seemed to 
 those grand self-satisfied gentlemen to abate anything of 
 their aristocratic privilege. Cromwell and his Ironsides 
 managed, however, to enforce the lesson. 
 
 One of Vandyck's most beautiful female portraits is that 
 of Lady Yenetia, wife of Sir Kenelm Digby, now in 
 Windsor Castle. " It will be next to impossible," writes 
 Hazlitt, " to perform an unbecoming action with that por- 
 trait hanging in the room." It is truly a lovely represen- 
 tation of refined womanhood, and the mysterious history 
 and death of the original,^ heighten the interest that all 
 must feel in regarding the charming hkeness. 
 
 In the National Collection both the subject paintings by 
 him are merely copies from Eubens, and the fine bold head 
 usually called that of Grevartius, but more likely a portrait 
 of Cornelius Vander Greest,'^ is considered by Wornum and 
 several other critics to be really by Eubens. It has cer- 
 tainly none of Vandyck's characteristics. 
 
 Vandyck died in London, in his forty-third year, and in 
 spite of his extravagant style of living, left a large amount 
 of property behind him. 
 
 [Amongst the contemporaries of Eubens who are in- 
 fluenced by him, although neither his pupils nor imitators, 
 Crayer and Jordaens are the most important, whilst Theo- 
 dore EoMBOUTS, Abraham Janssens, and Gterard Seg- 
 HERS, are worthy of mention. The three last named, inspired 
 
 ^ The Lady Venetia is said to have been poisoned by her husband, 
 who passionately loved her, by means of a potion that he had himself 
 prepared and administered to her for the purpose of heightening her 
 beauty. Calumny was also busy with the fair fame of this noted beauty, 
 and in allusion to this, the emblems of defeated slander lie around her in 
 Vandyck's celebrated picture. 
 
 2 See " Catalogue of the National Gallery." 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 325 
 
 by tlie dramatic sombreness of Caravaggio, painted largely 
 and robustly, and with the same false, exaggerated chiaros- 
 curo, before they fell under the influence of Rubens. 
 ^Yliereas] G-aspard de Grayer (1582-1669), the friend of 
 Rubens, but not one of his followers, belongs in style more 
 to the preceding school of Flemish art, that, namely, inter- 
 mediate between the early religious schools of Flanders 
 and the florid school, as it has been called, of Rubens, and 
 is somewhat cold in colouring and conventional in style. 
 
 Yet it is said that Rubens was his warm admirer, and 
 exclaimed once enthusiastically, on seeing one of his pic- 
 tures, " Grayer ! Grayer ! no one will ever surpass you," so 
 different is the judgment of one age to that of another. 
 Grayer was one of the Flemish painters who found exten- 
 sive patronage in Spain, where he resided for some time. 
 His works are now mostly in the Museums at Ghent [and 
 Brussels, and in' the churches of Belgium. A very beauti- 
 ful painting, warm in colour, and with a tenderness of 
 sentiment that reminds one of Murillo, is in the Town Hall 
 of Louvain]. 
 
 Jacob Jordaens (1593-1678) resembled Rubens in his 
 coarsest style. His pictures are generally vulgar in con- 
 ception and glaring in colour, for he aimed at the splendour 
 of Rubens' colouring without always attaining its brilliant 
 harmonies. Jordaens was, however, a clever and powerful 
 painter. Some of his portraits are very fine. He suffers 
 by having many of his good pictures attributed to Rubens. 
 
 Frans Snyders (1579-1657), as an animal painter, is 
 almost equal to Rubens, to whom he was long an assistant. 
 His wild beasts are truly marvellous. They are usually 
 depicted by him when their ferocious instincts have been 
 called forth by the most angry passions ; hunts, and fights 
 with lions, tigers, and such-like creatures being his favou- 
 rite subjects. He likewise painted flowers and vegetables 
 with extreme skill, and was often the painter of these 
 accessories as well as of the animals in Rubens' pictures. 
 
 [Jan Fyt (1609-1661) was a productive painter C|f 
 animals, hunting, fighting, or dead. If scarcely distin- 
 guished by such vigorous action, his work often surpasses 
 that of Snyders' in effects of light and beauty and truth of 
 plumage and fur painting. The Eagle's Repast at Ant- 
 
326 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 werp is liis best work. He was also a good water-colour 
 painter.^] 
 
 Of the followers of Vandyck the best known, in England, 
 at all events, is the celebrated painter of the beauties of the 
 Court of Charles II., Peter van der Faes, better known 
 as Sir Peter Lely (1618-1680). His portraits are grace- 
 ful and pretty, but they are far more artificial than those 
 of Vandyck, and have not his excellence of colour. The 
 general meretricious tone of the Court of Charles II. is, in 
 fact, reflected in them. 
 
 George Jamesone (1586-1644), called the "Scottish 
 Vandyck," and William Dobson (1610-1646), two of the 
 earliest of our native artists, may also be reckoned as fol- 
 lowers of Vandyck. 
 
 [Cornelius de Vos (1585-1651), as a portrait painter, 
 was unsurpassed by any but Vandyck or Rubens. Witness 
 the Family Portraits in the Brussels Museum. Gonzales 
 CoQUES (1614-1684), of Antwerp, is called, and with jus- 
 tice, the miniature Vandyck. His works are sufficiently 
 rare, and to be found mostly in England. In the National 
 Gallery are good examples (No. 821) — A Family Group in 
 a Garden, and the five half-length figures representing the 
 Five Senses (Nos. 1114 to 1118). He seldom painted the 
 backgrounds or accessories of his pictures himself.] 
 
 Entirely different from Rubens and Vandyck, both in 
 style and in the class of subjects he chose for representa- 
 tion, is the third great master of the Flemish School of 
 painting in the seventeenth century, David Teniers the 
 Younger (1610-1694). 
 
 Although, undoubtedly, greatly influenced by Eubens, 
 even if he were not one of his scholars, he had none of that 
 master's dashing magnificence. His strong preference for 
 small genre subjects, instead of mythological and historical 
 scenes, separates him still more from a painter like Eubens, 
 who felt his activities cramped unless he had a large arena 
 allowed him for their display. Teniers, in truth, belongs 
 by his style to the Dutch genre school of the seventeenth 
 century, rather than to the Flemish school of that time, as 
 represented by Eubens and his cliief followers. Like 
 
 [' Biirfjer, " Musees d'Hollande."] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 327 
 
 Adrian Brauwer, Frans Hals, Adrian Van Ostade, and 
 several other Dutch masters of the same stamp, he de- 
 lighted in representations of peasant and tavern life, and 
 exercised his marvellous skill in the delineation of drink- 
 ing bouts, merry-makings, village fairs, peasant weddings, 
 guard rooms, markets, rustic feasts, dances, and other 
 similar subjects. 
 
 Alchemy, also, which was a favourite pursuit in his 
 time, attracted his observation, and his representations of 
 the victims to the search for the philosopher's stone are 
 amongst his cleverest productions. He was likewise fond 
 of wizards, witches, and incantation scenes, to which he 
 gave a humourous rather than a weird effect. His comic 
 imps and demons are conceived in a totally different spirit 
 from that which produced the grotesque realism of early 
 religious art, or the fantastic conceptions of Grerman art. 
 They have nothing supernatural about them, but are 
 simply the offspring of the painter's humorous imagination, 
 having no reality to his mind. In his well-known Tempta- 
 tion of S. Anthony, for instance, in the Louvre, a subject 
 of grim earnest with earlier masters, the whole affair is 
 treated as a kind of joke. Such devils as these could never 
 inspire horror or fear ; one frightful little imp is positively 
 smoking a pipe. 
 
 In the picture of the same subject in the Berlin Gallery 
 the tempting fiend takes the shape of a ripe Flemish 
 beauty, and here also the various impish creatures, fight- , 
 ing and screaming in the air, have an unmistakably comic 
 character.^ 
 
 Little is known of the personal history of Teniers, but it 
 would seem that although, perhaps, not quite such a fine 
 gentleman as Eubens or Vandyck, he held a high position 
 in society, and that his acquaintance was courted by men 
 of rank and distinction. 
 
 He learnt painting under his father, David Teniers the 
 Elder (1582-1649), an artist of repute, and was admitted 
 into the Antwerp Guild as early as 1632-1633. 
 
 His chief patron was the Aj-chduke Leopold William, . 
 Eegent of the Netherlands, by whom he was appointed 
 
 * The same may be remarked in a picture in the Peel Collection, an 
 Incantation Scene, recently added to the National Gallery. 
 
328 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 court painter and groom of the chambers. He had like- 
 wise the superintendence of the Palace Picture Galleries. 
 
 He seems to have realized, like most of the painters of 
 his time, a large fortune by his art, and his country seat, 
 between Antwerp and Mechlin, was a favourite pesort of 
 his friends, amongst whom he ranked many of the Spanish 
 and Flemish nobility; no stranger of distinction, it is said, 
 ever came to Antwerp or Mechlin without paying the dis- 
 tinguished artist a visit. 
 
 His fame was equally great abroad, and commissions 
 poured in upon him from all quarters, the Queen Christina 
 of Sweden, Philip lY. of Spain, and other crowned heads 
 seeking specimens of his skill. 
 
 His industry and wonderful facility in painting, added 
 to his long life, enabled him to accomplish a vast amount 
 of work. "The pursuit of his art," says Smith, ^ "was 
 rendered by long practice an agreeable amusement, which 
 he could follow with the same freedom and success in the 
 midst of company as when alone. Thus, whilst he con- 
 duced to the entertainment of his visitors, he added at the 
 same time to his own wealth." ^ 
 
 The execution of many of his paintings is, it is true, very 
 slight, but others are most carefully elaborated, and for 
 freedom of touch, vigorous colouring, effective chiaroscuro, 
 and perfect skill of hand, they are all well-nigh unrivalled. 
 His finest works are those of his middle period, ranging 
 from 1640 to 1660, and are usually to be distinguished by 
 a luminous golden or a cool silvery tone. In his last years 
 his hand lost much of its power, and his colouring became 
 brown and heavy. He continued painting, however, until 
 called away from his easel at the age of eighty-four. 
 
 His religious subjects, or rather the subjects to which 
 he has given a religious title, are the most unpleasing of 
 all his works, the most sacred characters being conceived 
 under the same vulgar forms as his boors and drunken 
 peasants. Such subjects as Christ crowned with Thorns, 
 
 ' " Catalogue Eaisonne." 
 
 ^ He is reported to have said that it would take a gallery two leagues 
 in length to contain all his works. Smith enumerates 900, and other 
 collections make up the number to 1,100. It is absui-d, however, to sup- 
 pose all these to be genuine. 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 329 
 
 Christ Buffeted, and Peter denying Christ, are degraded, 
 for instance, into vulgar and almost repulsive scenes of 
 low life. He was, in fact, totally wanting in that elevation 
 of feeling that marks all the great Italian masters. In 
 landscape he is often excellent. 
 
 Teniers had many pupils and imitators, several of whom, 
 it is said, paid him the compliment of signing his name on 
 their works ; but none of them have any original talent, 
 and they need not, therefore, detain us here. 
 
 After Teniers the Flemish school sank into utter in- 
 significance, such Flemish painters as still possessed any 
 merit becoming absorbed in the allied Dutch school, which, 
 in the middle of the seventeenth century, assumed a para- 
 mount importance. 
 
 [At the end of the eighteenth century the French classi- 
 cal revival produced but a pale and insignificant reflection 
 in the Netherlands, which were then distracted by the 
 Napoleonic wars ; but a revival of art followed upon peace 
 being re-established. The direction of this revival was 
 largely determined by the teachings of Guillaume 
 Herreyns (1743-1827), who inculcated a return to the 
 study of the great works of the older Flemish schools in 
 place of the dry classicisms of the academies. 
 
 Stirred by the enthusiasm of the Belgian struggle for 
 independence, Flemish, or rather Belgic, painters turned 
 to their own political history for inspiration, and to the 
 school of Rubens for models. The boldly melodramatic 
 works of GusTAVE Wappers (1803-1874), Edouard de 
 BiEPVE (1808-1882), and Louis Gallait (1810-1887), 
 were painted with a care, skill, and, above all, with a 
 depth of colour unknown to the classic schools, and were 
 hailed as a new revelation by half Europe, when Wappers' 
 '* The burgomaster Vander Werff offering his life to the 
 citizens of Leyden," was exhibited in 1830 at Brussels. 
 Tlie colouring of these masters is rather gaudy than rich, 
 their groujHng artificial, and their effects are forced (e.g.. 
 The Abdication of Charles V., by GaUait, Brussels Museum). 
 They, however, opened the way for the practice of historic 
 ' re, and for the supremacy of colour over form. A more 
 
 -ting reputation was gained by (Jean-Auquste) Henri 
 1,i:ys (1816-1869), who, in his studies of the life of the 
 
330 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 mediaeval Netherlands, closely copied the methods and 
 styles of Quentyn Massys and of Peasant Breughel. In 
 attaining their excellence of colour and manipulation, he 
 did not avoid faults due to their deficient knowledge, such 
 as stiffness of movement and false perspective; but his 
 original and strongly realistic conceptions are expressed 
 with much feeling, truth, and dignity, and slight archaisms 
 scarcely detract from their effect (Luther Singing in the 
 Streets of Eisenach ; The Promenade without the Walls, 
 &c.). Small genre pictures of Leys' early period, bear 
 strong evidence of his profitable studies of Eembrandt 
 and De Hooghe. Leys' best pupil is Laurens Alma- 
 Tadema, a Prison by birth, and a naturalized Englishman. 
 The genre scenes of J. B. Madou (1796-1877) deserve 
 mention (The Spoil- Sport, Itinerant Musicians, Brussels 
 Museum). The animal painters, Eugene Yeebgeckhoven 
 (1798-1881), Joseph Stevens (b. 1820), the architectural 
 painters, J. B. Van Moer (1819-1885) and Francois 
 Stroobant (b. 1819), the landscapists, Theodore Four- 
 Mois (1814-1871) and Fr. Lamoriniere (b. 1828), the 
 historical painters, Ch. Verlat (b. 1824) and Emile 
 Watjters (b. 1846) (The Madness of H. Van der Goes, 
 Brussels), are eminently national artists attaining a high 
 standard of merit. Alfred Stevens (b. 1828) is like the 
 majority of younger Belgian painters, indebted to the 
 modern French school for inspiration and practice.] 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 THE DUTCH SCHOOL. 
 
 Rembrandt — Gerard Dou — Paul Potter— Curr— 
 
 Vandervelde. 
 
 AT the head of the Dutch School of painting in the 
 seventeenth century stands the great name of Eem- 
 brandt van Eyn. It is strange that while the painters of 
 the seventeenth century in Italy had drifted, as we have 
 
OOK VII."] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 331 
 
 een, into vapid ideality, or repulsive naturalism, two such 
 ^eat original masters as Rubens and Rembrandt should 
 ave arisen in the Netherlands. Rembrandt, especially, is 
 ntirely individual in his style ; Rubens, no doubt, borrowed 
 omething from the Venetians, particularly from Paolo 
 Veronese ; but Italian teaching, indeed any kind of teaeh- 
 ng, was completely set at nought by Rembrandt. He 
 ormed himself, and had no other models than the common 
 orms of nature around him. Yet how different are his 
 vorks to those of the Italian Naturalisti. Dealing with 
 he same powers of light and darkness as Caravaggio, he 
 las expressed them in a totally different language. Com- 
 )are a picture by Rembrandt with one by the Italian 
 hiaroscurist, and you will find in the one the subtle 
 5oetry of light and shade, in the other the mere broad 
 triking effects. 
 
 Rembrandt in fact, though so unlike the ideal painters 
 f Italy, was an idealist, too, in his own way, for in his 
 nind the commonest objects of everyday hfe were trans- 
 'ormed into poetical images by the mystic light in which 
 be placed them. Sir Joshua Reynolds once, when asked 
 iow he could endure to paint the ugly cocked hats and 
 bonnets of his time, replied, " They have all lights and 
 shadows," and thus it was with Rembrandt. Mrs. Jameson 
 tias called him " The King of Shadows." 
 
 " Earth-born 
 And sky-engcndeied — son of mysteries." 
 
 He may also be compared to some powerful wizard. 
 Compelling nature to yield to him the secrets of her dark 
 caverns, and mysterious effects, and noting them down 
 with brush or etching needle in the book of magic we call 
 his works. 
 
 Rembrandt Hermanszoon van Ryn (son of Herman 
 of the Rhine), was bom at Leyden in 1607. His father 
 was in easy circumstances, and at his death left a consider- 
 able property to Rembrandt and his six brothers and sisters. 
 Rembrandt was educated at the Latin School at Leyden, 
 but as he early showed a far greater taste for art than for 
 learning, his father refrained from sending him to the 
 University as he had intended, and placed him under a 
 
332 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 master named Isaakszoon van Swanenberg to study 
 painting. After three years with him he was sent to 
 Amsterdam to study with Pieter Lastman, a painter "^ 
 some reputation in his day. Jacob Pinas is likewise > 
 to have been his teacher, but his course of study with thc.^c 
 masters could not have been long, for in [1628 he was in 
 Leyden again, and teaching G-erard Dou. His earhest 
 works are dated 1627, and in] 1630, when he was only 
 twenty-two, we find that he had set up for himself at 
 Amsterdam, and had gained much notice by the originality 
 of his style. Four years afterwards, namely in 1635, he 
 married Saskia Uilenberg, a young lady belonging to a 
 noble Friesland family, and possessed of a good fortune, 
 which at her death, in 1642, she left to Eembrandt in trust 
 for their only son Titus. 
 
 Why, in the face of these facts, it should have been 
 always asserted that Eembrandt married a low peasant 
 girl of Eansdorp, it is difficult to understand, unless the 
 facts were invented to suit the preconceived theory of Eem- 
 brandt being a vulgar sot, whom no lady would have 
 married. But we not only find that the rich and beautiful 
 Saskia chose him for a husband, but that some of the most 
 learned and polished men in Amsterdam sought his society, 
 and valued his friendship. The Burgomaster, Jan Six, and 
 the celebrated professor, Nikolaus Tulp, depicted in the 
 Anatomy Lesson, were his intimate friends, and the staid 
 Dutch poet, Decker, wrote a sonnet in his praise. Eem- 
 brandt has likewise been stigmatised as a miser, and 
 numerous absurd anecdotes are related in proof of his 
 supposed avaricious habits. These appear to rest upon 
 the same amount of evidence as the other stories concern- 
 ing him, all the facts that have been gained tending to 
 prove that he lived in good style in Amsterdam, and sjDent 
 his money freely, especially in the purchase of art-treasures, 
 of which he had a large collection. In 1656, however, he 
 became a bankrupt, and all his valuable pictures, drawings, 
 and other works of art, as well as his household effects, 
 were sold under a judicial execution.^ 
 
 ^ The interesting catalogue of this sale has been discovered and 
 printed. It shows that Kembrandt did not despise the works of classical 
 and Ital a i art, although he never tried to imitate them. 
 
OOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHEELAND8. 333 
 
 After this trouble, which was, probably, caused more by- 
 he financial difficulties of the times than by any fault of 
 lis own, Kembrandt seems to have led a very secluded life 
 n Amsterdam, devoted entirely to his art. The time and 
 lace of his death were for a long time unknown to his 
 )iographers, but Dr. Scheltema has at last satisfactorily 
 )roved, from the registry of his burial, that he died on the 
 ^th of October, 1669, at Amsterdam, and was buried in the 
 Westerkerk of that city. Beneath this registry is a state- 
 nent to the effect that " Catherina Van Wyck, the widow, 
 las declared that she has no means of proving that her 
 liildren had anything to inherit from their father," so that 
 t is clear that Eembrandt must have married again after 
 he death of Saskia, but when is not known. ^ 
 
 Thus much, or rather thus little, has been gained by 
 ililigent research concerning the outer life of the great 
 painter-engraver, but unfortunately entries of births and 
 deaths, and such-like facts, valuable enough in their way, 
 give us no insight into the inner life and real heart of the 
 man whose doings they record. How pleasant it would be 
 to have some personal record of the great Dutch artist's 
 mode of life in Amsterdam — some fragment of a diary, or 
 letter to Saskia, giving us a glimpse of his thoughts and 
 his feelings — but not one scrap of writing of his has been 
 preserved; nor amongst all his pupils did one think it 
 worth while to set down his master's words, or record any 
 traits of his character. 
 
 But let us not complain. Have we not hip works ? And 
 are not these the true index to the mind of the artist? 
 Happily there is no lack of them; we find pictures by 
 Eembrandt in almost every gallery, and their individuality 
 of style is so marked that even the careless lounger soon 
 gets to know them, and is able to afiirm " there is a Rem- 
 brandt " without reference to the catalogue. Powerful 
 contrasts of light and shade, intense gloom lit up by a 
 single concentrated beam of light, making " darkness 
 visible," these are the chief effects that Kembrandt sought 
 after, and reproduced. He never looked at nature in her 
 
 * " Redevoering over het Leven en de Verdiensten Van Kembrandt 
 Van Ryn," translated into French in 1859 by W. Burger, and into Eng- 
 lish by me in 1867. 
 
334 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 soft twilight moods, but loved to set lier noon-day and Im r 
 night in sudden fierce opposition. It is only by degi' 
 and sometimes after long contemplation, that objects da ._ 
 on our view out of his great masses of warm shadow, for at 
 first, as in nature, our eyes are too dazzled with the glcrv 
 of the light to see clearly. 
 
 This is especially the case with that marvellous pict 111*3 
 at Amsterdam, known by the name of " the Night-watch," 
 the most celebrated, perhaps, of all his works. What this 
 picture is meant to represent no one has been able to define. 
 The scene is a daylight one, although, for some unac- 
 countable reason, called the Night-watch, and apparently 
 depicts a company of arquebussiers going forth to shoot at 
 a mark. A young girl in strange festal attire is in the 
 midst of them with a cock, supposed to be meant as a 
 prize for the victor, attached to her belt. Such is the 
 literal prosaic interpretation of this painting ; but whoever 
 has eyes to see it, will perceive that this extraordinary pro- 
 duction is lifted far above the prosaic by the golden radiance 
 that falls upon it. We know not, indeed, the meaning of 
 the picture, but we feel in looking at it that we are in the 
 presence not of the vulgar portray er of Dutch marksmen, 
 but of the " King of Shadows," and Prince of Light.^ The 
 Night-watch was executed in 1642, in the full maturity of 
 the artist's powers ; but ten years before this he had already 
 achieved a high position amongst artists by his powerful 
 Anatomy Lesson, a picture now at the Hague, in which all 
 the peculiar characteristics of his style are strikingly dis- 
 played. 
 
 The paintings in the National Gallery are sufficient to 
 give the English student a very good notion of the extent 
 and the limits of Eembrandt's j^owers. He had not the 
 slightest feeling for form ; indeed, as Fuseli remarks, he 
 •often falls into " portentous deformity," his design is care- 
 less, his subjects vulgar, his accessories trivial, and his 
 draperies the very reverse of antique. And even his faculty 
 of vision was as concentrated as the light in his pictures. 
 It fell only on certain objects, and enveloped all else in 
 
 * A small copy of the Night-watch is in the National Gallery. The 
 Teduced copy, however, does not in any way reproduce the striking 
 •effect of the original. 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 335 
 
 gloom. Yet withiu the focus of his powers no man has 
 ever produced such astounding results, and when we find 
 that his paintings amount to six hundred, and his etchings 
 to four hundred,^ we are lost in amazement, no less at the 
 originality than at the rapidity of his work. 
 
 Many of his works, both painted and etched, are por- 
 traits, and if we accept Ruskin's dictum that " the highest 
 thing art can do is to set before you the true image of a 
 noble human being," then, surely, Eembrandt has done 
 the very highest of which art is capable. Every one knows 
 his old men's and old women's heads, in which not only every 
 wrinkle and every shade is faithfully depicted, but every care, 
 ovcry sorrow, and every joy of the sitter's life is expressed ; 
 his i)ortraits, in fact, like Titian's and all truly great por- 
 traits, are, strictly speaking, biographies, and we learn more 
 of those impassable, shrewd old Dutchmen from them than 
 from many elaborate histories. 
 
 His landscapes express the poetry of northern scenery, 
 for the north has a poetry of its own, however much the 
 worshippers of Claude's sunny skies may despise it. But 
 study Rembrandt's well-known etching of the Three Trees 
 for half an hour in silence, and the poetry of the flat dull 
 Netherland landscape will da^vn even on minds educated 
 to behold no beauty out of Italy. His etched landscapes, 
 in fact his etchings generally, reveal the peculiarity of his 
 genius still more strikingly than his paintings. They 
 were not only conceived, but executed in a manner of his 
 own, the secret of which no one has since been able to 
 discover. 
 
 His prints are now the prized treasures of collectors, 
 and fabulous sums are given for early impressions.^ 
 
 Dutch art may almost be said to begin and end within 
 the lifetime of Rembrandt, at all events, before the end of 
 the century we find it dying out amongst painters of cab- 
 bages and poultiy, pots and pans. There is no succession 
 of painters in Holland like we have seen in Italy, and 
 Flanders, and Germany, but they all crowd close together 
 in one short northern summer, and then disappear. Rem- 
 
 ' Wornum. ' 
 
 '-' There is a splendid collection of them in the British Musenm, 
 
336 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII, 
 
 brandt, however, must be regarded as the founder of the 
 Dutch school, though several of its masters were born 
 before him, and seem to have been but little under his 
 influence. 
 
 [The greatest of these was Frans Hals (1584-1666), < 
 of the most masterly painters of all time. To him wc 
 shall return, but Rembrandt had other precursors as a 
 portrait painter whose works were of a high class. The 
 most important of these were Michael van Mierevelt 
 (1568-1641), Paulus Moreelse (1571-1638), Jan van 
 Ravesteyn (1580-1665), and Thomas de Keyzer (1597- 
 1679), remarkable for their vigorous interpretation and 
 firm touch, fine colour and realistic characterization. 
 Van Ravesteyn was the first to paint those large groups of 
 counsellors, or governors of hospitals, confraternities, &c., 
 called " regenten-stuk " or " doelen-stuk," of which so 
 many are to be seen in Dutch galleries, and in painting 
 which Rembrandt, and Franz Hals, and Van der Heist 
 displayed such excellence in different ways. 
 
 Of Rembrandt's numerous pupils the most important 
 as portrait and historical painters were Ferdinand Bol 
 (1611-1681), and] Govert Flinck (1615-1660). 
 
 [The early portraits of Bol are masterly works worthy of 
 his great instructor. There are several in the Louvre, but 
 his greatest work of this class is the Meeting of Regents, 
 in the Leprozenhuis at Amsterdam. After about 1660 he 
 deserted Rembrandt and portrait for Rubens and allegory, 
 and both his taste and painting became deteriorated. 
 
 GovERT Flinck was second only to Bol in his re- 
 ceptiveness and power of reproducing in his master's 
 spirit. His success was such that his works of the first 
 ten years were often mistaken for those of Rembrandt. 
 One of his finest pictures is The Blessing of Isaac (1638), 
 at Amsterdam. His later works are more Flemish in style 
 and inferior, but he always preserved vigour and technical 
 skill. 
 
 Another pupil of Rembrandt, celebrated for portrait and 
 historical pictures, was Carel Fabritius, bom, probably, 
 at Haarlem, in 1624, after studying under Rembrandt at 
 Amsterdam, settled in 1649 at Delft, where he was killed 
 in 1654 by the explosion of a powder magazine. Dying so 
 
pooK VII.J PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 337 
 
 oimg he left but few works ; but those are so excellent that 
 hej have remained until lately hidden under the name of 
 lis teacher. A portrait, with signature, is in the Museum 
 )f Rotterdam (No. 86), and a picture of a Goldfinch in 
 he Lacroix collection, Paris, signed C. Fabritius, 1654 ; 
 liese and The Beheading of St. John the Baptist, at 
 Amsterdam, are almost the only known works of his.] 
 
 Perhaps the most sedulous imitator of his master's 
 nanner was Gerbeandt van den Eeckbout (1621-1674), 
 who borrowed whole compositions from him. His pictures 
 ire often mistaken for Rembrandts, e.g., the fine Christ 
 Blessing Little Children, in the National Gallery, No. 757, 
 fvhich was bought for a Eembrandt, and long passed under 
 lis name in the catalogue.] 
 
 Jan Lievens, bom in the same year as Rembrandt, and 
 aid to have been a fellow pupil with him under Pieter 
 Lastmann, has also many of the peculiarities of Rem- 
 brandt's mode of treatment.^ 
 
 [But a finer and more original painter than either was] 
 Nicolas Maas (1632-1693), [who, though unmistakably the 
 pupil of Rembrandt, developed a style of much individua- 
 lity in colour, handling, and sentiment.] His rare genre 
 pictures have not the triviality of the other genre painters 
 of this date, but evince true sentiment, and his kindly, 
 homely, domestic subjects are pleasant little tales of old 
 Dutch life. [Of this the three pictures in the National 
 Gallery (Nos. 153, 159, 207) afford excellent examples. 
 His larger works. Young Girl at her Window, at Amster- 
 dam, and An Old Woman Spinning, are Rembrandtesque 
 in their powerful, ample touch and clever characterization. 
 He visited Antwerp whilst still young, and the long string 
 of flabbily painted, commonplace portraits ascribed to him 
 and painted subsequently to that date, present a marked 
 contrast to his first works.] 
 
 [The life of Jan Victoor, Victors, or Fictoors, is yet 
 to be written. He was born about 1620 and died after the 
 year 1662. His earUest work is Haman before Esther, 
 1632, now in the Brunswick Museum. His honest, solid 
 
 [' There is a portrait in the National Gallery, No. 1095, ascribed to 
 Lievens.] 
 
338 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 painting partakes of Rembrandt's manner and power. His 
 genre subjects, The Dentist, 1654, and The Pork But<rher, 
 1648, both in the Van der Hoop collection, Amsterdam, 
 are of much merit. Two other pupils of Rembrandt, Gerard 
 Don and Philip de Koninck, belong to the genre and land- 
 scape groups of Dutch painters, but before we come to 
 these attention must be drawn to the two greatest rivals 
 of Rembrandt as a portrait painter. One of these, Frans 
 Hals (1584-1666), Rembrandt's senior bv more than 
 twenty years, was not indeed a rival of his while alive, nor 
 does the art of the one artist appear to have in the least 
 affected the other. He lived his life at Haarlem (though 
 he was born at Malines), where he painted the famous 
 Beresteyn portraits (now in the Louvre), and where may 
 now be seen his greatest work, grand portrait compositions 
 of the Archers of S. George and S. Adrien, and the Regents 
 of the hospitals for old men and women ; works which, of 
 their class, are unequalled in the world. For vigour of 
 drawing, strong presentation of character, boldness and 
 success of colour, and extraordinary freedom of execution, 
 it is only such portrait painters as Rubens, Vandyck, Rem- 
 brandt, and Velasquez that can be compared to him. He 
 is represented, but not very well, by a " Portrait of a 
 Woman," No. 1021, in the National Gallery. If an auda- 
 cious vivacity is the characteristic of Frans Hals, calmness 
 and care are the notes of the art of Bartholomeus van der 
 Helst (1630-1670). In technical knowledge and dexterity 
 ne is scarcely surpassed by any artist ; his command over 
 nis materials was complete. Without any over-elaboration, 
 or the slightest trace of difficulty, he could represent all 
 objects with an amazing truthfulness both of general aspect 
 and detail. It is perhaps the great accuracy and ease with 
 which he wielded his great gifts that give them an air of 
 cold perfection, which does not attract all in the same 
 measure as the more fervid imagination and more vivacious 
 handling of Frans Hals, but to others his Banquet of the 
 Civic Guard on the occasion of the Peace of Munster (at 
 Amsterdam) appears the most masterly painting of its kind 
 in the world. In balance of composition, perfection of exe- 
 cution, and perfect characterization of each of its twenty- 
 five life-size figures, it has indeed few rivals. There is o.. 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 339 
 
 portrait of a lady by him in the National Gallery, No. 
 140.] 
 
 [Van der Heist left no pupils of note, and Hals few. 
 The latter' s son, Frans Hals the Younger, imitated his 
 father. A clever sketch of Two singing Boys, in the manner 
 of the elder Hals, is in the Arenberg Gallery at Brussels, 
 and the Portrait of a Man (No. 183), in the Stildel, Frank- 
 fort, is by Frans Hals the younger.] 
 
 [Dirk Hals, brother of the elder Frans, who died at 
 Haarlem in 1656, painted genre in the same style as Pala- 
 niedes. There is a good example of Dirk in the National 
 Gallery (No. 1074).] 
 
 [Of the Dutch painters who specially devoted themselves 
 to the painting of scenes of every day life or genre, many 
 were more or less influenced by Rembrandt. Maas has al- 
 ready been mentioned, and there are two other artists who 
 merit some separate treatment because of their splendid 
 colour, their unusually broad and brilliant effects of light, 
 and a certain large simplicity of manner. They were also 
 distinct from the place of their residence, viz. Delft, and 
 the fact that they are both thought to have been affected 
 l)y the example of Carel Fabritius, the pupil of Eembrandt. 
 These were Peter de Hoogh (or Hooch), born at Rotter- 
 dam (1632-1681), and Jan van der Meer (or Vermeer), 
 who, to distinguish him from other painters of the same 
 name belonging to Haarlem, is generally called Vermeer of 
 Delft. The former is specially celebrated for his broad and 
 luminous effects of sunlight in interiors and courtyards, 
 reflected from the surfaces of bricks and marble polished 
 floors and furniture, painted doors and shutters, and pene- 
 trating through semi-transparent blinds and curtains, and 
 also for his brilliant and harmonious colour. The latter's 
 works have much similarity to those of De Hoogh, and 
 have been confused with them till a few years ago, but his 
 scale of colour is different, he is less partial to red, prefer- 
 ing contrasts of blue and gold in his costumes, and he has 
 a peculiar broken touch, and a vibrating quality in his light 
 which is quite his own. England was the first country to 
 recognize De Hoogh' s particular merits and is particu- 
 larly rich in his works. There are fine examples in the 
 Queen's Collection, and there are three of first-rate quality 
 
340 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 in the National Gallery, Nos. 794, 834 and 835. By Ver- 
 meer of Delft, only about thirty works are known ; the 
 most celebrated are The Reader, in the Van der Hoop 
 Museum, The Milkwoman, and Street in Delft, in the Six 
 Gallery at Amsterdam ; the marvellously luminous View 
 of Delft, at the Hague Museum, the Girl with a Drinking 
 Glass, at Brunswick, and the Girl at an Oj^en Window 
 (long ascribed to De Hoogh) at Dresden.] 
 
 Next come a set of painters who might with some cor- 
 rectness be called The Little Masters of Holland, not only 
 from the usually small size of their works, but likewise 
 from the smallness of the ideas set forth in them. 
 
 Gerard Dow, or more correctly Dou (1610-1675-80), is 
 the chief of this school. He is, in truth, the very genius 
 of littleness. Nothing is too minute for his patience and 
 finish. " If none knew like Eembrandt," writes Leslie, 
 ** how to give importance to a trifle, Gerard Dow, on the 
 other hand, turned the most important things into trifles," 
 or rather, he never painted anything but trifles. The elabo- 
 ration and perfection of his detail is something astounding. 
 
 We can form some idea of the way in which he worked 
 from an instance related by Sandrart, who says, that once 
 when he and Pieter de Laar went to see one of Gerard 
 Don's pictures, and were praising the admirable painting 
 of a broomstick, the artist informed them that " he had 
 three days' more work to do upon it ! " 
 
 Such was the work of these little masters. It consisted 
 principally in painting broomsticks, but in painting them 
 with such marvellous skill and truthfulness, that we are 
 obliged to own that broomsticks were never so painted before. 
 
 Gerard Dou worked for three years, we are told, in 
 Rembrandt's school, and no doubt acquired his accurate 
 knowledge of chiaroscuro there, but he cannot, strictly 
 speaking, be classed as a follower of Rembrandt, for he 
 struck out the " little " line for himself, and was faithfully 
 followed in it by several pupils and imitators. 
 
 He painted portraits with great skill, only it is said that 
 he so wearied his sitters by the time he required,^ that he 
 got but few to sit to him. He took his own portrait, how- 
 
 * He once kept a distinguished Dutch lady posed for five days whilst 
 he was painting one of her hands. 
 
JJOOK VIT.] PAINTING IN THE NETHEELANDS. 341 
 
 ever, many times. One excellent portrait of himself "wlien 
 he was quite a young man is in the Bridgewater Gallery ; 
 another, with a fiddle, admirably finished, and well known, 
 is in the Dresden Gallery ; another is in the Louvre ; and 
 another in our National Collection. 
 
 Perhaps the most celebrated of all his works is the 
 painting known as La Femme Hydropique, in the Louvre. 
 A lady of middle age, and, apparently, the prey to a dread- 
 ful disease, leans back on a chair by a window, her daughter 
 kneeling beside her in hopeless grief. A physician stands 
 by examining the contents of a bottle, on which, possibly, 
 his verdict of life or death depends. Every accessory is, 
 of course, painted with the minutest accuracy. This is the 
 only picture that I remember having seen by Gerard Dou 
 in which anything like human emotion, even in a slight 
 degree, is expressed.^ 
 
 Dentistry was a favourite subject of his art. He has 
 given us several painfully faithful records of tooth ex- 
 traction. Hermits were likewise depicted by him, but 
 without the slightest religious feeling. 
 
 But, for the most part, the subjects he chose have such 
 designations as these. An old woman scraping a carrot, a 
 yoimg woman cleaning a saucepan, a woman and a boy 
 surrounded by apples, pears, carrots, and red cabbages, a 
 Liirl chopping onions ; not very exalted themes for art, nor 
 ( alculated to awaken any deep sentiment in the mind of 
 the beholder, but better, nevertheless, than the feeble 
 ideality, the sham sentiment, the gods and naked goddesses, 
 and the senseless allegories of the Flemish Italianisers and 
 later Italians.^ 
 
 " The Prince of his scholars," as Gerard Dou called him, 
 was Frans Mieris (1G35-1681). He, indeed, excelled even 
 liis master in the minutiae of his painting, and nothing can 
 1 )0 more perfect in their small way than some of his little 
 < al)inet pictures.^ This class of Dutch genre painters seem, 
 
 ' The decided emotion displayed by his dentist's patients ought, per- 
 haps, to be excepted. 
 
 [^ There are eleven pictures by this wonderful executant in the 
 ry)uvre, two at the Hague, of which one is the celebrated Young 
 'i'ailoress, and several in the Museum at Amsterdam.] 
 
 [' A different opinion has been expressed by M. Havard. He writes : 
 " If he (Mieris) succeeded in proving himself by the elegance of his 
 
342 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 in fact, to have had every faculty of great artists except 
 one — mind. Their language was excellent, but they ex- 
 pressed by it only the most trivial thoughts. Good Dutch 
 housewives bargaining for poultry in the market-place, or 
 plucking their winged purchases in the kitchen; stolid 
 boors drinking outside or inside a tavern ; buxom damsels 
 in rich satin dresses talking to foolish cavaliers, or having 
 music lessons, or sitting for their portraits, or partaking 
 of elegant refreshments offered by little footboys on silver 
 salvers ; children blowing soap-bubbles ; such were the 
 favourite themes of these men, nor did they care, even in 
 these, to look below the mere surface of the life they re- 
 presented. Even a boy blowing soap-bubbles, or a house- 
 wife purchasing a fowl, we may find fraught with interest 
 if the painter has entered into the joyous heart of the boy, 
 or the frugal soul of the housewife ; but most of the Dutch 
 genre painters (there were several exceptions) cared nothing 
 for the underlying sentiment of their subject ; all they 
 desired was to represent the thing they saw, they felt no- 
 thing, so they could not tell us what they felt. 
 
 The cheerful character of their works is another of their 
 distinguishing features. We never find anything like 
 gloom in a Dutch genre painter. Life to him was simply 
 a time to eat, drink, and be merry, to maiTy and be given 
 in marriage, to lay up com in barns, and, in fact, to make 
 the most of present enjoyment, it being quite uncertain 
 what comes next. 
 
 Frans Van Mieris has this happy carelessness to the 
 full. His pictures are full of good humour and self-satis- 
 faction, and we have in them, at all events, a most skilful 
 delineation of furniture and ornamental accessories. "The 
 quality of his stuffs," says a critic appreciative of this kind 
 of work, " is distinctly defined, and no representation can 
 surpass in truth the beauty of his silks, satins and velvets.'* 
 [His son Willem and grandson Frans the Younger, painted 
 the same subjects, but their minutiae is much drier. Both 
 Frans Van Mieris and his son Willem are represented in 
 the National Gallery, Nos. 840 and 841.] 
 
 poses, and the arrangement of his figures, the distinguished disciple of 
 Gerai'd Dow, his hght and shade and execution were always far inferior 
 to his master's." — Havard, " The Dutch School of Fainting."] 
 
BOOK VII,] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 343 
 
 But by far the greatest painter of silks, satins, and 
 velvets, was Gerard Terburg ^ (1608-1681). Terburg is 
 pre-eminently the painter of white satin! His noblest 
 aspiration reached no farther than the glossy folds of a 
 lady's rich dress, but these he reproduced with a compre- 
 hension of their soft texture, and an appreciation of the 
 degrees of light and shade that fell upon them, that (one 
 is almost relieved to find) have never been equalled in art. 
 
 Careful execution and delicate finish, it will be said, 
 were the very qualities so highly praised in the early 
 Flemish painters, and this is true. No one ever finished 
 more minutely than Van Eyck, not even one of the little 
 masters of Holland. But the early masters finished their 
 work because they delighted in it, and loved to make it as 
 perfect in every little particular as possible. They thought 
 their thought first, and then set it forth with the utmost 
 skill of hand they possessed, but the Dutchmen seem to 
 have had no thought to express. All they cared for was to 
 display their skill. They worked with their hands, in fact, 
 and not with their minds, and so after admiring satin 
 dresses, rich goblets, brocaded curtains, and splendid fur- 
 niture for a time, one grows unutterably weary of these 
 " conversation pieces," as they are called. Gerard Terburg 
 is about the most vacuous artist of them all. Take the 
 description as given by Smith,^ of any one of his paintings, 
 luid we shall find that it always resolves itself into a 
 description of the dress of the performing puppets of the 
 piece. No. 8, for instance, styled in the catalogue, the 
 Glass of Lemonade, represents '* a company of two ladies 
 and a gentleman in a handsome apartment, the elder lady 
 is standing with her hand on the shoulder of the other, 
 AN ho is seated with a glass of lemonade in her hand, which 
 a cavalier sitting opposite to her is stirring with a silver 
 knife" (this is the thrilling incident that gives its name 
 to the picture, but now we come to the important part), 
 " the latter lady is dressed in a yellow velvet negligee bor- 
 dered with ermine, a white satin petticoat trimmed with 
 gold, and wears a black hood tied under her chin ; a stool 
 ( overed with red velvet, on which is a dog, stands on the 
 
 ' OrTerBorch. 
 
 * Smith, " Catalogue Raisonne of the Flemish and Dutch Painters." 
 
34)4 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 left, and on the opposite side are a monkey and a taLIo 
 with a bottle and basin on it." 
 
 The celebrated picture at Amsterdam, known as " Con- 
 seil Paternelle," and of which there is an admirable repe- 
 tition in the Bridge water Gallery is of the same class. It 
 means nothing more than the supremely skilful painting 
 of white satin, not a trace of anything approaching human 
 emotion being visible in it.'" 
 
 Gabriel Metsu (1640, living in 1669), the friend of 
 Jan Steen, is a painter of exactly the same taste. "His 
 subjects generally," says a commentator,^ "are of the 
 genteel and decorous order," but he was not so uniformly 
 "genteel" as Terburg, and often painted the market and 
 kitchen scenes of more homely life : occasionally, indeed, 
 we have a slight touch of humour in his works.^ 
 
 Gaspar Netscher, Pieter van Slingelandt, Gode- 
 FRiED ScHALKEN, and scvcral other inferior painters whose 
 names it is needless to enumerate, all belong to the same 
 class, and were mostly followers of Gerard Dou or Gerard 
 Terburg, these being the two leading masters of the little 
 school of Dutch genre painters. [Other lesser genre painters 
 of the Dutch school were the Molenaers, the Palamedes, 
 Dirk Stoop, Pieter Codde, Cornelius Bega, Cornelis 
 DusART, Quirting Brekelenkam, Sorgh, and Adrien 
 DE Pape. The National Gallery j)ossesses examples of the 
 last two] .* 
 
 Jan Steen (1626-1679) is the one original genius 
 
 [^ The National Gallery contains one of Terburg's most celebrated 
 works, The Peace of Munster, (896), and a first-rate example of his 
 elegSLXit ffe7ire pieces. The Guitar Lesson (864). Terburg is distinguished 
 as a painter of " society." He travelled much, and when in Spain learnt 
 something of the grand style of Velasquez. He was a fine portrait 
 painter and colorist, a most accomplished painter, and stands in the front 
 rank of the " little masters " of Holland.] 
 
 ^ Stanley, " Synopsis of the Flemish and Dutch Schools." 
 
 [3 There are three fine examples of Gabriel Metsu in the National 
 Gallery (838, 839, and 970.) Metsu ranks with Terburg among the 
 gi*eat " little " masters of Holland. The Music Lesson (8;39), is excep- 
 tionally fine in colour and workmanship.] 
 
 [^ All these painters, as well as Mieris, were inferior to Metsu, Dow, 
 Terburg, Maas, De Hoogh, and Vermeer, as well as many of the painters 
 who follow. There are thi-ee examples of Netscher and four of Scballcen 
 in the National Gallery.] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 345 
 
 amongst the Dutcli genre painters. He is a thoroughly 
 sympathetic artist, and enters into the broad fun of the 
 scenes he depicts with keen appreciation and enjoyment. 
 In the obvious moral lessons he sometimes enforces (in 
 such pictures, for instance, as the Effects of Intemperance), 
 he somewhat resembles Hogarth ; but he has none of the 
 stern purpose of the English moralist ; on the contrary, 
 he is essentially a laughing philosopher, and remains on 
 friendly terms with the devil even whilst painting his 
 cloven feet. 
 
 The character of Jan Steen, as drawn by his earlier 
 biographers, is that of a jolly, careless Bacchus, a sort of 
 Falstaff amongst artists, who led a rollicking drunken life 
 amidst a chosen band of boon companions, many of them 
 younger artists, whom he had seduced from respectability 
 by his evil example. Such was the old-fashioned notion 
 of Jan Steen' s character, but much of this has been changed 
 by his modern biographers. One of them,^ indeed, endea- 
 vours to show that he led a sober and industrious life, and 
 was, in fact, an exemplary domestic character. Certainly, 
 when we consider the amount of work he accomplished,^ 
 we cannot suppose that he was the drunken old reprobate 
 that his early biographers have depicted. Still, it is diffi- 
 cult to believe that he was a pattern of sobriety ; his jolly- 
 looking portraits so often painted by himself in his pictures 
 seem to deny the imputation. 
 
 [The son of a brewer of Leyden, Jan Steen studied 
 under Knuffer at Utrecht. He then spent some time 
 under Van Goyen at the Hague. He married his master's 
 daughter in 1649, and set up a brewery at Delft, in which 
 he failed, and in 1661 went to live at Haarlem. His wife, 
 Margaret van Goyen, died in 1673, and he soon after 
 married a widow. In Haarlem he associated with the 
 Ostades.] 
 
 In one of Jan Steen's most celebrated pictures he has 
 set forth the pleasures of oyster-eating. The painting is 
 called, it is true, a Representation of Human Life, but it 
 is really nothing more than a large oyster party. About 
 twenty persons of different ages, varying from infancy to 
 
 ' M. T. Van Westrheene, " Jan Steon." La Haye. 1856. 
 ' He has left us upwards of three hundred pictures. 
 
346 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII, 
 
 old age, are engaged simply in opening and eating oysters. 
 The subject is raised above vulgarity by its vs^hiinsical con- 
 trasts, its humorous expression, its eifective chiaroscuro, 
 and its wonderful execution. It is now in the Gallery at 
 the Hague. The Effects of Intemperance, before mentioned, 
 is hkewise a remarkable work. In it the artist has positively 
 introduced portraits of himself and his wife, as pointing 
 the moral of the scene. Both are depicted in drunken 
 slumber after the enjoyments of a feast. The confusion 
 that reigns round them is supreme. One of the children, 
 who are playing about, is picking the pocket of her uncon- 
 scious mother, another is smashing wine-glasses, a dog 
 upon the table is devouring the remains of a pasty, a 
 monkey has possessed himself of some parchment deeds, 
 whilst a servant in the background is stealing some money 
 bags, and a cat knocks down the china.^ 
 
 Adrian Brauwer (1606-1638) is a painter of great 
 merit, though his works are usually coarse in expression, 
 and betray innate vulgarity of mind. The stories told of 
 the early poverty of this artist, and his ill-treatment by 
 Frans Hals, rest upon very doubtful evidence. [Bom at 
 Audenaerde, he studied under Hals at Haarlem, and in 1631 
 established himself at Antwerp in the house of his friend 
 and pupil, Josse Craesbeek (then a baker), under t^e 
 patronage of Eubens and the Prince of Arenberg. He is 
 said to have sojourned previously in Paris.] He mostly 
 painted peasant scenes [many of which have been ascribed 
 to Teniers, the Molenaers, or the Ostades, though his 
 best works are broader in treatment, cooler in tone, and 
 exhibit a refined delicacy of colour and exquisite trans- 
 parency of shadow, scarcely attained by any other master.] 
 
 Adrian van Ostade, born in 1610 at Haarlem, died 
 there in 1685. The son of a weaver, he learned painting 
 under Frans Hals. He painted scenes from peasant life, 
 but chose the serious side of that life, and represented his 
 peasants in all the stern reality of suffering, poverty, and 
 want. His children are always the most melancholy speci- 
 mens of aged childhood, with a premature expression of 
 
 [* A highly finished " conversation piece," a lady taking a lesson on 
 the hai'psiohord, is the only specimen of Jan Steen's skill in the National 
 Gallery (No. 856).] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 347 
 
 anxiety, such as we often see, alas ! in the forced childish 
 growth of a London alley. 
 
 Charles Blanc characterizes Ostade as " un Eembrandt 
 familier et un Teniers serieux," and it is true that he does 
 unite, to a certain extent, several of the quahties of these 
 masters ; in the management of light and shade, especially, 
 he gained much from Rembrandt.^ 
 
 Isaac van Ostade (1621-1649) was a younger brother 
 and scholar of Adrian. His peasant scenes are more cheer- 
 ful, but not nearly so excellent as those of his brother.^ 
 
 Several inferior painters of the same class of subjects, 
 and a few more dreary mechanical artists, who chose mili- 
 tary scenes for their art, close the line of Dutch genre 
 painters. 
 
 The Landscape Painters of Holland have met with 
 unbounded praise, or unbounded abuse, according to the 
 particular views that their critics happened to hold. They 
 seem to have been, on the whole, patient honest men, who 
 painted faithfully the nature they saw around them, not 
 attempting to give it a poetic charm or ideal character 
 that they did not comprehend. Far wiser in this than those 
 poor feeble Flemings who vainly tried to imagine classic 
 ruins and Italian skies, or than several Dutch masters of 
 this time, who, despising the flat fields of their own 
 
 ^ [M. Havard writes of this admirable artist, " Ostade, like his friend 
 Braiiwer, made a speciality of popular and peasant scenes. Taverns, 
 village inns, hostelries, and rustic scenes, constantly supplied subjects 
 for his brush ; but he did not, like Brauwer, represent drinking-bouts, 
 fights, and adventures in low life. His ' Vagabonds' are honest people 
 devoting themselves to gaiety, singing and drinking, and professing an 
 especial liking for the games of skittles and bowls ; for the most part, 
 however, they are worthy fathers of families, detesting brawls, drinking 
 only to a moderate extent, rather affectionate than quaiTelsome, rarely 
 beating their wives, and never whipping their children ; and if they are 
 always laughing, it is ' because to laugh is the privilege of man.' As a 
 matter of fact Ostade's figures are not always laugiiing, nor always 
 serious. He painted men as he found them, with a singular sympathy 
 for their joys as well as their sorrows, for the young as well as the old. 
 His few pictures from sacred history are full of true reverence, though 
 the figures are those of Dutchmen, and the scenery that of Holland." 
 There is one example of A. van Ostade in the National Gallery, 846, 
 The Alchymist.] 
 
 [■■* This artist is well represented in the National Gallery by four 
 pictures, including a fine Portrait of a Boy, 1137.] 
 
348 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 country, sought for inspiration not from Italian nature, 
 but from Italian art, and became mere imitators of third- 
 rate Italian artists. 
 
 Jan van Goyen (1596-1666), and Jan Wynants (1600, 
 living in 1679), are important, not so much from their 
 own merits — though they are not artists to be overlooked — 
 as from their having been the first painters of genuine 
 Dutch landscape, a line in which they were followed by 
 several greater men/ These may be divided into painters 
 of landscape with cattle, and painters of landscape without 
 cattle. [Van Goyen's numerous views of rivers and canals 
 are distinguished for their breadth and simplicity. He 
 painted very lightly in sober browns and greys, varying 
 from pale red to pale green, and showed a delicate feeling 
 for light and colour. Amongst his jDupils were Simon de 
 Ylieger and Nicholas Coelebier, of Haarlem. Of the 
 latter nothing else is knoAvn except that he cojjied Van 
 Goyen' s manner, but with a somewhat heavier touch. 
 Simon de Vlieger (1612-1660) followed also Willem van 
 de Velde. His later works are more varied in colour than 
 Van Goyen' s. Of Jan Wynants, of Haarlem, little is 
 known. His clear, bright landscapes are truthful in draw- 
 ing, delicate in aerial perspective, are minuter in detail, and 
 more romantic in feeling than those of Van Goyen. The 
 charming little figures introduced were mostly by Adrian 
 van de Velde, Lingelbach, Barent Gael, Held Stockade, 
 and others. In the National Gallery are five examples of 
 Wynants. There also are two fine works by Philip de 
 KoNiNCK (1619-1689), of Amsterdam, who was one of 
 Kembrandt's best pupils. His landscapes are generally 
 panoramic in their character. The larger of those in the 
 National Gallery (No. 836) shows a vast expanse of flat 
 country, with a small town in the middle^ ground. The 
 wide view stretches back, plane upon plane, under a beauti- 
 ful sky of rolling clouds, the whole great space full of air 
 and life. One of his most celebrated works is the Mouth 
 
 P With these founders of modern faithful landscape painting should 
 be associated Pieter de Moltn (1600-1654), whose works are rare, 
 (there are examples in the Brunswick Gallery, in the Louvre, and at 
 Berlin), and Solomon van Eutsdael (1600-1670), by whom there is a 
 fine picture of " The Halt at an Inn," in the Museum at Amsterdam.] 
 
EOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHEELANDS. 349 
 
 of a Dutch River in the Arenberg G-allery (Brussels), 
 which in its rendering of the vast expanse of sky, is esjDC- 
 cially reminiscent of Eembrandt's broadly-drawn topo- 
 graphical pieces.] 
 
 Paul Potter (1625-1654) is pre-eminently the painter 
 of the herd. He has been called the Raphael of animal 
 painting, but this title is singularly inappropriate, for he 
 did not in any way idealize bovine beauty. His genius was 
 very early developed. At the age of fourteen, we are told,^ 
 his paintings already ranked with those of famed and ex- 
 I)erienced masters, and they have gone on increasing in 
 market value ever since.^ 
 
 Paul Potter's most celebrated work is the Young Bull of 
 the Hague, painted when he was only twenty-two. It cer- 
 tainly is a wonderful painting as regards size and fidelity 
 to nature, but it has only the merits that a huge photo- 
 graph might possess. Far pleasanter are some of his 
 smaller pictures,^ for instance, one in the same gallery, re- 
 presenting a cow admiring her reflection in a clear, broad 
 pool of water. In the Grosvenor Gallery, in London, also, 
 there is a charming specimen of his smaller productions. 
 Merely a few cows and sheep grazing in the meadows of a 
 dairy farm, but painted with a full comprehension of the 
 peaceful features of the scene, and with beautiful effects 
 of golden light falling on the flat meadows and reposing 
 cattle. 
 
 Paul Potter, it is said, took the greatest pains to make 
 himself acquainted with the character of the animals he 
 loved to paint, and never went out without observing and 
 recording some significant trait or action of ox, cow, or 
 sheep. He seems, in fact, to have entered into the heart of 
 his kine, if such could be, so thorough is his understanding 
 of their natures. 
 
 Paul Potter'engraved a few plates. Bartsch enumerates 
 eighteen, which he says, " font les dclices de tous les con- 
 noisseurs." 
 
 ^ Descamps, " Vie des Peintres." 
 
 '■' A painting of Four Oxen in a Meadow, orijrinally sold for £25, was 
 boufjht by the Emperor of liussia, in 1815, for £2,800. 
 
 ^ [There are two fine ones in the National Gallery, Nos. 649 and 
 1009.] 
 
350 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 Albert Cuyp (1605, about 1691), of Dordrecht, is not 
 merely a cattle painter, like Paul Potter, although he loved 
 to introduce cattle into his landscapes. With the latter, 
 the landscape (always carefully and faithfully painted) 
 simply forms the background to his cattle ; whereas, with 
 Cuyp, the cattle are but one of the varied features of the 
 scene. He has been called the Dutch Claude, and truly the 
 great difference between the landscapes of these two 
 painters lies in the different latitudes in which they 
 painted. They each loved the misty air of the hot noon- 
 day and the golden glow of the afternoon sun ; but Cuyp's 
 sun rose and set over the low fields and ditches of Holland, 
 whilst Claude's gilded the mountains or sunk into the blue 
 lakes of Italy. The country round Dortrecht, the river 
 Maas, with its broad expanse of water, its boats, its ship- 
 ping, and the cattle that grazed on its banks, offered him 
 quite sufficient subjects for his art, for did not the golden 
 sun shine on the river and its belongings, and sometimes 
 even, when the river was frozen, on its clear sheet of ice ? 
 True, it was a Dutch sun ; but was not its light sufficient 
 to gladden a patriotic painter's heart, and to enable him to 
 reproduce its effects on his canvas ? We find the answer 
 in Cuyp's pictures. No painter has ever expressed the 
 peculiar warm, misty air of a summer's afternoon with 
 greater truth. 
 
 The English were the first to see the merits of Cuyp's 
 works, and about nine-tenths of them are in this country.^ 
 
 The Dulwich G-allery contains no less than eighteen 
 Cuyps: nowhere, perhaps, can he be studied to greater 
 advantage [and there are eight in the National Gallery]. 
 Some of his finest paintings are, however, in private hands 
 in this country. 
 
 [Aaart van der Neer (1619-1683) was another of the 
 most celebrated of Dutch landscape painters, particularly 
 
 ^ They were formerly but little esteemed by the Dutch, and conse- 
 quently, sold for absurdly small sums, until English dealers and con- 
 noisseurs raised their value. Kugler says that he was told by a Dutch 
 connoisseur that in past times, when a picture found no bidder at a sale, 
 the auctioneer would throw in a little Cuyp to tempt a purchaser ; and 
 Smith affirms " that down to the year 1750, there is no instance of a 
 painting by his hand selling for more than thirty florins, or something 
 less than three pounds sterling." 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THB NETHEELANDS. 351 
 
 famous for his moonlight scenes. There are four of his 
 works in the National Gallery, in one of which the figures 
 were painted by Cuyp.] 
 
 Philip Woitw^erman (1619-1668) is a painter who has 
 had an immense reputation in his time, but his day seems 
 now to have past.^ Ruskin derides him most unmerci- 
 fully, and several other critics have followed his example. 
 His pictures are, perhaps, the most curious compounds of 
 incongruous ingredients that have ever been painted. He 
 arranges the features of a landscape according to a pattern 
 of his own, and then sets in it cavaliers, horses, dogs, cattle, 
 hunting parties, military skirmishes, blacksmith's forges, 
 village inns, or classic temples as it suits him, very often, 
 indeed, he treats us to two or three of these episodes in the 
 same landscape or ** nonsense picture," as this sort of works 
 has been appropriately called. 
 
 We should remember, however, in criticizing Wouwer- 
 man, that probably only about one eighth part of the pic- 
 tures assigned to him are really by his hand. No artist, 
 except perhaps Holbein, has suffered more in this respect 
 than Wouwerman.^ 
 
 As a rule every Dutch painting that has a white horse 
 in it is set down to him, he having been ajjparently as fond 
 of white horses as Terburg of white satin ; but Pieter and 
 Jan Wouwerman, his brothers, painted similar subjects, 
 and many of the white horses may be theirs. Jan van 
 HuGTENBURG, also, is another painter whose works Wor- 
 num considers have been taken by dealers to swell their 
 lists of Wouwermans.^ 
 
 Jacob Ruysdael, or Van Euisdael * (about 1625-1682), 
 is a genuine painter of landscape — of landsca^^e pure and 
 simple, without accessories of cattle or horses. His land- 
 
 ' [Not quite yet. His peculiar skill in the rpndering of certain atmo- 
 spl.eric effects, the charm of his colour, and beauty of his drawing, still 
 make him a favourite painter with artists and connoisseurs, and fine 
 examples of his art are always likely to command high prices.] 
 
 ^ Wornum, whose authority in such matters as this is unquestionable, 
 says that, instead of the eight or nine hundred pictures given to 
 >Vouverman by experts, ninety is a number nearer the truth. 
 
 ^ [There are eight pictures by Wouverman, and one by Ilugtenburg 
 in the National Gallery.] 
 
 * [Nephew of Salomon van Ruysdael.] 
 
352 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 scapes are somewhat melanclioly in character, deep pools 
 overshadowed by trees, water-mills, waterfalls, and ever- 
 clouded skies, but their melancholy is tinged with poetry, 
 and seldom becomes oppressive. He was fond of dark 
 masses of foliage, and thus the prevailing colour of his 
 works is dark green. [The romantic character of his 
 scenes, so different from his own surroundings, is accounted 
 for by the fact that many of his pictures were painted from 
 Van Everdingen's sketches of Norwegian scenery. There 
 are twelve of his pictures in the National Grallery]. Ruys- 
 dael's etchings are excellent. 
 
 MiNDERHOUT HoBBEMA (1638-1709) is supposcd to have 
 been a pupil of Ruysdael, or possibly of Salomon Euysdael, 
 Jacob's brother, who was likewise an artist. He painted 
 very much in the same style as Ruysdael, and chose the 
 same subjects — green trees, water, and clouds, witli beauti- 
 ful effects of light falling upon them, but his works give 
 evidence of a more cheerful mind than Ruysdael' s. He 
 often painted nature, it is true, in her melancholy mood, 
 but he did not infuse any subjective gloom into his scenes, 
 as Ruysdael and several of our English landscape painters 
 have done. Generally, however, he chose happy sunny 
 scenes. Hobbema's works are rare, and enormous sums 
 have been given for them.^ 
 
 Antoni Waterloo (bom at Lille about 1630, living 
 in 1661) is an artist who is known by his admirable 
 etchings more than by his paintings, [which are charac- 
 terized as forming a link between the realistic style of 
 Hobbema and Ruysdael, and the Italianizers of Dutch 
 landscape] . The one example of his painting that I re- 
 member, greatly resembles Hobbema in style. It is in the 
 Munich G-allery. 
 
 Abraham Verboom, Conrad Decker, A. Rontbouts, 
 Albert Van Everdingen, a painter of Norwegian scenes, 
 Jan Looten,^ Jan Van Hagen, and several more, were all 
 
 [^ The National Gallery possesses several fine works by this painter, 
 including the famous Avenue, Middelharnis. No artist had a greater 
 influence on Constable, Crowe, and other landscape painters of the 
 English school,] 
 
 2 [This artist worked much in England. There is a picture by him 
 in the National Gallery, No. 901.] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 353 
 
 followers of Ruysdael and Hobbema, or at all events painted 
 the same scenes in the same manner, but with inferior 
 merit. 
 
 Next come the Sea Painters of Holland, the Be Euyters 
 and Yan Tromps of the palette. 
 
 "WiLLEM Vandevelde THE YouNGER (1633, died in 
 Greenwich, 1707), stands first amongst these heroes, al- 
 though his father, Willem Vandevelde the Elder, was 
 a much esteemed painter in his day, especially in England, 
 where he had a pension granted him by Charles II., of 
 <£100 a year, "for taking and making draughts of sea 
 fights." The same pension was afterwards given to his 
 son, who in a true cosmopolitan spirit painted first (when 
 he was in Holland), the victories of the Dutch over the 
 English, and afterwards (when he came to England), the 
 victories of the English over the Dutch. He has given us 
 the sea in most of its moods ; storm and calm, wind and 
 rain, dashing waves and gentle ripples, but although he 
 expressed what he saw faithfully enough, and although his 
 vision was by no means limited, yet his works are strangely 
 uninteresting.^ 
 
 LuDOLF Backhtttsen (1631-1708). Charles Blanc cha- 
 racterizes the difference between Vandevelde's seas and 
 Backhuy sen's by saying that " Backhuysen makes us fear 
 the sea whilst Vandevelde makes us love it." Some minds, 
 therefore, it is evident, must be affected by Backhuysen' s 
 leaden skies and opaque seas, for here we have an excellent 
 critic praising them for the very qualities in which to others 
 they seem lacking, showing how the same work may pro- 
 duce a totally different effect on different minds. Back- 
 huysen was a painter of ships, even more than of seas ; he 
 had, indeed, a practical knowledge of all nautical matters, 
 and is said to have made constructive drawings of ships 
 for Peter the Great. The two pictures by him in the 
 National Gallery are of Dutch shipping." 
 
 ' [There are no less than fourteen examples of this fine painter in the 
 National Gallery. He is called by M. Havard, "not only the greatest 
 marine painter of the Dutch School, but also one of the greatest in the 
 whole world.''] 
 
 ^ [There are now • six examples of Backhuysen in the National 
 Gallery, including a view, Off the Mouth of the Thames.] 
 A A 
 
354 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 Jan Van der Capelle,^ and Jan Dubbels, whose 
 works are frequently made to pass for Backhuysen's,^ the 
 German Johann Lingelbach,' who principally painted 
 harbours and quays, with their rich artistic agglome- 
 rations, and several others, whose names may be found 
 in dictionaries, belong to the marine painters of this 
 time. 
 
 Nicolas Berchem,^ Karel dtj jARDiN,^,and Jan Both,' 
 are all three painters of high reputation ; but, although 
 undoubted Dutchmen by birth and natural tastes, they 
 can scarcely be reckoned as belonging to the Dutch School. 
 It was not merely that they painted Italian landscapes 
 instead of Dutch ones ; this they could have done, and yet 
 have remained true to their own nationahty. We do not 
 call John Phillip a Spanish painter because he painted 
 Spanish scenes, nor Turner an Italian because of his bril- 
 liant skies, but the Italianisers of Flanders and Holland 
 only painted Italian nature as they saw it in Italian pic- 
 tures, not as they saw it for themselves. It was the art of 
 Italy, and not the nature that they imitated, and so they 
 produced a bastard style of painting which neither the 
 Netherlands nor Italy can own. This style is the more to 
 be deplored, as these masters were really excellent painters, 
 who might have produced charming works had they but 
 retained their nationality. 
 
 Several masters of inferior merit followed to the south 
 these three leading ones. Their landscapes usually are 
 sprinkled over with classic temples and pastoral figures, 
 and are utterly vacuous, having lost the true Dutch merits 
 of effective colouring and careful execution. 
 
 Adrian Yander Werff (1659-1722) is about the worst 
 instance of Dutch Italianisation. He was not a landscape 
 painter, but dealt with mythological and biblical subjects, 
 and especially delighted in the nude, of which, however, he 
 does not seem to have had any real knowledge, his flesh 
 
 ^ [A fine painter of shipping and calm water, and luminous skies 
 with trailing clouds. Five pictures by him are in the National 
 Gallery.] 
 
 2 Smith, '-'Catalogue Raisonn^." 
 
 ' [All these painters, as well as Adriann van .de Velde, who be- 
 longs to the same class, can be studied at the National Gallery.] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 355 
 
 being thorouglilj bloodless and smooth, resembling ivorj 
 more than anything else. At the Pinakothek, at Munich, 
 there is a whole cabinet devoted to this painter's works, 
 besides others scattered through the gallery. Many of 
 these, it is true, have great elegance and beauty. His 
 female figures, in particular, are often pretty, and exhibit 
 animation and inteUigence. He had also considerable 
 power of invention, and thought is by no means wanting 
 in his paintings. Several of his genre pictures, with 
 biblical names, such, for instance, as Sarah bringing 
 Hagar to Abraham, have decidedly attractive features, 
 and it is not at all surprising to find that " they were so 
 highly admired by princes and men of fortune, that he 
 found it impossible to execute all the commissions given 
 to him." 
 
 While one class of Dutch painters was thus seeking to 
 ennoble and beautify the honest bourgeois art of Holland 
 by the introduction of a foreign element, another class was 
 dragging the native style down to utter worthlessness by 
 employing it on the meanest and most trivial subjects. 
 The Dutch painters of fruit, flowers, still life, and crockery, 
 form a large group by themselves, amongst which are 
 several meritorious masters. 
 
 WiLLEM Kalf's kitchen pieces are unequalled in their 
 way ; Jan Weenix bestows on his dead game an execution 
 worthy, at least, to have been expended on living birds ; 
 and Van Htjysum offers us fruit that makes our mouths 
 water. ^ But the low qualities of illusion and laborious 
 
 ^ [Melchior de Hondecoeter, th^painter of living birds and other 
 animals (1636-1695), Jan tan Os (1744-1808), the most distinguished 
 flower-painter of his time, and Jacobus Walsoappelle (living 1675), 
 are, as well as Van Huysum and Weenix, represented in the National 
 Gallery, which by the purchase of the Peel Collection and the bequest 
 of Mr. Wynn Ellis, has become (since this book was first published) re- 
 markably rich in fine specimens of the Dutch School. Besides the 
 painters already mentioned, the following are represented in Trafalgar 
 o<luare: Dirk van Delen, an architectural painter, apupilofFransHals; 
 Jan Hackaert, landscape-painter ; Jan van dbr Hetde, a painter 
 of architecture and landscape (1637-1712); Sir Godfrey Kneller, the 
 portrait-painter (1646-1723) ; Otho Marcellis, still life painter (1613- 
 1 673) ; Egbert van der Poel, painter of landscape and architecture (died 
 about 1690) ; Cobnklis van Poelenburoh, chiefly painted figures fur 
 landscape painters (1586-1667); Pibteb Potter (born 1595), father of 
 
356 H18TOJBY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VII. 
 
 finish are all tliat are to be found in these painters, and 
 ■with the lower artists of the group even good execution is 
 wanting. 
 
 True art was, in fact, killed by these still-life painters 
 of Holland in the same way as it was killed in Greece by 
 the same class of artists. 
 
 In each case the loss of political freedom preceded the 
 fall and death of art. 
 
 [The modem school of Dutch painters owes much to the 
 naturalistic section of the modem French school, but it is 
 quite national in its subjects, delighting chiefly in recording 
 the " simple annals of the poor " of Holland, of the pea- 
 sants, the fishermen, and the inmates of its numerous 
 charitable institutions, and seldom, even in landscape or 
 sea-pieces, straying beyond its level fields and sandy shores. 
 Its tone, both of colour and sentiment, is somewhat sad. 
 "While it aims, like the old masters of Holland, at truth of 
 light and air, its tints are more sombre and its touch more 
 vague; and while it concerns itself mainly, as they did, 
 with the current of daily life, its view of humanity is nearly 
 always tinged with pathetic thought, and has nothing of 
 the humour of Teniers and Jan Steen. 
 
 The chief master of this modem school is Josef Israels 
 (b. 1824), an admirable craftsman and colourist whose 
 works, although unequal in force and variety to those of 
 the Frenchman Millet, are truthfully touched with the 
 pathos of labour and poverty. Among his best followers 
 are Aetz, Blommers, and Neuhuys. Johannes Bosboom 
 excels in effects of light in interiors of cottage or cathedral ; 
 JoH. Barth. Yongkind and Hendrich Willem Mesdag 
 in sea-pieces ; Anton Mauve (1838) and Willem Maris 
 in landscapes and cattle. Jacobus Maris, the most dis- 
 tinguished of three brothers, paints the streets and quays 
 of Holland in a singularly broad and effective manner, and 
 the youngest, Matthew, has a peculiar romantic imagina- 
 tion of his own. 
 
 Paul Potter, landscape painter ; Uoklandt Savert (1576-1639), land- 
 scape and animal painter at the court of the Emperor Rudolph II. at 
 Prague; Willem van der Vliet (1584-1642), portrait painter ; Jan 
 WiLS, landscape painter, master of Berchem, and Emanuel de Wittb, 
 painter of interiors (1607-1692).] 
 
BOOK VII.] PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS. 357 
 
 Differing from most of the modem school of Holland in 
 the gaiety of his colour and the cheerfulness of his temper 
 is C. BisscHOF, who paints scenes from the lives of the 
 handsome, well-to-do, picturesque Frisian peasantry with 
 singular breadth and skill.] 
 
book: vni. 
 
 \\fi^ PAINTING IN FRANCE. 
 
 Earlt Painteks — David — Gericault — Hobacb Verket — 
 Paul Delaroche. 
 
 FRENCH writers claim an early origia for the practice 
 of painting in France. They say that from the time 
 of Charlemagne it was the custom to cover churches and 
 monasteries with paintings,^ but unfortunately none of 
 these mural paintings remain, nor have we anything but a 
 vague traditionary account of them. In the art of illuminat- 
 ing, however, it is certain that the French masters greatly 
 excelled, and in this branch of art, as well as in glass- 
 painting, the French School occupies an important position 
 as early as the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.' 
 
 One of the earliest of the French " peintres et enlrnni- 
 neurs " whom we find mentioned by name is Jean Fouqttet 
 (1415-1485), Court painter to Louis XI., by whom several 
 manuscripts, that are still preserved, are iUuminated with 
 great taste and skill.^ 
 
 ' Emeric David, " Histoire de la Peinture au Mojen Age.* 
 ^ A Psalter, said to have been executed for S. Louis, is still preserred 
 in the Library of Paris, containing numerous beautifully coloured 
 miniatures, representing scenes from the Old Testament, on a gold 
 ground, and set in a rich Gothic framework. [Mural paintings in France 
 of the twelfth century exist at Liget, Poitiers, and Poitou, and examples 
 of glass painting in the same century at Le Mans, Angers, St. Denis, 
 Chartres, and Venddme. Of mural paintings of the thirteenth and four- 
 teenth centuries there are a few vestiges, as at the Cathedral of Toumus 
 and elsewhere. For further information respecting early French paint* 
 ing (wall, panel, miniatures, &c.), the reader is referred to Woltmana 
 and Woermann's " History of Painting."] 
 ^ Especially may be mentioned a French translation of Josephus, con- 
 
BOOK VIII.] PAINTING IN FRANCE. 359 
 
 Tradition ascribes to the unfortunate King Ren^ op 
 Anjou (1408-1480) several paintings in the Flemish style 
 preserved in the Cathedral at Aix, and at Villeneuve, near 
 Avignon, and also a picture representing the Preaching of 
 Mary Magdalen, now in the Cluny Museum, at Paris ; but 
 there seems to be no ground beyond mere sentiment for 
 accrediting the royal painter with these works, which 
 were more probably executed by some unknown Flemish 
 master.^ 
 
 The influence of the Van Eycks is distinctly perceptible 
 in the art of the three Clouets, the younger of whom, 
 Francois Clotjet, usually called Janet (about 1510-1572), 
 was greatly distinguished as a miniature portrait painter, 
 and has left us likenesses of many of the royal family of 
 France of his time. Several of his portraits, according to 
 Womum, are ascribed to Holbein." 
 
 But by far the most important and most independent of 
 the early painters of France, is the architect, sculptor, 
 painter, and writer on human proportion and perspective, 
 Jehan Cousin (born at Soucy, near Sens, 1501, and died 
 1589). Cousin's best-known work is a hard and detailed Last 
 Judgment, in the Louvre, that has been engraved in twelve 
 plates by P. de Jode. The Louvre painting is in oil colours, 
 but the original composition occupied a large glass window 
 in the Church of S. Eomain, at Sens, which was destroyed 
 in 1792. 
 
 Cousin seems to have been originally a painter of glass, 
 
 taining, as we are told in a notice at the end of the manuscript, " Douze 
 
 Jrstories. Les troy premieres de I'enlumineur du Due Jean de Berry, e( 
 es neuf de la main du bon paintre et enlumineur du Roy Loys XI. 
 Jehan Fouquet natif de Tours." This MS. is likewise to be found in the 
 Library of Paris. [Some of his finest miniatures are in the Brentano 
 Collection at Frankfort, where is also one of the two known panels 
 painted by him. The other is in the Museum at Antwerp.] 
 
 * [The Burning Bush altar-piece at Aix is now known to hare been 
 painted by Nicolas Froment, of Avignon, in 1475-1476. A tryptych of 
 the Raising of Lazarus in the Uffizi at Florence bears his name, and the 
 date 1461. Both are in Flemish style.] 
 
 ' For recent information concerning the Clouets, see "La Renaissance 
 des Arts a la Cour de France," by the Comte de Laborde, [Schnasse's 
 " Geschichte der bildende Kunsle," and Lady Dilke's " Renaissance in 
 France." There are two portraits ascribed to Fran9oi8 Clouet in the 
 National Gallery.] 
 
360 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOE VIII. 
 
 at all events, some of his greatest works were executed iu 
 this perishable material. Sculpture also occupied a great 
 part of his time, and he achieved some noble plastic works,^ 
 so that it is not much to be wondered at that we have few 
 veritable paintings by his hand. Such as exist, however 
 (they are mostly miniatures), show him to have been an 
 artist of great ability ; ^ indeed, says one of his critics,' 
 "there are traces everywhere in Cousin's work that he 
 was a man both thoughtful and of a culture far deeper 
 than was common to the peintre ymagier of his day." 
 
 Of what is called the Fontainebleatj School, estab- 
 lished under Italian influence, by II Primaticcio, Nicolo 
 DEL Abbate, and II Eosso (Maitre Eoux), all three Italian 
 painters who worked for Erancis I., Httle need be said, 
 except that it successfully absorbed any native talent that 
 might have existed in the latter half of the sixteenth 
 century, and gave it a degenerate Italian expression. For 
 it was not the art of the great masters of Italy, that the 
 Fontainebleau artists* set up for worship and imitation, 
 but the violent art of Giulio Eomano, Perino del Vaga, 
 and other unrestrained mannerists. " C'etait jeter I'ecole 
 Pran9aise," says Yiardot, " des son berceau, dans la de- 
 cadence anticipee ou semblait se mourir I'art italien." ^ 
 
 [The beginning of the seventeenth century in France, 
 though marked by the prevalence of Italian influence in 
 art, yet produced a few artists who escaped almost entirely 
 
 ^ His monument to Admiral Chabot is especially remarkable, and a 
 little ivory statuette of S. Sebastian, in the Cluny Collection, is gi-eatly 
 esteemed by critics. 
 
 ^ M. Firmin-Didot, in the " Gazette des Beaux Arts " for November, 
 1871, claims for Cousin eight miniatures in a " Livre d'Heures" of 
 which he has recently become possessed. M. Firmin-Didot is preparing 
 a work on Jehan Cousin, which will probably elucidate many points of 
 dispute in his history. [Since published, "Etude sur Jean Cousin," 
 Paris, 1872. See also his " Recueil des oeuvres choisies de J. Cousin,'* 
 Paris, 1873. Lady Dilke's "Renaissance in France," and " L'Art," 
 Oct. and Nov., 1882.] 
 
 3 E. F. S. Pattison, " The Portfolio," No. 13. 
 
 [* The most celebrated French artists who worked at Fontainebleau 
 were Toussaint Dubreuil (died 1604) and Martin Freminet (1567- 
 1619). Ambroise Dubois (1543-1614) was another of the school, but 
 he was by birth a Fleming.] 
 
 * " Merveilles de la Peinture." L'Ecole Fran^aise. 
 
BOOK VIII.] PAINTING IN FRANCE. 361 
 
 from the traditions of the school of Fontainebleau. Fore- 
 most amongst these were the brothers Le Nain, whose 
 fame has till recently been neglected even by their coun- 
 trymen. Of the three brothers Le Nain, the earliest genre 
 painters of France, Antoine (1568-1648), Louis, called 
 the Eoman (1593-1648), and Mathieu (1607-1677), the 
 eldest was the most distinguished. Mathieu painted por- 
 traits as well as still-life and genre, like his brothers. 
 Their subjects had more affinity with the Flemish School 
 than with the fashionable Italian Schools of their day; 
 their sombreness of colour and expression is allied to the 
 Spanish manner. Equally apart stands one who, although 
 not great as a painter, was endowed with great original 
 talent as a depicter of the life of his day. This artist was 
 Jacques Callot (1593-1635), known chiefly by his spirited 
 etchings of vagabonds and soldiers, of festivals and battles, 
 humorous, fantastic, satirical, and tragic by turn. His 
 Miseres de la Gruerre, one of his best-known series of en- 
 gravings, depicts with great power, freedom, and ghastly 
 humour the adventurous military life of the time of 
 Louis XIII., and the terrible ravages of his dear province 
 of Lorraine. These artists, the Le Nains and Callot, were 
 distinctively French and individual in their work, and 
 although more humble in their aims, and of less learning 
 and accomplishment as painters, deserve to be considered 
 apart from the great school of Italianized and semi-classi- 
 cal art which reached its zenith in the reign of Louis 
 Quatorze.] 
 
 Simon Vouet (1590-1649) [the first of these] is some- 
 times spoken of as the restorer of French art, but the 
 most that he did was to substitute the imitation of the 
 eclectics for that of the mannerists. [He studied under 
 Caravaggio and Guido, and was employed by Louis XIII. 
 and Richelieu. His masterpiece is the Presentation in the 
 Temple, now in the Louvre. He was the Master of Le 
 Sueur, Le Brun, and Laurent de la ffire.] 
 
 [Vouet's principal rival was Jacques Blanchard (1600- 
 1638), the first French artist to attempt the Venetian style 
 of colour, from which he earned the title of the French 
 Titian. 
 
 Valentin (1600-1634), on the other hand, followed 
 
362 HISTORT OF PAINTING. [bOOK VIIT. 
 
 Caravaggio. He is sometimes erroneously called Moise 
 Valentin, but Valentin was his Christian name, and his 
 surname is unknown. He was forcible and realistic in his 
 painting, and took many of his subjects from real life. 
 In the Vatican is his Martyrdom of SS. Processus and 
 Martianus, and in the Louvre are a Susannah, two Con- 
 certs, and the Fortune Teller, besides some other genre 
 and Scripture subjects. 
 
 But a greater artist than any of these was Nicolas 
 PoussiN (1694-1665), born at Andelys in Normandy. He 
 is often named as the greatest painter of the French 
 School, and in certain qualities, such as learned drawing 
 and composition, stately and classic style, and intellectual 
 vigour, he is scarcely surpassed. He obtained some in- 
 struction at Andelys from Quentin Varin, and at Paris 
 from Ferdinand d'EUe and I'AUemand, artists whose names 
 chiefly survive in connection with their pupil, but it was 
 not till his arrival in Rome that his genius was developed. 
 After two efforts, ineffectual through his poverty, he 
 reached Rome in 1624, with the assistance of the Poet 
 Marino, who died shortly afterwards and left him in great 
 poverty. In spite of all difficulties, he pursued a long 
 course of study, attracted at first chiefly by the works of 
 Giulio Romano and Titian, and afterwards by Bolognese 
 masters, especially Domenichino, but it was his devotion 
 to the antique which finally gave the cachet to his paintings. 
 An eclectic of the eclectics, his individuality showed itself 
 by its rejection of luxury in colour, and of sentiment in 
 expression, preferring dignity of form and the embodiment 
 of thought. Learned, noble, correct, his pictures appeal to 
 the reason rather than the senses, and fairly justify Fuseli's 
 saying that he painted bas-reliefs. 
 
 One of Poussin's earliest patrons in Italy was the Car- 
 dinal Barberini, for whom he painted the Death of Q-er- 
 manicus, the Taking of Jerusalem by Titus, and perhaps a 
 fijie Bacchanalian scene (full of spirit and frolic), now 
 No. 42 in the National Gallery, and another was the 
 Cavaliere del Posso, for whom he painted a series of Seven 
 Sacraments, now at Belvoir. These and a similar series 
 in the Bridgewater Gallery are considered among his best 
 works. He attained fame at Rome, and there married 
 
BOOK VIII.] PAINTING IN PEANCE. 363 
 
 Anna Maria Dughet, the sister of Gaspar Dughet (better 
 known as Gaspar Poussin), the landscape painter. 
 
 In 1640 he, on the invitation of Louis XIII., went with 
 his brother-in-law to Paris, was appointed first painter to 
 the king (although Vouet held the same appointment), and 
 executed several large works for the king and Cardinal 
 Eichelieu, but the position of court painter was uncon- 
 genial to his simple tastes, his employment in decorative 
 work (designs for tapestrj, furniture, &c.), was distasteful 
 to him, and Vouet intrigued against him. So, in 1642, he 
 obtained permission to visit Rome, and as both the king 
 and Richelieu died soon after, he considered himself ab- 
 solved from his promise to return. At Rome he remained 
 working industriously, and surrounded with friends and 
 admirers, till 1665, when (on the 19th of November) he 
 died and was buried in San Lorenzo, in Lucina. 
 
 Though Poussin' s art was based on the art of Italy an- 
 cient and modem, and though he lived most of his life in 
 Italy, he was yet a Frenchman, and his works have had 
 influence mainly upon the French School, from his day even 
 to the present. The peculiar classic note which he touched 
 was not Italian but French, and vibrates strongly still in 
 French art, though not so strongly since the days of David, 
 to whom the saying that he painted bas-reliefs, would 
 apply perhaps even more truly than to Poussin. The quality 
 of his colour, cold and not afraid of violent contrast, the 
 absence of sentiment, the insensibility to scenes of revolting 
 horror, as instanced by such pictures as the Plague among 
 the Philistines (No. 105 in the National Gallery *), and ifie 
 Martyrdom of S. Erasmus, in the Vatican, the correctness 
 of his drawing, the dominance of theory and thought over 
 impulse and passion, are still characteristics of a large sec- 
 tion of modem French art. Yet, though his work was 
 esteemed in his lifetime in France as well as Italy, he stood 
 aloof from the crowd of French artists whose individuality 
 was absorbed in the service of the court. He cared not 
 for the patronage of Louis XIII., and did not help to 
 swell the triumph of Louis XIV. Perhaps for this reason 
 his art is more profoimdly French than it would have 
 
 ^ A replica of a picture in the LouTre, painted 1630, once in the po*- 
 B<'8sion of Cardinal Kichelieu. 
 
364 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VIII. 
 
 been if he had yielded more to the prevailing current of 
 his time. 
 
 Though principally celebrated as a painter of figure com- 
 positions (including every class of subject from allegory to 
 genre), Poussin deserves special mention as a painter, if 
 not the founder of what is called " classical landscape.'* 
 His landscapes belong principally to the latter part of his 
 career, and are distinguished by their fine scenic qualities 
 — the arrangement of forms of tree, cloud, temple and river, 
 to present an imposing and beautiful prospect fitted for 
 the arena of some great significant or poetical action. It 
 was the dramatic landscape of Titian advanced to a genre 
 of its own, always in harmony with the figures which were 
 its supposed motive but dominating them. This style of 
 landscape was to be developed by Gaspar Dughet and Sal- 
 vator Eosa, and more than all b^ Claude, and to have a 
 potent influence even upon Turner and Corot, and many 
 artists now alive. 
 
 The Louvre (as is right) contains the finest collection of 
 the works of Poussin. These pictures (about forty in number) 
 show all the various phases of his genius, and include 
 what is generally considered his masterpiece, Les Vergers 
 d'Arcadie, which represents three shepherds with long 
 staves and a beautiful girl in classic dress, assembled be- 
 fore a tomb in the open country and shaded by trees. One 
 bends and traces with his finger the inscription et in 
 Arcadia ego. The elegance of the forms and of the com- 
 position, the charm of gesture and attitude, so reticent, and 
 yet so eloquent of the thought bom of the incident, dis- 
 tinguish the picture among a thousand, as the perfect 
 embodiment of a beautiful idea. 
 
 We are fortunate in possessing some capital works of 
 this master. Besides the fine Bacchanalian Festival already 
 mentioned, the National G-allery possesses a Bacchanalian 
 Dance (No. 62) yet finer, and several other pictures, includ- 
 ing one of his landscapes "with figures" (No. 40), and 
 there are a large number of fine Poussins scattered in 
 private collections in England in addition to those already 
 mentioned. 
 
 In many respects the career of Claude G-ell^e, gene- 
 rally called Claude Lorrain (1600-1682), was like that of 
 
BOOK Vni.] PAINTING IN FRANCE. 365 
 
 Poussin. He, too, spent most of his life in Rome, devoted 
 solely to his art, the art of landscape painting, which he 
 developed to a beauty unknown before. His landscape 
 was not unlike that of Poussin, the classical, well-ordered 
 landscape built up of beautiful parts into a beautiful whole, 
 and suffused with a poetical sentiment, pastoral, idyllic, 
 historic, mythological, in turn ; but he owed his great fame 
 then and now not only to his elegant sentiment and talent 
 for composition, but to his ardent study of nature and 
 power as a colourist. No one before him had painted sun- 
 light and air as he painted them, no one since has excelled 
 him in painting those atmospheric effects in which he par- 
 ticularly delighted, calm sunny effects of morning, noon, 
 and eve with light clouds floating in a fair blue sky. It 
 was the scenery of Italy as reflected in his imagination 
 which he painted, decorated with bridge and castle, or the 
 seaport with rippling waves laughing in the sun and framed 
 with stately buildings. He did not conquer the whole do- 
 main of landscape painting, there is much of convention in 
 his forms, of traditional artifice in his composition, and his 
 ideal was scenic, other modes he left for others to invent, 
 many truths, subtle and beautiful, he left unrecorded — his 
 genius was not so universal nor his observation so wide as 
 those of Turner — but what he did he did beautifully, and 
 there is perhaps no landscape painter who so completely 
 fulfilled his aims as Claude. His art was so perfect in its 
 kind that it remained the model for all schools (except the 
 Dutch) until the commencement of the present century, and 
 excited more than any other the rivalry of Turner. His 
 works are to be found in all the museums of Europe, six- 
 teen of them are in the Louvre, and eleven in the National 
 Gallery, which comprise the famous " Bouillon " Claudes, 
 painted for the Duke de Bouillon in 1648, representing the 
 Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba, and the equally 
 famous Marriage of Isaac and Rebecca (Nos. 12 and 14). 
 
 Second only to Claude as a painter of classical landscape 
 of this time was Gaspar Dughet (1613-1675), who took 
 the name of his brother-in-law Poussin, by whose art he 
 was much inspired. His works are more conventional and 
 heavier in colour than those of Claude, nor did he reach 
 the same skill in the rendering of sunlight and atmosphere, 
 
866 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK VIII, 
 
 but he had his individuality, preferring compositions of 
 grandeur and terror, and effects of wind and storm. There 
 are several fine specimens of his art in the National 
 Gallery. 
 
 A greater contrast in aim and feeling to these voluntary 
 exiles from their native country could scarcely be found 
 than EusTACHE le Sueur (1617-1655), who spent in Paris 
 the whole of his short life, and devoted himself to Christian 
 art. He was called the *' French Raphael," and his pic- 
 tures, especially S. Paul preaching at Ephesus, in the 
 Louvre, recall well-known designs by the great Italian. He 
 was a pupil of Vouet, but his pictures are unlike those of 
 any other French artist of his time ; fervour and purity of 
 religious feeling permeate his work and place it by itself in 
 the French School. It was not very powerful, but it was 
 eminently graceful, sweet, and sincere.] 
 
 His principal achievement is the well-known series of 
 twenty-eight scenes from the Life of S. Bruno, in the Louvre. 
 
 [Sebastien Bourdon (1616-1671), was one of the 
 founders of the French Academy of Painting and Sculp- 
 ture in 1648. He was painter to the Queen of Sweden. 
 His greatest work was the series in the house of M. de 
 Bretonvilliers, The History of Phaeton. A number of his 
 works are to be seen at the Louvre.] 
 
 Charles Le Brun (1619-1690), has the glory of being 
 the representative painter of the court of Louis XIV. 
 
 " Au si^cle de Louis, I'heureux sort te fit naitre, 
 II lui faillait un peintre, il te faillait un maitre." * 
 
 " His pictures," writes Sir Edmund Head, " give us the 
 genuine spirit of his master. Their qualities bear the same 
 relation to true and simple grandeur in art as Louis XIV., 
 when he made war in his coach-and-six, bore as a general 
 to Julius Caesar. All is ostentation and struggle for effect, 
 joined with considerable technical excellence and little 
 genuine feeling. Their scale is gigantic, and the impres- 
 sion produced by them is like that of a scene at the opera." 
 
 The Louvre overflows with his works, the principal being 
 the large series of the Victories of Alexander, intended, no 
 
 ^ Quinault. 
 
BOOK VIII.] PAINTING IN FEANCE. 367 
 
 doubt, to bear flattering allusion to those of the Grand 
 Monarque. 
 
 Jean Joitvenet (1644-1717) was the worthy pupil and 
 successor of Le Brun. Nothing can be more artificial than 
 his scenic displays. Even his rehgious pictures might have 
 been painted for the decorations of a theatre, so exaggerated 
 is their dramatic character. 
 
 PiERBE Mignard, Claude Lef^vee, and Hyacinthe 
 EiGAUD,* the latter of whom gained, one would imagine out 
 of raillery, the title of the " French Vandyck," were the 
 portrait painters of the age, and have left us likenesses of 
 Louis XIV., and the ladies and gentleman of his court, 
 under every aspect, except that of truth, 
 
 [Philippe de Champaigne, a Fleming by birth (1602- 
 1674), was the portrait painter of the Port-Eoyalists. His 
 sober manner and austere character give him a place apart 
 from his contemporaries, A good example of his work is 
 the portrait of Cardinal Richelieu in three positions, in the 
 National Gallery (No. 798)]. 
 
 Antoine Watteau (1684-1721), brings us down to the 
 still falser age of Louis Quinze.^ Watteau would probably 
 have been a truthful and excellent genre painter at any 
 other period, but he was infected with the silly affectations 
 of his time, and yielded to the fashions set hj petita-maitres 
 and petit-maitr esses. His pictures are graceful representa- 
 tions of the artificial society of a dissolute court, which 
 amused itself by playing at pastoral simplicity and Arca- 
 dian innocence. " His shepherdesses, nay, his very sheep," 
 says Horace Walpole, " are coquettes." They are in truth 
 but playing the part of rusticity, and are decked out for it, 
 as we see such characters at the theatre in becoming hats, 
 ribands, muslins, and graces. The coquetry of these Arca- 
 dian n3rmphs is, however, so charming, there is such an 
 easy, careless grace about them that we cannot help being 
 fascinated by their artful wiles. In truth, if we accept the 
 subjects as being worthy of representation at all, no painter 
 ever represented them more charmingly than Watteau, 
 
 [' There is a good specimen of I\ip;aud'8 style in the fine portrait of 
 Cardinal Fleury in the National Gallery (No. 903).] 
 
 [' He lived five years after the death of Louis XIV., dyinj^ then at 
 the age of thirty-seven.] 
 
368 HISTORY OF PAINTINO. [bOOK VIII. 
 
 whose style we must be careful not to confound with that 
 of his imitators, Lancret/ Pater, Yan Loo, Natoire, and 
 others, painters of fetes galantes, fetes champetres, and 
 foolish, wanton so-called " pastorals." 
 
 The lowest depths of degradation were perhaps reached 
 by Francois Boucher, "Le peintre des Graces" (1704- 
 1770), whom Head characterizes as pre-eminently the 
 painter of what Carlyle has called " Dubarrydom." "I 
 know not what to say of this man," writes Diderot.^ ** The 
 debasement of taste, colour, composition, expression, and 
 
 drawing, has followed step by step on that of morals 
 
 I am bold enough to say that this artist, in truth, knows 
 not what grace is ; that he has never known what truth is ; 
 that all ideas of delicacy, purity, innocence, or simplicity, 
 have become entirely strange to him. I am bold enough 
 to say that he has never, for one moment, seen nature, at 
 least, not that nature which is such as to interest my feel- 
 ings or yours, or the feeling of any decent child, or woman 
 of sensibility." ^ 
 
 Art and morals alike were, in truth, at their lowest ebb 
 at the end of the reign of Louis XV., a time " when the 
 social system having all fallen into rottenness, rain-holes, 
 and noisome decay, the shivering natives resolved to cheer 
 their dull abode by the questionable step of setting it on 
 fire." ' 
 
 [Of the pupils of Boucher the most accomplished was 
 Jean Honore Fragonard (1732-1806), of whose graceful 
 and vivacious art there is not much to say from the higher 
 intellectual and moral point of view, but modern criticism 
 has adopted the kindlier, if not wiser standard of circum- 
 stance, and does not see fit to condemn artists of acknow- 
 ledged accomplishment and originality, because they reflect 
 too faithfully the imperfections of the society into which 
 they were bom. Those who wish to know what can be 
 
 \} Wo have no specimen of Watteau's art in the National Gallery, 
 but Lancret's four little pictures, " The Ages of Man," are fairly good 
 examples of the school (Nos. 101-104).] 
 
 2 Translated and quoted by Head in his " Handbook of the French 
 School." 
 
 [^ There is one small example of Boucher in the National Gallery 
 (No. 1090).] 
 
 * Thomas Carlyle, " Essaj on Diderot.'' 
 
BOOK VIII.] PAINTING IN FEANCli. 369 
 
 said in praise of the artists of the Louis' are referred to 
 such works as Genevay's " Le Style Louis XIV.," Andre 
 Michel's " Fran9ois Boucher," Goncourt's "L'Art auXVlfl" 
 Siecle," PaulMantz's "Fran9ois Boucher," Dohme's "Kunst 
 und Kiinstler," and Wedmore's " Masterpieces of Genre 
 Painting."] 
 
 [But all French painters were not led away by the affected 
 fashions of the court. Jean Baptiste Chardin (1699- 
 1779), would appear to protest against them as strongly as 
 he could by his simplicity, humility, and truth, painting 
 only such things as he saw with a masterly fidelity akin to 
 the greater little masters of the Dutch School. Not for 
 him the fete champetre, with its gallants and fine ladies, its 
 clipt alleys and artificial flowers, but the cottage interior, 
 with its maiden sweeping the floor, its wooden pails and 
 brass pans, or, if, as he often preferred, " still life " was his 
 subject, real flowers and fruit, modelled with a solidity, 
 and painted with a breadth which command our admiration 
 to-day. Perfect truth and sincerity rather than the most 
 captivating artifice, regard for humanity rather than fashion, 
 for the honest hard-working poor rather than the rich and 
 luxurious idler, such are the characteristics of this true 
 painter. 
 
 Something like a similar protest, though not perhaps so 
 whole-hearted, was made by the art of Jean Baptiste 
 Greuze (1725-1805). He did not paint the court or the 
 cabin, but he painted a class still more rarely chosen by 
 French painters — the bourgeoisie. He has been called by 
 Diderot " the first who thought of introducing morality 
 into art," a saying true, perhaps, of French art, but not of 
 English, for Greuze was many years the junior of Hogarth. 
 Of his "moralities" (known well enough by engravings), 
 some based on Diderot's dramas, the Louvre contains euch 
 scenes as L'accordee de village (a group assembled to sign 
 a marriage contract) , Le malediction paternelle (a father 
 cursing an erring son), and Le fils puni (a sequel to the 
 malediction, in which the son returns to see his father dead 
 upon his bed). More celebrated is La cruche cassee, but 
 in this and other pictures of similar double entendre, the 
 conception is too artificial, the little sinners are too childish 
 and pretty and pitiful to point a severe moral. It is in his 
 
 B B 
 
370 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VIII,] 
 
 pictures of pretty children and yonng girls that he is most! 
 attractive. These have a charm of their own, sometimes 
 quite pure and unaffected, and his light, a delicate colour, 
 if not quite natural, is sweet and pleasant. Some of these 
 are in the National G-allery.] 
 
 Claude- Joseph Yernet, also (1714-1 789), the painter of 
 seapieces and ideal landscapes, although employed by Louis 
 XV., cannot be reckoned as one of that monarch's painters. 
 His landscapes, it is true, without aspiring to be poetiral, 
 are too often false to nature ; but they have not the artifi- 
 ciality of the other works of French art at this time. So 
 far as his knowledge went, he painted his marines in a con- 
 scientious spirit. A whole salle is devoted to his works in 
 the Louvre, mostly views of the seaports and harbours of 
 the coast of France. 
 
 It is Joseph-Marie Yien (1716-1809) who is usually 
 regarded as having given the first impulse towards the 
 revolution that now took place in French art, but as Yien 
 himself said, if he " half opened the door it was his pupil 
 David who threw it open wide," and accomplished the 
 revolution that he had only desired. Yien, in truth, was 
 but a feeble history-painter, and his works are meritorious 
 only in consideration of the time at which they were painted, 
 but Jacques Louis David (1748-1825), whether we regard 
 him as the product of his age or as one of its directing 
 forces, was uudoubtedly a man of powerful individuality, 
 and one who exercised a vast influence, not only over the 
 art of his countrymen, but over the whole art of his time, i 
 
 The son of a tradesman of Paris, David received his first 1 
 instruction in art in the base school of Boucher, who was ] 
 related to his mother, but was soon, by Boucher's advice, 
 transferred to that of Yien, who, as we have seen, was 
 proud of his pupil. Yien, however, had probably little 
 share in the formation of David's style, the severe classicism 
 of which appears to have been gained at Rome, whither he 
 accompanied Yien on the latter' s appointment as director 
 there (1774) and where the discoveries at Herculaneum and' 
 Pompeii had re-awakened an enthusiasm for ancient art. 
 Winckelmann's influence, also, no doubt, contributed to 
 form David, as it had Eaphael Mengs, and several other 
 classicists of that time. Indeed, it is not surprising that. 
 
BOOK VIII.] PAINTING IN FRANCE. 371 
 
 seeing the universal degradation into which art in all 
 countries had fallen in the middle of the eighteenth century, 
 reformers should have arisen who tried to revive it by a 
 return to the simple, pure, and noble style of the Greeks. 
 But not so could a true and lasting reformation be accom- 
 plished. 
 
 " A new life," says F. von Schlegel, " can spring only 
 from the depths of a new love, and it is vain to imagine 
 that lofty art, like a draught of medicine, may be obtained 
 by the mingling of various ingredients." 
 
 No "new love" animated the soul of the republican 
 painter ; only a blind worship of heathen antiquity. A 
 worship made manifest, not only in his art, but in his 
 stirring political life. Indeed, when the gods of Greece 
 and Rome were once more set up in a Christian capital, 
 and the severe republican heroes of an early civilization 
 became the idols of the hour ; when men dressed in pseudo- 
 classic costume and talked in pseudo-classic language, it is 
 not surprising to find the representative painter of the age 
 animated by the same classic spirit. 
 
 One of his earhest pictures, the Oath of the Horatii, 
 painted at Rome, in 1784, for Louis XVI., already showed 
 his classic style and republican tendencies. This painting, 
 which is now in the Louvre, evoked universal admiration 
 in its day. Its grand and heroic character, in truth, 
 formed a powerful contrast to the indecent affectations 
 that French art had produced during the previous reign. 
 
 Ne semble-t-il pas," says Charles Blanc, " que des mig- 
 nardises • de Dorat Ton passe tout a coup a la cadence 
 majestueuse de Comeille." 
 
 His second great republican picture represents L. Junius 
 Brutus, to whom the lictors are bringing back the bodies 
 of the two sons whom he had condemned to death. Brutus 
 himself is seated in the shade of the great statue of Rome, 
 
 }king solace, as it were, in his paternal grief, in the 
 thought of the duty that he owed to his country. 
 
 The Sabine Women is another of David's most famous 
 compositions. It was painted after the five months follow- 
 ing the ninth thermidor that the painter passed in prison 
 
 [' A word derived from Mignard the painter.] 
 
372 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VIII. 
 
 as the friend of Robespierre and Saint-Just, and alluded, 
 it is said, to the heroic efforts that his wife made to save 
 him from the fate that had overtaken his associates. 
 
 Napoleon I., quick in recognizing talent, was too wise to 
 overlook that of David, and under the Empire he held as 
 important a position as under the Republic. 
 
 His exaggerated dramatic classicism became, however, 
 still more pronounced, and degenerated more and more 
 into mannerism. It nevertheless continued to rule the 
 taste of his country until the affectation of antique severity 
 became as unpleasant as that of pastoral simplicity. 
 Napoleon, in truth, placed art, like every thing else, under 
 military discipline. " L'art fut enregimente, caserne, mis 
 au pas militaire. Toutes ses oeuvres, depuis le tableau 
 d'histoire jusqu'au meuble d'ebenisterie, comme toutes 
 celles de la litterature ; depuis le poeme epique jusqu'au 
 couplet de romance re9urent un mot d'ordre, une consigne, 
 j'allais dire un uniforme, qui s'appelle style de I'empire." ^ 
 
 David's portraits are usually excellent, the faults of his 
 style being less observable in them than in his more 
 dramatic compositions. There is a portrait in the Louvre 
 of himself when young, as well as several other effective 
 likenesses ; in particular that of Pope Pius VII., a life-like 
 copy from nature.^ 
 
 In the technical part of his art David is very deficient,' 
 and his pictures have suff!ered much from time. His colour 
 is usually cold, monotonous, and brickdusty, defects that 
 became exaggerated in his followers. 
 
 In truth the style of David and his school, founded upon 
 the study of the pagan antique, confounds, as a style thus 
 founded is almost sure to do, the distinctive excellences of 
 painting and sculpture. The figures, even in David's 
 paintings, and still more in those of many of his pupils, 
 are cold, hard, and soulless — marble statues, rather than 
 human beings in whom the warm life-blood still flows. 
 
 Such a style as this could never take any lasting hold, 
 however great its influence in its time. It wanted a 
 
 ^ Louis Viarditt, " Les Merveilles de la Peinture." Ecole Fran9ai8e. 
 [' Perhaps his most beautiful and most celebrated portrait is that of 
 Mdme. Recamier, recently placed in the Salon Carre in the Louvre.] 
 ' [He was an admirable draughtsman.] 
 
BOOK VIII.] PAINTING IN FRANCE. 373 
 
 national basis, and although its severe simplicity was a 
 noble re-action against the falseness and triviality of the 
 previous age, it is not surprising to find a re-action, in its 
 turn, setting in against it. 
 
 Even amongst David's scholars this re-action began. A 
 few of them, it is true, continued and exaggerated his 
 peculiarities, but he must certainly have been an excellent 
 teacher, since most of his followers developed their own 
 natural tendencies with great freedom. 
 
 The painters over whom his influence was most powerful, 
 but in whose works we find a certain strain after effect, 
 that is not so visible in the calmer productions of the 
 master, are — 
 
 Jean-G-ermain Drouais (1763-1788), the painter of 
 Marius a Minturnes, piercing with his lightning glance 
 the Cimbrian slave, who comes to kill him in prison, a 
 celebrated work in the Louvre.^ 
 
 Anne-Louis Gtirodet de Eoucy Trioson (1767-1824), 
 best known by his convulsive and melo-dramatic picture, 
 A Scene from the Deluge, which in 1810 carried off the 
 prize from David. The defects of the school are more 
 painfully apparent, perhaps, in this picture than in any 
 other belonging to it. It is a representative work of its 
 land. The Burial of Atala, the other great picture of 
 Girodet's in the Louvre, though cold and lifeless, is far 
 more pleasing. 
 
 Pierre-Narcisse Guerin (1774-1833) adhered strictly 
 to the theatrical antique, and fell into an affectation of 
 style, called by the Germans styliairen, that is peculiarly 
 disagreeable.^ 
 
 GuiLLAUME GuiLLON - LethiJjre (1760-1832), whose 
 enormous paintings, the Death of Virginia, and Brutus 
 witnessing the Execution of his Sons, take up so much 
 space in the Louvre ; and Francois Gerard, the painter 
 of the Entry of Henry IV. into Paris, an historical picture 
 that is free from the theatrical affectation that marks most 
 of the historical subjects of his contemporaries, end the 
 
 [• It should be remembered that Drouais died at the age of twenty- 
 five, after completing this and one or two other works of great promise 
 and force.] 
 
 [' Gu^rin was the master of G^ricault, Delacroix and Ary Scheffer.J 
 
374 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VIII. 
 
 direct artistic line of David, although, as before said, his 
 influence was so powerful that it extended over the schools 
 of other countries besides his own. 
 
 The next group, it can scarcely be called a school, of 
 French painters that claims our attention, was formed of 
 masters, many of whom were David's immediate pupils. 
 In spite of the total change of style that was effected after 
 the downfall of the empire, no new master arose of suffi- 
 cient power and originality to impress his individual mark 
 as David had done upon the art of his age. No new ideal 
 was set up, but each master contrived to introduce some 
 new and striking element into the classic school in which 
 he had received his education, until we find its character 
 completely changed. 
 
 Antoine-Jean GtROS (Baron) (1771-1835) was one of 
 the first to abandon classical and mythological scenes, and 
 to choose for his subjects events of contemporaneous his- 
 tory. He painted in strong coarse characters, with forcible 
 colours, so that both in expression and colour his works 
 contrast with those of the more rigid adherents to David's 
 style.' 
 
 Pierre-Paul Prtid'hon (1758-1823) once more returned 
 for inspiration to the Christian religion, which had been 
 so long dethroned in France. His most celebrated work, 
 however, is not chosen immediately from a sacred source, 
 but represents Divine Justice and Yerngeance pursuing 
 Crime. The allegoiy is powerfully conceived. 
 
 There is still a lingering feeling for the antique manifest 
 in this work, but in others, more especially in his Catholic 
 subjects, such as the Assumption of the Virgin, in the 
 Louvre, we find that sort of poetical graceful sentiment 
 that has gained for this master the title of the French 
 Correggio.^ 
 
 [^ He was the first of the Romanticists, leading the way from the 
 classic convention to self-expression and realism. He was the first in 
 France to paint battle-scenes with soldiers in their proper uniforms. 
 His scenes from the campaigns of Napoleon are full of life and vigour. 
 His '* Francis I. and Charles V. visiting the Church of St. Denis " was 
 a notable attempt to realize a scene from modern (but past) history in the 
 costumes of the period. ] 
 
 [^ This likeness to Correggio, especially in his mysterious chiaroscuro 
 and softness of contour, is found equally in his mythological and alle- 
 
BOOK VIII.] PAINTING IN FRANCE. 375 
 
 The master, however, who departed most widely from 
 the teaching of David, and who may, in fact, be said to 
 have almost overthrown his school, was Jean-Louis 
 Geeicault (1791-1824). " Gericault," says Viardot, " se 
 revelait a I'epoque oil la liberte litteraire renaissait avec la 
 liberte politique, ou la societe tout entiere marchait au 
 progres par I'independance. L'exemple de Gericault venant 
 avec la force de I'a-propos suffit pour entrainer Tart Fran- 
 9aiB dans ce mouvement general de I'esprit humain." 
 
 ITo where, indeed, has art reflected more faithfully the 
 character of the age, even in each fluctuation of political 
 opinion, than in France. 
 
 Under Louis XIV. and Louis XV. it assumed a vain- 
 glorious tawdry pomp; we have noted its falsity and. 
 affectations, its airs and graces, and finally its drivelling 
 indecent idiocy. Under the Republic it became severely 
 and heroically virtuous. Correct in form, but cold in 
 feeling, drawing its inspiration from a past age rather 
 than from the living present, seeking to put new wine, in 
 fact, into old bottles, and to clothe the modem Revolu- 
 tionism in the toga of Roman Republicanism. Under the 
 Empire, it assumed for a time a military aspect, and glory 
 became its theme ; but after the restoration, when France 
 may be said to have been under no dominant influence, 
 but to have vaguely followed her own sweet will, we find 
 her painters doing much the same. No particular school 
 was formed, but each painter, as in England, followed the 
 bent of his own genius.^ 
 
 Gericault, who at first pursued art merely as an amateur, 
 and whose early subjects were mostly sketches of horses, 
 had imdoubtedly a strong original talent. Unfortunately, 
 
 gorical paintings, which are characterized by an exquisite grace and 
 tenderness almost unique iu the Jbrench School.] 
 
 ^ Alfred de Musset, in 1836, wrote as follows: "Le Salon au premier 
 coup-d'cBil offre un aspect si vari6 et se compose d'^l^mens si divers, qu'il 
 est diflScile en commencant de rien dire sur son ensemble. De quoi 
 est-on d'abord frapp6? rien d'homogbne, point de pensee commune, point 
 d'^coles, point de families ; aucun lien entre les artistes, ni dans le choix 
 de leurs sujets ni dans la forme. Chaque peintre se presente isol6 et 
 non-seulement chaque peintre mais parfois mSme chaque tableau du 
 mdme peintre. Les toiles expo^ees en public n'ont le plus souvent ni 
 m^res ni sceurs." — Bevuc ies deux Mondes, 
 
376 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK VIII. 
 
 he died at the outset of his career, before his powers 
 were fully developed, but in his one great picture, the 
 Eaft of the Medusa (1819), we have a striking proof of 
 his highly dramatic invention. The scene is depicted in all 
 its terrible reality. It is not the rapturous hope of de- 
 liverance that animates this crew of dead and dying men, 
 although the moment chosen for representation is that in 
 which a sail appears on the horizon; to too many deli- 
 verance comes too late, and the rest with few exceptions 
 seem deadened by despair. It is, in truth, a fearful pic- 
 ture, and one turns from it with a sort of sickening dis- 
 gust. There is no denying the power of the painter, but 
 one cannot help wishing it had been displayed on a less 
 painful subject.^ 
 
 Leopold Robert (1794-1835), a Swiss by birth, sought 
 inspiration in Italy, where, however, he studied not the 
 great masters of painting, but the character, habits, and 
 customs of the people of the country, which he reproduced 
 in a sort of poetical or picturesque garb in his works. 
 The most celebrated of these is " Les Moissonneurs " of the 
 Eoman Campagna, in the Louvre. 
 
 Amongst the followers of David, the one, perhaps, who 
 most truly inherited his spirit without, however, copying 
 his manner, was Jean-Atjguste-Domenique Ingres (1780- 
 1867). Ingres adhered strictly to the classic mode of ex- 
 pression, but unlike the painters of David's school, he 
 refused to sacrifice the singleness of his ideal to an exag- 
 gerated theatrical display. His works are distinguished by 
 a simplicity and purity of form, and a lofty serious tone of 
 thought that raise them far above the classicisms of the 
 more immediate followers of David.* 
 
 [' This " epoch-making " picture, with its treatment of a tragic event 
 in a bold, realistic manner, gave the death-blow to the School of David. 
 It was the subject of the most violent attacks ; but it triumphed, and 
 founded the Romantic School.] 
 
 [2 Ingres was the antithesis of Delacroix, calm instead of passionate, 
 a draughtsman more than a colourist, seeking above all things for 
 purity of form, perfection of execution, and classic style. These aims 
 he preserved throughout his long life, althoughi he was much affected by 
 the works of Raphael, and was always an ardent student of nature. His 
 famous figure of " La Source," finished in his old age, is a remarkable 
 union of natural grace and academical design. Among his most famous 
 
BOOK VIII.] PAINTING IN FRANCE. 3^7 
 
 Art Scheffer (1795-1858), Dutch by birth, but French 
 by education, is pre-eminently the painter of modem de- 
 votional sentiment. He has been called, like Raphael, 
 " the poet-painter of Christianity," but his Christianity, as 
 well as his art, seems to want the muscle necessary for 
 vigorous life. His works are well-known from engravings; 
 his numerous sacred and poetical heroines, all wrapped, as 
 it were, in a mystic veil of poetry, under which we are at 
 first inclined to believe there lies a depth of earnest thought, 
 but which at last we find is only thrown over them to 
 shroud the most commonplace ideas. 
 
 Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863) may be reckoned as 
 the successful follower of G-ericault.^ He delighted, hke 
 him, in scenes of passion and terror, such as the Massacre 
 of Scio, the Murder of the Bishop of Liege, from Quentin 
 Durward, and the Shipwreck, from Don Juan. He was, 
 like most of the masters of the French school at this time, 
 a brilliant colourist, and it is to be regretted that much of 
 his time was taken up in great decorative works,^ wherein 
 his peculiar qualities were somewhat restrained from their 
 free exercise. 
 
 Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps (1803-1860) is chiefly 
 known by his admirable oriental scenes, which he illustrated 
 with wonderful effects of light and shade.' 
 
 pictures are CEdipus and the Sphinx, the Apotheosis of Homer, Strato- 
 nice, S. Symphorion, and La Source. Some of his portraits are extremely 
 fine.] 
 
 ^ [He is often called the first Romanticist, and he was certainly the 
 most powerful leader of the revolt against the old semi-classical half- 
 sculpturesque school. (See note on last page.) He was above all things 
 a painter, and a dramatic painter, in whose hand colour became an 
 engine for the expression of emotion. His ardent imagination preferred 
 action and character to repose and beauty, and was most congenially 
 employed in painting scenes suggested to it by poets like Dante and Byron. 
 He was one of the first of modern artists whose imagination was fed by 
 a visit to what is somewhat loosely called " The East." He accompanied 
 M. de Mornay, the Ambassador, to Morocco, and some of his finest 
 pictures are *' Oriental " in subject. Delacroix is esteemed by many as 
 the most independent and creative talent of the modern school.] 
 
 " Such as those in the Chambre des D<5put63, the Apollo Gallery of 
 the Louvre, and the Church of S. Sulpice. 
 
 [' Decamps deserves special noticeas.perhaps, the first of the modem 
 school of French landscape who thoroughly abandoned convention, and 
 learned to see nature with his own eyes, and paint what he saw. lie 
 
*67S HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK VIII. 
 
 In Horace Vernet (1789-1863), the grandson of Claude- 
 Joseph, and the son of Carle Vernet, the talent of the 
 Vernet family seems to have culminated. 
 
 His artistic abilities were early remarkable, he having 
 been able, it is said, to support himself by means of his 
 art, from the time he was fifteen years of age. He exhi- 
 bited also, at the Louvre, before he was one-and-twenty. 
 In 1814, he was decorated by Napoleon I. with the Cross 
 of the Legion of Honour, on account of his gallant be- 
 haviour at the Barriere de Clichy, a noble defence of which 
 he has left us a record in one of his most famous painted 
 works. His knowledge of military matters was indeed 
 thoroughly practical, he having served as a soldier in his 
 time, and having evidently made good use of that time in 
 observing the various manoeuvres of war, which he after- 
 wards reproduced with marvellous truth on his canvas. 
 " He commonly," says Womum, " painted alia priTna, as 
 the Italians express it, that is without retouching, and 
 often even without any previous preparation on the canvas ; 
 yet there is a perfect unity in the general effect of his works." 
 He was in truth, one of the most facile and prolific of modem 
 painters, and his popularity in France is almost abounded. 
 Everywhere we meet with his huge battle scenes, painted 
 with the utmost dexterity and cleverness, and with a 
 rapidity that is really amazing. 
 
 Paul Delaroche (1797-1856) stands side by side with 
 Horace Vernet in the story of the immediate past. The 
 fame of these painters is still too recent for us to judge 
 whether or not it will prove lasting, but Delaroche has 
 certainly few rivals in popularity at the present day.^ He 
 is, in truth, a great master, although his high dramatic 
 power occasionally leads him to overstep the bounds of 
 legitimate drama, and to verge upon the melodramatic. 
 His conceptions of scenes from French and English history 
 are unequalled in their force and character, although, by 
 the devotees of what the English painters of his time 
 
 was also the first to paint Oi'iental scenes in a genre spirit, entering 
 thoroughly into the character of the people. His pictures of Turkish 
 life are admirable, especially for their children. He was also an original 
 and fine colourist.] 
 ■ [^ This is no longer true. — 1888.] 
 
BOOK VIII.] PAINTING IN FRANCE. 379 
 
 termed, ** High Art," they are condemned as not treating 
 the subject in a lofty and ideal spirit, but rather as endea- 
 vouring to realise it. 
 
 His only monumental work is the celebrated fresco of 
 the " Hemicycle," in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, in which he 
 has represented the arts of all countries and times. This 
 is perhaps one of the best efforts in fresco of the French 
 school, but it will not bear comparison with his oil-paint- 
 ins?s, which in their forcible and brilliant colour, striking 
 effects of light and shade, and great technical skill, carry 
 off the palm from all his compeers. 
 
 Such pictures, indeed, as the Death of the Duke de 
 Guise, the Execution of Lady Jane G-rey, Cromwell regard- 
 ing the dead body of Charles I., Napoleon at Fontainebleau, 
 the Condemnation of Marie Antoinette, Strafford, the 
 Death of Queen Elizabeth, Eicheheu and Cinq-Mars, etc., 
 are sufficient to support even such a reputation as that of 
 Paul Delaroche. 
 
 [The fame of Delaroche has certainly not increased since 
 the year (1873) in which the foregoing words were first 
 published, and in speaking of those who have died since, 
 and of one or two more who died before that date, but 
 were omitted in the first edition of this work, it will be 
 well not to be too confident that their reputations will 
 always remain at their present level. Nevertheless it is 
 hard to think that the names of Theodore Rousseau, Jean- 
 Fran9ois Millet, and Camille Corot, will hereafter be less 
 honoured than they are now. 
 
 It is difficult among the crowd of celebrated French 
 artists to determine in a " concise " history what names to 
 omit, but space may at least be afforded to mention those 
 of Jean-Baptiste Regnault (1754-1829), the painter of 
 the Education of Achilles and the Three Graces, in the 
 Louvre ; and Xavier Sigalon (1788-1837), the painter of 
 the terrible Locusta trying on a Slave the Poison destined 
 for Britannicus. Both these painters may be considered as 
 forerunners of Delacroix and the Roman tic school . To go still 
 farther back the bold flower-pieces of Jean-Baptiste Mon- 
 NOYEB (1634-1699), and the spirited animals of Francois 
 Desportes (1661-1743), and Jean-Baptiste Oudry (1686- 
 1755), deserve a word, nor should the name of Nicolas de 
 
380 HISTORY OP PAINTING. [bOOK VIII. 
 
 Laroilli^re (1656-1746) be omitted from the roll of the 
 greater portrait painters of France, nor that of Maurice 
 QuENTiN DE Latour (1704-1788), the great master of 
 crayon. Charming in their way also are the portraits of 
 Madame Louise Elizabeth Vigee le Brun (1755-1842), 
 as all visitors to the Louvre will know. 
 
 On the work of all these artists the verdict has long been 
 passed, though when we recall the many cases in which 
 such verdicts on much earlier artists have been revised in 
 our day, we may well doubt whether our opinions, even 
 with regard to these, will be ratified by our sons. Never- 
 theless these artists belong to an old order of things, and 
 not to the great artistic movement of the nineteenth century, 
 which is still, as it were, in mid course. This movement 
 is, in a word, the liberation of the artist. Not church, nor 
 state, nor tradition, nor convention, nor Academy, now 
 hampers, or needs hamper the full expression of the artist's 
 individuality. He stands face to face with nature and 
 humanity, and may paint them as he wills. No nation 
 has done greater service in this emancipation than the 
 French — an emancipation which is only a sequel to the 
 great emancipation in the domains of philosophy, society 
 and literature, for which that nation has struck the most 
 vehement blows. Here our concern is only with painting, 
 but we can scarcely comprehend the spirit and progress of 
 French painting in the nineteenth century unless we re- 
 cognize it as the natural result of the French revolution. 
 The same forces operated in England, but in art gently, as 
 by natural development ; in France they operated in art as 
 in politics — by revolution. Hogarth came and went with- 
 out agitating greatly the world — i.e., the world of art — 
 scarcely considered seriously as a painter. Sir Joshua and 
 Gainsborough inaugurated a new school of portrait and 
 landscape. Cozens and Girtin, Turner and Constable, rose 
 like stars unheard and almost unseen, but Gericault and 
 Delacroix exploded like bombs in the artistic air of Paris. 
 It was a war of ideas, a storming of the Academy. And 
 the victory was with the rebels, though unacknowledged 
 perhaps even to-day, and though they did not get what 
 they sought, and did not thoroughly appreciate what they 
 were fighting for, nor in what their victory consisted. The 
 
BOOK VIII.] PAINTING IN FRANCE. 381 
 
 Academy still remains, the " classic convocation " is not 
 killed nor likely to be ; the leaders of the movement, Dela- 
 croix and the rest of them, are not models of imitation. 
 What they did was simply to make the painter a free man, 
 as conventional or unconventional, as classic or romantic, as 
 ideal or realistic, as Christian or Pagan, as moral or as im- 
 moral, as affected or sincere, as he pleased. The rush was to 
 truth, or at least to sincerity. It began with the stripping 
 off of classic costumes from modern warriors, as in the 
 pictures of Gros, in the faithful representation of imagina- 
 tive ideas, as in Delacroix, and ended in revealing the 
 pictorial interest and beauty of ordinary nature and 
 humanity. These — nature and humanity — were the key- 
 notes of the movement, and if landscape was the last 
 branch of pictorial art to which the revolution extended, 
 in no other has it been more searching and complete. 
 
 As French critics themselves have often and generously 
 admitted, the modern school of French landscape was 
 greatly aided in its development by the example of English 
 artists. The influence of Bonington (resident in France) 
 was considerable, but that of Constable was still greater. 
 Some movement away from the traditions of Poussin and 
 Claude in the direction of a more faithful and familiar 
 treatment of landscape — a more personal expression of the 
 sympathy between the individual and the natural world 
 on which he lived had already been started, especially by 
 Paul Huet (1804-1869), but it was not fairly launched till 
 the appearance at the Salon of 1824 of the Haywain (now in 
 the National Gallery) and some other pictures by Constable. 
 They produced as great a revolution as the Shipwreck of 
 Gericault, and had an immediate effect on the art of 
 Delacroix and Decamps, but it was not till the appearance 
 of Th]^odore Eousseau (1812-1867) that the modem 
 French school of landscape can be said to have been 
 founded. He first showed the originality of his genius 
 by a View in Auvergne at the Salon of 1831, and he went 
 on steadily increasing in power till his masterpiece of 1867, 
 a View of the Alps taken from La Faucile. His aim was 
 simple — to express with all his might the beauty and power 
 of Nature without the aid of any external sentiment to 
 give interest to his pictures. Nature and Rousseau were the 
 
382 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOX VTII. 
 
 only factors in his art. Gifted with remarkable sympathy 
 with the various aspects and effects of nature, and with 
 unusual skill and resource in expressing them, he painted 
 forest and open country, mountain and plain, with equal 
 success, and he could be simply lyric or grandly dramatic 
 with the same facility. He was a fine draughtsman, 
 drawing trees with special skill, a striking and often 
 splendid colourist, and in the variety and force of his 
 effects of light and air he has few rivals. In so various a 
 mind it is not easy to discover the prevalent inclination, 
 but it was, perhaps, the infinite strength and grandeur of 
 nature which impressed him most. His giant oaks are 
 realized with an extraordinary sense of their bulk, the 
 vast complexity of their structure, the weight of their 
 boughs, and the lightness of their foliage ; they are round, 
 too, and hollow, giving a true impression of the space they 
 occupy ; his clouds also are grand, and in his stormy sun- 
 sets seem bursting with lurid light. 
 
 A greater contrast to the temper of his art could scarcely 
 be found than in the works of Camille Corot (1796-1873), 
 and yet both sought to give faithfully their most valuable 
 impressions of nature, and both regarded light as the essence 
 of landscape art. But as they had no longer to be bound 
 by convention or fashion, each followed his own indivi- 
 duality, and Corot' s led him to prefer the poetic suggestive- 
 ness of nature rather than the realization of her forms, 
 the pearly haze of morning air to the strength of the noon- 
 day sun, and perfect harmony of tone to strength or bright- 
 ness of colour. Eousseau tried to express the moods of 
 nature, Corot employed nature to express his own. He 
 was the pupil of Bertin, an historical landscape-painter, 
 and of Michallon, who began his artistic career in the 
 same line, and to the last the old school of landscape had 
 a hold upon his imagination, guiding his composition, 
 and peopling his landscapes with nymphs. But for all 
 that he was a modern, discarding conventional forms and 
 tricks of handling, and expressing his own ideas in their 
 natural language. But his nature was poetical, and he 
 translated nature into a dream-world of his own — a grey 
 world of pale skies and misty foliage, full of grace, ten- 
 der feeling, fine taste and style, taking, as it were, only 
 
BOOK VIII.] PAINTING IN FRANCE. 383 
 
 what was good of classic, romantic, and realistic art, and 
 blending them altogether to express his own charming in- 
 dividuality. 
 
 The names of Rousseau and Millet are associated with 
 that of Barbizon, a little village on the skirts of the Forest 
 of Fontainebleau, where the two artists long resided. 
 They were the leaders of the new Fontainebleau School, 
 which differs as much from that of Primaticcio and Rosso 
 as the palace from the forest. Jean-Francois Millet 
 (1815-1875), the son of a peasant, was bom at G-ruchy, a 
 little hamlet on the shores of La Hogue. He was a pupil 
 of Delaroche, and began by painting pictures of the nude, 
 sensuous in feeling, and rich in colour, but in 1849 he left 
 Paris for Barbizon, and settled to his real work in life as 
 what has been well termed "the epic painter of rusticity." ' 
 Thus his training was something like that of Corot's, and 
 he, too, combined in a remarkable degree classic dignity of 
 style with modern veracity of feeling. Never has humanity 
 been treated in art so strictly in relation to its natural 
 surroundings. The soil and the tiller of the soil, this 
 was his theme, and he painted the sower and the gleaner, 
 the shepherdess and the woodman, just as any day they 
 might be seen at their work, in the very clothes they wore, 
 and in the very fields in which they laboured. They and 
 nature are one in his pictures, the expression of one great 
 idea, the result of one great force. He raised them to epic 
 grandeur, not by forcing them into heroic attitudes, or 
 inspiring them with an artificial sentiment, but by seizing 
 the moment when the ordinary action of the trained 
 labourer becomes really grand, by seeking his sentiment 
 within and not without his subject, and faithfully recording 
 the patience and solemnity which labour engraves upon 
 the peasant's face. His life is a story of neglected genius, 
 but he had but to die to be famous. His pictures, the 
 Angelus and the Sower, are, perhaps, now the most cele- 
 brated of all in modem art, and even his etchings have risen 
 to extraordinary value. 
 
 With these artists is associated the name of their friend, 
 Narcisse-Viroilio Diaz de la Pena (1808-1876), Spanish 
 
 [* W. E. Henley, in the Memorial Catalogue of the French and 
 Dutch Loan Collection, Edinburgh International Exhibition, 1886.] 
 
384 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOZ VIII. 
 
 by parentage, French by birth, whose works are charac- 
 terized by their je welly colour and romantic fantasy. Not 
 so true to nature as Rousseau, nor so great and profound 
 an artist, the work of Diaz has a charm, almost a glamour, 
 of its own. 
 
 Other notable leaders in the modem French school of 
 landscape who have died in recent years are Constant 
 Teoyon (1816-1865) and Charles Francois Daubignt 
 (1817-1878), and with these should be mentioned the name 
 of Jules Dupre (born 1811 and still living). 
 
 In other branches of art the French school has sustained 
 severe losses by the deaths of Eugene Fromentin (1820- 
 1876), the refined and poetical painter of Arab life, and one 
 of the finest of modern critics, of Henri Eegnault (1843- 
 1871), the daring and accomplished painter of the Execu- 
 tion in the Alhambra, and the portrait of General Prim ; 
 of Gustave Courbet (1819-1877), celebrated for the bold- 
 ness with which he pushed realism to an extreme, especially 
 in his famous Funeral at Ornans, but in spite of all his 
 eccentricity of opinion and want of taste, a painter of un- 
 usual power ; of Edouard Fr^ire (1819-1886), the painter 
 of child-life and the poor ; of Gustave Dor^ (1832-1882), 
 the illustrator of a thousand books, the painter of Christ 
 leaving the Praetorium, and many another popular and 
 striking picture, the most prolific pictorial genius, perhaps, 
 that ever lived, and lastly, of Edouard Manet (1833-1883), 
 the founder of the impressionist school ; of Jules Bastien- 
 Lepage (1848-1884), painter of history, genre, and portrait, 
 a leader of the modern reahsts, whose early death cut oflc 
 a career of singular promise.] 
 
BOOK IX. 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 
 
 Hogarth — Ketnolds — Wilkie — Turner. 
 
 ENGLISH Painting is a thing of recent growth. Its 
 history belongs to the present day, and is therefore 
 necessarily incomplete. We knew not in truth whether 
 English art has as yet reached its blooming time, or, 
 whether, as many signs lead us to hope, a still higher de- 
 velopment awaits it in the future. Certain it is that some 
 of the greatest painters that England has produced are 
 now living and working amongst us, and although in the 
 storm of contemporary criticism it is difficult to foretel the 
 calm verdict of posterity, we may yet venture to believe 
 that in future histories of art the English School of Paint- 
 ing will not hold the unimportant position that has hitherto 
 been assigned to it.^ 
 
 The long-delayed birth of [pictorial] art in this coimtry 
 is a circumstance that has been often commented upon but 
 never satisfactorily explained. It is curious, no doubt, 
 that art should have flourished at an early date not only 
 in Italy, where congenial conditions may be supposed, but 
 in the unpropitious Netherlands, with a climate and com- 
 
 [' This belief has already been fully justified. The great German 
 ^'History of Painting,'* commenced by Woltman and Woermatm, and 
 continued since Dr. Woltmann's death by Dr. Woermann alone, does 
 honour to the English School. So also does the collection of studies of 
 artists of all schools, called " Kunst and Kunstler," edited by Dr. 
 Di>leme. In France more than one work has been specially devoted to 
 the English School. The best known of these is M. Chesneau's " La 
 Peinture Anglaise," of which a translation into English has been pub- 
 lished by Messrs. Cassell and Co.] 
 
 c c 
 
386 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOH IX. 
 
 mercial interests akin to our own, and yet should have 
 entirely lacked an original development in England until 
 as late as the middle of the eighteenth century. Yet so it 
 was. All the various schools of Italy, Spain, Flanders, 
 G-ermany, and Holland, had bloomed and decayed, and the 
 French School had attained a considerable development 
 before a national school of English painting was so much 
 as founded. So long, indeed, was the artistic impulse in 
 making itself felt in this country that Messrs. Redgrave 
 have given to their comprehensive history of English 
 painting the limited title of " A Century of Painters of 
 the English School ; " ^ all the best of our English artists, 
 with the exception of those still living, who do not come 
 within the scope of their work being included within this 
 period, which extends from the time of Hogarth to the 
 middle of the present century. 
 
 But although our national English art can only be said 
 to begin with Hogarth, there were a few English portrait- 
 painters before his time who claim a passing notice. 
 
 Henry YIII., in imitation no doubt of his rivals 
 Charles V. and Francis I„ was very desirous of being con- 
 sidered a patron of the fine arts. He invited several great 
 Italian painters, including Eaphael, over to England, and 
 a few lesser Italian masters, probably pupils of Eaphael, 
 really consented to exile themselves for a time from the 
 land of taste and culture, and to accept the munificent 
 patronage of the barbarian Goth, as they doubtless con- 
 sidered our sturdy Tudor king. The German Holbein, 
 however, was by far the greatest master ^whom Henry's 
 munificence attracted to this country. He, as we have seen, 
 found in England a second home, and his influence was 
 deep and lasting on his successors. Many inferior English 
 painters imitated their great German teacher, but although 
 
 ^ " A Century of Painters of the English School, with Critical 
 Notices of their Works, and an Account of the Progress of Art in 
 England," by Richard and Samuel Eedgrave. 2 vols. London, 1866. 
 This is the only history of English art that we as yet possess ; Horace 
 Walpole's amusing " Anecdotes of Painting in England" being for the 
 most part confined to foreign artists, Holbein, the Vandervelds, and 
 others, who enjoyed English patronage. It affords to students a trust- 
 worthy, and at the same time, most interesting guide to an acquaintance 
 with the style and works of our English masters. 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 387 
 
 numerous spurious Holbeins have been handed down to 
 us, the names of none of these painters have been pre- 
 served, and it is not until we come to Elizabeth's reign 
 that we meet with our first noteworthy English portrait- 
 painter, Nicholas Hilliard (1547-1619), of whom Dr. 
 Donne wrote — 
 
 " An hand or eye 
 By Hilliard dx-awn is worth a historye 
 By a worst painter made." 
 
 Many of Hilliard* s miniatures (he was strictly a miniature- 
 painter) are still in existence,^ and are highly prized 
 by connoisseurs, more, possibly, on account of their rarity 
 and curiosity than from their intrinsic merit as works of 
 art. 
 
 Isaac Oliver (1555-1617), another miniaturist of 
 Elizabeth's and James I.'s reigns, probably a pupil of 
 Milliard's, likewise achieved a considerable reputation, and 
 his son, Peter Oliver (1594-1654), and a painter named 
 John Hoskins (died 1664), carried on the same branch 
 of art with ability and great success in the following 
 reigns.^ 
 
 Charles I. had evidently a true love and taste for art, 
 but although he honoured and employed Eubens and Tan- 
 dy ck and made a splendid collection of the works of Italian 
 masters, his patronage failed to produce one good English 
 painter, unless we reckon as such William Dobson (1610- 
 1646), before mentioned as having gained the title of the 
 English Vandyck, a master of feeble origiuality, but of 
 some facility in portraiture ; and George Jamesone (1586- 
 1644), his Scotch contemporary, many of whose portraits 
 reveal considerable power and skill. 
 
 ^ Several were' exhibited in the first National Portrait Gallery, in 
 18G6. 
 
 ^ [There has been, indeed, an unbroken succession of fine miniature 
 painters, English by birth, from the days of Queen Elizabeth to our 
 own, — an English "School," indeed, in this particular branch of art, 
 more continuous than, perhaps, that of any other nation. For accounts 
 of all the principal English miniaturists the reader is referred to 
 Propert's " History of Miniature Art." Macmillan, 1887. One name 
 in addition to those in the text must, however, be mentioned here — that 
 of Samuel Cooper (1609-1672), the Vandyck in little, who painted 
 Cromwell and the srreat men of the Commonwealth and the Restoration. 1 
 
388 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IX. 
 
 Egbert Walker (died 1660), Cromwell's painter, who 
 was not allowed to idealize his master's pimply visage, but 
 was directed to " paint the warts and bumps," comes next, 
 and after him two or three imitators and copyists, whose 
 names need not be particularized. 
 
 In the time of Charles II. the Vanderveldes, Sir Peter 
 Lely, and Sir Godfrey Kneller were the favoured masters, 
 and the few miserable painters whom England then pro- 
 duced assiduously copied the manner of these much be- 
 lauded foreigners ; ^ of the two latter, that is to say, for 
 even an imitation of the honest painting of Willem Van- 
 dervelde was beyond the reach of that dissolute and effete 
 age. 
 
 Allegory now became the fashion, and the Italian Verrio 
 being invited over to England, walls, ceilings and stair- 
 cases were soon covered by him, and in imitation of him, 
 with the most unmeaning classical and so-called historical 
 subjects, wherein real historical characters, in wonderful 
 costume, were represented with the attributes of gods, sur- 
 rounded by impersonated virtues ; and gods and goddesses, 
 shepherds and shepherdesses, swains and nymphs disported 
 themselves in foolish wantonness over acres of canvas. 
 
 " No reign," says Horace Walpole, " since the arts have 
 been in any estimation, produced fewer works that will 
 deserve the attention of posterity " than that of George I. 
 
 One master of this time, however, Jonathan Richard- 
 son (1665-1745) deserves mention not so much on account 
 of his painted works, although these were somewhat above 
 the average mediocrity of his contemporaries, but because 
 of his common- sensible art-criticisms which may still be 
 read with profit, although their shrewd practicality con- 
 trasts remarkably with the ethico-aesthetical criticism 
 aimed at in the present day.^ 
 
 ^ [An exception to the ** miserable" painters, was Joseph Michakl 
 Wright (d. 1700) a pupil of Jamesone. His fine portrait of Thomas 
 Hobbes, the philosopher, when an old man, is in the National Portrait 
 Oallery, And another was John Rilet [1646-1691), Court painter to 
 William and Mary ; he also painted Charles II. and James II. There 
 Are portraits by him in the National Portrait Gallery of Bishop Burnet, 
 James II., Lord William Russell, and Waller.] 
 
 * His works are, " The Theory of Painting," " An Essay on the Art 
 of Criticism so far as it relates to Painting,'' and " An Argument in be- 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 389 
 
 Charles Jebvas, now chiefly known by Pope's eulogistic 
 epistle, Thomas Hudson, a fashionable painter of heads,^ 
 Francis Hayman, the recorder of the old splendour of 
 Vauxhall, Francis Cotes, Allan Eamsat [the author of 
 " The Gentle Shepherd "], and Sir James Thornhill, the 
 father-in-law of Hogarth, end this line of mediocrities,^ 
 and bring us down to the date when, for the first time, a 
 great and original genius arose amongst English painters. 
 
 William Hogarth (1697-1764) was the son of a 
 Westmoreland schoolmaster who had settled in London 
 as a corrector of the press, and lived, we are told, " chiefly 
 by his pen." Not being desirous that his son should live 
 by the same precarious instrument, he early apprenticed 
 him to a silver-plate engraver, one Ellis Gamble, who kej^t 
 a shop in Cranbome Alley .^ Here the boy, who when at 
 school had adorned his exercises with artistic ornament 
 rather than with the graces of composition, first learnt the 
 use of the graver, and soon grew ambitious to apply it to 
 nobler purposes than the engraving of initials and heraldic 
 devices on spoons and tankards. Accordingly, in 1718, 
 when his apprentice years were over, we find him engraving 
 copper plates for booksellers, plates which often sold for 
 
 half of the Science of a Connoisseur," published together, in one small 
 quaint volume, by his son, in 1773. [In the National Portrait Gallery 
 are portraits by Kichardson of Anne Oldfield, Pope, Prior, Steele, Lord 
 Chancellor Talbot, and Vertue.] 
 
 ^ He could not, it is said, even paint the draperies necessary to 
 clothe his vacuities. [See note to page 393.] 
 
 [^ With the exceptions of Jervas and Thornhill, the painters named 
 in this paragraph were junior to Hogarth, and Francis Cotes (1725-1770) 
 was a fine portrait painter, whose reputation has lately been raised 
 above the mediocrities. In the National Portrait Gallery there are 
 portraits of Queen Caroline, Pope, and Martha Blount ; the Duchess of 
 Queensbury, and Dean Swift, by Jervas (1675-1735); of Handel, 
 Edward Willes, and Matthew Prior (the last, after Richardson), by 
 Hudson (1701-1779); of the Earl of Chesterfield, Queen Charlotte, 
 George III., Lord Mansfield, and Dr. Mead, by Kamsay (1709-1784) ; 
 and of Sir Robert Walpole and himself by Havman (1718-1776). Sir 
 James Thornhill was the decorator of St. PauFs Cathedral and Green- 
 wich Hospital, and his compositions, if not works of genius, were at 
 least grandiose and effective, and fulfilled their purpose of decoration 
 better than those of any English artist since his time.] 
 
 [^ It was in accordance with his own wishes that Hogarth was 
 apprenticed to Gamble.] 
 
390 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IX. 
 
 little more tlian the mere worth of the copper.^ At the 
 same time he studied drawing from the life in an academy 
 in St. Martin's Lane, but it was not till after his runaway 
 marriage with the daughter of Sir James Thornhill, Ser- 
 jeant Painter to the King, that took place in 1729, that he 
 appeared before the public as a painter. 
 
 In 1734 the prints of his first great series of paintings, 
 the Harlot's Progress, were issued, and were quickly fol- 
 lowed by the Rake's Progress, in 1735, and the still more 
 celebrated Marriage a la Mode, in 1745. These works had 
 a great success, but the engravings of them, executed by 
 Hogarth himself, were, it would seem, more appreciated 
 than the paintings, which sold for ridiculously small 
 sums.^ 
 
 This is not so surprising, for although his painting is of 
 high excellence, the colouring true and forcible, and the 
 execution careful, yet it is by his dramatic power of com- 
 position, a power that makes itself felt as strongly in the 
 colourless engraving as in the painted work, that he mostly 
 ai^peals to the heart of mankind. His pictures, in truth, 
 are not so much painted as they are written with the 
 brush, in strong plain characters, conveying often terrible 
 meanings. " Other pictures," says Charles Lamb, " we 
 look at ; his prints, we read." His moral lessons are 
 obvious, but they are forcible, his humour is deep and his 
 satire keen and unsparing. He holds no truce with the 
 devil, but shows up him and his children in a more fearful 
 form than was ever depicted by the grotesque mediseval 
 imagination. 
 
 His social dramas often rise to the height of the most 
 terrible tragedies, even their laughter is akin to tears, and 
 
 [^ We have no information as to what price was paid for his early 
 engravings, many of which were shop-bills, book-plates, and such small 
 work. These, and the book illustrations, as for Mottraye's Travels 
 and Hudibras, were, in all probability, commissions at a low scale of 
 payment, but the notion that he executed plates on speculation, and sold 
 ihem for the weight of the copper, or little more, rests on a doubtful 
 statement by Nichols.] 
 
 [^ The sums were, Harlot's Progress, £88 45. ; Rake's Progress, 
 £184 16s. ; Marriage a la Mode, £126. The price of the prints was 
 very moderate. Harlot's Pi-ogress, £1 Is. ; Rake's Progress, £2 2s. j 
 and Marriage a la Mode £1 lis. 6d. the set. 
 
BOOK IX.J PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 391 
 
 whilst our lips are moved to a smile, we feel pitj or indig- 
 nation in our hearts. 
 
 His characters are mostly drawn from the foolish or 
 depraved classes of society, his mission being to lash folly 
 and to brand vice, and such fearful pictures has he left us 
 of the dissolute manners of his age, that we can scarcely 
 believe that the stately, highborn gentlemen, and graceful, 
 refined ladies that we meet with on Sir Joshua Reynolds* 
 canvases, lived at the same time with the sinful and mise- 
 rable wretches whose downward careers are so forcibly 
 portrayed by his great contemporary. 
 
 It is impossible here to enter upon any description of 
 Hogarth's numerous works. Fortunately they are so well- 
 known that a description of them is but little needed. 
 Even on the Continent, where English art has not as yet 
 made much advance, we find his prints widely disseminated, 
 and in Germany, especially, his genius has called forth 
 much discriminative criticism and admiration. English 
 students have an excellent opportunity of studying his art 
 in its highest manifestation in the great Marriage a la 
 Mode series which forms part of the National CoUection. 
 Here, in this great pictorial drama, the author is seen at 
 once as a painter — a master of the art of laying colour — a 
 satirist, a moralist, and a great teacher of mankind. 
 
 Few can turn away unmoved from the contemplation of 
 this tragic history, for although its many shafts of sarcasm, 
 flying about in all directions, distract our attention for a 
 time, we cannot help being in the end deeply affected by 
 the terrible truths it conveys, truths set before us, it is 
 true, in strong, even coarse language, but by this very 
 reason, perhaps, piercing our indifference in a manner that 
 no elegant allegory of virtue and vice, or wisdom and folly, 
 could ever have done. It is the same in his other great 
 tragedies of human life. Their incongruities, their adinix- 
 ture of the terrible and the ridiculous may at first study 
 excite our perceptions of the ludicrous; but as Charles 
 Lamb truly remarks, ** when we have sacrificed the first 
 emotion to levity, a very different frame of mind succeeds." 
 
 He himself tells us that he deliberately chose the path 
 in art that lay " between the sublime and the grotesque," 
 and in this wide region he has achieved an unparalleled 
 
392 HISTORY OP PATNTINO. [bOOK IX. 
 
 success. Occasionally, indeed, lie steps beyond it, and in 
 the terrible earnestness of passion attains almost to the 
 height of the sublime ; but more often, on the other hand, 
 he falls into caricature, from his having, as it would seem, 
 an especial attraction towards the grotesque and whimsical 
 forms of the human face. 
 
 As a portrait painter (he supported himself for some 
 years at the beginning of his career by painting portraits), 
 he was observant, faithful, and unflattering, painting his 
 sitters simply as they sat before him, without idealization. 
 His portrait of his own honest self, in nightcap, and with 
 his dog, that of Captain Coram, in the Foundling Hospital, 
 and that of his bright-faced, daring httle wife,^ recently 
 exhibited among the " Old Masters," at the Royal Academy, 
 are excellent examples of his skill. 
 
 Occasionally he tried his powers in the high historical 
 style, then in vogue, but although his efforts in this line of 
 art are by no means such unmitigated failures as they have 
 often been represented to be, it is certain that the powerful 
 bent of his genius was towards such scenes as the March 
 to rinchley, Southwark Fair, Beer Street, the terrible 
 Grin Lane, the Election Series, the Idle and Industrious 
 Apprentices, the Enraged Musician, the Distressed Poet, 
 and the three great series before mentioned. 
 
 Towards the close of his career, Hogarth appeared as a 
 writer on art. His " Analysis of Beauty " was written, 
 probably, to combat the false taste of his age in matters 
 of art, a taste that he never lost an opportunity of 
 ridiculing,'^ and which his own honest original work did 
 more than anything else to counteract. 
 
 But although Hogarth was thus the first English painter 
 
 [^ Portraits by Hogarth of bis wife, were exhibited at the Boyal 
 Academy in 1872, 1873, and 1876. The last, which now belongs to 
 Mr. H. B. Mildmay, was at the Grosvenor Gallery Winter Exhibition 
 this year (1888), together with twenty-four other pictures by Hogarth, 
 including the fine group of David Garrick and his wife, and many other 
 portraits. Several interesting pictures by Hogarth have recently been 
 added to the National Gallery,] 
 
 ^ Asj for instance, in the first picture of the Marriage a la Mode 
 series, wherein the walls of the apartment in which the bargaining of 
 birth against money takes place, are covered with grandiose works by 
 "the black masters," as Hogarth called them, and the ceiling is 
 ludicrously decorated with a painting of the Passage of the Eed Sea. 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 393 
 
 to break through the conventions of tradition and imita- 
 tion, and to establish a genuine and national style of art in 
 England, he had no followers, strictly speaking ; no 
 scholars, that is, who taught and carried on his own 
 peculiar mode of expression. 
 
 He is the founder of English painting only in the sense 
 of having been the first great original English master, and 
 not as having been the typical master of a particular 
 school, as we have seen with the various masters of schools 
 in Italy. In truth, when we consider it, there is, as 
 foreigners assert,^ no such thing as an English school of 
 painting, or has not been until quite recently ; ^ for each 
 English painter has apparently had too much individuality 
 of mind to be able to take up the art of his predecessor or 
 teacher, and to carry it to a still further point of perfection. 
 Thus it happens that individual effort and genius have 
 accompHshed much in our country, but that there has been 
 no progressive development such as we see in the school ^ 
 of Venice, for example, from Bellini to Titian, or in 
 Florence from Giotto to Michael Angelo. 
 
 Whether this individual independence of English pain- 
 ters is a thing to be lamented is difficult to decide. On 
 the one hand it certainly strengthens original talent, but 
 on the other it gives wider scope to unguided and mis- 
 guided impulses which the erratic artists themselves too 
 
 • " Les Anglais," says Viardot, " ont port6 jnsque dans I'art, leur loi 
 de Vhabeas corpus, cette liberie de la personne dont ils se montrent juste- 
 ment si fiers et si jaloux." 
 
 [^ " The first exhibition of English painters in France took place in 
 the Avenue Montaigne in 1855. For the French, it was a revelation of 
 a style and a school, of the existence of which they had hitherto had no 
 idea." — The English School of Painting, translated from the French of 
 Ernest Chesneau. Cassell and Co., 1885.] 
 
 [^ The word ** School " is used in various senses. We talk of the 
 School of a particular painter like Titian, the School of a country like 
 Holland, the Schtiol, of a place like Florence, the School of an idea, like 
 the Eclectic School, and the School of a genre, like the landscape School. 
 All of these are, I think, represented in the history of English Art. 
 There is the English School generally, the School of Norwich, the 
 School of "High Art" as it was called, or more recently the Pre- 
 Kaphaelite and the realistic Schools, and certainly the landscape School. 
 These have not been without progressive development, or united en- 
 deavour. May we not also speak of the School of Turner, or David 
 Cox, or Rossetti ?] 
 
394 HiSTOEY or painting. [book IX. 
 
 often mistake for inspirations — inspirations that would, 
 probably, have been beneficially curbed by a little wise 
 training. At all events, whether for good or evil, we find 
 no united endeavour, like that which marks a school,' 
 amongst English painters until the middle of the present 
 century, when the little band of reformers known as the 
 Pre-Eaphaelites first formed themselves into a brotherhood, 
 or, as it is now appropriately styled, the Pre-Raphaelite 
 School, wherein we have for the first time certain binding 
 principles distinguishing English art. 
 
 Hogarth, however, if he did not found a school,^ at least 
 re-opened the obstructed path to nature for his contempo- 
 raries and successors, and down this cleared path, long 
 hidden by a growth of sham sentiment and honest inca- 
 pacity, he was followed more or less intelhgently by all the 
 great English masters of the eighteenth century, who, 
 however, instead of treading directly in his footsteps, 
 turned from side to side garnering new truths, and observ- 
 ing fresh beauties which each recorded in his own peculiar 
 language.^ 
 
 Sir Joshua Eeynolds (1723-1792), the second great 
 English painter who rose on the horizon of the eighteenth 
 century, resembled Hogarth only in going to nature for 
 instruction, and casting aside the affectations of Lely and 
 Kneller. 
 
 He was born at Plympton, in Devonshire, and was des- 
 tined by his father for the medical profession. But from 
 a child, " out of pure idleness," said his father, he was 
 " given to the making of sketches ; " and the reading of 
 Eichardson's " Theory of Painting," seems to have decided 
 him to become a painter. Accordingly after some oppo- 
 sition, he was [in 1741] apprenticed to Thomas Hudson, 
 one of the most incapable of the incapable imitators of 
 Kneller, and esteemed himself "very fortunate in being 
 under such a master." * 
 
 ^ See note 3 on p. 392. 
 
 [^ A list of Hogarth's principal paintings is to be found in Mr. Austin 
 Dobson's *' Hogarth " in "The Great Artists " series (Sampson Low), 
 ■which, despite its conciseness, is by far the most accurate and complete 
 account of this master's life and achievement which has yet been 
 published.] 
 
 p Hudson's incapacity has been taken too much for granted, because 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 395 
 
 It was more fortunate, perhaps, that he did not learn 
 much from such a master, nor remain with him long, 
 for after two years' experience in Hudson's studio, we 
 find him setting up for himself as a portrait painter in 
 Devonport. 
 
 In 1749, by the kindness of Commodore Keppel, he was 
 enabled to go to Italy, where he spent altogether three 
 years, visiting Eome, Florence, Venice, Padua, and Bologna, 
 studying the works and modus operandi of the great Italians, 
 but never striving, so it would seem, to imitate or repro- 
 duce their peculiar excellences. Already, in fact, the 
 strength of originality lay within him, and he returned to 
 England in 1752, to inaugurate a new era in portrait 
 j)ainting. 
 
 His success was soon assured. Portrait painting, as 
 before said, had always been the prevailing branch of art 
 in England, not, perhaps, as Hogarth affirms, because 
 " vanity and selfishness are the ruling passions " here, 
 more than elsewhere, but because a less amount of skill 
 was necessary to paint a tolerably faithful likeness (not a 
 real living portrait, that is a totally different thing), than 
 was required for the composition of even a small genre 
 painting. English painters before Hogarth possessed 
 none of the skill of hand of the Dutchmen. They were 
 not attracted towards scenes of homely life, they had no 
 feeling for out-door nature, their religion excluded the 
 endless repetition of Virgins, Babes, and Saints, in which 
 the Italians found exercise for their pencils, and nothing, 
 therefore, was left to them but to reproduce as best they 
 could the faces of the sitters who came to them "to be 
 taken." This desirable object is achieved for all in the 
 present day by photography, but in Sir Joshua's time, it 
 was only, we must remember, the rich and the noble who 
 could afford to have their features handed down to poste- 
 rity by the painter's art. 
 
 he employed other artists to paint his draperies, but this has been done 
 Ijy all, or nearly all, successful portrait paintere. The same drapery 
 ])iiinter, Peter Toms, K.A., employed by Hudson, was also employed 
 by Reynolds and by Cotes, and Hudson, if he had no great genius, 
 tould paint soundly, and the fact of his having been the master of Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds, and Joseph Wright, of Derby, should count for some- 
 thing in his favour.] 
 
396 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOZ IX. 
 
 Never before had that art been exercised with such 
 delicate perception and subtle understanding, as it was 
 by Sir Joshua. No wonder that fair women and stately- 
 highborn men flocked to his studio, for whilst they saw 
 their very thoughts, as it were, revealed on his canvas, and 
 their individuality fully marked, they were yet lifted by 
 the magic of his art far above the region of the common- 
 place, into a realm of tender poetry and grace. For the 
 art of Reynolds is not the mere mechanical skill of repro- 
 ducing the exact counterfeit of the face of the sitter, as it 
 appeared at the moment : his is not the trivial detail of a 
 Denner, that " counted the hairs and mapped the wrinkles '* 
 in a man's countenance. Perceiving how " much subtler is 
 a human mind than the outside tissues which make a sort 
 of blazonry or clock-face for it," ' he 
 
 *' Poring on a face 
 Divinely through all hindrance finds the man 
 Behind it, and so paints him that his face, 
 The shape and colour of a mind and life, 
 Lives for his children ever at its best." * 
 
 " There is a look of distinction," says one of his recent 
 critics,^ " about everything he does. His portraits have all 
 the * hel air,' like Henry Esmond. To wander througli a 
 gallery of them is to wander through a court where the 
 manners are sweet because of goodness, and graceful with- 
 out effort, because the grace is inborn." Yes, the grace 
 and the goodness too were truly inborn, for they were in 
 the mind of the painter himself, and as he painted all his 
 portraits in the light of his " mind's eye," and not in the 
 glaring noon-day of matter of fact, it is not surprisiiiu' 
 that we find in them a certain subjective ideality, whi^ 
 heightens their charm, while it is never allowed to int( . 
 fere with the actual truth of the portraiture. This he 
 never sacrifices. " Considered as a painter of individuality, 
 in the human form and mind," says Kuskin, ** I think him 
 even as it is, the prince of portrait painters." * 
 
 The same great authority classes him also, as one of the 
 " seven great colourists of the world," and truly whilst 
 
 ^ George Eliot, " Middlemarch." ^ Tennyson. 
 
 " Austin Dobson. ^ " The Two Paths," Lect. 2. 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 397 
 
 estimating his mental and moral qualities, we must by 
 no means overlook his great technical skill. He was a 
 painter to the heart's core, and loved his colours as other 
 men love theii- children, only unfortunately he was always 
 experimenting with them, seeking new pigments, Venetian 
 methods, and such like, and thus it happens that many of 
 his best works hare now utterly faded, or have become the 
 mere shadows of their former selves. 
 
 His industry must have been surprising. England 
 literally teems with his works ; besides the private houses 
 in which they abound, they are met with in almost every 
 gallery and exhibition. There are several notable ones at 
 South Kensington easily accessible to the student, and 
 many, including his famous Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic 
 Muse, have been recently exhibited at the Royal Academy. 
 He is pre-eminently our national portrait painter. 
 
 Honours were not wanting in the equable life of the 
 amiable Sir Joshua. In 1768 the Royal Academy was 
 founded, and he was unanimously elected its first Presi- 
 dent. He was knighted on this occasion, and on the 
 death of Allan Ramsay, became Court painter. His 
 *' Discourses on Painting," delivered at the Royal Academy, 
 contain much judicious criticism and valuable advice to 
 the art student ; indeed they still rank as one of the most 
 important English works on the theory of art. Their 
 literary merit also is considerable. 
 
 One of the most kindly and courteous of men, Sir 
 Joshua was beloved by all who knew him, and he reckoned 
 amongst his friends such men as Johnson, Goldsmith, 
 Burke, Garrick, and many other members of the celebrated 
 " Literary Club," of which he himself was a member. All 
 these men have a certain tenderness of tone in speaking of 
 their favourite Sir Joshua. Dr. Johnson writes to him : 
 *' If I should lose you, I should lose almost the only man 
 whom I call a friend," and Goldsmith, as we know, found 
 it impossible, even in his " Retaliation," to retaliate with 
 one single sarcasm on his gentle painter friend/ 
 
 ^ " Here Reynolds is laid, and to tell you my mind. 
 He has not left a better or wiser behind. 
 His pencil was striking, resistless, and grand ; 
 His manners were gentle, complying, and bland. 
 
398 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOZ IX. 
 
 The third great name that marts the rise of the English 
 school of painting in the eighteenth century is that of 
 Thomas G-ainsboeouqh (1727-1788). [Born at Sudbury, 
 in Suffolk, he spent some four years in London under 
 Hayman, and at the St. Martin's Lane Academy. He 
 married at the age of nineteen and returned to Ipswich. 
 About 1758 he settled at Bath, where his portraits gained 
 him a name. He was one of the foundation members of 
 the Eoyal Academy.] Although bearing some affinity with 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, with whom he is often compared, 
 Grainsborough's works have a distinct character of their 
 own, so that there is no mistaking them for those of his 
 great rival. His portraits are colder in colour than those 
 of Reynolds, who at times almost rivalled the Venetians in 
 his warm magnificence, but they are never inharmonious 
 and are set in a pure atmosphere of silvery light, that en- 
 velopes them, as it were, in a soft haze of dreamy delight. 
 
 It was for his portraits that Gainsborough was most 
 esteemed by his contemporaries, his landscapes scarcely 
 gaining the least notice in his own day. Connoisseurs had 
 not then learnt, indeed, to appreciate the truthful render- 
 ing of rural English scenery and scenes of country life ; 
 but it is one of Grainsborough's strongest claims on the 
 gratitude of posterity, that he was the first English artist 
 who found inspiration in the beauty of his o-wq native 
 land, and who depicted its simple features with loving 
 truth. 
 
 Like the genuine Dutch landscape painters, he found 
 beauty enough to fill his heart in the fields and woods of 
 home, without seeking it in Roman Campagnas, blue lakes, 
 and classical ruins, or, as so many Italianisers have done, in 
 Claude's or Salvator Rosa's pictures. 
 
 Several of his finest landscapes are in the National 
 Gallery, where also may be seen his lovely and expressive 
 portrait of Mrs. Siddons, which, although inferior in power 
 
 Still, born to improve us in every part — 
 
 His pencil our faces, his manners our heart. 
 
 To coxcombs averse, yet most civilly steering, 
 
 When they juflged without skill he was still hard of hearing. 
 
 When they talked of their Kaffaelles, Correggios, and stuff, 
 
 He shifted his trumpet, and only took snuif." 
 
 Goldsmith, Retaliation. 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 8D& 
 
 to Eevnolds's glorious Tragic Muse, yet exercises over us a 
 peculiar, indefinable charm. 
 
 His small rustic subjects, also, are truly delightful ; 
 full of the breath of country air and country simplicity, 
 uncontaminated by railway smoke and ignorant of steam 
 ploughs. 
 
 Many of these smaller works are distinguished for a 
 wonderful delicacy of execution, and in spite of his " habit 
 of hatching," as Reynolds calls it, a habit gained, no doubt, 
 from his early education under an engraver, which makes 
 his work often appear slight and sketchy, it could never 
 have been carelessly done, for however easy and rapid the 
 execution, it never fails in its effect. 
 
 George Eomney^ (1734-1802) achieved in his lifetime a 
 fame that was almost equal to that of his great rivals, 
 Reynolds and G-ainsborough, but, unfortunately, posterity 
 has not, as in their cases, seen fit to confirm the flattering 
 judgment of his contemporaries. " Reynolds and Romney,'* 
 writes Lord Thurlow, " divide the town. I am of the 
 Romney faction." None are of the Romney faction now, 
 and even the real cleverness of his paintings is apt to be 
 overlooked. He was a man of a weak, susceptible, egotistic 
 nature, whose faults were fostered by the universal flattery 
 that he received, especially from his friend, poet, and bio- 
 grapher, Hayley, who was also the friend and eulogist of 
 Cowper. His fitful genius would not submit to the dry 
 detail of work. He was always seeking to soar to heaven by 
 the aid of fancy alone, but his works somehow, in spite of 
 their pretensions, " drop groundwards," whilst the amiable, 
 painstaking Reynolds, who never thought about his genius, 
 reached the heaven which Romney attempted to scale. 
 
 Romney is especially famous for his graceful female 
 heads. 
 
 Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830) succeeded Sir Joshua 
 and Romney as the supremely fashionable portrait painter 
 of his age. Wonderful stories are told of his precocious 
 cleverness. He was no doubt a remarkable child, but un- 
 happily he and his friends mistook his early facility in 
 taking portraits for innate genius, and considering that 
 
 ' [The portraits of Komney have risen very greatly in public estima- 
 tion since this was written. See concluding note]. 
 
400 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IX. 
 
 sucli extraordinary talents needed no cultivation, at an age 
 when most young artists are only beginning their course of 
 study he was launched as a full-blown portrait painter in 
 Bath, where he charged a guinea and a guinea and a half 
 for his crayon heads. 
 
 Coming up to London in 1787, he was admitted a student 
 of the Royal Academy, where his remarkable beauty and 
 his facile skill created such a sensation that the students 
 judged that "nothing less than a young Raphael had sud- 
 denly dropt among them." 
 
 Nor did his after success belie his flattering reception by 
 the London world. Never was painter more courted, more 
 flattered, more " the rage," than the inkeeper's clever son. 
 Kings, emperors, and popes loaded him with honours and 
 commissions, and fair ladies esteemed themselves happy if 
 only they were allowed to simper on his canvas. But in 
 spite of his unbounded reputation the truth remains that 
 this dextereus Sir Thomas was by no means a heaven- 
 inspired genius, but only a clever painter of Court and 
 fashion, in which line he stands perhaps unrivalled. 
 
 EicHARD Wilson^ (1714-1782) comes next in date to 
 Hogarth amongst our English painters, but I have deferred 
 speaking of him until after the great triumvirate, Hogarth, 
 Reynolds, and G-ainsborough, because his line of art is essen- 
 tially different from theirs. Not even with G-ainsborough, 
 who likewise made landscape his study, had Wilson the 
 least afiinity, for Wilson's landscapes were not painted in 
 the misty fields of England, but were composed under the 
 influence of Poussin, Salvator Rosa, and Claude. He 
 looked at nature, it is true, for himself, and no doubt 
 imagined that he was faithfully reproducing what he saw 
 before him ; but he looked at her, so to speak, not with his 
 own untutored eyes, but through the spectacles with which 
 his study of the above-named masters had provided him, 
 and so it hai:)pened that he could only perceive in nature 
 the truths and the colours that he had before learnt to see 
 in their paintings. 
 
 But although Wilson has not contributed one truth from 
 his own unaided observation to the general treasury, we 
 owe him some gratitude for having sacrificed himself, for a 
 
 \} See concluding note, p. 416.] 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 401 
 
 sacrifice it truly was, to that long-neglected branch of his 
 art — landscape-painting. He began life as a portrait- 
 painter, and achieved some success, but when first in Italy 
 he was moved by the praises of Zuccarelli and Vemet to 
 devote himself to landscape, in which he had already shown 
 much proficiency. 
 
 But landscape painting was but little esteemed at that 
 time in England. The general taste for art was still very 
 low, and only portrait painting was in any sense properly 
 appreciated and rewarded. At all events Wilson's land- 
 scapes, although admitted to be the best that his country 
 had produced, failed to please the popular taste. They 
 would not sell, and the painter was left to struggle un- 
 heeded with poverty, which would indeed have amounted 
 to absolute want had he not obtained the small post of 
 librarian to the Royal Academy, by means of which he just 
 managed to maintain himself. Towards the close of his 
 life he succeeded to a small property in Wales, to which he 
 retired from London, where, as he expressed it, he had found 
 no one " mad enough to employ a landscape-painter." 
 
 Such was the experince of Richard Wilson, the fore- 
 runner of Turner, and the first English artist who ventured 
 to walk in what has since become a national and well- 
 trodden path. 
 
 A few foreign artists settled in England, several of 
 whom were amongst the first members of the Royal 
 Academy, founded as before mentioned in 1768, still shared 
 with Englishmen the favour and patronage of the public. 
 Of these the most important were Giovanni Cipriani, an 
 insipid Italian mannerist, such as only the eighteenth 
 century could have produced, and Johann Zopfany, a 
 German of considerable ability in his own limited path, as 
 is evident by his best-known work, the Life School of the 
 Royal Academy, with portraits of the Academicians, recently 
 exhibited in the Old Masters at the Royal Academy ; ^ and 
 
 P He went to India in 1783, and has left some admirable pictures of 
 Anglo-Indian life, such as Embassy of Hyder-Beck to Calcutta, and the 
 Ti^er Hunt, well-known by en«;raving. He was also an excellent 
 painter of stage-scenes, with portraits of Garrick and other celebrated 
 actors of the day. Another clever painter of theatrical portraits was 
 George Clint, the engraver 11770-1854).] 
 
 D P 
 
402 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [eOOK IX. 
 
 the mucli-extolled Angelica Kauffman, the " fair Angelica " 
 as she was called, who, by reason of her womanhood, her 
 learning, her amiabihty, and the interest that was excited 
 by her unfortunate marriage, attracted a far larger repu- 
 tation than was really her due as an artist.^ Francesco 
 ZuccARELLi and Philip de Loutherbourg, two artificial 
 painters of so-called landscape, were more successful in 
 hitting the popular taste than poor dreary English Wilson. 
 Zuccarelli's foolish pastorals were especially in demand. 
 
 If great aims and the choice of great themes made great 
 painters, then the next group of English artists that 
 claims our attention might truly be called great, but, un- 
 fortunately, most of these artists in trying to fly with the 
 mechanical wings of an Icarus, dropt like that unlucky 
 hero of old, into the sea, whereas they might probably, had 
 they chosen to have made use of the Hmbs with which 
 nature had provided them, have walked safely and profit- 
 ably on common ground. But they were all deluded by 
 an abstraction that they called " High Art." They had 
 no ** wondrous patteme " of divine beauty before their 
 eyes like the ideal painters of Italy ; the " images " they 
 beheld were of this earth, and exceedingly common-place, 
 but none the less they strove to express their poor little 
 conceptions in the lofty language of the great masters, a 
 language which they designated as high art, not perceiving 
 that the imitative grandeur of the language only served to 
 make more apparent the poorness of the original idea. 
 
 Benjamin West (1738-1820), the successor of Sir 
 Joshua Eeynolds in the presidency of the Eoyal Academy, 
 was an American by birth, and a Quaker by religion. 
 Wonderful stories are told of his early precocity; "In- 
 deed," says a biograj^her, "had he been a greater than 
 Michael Angelo, more mysterious occurrences, more mys- 
 tical warnings, could not have accumulated around him." 
 In truth, it would seem, that here, if anywhere, the genius 
 
 ^ The engravings from her works amount, Wornum tells us, to 
 several hundreds, showing her vast popularity in her own day, whilst 
 the obscurity into which these engravings have fallen, testify to the 
 small amount of value set upon her work at the present day. [Again 
 has come a change of taste, and these engravings are as much sought 
 after now as they were neglected when this book was published.] 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 403 
 
 must have been inborn, that had its origin amidst a society 
 of Quakers in Pennsylvania, in the middle of the eighteenth 
 century. But in spite of the original adaptation of the 
 cat's tail for pur23oses of art, this young Benjamin had no 
 real originality of mind. 
 
 After a three years' study in Italy, where he became 
 imbued with the traditions of Academic art, but remained 
 curiously insensible to the real excellences, especially that 
 of colour, of the old masters, he came to England in 1763, 
 and partly, perhaps, by virtue of royal patronage (he was 
 George the Third's favourite painter), soon became rich 
 and famous. We cannot now understand the enthusiasm 
 that his tame works once excited, but even Leslie tells us 
 that when he first came to London he thought West as 
 great a painter as Eaphael. 
 
 His most famous picture, however, is one in which he 
 deserted for once the path of high art, and dared to repre- 
 sent the Death of Wolfe as a scene of contemporary 
 history, with the figures dressed in the costume of the day. 
 Such an innovation (for hitherto such subjects had always 
 been set forth in classical guise or disguise), called forth 
 much criticism, and Barry even went as far as to show his 
 contempt for this modem mode of treatment, by painting 
 a classical death of Wolfe with no costume at all. 
 
 Unfortunately he did not follow the example he had set, 
 but continued to paint such subjects as the Departure of 
 Regulus from Rome, The Banishment of Cleombrotus, 
 Orestes and Pylades, Death on the Pale Horse, and high 
 religious themes, of his feeble rendering of which we have 
 a specimen in his large picture of Christ Healing the Sick, 
 in the National .Gallery. 
 
 An artist of still higher aims than West was James 
 Barry (1741-1806), the son of a coasting trader and inn- 
 keeper of Cork. Study in Italy, for which his countryman 
 Burke supplied the funds, inspired him with the ambition 
 to revive the glory of classic art, and mistaking his powers 
 he imagined himself fully qualified for the task. On 
 coming to London in 1771, he exhibited an Adam and Eve, 
 painted whilst in Italy, and soon after a Venus rising from 
 the Sea, thus by his subjects at once entering into compe- 
 tition with the greatest masters. But although elected a 
 
404 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IX. 
 
 member of the Royal Academy, the world iii general failed 
 to recognize his self-asserted genius, and he was left almost 
 to starve in his devotion to High Art. This neglect made 
 him bitter in spirit, and irritable in temper. He led an 
 unhappy, quarrelsome and lonely life, but a noble one in so 
 far that he never for the sake of gain deserted the high 
 path he had chosen. He was supported in it, doubtless, 
 by the hope of future fame, but even that poor solace has 
 been denied to him, his works proving to us even more 
 (dearly than to his contemporaries, that his efforts after 
 grandeur went beyond his strength. His greatest work, 
 indeed it might almost be said his only work, consists of a 
 series of paintings in the meeting room of the Society of 
 Arts in the Adelphi, setting forth in six classical subjects, 
 the History of the Civilization of Man. Here the artist's 
 lofty aims, classical taste, and alas ! weak powers, are fully 
 made manifest. 
 
 Henry Fuseli (1741-1825), the kindly-hearted, but 
 sharp-tongued professor of painting in the Eoyal Academy, 
 had perhaps more originality than either of the artists 
 above-named, but his genius was of a most erratic and un- 
 disciplined kind, and his efforts at the sublime too often 
 resulted in the ridiculous. He delighted in the terrible and 
 the weird in art, but his weird effects remind one too much 
 of the sulphur and lime lights of the theatre to be truly 
 appalling. Nevertheless, he had a decidedly poetic imagina- 
 tion, and had he been content with less ambitious themes 
 than the Bridging of Chaos,^ and similar subjects, he 
 might have left us many pleasant fanciful pictures. 
 
 James Singleton Copley (1737-1815), James North- 
 coTE (1746-1831), John Opie (1761-1807), John Hamil- 
 TON Mortimer (1741-1779), G-eorge Henry Harlow, 
 
 ^ The Bridging of Chaos was one of the subjects of the Milton 
 Gallery, a series of forty-eight pictures from the works of Milton, all by 
 his own hand, which Fuseli exhibited to an unappreciative public in 
 1800. The Boydell Gallerj^, promoted by Alderman Bo^'dell in 1786, 
 was an exhibition of a similar kind, only Shakespeare was here the in- 
 spiring poet. Some of Fiiseli's best woi'ks were executed for this cele- 
 brated gallery, to which West, Barry, Opie, Northcote, Romney, Stot- 
 hard, and many oth-^rs likewise contributed. The engravings from this 
 series are well known, but the works themselves are scattered, nor is 
 their loss much to be regretted. 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND 405 
 
 (1787-1819), and William Hilton (1786-1837), all devoted 
 themselves more or less (several made money by portraiture 
 as well), to what they considered historical painting, some- 
 times, as in Copley's Death of the Earl of Chatham, and 
 The Death of Major Pierson, representing events from con- 
 temporary English history, and sometimes choosing scenes 
 from the Bible, the poets, and the history of past times. 
 
 David Scott of Edinburgh (1806-1849), also appren- 
 ticed to engraving, was largely influenced by Blake's works, 
 and was successful rather as a designer than a painter. 
 Of his large and ambitious paintings, ** Vasco di Grama," 
 his latest work, now at Leith, may be considered as the 
 " matured expression of his art." 
 
 Benjamin Robert Hatdon was about the last of the 
 self-constituted martyrs to High Art. He determined that 
 he would be a Raphael, Titian and Michael Angelo in one, 
 " or die in the trial," and he did die in the trial, alas ! by 
 his own hand. The history of his " clamorous frenzied life, 
 with its sound and fury, its strength and weakness, its 
 feverish energy, and unsound ambition," has been recorded 
 up to its last hour by himself. It is one of the saddest in 
 the annals of painting.^ 
 
 In contradistinction to Haydon and the other devotees 
 to High Art, stands the simple-minded Scotchman, David 
 WiLKiE (1785-1841), who at the outset of his career, 
 determined " to work hard, because he was not a genius." 
 
 Wilkie stands next after Hogarth, as the greatest painter 
 of familiar life of the English School ; he differs, however, 
 widely from the great moral satirist, not only in the class 
 of subjects that he chose for representation, but likewise, 
 in the emotions that his art calls forth. His aim is not so 
 much to give a severe warning to the profligate, to hold up 
 vice to reprobation and folly to scorn, as it is to claim our 
 compassion for the unfortunate, our sympathy in the joys 
 and sorrows of humble life, and to awaken our interest in 
 
 " Things we have passed 
 Perhaps a hundred times, nor cared to see." 
 
 "Wilkie," says Ruskin, "becomes popular like Scott, 
 
 • Autobiography of Robert Haydon. 
 
406 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IX. 
 
 because he tonclies passions which all feel and expresses 
 truths that all can recognize." His pictures, indeed, ap- 
 peal to the meanest understandings, and have no need of 
 explanations like those of the painters above mentioned, 
 many of which puzzle the unlearned visitor to exhibitions 
 exceedingly. 
 
 Coming up to London when he was scarcely twenty years 
 of age, the " raw, tall, pale, queer Scotchman," as Haydon 
 called him, achieved a success that he himself described as 
 " jest wonderful," by the exhibition, in 1806, of his Village 
 Politicians. This inimitable work was speedily followed by 
 the Blind Fiddler, the Eent-Day, the Village Festival, 
 Distraining for Rent, the Penny Wedding, Reading the 
 Will, and others that have made the name of David Wilkie 
 a household word in many homes. 
 
 Late in his career, after a journey to Italy and Spain (a 
 journey undertaken in search of health), Wiikie completely 
 changed his style of painting, and instead of the careful 
 Dutch-like execution and elaborate finish of his earlier 
 time, exhibited works remarkable for their effective, but 
 slight execution. His class of subjects was also changed, 
 and instead of the simple scenes of humble life in which he 
 formerly took delight, we find him choosing the more am- 
 bitious path of historical painting. In this, critics mostly 
 agree that he was unsuccessful, but the pictures that he 
 painted in this latter style are not many. 
 
 In 1840 he undertook a journey to the East, with the 
 view, it would seem, of painting the scenes of Scripture 
 history with a greater truth than artists had hitherto 
 thought it necessary to give, but he died at sea on liis 
 homeward voyage, before realising his aim.^ 
 
 William Mulready (1786-1863), comes next after 
 Wilkie ^ in his natural expression of the scenes of familiar 
 life, but he deals with the emotions of childhood rather 
 than with the more complex passions of later life. His 
 works have not the dramatic force of Wilkie' s, but they 
 are especially distinguished by their excellent drawing (a 
 
 ^ His burial at sea forms the subject of a fine picture by Turner. 
 
 [^ Some other ffenre painters seem to deserve some mention here, such 
 as Edward Bird (1762-1819). Andrew Geddes (1789-1844) and 
 T. S. Good (1789-1872).] 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 407 
 
 quality in which Wilkie by no means excelled) and harmo- 
 nious coloiu". Leslie, Newton, Egg, and many other 
 well-known artists, belong to a large class of genre painters, 
 that chooses its subjects rather from the upper than the 
 lower grades of social life, and especially delights to illus- 
 trate life as it is seen reflected in the pages of the novel or 
 the poem. Even when dealing with history these painters 
 still treat their subject in a genre-like manner, and care 
 little for the classical dignity which the before mentioned 
 class of history painters strove to infuse into their works. 
 Like the Dutch Terburg these artists delight in rich cos- 
 tume and splendid accessories ; but, although not approach- 
 ing the Dutchman in execution, their works are seldom so 
 inane and trivial as his, and often possess a strong human 
 interest, as is apparent, for instance, in Egg's Life and 
 Death of the Duke of Buckingham, in his Past and Pre- 
 sent, and in many of Leslie's pleasant illustrations from 
 Shakespeare, Cervantes and Moliere. 
 
 William Etty (1787-1849) sought to rival the Vene- 
 tians in the expression of sensuous beauty. " Finding," 
 he says, " G-od's most glorious work to be woman, that all 
 human beauty had been concentrated in her, I resolved to 
 dedicate myself to painting, not the draper's or milliner's 
 work, but God's most glorious work, more finely than had 
 ever been done." Whether his powers were equal to this 
 task is a question upon which critics disagree. 
 
 Before coming to the greatest name in the annals of 
 English painting, it will be well to note the rise and growth 
 of a new and peculiarly national mode of painting. " In 
 her excellent water-colour painting," says a foreign critic,^ 
 " England has reached unsurpassable perfection," and yet 
 the earliest artists who excelled in the modern use of 
 water-colour do not date back further than the middle of 
 the past century. Water-colour painting had, of course, 
 been practised long before this time, both abroad and in 
 England ; indeed, as we have seen, some mode of water- 
 colour painting was known and used by missal painters, 
 and miniaturists, before oil painting was even invented ; 
 but the peculiar beauty and enlargement given to the art 
 
 * Dr. Liibke. 
 
408 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IX. 
 
 in England, grew not so much out of the methods of the 
 early illuminators, as out of the humbler work of the topo- 
 grapher, which was often tinted with transparent washes, 
 to indicate local colour. 
 
 Our first water-colour artists were in truth simple topo- 
 graphers, and it was not until John Cozens (1752-1799) 
 and Thomas G-irtin (1775-1802) elevated the art bv their 
 more picturesque and poetical treatment of landscape, that 
 its capabilities were fully seen. 
 
 Grirtin was the worthy forerunner of Turner in landscape 
 art, and his works well mark the progress of water-colour 
 from its simple and useful application by the topographer 
 to its noble development in the works of Turner. 
 
 Joseph Malloed William Turner (1775-1851) was 
 the son of a hairdresser and barber, of Maiden Lane, 
 Covent G-arden, and his first works were exhibited, it is 
 said, in company with the barbers' blocks that decorated 
 his father's shop- window. His love of nature, in spite of 
 his birth and growth in the very heart of London, must 
 have been early developed, for as soon as he was old 
 enough to be trusted out alone he appears to have 
 wandered forth into the country, or along the banks of his 
 favourite Thames, noting with observant mind and open 
 sketch-book the varied aspects of the scenes he passed. 
 At the age of fourteen he was admitted as a student of the 
 Eoyal Academy, but his chief employment for some time 
 was in washing in backgrounds for architects, and making 
 topographical drawings for engravers. For the latter pur- 
 pose he travelled, we are told, over all England, "mostly 
 on foot, twenty to twenty-five miles a day, with his bag- 
 gage tied up in a handkerchief, and swinging on the end 
 of his stick." 
 
 His greatest friend at this time was Thomas Girtin, from 
 whom, probably, he acquired his knowledge of water- 
 ''' colours, and that predilection for their use that he ever 
 afterwards retained.^ Almost all his early sketches are in 
 water-colour, and even in his later oil-paintings we find 
 him constantly endeavouring to produce the same delicate 
 effects in oil as those he had obtained in the more trans- 
 
 [^ It is impossible to say from whom Turner learnt to use water* 
 colours, but he could do so probably long before he met Girtin.] 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 409 
 
 parent medium. By Girtin, Turner was introduced to Dr. 
 Munro, of the Adelphi, who employed both the young 
 artists to sketch for him at the price, it is recorded, of 
 half-a-crown and their supper for an evening's work. 
 
 In 1799 Turner was elected an associate of the Academy, 
 and in 1802 a full academician, facts that go far to prove 
 that even if " Great England of the iron heart" remained, 
 as Ruskin asserts, for a long time unmindful of the 
 greatest of her painters, his genius was at least recognized 
 by his brother artists. 
 
 In his early style Turner no doubt adopted much from 
 Wilson and Claude, indeed, he often seems to have painted 
 in direct rivalry with these masters,^ but his originality was 
 too intense for any but conscious imitation, and, although 
 he availed himself of the results of the labours of preceding 
 artists, he nevertheless, from his earliest youth, received 
 his sole inspiration from nature. " None before Turner," 
 writes Turner's great expounder, "had lifted the veil from 
 the face of nature ; the majesty of the hills and forests had 
 received no interpretation, and the clouds passed unre- 
 corded from the face of the heaven they adorned, and the 
 earth to which they ministered." 
 
 And yet his art did not lie in the literal transcription of 
 nature. His was not the skill to count the blades of 
 grass, and reproduce, without variation, the exact aspect of 
 the scene before him. No! Every scene that he has 
 represented is bathed, so to speak, in the mystic poetry of 
 his own imagination. He painted his portrait of the earth 
 not merely as it appeared to him at any one given moment, 
 but with a true comprehension of all its past history, of 
 the earthquakes that had shaken it, the storm-winds that 
 had swept over it, and the loveliness that still clung to it. 
 He has revealed to us this loveliness in all its varying 
 aspects — in its joy and in its sadness, in its brightness and 
 its gloom, in its pensive mood and in its fierce madness, ih 
 its love and in its hate, but the portrait, although true in 
 the highest sense, is never directly copied from nature,' 
 
 ^ As, for instance, in the two famous pictures that he directed should 
 be hung between the two Claudes in the National Gallery. 
 
 ' " Although he made hundreds of studies from nature," says Red- 
 grave, '* he never seems to have painted a picture out of doors." 
 
410 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IX. 
 
 for he painted, like Raphael and all great idealists, from 
 an image or ideal in his own mind. But this ideal was 
 founded on the closest observation and study of the real. 
 Before 1800, that is to say, before he was five-and-twenty, 
 the subjects of his exhibited works alone ranged over 
 twenty-six counties of England and Wales,^ showing how 
 much he must have travelled and the constant communion 
 that he held with nature. 
 
 The Fifth Plague of Egypt, a work in subject and 
 treatment strongly reminiscent of Wilson, was exhibited by 
 Turner in 1800.^ This was quickly followed by Calais 
 Pier, the Garden of Hesperides, and the grand picture of 
 Jason,^ which may be taken as the finest example of his 
 first style, or, as Ruskin calls it, his student time.* 
 
 In 1815 this early style culminated in the well-known 
 pictures. Crossing the Brook, and Dido Building Carthage, 
 and from this time until 1835 he worked in what is called 
 his second style, pouring forth such visions of earth's 
 beauty as the Bay of Baiae, the Ulysses and Polyphemus, 
 Palestrina, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, and the Golden 
 Bough. 
 
 To his third style or period, extending from 1835 to 
 1845, and distinguished, according to Euskin, by *' swift- 
 ness of handling, tenderness and pensiveness of mind, 
 exquisite harmony of colour, and perpetual reference to 
 nature only, issuing in the rejection of precedents and 
 idealism," belong the magnificent Phryne, Ancient and 
 Modern Italy, and above all, the glorious Fighting Teme- 
 raire, but still it must be admitted that several of the 
 more mystic works of this period are sufiiciently impalpable 
 to give rise to the criticism that regards them simply as 
 the evidences of a noble mind o'erthrown.^ 
 
 ^ Eedgrave, " Century of English Painters." 
 
 ^ His first exhibited oil-painting was the small picture of Moonlight, 
 a studj at Millbank, now in the National Collection, which was sent to 
 the Academy in 1797. Before this all his woi'ks seem to have been in 
 water-colour. 
 
 ^ Exhibited at the British Institution in 1808. 
 
 * See Buskin's remarks on the " Jason " of the Liber Studiorum, a 
 " reminiscence" of this picture. " Modern Painters," vol. ii. p. 164. 
 
 * " Je ne veiix pas chercher," says Viardot, " d'autre preuve de I'etat 
 d'insanite ou 11 a termini sa vie." Aytoun also remarks, " Far be it 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 411 
 
 In his life and his art alike Turner remains a mystery.. 
 His greatness and his littleness, his strength and his 
 weakness, constantly perplex us by their contradictions. 
 Even his very speech was enigmatical, and his lectures and 
 instructions to students at the Academy were so obscure 
 as to be unintelligible to most. " Rare advice it was," 
 says Redgrave, " if you could unriddle it, but so myste- 
 riously given or expressed that it was hard to com- 
 prehend." 
 
 His life was singularly uneventful, being passed wholly 
 in pursuit of his art. Solitary and self concentred, he 
 dwelt like Rembrandt apart from men, in the world of his 
 own creations. Death found him at last, an old man of 
 seventy-six, under an assumed name, in a small lodging 
 overlooking the river he had loved and studied from 
 childhood. 
 
 He was buried, by his own desire, in the crypt of St. 
 Paul's, by the side of Sir Joshua Reynolds, but the noblest 
 monument raised to his memory, is the five volumes of 
 Modem Painters, the author of which tells us that he has 
 "given fifteen years of his life to ascertain that this 
 Turner, of whom you have known so little, will one day 
 take his place beside Shakespeare and Yerulam, in the 
 annals of the light of England." 
 
 With the name of Turner, this slight outline of the 
 history of English painting may fitly end, for space will 
 not permit of more than the mention of the simple un- 
 affected art of John Constable (1776-1837), the rustic 
 life depicted by William Collins (1788-1847), the verdure 
 of Thomas Creswick (1811-1869), and the magnificent 
 and truthful sea painting of William Clarkson Stan- 
 field (1793-1867), "the leader of English realists." All 
 these painters have achieved a noble success in the long- 
 
 from me to decry eccentricity ; but really, when a gentleman has spread 
 the scrapings of his palette upon a milled board, and deliberately sat 
 down upon it, it is rather a cool thing to send it, without any further 
 preparation, to a gallery of art, under the title of ' Neapolitan Girls 
 siartled — Bathing by Moonlight.' " Such is a specimen of the criticism 
 ti) which Turner is frequently subjected by less enthusiastic critics than 
 Jolin Kuskin. He did not paint to be understood by everybody ; indeed, 
 judging from an anecdote related of him, he was offended if told that any 
 one UDderstood his meaning. 
 
412 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IX. 
 
 deserted patli of landscape, and by their faithful study, 
 and truthful representation of nature have done much to 
 destroy that false taste in art so long prevalent in England, 
 which preferred pseudo-classic "compositions" to the honest 
 expression of the truths of nature. 
 
 The English school is now generally acknowledged to 
 stand pre-eminent in landscape amongst all the various 
 schools of painting of the present day, nor need it fear any 
 decline, whilst it can still produce such landscapes as many 
 of those which have adorned the walls of the Royal Academy 
 during the last few years.^ 
 
 In animal painting also, under the veteran. Sir Edwin 
 Landseer,'^ one of the few of our English painters who 
 have attained European celebrity, the English school takes 
 the lead. 
 
 Domestic genre, as it may be called, is, however, the 
 prevailing style of English painting at the present day, 
 and it cannot much be wondered at, that foreign critics 
 laugh and sneer at the enormous number of English 
 artists, who draw their inspiration solely from the wells of 
 home life, and represent sentimental lovers, pretty children 
 and happy mothers in unending sameness. A more ideal 
 style has, nevertheless, lately been manifest in some of our 
 greatest painters, and whilst we still have such men as 
 ilolman Hunt, Frederick Leighton,^ John Everett Millais,* 
 Dante G-abriel Eossetti,* Frederick Watts, Philip Calderon, 
 F. A. Walker,^ and James Sant, working in their full 
 strength amongst us, there is no need to fear that English 
 painting is falling into decadence; on the contrary, we 
 may justly hope from the fresh energy that it has recently 
 put forth, that a nobler and fuller development awaits it 
 in the future. 
 
 \} This is still more true now (1888) than when it was written.] 
 [2 Died 1873.] [ ^ Now Sir Frederick Leighton, Bart.] 
 
 [* Now Sir John Everett Millais, Bart.] [» Died 1882.] 
 
 f Died 1875.] 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 413 
 
 CONCLUDING NOTE. 
 
 I HAVE thought it better to leave this short summary 
 of the history of the English School with little altera- 
 tion or addition. It reflects faithfully the author's views 
 as to the painting of her own country, and also represents 
 the relative importance which the English School bore in 
 public estimation to those of other countries, at the time 
 this concise history was first published. It is only fifteen 
 years ago ; but since then the School as a whole has greatly 
 increased in importance, its history has been more care- 
 fully studied, the merits of its different artists more exactly 
 examined, and in many cases old verdicts have been 
 reversed. How this has all been brought about would 
 take too long to tell ; but perhaps the main source of our 
 changes of opinion has been the more frequent opportunity 
 of studying the works of English painters which has 
 been afforded by large collections of pictures lent by private 
 owners. 
 
 The Winter Exhibitions at the Royal Academy and the 
 Orosvenor Gallery, and the local exhibitions at Liverpool, 
 Manchester, Birmingham, and other places, sometimes de- 
 voted to the work of a single artist, have borne fruitful 
 results. So it has happened that some painters have at- 
 tracted attention who are not mentioned in this book, al- 
 though not aUve when it was published ; and others have 
 assumed a far greater importance in the history of British 
 art. A few words about these artists, and a few more 
 about others who have died since 1873, are necessary to 
 -complete this sketch of the History of Painting in England. 
 It will be most convenient to take them according to 
 ■class. First, then, of the portrait painters, Sir Hknry 
 Raeburn (1756-1823) owed his comparative neglect since 
 
414 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IX. 
 
 his death to the fact that his works had been little seen 
 in England, for he lived in Edinburgh, where he held 
 much the same position as Eeynolds in England, and his 
 portraits are rare on this side of the Tweed. In his day, 
 however, he received due honour from English artists. 
 Reynolds befriended him. He was a constant exhibitor for 
 many years at the Eoyal Academy, and was elected an 
 Associate in 1813, and a full member of the Academy in 
 1814. He was knighted by Greorge IV. on his visit to 
 Edinburgh in 1822, and afterwards appointed His Majesty's 
 Limner for Scotland. In 1812 he was elected President of 
 the Society of Artists in Edinburgh. The characteristics 
 of his art are the strength with which he represented the 
 individuality of his sitter, and his broad, masterly handling. 
 He is one of the few British artists represented in the 
 Louvre, and a fine full-length portrait by him has recently 
 been added to the National Gallery. 
 
 It was not till the large collection of his works at Derby 
 in 1883 that the full scope of the art of Joseph Wright, 
 of Derby (1734-1797), could be studied by the present 
 generation. He, too, as Raebum, has suffered from the 
 confinement of his works to the region of their production 
 — in and about his native town of Derby. He was, how- 
 ever, better known in London than Eaebum was, on 
 account of the number of fine mezzotint engravings by 
 Valentine G-reen, W. Pether, J. Raphael Smith, and others 
 v/hich, popular in their day, still linger on the walls of 
 many a house throughout the country. His large portrait 
 groups seen by strong artificial light are the most powerful 
 and individual of his works. Perhaps the finest of all — 
 A Philosopher Giving a Lecture on the Air Pump — is in 
 the National Gallery ; but of similar merit are The Orrery 
 and The Gladiator, while the pathetic picture of The Dead 
 Soldier, engraved in line by J. Heath, was perhaps the 
 most popular of all. The Exhibition at Nottingham showed 
 that he deserved a higher place among the portrait painters 
 of England than had hitherto been allowed to him, that 
 his groups of children were charmingly natural, his repre- 
 sentations of men and women characteristic and thought- 
 ful, and that in what may be called poetical portraiture few 
 works of his time were more graceful than his Edwin (from 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 415 
 
 Beattie's " Minstrel ") and Maria (from Sterne). In his 
 day he was also celebrated as a landscape painter, espe- 
 cially for scenes with fireworks and conflagrations; but, 
 though an able and an original landscape painter, his 
 reputation in this line has not been sustained at its 
 original level. There are two or three portraits by Joseph 
 Wright in the National Portrait G-allery, including a 
 singularly fine one of himself. 
 
 Of other portrait painters of what may now be called 
 the Old School the names of John Jackson (1778-1831), 
 John Hoppner (1759-1810), Oeorge Henry Harlow 
 (1787-1819), and Sir William Beechey (1753-1839), are 
 perhaps the most celebrated. The reputation of Hoppner, 
 the rival of Sir Thomas Lawrence, has much increased 
 within the last few years ; and among the many beautiful 
 miniature painters of the last and present century, the 
 exquisite works of Richard Cosway (1740-1821) are 
 specially prized. 
 
 Portrait painting as an art has latterly so much advanced 
 in general estimation, and has been practised with such re- 
 markable power by artists like Watts, Millais, Ouless, 
 Holl, Herkomer, and other living painters, that the por- 
 traitists of the previous generation appear to us to com- 
 pare unfavourably with both their predecessors and suc- 
 cessors ; but the names of H. W. Pickersgill (1782-1875), 
 of A. E. Chalon (1781-1860), and of Sir William 
 BoxALL (1800-1879) at least deserve to be recorded here. 
 
 In the English School, since the days of G-ainsborough, 
 there has always existed a class of rustic genre in which 
 English country and English country life has been de- 
 picted — sometiriies prettily and sentimentally, as by 
 Wheatley ; sometimes unaffectedly, as by George Mor- 
 LAND (1763-1804). Notwithstanding the many artists 
 who since his time have followed in his footsteps, he may 
 still be considered as the master of this genre; and his 
 reputation, though somewhat obscured by the quantity of 
 loose and mannered work which he produced in the last 
 years of his life, when he became the victim of low dissipa- 
 tion, has risen to, if not above, the level which it reached 
 in his life. This restoration of his character as a painter 
 has been due to the loan exhibitions which have disinterred 
 
416 HISTOKY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IX. 
 
 from private houses many paintings done by him when in 
 the full possession of his wonderful powers. His works 
 are now sought after for their fine colour and masterly 
 execution, which in some respects have not been excelled or 
 even equalled by Teniers and other masters of the Dutch 
 School, on which his art was founded. In the unsophisti- 
 cated portraiture of animals of the farmyard, horses, pigs, 
 sheep, dogs, rabbits, &c., he stands in the first rank ; and 
 his farm labourers, his cottagers, and their wives, daughters, 
 and children, if not refined, are depicted with a truth that 
 is unimpeachable. But in his early work refinement also 
 is seen, not only in execution, but in feeling ; and, with the 
 exception of Hogarth, perhaps no one has conceived and 
 told a story in a series of pictures better than Morland has 
 done in his "progress" of Lsetitia, well known by the 
 engravings of T. Richmond. The pictui'es were exhibited 
 at the Eoyal Academy in the winter of 1881. The 
 influence of Morland is plainly to be seen in the pictures 
 of his brother-in-law, James Ward (1769-1859), the most 
 robust and natural of our animal paiaters, and also a 
 landscape painter of great force and originality. Both 
 these painters were finer colourists than Landseer, and 
 their art was more simple, their animals more unsophisti- 
 cated ; but in elegance and humour in beauty of composi- 
 tion, and poetry of sentiment, and in certain dexterities of 
 handling, they fall far below him. This unique artist 
 stands in a class by himself as the great illustrator of the 
 sympathy between the brute creation and humanity — now 
 as a humorist painting some canine comedy, now as a 
 poet showing the affinity between the natures and fates of 
 animals and men ; but his works are too well known to 
 need mention, and his genius too great to do justice to it 
 here. 
 
 It is the pure landscape painters of England in whose 
 favour time tells most clearly. It is now generally recog- 
 nized that in this branch of art, at least, the English 
 School may claim to lead the way in modem art, and to 
 have founded a school purely native, and original in feeling 
 and in colour. Moreover, the great share in which the 
 long-despised water-colour artists have had in the develop- 
 ment of this school is beginning to be estimated at its true 
 
1300K IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 417 
 
 value. The school began with Gainsborough and Wilson, 
 and owes much to both. Gainsborough's art was founded 
 on the Dutch School ; Wilson's on that of Claude. Gains- 
 borough developed a style of his own, and was the first to 
 paint lEnglish scenery and English rusticity from a purely 
 English and familiar point of view ; the love of his country 
 and of his county, the affection for home and its surround- 
 ings, were exhibited in his art for the first time, and this 
 with a fine sense of those natural beauties which affected 
 him most, and with a gentle sentiment which was pecu- 
 liarly his own. These virtues, unappreciated in his day, 
 act forcibly in his favour now. On the other hand, what 
 success Wilson had in his day (and that was little), was 
 probably due in great measure to the style that he brought 
 with him from Italy, and his regard for those conventions 
 which were then considered essential to raise landscape to 
 the level of fine art. As time went on these conventions 
 were discredited, and he was looked upon as little better 
 than a second-rate imitator of Claude. Now, however, the 
 tables are turned again ; and looking upon Wilson's pic- 
 tures with eyes that have seen Claude and Cuyp and Gains- 
 borough and Turner, Constable and Rousseau, we see that 
 Wilson was a great and individual artist. We admire not 
 only his skill in composition, and his wonderful painting 
 of atmosphere, but we see that he studied nature for him- 
 self, not only in Italy, but in England, and that in his 
 finest pictures — like A View Between Dolgelly and Bar- 
 mouth (No. 94 in the Grosvenor Gallery Winter Exhibition 
 of 1888) — there is a combination of fine style, fine colour, 
 poetical feeling, and true personal observation of nature 
 which is rare, not only in English art, but in the art of the 
 world. 
 
 Wilson has always been appreciated by English artists, 
 and despite his " foreign " style and his adherence to 
 " classical convention " has exercised an influence on all 
 the great painters of the purely modem and English 
 School of landscape ; on the water-colourists, as well as 
 the oil painters, on Paul Sandby and Cozens, on Turner and 
 Constable, on George Barret, junior, and Henry Dawson. 
 No greater testimony to the real inherent sound and great 
 principles of his art could be adduced than this. All 
 
 £ £ 
 
418 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IX. 
 
 fashions of a period, and all mannerisms of an artist, 
 thoiigh they may obscure a fame for a time are practically 
 powerless against the ultimate reputation of a great artist. 
 But all this does not make Wilson a " modem ; " he be- 
 longed in heart to the old scenic school. The first full note 
 of the modem familiar school was struck by Constable, 
 and failed almost to raise an echo, at least for a time. 
 But almost simultaneously in London and Norwich, 
 there arose men who devoted themselves to paint England 
 as they saw it, and with the sentiment it naturally inspired 
 in their minds, dispensing more or less with preconceived 
 ideals of landscape and traditional formulcB for the re- 
 presentation of natural objects and effects. It was in 
 effect a revolution, but in action a growth of new ideas, 
 seeding naturally anywhere and everywhere, and gradually 
 supplanting the old. Of this revolution the two greatest 
 spirits were undoubtedly Turner and Constable. The 
 subject of Turner's genius is too great to enter upon in 
 this concluding note, especially as some space has already 
 been devoted to it in the original work. Of John 
 Constable (1776-1837) something has been said in con- 
 nection with the French School (see page 380) ; but a few 
 more words seem necessary to give him his due impor- 
 tance in the English School — an importance which had 
 not been so generally recognised when this book was first 
 published. 
 
 What he wanted to express was nothing extraordinary, 
 it was what everybody else felt more or less who loved 
 " the country," but no other painter had ever expressed it, 
 and he had to invent an entirely new pictorial vocabulary 
 to do it. As I have written elsewhere,^ if his genius was 
 nan-ow it was eminently sincere and original. He was the 
 first to paint the greenness and moisture of his native 
 country, the first to paint the noon sunshine with its 
 white light pouring down through the leaves, and spark- 
 ling in the foliage and the grass, the first to paint truly 
 the sunshot clouds of a showery sky, and to represent faith- 
 fully the colours of an English summer landscape. He 
 was the founder of a new school of faithful landscape, and 
 
 ^ Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 419 
 
 though he was neglected by his countrymen during his 
 life, his effect upon landscape painting in England has 
 been more extensive than that even of the far more extra- 
 ordinary and comprehensive genius of Turner. He was 
 a man of one idea, perhaps, but that idea was a great and 
 simple one. He desired to be natural, and he was success- 
 ful, as no one else has been, in throwing off all tradition 
 and starting afresh. In setting this example he has been 
 of incalculable service to modem art, especially as he did 
 not make the mistake of neglecting or despising the work 
 of his precursors or his contemporaries, for no man studied 
 more carefully, or admired more heartily throughout his 
 life the works of such different men as Claude and 
 Ruysdael, Turner and Girtin. 
 
 At the same time as Grainsborough was painting in 
 Suffolk and at Hampstead, John Crome (1768-1821) 
 was founding another school of landscape at Norwich, a 
 small and short-lived school — ^based mainly upon Dutch 
 art in method, but thoroughly English in feeling. If he 
 had not the complete originality of Constable, and did not 
 greatly extend the scope of landscape, Crome used his own 
 eyes, and expressed his own love of his local scenery. Thus 
 his art was manly and unaffected, purely personal and 
 national, and penetrated with feeling for the beauty which 
 he saw in the nature around him. A fine colourist and 
 painter of light and air, and with the exception of figures, 
 an excellent draughtsman of all natural objects, especially 
 of trees, he deserves a place beside G-ainsborough and 
 Constable in the history of purely English landscape. 
 
 Of his pupils the most notable were James Stark 
 (1794-1859) and G-eorge Vincent. Of Vincent little is 
 known except that he exhibited at Norwich and London 
 between 1811 and 1830, when he disappeared. Both were 
 accomplished painters, but the latter was the more original. 
 His picture of Greenwich Hospital may be said to be 
 famous, and as Messrs. Redgrave say, ** he had powers 
 which show he might have rivalled the great landscape 
 painters of the day." 
 
 But next to Crome, John Sell Cotman (1782-1842) is 
 the greatest name in the Norwich School, though his time 
 was 80 occupied in etching architectural plates and in 
 
420 HISTORY OF PAINTING [bOOK IX 
 
 teaching, tliat lie executed few works in oil, and never 
 attained to a great position as a painter. Now, however, 
 his pictures and drawings are much esteemed for their 
 broad treatment and fine colour. Though reckoned 
 a,mongst the Norwich School, his style has more affinity to 
 those of G-irtin and Turner than to that of Crome, and 
 though he painted some fine pictures in oil, he is more 
 generally known as a painter in water-colour. 
 
 The water-colour painters who are but mentioned in this 
 history are now regarded not only as the founders of a 
 perfectly national and original kind of painting, but as 
 artists who have had a very large share in the formation 
 of the English school of painting, especially in landscape. 
 Turner himself, great as an oil-painter, is considered by 
 many as a still greater master of water-colour, and in the 
 winters of 1886 and 1887 rooms were specially set apart 
 at the Winter Exhibitions of the Eoyal Academy for the 
 water-colour drawings of himself alone. The school of 
 landscape in water-colour began in the eighteenth century, 
 and the first artist of much importance, with the exception 
 of miniature painters, who used this medium was Paul 
 Sandby (1725-1809), who employed it with great skill for 
 all kinds of architectural, topographical, and landscape 
 drawing. An amateur artist named William Taverner 
 (1703-1772), had preceded him, and was perhaps the first 
 English artist who employed water-colour for pure land- 
 scape, but Paul Sandby has a good title to be called the 
 father of water-colour painting. He used both transparent 
 and opaque (or body) colours. The use of water-colours 
 down to the end of the last century was mainly confined 
 to architectural and topographical drawings, numbers of 
 which were required for the engravings of illustrated 
 works, such as Byrne's "Antiquities of Grreat Britain," 
 Whitaker's "History of Eichmondshire," "Beauties of 
 England and Wales," and periodicals hke Walker's "Itine- 
 rant." These drawings were either in simple monochrome, 
 or in monochrome tinted with slight washes of colour like 
 coloured engravings. Some of these drawings were of much 
 beauty, and in the hands of John Egbert Cozens (1752- 
 1799), one of the most poetical of landscape artists, the 
 tinted drawing was shown to be capable of rendering 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 421 
 
 subtle atmospheric effects. Though Cozens did much to 
 raise the work of the " draughtsman " (as the early water- 
 colour artist was called) from "tinting" to "painting," 
 and from topography to fine art, it was reserved for 
 Thomas G-irtin (1775-1802) to complete the revolution, 
 and to show that water-colours could be the rival, and in 
 some respects the superior of oil in rendering every aspect 
 of natural scenery. From the ranks of the water-colourists 
 sprang some of the noblest and most poetical of our 
 landscape painters, and though almost to the present day 
 they have occupied a place apart and inferior in public 
 estimation, and none of them has by virtue of his painting 
 in water-colour been admitted into the ranks of the Royal 
 Academy, they are now receiving the honour which is their 
 due. They formed a school of themselves, the only Eng- 
 lish school which is thoroughly national and original in 
 method, in feeling, and in colour. It is impossible to trace 
 the history of this school here, or to do more than mention 
 the names of its most important members, but there is the 
 less reason to regret this, as much has recently been 
 written about them, and is being written now, and their 
 reputation is, as it were, still fresh. To the names of Paul 
 Saudby, John Robert Cozens, Thomas G-irtin, J. W. M. 
 Turner, and J. S. Cotman, should be added Thomas 
 Hearnb (1744-1817), Henry Edridge (1769-1821), 
 GrEORGE Barret the younger (1774-1842), John Varley 
 (1778-1842), Samuel Prout (1783-1852), David Cox 
 (1783-1859), Anthony Vandyke Copley Fielding 
 (1787-1855), Peter De Wint (1784-1849), William 
 Henry Hunt (1790-1864), G-eorge Cattermole (1800- 
 1868), James Holland (1800-1870), J. F. Lewis (1805- 
 1876), Samuel Palmer (1805-1881). There are many 
 other names like those of Rooker, Alexander, Christall, 
 Hills, Havell, Daniell, Richardson, Robson, Harding, 
 down to such late men as Duncan and Dodgson, who 
 would deserve more notice in a history of the water-colour 
 school, but in relation to English art generally, the names 
 printed in capitals are the most important. Heame 
 perfected the tinted drawing, Edridge, a fine miniaturist, 
 was a beautiful draughtsman of trees and architecture, 
 being perhaps the first to use that broken picturesque 
 
422 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [eOOK IX. 
 
 touch, which was carried so far by Samuel Prout. Barret, 
 though he clung to the " classic convention " in composi- 
 tion, is one of the finest and "purest " colourists and in the 
 representation of the liquid transparent quality of sunshine, 
 unequalled even by Turner. Varley, the master (practi- 
 cally speaking) of many, was the master perhaps of all in 
 knowledge of his craft. But in sympathy with the spirit 
 of English nature and perfect mastery of their means for 
 interpreting it according to their personal feeling, these 
 artists fall short of Cox, De Wint and Copley Fielding. 
 They all belong to the faithful school of landscape, record- 
 ing what they saw as reflected by their minds — what we 
 now call " j)oetical realists " — separated from the idealists 
 on the one hand, and the copyists on the other — poets 
 whose feeling is suggested by and inherent in their sub- 
 jects — realists who realize only so much of nature as 
 expresses their sentiment. Of these Cox was the most 
 profound and human in his sympathy, the most illumi- 
 nated in his colour, the noblest in his generalization. He 
 is the greatest interpreter of Wales, De Wint of Lincoln- 
 shire, with its flats and cornfields, Fielding of Sussex 
 downs and coast. The rest were all of them colourists of 
 exceptional gifts, the fruit and flowers of Hunt, the 
 romantic scenes of chivalry and monastic life by Catter- 
 mole, the Venice of Holland, the eastern scenes of Lewis, 
 the poetical landscapes of Palmer, are all for true artistic 
 qualities among the greatest achievements of the English 
 school. Some of these, the finest of our water-colour 
 painters, such as Cox, De Wint, Lewis and Holland, were 
 also among the finest of our painters in oil. 
 
 A special word should also be given to two other men of 
 exceptional gifts, both short-lived, who worked with equal 
 skill in water and oil. The elder of these was Eichaed 
 Parkes Bonington (1801-1828), painter of coast scenes 
 and historic genre, painter also of Venice, a colourist of 
 exceptional quality, who resided principally in France, and 
 exerted an influence on the French school scarcely less 
 than that of Constable; the other was William John 
 MuLLER (1812-1845), who made a series of masterly 
 sketches in G-reece, Egypt, and Lycia, and besides his oil- 
 pictures of eastern subjects, produced a few of scenes in Eng- 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 423 
 
 land, such as The Baggage Wagon and Eel- butts at Goring, 
 which are among the masterpieces of the English School. 
 
 Nor must the list of the greater English landscape and 
 sea painters close without enrolling the names of Sir 
 Augustus Wall Callcott (1779-1844), Patrick Nasmyth 
 (17871831), John Linnell (1792-1882), E. W. Cooke 
 (1811-1880), Henry Dawson (1811-1878), and J. E. Oakes 
 (1822-1887). 
 
 The strength of the English School is now seen to lie in 
 portrait, genre, and landscape. The fame of the old " High 
 Art " school, the illustrators of Boydell's " Shakespere," 
 and others, like Hilton and Haydon, has declined, for their 
 imagination was seldom equal to its theme; their ideal, 
 based upon the great Italian artists, was a false one, and 
 with almost the sole exception of Etty, their powers as 
 colourists and painters of the nude were not of a high 
 order. But although the number of English artists who 
 have excelled in historical and poetical painting is few, the 
 magnificent mural paintings in the Houses of Parliament 
 by Daniel Maclise (1811-1870), The Meeting of Wel- 
 lington and Blucher, and the Death of Nelson, would alone 
 entitle that painter to a honorable name in the history not 
 only of his school but of all modern art. The coldness 
 and hardness of his colour and his want of success in the 
 representation of textures are of comparatively little con- 
 sequence in such works, which show his remarkable quali- 
 ties of design and draughtsmanship to the greatest advan- 
 tage. Maclise was a versatile artist, and a man of intel- 
 lect and imagination ; his portraits (humorously character- 
 istic but not caricatures) of the early contributors to 
 " Eraser " are masterpieces of their kind ; fancy and pathos 
 mark his illustrations to Moore and Dickens, and many of 
 his pictures are remarkable for dramatic power. Perhaps 
 the best were from Shakespeare, of which two are in the 
 National Gallery, The Play Scene in Hamlet, and Malvolio 
 and the Countess. 
 
 Of other historical painters of the century, the most im- 
 portant are Sir Charles Locke Eastlake (1793-1865J, 
 the painter of Christ Weeping over Jerusalem, and man y 
 other tender and graceful pictures ; William Dyce (180 6- 
 1864), the painter of the frescoes illustrating the liege nd 
 
424 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IX. 
 
 of King Arthur in the Houses of Parliament, and manj 
 beautiful religious pictures ; E. M. Waed (1816-1879), the 
 •well-known painter of The South Sea Bubble, and The 
 Last Sleep of Argyle ; and Paul Falconer Poole (1810- 
 1872), the painter of the Vision of Ezekiel, in the National 
 Gallery, and many other works poetical both in figures and 
 landscape. 
 
 If the ranks of our historical painters are thin, those of 
 painters of high spiritual imagination are still thinner, but 
 more than a hundred and thirty years ago the sacred fire of 
 creative imagination of the purest kind fell upon the cradle 
 of William Blake (1757-1827), He was an engraver by 
 profession, and as a painter only would scarce need men- 
 tion here ; but his power as a designer was so unique, and 
 his sense of decorative and symbolical colour so strong, and 
 moreover his genius has had so much influence upon some 
 painters of the present day that he must not be passed by. 
 
 Grifted with one of the most intense spiritual imagina- 
 tions of any artist of any time or country, Blake was a 
 visionary, living in his own world of brain-born images, 
 which were as palpable to him as those of the world of 
 sense. He would draw portraits of men and women, per- 
 sonages of history, of poetry, as though they were sitting 
 to him in the room. His wife, or William the Conqueror, 
 or the ghost of a flea seemed almost equally palpable to 
 him. Much of his work we can admire and love : in poetry, 
 his " Songs of Innocence," and his " Songs of Experience ; " 
 in design, his marvellous illustrations to the Book of Job, 
 and Blair's G-rave. His drawing of the figure was incor- 
 rect, but departure from the normal type probably helped 
 much in the expression of his supernatural conceptions, 
 and when his poems are most obscure the designs which 
 accompany them are always highly impressive, and often 
 of great beauty and force both in design and colour. Mr. 
 Swinburne has written a wonderfully sympathetic essay on 
 these " Prophetic Books," and those who cannot follow the 
 eloquent interpretation of one poet by another can at least 
 admire the pictures which adorn it. The plate of the 
 Leviathan is a marvellous effort of the imagination in colour 
 as well as in form, and in his light and shade he is equally 
 unique and powerful. His angels are more great and 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 425 
 
 glorious beings than were ever imagined before, and thej 
 live in an air of palpitating light which no other artist has 
 been able to suggest; nor is the "darkness visible" of 
 Hell less wonderfully suggested in others of his plates 
 and pictures. His plan of engraving text decoration and 
 illustration of his poems together, on the same copper 
 plate (a plan, strangely enough not uncommon in Japan, 
 only there wood takes the place of copper,) is unique in the 
 history of European art. In adopting it he showed a strange 
 and true decorative gift. The impressions from these 
 plates were coloured by him and his wife, in water-colours. 
 These books, for which he could find few purchasers in his 
 life, are now extremely rare and valuable, and most of them 
 have been reproduced. He also made many drawings in 
 water-colour, some in transparent colour, some in tempera, 
 and some in a peculiar manner of his own which he called 
 fresco. One of the latter was his design for the Canter- 
 bury Pilgrims which Lamb preferred to Stothard's. Some 
 examples of his drawings are in the British Museum, South 
 Kensington Museum, and the National G-aUery. 
 
 We have had no other artist like Blake in his power of 
 rendering in line and colour the most abstract ideas, and 
 most essential emotions, but there was much affinity be- 
 tween his genius and that of Dante G-abriel Eossetti 
 (1828-1882), whose mystic imagination has exercised so 
 powerful a spell over many of the painters and poets of the 
 present generation. He was the strongest spirit of the 
 band of young artists known as the P. E.. B. or Pre- 
 Raphaelite Brethren, who some forty years ago startled the 
 world of English aH by their revolution against the com- 
 monplaces and affectations of current art, and founded a 
 short but brilhant school, the history of which has yet to 
 be written and cannot be attempted here. Most of its 
 members and adherents are still living. The noble prin- 
 ciples upon which they attempted to regenerate art found 
 an eloquent champion in Mr. Ruskin ; the reasons of their 
 comparative failure have been indicated by M. Chesneau 
 in his " English School of Painting." The greatest painter 
 among them (Sir John Millais) has long left their *' strait" 
 path. Mr. Holman Hunt is the only artist of power who 
 has continued to carry out to the present day in all their 
 
426 HISTOEY OF PAINTING. [eOOK IX. 
 
 integrity the ideas of the Brotherhood. To him still the 
 function of the artist is that of a priest revealing God's 
 handiwork in his universe, the religious reahst drawing 
 everything in nature down to the smallest detail, and 
 colouring it with the purest and brightest colours, and 
 making his representations of the most poetical or most 
 sacred persons faithful images of living persons. Eossetti's 
 personality was too strong, and his imagination too mystic 
 to be confined within the limits of any bonds but those of 
 his own genius. Like Blake, he was essentially a poet, 
 living in a world of his own fancy which expressed itself 
 (often simultaneously) both in words and pictured image. 
 The mystery of human fate was the theme of both, but 
 whereas Blake's imagination was " deadened," as he said, 
 by "natural objects," these were necessary to the quicken- 
 ing of Eossetti's. His original gift of dramatic design 
 was extraordinary, and his early drawings in pen and ink, 
 and water-colour, despite their manifest defects in execution, 
 are singular for the vividness and freshness with which 
 they embody the conception of the artist. The latter are 
 also remarkable for the decorative beauty of their colour, 
 brilliant, pure, transparent, mosaic-hke, comparable only 
 to stained glass ; indeed, the brilliant patterning of gor- 
 geous hues (and consequent neglect of truth of light and 
 shade and atmosphere) was an ideal of colour which marks 
 no less his later and larger oil pictures. Poetry and legend, 
 especially Italian, were the chief sources of his inspiration, 
 but the few religious subjects which he treated in his 
 earlier years were conceived with such purity and refinement, 
 and with so fresh and simple an imagination, that they 
 are preferred by many to the more splendid and sensuous 
 productions of his later years. Among the former are The 
 G-irlhood of the Virgin, and The Annunciation, the latter 
 of which is in the National Gallery. Of the poets Dante 
 was his chief inspirer, and Dante's Dream, belonging to 
 the Corporation of Liverpool, was his largest, and is by 
 some considered as his finest work. The Bride, an illus- 
 tration of the Song of Solomon, shows his skill at its zenith, 
 and Monna Yanna, The Blue Bower, and Proserpine, are 
 also among his most powerful presentations of strange 
 female beauty, and the finest examples of his work as a 
 
BOOK IX.] PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 427 
 
 coloTirist. A whole literature has already grown up around 
 the name of this unique artist, and many additions to it 
 are promised. Here it would be impossible, as well as 
 premature, to attempt to say the final word, but one thing 
 at least is certain, and that is that he stands alone in the 
 history of modem painting, though his influence upon it is 
 perceptible, especially in the work of Mr. Burne Jones. 
 
 Of a less strange, and perhaps more wholesome genius, 
 were two painters whom the present generation, at least, 
 have enrolled amongst the greater names in the Enghsh 
 School — Geoege Hemming Mason (1818-1872) and 
 Feedekice: Walker (1840-1875) — both painters of rustic 
 life as seen by the eyes of a poet, both of them fine colourists, 
 and seeking, without violation to truth, to select beauty of 
 line and gesture, and to make their pictures breathe some 
 natural sentiment, noble, pathetic, or sweet. The works 
 of these artists are now so popular, and many of them, 
 such as Mason's Evening Hymn and Harvest Moon, and 
 Walker's Plough and Harbour of Refuge, are so widely 
 known from the famous etchings of Mr. Macbeth, that it is 
 not necessary to say more about them now. Another 
 artist who, like Walker, began as a book illustrator, and 
 who had a rarely refined imagination, was G-. J. Pinwell 
 (1843-1875). His few large water-colour drawings, like 
 The Ehxir of Life, and two scenes from the Pied Piper of 
 Hamelin, show that he was also a true colourist with a real 
 dramatic gift. He also has been immortalized by Mr. 
 Macbeth. 
 
 Although this concluding note has run to imexpected 
 and misproportioned length, there are still some worthy 
 artists that have escaped mention. The " book illustrators," 
 as a class, were excluded from the first edition of this work, 
 probably with intention, as not coming within the histoiy of 
 " Painting ; " but some of them, like Robert Smirke 
 (1752-1845), the admirable illustrator of " Don Quixote," 
 was a painter too, so also was Thomas Stothard (1755- 
 1834), one of the most fertile and graceful of designers, and, 
 as may be seen in the National Gallery, a colourist of no 
 mean order ; and the names of Leech, Ceuikshank, and 
 Richard Doyle should not pass without any record. 
 Lastly, let me not forget David Roberts (1796-1864), an 
 
428 HISTORY OF PAINTING. [bOOK IX. 
 
 exceptional stilf ul and picturesque painter of architecture, 
 well known for his celebrated sketches in the Holy Land, 
 and John Phillip (1817-1867), " Spanish Phillip" as he 
 was called from the remarkable beauty and fine character 
 of his pictures of Spanish life. Unlike Wilkie, his change 
 of subject from Scotland to Spain invigorated and deve- 
 loped his genius, made his design grander, his treatment 
 broader, his colour more full and splendid. He was one of 
 the finest painters of the English School, and his master- 
 piece, La Grloria, is one of the greatest pictures of the nine- 
 teenth century. 
 
 CM. 
 
CHROlSrOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTERS. 
 
 Note. — The names of painters not mentioned in the text and doubtful 
 dates are printed in italics. Dates in the second column give years in 
 which the painters are known to have been at work or alive. 
 
 I. GREEK AND ROMAN PAINTERS. 
 
 Schuol. 
 
 
 Date. 
 
 
 Cleanthes 
 
 
 
 
 Cleophantes 
 
 — 
 
 
 Telejihanes 
 
 — 
 
 
 Eumaros 
 
 — 
 
 
 Cimon of Cleonse 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Polyenotos of Thasos 
 A^atharcos of Samos 
 Micon of Athens 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dionysos of Colophon 
 
 
 
 Panajnos of Athens 
 
 
 
 Apollodoros of Athens 
 
 5th centilry 
 
 
 Zeuxis of Heracleia 
 
 B.C. 
 
 
 Parrhasios of Ephesos 
 
 
 Greek 
 
 Timanthes of Cythnos 
 Eupompos 
 Pamphilos 
 Mclanthios 
 
 
 
 Pausias 
 
 / 
 
 
 Euphranor of Corinth 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Nicomachos of Thebes 
 
 
 
 Aristeides of Thebes 
 
 
 
 Nicias of Athens 
 
 
 
 Apelles of Cos 
 
 4th century 
 
 
 A n tiph ilos of A lexandria 
 
 B.C. 
 
 
 Protogenes of Rhodes 
 
 
 
 Peiraiikos 
 
 
 
 Theon of Samos 
 
 
 
 Action of Alexandria 
 Fabius f*ictor 
 
 J 
 
 
 fl. cir. 300 B.C. 
 
 Gr^.co- 
 
 ROMAN 
 
 Pacuvius 1 
 
 fl. cir. 200 B.C. 
 
 1 Timoniachus of Byzantium 
 1 Laia, or Lala, of Cyzicus 
 
 » 
 
 fl.cir. 180-150 B.C. 
 
 
 1 Ludius I 
 
 fl. cir. 20 B.C. 
 
430 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OP PAINTERS. 
 
 n. ITALIAN PAINTEES. 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Arezzo 
 
 Margharitone of Arezzo 
 
 
 1216 
 
 1293 
 
 Umbria 
 
 Oderisio of Guhhio (miniaturist) 
 
 1264-1299 
 
 
 
 
 Rome 
 
 Cosmati (a family of mosaicists) 
 
 
 
 
 
 13th cent. 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Pisa 
 
 Giunta of Pisa 
 
 13th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Siena 
 
 Guido of Siena 
 
 1281 
 
 
 
 
 
 Florence 
 
 Tafi, Andrea 
 
 1320 
 
 
 
 
 
 j> 
 
 Cimabue, Giovanni Gualtieri 
 
 
 1240 
 
 1302 
 
 )i 
 
 Gaddi, Gaddo 
 
 1333 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lucca 
 
 Orlandi, Deodati 
 
 1288-1310 
 
 
 
 
 
 Siena 
 
 Duccio di Buoninsegna 
 
 
 1260 
 
 mo 
 
 Florence 
 
 Giotto di Bondone 
 
 
 1266 
 
 1337 
 
 Rome 
 
 Cavallini, Pietro 
 
 1308 
 
 
 
 
 Padua 
 
 Guariento 
 
 1316-1365 
 
 
 
 
 
 Umbria 
 
 Palmerucci, Guido 
 
 
 1280 
 
 1345 
 
 Siena 
 
 Segna di Buonaventura 
 
 14th cent. 
 
 — 
 
 
 )) 
 
 Niccola di Segna 
 
 1342 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 } 
 
 
 Ugolino 
 
 14th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 Martini, Simone (Memmi) 
 
 
 1284 
 
 1344 
 
 i 
 
 
 Memnii, Lippo 
 
 
 — 
 
 1356 
 
 5 
 
 
 LORENZETTl 
 
 
 — 
 
 1348 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Vitale 
 
 1320-1345 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Florence 
 
 Daddo, Bernardo di 
 
 1320-1347 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 jj 
 
 Gaddi, Taddeo 
 
 
 1300 
 
 1366 
 
 )) 
 
 Gaddi, Agnolo 
 
 Stefano (u Scimia della Natura 
 
 14th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 >> 
 
 ■ 
 
 ISOl 
 
 1350 
 
 jj 
 
 Buftalmacco 
 
 14th cent. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Florence 
 
 Orcagna, Andrea di Cione 
 
 
 130S 
 
 1368 
 
 ) J 
 
 Traini, Francesco 
 
 1341 
 
 
 
 
 Pisa 
 
 Campanna, Puceio 
 
 14th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Florence 
 
 Calandrino 
 
 14th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 )> 
 
 Landini, Jacopo, of Casentino 
 Giovanm da Milano 
 
 
 1310 
 
 1390 
 
 if 
 
 14th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Umbria 
 
 Nuzi, Allegretto 
 
 1346-1385 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 Siena 
 
 Buonacorso, Niccolo di 
 
 14th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Venice 
 
 Semitecolo, Niccolo 
 
 1351-1400 
 
 
 
 
 
 Padua 
 
 Francesco Gentile da Fahriano 
 
 14th cent. 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 )j 
 
 Antonio da Fahriano 
 
 14th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Siena 
 
 Bartolo di Maestro Fredi 
 
 1353-1410 
 
 __ 
 
 
 
 Venice 
 
 Lorenzo Veniziano 
 
 1357-1379 
 
 
 
 
 
 Florence 
 
 Giottino 
 
 
 1324 
 
 1396 
 
 Verona 
 
 Turoni of Verona 
 
 1360 
 
 
 
 
 
 Orvieto 
 
 Puceio, Pietro di 
 
 1364 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Fl 
 
 orence 
 
 Justus of Padua 
 
 
 1330 
 
 1400 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTERS. 
 
 431 
 
 School. 
 
 • 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Siena 
 
 Thome, Ltica di 
 
 1367 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arezzo 
 
 Aretino, Spinello di Luca Spinelli d' 
 
 1333 
 
 1410 
 
 Pisa 
 
 Volterra, Francesco da 
 
 1370-1372 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 )> 
 
 Simone de' Crocefissi 
 
 1370 
 
 
 
 — . 
 
 Arezzo 
 
 Bicci, Lorenzo di 
 
 1370-1409 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ;> 
 
 Gerini, Nicolo di Pietro 
 
 14th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pisa 
 
 AvANZi, Giacomo degli 
 
 14th cent. 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 )> 
 
 Vanni, Turino 
 
 14th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Verona 
 
 Altichiero da Zevio 
 
 1375 1380 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Dalmasii, Lippo 
 
 1376-1410 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Florence 
 
 Veniziano, Antonio 
 
 1386 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 jj 
 
 Andrea da Firenze 
 
 1377 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 Starnino, Gherardo 
 
 
 1354 
 
 
 
 Padua 
 
 Gentile da Fabriano 
 
 
 1360 
 
 1450 
 
 Siena 
 
 Bartolo, Taddeo di 
 
 
 1362 
 
 1422 
 
 j> 
 
 Cecchi, Gregorio 
 
 1400 
 
 
 
 Venice 
 
 Fiore, Jacobello del 
 
 1400-1439 
 
 
 
 
 
 »> 
 
 Negroponte 
 
 15th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Umbria 
 
 San Severino, Lorenzo da (the elder) 1400 
 
 
 
 
 
 Siena 
 
 Martino di Bartolommeo 
 
 
 
 
 1434 
 
 Florence 
 
 Pesello, Giuliano d'Arrigo 
 
 
 1367 
 
 
 >> 
 
 Lorenzo, Don (II Monaco) 
 
 
 1370 
 
 W5 
 
 Umbrla. 
 
 Ottaviano di Martino Nelli 
 
 1410-1434 
 
 
 
 
 
 ») 
 
 Lorenzo, Bicci di 
 
 1420 
 
 
 
 
 
 Verona 
 
 Pisanello (Vittore Pisano) 
 
 
 1380 
 
 14S5 
 
 Naples 
 
 Solario, Antonio da (lo Zingaro] 
 
 
 1382 
 
 1455 
 
 Florence 
 
 Masolino da Panicale 
 
 
 1383 
 
 1U7 
 
 j> 
 
 Angelico, Fra (Giovanni da Fiesole) 
 
 1387 
 
 1455 
 
 Arezzo 
 
 Parri Spinelli 
 
 
 1387 
 
 1452 
 
 Florence 
 
 Castagno, Andrea del 
 
 
 1390 
 
 14^7 
 
 Siena 
 
 Stefano di Giovanni 
 
 
 
 1450 
 
 Padua 
 
 Squarcione, Francesco 
 
 
 1394 
 
 1474 
 
 felENA 
 
 Domenico di Bartolo 
 
 
 
 
 1449 
 
 »» 
 
 Gianibono, Michele 
 
 1430-1470 
 
 
 
 
 Florence 
 
 Uccello (Paolo Doni) 
 
 
 1396-7 
 
 1475 
 
 Venice 
 
 Bellini, Jacopo 
 
 
 UOO 
 
 1464 
 
 Florence 
 
 Massaccio (Tommaso di Ser Giovanni) 
 
 1401 
 
 1428 
 
 Venice 
 
 Donato 
 
 1438-1466 
 
 
 
 Florence 
 
 Veniziano, Domenico 
 
 1438 
 
 
 
 ^i 
 
 Venice 
 
 Vivarini, Giovanni 
 
 1440-1447 
 
 
 
 
 >> 
 
 Vivarini, Antonio 
 
 1440-1470 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Galasai, Galasso 
 
 
 
 
 1473 
 
 Siena 
 
 Pietro, Sano di 
 
 
 1406 
 
 1481 
 
 >» 
 
 Pietro, Lorenzo di (Vecchietta) 
 
 
 1410 
 
 1480 
 
 Umbria 
 
 Gatta, Bartolommeo della 
 
 
 UlO 
 
 1491 
 
 Florence 
 
 LiPPi, Fra Lippo 
 
 
 14ixi 
 
 146» 
 
 Cremona 
 
 Oriolo, Giovanni 
 
 1449-1461 
 
 
 
 Umbria 
 
 Buonfigli, Benedetto 
 
 1450-1496 
 
 _^ 
 
 __ 
 
 Venice 
 
 Vivarini, Bartolommeo 
 
 1450-1499 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
432 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTERS. 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth, 
 
 Death. 
 
 Milan 
 
 FOPPA, Vincenzo 
 
 ' 
 
 _ 
 
 1492 
 
 Cremona 
 
 Bembo, Bonifazio 
 
 1455-1478 
 
 
 
 
 Florence 
 
 GozzoLi, Benozzo 
 
 
 1420 
 
 1498 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 TuRA, Cosimo 
 
 
 WO 
 
 1498 
 
 }> 
 
 Pesellino (Francesco di Stefano) 
 
 
 1422 
 
 1457 
 
 j> 
 
 Baldovinetti, Alesso 
 
 
 1427 
 
 1499 
 
 5> 
 
 Bono 
 
 1461 
 
 
 
 
 Umbria 
 
 PiERO Bella Francesca 
 
 
 1423 
 
 1492 
 
 >> 
 
 Carnevali, Fra 
 
 15th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fuligno, Niccolo da 
 
 1458-1499 
 
 
 
 
 
 Venice 
 
 Bellini, Gentile 
 
 
 1426 
 
 1507 
 
 jj 
 
 Bellini, Giovanni 
 
 
 1428 
 
 1516 
 
 Cremona 
 
 Tacconi, Francesco 
 
 1464-1490 
 
 
 
 
 
 Venice 
 
 Vivarini, Alvisi, or Luigi 
 
 1464-1503 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 Crivelli, Carlo 
 
 1468-1495 
 
 
 
 
 
 Florence 
 
 Pollaiuolo, Antonio 
 
 
 1429 
 
 1498 
 
 Padua 
 
 Mantegna, Andrea 
 
 
 1431 
 
 1506 
 
 )) 
 
 Zoppo, Marco 
 Schiavone, Gregorio 
 
 1471-1498 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 )5 
 
 15th cent. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Florence 
 
 Verrochio, Andrea 
 
 
 14.32 
 
 1488 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Cossa, Francesco 
 
 
 14.30 
 
 IJfSS 
 
 55 
 
 Grandi, Ercole (di Roberti) 
 
 
 1435 
 
 1513 
 
 55 
 
 Grandi, Ercole (di Giulio) 
 
 
 — 
 
 1531 
 
 Siena 
 
 Matteo di Giovanni 
 
 
 lJi35 
 
 1495 
 
 Umbria 
 
 Santi, Giovanni 
 
 
 1435 
 
 1494 
 
 Florence 
 
 Diamante, Fra 
 
 1470 
 
 
 
 
 
 jj 
 
 Fiorenzo di Lorenzo 
 
 1470-1479 
 
 
 
 
 
 Siena 
 
 Benvenuto di Giovanni 
 
 
 1436 
 
 1517 
 
 Umbria 
 
 Melozzo da Forli 
 
 
 1438 
 
 1494 
 
 Florence 
 
 Rosselli, Cosimo y 
 Mainardi, Sebastiano f 
 
 
 1439 
 
 1507 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 1513 
 
 Siena 
 
 Giorgio, Francesco di 
 
 
 1439 
 
 1506 
 
 Florence 
 
 Signorelli, Luca 
 
 
 1441 
 
 1523 
 
 55 
 
 Pollaiuolo, Piero 
 
 
 1441 
 
 U95 
 
 Venice 
 
 Messina, Antonello da 
 
 
 1U4 
 
 1493 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Bianchi, Francesco 
 
 
 Wto 
 
 1510 
 
 55 
 
 Estense, Balcassare 
 
 1483 
 
 
 
 
 Umbria 
 
 San Severino, Lorenzo di (the younger) 
 
 
 
 
 
 1480-1496 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 5) 
 
 Perugino, Pietro Vannucci 
 
 
 1446 
 
 1524 
 
 Florence 
 
 Botticelli, Saadro Filipepi 
 
 
 1446 
 
 1510 
 
 55 
 
 Ghirlandaio, Domenico 
 
 
 1449 
 
 1494 
 
 Verona 
 
 Morone, Domenico (Pellacane) 
 
 
 1442 
 
 — 
 
 Milan 
 
 Buttinone, Bernardino Jacobi 
 
 1484 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Zenale, Bernardo 
 
 
 
 
 1526 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Alvisi, Andrea (L'Ingegno) 
 
 1484 
 
 
 
 
 
 ViCENZA 
 
 Montagna, Bartolommeo 
 
 1484-1517 
 
 
 
 
 
 Venice 
 
 Carpaccio, Vittore 
 
 
 im 
 
 1520 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Francia (Francesco Raibolini) 
 
 
 1450 
 
 1517 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTERS. 
 
 433 
 
 Birth. Death. 
 
 U86 
 1486 
 1486 
 
 Liberale da Verona 
 
 Bevilacqua, Amhrogio 
 
 Massone, Giovanni 
 
 Torbido, Francesco (II More) 
 
 Vinci, Leonardo da 
 
 Pinturicchio (Bernardino di Betto) 
 
 Cima (da Conegliano) 1489-1517 
 
 Papa, Simone 
 
 Bonsignori, Francesco 
 
 Basaiti, Marco 1490-1520 
 
 BoRGOGNONE, Ambroffio 1490-1520 
 
 Palmezzano, Marco, of Forli 
 
 Pietro di Domenico 
 
 Santa Croce, Francisco Rizo da 
 
 Marziale, Marco 
 
 Manni, Giannicola di Paolo 
 
 Mansueti, Giovanni 
 
 Sebastiani, Lazzaro 
 
 Credi, Lorenzo di 
 
 Catena, Vincenzo di Biado 
 
 Civerchio, Vincenzo (of Crema) 
 
 Ferramola, Fioravante 
 
 Solario, Andrea 
 
 Costa, Lorenzo 
 
 LiPPi, Filippino 
 
 Fungai, Bernardino 
 
 Boccacciuo, Boccaccio 
 
 Piero di Cosimo 
 
 Conti, Bernardino de* 
 
 Pennacchi, Pier Maria 
 
 Caselli, Cristofero 
 
 Pellegrino da San Daniele 
 
 Giolfino, Niccolo 
 
 Araldi 
 
 Bissolo, Pier Francesco 
 
 Alba, Macrino d' 
 
 Michele da Verona 
 
 Raft'aelino del Garbo 
 
 Beltrattio, Gio. Ant. 
 
 Spagna, Giovanni di Pietro 
 
 Granacci, Francesco 
 
 Viti, Timoteo 
 
 Salaino, Andrea 
 
 Oggione, Marco d' 
 
 Mantegna, Francesco 
 
 Caroto, Francesco 
 
 Veniziano, Bartolommeo 
 
 Zaganclli, Francesca 
 
 F F 
 
 1492-1530 
 1492-1507 
 1493 
 1494-1500 
 15tli cent. 
 
 1495-1531 
 1495-1540 
 loth cent. 
 
 1496 
 1498 
 1499 
 
 1500-1528 
 
 1500 
 
 1500-1508 
 
 1503-1530 
 
 1519 
 
 1470-151: 
 
 1505-1530 
 1505-1518 
 
 1451 
 
 1452 
 1454 
 
 1455 
 1455 
 
 1456 
 1457 
 
 1459 
 
 14j60 
 1460 
 1460 
 1460 
 
 1462 
 
 1464 
 
 1465 
 1465 
 1465 
 
 1466 
 1467 
 
 1469 
 
 1470 
 1470 
 
 1536 
 
 1546 
 1519 
 1513 
 
 1519 
 
 1494 
 1501 
 
 1544 
 1537 
 
 1530 
 1535 
 1504 
 1516 
 1525 
 1521 
 
 1528 
 
 1547 
 1518 
 1528 
 
 1524 
 1516 
 
 1543 
 1523 
 
 1549 
 
 1546 
 
434 
 
 CHEONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTEE&. 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Bartucci, Gianhattista 1506 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 Florence 
 
 Bugiardini, Giuliano 
 
 1471 
 
 1554 
 
 Verona 
 
 Morone, Francesco 
 
 1473 
 
 1529 
 
 )> 
 
 Libri, Girolamo dai 
 
 1474 
 
 1556 
 
 Siena 
 
 Pacchiarotti, Giacomo 
 
 1474 
 
 1540 
 
 Florence 
 
 Albertinelli, Mariotto 
 
 1474 
 
 1515 
 
 Venice 
 
 Belli, Marco 1511 
 
 
 
 Milan 
 
 Sesto, Cesare da 
 
 U75- 
 
 
 
 
 1480 
 
 1524 
 
 )> 
 
 Luini, Bernardino 
 
 U75 
 
 153S 
 
 Florence 
 
 Fra Bartolommeo (Baccio della Porta) 
 
 1475 
 
 1517 
 
 )) 
 
 MiCHAELANGELO BUONAROTTI 
 
 1475 
 
 1564 
 
 Padua 
 
 Mantegna, Carlo del 15th cent. 
 
 
 
 Siena 
 
 SODOMA, Gio. Ant. Bazzi, il 
 
 1477 
 
 1549 
 
 ~ >» 
 
 Pacchia, Girolamo della 
 
 1477 
 
 1521 
 
 Venice 
 
 GiORGiONE, Giorgio Barbarelli 
 
 
 1511 
 
 )) 
 
 TiziANO, Vecellio 
 
 1477 
 
 1576 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Giovenone, Girolamo 1514 
 
 
 
 
 Brescia 
 
 Mocetto, Girolamo 1514 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Dosso Dossi, Gio. Nic. di Lntero 
 
 1479 
 
 1542 
 
 Verona 
 
 Melone, Altobello 1515-1520 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Palma, Jacopo (il Vecchio) 
 
 1480 
 
 1528 
 
 J J 
 
 Cariani, Giovanni Busi 
 
 1480 
 
 1541 
 
 Bergamo 
 
 Lotto, Lorenzo 
 
 1480 
 
 1558 
 
 )) 
 
 Previtali, Andrea 
 
 1480 
 
 1528 
 
 Milan 
 
 SienA 
 
 Garofalo, Benvenuto Tisio 
 
 1481 
 
 1559 
 
 Gaudenzio Ferrari 
 
 1481 
 
 1545 
 
 Peruzzi, Baldassare 
 
 1481 
 
 1537 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Mazzolino, Ludovico 
 
 1481 
 
 1530 
 
 Florence 
 
 Bigi, Francesco (Francia Bigio) 
 
 1482 
 
 1525 
 
 Umbria 
 
 Raffaelle Santi 
 
 1483 
 
 1520 
 
 Florence 
 
 Ghirlandaio, Ridolfo 
 
 1483 
 
 1561 
 
 Venice 
 
 PoRDENONE, Gio. Ant. da 
 
 1483 
 
 1539 
 
 >) 
 
 Santa Croce, Giralamo da 1520-1549 
 
 
 
 
 
 Venice 
 
 
 
 
 & Rome 
 
 LUCIANI, SeBASTIANO (DEL PlOMBO) 
 
 1485 
 
 1547 
 
 Siena 
 
 Beccafumi, Domenico 
 
 I486 
 
 1551 
 
 Florence 
 
 Sarto, Andrea d' Angelo, del 
 
 1486 
 
 1531 
 
 Verona 
 
 Morando, Paolo (Cavazzuola) 
 
 1486 
 
 1522 
 
 ViCENZA 
 
 Buonconsiglio, Gio. (il Marescalco) 
 
 — 
 
 1530 
 
 Brescia 
 
 Romanino, Girolamo 
 
 1485 
 
 1566 
 
 Milan 
 
 Piazza, Albertino (Toccagni) 
 
 
 
 1529 
 
 »» 
 
 Piazza, Martino (of Lodi) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 KOME 
 
 Penni, Gio. Francesco {11 Fattore) 
 
 1488 
 
 1528 
 
 Venice 
 
 Licinio, Bernardino (da Pordenone) 
 
 
 
 
 1524-1541 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Cremona 
 
 Bembo, Gianfrancesco 1524 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Rome 
 
 Imola, Innocenza Francucci da 
 
 1490 
 
 1549 
 
 ViSKONA 
 
 Bonifazio da Verona (the elder) 
 
 1491 
 
 1540 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OP PAINTERS. 
 
 435 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Verona 
 
 Bonifazio da Verona 
 
 _ 
 
 1543 
 
 Florence 
 
 Puligo, Domenico 
 Melzi, Francesco 
 
 1492 
 
 1527 
 
 Milan 
 
 1493 
 
 1568 
 
 Florence 
 
 Pontormo, Jacopo Carucci da 
 
 1494 
 
 1557 
 
 jj 
 
 Jacopo, Gio. Batt. di, 11 Rosso 
 Baccniaca, Francesco d'Ubcrtino 
 
 1494 
 
 1541 
 
 
 1494 
 
 1557 
 
 Parma 
 
 Correggio, Ant. Allegri da 
 
 1494 
 
 1534 
 
 Rome 
 
 Polidoro Caldara da Caravaggio 
 Bramantino (Bartolommeo de Suardi) 1529 
 
 1495 
 
 1543 
 
 Milan 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Florence 
 
 Magna, Cesare 1530 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Rome 
 
 Treviso, Girolamo Pennacchi da 
 
 1497 
 
 1544 
 
 Brescia 
 
 MOREI'TO, Alessandro Buonvicino, il 
 
 1498 
 
 1556 
 
 Rome 
 
 Romano, Giulio Pippi de' Giannuzzi 
 
 1498 
 
 1546 
 
 Florence 
 
 Clovio, Giulio {miniaturist) 
 
 1498 
 
 1578 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Ortolano, Gio. Batt. Benvenuti 
 
 1500 
 
 1525 
 
 Milan 
 
 Piazza, Calista, da Lodi 
 
 1500 
 
 1561 
 
 Venice 
 
 Bordone, Paris 
 
 1500 
 
 1570 
 
 Cremona 
 
 Campi, Giulio 
 
 1500 
 
 1572 
 
 Rome 
 
 Vaga, Perino del 
 
 1500 
 
 1547 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Carpi, Girolamo 
 
 LuRovico da Parma 16th cent. 
 
 1501 
 
 1556 
 
 Parma 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mazzuola, {three brothers) 1 6th cent. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Rome 
 
 Mantovano, Rinaldo 1532-1534. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Florence 
 
 Bronzino, Angelo di Cosimo di Mariano 
 
 1502 
 
 1572 
 
 Venice 
 
 Stephan (Hans of Calcar) 1537 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Brescia 
 
 Savoldo, Girolamo 1540-1548 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Umhria 
 
 Alfani, Domenico di Paris 
 
 
 
 1553 
 
 Ravenna 
 
 Longhi, Luca 
 
 1507 
 
 1580 
 
 Milan 
 
 Lanini, Bernardino 
 
 1508 
 
 1578 
 
 Florence 
 
 Volterra, Daniele Ricciarelli da 
 
 1509 
 
 1556 
 
 >> 
 
 Rossi, Francesco de' (dei Salviati) 
 
 1510 
 
 1563 
 
 Brescia 
 
 Moroni, Gio. Batt. 
 
 1510 
 
 1578 
 
 Venice 
 
 Bassano, Jacopo da Ponte 
 
 1510 
 
 1592 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Fontana, Prospero 
 
 1512 
 
 1597 
 
 Florence 
 
 Vasari, Giorgio 
 
 1512 
 
 1574 
 
 I) 
 
 Venusti, Marcello 
 
 1515 
 
 15S0 
 
 Florence 
 
 Condivi, Ascanio 1550 
 
 _ 
 
 
 Venice 
 
 Tintoretto, Jacopo Robusti, 11 
 
 1518 
 
 1594 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Procaccini, Ercole (the elder) 
 
 1520 
 
 1591 
 
 Venice 
 
 Schiavone, Andrea (Medulla or Medolla) 
 
 1522 
 
 1582 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Cambiaso, Luca 
 
 1527 
 
 1585 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Tibaldi, Pellegrino 
 
 1527 
 
 1596 
 
 Venice 
 
 Cagliari, Paolo (Veronese) 
 
 1528 
 
 1588 
 
 j^ 
 
 Baroccio, Federigo 
 
 1528 
 
 1612 
 
 
 Zuccaro, Taddeo 
 
 1529 
 
 1566 
 
 Florence 
 
 Titi, Santi di 
 
 1530 
 
 1603 
 
 Venice 
 
 Zelotti, Battista Farinati 
 
 15S2 
 
 1592 
 
 )t 
 
 Farinati, Paolo 
 
 
 1606 
 
 Parma 
 
 Parmigiano, Francesco Maria Mazzola 
 
 — 
 
 1592 
 
436 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OP PAINTERS. 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth, 
 
 Death. 
 
 Venice 
 
 Cagliari, Bendetto 
 
 _ 
 
 1598 
 
 i) 
 
 Cagliari Carlo 
 
 — 
 
 1596 
 
 a 
 
 CagliaH Gabriele 
 
 — 
 
 1631 
 
 »> 
 
 Vasilacchi, Antonio [VAliense) 
 
 — 
 
 1629 
 
 »> 
 
 Allori, Allessandro {Bronzino) 
 
 1535 
 
 1607 
 
 Cremona 
 
 Anguisciola, Sofonisba 
 Lomazzo, Gio. Faolo 
 
 1535 
 
 1625 
 
 Milan 
 
 1538 
 
 1590 
 
 5> 
 
 Figino, Ainhrogio (living 1595) 
 Alfani, Orazio 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Umbria 
 
 — 
 
 1583 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Passerotti, Bart. 
 
 1540 
 
 1595 
 
 >> 
 
 Tibaldi, Domenico 
 
 1540 
 
 
 
 Florence 
 
 Zuccaro, Federigo 
 
 Pocetti, Bernardino Barhatelli 
 
 1542 
 
 1609 
 
 jj 
 
 1542 
 
 1612 
 
 Venice 
 
 Palma, Jacopo (11 Giovine) 
 
 1544 
 
 1628 
 
 J) 
 
 Bonifazio Veniziano 1579 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Scarsello, Ippolito [ScarselUno) 
 Fontana, Lavinia 
 
 1551 
 
 1660 
 
 Bologna 
 
 1552 
 
 1602 
 
 J5 
 
 Carracci, Lodovico 
 
 1555 
 
 1619 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Sorri, Pietro 
 
 1556 
 
 1622 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Carracci, Agostino 
 
 1557 
 
 1602 
 
 Milan 
 
 Crespi, Gio. Batt. 
 
 1557 
 
 1633 
 
 
 Corenzio, Belisario 
 
 1558 
 
 16— 
 
 Florence 
 
 Carcli, Lodovico {il Cigolo) 
 
 1559 
 
 1613 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Carracci, Annibale 
 
 1560 
 
 1609 
 
 Venice 
 
 Tintoretta, Marietta Robusti 
 
 1560 
 
 1590 
 
 jj 
 
 Faccini, Pietro 
 
 1562 
 
 1602 
 
 Florence 
 
 Gentileschi, Orazio Lomi de 
 
 1563 
 
 1646 
 
 jj 
 
 Vanni, Francesco 
 
 1563 
 
 1609 
 
 Venice 
 
 Rottenhammer, Johannes 
 
 1564 
 
 1623 
 
 Rome 
 
 Tassi, Agostino 
 
 1566 
 
 1642 
 
 5) 
 
 Arpino, Guiseppe Cesare, il Cavaliere D' 
 Merisi, Michelangelo (il Caravaggio) 
 
 1567 
 
 1640 
 
 LOMBARDY 
 
 1569 
 
 1609 
 
 Bologna 
 
 MassaH, Lticio 
 
 1569 
 
 1633 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Bononi, Carlo 
 
 1569 
 
 1632 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Curti, Gio. (U Dentone) 
 
 1570 
 
 1631 
 
 >j 
 
 Brizio, Francesco 
 
 1574 
 
 1623 
 
 » 
 
 Reni, Guido (GuiDO) 
 
 1575 
 
 1642 
 
 
 Donducci, Andrea 
 
 1575 
 
 1655 
 
 Florence 
 
 Liqozzi, Jacopo 
 
 — 
 
 1632 
 
 Rome 
 
 Viola, Gio. Batt. 
 
 1576 
 
 1622 
 
 Naples 
 
 Spada, Lionello 
 
 1576 
 
 1622 
 
 Siena 
 
 Salimheni, Ventura {Cavaliere BevUacgua) 
 
 
 1613 
 
 ,, 
 
 Manetti, Rutilio 
 
 
 
 1637 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Aloisi, Baldassare 
 
 1577 
 
 1638 
 
 )) 
 
 Tiarini, Allesandro 
 
 1577 
 
 1668 
 
 j> 
 
 Cavedone, Giacomo 
 
 1577 
 
 1660 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Menniti, Mario 
 
 1577 
 
 1640 
 
 Florence 
 
 Allori, Cristofano 
 
 1577 
 
 1621 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Albani, Francesco 
 
 1578 
 
 1660 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OP PAINTERS. 
 
 437 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Florence 
 
 Masca^ni, Donato 
 
 1578 
 
 1636 
 
 ^j 
 
 Roselli, Matteo 
 
 1578 
 
 1680 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Garbieri, Lorenzo 
 
 1580 
 
 1654 
 
 Naples 
 
 Manfredi, Bartolommeo 
 
 1680 
 
 1617 
 
 KOME 
 
 Schedone, Bartolommeo 
 
 1580 
 
 1615 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Sementi, Gio. Giac. 
 
 1580 
 
 
 
 
 Lanfranco, Giovanni 
 
 1580 
 
 1647 
 
 a 
 
 Zampieri, Domenico (DOMENICHINO) 
 
 1581 
 
 1641 
 
 »» 
 
 Badalocchio, Sisto {Sisto Rosa) 
 
 1581 
 
 1647 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Strozzi, Bernardo 
 
 1581 
 
 1644 
 
 Verona 
 
 Turchi, Alessaiidro (I'Orbetto) 
 
 1582 
 
 1648 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Carracci, Antonio 
 
 1583 
 
 1618 
 
 Naples 
 
 Stanzioni, Massimo 
 
 1585 
 
 1656 
 
 
 Saraceni, Carlo 
 
 1585 
 
 1625 
 
 
 Caroselli, Angelo 
 
 Bonzi, Pietro Paulo 17tli cent. 
 
 1585 
 
 1653 
 
 Bologna 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gessi, Francesco 
 
 1588 
 
 1647 
 
 Naples 
 
 RiBERA, Guiseppe (LO SPAGNOLETTO) 
 
 1588 
 
 1656 
 
 Rome 
 
 Feti, Domenico 
 
 1589 
 
 1624 
 
 
 Barbieri, Francesco (IL GUERCINO) 
 
 1590 
 
 1666 
 
 Florence 
 
 Gentileschi, Artemisia 
 
 1590 
 
 1642 
 
 Vicenza 
 
 Ridolfi, Carlo 
 
 1594 
 
 1658 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Carracci, Francesco 
 
 1595 
 
 1622 
 
 Milan 
 
 Procaccini, Ercole 
 
 1596 
 
 1676 
 
 Venice 
 
 Varotari, Alessando (il Padovanino) 
 
 1596 
 
 1650 
 
 Rome 
 
 Berretini, Pietro (da Cortona) 
 
 1596 
 
 1669 
 
 Naples 
 
 Vaccaro, Andrea 
 
 1598 
 
 1670 
 
 
 Carracciolo, Gio. Batt. 
 
 
 
 1641 
 
 Rome 
 
 Sacchi, Andrea 
 
 1598 
 
 1661 
 
 Naples 
 
 Falcone, Aniello 
 
 1600 
 
 1665 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Colonna, Angelo Michele 
 
 1600 
 
 1685 
 
 )) 
 
 Canlassi, Guido {Cagnaccio) 
 
 1601 
 
 1681 
 
 Naples 
 
 Cerouozzi, Michelangelo (della Battaglie) 
 Barbieri, Pietro Ant. 
 
 1602 
 
 1660 
 
 Bologna 
 
 1603 
 
 1649 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Novelli, Pietro {il Morrealese) 
 
 1603 
 
 1677 
 
 Rome 
 
 Salvi, Gio. Batt. (IL Sassqferrato) 
 
 1605 
 
 1685 
 
 ^j 
 
 Grimaldi, Gio. Francesco 
 
 1606 
 
 1680 
 
 Florence 
 
 Ricchi, Pietro 
 
 1606 
 
 1675 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Metelli, Agostino 
 
 1609 
 
 1660 
 
 }> 
 
 Siraniy Gio. Ant. 
 
 1610 
 
 1670 
 
 )» 
 
 Cantarini, Simone 
 
 1612 
 
 1668 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Mola, Pietro Francesco 
 
 1612 
 
 1668 
 
 Naples 
 
 Garcjiulo, Domenico (Micco Spadaro) 
 
 1612 
 
 1679 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Preti, Fra Mattia (il Cavaliere Calabrese) 
 
 1613 
 
 1699 
 
 Naples 
 
 Rosa, Salvator 
 
 1615 
 
 1673 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Mola, Gio. Batt 
 
 1616 
 
 1662 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Castiglione, Gio. Benvenuto 
 
 1616 
 
 1670 
 
 Florence 
 
 DoLCi, Carlo 
 
 1616 
 
 1686 
 
 }> 
 
 Rom^nelli, Gio. Francesco 
 
 1617 
 
 1672 
 
438 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTEBS. 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Piola Pelegro 
 
 1617 
 
 1640 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Torre, Flaminio 
 
 
 
 1661 
 
 Naples 
 
 Masturzio, Marzio 1630-60 
 
 
 
 
 )) 
 
 Canuti, Maria 
 
 1620 
 
 1648 
 
 )> 
 
 Ghisolfi, Gio. 
 
 1623 
 
 1680 
 
 Home 
 
 Maratta, Carlo 
 
 1625 
 
 1713 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Cignani, Count Carlo 
 
 1628 
 
 1719 
 
 Naples 
 
 Giordano, Luca (Fa Presto) 
 
 1632 
 
 1705 
 
 Florence 
 
 Ferri, Ciro 
 
 1634 
 
 1687 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Sirani, Elisahetta 
 
 1638 
 
 1665 
 
 Naples 
 
 Solimena, Francesco (I'Abbate Ciccio) 
 
 1657 
 
 1747 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Bibiena, Ferdinando 
 
 1657 
 
 1762 
 
 Venice 
 
 Ricci, Sebastiano 
 
 1660 
 
 1734 
 
 Bologna 
 
 Crespi, Guiseppe Maria (lo Spagnuola) 
 Pannini, Paolo 
 
 1665 
 
 1747 
 
 Rome 
 
 1691 
 
 1764 
 
 Venice 
 
 Tiepolo, Gio. Batt. 
 
 1696 
 
 1770 
 
 
 Canale, Antonio (Canaletto) 
 
 1697 
 
 1768 
 
 
 Longhi, Pietro 
 
 1702 
 
 1762 
 
 
 ZucharelU, Francesm 
 
 1702 
 
 1793 
 
 
 Guardi, Francesco 
 
 1712 
 
 1793 
 
 
 Bellotto, Bernardo 
 
 1720 
 
 1780 
 
 III. SPANISH PAIKTEES.' 
 
 
 Petrus de Hispania 
 
 1253 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Esteban, Roderigo 
 
 1291 
 
 
 
 
 
 T0T,EP0 
 
 Alfon, Juan 
 
 1418 
 
 
 
 
 
 Barcelona 
 
 Dalmau, Ludovico 
 
 1445 
 
 __ 
 
 
 
 Salamanca 
 
 Gallegos, Fernando 
 
 15th cent. 
 
 
 
 «_ 
 
 Seville 
 
 Castro, Juan Sanchez de 
 
 1454-1485 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cordova 
 
 Pedro of Cordova 
 
 1475 
 
 
 
 __ 
 
 >j 
 
 Barca, Garcia del 
 
 1476 
 
 
 
 __ 
 
 Seville 
 
 Borgona, Juan de 
 
 1495-1533 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 J J 
 
 Fernandez, Alejo 
 
 1505-1525 
 
 
 
 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Fernandez, Vasco 
 
 1506 
 
 
 
 __ 
 
 Seville 
 
 Merzal, Pedro 
 
 15th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 jj 
 
 Nunez, Juan 
 
 1507 
 
 
 
 
 
 Toledo 
 
 Rincon, Antonio del 
 
 
 1446 
 
 1500 
 
 Castile 
 
 Berruguete, Pedro 
 
 
 
 1600 
 
 >> 
 
 Berruguete, Alonso 
 
 
 im 
 
 1561 
 
 Seville 
 
 Guadelupe, Pedro Fern, de 
 
 1527 
 
 
 
 »> 
 
 Vargas, Luis de 
 
 
 1502 
 
 1568 
 
 >» 
 
 Campafla, Pedro (Pieter de 
 Villoldo, Juan de 
 
 Kempeneer) 
 
 1503 
 
 154S 
 
 )) 
 
 
 
 
 1551 
 
 Akragon 
 
 Yanez, Hernando 
 
 
 — 
 
 1660 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTERS. 
 
 439 
 
 School. 
 
 Valencia 
 
 Granada 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Toledo 
 
 Castile 
 
 Granada 
 
 Madrid 
 
 Toledo 
 
 Seville 
 
 Toledo 
 
 >) 
 Seville 
 Valencia 
 Castile 
 Portugal 
 Toledo 
 Seville 
 Madrid 
 Toledo 
 Seville 
 
 Madrid 
 Seville 
 Madrid 
 Toledo 
 Valencia 
 
 Seville 
 Madrid 
 
 Valencia 
 
 Valencia 
 
 Granada 
 
 Seville 
 
 Madrid 
 
 Granada 
 
 Madrid 
 »» 
 
 Seville 
 
 Granada 
 Seville 
 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 JUANES, Vicente Juan 
 
 
 1507 
 
 1579 
 
 Machuca, Pedro 
 
 1548 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Olanda, Francisco de 
 
 1549 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Morales, Luis de (El Divine) 
 
 
 1510 
 
 1586 
 
 COELLO, Alonso Sanchez 
 
 
 1515 
 
 1590 
 
 Becerra, Caspar 
 
 
 1520 
 
 1570 
 
 Navarete, Juan Fernandez (El Mudo) 
 
 1526 
 
 1579 
 
 Velasco, Luis de 
 
 
 15— 
 
 1606 
 
 Cespedes, Pablo de 
 
 
 1538 
 
 1608 
 
 Theotocopuli, Domenico (El Griego] 
 Orrente, Pedro 
 
 
 1548 
 
 1625 
 
 1616 
 
 — 
 
 1644 
 
 Vasquez, Alonso 1680-1610 
 
 — 
 
 ■ — 
 
 RiBALTA, Francesco de 
 
 
 1551 
 
 1628 
 
 Cruz, Pantoja de la 
 
 
 1551 
 
 1609 
 
 Pereyra, Vasco 
 
 1588 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Prado, Bias del 
 
 1690 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Roelas, Juan de las 
 
 
 1558 
 
 1625 
 
 Cuevas, Pedro de las 
 
 
 1568 
 
 1635 
 
 Mayno, Fray Juan Bautista 
 Pacheco, Francesco 
 
 
 1569 
 
 1649 
 
 
 1571 
 
 1654 
 
 Herrera, Francesco (El Viejo) 
 
 
 1576 
 
 1656 
 
 Caxes, Eugenio 
 
 
 1577 
 
 1642 
 
 Castillo, Juan del 
 
 
 1584 
 
 1640 
 
 Carducho, Vicente 
 
 
 1585 
 
 1638 
 
 Tristan, Luis 
 
 
 1586 
 
 1640 
 
 RiBERA, Guisenpe de (SpagnolettO) 
 
 1588 
 
 1656 
 
 Ribalta, Juan de 
 
 
 1597 
 
 1628 
 
 ZuRBARAN, Francesco 
 
 
 1598 
 
 1662 
 
 CoUantes, Francesco 
 
 
 1599 
 
 1656 
 
 Pereda, Antonio 
 
 
 1599 
 
 1669 
 
 Velasquez, Don Diego 
 
 Mazo, Juan Bautista Martinez del 
 
 
 1599 
 
 1660 
 
 
 
 
 1667 
 
 March, Estehan 
 
 
 
 
 1660 
 
 Espinosa^, Jacinto Geronimo de 
 
 
 1600 
 
 1680 
 
 Cano, Alonso 
 
 
 1601 
 
 1667 
 
 Castillo, Antonio del 
 
 
 1603 
 
 1667 
 
 Pareja, Juan de 
 
 
 1606 
 
 1670 
 
 Rizi, Francesco 
 
 
 1608 
 
 1685 
 
 Moya, Pedro de 
 
 
 1610 
 
 1666 
 
 Bocanegra, Pedro Anastasto 
 
 
 
 
 1688 
 
 Toledo, Juan de {El Capitan) 
 Carreflo de Miranda, Juan 
 
 
 1611 
 
 1665 
 
 
 1614 
 
 1685 
 
 Arellano, Juan de 
 
 
 1614 
 
 1676 
 
 MuRiLLO, Bartolom6 Esteban 
 
 
 1618 
 
 1682 
 
 Iriarte, Ignacig 
 
 
 1620 
 
 1685 
 
 Herrera, Francesco (El Mozo) 
 
 
 1622 
 
 1685 
 
 Romero, Juan de Sevilla 
 
 
 1627 
 
 1695 
 
 Gomez, Sebastian 17th cent. I 
 
 
 
 Vega, Diego Gonzalez de la 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
440 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTERS. 
 
 School. 1 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Seville 
 
 Valdes-Leal, Juan de 
 
 16.S0 
 
 1691 
 
 Madrid 
 
 Escalante, Juan Ant. 
 
 1630 
 
 1670 
 
 Seville 
 
 Osm-io, Meneses 
 
 1630 
 
 1705 
 
 Madrid 
 
 Cerezo, Matteo de 
 
 1635 
 
 1675 
 
 
 Coello, Claudio 
 
 1635 
 
 1693 
 
 Seville 
 
 Villavicencis, Don Pedro Nunez de 
 
 1635 
 
 1700 
 
 }f 
 
 Palomnio y Velasquez, Don Antonio 
 Marquez, Estehan 
 
 1653 
 
 
 
 1655 
 
 1720 
 
 
 Tobar, Alonso Miguel 
 
 1678 
 
 1758 
 
 
 Llorente, Don Bernardo Gei^man de 
 
 1685 
 
 1757 
 
 Madrid 
 
 Goya y Lucientes, Don Francesco 
 
 1746 
 
 1828 
 
 >> 
 
 FoRTUNY, Mariano 
 
 1838 
 
 1874 
 
 IV. GEEMAN PAINTEES. 
 
 Bohemia 
 
 Theodorich of Prague 
 
 1348-1378 
 
 )> 
 
 Wurmser, Nicolas 
 
 1348-1378 ' 
 
 j» 
 
 Kunz 
 
 1348-1378 ' 
 
 Cologne 
 
 Herle, Meister Wilhelm -^ 
 
 wn 1358 , 
 
 Swabia 
 
 Tieffenthal, Hans 
 
 1418-1433 
 
 Cologne 
 
 Moser, Lucas 
 
 1431 
 
 >» 
 
 Lochner, Stephan (Meister Stephan) 
 
 
 
 1442-1448 
 
 Austria 
 
 D. Pfenning [als ich cann) 
 
 1449 
 
 Swabia * 
 
 Herlin," Frederick 
 
 1449-1499 
 
 »> 
 
 Justus (de Allamagna) 
 
 1451 
 
 Augsburg 
 
 Kaltenhof, Peter 
 
 1457 
 
 Swabia 
 
 Fyoll, Conrad 
 
 1461-1476 
 
 )» 
 
 Iscnmann, Caspar 
 
 1462 
 
 it 
 
 Hirtz, Hans 
 
 
 Westphalia 
 
 Master of Liesbom 
 
 1465 
 
 Cologne 
 
 Master of the Lyversberg Passion 
 
 
 
 1463-1480 
 
 Austria 
 
 Packer, Michael (of Prauneck) 
 
 
 
 1467-1481 
 
 Swabia 
 
 Schiichlein, Hans 
 
 1469 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Furtmeyer, Perchthold {miniatiirist) 
 
 
 
 1470-1501 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Mdchleskircher, Gahrid 
 
 1472-1479 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Pleydenwurff, Wilhelm 
 
 
 j> 
 
 Traut, Hans 
 
 1477 
 
 Swabia 
 
 Zeitblom, Bartolomdus 
 
 1484-1517 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Fries, Hans 
 
 1488-1518 
 
 iy 
 
 Herbst, Hans 
 
 1492-1500 
 
 Swabia 
 
 Schafl&ier, Martin 
 
 1499-1535 
 
 Franconla 
 
 Wohlgemuth, Michael 
 
 
 1434 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OP PAINTEE8. 
 
 
 441 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 SWABIA 
 
 Schongauer, Martin 
 
 1450 
 
 1488 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Springinklee, Hans 1500 
 Griinewald, Matthias 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 SWABIA 
 
 1460 
 
 1530 
 
 
 Cristoferas, Meister 1500-1580 
 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 Master of the Death of the Virgin 
 
 — 
 
 1519 
 
 Calcar 
 
 Jan Joost of Calcar 1505-1508 
 
 
 
 1519 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Sues, Hans (of Kulmbach) 1511-1518 
 
 — 
 
 
 Austria 
 
 Striael, Bci-nhard 1520 
 Holbein, Hans (the elder) 
 
 1460-1 
 
 — 
 
 Augsburg 
 
 1464 
 
 1524 
 
 )) 
 
 Holbein, Sigmund 
 
 
 1540 
 
 Swabia 
 
 Grien, Hans Balding (of Gmund) 
 
 1476 
 
 1545 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 DURER, AlBRECHT 
 
 1471 
 
 1528^ 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Cranach, Lucas (the elder) 
 
 1472 
 
 1553 
 
 AUGSBERG 
 
 BuRGKMAiR, Hans (the elder) 
 
 1473 
 
 1531 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Ostendorfer, Michael 1519-1559 
 
 
 
 
 
 Westphalia 
 
 Dicnwegge, Heinrich and Viktor 1521 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Altdorfer, Albrecht 
 
 1480 
 
 1538 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Manuel, Nicolas (Deutsch) 
 
 1484 
 
 1531 
 
 Augsburg 
 
 Amberger, Christoph 
 
 1490 
 
 1563 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Diirer, Hans 1530 
 
 1490 
 
 
 
 )> 
 
 Schaufelin, Hans Leonhard 
 
 1490 
 
 1539 
 
 )) 
 
 Deig Sebastian 
 
 
 
 )) 
 
 Feselen, Melchior 
 
 
 
 1538 
 
 ff 
 
 Eisner, Jacob 
 
 
 
 1546 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Breu, Georg 
 
 
 
 1536 
 
 Cologne 
 
 Briiyn, Bartolomaus 
 
 1493 
 
 1556 
 
 Westphalia 
 
 Ring, Ludger Zmn {the elder) 
 Holbein, Hans (the younger) 
 
 1496 
 
 1531 
 
 Augsburg 
 
 1497 
 
 1543 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Asper, Hans 
 
 1499 
 
 1571 
 
 Schleswig 
 
 Raphon, Johann, of Eimheck 1507 
 Holbein, Ambrose 1519 
 
 
 
 1528 
 
 Augsburg 
 
 
 
 
 Austria 
 
 Dax, Raul 1526-1540 
 
 
 
 
 
 Worms 
 
 Wousam, Anton 1528 
 
 
 
 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Krodel, Wolfgang 1528 
 
 
 
 
 
 if 
 
 Krell, Hans 1533-1573 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Beham, Hans Sebald 
 
 1500 
 
 1550 
 
 )> 
 
 Pencz, Georg 
 
 1500 
 
 1555 
 
 f» 
 
 Aldegrever, Heinrich 
 
 1502 
 
 1565 
 
 i» 
 
 Beham, Bartel 
 
 1502 
 
 1540 
 
 11 
 
 Bink, Jacob 
 
 1504 
 
 1569 
 
 Austria 
 
 Seiseyiegger, Jacob 
 
 1505 
 
 1567 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Glockenton, Georg {the elder^ minia- 
 
 
 
 
 turist) 
 
 
 
 1515 
 
 >> 
 
 Glockenton, Nicolaus 
 
 
 
 1534 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Mielich, Hans 
 
 1515 
 
 1572 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Cranach, Lucas (the younger) 
 
 1515 
 
 1586 
 
 )) 
 
 Cranach, Johannes 
 
 
 
 1536 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Roddelstedt, Peter 1540-1550 
 
 
 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Stimmevt Tobias 
 
 1539 
 
 1582 
 
442 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTERS. 
 
 School. 
 
 Nuremberg 
 Switzerland 
 Bavaria 
 Westphalia 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Cologne 
 Bavaria 
 Italian- 
 German 
 Switzerland 
 Bavaria 
 Frankfort 
 Nuremberg 
 Frankfort 
 Nuremberg 
 Italian- 
 German 
 Hamburg 
 Italian- 
 German 
 
 Italian- 
 German 
 Zurich 
 Stuttgart 
 Classico- 
 Germanic 
 
 Dresden 
 Stuttgart 
 Dusseldorf 
 Munich 
 
 Dortrecht 
 
 Munich 
 
 Dusseldorf 
 
 Munich 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Dusseldorf 
 Classico- ) 
 Germanic \ 
 
 Munich 
 
 Dusseldorf 
 
 Amman, Jost 
 
 Bock, Hans 1560 
 
 Bocksperger, Hans 1560 
 
 Bing^ Ludger Zum {the younger) 
 
 1562-1591 
 Schiuartz, Christoph 
 Hoffmann, Hans 1584 
 
 Aachen, Hans von 
 Heinz, Joseph 1591-1609 
 
 Goltzius, Heinrich 
 
 Maurer, Christoph 
 Rottenhammer, Johann 
 Uffenbach, Philipp 
 Lautensack, Hans Sehald 
 Elzheimer, Adam 
 Sandrart, Joachim von 
 
 Loth, Carl, of Munich 
 
 Denner, Balthasar 
 
 Dietrich, Christian 
 
 Tischbein, Johann Heinrich 
 
 Mengs, Anton Raphael 
 
 Gessner, Salomon 
 Hackert, Joh. Philipp 
 
 Carstens, Asmus Jacob 
 
 Koch, Josef Anton 
 
 Friedrich, Kaspar D. 
 
 Schick, Gottlieb 
 
 Kolhe, Karl Wilhelm 
 
 Cornelius, Peter von 
 
 Nake, G. Heinrich (of Dresden) 
 
 Schotel, J. Christian 
 
 Overbeck, Friedrich 
 
 Schadow, WiUielm 
 
 Hess, Peter 
 
 Klein, Josef Adam, 
 
 Veit, Philipp 
 
 Schnorr, Julius (of Carolsfeld) 
 
 Begas, Carl 
 
 Genelli, Bonaventura 
 
 Preller, Ludwig 
 Rottmann, Karl 
 Fiihrich, Joseph 
 Schirmer, Wilhelm 
 
 Birth. Deatl 
 
 1539 
 
 1550 
 1552 
 
 1558 
 
 1558 
 1564 
 1565 
 
 1578 
 1606 
 
 1632 
 
 1685 
 
 1712 
 
 1722 
 
 1728 
 
 1734 
 1737 
 
 1754 
 
 1768 
 1776 
 1776 
 1781 
 1783 
 1786 
 1787 
 1789 
 1789 
 1792 
 1792 
 1793 
 1794 
 1794 
 
 1798 
 
 1804 
 1798 
 1800 
 1802 
 

 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTERS. 
 
 
 443 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 DUSSELDORF 
 
 Biirkel, Heinrich 
 
 1802 
 
 1869 
 
 
 Richter, Adrian Ludwig 
 
 1803 
 
 — 
 
 Munich 
 
 Schwindt, Moritz von 
 
 1804 
 
 1871 
 
 DiJ.SSELDORF 
 
 Schrodter, Adolf 
 Moi-genstem, Christian 
 
 1805 
 
 1875 
 
 )i 
 
 1805 
 
 1862 
 
 Munich 
 
 Kaulbach, Wilhelm von 
 
 1805 
 
 1874 
 
 DUSSELDORF 
 
 Schimier, Johann W. 
 
 1807 
 
 1863 
 
 „ 
 
 Miiller, M. K. F. 
 
 1807 
 
 1865 
 
 
 Meyerheim, Friedrich Edvurd 
 
 1808 
 
 1879 
 
 o 
 
 Lessing, Karl Friedrich 
 
 1808 
 
 1880 
 
 Vienna 
 
 Frdhlich, Ernst 
 
 1810 
 
 1882 
 
 Munich 
 
 Sfeinle, Eduard 
 
 1810 
 
 — 
 
 IJUSSELDORF 
 
 Bendemann, Eduard 
 
 1811 
 
 — 
 
 Munich 
 
 Scldeich, Eduard 
 
 1812 
 
 1874 
 
 DuSSELDORF 
 
 Hiibner, Karl 
 
 1814 
 
 1879 
 
 „ 
 
 Tidemand, Adolf 
 
 1814 
 
 1876 
 
 „ 
 
 Bethel, Alfred 
 
 1816 
 
 1859 
 
 Dantzig 
 
 Hildebrandt, Eduard - "" 
 
 1818 
 
 1868 
 
 DuSSELDORF 
 
 Camphausen, Wilhelm 
 
 1818 
 
 1885 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Bichter, Giistav Karl Licdwig 
 
 1823 
 
 1884 
 
 Munich 
 
 Piloty, Karl 
 
 1826 
 
 1886 
 
 )) 
 
 Knaus, Ludwig 
 
 1829 
 
 1882 
 
 „ 
 
 Feuerbach, Anselm 
 
 1829 
 
 1880 
 
 *t 
 
 Makart, Hans 
 
 1840 1884 
 
 V. FLEMISH PAINTiiJES. 
 
 
 Bruges 
 
 Hennequin, or Jehan de Bruges 1370-1377 
 Hasselt, Jehan de 1373-1386 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 COURTRAI 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 YPRfe 
 
 Broederlain, Melchior 1383-1409 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Ghent 
 
 Van Eyck, Hubert 
 
 1366 
 
 1426 
 
 Bruges 
 
 Van Eyck, Jan 
 
 1381- 
 1390 
 
 1440 
 
 TOURNAI 
 
 Campin, Robert 14th cent. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 jj 
 
 Weyden, Roger van deb 
 
 1399 
 
 1464 
 
 Ghent 
 
 Martim, Nabor 1440-1449 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bruges 
 
 Cristus, Petrus 1444-1472 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 LOUVAIN 
 
 Bouts, Dierick 
 
 1399- 
 1400 
 
 1475 
 
 ff 
 
 Stuerbout, Hubert 1447-1449 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 TOURNAI 
 
 MarmioD, Simon 
 
 14£5 
 
 1489 
 
 Bruges 
 
 Memling, Hans 
 
 
 
 1494 
 
 Ghent 
 
 Jodocus, or Justus of Ghent 1468-1474 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 >> 
 
 Goes, Hugo van der 
 
 
 
 1482 
 
 i> 
 
 M< 
 
 3ire, Gerard van der 15th cent 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 

 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OP PAINTERS. 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death 
 
 Bruges 
 
 David, Gerard (Gheerardt) 
 
 1460 
 
 1525 
 
 LOUVAIN 
 
 Bouts, Dierick (the younger) 
 
 — 
 
 149( 
 
 jj 
 
 Bouts, Albert 
 
 — 
 
 154? 
 
 Bruges 
 
 Prevost, Jan 
 
 — 
 
 152? 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Massys, Quentin 
 
 1466 
 
 153( 
 
 J) 
 
 Gossaert, Jan (Mabuse) 
 
 1470 
 
 153S 
 
 Ghent 
 
 Horehout, or Horembout, Gerard 
 
 1480 
 
 154( 
 
 DiNANT 
 
 Bles, Hendrik Metten (Herri de Bles) 
 
 — 
 
 155( 
 
 Bruges 
 
 Patinir, Joachim 
 
 — 
 
 1524 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Sanders, Jan (of Hemessen) 1519-1555 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 DOUAI 
 
 Bellegambe, Jean 1520 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Brussels 
 
 Orley, Bernard van (van Brussel) 
 
 1490 
 
 1545 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Veen, Marten van (of Heemskerck) 
 
 1494 
 
 1574 
 
 Brussels 
 
 Blondeel, Lancelot 
 
 1496 
 
 1561 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Komerswalen, Marinus Claeszoon van 
 
 1497 
 
 156t 
 
 Brussels 
 
 Coxcien, Michael van 
 
 1499 
 
 1595 
 
 Liege 
 
 Gassel, Lucas 
 
 — 
 
 156L 
 
 Bruges 
 
 Claessins, Pieter {the elder) 
 
 1500 
 
 1576 
 
 Brussels 
 
 Vermeyen, Jan Comelizoon {of Haxtrlem) 
 
 1500 
 
 loot 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Koch, or Coecke, Pieter {of Alost) 
 
 1502 
 
 1551 
 
 Liege 
 
 Lombard, Lambert 
 
 1505 
 
 1566 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Aartzen, Pieter (Lange Pier of Haarlem) 
 
 1507 
 
 1575 
 1572 
 
 157t 
 
 )) 
 
 Massys, Jan 
 
 1509 
 
 ) 
 
 
 Massys, Cornelis 
 
 1511 
 
 158C 
 
 ) 
 
 
 Vriendt, Fra,ns van (Frans Floris) 
 
 1517-8 
 
 157C 
 
 
 
 Vos, Martin 
 
 1513 
 
 1605 
 
 > 
 
 
 Neuchatel, Nicolas (Lucidel) 1539-1584 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ) 
 
 
 Beukelaar, Joachim 1559-1575 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Cleve, Joost, or Josse van 1530-1550 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Noort, Lambert van 
 
 1520 
 
 157C 
 
 , 
 
 
 Key, WiUem (of Breda) 
 
 1520 
 
 1568 
 
 Bruges 
 
 Straet, Jan van der 
 
 1523 
 
 160c 
 
 >» 
 
 Claessins, Pieter {the younger) 
 Breughel, Pieter (Peasant Breughel) 
 
 — 
 
 1615 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 — 
 
 156S 
 
 j^ 
 
 Grimmer, Jacob 
 
 1526 
 
 159C 
 
 Malines 
 
 Coxcien, Raphael 1585 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Ghent 
 
 Heere, Lucas de 
 
 1534 
 
 1584 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Congnet, Gillis 
 
 1538 
 
 159£ 
 
 
 Vlerick, Pieter {of Courtrai) 
 
 1539 
 
 1581 
 
 )) 
 
 Franchoys, Paul 
 
 1540 
 
 1596 
 
 )) 
 
 Porbus, Frans (the elder) 
 
 1540 
 
 1584 
 
 >* 
 
 Valckenborgh, Luk van 
 
 1540 
 
 162£ 
 
 
 Pieter zoon, Aart 
 
 1541 
 
 160c 
 
 
 Francken, Frans 
 
 1544 
 
 16ie 
 
 
 Coninxloo, Gillis van 
 
 1544 
 
 160J, 
 
 5J 
 
 Key, Adrian Thomas (of Breda) 
 
 1544 
 
 159C 
 
 Brussels 
 
 Winghen, Joost van 
 Hoefnagel, Jons {miniaturist) 
 
 1544 
 
 1601 
 
 Ant^ 
 
 verp 
 
 1545 
 
 im 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTERS. 
 
 445 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth 
 
 Death. 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Spranger, Bartholomdiis 
 
 1546 
 
 1627 
 
 J 
 
 Calvaert, Denis 
 
 1548 
 
 1619 
 
 )) 
 
 Witte, Pieter de {Candida) 
 
 1548 
 
 1628 
 
 
 Mander, Karel van 
 
 1548 
 
 1606 
 
 
 Snellinck, Jan 
 
 1549 
 
 1638 
 
 
 Bril, Matthew 
 
 1556 
 
 1580 
 
 
 Bril, Paul 
 
 1556 
 
 1626 
 
 
 Veen, Otto van (Vaenius) 
 
 1558 
 
 1629 
 
 »» 
 
 Geldorpy Gortziiis {of Louvain) 
 
 1558 
 
 1616 
 1618 
 1632 
 
 )) 
 
 Balen, Henri van 
 
 1560 
 
 a 
 
 Geeraerts, Marcus {Gerrard) 
 
 1561 
 
 1635 
 
 }} 
 
 Haecht, Tobie van (Verhaegt) 
 
 1561 
 
 1631 
 
 
 Noort, Adam van 
 
 1562 
 
 1641 
 
 i> 
 
 Breughel, Pieter the younger (Hell) 
 
 1564 
 
 1638 
 
 
 Bloemart, Abraham 
 
 1565 
 
 1647 
 
 
 Janssens, Abraham 
 
 1567 
 
 1632 
 
 ,, 
 
 Breughel, Jan (Velvet) 
 
 1568 
 
 1625 
 
 ,, 
 
 Porbus, Frans (the younger) 
 
 1570 
 
 1622 
 
 Brussels 
 
 Alslool, Denis van 16th cent. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Neefs, Pieter the elder) 
 
 1570 
 
 1651 
 
 
 Backereel, Gillis 
 
 1572 
 
 
 
 
 VrancXy Sebastian 
 
 1573 
 
 1638 
 
 
 Pepyn, Marten 
 
 1575 
 
 1643 
 
 
 Savery, Roelandt 
 
 1576 
 
 1639 
 
 
 Rubens, Peter Paul 
 
 1577 
 
 1640 
 
 
 Vinckehoons, David 
 
 1578 
 
 1629 
 
 
 Snyders, Franz 
 
 1579 
 
 1657 
 
 
 Francken, Frans (the younger) 
 
 1581 
 
 1642 
 
 
 Teniers, David (the elder) 
 
 1582 
 
 1649 
 
 
 Grayer, Gaspard de 
 
 1582 
 
 1669 
 
 
 Vos, Cornelius dk 
 
 1585 
 
 1651 
 
 
 Grimmer, Abel 1614 
 
 
 
 
 Seghers, Daniel ^ 
 
 1590 
 
 1661 
 
 
 Sallaert, Antonij 
 
 1590 
 
 
 
 Soiittnan, Pieter 
 
 1591 
 
 1697 
 
 
 Crabeth, Dirk and Wouter (of Gouda) 
 
 1592 
 
 1660 
 
 
 Honthorst Gerard (Gherardo de la Notte) 
 
 1592 
 
 1662 
 
 
 JoRDAENS, Jacob 
 
 1593 
 
 1678 
 
 
 Snayers, Pieter 
 
 1593 
 
 1663 
 
 
 Fniitiers, Philip 1631 
 
 — 1666 
 
 
 Schut, Contelis 
 
 1597 1 1656 
 
 
 Pombauts, Theodore 
 
 1597 1637 
 
 
 Van Dyck, Antonij, Sir 
 
 1599 1 1641 
 
 
 Mol, Pieter van 
 
 1599 1650 
 
 
 Miel, Jan 
 
 1599 1664 
 
 
 Conincky David de 
 
 . 1599 1687 
 
 
 Utrecht^ Adam van 
 
 1599 
 
 1652 
 
446 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTERS. 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 1604 
 
 Death. 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 fferp, Gerard van 
 
 1677 
 
 jj 
 
 Vos, Paul de 
 
 1604 
 
 1678 
 
 Brussels 
 
 Heil, Daniel de 
 
 1604 
 
 1662 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Molyn, Pieter 
 
 — 
 
 1661 
 
 jj 
 
 Es, Jacques van 
 
 1606 
 
 1656 
 
 
 f 
 
 Diepenbeek, Abraham van 
 
 1607 
 
 1675 
 
 
 y 
 
 Quellin, Erasmus 
 
 1607 
 
 1678 
 
 
 t 
 
 Thulden, Theodore van 
 
 1607 
 
 1676 
 
 ] 
 
 t 
 
 Craesbeek, Josse van 
 
 1608 
 
 16U 
 
 
 
 Brouwer, Adrian 
 
 1606 
 
 1638 
 
 
 f 
 
 Fyt, Jan 
 
 1609 
 
 1661 
 
 ] 
 
 t 
 
 Lint, Pieter van 
 
 1609 
 
 1690 
 
 
 f 
 
 Teniers, David (the younger) 
 
 1610 
 
 1694 
 
 
 y 
 
 Asselyn, Jan 
 
 1610 
 
 1690 
 
 
 y 
 
 Byn, Jan van 
 Bloot, Pieter de 
 
 1610 
 
 1678 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 1667 
 
 
 y 
 
 Wolfvoet, Victor 
 
 1612 
 
 1652 
 
 
 
 Byckaert, Daniel 
 
 1612 
 
 1661 
 
 Brussels 
 
 Arthois, Jacques d' 
 Boschaert, Thomas Willehorts 
 
 1613 
 
 1665 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 1613 
 
 1656 
 
 ft 
 
 Flemalle, Bertholet 
 
 1614 
 
 1675 
 
 
 y 
 
 CoQUEs, Gonzales 
 
 1614 
 
 1684 
 
 
 y 
 
 Faes, Pieter van der (Sir Peter Lely) 
 
 1618 
 
 1680 
 
 
 t 
 
 Wallerant, VaiUant 
 
 1623 
 
 1677 
 
 
 y 
 
 Duchdtel, Frans 
 
 1625 
 
 1656 
 
 
 y 
 
 Siberechts, Daniel 
 
 1627 
 
 16- 
 
 
 
 Champaigne, Philippe de 
 Meulen, Antonij Frans van der 
 
 1631 
 
 1681 
 
 Brussels 
 
 1634 
 
 1690 
 
 Bruges 
 
 Oost, Jacques van (the younger) 
 Lairesse, Gerard de 
 
 1639 
 
 1713 
 
 LifiGE 
 
 1640 
 
 1711 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Millet, J. F. {Francisque) 
 
 1642 
 
 1680 
 
 
 HicysTuans, Cornelis 
 Helmont, Mathieu van 
 
 1648 
 
 1727 
 
 
 
 1653 
 
 1719 
 
 
 t 
 
 Huysmans, J. B. 
 
 1654 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 Bysbraeck, Pieter 
 
 Bloemen, J. Frans van [Orizonte) 
 
 1655 
 
 1729 
 
 
 
 1658 
 
 1748 
 
 
 
 Janssens, Victor ffonorS 
 
 1664 
 
 1739 
 
 
 
 La Fabrique, Nicolas 
 Breydel, Chevalier Charles 
 
 1669 
 
 1733 
 
 
 
 1677 
 
 1744 
 
 
 
 Herreyns, Guillaume 
 
 1743 
 
 1827 
 
 Brussels 
 
 Marne, Jean Louis de 
 
 1744 
 
 1829 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Begemorter, Bierre van 
 
 1755 
 
 1830 
 
 St 
 
 Francois, 
 
 1759 
 
 1851 
 
 »y 
 
 Hilffel, Victor 
 
 1769 
 
 1844 
 
 ft 
 
 Bree, Matthieu van 
 
 1773 
 
 1839 
 
 tt 
 
 Baelincx 
 
 1781 
 
 1839 
 
 «> 
 
 Navez, Franqois 
 
 1787 
 
 1869 
 
 ft 
 
 Brakeleer, Ferdinand de 
 
 1792 
 
 1883 
 
 
 »» 
 
 Madou, J. B. F. de 
 
 1796 
 
 1877 
 

 
 chronological lists of painters. 
 
 
 447 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Vntwerp 
 
 Verboeckhoven, Eugene 
 
 1798 
 
 1881 
 
 )) 
 
 Caisne, Henri de 
 
 1799 
 
 1852 
 
 )l 
 
 Wappers, Gustave 
 
 1803 
 
 1874 
 
 
 VMne, Felise La 
 Wiertz, Antoine Louis 
 
 1806 
 
 1862 
 
 Brussels 
 
 1806 
 
 1865 
 
 
 Biefve, Edouard de 
 
 1808 
 
 1882 
 
 )) 
 
 GaUait, Louis 
 
 1810 
 
 1887 
 
 ^.NTWERP 
 
 Keyset, Nicaise de 
 
 1813 
 
 1887 
 
 
 Founnois, Theodor 
 
 1814 
 
 1871 
 
 
 Leys, Henri 
 
 1815 
 
 1869 
 
 
 Moer, J. B. van 
 
 1819 
 
 1885 
 
 >> 
 
 Lies, Joseph 
 
 1821 
 
 1865 
 
 VI. DUTCH PAINTEES. 
 
 
 Taarlem 
 
 Oudewater, An)ert van 1467-1480 
 
 __ 
 
 
 
 BOIS-LE-DUC 
 
 Aeken, Jerome van (Bos or Bosch) 
 
 — 
 
 1518 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Mandyn, Jan 
 
 — 
 
 1520 
 
 Leyden 
 
 Engelbrechtsen, Cornelis 
 
 1468 
 
 1533 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Comeliszoon, Jakob (of Oostzaandam) 
 
 
 
 
 1506-1530 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Mostaert, Jan 
 
 1474 
 
 1555-6 
 
 )) 
 
 Comeliszoon, Willem 1509 
 
 — 
 
 _ 
 
 
 Pinas, Jan 1521 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Leyden 
 
 Comeliszoon, Pieter (Kunst) 
 
 1493 
 
 1544 
 
 
 Jakobzoon, Dirk 
 
 1493 
 
 1567 
 
 
 Lucas van Leyden 
 
 1494 
 
 1533 
 
 1) 
 
 Comeliszoon, Lukas (Kok) 
 
 1495 
 
 — 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 ScHOREEL, Jan 
 
 1495 
 
 1562 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Steffcns, Jan {of Calcar) 
 
 1510 
 
 1546 
 
 GOUDA 
 
 Porbus, Pieter (the elder) 
 
 1510 
 
 1584 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 MoR, Antony (Sir Antonio Moro) 
 Vries, Jan Vredeman de 
 
 1518 
 
 1588. 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 1527 
 
 1604 
 
 GoUDA 
 
 Vischer, Cornelis 1572 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Ketel, Cornelis 
 
 1548 
 
 I6O4. 
 
 
 Steenwyck, Hendrik van 
 
 1550 
 
 1604 
 
 ^ 
 
 Vroom, Hendrik 
 
 1556 
 
 1640 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Comeliszoon, Comelis 
 
 1562 
 
 1638 
 
 Leyden 
 
 Lastman, Pieter 
 
 1562 
 
 1649 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 Bloeniaert, Abraham 
 
 1565 
 
 1647 
 
 Leyden 
 
 Schwanenl)erg, Isaak van 
 
 
 
 
 16th and 17th cent. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Delft 
 
 MiEREVELT, Nic. Janz. van 
 
 1562 
 
 1641 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 
 Heeni, David de 
 
 1570 
 
 1632 
 
448 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTEES. 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 Moreelse, Paul 
 
 1571 
 
 1638 
 
 Dordrecht 
 
 Cuyp, Jacob Gerritz 
 
 Velde, Esams Vander 1610-1618 
 
 1575 
 
 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 Grebber, Frans Pierterz. de 1610 
 
 — 
 
 1649 
 
 )) 
 
 Hoeckgeest, Joachim 1610-1626 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 f f 
 
 Ravesteyn, Jan van 
 
 1580 
 
 1665 
 
 )) 
 
 Hals, Frans 
 
 1584 
 
 1666 
 
 if 
 
 Vliet, W. van der 
 
 1584 
 
 1642 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Pinas, Jacob 1620 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Hals, Dirk 
 
 — 
 
 1656 
 
 )} 
 
 Poelenberg, Cornells van 
 
 1586 
 
 1667 
 
 ;) 
 
 Bray, Salomon 
 
 1587 
 
 1664 
 
 J) 
 
 Bi^ay, Jan 
 
 — 
 
 1664 
 
 Delft 
 
 Venne, Adrian Vander 
 
 1589 
 
 1660 
 
 
 Uytenbroeck, Moses van 
 Mytens, Daniel 
 
 1590 
 
 
 
 }) 
 
 1590 
 
 1656 
 
 
 Ceiden, Cornelis J. van 
 
 1590 
 
 1665 
 
 J) 
 
 Kierings, Alexander 
 
 1590 
 
 1646 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Verboom, Abraham 1630-1663 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Delft 
 
 Heda, Willem Claeszoon 
 
 1594 
 
 1678 
 
 
 Potter, Pieter 
 
 1595 
 
 
 
 
 Janssens, Cornelis 
 
 ?1595 
 
 1665 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Grebber, Pieter de 1630-1649 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 Leyden 
 
 GOYEN, Jan van 
 
 1596 
 
 1666 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Keyzer, Thomas de 
 
 1597 
 
 1679 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Saenredan, Pieter 
 
 1597 
 
 1666 
 
 
 Verspronck, Johannes 
 Rombouts, Theodore 
 
 1597 
 
 1662 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 1597 
 
 1637 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Verspronck, Cornelis Engelszoon 
 
 1598 
 
 — 
 
 )9 
 
 Avercamp, Hendrik van 
 
 Velde, WiUem van der (the elder) 1630 
 
 1600 
 
 1663 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 — 
 
 1693 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 Heem, Jan Davidzoon de 
 
 1600 
 
 1674 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Ruysdael, Salomon 
 
 1600 
 
 1670 
 
 ^ 
 
 Wynants, Jan 
 
 1600 
 
 1679 
 
 )> 
 
 Molyn, Pieter (the elder) 
 
 1600 
 
 1654 
 
 )) 
 
 Palamedes, Anthonii 
 
 1600 
 
 1673 
 
 
 Wils, Jan 1635 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Delft 
 
 Aelst, Evert van 
 
 1602 
 
 1648 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 Heem, Jan de 
 
 1603 
 
 1650 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Vlieger, Simon de 
 
 1604- 
 1612 
 
 1660 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Angel, Philip 1639 
 
 1665 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Vliet, Hendrik 
 
 1605 
 
 — 
 
 Dordrecht 
 
 Cuyp, Aalbert 
 
 1605 
 
 1691 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Witte, Emmanuel de 
 
 1607 
 
 1692 
 
 
 Everdingen, Cesar van 
 
 1606 
 
 1679 
 
 
 Brauwer, Adrian 
 
 1606 
 
 1638 
 
 Leyden 
 
 Rembrandt van Ryn 
 
 1607 
 
 1669 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Lievenz. Jan 
 
 1607 
 
 — 
 
CHEONOLOaiCAL LISTS OF PAINTEES. 
 
 449 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Delft 
 
 Palamedesz. Palamedes 
 
 1607 
 
 1673 
 
 )) 
 
 Deelen, Dirk van 
 
 1607 
 
 1638 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Hals, Frans (Franzoon) (the younger) 
 
 
 
 
 1643 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 )* 
 
 Ter Borch, Gerard (Terburg) 
 
 1608 
 
 1681 
 
 tt 
 
 Koning, Salomon de 
 
 1609 
 
 1674 
 
 if 
 
 Codde, Pieter 
 
 1610 
 
 1658 
 
 a 
 
 Ostade, Adrtax 
 
 1610 
 
 1685 
 
 Leyden 
 
 Dou, Gerard 
 
 1610 
 
 1675 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Asselyn, Jan 
 
 1610 
 
 1660 
 
 )) 
 
 Stoop, Dirk 
 
 1610 
 
 1680 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 Both, Jan 
 
 1610 
 
 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Colebier, Nicolas 17th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 )) 
 
 Heemskerk, Egbert 
 
 1610 
 
 1680 
 
 >> 
 
 Wyck, Thomas 
 
 1610 
 
 1671 
 
 )> 
 
 Molenaer, Bartolomeus 1640 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 )t 
 
 Gael, Barend 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 Bol, Ferdinand 
 
 1611 
 
 1681 
 
 
 Marcellis, Otho 
 
 1613 
 
 1673 
 
 it 
 
 Bray, Jacob 
 
 — 
 
 1697 
 
 it 
 
 Van Loo, Jacob van 
 
 1614 
 
 1665 
 
 if 
 
 Helt-Stockade, Nicolas 
 
 1614 
 
 1669 
 
 ^) 
 
 Flinck, Govaert 
 
 1615 
 
 1660 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Dubbels, Hendrik 1650 
 
 
 
 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Wet, Jan de 
 
 1617 
 
 
 
 )) 
 
 RomhoutSi GUlis 1662 
 
 
 
 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Neer, Aart van der 
 
 1619 
 
 1683 
 
 jj 
 
 Ovens, Jurian 
 
 1619 
 
 1678 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Koninck, PhiHp de 
 
 1619 
 
 1689 
 
 if 
 
 WOUWERMANS, PHILIP 
 
 1619 
 
 1668 
 
 Delft 
 
 Delft, Jacob 
 
 1619 
 
 1661 
 
 
 Victoor or Victors, Jan 
 
 1620 
 
 1662 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Bega, Cornells 
 
 16S0 
 
 1664 
 
 Delft 
 
 Aelst, Willem van 
 
 1620 
 
 1679 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Brekelenkamp, Quiryn 
 Berchem, Nicnolas 
 
 1620 
 
 1668 
 
 )) 
 
 1620 
 
 1683 
 
 a 
 
 Ostade, Isaac 
 
 1621 
 
 1649 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Sorgh, Hendrik Martenz. Rokes 
 
 1621 
 
 1682 
 
 jj 
 
 Pape, Adrian de 1648 
 Eckhout, Gerbrandt van der 
 
 
 
 
 
 Leyden 
 
 1621 
 
 1674 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Everdingen, Aalbert or Allard van 
 Looten, Jan 
 
 1621 
 
 1745 
 
 Antnverp 
 
 — 
 
 1681 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Tempel, Abraham Lammert Jacobz. van 
 
 
 
 
 1622 
 
 1672 
 
 Delft 
 
 Fabritius, Carel 
 
 1624 
 
 1654 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Merian, Matthew (the younger) 
 
 1625 
 
 1687 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Potter, Paul 
 
 1625 
 
 1654 
 
 a 
 
 Dujardin, Karel 
 
 1625 
 
 1678 
 
 
 Ruysdael, Jacob 
 
 itfi-J 
 
 1682 
 
150 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTERS. 
 
 School. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Lingelbach, Jan (of Frankfort) 
 
 
 1625 
 
 
 
 fy 
 
 Wouverman, Pieter 
 
 
 1626 
 
 1683 
 
 if 
 
 Decker, Cornells 
 
 
 
 
 1678 
 
 yt 
 
 Steen, Jan 
 
 
 1626 
 
 1679 
 
 yy 
 
 Rontbouts, A. 17th cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dordrecht 
 
 Hooffstraeten, Samuel van 
 Berckheyden, Job 
 
 
 1627 
 
 1678 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 
 1628 
 
 1693 
 
 J) 
 
 Wouwerman, Jan 
 
 
 1629 
 
 1666 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Kalf, WiUem 
 
 
 1630 
 
 1693 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Helst, Bartolomeus van der 
 
 
 1630 
 
 1670 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 Heem, Cornells de 
 
 
 1630 
 
 1693 
 
 Rotterdam 
 
 Oosterwyck, Maria van 17th cent. 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 Leiden 
 
 Waterloo, Anthonij 
 
 
 1630 
 
 1661 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Hackaert, Jan 17th cent. 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 J, 
 
 Backhuysen, Ludolf 
 
 
 1631 
 
 1708 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 Mlgnon, Abraham (of Frankfort) 
 
 1669 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Dordrecht 
 
 Maas, Nicholas 
 
 
 1632 
 
 1693 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Molenaar, Jan Mlense 
 
 
 
 
 1685 
 
 >» 
 
 Walscapelle, Jacobus 
 Brakenburg, Richard 
 
 1675 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 )) 
 
 1687 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Delft 
 
 Meer, Jan van der (Vermeer) 
 
 1690 
 
 1632 
 
 — 
 
 }> 
 
 Peel, Egbert v. d. 
 
 
 
 
 1690 
 
 »> 
 
 Hooch, Pieter de (De Hoogh) 
 
 
 1632 
 
 1681 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Velde, Willem v. d. (the younger) 
 
 1633 
 
 1707 
 
 >) 
 
 Moucheron, Frederick 
 
 
 1633 
 
 1688 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 MiERis, Frans (the elder) 
 
 
 1635 
 
 1681 
 
 Hague 
 
 Haagen, Jan van der 
 
 
 1635 
 
 — 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Velde, Adrian van der 
 
 
 1636 
 
 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 HONDEKOETER, MeLCHIOE 
 
 
 1636 
 
 1695 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Heyden, Jan v. d. 
 
 
 1637 
 
 1712 
 
 it 
 
 Hobbema, Minderhout 
 
 
 1638 
 
 1709 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Berckheyden, Gerrlt 
 
 
 1638 
 
 1698 
 
 )) 
 
 Anraadf, Pieter van 
 
 1674 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 >> 
 
 Netscher, Gaspard 
 
 
 1639 
 
 — 
 
 AMS'I'ERDAM 
 
 Metsu, Gabriel 
 
 
 1640 
 
 1669 
 
 >> ' Liege 
 
 Lairesse, Gerard de 
 
 
 1640 
 
 — 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Slingelandt, Pieter van 
 Schalken, Godefroid 
 
 
 1640 
 
 1691 
 
 )) 
 
 
 1643 
 
 1706 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Neer, Eglon van der 
 
 
 1643 
 
 1703 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 Weenix, Jan 
 
 
 1644 
 
 1709 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Capelle, Jan v. d. 
 
 1686 
 
 1644 
 
 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Gelder, Aart 
 
 
 1645 
 
 
 
 j> 
 
 KneUer, Godfrold (Sir Godfrey) 
 
 
 1646 
 
 1723 
 
 }f 
 
 Hugtenburg, Jan van 
 Verkolje, Nicholas 
 
 
 1646 
 
 1733 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 
 1650 
 
 1693 
 
 ,, 
 
 Molenaer, Jan Jakobzoon 
 
 
 1654 
 
 — 
 
 Rotterdam 
 
 Werff, Adrian van der 
 
 
 1659 
 
 1722 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Dusart, Cornells 
 
 
 
 
 
 f» 
 
 Mieris, Willem van 
 
 
 1662 
 
 1747 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTERS. 
 
 451 
 
 School. 1 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Amsterdam Ruysch, Rachel 
 
 1664 
 
 _^ 
 
 Utrecht Walkenburg, Dirk 
 HuVsuM, Jan van 
 
 1675 
 
 1721 
 
 1682 
 
 1750 
 
 Haarlem Miens, Frans van (the younger) 
 
 1689 
 
 1763 
 
 Amsterdam Witt, Jacob de 
 
 1695 
 
 1754 
 
 jj 
 
 Troost, Comelis 
 
 '1697 
 
 1750 
 
 ,, 
 
 Os, Jan van 
 
 1744 
 
 1808 
 
 Modern 
 
 Koekkoek, Barend 
 
 1803 
 
 1862 
 
 ** 
 
 Mauve, Anton 
 
 1838 
 
 1888 
 
 Vn. FEENCH PAINTEES. 
 
 Ingohertus {miniaturist) 
 Colart le Voleur [miniaturist) 
 
 877 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 15th cent. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 B^nd, Kin^of Anjou 
 Boulogne, Hue de {miniaturist) 
 
 
 1408 
 
 1480 
 
 1449 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Fouquet, Jean 
 
 
 1415 
 
 1485 
 
 Coustain, Pierre de {miniaturist) 
 
 1471 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Froment, Nicolas (of Avignon) 
 
 1461-1476 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Clouet, Jehan (Cloet of Brussels) 
 
 
 1420 
 
 — 
 
 Clouet, Jehan or Jehanet (the younger) 
 
 
 1485 
 
 1545 
 
 Cousin, Jean 
 
 
 1501 
 
 1589 
 
 Clouet, Fran(?ois (Janet) 
 
 
 1510 
 
 1572 
 
 Gourmont, Jean de 
 
 1557 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Dubois, Ambrose 
 
 
 1543 
 
 1614 
 
 Frtminet, Martin 
 
 
 1567 
 
 1619 
 
 Le Nain, Antoine 
 
 
 1568 
 
 1648 
 
 Dumoustier 
 
 
 1575 
 
 1646 
 
 Vouet, Simon 
 
 
 1590 
 
 1649 
 
 Pcrrier, Frangois 
 
 
 1590 
 
 1656 
 
 Callot, Jacques 
 
 
 1593 
 
 1635 
 
 Le Nain, Louis (Le Romain) 
 
 
 1593 
 
 1648 
 
 PoussiN, Nicolas 
 
 
 1594 
 
 1665 
 
 Stella, Jacques 
 
 
 1596 
 
 1667 
 
 Blanchard, Jacques 
 
 
 1600 
 
 1638 
 
 Gel£e, Claude (Lorraine)] 
 
 
 1600 
 
 1682 
 
 Valentin, 
 
 
 1600 
 
 1634 
 
 Chani|iaigne, Philippe de 
 
 
 1602 
 
 1674 
 
 Corncdle, Paris 
 
 
 1603 
 
 1664 
 
 Mignard, Pierre ^Vitofo* 
 
 
 1605 
 
 166S 
 
 Hire, Laurent de la 
 
 
 1606 
 
 1656 
 
 Le Nain, Matthieu 
 
 
 1607 
 
 1677 
 
 Boullongne, Louis de 
 
 
 1609 
 
 1674 
 
 Frcsnoy, Charles du 
 
 
 1611 
 
 1665 
 
i52 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OP PAINTERS. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 1613 
 
 Death. 
 
 Dughet, Gaspar (Poussin) 
 
 1675 
 
 Testelin, Louis 
 
 1615 
 
 1695 
 
 Bourdon, Sebastien 
 
 1616 
 
 1671 
 
 Le Sueur, Eustache 
 
 1617 
 
 1655 
 
 Le Brun, Charles 
 
 1619 
 
 1690 
 
 Patel, Pierre 
 
 1620 
 
 1676 
 
 Courtois, Jacques 
 
 1621 
 
 1676 
 
 Le Noir, Nicolas 
 
 1624 
 
 1679 
 
 Coypel, Noel 
 Lefevre, Claude 
 
 1628 
 
 1707 
 
 1633 
 
 1675 
 
 Monnoyer, Jean Bap. 
 
 1634 
 
 1699 
 
 Fosse, Charles de la 
 
 1636 
 
 1716 
 
 Jouvenet, Jean 
 
 1644 
 
 1717 
 
 Corncille, Michel 
 
 1646 
 
 1708 
 
 Colombel, Nicolas 
 
 1646 
 
 1717 
 
 Parrocel, Joseph 
 
 1648 
 
 1704 
 
 Boullongne, Bon 
 
 1649 
 
 1717 
 
 Santerre, J. B. 
 
 1650 
 
 1717 
 
 Boullongne, Louis de {the younger) 
 Largilli^re, Nicolas de 
 
 1654 
 
 1733 
 
 1656 
 
 1746 
 
 Rigaud, Hyacintlie 
 
 1659 
 
 1743 
 
 Coypel, Antoine 
 
 1661 
 
 1722 
 
 Desportes, Francois 
 
 1661 
 
 1743 
 
 Gillot, Claude 
 
 1673 
 
 1722 
 
 Baoux, Jean 
 
 1677 
 
 1734 
 
 Troy, Jean de 
 
 1679 
 
 1752 
 
 Pesne, Antoitie 
 
 1683 
 
 1757 
 
 Watteau, Antoine 
 
 1684 
 
 1721 
 
 Van Loo, Jean Bap. 
 
 1684 
 
 1745 
 
 Naloire, J. M. 
 
 1685 
 
 1766 
 
 Oudry, J. B. 
 
 1686 
 
 1755 
 
 Moine, Franqois le 
 
 1688 
 
 1737 
 
 Parrocel, Charles 
 
 1688 
 
 1752 
 
 Lancret, Nicolas 
 
 1690 
 
 1743 
 
 Pater, J. B. 
 
 1695 
 
 1736 
 
 Tocque, Louis 
 Suhleijras, Pierre 
 
 1696 
 
 1772 
 
 1699 
 
 1749 
 
 Chardin, Jean Bap. 
 
 1699 
 
 1779 
 
 Jeaurat, Jean 
 
 1699 
 
 1789 
 
 Boucher, FRANgois 
 
 1704 
 
 1770 
 
 Latour, Maurice Quentin 
 
 1704 
 
 1788 
 
 Van Loo, Carle 
 
 1705 
 
 1765 
 
 Vernet, Claude Joseph 
 
 1714 
 
 1789 
 
 Vien, Joseph Marie 
 
 1716 
 
 1809 
 
 Porte, Poland de la 
 
 1724 
 
 1793 
 
 Greuze, Jean Baptiste 
 
 1725 
 
 1805 
 
 Casanova, Francois 
 
 1732 
 
 1806 
 
 Fragonard, Jean Honor^ 
 
 1732 
 
 1806 
 
 David, Jacques Louis 
 
 1748 
 
 1825 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OP PAINTEES. 
 
 453 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Regnault, J. B. 
 
 1754 
 
 1829 
 
 Le Brun, Madame Louise Elizabeth Vig^e 
 
 1755 
 
 1842 
 
 Prad'hon, Pierre Paul 
 
 1758 
 
 1823 
 
 Lethi^re, Guillaume Guillon- 
 
 1760 
 
 1832 
 
 Drouais, Jean Louis 
 
 1763 
 
 1788 
 
 Girodet de Roucy Trioson, Anne-Louia 
 
 1767 
 
 1824 
 
 Isal>ey, Jean Bap. 
 
 1767 
 
 1855 
 
 Gerard, Francois 
 
 1770 
 
 1837 
 
 Gros, Antoine Jean, Baron 
 
 1771 
 
 1835 
 
 Guerin, P. Narcisse, Baron 
 
 1774 
 
 1833 
 
 Granet, Franqois Mariiis 
 
 1775 
 
 1849 
 
 Ingres, Jean Aug. Dominiqub 
 
 1780 
 
 1867 
 
 Watelet 
 
 1780 
 
 1866 
 
 Poujol, Abel de 
 
 1787 
 
 1861 
 
 Si«,^alon, Xavier 
 
 1788 
 
 1837 
 
 Vernet, Horace 
 
 1789 
 
 1863 
 
 G^RiCAULT, Jean Louis 
 
 1791 
 
 1824 
 
 Charlety Nicolas Toussaint 
 
 1792 
 
 1845 
 
 Robert, Leopold 
 
 1794 
 
 1835 
 
 Coaniet, Lion 
 Schefter, Ary 
 
 1794 
 
 1880 
 
 1795 
 
 1858 
 
 CoROT, Camille 
 
 1796 
 
 1873 
 
 Delaroche, Paul 
 
 1797 
 
 1856 
 
 Delacroix, Ferd. Victor Eug£nb - 
 
 1798 
 
 1863 
 
 Roqueplan, Camille 
 
 1803 
 
 1855 
 
 Decamps, Alex. Gabriel 
 Huet, Paul 
 
 1803 
 
 1860 
 
 1804 
 
 1869 
 
 Isabey, Eugene L. G. 
 
 1807 
 
 1886 
 
 Diaz de la PeSa, Narcisse Virgilio 
 
 1808 
 
 1876 
 
 Flandrin, Hippolyte 
 
 1809 
 
 1864 
 
 Marilhat, Prosper 
 
 1811 
 
 1847 
 
 Rousseau, Pierre Etienne Theodore 
 
 1812 
 
 1867 
 
 Millet, Jean FRANgpis 
 
 1815 
 
 1875 
 
 Troyon, Constant 
 
 1816 
 
 1865 
 
 Daubigny, Ch. Fr. 
 
 1817 
 
 1878 
 
 Courbet, Gustave 
 
 1819 
 
 1877 
 
 Frtjre, Edouard 
 
 1819 
 
 188e 
 
 Fromentin, Eugene 
 
 1820 
 
 1876 
 
 Dor^, Gustave 
 
 1832 
 
 1882 
 
 Manet, Edouard 
 
 1833 
 
 1883 
 
 Baatien-Lepage, Jules 
 
 1848 
 
 1884 
 
454 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OP PAINTERS. 
 
 Vni. ENGLISH PAINTEKS. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 -Billiard, Nicholas 
 
 1547 
 
 1619 
 
 —Oliver, Isaac 
 
 1555 
 
 1617 
 
 Jamesone, George 
 
 1586 
 
 1644 
 
 Oliver, Peter 
 
 1594 
 
 1654 
 
 Hoskius, John 
 
 
 
 1664 
 
 Fuller^ Isaac 
 
 1606 
 
 1672 
 
 Cooper, Samuel 
 
 1609 
 
 1672 
 
 Dobson, William 
 
 1610 
 
 1646 
 
 Stone, Henry 
 
 1616 
 
 1653 
 
 /tiely, Sir Peter (Van der Faes) 
 
 1617 
 
 1680 
 
 Walker, Robert 
 
 — 
 
 1660 
 
 Streater, Robert 
 
 1624 
 
 1680 
 
 Wright, Joseph Michael 
 
 1625 
 
 1700 
 
 Anderton, Henry 
 
 1630 
 
 1665 
 
 Hecile, Mary 
 
 1632 
 
 1697 
 
 Flatnian, Thomas 
 
 1633 
 
 1688 
 
 Ril^, John 
 LKneller, Sir Godfrey 
 
 1646 
 
 1691 
 
 1648 
 
 1723 
 
 Greenhill, John 
 
 1649 
 
 1676 
 
 Cross, Lewis 
 
 
 
 1724 
 
 ^iilichardson, Jonathan 
 
 1665 
 
 1745 
 
 Mohamy, Peter 
 
 1670 
 
 1749 
 
 Jervas, Charles 
 
 1675 
 
 1735 
 
 ^Thornhill, Sir James 
 "yAikman, William 
 
 1676 
 
 1734 
 
 1682 
 
 1731 
 
 Hogarth, William 
 
 1697 
 
 1764 
 
 Hudson, Thomas ^^ 
 Wooton, James 
 
 1701 
 
 1779 
 
 17— 
 
 1765 
 
 Zuccarelli, Francesco 
 
 1701 
 
 1788 
 
 Taverner, William 
 
 1703 
 
 1772 
 
 Moser, George Michael 
 Smith, William {of Chichester) 
 
 1704 
 
 1783 
 
 1707 
 
 1764 
 
 Hayman, Francis 
 
 1708 
 
 1776 
 
 Ramsay, Allan 
 Scott, Samuel 
 
 1709 
 
 1784 
 
 1710 
 
 1772 
 
 Smith, Georqe {of Chichester) 
 Wilson, Ricnard 
 
 1714 
 1714 
 
 1776 
 1782 
 
 SmUh, John {of Chichester) 
 
 1717 
 
 1764 
 
 Hone, Nathaniel 
 
 1718 
 
 1784 
 
 Reynolds, Sir Joshua 
 
 1723 
 
 1792 
 
 Stubhs, George 
 
 1724 
 
 1806 
 
 Sandby, Paul 
 
 1725 
 
 1809 
 
CHRONOLOaiCAI. LISTS OP PAINTERS. 
 
 455 
 
 Cotes, Francis 
 
 Toms, Peter 
 
 Gainsborough, Thomas 
 
 Barret, George, Sen. 
 
 Zoffany, Johann 
 
 Romney, George 
 
 Dance, Natliayiiel 
 
 Wright, Joseph (of Derby) 
 
 Martin^ David 
 
 Copley, J. Singleton 
 
 West, Benjamin 
 
 Cosway, Richard 
 
 Kauffman, Angelica 
 
 Pocock, Nicholas 
 
 Barry, James 
 
 Fuseli, Henry 
 
 Mortimer, John Hamilton 
 
 Humphrey, Ozias 
 
 Rooker, Michael Angelo 
 
 Allan, David 
 
 Moser, Mary 
 
 Hearne, Thomas 
 
 Northcote, James 
 
 Smith, John ( Waitoick) 
 
 Wheatley, Francis 
 
 Kcinagle, Philip 
 
 Cozens, John Robert 
 
 Smirke, Robert 
 
 Webber, John 
 Beechey, Sir WilL 
 Beaumont, Sir Geo, 
 Bewick, Thomas 
 Stothard, Thomas 
 Bone, Henry 
 Stuart, Giloert 
 Raebum, Sir Henry 
 Bourgeois, Sir Francit 
 Blake, William 
 Oilray, James 
 Jtowlandson, Thomas 
 Jbbetson^ Julius Caesar 
 Serres, John Thomas 
 Hoppner, John 
 Booinson^ Hugh 
 Opie, John 
 Bird, Edward 
 Morland, George 
 Woodforde, Samuel 
 Westall, Richard 
 
 Birth. Death. 
 
 1725 
 
 1727 
 1128 
 1733 
 1734 
 1734 
 1734 
 1736 
 1737 
 1738 
 1740 
 1740 
 1741 
 1741 
 1741 
 1741 
 1742 
 1743 
 1744 
 1744 
 1744 
 1746 
 1749 
 1747 
 1749 
 1752 
 1752 
 1752 
 1753 
 1753 
 1753 
 1755 
 1765 
 1755 
 1756 
 1756 
 1757 
 1757 
 1756 
 1759 
 1759 
 1759 
 1760 
 1761 
 1762 
 1763 
 1763 
 I 1765 
 
 1770 
 
 1776 
 
 1788 
 
 1784 
 
 1810 
 
 1802 
 
 1811 
 
 1797 
 
 1798 
 
 1815 
 
 1820 
 
 1821 
 
 1807 
 
 1821 
 
 1806 
 
 1825 
 
 1779 
 
 1810 
 
 1801 
 
 1796 
 
 1810 
 
 1817 
 
 1831 
 
 1831 
 
 1801 
 
 1833 
 
 1799 
 
 1845 
 
 1793 
 
 1839 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1834 
 
 1834 
 
 1828 
 
 1823 
 
 1823 
 
 1827 
 
 1815 
 
 1827 
 
 1817 
 
 1825 
 
 1810 
 
 1790 
 
 1807 
 
 1819 
 
 1804 
 
 1817 
 
 1836 
 
456 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PAINTEBS. 
 
 
 Birth . 
 
 Death. 
 
 Alexander, William 
 
 1767 
 
 1816 
 
 Cristall, Joshua 
 
 1767 
 
 1847 
 
 Crome, John (Old Crome) 
 
 1768 
 
 1821 
 
 Hills, Kobert 
 
 1769 
 
 1844 
 
 Daniell, William 
 
 1769 
 
 1837 
 
 Howard^ H. 
 
 1769 
 
 1847 
 
 Ward, James 
 
 1769 
 
 1859 
 
 Barker, Thomas {of Bath) 
 
 1769 
 
 1847 
 
 Edridge, Henry 
 
 1769 
 
 1821 
 
 Oweut William 
 
 1769 
 
 1825 
 
 Shee, Sir Martin Archer 
 
 1769 
 
 1850 
 
 Lawrence, Sir Thomas 
 
 1769 
 
 1830 
 
 Phillips, Thomas 
 
 1770 
 
 1845 
 
 Clint, George 
 
 1770 
 
 1854 
 
 Williams, H. W. 
 
 1773 
 
 1829 
 
 Thomson, Henry 
 
 1773 
 
 1843 
 
 Barret, George (the younger) 
 
 1774 
 
 1842 
 
 Thirtle, John 
 
 1774 
 
 1839 
 
 Turner, Jos. Mallord Wm. 
 
 1775 
 
 1851 
 
 Hargreaves, William 
 
 1775 
 
 1829 
 
 GiRTIN, 'J'HOMAS 
 
 1775 
 
 1802 
 
 Barker Benjamin 
 
 1776 
 
 1838 
 
 Constable, John 
 
 1776 
 
 1837 
 
 Chalon, J. J 
 
 1777 
 
 1854 
 
 Jackson, John 
 
 1778 
 
 1831 
 
 Varley, John 
 
 1778 
 
 1842 
 
 Callcott, Sir Augustus Wall 
 
 1779 
 
 1844 
 
 Wilson, Andrew 
 
 1780 
 
 1848 
 
 Chalon, A. E. 
 
 1781 
 
 1860 
 
 Havell, William 
 
 1782 
 
 1857 
 
 Cotman, John Sell 
 
 1782 
 
 1842 
 
 Pickersgill, H. W 
 
 1782 
 
 1875 
 
 Simpson, John 
 
 1782 
 
 1847 
 
 Allan, Sir William 
 
 1782 
 
 1850 
 
 Wild, G. 
 
 1782 
 
 1835 
 
 Uwi')is, Thomas 
 
 1782 
 
 1857 
 
 Prout, Samuel 
 
 1783 
 
 1852 
 
 Cox, David 
 
 1783 
 
 1859 
 
 Kiehardson, Th. Miles 
 
 1784 
 
 1848 
 
 De Wint, Peter 
 
 1784 
 
 1849 
 
 Wilkie, David 
 
 1785 
 
 1841 
 
 Hilton, William 
 
 1786 
 
 1837 
 
 Fraser, Alexander 
 
 1786 
 
 1865 
 
 MuLREADY, William 
 
 1786 
 
 1863 
 
 Haydon, B. R. 
 
 1786 
 
 1846 
 
 Jones, George 
 
 Nasmyth, Patrick ^ . .^ 
 
 1786 
 
 1869 
 
 1787 
 
 1831 
 
 Harlow, G. H. ^i^- 
 Etty, WiUiam 'PC* 
 
 1787 
 
 1819 
 
 1787 
 
 1849 
 
CHEONOLOGICAL LISTS OP PAINTERS. 
 
 
 457 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Fielding, Antony Vandyck Copley 
 
 1787 
 
 1855 
 
 Collins, WUliam 
 
 1788 
 
 1847 
 
 Good, T. S. 
 
 1789 
 
 1872 
 
 Geddes, Andrew 
 
 1789 
 
 1844 
 
 Martin, John 
 
 1789 
 
 1854 
 
 Turner, William {of Oxford) 
 
 1789 
 
 1862 
 
 Robson, Geo. Fennel 
 
 1790 
 
 1833 
 
 Gordon, Sir J. Watson 
 
 1790 
 
 1865 
 
 Hunt, William H. 
 
 1790 
 
 1864 
 
 Linton, William 
 
 1791 
 
 1876 
 
 Cruikshank, George 
 
 1792 
 
 1878 
 
 Linnell, John 
 
 1792 
 
 1882 
 
 Briggs, H. P. 
 
 Eastlake, Sir Chas. Locke 
 
 1792 
 
 1844 
 
 1793 
 
 1865 
 
 Danhy, Francis 
 
 1793 
 
 1861 
 
 Stanb'ield, Wit.tjam Clarkson 
 
 1793 
 
 1867 
 
 Stark, James 
 
 1794 
 
 1859 
 
 Ladbroke, Robert 
 
 
 1842 
 
 Leslie, Chas. Rob. 
 
 1794 
 
 1859 
 
 Newton, Gilbert Stuart 
 
 1794 
 
 1845 
 
 Ross, Sir William 
 
 1794 
 
 1860 
 
 Herring, J. F. 
 
 1795 
 
 1865 
 
 Roberts, David 
 
 1796 
 
 1854 
 
 Vincent, George 
 
 1796 
 
 18S1 
 
 Harding, J. D. 
 
 1798 
 
 1863 
 
 Cat term ole, George 
 
 1800 
 
 1868 
 
 Holland, James 
 
 1800 
 
 1870 
 
 Boxall, Sir Wm. 
 
 1800 
 
 1879 
 
 Webster, Thomas 
 
 1800 
 
 1886 
 
 Bonington, Rich. Parkes 
 
 1801 
 
 1828 
 
 Lance, Geo. 
 
 1802 
 
 1864 
 
 Landseer, Sir Edwin 
 
 1802 
 
 1873 
 
 Chambers, George 
 
 1803 
 
 1840 
 
 Grant, Sir Francis 
 
 1803 
 
 1878 
 
 Lewis, J. F. 
 
 1805 
 
 1876 
 
 Palmer, Samuel 
 
 1805 
 
 1881 
 
 Scott David 
 
 1806 
 
 1849 
 
 Dyce, William 
 
 1806 
 
 1864 
 
 Duncan, Wm. 
 
 1807 
 
 1845 
 
 Poole, P. F. 
 
 1810 
 
 1872 
 
 Creswick, Thomas 
 
 1811 
 
 1869 
 
 Macllse, Daniel 
 
 1811 
 
 1870 
 
 Dawson, Henry 
 
 1811 
 
 1878 
 
 Cooke, E. W. 
 
 1811 
 
 1880 
 
 Dod<'son, G. H. 
 Muller, Wm. John 
 
 1811 
 
 1880 
 
 1812 
 
 1845 
 
 Elmore, Alfred 
 
 1815 
 
 1881 
 
 Egg, A L. 
 
 1816 
 
 186S 
 
 Ward, Ed. Matt. 
 
 1816 
 
 1879 
 
468 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OP PAINTERS. 
 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Phillip, John 
 
 1817 
 
 1867 
 
 Leech, John 
 
 1817 
 
 1864 
 
 Mason, Geo. Hemming 
 
 1818 
 
 1872 
 
 Bough, Samuel 
 
 1822 
 
 1878 
 
 Oakes, John R. 
 
 1822 
 
 1887 
 
 Doyle, Richard 
 
 1824 
 
 1885 
 
 Rossetti, Dante Gabriel 
 
 1828 
 
 1882 
 
 Walker, Frederick A. 
 
 1840 
 
 1875 
 
 Pinwell, George L 
 
 1843 
 
 1875 
 
 Lawsoriy Cecil 
 
 1851 
 
 1882 
 
INDEX, 
 
 Aachen, Hans von, 442. 
 
 Aart Pieterzoon, 311. 
 
 Aartzen, Pieter 311. 
 
 Abbati, Nicolo (Abbati, Nicolo 
 
 dell'), 183, 360. 
 Abdication of Charles F., Gallait, 
 
 329. 
 Abraham receiving the Angels, Mu- 
 
 rillo, 227. 
 Abruzzi, 196. 
 Academies, the, 68, 
 Academy, the, 92, 261. 
 
 Antwerp, 146, 281. 
 
 Bologna, 182, 188, 189, 190. 
 
 Bruges, 280, 289, 292, 293, 
 
 296. 
 
 Diisseldorf, 265. 
 
 degli Incamminati, 190. 
 
 Florence, 48, 64, 68, 77, 80, 
 
 127, 146. 
 French, of Painting and 
 
 Sculpture, 366, 380, 381. 
 
 Martin's Lane, S., 390, 398. 
 
 Milan, 96. 
 
 The Iteyal, 89, 93, 392, 397, 
 
 398, 400, 401, 404, 408, 409, 
 
 412, 414. 
 
 Seville, 227. 
 
 The Winter Exhibitions, 141, 
 
 224, 226, 413, 416, 420. 
 Venice, 143, 148, 153, 171, 
 
 175. 
 Achenbach, 267. 
 AchmetlL, 175. 
 Adam and Eve, Diirer, 250. 
 
 H. Van Eyck, 273, 278. 
 
 Barry, 403. 
 
 Adoration of the Kings, Fabriano, 
 146; Del Sarto, 140; Mabuse, 
 304 ; Peruzzi, 99 ; Pordenone, 
 160 ; Van Ley den, 314 ; Viva- 
 rini, 143. 
 
 Adoration of the Magi, Aeken, 296 ; 
 Botticelli, 64 j Dossi, 138 ; Mem- 
 ling, 290 ; P. Porbus, 304 ; Van- 
 der Weyden, 288 ; Veronese, 
 175; Vinci, 87. 
 
 Adoration of the Trinity, Belle- 
 gambe, 304 ; Diirer, 250. 
 
 Adoration of the Mystic Lamb, Van 
 Eycks, 272. 
 
 Adorations, Botticelli or Morelli, 
 64 ; Velasquez, 222. 
 
 Adrian L, 24. 
 
 Adrian VI., 307. 
 
 Aeken, Jerome van (Bosch), 296, 
 311. 
 
 .Esthetics, 152. 
 
 Action, 429. 
 
 Agatharchos of Samos, 11, 
 
 Ages of Man, the, Lancret, 368. 
 
 Agntis Dei, J. Van Eyck, 304. 
 
 Agony in the Garden, G. Bellini, 
 149;Correggio,180; Spagna,80. 
 
 Agony, the, Perugino, 80. 
 
 Aguaido collection, 224. 
 
 Aguila, Count, 222. 
 
 Aikman, Will., 464. 
 
 Air Pump, Wright, 414, 
 
 Aix, 359. 
 
 Ajax and Medea, by Timomachus, 
 18. 
 
 Alamannus, Johannes (daMurano), 
 143. 
 
460 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Alba, Macrino d', 85. 
 
 Albani, Francesco, 186, 187, 191. 
 
 Albert, Be gent of Netherlands, 3 17. 
 
 Albertinelli, Mariotto, 100, 141. 
 
 Albertino, brothers, 170. 
 
 Alchemy, 327. 
 
 Alchymist, the, Ostade, 347. 
 
 Aldegi'ever, Heinrich, 255. 
 
 Aldobrandini Gallery, 108. 
 
 family, 121. 
 
 Aldovrandi family, 125, 
 
 Alexander, 421. 
 
 Alexander of Macedon, 15. 
 
 Alfani, Domenico di Paris, 435. 
 
 Alfani, Orazio, 436. 
 
 Alfon, Juan, 202. 
 
 Alhambra, the, 200. 
 
 Aliense, L'. See Vasilacchi. 
 
 Allamag;na, Justus da, 239. 
 
 Allan, David, 455. 
 
 Allan, Sir Will., 456. 
 
 Allegri, Antonio (Correggio), 139, 
 153, 156, 161, 177-80, 182, 183, 
 185, 188, 285. 
 
 Allegri, Lorenzo, 178. 
 
 Allemand, 362. 
 
 Allori, Allesandro, 190, 436. 
 
 Allori, CristofanOj 190. 
 
 Alma-Tadema, 330. 
 
 Aloisi, Baldassare, 436. 
 
 Alslool, Denis van, 445. 
 
 Altar-pieceSy Berruguete, 202 ; 
 Broederlain, 269 ; Crevelli, 144 ; 
 Boni-bild of Cologne, 236 ; Do- 
 menichino, 186 ; P. Fernandez, 
 202 ; Ferrari, 97 ; Fra Angelico, 
 57 ; Grien, 256 ; Griinewald, 
 255; Herrera el Mozo, 212; 
 Holbein, the elder, 257 ; the Im- 
 hqf, 234 , Lanini, 182 ; Liesbom, 
 239; Lorenzo, F. di, 77; Lo- 
 renzo, M., 58; Lucas Moser 
 237 ; of Mantegna, 71; Moretto, 
 169 ; Palma Vecchio, 160; Pel- 
 legrino, 154 ; Perugino, 79 ; Ro- 
 manino, 170 ; Solario, 98 ; Titian, 
 164 ; from Valencia, in S. K. M., 
 202 ; H. Van der Goes, 285 ; 
 of St. Bavon, Van Eyck, 278-9 ; 
 Van Orley, 307 ; Vivarini, 143 ; 
 Wohlgemuth, 247. 
 
 Altdorfer, A., 255, 256. 
 Altichiero da Zevio, 45, 84. 
 Alunno, Niccolo, of Foligno. See 
 
 Fuligno. 
 Alva, Duke of, 309. 
 Amasis, 5. 
 
 Amberger, Christoph., 260. 
 Ambrosiana, 97. 
 American traders in art, Spanish-, 
 
 223. 
 Amerighi. Michelangelo (Cara- 
 
 vaggio). See Merisi. 
 Amman, Jost., 442. 
 Amsterdam, 306, 311, 312, 332, 
 
 333, 336, 337, 338, 348. 
 Amsterdam, Leprozenhuis, 336. 
 " Analysis of Beauty," 392. 
 Anatomy Lesson, the, Rembrandt, 
 
 332, 334. 
 Anatomy, first artist to study by 
 
 dissection, 69. 
 Anchin, monastery of, 304. 
 Ancie7it and Mod^em Italy, Turner, 
 
 410. 
 Andelys, 362. 
 Anderton, Henry 454. 
 Andrea da Firenze, 42. 
 Anecdotes of painting, 386. 
 Angelico, Fra [II Beato]. See 
 
 Fiesole. 
 Angelo, Andrea d* (del Sarto), 135, 
 
 138-42, 204, 307. 
 Angelo, Michael. &e Buonarotti. 
 Angelus, Millet, 383. 
 Angell, Helena, Cordelia, Chr. 
 
 L.,8. 
 Angers, 358, 359. 
 Anguisci, 359, Sofonisba, 436. 
 Aniello. See Rosa. 
 Animal painting, 325, 412. 
 Annuciation, the, Ambrogio, 48 ; 
 
 Crivelli, 144; H. Hunt, 426; 
 
 Justus de Allamagna, 239 ; Ma- 
 
 nin, 80. 
 Anraadt, P. van, 450. 
 Ansidei Madonna, 107. 
 Antiphilos of Alexandria, 429. 
 " Antiquities of Great Britain," 
 
 420. 
 Antony, S., 244. 
 Antonio Veniziano. iS^geVeniziano. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 461 
 
 Antonelli. See Messina. 
 Antwerp, 146, 253, 283, 296, 298, 
 
 309, 311,323,325,337,346. 
 School of, 293, 296, 297, 307, 
 
 310,316-17,369. 
 Antwerp, house of QuentinMassys, 
 
 299. 
 
 Frans Floris, 308. 
 
 Kuebens, 317. 
 
 Apelles of Cos, 14. 
 
 Apelles, his Venus Anadyomene. 
 
 14. 
 Apocalypse, Diirer, 250. 
 Apollodoros of Athens, 12, 15. 
 Apostles, Four, Diirer, 251-52. 
 Apotheosis of Homer, Ingres, 377. 
 Apsley House, 217. 
 Aquatinta, 229. 
 Araldi, 433. 
 Arcagnolo, Andrea Cione (Or- 
 
 cagna), 40, 42, 43, 44, 48, 68. 
 Archd uke Leopold William, Regent 
 
 of the Netherlands, 327. 
 Archangel Michael, Mabuse, 303. 
 Archers of S. George, 338. 
 Arellano, Juan de, 439. 
 Arenberg, Prince of, 346. 
 Aretino. See SpinellL 
 Arezzo, 28, 48, 52. 
 Ariosto, 152, 162, 165, 167, 168, 
 
 264. 
 Aristeidcs of Thebes, 14. 
 Aristotle, 10, 11, 12, 111. 
 Armstrong, Walter, 84. 
 Arnolfini, jean, 281. 
 Arona, 97. 
 
 Arpino, G. C, Cavalierc d', 192. 
 Arquebusiers of Antwerp, 317. 
 Arragon, 223. 
 Arras, 115. 
 Art and morals, 79, 368. 
 
 . under the Empire, 375. 
 
 Art, writers on, 7. 
 
 in the fifteenth century, 49, 
 
 53, 62, 83 
 
 sixteenth century, 83, 86. 
 
 fall of, 137. 
 
 development of, 63. 
 
 Artz, 356. 
 
 Arundel, Esrl of, 323. I 
 
 Society, 36, 57, 67, 104, 278. 
 
 Ashburnham MSS., 64. 
 Ashburnham, Lord, 192. 
 Ascension of the Virgin, Cespedes, 
 
 208. 
 Ascension of Christ, Correggio, ITSj 
 
 Perugino, 80. 
 Asceticism, Christian, 26, 34, 
 
 264. 
 Ascham, Roger, 163. 
 Asclepios, Temple of, 14. 
 Asiatic school, 13. 
 Asper, Hans, 441, 
 Asselyn, Jan, 446. 
 Assisi, Church of S. Francis at, 
 
 31, 38, 41, 47, 67, 76, 80, 232. 
 Assyria, art of, 7. 
 Assumption, M. di Giovanni, 50. 
 Assumption of the Virgin, Botti- 
 celli, 64; Prud'hon, 374; Titian, 
 
 164, 226, 
 Astronomers or Chaldean Sages j 
 
 Giorgione, 167. 
 Atmospheric effects, 350, 365, 
 
 407. 
 Attic school, 13. 
 Attic state by Parrhasios, 13. 
 Audenarde, 346. 
 Augsburg, 166 ; a central point of 
 
 German art, 256-57. 
 Avanzo, Jacopo d', 46. 
 Avenue Middelharnis, Hobbema, 
 
 352. 
 Avercamp, H. van, 448. 
 Avignon, 47, 359. 
 Ay toun, 410-11. 
 
 Babe in the Manger ^ Dutch, 119. 
 Babylon, 7. 
 
 BaccJuxnal, Bellini's, 152. 
 Bacchanalian, Poussin, 362, 364. 
 Bacchus and Ariadne, Titian, 162, 
 
 168. 
 Bacchus statue, M. Angelo, 126. 
 Bacchiaca. See Ubertini. 
 Baccio della Porta. See Fattorine. 
 Backhuysen, Ludolf, 353, 354. 
 Bacon, 88. 
 
 Badalocchio, Sisto, 437. 
 Badia, 35. 
 
 Badile, Antonio, 1 73. 
 Baerle, 284. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ]age Wagon, Muller, 423, 
 Baldovinetti, Alesso, 66. 
 Balen, Henri van, 322. 
 Banker and wife, Massys, 300. 
 Banquet of the Civic Guards, Heist, 
 
 338. 
 Baptism of Christ, G. David, 292 ; 
 
 verrocchio, 77. 
 Baptistery at Florence, 39, 51. 
 Barbarelli, Giorgio (Giorgione), 
 
 134, 153, 154, 155, 156-59, 160, 
 
 162, 167, 170, 192. 
 Barberini, Cardinal, 362. 
 Barbieri, Gio. Francesco, Bom. 
 
 (Guercino), 186, 189. 
 Barbieri Pietro Ant., 437. 
 Barbizon, 383. 
 Barcelona, 201, 229. 
 Barco, Garcia del, 202. 
 Bardi Chapel, 37. 
 Barillon, 116. 
 Barker, Benjamin, 456. 
 Barker, Thomas (of Bath), 456. 
 Barocchi, the, Fortuny, 230. 
 Barocio, Federigo, 180. 
 Baroncelli, altar-piece, 38. 
 Barret, jun., George, 417, 421, 
 
 422. 
 Barriere de Clichy, Vemet, 378. 
 Barry, James, 403-4. 
 Barth, J., 356. 
 Bartholdi, 264, 
 
 Bartolommeo, Fra. See Fattorine. 
 Bartolommeo, Martino di, 431. 
 Bartolo, Domenico di, 431. 
 Bartolo di Maestro Fredi, 430. 
 Bartolo, Taddeo, 48. 
 Bartsch, 196, 242, 256, 313, 349. 
 Bartucci, Gio. Batt., 434. 
 Basaiti, Marco, 155. 
 Basel, 257, 258. 
 Basle, 306. 
 Bassano. See Ponte. 
 Bassano, the Spanish, 205. 
 Bas-reliefs, 39, 233. 
 Bastien-Lepage, J., 384. 
 Bath, 398, 400. 
 Battista. See Conegliano. 
 Battle of the Amazons, Eubens, 
 
 321. 
 of the HunSf Kaulbach, 266. 
 
 Battle-pieces, 196, 197, 213, 347, 
 
 351. 
 Baumeister, Frau, 238. 
 Bavaria, John of, 274. 
 Bay of BaicB, Turner, 410. 
 Bazzi, Gio. Ant. (11 Sodoma), 
 
 98, 99. 
 Beale, Mary, 454. 
 Beaumont, Sir George, 455, 
 Beaune, hospital of, 287. 
 "Beauties of England and Wales," 
 
 420. 
 Beauty, Greek worship of, 8. 
 Becerra, Caspar, 204, 207. 
 Beccafumi, Domenico di Jacopo di 
 
 Pace, 99. 
 Beechey, Sir Wm., 415. 
 Beer Street, Hogarth, 392. 
 Bega, Cornelius, 344. 
 Begas, Carl, 442. 
 Beham, Bartel, 255. 
 Beham, Hans Sebald, 255. 
 Beheading of S. John Baptist, 
 
 Fabritius, 337. 
 Belgian School, 266, 329. 
 Belgian struggle for independence, 
 
 329. 
 Belle Jardiniere, Raphael, 108. 
 Bellegambe, Jean, 304. 
 Belli Marco, 434. 
 " Bellinesques," 155. 
 Bellini, Gentile, 146, 147. 
 Bellini, Giovanni, 49, 71, 80, 97, 
 
 132, 146, 149, 151, 153, 155, 
 
 161, 162, 173, 249, 393. 
 Bellini, Jacopo, 71, 146. 
 Bellini family, 71, 134, 146, 
 
 156. 
 Bellini, Niccolosia, 71. 
 Belotti, 90. 
 
 Bellotto, Bernardo, 438. 
 Beltraffio, Gio. Ant., 95. 
 Belvedere, 165, 250, 256, 293. 
 Belvoir, 362. 
 Bembo, Bonifazio, 432. 
 Bembo, Pietro, 152. 
 Bendemann, E., 443. 
 Benevenuto da Siena, 50. 
 Beni Hassan, grottoes of, 35. 
 Benozzo, Filippo, 140. 
 Benozzo Gozzoli. See Gozzoli. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 468 
 
 Bentivoglio, Giovanni, 82. 
 Benvenuti, Gio. Batt. (I'Ortolano), 
 
 138. 
 Berchem, Nicolas, 354, 356. 
 Berime, 161. 
 Berlin, 68, 85, 96, 154, 169, 185, 
 
 265, 278, 284, 348. 
 Bermudez, Cean, 200, 201, 207, 
 
 208, 217. 
 Bernard van BrusseL See Orley. 
 Berne, 287. 
 
 Berreguete, Alonso, 203. 
 Berretini, Pietro (da Cortona), 191, 
 
 194, 197. 
 Berruguete, Pedro, 202, 213. 
 Berlin, 382. 
 Bet to, Bernardino di (Pinturicchio), 
 
 80, 81, 99. 
 Beukelaer, Joachim, 444. 
 Bevilacqua, Ambrogio, 433. 
 Bevir's Guide to Siena, 48. 
 Bewick, T., 455. 
 Beyart, 296. 
 Biagio, Vincenzo di (Catena), 
 
 155. 
 Bibiena, Cardinal, 122. 
 Bibiena, Ferdinando, 438. 
 Bible, Raphael's, 115. 
 Biblical-genre, 205, 227. 
 Bibliophiles, Fortuny, 230. 
 Bicci, Lorenzo de', 431. 
 Biefve, Edouard de, 266, 329. 
 Bigi, Fr. di Cristofano (Francia 
 
 Bigio), 141. 
 Bigordi, Benedetto, 69. 
 Bigordi, David, 69, 123. 
 Bigordi, I>>menico Carrado di, 
 
 38, 64, 66-9, 83, 101, 103, 123, 
 
 129. 
 Bink, Jacob, 265. 
 Bird, Edward, 406. 
 Birmingham, 413. 
 Birth (^ Paris, Giorgione, 158. 
 Birth of Venus, Botticelli, 64. 
 Birth of the Virgin, Ghirlandaio, 
 
 68 ; Pietro, 48 j del Sarto, 
 
 140. 
 Bisschoff, Carl, 357. 
 Bissolo, P. Francesco, 155. 
 Blake, William, 405, 424, 426. 
 Blanc, C, 172, 347, 353, 371. 
 
 Blair's "Grave,'' Blake, 424. 
 
 Blanchard, Jacques, 361. 
 
 Blenheim, 107, 319. 
 
 Bles, Henrik Metten, 292, 310. 
 
 Blessing of Isaac, Flinck, 336. 
 
 Blind Fiddler, Wilkie, 406. 
 
 Bloemaert, Abraham, 314. 
 
 Bloemen, J. v. d. (Orizonte), 
 446. 
 
 Blommers, 356. 
 
 Blondeel, Lancelot, 304. 
 
 Bloot, P. van, 446. 
 
 Blue Bower, Hoi. Hunt, 426. 
 
 Blundell, Weld, 282. 
 
 Boar Hunt, Velasquez, 222. 
 
 Bocanegra, Pedro Ant., 439. 
 
 Boccaccio, 64. 
 
 Boccaccio, Boccaccino, 170. 
 
 Bock, Hans, 442. 
 
 Bocksperger, Hans, 442. 
 
 Bodegones, 212. 
 
 Bohemia, school of, 233. 
 
 Bois-le-duc, 296. 
 
 Boisser6e Collection, 265. 
 
 Bol, Ferdinand, 336. 
 
 Bologna, 80, 82, 83, 108, 125, 143, 
 165, 182, 184, 185, 186, 189, 
 191, 204, 289, 395. 
 
 Pope Julius II. at, 128. 
 
 School of, 81, 181. 
 
 Titian at, 164. 
 
 Bologna University, 185. 
 
 Bolognese artists, 192. 
 
 Bou, Philippe le, Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, 274. 
 
 Bondone, Giotto, 29, 32, 33- 
 39, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 51, 53, 
 57, 67, 70, 142, 200, 227, 233, 
 282, 393. 
 
 Bone, Henry, 455. 
 
 Boniface VIIL, 35. 
 
 Bonifazio da Veneziano, 169. 
 
 Bonifazio da Verona, 169. 
 
 Bonington, Richard Parkes, 381, 
 422. 
 
 Bonn, 233. 
 
 Bono, of Ferrara, 84. 
 
 Bononi, Carlo, 436. 
 
 Bonsignori, Francesco, 173. 
 
 Bonvicino, Alessandro (H Mo- 
 retto), 169, 170. 
 
464 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bonzi, P. P., 190. 
 Book of the Dead, 6. 
 Book of Job, Blake, 424. 
 Book illustrators, 427. 
 Bordone, Paris, 168, 170. 
 Borghese, Piero. See Francesco. 
 Borgia, Lucrezia, 163. 
 Borgo San Sepolcro, 52. 
 
 Vecchio, fire in the, 114. 
 
 Borgognone. See Fossano. 
 Borgona, Juan de, 202. 
 Bosboom, Johannes, 356. 
 Bosch. See Aeken. 
 Boschaert, T. W., 446. 
 Boswell, 218. 
 Both, Jan, 354. 
 Botticelli (Sandro Filipepi), 54, 
 
 63. 
 Boucher, Francois, 368, 369, 370. 
 Bough, Samuel, 458. 
 "Bouillon," Claude's, 365. 
 Boulogne, Hue de, 451. 
 Boulogne, siege of, 165. 
 Boulongne, L., 452. 
 Boullongne, Bon, 452. 
 Boullongne, Louis de, 451. 
 Bourbon, Constable de, sacks 
 
 Rome, 130. 
 
 plate, 217. 
 
 Bourdon, Sebastien, 366. 
 Bourgeois, Sir Francis, 455. 
 Bourguignon, Le. See Courtois. 
 Bouts, Dierick, 293-5, 297; his 
 
 sons Albert and Dierick, 295. 
 Bouvin, Louis, Chr. L., 7. 
 Bowood, 205. 
 Boxall, Sir William, 415. 
 Boydell's Shakespeare, 404, 423. 
 Brabant, Duke of, 270. 
 Brakeleer, Ferd., 446. 
 Bramante, 85, 109, 114, 117, 
 
 127. 
 Bramantino. See Suardi. 
 Brancacci Chapel, 54, 65, 71. 
 Brandt, Isabella, 319. 
 Brauweiler, church of, 233. 
 Brauwer, Adrian, 296, 327, 346, 
 
 347. 
 Bray, Jan, 448. 
 Bray, Salomon, 448. 
 Breda, 309. 
 
 Bree, Mattbieu, van, 446. 
 
 Brekelenkam, Quirying, 193, 344. 
 
 Brentano Collection, 359. 
 
 Brera, 84, 95, 96-7, 98, 149, 169, 
 170, 173. 
 
 Brescia, 84, 169, 170. 
 
 Bretonvilliers, M. de, 366. 
 
 Breu, Georg, 441. 
 
 Breughel, Hell, 308. 
 
 Breughel, Peasant, 308, 310, 330. 
 
 Breughel, Velvet, 296, 308. 
 
 Breydel, Chevalier C, 446. 
 
 Bric4-brac School, 229. 
 
 Bride, Hoi. Hunt, 426. 
 
 Bridging of Chaos, Fuseli, 404. 
 
 Bridgwater Gallery, 108, 161, 165, 
 168. 
 
 Briggs, H. P., 457. 
 
 Bril, Matthew, 310. 
 
 Bril, Paul, 310. 
 
 British Institution, 410. 
 
 British Museum, Egyptian Papyri, 
 5 ; paintings in, 6 ; J. Bellini's 
 sketches, 147 ; Print Room, 242; 
 A. Diirer's drawings and MSS., 
 254; Holbein's drawings in, 
 260. 
 
 British Museum, letters of Michael 
 Angelo, 128. 
 
 Brodie, William, Chr. L., 8. 
 
 Broederlain, Melchior, 269. 
 
 Bronzino, Allessandro. See AI- 
 lori. 
 
 Bronzino, Angelo di Cosimo di 
 Mariano, 135, 181. 
 
 Brosamer, Hans, 255. 
 
 Brotherhood of the Holy Sacra- 
 ment, 294. 
 
 Browning, Robert, 61, 140. 
 
 Bruges, 241 ; its prosperity, 274, 
 277, 282, 290, 292, 304. 
 
 Franc de, 304. 
 
 Hospital of S. John, 290, 
 
 291. 
 
 Magistrates of, 292. 
 
 Notre Dame, 304. 
 
 School of, 145, 238, 268-97, 
 
 304,311-13. 
 
 Brun, Charles le, 361, 366, 367. 
 Brun, Mde. L. E. V. le, 380. 
 Brunelleschi, 53. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 465 
 
 Brunswick, 233, 340. 
 
 Brussels, 204, 285, 286, 287, 292, 
 302, 309, 310, 314, 339. 
 
 Hotel dc Ville, 287. 
 
 Bnittis, liethiere, 373. 
 
 Bruyn, Bartolomaus, 240. 
 
 Buflfalmacco. See Cliristofani. 
 
 BiUl-Iiinff, the, Goya, 229. 
 
 Buonacorso, Niccolo, 46. 
 
 Buonarotti, Ludovico, 123. 
 
 Buonarotti, Michael Angelo, 43, 
 49, 51, 54, 6G, 73, 74,77,78,86, 
 87, 94, 95, 99, 101, 102, 103, 105, 
 109, 112, 113, 114, 115, 123-34, 
 142, 159, 161, 163, 1G5, 171, 
 177, 180, 183, 204, 205, 207, 
 225, 244, 248, 263, 282, 301, 
 314, 316, 402. 
 
 Buonarotti and Da Vinci con- 
 trasted, 94 ; and Mich. Angelo, 
 126. 
 
 and Pope Julius II., 127-8 ; 
 
 frescoes in Sistine Chapel, 129- 
 30. 
 
 sonnets and poems, 131, 133. 
 
 pupils, of, 135-6. 
 
 Buonaventura, Segna di, 46. 
 
 Buonfigli, Benedetto, 77. 
 
 Buoninsegna, Duccio di, 46. 
 
 Buonvicino, 84. 
 
 Biirckhardt, 195. 
 
 Burger, Musdes d'HolIande, 326, 
 333. 
 
 Burgkmair, Hans, 256, 257. 
 
 Burgkmair, Thoraan, 256,. 257. 
 
 Burgos, 206. 
 
 Burgundy, 274, 286-7. 
 
 Burial of Atala, Girodet, 373. 
 
 Jlurial of Chrid, Caravnggio, 193. 
 
 Burke, 397. 403. 
 
 Biirkel, Heinrich, 443. 
 
 Burleigh House, 159. 
 
 Burleigh, Madonna, 282. 
 
 Burne-Joncs, E., 427. 
 
 Burning Bmk, N. Froment, 359. 
 
 But!, Lucretia, 60. 
 
 Buttinone. See Jacobi. 
 
 I^yrne's " Antiquities," 420. 
 
 Byron, 195, 377. 
 
 Byzantine art, stationary cha- 
 racter of, 25. 
 
 Byzantine conception of Christ, 
 23,24. 
 
 Byzantine-Rhenish, or Byzantine- 
 Romantic Art, 234, 240, 273. 
 
 Byzantine style, 6, 24, 25, 27, 29, 
 62, 75, 81, 86, 90, 103, 142, 200, 
 202, 232, 268. 
 
 Cadiz, 227. 
 
 Caen, 80. 
 
 Cagli, 104. 
 
 Cagliari, Benedetto, 176. 
 
 Cagliari, Carlo, 176. 
 
 Cagliari, Gabriele, 436. 
 
 Cagliari, Paolo (Paolo Veronese), 
 
 147, 163, 156, 172, 181, 303, 
 
 316, 331. 
 Cairo, Sultan of, 87. 
 Caisne, H. de, 447. 
 Calabrese. See Preti. 
 Calaiji Pier, Turner, 410. 
 Calandrino, 40. 
 Calcar, 239. 
 Calderon, Philip, 412. 
 Callcott, Sir Aug. W., 423. 
 Calling ofS. Matthew^ Caravaggio, 
 
 193. 
 Callot, Jacques, 296, 361. 
 Calumny, Botticelli, 64. 
 Calvert, Denis, 186, 187. 
 Calvi, J. A., 83. 
 Caraaldoles, Order of, 57. 
 
 Abbey of, 58. 
 
 Cambiaso, Luca, 435. 
 Cambray, League of, 150. 
 Camerarius, "^54. 
 Campaila, Pedro, 204. 
 Campanella, Tommaso, 133. 
 Camphausen, W., 443. 
 Cam pi, Giulio, I'JO. 
 Campin, Robert, 286, 287. 
 Camix) Santo, Frescoes of the, 41, 
 
 48, 58, 59. 
 Campo, Santo, Berlin, projected, 
 
 265. 
 Canale, Antonio (Canaletto), 198. 
 Canaletto. See Canale. 
 Caniginni, House of, 108. 
 Canlasai, Guido, 437. 
 Cano, Alonso, 199, 212, 213-1, 
 
 222. 
 
 HH 
 
 \i^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
466 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Canobbio, 97. 
 
 Cantarini, Simone, 437. 
 
 Canterbury Pilgrims, Blake, 425. 
 
 Canuti, Maria, 438. 
 
 Canvas, first painter on fixed, 289. 
 
 Canzone of Poverty, 38. 
 
 Capanna, Puccio, 40, 47. 
 
 Capelle, Jan van de, 354. 
 
 Caprices, Goya, 229. 
 
 Capuchin Friars, 224, 227. 
 
 Caracci, Antonio and Paolo, 185. 
 
 Caracciolo, Giambattista, 437. 
 
 Caraffa, Cardinal, 65. 
 
 Carava^gio. See Merisi. 
 
 Cardi, Lodovico, 436. 
 
 Card Party, L. v. Ley den, 312. 
 
 Cardsharpers, Caravaggio, 192, 
 193. 
 
 Carducho, 206. 
 
 Cariani, Giovanni Busi, 161. 
 
 Caricature, 261, 311. 
 
 Carlyle, Thomas, 368. 
 
 Carmona, 219. 
 
 Carnevali, Fra, 432. 
 
 Carosselli, Angelo, 194. 
 
 Caroto, Francesco, 173. 
 
 Carpaccio, Vittore, 153, 170. 
 
 Carpi, Girolamo, 435. 
 
 Carracci, Agostino, 182, 184. 
 
 Carracci, Annibale, 182 ; his son- 
 net, 183, 184, 185. 
 
 Carracci, Antonio, 185. 
 
 Carracci, Francesco, 185. 
 
 Carracci, the, 190, 225. 
 
 Carracci, anti-, faction, 194. 
 
 Carracci, Lodovico, 181, 182, 184, 
 186, 187, 188, 209. 
 
 Carracci, Paolo, 185. 
 
 Carracciolo, G. B., 437. 
 
 Carrafa, Cardinal, 65. 
 
 Carrara, 127, 130. 
 
 Carreno de Miranda, Juan, 439. 
 
 Carstens, Asmus, 263, 265. 
 
 Cartoon of S. Anne, Vinci, 93. 
 
 Cartoons of Raphael, 115; their 
 vicissitudes, 116. 
 
 Cartoons, 93, 94, 115, 127, 184, 
 305. 
 
 Carucci, Jacopo (Da Pontormo), 
 135, 142, 181. 
 
 Casa la Pelluca, 97. 
 
 Casanova, Frangois, 452. 
 
 Caselli, Cristofero, 433. 
 
 Caseutino. See Gaudini. 
 
 Castagno, Andrea, 69, 83. 
 
 Castel Caprese, 123. 
 
 Castel franco, 156. 
 
 Castelli, 88. 
 
 Castello delle Pieve, Citti, which 
 see. 
 
 Castiglione, Count, 119, 122. 
 
 Castiglione, Gio. Ben., 437. 
 
 Castile, 202. 
 
 Castillo, Antonio del, 439. 
 
 Castillo, Juan del, 222. 
 
 Casfle Howard, 304. 
 
 Castro, Juan Sanchez de, 202. 
 
 Catacombs, painting in the, 22. 
 
 Catena. See Biagio. 
 
 Cathedral, Aix, 359 ; Antwerp, 
 297, 317 ; Berne, 287 ; Bur- 
 gos, 206; Cologne, 235, 236, 
 237, 265 ; Cordova, 208 ; Cre- 
 mona, 159 ; Florence, 39; Frei- 
 bui-g, 256; Ghent, 273, 278; 
 Granada, 214; Louvain, 298; 
 Mechlin, 323 ; Milan, 87 ; 
 Naumberg, 265 ; Orvieto, 73 ; 
 Parma, 178; Pisa, 41; Prato, 
 40, 61; Rome, 35, 117; St. 
 Paul's, 389, 41 1 ; Seville, 202, 
 204, 205, 224; Spoleto, 62; 
 Tournus, 358 ; Treviso, 159 ; 
 Verona, 147. 
 
 Cathedrals, painted glass in, 232 ; 
 Glasgow, 267 ; S. Paul's, 265. 
 
 Catholic asceticism, 265. 
 
 Catholicism in art, 55, 191, 251,264. 
 
 Catholicism versus Protestantism 
 in art, 225. 
 
 Cattermole, G., 421. 
 
 Cattle-painters, 349, 350. 
 
 Cavallini, P., 430. 
 
 Cavedone, Giacomo, 436. 
 
 Caxes, Eugenio, 439. 
 
 Cecchi, Gregorio, 431. 
 
 Cephalus and Aurora, A. Carracci, 
 184. 
 
 Cerezo, Matteo de, 440. 
 
 Cerquozzi, Michaelangelo, 196. 
 
 Cerretto, Coronation of the Virgin 
 at, 58. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 467 
 
 Certosa at Pavia, 79, 85, 98. 
 Cervantes, illustration of, 407. 
 Cespedes, Pablo de, 200, 208. 
 Ceulen, Cornelis J. van, 448. 
 Chabot, Admiral, 360. 
 Chaldea, 7. 
 Chalon, A, E., 41.5. 
 Chambers, George, 457. 
 Champaigne, Philippe de, 367. 
 Chapeau de Poll, Rubens, 321. 
 Characterisation in portrait, 338. 
 Chardin, J. B.,369, 
 Charity, del Sarto, 140. 
 Charlemagne, 232, 234, 358. 
 Charles the Bold, 284, 290. 
 Charles I.. 72, 115, 121, 318, 323, 
 
 324, 387. 
 Charles U., 116, 326, 353, 388. 
 Charles IV. of Spain, 229. 
 Charles IV., Emperor, 233. 
 Charles V., Emperor, 66, 164, 
 
 166, 168, 175, 216, 253, 260, 
 
 301,303, 305, 309, 386. 
 Charles VIII., of France, 72. 
 Charlet, Nicolas Toussaint, 453. 
 Chartres, 358. 
 Chasse of S. Odile, 269. 
 
 of S. Ursicla, Memling, 290. 
 
 Chatsworth. 96, 282. 
 
 Chelsea, 258. 
 
 Chesneau, M. E., 385, 393, 425. 
 
 Chiaroscuro, 11, 12, 52, 53, 177, 
 
 208, 215, 328, 331, 339, 340, 
 
 352, 374. 
 Chigi, Agostino, 98. 
 Ch ilde Harold:' s Pilgrimage, Turner, 
 
 410. 
 Chinese art, 7. 
 
 Choosing a Model, Fortuny, 230. 
 Christ and Virgin, Massy s, 300. 
 
 at Emmaus, G. Bellini, 151. 
 
 atthe Column, Velasquez, 222. 
 
 hearing the Cross, Giorgione, 
 
 157; Kaphael, 122; Kibalta, 
 
 209. 
 
 Betrayal, Cimabue, 32. 
 
 Blessing little Children, 
 
 fk'ckbout, 3.J7. 
 
 buffeted, Teniers, 329. 
 
 Crowned with Thorns, Guido, 
 
 189 ; Teniers, 328. 
 
 Christ Disputing the Doctors, Luini, 
 96. 
 
 driving out the Traders, 
 
 Venusti, 135. 
 
 Early figures of, 22-25. 
 
 going to EmTnaus, Melone, 
 
 170. 
 
 healing the Blind, Buonin- 
 
 segna, 46. 
 
 healing the Sick, West, 403. 
 
 in the house of Simon, Mabuse, 
 
 302. 
 leaving the Pratorium, Dor^, 
 
 384. 
 
 sinking beneath the Cross, 
 
 Schongauer, 242. 
 
 washing Disciples' feet, Tin- 
 toretto, 172. 
 
 weeping over Jerusalem, East- 
 lake, 423. 
 
 Christ College, Oxford, 185. 
 
 Christall, 421. 
 
 Christian art, 12, 21,22, 24,33, 
 54, 90, 101, 103, 119, 200, 366, 
 377. 
 
 Christian or spiritual school, 75, 
 153. 
 
 Christian Redemption, M. Angelo, 
 265. 
 
 Chi'istiana of Sweden, Queen, 328. 
 
 Christofani, Buonamico, (Buffal- 
 macco), 40, 42. 
 
 Chronicles de Chastelain, 275. 
 
 Church of Rome, restraint on art, 
 240, 243. 
 
 Churches : Arena, at Padua, 36 ; 
 Brauweiler, 233; Carmine, 39, 
 60, 65 ; Innocenti, Florence, 68 ; 
 Ognisanti, Florence, 68 ; Or S. 
 Michele, Florence, 40; Or S. 
 Michele, Orvieto, 44 ; S. An- 
 tony, Padua, 45 ; San Cleraente, 
 Borne, 54; S. Maria della Ho- 
 tonda, Rome, 122 ; S. Croce, 37- 
 40, 46 ; S. Domenico, Siena, 28, 
 98; S. Francis, Assisi, 31,38. 
 232 ; S. Francis, Pisa, 39 ; S. 
 Maria degli Ann;e!i, Arezzo, 44 ; 
 S. Mar. del Flore, 39, 40; S. 
 Mar. Novella, Florence, 30, 44. 
 65, 68, 10.3, 107, 123, 285; S, 
 
468 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Miniato, Florence, 45 ; S. Pietro 
 Maggiore, Perugia, 80 ; S. Se- 
 bastian! del Servi, 69, 174; S. 
 Spirito, Florence, 68 ; S. Trinita, 
 Florence, 67 ; S, Crisostomo, 
 Venice, 152 ; S. Domenico, 
 Ascoli, 144 ; Convent, Fiesole, 
 56 ; Incoronata, Naples, 38 ; 
 Notre Dame, Courtrky, 323 ; 
 S. Agostino, San Gemignano, 
 59; S. Andrea dellaValle, Rome, 
 188 ; S. Augustine, Antwerp, 
 323; S. Cecilia, Bologna, 82, 
 83 ; SS. Giovanni e Paolo, 167 ; 
 S. Gudule, 289 ; S. Julian, Se- 
 ville, 202 ; Mad. di Campagna, 
 Piacenza, 159 ; S. Maria Angeli, 
 Lugano, 96, 97 ; S. Maria 
 de Frari, Venice, 164, 167 ; 
 S. Maria, Formosa, 161 ; S. 
 Maria Nuova, Floi-ence, 285 ; 
 S. Martin, Colmar, 241 ; S. 
 Mary, Utrecht, 307 ; S. Peter, 
 Cordova, 200 ; S. Eomano, 
 Lucca, 102 ; S. Romain, Sens, 
 359 ; S. Dominica, Cagli, 104 ; 
 Salvatore, Colalto, 159 ; San 
 Severo, Perugia, 107 ; Trinita 
 de' Monti, Rome, 135; Wien- 
 hausen, 233. 
 
 Ciarla, 118. 
 
 Cicognara" Storia della Scultura," 
 51. 
 
 Cignani, Count Carlo, 438. 
 
 Cimabue, Giovanni, 28, 29, 33-4, 
 46, 70, 269. 
 
 Cimon of Cleonae, 10. 
 
 Cimon, son of Miltiades, 11. 
 
 Ciiiquocentisti, 49. 
 
 Cipriani, Giovanni, 401. 
 
 Circumcision of Christ, L. v. Ley- 
 den, 312. 
 
 Signorelli, 74. 
 
 Citta, 80, 105. 
 
 Civatale, 69. 
 
 Civerchio, 95. 
 
 Civetta, 310. 
 
 Claessins, Pieter, the elder, and 
 P. C. , the younger, 444. 
 
 Claeszoon. See Marinus. 
 
 Classical Naturalism, 54. 
 
 Classic art, 70, 124, 184, 208, 362. 
 
 Classicism, French, 329, 370, 372. 
 
 Michael-Angelo's, 126. 
 
 Classico-Christian painters, 22. 
 
 Claude. See Gelee. 
 
 Clavigo, battle of, 205. 
 
 Cleanthes, of Corinth, 10. 
 
 Clement VIL, 130, 132, 164. 
 
 Cleophantos, of Corinth, 10. 
 
 Cleve, Joas van, 309. 
 
 Climate and art, 268. 
 
 Clint, George, 401. 
 
 Clouet, Francois (Janet), 359. 
 
 Clouet, Jehannet, 359. 
 
 Clovio, Giulio, 435. 
 
 Cluny Collection, 360. 
 
 Coat of Arms, BeatlUs Head, DUrer, 
 252. 
 
 Codde, Pieter, 344. 
 
 Coelebier, Nicholas, 348. 
 
 Coello, Alonzo Sanchez, 204. 
 
 Coello, Claudio, 440. 
 
 Cogniet, Leon, 453. 
 
 Colart le Voleur, 451. 
 
 Coleoni, Bartol., Statue by Ver- 
 rocchio, 77. 
 
 Coleridge, Tahle-Talk, 119,321. 
 
 CoUantes, Francisco, 208. 
 
 Collections of Pictures : Arenberg, 
 Brussels, 339, 348 ; Bridge- 
 water, 341-44, 362; Dudley, 
 105 ; Brentano, Frankfort, 358 ; 
 Grosvenor, 349 ; Peel, 355 ; The 
 Queen's, 339 ; Wynn-Ellis, 355. 
 
 College of Corpus Christ i, Valencia, 
 209. 
 
 Santiago, Salamanca, 204. 
 
 Collins, William, 411. 
 
 Colmar, 241. 
 
 Cologne, 233, 236, 237, 291, 307, 
 316, 320. 
 
 School of, 234, 238, 243, 269, 
 
 273. 
 
 Wilhelm of, 231, 235, 236. 
 
 Colombel, Nicolas, 452. 
 
 Colonna, Angelo Michele, 437. 
 
 Colonna, Princess Vittoria, 131. 
 
 Colour, Dutch, 339. 
 
 Flemish, 305, 320, 328. 
 
 Colour, Florentine, 82. 
 
 Coloured carvings, 213, 233, 246. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 469 
 
 Coloured Statuary, 270, 287. 
 
 Colourists, Seven Great, 156. 
 
 Venetian, 163. 
 
 Communion of S. Jerome ^ Domeni- 
 chino, 186. 
 
 Compagnia della morte, 196, 197. 
 
 Concert, Giorgione, 158} Valen- 
 tin, 362. 
 
 Condivi, Ascanio, 132. 
 
 Conegliano, Cima da, 154. 
 
 Congnet, Gillis, 444. 
 
 Coninck, David de, 445. 
 
 Coninxloo, Gillis, 444. 
 
 Consecration oj S. Nicholas, Vero- 
 nese, 176. 
 
 Conseil Paternelle, Terburg, 344. 
 
 Constable, John, 352, ."580, 381, 
 411, 417, 418, 419,422. 
 
 Constance, 236. 
 
 Constantine, Emperor, 23, 29 
 
 Constantinople, 148, 149. 
 
 Council of, 23. 
 
 Contemporaries of Kubens, 324. 
 Contemporary Belgic art, 330. 
 
 English art, 330, 
 
 French art, 330. 
 
 German art, 267. 
 
 Conti, Bernardino, 84. 
 
 Conversation^ Velasquez, 222 
 Conver.satioii-pieces, 343. 
 Cook, William, 116. 
 Cooke, E. W., 423. 
 Cooper, Samuel, 387. 
 Copernicus, 88. 
 Copley, J. S.,404. 
 Copyist, definition of a, 121. 
 Coques, Gonzales, 326. 
 Cordova, 200, 208. 
 Cordova, Pedro of, 201. 
 Corenzio, Belisario, 436. 
 Corinth, 1, 10. 
 Cork, 403. 
 
 Coronation of the Virgin, Diirer, 
 251; Botticelli, 64; Era An- 
 gelieo, 56 ; Overbeck, 265 ; P. 
 PoUaiuolo, 69 ; liaphael, 105. 
 Comeille, Michel, 452. 
 
 Paris, 451. 
 
 Comeliszoon, Buys, 31 1. 
 
 Cornelis, 311, 314. 
 
 Jacob, 306, 311, 312. 
 
 Comeliszoon, Lncas, 311. 
 
 Pieter, 311. 
 
 William, 306. 
 
 Cornelius, Peter von, 264, 265, 
 
 266. 
 Corot, Camille, 364, 379, 382, 
 
 383. 
 Correggio. See Allegri. 
 Correggio, 178. 
 Cortona, 198. 
 
 Pietro da. See Berrettini, 
 
 Cosimo, Piero de, 69, 138. 
 
 Cosmati, the, 27. 
 
 Cosmo de' Medici. See Medici. 
 
 Costa, Lorenzo, 82, 138. 
 
 Costumes of old Venice, 154. 
 
 Cosway, Richard, 415. 
 
 Cotes, Francis, 389, 396. 
 
 Cotman, J. S., 419-20, 421. 
 
 Courbet, Gustave, 384. 
 
 Courtois, Jacques, 452. 
 
 Court painters, 275, 317, 324, 328, 
 
 358. 
 Courtraye, 323. 
 Cousin, Jehan, 359, 360. 
 Const ain. Pierre, 451. 
 Cowper, Lord, 103, 141. 
 Cowper, 399. 
 Cox, David, 421, 422. 
 Coxcien, Michael, 305, 306, 307. 
 Coxcien, Raphael, 306. 
 Coypel, Antoine, 452. 
 Coypel, Noel, 452. 
 Cozens, John, 380, 408, 417, 420, 
 
 421. 
 Crabeth, Dirk and Wouter, 314. 
 Cranach, Lucas, 260-2. 
 Cranach, Lucas, the younger, 261. 
 Cranach, Johannes, 441. 
 Cranborne Alley, 389. 
 Grayer, Gaspard de, 218, 324, 325. 
 Credi, Lorenzo di, 77, 99. 
 Cremona, 170, 190. 
 Crespi, Giuseppe Maria, 438. 
 Creswick, Thomas, 411. 
 Cristall, Joshua, 421. 
 Cristina of Sweden, 328. 
 Cristus, Petrus, 201, 284. 
 Crivelli, Carlo, 144. 
 Crivelli, Lucrezia, 92. 
 Ci-oce, Francisco da Santa, 155. 
 
470 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Croce, Girolamo da Santa, 155. 
 
 Crome, John, 419, 420. 
 
 Cromwell, 388. 
 
 and Raphael Cartoons, 116. 
 
 his Ironsides, 324. 
 
 Cross, Lewis, 454. 
 
 Crossing the BrooJc, Turner, 410. 
 
 Crowe and Cavalcaselle, 28, 31, 
 38, 43, 44, 52, 54, 58. 78, 92, 
 100, 137, 149, 155, 158, 161, 201, 
 280, 287, 289, 293, 295. 
 
 Crowning with Thorns, Titian, 168. 
 
 Crucifixion, the, Antonello, 145, 
 146; J. Bellini, 147; Borgog- 
 none, 85 ; Cranach, 262 ; Fu- 
 ligno. 76 ; Luini, 97 ; Perugino, 
 80 ; Raphael, 105 ; Rubens, 320 ; 
 Van Dyck, 323; Velasquez, 
 221; 
 
 Crucifixion ofS. Peter, Caravaggio, 
 188 ; Rubens, 320. 
 
 Cruikshank, George, 427. 
 
 Crusaders, 269. 
 
 Cruz, Pantoja de la, 204. 
 
 Santos, 202. 
 
 Crystal Palace, Egyptian Court, 6. 
 
 Cuevas, Pedro de las, 439. 
 
 Cupid, M. Angelo, 125. 
 
 Curti, Gio, 190. 
 
 Curtis' Catalogue, 218, 219, 221, 
 227. 
 
 Cuyp, Albert, 360, 351, 417. 
 
 neglected by Dutch, 350 
 
 Daddo, Bernardo di, 40. 
 
 Dallas, E. S., 252. 
 
 Dalmasii, Lippi, 431. 
 
 Dalmau, Ludovico, 201. 
 
 Z)anae, Con-eggio, 180; Titian, 165. 
 
 • in the Golden Shower, Ma- 
 
 buse, 303. 
 
 Danby, Francis, 457. 
 
 Danby, Lord, 116. 
 
 Dance, Nathaniel, 455. 
 
 Dance of Death, Holbein, 259. 
 
 of Herodias' Daughter, 37. 
 
 of the Magdalen, L. v. Ley- 
 den, 314. 
 
 Daniell, William, 421. 
 
 Dante, 34, 36, 38, 64, 264, 377, 
 426. 
 
 Dante's Dream, Hoi. Hunt, 426. 
 
 Daphne and Apollo, Giorgione, 157. 
 
 Daphnes and Chloe, Bordone, 168. 
 
 Darmstadt, 258. 
 
 Datus, 41. 
 
 Daubigny, C. F., 384. 
 
 Daughter of Herodias, Fordenone, 
 
 159. 
 David, statue by M. Angelo, 127. 
 David and Abigail, Hugo van der 
 
 Goes, 285. 
 David with Goliath^s Head, Por- 
 
 denone, 159. 
 David, Emeric, 358. 
 David, Gerard, 292-93, 296, 310. 
 David, Jacques Louis, 198, 229, 
 
 363, 370-73. 
 Dawkins, Boyd, 2. 
 Dawn, sculpture by M. Angelo, 
 
 131. 
 Dawson, H., 417, 423. 
 Dax, Paul, 441. 
 Day, the, Correggio, 179. 
 Dead Orlando, Velasquez, 222. 
 Dead Soldier, the, Wright, 414. 
 Death-dances, popularity of, in the 
 
 fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 
 
 259. 
 Death Choking a Warrior, Burgk- 
 
 mair, 256. 
 Death of Duke of Guise, Delaroche, 
 
 379. 
 
 Earl of Chatham, Copley, 
 
 405. 
 
 General Wolfe, West, 403. 
 
 Gernianicus, Poussin, 362. 
 
 Major Pierson, Copley, 406. 
 
 Nelson, Maclise, 423. 
 
 Procris, Cosimo, 69. 
 
 S. Benedict, Spinello, 45. 
 
 S. Clara, Murillo, 224. 
 
 S. Francis, Ghirlandaio, 67. 
 
 the Virgin, unknown, 238 j 
 
 M. Schon, 245. 
 
 Virginia, Lethiere, 373. 
 
 Decamps, Gabriel, 377, 381. 
 Decker, Conrad, 352. 
 
 sonnet by, 332. 
 
 Decorative art, 99, 118, 137, 166, 
 
 187, 189, 190. 
 Defregger, Franz, 267. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 471 
 
 Deig, Hans, 441. 
 
 Delacroix, Eugene, 373, 376, 377, 
 
 379,380,381. 
 Delaroche, Paul, 378, 383. 
 Delen, Dirk van, 355. 
 Delft, 336, 339, 345. 
 Delivery of the Keys to 8. Peter, 
 
 Terrugino, 78. 
 Delli Dello, 201. 
 Delphi, paintings at, 11. 
 Denis, S., 358. 
 Denner, Balthasar, 263, 396. 
 Dentist^ the, Victoor, 338. 
 Dentone. See Curti. 
 Deodati Orlandi, 41. 
 Derby, 414. 
 Descamps, 349. 
 Descent from the Cross, Campana, 
 
 204; Ricciarelli, 135; Rubens, 
 
 317, 322 ; Vander Weyden, 288. 
 Desportes, Francois, 379. 
 Deutsch, See Manuel. 
 Development of art in Flanders, 
 
 274. 
 
 in Germany, 232. 
 
 in Holland, 335. 
 
 in Italy, 49, 76. 
 
 Deveria, Eugene, Chr. L., 7. 
 Devonshire House, 191. 
 Diamante, Fra, 432. 
 Diana and Callisto, Titian, 168. 
 Diana Hunting, Domenichino, 
 
 187. 
 Diary of A. Diirer, 253. 
 Diaz, Gonzalo, 202. 
 Diaz de la Fena, n.v., 383, 384. 
 Dibutades, 1. 
 Dickens, illustrated by Maclise, 
 
 423. 
 Dictionary of Nat. Biography, 
 
 418. 
 Diderot, 368, 369. 
 Dido building Carthage, Turner, 
 
 410. 
 Didron's Christian Iconograph, 
 
 29. 
 Diego de Deza, Archbishop, 216. 
 Diepenbeck, Abraham V., 446. 
 Dietrich, Christian, 203. 
 Digby, Lady V., 324. 
 Dgon, 269. 
 
 Dilke, Lady, 359. 
 
 Dinant, 310. 
 
 Dionysios of Colophon, 12. 
 
 Diotisalvi, Chr. L.,2. 
 
 " Discourses on Fainting," 397. 
 
 Disputa del Sacremento, Raphael, 
 
 107, 216. 
 Distressed Poet, Hogarth, 392. 
 Divine Justice and Crime, Prud'- 
 
 hon, 374. 
 Dobson, Austin, 394, 396. 
 Dobson, William, 326, 387. 
 Dodgson, 421. 
 Doelen-stuk. 336. 
 Doges, 150, 172. 
 Dohme's Kunst u. Kiinstler, 369, 
 
 385. 
 Dolci, Agnese, 191. 
 Dolci, Carlo, 190. 
 Dombild, the, of Cologne, 236. 
 Dom-hild, Stephan Lochner, 236. 
 Domenichino. See Zampieri. 
 Domenico di Bartolo, 431. 
 Domenico, Pietro di, 433. 
 Dominican order, 38, 57, 100. 
 Dominici, "Vile dei Pittori," 197. 
 Donatello, 53, 70. 
 Donato, 143. 
 Donducci, Andrea, 436. 
 Doni, Paolo, 52, 62. 
 Don Quixote, Smirke, 427, 
 Donne, Dr., 387. 
 Dore, Gustave, 384. 
 Dortrecht, 350. 
 Dossi, Dosso. See Lutero. 
 Dou, Gerard, 281, 332, 338, 340, 
 
 344. 
 Douai, 304. 
 Doyle, Richard, 427. 
 Dream of M. Angelo, Piombo, 
 
 134. 
 Dresden, 340. 
 
 Drouais, Jean-Germain, 373. 
 Druidic circles, 231. 
 •• Dubarrydom," 368. 
 Dubbels, Jan, 354. 
 Dubbels, Heindrik. 449. 
 Dubois, Ambrose, 360. 
 Dubreuil, Toussaint, 360, 
 Duccio, 28. 
 Duch&tel, Fr., 446. 
 
472 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 J)udley, Earl, 105, 144, 224. 
 Dufresnoy. See Fresnoy. 
 Dughet, Anna M,, 363. 
 Dughet, Gaspar (Gaspar Poussin), 
 
 310, 363, 364, 365-66. 
 Dulwich. See Galleries. 
 Dumoustier, 451. 
 Duncan, 421. 
 
 Dunwegge, H. and V., 441. 
 Duplessis, " Hist, de la Gravure," 
 
 63. 
 Dupre, Jules, 384. 
 Diirer, Albrecht, 152, 168, 211, 
 
 225, 236, 240, 241, 242, 244, 
 
 245, 247-54, 255, 256, 260, 261, 
 
 262, 296, 299, 306, 307, 314. 
 
 Hans, 441, 
 
 Pupils or " Little Masters," 
 
 255-56. 
 Dusart Cornelis, 344. 
 Dusseldorf, School, the, 265, 266, 
 
 267. 
 Dutch Claude, 350. 
 
 fruit, flower, and still life 
 
 school, 355. 
 
 genre painters, 226. 
 
 interiors, 339. 
 
 Italianisers, 347, 354. 
 
 School, 330-57; modern, 356. 
 
 See Holland. 
 
 sea painting, 465. 
 
 Dyce, Will., 423. 
 
 Eagles Repast, J. Fyt, 325. 
 Early Christian painters of the 
 Netherlands, 268. 
 
 Flemish School, 279, 282, 
 
 285, 287. 
 
 Flemish painters, 293. 
 
 French painters, 358. 
 
 Italian School, 244. 
 
 School of Holland, 297. 
 
 Spanish painters, 199. 
 
 Eastlake, Sir C. L., 109, 114, 122, 
 137, 262, 270, 423. 
 
 Eoce Homo, Correggio, 180 ; Gio- 
 vanni, 50; Titian, 168. 
 
 Ecclesiastical element in Spanish 
 art, 206. 
 
 Eclecticism, 183, 192. 
 
 Eclectic Schools, 181, 190. 
 
 Eddas of the North, 243. 
 
 Edinburgh, 414. 
 
 Edridge, H., 421. 
 
 Education of Achilles, Regnault, 
 379. 
 
 Edtication of Cupid, Correggio, 
 180. 
 
 Edwin, Wright, 414. 
 
 Eeekbout, Gerbrandt van den, 337. 
 
 Eel-butts at Goring, MuUer, 423. 
 
 Effects of Intemperance, J. Steen, 
 345, 346. 
 
 y^gg, 407. 
 
 Egidius, Pctrus, 299. 
 
 Egmont, Count, 309. 
 
 Egypt, 1, 2, 3. 
 
 mummy cases, 5. 
 
 tombs, 4. 
 
 Egyptian art transmitted to Greece, 
 1, 9. 
 
 Eleanor of Austria, 175. 
 
 Election Series, Hogarth, 392. 
 
 Elements, the Four, Mola, 188. 
 
 Elevation of the Cross, Vandyck, 
 323. 
 
 Eliot, George, 69. 
 
 Elixir of Life, Pin well, 427. 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen, 300, 387. 
 
 Elle, Ferdd., 362. 
 
 Ellis, Wynn, Collection, 355. 
 
 Elmore, Alf., 457. 
 
 Eisner, Jac, 441. 
 
 Elzheimer, Adam. 263. 
 
 Embarkation rf the Q. of Sheba, 
 Claude, 36L-. 
 
 Embassy of Hydi^r.Bi'Cn, in Cal- 
 cutta, Zoffany, -±ul. 
 
 Emotional pictures of the seven- 
 teenth century, 255. 
 
 Emperor Trajan, Y&ndcT Weyden, 
 286. 
 
 Engelbrechtsen, Cornelis, 311. 
 
 England, 232, 258 ; long delayed 
 birth of art in, 385 ; foreign 
 painters in, 309, 318, 323, 339, 
 353, 358, 386, 401. 
 
 painting in, 385-428. 
 
 English painters, exhibited in 
 France, 393. 
 
 Vandyck, 387. 
 
 in little, 387. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 473 
 
 Engraving, copper, 63, 72, 173, 
 
 185, 255, 311, 312, 349, 359, 
 
 361. 
 
 invention of, 63. 
 
 in Germany, 242, 253, 262. 
 
 metal, 63, 64. 
 
 mezzotint, 414. 
 
 wood, 63, 255, 262. 
 
 Engraving in England, 389, 
 
 390. 
 Enraged Musician, Hogarth, 392. 
 Enthroned Madonna, Crivelli, 
 
 144. 
 Enthroned Mary, Morelli, 144. 
 Entombment, M. Angelo, 134 ; Q. 
 
 Massys, 299 ; Kaphael, 108 ; 
 
 Titian, 168. 
 Entry into Bruges, 277, 284. 
 Entry of Henry IV. into Paris, 
 
 Gerard, 373. 
 Ephysius, 8., scenes from legends 
 
 of, Spinello, 42. 
 Eraclius, 270. 
 
 Erasmus, 254, 258, 259, 299. 
 P>emitani chapel, 71. 
 Es, Jacques v., 446. 
 Escalante, Juan Ant., 440. 
 I^henbach, Wolfram von, 234. 
 Escurial, 197, 205. 
 Espinosa, Jacinto Geronimo de, 
 
 210. 
 Este, Alfonso d', 138. 
 Esteban, Rodrigo, 201. 
 Estense, Bahiassare, 432. 
 Esther and Ahasturus, L. v. Leyden , 
 
 314. 
 Etching, 229, 255, 335, 352. 
 Ethiopian paintings, 3. 
 Eton Coll., 198. 
 Etruscan paintings, 16, 27. 
 Etty, William, 407, 423. 
 Eulens2negely L. v. Leyden, 313, 
 
 314. 
 Eumaros, of Athens, 10. 
 Euphranor, 14. 
 Eupom|K)S, 14. 
 Even, Ed. van, 295, 297. 
 Evening Hymn, Muson, 427. 
 Everdingen, Albert van, 352. 
 Execution of L. Jane drey, Dela- 
 
 roche, 37^- 
 
 Executions in the Alhamhra, For- 
 
 tuny, 230 ; Kegnault, 384. 
 Exeter, Marq. of, 282. 
 Eycks, the van, 63, 143, 144, 235, 
 
 236, 238, 241, 245, 269-84, 297, 
 
 298, 314, 315, 359. 
 
 Jan's daughter Lyennie, 282. 
 
 discovery of oil-painting, 
 
 270-72. 
 Eyck, Hubert van, 268, 269, 271, 
 
 *272, 273. 
 
 his epitaph, 273. 
 
 Eyck, Jan van, 145,201, 268, 269, 
 
 270, 271, 272, 273-84, 288, 290, 
 
 293,294,310,343,359. 
 Eyck, Lambert van, 282. 
 Eyck, Margaret v., 282. 
 
 Fa Presto. See Giordano. 
 Fabius Pictor, 18. 
 Fabriano, Antonio da, 430. 
 Fabriano, Francesco Gentile da, 
 
 430. 
 Fabriano, Gentile da, 77, 143, 
 
 146, 147. 
 Fabrique, Nicholas La, 446. 
 Fabritius, Carel, 336, 339. 
 Faccini, Pietro, 436. 
 Faes, Peter van der (Lely), 326, 
 
 388, 394. 
 Faith, School of, 53, 55. 
 Falcone, Aniello, 196, 197. 
 Fall of the Angels, Frans Floris, 
 
 308. 
 
 Damned, Aeken, 296; Ru- 
 bens, 321. 
 
 Rebel Angels or Lucifer, 
 
 Spinello, 44, 244. 
 
 Family of Darius, Veronese, 176. 
 Family of Chiorgione, Giorgione, 
 
 157. 
 Family Group, Coques, 326. 
 Fantastic spirit in art, 243, 326. 
 Farnesina, 98, 118, 184, 186. 
 " Father of Paintei-s," 70. 
 Fattorine, Fra Bartolommeo di 
 
 Pagliolo del, 46, 66, 99, 100, 
 
 101, 103, 107, 119, 125, 138, 
 
 139, 150. 
 Feast qf the Lcvite, Veronese, 175. 
 
474 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Feast of the Rose Garlands, Diirer, 
 
 249. 
 Fede, Lucretia del, 141. 
 Feeling for Form, Florentine, 324. 
 Feltre, Morto da, 158. 
 Ferdinand VII., 217. 
 Fernandez, Pedro, 202. 
 Ferramolo, 84, 85. 
 Ferrara, 72, 82, 83, 162, 289. 
 Alfonso I., Duke of, 162; 
 
 and his wife, 163. 
 
 School of, 72, 138. 
 
 Ferrari, Gaudenzio, 96, 97, 181. 
 
 Ferri, Giro, 438. 
 
 Feselen, Hans, 441. 
 
 Feti, Domenico, 437. 
 
 Fetishism, first stage of religious 
 
 belief, 2. 
 Feuerbach, A., 443. 
 Ficinus, Marsilius, 111. 
 Fictoors. See Victoor. 
 Fielding, Antony Vandyck Cop- 
 ley, 421, 422. 
 Fiesole, Giovanni da (Fra An- 
 
 gelico), 49, 53, 55-7, 58, 59, 60, 
 
 62, 73, 74, 75, 79, 101, 103, 107, 
 
 146, 235, 288. 
 Fiesole, altar-piece of S. Domenico, 
 
 57. 
 Fifth Flague of Egypt, Turner, 
 
 410. 
 Fighting Temeraire, Turner, 410. 
 Figino, Ambrogio, 436. 
 Filipepi, Sandro (Botticelli), 63-4. 
 Filippo, Fra. See Lippi. 
 finding of Moses, Poi-denone, 159. 
 Finiguerra, Maso, 63. 
 Fino, Tommaso di Cristofero. See 
 
 Panicale. 
 Fiore, Jacobello del, 142, 144. 
 Firmin-Didot, 360. 
 Five Senses, G. Coques, 326. 
 Flagellation, Luini, 97 ; Sodoma, 
 
 98. 
 Flanders, 262, 274. 
 
 School of, 237, 282, 289, 386. 
 
 School of, in Spain, 201. 
 
 Flandrin, 453. 
 
 Flatman, T., 454. 
 
 Flaying of the Venal Judge, G. 
 
 Davis, 292. 
 
 Flemalle, Bertholet, 446. 
 Flemish art, 282; in Italy, 289, 
 
 308 ; decline, 329. 
 
 large work, 285. 
 
 fifteenth century influence, 
 
 237. 
 in Spain, 201. 
 
 Italianisers, 202, 302-5, 
 
 314,341, 354. 
 
 miniatures, 268, 293. 
 
 School of Seventeenth Cen- 
 tury, 315-30, 361. 
 
 style, 145, 241. 
 
 the. Patriarch of, 273. 
 
 the, Raphael, 306. 
 
 Fleury, Cardinal, 367. 
 
 Flight into Egypt, Caravaggio or 
 Saraceni, 193. 
 
 Flinck, Govert, 336. 
 
 Florence, 27, 29, 30, 34, 35, 36, 
 37, 39, 48, 50, 54, 55, 57, 70, 76, 
 77, 78, 93, 95, 99, 101, 102, 105, 
 106, 107, 108, 121, 123, 127, 
 130, 132, 134, 140, 142, 146, 
 169, 191, 197, 198, 289, 323, 
 395. 
 
 Bargello, 126. 
 
 Baptistery Gates, 51. 
 
 Cathedral of S. Maria del 
 
 Fiore, 39, 40. 
 
 Convent of S. Marco, 56. 
 
 Painters' Guild of, 87. 
 
 Palazzo Publico, 87; Palazzo 
 
 Vecchio, 94, 127. 
 
 Raphael at, 108. 
 
 Signiory of, 128. 
 
 Uffizi, which see. 
 
 Government of, 62, 74, 75. 
 
 Florentine art, 50, 76, 106. 
 
 faction in Padua, 7 1. 
 
 Jeremiah, 99. 
 
 maiden ornaments, 66. 
 
 School, 139. 
 
 victories depicted, 94, 127 
 
 [Vinci and M. Angelo]. 
 Floris, Frans. See Vriendt. 
 Fogliani, Guidoriccio, 47. 
 Followers of Vandyck, 326. 
 Fontainebleau, 138, 183, 360, 
 
 383. 
 Fontana, Lavinia. 436. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 475 
 
 Fontana, Prospero, 182. 
 Foppa, Vinccnwi, 84, 85, 95. 
 Ford's Handbook, 200, 202, 208, 
 
 213. 
 Forli, Melozzo da, 73, 76. 
 Fomarina, La, 117. 
 Forster, Kunstblatt, 41, 53. 
 Fiirster's Deukmiiler, 288, 312. 
 Fortwie Teller, Caravaggio, 192 ; 
 
 Valentin, 362. 
 Fortuny, Jose Mariano, 229. 
 Fossano, Ambrogio (Borgognone), 
 
 84, 85. 
 Fosse, Charles de la, 452. 
 Foundling Hospital, 392. 
 Fountain of Youth, Cranach, 
 
 261. 
 Fouque, 252. 
 Fouqiiet, Jean, 358. 
 Four Apostle, Diirer, 251. 
 
 Maries^ Mabuse, 302. 
 
 Oxen in MeadowSy F. Potter, 
 
 349. 
 Fourment, H^lene, 319. 
 Fourmois, Theodore, 330. 
 Fra Angelico. See Fiesole. 
 Fra Filippo. See Lippi. 
 Fragonard, J. Honore, 368. 
 France, 232, 309, 359. 
 
 painting in, 368-84. 
 
 Francesca, Piero di Benedetto 
 
 della, 52, 58, 73, 76, 77. 
 Franchoys, Paul, 444. 
 Francia. See Raibqiini. 
 Francis I., King, 95, 96, 102, 138, 
 
 140, 142, 175, 360, 386. " 
 Francis I. and Charles V. at Ch. of 
 
 S. Denis, Gros, 374. 
 Francis, S,, 32, 37, 67, 76, 122. 
 
 Giotto's Death of, 38. 
 
 Franciscans, Order of, 38, 57, 215- 
 
 16, 224, 227. 
 Franciscan Monk, Zurbaran, 216. 
 Francken, Frans, the Elder, 309. 
 Francken, Frans, the Younger, 
 
 444. 
 Frangois, 446. 
 Franconian School, 247. 
 " Fraser," 423. 
 Fraser, Alexander, 466. 
 Frederick the Great, 266. 
 
 Frederick the Magnanimous, 260, 
 261. 
 
 Frederick the Wise, 260. 
 
 French Correggio, 374. 
 
 Raphael, 366. 
 
 Vandyck, 367. 
 
 School, Modern, 329, 330, 
 
 386, 422. 
 
 Freminet, Martin, 360, 
 
 Frere, Edouard, 384. 
 
 Frescoes at Antwerp, 299 ; Assisi, 
 32 ; Basel, 257 ; Bologna, 83, 
 184; Brauweiler, 233; Cagli, 
 104; Castiglione d'Olona, 52; 
 Ecole des Beaux Arts, 379 ; 
 Escurial, 197 ; Florence, 67, 
 140; Germany, 232; Lugano, 
 
 96 ; Mantua, 137 ; Milan, 84, 
 
 97 ; Munich, 265; Naples, 187, 
 197 ; Naumberg, 265 ; Padua, 
 71 ; Parma, 178 ; Perugia, 80, 
 107 ; Piacenza, 159 ; Pisa, 41-4, 
 58; Prato, 61; Rome, 54, 57, 
 64, 68, 71, 73, 78, 98, 109-15, 
 129, 137, 184, 186, 264; San 
 Gemignano, 59, 68 ; S. An- 
 thony in San Daniele, 154; 
 Saronno, 96 7 ; Siena, 47, 48, 
 81 ; Spoleto, 62 ; Varello, 97 j 
 Vatican, 109, 129 ; Venice, 147, 
 166, 157, 162, 197 ; Vienna, 
 266 ; Vercelli, 97. 
 
 Fresnoy, Charles du, 451, 
 
 Frey, Agnes, 248. 
 
 Friedrich, Kaspar D., 442. 
 
 Fries, Hans, 440. 
 
 Frisian peasantry, 357, 
 
 F>iuli, 154, 162. 
 
 Froberius, 258. 
 
 Frohlich, Ernst, 443. 
 
 Froment, Nicolas, 359. 
 
 Fromentin, Eugene, 384. 
 
 Froude, 269. 
 
 Fruitiers, Philipp, 446. 
 
 Frutti, II Gobbo d'. See Bonri. 
 
 Fuhrich, Joseph, 264. 
 
 Fuligno, Niccolo da, 76, 77. 
 
 Fuller, Isaac, 454. 
 
 Funeral at Ornans, Courbet, 384. 
 
 Fungai, Bernardino, 433. 
 
 Furtmeyer, P., 440. 
 
476 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Fuseli, H., 89, 262, 362, 404. 
 Fyoll, Conrad, 440. 
 Fyt, Jan, 325. 
 
 Gaddi, Agnolo, 40. 
 
 Gaddi, Gaddo, 28, 39. 
 
 Gaddi, Taddeo, 39, 57. 
 
 Gael, Barend, 348. 
 
 Gaillon, castle at, 98. 
 
 Gainsborough, Thomas, 380, 398- 
 99,400,415, 417, 419. 
 
 Galassi, Galasso, 431. 
 
 Galileo, 88. 
 
 Gallait, Louis, 266, 329. 
 
 Gallegos, Ferdinand, 201. 
 
 Galleries : Aldobrandini, 108 ; 
 Amsterdam, 340; Antwerp,280, 
 299, 301, 302, 308, 309,312,320; 
 Arenberg, 349 ; Augsburg, 257 ; 
 Berlin, 85, 180, 245, 261, 266, 
 278, 279, 327; Borghese, 108, 
 187, 188; Bridgwater, 108, 161, 
 164, 168, 341, 344, 362; Bruns- 
 wick, 340, 348; Brussels, 273, 
 301, 302, 309, 329; Cologne, 
 233, 245; Dresden, 121, 158, 
 160, 162, 168,174, 178, 180,185, 
 189, 191, 195, 228, 240, 258, 
 341; Dulwich, 197, 228, 350; 
 Esterhazy, Pesth, 158 ; Frank- 
 fort, 251, 289, 339 ; Grosvenor, 
 349, 413, 417; Hague, 346; 
 Liechtenstein, 193 ; Lucca, 102; 
 Madrid, 121, 122, 195, 203, 210, 
 2 19, 229, 250, 288, 297 ; Munich, 
 4, 7, 228, 238, 239, 245, 246, 
 251, 254, 257, 265, 303, 309, 
 322, 352; Parma, 179; Sciarra, 
 160, 190 ; Sid, 340; Siena, 98 ; 
 Stuttgard, 246; Vienna, 157, 
 221, 241,250, 256. 
 
 Gamble, Ellis, 389. 
 
 Game Laws, the, Hubner, 266. 
 
 Ganymede, Correggio, 180. 
 Garbieri, Lorenzo, 437. 
 
 Garden of Hesperides, Turner, 410. 
 Gargiulo, Domenico, 197. 
 Garofalo. See Tisio. 
 Garrick, 392, 397. 
 Garvagh, Raphael, the, 121. 
 Gassel, Lucas, 310. 
 
 Gatta, Bartolommeo della, 431, 
 Gaye's "Carteggio," 61. 
 Gay Science, Dallas, 252. 
 Gedde&, Andrew, 406. 
 Geeraert, Marcus, 445. 
 Geest, Corn, v. d., 334. 
 Gelde, Catherine Metten, 295. 
 Geldorp, Gortzius, 309. 
 Gel^e, Claude, (Claude Lorrain), 
 185, 187, 188, 189, 190, 197, 
 310, 335, 364, 365, 381, 398, 
 400, 409, 417, 419. 
 Genelli, Buoneventura, 442. 
 Genevay, Style Louis XIV., 369. 
 Genoa, 323. 
 
 Doria Palace, 159. 
 
 S. Maria di Castello clois- 
 ters, 239, 316. 
 Genre. See Painting, Genre. 
 Gentile. See Fabriano. 
 Gentileschi, Artemisia, 437. 
 Gentileschi, Orazio Lomi de, 436. 
 George I., 388. 
 George III., 403. 
 George Eliot, 396. 
 Gerard, Francois, 373. 
 Gerard of S. John. See Haarlem. 
 Gericault, Jean-Louis, 373, 375, 
 
 377, 380. 
 Gerini, Nicolo di Pietro, 431. 
 German altar-pieces, 233. 
 
 art. National character of, 
 
 240, 248, 264, 265, 266. 
 
 burlesques, 262. 
 
 engraving, 63, 242. 
 
 Italianisers, 262. 
 
 rise of, 231, 258 ; fall of, 
 
 262. 
 
 wall-painting, 232. 
 
 Germany, painting in, 231-267, 
 268, 386. 
 
 lack of art patrons, 253. 
 
 Upper, free schools of, 240. 
 
 Gerrit. See Gheeraerdt of Sint 
 
 Jans. 
 Gessi, Francisco, 437. 
 Gessner, Salomon, 442. 
 Gheerardt, of Sint Jans, 293, 311. 
 Ghent, 236, 272, 273, 274, 279, 284. 
 Ghiberti gates, 51. 
 Ghiberti, Lc^renzo, 51, 53. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 477 
 
 Ghirlandaio. See Bigordi, Dom. 
 Ghirlandaio, Ridolfo del, 69. 
 Ghisolfi, Giovanni, 197. 
 Giambono, 143. 
 Gillot, Claude, 452. 
 Gillray, James, 455. 
 Gin Lane, Hcjgarth, 392. 
 Giocondo, Francesco, 92, 
 Giolfino, 173. 
 
 Giordano, Luca, (Fa Presto), 197. 
 Giorgio, Francesco di, 432. 
 Giorgione. See Barbarelli. 
 Giotteschi, the, 39, 40, 42, 51, 53. 
 Giottino, 40. 
 Giotto. See Bondone. 
 Giovanni, Matteo di, 50. 
 Giovanni da Milano, 66. 
 Giovanni, Stefano di, Chr. L., 2. 
 Giovanni, Tomasso San. See Ma- 
 
 saccio. 
 Giovenone, Girolamo, 85, 97. 
 Girl at an Open Window, Vermeer, 
 
 340. 
 with a Drinking -glass, Ver- 
 meer, 340. 
 
 with a Lute, Caravaggio, 193. 
 
 Girlhood of the Virgin, Hoi. Hunt, 
 
 426. 
 Girodct. See Trioson. 
 Girtin, Thomas, 380, 408, 409, 
 
 419, 420, 421. 
 Giunta, of Pisa, 28. 
 Giusto di Gio. del Menabuoi, 45. 
 Gladiator, Wright, 414. 
 Glass of Lemonade, Terburg, 343. 
 Glass-painting, French, 358. 
 Glass window designs, 265, 267, 
 
 297, 359. 
 Glockenton, George, 441. 
 Glockenton, Nicholas, 441. 
 Goes, Hugo Vander, 284, 295. 
 Goethe, 121,265. 
 Goffaerts,EIiz.,286. 
 Goldsmith, 397, 398. 
 Golden Bough, Turner, 410. 
 Golden Fleece, Order founded, 
 
 277. 
 Goldfinch, C. Fabritius, 337. 
 Goltzius, Heinrich, 2G2, 314. 
 Goltzius, Hubert, 314. 
 Gomez, Sebastian, 439. 
 
 Goncourf s L'Art (XVIII. Siecle), 
 
 Gonzaga.. See Mantua. 
 
 Good Samaritan, Bassano, 177. 
 
 Shepherd, Murillo, 228. 
 
 Good,T. S.,406. 
 Gordon, Sir J. W., 457. 
 Gortzius, Geldorp, 309. 
 Gossaert, Jan (Mabuse), 301-304, 
 
 306, 313. 
 
 anecdote of, 303. 
 
 Gothic Architecture, 232. 
 
 Art, 201,231. 
 
 Gouda, 304, 314. 
 
 Gourmont, Jean de, 451. 
 
 Goya, 219, 229. 
 
 Goyen, Jan van, 345, 348. 
 
 Goyen, Marg. van, 345. 
 
 Gozzoli, Benozzo, 58, 66, 77, 82. 
 
 Graces, P. Vecchio, 160. 
 
 Graeco-Roman school, 17. 
 
 Granacci, Francisco, 433. 
 
 Granada, 200, 214. 
 
 Hall of the Council frescoes, 
 
 200. 
 Grandi, Ercole di Giulio, 84. 
 Grandi, Ercole di Robert!, 83. 
 Granet, Fr. Mar., 453. 
 Granson, 287. 
 Grebber, F. P. de, 448. 
 Greco, II. See Theotocopuli. 
 Greece, painting in Ancient, 7, 19. 
 Greedy Eater, Carracci, 185. 
 Greek art, fall of, 16. 
 
 contrasted, 24, 26, 53, 54. 
 
 development of, 10, 15, 268. 
 
 ideal, the, 9, 64, 118, 152, 
 
 371. 
 
 marriage of Otho, 269. 
 
 meaning of, 263-4. 
 
 nature worship, 8. 
 
 traditional origin, 1. 
 
 transmitted from Egypt, 1, 9. 
 
 transmitted to Rome, 17. 
 
 Green, Valentine, 414. 
 
 " Green complexions," cause of, 
 
 25. 
 Greenhill, John, 454. 
 Greenwich, 353. 
 
 Hospital, 389. 
 
 Hospital, Vincent, 419. 
 
 Gregory XI., 111. 
 
478 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Greuze, J. B., 369. 
 
 Grien, Hans Balding, 256. 
 
 Grimaldi, F., 190. 
 
 Grimani MS., 293. 
 
 Grimm, 110, 117, 127, 128, 133, 
 177. 
 
 Grimmer, Abel, 445. 
 
 Grimmer, Jacoli, 444. 
 
 Grisaille, 299. 
 
 Gros, Antoine Jean, 374, 381. 
 
 Grosvenor Gallery, 349, 392. 
 
 Grotesque, The, in art, 299. 
 
 Gruchy, 383. 
 
 Griinewakl, Matthias, 255. 
 
 Guadelupe, Ped. Fr. de, 202. 
 
 Guardi, Francisco, 198. 
 
 Guariento, 430. 
 
 Guercino. See Barbieri. 
 
 Guerin, Narcisse, 373. 
 
 Guicciardini, 297. 
 
 Guidi, Tommaso. See Masaccio. 
 
 Guido, of Bologna. See Reni. 
 
 Guido, of Siena, 28. 
 
 Guild of German Merchants, 157, 
 162, 249. 
 
 Guild of Joiners, Antwerp, 300. 
 
 Guild, Painters', Antwerp, 253, 
 301, 306, 309, 316, 322, 327 
 Bologna, 182 ; Bruges, 288 
 Brussels, 288 ; Florence, 87 
 Ghent, 273 ; ' Louvain, 288 
 Padua, 70; of S. Luke, Ghent, 
 285 ; Tournay, 286, 288. 
 
 Guitar Lesson, the, Terburg, 
 344. 
 
 Haarlem, 239, 293, 304, 307, 310, 
 
 314, 336, 838, 339, 345, 346, 
 
 348. 
 Haarlem, Gerard van (St. John, 
 
 Gerard of), 293,311. 
 Hackaert, Jan, 355. 
 Hackert, Johan P., 442. 
 Haecht, Tobie van, 316. 
 Hagen, Jan van, 352. 
 Hague, The, 334, 341 , 345, 349. 
 Hallam, 62, 88. 
 Hals, Frans, 327, 336, 338, 346, 
 
 355. 
 Hals, Frans, the younger, 339 
 
 Hals, Dirk, 339. 
 
 Halt at an Inn, RUysdael, 348. 
 
 Haman before Esther, Victoor, 
 
 327. 
 Hampstead, 419. 
 Harbour of Refuge, Walker, 427. 
 Hampton Court, 72, 115, 116, 138, 
 
 160, 161,257,303. 
 Harding, J. D., 421. 
 Hargreaves, Will., 456, 
 HarloCs Progress, Hogarth, 390. 
 Harlow, G. H., 404, 415. 
 Harvest Moon, Mason, 427. 
 Hasselt, Jehan de, 443. 
 Havard, 304, 341, 342, 347, 353. 
 Havell, William, 421. 
 Hay don, Benjamin Robert, 405, 
 
 406, 423. 
 Hayley, 399. 
 
 Hayman, Francis, 389, 398. 
 Haij-wain, Constable, 381. 
 Hazlitt, 324. 
 
 Head, Sir E., 200-204, 366, 368. 
 Head of Christ, Solario, 98 ; Van 
 
 Eyck, 283. 
 Hearne, Thomas, 421. 
 Heath, J., 414. 
 Hebert, 489. 
 Hebrews, Art of the, 7. 
 Heda, Cornelis, 448. 
 Heemskerk. See V. Veen. 
 Heideloff, C, 234. 
 Heil, Daniel de, 446. 
 Heinz, Joseph, 442. 
 Helen, by Zeuxis, 13. 
 Heller, Jacob, 251. 
 Helmont, 310. 
 Helmont, Matt, van, 446. 
 Heist, Bart Van der, 336, 338. 
 Hemessen. See Sanders. 
 Hemicycle, fresco, Delaroche, 379. 
 Henley, W. E., 383. 
 Hennequin de Bruges, 443. 
 Henry III., 166, 200. 
 Henry VIII., 155, 258, 303, 386. 
 Herbst, Hans, 440. 
 Herculaneum, 19, 137, 370, 
 Here, Lucas van, 285. 
 Herkenbald, Legend of, 286. 
 Herkenbald the Magnificent, Van 
 
 Weyden,286. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 479 
 
 Herkomer, Hubert, 415. 
 
 Herle, Wilhelm v. See Master 
 
 Wilhelm. 
 Herlin, Friedrich, 241. 
 Hermit Life, or the Father in the 
 
 Desert, Pietro, 48. 
 Herp, Gerard van, 446. 
 Herrera, El Mozo, 212, 225. 
 Herrera, Francisco de, el Vicjo, 
 
 212,213,217. 
 Herrint^, J. F., 457. 
 Herreyns, Guillaume, 329. 
 Hess, Peter, 442. 
 Hej'^de, J., v. d., 355. 
 Heyens, Catherine, 300. 
 Heytesbury, Lord, 219, 282. 
 "High Art," English painters of, 
 
 402, 404, 405, 423; French, 
 
 379. 
 Hildebrandt, Ed., 443. 
 Hildesheim, 233. 
 Hilliard, Nicholas, 387. 
 Hills, R., 421. 
 Hilton, W., 405, 423. 
 Hippolytus, 8., Scenes from Legend 
 
 of, Spinello, 42. 
 Hire, lliurent de la, 361. 
 Hirtz, Hans, 440. 
 Hispania, Pctrus de, 200. 
 Hispano-Neapolitan Art, 194. 
 Historic-painting, 266, 286, 292, 
 
 405, 423. 
 History of Civilization of Man, 
 
 Barry, 404. 
 
 Creation, M. Angelo, 115. 
 
 Joseph, d'Ubertino, 142. 
 
 8. Ursula, Carpaccio, 154. 
 
 Hobbema, Minderhout, 352, 353. 
 
 Ilobbes, Th., 388. 
 
 Hoefnagel, Joris, 444. 
 
 Ht)eckgeest, 448. 
 
 Hoffman, H., 442. 
 
 Hogarth, William, 345, 369, 380, 
 
 386, 389-94, 395, 400, 406, 416. 
 Holbein, Ambrose, 441. 
 Holbein, Hans, the elder, 256, 257. 
 Holbein, Hans, the younger, 241, 
 
 253, 257-260, 262, 307, 309, 
 
 351,359. 
 Holbein, Sigmund, 257. 
 Holl, F., 415. 
 
 Holland, Early School of, 297, 
 
 310,314. 
 Holland, Paintuig in, 293, 311, 
 
 386. 
 Holland, James, 421, 422. 
 Holy Family, Bartolommeo, 103; 
 
 Burgkmair, 256 ; Lanini, 97 ; 
 
 M. Angelo, 129 ; Murillo, 228 ; 
 
 Raphael, 108; [The Pearl], 121 ; 
 
 del Sarto, 141 ; Schongauer, 
 
 241 ; Titian, 168 ; Zurbaran, 
 
 216. 
 Holy Land, 260, 428. 
 Holy Trinity, Raphael, 107. 
 Homer, 10. 
 
 Homer as a Fiddler, Rubera, 195. 
 Hondecoeter, Melchior, 355. 
 Hone, Nat., 454. 
 Honthorst, Gerard, 314. 
 H{X)ghe, Peter de, 193, 330, 339, 
 
 344. 
 Hoorn, Count, 309. 
 Hope, Mr. Beresford, 282. 
 Hoppner, John, 415, 
 Horebout or Horembout, 444. 
 Hoskins, John, 387. 
 Hospital of Holy Charity, Seville, 
 
 226. 
 Hospital of St. John, Bruges, 290, 
 
 291. 
 Hotel de Ville, Brussels, 287. 
 Houbraken, Arnold, 441. 
 Houses of Parliament, 423. 
 Howard, Henry, 456. 
 Hiibner, Karl, 266. 
 Hudibras, 390. 
 
 Hudson, Thoma.s, 389, 394, 395. 
 Hue de Lannoy, 276. 
 Huet, Paul, 381. 
 Hiiffel, Victor, 446. 
 Hugtenburg, Jan viin, 351. 
 Humphreys, Noel, Holbein's 
 
 Dance of Death, 260. 
 Humphrey, O., 455. 
 Hunt, Holman, 412, 425. 
 Hunt, Wm. H., 421,422. 
 Hussite Conventicle, Hubner, 266. 
 Huy, convent of, 269. 
 Huysmans. Coruelis, 446. 
 Huysum, Van, 365. 
 Hymans, Henri, 293, 301. 
 
480 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Inlysos, 15. 
 
 Ibbetson, Jul. Caesar, 455. 
 Ichthus, Sj^mbol for Christ, 21. 
 Iconoclasts, The, 24, 75, 100, 301, 
 
 311. 
 Ideal, The Christian, 22, 24, 25, 
 
 26, 76. 
 Irleal in Art, 9. 
 Idealism, 237. 
 
 Ideal, Italian, 244, 291, 313. 
 Ideal beauty, 120, 291. 
 
 beauty of Raphael, 118. 
 
 Idealist, definition of, 120. 
 Idle Apprentice, Hogarth, 392. 
 II Furioso. See Kobusti. 
 Illuminations, 358. 
 Illuminatoi's and Printers, Society 
 
 of, Bruges, 293. 
 Illustrator, first, of modern books, 
 
 64. 
 Imhof altar-piece, 234. 
 Imitators of Rembrandt, 337. 
 Immaculate Conception, Murillo, 
 
 206, 226,228. 
 Impressionists, 384. 
 Incantation Scene, Teniers, 327. 
 Ince, Madonna, 282. 
 Incredulity of S. Thomas, Battista, 
 
 154; II Calabrese, 196. 
 India, art of, 7 ; Zoffany in, 401. 
 Individuality of style, 331, 337, 
 
 364. 
 Infanta, Mai-garita Maria, 220. 
 Infanta, Maria Theresa, 221. 
 Inferno, Dante's, 36. 
 Ingelheim, Upper, church and 
 
 castle, 232. 
 Ingobertus, 451. 
 Ingres, J. Aug. Dom., 376. 
 Innocent VIII., 71. 
 Innspruck, 266. 
 Inquisition, The, 202, 210. 
 
 Inspector of paintings, 205. 
 
 Inquisitorial Spain, 226. 
 Interior, with S. .4w?«e, Rembrandt, 
 
 192. 
 Invention of oil painting. See Oil- 
 painting. 
 Ionic School, 13. 
 Iphigeneia, 14. 
 Ipswich, 398. 
 
 Iriarte, Ignacio, 439. 
 
 Isabel of Portugal, 276. 
 
 Isabella, Regent of Netherlands, 
 317, 318. 
 
 Isenmann, Caspar, 440. 
 
 Isle of Pheasants, 220. 
 
 Israels, Joseph, 356. 
 
 Italian perfection, 86 ; art in six- 
 teenth century, 153; influence 
 of, 202; decadence, 361, 386; 
 painters in Spain, 201, 206 ; 
 Society, 75, 163; School of 
 seventeenth century, 361. 
 
 Italy, 220, 223, 240, 268, 289, 323, 
 354, 395. 
 
 fifteenth century magnifi- 
 cence, 75. 
 
 painting in, 33-198. 
 
 Italianisation of Spanish art, 206. 
 
 DutcJi, 354. 
 
 Italianisers of Antwei*p, 305. 
 
 Dutch landscape, 352. 
 
 ItaHanisers, 398. 
 
 " Itinerant," 420. 
 
 Itinerant Musicians, Madou, 330. 
 
 Ixion, Ribera, 195. 
 
 Jackson, John, 415. 
 
 Jackson and Chatto, 250. 
 
 Jacob, 232. 
 
 Jacobzoon, Dirk, 312. 
 
 Jacobzoon, Luc (Lucas van Ley- 
 den), 296, 310, 312-14. 
 
 Jacobi, Bernardino, 84. 
 
 Jacopo, Gio. Batt. di, il Rosso 
 142, 360, 383. 
 
 James, I., 387. 
 
 Jameson, Mrs., 58, 65, 72, 139, 
 159, 318, 320, 331. 
 
 Jamesone, George, 326, 387, 388. 
 
 Janet. See Clouet. 
 
 Jauetchek, 184, 186. 
 
 Janssens, Abraham, 324. 
 
 Janssens, V. H., 446. 
 
 Japanese, Art of the, 7. 
 
 Jardin, Karel du, 354. 
 
 Jason, Turner, 410. 
 
 Jeaurat, J., 452. 
 
 Jervas, Charles, 389. 
 
 Jerusalem, 280, 306. 
 
 Jews, 215. 
 
 Ka 
 Ka 
 Ka 
 Kai 
 Ka, 
 
 Ken 
 Kep 
 Kepj 
 Kess 
 
 \ 
 Key. 
 
 Aierii 
 
INDEX. 
 
 481 
 
 Jiefenbronn in Swabia, 237. 
 Joanes, Vicente, 204, 207. 
 Job^ Trials oj, Francesco, 42. 
 Jode, P. de, 359. 
 John III., Duke of Brabant, 270. 
 Johnson, 397. 
 Jones, G., 456. 
 Jongkind, Joh. Bart. 
 Joost, Jan, 239. 
 Jordaens, Jacob, 322, 324, 325. 
 Joseph, Pontormo, 135. 
 Josepli of Austria, 278. 
 Joseph, King, 217. 
 Josephus, 358. 
 Jouvenet, Jean, 367. 
 |JuanII. of Castile, 201. 
 Juanes, Vicente, 204. 
 Judgment of Cambyses, G. David, 
 
 292. 
 Judgment of Solomon, Giorgione, 
 
 157. 
 
 Judith, C. Allori, 190. 
 Judith and Holofernes, Francia, 
 
 82 ; Pordenone, 159. 
 Julian, emperor, 23, 24. 
 Julius II., Pope, 98, 108, 112, 113, 
 
 114, 127, 128, 129, 130, 188. 
 Jupiter and Antiope, Correggio, 
 
 180. 
 
 — Danae, Mabuse, 302. 
 Justi, Karl, 307. 
 Justin of Nassau, Prince, 220. 
 Justus of Ghent, 285. 
 Justus of Padua. See Giusto di 
 
 Giovanni. 
 
 Kalf, Willem, 355. 
 Kaltenhof, Peter, 440. 
 Karlstein, castle of, 233. 
 Kauffman, Angelica, 402. 
 Kaulbach, Willielm von, 266. 
 Kempeneer. See Canipana. 
 Kensington Museum, 425. 
 Kepler, 88. 
 
 Keppcl, Commodore, 395. 
 Kesselberg hills, 295. 
 Key, Adrian Th., 309. 
 Key, William, 309. 
 Keyzer, Th. de, 336. 
 Kierings, Alex., 448. 
 
 Klein, Jos. A., 442. 
 Knaus, Ludwig, 266. 
 Kneller, Sir G., .355, 388, 394. 
 Knight of Malta, Giorgione, 157. 
 Kniqht, Death and Devil, Diirer, 
 
 252. 
 Knights of the Holy Sepulchre, 
 
 306. 
 Knudtzon's Masaccio, 53. 
 Knuffer, 345. 
 Koch, Jos. Anton., 266. 
 K(>ck, Pieter, 444. 
 Koekkoek, B., 451. 
 Kolbe, K. W., 442. 
 Koninck, Ph. de, 338, 348. 
 Krell, Hans, 441. 
 Krodell, W., 441. 
 Kiigler's Handbooks of Painting, 
 
 28, 31, 61, 114, 163, 245, 255, 
 
 257, 287, 312, 350. 
 Kulmbach, 256. 
 Kulmbach, Hans von, 345. 
 Kiinstblatt, 290. 
 Kiinst u. Kiinstler, 53, 60, 184. 
 Kunz, 233. 
 
 Laar, Pieter de, 340. 
 Laborde, De, 275, 359. 
 Lacroix Collection, 337. 
 Ladbroke, Robert, 467. 
 Lady and Getiilcman, Van Eyck, 
 
 281. 
 LeetUia, Morland, 416. 
 La Fcmme Hydropiqiie, Dou, 341. 
 La Gloria, Phillip, 428. 
 Laia or Lala of Cyzicus, 18. 
 L'Allemand, 362. 
 La Source, Ingres, 377. 
 La Viergc au bas-relief, Vinci, 
 
 93. 
 
 aujc RocherSf Vinci, 93. 
 
 Limb, Chas., 390, 391, 425. 
 Lamoriniere, Fr., 330. 
 Lampsonius, Dom., 307. 
 L:ince, Geo., 222. 
 Lancret, Nicolas, 368. 
 Landini, Jacopo, 40. 
 LaiuUcapc, Patinir, 310. 
 Landscape painting, 19, 58, 59, 
 
 145, 152, 167, 186, 188, 190, 
 
 I I 
 
482 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 196, 209, 221, 253, 255, 256, 
 266, 304, 310, 335, 338, 348, 
 360, 351, 353, 364. 
 
 Landscape painting in England, 
 354,401, 408, 416, 418. 
 
 in Flanders, 292, 309. 
 
 Heroic School of, 365. 
 
 in Holland, 347. 
 
 Landseer, Sir Edwin, 412, 416. 
 
 Lanfranco, Giovanni, 186, 188, 
 196. 
 
 Lange Pier. Sec Aartzen. 
 
 Lanini, Bernardino, 97, 181. 
 
 Lansdowne, Lord, 205. 
 
 Lanzi, 48. 
 
 Largiiliere, Nicolas, 380. 
 
 Lasinio, Pitture del Campo Santo, 
 42. 
 
 Last Judgment, 4; J. Aeken, 296; 
 Bartholommeo, 1 03 ; Bout's, 
 295 j Cousin, 359 ; L. v. Leyden, 
 312; Lorenzetti, 48; M. An- 
 gelo's, 78, 132, 133; Meister 
 Stephen, 237,243 ; in the Burg 
 at Niirnberg, 233 : Orcagna, 
 43, 133; Prevost, 296; Rubens, 
 321; Signorelli, 74 ; Stuerbout, 
 296; Tintoretto, 172; Vander 
 Weyden's, 287. 
 
 Lastman, Pieter, 314, 332, 337. 
 
 Last Sleep of Argyle, E. M. Ward, 
 424. 
 
 Last SKjyper, I). Bouts, 294 ; Ces- 
 pedes, 208 ; Ercole di Roberti, 
 84; Justus of Ghent, 285; 
 D'Oggione, 95 ; del Sarto, 141 ; 
 Tintoretto, 172; Vinci, 89-90, 
 93. 
 
 Latour, Maurice Quentin de, 380. 
 
 Lautensac-k, Hans Sebald, 442. 
 
 Lawrence Collection, 109. 
 
 Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 399-400, 
 415. 
 
 Lawson, Cecil, 458. 
 
 Layard, A., 104. 
 
 Layard, Sir Henry, 67, 148, 
 158. 
 
 Leal, Juan de Valdes, 225, 229. 
 
 Le Beffroi, Weale, 269. 
 
 Le Brun. See Brun. 
 
 Lecky, 2, 23, 207. 
 
 . 366. 
 Poussin, 
 
 Leda with Swan, Correggio, 180. 
 
 Leech, John, 427. 
 
 Latevre, Claude, 367. 
 
 Legend of King Arthur, Dyce, 
 
 423. 
 Leighton, Sir F., 412. 
 Leipsig, 261. 
 Leith, 405. 
 
 Lcly, Sir Peter. See Faes. 
 Le Mans, 358. 
 Lemoine. See Moine. 
 Le Nain, Antoine, Louis, Mathieu, 
 
 361. 
 J^enoir. See Noir. 
 Leo IV., 114. 
 Leo X., 94, 113, 114, 115, 130, 
 
 131, 188. 
 Leonardo. See Vinci. 
 Leslie, C. R., 340, 403, 407. 
 Les Moissonneurs, Robert, 376. 
 Lessing, K. F., 266. 
 Le Sueur, Eustache, 361, 
 Les Vergers d'Arcadie, 
 
 364. 
 Lettenhove, K. de, 274. 
 Lethiere, 373. 
 Letter of Leonardo da Vinci to 
 
 Ludovico Sforza, 91. 
 Lewis, J. F., 421, 422. 
 Leyden, 311, 312, 331, 345. 
 Leyden, Lucas van. See Jacobzoon. 
 Leys, Baron Henri J. A., 266, 
 
 329. 
 Liber Studiorum of Turner, 410. 
 Liberale da Verona, 84, 173. 
 Library, Paris, 359. 
 Libri, Girolamo dai, 173. 
 L'cinio, Bernardino, 160. 
 Liege, 269, 275, 307, 310. 
 
 John, Bishop of, 274. 
 
 Liesborn, Meister von, 239. 
 
 Lievens, Jan, 337. 
 
 Life and Death of Duke of Bicck- 
 
 ingham, Egg, 407. 
 Life of Christ, Wilhelm of Cologne, 
 
 235. 
 
 Lavid, Sebald, 255. 
 
 S. Bruno, Le Sueur, 366. 
 
 the Virgin, Diirer, 250. 
 
 Life School of the B.A., Zoffany, , 
 
 401. . i 
 
 1 
 
INDEX. 
 
 483 
 
 Liget, 358. 
 
 Light and shade, first student of, 
 
 12. Sec al/io Chiaroscuro. 
 Ligozzi, Jacopo, 436. 
 LilJe, 274, 352. 
 Limburg (/hronicle, 235. 
 Limner for Scotland, 414. 
 Lincolnshire, 422. 
 Lindsay's " Christian Art," 27, 66. 
 Lingeibach, Johann, 348, 354. 
 Linnell, John, 423. 
 Lint, PieUn- van, 446. 
 Linton, William, 457. 
 Lioti Hunt, Rubens, 321. 
 Lippi, Fra Filippo, 60-2, 63, 68, 
 
 101. 
 Lippi, Filippino, 54, 62, 64,68, 94. 
 Lippn J^alma.sii, 431. 
 Lisbon, 204, 276. 
 " Literar}' Club," 397. 
 Little Masters, 255 ; [of Holland], 
 
 340, 344. 
 Liverpool exhibitions, 413. 
 
 Corporation, 426. 
 
 Institute, 47, 138. 
 
 Livy, 18. 
 
 Llorente, D. Bernardo German de, 
 
 440. 
 Lochner, Stephan, 235, 238, 239. 
 Locusta trying Poison on a Slave, 
 
 Sigalon, 379. 
 Lodi, 170. 
 
 Lodovico da Parma, 435. 
 Ijocihener. See Lochner. 
 Loggie of S. Damascus, decora- 
 tions of the, 114, 115. 
 Lomazzo, Gio. Paolo, 182. 
 Lombard, Lambert. See Suster- 
 
 man. 
 Ix)mbard School, 84, 177. 
 London, 198, 323, 324, 389, 400, 
 
 408, 414, 418, 419. 
 Loiighi, Antonio. iSV« Veniziano. 
 lionghi, Luca, 435. 
 Longhi, Pietro, 198. 
 Longhi's engraving, 106. 
 I^oten, Jan, 352. 
 Loredano, Doge Leonardo, 150. 
 Lorenz Kirche, 234. 
 Lorcnzetti. See Lorenzo, Amb. 
 and Piet. 
 
 Lorenzo, Ambrogio di, 43, 47. 
 
 Lorenzo, Fiorenzo di, 77. 
 
 Lorenzo, Monaco, 57-8. 
 
 Lorenzo, Pietro di, 43, 47. 
 
 Lorenzo the Magnificent. See 
 Medici. 
 
 Lorraine, 361. 
 
 Ljrraine, Claude. See G6\6e. 
 
 Los Borrachos, Velasquez, 219. 
 
 Loschi, Countoss of, 157. 
 
 Loth, Carl, uf Munich, 442. 
 
 Lotto, Lorenzo, 15S, 161. 
 
 Louis XI., 35S. 
 
 LiuisXIL, of Milan, 94. 
 
 L)ui3 XIII., 361, 363. 
 
 L)ui3 XIV., 94, 116, 221, 361, 
 363, 366, 367, 375. 
 
 L)uis XV., 367, 368, 370, 375. 
 
 Louis XVL, 371. 
 
 Loutherbourg, Ph. de, 402. 
 
 Louvain, 238, 292, 293, 297, 299, 
 309. 
 
 Chapel of S. Peter's, 294. 
 
 School of, 293, 297. 
 
 — Town Hall, 293-4, 295, 296, 
 325. 
 
 Louvre, The, 56, 72, 80, 84, 92, 
 93, 98, 99, 102, 108, 121, 140, 
 146, 148, 149, 158, 161, 163, 
 168, 175, 179, 180, 193, 196, 
 209, 212, 216, 222, 224, 226, 
 228, 229, 255, 280, 282, 286, 
 289, 300, 322, 327, 338, 341, 
 34S, 369, 361-64, 366, 367, 369, 
 370-74, 376-80, 414. 
 
 Lovere, 147. 
 
 Low Countries, realistic tendency, 
 269. 
 
 Ijower Rhine Schools, 240. 
 
 Lubbock, Sir John, 2. 
 
 Liibke's '' History of Art," 12, 
 73, 90, 110, 122, 247, 258,407. 
 
 Lucca, 102. 
 
 Lucian, 13. 
 
 Luciani, Sebastian (del Fiombu), 
 122, 134-5, 142, 159, 186, 209. 
 
 Lucientes. iSee Goya. 
 
 Lucina, 363. 
 
 Lucretia del Fede,'14L 
 
 Lucretia, Sodoma, 98. 
 i Ludius, 19. 
 
484 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ludovico da Parma, 435. 
 Ludovisi, Villa, 187, 189. 
 Lufhvig, King of Bavaria, 266. 
 Ludwigskirche, 265. 
 Lugano, 96, 97. 
 Luini, Bernardino, 99, 182. 
 Lumley, Sir J. Saville, 222. 
 Lutero, Gio. Nic. di (Dosso Dossi), 
 
 138. 
 Luther, 241, 254, 260, 262. 
 Luther sinking in Eisenach, Leys, 
 
 330. 
 Luvino. See Luini. 
 Lyons, 80, 259, 280. 
 Lyversberg Passion, 238. See 
 
 Meckenen. 
 
 Maas, Nicolas, 337, 339, 344. 
 
 Maas, Kiver, 350. 
 
 Maaseyck, 273, 282. 
 
 M abuse. See Gossaert. 
 
 Macbeth, 1^.. 427. 
 
 Macbeth and Witches, Koch, 266. 
 
 Machinisti, The, 198, 316. 
 
 Machleskircher, G., 440. 
 
 Machuca, Pedro, 204. 
 
 Machse, Daniel, 423. 
 
 Madness of H. van der Goes, 235, 
 330. 
 
 Madonna, Bartolommeo, 101 ; 
 Battista, 154; Credi, 99; 
 Francia, 82 ; Giorgione, 156 ; 
 Holbein, 258; Luini, 96; Pacchi, 
 99 ; Perugino, 79, 80, 107 ; 
 Petrus Cristus, 283; Raphael, 
 105, 108, 118, 119, 121; Santi, 
 104, Sarto, 140; Solario, 97; 
 Vecchio, 160. 
 
 Madonna Ansidei, Raphael, 107 ; 
 the Meier, Hans Holbein, 257. 
 
 Mado?mas,Borgognone,S5 ; Botti- 
 celli, 63 ; Byzantine, 243 ; Cano, 
 213; Guido, 189; Lippi, 60,61; 
 Memling, 291; Murillo, 226; 
 Ribera, 195 ; Sassof'errato, 191 ; 
 Titian, 163, 168; Veronese, 
 174; Vinci, 93. 
 
 Madonna a^id Child, Beltraffio, 96 ; 
 Gioi'gione, 157; L. v. Leyden, 
 312; Memrai, 47; Mantagna, 
 72 J Santi, 104; J. van Eyck, 
 
 282; Veneziano,83; Wihelmof 
 
 Cologne, 235. 
 Madonna del Gatto, Baroecio, 180 ; 
 
 del Granduca, Raphael ; del 
 
 Pesee, Raphael, 121 ; del Sedia, 
 
 Raphael, 121. 
 Madonna della Misericordie, Bar- 
 tolommeo, 102; della Vittoriay 
 
 Mantagna, 72. 
 Madonna di Fulgino, Raphael, 121, 
 
 122; rfi-Saw/SVs^o, Raphael, 121, 
 
 122, 154. 226. 
 Madomia Enthroned, Bartolommeo, 
 
 102 ; Garofalo, 138 ; Mantagna, 
 
 170 ; Vivarini, 143. 
 Madonna in Rose Garden, Francia, 
 
 82; tuith the Roses, Luini, 97; 
 
 in Rose Arbour, Wallraf Mus., 
 
 237 ; with the Rosary, Sassofer- 
 
 rato, 191. 
 Madonna with Saints, Correggio, 
 
 178. 
 Madou, J. B. de, 330. 
 Madrazo, 230. 
 Madrid, 121, 161, 168,195,207, 
 
 208, 211-13, 216-18, 221, 223, 
 
 228, 229, 297. 
 Maestlin, 88. 
 Maestricht, 234. 
 Magdalen Coll., Oxford, 209. 
 Magdalen, Correggio, 179; Guido, 
 
 189. 
 Magno, Cesare, 435. 
 Mahomedan inspiration, 200. 
 Maiden Lane, 408. See Academy. 
 Maids of Honour, Velasquez, 220. 
 Mainardi, 68. 
 Makart, Hans, 267. 
 Malines. See Mechlin. 
 Malta, 193, 196. 
 Malvasia, " Felsina Pittrice," 184, 
 
 188. 
 Malvolio, Maclise, 423. 
 Manchester, 413. 
 Mander, Carel van, 272, 273, 282 
 
 284, 289, 293, 299,313. 
 Mandyn, Jan, 311. 
 Manet, Edouard, 384. 
 Manet ti, Rutilio, 436. 
 Manfredi, Bart., 194. 
 Manneristi, 181, 182, 305, 361. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 485 
 
 Manni, Giannicolo di Paolo, 80. 
 Mansiieti, Giovanni, l/»4. 
 Mantegna, Andrea, 49, 70-2, 73, 
 
 81, 83,84, 103, 146, 149, 173. 
 Mante<?na, Cai-lo del, 434. 
 
 Francesco, 433. 
 
 Mantovano, Rinaldo, 137. 
 Mantna, 71, 92, i;}7, 165. 
 Duchess of, 92. 
 
 Federigo Gonzajja, Duke 
 
 of, 137, 165. 
 
 Gunzaga, Duke of, 316. 
 
 Gonzaga family, 72, 92. 
 
 Ludovico Gonzaga, Duke 
 
 of, 71, 72. 
 
 Vincenzio Gonzaga, Duke 
 
 of, 316. 
 
 Mantz, Paul, 283, 369. 
 
 Manuel, Nicolas (Deutsch), 260. 
 
 Manufactory of altar-pieces, 246. 
 
 Maratti, Carlo, 191. 
 
 Marcellis Otho, 355. 
 
 March, Esteban, 212, 213. 
 
 March to Finchley, Hogarth, 392. 
 
 Marche, Olivier de la, 275, 284. 
 
 Marcm Brutus, David, 371. 
 
 Margaret of Austria, 304. 
 
 Margaret, Regent of the Nether- 
 lands, 306. 
 
 Margaret of York, 284. 
 
 Margaritone of Arezzo, 28. 
 
 Maria, Wright, 415. 
 
 Marie delle Grazie, Convent, 90. 
 
 Marien Kirche, Zwickau, 247. 
 
 Marihat, Prosper, 453. 
 
 Marino, 362. 
 
 Marinus of Romerswalen, 301. 
 
 Maris, Jacob, 356. 
 
 Maris, Matthew, 356. 
 
 Maris, Willom, 356. 
 
 Marius a Mintunics, Drouais, 373. 
 
 Marlborough, Duke of, 107. 
 
 Marne, J. L. de, 446. 
 
 Marquez, Esteban, 440. 
 
 Marriage ^ la Mode^ Hogarth, 392, 
 
 of Alexander am Roxana, 
 
 Sodoma, 98. 
 
 ■ of Cana, Schnorr, 265 ; Ve- 
 ronese, 175. 
 
 • Isaac and Rebecca, Claude, 
 
 365. 
 
 Marriage of 8. Catharine, Borgog- 
 
 none, 85 ; Correggio, 179 ; Luinl, 
 
 97; Murillo, 227. 
 the Virgin, Buonacorso, 46 ; 
 
 Memling, 290; Perugino, 80 j 
 
 Raphael, 105. 
 Mars and Venus, Botticelli, 64. 
 Martin, David, 455. 
 Martin, John, 457. 
 Martinez, Luxan, 229. 
 Martin d'Ollanda. See Schongauer. 
 Martini, Bernardino. See Zenale. 
 Martini, Simone. See Memmi. 
 Martino di Bartolommeo, 431. 
 Martino da Udine (Pellegrino), 
 
 154. 
 Martins, Nabor, 443. 
 Martyrdom ofSacco, del Sarto, 14 1 . 
 Martyrdom of Savonarola, 100, 
 
 127. 
 
 of S. Catherine, Ferrari, 97. 
 
 of S. Erasmus, D. Bouts, 294 ; 
 
 Poussin, 363. 
 of S. Lawrence^ Elzheimer, 
 
 263. 
 SS. Processus and Martianus, 
 
 Valentin, 362. 
 S. Sebastian, A. Pollaiuolo, 
 
 69 ; Veronese, 174. 
 Mary of Hungarv, 228, 301. 
 Mary, Queen, 175, 309. 
 Margs, Ribera, 195. 
 Marziale, Marco, 154. 
 Masaccio, 49, 51, 53, 54, 65, 58, 
 
 69, 60, 65, 68,74, 101, 103. 
 Masaniello, 196. 
 Mascagni, Donaio, 437. 
 Mascarone, II, Anni-Carracci, 185. 
 Maso, 40. 
 
 Masolino. See Panicale. 
 Mason, Geo., 427. 
 Massacre of Scio, Delacroix, 377. 
 Massari, Lucio, 436. 
 Massone, Gio., 433. 
 Massys, Cornelius, Quentin, and 
 
 Jan, 301. 
 Massys, Catherine, 298. 
 Massys, Jusse, 298 ; the younger, 
 
 299. 
 Massys, Queutin, 294, 297, 300, 
 
 302, 311, 330. See also MeUys. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ilaster Cristoferus, 236. 
 
 Master, The, of the Death of the 
 
 Virgin, 238, 245. 
 Master, The, of the Lyversberg 
 
 Passion, 238. 
 Master Rogier of Louvain, 298. 
 Mastiirzio, Marzio, 197. 
 Matres Dolorosa, Domenichino, 
 
 187. 
 Matteo di Giovanni, 50. 
 Mauberge, 301. 
 Maurer, CHstoph., 442. 
 Maurolycus, 88. 
 Mausoleum of Julius II., 129. 
 Mauve, Anton., 356. 
 Max, Gabriel, 267. 
 Maximilian, Emperor, 249, 253, 
 
 256, 292, 502. 
 Maximilian, Elector, 252. 
 Mayno, Juan Bautisti, 205. 
 Mazo, 221. 
 Mazza, 90. 
 
 Mazzolino, Ludovico, 138. 
 Mazzuola, Francesco (II Par- 
 
 migiano), 180, 183. 
 
 (three brothers,) 435. 
 
 Mecarino. See Beccafumi. 
 Mechlin, 306, 329, 338. 
 Meckenen, Isi'ael van, 238. 
 Mediaeval German life, 242. 
 Medici, the, 50, 61, 62, 100, 131, 
 
 240, 285, 289. 
 Medici, Alessandro do, 132. 
 Medici Chapel, 59, 61, 132. 
 Medici, Cosmo de', 56, 60, 62, 
 
 289. 
 Medici, Giovanni de, 61. 
 Medici, Giuliano, 62, 131. 
 Medici, Ippolito, Cardinal, 113, 
 
 164. 
 Medici, Loj-enzo de', 62, 74, 94, 
 
 HI, 124. 
 Medici, Lorenzo, gardens of, 124; 
 
 tomb of, 131. 
 Medici, Marie de', 322. 
 Medici, Piero de', 62, 125. 
 Medici portraits, Benozzo, 59. 
 Medicean Courts, 119. 
 
 Pope, 132. 
 
 Meer, Jan Van der, 339, 344. 
 Meeting of the Regents, Bol, 336. 
 
 Meeting rf Wellington and Blucher, 
 
 Maclise, 423. 
 Meier, Jacob, 257. 
 Meire, Gerard van der, 284, 285. 
 Meister Stephan (Stephan Loch- 
 
 ner), 231, 235, 243. 
 Meister Wilhelm of Cologne, 231, 
 
 235. 
 Melancholia, Diirer, 252. 
 Melancthon, 251, 254, 260, 262. 
 Melanthius, 14. 
 Melone, Altobello, 170. 
 Melozzo, da Forli, 73, 76. 
 Melusine, Schwindt, 266. 
 Melzi, Francesco, 95. 
 Memling, Hans, 289-92, 294, 299. 
 Memmi, Lippo, 46, 47. 
 Memmi, Simone (Simone di Mar- 
 
 tino), 46, 48, 
 Mengs, Raphael. 198, 263, 370, 
 
 375. 
 Menniti, Mario, 194. 
 Menzel, Adolf, 266. 
 Mercury and Woodman, Salvator 
 
 Rosa, 196. 
 Merian, Matthew, 449. 
 Merisi, Michelangelo, da Cara- 
 
 vaggio, 188, 190, 192-4, 195, 
 
 215, 325, 331,361. 
 Merlo, 236. 
 Merzal, Pedro, 201. 
 Mesdag, H. W., 356. 
 Mesopotamia, 7. 
 Messina, Antonello da, 97, 143, 
 
 144, 145. 
 Metelli, Agost., 437. 
 Metsu, Gabriel, 344. 
 Metsjs, Jean, ironwork by, 297. 
 Metten Gelde, Catherine, 295. 
 Meulen, Ant. Fr. v. d., 446. 
 Meyerheim, F. E., 443. 
 Michael Angelo. See Buonarotti. 
 Michallon, 382. 
 Michel, A., 369. 
 Michelet, 92. 
 Michiels, Alf.,285. 
 Micon of Athens, 12. 
 Middelburg, 301, 304, 313. 
 Miel, Jan, 445. 
 Mielich, Hans, 441. 
 Mierevelt, Michael Van, 336. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 487 
 
 Mieris, Frans, 341-2, 344. 
 
 . Frans, the younger, 342. 
 
 Mieris, Willem, 342. 
 Mignard, Pierre, 367. 371. 
 Milan, 84, 85, 87, 90, 93, 94, 95, 
 
 96, 97, 98, 105, 134, 169, 190, 
 
 192, 193. Si-c Brora. 
 
 Duke of, 91, 289. 
 
 Milanese School, 85, 170. 
 Milano, Giovanni da, 40. 
 Mildmay, H. B., 392. 
 MUkwoman, Vermeer, 340. 
 Millais, Sir John Everett, 412,415, 
 
 425. 
 Millbank, 410. 
 
 Millet, Francois, 356, 379, 383. 
 Milton Gallery^ Fuseli, 404. 
 Miniatures, 232, 320, 360, 387. 
 Miniaturists, 55, 256, 268,290,292, 
 
 293. 
 
 English School, 387, 421. 
 
 Minutiae, 341. 
 
 Miracle of S, Mark, Tintoretto, 
 
 Miracles of the Cross, Gentile, 
 
 148. 
 Miseres de la Guerre, Callot, 361. 
 Misers, Massys, 300. 
 Mocetto, Girolamo, 173. 
 Modena, 138, 183. 
 "Modern Painters," Buskin, 410, 
 
 411. 
 Modern Schools — Belgian, 3£9 ; 
 
 Dutch, 356; English, 418; 
 
 French, 384 ; Munich, 267. 
 Moer, J. B. Van, 330. 
 Moine, Fr. Le, 452. 
 Moise. See Valentin, 362, 
 Mol, Pieter van, 446. 
 Mola, G. B., 188. 
 Mola, P. F., 191. 
 Molanus, J., 297. 
 Molenaers, The, 344, 346. 
 Moliere, illustrated, 407. 
 Molyn, Pieter de, 348. 
 Monaco. See Lorenzo. 
 Mona Lisa, 92, 93. 
 Monamy, Peter, 454. 
 Money -pieces, 300, 301. 
 Monk Scrgius killed by Mahomet, 
 
 L. V. Leyden, 312. 
 Monna Vanna, Hoi. Hunt, 426. 
 
 Monnoyer, J. B., 379, 382. 
 Mons, 296, 309. 
 Monson, Lord, 93. 
 Montagna, Bartolommeo, 170. 
 ]\IonteteItro, Duke F. de, 285. 
 Monte Luce, 108. 
 Moonlight scenes, 351. 
 Moonlight, Turner, 410. 
 Muore, illustrated by Maelise, 423. 
 Moors, The, in Spain, 200, 201. 
 Morales, Luis de (El Divino), 202-3, 
 
 209. 
 Morality in Art, 151, 369. 
 Morando, Paolo, 173. 
 Morat, Battle of, 287. 
 More, Sir Thomas, 258, 259, 299. 
 Moreel, William, 290. 
 Moreelse, Paulus, 336. 
 Morelli, 64, 77, 82, 97, 105, 144, 
 
 145, 157, 170. 
 Moreito. See Bonvicino. 
 Morgenstern, Chris., 443. 
 Morghen, Raphael, 89, 90, 189. 
 Morland, Geo., 415, 416. 
 Moruay, M. de, 377. 
 Morning, sculpture, by M. An- 
 
 gelo, 131. 
 Moro, Sir Antony, 204, 307, 309- 
 
 10, 314. 
 Moi'one, Domenico, 84. 
 Morone, Francesco, 84, 173. 
 Moroni, Giambattista, 170, 
 Mortimer, J. H., 404. 
 Mosaics at Home, Venice, and 
 
 Kavenna, 27, 28. 
 Mosaic of the Navicella, 35. 
 
 Ghirlandaio's opinion of, 69. 
 
 Moscow, 230. 
 
 Moser, G. M., 454. 
 
 Moser, Lucas, 237. 
 
 Moser, Mai*y, 455. 
 
 Moses, statue by M. Angelo, 130. 
 
 a7ul the Burning Bush, Gior- 
 
 gione. 157. 
 Mostert, Jan, 304. 
 Mottraye's Travels, 390. 
 Moucheron, F.. 449. 
 Mount Athos, School of Fainting 
 
 of, 29. 
 Mouth of a Dutch River, Koninck, 
 
 348. 
 
488 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Moya, Pedro, 439. 
 
 Mozo, El. See Herrera. 
 
 Mudo, El. See Navarrete. 
 
 Muhlberg, battle of, 260. 
 
 Muller's Archtelogie der Kunst, 
 10, 14. 
 
 Muller, M. K. F., 443. 
 
 Miiller, Will., 422. 
 
 Mulready, William, 406. 
 
 Mummy-cases, Paintings on, 7. 
 
 Munich, 68,82, 108,168,261,265, 
 312, o21, 322,355. 
 
 See Finakothek. 
 
 Munich School, The, 264, 265, 
 267. 
 
 Munkacsy, 267. 
 
 Munro, Dr., 409. 
 
 Miintz, 305. 
 
 Mural paintings in France, 358. 
 
 Murano. See Vivarini and Ala- 
 manus. 
 
 Murano, island of, 143. 
 
 school of, 1 43. 
 
 • painters, 146. 
 
 Murder of Bishop of H}ge, Dela- 
 croix, 377. 
 
 Murillo, Bartolome Esteban, 199, 
 204, 206, 212, 213, 216, 217, 
 218, 222-28, 325. 
 
 Museum Pictorium, 207. 
 
 Museums, Amsterdam, 348 ; Ant- 
 werp, 47, 283, 297, 302, 309, 
 359 ; Basel, 257 ; Berlin, 39, 47, 
 143, 146, 165, 173, 193, 235, 
 266, 294 ; the British, 2, 128, 
 147, 185, 190, 254, 260, 335, 
 425 — Print Room at, 242 ; 
 Brunswick, 337 ; Brussels, 204, 
 290, 295, 309, 325, 329, 330 j 
 Cluny, 359 ; Cologne, 233, 235, 
 237, 238, 239 ; Dijon, 269 ; 
 Dresden, 265 ; Frankfort, 169, 
 283 ; Ghent, 325 ; Hague, 340 ; 
 Lyons, 80; Madrid, 157, 208, 
 279; Milan {See Brera and 
 Ambrosiana); Naples, 196, 197; 
 Rotterdam, 337 ; Seville, 208, 
 212,216; Soluthurn,258; South 
 Kensington, 26, 72, 116, 116, 
 202, 425 ; Valencia, 210 ; Van 
 der Hoop, 340. 
 
 Music^ Melozzo, 73. 
 Music Lesson, MetzH, 344. 
 Mtisical Party, Caravaggio, 193. 
 Mtisicians, Caravaggio, 192. 
 Musset, AHred do, 375. 
 Mystic Lamb, the, of S. Bavon, 
 Van Eyck, 236, 272, 278, 306. 
 Mytens, D., 448. 
 Mythology, old Northern, 243. 
 
 Nain, Antoine Le, 361. 
 
 Nain, Louis Le, 361. 
 
 Nain, Matthew Le, 361. 
 
 Nake, Heinrich, 265. 
 
 Nancy, battle of, 290. 
 
 Naples, 47, 186, 189, 193, 195, 196, 
 210 ; the Catacombs at, 22 ; gal- 
 lery at, 93, 96, 197 ; Giotto at, 
 38 ; plague at, 197 ; school of, 
 194 ; Viceroy of, 194. 
 
 Napoleon I., 90, 372, 374, 378. 
 
 Napoleon III., 216, 228. 
 
 Nasmyth, Patrick, 423. 
 
 National characteristics in art, 243, 
 250, 261, 302, 310, 348, 361, 
 363. 
 
 National Gallery, 28, 32, 39, 40, 
 44, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52, 54, 57, 58, 
 59, 60, 63, 64, 66, 69, 70, 71, 72, 
 73,77, 79,80, 81,82,83,84,85, 
 93, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 104, 107, 
 108, 112, 121, 129, 134, 135, 
 137, 138, 141, 142, 144, 145, 
 150, 154, 155, 156, 157, 161, 
 162, 168, 169, 170, 172, 173, 
 175, 176, 180, 181, 184, 185, 
 186, 187, 188, 190, 191, 193, 
 195,196, 198,216,222, 225, 228, 
 237,238,239,245,257,260,263, 
 281, 289, 293, 300, 307, 310, 
 319, 321, 324, 326, 327, 334, 
 335, 337, 338, 339, 340, 343, 
 344, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 
 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 359, 
 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 
 370, 381, 391, 392, 398, 409, 
 410, 414, 423, 424, 425, 426, 
 427. 
 
 National Portrait Gallery, 204, 
 387, 388, 389, 415. 
 
 Nativity, Botticelli, 63 ; J. Cornel- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 489 
 
 iszoon, 312; Roelas, 206; Sig- 
 
 norelli, 74, 
 Natoire, 368. 
 
 Naturalism in art, 184, 192, 
 Naturalisti, 185, 198, 225, 331. 
 Navarrete, Juan Fernandez (El 
 
 Mozo), 205. 
 Navez, Francois, 446. 
 "Nnzarenes,^' 2G5. 
 Neapolitan, Schot)l, 194. 
 Neer, Aart van der, 350. 
 Negroponte, 143. 
 Neptune and Amphitrite, Mabase, 
 
 302. 
 Netherlands, 201, 232, 236, 240, 
 
 250, 253, 260, 269, 304, 312, 
 
 317, 329, 335, 385. 
 Netherlands, Hegents of, 306, 317. 
 Netscher, Gaspar, 344. 
 Neuchatel, Nicholas, 309. 
 Neudoi-ifer, 251. 
 Neuhuys, 356. 
 Newlings, Albert, 356. 
 Newton, Gilbert Stuart, 407. 
 New York, 224. 
 Nichols, 390. 
 Nicias of Athens, 429. 
 Nicola of Pisa, 28. 
 Nicomachus of Thebes, 429. 
 Niessen, Herr, 237. 
 Nieuwenhuys, M., 278. 
 N^ht, sculpture by M. Angelo, 
 
 131. 
 Night uatch, Rembrandt, 334. 
 Niobe, Guido, 189. 
 Noir, Nicholas Le, 452. 
 Noort, Adam van, 316. 
 Northcoie, J., 404. 
 Northiiml)erland, Duke of, 152. 
 Norwegian scenery, 362. 
 Norwich, 418 ; school, 419, 420. 
 Notte,Con'i'g^\o, 179. 
 Nottinj^ham, 4 14. 
 Novara, 97, 
 Novelli, Pietro, 437. 
 Noyon, ti-eaty of, 151. 
 Nude, representation of the, in 
 
 art, 74, 102, 103, 136, 163, 195, 
 
 250, 354, 383. 
 Nunez, Juan, 202. 
 Nunnery of S. Paolo, 178. 
 
 Nuremberg, 306, 309. 
 Nurnberg, 234, 247, 248,249,252, 
 233, 255. 
 
 Chronicle of, 246. 
 
 School of, 233, 246, 255. 
 
 Nuzi, Allej;retto, 430. 
 
 Oakes, J. R.,423. 
 
 Oath of the Horatii, David, 371. 
 
 Obervellach altar-piece, 307. 
 
 Oderisio di Gubbio, 430. 
 
 O di Giotto, 35. 
 
 Odile, S., 269. 
 
 (Edipus arid the Sphinx, Ingres, 
 
 377, 
 Off the Mouth of the Thames, Back- 
 
 huysen, 353. 
 Oggione, Marco d', 93, 95. 
 Ognisanti, the, 68. 
 Oil-painting, 52, 63, 78, 83, 143, 
 
 144, 145, 149, 204, 207, 236, 
 
 265, 269-71, 279, 283, 294, 311. 
 Introduction of, in Italy, 
 
 145. 
 
 invention of, 269, 270. 
 
 Old Tcstajnent frescoe, Berrozza, 
 
 58. 
 Old Woman Spinning, Maas, 337. 
 Olivarez, Duke of, 2 18, 219. 
 Oliver, Isaac, 387. 
 Oliver, Peter, 387. 
 Oostzaandam, Jacob of, 306. 
 Opie,J., 317, 404. 
 Oppenheim collection, 284. 
 " Oracle of Battles." See Falcone. 
 Orcagna. See Arcagnolo. 
 Organo, 173. 
 Oriental art, 12. 
 Origin of painting, 1. 
 Oriolo, Giovanni, 84. 
 Orizonte. See Van Bloemen. 
 Orlandi, Deodati, 41, 
 Orley, Bernard van (Bernard van 
 
 Brussel), 304-6. 
 Ormonde, Duke of, 209. 
 Orrente, Pedro, 205. 
 Orrery, the, Wright, 414. 
 Ortolano. Sec &nvenuti. 
 Orvieto, 44, 47, 57, 73. 
 Os, J. van, 355. 
 Osorio, Meneses, 440. 
 
490 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ostade, Adrian van, 327,346. 
 
 Ostadn, Isaac van, 347. 
 
 Ostendorter, M.,44I. 
 
 Otho, Emperor, 269, 295. 
 
 Otho 111., 290. 
 
 Ottaviano, di Martiiio Nelli, 431. 
 
 Oudewatcr, 292. 
 
 Oudewater, Albert van, 293, 310. 
 
 Oudry, J. B., 379. 
 
 Unless, 415. 
 
 Our Lady of Solitude, Becerra, 
 
 207. 
 Overbeck, Friedrich, 264. 
 Overthrow of the Giants, Romano, 
 
 137. 
 Owen, William, 456. 
 
 Pacchia, Girolamo della, 99. 
 Facc'hiarotti, Giacomo, 99. 
 racbec'o, Francisco, 204, 20.5, 208, 
 . 210-12, 217,218. 
 
 his work on painting, 210-11. 
 
 Pacheco, Juana de, 204, 218, 221. 
 Pacher, Michael, 440. 
 Pacuvius, 18. 
 
 Padovanino. Sec Varotari. 
 Padua, 143, 144, 147, 169, 173, 
 
 395. 
 
 • Giotto's frescoes at, 36, 46. 
 
 Justus of. See Justus. 
 
 School of, 70, 143, 146. 
 
 University of, 70. 
 
 Paduan Guild, 70. 
 
 Paele, G. Van der, 280. 
 
 Paelincx, 446. 
 
 Pa^an and Christian art, 22, 103, 
 
 106, 136. 
 Paganism, 118, 153. 
 Painter, attributes of a good, 183. 
 Painting on glass, 7, 232, 297, 
 
 369. 
 
 of allegory, 364. 
 
 Biblical-genre, 205, 227. 
 
 on copper, slate, &c., 186. 
 
 on metal, 7. 
 
 in Catacombs, 22. 
 
 Early Christian, 21. 
 
 Egypt and Asia, 1, 3, 7. 
 
 in England, 386. 
 
 Etruscan, 16. 
 
 — — flower, 356. 
 
 Painting in France, 358. 
 
 fresco. See h resco. 
 
 genre, 14, 176, 185, 192, 209, 
 
 224, 226, 266, 281, 283, 284, 
 308, 314, 326. 330, 337, 341, 
 342, 355, 361, 362, 407, 412. 
 
 in Germany, 231-67. 
 
 Graico- Roman, 17. 
 
 Greek, 8. 
 
 historical, 336. 
 
 in Italy, .-33. 
 
 in oil. See Oil painting. 
 
 in oil by Italians, 52, 63, 83. 
 
 landscape. See Landscape. 
 
 on linen, 289. 
 
 methods of, 270. 
 
 of minutiae, 340, 341. 
 
 modern, 26. 
 
 in the Netherlands, 268, 310, 
 
 330. 
 
 of Pastorals, 367, 368. 
 
 Roman, 17. 
 
 in Spain, 199-230. 
 
 symbolic, 21. 
 
 on terra cotta, 7. 
 
 texture, 341-5. 
 
 on wood, etc., 5. 
 
 Palamedes, 339, 344. 
 Pallas Athene, 10. 
 Palazzo Barberini, 117, 189. 
 Bargello, 126. 
 
 Borghese, 108, 180. 
 
 Colonna, 185. 
 
 Doria, 193. 
 
 Fava, 184. 
 
 Farnese, 184. 
 
 Pitti, 107, 117, 121, 190. 
 
 Pubblico, Florence, 87. 
 
 Pubblico, Siena, 47, 99. 
 
 Rospigliosi, 189. 
 
 Sciarra, 192. 
 
 Spada, 192. 
 
 del Te, 137. 
 
 Vecchio, 94, 127 
 
 Venice, 147. 
 
 Palaeolithic art, 2. 
 Palermo, 323. 
 Palestrina, Turner, 410. 
 Pallas, Lucas v. Leyden, 313. 
 Palma, Jacopo (Palma Vecchio), 
 159, 160-1. 163. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 491 
 
 Falma, niece Afagdalcna, 160. 
 
 Palma, J. (II Giovine), 191. 
 
 Palmer, Samuel, 421, 422. 
 
 Palmerucci, Guido, 430. 
 
 Palomino He Castro, 207, 216,217, 
 222, 227. 
 
 Pamphilos, 429. 
 
 Fan and Apollo, A. Carracci, 186. 
 
 Bacchante, A. Carracci, 186. 
 
 Syrinx, Rottenhammer, 263. 
 
 Panaenos of Athens, 12. 
 
 Panicale, Masolino da, 49, 51, 52, 
 54. 
 
 Pan in i, Paolo, 438. 
 
 Panshanger, 141. 
 
 Pantin, Jelian, 277. 
 
 Papal Rome, 109. 
 
 Pape, Adrian de, 344. 
 
 " Paradise Ix>st," 120. 
 
 Paradise, Tintoretto, 172. 
 
 Pareja, Juan, 439. 
 
 Paris, 154, 196.362,370,380,383. 
 
 Parma, 154, 178, 184, 188, 194. 
 
 Parmigiano. Sec Mazzuola. 
 
 Parrhasios of Ephesos, 12, 13, 15. 
 
 Parrocel, Charles, 452. 
 
 Parrocel, Joseph, 452. 
 
 Parthenon, 10. 
 
 Passavant, 79, 104, 108, 112, 117, 
 250, 280, 290. 
 
 Passerotti, Bart., 182. 
 
 Pfl5sio», <Ae, I}erruguete,204; Hol- 
 bein, 257 ; L. V. Leyden, 312. 
 
 Passion of Christ, 42. 
 
 Passions, Diirer's Great and Little, 
 250. 
 
 Past and Present, Egg, 407, 
 
 Patch, Thomas, 39. 
 
 Patel, Pierre, 452. 
 
 Pater, 368. 
 
 Patinir, Joachim de, 292, 309, 
 
 Pattison, E. F. S., 360. 
 
 Paul III., 132, 133. 
 
 Paul v., 188. 
 
 Pausauias, 11. 
 
 Pausias, 14. 
 
 Pavia, 79, 95. 
 
 Pax, Finiguerra's, 63. 
 
 Peace and War, Kul)ens, 319. 
 
 Peace of Nunster, Terburg, 344. 
 
 Peasant Breughel. See Breughel. 
 
 Pedro of Cordova, 201. 
 
 Peel Collection, 321, 327, 356. 
 
 Peiraiikos, 429. 
 
 Pelasgians, 1. 
 
 I'cllegrino. See Martino. 
 
 Pelo, Ciuta di Lapo di, 39. 
 
 Pembroke, Earl of, 312. 
 
 Pena, N. V. D. de la, .383, 384. 
 
 Penelope, History of, Pinturicchio, 
 
 81. 
 Peninsular War, 217. 
 Pennachi, Girolamo, 154. 
 Pennachi, Pierre Maria, 154. 
 Penni, Gio. Fr,, 434. 
 Pennsylvania, 403. 
 Penny Wedding, Wilkie, 406. 
 Pensz, George, 255. 
 Pepyn, M., 445. 
 
 *' Percival," by Eschenbach, 234. 
 Pereda, Antonio, 439. 
 Pericles, 10. 
 Perrier, F., 451. 
 Persians, art of the, 7. 
 Perspective, first knowledge of, 
 
 51,52. 
 Perugia, 77, 78, 105, 107, 191. 
 Perugino. See Vannucci. 
 Peruzzi, Baldassare, 99. 
 Peruzzi Chapel, 37. 
 Pesellino, Fr. di Stefano, 66. 
 Pesello, Giuliano d'Arrigo, 66. 
 Pesne, Antoine, 452. 
 Pesth, 96, 158. 
 
 Peter delivered from Prison, Fil. 
 Lippi, 65. 
 
 Peter denying Christ, Teniers, 329. 
 
 Petersburg, St., 96, 161, 169, 
 284. 
 
 Peter the Great, 353. 
 
 Pether, W., 414. 
 
 Petrarch, 47. 
 
 Petrucci, Pandolfo, 81. 
 
 Petrus de Hispania, 200, 
 
 Pfenning, D., 440. 
 
 Pheidias, 10. 
 
 Philip II., 168,183,204,206,300, 
 306, 309. 
 
 Philip III., 316. 
 
 Philip IV., of Spain, 121, 212 j 
 portraits of, by Velasquez, &c. , 
 214, 218, 220, 328. 
 
492 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Philippe le Bon, Dnke of Bur- 
 gundy, 274, 275, 276, 287,288. 
 
 Philippe of Burp;undy, 302. 
 
 Phillip, John, 428. 
 
 Phillips, Thomas, 456. 
 
 Phoebus and Aurora with the Hours, 
 Guido, 189. 
 
 Phoenician art, 7. 
 
 Phryne, Turner, 410. 
 
 Piacenza, 159. 
 
 Piagnoni', 100, 102, 125. 
 
 Piazza, Albertino, 170. 
 
 Piazza, Calista, 435. 
 
 Piazza, Martino, 170. 
 
 Picininno, Nicolo, 94. 
 
 Piccolomini Library, 80. 
 
 Pickersgill, H. W.,415. 
 
 Pied Piper of Haonelin, Pinwell, 
 427. 
 
 Pieta, Domenichino, 187; Fi*ancia, 
 81; M. Angelo, 127; Nunez, 
 
 . 202 ; Stranzioni, 195. 
 
 Pieterzoon, Aart, 444. 
 
 Pietro, Lorenzo di, 431. 
 
 Pietro, Sano di, 431. 
 
 Pilas, 222. 
 
 Pieve, 161. 
 
 Piloty, Karl, 267. 
 
 Pinacoteca, 143. 
 
 Pinacothek, 228, 238, 241, 245, 
 247,251,252,288, 291,355. 
 
 Pinas, Jacob, 332. 
 
 Pinchart,Les Tapisseries de Berne, 
 287. 
 
 Pinturicchio. See Bernardino di 
 Betto. 
 
 Pinwell, Geo., 427. 
 
 Piola, Pelegro, 438. 
 
 Piombo. See Luciani. 
 
 Pippi, Giulio (Giulio Romano), 
 114, 136-7, 360, 362. 
 
 Pirkheimer, Willibald, 248. 
 
 Pisa, 41,50. 
 
 Campo Santo at, 41, 48, 58, 
 
 59. 
 
 cartoon of, 109. 
 
 Duomo di, 42. 
 
 pulpit by Pisano at, 26. 
 
 Pisan campaigns, 94. 
 
 Pisano, Andrea. See Ugolino. 
 
 Pisano, Kicola, 26, 41, 51. 
 
 Pisano, Nino and Giovanni, 41. 
 
 Pisano, Vittore (Pisanello), 84. 
 
 Pitti, the, 80, 196. 
 
 Pius II., Pope, 60. 
 
 Pius VII., Pope, 372. 
 
 Plague among the Philistines^ 
 
 Poussin, 363. 
 Plague, the, 260. 
 
 Platina, Prefect of Sixtus IV., 73. 
 Plato, 120. 
 
 Platonian philosophy, 119. 
 Platonic Academy, 111. 
 Play Scene in Hamlet^ Maclise, 
 
 423. 
 Pleydenwurff. W., 246. 
 Pliny, 3, 10, 13, 15, 19. 
 Plough, Walker, 427. 
 Plymouth, 276. 
 Plympton, 394. 
 Pocetti, B. B., 436. 
 Pocock, Nicholas, 445. 
 Poel, Egbert, v.d., 355. 
 Poelenburgli, Cornells v., 355. 
 Poems by Mich. Angelo, 133. 
 Poitiers, 358. 
 Poitou, 358. 
 
 Poldo-Pezzoli collection, 98. 
 Pole, Cardinal, 307. 
 Pollaiuolo, Antonio, 63, 66, 69. 
 Pollaiuolo, Piero, 63, 69. 
 Polygnotos of Thasos, 10. 
 
 his Polyxene, 11. 
 
 Polyxene, 11. 
 
 Pompeii, art of, 11, 19, 137, 188, 
 
 370. 
 Ponte, Jacopo da (Bassano), 176, 
 
 187. 
 Pontormo. See Carucci. 
 Poole, P. F., 424. 
 Pope, Alex., 389. 
 Pope Gregory and the remains of 
 
 Trajan, V. der Weyden, 286. 
 Poperinghe, 304, 
 Porbus, Frans, 308. 
 Porbus, the younger, 309. 
 Porbus, Pieter, 296, 308. 
 Pordenone, Giovanni Antonio da, 
 
 154, 157, 159, 160, 163. 
 Pork Butcher, the, Victoor, 338. 
 Porta, Baccio delia (Fra Barto- 
 
 lommeo). <Sbc Fattorine. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 493 
 
 Porte, Roland de la, 462. 
 
 Portinari, altar-piece, Van der 
 Goes, 285. 
 
 Portinari, Tomraaso, 285. 
 
 Porto d'Ercole, 194. 
 
 Port-Royal, 367. 
 
 Portrait-painting, Roman, 18. 
 
 Portrait-painting in Venice, 150. 
 
 Portraits: Agostino, 161; Alva, 
 Duke of, 167, 309; Amerigo 
 Vespucci, 68; Andrea del Sarto, 
 141; Antonello, 145; Archers 
 of S. George and S. Adrian, 
 338 ; Aretino, 167 ; Ariosto, 
 167, 168 ; Arnolfini, Jean and 
 Wife, 281 ; Balthazar Carlos, 
 219; Beatrice Cenci, 189 ; Bery- 
 steyn, 338 ; Bishop IBurnet, 388 ; 
 Blount, Martha, 389; Burgk- 
 mair, 256 ; by Beltraffio, 96 ; by 
 Bissolo, 156; by Croce, 155; 
 Carracci family, 184 ; Caesar 
 Borgia, 167; Charles I. and 
 his nobles, 324; Charles II.'s 
 Court, 326; Charles II., 328; 
 Charles IV., 229; Charles V., 
 167 ; Charles VII., 164 ; Chester- 
 field, Earl of, 389 ; Christ, 23 ; 
 Christian II, of Denmark's chil- 
 dren, 303; Cleve, J. van, and 
 wife, 309 ; Constable de Bour- 
 bon, 167; Coram, Capt., 392; 
 CostanzOjMatteo, 157 ; Cranmer, 
 259; Cromwell, 387; David, 
 372; Del Sarto, 141: Digby, 
 Lady Venetia, 324 ; Doges of 
 Venice, 150, 167; Dou, Gerard, 
 340 ; Diirer, 254 ; Egidiua, 299 ; 
 Erasmus, 259, 299 ; D'Este, 
 Isabella, 92 ; D'Este, Lionel, 
 289; Eycks, the van, 273; 
 wife of, 280; Family portraits, 
 326 ; Fleury, C^ardinal, 367 ; 
 Francis I., 167; Garrick, David, 
 401 ; and wife, 392 ; George III., 
 389 ; Gevurtius, 324 ; Ginevra 
 de Benci, 68 ; Girl, by Cranach, 
 262 ; Grand Master of Malta, 
 193 ; Grimstone, Edward, 284 ; 
 Guillemardet, French Amb., 
 229 ; llandelj 389 ; Hayman, 
 
 389; Helena Fourment, 319; 
 Henry VIII., 259 ; Hobbes, T., 
 388 ; Hogarth and wife, 392 ; 
 Holbein's parents, 257 ; Infanta 
 Margarita Maria, 220, 222 ; 
 Isabel of Portugal, 276, 277; 
 James II., 388; Julius II., 112; 
 La Bella di Teziano, 160; La 
 Belle Ferroniere, 92 ; Lady, by 
 S. Holbein, 257 ; Longono, Gio. 
 Chr., 98 ; M. Angelo, 99 ; Mans- 
 field, Lord, 389 ; Margarita, 
 " La Fornarina," 117, 135 ; 
 Massys and wife, 300 ; Mathe- 
 matician and Son, 309 ; Mead, 
 Dr., 389 ; Medici, Ippolito de, 
 1 67 ; Medici, 59 ; Mona Lisa 
 Giocondo, 92 ; More, 259 ; 
 Moreel, Maria, 290 ; Moreel, 
 William, and wife, 290; Niccolo 
 della Torre, 161; 01ivarez,Duke 
 of, 219; Oldfield, Anne, 389; 
 Paul, IV., 165; Philip IL, 167, 
 204 ; Philip IV., 167, 218, 220, 
 222 ; Pope, Alex., 389 ; Pope 
 Pius VII., 372 ; Pordenone 
 family, 160; Prim, General, 
 384; Prior, Mat., 389; Queen 
 Caroline, 389; Q. Charlotte, 
 389; Queen Mary, 309 ; Queen 
 of Philip IV., 219, 220; Queens- 
 bury, Duchess of, 389 ; Raphael, 
 99, 104 ; Recamier, Mdme., 372 j 
 Regents of the hospital, 338 j 
 Richelieu, Cardinal, 367 ; 
 Rubens' wives, 319; Russell, 
 Lord Wm., 388; Sansovino, 
 167 ; Schmidt family, 309 ; Sid- 
 dons, as the Tragic Muse, Mrs., 
 397; Siddons, Mrs.,398; Steele, 
 389 ; Sultan Mehemet II., 148 ; 
 Swift, Dean, 389 ; Talbot, Lord 
 Chanc, 389; Titian, 99, 167; 
 Titian's daughter, 165 ; Van 
 Veeren, Marquis, wife, and son, 
 303; Velasquez, 220; family, 
 221; Venetian Senator, 98; 
 Veronese and family, 176; 
 Vert ue, 389; Waller. 388; Wal- 
 pole. Sir R., 389 ; Willes, Ed- 
 ward, 389 ; Wolsey, 259. 
 
494 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Portraiture, 170, 193, 219, 262, 
 
 266, 308, 321, 323, 336, 337, 
 
 338, 344, 387-89, 395, 413. 
 Portu<;al, Jan van Kyck in, 276. 
 Posso, Cavaliere del. 362, 
 Potter. Paul, 349, 350, 356. 
 Potter, Pieter, 355. 
 Poujol, Abel de, 453. 
 Pourbus, Pi(!ter, 296. 
 Ponrtales ('ol lection, 222. 
 Poussin, Gas{»ard. See Dughet. 
 Poussin, Nicolas. 185, 186, 310, 
 
 362, 381, 400.' 
 Prajjue, 233, 356. 
 Prato, frescoes of Lippi in Duomo, 
 
 61. 
 Prayei'-book, Alb. Diirer's, 261. 
 Preach 171 g of Mary Magdalen, 
 
 King keni, 359. 
 Precocious genius, 312, 349. 
 Precursors of Rembrandt, 336. 
 Preller, Lndwig, 442. 
 Pre-raphaelite Brotherhood, 264, 
 
 394, 425. 
 Pre-Raphaelite School, 393, 394. 
 Presentation in the Temple, Am- 
 
 brogio, 48 ; Meckenen, 238 ; 
 
 Vouet, 361. 
 Preti, Fra Mattia, 195. 
 Previtali, Andrea, 155. 
 Prevost, Jean, 296. 
 Primaticcio, 137, 142, 180, 183, 
 
 3b0, 383. 
 Prim, General, 230, 
 " Prince of Light," 334, 
 Prints by Hogarth, 390. 
 
 Lucas V. Leyden, 312-13. 
 
 Procaccini, Ercole, 190. 
 
 Prodigal Son, Murillo, 226, 227; 
 
 L. V. Leyden, 314. 
 Promenade without the Walls, Leys, 
 
 330. 
 Prometheus, Kibera, 195. 
 Propert's Hist, of Miniature Art, 
 
 387. 
 " Prophetic Books," Blake, 424. 
 Projyhcts and Sibgls, M. Angelo, 
 
 115. 
 Proportion, first to study, 13 ; A. 
 
 Diirer, human, 254. 
 Proserpine, Hoi. Hunt, 426. 
 
 Protestant Iconoclasts, 278. 
 Protestantism in art, 187, 251. 
 
 and Catholicism, 225. 
 
 Protogenes, 16. 
 
 Prout, Samuel, 421, 422. 
 Prud'hon, 374. 
 Prussia, King of, 278. 
 Pseudo-classicism, 268. 
 Pucci, chapel, 69. 
 Puccio, Pietro di, 42. 
 Puligo, Domenico, 142. 
 Pupils of Rembrandt, 336. 
 Purism in art, 55. 
 Pyramids, the, 3. 
 Pyrenees, Treaty of, 220. 
 
 Quandt, J. G., 247. 
 Quattrocentisti, 49, 86, 144. 
 Quirinal, the, 187, 188. 
 
 Raeburn, Sir Henry, 413. 
 
 Baft of the Mediisa, G6ricault, 
 
 376. 
 Raibolini, Francesco (Francia), 78, 
 
 81, 82, 83, 99, 101, 103, 108, 
 
 121. 
 Raising of the King's Son, F. 
 
 Lippi, 65. 
 
 Lazarus, Cousin, 359 ; Del 
 
 Piombo, 135. 
 
 Hake's Progress, Hogarth, 390. 
 Hamersdorf. 233. 
 Ramsay, Allan, 389, 397. 
 Ranitri, S., scenes from, Firenzjef 
 
 42. 
 Ransdorp, 332. 
 Raoux, Jean, 452. 
 Rape of Europa, Veronese, 176. 
 
 Helen, Benozzo, 59. 
 
 Liicippus, Rubens, 321. 
 
 Raphael. See Santi, 
 
 of animal painting, 349. 
 
 Raphon, Johann, 441. 
 Rathgeber, 292. 
 Rationalism, 187, 315. 
 Ravenna, mosaics at, 28 ; battle of, 
 
 114. 
 Ravesteyn, Jan van, 336. 
 Reader, the, Vermeer, 340. 
 Reading the Will, WUkie, 406. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 495 
 
 Real and ideal, meaning of the 
 
 terms, 120, 188, 320, 331. 
 Ueasun, school of. 53, 55. 
 Kedgrave, K. and S., " Century of 
 
 Painters," 386, 409, 410, 411, 
 
 419. 
 Reformation, 225, 241, 260 
 School of Germany, 241, 
 
 2.34. 
 Regatta on the Grand Canal, Cana- 
 
 letto, 198. 
 Regemorter, Pierre van, 446. 
 Regents, meeting of, 3o6, 338. 
 of the Netherlands, 306,317, 
 
 327. 
 Regnault, Henri, 384. 
 Regnault, J. B., 379. 
 Reims, Adrian, 291. 
 Reinagle, Philip, 455. 
 Religion in art, 57, 79, 106, 288, 
 
 305, 315. 
 
 in seventeenth century, 187. 
 
 in art, Venice, 174. 
 
 Beliqtiary of S. Odile. 269. 
 Rembrandt. See Ryn, Van. 
 Renaissance in France, Dilke, 360. 
 the, in Italy, 62, 66, 67, 74, 
 
 76, 83, 98, 204, 239, 264, 269, 
 
 301, 315, 359. 
 Ren6, of Aiyou, 359. 
 Reni, Guido (Guido), 186, 187, 
 
 188, 190, 195,225,361. 
 Bent Day, VVilkie, 406. 
 Bepose in Egypt^ Van Orley, 307. 
 Bepresentation of Human Life, J. 
 
 Steen, 345. 
 Republic in France, 375. 
 " Retaliation," 397, 398. 
 Rethel, Alfred, 443. 
 Rettberg, " Niirnberg's Kunstle- 
 
 ben," 233. 
 Revival of art, 191, 198, 264, 329. 
 
 of art in Germany. 457. 
 
 of learning, 53, 207. 
 
 Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 14, 153, 
 
 156, 162, 320, 331, 380, 391, 
 
 394-97, 398, 599, 400, 402, 411, 
 
 414. 
 Rhetoric, Melozzo, 73. 
 Rhine Schools, Lttwer, 240. 
 Rhodes, 307, 337. 
 
 " Rhuparographia" (dirt painting), 
 
 16. 
 Ribaltas, the, 194. 
 Ribalta, Francisco, 208. 
 Ribalta, Juan de, 210. 
 Ribera, Guiseppe de (Lo Spagno- 
 
 letto), 194, 197, 210, 222, 223. 
 Ricchi, Pietro, 437. 
 Ricci, Sebastian, 438. 
 Ricciarelli, Daniele (J)a Voltcrra). 
 
 135. 
 Richardson, Jonathan, 388 ; Art 
 
 Criticisms, 388. 
 Richardson, T. M., 421. 
 Richartz-gift, 238. 
 Richelieu, 361, 363. 
 Richmond, T., 415. 
 Richter, G. K. L.,443. 
 Richter, Dr. J. P., 53, 64, 135. 
 Richter, Ludwig, 267. 
 RidoIH, Carlo, 437. 
 Ridolfo, 144, 148, 159, 175. 
 Rigaud, Hyacinthe, 367. 
 Riley, John, 388. 
 Rinjon, Antonio del, 202. 
 King, Ludger Zum (the younger), 
 
 442. 
 Ring, Zum, 441. 
 Rio, 54, 60, 87, 101, 105. 
 Riposo, Solario, 98. 
 Rizi, Francesco, 439. 
 Rizo, Francesco, da Sta. Croce, 
 
 155. 
 Robbia, Luca della, 39. 
 Robert, Leopold, 370. 
 Roberts, David, 427. 
 Robespierre, 372. 
 Robinson, Hugh, 455. 
 Rcbson, Geo. F., 421. 
 Robusti, Domenico, 172. 
 Robusti, Jacopo (II I'intoretto), 
 
 153, 156, 171-2, 176, 181, 182, 
 
 205. 
 
 his daughter, Tintoretta, 172. 
 
 Roddelstedt, I'eter, 441. 
 
 Ro<lriguez, Juan, 200. 
 
 Roelas, Juan de las, 205, 208, 216. 
 
 Roeselberg hills, 295. 
 
 Rtiger of Louvain, 298. 
 
 Rogers, Mr., Collection, 109. 
 
 Rokc wood-Gage, 200. 
 
496 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Rollin, Chancellor, 280, 282, 287, 
 288. 
 
 Roman Brotherhood, 264. 
 
 Roman Catholic Imagination in 
 Art, 244. 
 
 Roman Church, 53, 215, 240, 243, 
 254, 283, 313. 
 
 painting, 17. 
 
 Romance in Art, 243. 
 
 Romanelli, Gio. Fr., 437. 
 
 Romanesque style, 232. 
 
 Romanino, Girolamo, 169, 170. 
 
 Romano. See Giulio Pippi. 
 
 Romanticism in Belgium, 329. 
 
 France, 374, 376. 
 
 Germany, 266. 
 
 Rombouts, Gillis, 449. 
 
 Rombouts, Theodor., 324. 
 
 Rome, 22, 35, 47, 57, 71, 85, 86, 
 94, 95, 98, 99, 102, 104, 108, 
 109, 130, 132, 134, 135, 
 142, 165, 186, 188, 191, 
 194, 195, 197, 198, 204, 
 223, 230, 264, 289, 302, 
 362. 
 
 Rome, Borghese Palace, 180. 
 
 Capitol, 190, 192. 
 
 Casa Zuccari, frescoes, 264. 
 
 Claude in, 190, 365. 
 
 Leonardo in, 94. 
 
 Michelangelo in, 125, 133, 
 
 134. 
 
 Poussin in, 362. 
 
 Raphael in, 109. 
 
 S. Peter's, 35, 117, 118, 127, 
 
 128, 133. 
 
 S. Sabina, 191. 
 
 Titian at Belvedere, 165. 
 
 Villa Ludovisi, 187, 189. 
 
 Villa Massimi frescoes, 264. 
 
 Romero, Juan, de Sevilla, 439. 
 
 Romerswalien. See Marimus. 
 
 Romney, George, 399, 404. 
 
 Romola, 69. 
 
 Rontbouts, A., 352. 
 
 Rooden Clooster, 285. 
 
 Rooker, M. A., 421. 
 
 Rosa, Salvator, 196, 364,398, 400. 
 
 Rosa, Sisto. See Badalocchio. 
 
 Rosselh, Cosimo, 59, 64, 69, 100. 
 
 Roselli, Matteo, 190. 
 
 138, 
 193, 
 212, 
 307, 
 
 Rossetti, 412, 425, 426. 
 
 Rosenkranctafel, 233. 
 
 Rosso, II (II Maitre Roux). See 
 
 Jacopo. 
 Rothschild family, 228. 
 Rottenhammer, Johann, 172, 263. 
 Rotterdam, 339. 
 Rottman, Karl, 266. 
 Roubaix, Sire de, 276. 
 Rouen, 293. 
 Rousseau, Th., 379, 381, 382, 383, 
 
 384, 417. 
 Rowlandson, Thos., 455. 
 Rubens and Charles I., 319. 
 Rubens, Peter Paul, 94, 115, 163, 
 
 218,308,315-22,323,324,326, 
 
 327, 329, 331, 336, 338, 387. 
 Rubens, Philip, 317. 
 Rudolf II., 356. 
 Rulaud, C, " Notes on Raphael's 
 
 Cartoons," 115. 
 Rumohr, 79. 
 Ruskin, 18, 36, 79, 139, 151, 152, 
 
 156, 164, 319, 335, 351, 396, 
 
 405, 409, 410, 425. 
 Russia, Emperor of, 349. 
 Rustic genre, 415. 
 Ruysch, Rachel, 451. 
 Ruysdael, Jacob, 351, 352, 419. 
 Ruysdael, Solomon, 348, 352. 
 Ryckaert, Daniel, 446. 
 Ryn, Jan van, 446. 
 Ryn, Rembrandt Hermanszoon 
 
 van (Rembrandt), 192, 330-36, 
 
 337, 338, 339, 340, 347, 348, 
 
 349, 410. 
 
 his son Titus, 332. 
 
 Rysbraeck, P., 446. 
 
 Sabine Women, David's Bape of 
 
 the, 371. 
 Sacchi, Andrea, 437. 
 Sacchi, Bartolommeo, 73. 
 Sacrifice to Goddess of Fertility, 
 
 Titian, 162. 
 Sages of the North, 243. 
 S. Anthony, Schon, 244 j of Padita, 
 
 Muriilo, 224. 
 8. Anthony and S. George, Piva- 
 
 nello, 84. 
 with the Staff, Zeitblom, 245. 
 
497 
 
 SS. Annunziata, frescoes in, 140. 
 
 S. Augustine, Vandycke, 323. 
 
 S. Barbara, Veccbio, 161 ; Van 
 
 Eyck, 280. 
 8. Bartholomew, Ribera, 194. 
 S. Basil dictatiirg his Doctrine, F. 
 
 Herrera, 212. 
 S. Baron, Ghent, 273. 
 S. Bernard Chapel, 87. 
 S. Bernai'dino, frescoes, Peruzzi, 
 
 99. 
 S. Catherine, Raphael, 108; body 
 
 borne by Angels, Luini, 97. 
 8. Cecilia, Francia, 82 ; Raphael, 
 
 83, 121. 
 8. Christopher, Castro, 202 ; and 
 
 Saints, Ruebens, 317. 
 S. Denis, 368. 
 
 S. Diego of Alcula, Murillo, 224. 
 S. Donato, monks of, 87. 
 S. Elizabeth, Nake, 265. 
 S. Eloysius, V. Cristus, 284. 
 8. Francis, Van Eyck, 282. 
 S. Franciscan cloisters, Seville, 
 
 224. 
 8. George and Dragon, Domeni- 
 
 chino, 187 ; Tintoretto, 172. 
 
 old Spanish, 202. 
 
 holding Banner of Holiness, 
 
 Zeitblom, 245. 
 S. Giacomo degli Spagnuoli, 186. 
 S. Giorgio Ma«^giore, 175. 
 8. Criovanni, Palma, 178. 
 8. Hcrmengild, F. Herrera, 212. 
 8. Hubert, L. v. Leyden, 312. 
 8. James, frescoes of, Mantegna, 
 
 71. 
 8. Jerome, Battisti, 154; Bellini, 
 
 162; Correggio, 179 j II Greco, 
 
 205. 
 in his 8ti(dy, Catena, 155; 
 
 i;» Wilderness, Tura, 73; Read- 
 ing, Basaiti, 155. 
 8. John the Baptist and 8. Stephen, 
 
 Lippo, 61. 
 
 and Angels, M. Angelo, 134. 
 
 in a Cave, Martino Piazza. 
 
 8. John the Baptist's Head, Gentile, 
 
 148. 
 iS. John and the Lamb, Murillo, 
 
 228. 
 
 8. Juan de Dios, Murilte, 228. 
 
 8. Liberale, Giorgione, 157. 
 
 S. Louis, Psalter, 358. 
 
 8. Lxike painting the Virgin, Van- 
 
 der Weyden, 288. 
 S. Maria delle Grazie, 90. 
 8. Mark at Alexandria, G. Bellini, 
 
 149. 
 8. Paul at Ephesus, Le Sueur, 366. 
 8. Peter, scenes in life of, Masaccio, 
 
 54. 
 8. Peter and 8. Paid, Bartolommeo 
 
 and Raphael, 102. 
 
 8. Jerome, A. Vivarini, 143. 
 
 -S^. Peter Martyr, Titian, 167. 
 Trial and Crucifixion, Filip- 
 
 pino, 65. 
 8. Petronilla, Guercino, 190. 
 8. Rochus, A. Carracci, 186. 
 8. Rodericks Crovm of Martyrdom, 
 
 Murillo, 228. 
 8. Sebastian, Bartolommeo, 102 ; 
 
 Foppa, 84 ; Sodoma, 98 ; sta- 
 tuette. Cousins, 360. 
 8. Sixtus, Raphael, 122. 
 ^S". Symphorion, Ingres, 377. 
 8. Thomas Aquinas, Zurbaran, 2 1 6. 
 8. Veronica, Wilheim of Cologne, 
 
 235 : Zeitblom, 24B. 
 Saint-Just, 372. 
 Saints, G. Croce, 155. 
 Sala di Constantino, frescoes, 114, 
 
 137. 
 Salaino, Andrea, 95. 
 Salamanca, 201, 204. 
 Salimbeni, Ventura, 436. 
 Sallaert, Anthony, 445, 
 Salon of 1824, 1831, 1867, 381. 
 Salvator. See Rosa. 
 Salvator Mundi, Antonello, 145; 
 
 Massys, 300. 
 Salvi, Convent of S., 141. 
 Salvi, Gio. Batt., 158, 191. 
 SanchoIV., 201. 
 San Daniele. See Martino. 
 Sandby, Paul, 417,420. 
 Sanders, Jan (Hemessen), 301 ; 
 
 Catherine, 301. 
 Sanderus, 284. 
 
 Sandrart, Joachim von, 263, 340. 
 San Gemignano, 59, 68, 69. 
 
 K K 
 
498 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 San Giorgio, Cardinal, 125. 
 
 San Lorenzo, 363. 
 
 San Marco Convent, 100, 102. 
 
 San Martino, 195. 
 
 San Flacido, Nunnery of, 221. 
 
 San Severino, Lorenzo di, 77. 
 
 San Sisto, the Madonna di, 121. 
 
 Sansovino, 165. 
 
 Santa Croce, F. and G. See Rizo. 
 
 Sant lago, Roelas, 205. 
 
 Sant, James, 412. 
 
 Santerre, J. B., 452. 
 
 Santi, Giovanni, 104, 272. 
 
 rhyming chronicle, 104, 272. 
 
 Santiago, Order of, 220. 
 
 Santi, KafTaello, 14,45,49, 54, 58, 
 66, 68, 69, 72, 75, 78, 79, 80, 
 81, 83, 85, 86, 87, 94, 95, 96, 
 97, 98, 99, 101, 103, 104-23, 
 125, 130, 132, 134, 135, 136, 
 140, 142, 158, 161, 177, 183, 
 186, 191, 204, 216, 242, 245, 
 248, 252, 282, 301, 305, 376, 
 377, 386, 403, 410. 
 
 Santi, Eaffaello, pupils of, 11 6, 136. 
 
 his mother Magia Ciarla, 
 
 104. 
 
 and Perugino, 79. 
 
 Frescoes in Stan ze of Vatican, 
 
 109-112. 
 
 bis character, 113 ; his love, 
 
 117. 
 
 and Mich. Angelo, 126. 
 
 School of, 138. 
 
 Santos Cruz, 202. 
 
 Saraceni, Carlo, 193, 194. 
 
 Saragoza, 229. 
 
 Sarah bringing Hagar to Abraham, 
 WerfF, 354. 
 
 Saronno frescoes, 96, 97. 
 
 Sarto, Andrea del. See Angelo. 
 
 Sassetti Chapel, 67. 
 
 Sassoferrato. See Sah'i. 
 
 Savery, Roland, 356. 
 
 Savoldo, Gironimo, 169. 
 
 Savonarola, 75, 99, 100, 125, 127. 
 
 Saxony, Electoral House of, Court 
 Painter, 260. 
 
 Searselo, Ippolito, 436. 
 
 Scenes from the French Invasion, 
 Goya, 229. 
 
 Deltige, Girodet, 373. 
 
 Scenic quality of French art, 366, 
 367. 
 
 Schadow, Wilhelm, 264, 265. 
 
 SchafFner, Martin, 246. 
 
 Schalken, Godefried, 344. 
 
 Schaufelin, Hans, 256. 
 
 Schedone, Bart., 437. 
 
 SchefFer, Ary, 373, 377. 
 
 Scheibler's Catalogue, 312. 
 
 Scheltema, Dr., his discourse on 
 Rembrandt {note), 333. 
 
 Schiavone, Andrea, 170. 
 
 Schiavone, Gregorio, 72, 171. 
 
 Schick, Gotlieb, 442. 
 
 Schirmer, J., 443. 
 
 Schirmer, W., 442. 
 
 Schlegel, F. von, 231, 313, 371. 
 
 Schleich, Ed., 267. 
 
 Schnorr, Julius, 264, 265. 
 
 Schongauer, Caspar, 241. 
 
 Schongauer, Martin (Schon), 123, 
 241, 245, 247. 
 
 Schools of art, early, 28 ; Athens, 
 98 ; Bohemia, 233 ; Bologna, 
 81 ; Bruges, 268-97 ; David, 
 373-76 ; Eclectic, 181 ; English, 
 385-412, 413 ; Ferrara, 72 ; 
 Florence, 177, 204, 393; Fon- 
 tainebleau, 183, 360, 361 ; 
 Franconia, 246, 247 ; Lombard, 
 84, 177 ; Milan, 85 ; Murano, 
 143; Norwich, 419-20; Niirn- 
 berg, 233; Padua, 70-72, 177; 
 Perugia, 78 ; Seville, 212 ; 
 Sicyon, 13, 14 ; Siena, 45, 50, 
 75, 77 ; Swabia, 245 ; Umbria, 
 75, 81, 101, 177 ; Valencia, 204: 
 Venice, 82, 142. 
 
 Schools of painting, definition of, 
 393. 
 
 Schoreel, Jan, 304, 306, 311, 313, 
 314. 
 
 Schotel, J. C, 442. 
 
 Schreiber, 256. 
 
 Schrodter, Adolph, 443. 
 
 Schiichlein, Hans, 245. 
 
 Schut, Cornells, 445. 
 
 Schwartz, Christi.ph., 442. 
 
 Schwindt, Moritz von, 266. 
 
 Science, Leonardo Da Vinci and, 87. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 499 
 
 Science, in art, 51, 163. 
 Scopeto, 87. 
 Scott, David, 405. 
 Scott, Samuel, 454. 
 Scott, W. Bell, 41, 253, 255. 
 " Scottish Vandyck," 326. 
 Scrovigni Chapel, 36. 
 Scrovigno, Enrico, 36. 
 Sculpture, 50, 130, 133, 234, 359. 
 Sea painters of Holland, 314, 353. 
 Sebastiani, Lazzaro, 154. 
 Secularity and testheticism in art, 
 
 153. 
 Seghers, Gerard, 324. 
 Segna, Nicolo di, 430. 
 Seisenegger, J., 441. 
 Sementi, Gio. Giacomo, 437. 
 Semitecolo, Nicolo, 430. 
 Sens, 359. 
 Sen'es, J. S. , 455. 
 Servites, Order of the, 140. 
 Sesto, Cesare da, 93, 96. 
 Seven Joys of the Virgin, Memling, 
 
 291. 
 Bcven Ravens, Schwindt, 266. 
 Seven Sacraments, Poussin, 362. 
 Seville, 201, 202, 201, 205, 208, 
 
 212, 213, 216, 222, 226, 228. 
 
 Academy of Painting in, 227. 
 
 School of, 212, 217, 222, 225, 
 
 229. 
 Sforza, Fran, 91. 
 Sforza, Lud.,91, 92,93. 
 Shadows, King of, 331, 334. 
 Shakespeare, Illustrations of, 404, 
 
 407, 423. 
 
 411. 
 
 Shee, Sir Martin Archer, 456. 
 
 Shelley, 126. 
 
 Shipwreck, Delacroix, 377 ; Gdri- 
 
 cault, 381. 
 Siberechts, Dan., 446. 
 Sibyl Zambeth, .Memling, 290. 
 Sicily, 193. 
 Sicyon School, 13, 14. 
 Siddons, Mrs., 398. 
 Sicgen, 315. 
 Siena, 28, 39, 48, 50, 80, 98, 99. 
 
 Cathedral, 46, 48. 
 
 fresco in Palace, 47, 48. 
 
 Sienese School, 45, 50, 73, 77, 98. 
 
 Sigalon, Xavler, 379, 
 Signorelli, da Cortona. See Ven- 
 tura. 
 Silenics, Ribera, 195. 
 Simone dei Crocefissi, 431. 
 Simone Memmi. See Murtino. 
 Simpson, .John, 456. 
 Simson, William, Chr. L., 8. 
 Sintram of Fouqu^, 252. 
 Sirani, Elisabetta, 438. 
 Sirani, Gio. Antonio, 437. 
 Sistine Chapel, 64, 73, 89, 112, 
 
 115, 129, 132. 
 Six, Jan, 332. 
 Skill, technical, 320. 
 Sleeping Venus, Giorgione, 158. 
 Slingelandt, Peter van, 344. 
 Sluys, 274. 
 Smirke, Robert, 427. 
 Smith, George, 454. 
 Smith, John (of Chichester), 454. 
 Smith, John (of Warwick) 455. 
 Smith, J. Raphael, 414. 
 Smith, William, 454. 
 Smith's Catalogue Rai8onn6e, 328, 
 
 343, 350, 354. 
 Snavers, Peter, 445. 
 Sneilincic, Jan, 445. 
 Snyders, Frans, 322, 325. 
 Society of Artists in Edinburgh, 
 
 414. 
 Society of Arts, Adelphi, Subjects 
 
 by Barry, 404. 
 Soderini, Gonfalonier of Florence, 
 
 128. 
 Sodoma. See Bazzi. 
 Solario, Andrea, 42, 96. 97. 
 Solario, Christopher, 97. 
 Solimena, Francesco, 438. 
 Solly, Mr., 278. 
 Solothurm, 258, 
 *' Songs of Innocence" and of 
 
 "Experience," 424. 
 Sonnet, Carracci, 183. 
 Sonnets, Michael Angelo's, 131, 
 
 133, 
 
 Decker, 332. 
 
 Pacheco, 218. 
 
 Raphael, 117. 
 
 Sorgh, Hendrik, 344, 
 Sorri, Pietro, 436. 
 
600 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Soucy, 359. 
 
 Soult, Marshal, 224, 227. 
 
 South Kensington, 397. 
 
 South Sea Bubble, E. M. Ward, 
 
 424. 
 SoiithwarJc Fair, Hogarth, 392. 
 Soutman, Pieter, 445. 
 Sower, the, Millet, 383. 
 Spada, Lionelio, 190, 194. 
 Spadaro, Micco. See Gargiulo. 
 Spagna, Giovanni di Pietro, Ld, 
 
 80. 
 Spagnoletto, Lo. See Ribera. 
 Spain, 277, 318, 319, 325. 
 Spanish art, 200, 208, 225, 228. 
 
 cathedrals, 201. 
 
 Spanish Italianisers, 202, 206. 
 
 painters, biographers of", 207. 
 
 restrictions on, 211. 
 
 Spanish Beggar Boy, Murillo, 
 228. 
 
 Flower Girl, Murillo, 228. 
 
 Wedding, Portuny, 230. 
 
 Spiers, 306, 
 
 Spinelli, Spinello di Luca (Are- 
 
 tino), 42, 44, 162, 165, 166, 
 
 244. 
 Spinola, Marquis of, 220. 
 Spoil- Sport, Madou, 330. 
 Spoleto, frescoes at, 62. 
 
 Lo Spagna in, 80. 
 
 Sposalizio, Raphael, 80, 105. 
 Spranger, Bart., 445. 
 Spring, Botticelli, 64. 
 Springinklee, Hans, 256. 
 Squarcione, Prancesco, 70, 71, 84, 
 
 144, 210. 
 Stafford House, 216, 227. 
 Stanfield, Clarkson, 411. 
 Stanley's Synopsis, 344. 
 Stanza della Segnatura, 98, Stanza 
 
 of Rapliael, 191. 
 Stanzioni Massimo, 195. 
 Stark, James, 419. 
 St amino, Gherardo, 48, 201. 
 Statuary, tinting of, 287. 
 Steen, Jan, 296, 344-6, 356. 
 Steenwick, H. v., 314. 
 Stefano, Fr. di. See Pesellino. 
 Stefano (II Sciraia della Katura), 
 
 40. 
 
 Stefano di Giovanni, 431. 
 
 Stefano, Tommaso di. See Giottino. 
 
 Steffens, Jan, of Calcer, 447. 
 
 Steinle, Eduard, 443. 
 
 Stella, Jacques, 451. 
 
 Stephan, Meister. See Lochner. 
 
 Stevens, Alfred, 330. 
 
 Stevens, Joseph, 330. 
 
 Still Life, Dutch painters of, 355. 
 
 Stimmer, Tobias, 441. 
 
 Stirling, Sir W. M., Annals of 
 
 painting in Spain, 200, 208, 
 
 210, 211, 213, 216, 218, 219, 
 
 221,222, 223, 227. 
 Stockade, Held, 348. 
 Stone, bronze, and iron ages, 2. 
 Stone, Henry, 454. 
 Stoop, Dirk, 344. 
 
 Stothard,Th()S., 404, 424,425, 427. 
 Straet, Jan van der, 444. 
 Strahof, Monastery, 249. 
 Strasburg, 306. 
 Stratonice, Ingres, 377. 
 Sti-eater, Robert, 454. 
 Street Artists of Seville, quotation 
 
 from Stirling, 223. 
 Street in Delft, Vermeer, 340. 
 Strigel, Bernhard, 441. 
 Strixner, 261. 
 Strobant, Prans, 330. 
 Strozzi Bernardo, 437. 
 Strozzi Chapel, 44, 65. 
 Stuart, G., 455. 
 Stubbs, G., 454. 
 Stuerboat. See Bouts. 
 Stuerbout, Hubert, 295-96. 
 Stuttgart, 154. 
 Style, Raphael's, 105. 
 Suabia, 234, 237. 246. 
 Suardi, Bart. (Bratnantina), 84, 
 
 85, 97. 
 Subleyras, Pierre, 452. 
 Sudbury, 398. 
 Suftss. Hans, 256. 
 Suffolk, 419. 
 
 Earl of, 93. 
 
 Sultan of Turkey, 1 48. 
 
 decapitation of slave to prove 
 
 a theory, 148. 
 Supper at Emniatcs, Caravag;^io, 
 
 193 : Veronese, 175. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 501 
 
 Surrender of JBreda, Velasquez, 
 220. 
 
 Susannah, Valentin, 362. 
 
 Sussex, 422. 
 
 Susterman, Lamprecht (L, Lom- 
 bard), 307, 309. 
 
 Sutlierland, Duke of, 227. 
 
 Swabia, 241, 246. 
 
 Swabian School, 245, 247. 
 
 Swanenberg, Isaakszoon van, 
 332. 
 
 Sweden, Queen of, 366. 
 
 Swinburne, 424. 
 
 Symbols, Christian use of, 21 
 disuse, 23. 
 
 Syraonds, J. A., 133. 
 
 Tacconi, Francisco, 170. 
 
 Tadini, Count, 147. 
 
 Tafi, Andrea, 27. 
 
 Talcing down from the Cross, 
 
 Rubens, 320. 
 Taking of Jerusalem, Poussin, 362. 
 Tapestry, 115, 287, 303. 
 Tassi, Agostino, 190. 
 Taunton, Lord, 134. 
 Taurel, 311. 
 Taverner, William, 420. 
 Taylor, J. E., 133. 
 Telephanes of Sicyon, 10. 
 Tempera-painting, 19, 63, 230, 
 
 312. 
 Tempi family, 108. 
 Temptation of S. Anthony, Aeken, 
 
 296; L. V. Leyden,312'; Schon- 
 
 gauer, 123 ; Teniers, 327. 
 Tenebrosi, The, 193, 215, 225. 
 Teniers, David, the elder, 327. 
 Teniers, David, the younger, 220, 
 
 308, 322, 326-29, 346, 356, 386, 
 
 416. 
 Tennyson, 396. 
 Ter Borch. See Terburg. 
 Terburg, Gerard, 193, 343, 344, 
 
 351, 407. 
 Testelin, Louis, 462. 
 Teutonic art, 231 ; history of, 
 
 263. 
 Teutsche Acadanie, 263. 
 Thames, 408. 
 Thausing, Dr., 53, 246. 
 
 Theban-Attic school, 14. 
 
 The Apostle, Pordenone, 1 60. 
 
 The East, Delacroix, 377. 
 
 Theodolinda, Queen, 232. 
 
 Theodorich of Prague, 233. 
 
 Theon of Samos, 1 5. 
 
 Theotocopuli, Domenico, 205. 
 
 Theophilus, 270. 
 
 "Theory of Painting," 388, 394. 
 
 Thinle, John, 456. 
 
 Thomas a Becket, Consecration of. 
 
 Van Eyck, 282. 
 Thome, Luca di, 431. 
 Thomson, Henry, 456. 
 Thornhill, Sir James, 389, 390. 
 Three Eastern Sages, Giurgione, 
 
 137. 
 Three Graces, Regnault, 379. 
 Three Marys, A. Caracci, 185. 
 Three Stages of Life, Giorgione, 
 
 158. 
 Three Trees, etched by Rembrandt, 
 
 335. 
 Thulden, Theodore van, 446. 
 Thurlow, Lord, 399. 
 Tiarini, Allesandro, 436. 
 Tibaldi, Domenico, 182. 
 Tibaldi, Pellcgrino, 183. 
 Tiber, valleys of, 76. 
 Ticozzi, 163. 
 Tidemand, Adolf, 443. 
 Tietfenthal, Hans, Chr. L., 2. 
 Tiepolo, Gio. Batt., 198. 
 Tiger Hujit, ZofPany, 401. 
 Timanthes of Cy thnos, 13. 
 Timomaehus of Byzantium, 18. 
 Timotheos, Van Eyck, 282. 
 Tinting Statuary, 421. 
 Tintoretta, 172. 
 Tintoretto. See Robust i. 
 Tisio, Benvenuto, Gai'ofalo, 138. 
 Titian. See Vecellio. 
 Tobar, Alonso Miguel, 440. 
 Tobias with the angel, i.)omeni- 
 
 chino, 187. 
 Tohit and the angel, Luini, 97. 
 Toc(|U^, Louis, 452. 
 Toledo, Juan de, 439. 
 Toledo, 202. 
 Toms, Peter, 395. 
 Topers, the, Velasquez, 210. 
 K 2 
 
502 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Torbido, 173. 
 
 Torre, Flaminio, 438. 
 
 Torreggiani, Bart., 197. 
 
 Toiirnay, 287. 
 
 Tournay, School of, 286, 297. 
 
 Tournus, 358. 
 
 Town-Halls, 286, 292,296. 
 
 Town-painter, 286, 295. 
 
 Traini, Francesco, 44. 
 
 Trajan, Emperor, 286. 
 
 Transfiguration, Kaphael, 122, 135, 
 
 186. 
 Trattato della Pittura, 182. 
 Traut, Hans, 440. 
 Trecentisti, Quattro- and Cinquo- 
 
 centisti, 49. 
 Trevi^o, 154, 161. 
 Treviso, Girolamo da. 8tc Pen- 
 
 nacchi. 
 Tribute money, Titian, 162, 168. 
 Trinity, Pesellino, 66. 
 Trioson, A. L. Girodet de Roucy, 
 
 373. 
 Triptych, Engelbrechtsen, 311 ; 
 
 Key, 309. 
 Tristan, Luis, 205. 
 Triumph of Bacchus, A. Carracci, 
 184. 
 
 David,, Roselli, 190. 
 
 Death, 43, 48. ' 
 
 Galatea, Carracci, 184. 
 
 Julius C(esar, Mantegna, 72. 
 
 the Catholic Church, Van 
 
 Eyck, 279. 
 Trompes, Jean de, 292. 
 Troost, 451. 
 Troy, Jean de, 452. 
 Troyon, Constant, 384. 
 Truth and Justice, D. Bouts, 295. 
 Tulp, Nicolas, 332. 
 Tura, Cosimo, 72, 
 Turhaned Portrait, Van Eyck, 
 
 281. 
 Turchi, Alessandro, 437. 
 Turin, 85, 97, 284, 323. 
 Turks, 148. 
 
 Turner, Joseph Mallord William, 
 
 153, 156. 354, a64, 365, 380, 
 
 401, 406, 408-11, 417, 418, 419, 
 
 420,421, 422. 
 
 Turner, William, of Oxford, 457. 
 
 Turoni of Verona, 430. 
 Tuscany, 27, 33. 
 Tuylt, Alyt, 298,301. 
 Twilight, sculpture by M. Angelo, 
 
 131. 
 Two Singing Boys, F. Hals, jun., 
 
 339. 
 
 Ubaldo, Archbishop, 41. 
 Ubertino, Francesco, 142. 
 Uccello, Paolo. See Doni. 
 UflFenbach, Phillip, 442. 
 Utfizi, 58, 64, 87, 98, 108, 124, 
 
 129, 157, 158, 185, 186, 189, 
 
 193, 196, 198, 289,300,359. 
 Ugolino, Andrea di, of Pontedera, 
 
 39, 41. 
 I^golino da Siena, 28, 46. 
 Uilenberg, Saskia, 332. 
 Ulm, 245. 
 Ulysses and Polyphemus, Tumor, 
 
 410. 
 Umbria, 76, 121. 
 
 See also Assisi. 
 
 School of, 75, 76, 77, 81, 101, 
 
 105. 
 University of Padua, 70. 
 Upright Judges, Mabuse, 302. 
 Urbino, 73, 104, 118, 285, 286. 
 
 Duke of, palace, 73, 104. 
 
 Ursula, S., 237,291. 
 Utrecht, 302, 306, 307, 345. 
 Utrecht, Adam van, 445. 
 Uwins, Thomas, 456. 
 Uytenbroeck, Moses van, 448. 
 
 Vaccaro, Andrea, 195. 
 Vaernewyck, van, 273, 290. 
 Vaga, Perino del, 360. 
 Valckenborgh, Luk van, 444. 
 Valdes-Leal, Juan de, 225, 229. 
 Val d'Arno, 87. 
 
 Valencia, 202, 204, 209, 210, 214. 
 Valentin, 192, 265, 361. 
 Valesio, Gio. Luigi, Chr. L., 2. 
 Valladolid, 204. 
 Vander Geest, Cornel., 324. 
 Vander Hoop Collection, 338, 340. 
 Vander Werff and citizens of Ley' 
 
 den, Wappers, 329. 
 Vandervelde, Esaias, 448. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 503 
 
 VandeveWe, Adrian, 348, 354. 
 Vandevelde, VVilletn, the elder, 
 
 348, 353, 386, 388. 
 Vandevelde, Willem, the younger, 
 
 353, 386, 388. 
 Vandyck, Anthony, 219, 223, 
 
 322-24, 327, 338, 387. 
 Van Eyck, Hubert. See Eyck. 
 Van Eyck, Jan. See Eyck. 
 Van Lo.>, 368. 
 Van Orley. Sec Orley. 
 Van Wyck, Catherine, 333. 
 Vanni, Francesco, 436. 
 Vanni, Turino, 431. 
 Vannucci, Pietro (II Perugino), 
 
 45, 49, 64, 75, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 
 83, 86, 97, 99, 101, 103, 105, 
 142, 150, 242,245. 
 
 — and liaphael, 79. 
 Vannucci, Cristofano. 77. 
 Vannuchi, Andrea (Sarto, Andrea 
 
 del). See Angelo. 
 
 Varello, 97. 
 
 Vargas, Luis de, 204, 207. 
 
 Varin, Quentin, 362. 
 
 Varlets, 275. 
 
 Varley, John, 421,422. 
 
 ^■amishes, 271. 
 
 Varotari, Alessandro, 191. 
 
 Varstari, Alessandro, 91. 
 
 Vasco di Gama, Scott, 4U5. 
 
 Vasari, Giorgio, 27, 29, 30, 187 ; 
 his account of the invention of 
 oil-painting, 34, 35, 40, 42, 44, 
 
 46, 48, 53, 54, 56, 56, 60, 62, 
 64, 66, 70, 71, 72, 77, 78, 81, 
 83, 86, 91, 96, 105, 110, 113, 
 116, 117, 123, 132, 136, 139, 
 141, 143, 144, 147, 148, 166, 
 157, 158, 162, 165, 166, 172, 
 173,201, 207,244,270,286. 
 
 Vase-paintings, 11. 
 
 Vasitacchi, Antonio, Aliense, 
 
 172. 
 Vatican, 73, 80. 85, 105, 108, 114, 
 
 121, 188, 191, 193, 264, 362, 
 
 363. 
 
 — Haphael's frescoes in, Stanze 
 of the, 110, 191. 
 
 V»vchio. See Palma. 
 Veceliio, Orario, 165, 166. 
 
 Vecellio, Tiziano (Titian), 49, 150, 
 151, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161-68, 
 170, 173, 177, 182, 185, 192, 
 205, 219, 225, 248, 306, 318, 
 335, 361, 362, 364, 393. 
 
 Vecellio, his son Pomponio, 165; 
 his daughter Lavinia, 165. 
 
 Veen, Martin van, 314. 
 
 Veen, Otto van (Vaenius, Otto), 
 316. 
 
 Veeren, Marquis van, 303. 
 
 Vega, ])iego Gongalez de la, 439. 
 
 Veit, Phihpp, 264, 265. 
 
 Velasquez, Diego Kudriguez de 
 Silvay, 199,209,211,212,213, 
 214, 216-22, 218, 223, 225,228, 
 338, 344. 
 
 and Order of Santiago, 220. 
 
 Aposentador-mayor, 220. 
 
 Velasquez of Flanders, 322. 
 
 Vendome, 358. 
 
 Vendramin, Andrea, 149. 
 
 Venetian style, 182, 361. 
 
 Venetian Embassy^ Gentile, 148. 
 
 Veneto-Byzantines, 143. 
 
 Veneziano, Antonio, 42, 48, 49. 
 
 Veneziano, Bartolommeo, 155. 
 
 Veneziano, Domenico, 83. 
 
 Venice, 92, 97, 142, 143, 145, 150, 
 156, 161, 163, 166, 169, 173, 
 176, 191, 192, 193, 198, 249, 
 293, 306, 316, 395. 
 
 School of, 50, 82, 134, 138, 
 
 139, 142-81, 176, 191, 198, 316, 
 393. 
 
 mosaics of St. Mark's, 27. 
 
 Great Hall of Council, Ducal 
 
 Palace, 147, 163, 173. 
 
 Hall of Exchange, or Fon- 
 
 daco de' Tedeschi, 157, 102. 
 
 Giunvanelli Palace, 157. 
 
 Seminario Vescoviie, 158. 
 
 Senseria, office of, 163. 
 
 Ducal Palace, 172. 
 
 Religion in, 174. 
 
 Diirer in, 249, 253. 
 
 Venne, Adrian Vander, 448. 
 Ventura, Luca d'Egidio di, 64, 
 
 73, 76, 83, 101, 103. 
 Venus, Titian, 168. 
 Crowned by Love^ Titian, 168. 
 
504 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Venus, del Pardo, Titian, 168, 
 
 Rising from the Sea, Barry, 
 
 403. 
 Venus Anadyomene, 14. 
 Venusti, Marcello, 135. 
 VerbcBckhoven, E., 330. 
 Verboom, Abraham, 352. 
 Vercelli, 97, 98. 
 Verlat, Charles, 330. 
 Vermeer of Delft. See Meer. 
 Vermejen, Jan, 444. 
 Vernet, Carle, 378. 
 Vernet, Horace, 378. 
 Vernet, Joseph, 370, 401. 
 Verona, 45, 84, 173. 
 
 Liberale da, 84. 
 
 Cathedral of, 147. 
 
 School of, 45, 85, 173. 
 
 Veronese Art, the Proteus of, 1 73. 
 Veronese, Paolo. See Cagliari. 
 Verrio, 388. 
 
 Verrocchio, Andrea, 77, 87, 99. 
 
 Verulam, Earl of, 284, 411. 
 
 Vespignano, 33, 34. 
 
 Vespucci, Amerigo, 68. 
 
 Vespucci Chapel, 68. 
 
 Vesuvius, Micco Spadaro, 197. 
 
 Viardot, 360, 372, 375, 393, 410. 
 
 Vicenza, 157, 170. 
 
 Victoor, Jan, 337. 
 
 Victories of Alexander, Le Brun, 
 
 366. 
 Victories of the Lombards, 232. 
 Viejo, El. See Herrera, F. 
 Vicn, Joseph Marie, 370. 
 Vienna, 80, 96, 108, 161,180,195, 
 
 221, 261. 
 
 See also Belvedere. 
 
 Opera House, frescoes, 266-7. 
 
 Vierge au coussin vert, Solario, 98. 
 
 Viet, Philipp, 264. 
 
 View between Dolgelly and Bar- 
 mouth, Wilson, 417. 
 
 of the Alps, T. Rousseau, 381. 
 
 ofAiivcrgneJT. Ilousseau,381 . 
 
 of Delft, Vermeer, 340. 
 
 of Venice, Canaletto, 198. 
 
 Vigee Le Brun, Elizabeth, 380. 
 
 Vigne F^lise, La, 447. 
 
 Village Festival, Wilkie, 406: 
 Politicians, Wilkie, 406. 
 
 Villaviccncis, Don Pedro n. de, 
 
 440. 
 Villeneuve, 359. 
 Vincent, George, 419. 
 Vinci, 86. 
 Vinci, Leon : and Mich. Angelo 
 
 contrasted, 94. 
 Vinci, Leonardo da, 14, 77, 84, 85, 
 
 86-95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 103, 105, 
 
 107, 112, 114, 127, 132, 134. 
 
 142, 161, 164, 168, 177, 254, 
 
 301. 
 letter to the Duke of Milan, 
 
 91. 
 Vinckeboons, David, 445. 
 Viola, Gio. Batt., 190. 
 Virgin, early representation of the, 
 
 23. 
 of Byzantine school preferred, 
 
 31. 
 Virgin and Child, Basaiti, 155 ; 
 
 G. Bellini, 149 ; J. Bellini, 147 : 
 
 Botticelli, 64 ; Eilippino, 66 ; 
 
 jVIabuse, 303; Mui-illo, 228; 
 
 Perugino, 80 ; Schongauer, 241 ; 
 
 B. Vivarini, 143. 
 
 Child Enthroned, Mantegna, 
 
 71. 
 
 female saints, G.David, 293. 
 
 S. Anna, Francia, 82. 
 
 S. Donat, Van Eyck, 280. 
 
 Saints, Sodoma, 98. 
 
 the Donor, ^Nlemling, 292 ; 
 
 Van Eyck, 280. 
 in the Rose Garden, Schon- 
 
 gauei*, 241. 
 miracle working, Joanes, 
 
 207. 
 sewing, Caravaggio, 192. 
 
 with Cherubs, in Lorenz 
 
 Kirche, 234. 
 
 Mary, Massys, 300. 
 
 Virgins, Bartolommeo, 101 ; Hem- 
 ling, 290 ; del Sarto, 141 ; Zur- 
 baran, 216. 
 
 Vision of EzeJciel, Poole, 424 ; of 
 S. Helena, Verones'- 176; of S. 
 Jerome, Parmigiauj, 180. 
 
 Vitale of Bologna, 430. 
 
 Viti, Timoteo, 105. 
 
 Vittoria. 217. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 505 
 
 Vivarini, Luigi, 154, 155. 
 Vivarini, The, Antonio, Bartolom- 
 
 meo and Luigi, 143. 
 Vlaenderberch, Barbara, 290. 
 Vlerick, Pieter, 444. 
 Vlieger, Simon de, 348. 
 Vliet, Willem van der, 366. 
 Volterra, Daniele da. See Ric- 
 
 ciarelli. 
 Volterra, Francesco da, 42. 
 Vos, Cornelius de, 326. 
 Vos, Martin de, 309. 
 Vos, Paul de, 446. 
 Vouet, Simon, 192, 361, 363, 
 
 366. 
 Vrancx, Sebastian, 445. 
 Vriendt, Frans van (F. Floris), 
 
 307-8, 309. 
 Vries, Jan Vredeman de, 314. 
 Vroom, Hendrik, 314. 
 Yydt, family chapel, 278. 
 Yydt, Jodicus, 273. 
 
 Waagen, Dr., 160, 245, 256, 260, 
 
 319. 
 "Wales, 401, 422. 
 AValkenberg, Dirk, 451. 
 Walker, F. VV., 412, 427. 
 Walker, Robert, 388. 
 Wallerant, Vaillant, 446. 
 Wall-paintings in Egypt, 4 ; 
 
 France, 358 ; Germany, 232. 
 Walpole, H., 367. 386, 388. 
 Wallraf Museum. See Museums, 
 
 Cologne. 
 Walscappelle, Jacobus, 355. 
 Wappers, Guslave, 266, 329. 
 Ward, E. M., 424. 
 Ward, J., 416. 
 Wiirrior adoring Infant Christ, 
 
 Catena, 155. 
 AVarwick, Earl of, 93. 
 Washburne's " Early Spanish 
 
 Painters," 200. 
 Wateiet, 4.')3. 
 
 Water-carrier, The, Murillo, 217. 
 Water-colour painting in England, 
 
 407, 416,420,421. 
 Waterloo, Antoni, 352. 
 Watteau, Antoine, 367, 368. 
 Watts, Frederickj 412, 415. 
 
 Wauters, A., Peinture Flamande, 
 204, 295, 296, 304, 307. 
 
 Wauters, E., 330. 
 
 Weale, W. H. J.,"Le Beffroi," 269, 
 282, 283, 290, 296. 
 
 Webber, John, 455. 
 
 Webster, Benjamin, Clir. L., 8. 
 
 Wedmore, Fr., 369. 
 
 Weenix, Jan, 355. 
 
 Weimar, 261, 262. 
 
 Wellington, Duke of, 180, 217. 
 
 Werff, Adrian Vandfr, 354. 
 
 Werff, Burgomaster Vander, 329. 
 
 West, Benjamin, 402, 404. 
 
 Westall, Richard, 456. 
 
 Westphalia, 239, 315. 
 
 Westrheene, M. T. van, 345. 
 
 Weyden, Goswin and Pieter Van- 
 der, 289. 
 
 Weyden, Roger Vander, the 
 younger, 289. 
 
 Weyden, Rogier Vander, 145, 201, 
 238, 241, 245, 286-89, 290, 293, 
 294, 295, 297. 
 
 Wheatley, Francis, 415. 
 
 Whitaker's " Richmondshire," 420. 
 
 Whitehall, 259, 319. 
 
 Wiertz, Antoine-Louis, 447. 
 
 Wild, G., 456. 
 
 Wilhelm, Master, of Cologne, 231, 
 235, 236. 
 
 Wilkie, David, 179, 222, 266, 
 405-7, 428. 
 
 Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, 4, 
 6. 
 
 William and Mary, 388. 
 
 William III., 116. 
 
 Williams, H. W., 456. 
 
 Willson, Andrew, 456. 
 
 Wils, Jan, 356. 
 
 Wilson, Richard, 400, 402, 409, 
 417,418. 
 
 Winckelmann, J., 9, 263, 370. 
 
 Windsor, 116. 
 
 Windsor Castle, collection of Hol- 
 bein's drawings in, 260, 300, 
 309, 324. 
 
 Winghen, Joost van, 444. 
 
 Wint, Peter de, 421, 422. 
 
 Winter Exhibitions of lioyal Aca- 
 demy, 413. 
 
60() 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Witt, Jacob de, 451. 
 
 Witte, Emanuel de, 356. 
 
 Witte, Pieter, 445. 
 
 Wittenberg, 260, 261. 
 
 Woermann's Masaccio, 53, 54. 
 
 Wohlgemuth, Michael, 246, 248, 
 249. 
 
 Wolfvoet, v., 446. 
 
 Woltmann and Woerman, Hist, of 
 Painting,6, 11, 31, 48,60,97,98, 
 105, 158, 182, 184, 187, 192, 
 200, 204, 208, 210, 239, 256, 
 257, 2G2, 280, 358, 385, 402. 
 
 Wolzogen, 117. 
 
 Wood-cuts, Wohlgemuth, 246 ; 
 Diirer, 250 ; Grien, 256 5 Biirgk- 
 mair, 256. 
 
 Wood-engraving, 63,250, 252, 253, 
 255, 256,259, 311. 
 
 — — History of, 250. 
 
 Woodforde, Samuel, 455. 
 
 Wooton, James, 454. 
 
 Wordsworth, 133. 
 
 Wornum, 44, 54, 255, 260, 281, 
 324, 335, 339, 351, 378. 
 
 Wousam, Anton, 441. 
 
 Wouverman, Pieter, 351. 
 
 Wouverman, Jan, 351. 
 
 Wouverman, Philip, 351. 
 
 Wren, Sir Christopher, 116. 
 
 Wright of Derby, 395, 414. 
 
 Wright, J. Michael, 388. 
 
 Wurmser, NicxDlaus, 233. 
 
 Wyck, Catherine van, 333. 
 
 Wyck, Th., 449. 
 
 Wynants, Jan, 348. 
 
 Yafifz, Fernando, 204. 
 
 Yongkind, 356. 
 
 Youiig Bull, P. Potter, 349. 
 
 Young Girl at her Window, Maas, 
 
 337. 
 Young Tailorcss, Dou, 341. 
 Youth, Caravaggio, 192. 
 Ypres, 274. 
 Yriarte, Ch., 229. 
 
 Zaganelli, Francisca, 433. 
 Zampieri, Domenico (Domeni- 
 
 chino), 184, 186, 191, 209, 225, 
 
 362. 
 Zeitblom, Bartolomaus, 245, 246, 
 
 247. 
 Zelotti, Battista, 176. 
 Zenale, Bernardini Martini, 84. 
 Zeno, Caterino, 285. 
 Zeus Olympios, 10. 
 
 254. 
 
 Zeuxis of Heracleia, 12, 14, 15. 
 
 his Centaur, 13. 
 
 Helen, 13. 
 
 Zoffany, Johann, 401. 
 Zuccai-elli, Francisco, 186, 209, 
 
 401, 402. 
 Zuccaro, Federigo, 136. 
 Zuccai'o, Taddeo, 136. 
 Zurbaran, Francisco de, 199, 215, 
 
 226. 
 Zwickau, 247. 
 
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