IFT OF B. LANDF1ELD LIST OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. 1 1 !>> BEFORE THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE, . . Frontispiece. 2. Jonx II ess, . . . . . .To face page 30 3. JEROME OF PRAGUE, ..... i)~> 4. HUSSITE SERMON. . . . . . 67 5. SIGISMUND AUGUSTUS, . . . . . ,,136 6. JOHN A LASCO, . . . . . ,,139 7. RADZIWILL THE BLACK, . . . . 151 8. FAUSTUS SOCINUS, . . . . . 1G1 9. CARDINAL IIosius, . . . . . ,,169 10. FRANCIS KRASINSKI, .... ,,177 11. SIGISMUND TIIK THIRD, .... 187 12. PRINCE LEO SAPIKIIA, .... '204 I.'). JOHN POTOCKI, ..... 209 i 1. /.\M"Y-K1 T: .... 211 1"). PRDTOI ADAJI CZA.BTORTSKI, .... i<;. r ..... 17. XMLKIKWSKI, . . SKETCH THE RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF THE SLAVONIC NATIONS. A SECOND EDITION OF HIS LECTURES ON THIS SUBJECT, REVISED AND ENLARGED. COUNT VALERIAN KRASINSKI, AUTHOR OF "THE HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION IN POLAND," "PAXSLAVISM AND GERMANISM," ETC. EDINBURGH: rtntrtr anir ^Mlisjjrtr fur tip Mljnr inj JOHNSTONE AND HUNTER. M.DCCC.LI. EDINBURGH: PRINTED BY JOHNSTONE 5: HUNTER. HIGH STREET. 0^' *\n\i i;n.) Accession of Ferdinand of Austria, and persecution of Protestants ^ress of Protestantism under Maximilian and Rudolph Quarrels 'ants and the UOMKIM ' under t he rei^n I'Vniin.ind the Seo.on finnnos of ( to tli,- |; .man Catholic Church JJis deposition, and election be Rhine CONTENTS. V Page /,-ul of the Roman Catholics for their cause Great schemes of Queen Elizabeth of England and Henry the Fourth of France Faithless conduct of the (Ionium Protestants Defeat of the Bohe- mians, and melancholy consequences of that event for their count ry General observations on that subject War of thirty years, and desertion of the Bohemian Protestants by those of Germany Me- lancholy condition of the Slavonic nationality of Bohemia, and at- tempts at its entire destruction Reanimation of the national lan- guage, literature, and spirit of Bohemia Present condition and future prospects of that country, ... 103 CHAPTER VI. POLAND. General character of the religious history of Poland Introduction of Christianity Influence of the German clergy Existence of na- tional churches Influence of Hussitism Polish hymn in praise of Wicklyffe Influence of the University of Cracow on the progress of national intellect Project of reforming the church presented at the diet of 1459 Protestant doctrines in Poland before Luther Spread of Lntheranism in Poland Affair of Dantzick Character of Sigismund the First Political state of the country Secret so- ciety at Cracow for discussing religious subjects Arrival of the Bohemian Brethren, and spread of their doctrines Riot of the students of the University of Cracow ; their departure to foreign universities, and consequences of this event First movement against Rome Roman Catholic Synod of 1551, and its violent re- solutions against the Protestants Irritation produced by these re- solutions, and abolition of the ecclesiastical authority over heretics Orichovius, his quarrels and reconciliation with Rome, and in- fluence of his writings Disposition of King Sigismund Augustus to- wards a reform of the church, . . . . .119 CHAPTER VII. POLAND (CONTINUED.) Account of John Laski or A Lasco, his family, and of his evangelical labours in Germany, England, and his own country Arrival of the papal nuncio Lippomani, and his intrigues Roman Catholic Synod of Lowicz, and judicial murder of a poor girl, and of some Jews, perpetrated by that assembly through the influence of Lippomani Prince Radziwill the Black, and his services in promoting the cause of the Reformation, . . . . .138 CHAPTER VIII. POLAND (CONTINUED.) Demands addressed by the King of Poland to the Pope Project of a National Synod prevented by the intrigues of Cardinal Commendoni Efforts of the Polish Protestants to effect a union of the Bohe- mian, Genevese, and Lutheran Confessions Consensus of Sando- inir Deplorable effects of the hatred of Lutherans towards the other Protestants Rise and progress of the Antitrinitarians or Socinians Prosperous condition of Protestantism, and its influence upon the state of the country Cardinal Hosius, and the introduc- tion of the Jesuits, ...... 154 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. POLAND (CONTINUED.) Page State of Poland at the death of Sigismund Augustus The intrigues of Cardinal Commendoni, and the jealousy of the Lutherans against the followers of the Genevese Confession, prevent the election of a Protestant candidate to the throne Project of placing a French prince on the throne of Poland suggested by Coligni Perfect equ- lity of rights for all the Christian Confessions established by the Con- federation of 1573 Patriotic behaviour of Francis Krasinski, bishop of Cracow, on that occasion Effects of the massacre of St Bartholo- mew in Poland Appearance of the electing diet described by a Frenchman Election of Henry ofValois, and concessions obtained by the Polish Protestants for their French brethren Arrival of the Polish embassy at Paris, and favourable effects of it on the condition of the French Protestants Attempts to prevent the new king from confirming by his oath the rights of the anti-Romanists of Poland Henry compelled by the Protestant leaders to confirm their rights at the coronation Flight of Henry from Poland, and election of Stephen Batory His sudden conversion from Protes- tantism to Romanism brought about by the Bishop Solikowski The Jesuits gain his favour by a pretended zeal for literature and science, ....... 174 CHAPTER X. POLAND (CONTINUED.) Election of Sigismund the Third His character His complete subser- viency to the Jesuits, and policy adopted by them for destroying Protestantism in Poland Account of the machinations of the Jesuits to obtain their object, and their lamentable success Ac- count of the Eastern Church of Poland Sketch of the history of Lithuania Condition of the Eastern Church in that country, and religious dualism of its sovereigns Union with Poland The Jesuits undertake to submit the Eastern Church of Poland to the supremacy of Rome Instructions given by them to the Arch- bishop of Kioff how he was secretly to prepare a union of his church with Rome, maintaining an outward opposition to it The union is concluded at Brest, and its deplorable effects to Poland Letter of Prince Sapieha, pointing out all these consequences, 187 CHAPTER XL POLAND (CONTINUED.) Deplorable success of Sigismund's efforts to overturn the cause of Protestantism in Poland Disastrous consequences of his policy to the country, notwithstanding the services of several eminent pa- triots Potocki Zamoyski t lie Great ChrifttopherRadsiwil] Me- lancholy effect of Higisinund's conduct on the external relations of Poland Reign of Vladislav the Fourth, and his fruitless attempts to overcome the influence of the Jesuits, . . . 207 CHAPTER XII. POLAND (CONTIN UED.) Reign of John Casimir Revolt of the Cossacks Reconciliation with them prevented by the bigotry of the Roman. Catholic bishop* In- CONTENTS. Vll Page vasion and expulsion of the Swedes Persecution and expulsion of the Socinians Reign of John Sobieski Pillage and destruction of the Protestant church of Vilna at the instigation of the Jesuits Judicial murder of Lyszczynski Election and reign of Augustus the Third First legal enactment against the religious liberty of the Protestants surreptitiously introduced under the influence of Russia Opposition of the Roman Catholic patriots against that measure Noble efforts of Leduchowski to defend the rights of his Protestant countrymen, threatened by the intrigues of the Bishop Szaniawski Judicial murders of Thorn Reflections upon that event Pastoral Letter addressed by the Bishop Szaniawski to the Protestants Representations made by foreign powers in favour of the Polish Protestants serve only to increase their persecution They are deprived of political rights Melancholy condition of the Polish Protestants under the reign of Augustus the Third Noble conduct of Cardinal Lipski, . 218 CHAPTER XIII. POLAND (CONTINUED.) Melancholy condition of Poland under the Saxon dynasty Subservi- ency of the Saxon Court to Russia Efforts of the Princes Czar- toryski and other patriots to raise the condition of their country- Restoration of the anti-Romanists or Dissidents to their ancient rights by foreign influence Observations on this subject General remarks on the causes of the fall of Protestantism in Poland Com- parison with England Present condition of the Polish Protestants Services rendered by Prince Adam Czartoryski to the cause of public education in the Polish provinces of Russia, and advantages derived from them by the Protestant schools of these provinces Melancholy fate of the Protestant school of Kieydany Biographi- cal Sketch of John Cassius, Protestant minister in Prussian Poland High School of Lissa, and Prince Antony Sulkowski, . . 237 CHAPTER XIV. RUSSIA. Origin of the name of Russia Novgorod and Kioff First Russian ex- pedition against Constantinople Repeated expeditions against the Greek empire, and commercial intercourse Introduction of Chris- tianity into Russia, and influence of Byzantine civilization upon that country Expedition of the Christian Russians against Con- stantinople, and prediction about the conquest of that city by them Division of Russia into many principalities Its conquest by the Mongols Origin and progress of Moscow Historical sketch of the Russian Church from its foundation to the present day Its pre- sent organization Forced union with the Church of Russia of the Greek Church united with Rome Account of the Russian s?cts, or Raskolniks Strigolniks The Judaists Effects of the Reforma- tion of the 16th century upon Russia Emendation of the sacred books, and schism produced by it Horrible acts of superstition The Starovertzi, or followers of the old faith Pagan supersti- tions The Eunuchs The Flagellants The Malakanes, or Pro- testants The Duchobortzi, or Gnostics Horrible superstitions into which they fell Count Woronzoff's proclamation to them on that subject, ....... 261 VI 11 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XV. RUSSIA (CONTINUED). Page Account of the Martinists, or the Religious Freemasonry, and their use- ful labours Their persecution by the Empress Catherine They ivMiim 1 their labours under the Emperor Alexander Promote Bible Societies, &c. General observations on the Russians Con- stitution given by the Poles to Moscow Sketch of the religioiis condition of the Slavonians of the Turkish empire General ob- vious on the present condition of the Slavonic nations What may Europe hope or fear from them? Causes which now oppose the progress of Protestantism amongst the Poles Means for pro- moting scriptural religion amongst the Slavonians Favourable prospects for it in Bohemia Successful labours of the Rev. F. W. Kossuth at Prague Reasons why the British and American Pro- testants should pay some attention to the religious condition of the Slavonians Alliance between Rome and Russia Influence of des- potism and free institutions upon Romanism and Protestantism Causes of the renewed strength of Romanism at present How it may be counteracted Importance of a connection between the British and Slavonic Protestants, .... 292 APPENDIX, 323 LINT OK Till', ILLUSTEAHONS. 1. Huss BEFORE THE COUNCIL op CONSTANCE, . . Frontispiece. 2. JOHN Huss, . . . . . .To face page 30 3. JEROME or PRAGUE, ... 55 4. HUSSITE SERMON, ..... 67 5. SIGISMUND AUGUSTUS, . . . . . ,,136 6. JOHN A LASCO, . . . . . ,,139 7. RADZIWILL THE BLACK, .... 151 8. FAUSTUS SOCINUS, . . . . . ,,161 9. CARDINAL Hosius, . . . . . ,,169 10. FRANCIS KRASINSKI, . . . . . ,,177 11. SlGISMDND THE THIRD, .... 187 12. PRINCE LEO SAPIEHA, ..... 204 13. JOHN POTOCKI, ..... 209 14. ZAMOYSKI THE GREAT, . . . . 211 15. PRINCE ADAM CZARTORYSKI, .... 249 16. PRINCE ANTONY SULKOWSKI, .... 257 17. ZOLKIEWSKI, ... . 298 TO THE EIGHT HON. LOED ASHLEY, M.P* > My Dew Lord Ashley, It was my effort to add a mite to the promotion of truth, by delineating the religious history of my country, which first earned for me your friendship, a success which I consider as the greatest reward that my labours could ever obtain, and which it will be always the object of my pride to deserve. I therefore take the liberty of dedicating to you this production, the object and tendency of which are the same as those of the work to which I have alluded, though its subject is more extensive, and its form more condensed. Besides these motives of a personal nature, there are others of a pub- lic character which make me anxious to place this new work under the protection of your name. You are a truly conservative statesman ; for your unceasing efforts to alleviate the sufferings of humanity, by elevating the moral and physical condition of the most numerous class of society, are the only real means to prevent those terrible commotions which have shaken the whole frame of the social edifce in many countries. This important part of the population of every State has been designated by some political writers as "the dangerous classes;" dangerous indeed, because suffering. Yet there are not only classes, but whole nations, which, on account of their sufferings, are dangerous to the repose and security of Europe, and whose unsatisfied wants are an incessant cause of peril to others. This is the case with a great part of those nations whose religious history I have attempted to sketch, and whose wants, though more of a moral than a physical nature, are no less real ; because man nationally, as well as individually, cannot " live by bread alone." These wants are of a conservative, and not of a destructive nature ; for * Now Earl of Shaftesbury. xii PREFACE. Europe ; they occupy the largest portion of its territory, and extend their dominion over the whole of the north of Asia. The population belonging to this race amounts to eighty millions of souls, living under the rule of Russia, Austria, the Ottoman Porte, Prussia, and Saxony.* A strong intellectual movement animates all the branches of the Slavonic family; and their literature has produced, during the last quarter of a century, a great number of superior works in every branch of human knowledge. This intellectual movement is attended by a growing tendency towards a union of all these branches amongst themselves, as well as their separation from nations of a different origin, with whom many Slavonians are now politically united. This tendency is a natural result of an increased communication between the different branches of the Slavonic race, because they have led to the universal re- cognition of this important fact, that all the Slavonians, not- withstanding the various modifications resulting from the influence of different climates, religions, and forms of govern- ment, are in all their essentials one and the same nation, speaking various dialects of the same mother tongue, so nearly connected amongst themselves, that the sailors of Ragusa can freely converse with the fishermen of Archangel, and the in- habitants of Prague as easily communicate with those of Warsaw and Moscow. It is now about eighteen months since I attempted, in another work, to draw the attention of the British public to the importance of the Slavonic movement ; and the alarms which I expressed in that work about the dangers to which Hungary was exposed, in consequence of the unfortunate dis- sension between the Magyar and Slavonic nationalities of that country, have been verified in the most cruel manner.*)- The bloody saturnalia by which the Austrian Government has inaugurated the restoration of its authority by the great Slavonic power in that ill-fated country, cannot be productive of favourable consequences, either to that Govrniim-nt itself, or to its subjects ; but this it would be out of place to discuss here. Whatever may be the final result of the Hungarian * Vide Appomlix A. * I'analavism and Germanwn, p 187, tide Appendix I). PREFACE. xiii tragedy, one thing is certain, viz., that having brought about exactly the same contingency which I had pointed out in tho above-mentioned work as inevitable,* namely, the absorption of the separate political existence of Hungary in that of the whole State, to which it had hitherto only been appended, it has given to the Slavonic population of Austria a decided preponderance over the other nationalities of that empire ; and the effects of this combination must become apparent at the first meeting of the Austrian Parliament, if the constitu- tion of the 4th March is ever to be put into execution. It is the national feeling of the southern Slavonians, irritated by the unfortunate circumstance which I have amply described in the work alluded to,f and not any enthusiastic sentiments of loyalty towards the Hapsburg dynasty, that has made them the willing tools of the Austrian Government against the German democracy of Vienna, as well as against the Magyars. Yet if this feeling was sufficiently strong to engage them in an active hostility against the Magyars, with whom they were united for centuries in one polity, merging their national feelings into one of Hungarian patriotism, by which they were mutually animated, how much less will these Slavonians sacri- fice the above-mentioned feeling to the exigencies of a central power, having a decidedly German character, upon the main- tenance of which the policy of the Austrian Cabinet seems to be set! It is now idle to speculate about the issue of the struggle of dialectic interests which must come into collision in an assembly composed of so many different nationalities. It is, however, very probable that the Slavonians, although split into many dialects, will come to an understanding upon the principle of the literary Panslavism which I have described in the work referred to.J Whatever may be the issue of the national struggle which must take place at the general parliament of Austria, if such ever be convoked, there can be no doubt that the national feelings of the Slavonic populations of that empire, strongly excited by the recent events which have already led to im- * Panslatism and Germanism, p. 319, tide Appendix C. t Ibid., p. 182, vide Appeudix D. J Ibid , p. 104, Appendix E. XIV PREFACE. portant concessions in their favour, will continue to develop themselves with increased vigour; and that unless this develop- ment is checked by the central power, which may lead to dangerous consequences, it will rapidly proceed in the career of reform, without excepting that of the Church. It will cer- tainly meet with a strong opposition from the ultra-Romanist party, directed by the Jesuits, and supported by an influential coterie at court, and amongst the aristocracy;* but it will be joined by the leading men of the national party, chiefly amongst the Bohemians, who have shown the best organiza- tion, and the greatest political tact, of all the Slavonians of Austria during the events subsequent to the insurrection of Vienna on 13th March 1848. These events deserve to be watched with particular attention by all the Protestants of Great Britain who are not indifferent to the religious affairs of Europe, which begin now to be intimately connected with those of a political character; and I sincerely hope that the contents of this volume may become useful in assisting to form a correct judgment of the events to which I allude, because it is the previous history of individuals, as well as of nations, which gives us the best means to judge about their character, and consequently their future actions. Germany must have a decided influence, not only upon the future political, but also religious development of the western Slavonians, and which must react in more than one respect upon Germany. I have developed this subject in a detailed manner in the work to which I have several times alluded ; and as it has been translated into German, and as I have n to hope that this volume will meet with the same ad- vantage, I seize this opportunity to press again upon the attention of the German politicians, that not only every con- sideration f religion, justice, and humanity, but also those of thi-ir <>\vn interest, demand that, instead of irritating the national fei -linL's the Roman Catholic Church, which it hail hitherto kept under a very itrfcl control, an unlimited liberty, whilst it did not cont'.T a similar advantage on the other religions denominations of the country. PREFACE. XV arrest their political development, they should promote a mutual good understanding by assisting the progress of that development. For my own part, although I cannot but bo deeply pained by the hostile sentiments which the great majority of the Frankfort Diet evinced towards my nation in the affair of Posen, I am far from rejoicing that the observations which I have ventured to make on this assembly when it was in the zenith of its glory, have been completely borne out by subse- quent events.* The existence of a strong, and consequently united Germany, is a European necessity, required for the interests of its civilization, including those of the western Slavonians. But the best interests of Germany require also that she should be just towards those Slavonians, because they have now become awakened to a sense of their national dignity, and acquired the consciousness of their own import- ance and strength, and consequently they will not resign that position to which they are entitled by nature and by justice. They will not submit to the political supremacy of Germany ; but they will not oppose the influence of her superior civili- zation. They will form an efficient barrier between her and Russia : is it wise to convert this barrier into a vanguard of this power? Every enlightened Slavonian knows well that the moral and material progress of his nation will be much better promoted by an intimate alliance with the west than with the east of Europe, and that such a progress is far preferable to all the gratifications of national vanity derived from a predo- minant position in the political world. He will not, however, purchase the advantages of a material civilization at the price of a political vassalage to a foreign race, whose superior civi- lization will thus not develop, but will destroy, his own na- tionality. He will rather, if no other alternative is left to him, merge the destinies of his separate branch in those of its whole race, without any regard to the form in which it may be represented, and seek compensation for this sacrifice in the dazzling prospects of a political Panslavism. I have atttempted, in the work to which I have so frequently refer- red, to point out the possibility of such a combination ; but I * Panslavism and Germanism, p. 331, Appendix F. XVI PREFACE. little expected then, that Austria, whose most vital interests demand her to oppose this combination, would be obliged to throw herself into the arms of the great Slavonic power by which it may be accomplished, and that she should promote it herself in a great measure by the nameless policy which she has adopted towards the Magyars the nation upon which she could rely the most in her opposition to the progress of Eussia, particularly since the time when the influence of that power was established in Galicia by the atrocities of Tarnow. Is it necessary to expatiate about the immense accession of power which Russia has gained through her intervention in the affairs of Hungary, by establishing her influence more firmly than ever over the southern Slavonians, who speak dia- lects closely resembling the language of her inhabitants, and the great majority of whom belong, in common with her, to the Eastern Church ? No one who is in the least conversant with the political state of Europe will suppose for a moment that the check which Russia has received, in her threatened aggression upon Turkey, by the energetic conduct of the Bri- tish and French Governments, will make her desist from her projects of aggrandizement, which have become a political instinct, not only of her cabinet, but also of her subjects. * She will therefore increase her efforts to promote her influence over the Slavonians of Turkey, and in this manner inflict a severer blow upon the Ottoman Porte than could be done by a most successful campaign. If Russia obtains a direct or indirect dominion over the southern Slavonians, she will there- by completely outflank the western ones, and easily force them to enter her political system, and to make their destinies de- pendent upon her own. I am far from exulting that the alarms which I expressed eighteen months ago about Hun- gary, and to which I have already referred in this prcf'aro, have been literally fulfilled. I deeply lament the event, as every friend of humanity must do. No gift of prophecy, but only a tolerabl- knowlcd^r of the sifbjert. was required to link*- this predict il>a<,mt to per- form the part of Cassandra, either in public or privat mly refer to it in onlrr to show that tin- eontin^-iicy to * I hiivo developed this subject in B >>, |>. *2. PREFACE. which I allude is much less improbable than it may appear t< those who have not had an opportunity of studying the sub- ject. I would therefore entreat all those who have at heart the cause of religion, civilization, and humanity, to give their serious consideration to this subject. I do not wish to force my opinions upon others ; all that I demand from them is " to come and sec." The danger is great and impending, but it is not yet too late to avert it. The calm and dispassionate voice of England may do much to soothe the mutual animo- sities between the Slavonians and the Germans, and prevent a war of races, the horrors of which may be conceived by the atrocious scenes which more than once occurred in the con- flicts between the Magyars, Slavonians, Wallachians, and Germans, during the Hungarian troubles. All these calami- ties may be prevented by promoting amongst the Slavonians who are not yet under the dominion of Russia, the develop- ment of their nationality upon the principles of constitutional liberty. This is a practical measure; and, if properly carried into execution, it will be able to counterbalance the influence of Russia upon those Slavonians, supported though it be by her immense material forces, and may even exercise a power- ful action upon her own population, by which she may bo eventually forced to adopt a more liberal system herself. This measure may be easily accomplished, because all those Slavo- nians to whom I have alluded will prefer a free national exist- ence to the ambitious schemes of political grandeur ; but they will not consent to purchase liberal institutions at the price of their nationality, for they well know that the former may be often acquired by a sudden revolution of political circum- stances, and are sure to be, sooner or later, obtained by the progress of civilization ; whilst the latter, once lost, will never be recovered. Attachment to their nationality is a distinc- tive trait of the character of the Slavonians. It animates as much the ignorant boor as the most accomplished scholar, and it is now as strong as it was a thousand years ago. The Emperor Leo the Philosopher (881-912) says, that the Sla- vonians preferred being oppressed by their own princes to obeying the Romans and their laws ; * and the Croats of our * Taciica, cap. xviii., sec. 99. XVI 11 PREFACE. own time took up arms against the Magyars, with whom they had for centuries remained in the closest political union, en- joying all the advantages of their constitution, without ever having attempted to dissever it, only because their national feelings were irritated by a scheme to force upon them the language of the Magyars. This feeling is much less strong in the Teutonic race, whose patriotism is of a local nature. The Germans of Alsatia are French in their feelings, and glory in that name, and it is the same with those of the Bal- tic provinces of Russia. The case is, however, different with the Slavonians; and a German writer has justly observed, " that the patriotism of the Slavonians is not attached to the soil, but that they are kept together by one great and power- ful bond, by the bond of their language, which is as pliant and supple as the nations who speak it,"* and I may add to this observation, that what an eminent British statesman (the late Sir Robert Peel) has so truly said of the Poles, " Cwlum non animum mutant" is applicable to all the Slavonians. ( This feeling of nationality has now become stronger and more universal than ever amongst the Slavonians, as well as the belief that our race is destined to assume a position in the world proportionate to its numbers and the extent of its ter- ritory. This belief is not founded upon any visionary specu- * M. Bodenstedt, in an article in the Alljcmclne Zcituny, llth May 1S4S, entitled " Die tilaren und DtVtocMand." + The following characteristic anecdote may serve as an additional illus- tration of what 1 have stated in the text : It is -well known that in 1846 * number of misguided peasantry, allured by the pillage of the landowners' property, murdered many of them, with their families, in (ialicia, and that . .i^trian authorities not only allowed, but in many oases rewarded, .i-rocious actions, from IVar of a silly conspiracy amongst some few hot-headed individuals, and in order to eli'ect a breach between the land- owners and th.; peasantry- It was natural that such abominable- policy should have produced many informers, who, under pretence of their attach- ment to the exisiing (itivi-rnmc'iit, accused their landowners of treason and c'.ion towards the sovereign. It ha] ; riaii magistrate of having abused the eivprror in the mo-t violent manner. AVhen asked by the in :it, wishing to bring I landlord, replied, " ( ), HT, lie ha^ made use of th.- m 'hat the n moral, and political lessons which history ;. Ie to furnish, are utterly lost to the generality of mankind. JIuman nature is always and every wln-rc, in the most important points, substantially tl;< ..Ily and ex- ternally, men's manners and co: . finitely various in various times IMJKKACK TO Till' SKCONP KDIT1OX. teach them that important though melancholy tiuth, that, in a physical as well as a moral contest, it is unfortunately not the best, but the best defended cause, which h.;s tin- iriva; chance of success. They will also learn from the same study another no less, and one which, T think, cannot be, in the ]>. sent crisis, too deeply impressed upon the minds of all sincere Protestants, viz , that the most ardent zeal, and talents of the highest order, when acting separately and without a fixed plan, are generally unable to withstand a system having a deter- mined object, which, combining all individual efforts into one whole, directs them to one and the same end; and that a well organized and disciplined force generally overcomes, not only in a physical struggle, the most daring courage of irregular bands, but also, in a contest of a moral nature, the isolated efforts of the most zealous and talented individuals. Finally, that it was chiefly owing to the neglect of these truths, that the cause of Protestantism was overthrown by its antagonists in various countries and ages. It was my constant effort in composing this volume to establish, or rather to confirm, all those truths which I have enumerated in this preface, not by any process of ratiocina- tion, but by the simple evidence of historical facts, because, as a homely but true proverb says, u One fact is worth a bushel of arguments." The religious movement amongst the Slavonic nations, to which I allude in several parts of this volume, has consider- ably advanced since the publication of its first edition, a cir- cumstance of which I have given some details on page 308, and which I sincerely hope will be an additional reason for direct- and regions. If the former were not true, if it were not for this funda- mental agreement, history could furnish no instruction ; if the latter were not true, if there were not these apparent and circumstantial differences, hardly any one could fail to profit by that instruction ; for few are so dull as not to learn something from the records of past experience in cases pre- cisely similar to their own. But as it is, much candour and diligence are called for in tracing analogies between cases which at the first glance seem very different, in observing the workings of the same human nature under all its various disguises, in recognising, as it were, the same plant in diffe- rent stages of its growth, and in all the varieties resulting from climate and culture, soil and season." Archbishop Whately's " Assays on tlie Errors of Romanism,'' p. 1. XXVI PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. ing tho attention of the British Protestants to that important quarter. In publishing the present edition, I have revised the work, and made considerable additions, particularly respecting the trial and martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague. The illustrations which are added to this edition have been designc d from likenesses considered as the most authentic. EPINWRGH, CHAPTER I. SLAVONIANS. Origin of the name Slavonians Account of them by Herodotus They aro mentioned by Tacitus, Hiiiy, and Ptolemy Their spread south :md westward Their character and manners Conquest and extermination of those who lived between the Elbe and the Baltic Sketch of the Wends of Lusatia Example of the oppression of the Slavonians by the Germans, and resistance of the former to Christianity promoted by this circumstance Revival of national animosities between the Germans and the Slavonians in our own time Account of the religion of the ancient Slavonians Hospitality, mild and peaceful character, and ho- nesty of Pagan Slavonians, described by Christian missionaries Anec- dote reminding of the Hyperboreans Their military prowess and skill Fortitude in supporting hardships and torments Rapid spread of Christianity amongst them when preached in their own tongue King- dom of Great Moravia Translation of the Scriptures into the Slavonic, and introduction of the worship in the national language by Cyrillus and Methodius Persecution of that worship by the Roman Catholic Church The kings of France took their coronation oath on a copy of the Slavonic Gospels. IT has been observed by an eminent writer of Germany (Herder), that " the Slavonic nations occupy a much larger space on the earth than they do in history;"" and the principal cause of it is assigned by the same author to the remote dis- tance from the Roman empire of the lands which they originally inhabited. Yet, although they became known to the writers of Byzantium and western Europe, under the name of Slavo- nians, only in the sixth century,* their existence was not un- * The authors who wrote on the Slavonians during the sixth century are Procopius, Jornandes, Agathias, the Emperor Mauritius, John of Biclar, and Menander. They call them Sclaveni, Sclavi, which are corruptions, made By^i7e~T3yzantines, of the name of Slavi or Slaveni, used by the natives, as well as by the German writers who had been in contact with the Slavo- nians of the Baltic, as, for instance, Adam of Bremen, Helmold, &c. The etymon of the name fclawnian has been explained in different ways. Many deduce it from the word Skita, signifying glory in all the Slavonic dialects; and this opinion is supported by the circumstance that a great number of Slavonic names are unquestionably derived from that word ; as, for instance, Stanislav (Stanislaus), establisher of glory; Premislav, sense of glory; Vla- dislav, ruk-r of glory, &c. Other etymologists deduce the origin of the same name from Slow, signifying, in all the Slavonic dialects, word, because the name of Slavonians is spelt in their different dialects by a and by o, namely, Slavianie and Slovianie. These etymologists support their opinions by the remarkable circumstance, that the appellation of Niemietz, i. e., mute, B 2 CHAPTER I. known to the father of history; and there can be no doubt that the Callipedre and Halisones, the Scythian husbandmen, &c., mentioned by Herodotus in the Melpomene, were Slavo- nians, who, considering their immense numbers, must be an autochtonic nation of Europe, as much as the Greeks, Latins, Celts, and Germans, and did not arrive in this part of the world at the time of the Huns, Goths, &c., as several authors had supposed. Pliny, Tacitus, and Ptolemy, mention the Sla- vonians under the name of Vinidsc, Serbi, Stavani, &c.; but they became generally known to western and southern Europe, when, issuing from their original seats, eastward of the Vistula, and northward of the Carpathian Mountains, they began gra- dually to spread to the south and west. The. causes of -this extraordinary emigration are unknown; but supposed to bo over-population, and the pressure of foreign nations from the east and the north. Be it as it may, this emigration was en- tirely different from that of the Teutonic nations, who con- quered the south-western provinces of the Eoman empire, and the invasions of the Asiatic hordes, as, for instance, the Huns, Avars, and, at a later period, Mongols and Tahtars. It was not a devastating, but a colonizing and peaceful invasion; and the German writer Herder, whom I have already quoted at the is given to the Germans by all the Slavonic nations ; and they suppose that vonians, being unable to understand foreigners, considered their lan- guage as inarticulate, and called them, on that account, nicm, or mute; whilst, considering themselves as exclusively possessing the gift of the word (a: least intelligible to them), they called themselves *S7o>na//;Y, i. <>., men en- dowed with the gift of the word. AYhatever may be the real etymon of the name of the Slavonians, there can be no doubt that the appellation of Slave-, i, I'.M-laves, Schiavi, &c. has been derived from the great number of the Slavonians of the Baltic, whom their CJerman conquerors sold in the markets, or reduced to a severe bondage on their native soil, a circumstance which goes far in explaining the national antipathies between the Slavonic and (ierman races; and which, it is most melancholy to say, have been re- cently, on several occasions, renewed with an animosity worthy of the dark- remarked, that all the western writers call the Slavonians not only Sclavini, Sclavi, but also Vinidie, Venedi, and Wends: which latter appellation was given by the (rermans to the Slavonians of the Baltic, and is now applied to those of Lusatia and Saxony, but who call slvea Syrhs. It is impossible to ascertain the origin of this appella- tion, givi-n t<> tin; Slavonians by the (iennansas well as by the i-'ins and Letto- Imt unknown to themselves; and all the conjectures which have . '.rined <>n this subject have not produced any satisfactory result. 1 :;ly remark, that it is by no means a singular case, and that there are i nations receiving from foreigners names entirely dilterent which they apply to themselves. Thus, for instance, ti. mans call them-elves 1 )ciit -die. are called by the French Allemands; by tln> .Lnglisli, from the ancient Uoman, (iernians; and by the Slavonians, . a- by ' Pint* who receive this nan' -tern J'.m :ni or Snomalaisct, and are called by the Slavonians Choo-ly. SLAVONIANS. 3 beginning of this chapter, gives the following graphic sketch of this most important episode of the history of mankind: meet with them | the Slavonians] for the first time on the Don, amoiiir the Cloths; and afterwards on the Danube, \S amidst the Huns and the Bulgarians. They often greatly dis- turbed the Roman empire, in conjunction with the above-men- 1 tioned nations, chiefly as their associates, auxiliaries, and* vassals. Notwithstanding their occasional achievements, they never were, like the Germans, a nation of enterprising warriors and adventurers. On the contrary, they followed, for the most part, the Teutonic nations, quietly occupying the lands which the latter had evacuated, till at length they came into possession of the vast territory which extends from the Don to the Elbe, and from the Adriatic Sea to the Baltic. On this side [the northern] of the Carpathian Mountains, their settlements extended from Lunebourg, over Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Brandenburg, Saxony, Lusatia, Bohemia, Mora- via, Silesia, Poland, and Russia ; beyond these mountains, Avhere already, at an early period, they were settled in Mol- davia and Wallachia, they continued spreading further and further, until the Emperor Heraclius admitted them into Dalmatia. The kingdoms of Slavonia, Bosnia, Servia, and Dalmatia, were gradually formed by them ; they were equally numerous in Pannonia ; they extended from Friuli over the south-eastern corner of Germany ; so that the territory in their possession ended with Illyria, Carinthia, and Carniolia. In short, the lands occupied by them form the most extensive region of Europe which even now is inhabited mostly by one nation. They settled every where on lands which other nations had relinquished, enjoying and cultivating them as husband- men and shepherds ; so that their peaceful and industrious occupancy w r as a great advantage to the countries which had been laid waste by the emigration of their former inhabitants, as well as by the ravaging passages of foreign nations. They were fond of agriculture and of various domestic arts ; they amassed stores of corn, and reared herds of cattle ; and they opened every where a useful trade with the produce of their land and of their industry. They built along the shores of the Baltic, beginning with Lubeck, several seaport towns, among which Vineta, situated on the island of Rugen,* was the Slavonic Amsterdam; and they maintained an intercourse with the Prussians and Lettonians, as is attested by the lan- guage of these nations. They built Kioff on the Dnieper, and Novgorod on the Wolkhow, which both became flourish- * This is a mistake : Vineta or Julin was situated at the mouth of the river Oder, arid not on the island of Rugcn. CHAPTER I. ing emporiums, uniting the trade of the Black Sea with the Baltic, and conveying the productions of the east to the north and west of Europe. In Germany they exercised mining; they understood the melting and casting of metals; they pre- pared salt, manufactured linen cloths, brewed mead, planted fruit-trees, and led, according to their custom, a joyous, musi- cal life. They were charitable and hospitable to prodigality, fond of freedom, yet submissive and obedient, enemies of robbery and plunder. All this, however, did not help them against oppression ; nay, it even contributed to bring it upon them. Because, as they never strove for the dominion of the world, never had warlike hereditary princes amongst them, and willingly paid tribute for the mere privilege of inhabiting their own country in peace, they were deeply wronged by other nations, but chiefly by those of the Germanic race. 11 Commercial advantages were the evident cause of those aggressive wars upon the Slavonians, begun under Charle- magne,* although the Christian religion was used as a pre- tence; because it was certainly more convenient for the heroic Franks to treat as slaves an industrious nation, which pur- sued agriculture and commerce, than themselves to learn and practise those arts. What the Franks had begun was com- pleted by the Saxons. The Slavonians were either exter- minated or reduced to bondage by whole provinces, and their lands were divided amongst bishops and nobles. Their com- merce on the Baltic was destroyed by the northern Germans ; Vineta came to a melancholy end through the Danes; and their remnants in Germany are in a state resembling that to which the Spaniards reduced the Peruvians. Is it therefore a mira- cle that, after centuries of subjection and the deepest piT.-ition <>f that people against their Christian masters and robbers, their mild character should have degenerated into a cruel, cunning, slavish indolence? And yet their ancient character is every where distinguishable, and particularly they enjoy some degree of liberty. f (/ .I'liilosopJiie der Menschheit, vol. iv., chap. 4.) il and rapine would be a more appropriate term. f Tli wUch the noble-minded Herder expressed, nearly ci-hty bout the degradation of the national character of nians who r.-:nain -till in (lermany, /'. , ., the Wends of Lusatia, \\vre either founded upon incorrect data, furnished from an invidious and hostile <|uar- this unfortunii' : things has disappeared alto- tlier by the -- of civilization, that h;, ' the oppression which Weighed : the Slavonic race in (iennany. This is evident from the follow)?: population, rjveii by a modern (ierman writer: "They [the V> and laborious p.-oplr, on^rjvd in a (ricnltur.il purMii's and tislp-ry. Their n -b^ious disposition is niai; by their diligent attendance ut church, and by ftvjiiently-utteicd wishes Sf.AYOM The oppression whirl' rciscd by the Germans against tin 4 Slavonians of the Haiti.-, surpasses by far all that this devoted race had to sutler in the south from the Turks, and in the cast from the Mongols. And, indeed, the conduct of these inlidel nations towards the conquered Slavonians \\ humanity itself, when compared to that which was followed towards the same Slavonians by the baptized (for I cannot call them Christian) (Germans. The Mongols, who conquered the north-eastern principalities of Russia, under the descen- dants of the terrible Genghis Khan, and who are always quoted as the acme of all that is savage and barbarous, not only left to the conquered Christians full religious liberty, but they exempted all their clergy, with their families, from the capitation-tax imposed upon the rest of the inhabitants. Neither did they deprive them of their lands, or bid them forget their national language, manners, and customs. The Mahomedan Osmanlis left to the conquered Bulgarians and Servians their faith, their property, and their local municipal institutions ; whilst the Christian German princes and bishops divided amongst themselves the lands of the Slavonians, who and expressions of a pious nature, as well as by their rectitude and com- mendable manners. Their honesty, hospitality, and sociability, are gene- rally acknowledged ; and so is their frugality, cleanliness, conjugal fidelity, and many other praiseworthy qualities. They are, moreover, peaceful ; and although, like many other Slavonic nations, they have no military spirit, . they are bold in the defence of their homes; and their recruits, when pro- ^ ~p-erry^TITe3, have earned on many and many occasions the reputation of valiant soldiers. Even under the hard pressure of predial bondage, the Wends have retained their harmless cheerfulness and mirth, which they pos- sess in common with many other Slavonic nations, and their sober, contented mind, which is manifested in their very numerous joyful national songs. And, indeed, merry tunes resound in their homes and on their fields, when they are at work or enjoying a social circle. They are equally fond of dancing. It frequently happens to this day, that milk-maids sing for wagers, and that shepherds play on horns and bagpipes their national songs. These airs are generally of an erotic description ; they sometimes express com- plaints about the loss or infidelity of the beloved one. Many of them have an elegiac character, and are full of enthusiastic and imaginative thoughts on the beauty of nature, the instability of earthly things, and the destiny of man, with a strong belief in the marvellous." (Blicke in die Vaterl'dndisclie Vorzeit ron Karl Preusker. Leipsic, 1843, vol. ii., p. 179.) This little population, which has still preserved its Slavonic nationality, and is not yet Germanized, although living in the midst of a Teutonic population, amounts to about 144,000, of whom 60,000 live under the Saxon, and the remainder under the Prussian dominion; about 10,000 belong to the Roman Catholic Church, and the rest to the Lutheran confession. Not- withstanding their very small number, they have a national literature, con- sisting, besides the Bible and several devotional works, of collections of national songs, traditions, tales, &c., &c., as well as of some modern pro- ductions. They have a literary society for the promotion of the national language and literature, and which is chiefly composed of Protestant and Roman Catholic clergymen. 6 CHAPTER I. were either exterminated or reduced to bondage by whole provinces.* The Turks admitted the Slavonians, who hud been forced or seduced to the adoption of Islamism (those of Bosnia), to all the rights and privileges of their nation, and many of them occupied the highest dignities of the Ottoman Porte, and even that of the Vizier ; but the Germans ex- tended their persecution even to the Christian descendants of their victims. They were reduced to bondage, not permitted to remain in towns or villages inhabited by German colonists settled upon lands taken from them, and excluded from guilds or corporation of trades. There was a law at Hamburg, requiring that any person who wished to become a burgher of that town should prove that he was not of Slavonic descent ; and there are many official documents which prove that the persecutions of the Slavonians by their German conquerors continued long after the h'nal subjugation and conversion of that devoted race.f A German writer relates, that a con- siderable time after the establishment of the Christian reli- gion, whenever a Slavonian was met on the high road, and could not give what was considered a satisfactory reason for his absenting himself from his village, he was executed on the spot or killed like a wild beast.J It is, therefore, no wonder that the Slavonic language, which extended westwards as far as the river Eydcr, and southwards beyond the banks of the Saale, has finally disappeared, those who spoke it being either extermi- : ijil or entirely denationalized and converted into Germans. * Herder, as quoted above. t Tims, for instance, Meinhard, I 'ishop of Ilalberstadt, ordered, in 1:M\ that the Slavonic inhabitants of several places belonging to the convent of lionld, in ease they would not consent to abandon some of what he calls their I'ajjan custoi, 'lied, and replaced by German - ful insur- rection against their oppressors in 1'iu's, the year of the Norman eon- qii' ind; destroyd all the churches ami convents, sacrificed the i Ifeeklenbnig to their ^ods at Luheck, and expelled the Germans and Danes iVoni the ; r country. Crooko, prince of the island Kn^en, whom thi their throne, conquered I IcMein, and retained it at the j which tin- Danes and ( i.-rrnans wen- obliged to conclude with him. The '1 their national id<-' <1 an uninterrupted ; but in the be^innin^ of' the twelfth century (') . and the Germans and I ' i heir upon the Slavonians, who maintained the uncqn.il c. ntest till 1 In that year their d baptism, was created a princo BLAVON1 7 In relating this murder of one nation by another, 1 have not had to follow any accusations uttered by the injured party. The wail of the victim was lost in the lapse of ages; and the Slavonians of the Baltic had not, as the Mexicans, an Ixtlilxoehilt, and the Peruvians a Garcilasso dcla Vega, to denounce to posterity the wrongs of their nation. It was from among the oppressors themselves that a testimony came against the evil deeds of their countrymen; and, be it said to the honour of humanity, there were found amongst the Ger- mans virtuous men and real priests of Christ, who courageously raised their voice against the unchristian and inhuman con- duct of their own princes and nobles, who, under the pretence of converting the Slavonic idolaters to the Christian religion, inflicted upon them a worse than Pagan oppression. It may be said, perhaps, Of what use is it to renew the memory of ancient wrongs, which ought to be buried in the oblivion of the dark ages ? No doubt of it ; but, unfortunately, far from this being the case, the contrary has been taking place for several years in the intellectual struggle which is Y/" going on between the Slavonic and German writers, who,, in their polemical discussions, lay much stress upon tho history of their mutual relations. But, what is more la- ferrtat>le, the national animosities between the two races have not remained confined to the writings of historical students, but have been fostered up by pamphlets and news- papers, and have even led to actual collisions, as, for instance, in Posen and Prague. This unfortunate feeling is developing itself with great intensity ; and it is much to be feared that it may be productive of bitter fruits, not only to the said hostile races, but to humanity at large. I therefore think that it is by no means right to gloss over an evil which is a fact, but that it should be rather exposed before the tribunal of the public of the German empire; and his descendants continue in the princely house of Mecklenburg, tho only Slavonic dynasty now extant. The island of llugen, the last stronghold of Slavonic independence and idolatry, was con- quered and converted in the following year, 1169, by 'Waldcmar the First, king of Denmark, and the descendants of the national sovereign of that island continue still in existence, represented by the prince of Putbus. The Slavonic language lingered in the neighbourhood of Leipsic till the end of the fourteenth century; and the last man who spoke that language in Po- merania is said to have died in 1404. Divine service in the same language was performed at a place called "Wustrow, in the duchy of Luneburg, king- dom of Hanover, as late as the middle of the last, i. e., eighteenth century. The inhabitants of the district of Luchow, situated in the same duchy of Luneburg, and commonly called Wendland, i. e., the country of the AVends or Slavonians, speak even now a peculiar dialect of the German, inter- mingled with many Slavonic words. The only Slavonians in Germany who have retained their nationality are the Wends of Lusatia, of whom 1 have already spoken (vide p. 4, note). 8 CHAPTER I. opinion of Europe, which may perhaps devise some effective means of obviating, ere it be too late, the otherwise unavoid- able consequences of this deplorable state of things. It is, moreover, impossible to obtain a clear understanding of the effects of religious doctrines upon the national character of the Slavonians, and the causes of the success and failure which the propagation of these doctrines met with amongst the same nation. I am particularly anxious that the British Protestants should acquire a thorough knowledge of the causes and effects to which I have alluded, because this alone will enable them to form a correct judgment, not only of the religious history of the Slavonians, but of the religious move- ment which undoubtedly will follow the political one which now agitates the same nation with an increasing force. But before I shall describe the conversion of the Slavonic nations to the religion of the gospel, I must give a short sketch of their idolatry, as well as their manners, customs, and state of civilization during their Paganism, because the social and moral condition of a people has always a great in- fluence upon its religious revolutions. " The Slavonians,"^av^Enicji^ms,T " worship one God, the maker of the thunder, whom they acknowledge the only Lord of the universe, and to whom they offer cattle and different kinds of victim- o, or that it has any power over mortals. Whenever they are in danger of /[death, either from illness or from the enemy, they make vows God to offer sacrifices if they should be saved. When the peril is over they fulfil their vows, and believe that it was this which saved them. They also worship rivers, nymphs, and some other deities, to whom they offer sacrifices, making divinations at the same time." This description of the Sla- vic religion coincides with Nestor's account of it, who says that the chief Slavonic deity worshipped at Kioff, Novgorod, and other places, was Perun, i. e., thunder, whose idol was made of wood, with a head of silver, and golden whiskers. The same author mentions also the names of other deities, but without describing their attributcs.*f The account which i> -iv. 11 by the Bohemian and Polish chroniclers of the ancient ,;vonic historians, hav- ing lived in the second part oi' the eleventh century. VOXIANS. gination had often supplied the want of real information on the subject. Tlio only deities which are undoubtedly known to have been worshipped in tho aboriginal Slavonic countrie Poland and Russia, are those, the memory of which still partly lives in tho popular songs, amusements, and superstitions of these countries. The principal of these are, Lada, supposed to have been the goddess of love and pleasure;* Kupala, ,srod of the fruits of the earth; and Koleda, god of festivals. Tho name of Lada is still repeated in several parts of Russia, in songs and dances which are customary only at certain seasons of the year. Kupala, whose festival was solemnized on tho 23d June by lighting large fires, round which people danced, may be said to have survived the extinction of the national idolatry, because its worship continues in some measure amongst the peasantry of several parts of Poland and Russia. The village youths dance round lighted fires on the eve of St John the Baptist (23d June), who is called by them John Kupala.-\ The festival of Koleda was observed on the 24th December; and it is remarkable, that in Poland and some parts of Russia this appellation is used for Christmas, as well as for several customs observed upon that day. The vestiges of the worship of nymphs, rivers, &c., observed by Procopius, may be still traced in our days. The belief in fairies and other imaginary beings, inhabiting the woods, tho water, and the air, still lingers among the peasantry of many Slavonic countries, and is preserved in a great number of po- pular tales, songs, and superstitious observances. All these remnants of the Slavonic mythology have been of late carefully collected; and considerable light was thrown upon this subject by the labours of several Slavonic scholars. The only positive information, however, which we possess on the above-men- tioned subject, is that which is contained in the accounts of tho Baltic Slavonians, given by contemporary authors, who lived in their vicinity, and of whom many were eye-witnesses of what they described. Even the very objects worshipped by those Slavonians have been, by a lucky accident, preserved to our times.J I shall therefore give, on these authorities, some de- * Lad signifies in the Slavonic languages, order, tact, and is the root of several words. t It must be remarked, that St John's eve is celebrated in many coun- tries by lighting bonfires, which have probably a reference to the summer solstice. I A most valuable collection of Slavonic antiquities was found towards the end of the seventeenth century, iu digging the ground at the village of Prillwitz, situated on the Lake Tollenz, in the duchy of Mecklenburg, and which is supposed to occupy the place where Rhetra, a celebrated Slavonic temple, formerly stood. It remained, however, unknown to the learned 10 CHAPTER I. Y f+ 1 tails of the Slavonic idolatry, which may bo considered as real. /The most celebrated deity of the Baltic Slavonians was Svlan- 't, or Sviantovid* whose fane and idol were at Arkona, the ;>ital of the island Rugen. This last stronghold of Slavonic idolatry was taken and destroyed in 1168, by Waldemar the First, king of Denmark. The contemporary Danish historian, Saxo Grammaticus, who was very likely present at that expe- dition, -f gives the following account of Smantomt and his wor- ship: " In the midst of the town was a level place, upon which stood the temple, beautifully constructed of wood. It was held in great veneration, not only for its magnificence, but also on account of the sanctity of the idol which it contained. The interior wall of the edifice was of exquisite workmanship, and was painted with the figures of different things, executed in a rude and imperfect manner. It had only one entrance. The temple itself was composed of two inclosures. The ex- terior consisted of a wall, covered with a roof painted red ; but the interior, supported by four posts, had, instead of walls, hangings of tapestry ; and it had, in common with the exterior part, the same roof, and a few beams. The idol which stood in that edifice was much larger than the natural size of a man. It had four heads and as many necks ; two chests and two backs, of which one was turned to the right, and the other to the left. The beards were carefully combed, and the hair closely shorn. He held in his right hand a horn, made of different kinds of metals, which was filled once every year with wine;]; by the priest who performed his worship. His It-i't arm was bent on his side, in the form of a bow. His garment reached to the legs, which were of various kinds of world until 1771, when a description of it, accompanied by engravings, was published by l)r Mash, chaplain of the Duke of Mecklenburg. These anti- quities were found in two metal vessels, supposed to have been employed . :md A\hich were so placed that one served as a cover to the other. They had engraved upon them several inscriptions; but, unfortu- nately, they were both melted down for the casting 1 of a bell, before they had been examined by any person competent to judge of the inscriptions. Tli' lined idols, and several objects employed in the perform- ance of the sacrifices. All these objects from a mixture of metals, hut not always of the same kind, b -cause many of them have a considerable portion of silver in their composition, while others ha\e none. Several of them have Slavonic inscript ions in Runic characters, but the ; . !" them are in a very mutilated condition. * The first of these names signifies in Slavonic, /;/_// ir-ir.' neror ; the second, li ./// .~n/!,f. Jt will be seen from the description of the idol, that boii 'laiiations may be adopted with equal just ice. t II.- :i, archbishop of Lund, who commanded that expedition under the Uing. ^ Tei-haps with mead, the national .ijje. 11 wood, joined together with so much art, that it WMS impossible to perceive it, except on a close examination. His feet stood on the earth, with their soles fixed in it. Not far from the idol were disposed his sword, his bridle, and other artic! belonging to him, amongst which shone prominently his sword, of a very large size, with a silver hilt and scabbard of beauti- ful workmanship. His solemn worship was performed in the following manner : Once a-year, after harvest, the population of the island assembled before the temple of the idol, where, after having sacrificed cattle, they held a solemn repast, as a religious observance. The priest, who, contrary to the fashion of the country, was conspicuous by the length of his hair and beard, swept, previously to the beginning of the ceremony, the interior of uie fane, to which he alone had access. In per- forming this task he carefully held his breath, lest the pre- sence of the deity might be polluted by the contamination of mortal breath. Therefore, every time when he wanted to respire, he w 7 as obliged to go out of the temple. On the following day, he brought before the people assembled before the gate of the temple the horn taken from the hand of the idol, and augured from the state of its contents the prospects of the next year. If the quantity of the liquor had decreased, he predicted scarcity, but if it had not, abundance. This he announced to the people, bidding them to be sparing or pro- fuse of their stores accordingly. He then poured forth the old liquor, by way of libation, at the feet of the idol ; refilled the horn with new wine; and, having addressed to the idol prayers for himself, for the welfare of the country and its in- habitants, for increase of goods, and for victory over the enemy, he emptied the horn at a single draught. He then filled it again, and replaced it in the right hand of the idol. A large cake of a round form, made with honey, was also offered in sacrifice. The priest placed this cake between him- self and the people, and asked them whether they could see him or not. If they answered in the affirmative, he exhorted them to provide for the next year a cake which should en- tirely conceal him from their sight. He finally blessed the people in the name of the idol, and exhorted them to be dili- gent in his worship by frequent sacrifices, promising them, as a sure reward of their zeal, victory over their enemies by land and by sea. The rest of the day was spent in feasting, and all the offerings consecrated to the deity were consumed by the assembled crowd. At that feast intemperance was con- sidered as an act of piety, sobriety a sin. Every man and woman in the country paid annually a piece of money for the support of the idol's worship. A third of the spoils obtained // 12 CHAPTER I. /I over the enemy was given to the idol, as success was ascribed to his assistance. The same idol had three hundred horses, and as many soldiers, who made war on his account, and who delivered all the booty which they had obtained to the custody of the priest. He employed that booty in preparing different kinds of ornaments for the temple, which he locked up in secret storerooms, where an immense quantity of money, and of costly raiment rotten from length of time, was heaped. There was also an immense number of votive offerings, by those who sought to obtain favours from this deity. Not only did the whole of Slavonia* offer money to this idol, but even the neighbouring kings were sending him gifts, without regard to the sacrilege they were thereby committing. Thus, amongst others, Sven,t king of Denmark, sent to this idol, in order to propitiate his favour, a cup of exquisite workmanship thus preferring a strange religion to his own. He was afterwards, however, punished for this sacrilege by an unfortunate violent death. The same deity had other fanes in different places, directed by priests of equal dignity but lesser power. He had also a white horse specially belonging to him, from whose tail and mane it was considered sinful to pull a hair, and which only the priest was allowed to feed and to bestride. On this horse's back Sviantovit (which was the name of the idol) combated, according to the belief of the Rugians, against the enemies of their creed. This belief was chiefly supported by the argument, that the horse was frequently found on a morn- ing in his stable covered with sweat and mud, as if he had en- dured much exercise, and travelled far in the night. Futurity was investigated by means of this horse, and in the following manner : When it was intended to make war on any country, a number of spears were laid down in three rows before the temple, over which, after the observance of solemn prayers, the priest led the horse. If, in passing over these spears, he i by lifting his right foot, the omen was fortunate, but if he did it with the left, or with both feet together, it was a bad sign, and the project was abandoned." Sviantovit h:ul, according to the same authority, a standard rated to him, which gave to thoso who followed it the privilege to do what tliev would. They mijjit pillage with impunity, even to the li-mples of the gods; and might commit kind of outrage, without i; Accounted them for sin. !iy ( Irnnaii chronielers usually understood to mean the - Invoiiians. f According to Dahlmai (irate, \\lio was murdered in 1 K>7, and not to the lath' r <>f C'aiui'e the (lrns ot liospitalitatc nulla gens honcstior ac bcnignior potost inveniri. (// ', lib. ii., cap. xii.) Vita St Othonis, cap. 1\. SLAVONIANS. 1 ~ ran ia, is, that they objected to Christianity on account of the immorality, but particularly thieving and robbing, which were prevalent amongst the Christians, and the cruelties which tlu'V committed upon one another.* The chastity and i-onjugal fidelity of the Slavonic women are extolled by the Byzantines, as well as by tho western writers. The Kmpcror Mauritius says, that the Slavonic women were such devoted wives, that many of them commit- ted suicide when their husbands dicd.f St Bonifacius, tho Anglo-Saxon apostle of the Germans, says, in a letter address- ed to his countryman, Ethelbald king of Mercia, who \\ accused of disorderly manners, that the Slavonians, whom he calls, on account of their idolatry, the worst nation, held conjugal fidelity in such reverence, that the wives committed suicide at the death of the husbands, and that those who acted in this manner were considered praiseworthy amongst them. J It seems that the Slavonic women were wont to share with their husbands, not only the hardships of the expedi- tion, but even the dangers of the combat. When the Avars, in (J26, made an unsuccessful attack upon Constantinople, a great number of Slavonians, who had fought in their van, were slain ; and the Greeks found afterwards that there were a great number of women amongst the dead. The strength of family ties and affections amongs the Pagan Slavonians is thus described by Helmold, whom I have already several times quoted : " Hospitality and care of parents are consi- dered by the Slavonians as the first virtues. There cannot be found amongst them a poor man or a beggar, because, as soon as an individual becomes, either from debility or old age, unable to provide for himself, his relations take care of him with the greatest kindness." || I have quoted the statement of Herder, that the Slavo- nians led " a joyous, musical life ;"^[ and the following cha- racteristic anecdote, reported by the Byzantine writers, proves how fond the Slavonians were of music, and what a peaceful nation they were, when left unmolested by their neighbour " In 890, during the war with the Avars, the Greeks captured * At illi (Pomerani) inquiunt, nihil nobis ac vobis, patriao leges non dimit- timus; content! sumus religione quam habemus. Apud Christianos, aiunf, fures sunt, latrones sunt ; cruciantur pedibus, privantur oculis, et oninia genera scelerum, Christiani exercent in Christiauos: absit a nobis religio tails. (Vita ;S' Othonis, cap. xxv., p. 673.) f Strategicum, lib. xi., cap. 8. The same is repeated by the Emperor Leo the Philosopher in his Tactica, cap. xviii., sec. cv. This custom is considered by some writers as pointing to an Indian origin of the Slavonians. J Letter of St Bouifacius, apud Szaffarik's Slavonic Antiquities. % Stritter, vol. ii., page 72. II Chromcon Slawrum, cap. xii. H Vide page 6. 16 CHAPTER I. three foreigners, who had citherns instead of arms. The Emperor asked them who they were ? ' We are Slavonians, 1 answered the foreigners, ' and we live in the remotest corner of the western ocean (the Baltic Sea.) The Khan of the Avars sent presents to our chiefs, and demanded troops to fight against the Greeks. Our chiefs accepted the presents, but sent us to the Khan with the excuse that they could not give him assistance on account of the great distance. We have been ourselves fifteen months on the road. The Khan, disregarding the sanctity of the ambassadorial character,per- mitted us not to return to our country. Having heard of the riches and kindness of the Greeks, we seized a favourable opportunity to fly into Thracia. We understand not the use of arms, and we only play the cithern. There is no iron in our country. Being unacquainted with war, and fond of music, we led a peaceful and tranquil life/ The Emperor ad- mired the peaceful character of these people, their tall sta- ture, and strong make; he received them kindly, and furnished them with the means for returning to their country." * This anecdote makes one inclined to believe, that the stories related by the ancients about the happy and innocent life of the Hyperboreans were not so entirely devoid of all foundation as it is generally supposed. I have already given the passage of Herder, in which he describes the advanced state of com- merce and industry amongst the Slavonians, and there is no of repeating the various evidences of contemporary writers upon which he has founded his statement. Such was the moral condition of a people whom the Ger- mans either exterminated or reduced to bondage. It must not, however, be believed, that if the Slavonians were indus- trioii-. nl, and as inoffensive as the Peruvians, they were equally unwnrlike. It is perfectly true, as Herder has ob- 1. that " they willingly paid a tribute for the mere privi- f inhabiting their own country in peace/' They became, however, when pushed by circumstances into a war, terrible to their oppressors, displaying a courage and skill in fighting, as well as a power of enduring pain and hardship, which made much more like the unconquerable Indians of North Am'-rica than the submissive Peruvians. The By/.-intine writers, who knew the Slavonians from personal observation, that thc-y went into battle without shirt or cloak, \\var- .ly short i.iverhi's to cover their nakedness. They had .iiour. but only sp.-ars, and some of them shields. They used bows, and small arrows poison. -d with a very potent Venom, Th<-y always combated on foot, and were very expert UHI, vol. ii., I'agcs 53, 54. SLAVONIANS. ] 7 in fighting amongst defiles, woods, and in every place difficult of access. They displayed in such combats extraordinary skill, inveigling the enemy into ambuscades by simulated re- treats. They wero extraordinary divers, and could keep under water longer than any other people, receiving air by means of long reeds projecting out of the water. They were V * particularly skilful in surprising their enemies in individual . \l_}~ O encounters, of which a curious instance is related by Proco- jf^ **$ pius. When Belisarius was besieging the town of Anxum, in , Italy, he was very anxious to obtain a prisoner from amongs the Goths who occupied that place. Having in his army some Slavonians, who were accustomed in their own country on the Danube to seize prisoners by concealing themselves under stones and brushwood, he offered a considerable reward to one of them if he would take a Goth alive. There was a place near the walls where the Goths used to cut grass. The Slavonian crept at an early hour amidst the high grass, and lay there concealed. A Goth came out of the town, and not foreseeing danger at hand, only observed the movements of the besiegers'" camp, whence he looked to be assailed. The Slavonian suddenly started from his place of concealment, grasped the Goth from behind with such strength that he was unable to offer any resistance, and carried him in that way to the camp.* Another characteristic which the ancient Slavonians had, in common with the Indians of North America, was their for- titude in supporting the torments which their enemies inflicted upon them, in order to extort information as to the number, position, &c., of their army. They would die under the most excruciating torments without answering a question, and without uttering a word of complaint.-)- The military prowess of the Slavonians was not, however, confined to individual feats, where dexterity was as much re- quired as valour. This is sufficiently attested by their inva- sions of the Greek empire, by which they spread devastation from the Black to the Ionian Seas, and, having defeated the Greeks in several battles, but particularly near Adrianople in 551, penetrated to the gates of Thessalonica and of Constan- tinople. They were afterwards conquered for some time by the Asiatic nation of the Avars, and fought in the van of their conquerors with great valour, of which a remarkable * De Bello Gotkico, apud Strltter, vol. ii., pnge 31 . The Emperor Mauritius gives a detailed description of the manner in which the Slavonians usually made war ; and Sir Gardner Wilkinson has observed, that it closely resem- bles that which is pursued by the Mont routed, p. 15, that many women were found amongst tlie Sla- vonians slain on that occasion. The, Avars were called by the Greeks to conquer the. Slavonians, but soon afterwards the same Slavonians became, under the dominion of (lie Avars, much more terrible to the (i reeks than they had been before. An event which lias much similarity to t he above- mentioned one, took place nine centuries afterwards with the very same Slavonians, /'..., Servians. They implored in vain the assistance of tL ern Christians, and particularly of the Kmperor Si^isnmnd, against the ; and having received none, were defeated, on the plains of Kossovo- jiole by Suhan ! '>', and obliged to submit to his dominion. Five ! l.'5!H ), they greatly contributed to the vieiory of the Turks over the same F.mp.-ror Si^ismund at Nicopolis. 1 am anxious todn "ii of thoughtful minds to this circumstance, because it is by no means ibl" that the Slavonic populations, whose opposition to Russia has hitherto been tin impediment to her schemes of a^randi/ement, may, ha\i' nee of western Kurope, become the most powerful : t J '/(> hy u Slavonian. (Stritter, vol. ii., p. SO.) t The Slavonians who had gradually settled in the Greek province of ,iiored in (>7. ( ) \>y the Unitarians, a warlike hut not numer- ous nation, dt' Asiatic origin, who hestowed their name on the conquered Slavonians, hut gradually adopted their language and manneraj lothat in lines their nationality was completely ahsorhed in that of their objects. Bulgaria waged many bloody wan with the Greek em- s other neighbours ; but after an unfortunate war a^ain-t tin; Kinpe: raqnered by him, and bee province in 1U] - independence in llMi ; hut wa-. .I has continue. 1 since that time a province of the Ottoman empire. SLAVONIANS. 21 into that country by western missionaries during the of Charlemagne. .Bishoprics were erected there under the jurisdiction ot'tlio archbishop ofPas-au. and partly under that of the bishop of Salzburg ; but the conversion of the people, accomplished by foreign priests imperfectly acquainted \\ith the language of the country, to a worship performed in Latin, was only nominal. It was therefore that the Moravian prince Rostislav, predecessor of Sviatopluk, requested in 8(>;> the (I reek Emperor Michael to send him learned men, well ac- quainted with the Slavonic tongue, in order to translate the Scriptures into it, and to organize the public worship in a proper manner. I shall relate this event in the words of the earliest Slavonic chronicler, Nestor, a monk of Kioff. " The Moravian princes Rostislav, Sviatopolk, and Kotzcl, sent to the Emperor Michael, and said, ' Our land is bap- tized, but we have no teachers who would instruct us, and translate for us the sacred books. We do not understand either the Greek or the Latin language. Some teach us one thing, some another ; therefore we do not understand the meaning of the Scriptures, neither their import. Send us teachers who might explain to us the Scriptures, and their meaning. 1 When the Emperor Michael heard this, he called together his philosophers, and told to them the message of the Slavonic princes; and the philosophers said, l There is at Thessalonica a man named Leon : he has two sons, who both know well the Slavonic language, and are both clever philo- sophers.' On hearing this, the Emperor sent to Thessalonica to Leon, saying, ' Send to us thy sons Methodius and Con- stantino ;' which hearing, Leon straightway sent them ; ami when they came to the Emperor, he said to them, ' The Sla- vonic lands had sent to me, requesting teachers that might translate for them the Holy Scriptures. 1 And, being per- suaded by the Emperor, they went into the Slavonic land to Ilostislav, to Sviatopolk, and to Kotzel ; and having arrived, they began to compose a Slavonic alphabet, and translated the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles ; and the Slavonians rejoiced, hearing the greatness of God in their own language; after which they translated the Psalter and the other books." (Nestor 9 s Annals, original text, edition of St Petersburg, 1767, pages 20-23.) Many Slavonic scholars of considerable note think that Methodius, and his brother Constantino, better known under his monastic name Cyrillus, had begun the translation of the Scriptures in Bulgaria, and invented there the Slavonic alphabet. But whether the invention of the alphabet, and the translation of the Scriptures were originally effected in 22 CHAPTER I. Moravia, or imported thereby Methodius and Cyrillus, it was in the last-named country that the pious labours of these holy men received the greatest development, by the complete organization of the Divine service in the national language. It must, however, be remarked, that although Cyrillus and Methodius established Divine worship in the Slavonic language, according to the rites of the Greek Church, they remained under the obedience of the Popes of Rome, and not under that of the Patriarchs of Constantinople. It was just then the beginning of the great contest, which ended in the final separation of the Eastern from the Western Church. The establishment of the Slavonic worship in Moravia, where the Latin service had been before introduced, excited the anger of the German clergy, who denounced its promoters to Pope Nicholas the First. The Pope summoned the two brothers to his presence. They obeyed the Papal summons, and so entirely justified their proceedings, that Pope Adrian the First, who had succeeded Nicholas, confirmed the mode of worship established by them, and created Methodius Arch- bishop of Moravia; but Cyrillus having refused the episcopal dignity, which was offered him on that same occasion, entered a convent, and died shortly afterwards. Similar accusations obliged Methodius to repair again to Rome in cS79. He ob- tained from Pope John the Eighth a confirmation of the Sla- vonic liturgy, but on condition that the Latin should be em- ployed at the same time, and should have precedence of the Slavonic tongue. The hostility against the Slavonic liturgy went on increasing; and, after the death of Methodius, it .orated into a violent persecution, so that many Slavonic priests, who defended the worship of God in their national tongue, were expelled from the country, through German in- fluence. The state of Moravia was destroyed in 907, by the rs or Hungarians ; and, when these conquerors converted to Christianity in 973, Latin service was < blished amongst them, and the Slavonic liturgy disappeared. It lingered for some time in Bohemia and Poland ; and 1 .shall in opportunity of giving some particulars on this sul in tlie chapters relating to those countries. Tim Slavonic characters invented by Cyrillus are only a modification of the Greek alphabet, with the addition of some 'fl borrowed from the eastern alphabets, in order t<> OX- iin sounds which exist in the Slavonic, but imt in the (I reck tongue. Tin 1 provincial Synod of Salona (in Dal- niatia) in lOo'U derlarcd this Slavonic alphabet a diabolical invention, and Methodius a heretic. It continues, however, till the present day to be in n-e for sacred and devotional SLA VON I '2. 1 J works;, amongst nil the Slavonians who follow the rites of the (Jreek Church, and even of that one which acknowledges the supremacy of the Pope. Then- is another Slavonic alphabet which is in use lor sucred purposes in several churches of Dalnmtia, which, pro- fessing the dogma, and observing the rites of the Jvoinan Ca- tholic Church, have the privilege of performing Divine service in the national language. It is known under tho name of the Glagolite alphabet, and its origin was ascribed to St Je- rome, a native of Dalmatia. This opinion, however, does not stand the test of historical criticism, as St Jerome died in 1 :M), many years before the Slavonians had settled in his native country. It was therefore supposed by Dobrowski, one of the most eminent Slavonic scholars, that after the prohibition of the Cyrillic alphabet by the Synod of Salona, in 1060, the Gla- golite characters were invented by some Slavonic priests of Dalmatia, who, in order to save the liturgy in the national language from destruction, gave them out as originating from St Jerome, This supposition, which for some time had been generally admitted, was refuted by the late Kopitar, a libra- rian of the Imperial Library of Vienna, a no less authority on Slavonic subjects than Dobrowski ; and who established, by the discovery of an old Glagolite manuscript, that this alphabet was at least as old as the Cyrillic, although it is im- possible to ascertain its origin.* * It is a curious fact, that the gospels upon which the kings of France took their oath at their coronation in the Cathedral of Rheims are Slavonic, written partly in the Cyrillic and partly in the Glagolite characters. This circumstance was discovered for the first time by Peter the Great, when ho visited Rheims in 1717. A history of this manuscript was published in I s 4(j at Prague, illustrated with fac similes, &c., by the well-known Slavonic scholar llanka; and I extract from this work the following details : " This manuscript was presented by the Emperor Charles the Third, king of Bohe- mia, to the convent of Emmaus, as a precious relic, in the handwriting of St Procopius, abbot of the convent of Sazava. It was taken by the Huss- ites from that convent, which they, however, spared from destruction on account of the veneration which its inmates entertained for the Slavonic ritual. It afterwards found its way to Constantinople, in a manner which has not been ascertained ; but it is supposed that it was sent there as a pre- sent by the Hussite king of Bohemia, George Podiebrad, at the time when he negotiated a union with the Greek Church, on account of its beautiful binding, ornamented with gold, precious stones, and relics of saints. After a lapse of about a century, it was brought, in 1546, by a painter of Constan- tinople named Paleokappas, who dealt in costly objects, to the Council of Trent, where it was purchased by the Cardinal of Lorraine, who made a present of it to the Cathedral of Ilheims, of which he was the archbishop. It disappeared during the first Revolution ; but was discovered a few yeais ago by a learned Russian, Alexander Turgueneff, in the municipal library of Rheims, where it had been deposited under the consulate of Napoleon, but stripped of the beautiful binding to which it owed its place amongst the French regalia. CHAPTEK II. BOHEMIA. Origin of its name and early history Conversion to Christianity "Wai den - sians in that country Reign of the Emperor Charles the Fourth John IIuss, and his character He becomes the leader of the National party at the University of Prague His triumph over the German party, and its consequences Influence of WicklvftVs doctrines upon IIuss Principal cause of the success obtained by him Specimen of his style of preaching Political state of Bohemia at the time of IIuss The Archbishop of Prague orders to burn the works of Wicklyffe, and ex- communicates IIuss IIuss is cited by the Pope to appear before his tri- bunal at Rome IIuss begins to preach against the papal indulgences, and is excommunicated by the Papal legate Council of Constance His arrival at Constance His imprisonment The emperor, after having opposed the violation of his safe-conduct, is persuaded by the fathers of the Council to abandon IIuss Effect produced in Bohemia by the im- prisonment of IIuss Trial and defence of Huss His condemnation His execution Trial and execution of Jerome of Prague. BOHEMIA, although of comparatively small extent, occupies a prominent place in the religious history of Europe. Its geo- graphical position, which forms a kind of Slavonic wedge entering the German body, as well as the strong spirit of nationality which animates her Slavonic population, and which centuries of oppression have been unable to destroy, must make that country an object of particular interest to all Ithose who are not indifferent to the progress of mankind. Nowhere, perhaps, has the influence of religious opinions on tho national development, and vice versa, been so strikingly illustrated as by the history of that country, small in extent, but great in deeds ; nowhere have the advantages of religious in, and the melancholy consequences of its suppression, so visible as in Bohemia. The name of Bohemia is d rived from the Celtic 1 nation of IJoii, who occupied that ry about the beginning of our era ; whence Hie n;r Bojohemum (tln i home or country of the Bolieini;i La occupied by the T population of tho mi, who disappeared duri; ntury, having joined the (_!,: i, and other nations, on their pa from the north-east to the south-west of Kuropo, and v BOHEMIA. place was occupied by the Slavonic nations of the Cnekha during the immigration of that race, which I have mentioned in my first chapter, in the words of Herder.* This nation has remained in that country, and is known to we,- 1; rn Kuropo under the name oi Doheniians, although in its own language it retains the original national name of Chekhs, which is also given to it by all other Slavonic nations. The Bohemian monarchy was finally constituted under Boleslav the First (936-67) ; and the province of Moravia was united with it under Brzetislav (1037-55). It fell early under the influence of the Gferman emperors, whose suzereignty was acknowledged by the Bohemian monarchs, and who received from them the royal crown at the end of the eleventh century. It acquired during the thirteenth century an extraordinary but short- lived greatness, under the King Przemysl Ottokar, who ex- tended his dominion to the shores of the Adriatic.-)* Its condition became very flourishing under the dynasty of Lux- emburg ; and it was during that period that the celebrated religious and political movement known under the name of Hussitism took place. Christianity must have penetrated into Bohemia about the times of Charlemagne, who had wars with that country, and compelled it to pay him a tribute. It became, however, free from the suzereignty of Charlemagne's successors, and placed itself under the protection of Sviatopluk, king of Great Moravia, where, as I have already related, Christianity was completely established by the apostolical labours of Metho- dius and Cyrillus.J The Duke of Bohemia, Borivoy, was bap- tized by Methodius ; and the same ecclesiastical organization as in Moravia was introduced into that country. After the destruction of the kingdom of Moravia, and by the gradual in- crease of German influence in Bohemia, the above-mentioned ecclesiastical organization, i. 0., the worship in the national lan- guage, with the rites and the discipline of the Eastern Church, were gradually giving way to the Latin liturgy and the prac- tice of the Western Church, until the last stronghold of the former, the Benedictine Convent of Sazava, was abolished by order of the ecclesiastical authority in 1094, and the Slavonic books which were preserved there destroyed on that occasion. Yet although the national churches were thus publicly abo- * Vide p. 3. t It would not have been such a geographical absurdity in Shakspeare to have thrown his shipwrecked heroes oil the coast of Bohemia, I '.ct iii., Scene 3, if he had chosen that period for the time of his drama. J Vide p. 21. Vide Palacky-'s Geschichte von Ijohmen, vol. i., page 339. 26 CHAPTER II. lished in Bohemia, there can be no doubt that they must have continued a long time after this event secretly to exist amongst a people so devotedly attached to all that is national as the Bohemians proved themselves to be on several occasions ; and it was but natural that men should prefer Divine worship in their own language, to one performed in a tongue unknown to them.* It was also very natural that those churches or con- gregations, although not opposed to the fundamental dogma of Koine, or its supremacy, became so by the persecution which they had to suffer, and that consequently they sympa- thized even with its dogmatic opponents. Protestant as well as Roman Catholic writers agree that the Waldensians, per- secuted in France, sought refuge in Bohemia and Poland. Thuanus states that the great reformer of Lyons, Peter Waldo himself, after having visited the Slavonic countries, finally settled in Bohemia ; and the learned Perrin adheres to this opinion. The Protestant Bohemian writer Stranski says, " As the purity of the Greek ritual was insensibly becoming corrupted amongst the people, either through the remains of Paganism, or by the influence of tho Latins, there arrived in Bohemia in 1176 several pious individuals, disciples of Peter Waldo, very commendable, not only on account of their piety, but also by their knowledge of the Scriptures, and who had been expelled from France and Germany. They settled in the towns of Zatec and Lani. They joined the adherents of the Greek ritual whom they found there, and modestly cor- rected by the Word of God the defects which they discovered in their worship.-)- Another Protestant writer, Francovich, i- known under his assumed name of Illyricus Flaccius, relates that he had an account of tho proceedings made by the Inquisition of Poland and Bohemia about 1330, which vely stated that it had been discovered that subscrip- tions were collected in these countries, and sent to the AVal- densians of Italy, whom the contributors regarded as their brethren and teachers, and that many Bohemians visited these Waldensiuns, in order to study divinity. J The Roman Catholic writer Hagec says, "In the year 13 H, heretics called Grubenhaimer, i.e., inhabitants of caverns, a gain en- Hoi)* mia. \Ve have spoken of them above, under tho i fan t relates, upon the authority of Sjiomlamis that Pope Innocent. :irth allowed the I oheinian -, ahout the middle of the thirteenth cen- tury, to pertnrm divine service in the national l:mL,niain>. (li'irtnir,' .) And the Px.heinirui Jesuit P.alhinus con.- idrrs it a pi , divine win-ship in their own ton $ Catologtu Tatium I' ;>. xv.. p. i BOIIKMIA. 27 year 117(>. They settled in towns, hut particularly at Prague, where they could better conceal themselves. They preached in some houses, but very secretly. Although they w known to many, they were tolerated, because they knew how to conceal their wickedness under a great app< araneo of piety."* Eneas Sylvius, afterwards Pope Pius the Second, maintains that the Hussites were a branch of the \Val- densians. It is therefore more than probable that Wal- densian doctrines were widely spread in Bohemia when IIuss began to preach against Rome, and that they greatly contri- buted to the progress of his doctrines. The national dynasty of Bohemia, which occupied her throne even before the introduction of Christianity into that country, ended in the male lino in 1306, with Wenceslav the Second, and the Bohemian crown passed into the house of Luxemburg, by the marriage of Elizabeth, daughter of the last monarch of the ancient dynasty, with John of Luxemburg, son of the Emperor Henry the Seventh. John is well known in history for his warlike exploits, but particularly by his chivalrous death on the field of Cressy, where he came to combat, not from any political motives, but simply from love of adventure. His son and successor Charles was an entirely different cha- racter from his father. Educated at the University of Paris under the tuition of the first scholars of the age, he was one of the most learned men of his time, and had perhaps, in this respect, with the exception of James the First of Great Britain, no equal on the throne. His intellect was, however, of a much higher order than that of the crowned pedant who sat on the British throne, and which he displayed in his writings, and even more by his actions. There is, indeed, a great difference between Charles's Autobiography, which in- culcates to his children the precepts of Christian humility, and James's Basilicon Doron, which contains absurd notions about royal authority ; but the difference between the reigns of these two sovereigns was still greater, because if that of James was, to say the least, insignificant, the reign of Charles was one of the wisest and most prosperous with which Bohemia was ever blessed. Charles the First of Bohemia is better known to western Europe as Charles the Fourth, emperor of Germany ; he is also known by his golden bull, or the order of the election of the emperors, by the part which he took in the events of Rome during the momentary flash of its liberty under the celebrated tribune Cola di Rienzi, and the personal intercourse which he had on that occasion with Petrarcha ; but his iin- * Ilistor. Bohem., p. 550. 28 CHAPTER IT. perial reign is generally considered as supine and insignificant. Yet, if he proved himself to be an insignificant emperor in Germany, ho was undoubtedly a really great king in Bohemia. Ho found that country in a state of great exhaustion by the continual wars of his father, whose sole object was to draw from it men arid money for his frequent expeditions, without much scruple about the means by which he obtained these supplies , and it was but natural that such a reign should en- gender many and great abuses of every kind. Charles applied himself, immediately after his accession, to a vigorous reform of all those abuses ; and his honest and persevering efforts to improve the moral, material, and intellectual condition of his country, were crowned with a brilliant success. He accom- plished, however, these reforms, not by the strong hand of a despot, whose measures, however well-intentioned may be their object, and even however beneficial may be their consequences, produce but too often a depressive effect upon the character of the nation to which they are applied, making it too dependent upon its government, and weakening or destroying thereby the germ of every manly virtue in a nation as well as in an individual self-reliance. Charles respected the constitutional liberties of the kingdom, although they prevented him from introducing several beneficial laws, which were in advance of that age. He succeeded, however, by his influence, in reform- ing an immense number of the grossest abuses, which had disgraced the ecclesiastical as well as civil order of his country; repressed the rapacious spirit of many of his nobles; established public security by severe regulations against its disturbers, of high and low degree; protected the weak against the strong; extended the municipal liberties of the towns, by which their population was increased, their commerce and industry pro- moted ; and raised the agriculture to a flourishing condition. He was no less anxious to improve the intellectual state than tin! material condition of his country; and in 1347 he founded the University of Prague, organized on the model of those of JJoIoLrmi and Paris, filled its chairs with eminent scholars, and endowed it with ample funds for its maintenance. The most remark. ible feature in the noble efforts of that monarch to cnli'j-hten his snhj-cts, and which, I think, places him .irivatly in advance of his a<_ r <\ is, perhaps, that lie was the first ruler who und-Tstood the tnie means of advancing the national in- , which undoubtedly is the cultivation and development of the national Ian ; ure ; and he zealously pro- ! this (! who wr< Bohemian. This oircnmstanco bad a im-at influeBce upon the progress of li ij and it is remarkable, that whilst in HA, other countries! (lie eedesiust i,\il reformation accelerated tlio development of the national language, by the translation of the Scriptures into it, which the reformers spread am th ' people, with several other works composed in the same language, it was the development of the national language and literature which prepared that mighty revolution in Bohemia. The external peace which Charles carefully preserved with the foreign powers, and the internal tranquillity of the country which he succeeded in establishing and maintaining, by keep- ing down with a strong hand the turbulent spirit of his nobles, did not by any means extinguish the martial spirit of the Bohemians, which they had displayed on many occasions, but particularly during the adventurous reign of the preceding monarch.* On the contrary, Charles rendered the valour of his subjects more efficient by a military organization which he introduced into the country ; and their warlike ardour and habits were kept up by foreign service, in which many Bohe- mians were wont to engage during peace at home. Such was the state of Bohemia previously to that terrible commotion which she underwent during the first part of the fifteenth century, and which is known under the name of the Hussite wars. She was in some manner prepared for tho tremendous struggle against the overwhelming forces of Ger- many, supported by the anathemas of Borne, and crusades from different parts of western Europe. The country was rich, enlightened, and warlike ; but, above all, the national feeling of her inhabitants had acquired an extraordinary de- gree of intensity, which, I believe, was the mainspring of the * There are many characteristic anecdotes of the chivalrous spirit which animated the Bohemians during 1 the period to which I allude in the text, i.e., the reign of John of Luxemburg. When this monarch was on one occasion milking an expedition against Poland, his nobles represented to him, that they were obliged, by the constitution of the country, to join his standard within the limits of the country, but not to follow him beyond its frontiers. He simply answered, " I shall march alone into the field, and see who amongst you is so bold, so foolish, or so cowardly, as not to follow the King of Bohemia." These words were sufficient to make all resistance to his orders cease. At Cressy he arrived on the battlefield when the French were already routed. This was related to him as it is well known that he was then en- tirely blind by his followers, and they advised him to retreat from a useless danger. But the king replied in Bohemian, " Toko Bali da, ne ln>i Knd : lltiry utikal. This, I trust in God, will never happen, that the Bohemian king should fly from a battle.'* These words produced such an effect upon the small band of the Bohemians who had accompanied him on that occasion, that, closing round their blind monarch, and faithful unto death to him, they rushed into the midst of the English, although they had no chance either of success or escape. Seven Bohemian grandees, and more than two hundred knights of the same nation, were slain on that occasion. 30 CHAPTER II. energy which they displayed in the defence of their political and religious liberty, and which, I have no hesitation in say- inir, has no parallel in the pages of modern history. The study of the national history in the ancient records, which naturally formed an important part of the national literature in that early period of its development, coupled with the influence of the Waldensians, whose existence in Bohemia during the same period, i.e., the fourteenth century, seems to me established beyond a doubt, by the evidence which I have adduced on this subject, could not but revive the traditional attachment of the Slavonians to their national worship. And, indeed, many years before Huss began to preach, several pious and learned ecclesiastics, as, for instance, Stiekna, Milicz, Janova, &c., advocated the communion of two kinds, which was an essential part of the above-mentioned worship. Their labours were, however, more devoted to the reformation of the corrupted manners of their age, than marked by any decided opposition to the established ecclesi- astical order. Yet, by awakening the national mind to the serious consideration of religious subjects, they greatly paved the way for the reforms of John Huss. The life, opinions, and martyrdom of the great Slavonic reformer have been narrated over and over again, but parti- cularly by a recent work generally known in this country.* The narrow limits of this work permit me not to enter here into ji detailed account of this interesting subject; and, moreover, my object at present is not so much to discuss the theological points of different creeds which have prevailed, and still pre- vail, amongst the various populations belonging to the Slavo- nic race, as to delineate the influence which these various d upon the intellectual and political condition <>f these populations. I shall therefore particularly dwell upon the effect which Huss and his doctrines produced upon the national intellect and character of his countrymen, and give only a rapid sketch of the life and labours of the great Sla- vonic reformer. John Huss was born in 1369, at a village called Ifussiiu-tz, from which he took his name, which signifies, in i: mian. . a circumstance to which he frequently alludes in hi- of humble origin, but rose to eminence entirely by his learning and virtues, which are acknowli b\ hi 'lent theological opponents. Tims, for ins;. the Jesuit Balbinus says of him, t- lie \\a> more subtle than nt; l>ut liis i pe manners, his hard mode . liy F.mile Bonnei-hosc; translated from the FrenHi l.y ( '. M.. JOO HUSS IIOIII'.MIA. 31 of living, his irreproachable conduct, his pale and emaciated countenance, the sweetness of his temper, and his affability towards everv one, even the lowest individuals, persuaded more, effectively than the greatest eloquence. 1 " IIuss distinguished himself equally in the university and in the church. Jn I ;>!)' he was made bachelor and master of arts, and in 1401 Dean of the Philosophical Faculty. In 1400 ho became the con- of the (Jueen, on whom he had a great influence; and in 1403 he began to preach in the national language; but it was only in 1409 that he commenced his attacks upon the established church. A great cause of the popularity which Huss enjoyed amongst his countrymen was his strong attach- ment to his nation. His Latin works are known to western Europe ; but it is not so generally known that ho not only cul- tivated his own language, but also greatly improved it, by fixing the rules of its orthography, which have remained in use till very recently. The greatest cause of his popularity was, however, the service which he rendered to his countrymen in the altering the constitution of the University of Prague. This learned institution having been, as I have already said, founded in 1347 by the Emperor Charles the Fourth, on the model of those of Paris and of Bologna, the statutes and usages of these universities were adopted by it. Accord- ing to these statutes, the foreigners had, in all the affairs of the university, one vote, and the natives three; but as at the opening of the university there was a much greater num- ber of magisiri artium and doctors, who arrived from all parts of the Germanic empire to that learned institution, which was the first of the kind established within the limits of that em- pire, than of those who were natives of Bohemia, three votes were given to the former, and only one reserved to the latter. This arrangement caused the greater part of the honours and emoluments belonging to the university to be bestowed upon Germans, and not upon the natives of the country to which that university belonged a circumstance which could not but create amongst the Bohemians much ill-will and jealousy against the Germans. Huss undertook, in conjunction with his future fellow-martyr Jerome of Prague, and another pa- triot named John Zwickowicz, to redress this unjust arrange- ment; and his plea on that occasion was as follows: " It is true that when Charles the Fourth, of glorious and blessed memory, had founded this university, he ordained that for a time the German masters of arts should have, in the election of the rector, and in the decision of all other academical officers, three votes, and that the Bohemians should have but one. This most praiseworthy monarch, however, made this 32 CHAPTER II. regulation only because there were then but few of our coun- trymen who had received the degree of master of arts, or doctor; but as now, by the grace of God, there is a great number amongst us who have received these degrees, it is just that we should have three votes, and you Germans should rest satisfied with one." This affair was debated with much warmth on both 8ides; but, finally, the influence of Huss ob- tained from the King of Bohemia, Wenceslav, a decree of the following purport : tl Although it is necessary to love all men, yet charity ought to be regulated by the degrees of proximity. Therefore, considering that the German nation, which does not belong to this country, and has, moreover, as we have learnt from the most veritable evidence, appropriated to itself, in all the acts of the University of Prague, three votes, whilst the Bohemian nation, the legitimate heir of this realm, has but one; and considering that it is very unjust that foreigners should enjoy the privileges of the natives of the country, to the prejudice of the latter, we order, by the present act, under the penalty of our displeasure, that the Bohemian nation should, without any delay or contradiction, enjoy hencefor- ward the privilege of three votes in all councils, judgments, elections, and all other academic acts and dispositions, in the same manner as is practised in the University of Paris, and in those of Lombardy and Italy." The Germans made a strenuous effort to preserve their pri- vilege; and it is said that, at a meeting which they held pre- vious to the publication of the above-mentioned edict, they ;lved that, should it take place, they were to retire in a body from Prague ; and those of them who would disobey this decision were to be punished by the loss of two fingers a characteristic trait of national animosities, and which shows that intellectual pursuits are not able to soften down those lamentable feelings. Yet it is still more deplorable to think, i ho events which took place since the beginning of 1848 have shown, that the high mental development of which modern Ger- many boasts has not been able to change the feeling which animated their ancestors of the fifteenth century towards the Slavonians; and that although the manner in which those t iiiL r -< have l>een of late l>i;t too frequently expressed has heroine haps more refined l,y the progress of civili/ation, yet their real nature seems to remain unaltered. It is now about three :-_ro which in this eventful period appears more than a quarter <,f ,-i r.-nlury sinre 1 alluded to this unfortun of things, and point. '(1 our its dan nseqn n-< s. which arc now developing themselves with such fearful rapidity/"' May * r :ullx II. BOH K MIA. o. 4 > heaven, in its im-ivy, avert from us the repetition of those event* which similar produced in the fifteenth century! When the edict was published, the Germans executed their resolution: with the exception of a few, they left Prague, and retired to Germany. This emigration seems to have been immense,* and it led to the foundation of the University of Leipsic, and soon afterwards to that of other similar estab- lishments in Germany, where the name of Huss, as that of the principal cause of tho revolution, became an object of universal hatred. It was, however, natural that the same reason should render I hiss as popular amongst his own countrymen as ho was odious to the Germans; and, indeed, he became the object of universal admiration in Bohemia, and his popularity amongst the inhabitants of that country was perhaps even greater than that which O'Connell enjoyed during his most palmy days in Ireland. This circumstance has undoubtedly contributed more than any thing else to the rapid spread of his doctrines in Bohemia and other countries of the Slavonic tongue; whilst it accounts, in a great measure, for tho remarkable circum- stance, that the same doctrines found no echo in Germany, where, a century afterwards, the Reformation of Luther gained ground with considerable ease and rapidity. The event which I have just narrated took place in 1409; and immediately afterwards Huss was elected Rector of the University of Prague, and began openly to preach doctrines opposed to Eome. I have said that the ground for such doc- trines was prepared in Bohemia by the tradition of the na- tional churches, which w\as cherished in the memory of her inhabitants by the influence of the Waldensians who had sought and found refuge in that country, and by the advance of the national intellect, promoted by the University of Prague. Let me add to these causes one more, of a very powerful nature, and which gave the impulse to the movement prepared by the others, I mean the doctrines of the great British reformer Wicklyffb. Although a considerable distance separates Bohemia from this island, and which, in the imperfect state of communica- tion during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, was an in- * The accounts which several writers have given as to the number of the foreign students who left the University of Prague on that occasion differ very much. Hagec says that it was 40,000; Lupacius, 44,000; the contem- porary author Lauda, quoted by JJalbinus, states that it was 36,000; Du- bravius, more than 24,000; Tritheme and Cochleus reduce these immense numbers to 2000. ^Eneas Sylvius states it to have been 5000; and I am inclined to consider this last statement, given by the most accomplished writer of his time, and contemporary with the event, as the nearest to the truth. S4f CHAPTER IT. surmountable bar to frequent intercourse between the land of Wicklyffe and that of Huss, peculiar circumstances facilitated an intellectual connection between the two countries, and brought within the walls of Prague the opinions of the parish priest of Lutterworth. Richard the Second was married, as is well known, to Anna, daughter of the Emperor Charles the Fourth, whose beneficial reign in Bohemia I have described in the course of this chapter. She had brought over with her to England several Bohemian attendants, who, after the death of that princess, returned to their native land, and imported the writings of Wicklyffe. Some Bohemians went to the then far-famed University of Oxford ; and Jerome of Prague is said to have remained for some time at that university, whence he returned furnished with the works of Wicklyffe, and imbued with his opinions. It is also said that two English Lollards, named James and Conrad, of Canterbury, arrived at Prague, where, Huss having received them in his house, they communicated to him the works of Wicklyffe, which Huss disliked at first, but, becoming better acquainted with their contents, he changed his opinion on this subject. According to the same account, these two Englishmen re- quested Huss's permission to paint the hall of his house, which having obtained, they represented upon its walls, on one side the entrance of Christ into Jerusalem, and on the other a cavalcade of the pope, with all the splendour of pontifical pomp. Huss was much pleased with these pictures ; and hav- :'oken of them with great praise, a large number of the inhabitants of Prague went to see them, and made comments upon their meaning. The opinions became divided upon this subject, some taking a part for, others against, the subject of pictures ; and it may easily be conceived that, at a time when the art of printing was still unknown, a bold attack upon such revered authority as that of Rome made by this emblem, could not but produce a strong sensation ; and, in- it created such a ferment amongst the inhabitants of Prague, that the English strangers were obliged to leave that place. This circumstance must also have considerably at- tracted the attention of the public to the productions of Wick- lyffe, which seem at that time to have circulated in Lfn-at numbers in Bohemia, as Sbiuko, archbishop of Prague, in 1110 caused a great number of them to be publicly burnt. The author who relates this event says, that many of the \\hich perished in that auto-d re beautifully writ- id splendidly bound ;* a circumstance which shows that * Puli-hcrriim- rini*rriitu ac 1 says Coclilcus, l)c LV r.OITKMIA. 35 they had been in the possession of wealthy persons, and, con- sequently, that the opinions which they contained had gained > high quarters. Huss translated several of WicklyfiVs works, and sent them to the principal noblemen of Bohemia and Moravia; and their circulation was not confined to these countries, but extended to Poland, where they found ardent admirers. But I shall irive more particulars on this subject in another place. From all that I have said, it is evident that when Huss began to proclaim his doctrines, Bohemia was ripe for a spi- ritual insurrection against the authority of Rome ; but it is probable that, without such a leader as he was, this insurrec- tion would have been very partial, and would never have assumed that national character which was the principal cause of the rapidity with which it spread over all the country, and gave to it that intensity of vigour which its adherents displayed during the long and tremendous struggle by which it was followed. Had Huss confined his labours to theologi- cal discussions, without identifying himself, as he did, with the cause of Bohemian nationality, his success would have been limited to a small number of disciples, instead of influenc- ing the hearts and minds of a whole nation. This circum- stance has not escaped the sagacious observer Balbinus, whose honest heart glowed for his nation, even under the garb of a Jesuit, and whose clear-sighted judgment remained un- biassed by the withering influence of the order to which he belonged. This eminent writer, who, by his patriotic efforts in collecting the historical and literary monuments of Bohe- mia, which his fellow Jesuits were sedulously destroying, has rendered an immense service to his country, having made a profound study of all that relates to the history of Hussitism; and although, as a devoted son of the Roman Catholic Church, he severely condemned the dogmas of those formidable enemies of his church, he never hesitated to render full justice to them whenever they deserved commendation. His impartiality is therefore above all praise, for it proceeded from a pure love of truth, and not from that so-called philosophical indifference, which, having no heart, soul, or faith for or in any thing, re- duces the historian to a mere weighing machine of facts and arguments. I must apologise to my readers for this perhaps too long digression about the patriotic historian of Bohemia ; but it will be in the course of this work but too often my painful duty to pass a severe condemnation upon the misdeed's of that celebrated body to which Balbinus belonged. I therefore was unable to forego the pleasure of dwelling for a moment on one 36 CHAPTER II. of those few sunny spots which occasionally light up the long and gloomy track of iniquity pursued by that body, and which winds through the pages of the history of Bohemia, and of that of my own country. I return to the subject in question, L e., the cause of that extraordinary influence which Huss gained over his country- men. Balbinus, unable to develop it without condemning the hostility of his order to the nationality of his country, which I shall describe in another place, has pointed it out by a masterly stroke of his pen. After having related the power- ful effect of the sermons which Huss preached in the national language at a chapel called Bethlehem, he concludes by the following line of Virgil: " Ilic illius arnia, hie currus fuit." And let me add, that in the future religious revolutions which undoutedly will follow the political and social commotions which now agitate the world, that party will obtain the vic- tory amongst the Slavonians which shall employ the same arms, and ascend the same car, and which are those of nation- ality. As a specimen of the popular style in which Huss preached his sermons, I may quote the following fragment, preserved by the Protestant writer Theobald, to whose thorough know- ledge of the subject Balbinus bears a favourable testimony. ,'y Dear Bohemians, Is it not very strange that you should be prohibited from proclaiming truth, and particularly that truth which manifests itself now in England and other countries; as, for instance, that the use of separate biirying- places, and of large bells, has no other object than to fill the purse of the priests? There are, besides, many other things which are maintained under pretence of order, but which in reality are only fit to disturb Christendom. These people to enthral you by their disorderly order; but if you will prove yourselves to be men, you will easily break these chains, and acquiro such a liberty, that you would feel as if you had left a prison. Moreover, is it not a shame and a sin, that books containing truth, and solely written for your welfare, should b(! burnt '. " This sermon must have,' been preached after the destruction of the works of \Vicklyfle by the Archbishop of Prairue, which itinnrd on paire .*! !; and words of this kind, addressed to tin- common sense and the national f'eelinirs of the hearers, could not but produce ri powerful effect upon them. The political circtini>tanc( s .f 15 -lieinia at that time were, very favourable to the spread of opinions opposed to the IHHIKMIA. 37 Roman Catholic hierarchy. The throne of that country was then oivupied 1 y Yenceslav, son of Charles the Fourth, who, in l.'iTS, succeeded his father to the imperial diadem of (uTinany and the royal crown of Bohemia, lie inherited the dignity and possessions, but not the virtues and talents, of his lather. Of a weak mind, violent disposition, and p ro- ll igato conduct, his reign was most tyrannical and oppressive. Deposed l>y a conspiracy of his nobles, he regained his throne by the assistance of his relatives, but only to lose it soon airain. His own brother Sigismund, king of Hungary, seized by treachery his person, threw the captive sovereign into the common jail of his own capital, and transferred him after- wards to a place of confinement at Vienna. Venceslav suc- ceeded in making his escape after eighteen months of impri- sonment, and returned to Prague, the citizens of which, having experienced from Sigismund a still worse treatment than from their legitimate sovereign, received him with great joy. This event took place in 1403 ; and Venceslav showed at this third assumption of his throne an entirely altered disposition. He was broken in spirit : his violence was gone, and succeeded by a state of apathy ; he thought now of nothing more than of indulging in sensual pleasures ; and the rigour of tyranny was replaced by the relaxed rule of a supine authority. In short, the change which misfortune had wrought in his character was so complete, that from a king stork he became a king log. He w r as deprived of the imperial crown, which was bestowed upon his brother Sigismund ; but he retained the throne of Bohemia, where his facile reign was very favourable to the free development of doctrines opposed to the established church, which, under another rule, would have undoubtedly met a severe repression, not only from ecclesiastical, but also civil authority. Venceslav, however, who disliked the priests, and called them " the most dangerous of all the comedians,'" was glad to see their power shaken by the preaching of Huss. He therefore laughed at the complaints which they addressed to him on this subject ; and thus all the efforts of the eccle- siastical authority to stop the progress of Huss's doctrines, being unsupported by the civil power, failed in producing any effect. Sbinko, the archbishop of Prague, who had for some time tried in vain to put a stop to the proceedings of Huss, ob- tained, in 1410, a bull from the pope, Alexander Fifth, empowering him to suppress by force heresy within his juris- diction, to destroy all the writings of Wicklyffe, and to forbid preaching, except in parochial, conventual, and episcopal churches. This prohibition was aimed at Huss, who was 38 CHAPTER II. preaching in a chapel, and it produced, on the part of his influential friends, a strong opposition to the publication of the above-mentioned bull. It was, however, finally proclaimed on the 9th March 1410, and Huss was immediately cited before the archiepiscopal court on a charge of heresy. Huss, and many followers of the doctrines of Wicklyffe, brought their books to the archbishop, requesting him to point out and to prove the heretical doctrines which they contained, in order to enable them to reject these errors. The commission which was appointed to examine the books in question, de- clared all the writings of Wicklyffe heretical, and the arch- bishop decided at a provincial synod that they should be destroyed by fire, and prohibited at the same time, under the penalty of excommunication, preaching in chapels. The University of Prague protested against this decision, declaring that the archbishop had no right to dispose of books which were the property of its members; that the uni- versity had a right to investigate every kind of doctrine; that it was impossible to teach without books; and that if the principle proclaimed by the archbishop was to be adopted, it would become necessary to destroy the works of the Pagan philosophers. This protest was presented to the king, who induced the archbishop to suspend the execution of his lite- rary auto-da-fe, and the affair was referred to the decision of the newly elected pope, John Twenty-third. The archbishop did not, however, wait for that decision, but ordered the de- struction of the works of Wicklyffe, to which I have alluded on page 34, and soon afterwards he pronounced a solemn excommunication against Huss. This event produced an immense sensation amongst the whol'! population of Bohemia, which divided on this subject into two parties, violently opposed one to another, and whose differences frequently led to active collision. The king strictly prohibited all public demonstrations of this kind, and or- dered the archbishop to indemnify the owners of the destroyed books; but, as the prelate refused to comply with this injunc- tion, his estates were put under sequestration. Huss continued meanwhile to preach, explaining that he did not contend for any thing else but what was taught by the Scriptures, by Christ and the apostles; that he did not seek to separate from the universal church, but, on the contrary, steadfastly held all its tenets; and that it was impossible to ad- mit that tho pope should know the real state of the question, else he could never have enjoined on the archbishop such acts of barbarity as those which had l>em committed by that prelate. He pointed out the schemes by which the archbishop, BOHEMIA. 39 the clergy, and their adherents, sought to destroy him, solemn- ly declaring that it was impossible for him to obey the com- mandments of men in preference to those of God and Jesus Christ, lie exhorted the people to remain firm in their adhe- rence to the truth; and besides his sermons, he and his friends held public disputations to defend the writings of Wirk- lyfl'e. \Yhilst this agitation was going on, a papal embassy an- nouncing the election of Pope John Twenty-third arrived at Prague. The king, the queen, and many of the principal noblemen of the country, addressed themselves to the papal legates, representing to them the real state of the ques- tion, and requesting them to obtain from the new pontiff the recall of the bull issued by his predecessor, and particularly to preserve the privileges of the Chapel of Bethlehem (I.e., where Huss was preaching.) The papal embassy was, however, ac- companied on its return to Rome by the delegates of the arch- bishop who obtained from the pope an approbation of the pro- ceedings of that prelate, and a citation of Huss to appear at Rome in order to answer the charge of heresy which was pre- ferred against him. The king addressed again the pope, re- presenting to him the condition of the Bohemian Church; that it was impossible for Huss to undertake a journey to Rome on account of the many dangers to which his life would be exposed by such a voyage; requested once more the confirma- tion of the permission to preach in the Chapel of Bethlehem; and proposed that the religious differences which had sprung up in Bohemia should be settled either by the University of Prague, or by a cardinal sent for this object at the expense of the king. The pope answered, however, that the appearance of Huss at Rome was indispensable, and that three judges for the in- vestigation of his case were already appointed. This intelli- gence encouraged the archbishop to repeat the excommunica- tion of Huss, and to demand the restitution of his estates. But as his demand was not granted, and as many clergymen refused to proclaim in their churches the anathema against Huss, the archbishop put an interdict upon the capital. The king, irritated by such proceedings, banished several clergymen who had taken a prominent part in executing the archbishop's orders, seized the treasures of the Chapter of Prague, and caused the estates of the realm to enact a law prohibiting to sue any one before the ecclesiastical courts for a secular cause. These vigorous measures induced the arch- bishop to relent; and as the king and Huss himself were very anxious to pacify these disturbances, both parties agreed to 40 CHAPTER II. submit their mutual differences to a court of arbitration, which was appointed on the 3d July 1411, and gave in a few days the following decision : The archbishop was to submit to the king, to recall his interdict as well as all the ecclesiastical penalties which he had proclaimed, to cancel all the proceed- ings which he had begun on account of heresy, and to send a written declaration to the Roman curia that there were no heretics in Bohemia; on the other side, the king was to restore the estates of the archbishop, severely to punish all heresies, to watch over the maintenance of peace by both parties, and to defend the privileges of the clergy and those of the univer- sity. Both parties assented to this verdict; and not long afterwards Huss gave, in a general assembly of the uni- versity, a confession of his faith, defended his conduct, and publicly requested the archbishop to dispense with his journey to Home, since he was decided to act in all points as a dutiful eon of the church. The archbishop delayed, however, to send to Rome the promised declaration that there were no heretics in Bohemia, for he knew it would not be well received by the papal court, and soon afterwards death relieved him from this difficult situation. The pacification which I have just described could not have any permanent effect; and a new circumstance which took place before the end of that year (1411), rekindled with great fury religious contention. The pope, John Twenty-third, proclaimed a crusade against Ladislaus king of Naples, promis- ing a plenary indulgence to all those who would take a part in it, either personally or by pecuniary contributions. A legate sent for that especial object arrived in Bohemia, and wns obtaining from credulous people considerable sums of money. This gave much offence to the more enlightened in- habitants of the country, and Huss began to preach against this monstrous abuse of the papal authority, and to prove by public disputations the absurdity and unchristian character of this scandalous means for promoting the personal interest of the pope. The clergy, particularly the higher ones, took tho ?art of the pope, and so did also the Gorman burghers of Vairiu', who composed a powerful corporation, and by whom the principal municipal offices of the old town were held; whilst on the other side the greatest part of tin. 1 laity amongst the Bohemians zealously embraced the sentiments of IIns<. The last-named party was most ably supported on that occasion by .Jerome of JVairue, \\lio became afterwards the fellow-martyr of \\\\-<. Ib rn ai Prague, in a noble but poor family, and became a friend of Ilnss when they v both students. He \in i wards several foreign univer- BOIIKMIA. 41 sitics, and amongst others Oxford, from whence he brought 1 writings of WicklylTe. He made a, pilgrimug*' to the Holy Lan 1 in' the organization of the University of Cracow, and laboured as a missionary in Lithuania. He was a man not only of profound learning, but also of great experience; and his iiery disposition, and brilliant eloquence, often produced upon his countrymen a more powerful impres- sion than was done even by IIuss himself. IIuss was excommunicated by a papal legate, and the whole of the country, but particularly its capital, became the scene of continual strife between his adherents and his opponents, so that blood was spilt on more than one occasion. The king issued a peremptory order to the principal autho- rities of the country, to adopt proper measures for putting a stop to those disturbances, and the clergy convoked for this purpose a synod, which met at Bohmish Brod, on the 6th Feb- ruary 1413. The theological opinions represented at that meeting were, however, of so opposite a character, that it was quite impossible to come to any agreement on this subject. Magister Jackobel of Miess, one of the most accomplished and most decided disciples of Wicklyffe in Bohemia, openly stated the real point at issue, by declaring that the question was, whether the human ordinances of a hierarchy composed of mortal and consequently fallible beings, or the commandments of God and the precepts of Christ, were to be obeyed ? The Romish party maintained, on the contrary, that the Bohemian clergy owed an unconditional submission to the pope and the cardinals, as they were the only true and legitimate successors of St Peter and the apostles. The party of Huss, which was represented, in the absence of their leader, by his friend John Jesienicki, adopted a middle course, and demanded that the pacification of 1411 (vide page 40) should be renewed; that the ancient rights of the Bohemian Church, in respect to its relation with Home, should be restored ; that Huss should be permitted personally to appear before the synod, in order to clear himself from the charge of heresy ; and that, when this object was accomplished, all "his accusers should be duly punished, and similar accusations strictly prohibited for the future ; and finally, that the excommunication of Huss should be recalled, and Bohemia justified before the court of Rome from all suspicion of heresy, by an embassy sent for this pur- pose. The object of these propositions was apparently to intro- duce some reforms into the church without producing any disruption; and although subsequent experience proved the impossibility of its accomplishment, the hopes which seem to 42 CHAPTER II. have been entertained on this subject by Huss and his friends were not so unreasonable as they may now appear, consider- ing that an ecclesiastical reform was then loudly demanded by many zealous churchmen. The Romish party refused to accept these propositions, and the synod was dissolved without having arrived at any de- cision. The king appointed, therefore, a commission, com- posed of several prelates and the rector of the university, in order to decide by arbitration the disputed points. When the proceedings of this commission were opened, the Romish party insisted upon the position that the pope and the cardinals were the real head and body of the church, whilst Jesienicki, who represented the party of Huss, agreed to accept it, but with the following addition : That he, and those whom he re- presented, were ready to accept the decisions of the church, in such a manner as every true and faithful Christian ought to accept them. The commission decided in favour of the ad- dition, which was directed against the infallibility of the pope and his college, to which the llomish party strictly adhered; and the king was so angry with the leaders of that party, who protested against the above-mentioned decision, that he exiled them from the country. The king having desired Huss to withdraw from the capital, where his presence was increasing the excitement of the contending parties, he retired into the country, even before the convocation of the synod which I have described above ; but he did not relax in his exertions, and con- tinued to preach in Bohemian, and to publish writings in the same language. Meanwhile, the Emperor Sigismund having obtained from the pope, John Twenty-third, the convocation of a general council at Constance, on the 1st November 111 I, sent a message to Huss, inviting him to appear, under the protection of an imperial safe-conduct, before that council, and personally to defend his cause. Huss immediately signified his assent to the imperial summons, and repaired to Prague, where he announced his desire to clear himself from every imputation of heresy, before the archbishop and a synod. Tlie archbishop having rejected this offer, lie went to the papal inquisitor, who, having assembled some of the principal noblemen and clergymen, declared Muss to be free from everv suspicion of hen >\. and gave a written document to this pur- pose; and this testimony induced the archbishop to give a similar declaration. Huss now wrote to Sigismund, repeating his promise to repair to Constance, and requested that monarch to obtain for him a public trial of his opinions before the council. The BOHEMIA. emperor promised that hi* request should be granted, and appointed, in conjunction with Ins brother, King Vcnccslav, IJohemian noblemen of high rank to accompany him to the council. As soon as the resolution of Hnss became known, presents of different kinds, as well as pecuniary contributions, poured upon him from all parts of the country, which considered him as its worthiest representative in an assembly composed of the most eminent individuals of that time. Before starting on his journey, IIuss issued an address to his nation, in which .pressed his conviction that he would be exposed to the malice of his numerous enemies, but that he firmly trusted in Divine providence, and his Saviour, who would guard and pro- tect him against all dangers, inspire him with the necessary wisdom for the defence of truth, and if it were necessary that he should seal it with his blood, would give him the fortitude required for such a sacrifice. He exhorted, at the same time, his countrymen to be steadfast in maintaining God's truth, and fervently to pray that God would give him the grace to behave as his faithful servant on that solemn and trying occasion. On the 11 th October 1414, Huss began his voyage, which, during his whole passage through Bohemia, resembled a tri- umphal progress, as he was received in every place by immense crowds, who accompanied him a part of the way, invoking the blessing of heaven on their great countryman, and giving him every possible mark of respect. When he had crossed the frontier of Bohemia, he turned his horse, and cast from the heights of the Bohmerwald a last longing look on his beloved native land, and having addressed to Heaven a fervent prayer for its welfare, continued his way on the German soil. I have related above (page 33), that the decided part which IIuss had taken against the Germans in the affair of the Univer- sity of Prague, had rendered him as odious to that nation as it made him popular with his own. His reception in Germany was, however, the reverse of hostile. At his approach to Nuremberg, which was then one of the greatest cities of that country, he was met by an immense number of inhabitants, and solemnly conducted by them into their town, where, during his short stay, he was continually surrounded by the most distinguished and learned people of that place, clergy- men as well as laymen, who publicly conversed with him on the most important subjects. His reception was also very favourable in other places of Germany through which he passed, notwithstanding that his enemies had sent a bishop, who preceded him by three days 1 journey, warning the people not to listen to the voice of the heretic. 44 CHAPTER II. Husg arrived at Constance on the 2d November 1414, and \vas met on his entry into that place by a large concourse of people. He had not with him the imperial safe-conduct, but it was brought the next day by Venceslav of Duba, one of the three Bohemian noblemen appointed to accompany him, and who immediately signified it to the council. The pope de- clared, at the request of Chlumski, another of the above-men- tioned noblemen, that he would do no harm to Huss, if he had even murdered his own (the pope's) brother ; and on the 9th November the interdict which rested upon Huss was pro- visionally taken off at the request of the Bohemian noblemen. The numerous enemies which Huss had amongst the Bohe- mian clergy were meanwhile making every possible effort in order to destroy him. Whole crowds of people, who had been present at his sermons and- public disputations, were in- duced to make depositions of all that was considered as erroneous in them. Thus a long list of accusations was pre- ferred against the reformer. The most part of them were either founded upon incorrect reports, or misapprehension; but there were many positive facts of his attacking the immo- rality and encroachments of the clergy, as well as the sale of indulgences ; and these were undoubtedly more dangerous to him than erroneous views upon mere doctrinal points. Huss having received this document, published a protest against all the false statements which it contained, but it did not prevent the Bohemian clergy from sending it by a special deputation to the council. On the next day after the arrival of Huss, a member of the above-mentioned deputation affixed to the doors of all the churches of Constance the most violent denunciations against the obstinate heretic who despised the church, and the interdict, &c. &c. ; whilst all of them endea- voured to persuade the cardinals that Huss wished to upset tin; whole organization of the church, and was capable of re- sorting to any means whatever for accomplishing this object; at the same time, reports were artfully spread that he intended publicly to preach, in order to gain over to his views the people; that he meditated a secret flight, being conscious of his own guilt, &c., &c. ; all this was done with the object of depriving him of liberty. These machinations had the desired effect; and on the 28th November the burgomaster of Constance ar- rived at the lodi:ini:sof Huss, in company with two bishops, and summoned him to follow them in order to defend his ease before the pope and the cardinals. Chlumski, who perceived at once what was the object of this pnx-eedini:. pro: it as contrary to the imperial safe-conduct, but the del. insisted, and pointed to their armed retinue by which the houso BOIIKMIA. 45 was surrounded. IIuss obeyed the summons, and appeared before tin- assembled college, which address, d to liim tho question, wliether it was true that Dohemia was filled with all sorts of heresies '. lie answered that lie abhorred evrry erro- neous doctrine, and would rather die than believe them ; that he had appeared before the council in order to be instructed, ami was ready to abjure every error, and to perform penance. The assembled lathers were satisfied with this declaration, and allowed lluss to retire. He remained, however, tinder the surveillance of an armed band. The odium Iheoluyicum of the enemies of Huss was, however, not so easily baffled; and the same day, when the cardinals had assembled in the afternoon, they made such efforts to ex- cite the college against Huss, that the cardinals promised that he should never be set at liberty. Immediately after this meeting, Chlumski was summoned by the council to give up IJuss. Irritated at the violation of the imperial safe-conduct, Chlumski repaired to the pope and demanded with threats the immediate liberation of Huss. The pope repeated his former declaration that he had nothing against Huss, but that he could not resist the cardinals, prompted by the violent hatred of the Bohemian clergy. This declaration may have not been devoid of truth, considering that the same pope was soon afterwards deposed and imprisoned by the council.* Chlumski protested against this proceeding of the council, and caused his protestation to be affixed to the doors of all the churches in the town. He exhibited the imperial safe- conduct to all the German princes and bishops, who were present at Constance, as well as to the burgomaster and the principal citizens of that city, thinking that, being lieges of the emperor, they would respect his safe-conduct ; but all in * Pope John the Twenty-third (Baltasar Cossa) was born at Naples in a noble but poor family. In his youth he became a pirate, but afterwards entered the church and gained the favour of Pope Bonifacius the Ninth to such a degree,that hewas created by that pontiff a cardinal, and his legate in Bologna. His conduct was very scandalous in many respects, but he succeeded, how- ever, in obtaining great favour with Pope Alexander the Fifth, after whose death he was himself elected pope in 1410, in opposition to Gregory the Twelth, and Benedict the Thirteenth, by whom the dominion of the Roman Catholic Church was then divided. John was compelled by the Kmperor Sigismund to convoke the Council of Constance, in order to settle the disturbed state of the church, and this council resolved, soon after its meeting, to depose John on account of his many vices. lie therefore fled from Constance, and placed himself under the protection of the Duke of Austria. lie was, however, judged by default, and deposed from the ponti- fical dignity. The Duke of Austria having been compelled to deliver him to the council, he was imprisoned for some time in the Castle of Heidelberg, but afterwards permitted to go to Italy, where his successor, Martin the Fifth, made him the dean of the sacred colleges. He died 1419. 46 CHAPTER II. vain. Huss was kept for a week in the house of a canon of Constance, and afterwards thrown, on the 6th December, into a dark subterraneous dungeon of a Dominican convent. The emperor having received from Chlumski the news of Huss"s incarceration, sent instant orders for his release, but they were disregarded by the fathers of the council. On Christ- mas day, the emperor himself arrived at Constance, and de- manded the liberation of Huss ; for he well knew what effect it would produce in Bohemia, the crown of which was to de- volve upon him at the demise of his brother Venceslav, and that the cause of all this mischief would be ascribed to him. After many threats to abandon the council, he actually left Constance ; but a deputation of cardinals overtook him, and represented that the council had a right to deal with a he- retic according to its pleasure; that nobody was bound to keep a promise given to a heretic; and that the fathers were de- termined, in case the emperor should not return to Constance and give up Huss, immediately to dissolve the council, and con- sequently all attempt at reforming the church would be aban- doned. This consideration had such an effect upon Sigis- mund, that he agreed, at the meeting of the council, January 1, 1415, no longer to interfere with this business. The commission which was appointed to try Huss having examined in his presence the witnesses against him, presented to him forty-four articles accusing him of opinions contrary to the teaching of the church. Huss answered all these accusa- tions by proving that some of them had no foundation, that others were misapprehended, whilst the remaining charges could not be regarded as heresy, as the doctrines to which they related never were condemned by any general council, but were in accordance with the Scriptures and common sense. There was, however, one point upon which Huss was diame- trically opposed to the council, namely, that he did not acknowledge that the pope and the cardinals did constitute the church. A new circumstance added considerably to the difficulties of Huss^s position. I have mentioned on a former occasion (page 41) Magister Jackobel of Miess as one of the boldest followers of Wicklyffe's doctrines. He 1 during the time when Huss was at Constance to administer t<> the laity the communion of two kinds, which had been advo- cated*eveo In-fore Jluss by a Bohemian clergyman of great piety and learning. Maihiafl of .Jaimva, and which had been in the nat ion;i] Slavonic churches, This led to a public disputation in the Cuivei-Mtv of I Vague, in consequence of which the same mode of administering the Lord's Supper was introduced into three churches of Prague, notwithstanding BOTH: MI A. 47 tho strictest prohibition issued by tho chapter of that city. The followers of Iluss did not a^-ree amongst themselves on this point, and referred to him for decision. Huss, wishing to prevent a division amongst his friends, replied, that the use of the cup was allowable to the laity, but not absolutely ne- : v. This answer, instead of settling the disputed point, increased the violence of the opposed parties, and Hues was repeatedly urged to give a decisive opinion on this sub- lle clearly saw that such an opinion would be fatal to himself before the council, but his conscience did not permit him to hesitate, and he declared, that the use of the cup to- gether with the bread was to be recommended, because Christ gave it to the apostles, and it was used by the primitive church. Since that time the cup became the symbol of his followers. The hardships of the prison brought upon Huss a severe illness, so that the physicians of the pope ordered him to be transferred to a more healthy dwelling. He recovered from his illness, when the flight of the pope from Constance brought upon him new suffering. This event produced the greatest confu- sion, and it was only the firmness of the emperor which pre- vented the council from dissolving. The Dominican monks, in whose custody Huss remained, delivered to the emperor the keys of his prison. This circumstance inspired the friends of Huss with the hope that he would either liberate him, or retain him in his own custody ; but, instead of acting in this manner, the emperor, at the instigation of the fathers of the council, delivered Huss to the bishop of Constance, who incarcerated him in a solitary dungeon of the Castle of Gotlieben, and put his hands and feet in irons. The treatment of Huss produced a general indignation in Bohemia; and public meetings were held, in order to deliberate about the means of meeting the danger which was threaten- ing the favourite of the nation. The nobility of Bohemia addressed a protest to the emperor, as the heir of their crown, against the usage to which Huss was subjected, and pressingly demanded for him a fair trial, and thus to save the honour of the Bohemian nation, which was insulted in the face of the whole world by such proceedings.* The Bohemian and the Polish nobles who were then at Constance presented to the council a strong remonstrance against the treatment of Huss, and a Polish nobleman of high rank, Vencesftiv Leszczynski of Lezna, distinguished himself by his zealous defence of Huss, who called him intre- pid us et zelosus veritatis dtfensor.-\ * The original of this protest is preserved in the College Library of Edinburgh, t Vide 111 y History of the Information in Poland, vol. i., pages G2-G4. 48 CHAPTER II. It must be remarked here that the opinions of Huss were by no means so advanced as those of Wicklyffe. He insisted chiefly on the reform of those abuses, the existence of which, as well as the necessity of reforming them, was equally acknow- ledged by many zealous churchmen; but he did not by any means adopt the views which were proclaimed a century later, by Luther, Zuiriglius, and Calvin, upon the Eucharist, the Pope, &c. &c. It is true that many of his followers adopt- ed the same views which had also been entertained by the Wahlensians, to whose influence on the religious movements of Bohemia I have alluded on page 26 ; but Huss himself never did go such lengths. The cause of the violent hatred of the clergy against Huss was, therefore, not so much the views which he entertained on various theological subjects, as the manner in which he tried to establish them, i. ., by an appeal to the Scriptures, and not to the authority of the church, and by submitting them to the judgment of the people, and not exclusively to that of the clergy. It was a revolutionary principle, which, if once admitted, even in very unimportant objects, might be applied to the most vital questions, and establish the great principle proclaimed by the Reformation of the 16th century the right of private judgment. This was clearly perceived by the fathers of the council, and it was on this account that even such men as, for instance, the cardinal, Peter D' A illy, himself a great advocate of eccle- siastical reform s, were most violently opposed to Huss, con- sidering him as a rebel to the authority of the church. On the 5th June 1 415, Huss was brought before the assembled council, which presented to him his own manuscript of a trea- tise on the church, whence the chief points of accusation airainst him were extracted, and the question whether it con- tained his opinions was addressed to him. Huss answered in the affirmative, declaring his readiness to defend them, and to retract every error which would be proved to be such by the Scriptures. This reply was met with a general outcry that it mattered not about the Scriptures, but about the retractation of doctrines which the church /. <-., the pope and the cardinals had, under tin- inspiration of the 1 loly (Jhost, declared to be erroneous. I hiss rejoined, that he abhorred every error, and 11 to deliver his confession of faith; hut many voices , to him that his opinions were not wanted, that lie should }>< silent, and only answer to the qiie> ti de-'lared that he expected more decorum. kindne>s, and moderation, from ,M\ ; and he defended himself with so much eloquence and talent, that he succeeded BOHEMIA. I!) in disproving the first charge which had been brought against him. lie became, however, so exhausted by bis exertions, that it was r nduct him to his prison. One day ol' respite was granted to him, ami his trial was resumed on the 7th June. lie was accused of holding doc- trines on transubstantiation contrary to those of the church, and the depositions of witnesses were produced as an evidence of this accusation. Huss denied this charge, and disproved it in such a manner, that his judges were obliged to abandon it. Other charges were brought against him, and an uncon- ditional submission to the council was demanded from him. Jluss, however, in>isted that these charges should be proved, when the emperor, who was present on that occasion, de- clared, that although he had granted a safe-conduct to Huss, being now informed by the fathers of the council that such a document given to a heretic was not valid, he would give no longer any protection to him, and advised him, there- fore, to submit to the mercy of the council. This declaration, which Iltiss did not expect, decided his fate; he saw it at once; he expressed his thanks to the emperor for the protec- tion which had hitherto been granted to him, and, overwhelmed by his feelings, he sank down in a swoon, from which he re- covered only in his prison. Next day the trial of Huss was resumed, for the third and last time. The charges which were now brought against him were his opinions about the church, the pope, and the cardi- nals, which he had so strongly and so frequently expressed at Prague; and his want of respect to the clergy, whom he wished in many points to be subject to the secular power, was parti- cularly insisted upon. Huss could defend, but not deny, these charges. His defence was of course not accepted; and the cardinal, Peter D'Ailly, summed up the result of the proceed- ings by declaring that Huss had the alternative either uncon- ditionally to submit to the decision of the council, or to have sentence pronounced against him. Huss implored permis- sion to give a detailed explanation of his doctrines, declaring that if they were rejected by the council, he would agree to its decision. This just demand was however refused, and the following sentence was intimated to him: He was publicly to acknowledge that the doctrines contained in the forty-four articles brought against him were erroneous, to abjure and recant these doctrines, and to believe and teach the con- trary of them. Huss answered that he could not abjure those doctrines which he had never professed, whilst he would not against his conscience deny the truth of others, until their falsehood was proved to him. He was admonished by all E 50 CHAPTER II. present to submit, and it was intimated to him that the for- mula of recantation which he was to subscribe would be couched in very mild terms ; but he remained unmoved by all the representations and entreaties which were addressed to him. He was therefore reconducted to the prison, after having declared that God would judge between the council and himself. It seems that the great popularity of Huss, proved by the excitement which his imprisonment had created, not only amongst the Bohemians, but also amongst the Poles, made the Emperor Sigismund afraid of a man possessed of such an immense influence. Be it as it may, he advised the cardinals by no means to trust Huss, should he even recant his opinions, but to condemn him as a heretic, because if he were to return to Bohemia, the whole of that country, as well as Poland, would be lost to the church, as his heresy was widely spread in those parts; that his execution should not be delayed, but take place before he, the emperor, would leave Constance; and that no more mercy should bo shown to Jerome of Prague, the most zealous as well as the ablest disciple of Huss. These words, which gave great plea- sure to the cardinals, were overheard by the Bohemian noble- men who had accompanied Huss to Constance, as well as by Peter Mladenowicz, a disciple of Huss who followed him to the same place, was an eye-witness of his trial and execution, and left an account of these events, upon which the present narra- tive is chiefly founded. They immediately went to inform Huss of his impending fate, and exhorted him that since he was to seal by the testimony of his death his opinions, he should not give up a single point to his adversaries, an ex- hortation which, considering the character of Huss, was quite superfluous. They also sent a secret message to Bohemia, informing their friends about the conduct of the emperor. This news produced a renewed excitement in that country ; ngs were held in several places, and new representations addressed to the council ; but they produced no more effect than all those which had been formerly made for the same object. The correspondence which Huss kept up from his prison with his Bohemian friends, became even more animated as his end was approaching. lie continually exhorted his disciples p fast to the pure word of Christ, to remain stronirly united against the council, which considered the whole Bohe- mian nation as < -neniirs of the church, but refused to convince them of their errors l,y argument, and steadfastly to maintain the communion of t\\ kinds, which was introduced l.y Christ ami his apostles. His exhoila' anliiu: the last-named BOHEMIA. :> i point became the more animated when the council issued a de- cree strictly prohibiting the use of the cup to the laity, and declaring all those- heretics who insisted upon having its use allowed to them. The council presented to Huss different formulas of abjura- tion, by subscribing which he was to retract his opinions and to submit to the church. Several of the most distinguished cardinals repeatedly visited him in the prison, and attempted, by friendly persuasions, promises, and offers of every kind, to induce him to make a recantation of his opinions. Various deputations of the council discussed with him over and over the condemned points, but all these efforts did not succeed in shaking his conviction of their truth. He required proofs taken from the Scripture, or founded on reason, whilst his opponents combated him with the decisions of councils, and demanded unconditional submission to their authority. On the 1st July, Huss sent to the council his last declara- tion, that he could not, and would not, abjure any of his opinions until his errors were proved by the Scriptures. All hope of inducing Huss to make a recantation being lost, the council decided that his execution should take place on the 6th July 1415. A general meeting of all the spiritual and temporal princes and lords was held on that day, under the presidence of the emperor himself, in the Cathedral Church of Constance. An elevated scaffold was erected in the nave of that church, having close to it a wooden post upon which the sacerdotal vestments of a Roman Catholic priest were hanging. When Huss was brought into the church and perceived those preparations, he knew what it meant ; he therefore fell upon his knees and began to pray, lying on the ground. The Bishop of London, meanwhile, addressed the emperor, who was sitting on a throne, in a long speech, con- cluding by the following words : " And it was for such a holy and pious work that thou hast been chosen by God, elected in heaven rather than on earth, placed on the throne by the Prince of heaven rather than by those of the empire, and particularly that thou shouldst destroy, by the imperial sword, the heresies and errors which we have now to condemn. God has granted thee, for the accomplish- ment of this holy work, the wisdom of divine truth, the power of royal majesty and justice, saying to thee, Lo, I put my words into thy mouth, by inspiring thee with wis- dom ; I placed thee over nations and kingdoms, by subjecting to thee the people, in order that thou shouldst execute judg- ment and destroy every iniquity ; destroy, therefore, all here- sies and errors, but particularly this obstinate heretic whoso 52 CHAPTER II. wickedness has infected many parts of the world with the pes- tilence of heresy. This work was assigned to thee, most glo- rious prince, and it is incumbent upon thee to accomplish it, because the dominion of justice was given to thee; thou hast therefore prepared for thyself praise from the mouth of babes and sucklings, and thy renown will eternally last for having destroyed such enemies and haters of the true faith ; and may Jesus Christ grant thee his grace for this work."" After this blasphemous speech was concluded, the account of the trial of Huss was read from the pulpit. Huss tried in vain to make some observations against various passages of that document; but when he saw that all his efforts to obtain a hearing were useless, he fell upon his knees and commended himself to God and his Saviour. But when a bishop said that he had given himself for the fourth person of the godhead, he challenged the bishop to name the indivi- dual who had heard it, and receiving no answer, he exclaimed, " O how wretched I am, to be obliged to hear such a blas- phemy ! But I appeal to thee, O Christ, whose word is pub- licly condemned by this council." Finally, the decree of the council condemning the writings of Huss to be burned, and himself degraded from the priestly office, and delivered to the temporal power, was read; whilst Huss, after having pro- tested once more against the injustice of his condemnation, prayed for his persecutors. When the reading of the de- cree was concluded, seven bishops approached Huss, and d him to endue the sacerdotal vestments. Huss obeyed, and the bishops exhorted him once more to retract his errors for the sake of his salvation, and of his honour. Huss ascended the scaffolding which I have mentioned, and addressed the people, who filled the church, in the following manner : " The bishops bid me to acknowledge before you my errors. If thi.s were possible to be done by the loss of the honour only of a mortal man, they would perhaps have persuaded me to do what they require. But I am standing here before the iaee of the Almighty God, and 1 cannot do it without dishonour to Him, and without being exposed to the reproaches of my own con- sci.-ncf. I>i -cause I feel convinced that I never have taught any thing of \\hat 1 am now accused; but that I have aluays believed, written, taught, and preadn-d the contrary of it. How could I lift my eyes to heaven, how could I show my face to those whom I have taught, and whose number is very irreat. if I were to unsettle their minds about all those things of which they have no doubt at present .' Am 1 to throw into doubt and uncertainty so many souls by my exampi many consciences instructed by the incontestible words of BOHEMIA. tin- holy writ, edified by the ptfre doctrine of the gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ, and thus defended oven airainst th<> attacks of the evil one ? No, I shall never let it appear that I have more regard tor this mortal body than for the eternal salva- tion of all tho.- : e souls." Ho was interrupted hy the bishops, who ordered him to descend from the scaffolding, find bewail the ceremony of degrading him from the priestly office. One of them took the chalice from his hand, and said, "0 thou U'-eursed Judas, because thou hast abandoned the council of peace, and hast conspired with the Jews, we take from thee this cup of salvation. 11 But IIuss answered, " I confide, how- ever, in God the Father of all, and our Lord Jeavaria forbade him to speak, and ordered the executioner to divest him of his clothes, and to bind him to the stake with his hands fastened behind. This was done; but, as his face was looking towards the east, it was : y to turn him, Iteinir -i heretic, to the other side of the stake. Whilst ho was thanking liN jailer fr the mild treatment which lie had ; \\\< hands, a chain was wound round his neck, * I I;:, 60, tluit IK- w;i^ an eye-witness of this event, and that its present description is given chietly on his authority. JEROME OF PRA&UE. BOHEW ami fastened to the stake, lluss looking at it said, Hint 1m "very willing to wear it for the sake of his faith, for he knew that his Saviour had borne a much heavier burden." A quantity of wood and straw were now piled round him, roach- ing up to his km 'os. At this moment the marshal of the emperor, llaupt von Pappenheim, arrived, and summoned him in the name of that monarch to retract his errors, but I luss answered : " What am I to retract, since I am not aware of any error? I have always preached the truth and the 1 of our Lord Jesus Christ, and now I am ready to die tor it, with a contented mind.' 1 At these words, the imperial nger clapped his hands over his head and left the place; and the executioner lighted the fire. Huss cried now, with a loud voice, " Jesus Christ, the Son of the living God, have mercy upon me!" and when he had repeated this for the third time, the wind blew the flames and the smoke into his face, so that he \vas smothered. His body was, however, observed to move for about as much time as it was required to say thrice the Lord's prayer. When the pile was burnt down, it was found that the upper part of the body was hanging on the stake by the chain without being consumed. Fresh wood was immediately brought, the stake thrown down, and the fire lighted again until these remains were completely burnt. The heart, which was torn from the body and broken into small pieces, was, after having been beaten with clubs, separately burnt. The clothes which Huss had worn going to the execution were also thrown into the fire; and when every thing was entirely consumed, the ashes were carefully collected and thrown into the Rhine. Thus perished the great Slavonic reformer, who, although he did not attack the dogmata of the Roman Catholic Church in the same manner as it was done by the reformers of the 16th century, has laid down the fundamental principle of Protestantism appeal to the authority of the Scriptures and not to that of the church. It remains to me now to say a few words about the fate of Jerome of Prague, the most eminent of the disciples of Huss, and a victim like himself of the Council of Constance. On leaving Bohemia, Huss knowing well the zeal of Jerome and the hatred which the Romish party bore to him, ordered him in the most positive manner not to go to Constance. Not- withstanding this prohibition, Jerome repaired to that city, where he arrived on the 4th April 1415, and on the 7th of the same month he affixed to the door of the townhall, as well as of all the churches of that place, a demand in three languages HO CHAPTER IT. (Latin, German, and Bohemian), addressed to the council and the emperor, to grant him a safe-conduct, in order that he might assist his friend Huss on his trial. The council an- swered on the 17th, that it would defend him against violence, but not against justice, and that it would put him on his trial. This induced him to withdraw from the tender mercies of the fathers, and to return to his own country, but he was seized near the frontiers of Bohemia, brought back in chains to Constance on the 23d May, and thrown into a dungeon with his hands and feet heavily ironed. These hardships, and the anxiety of mind about his friend, and his own fate, brought upon him a severe illness, so that he was quite broken in body and mind. In this wretched condition he was induced by the efforts of several mem- bers of the council to recant his opinions, and he did so in a pub- lic manner on the 1 1 th September 1415, and repeated the same recantation, at the desire of the council, on the 23d of the same month, declaring that he was ready to make penance for his offences, and unconditionally to submit to the authority of the council. This proceeding favourably inclined the fathers to- wards Jerome, and they already meditated to set him free, but the Bohemian clergy opposed his liberation, denying his since- rity, and brought forward new charges against him. A new commission of inquiry w r as appointed under the influence of his bitterest enemies, and its report accused him to have been, since his youth, a friend of Huss, and a most zealous follower of Wicklyffe, whose works he had brought to Bohemia, and whom In- had worshipped as a saint ; to have infested with the errors of Wicklyffe, Silesia, Poland, Lithuania, and Hungary, during his travels in those countries ; to have been the leader of all 'ots against the clergy; to have declared the worship of the images of saints to be idolatry; to have dishonoured relics; to have publicly insulted the pope and the clergy, &c. c. .Jerome requested a public defence, and this was granted to him in a full assembly of the council on the 23d -May 1416. He rejected each of the points of accusation which were rci'tttfitit read to him, with such eloquence, acuteness, sacred and profane learning, that he inspired with the greatest ad- miration the celebrated Italian scholar, Poggio Bracciolini, who acted as the secretary of the council, and who compared him to Socrates, lie resumed with an equal success his de- fence on the 2fJth of the same month, but when he was required t<> repeat his recantation, he beiran, instead of submitting to l his demand, to describe with the most splendid oratory the character >f }\\< beloved friend John Huss. declared him to lie innocent, nay. a just one and a saint, bitterly inveighed against the (< MIL: them of being the most furious 57 enemies of his nation, and to have sworn the destruction of himself and of his friend John Huss, berausr they had hccu instruincntal in taking from them their unjust privilege at the University of Prague, and that tlierei'ore they were now leaving no means untried in order to satisfy their insatiable thirst for _re. He confessed, at the same time, that the greatest sin which he had ever mmmitted was to have denied, though under the pressure of circumstances, the doctrines of his iVii'iul John IIuss; declaring that he now adhered to them with all his soul; and that he was ready to endure for their sake every kind of suffering and penalty. The impression which this unexpected speech of Jerome produced on his hearers may be better imagined than de- scribed. He was reconducted to his prison, and all the per- suasions which were addressed to him to retract his declaration having remained fruitless, he was condemned, on the 20th May 1416, with the same formalities which had been observed at the condemnation of IIuss, to be burnt alive in the same place where his master and friend had suffered. Arrived on the spot, he reverently kissed the ground which had been trod by the footsteps of Huss, divested himself of his clothes, fer- vently prayed at the stake to which he was to be bound, and then presented his hands to the executioner. He was sur- rounded to his neck with a pile of wood, intermingled with straw ; and when the fire was lighted behind his back, he said to the executioner, " Light the pile before my eyes, because if I had been afraid of fire, I would not stand here now." He then began to sing a sacred hymn, and when the flames were rising on all sides, he was heard singing in his native tongue: " Almighty God and Father have mercy upon me, and forgive me my sins!" His clothes were thrown into the fire, and when all was consumed, the ashes were carefully collected and thrown into the llhine, like those of Huss. CHAPTEK III, BOHEMIA (CONTINUED.) Influence of the death of Huss upon Bohemia Ziska Execution of some Hussites by the legate of the Pope First collision between the Roman Catholics and the Hussites Proclamation of Ziska and riot at Prague Destruction of churches and convents by the Hussites Invasion of the Emperor Sigismund, and his defeat Political transactions The Englishman Peter Payne Embassy to Poland Arrival of a Polish force to the assistance of the Hussites Death of Ziska, and his character. THE news of the death of Huss produced a feeling of con- sternation throughout Bohemia; and a universal cry of indig- nation burst forth against the perpetrators of that crime. It was considered by high and low as an insult offered to the Bohemian nation, in the person of the most popular man of the country. The University of Prague issued a manifesto, addressed to the whole of Christendom, vindicating the me- mory of Huss. Many writings appeared with the same object; and one of them not only defended the memory of Huss, as that of an innocently murdered man, but declared the Council of Constance to be an assembly of the satraps of the modern Antichrist; and the news of the execution of Jerome could not but increase this feeling. A medal was struck in honour of Huss; and a day in the calendar of saints, the 6th July, was consecrated to him. He was considered not only a religious but also a national martyr, who fell a victim to the hatred which the Germans bore him for his attachment to Bohemia. Tin; doctrines which Huss had sealed by his death received by this event a new impulse, and the number of their disciples rapidly increased. Several churches adopted the communion of two kinds, and introduced the worship in the national lan- guage. Amongst the disciples of Huss, who began now to be called Hussites, differences of opinion began to prevail, some of them entirely rejecting the authority of the church, and admitting no other rule of faith than the Scriptures; whilst others contented themselves with the communion of two kinds, tin- five pn.-a-hing of the gospel, and some minor re- forms. Tin- first <>i' tin-in took afterwards the name of Tar borites, whilst the second l>rrai!n- known under the appellation of Calixtines, on account of their attachment to the communion r>.9 of two kinds, of which .1 chalice was tin- emblem. Ii however, only with the progress of time that the principle* <>!' belief of the two parties became finally developed, and assumed a. definite shape. The spread of Hussiiism, although general amongst all the classes of Bohemia, met with a strong resistance from the adherents of the Roman Catholic Church, who formed a powerful minority, composed of all the higher, and a great number of the inferior clergy, of convents and nunneries, pos- sessing large estates and considerable influence, many nobles and wealthy burghers, particularly of German oriirin. Their party was well organized, and could rely on the support of Home and the Emperor Sigismund, who had declared against the Hussites. The Hussites were more numerous, comprehending the great majority of the nation; for, besides many nobles and burghers, as well as inferior clergy, almost all the peasantry were on their side; and it is that simple- hearted and single-minded class, capable of a greater enthu- siasm and devotion to the cause which it embraces than the more refined inhabitants of the towns, which gives the great- est strength to a party, by rendering it truly national. They only wanted a leader a man capable of directing by his deeds the movement which Huss had created by the power of his word. This man was found in John Trocznowski, known to Europe under the nickname of Ziska,* whose extraordinary talents and savage energy cannot perhaps find a parallel in modern history. Ziska was a Bohemian noble, born in the latter part of the fourteenth century at Trocznow, his paternal estate, situated in the circle of Bechin. It is said that his mother, when superintending the reapers during a harvest day, was suddenly taken with the pains of travail, and gave birth to Ziska under an oak*f- a circumstance which was afterwards considered as an omen of the vigour which the child born under its sha- dow was to display as a man. Ziska began life as a page of the emperor Charles the Fourth, and afterwards followed the military career. He served a long time in the armies of Po- land, where he distinguished himself on many occasions, but * I.e., " the one-eyed." Z must be pronounced here as the French j. + The trunk of this oak stood till the beginning of the last, i.e., eighteenth century; but was nearly destroyed by the blacksmiths of the surrounding country, who imagined that a splinter taken from this trunk, and attached to their hammer, would give additional force to its strokes. The ecclesias- tical authority, in order to put a stop to this superstitious practice, caused the remains of that trunk to be cut down, and a chapel to be built on the spot where it stood, with an inscription stating that the heretic Ziska, of evil memory, was born there. 60 CHAPTER III. particularly at the battle of Grunwald or Tannenberg, in 1410, where the German knights were defeated. Ziska, having returned to his native land, became chamberlain of king Wenccslav. He was no longer young when the martyr- dom of Huss took place; and the news of this event produced upon his mind a powerful impression. The reckless courtier forsook the gaieties of the banqueting hall, and was seen per- ambulating the long corridors of the royal palace alone, with folded arms, and wrapt in deep meditation. The king per- ceiving his chamberlain in this strange mood, said once to him, a Yanku, i.e., Johnny, what is the matter with you?" " I cannot brook the insult offered to Bohemia at Constance by the murder of John Huss," was Ziska's answer. The king rejoined, " Neither you nor myself are able to avenge this in- sult; but should you have means to do it, you have my per- mission." Ziska eagerly caught this idea; and perceived at once all the advantages which he would derive in the promo- tion of his object, by obtaining the support of the royal name. He therefore requested the king to give him a written autho- rization under his seal, to do what he had verbally permitted him. The king, who was very fond of amusement, and knew that Ziska had neither wealth, friends, nor influence, thought this request a good joke, and immediately granted it; but Ziska availed himself of this document in order to induce many persons to join him in his project. The quarrels among the religious parties of Bohemia were daily increasing, al- though no serious collision had yet taken place. King AYen- ceslav remained passive; he had no children to inherit his throne; he disliked his brother the Emperor Sigismund, who had given him but too many reasons for such a feeling; and only thought how to spend the remainder of his days in the undisturbed enjoyment of his low pleasures. His sentiments were probably the same as those which are generally believed to have been expressed by the celebrated statesman of our who was in 1848 precipitated from his high position by a sudden outbreak of the principles which, for more than thirty years, he had sedulously laboured to repress, " Apres moi le deluge" Such were not, however, the feelings of his brother Sigis- mund, emperor of Germany, king of Hungary, and pn-sump- tivc h<-ir of tin- Bohemian throne. Jle well knew that his niiduct towards Muss could not but make him an object of aversion to the followers of the man whom lie had betrayed, by violating tin 1 safi'-romlurt under the protection of which Huss had arrived at ( 1 mis(ance, and that he had no hope of securing the throne of JJohemia except by crushing the BOHEMIA. 01 Hussites. Tlio Council of Constance could not remain less indifferent than the emperor to a inovcmont which had hem provoked hy its own foul deed, and it summoned to its pre- sence ahout lour hundred principal Hussites, offering UK-HI a safe-conduct. The example of J luss was, however, too recent to permit his followers to put any trust in the honour of the council, and its summons was disregarded. The council therefore published a declaration against them, contained in twenty-four articles; and it addressed a letter to the Kmperor Sigismund, representing to him that the Hussites had become, since the execution of their two leaders by the council, more, ardent in supporting their doctrines, and had attracted to their party the great and the little that they circulated a great number of scandalous writings against the decrees of the council that the communion of two kinds was adminis- tered with impunity that John Huss and Jerome of Prague were revered as saints by the Bohemians and that the Roman Catholics, but particularly the clergy, were sorely oppressed. The same letter complained of the negligence of King Wen- ceslav, and even threw out a suspicion of his supporting the Hussites, or at least conniving at their progress. The Council of Constance closed its sittings on the 22d April J418, after having finally pacified the internal divisions of Rome by the election of Pope Martin the Fifth. It was now the business of the new pontiff to prosecute war against the external enemies of the church; and he issued a bull ad- dressed to the clergy of Bohemia, Poland, England, and Ger- many, reproaching that many prelates and lay nobles have been mute dogs when heresy was raising its head, and ordering that all the followers of the heresies of Huss and Wicklyffe should be examined, judged according to the laws, and deli- vered to the secular power. He also commanded all the princes and secular judges to be very strict in the execution of these orders; and, lest any person might plead ignorance, he ap- pended to this bull forty-five articles of Wicklyffe and thirty of Huss, which had been condemned by the Council of Constance. It was, however, not sufficient to issue bulls without adopting efficient means for their execution. Martin despatched, therefore, to Bohemia, as his legate, the cardinal Dominic of Ragusa, in order to enforce the provisions of his bull. The legate arrived in Bohemia, and succeeded in causing the exe- cution of two Hussites in a town called Slan; but this act of persecution raised against the cardinal such a strong and universal indignation throughout all the country, that he was obliged to leave it; and he addressed a letter to the Emperor Sigismund, declaring that pen and tongue were henceforward 62 CHAPTER III. useless in Bohemia, and that it could be reconciled to the church only by the employment of fire and sword. All these circumstances could not but increase the violence of the excitement which then agitated the whole of Bohemia, and particularly its capital Prague. Wenceslav, afraid of an insurrection in that city, ordered its inhabitants to be dis- armed. This order spread consternation amongst the citizens of Prague; for, if it was dangerous to disobey the order of the king and excite his anger, it was still more dangerous to be placed in a defenceless condition. They were relieved from this perplexity by Ziska, who, since the conversation with his royal master which I have related above, was watching a fit opportunity to put his projects into execution. He appeared in the midst of the assembled burghers, who were deliberat- ing about the course which they were to follow; and declared that, knowing well the real intentions of the king, he could give them the best advice how to act on that occasion. His proposition being accepted, he caused the citizens to dress in their finest apparel, and to arm themselves in the best manner they could; after which he proceeded at their head to the pre- sence of the king, whom he addressed in the following man- ner: "Sire Your Majesty has demanded our arms: here they are, ready for your Majesty's service. Show us your enemies against whom we may employ them." This ingenious device pleased or intimidated the king; he approved the con- duct of the citizens of Prague, and graciously dismissed them. This event confirmed the opinion that Ziska enjoyed great credit with the monarch, and increased his influence with the people. Ziska now began to act in conjunction with Nicholas of Hussinetz, a wealthy nobleman, on whose estates John Huss was born, and who zealously embraced his doctrines. Ho ! a strong mountainous position, to which he gave the name of Tabor, and fortified it in a most skilful manner. It indeed, high time that the Hussites should think about the means of defence, as their enemies were becoming every day more active, and derived support from the Emperor Sig- ismund, heir-apparent to the childless Wenceslav, and who had already introduced his troops into several parts of Bohemia. The causes which produce civil or religious wars generally accumulate for a considerable time before collision takes plan-. Th- mutual animosity of the opposite parties, excited by the speeches and writings of their respective I. -ad lually increases, until it i m.-h a degree of intensity, tha: those who had fanned the flames of popular passion are no longer able to prevent their outburst; and one blow, one spark, sets the wliolo country into a bla/e, whieh generally is Ktinguished till after long years of suffering. This hap- pened in IJohemia. Four years elapsed since the 1 martyrdom of lluss, before that terrible contest, of which it was the prin- cipal cause, had begun. I shall relate the first collision between the Hussites and the Roman Catholics in the graphic words of a contemporary author who had been an eye-witness of that event ! sius Horzowicki, a disciple- and friend of I hiss, and who took an active part with him in the contest against the (lermans about the academical votes. We owe the preservation of this account to that honest Jesuit Balbinus, whom I have already quoted, and who says of it, that, although proceeding from a heretic, it is trustworthy. U 0n Michaelmas day 1419 a great multitude of people assem- bled on an extensive plain called the Crosses, which lies on the road leading from Beneshow to Prague. There were many people from different towns and villages, but the most part of them belonged to Prague, which was then very populous, and who came partly on foot and partly in carts. They were called together on that plain by three priests, namely, Jackobel, John Cardinal, and Mathias Toczenicki, because, when Wen- ceslav was still alive, people met on some mountains, which they called Horeb, Baranek, Tabor, &c., in order to have there the communion of two kinds. Therefore Mathias Toc- zenicki caused a table to be set upon three empty casks upon that plain, and gave the eucharist to the people, without any display; even the table was not covered, and the priests had no sacerdotal vestments. Towards the evening, the whole crowd marched to Prague, and arrived at night, with lighted tapers, at Wissehrad.* It is surprising that they did not seize on that occasion this fortress, the conquest of which afterwards cost them so much blood; but war had not yet begun. Co- randa, the parish priest of Pilsen, came also to the same place, bearing the eucharist, and accompanied by a large crowd of both sexes. Before these people had left the plain of the Crosses, a gentleman addressed them, requesting them to in- demnify a poor man whoso cornfield they had spoiled ; and immediately such a liberal collection was made that the man lost nothing by it. The people committed no hostilities, marching like pilgrims only with sticks. But things soon en- tirely changed. The priests, on leaving the place, exhorted the people to assemble there again before Martinmas; but the garrisons which Sigismund had in several towns and castles united together in order to prevent this assemblage, and this * The Castle of Prague. 64 CHAPTER III. crave occasion to several bloody combats. The inhabitants of Pilsen, Clattau, Taush, and Sussicz, who were on their way to the place of meeting, having been warned by Coranda of the ambuscade prepared against them, armed themselves, and in- formed of this the others who were going to the same place. Thus a very considerable army was very soon formed. When they arrived at a certain town called Cnin, they received let- ters from the inhabitants of Aust, a place situated in the dis- trict of Bechin, not far from Tabor, asking their assistance, as the imperialists had placed themselves upon the road which led to Prague, in order to intercept them on their march to that place. They therefore despatched to their assistance five waggons filled with well-armed men; but scarcely had these latter crossed the Moldawa, when they perceived two bodies, one of horsemen and another on foot. The first was com- manded by Peter Sternber.er, a Roman Catholic nobleman, and president of the mint of Kuttenberg; the second was about four hundred persons, men and women, going as pilgrims from Aust to Prague, and to whose assistance they were sent. They immediately despatched a message to Cnin, demanding a prompt reinforcement, and continued their march towards the spot where the people of Aust had taken up a position on a small eminence; but these latter were attacked by Stern- berg, and routed before the assistance had time to join them. Several Austians, however, escaped from the rout, and joined their friends of Cnin, who occupied a little hill, and were attacked, in their turn, by Sternberg. They, however, de- fended themselves so well, that he was obliged to retire to Kuttenberg. After this victory, they remained the whole day on the spot where the people of Aust were defeated, buried the dead, and caused divine service to be performed by their priests. They went then to Prague, in order to cele- brate their victory, and were received with great joy by their brethren." It i,s evident from thi.s account that the Hussites were not the first cause of the terrible bloodshed which followed this event, but that their peaceful expedition, of a purely devotional character, was violently interfered with by the armed bands of the t-niprror. This combat, was a circumstance very favour- able to the cause of the Hussites; because in every contest tin- advantage obtained ,-it the lir>t collision, however insigni- ficant or accidental it may be, rarely fails in producing a moral effect upon the bulk of th-- \> ople. it raises the spirits of the one. and depn->s-s those of the i-.tlier party, although generally tin-re is no real c;mse for cither of these feelings. Vet, although the cool judgment of a leader duly appreciates ilKMIA. 6.5 the real value of similar ean. 103) has translated from Theobald's work, was published in tin- original r.oliemian, with a (lerman translation, in the iirst volume of tln> S * Protrstaut as well as Human Catholic historians say that their number amounted to 550. 68 CHAPTER ITT. Christ is to be given in two kinds to adults as well as children, as Jesus Christ has instituted it. 3. The priests and monks, of whom many meddle with the affairs of the state, are to be deprived of the worldly goods which they possess in great quantity, and which make them neglect their sacred office ; and their goods shall be restored to us, in order that, in accordance with the doctrine of the gospels and the practice of the apostles, the clergy should be subject to us, and, living in poverty, serve as a pattern of humility to others. 4. All the public sins which are called mortal, and all other trespasses contrary to the law of God, are to be punished ac- cording to the laws of the country, by those who have the charge of them, without any regard to the persons committing them, in order to wipe from the kingdom of Bohemia, and the margra- viate of Moravia, the bad reputation of tolerating disorders. This diet, in which a great many Roman Catholics took part, established a regency, composed of magnates and nobles, the principal of whom was Ziska, and of burghers. Sigismund having addressed a message to that diet, in which he promised to confirm their liberties, and to redress the wrongs of which they might have a just cause to complain, if they should re- ceive him as their sovereign, and threatening them with war in case of refusal, the diet answered his message by an address, which shows how strongly the feelings of religion and patriot- ism were blended in the hearts and minds of the Hussites. This address contained the following exposition of their griev- ances : 1. Your Majesty has permitted, to the great dishonour of our country, that Master John Huss, who went to Constance with your safe-conduct, should be burnt. 2. All the heretics who stray from the Christian faith had the, liberty of speaking at the Council of Constance, but it was refused only to our excellent men. Moreover, in order to ag- gravate still more the affront offered to tlio Bohemian nation, you have caused to be burnt Master Jerome of Prague, a man of great merit, and who went to Constance under the same ntee of public faith as Huss. :;. Your Majesty has in the same council caused Bohemia to be proscribed and anathrmati/.'-il by a bull f excommuni- cation, which th- pope has issued airainst the Bohemians and their priests, or rather preachers, in order to extirpate them from the root. 4. Your Majesty lias ordered t lie same bull to be published at Breslau, to the disgrace of Bohemia and the ruin of all the kingdom. BOHEMIA. 5. By tliis publication your Majesty has excited and against us all the adjacent countries, as against public heretics. The other grievances were the taking of the crown of Bo- lu-mia out of the country without the consent of the nation, which exposed it to the contempt and raillery of the world ; the alienation of some provinces belonging to Bohemia, with- out the consent of the states, &c., &c. They concluded by demanding that the disgrace which was cast upon Bohemia and Moravia should be wiped from these countries, and all other grievances redressed ; and by requesting Sigismund to state to them, in a clear and precise manner, his resolution about the four articles,* which they were determined to main- tain, as well as the rights, constitutions, privileges, and good customs of Bohemia, which they enjoyed under his predeces- sors. Sigismund replied, that the execution of Huss and Jerome of Prague took place against his will. He endea- voured to explain the other grievances, and promised to dis- cuss the subject of the four articles, and to maintain the liberties of the country. Sigismund's propositions being re- jected, he entered Bohemia with an army, composed chiefly of Hungarians, but was repelled by Ziska. Bohemia was frequently invaded by the imperial forces, but they were con- stantly defeated; and the Hussites, in order to retaliate these aggressions, made incursions into imperial provinces. Three political parties then divided Bohemia : the Roman Catholics and the greatest part of the high nobility, even be- longing to the Calixtines or moderate Hussites, wished to re- tain Sigismund ; the party of Prague, which was composed of the citizens of that capital, as well as of several other towns, and supported by many inhabitants of the country, who be- longed to the sect of the Calixtines, desired another king than Sigismund ; and thirdly, the Taborites, with Ziska at their head, who did not wish to have any king at all. The party of Prague proposed to offer the crown of their country to the King of Poland ; and the danger to which the Hussites were exposed from the hostility of Sigismund, who disposed of the forces of Hungary and Germany, induced them to waive their differences, and to unite in securing the assistance of a cog- nate nation. Embassies, composed of the representatives of all the parties, amongst whom was conspicuous, as a delegate of the Taborites, the Englishman Peter Payne, f were re- * The same which I have mentioned above. t Peter Payne was born in Lincolnshire, at a place called Haugh or Hough, three miles from Grantham. He studied at Oxford, in Edmund's Hall, of which he was afterwards Principal (1410-15.) It is impossible to ascertain the precise time when Payne arrived in Bohemia, where he en- joyed a high reputation amongst the Hussites. Lenfant describes him as a 70 CHAPTER III. peatedly sent to Poland. The throne of that country was then occupied by Vladislav Jaguellon, Grand Duke of Lithua- nia, who had become a Christian on his marriage with Hed- vige, Queen of Poland, in 1386. He was already advanced in years, and of an irresolute character. The Bohemians offered to him their crown, on condition of accepting the four articles proclaimed by the diet of Czaslaw, and supported their pro- position by strong arguments in its favour. They urged the community of origin and the great similarity of language* which united them with the Poles. They represented the im- mense political advantages which would accrue to both the countries from a union of their crowns upon one head, as it would create a most powerful Slavonic empire, extending from the Elbe to the Black Sea and the vicinity of Moscow,-)- and effectively oppose the hostility of the Germans, which had been experienced not only by Bohemia, but also by Poland, particularly from the German order, always supported by the emperors. The Bohemian delegates were received with great kindness ; but the king was undecided as to the course which he should adopt. The advantages offered by the Bohemians were too great to be rejected altogether, but there were also great difficulties in the way of their acceptance. It was opposed by the clergy, whose influence was great in the se- nate ; and the idea of becoming the head of a heresy terrified the aged monarch, although by no means a bigot. He finally man of deep learning, who particularly employed himself in explaining the obscure passages in "Wicklyffu's writings. The Roman Catholic author Cochleus gives the following account of him : " IVtrus Payne, ingeniosus magister Oxoniensis, qui articulos Wiclephi et libros ejus punctatim et seria- tim deduxit, et suis opusculis pestiferis imposnit, arte inferiores sed veneno por\ ieaciores ; qu:e Wicleph obscure posuit, iste exphxnavit : ipse suo pravo ingenio non solum erat Wiclephi errorum doctor, sed approbator et auctor, angim'utator et promnlgator, linjus purissimi regni Bohemiiu priiuarius et perniciosissimus infector et destructor. Taboritis maxiine favebat, sectator Wiclephi obstinatissinius, Pragani, cum libris ('jus, profngit." Coclileus is not correct in calling Payne pr'unur'ui* iit/,',-t<>r of Bohemia, because, as 1 liave already mentioned, tlie opinions of Wicklyffe were promulgated there many years before the arrival of Payne. lie is supposed to have died at Prague in 1-1")."). * The similarity between the Bohemian and Polish languages, which is very great now, was still greater at that time. The author has read several productions, which, with the exception of some very few words, may be understood by every Pole, as easily as if they were composed in his own langv t The frontier of Lithuania, which became united with Poland by the accession of .la^uollon to the throne of the latter country, extended in the fifteenth century, on the east to the river Oo^ra, not far from Kaluga, and included the town of Via/ma, situated about a hundred and tifty Knglish miles from Moscow. On the south it reached the shores of the Black fcsca, between the mouths of the Dnieper and the Dm BOIII'.MIA. 7] declared that he would consult upon this important subject his cousin the- Grand Duke of Lithuania, Vitold ; and he sent for that purpose an embassy to him, accompanied l>y two Uolu'inian delegates, whilst tho others remained in Poland, tiv;ited in the 1.,-st manner, but living in a secluded town, be- cause the cct'leMustical authority declared every place in u state of interdict where the Hussites were staying. Vitold was a character entirely opposed to that of Jaguellon. He was bold, ambitious, and enterprising, and not to bo deterred from prosecuting a scheme of aggrandizement by reli<_ r i ( >us scruples, as he frankly confessed that he understood very little about these matters. Although he held only a kind of dele- gated sovereignty over Lithuania, he ruled that country with an absolute power, acting with a perfect independence in all its internal and external relations. He would probably, not- withstanding his great age, have accepted the crown of Bohe- mia, which was then offered to him by the Hussite delegates, if the distance which separated his dominions from that country had not prevented him from taking effective measures to secure the proffered dignity ; particularly as the greatest part of his subjects followed the Greek Church, and would therefore wil- lingly support the Hussites against the Latins. He seems also to have advised his royal cousin of Poland not to accept the offer, as the opposition of the Roman Catholic clergy of that country would have marred the execution of such a scheme. They resolved, however, not to abandon the Bohe- mians, and sent to their assistance Coributt, a nephew of the king, with five thousand cavalry and a sum of money. Coributt entered Prague at the head of his troops, and was received with great joy. The forces which he brought to the assistance of the Hussites were not numerous, although not inconsiderable for that time, when standing armies had not yet been introduced; but the moral support given to the cause of the Hussites by this event was very great. They had hitherto been the object of the universal hatred of the sur- rounding populations, who regarded them as the enemies of God ; and now they received proof of an active sympathy from a cognate and powerful nation, whose sovereign, although remaining in the Roman Catholic Church, acknowledged their rights by an act which gave just reason to hope that he would finally make their cause his own. The Poles were, indeed, the only nation who had supported the Hussites against the united forces of Rome and Germany, because a great number of them had, even before the arrival of Coributt, joined the standard of their ancient companion in arms, Ziska. If the arrival of Coributt was a cause of joy to the Hussites, 72 CHAPTER III. it could not but be a cause of alarm to the adherents of the Emperor Sigismund. They spread the most unfavourable and absurd reports against him, as, for instance, that he was not baptized in the name of the Trinity, because he was a Russian^ and an enemy to the Christian name. This was said on account of his being educated in the Greek Church, * a circumstance which, on the contrary, was favourable to him, as it allowed him, without any scruple, to receive the com- munion of two kinds, upon the use of which the Hussites particularly insisted. A strong party wished to elect him King of Bohemia ; but he had not the extraordinary abilities which were required in a man for maintaining himself at the head of a country so disturbed as Bohemia then was. A numerous German army invaded Bohemia soon after the arrival of Coributt, but was completely defeated. Ziska, who had been continually engaged with the imperialists, disap- proved of the idea of placing Coributt at the head of the country, declaring that he would not submit to any foreigner, and that a free nation needed not a king. This led to a quarrel between him and the towns which had formed a league, and desired to elect Coributt king of their country. A do- mestic war ensued, and Ziska was marching on Prague; but his soldiers were adverse to the destruction of their own capi- tal; peace was concluded, and Ziska entered Prague as a friend, and acknowledged Coributt regent of Bohemia. He then marched with Coributt to Moravia, a part of which had been occupied by the imperialists, but died on the llth Octo- ber 1421, from the plague, near the town of Przybislav, which he was besieging. -f I have related (p. 59) the story of this extraordinary man previously to the beginning of the Hussite war; but the limits of this work permit me not to give any details about the bat- tles which he won, and the extraordinary feats, not only of courage, but of military skill, which he displayed on the most difficult occasions, notwithstanding his complete blindness. Cochleus, who most cordially hated him, regards him, hov as the greatest general that ever lived, considering that, not- * Vide Greek Church of Poland. f There was a story current, that on his deathbed lie ordered a drum to be made of his skin, a.- lie was sure that its sound would terrify the enemy ; and his body to be exposed as a prey to wild animals and birds, for lie would be rather devoured by them than by worms; and that this request was com- plied with. Tli'-re was even at JYa^ue an old drum which it was pretended Dftd been made of /isUa's skin ; but when it was tak> n by the Prussians at the capture of I'rainie by l-'n-deriek the Second in 1744, the I>ohemians declared that there was no foundation for this tradition ; and, indeed, the whole story is a most absurd invention, aiid not to be found in contemporary writers. non KM i A. 73 withstanding tlio loss of his eyes, lie had trained many battles, and never lost a single one; and that he taught the art of war to peasant* who nevi-r had been fighting before. The contemporary writer Kneas Sylvius gives a detailed account of the new tactics which lie invented, by opposing to the charges of the heavily-armed German cavalry, moving walls formed of waggons, tactics by which the Bohemians gained many victories, not only under his command, but also after his death.* He left a military code, containing regulations about the order and discipline of an army during war, about the manner of pitching a camp, marching against the enemy, sharing the booty, punishing deserters, &c., &c. As much as he was cruel towards his enemies, so was he kind to his soldiers, whom he called his brethren, and was ad- dressed by them as a brother; and he shared amongst them all the booty, of which great abundance was frequently taken. When he lost his remaining eye,-)- he was always conducted in a car close to the principal standard of his army; and every thing which related to the locality of the place, the force and position of the enemy, &c., being related to him by officers, who would now be called aides-de-camp, he gave his orders accordingly. It is particularly remarkable that, although in such a condition, he performed most skilful strategic move- ments, and in the most difficult localities, with a rapidity and success which have perhaps no parallel in the history of mo- dern warfare. Balbinus relates that he had seen Ziska's picture of a natu- ral size, and made during his lifetime, copies'of which were care- fully preserved by several gentlemen of Bohemia. According to this picture, he was of a middle size and of a strong make; he had a broad chest and shoulders, a large head of a round shape, and an aquiline nose. He was dressed in the Polish costume, had a moustache in the Polish manner; his head was shaved, with the exception of a tuft of brown hair, which was also a fashion of Poland, in the service of which country he spent, as I have said, many years of his life. Ziska was buried in the Cathedral Church of Czaslaw, where * The employment of waggons for making a kind of moving ramparts, or, as they are now called, barricades, is common to all the nomadic nations of central and northern Asia; and it is undoubtedly one of the most natural and primitive modes of defence. It was often used by the Poles, who called it Tabor; and it is probable that they had borrowed it from the Tahtars, with whom they frequently warred. I am inclined to believe that Ziska, who served a long time in Poland, had first learned in that country this mode of warfare, which he afterwards brought to such a high degree of perfection. t lie lost his first eye when a boy, by an accident at play with other chil- dren. 74 CHAPTER III. a monument of marble, with his effigy upon it, and several Latin inscriptions, were erected to him; and his iron mace* suspended over it. It is impossible to ascertain the precise nature of the reli- gious tenets which he professed. He was at least politically the chief of the Taborites, whose tenets were the same as those of the Waldensians, and which were particularly deve- loped by the Wicklyffite Peter Payne, whom I have mentioned (p. 69); and yet it is said that he destroyed in the most bar- barous manner a considerable number of Picards, a name which was often given by Koman Catholic writers to the AVal- densians, Taborites, and afterwards to their descendants the Bohemian brethren. I think, however, that the evidence of Eneas Sylvius clearly proves that the Picards persecuted by Ziska were an extravagant sect arrived from France, which had nothing in common with the Waldensians or Taborites, to whom the appellation of Picards was given by their ene- mies as a term of contumely; and that the punishment inflicted by Ziska upon the last-named sectarians was but a just reta- liation of their crimes and acts of violence committed against others.*)" It is curious, however, that a permanent mass for the repose of his soul was established in the place of his burial, and performed by a Calixtine priest. He had been for some * Balbinus relates, that when the Emperor Ferdinand the First was pass- ing through Czaslaw, he went to visit the Cathedral, and was struck by the sight of a large mace of iron, which was suspended over a sepulchral monu- ment. He asked his courtiers wliat it was, but none of them dared to an- swer. At last one of the bystanders told him that it was Ziska's. " Fie, fie," said the Emperor; " this wicked beast, although dead for more than a century, still frightens living people;" upon which he immediately left the Cathedral, and would no longer stop at Czaslaw, where he had before in- tended to spend the night. t Eneas Sylvius relates, that about the year 1418 a certain Picard (native ii-dy in France) arrived in Bohemia, where by his tricks he collected a considerable number of men and women, whom he ordered to go naked, and called them Adamites, lie pretended to be the son of God, and ordered iples to call him Adam. He established himself with his followers on an island formed by the river Lusinitz, and introduced amongst them the community of women. lie maintained that the whole of mankind were slaves, with the exception of himself and his sect. One day forty of these, sectarians issued from their island, and, attacking some villages in the neigh- bourhood, .killed more than two hundred peasants, /i-ka having learnt this, surrounded the island upon which the Adamites had established themselves, and killed them all, with the exception of two, whom lie spared, in order to know v.'ha' kind of superstition theirs was. It is therefore evident that Z : linated the Adamites, not on account of their dogmas, of which hing, but for the murders which they committed. There is, circumstance which it is more difficult to explain, namely, that he ord-P-d, or at '. I, to be burnt, a priest called Lrquis, who denied the dogma of tnuisub.-tantiation an opinion which was shared by the BOHEMIA. 7") time politically opposed to the Calixtinos, who composed the party of Prague, and, as I have mentioned, actually at war with them. From all this it may be inferred, that this rough warrior, who seems to have taken up arms against Rome, not on account of a dogmatic cause, but simply to avenge the national honour of Bohemia, which he regarded as oil'ended by the execution of lluss, had no fixed principles of belief. The only thing certain is, that he considered tlio communion of two kinds as the most essential point of reli- gion, as he adopted for his badge its emblem, the chalice, with which he adorned his standards, and even took its name for his signature.* * His signature was Bratr Jan s Kalicha, Brother John of the Chalice. CHAPTER IV, BOHEMIA (CONTINUED.) Procop the Great Battle of Aussig Embassy to Poland Crusade against the Hussites, commanded by Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, and its defeat Unsuccessful attempt to restore peace with the Emperor Sigismund Devastation of Germany by the Hussites A new crusade against the Hussites, commanded by Cardinal Cesarini, and its dis- graceful issue General observations on the extraordinary success of the Hussites Negotiation of the Council of Bale with the Hussites Coinpactata, or concessions made by the council to the Hussites Expedition of the Taborites to the assistance of the king of Poland, and description of their appearance Division amongst the Hussites, in con- sequence of the Compactata Death of Procop, and defeat of the Tabor- ites General observations on the war of the Hussites Their extraor- dinary moral and physical energy Unjust accusation of barbarity Example of the Black Prince of Wales Restoration of Sigismund Account of the Taborites, who change their name into that of the Bo- hemian Brethren Remarks on their descendants, the Moravians Struggles between the Roman Catholics and the Hussites, supported by the Poles George Podiebradski His great qualities Hostility of Rome against him He is supported by the Poles Reign of the Polish dynasty in Bohemia. THE sudden death of Ziska produced a great consternation amongst his army, which divided into three parties. One of them retained the name of Taborites, and chose for their chief Procop Holy, i. e., the Tonsured, whom Ziska had pointed out as his successor. The second declared that they would have no commander, as there was not in the world a man worthy to succeed Ziska; and took, on that account, the name of Orphans. These Orphans elected, however, some chiefs to command them; and they always remained in their camps, fortified by waggons, and never went into towns, except on some unavoidable business, as, for instance, to purchase vic- tuals. The third party were the Orebites, who had taken this name from a mountain upon which they had assembled for the first time, and to which they had probably given the biblical ap- pellation <>f 1 l'>reb on that occasion. They always followed the standard of Ziska, with the Taborites, but now chose separate leaders. Vet although the llnssi; thus divided into il parties, they always united whenever it was necessary to defend their country, which they called the Land of Pro- IJOHEMIA. 77 Diving to the adjacent German provinces tlio names of Edoin, Moab, Ainalek, and the country of the- Philistines. Procop has not such celebrity as Ziska, although I think he deserves in history a place superior to that of the formid- able blind wanior. The cause of this may perhaps be ascribed to the circumstance that Ziska was the first mover of that terrible war which was continued after his death with a no less brilliant success by Procop, until his heroic fall on the battlefield of Lipan. Not inferior in valour and military skill to his predecessor, Procop was also an accomplished scholar. But what places him far above Ziska is, that he was a much better patriot than the ambitious leader to whom he suc- ceeded ; because, while Ziska thought of nothing but revenge against all those who opposed him, and recommended on his deathbed to Procop that he should exterminate with fire and sword all the adversaries of his religion, the latter had in- cessantly at heart the restoration of peace to his country, not- withstanding his continual triumphs- over its enemies. Procop was the son of a noble without fortune. He was adopted by his maternal uncle, who gave him a learned educa- tion, and made him travel in Italy, France, Spain, and the Holy Land. After his return from these travels, it is said that his uncle induced him to enter the church against his own inclination ; and it was on that account that he was nick- named the Tonsured. When the Hussite war broke out, he left the church for the army, and attached himself to Ziska, who attested his high opinion of him by appointing him his successor. His exploits afterwards earned for him the sur- name of Great, by which he was also distinguished from another Procop, a leader of the Orphans, and known under the name of ProkopeJc, i. e., little Procop. War continued, and the Hussites made frequent and suc- cessful inroads into different German provinces adjacent to their country. The emperor and the princes of Germany accused the pope and the clergy of all this mischief, saying that it was their duty to extinguish a flame which was kindled by the priests. They moreover complained that the clergy, who enjoyed immense possessions, employed not their wealth for the above-mentioned purpose, but only for the sake of en- riching their relatives. The pope sent letters to the emperor, the king of Poland, and the princes of Germany, exhorting them to unite their forces in a new expedition against Bohe- mia. In these letters he represented the Hussites as worse enemies of Christianity than the Turks; because the latter, being born out of the church, did not commit an act of rebel- lion in making war on the Christians, which was the case with 78 CHAPTER IV. the Hussites, who, being born within its pale, had revolted against its authority. The representations of the pope, and the solicitations of the clergy, induced the king of Poland to recall his nephew from Bohemia; but Coributt soon returned to Prague, where he had a strong party. The king, in order to prove that this was clone against his will, sent an army of five thousand men to assist the imperialists ; but the latter being afraid, and, I believe, not without good reason, that the Poles, instead of fighting, would join the Hussites, sent them back before they had reached the place of their destination. The princes of Germany were not very eager to obey the papal summons ; but as their own country was exposed to frequent inroads of the Hussites, they at last collected an army of about a hun- dred thousand picked men, and marched into Bohemia. The Hussites of all parties united in order to meet this danger. The Taborites and Orphans were commanded by Procop the Great, and the Calixtines by Coributt and some Bohemian noblemen. The Hussites besieged the town of Aussig, which may be known to many of my readers who have travelled over that beautiful country, through which the road that leads from Dresden to Toplitz passes. There, on the confines of the Slavonic and German worlds, met the armies which repre- sented not only hostile creeds, but also hostile races; and it has been observed, that in that conflict between the Slavo- nians and Germans the arms employed on both sides were peculiar to each race. The mailed warriors of Germany were armed, in the usual manner of the west, with lances, swords, and battle- axes, and mounted upon heavy, powerful horses. The Bohemians, with their few Polish auxiliaries, were en- trenched by five hundred waggons, strongly chained together, behind which they stood, covered by their large wooden shields, stuck into the ground; and their principal arms were, besides the iron flails, the celebrated weapon of the Hussites, long lain es, provided with strong hooks, by which they could easily pull down the enemy from their horses.* They were much inferior in numbers to their enemies, but superior in spirit, because, elated by a long series of successes, they be- lieved themselves invincible. The Germans charged the Bohemians with the greatest im- petuosity: they broke through the line of their waggons, cut- isuiult r with battle-axes the chains with which tlirv were * It must li ivmoml.ered, that the battle took place at a time when the use of firearms was not yet rnmninn, ami individual strength and courage : much greater importance than they have IK-CII since the general in- troduction. of these arms, and particularly of artillery. BOIIKMIA. 79 :icd; and (.-yen succeeded in throwing down the second line of d< Trnee which the Bohemians hud formed with their fc.liii.-lds. Hut the Germans hud been niueh fatigued hi- fore tin; commencement r_rotten. iS<>t only the Calixtines, Taborites, and Orphans forsook all their diffe- rences, and united against the common enemy, but many IJo- man Catholic noblemen, who had hitherto been the stanchcst .tinct; but a member of which, Michael, became King of Poland in 16G9. * Henry Beaufort was son of John of Gaunt, l>y Catherine S \\ynford. BOHEMIA. 81 opponents of the Hussites, felt th;it the voice of their country -: mngcr in their liearts than oven religious animosity; and they joined the banner of the great Procop against the foreign invail The united forces of the Bohemians were still greatly infe- rior in numbers to those of their rnemies, who began their operations by laying siege to the town of Miess. They inarched to encounter the invaders; but when they arrived on the banks of the river Mies*, which separated them from the invading army, their sight struck the latter with such a panic, that they all ran away without even attempting to strike a blow.* Beaufort, after having vainly endeavoured to rally the fugitives, was himself carried away by the wild flight of his crusaders, and was joined by the Elector of Troves, who had been marching to his assistance with a body of cavalry. The Bohemians closely pursued the flying enemy, killing and taking a great number of them, almost without any loss to themselves. A great number of those unfortunate fugitives were killed by the Bohemian peasants, who chased them like as many wild beasts. The booty which fell into the hands of the victors was enormous, great and little had a large share of it; and it is said that several families of Bohemia had laid on that day the foundation of their present fortunes. *f* The pope wrote a long letter of condolence, dated 2d Oc- tober 1427, to Beaufort, on the disgraceful retreat of the faith- ful from Bohemia, and exhorted him to renew his efforts in the same cause; but the English warrior-prelate seems to have had quite enough of the Bohemian heretics, and did not again interfere in their affairs. The patriotic conduct of the Bohemian Roman Catholics on that occasion seems to have produced a spirit of conciliation amongst the religious parties in Bohemia. A truce between the Hussites and the Roman Catholics was concluded for six months, at the termination of which a public conference between the opposite parties, in order to settle their theological differences, was appointed. On learning this news, the pope addressed a letter to the Archbishop of Olmutz. urging him to prevent a conference by which nothing could be gained, and much might be lost. The conference, however, did take place: it did not produce any * The contemporary author, Eneas Sylvius, says that the crusaders ran away even before the Bohemians were in sight. t It is strange that this event, which is described by all ecclesiastical historians, has escaped the attention of such an accomplished writer as Lin- gard, who, speaking of Beaufort, says that he had raised a small army fur the chimerical purpose of combating the Hussites (History of Englaner amounted to ninety thousand infantry and forty thousand cavalry, commanded, under tho -arini, by the Klectors of Saxony and l>randenlur_r, tin- Duke of Havana, and many other spiritual and temporal princes of Germany, entered Bohemia through the great forest which covered its frontier <>M the Bavarian side. Tho scouts whom they had sent to explore the position and force of the Bohemians, deceived ly the skilful manoeuvres of Procop, as well as by the false intelligence which was given them on pur- pose by the inhabitants of the country, reported that the 1}..- lu'iuians, having quarrelled amongst themselves, were flying in all directions before the invading army. The crusaders advanced without opposition as far as the town of Tansh, and laid siege to it; but after a few days Procop appeared with the Taboritcs and Orphans, and put the beleaguriug troops to flight. The crusaders spread about the country ; but, after having ravaged it with fire and sword, they rallied at liiese-nberg, where they occupied a strong position. They, however, soon learned that the pretended division amongst the Bohemians was nothing more than a feint ; and that, on the contrary, they were gathering from all sides against their enemies. The effect of this intelligence upon the crusaders of Cesarini was the same as similar circumstances had pro- duced upon those of Beaufort. The Duke of Bavaria was the first to flee, leaving his equipage in order that its pillage might delay the pursuit of the enemy ; his example was fol- lowed by the Elector of Brandenburg and the whole army. The only man who made an exception to this general panic was not a soldier, but a priest, the cardinal himself. He ha- rangued his troops with the greatest spirit, representing to them the disgrace which their conduct was entailing upon their country, and that their Pagan ancestors had fought for their mute idols with much more glory than they, their de- scendants, did for the sake of Christ. He entreated them to remember the ancient heroes of their race, the Ariovists, the Tuiscons, and the Arminiuses, and represented to them that they had a much better chance of escaping death by confronting the enemy in a manly way, than by shamefully turning their backs upon him, as they were sure to be over- taken and slain. Whether it was the recollection of the ancestral glories of their race, or the sense of their own safety, which gave the greatest weight to the words which the car- dinal addressed to his flying crusaders, I don't know, but he succeeded in rallying them, and they again occupied the strong position of Riesenberg, resolved to encounter the approaching enemy. This resolve was not, however, of long duration ; for as soon as the Bohemians appeared, the crusaders were seized with such a terror, that Cesarini could no longer arrest their flight, but was obliged himself to join in it. Eleven thousand Germans are said to have perished on that occasion, and only seven hundred were taken prisoners. Two hundred and forty SG CHAPTER IV. waggon?, of which some were laden with gold and silver, and many, as a chronicler quaintly observes, with excellent wine, fell into the hands of the Bohemians, who also took the ene- my^s artillery, consisting of fifty cannons.* Cesarini lost on that occasion his cardinal^ hat and dress, his cross and his bell, as well as the papal bull proclaiming the crusade which ended in so inglorious a manner. The extraordinary panic which on this occasion seized so warlike a nation as the Germans, and twice made their numerous armies fly at the very sight of the Bohemians, was the theme of much comment to the authors of that nation. And, indeed, nobody ever doubted the valour of the Germans, which they have displayed on so many occasions before and since the war of the Hussites. This circumstance proves, perhaps better than any other example on record, that even in a physical contest moral agency is superior to mere brute force ; that a small nation combating pro arts et focis, for its altars and hearths, and inspired with an implicit belief in the justice of its cause, and in its final success, may over- come the most numerous and best disciplined armies, which, being deficient in similar inspirations, are generally soon dis- heartened even by a temporary want of success. The Spa- niards are wont to say of a man, that he was, and not that he is, brave ; meaning thereby that one and the same individual may behave with the greatest gallantry on one occasion, and act differently upon another. The truth of this observation has been admitted on all hands; and what is true of one in- dividual cannot be false when applied to a number of them, to a whole nation, with this additional circumstance, that a collective body is even more subject than a single individual to the temporary effects of enthusiasm and depression. His- tory abounds with examples illustrative of this truth ; and it will be my melancholy task to describe the prostration, under the withering influence of Austrian and Romish despotism, of that national spirit of Bohemia which had developed such gigantic energy during the Hussite war. And, indeed, with- out searching the pages of history, we may see in the pi- day splendid instances of a revival of the national spirit, in pla^-s wli'-n- it. had apparently been long extinct, instances which cannot but fill with heartfelt joy the breast- of rvrry friend of the liberty of mankind and of the dignity of human nature. Rome, whose glory seemed to be buried lor ever in the sepulchral urns <>f ], r ;mrii-nt ' iias shown, by the noble stand which she has made against the unwarrantable invasion of modern (.'aul, that the spirit of Camillus, which for * Some writers say one hundred and fifty. BOHEMIA. 87 centuries had been tying dormant under tlio ruins of the eter- nal city, has now revived in its gallant defenders. And Ve- nice, beaut ii'ul Venice', who, after centuries of high renown, ingloriously fell without striking a single Mow for her inde- pendence, has displayed, in her admirable resistance to tho 11 oppressors of Italy, a patriotism worthy of the palmy days of her Dandolos, Zenos, and Pisanis, and which, al- though it has not succeeded in re toring the departed glories of the widowed Queen of the Adria, will shed upon them as bright a light as that which illumines tho most splendid page of her romantic history, "the war of the Chio~za"* These considerations cannot but inspire a just hope, that, notwith- standing the dark clouds which are now lowering over the horizon of fair Italy, her sons will soon be able to secure to her all the blessings of religious and civil liberty, and that she will again become the "Mngna parens frugum, Saturnia tcllus Magna virum." The miserable issue of Cesarini's crusade put a stop to nil future attempts at invading Bohemia; but the Taborites and Orphans continued their invasions of the imperial provinces, and the two Procops penetrated into Hungary, where, not- withstanding the gallant defence of the inhabitants, they committed great devastations. It was therefore resolved by the emperor and the council, which had then just assembled at Bale, to obtain by concession what it was impossible to accomplish by force. In consequence of this resolution, the emperor and the Cardinal Cesarini addressed to the Hussites letters couched in the most affectionate terms, inviting them to a conference on religious subjects at Bale, and granting them liberty of performing divine service according to their own rites during their residence in the above-mentioned city. After a protracted negotiation, the Hussites accepted this proposal, and sent to Bale a deputation, composed of priests belonging to their different parties, and which were chosen for this purpose by the rector of the University of Prague, as well as several lay delegates, who were headed by the great Procop. They were joined by a Polish ambassador; and this new proof of the interest of a cognate nation, probably a conse- quence of the embassies which the Hussites had sent in 1431 and 1432 to Poland, the particulars of which I shall relate in speaking of that country, was much valued by Procop. The Hussite deputation, composed of three hundred persons, * In 1378-81. 88 CHAPTER IV. arrived at Bale on the Gth January 1433; and Eneas Sylvius, who was present on that occasion, gives the following descrip- tion of their entrance : " The whole population of Bale was either in the streets, or went out of town to see their arrival. There were amongst the crowd even several members of the council, attracted by the fame of such a warlike nation. Men, women, and chil- dren, people of every age and condition, filled the public places, occupied the doors and the windows, and even the tops of the houses, waiting for their arrival. The spectators gazed upon the Bohemians, pointing with their fingers to those who had in particular attracted their attention, and wondering at their foreign dress, never seen before; at their terrible countenances, their eyes full of fury; and it svas generally found that the report about their character was by no means exaggerated.* All eyes were turned towards Procop. 4 This is the man,' people were saying, who has so many times put to flight the armies of the faithful, who has destroyed so many cities, who has massacred so many thousands ; the man who is as much dreaded by his own people as by his enemies; the invincible, the valiant, the fearless, the indefatigable general.' " The Hussite delegates were instructed by those who sent them simply to insist upon the four articles, which had ever been the point upon which all their negotiations for the resto- ration of peace hinged; and they refused to enter into any discussion of the dogmatic articles proclaimed either by Huss or Wicklyffe, and which had been proposed to them by the fathers of the council. And, indeed, if the first of the above- mentioned four articles, namely, the unlimited freedom of preaching the Word of G-od, had been conceded, its immediate consequence, the free expounding of the Scriptures the fun- damental principle of Protestantism would have been at once attained. The disputations between the Hussites and the fathers of the church were therefore confined to those four articles. The first of them, i.e., the freedom of preaching the Word of God, was defended by the priest of the Orphans, Ulric, against Henry Kaltoisen, doctor of divinity; the second, the communion of two kinds, by John of Kokir/an against John of Iiagusa, general of the order of St Dominie, and after- war. Is cardinal; the third, that the clergy should not p. worldly h(.'1s, by Jesus Christ, or the apostles, what else can they be, if not an invention of the devil and a work of darkness ?" This answer produced a universal burst of laughter in the assem- bly. I must not omit another anecdote relating to these con- ferences, and which contains an additional proof of the strength of the Slavonic affinities. John of Ragusa was a Slavonian, being a native of the city of which he had adopted the name, and which was about that time a celebrated seat of the Slavonic literature of Dahnatia. During his disputation with the Hussite delegates, he several times applied to them the expressions of heretics and heresy. This gave Procop such offence, that he exclaimed. " This man, being our coun- tryman, insults us by calling us heretics;" to which John of Ragusa rejoined, " It is because I am your countryman by nation and language that I am so anxious to bring you back into the pale of the church." The national feelings of the Bohemians were so much hurt by what they considered a slight, coming from one belonging to their own race, that they were on the point of retiring from the council, so that it was only with great difficulty that they were persuaded to remain; and several of them demanded that the Ragusan should not be permitted to take any part in the discussions. The Hussite deputies, after a residence of about thrco months at Bale, returned to Bohemia, without having ob- tained the object of their mission. The feeling of mortal hatred which had existed between them and the Roman Ca- tholic Church, and particularly its German members, could not, however, be but considerably softened by the courteous reception which they had met with from the council, and the friendly intercourse which had been maintained between the two parties for so many days. The departure of the Bohc- 90 CHAPTER IV. mians was immediately followed by an embassy which the council sent to their own country, in order to resume at Prague the conferences which could not be brought to an end at Bale. This embassy was received with great honours, and a diet was convened at Prague. The negotiations between that diet and the delegates of the council were carried on with such success, that the Bohemians consented to receive the four articles modified, or. as it was called, explained, by the council, which solemnly confirmed them under the name of the Compactatai and their acceptance was followed by the acknowledgment of the Emperor Sigismund as legitimate king of Bohemia. This covenant was concluded with the council of Bale and the emperor by the Calixtines, to whom almost all the high nobility or magnates, and the principal towns of the country, belonged. They were tired of the long war, which, notwith- standing its great success, was a calamity to the majority of the inhabitants; whilst many individuals who had acquired considerable riches during that war were longing to enjoy them in peace. The Calixtines, who were a kind of high- church party, had a much greater leaning towards Rome than towards the extreme Hussites the Taborites, Orphans, and Orebites. Sigismund was deservedly unpopular with the Bo- hemians, but he had in his favour the prestige of legitimacy; and, notwithstanding all the injuries which he had inflicted upon Bohemia, many remembered that he was the son of Charles the Fourth, the best monarch that ever sat on the throne of that country. The feeling of loyalty to a legitimate dynasty is, indeed, strongly implanted in the national mind of every country. It was this feeling which, notwithstanding the glorious administration of Cromwell, secured to the pro- fligate Charles the Second such an enthusiastic reception by the British nation, and made the adherents of the Stuarts cling with such devotion to the desperate fortunes of that ill- fated dynasty. These feelings were, however, not shared by the extreme 1 lussitcs, whom I may call the Puritans of Bohe- mia, and who, like those of Great Britain, inclined towards a republican form of government. Whilst the negotiations between the diet of Prague and the council were pending, C/apt-k, the leader of the Orphans, nfli-n-d his services to the king of Poland, then at war with tin- <;<>rman order. The assistance of these inveterate hen-- tics was gladly accepted by the lloman Catholic king and senate of Poland, notwithstanding the opposition of the clergy. The Orphans and some TalmriK-s,"* composing an army of * Eneas Sylvius gives the following description of tlie appearance of the BOHEMIA. 91 cisjht thousand infantry, right hundred horsemen, and tlireo :vd and ei'-Lly waggons, repaired to Poland, where, hav- incd some Polisli troops, they entered the possessions of tin. 1 order,* took twelve fortified towns, and spread devasta- tion over tlic whole country. The very sight of these rough warriors inspired with terror, and every one fled at the ap- proaeh of the dreaded Hussites, who penetrated to the shores of the Baltic, with the waters of which they filled bottles, in order to carry them to their own country, as a sign that the Bohemian arms had reached the shores of a distant sea. The Orphans returned to their own country, and joined Procop, who, with the Taboritcs and the Orebites, declared against the Compactata, or the four articles, explained by the council, complaining that the council was attempting by its artifices to deceive the Bohemians, and that those of them who supported the objects of the council were betraying the interests of their country by a preposterous policy. The de- legates of the council, therefore, employed all possible means to excite the partizans of the Compactata against the Tabo- rites and their allies. A league, composed of the chief nobles of the country, Calixtines as well as Roman Catholics, was formed, and their first step was to secure the possession of Prague. They succeeded without difficulty in occupying the old city, the inhabitants of which shared their opinions; but the citizens of the new town refused to submit to the league, and opposed, under the command of Procop the Little and the Taborite Kerski, the entrance of its troops. A bloody battle ensued on the 6th May 1434: the leaguers forced the new town, and expelled its defenders, who went to join the camp of Procop the Great. The party of the real Hussites f was not yet broken, although the loss which they had suffered at the defeat of Prague was very severe. Many towns still adhered to their cause, and their united forces formed a con- siderable army, formidable by its spirit, even more than by its numbers. Procop, who had still about thirty-six thousand fighting men, marched towards Prague, in order to take the new town; but the league brought against him a force far Taborites: "These men were quite black, from constant exposure to the sun and wind, as well as to the smoke of the camp. Their appearance was hor- rid and terrible: their eyes were those of an eagle, their hair bristled, their beards long:, their stature prodigiously tall, their bodies covered with hair, and their skin so hard that it appeared capable of resisting iron as much as a cuirass." * They form now the provinces of Western Prussia, and the new march of Brandenburg. t The Calixtines were called by the Taborites, Orphans, and Orebites, the lame Hussites. 02 CHAPTER IV. superior to his, and it was even joined by some of Procop's former associates. The armies met on the 29th May, on the plains of Lipan, between the towns of Bohmish Brod and Kaursim, about four German miles from Prague. Procop wished to avoid a battle, intending, by one of those strategic movements in which he so much excelled, to get into Prague, where he had many partizans, and whence his oppo- nents had withdrawn their forces; but the leaguers made a furious charge upon his camp, and broke its usual defence, the barricade of waggons. The Taborites, unaccustomed to see the cavalry breaking through their movable rampart, were thrown into confusion, and fled to the other side of tho camp. Procop soon rallied the fugitives; but at this critical moment Czapek, the same general who had commanded the Hussite auxiliaries in Poland, betrayed their cause, and fled with his cavalry from the field of battle. Procop, followed by his best troops, rushed into the midst of the enemy, with whom he for a long time disputed the victory, until, over- whelmed by numbers, he was slain, as well as his namesake Procop the Little, who had valiantly fought at his side. Such was the end of the great Bohemian leader, whose very name filled with terror the enemies of his country. The hero fell, wearied with conquering, rather than conquered himself.* These words were not said of him by a writer pro- fessing his creed and belonging to his race, but by a contem- porary .Roman Catholic writer (Eneas Sylvius Piccolomini, afterwards Pope Pius the Second), who was certainly a com- petent judge of his character, having personally known him during his stay at Bale. The patriotic Balbinus observes with honest pride, that Procop's death has verified the saying of the Emperor Sigismund, that the Bohemians could be over- come only by Bohemians. It was indeed a victory obtained by the Bohemians over the Bohemians, but not for the Bohe- mians. The battle of Lipan may be said to have ended the Hussite war, because, although some Taborite chiefs main- tained for some time a kind of partizan war, it was insignifi- cant, and easily quelled. This war must undoubtedly be regarded as one of the most, if not the most, extraordinary episode of modern history; ally when it is considered that such a small country as Bohemia, having a population divided amongst themselves, and having no n^istance from abroad, except a small nnml >od for about fifteen years the forces of the whole of Germany and Hungary, and retaliated in the most terrible manner the IIP i>, bc- * Nou tarn victus quam vincemlo fessus. (K. Syl. Jl'nt. JJu/^ni. cap. li.) 93 one circumstance which shows that the Bohemians h;i -Tees, but the education of all classes of the people seems to have been amongst the Hussites very general. There are tracts on different religious subjects written during that period by common artizans, which often contain as much talent as burning zeal ; and Eneas Sylvius, whom I have fre- quently quoted, says that every woman amongst the Tabo- riteswas thoroughly conversant with the Old and New Testa- ment ; and he observes of the Hussites in general, whom ho cordially hated, that they had only one merit, which was the love of letters.* I do not think that western Europe could have pointed out at that time a single individual who, like Procop the Great, united with such daring courage and con- summate military skill a profound scholarship, which enabled him at Bale to combat in argument the doctors of the Roman Catholic Church with as much success as he opposed their armies in the field. Much has been said about the cruelties perpetrated by the Hussites, and particularly by their cele- brated leaders Ziska and Procop ; and many German writers of the present day are wont to use the expression of Hussltic barbarity, in order to designate every thing that is cruel, bar- barous, and rude. Far be it from me to justify those atroci- ties, of which the Hussites rendered themselves guilty on so many occasions ; but they were not the aggressors in that savage warfare. The responsibility of these atrocities must rest with the faithless and cruel murderers of John Huss and Jerome of Prague, with those who executed the first Hussites at Slan (page 61), who massacred the inoffensive pilgrims who going to worship God according to the dictates of their conscience (page 64), and whose conduct towards the Hus- sites was no less barbarous than theirs towards their enemies. And can the Germans, as well as the other nations of west- ern Europe, plead not guilty to the same charges of cruelty and barbarism as those which have been heaped upon the memory of the Hussites by their religious and national op- ponents ? The evidence of history permits no such plea to be sustained for a moment. This I boldly assert ; and one single instance will prove whether my assertion be true or not. And, indeed, the whole history of the Hussite wars does not present * Xam perfidum genus illudhominurahoc solumboni habet, quod litteras air.at. (Vide his letter to Carvajal.) 94 CHAPTER IV. an example of greater atrocity than the massacre of Limoges, where men, women, and children were murdered, not by an infuriated soldiery, whose rage the commander was unable to restrain, but by the deliberate orders of a chief, who com- manded in cold blood a multitude to be butchered, not only of men .but innocent women and children, who in vain pleaded on their knees that they had no share in the treason of their superiors. And who was that chief who committed such an outrage upon religion and humanity I Was he an infidel bar- barian, or a fanatic goaded to madness by the persecution of his creed and race, like Ziska and Procop? No; he was no other than that mirror of knighthood, paragon of chivalry, and theme of romance, the Black Prince of Wales.* And yet this foul stain upon his escutcheon has not darkened in the eyes of posterity the glories of Cressy and Poictiers, or of his chivalrous conduct towards the captive king of France. Many other in- stances of the most atrocious barbarity may be found in the an- nals of western Europe during that period ; but no impartial historian will judge the great characters of the middle ages ac- cording to the standard of morality which in our enlightened century is at least recognised, if not always followed. Though obliged to record their misdeeds, he will not withhold the meed of praise due to their noble actions ; for their misdeeds were, if I may use an expression of the great Roman orator, not the faults of the man, but the faults of the age, non vitia liomiiiis, sed vitia scvculi. Therefore we Slavonians, in con- templating the gigantic vigour which our race displayed dur- ing the Hussite war, cannot but exult in the hope that it may again bring forth characters no less energetic than those which marked that eventful period, and that their career shall be productive, not of destruction and suffering, but of bless- ed happiness to mankind; that their glory will be, not to continue the terrible deeds of Ziska and Procop, but to * " The Prince, the Duke of Lancaster, the Karls of Cambridge and Pem- broke, Sir George d* Angle, ami others, rushed into the town. You would have then seen pillagers, active to do mischief, running through the town. : men, women, and children, according to their orders. It .i'-lancholy business, for all rank's, a.^-'s, and s on their knees before the I'rinee. I mercyj but he was so iullamed with passion and revenge, that he li-iem-d to none; but all were put to thr> WOrd wherev-r they eonld 1)0 found, even iho-e who were not guilty; for 1 do iint know why the poor were not spared, who could not have had any part in tin- treason. I Jut tli i for it, and, indeed, more than those who had been the l-'aders of the treachery. Th ; that day in the citv of Linio^.-s any heat t so burdened, or that had any sense of religion, who did not deeply bewail the unfortunate for upwards of ten thou-and men, women, and children were put to death that day. (lod ' upon their souls, for they were veritable, mar- , vol. ii., chap, xxi.; translated by Thomas Johnes.) BOH K.MIA. develop and complete the noble works of ITuss and Je- rome. The Oalixtines and the Unman Catholics received the Em- peror Sigisinuml as their lawful monarch. He swore to main- tain the C<'iiij>iic1ians in that country. There \<, however, no evidence of this fact ; and I have followed the opinion of the Uev. J'r Gilljr, who is certainly one of the irreatest au- thorities on this subject, and who thinks that it was Vienne in {Southern Trance. BOHEMIA 97 forty-two days. A great number of thorn, including the princi- pal ministers, (.'migrated to Poland, where, from being persecuted exiles, they became at once not only welcome and honoured guests, but founders of nourishing churches, which sprung up with an extraordinary rapidity. I must, however, delay the particulars of this event to another part of this work. It is well known that the Moravian Brethren are a conti- nuation of the Bohemian Church, rebuilt in the eighteenth century by Count /inzcndortf from its remnants scattered in Moravia. The truly Christian virtues of this admirable com- munity, their unassuming piety, the sincere zeal with which they labour in the remotest parts of the world to spread the knowledge of the gospel and promote civilization, are acknow- ledged at all hands. I must, however, express my astonish- ment at a circumstance which I confess my inability to understand. The Moravians embrace in their labours of Christian love the whole world, except the race from which they have sprung themselves the race which produced John Huss, and which he so ardently loved. It seems, indeed, that the Moravians have more at heart the welfare of the Green- landers, the Negroes, and the Hottentots, than that of the Slavonians. They could do much good, indeed, without com- passing land and sea, in a circle lying in the immediate vici- nity of their most flourishing establishments. They certainly could not undertake the evangelization of those Slavonians who live under the dominion of Russia; but there are hun- dreds of thousands of them in Silesia, where the Moravians have several prosperous settlements. There is even no need of their attempting to make converts amongst those who live within the pale of the Roman Catholic Church. This might perhaps lead to hostile feelings and actions, uncongenial with the peaceful spirit of the Moravians, and productive of more evil than good; but there are many Slavonians in Silesia and in Eastern Prussia nominally belonging to the Protestant Church, but whose religious instruction is very deficient, owing to the want of pastors and teachers thoroughly conversant with the language of their flocks and pupils. Those Slavo- nians present a most fertile field for the Christian labours of the Moravians; but although many of their ministers are un- doubtedly very proficient Hindoo, Hottentot, and Esquimaux scholars, I wonder if there are amongst them such as are masters even of one dialect of that tongue in which Huss proclaimed the pure Word of God? I shall not indulge in any further considerations on this subject, which, as a Slavo- nian, I cannot handle without perhaps too much warmth. I shall only observe, would it not appear, to say the least II 98 CHAPTER IT. strange, if an individual descended from an illustrious house, preserving its name, and carefully tracing his pedigree, were to take a kind and active interest in the whole of mankind, with the exception of the members of that family from which he claims his own descent? This is, however, precisely the case with the Moravians. They assume the name of that Slavonic country where the first national church was esta- blished (page 20), and they claim to be immediately descended from the most perfect disciples of the great Slavonic reformer; and yet they have completely estranged themselves from his race! Should this essay be fortunate enough to attract the attention of some Moravians, I would most earnestly request them to consider that their community is a branch severed from the great Slavonic tree, and therefore its many offsets, transplanted into different foreign lands, have never produced any thing more than small though verdant groves; but let it be regrafted on the parent stock, and it will rapidly grow into a mighty forest. I now return to the history of the moderate Hussites or Calixtines, who formed the majority of the inhabitants of Bohemia. As soon as Sigismund believed himself in the se- cure possession of the throne of that country, he openly de- clared for the restoration of the ancient ecclesiastical order. This would have probably led to a new war between him and the Bohemians; but he died in 1437. He left no son, and designated as his successor in Hungary and Bohemia, Albert of Austria, husband of his daughter Elizabeth. Albert was acknowledged without difficulty as king of Hungary, and elected emperor; but his known aversion to the Compactata created a strong opposition to his claims in Bohemia. He was accepted by the Roman Catholics, and crowned at Prague; but the Hussites declared against him, and elected Gazimir, brother of the king of Poland, and son of Vladislav Jaguel- lon, to whom they had repeatedly offered the crown of their country. The Polish Diet of Korczyn confirmed that election, notwithstanding a violent opposition by the clergy and their partizans, and sent an army to support the Hussites. ( V./.i- mir, who was then only thirteen years old, entered Bohemia with that army, and, being joined by the Hussites, obtained considerable advantages over the imperial party, sup] by German and llun;:arian forces; but his final triumph was impeded by the treachery of the Count of Cilley,* the conta- gious disease which : ! his army, ami some uni'ortu- nate differences among the lh: . Tin? efforts * A Ciormnn j;r:incUv>, brother-in-law of the deceued Emperor Sigisinund, and who hud taken u part with the I In- BOH KM 1 A. 09 of the council of Bale succeeded in suspending UK- Instil! and a eongre-s was opened at Breslau, in order to eil'rrt a pacification between the contending ])arties. The Polish dc- 9 proposed that Ca/imir and Albert should equally re- sign their claims to the throne of Bohemia, and submit them to a diet of that country, which should freely decide upon the respective 1 merits of the two candidates, because, as these delegates said, their prince had not accepted that throne from any motive of ambition or avarice, but simply out of sym- pathy for a nation of 1he same lufjn, fol- lowed by a crusade, which Podiebradski defeated; l>ut the intri.LTiU's of the pope <_ r rew more and more active. In vain Podiebradski repn the dangers of the rapid progress * This change of opinion made a wit of that time say, Plus damnanlt yuod BOHEMIA. 101 which the Turks had made since the capture of Constanti- nople in 1 !"' I-, and oil'm-d troops, money, and his own person against tit" common enemy of Christendom. The papal !<- Fantinns dela Vallo, declared at Nuremberg, that " it was the wish of the holy father that the army of the empire and a crusade should he employed rather against the hereties than the Turks." 1 The unceasing machinations of the pope finally attained their object. Many of PodiebradskTs subjects, particularly amongst the great nobles and the bishops, were seduced by those machinations from their allegiance to this excellent monarch; but the loyalty of the lesser nobles, and of the towns, remained unshaken. The emperor Frederick the Third, who had hitherto been his friend, and who had received from Podiebradski many services, now made an attempt to possess himself of the Bohemian crown; and the great king of Hungary, Mathias Corvinus, joined the enemies of Podie- bradski, notwithstanding that he was married to his daughter. They invaded his dominions, and tried to seduce all his Ro- man Catholic subjects, by representing that the oath of alle- giance sworn to a heretic was not binding. These infamous suggestions were rejected by real patriots, bnt were not with- out effect upon many unprincipled or superstitious Bohemians, and even his life was not secure from the fanatical assassins. Yet, notwithstanding these great difficulties, he overcame his foreign and domestic enemies. His eldest son, Victorin, de- feated the emperor, and dictated peace to him, near the walls of Vienna; and Podiebradski himself surrounded the King of Hungary, who had invaded his dominions, and compelled him to conclude peace. Podiebradski terminated his life, devoted to his country, by a noble act of patriotism. He had two sons Victorin and Henry, both endowed with great and noble qualities.* Yet he knew to what difficulties Bohemia would be exposed under the rule of his son, who would have been unable to maintain himself on the throne, except by the sacrifice of the interests and dignity of his country. He therefore looked for a suc- cessor who could secure assistance to his country from abroad, sufficiently powerful to overcome its enemies. Such assistance could be expected neither from Germany nor Hungary, but from a cognate nation, w r ith which the affinities of the race were stronger than theological differences, a nation which fought many times for the Hussites, and never against them. Podiebradski opened, therefore, in J460, negotiations for an alliance with Cazimir, king of Poland, the same who had * Henry left some beautiful poetry in his national language. 102 CHAPTER IV. been elected by the Hussites in 1439 to the throne of their country. This alliance was concluded at a personal inter- view between the two monarchs at Glogow, in 1462 ; and Podiebradski guaranteed to obtain by his influence the suc- cession of the Bohemian throne, after his death, to a son of Cazimir, who was to marry a daughter of Podiebradski. When the machinations of the pope, to which I have alluded, created in Bohemia a party against Podiebradski, that party endeavoured to seduce Cazimir, by the offer of the crown of that country to himself, and the cession of some provinces to Poland, provided he would dissolve the treaty of Glogow, and employ his forces against Podiebradski, instead of supporting him. Cazimir rejected these offers, and intimated his readi- ness to support Podiebradski, notwithstanding the complaints of the pope, who reproached him with acting against the in- terests of Christianity, by allying himself with an excommuni- cated heretic. Cazimir disregarded the papal injunctions, and rigorously prohibited the preaching in Poland of the cru- sade proclaimed against Podiebradski. The severe trials to which Podiebradski was continually exposed greatly injured his health ; therefore, feeling that his end was not distant, he convoked a general diet of the coun- try, and proposed to it to elect as his successor Prince Vla- dislav, eldest son of the king of Poland. The Bohemian diet accepted this proposition, and it was ratified by the Polish diet, notwithstanding the violent opposition of the clergy. Podiebradski died in 1471, in the fifty-first year of his age. He was a truly national and patriotic king, endowed with great political and military talents, and with a noble and energetic character. The unfortunate circumstances with which he had to cope during his whole reign prevented him making it as prosperous as that of the emperor Charles the Fourth. Vladislav of Poland took possession of the throne in 1471. On his accession he confirmed the Compactata; but Pope Sixtus the Fourth declared against him, and supported the pretensions of the king of Hungary, Mathias Corvinus. A war ensued, in which the pope supported the king of Hungary, and the Poles Vladislav. The dangers which menaced both parties from the Turks put a stop to the quarrel ; and the pope who had excited tho war, now pacified it. The reign of Vladislav was insignificant. In 1481) he wn ! to tho throne of Hungary, after tho death of Mathias Corvinus. He died in 1 ")l(i, and was succeeded on the throne of Bohemia and llun- L r ary by his minor son Louis, who perished in 15^6 at the battle of Mohacz against the Turks. An equality of rights was maintained between the Hussites and the Roman Catholics during these two reigns. CHAPTER V, BOHEMIA (CONTINUED.) Accession of Ferdinand of Austria, and persecution of Protestants Pro- gress of Proteetaniam under Maximilian and .Rudolph Quarrels l>e- tween the Protestants and the Roman Catholics under the reign of Mathias Defenestration of Prague Ferdinand the. Second; his firmness of character, and devotion to the Roman Catholic Church His depo- sition, and election of Frederick, palatine of the Rhine Zeal of the Roman Catholics for their cause Great Schemes of Queen Kli/abeth of England and Ilenry the Fourth of France Faithle.ss conduct of the German Protestants Defeat of the Bohemians, and melancholy conse- quences of that event for their country General observations on that ssubject War of thirty years, and desertion of the Bohemian Protes- tants by those of Germany Melancholy condition of the Slavonic na- tionality of Bohemia, and attempts at its entire destruction Reaiiii na- tion of "the national language, literature, and spirit of Bohemia Pre- sent condition and future prospects of that country. Louis left no children, and was succeeded on the throne of Hungary and Bohemia by Ferdinand of Austria, brother of the emperor Charles the Fifth, and married to the sister of Louis, a prince of a bigoted and despotic character. The doctrines of Luther had already found a speedy echo amongst the Calixtines under the preceding reign; and Protestantism gained so much ground under that of Ferdinand, that the Bohemians refused to take a part in the war against the Pro- testant league of Smalkalden, and formed a union for the defence of the national and religious liberties, which were menaced by Ferdinand. The defeat of the Protestants at the battle of Muhlberg in 1547, by Charles the Fifth, which laid prostrate their cause in Germany, produced a severe reac- tion in Bohemia. Several leaders of the union were executed, others imprisoned or banished ; the property of many nobles was confiscated, the towns were heavily fined, deprived of several privileges, and subjected to new taxes. These mea- sures were carried into execution with the assistance of Ger- man, Spanish, and Hungarian soldiers, and legalized by an assembly known under the name of the Bloody Diet. It was at that assembly that the chapter of Prague declared that the opposition to the royal authority was caused by heretical books; and, in order to prevent this mischief, the clergy de- manded and obtained the establishment of a censure of books, 104 CHAPTER Y. with which it was intrusted. The Jesuits were also intro- duced during that reign into Bohemia. The privileges of the Calixtine, or, as it was officially called, the Utraquist Church, were not abolished ; and Ferdinand, who had succeeded to the imperial crown after the abdication of his brother Charles the Fifth, softened during the latter years of his reign his harsh and despotic character, which was more the effect of his Spanish education under the guid- ance of the stern Cardinal Ximenes, than of a natural dispo- sition. He died in 1564, sincerely regretting, it is said, the acts of oppression which he had committed against his Bohemian subjects. He was succeeded by his son, the emperor Maxi- milian the Second, a man of a noble character and a tolerant disposition, which led to the belief that he himself inclined towards the doctrines of the Reformation. He died in 1576, leaving a name venerated by all parties. The Jesuit Balbinus calls him tho kindest of all princes ; and the Protestant Stranski, a truly pious soul. He granted perfect liberty to the Protestants. Maximilian's son, the Emperor Rudolph, was educated at the court of his cousin Philip the Second of Spain, and could not be but adverse to Protestantism, which had, however, become too strong, not only in Bohemia, but also in Austria proper, to be easily suppressed ; but several indirect means were adopted, in order gradually to effect this object, and to bring back the liberties of the Protestants to the Gompactata. Rudolph was, however, too much absorbed in the study of astrology, alchymy, and other similar sciences, to pursue any active line of policy, whether good or bad. The measures devised against the Protestants were therefore not followed up ; and the danger of losing his throne, with which he was menaced from his brother Mathias, induced him to grant the celebrated patent known under the name of the " Letters Patent of Majesty," or Royal Charter, by which a full religious liberty was granted, and the University of Prague given up to the Protestants. Rudolph was deposed by his brother Mathias, who, in or- der to secure the possession of Bohemb, confirmed the patent of his brother. The dangers with which the states of Ma- thias were menaced from the Turks induced him to adopt a uru which had never been tried before, or repeated till the year 1848, i.0. 9 a general assembly of the states of all his dominions, which took place at Linz in 1614. The states regretfully listened to all the demands and propositions of the emperor; but as their own demand* and grievances on civil and ecclesiastical subjects were not listened to, the as- > mUv M. parated without producing any result whatever. BOHEMIA. 105 Mathias succeeded in renewing for twenty years the truce with Turkey; hut the religious ailairs of Bohemia caused him great dilHcnlties. I Ie was not liked himself, and his destined successor, 1-Yrdinand of Styria, was hated on account of his known bigotry. The Jesuits and the other parti/ans of Fer- dinand openly declared that the royal charter, being extorted from the monarch, was void and mill; that the heads of several great lords would be taken off; that many who had then nothing would be soon settled in fine castles; that Mathias was too weak to tear to pieces the old rags of parchment, but that the pious Ferdinand would change every thing, because novits rex, nova I The national party, composed chiefly of Protestants, were growing every day more jealous of the German influence pro- moted by Austria. In 1616 the Diet of Prague enacted a law, which forbade letters of naturalization or the freedom of a city to be granted to individuals who knew not the Bohe- mian language. Meanwhile the breach between the Jesuit court faction, headed by the imperial ministers Slawata and Martinitz, and the Protestant national party, the principal leaders of which were the Counts Thurn and Schlik, was daily widening. An active quarrel began about two new churches built by the Protestants of Klostergrab and Braunau, but closed, arid afterwards demolished, by order of the arch- bishop.* A petition, signed by a great number of nobility and other persons, complaining of this act, was ungraciously dismissed by the king. The ferment grew stronger and stronger; the Protestants preached; the Komanists made processions. A number of the principal nobles repaired to the royal castle, and demanded an explanation from Slawata and Martinitz, whether they were the authors of the royal answer to the petition. A haughty reply to this demand led to an altercation, in consequence of which the above-men- tioned ministers were thrown out of the windows. The height was considerable; but they luckily fell upon a large heap of sweepings, so that they escaped unhurt, a circumstance which produced a strong impression upon the multitude; some believing it a divine interposition, others ascribing it to the help of Satan. The perpetrators of this act of brutal violence, celebrated under the name of the defenestration of Prague, attempted to justify it by an ancient custom of their country of punishing traitors in that way, and founded on the * The building of these churches was not legal, because, according to the provision of the royal charter, every one could build churches upon his own estates ; and the two churches mentioned in the text were erected on the lauds belonging to the Archbishop of Trague and the Abbot of Braunau. 106 CHAPTER V. example of Jezebel, the throwing down of political criminals from the Tarpeian rock, &c. They immediately established a council of regency, composed of thirty persons, whose first act was the expulsion of the Jesuits, as the cause of all mis- chief. They were prohibited, on pain of death, from return- ing to the country; and intercession in their favour was de- clared high treason. The Emperor Mathias, afraid that all the Protestants in his empire would rise in favour of the Bohemians, wished to negotiate; but his declared successor, Ferdinand, was not afraid of any thing, whenever it concerned the interests of his church. He was entirely directed by his confessor, the Jesuit Lamorniain, whom he frequently assured, that if the good of the Catholic Church required it, he would willingly lay down his head upon a block, and that he would rather live in exile, and beg his bread from door to door, than suffer heresy in his dominions. War began; and the imperialists, under the Spanish gene- rals Buquoi and Dampierre, were defeated by the Protestants. Mathias died, and Ferdinand began his reign under the most difficult circumstances. The Bohemians, joined by Bethlem Gabor, prince of Transylvania, defeated his troops, and be- sieged him at Vienna. The town contained many of his enemies. They surrounded his palace, loudly demanding that Ferdinand should be sent to a convent, and his council- lors put to death. He was pressed in his own apartment, by a deputation of the malcontents, to grant the terms de- manded by his revolted subjects; but his stern resolution did not waver for a moment. This firmness could not but re- ajnimate the courage of his partizans; and it was completely restored by the report which the priests spread, that when lie was praying before a crucifix, it said to him in Latin, " Ferdinande, non deseram te" A detachment of the im- perialists succeeded in entering the town; and soon after- wards the news of a victory gained by Buquoi over tho insur- in Bohemia, and the consequent raising of the siege, c'niiirmcd the tale of the miracle. It was believed by all the Roman Catholic population, and gave an immense strength to Ferdinand's party. The Bohemians, however, deelar. <1 his deposition from the throne of their country, and el in his placo Frederic, palatine of tho Rhine, whoso qualifica- I'or this dignity won*, however, more specious than real. qualificatlOl his headship of the Protestant con- federation of (jorniany,* and his being the nephew of Mauri- * This confederation, known under the munr .medical Tnion, was formed ly tho advice of llenry tho Fourth of France, in luUJ, at lleil- BOIIKMIA. 107 tiu., prince of Ora; itholder of Holland, and son-in-law of James the First of Groat Britain. By his personal charac- ter, Frederic was quite unlit for the arduous duties of this high but perilous station; but the Bohemians vigorously pro- secuted the war against Ferdinand. They defeated the im- perial forces; and their army, supported by the Protestant princo of Transylvania, Hot Idem (Jabor, besieged Vienna ii gain. The fortunes of Ferdinand seemed to be on the brink of ruin; but they were saved by the firmness of his own character, by the immense activity and skill of the Je- suits, by the fidelity of the Roman Catholics to their cause, and, above all, by the shameless desertion of the cause of Protestantism by the German princes who professed its tenets. The first success of the Bohemians awakened the alarm of the Roman Catholic princes; and not only did the pope, Spain, and the Roman Catholic princes of Germany, unite for the defence of their cause, represented by Ferdinand the Second, but even France forgot on that occasion the funda- mental principle of her foreign policy opposition to the progress of the house of Austria. The splendid scheme of establishing the peace and welfare of the European com- munity on a permanent foundation, devised by the genius of Henry the Fourth and his great minister Sully, was cut short, when on the eve of execution, by the murder of that admir- able monarch; and Elizabeth, whose clear and far-sighted mind had conceived the same scheme, even before it had been communicated to her by Sully, had been long in her grave; whilst the puny successors of those great monarchs were totally unable to understand the ideas of their glorious pre- decessors.* Richelieu, who at a later period declared war bronn, confirmed in 1603 at Heidelberg, and renewed in 1G08 at Ashhausen. The parties belonging to this confederation agreed to furnish each a fixed number of troops, and-to allow the dogmatic differences between the Luthe- rans and Calvinists to have no influence upon that union. * It is scarcely necessary to observe, that I allude to that celebrated pro- ject conceived by Henry and Sully, to reduce the dangerous power of the Austrian dynasty, and to establish the community of European states upon a secure and permanent foundation, an arrangement which, by satisfying the wants and feelings of its nations, might secure to Europe the blessings of a perpetual peace. According to that scheme, this peace was to be main- tained by a permanent congress, composed of the delegates of all the states forming the European confederation, and possessed of sufficient means to prevent its breach, not by empty words, but by real deeds. It seems, how- ever, that it is not generally known that the same scheme had been con- ceived by Queen Elizabeth, even before it had been communicated to her by Henry; nay, it is net improbable that she suggested to him the idea. Sully says, in speaking of this project, " If the first idea of it was not given him [Henry the Fourth] by Elizabeth, it is at least certain that this great 108 CHAPTER V. against Austria, and supported the German Protestants, was not yet at the helm of affairs in France. The French court, queen had long before imagined it herself, as a means of avenging Europe on Austria, its common enemy."* Sully had a conversation on this subject with Queen Elizabeth, during his voyage to England, in 1G01; and in relating that conversation, he ex- presses his surprise that Elizabeth and Henry, without having ever con- ferred upon their political project, should have so exactly coincided in all their views, that the relation of it agreed in even the minutest details.f Sully was filled with admiration in listening to Elizabeth's exposition of her views and principles ; and after having observed that it was a frequent occurrence to meet with sovereigns who formed inconsiderate projects, which it was beyond their power to execute, he adds, " But to know how to form only reasonable schemes, how to regulate wisely their economy, to foresee and to prevent all inconveniences, in such a manner that, in case they should occur, nothing more is necessary than to apply the remedy pro- vided beforehand, is a thing of which few princes are capable. A great part of the articles, conditions, and different arrangements [of this plan], is due to this queen, and shows well that, in point of penetration, wisdom, and other qualities of mind, she was not inferior to any king amongst those who were the most deserving of the name."J Elizabeth wished to proceed at once to the execution of that project, and grieved much that the condition of France, exhausted by terrible commo- tions, did not permit Henry to second her intentions. Henry himself also considered it as a great misfortune that he was unable to begin the execu- tion of this great scheme during the lifetime of the Queen of England. " The death of Elizabeth,'' says Sully, " was an irreparable loss to Europe, and particularly to Henry. It was to him such a severe blow, that it nearly made him abandon his project, because, according to his own expression, he had lost a second self, un second soi-meme." I confess that I am at a loss to understand why such an important fact, exhibiting in a strong light the superiority of Elizabeth's mind, and certainly not the least glorious to the memory of that truly great sovereign, is not mentioned either by Hume or Lingard. The last of these writers says that " it was difficult to reconcile the policy of her ministers with honesty and good faith; but that in the result it proved eminently successful." The political scheme to which I have alluded, devised, as it appears, by Eliza- beth's own genius, and not by her ministers, was certainly reconcilable with good faith and honesty. This omission appears to me the more un- accountable, as it is impossible to believe that a work so generally known as the Mi moirs of Sully should have escaped the attention of those two eminent writers. I have no hesitation in saying, that Elizabeth, Henry the Fourth, and Sully, were far in advance, not only of their own age, but of that in which we live ; because, had the days of the two great monarchs been prolonged, Kngland and I -Vance would have accomplished by deeds that great and noble work, a permanent peace, which the present politicians attempt to effect by a profuse expenditure of words. The project of Henry and Kli/abeth was not an Utopia; for no one acquainted with history will accuse them of having hern idle dreamers. The result of their respective, reigns is a suffi- cient proof that, they were profound adepts in the mysteries of the true kin : j- r ;//>; and, indeed, events have proved that their scheme was practical. Amount the many articles of that elaborate plan was the restoration of Hungary to an independent sovereignty, strengthened by the addition of several adjacent provinces, in order to make that country an eMirient bul- wark against the infidels. 1'oland was also destined for the same object. book xxx. f U'M; book xii. J Ibid. Vol. riii. chap vii. BOHEMIA. 109 misled by the intrigues of Spain, sent an ambassador to Vienna, and arr.-ingrd a jurilieation between Ferdinand and Bethlem Gabor, who had been obliged to retire from under the walls of the Austrian capital, by the hardships of a severe winter, and by a diversion which Sigismund the Third of Poland, whose baneful reign I shall narrate in another chapter, had made by an invasion into Hungary. James the First disapproved of the enterprise of his son-in-law, regarding the Bohemian insur- rection against Ferdinand as an infringement upon the divine right of kings; and, instead of assisting him, repressed the xeal of his subjects, who were willing to help their fellow-Protes- tants of Bohemia; and Mauritius of Nassau, uncle to the new Bohemian monarch, was prevented from assisting his nephew by a still unexpired truce with Spain, as well as by his internal difficulties, created by a strong opposition to his authority in Holland. The Evangelical Union, whose evident interest it was to support the Bohemian Protestants against the very same power which it had itself been formed to oppose, adopted quite a different course. The Lutheran princes who belonged to it were more jealous of the llefonned or Calvinists than of the Roman Catholics. The Elector of Saxony was afraid that the success of the Bohemians would enable the Ernestine, or eldest branch * of his family, zealously devoted to the Protes- Bohemia was to be rendered independent, and her extent increased by several provinces containing a Slavonic population ; whilst the princes of the Austrian dynasty, deprived of the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia and their German possessions, were to be provided with states formed from the Spanish colonies of America. Now, is it necessary to say, that the destruc- tion of Poland as an independent state is generally admitted to be, not only a political crime, but a political misfortune, to the whole of Europe, that the recent, events of Hungary have shaken the political edifice of Austria to its very foundation, and rendered her utterly inefficient as a barrier to the progress of Russia towards Constantinople, and, finally, that the separation from the mother country of the Spanish American colonies, unprepared for self-government, has thrown them into a perpetual state of the wildest anarchy, and reduced them to a miserable condition ? Would not all this mischief have been prevented if the existence of Hungary and Poland had been firmly established, and the Spanish colonies rendered independent under a monarchical form, congenial to the habits and ideas of their popula- tion, and governed by princes of the Austro-Spanish dynasty ? There can be no doubt that they would have developed themselves under an indepen- dent but monarchical government, with the greatest advantage, not only to themselves, but to the whole world ; because the establishment of a univer- sal free trade was one of the principal articles of this scheme, as well as an equal religious liberty to Roman Catholics and Protestants. According to the same plan, the Czar of Muscovy, with whose power Elizabeth had suffi- cient means of becoming acquainted, was to be invited to become a member of the European confederation ; and, if he refused to join it, relegated to the confines of Asia. Comment is superfluous on this provision. * This branch is now represented by the sovereign houses of Saxe Alten- burg, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, and Saxe-Weimar. 110 CHAPTER V. tant cause, to retake the electoral dignity, and the states of which, with the assistance of Austria, they had been deprived by his ancestor. He therefore embraced the cause of Ferdi- nand, and, instead of supporting the Bohemians, took an active part against them. The other members of the Evan- pr-'lieal Union were induced, by the negotiation of the same French embassy which had arranged a pacification between Bethlem Gabor and Ferdinand, to sign, on the 8th July 1G20, a treaty at Ulm, by which they formally abandoned their chief, the Palatine of the Rhine, in regard to the affairs of Bohemia, with the reservation that they would take his defence, should his hereditary states be attacked by the Catholic League. Thus the Roman Catholics nobly stood by their cause on that memorable occasion; the Protestants basely deserted theirs. Such shameless conduct on the part of the German Pro- testants could not but completely dishearten those of Bo- hemia, who soon perceived that they could not have chosen a monarch less fitted for this dangerous honour than Fre- deric. The Bohemians were defeated on the 8th November 1620, at Weissenberg, near Prague, by a superior force of Ba- varians and imperialists, commanded by Buquoi. Frederic, who had been feasting at the time of the battle, was so terri- fied by the disastrous news of its loss, that, instead of de- fending his capital, as his subjects entreated him to do, he ignominiously fled, leaving them to the revenge of an irritated enemy. This revenge was terrible. Many principal noblemen and other persons of note were executed, and a great number of individuals belonging to the most respectable classes of society fled the country, and had their property confiscated. Many persons who had taken no part in the insurrection wore heavily fined. All these spoils went to enrich a host of foreign adventurers who served in the imperial army; and whole pro- vinces were detached from the country, to reward the service of the imperial allies, the Duke of Bavaria, whose assistance had chiefly brought about the triumph of the imperial < and the Protestant Elector of Saxony, who received as blood- money, for helping to destroy his Bohemian fellow-Protestants, tin' fiiK- province of Lusatia. Protestantism and the Slavonic nationality of Bohemia, considered as synonymous by the msrllnrs of Ferdinand, were suppressed by a most relen .-in of pr-rsertition; and the consequence which it produced wafl the unutterable misery and moral degradation of the country. This wivieh, -ribed in the following manner l.y a Roman Catholic writer of Bohe- mia, in a work published at Vienna under the Austrian ecu- BOHEMIA. Ill sure, about half a century ago : it cannot, therefore, be sus- pected of being untrue, or even exa -in -rated : "Under the reign of Ferdinand the Second, the whole of the Bohemian nation was entirely changed and recast. It is scarcely possible to find in history another instance of a whole nation so much changed in the space of about fifteen years. In the year 1 (>:>(), all Bohemia was, with the exception of some nobles and monks, Protestant; at the death of Ferdinand the Second, it was, at least in appearance, entirely Roman Catho- lic. The merit of this conversion of a whole country in so short a time was claimed by the Jesuits. When on one occa- sion they were boasting of this achievement at Rome, in the presence of the pope, the celebrated capuchin monk, Valerian Magnus, who was present on that occasion, and who had also taken part in the conversion of Bohemia, said c Holy father, give me soldiers, as they were given to the Jesuits, and I shall convert the whole world. 1 " The states of Bohemia, until the battle of Weissenberg, possessed a power at least equal to that of the Parliament of England. They made laws, concluded alliances with their neighbours, imposed taxes, conferred the rank of nobility upon meritorious individuals, kept their own troops, chose their kings, or their consent was at least asked when the fa- ther wished to leave the crown to his son. They lost all these privileges in the above-mentioned space of time (i.e., the reign of Ferdinand the Second). Until that time, the Bohemians appeared on the field of battle as a separate nation, and they not unfrequently earned glory. They were now thrust amongst other nations, and their name has never since resounded on the field of battle. For- merly it was said, the Bohemians have marched into the field ; the Bohemians have carried the fortifications; the Bohemians have taken the town; the Bohemians have advanced against the enemy; the Bohemians have gained the victory. These glorious expressions were no more uttered by a mouth, or transmitted to posterity by a historian. Till that time, the Bohemians, taken as a nation, had been brave, dauntless, pas- sionate for glory, and enterprising; but now they lost all courage, all national pride, all spirit of enterprise. They fled into forests like sheep before the Swedes, or suffered them- selves to be trampled under foot. Their valour was then lying buried on the battlefield of Weissenberg. Individual Bohemians still possess courage, martial spirit, and a love of glory; but, mingled with foreign nations, they resemble the waters of the Moldava, which have mingled with those of the Elbe. These two united rivers bear vessels, overflow their 112 CHAPTER V. banks, inundate the country, carry away rocks and mountains; yet it is always said the Elbe did it, and nobody ever thinks about the Moldava. The Bohemian language, which was used in all public transactions, and of which the nobles were proud, fell into contempt. The upper classes adopted the German, and the burghers were obliged to learn it too, because the monks preached in the towns in German. The inhabitants of the cities began to be ashamed of their native tongue, which, being retain- ed only by the peasants, .was called the peasants 1 tongue. As high as the Bohemians had risen in science, literature, and arts, under the reigns of Maximilian and Rudolph, so low did they now sink in all these respects. I do not know of any scholar who, after the expulsion of the Protestants, distin- guished himself by any learning. The University of Prague was in the hands of the Jesuits, or rather in abeyance, be- cause, the pope having ordered all promotion to be suspended in it, no person could receive an academical degree. Some patriots, clergymen as well as laymen, openly murmured against such a state of things, but without producing any effect what- ever; whilst many others silently deplored the fall of the na- tional literature. The great majority of the schools of the kingdom were conducted by the Jesuits and other monks, and not much else than bad Latin was taught in them. It cannot be denied that there were amongst the Jesuits many indivi- duals possessed of literary and scientific accomplishments; but their principle being, that people should not bo enlightened, but rather kept in darkness, they imparted to their pupils only tho outward shell of knowledge, retaining the kernel for them- selves; for their object was to remain in the exclusive posses- sion of learning, and to stand in this respect superior, not only to the laity, but even to other monastic communities. In order to keep people more effectually in a state of ignorance, they went from town to town, exacting from the inhabitants, under the penalty of everlasting damnation, that they should show the books in their possession. These books were exa- mined by the Jesuits, who burned the greater part of then), and since that time a Bohemian work is a rare book amongst us. They also endeavoured by tho same means to obliterate i hrouirliout all Bohemia every trace of her aneient learning. In consequence of this, they ivlated to their pupils, that, previ- ou-ly to their arrival in Bohemia, ignorance prevailed in that country, and they eaivfullv concealer! from the people not only the learned labours of our ancestors, hut even their very names. TS'othiiiir that the learnd and patriotic Balbinus had collected and compiled about the ancient literature of Bohemia could BOHEMIA. 1 1 3 bo published before the abolition of their order, hernusp they took care not to eoimmmieuto his manuscript to any body. 'Phc Bohemian* chaiiin'd even their national dress, and gra- dually adopted their present costume. I must also remark, that with that period the history of the Bohemians ends, and that of the other nations in Bohemia begins. (Pelsel's Gcs- cJticlih 1 con lyoliincn, p. IS."), et seq.) But if this wretched condition into which Bohemia was plunged was the work of the united satellites of Rome and Aus- tria of soldiers and priests it was mainly brought about by the faithless conduct of the Protestant sovereigns of Ger- many towards the cause of their religion conduct to which there were but a few noble exceptions. It is indeed curious to observe that some Protestant writers seem to be at a loss how to account for the rapid and almost complete suppression of Protestantism in Bohemia and Aus- tria proper by Ferdinand the Second, although the cause of this melancholy event is so obvious. People ascribed the rapi- dity with which that deplorable revolution was accomplished to the fickleness of the Slavonic character, the rashness of the Bohemian leaders, their want of foresight, and I don't know what, and finally concluded that it was a mysterious destiny which made Rome regain so easily many extensive regions in the east of Europe, which had been wrested from under its dominion by Protestantism. The causes of the rapid suppression of Protestantism in Bohemia may be, I think, reduced to two principal ones: first, the violent perse- cution of the Protestants, to which I have alluded; and, se- condly, the moral effect which had been produced on the Bo- hemians by the complete desertion of their cause, and even the assistance given to its enemies by those who were most interested in its triumph. It could not but create a general impression, either that those who had acted in such a manner were not sincere in what they professed to believe, or that their conduct, unaccountable to the unsophisticated mind of the masses, showed that they were destined to perish, accord- ing to the proverb, Quern Deus vult perdere prius dementat a circumstance which could not fail to afford the anti-Protes- tant party an argument in their favour, which, striking the imagination of the multitude, made a far more powerful im- pression than could have been produced by the most logical reasoning. History shows us that success had every where a greater influence upon the great bulk of the population than the real merits or demerits of the cause which had triumphed or succumbed. It is more easy and profitable to side with the successful; and the generality of men are but too ready I 114 CHAPTER V. to believe that the most advantageous course is also the right one: only a few generous characters stand to the last by a cause which they consider to be that of justice. It was there- fore no wonder that, after the death and exile of the most respectable and intelligent of the Bohemian Protestants, the remainder should be driven, like as many true sheep, into the fold of the Roman Catholic Church, or tempted to conceal their creed under an outward conformity to its rites. The ways of Providence are undoubtedly inscrutable, but they are carried out according to immutable laws, by which that Providence has regulated the affairs of the physical and moral world, by an uninterrupted concatenation of causes and effects, the imme- diate agency of which is not beyond the reach of human com- prehension. No one will be astonished if he sees an indivi- dual break his neck or limbs in leaping from a considerable height; and there is as little reason for marvel if a cause, when abandoned by its natural defenders, succumbs. The only real subject of wonder would be, what could have induced people to act in the manner they did, if they were of sane mind. A severe and immediate punishment was inflicted by Fer- dinand himself upon the Protestant sovereigns of Germany, for their base and senseless behaviour towards the Bohe- mians. As soon as this monarch had crushed the Bohemians, he began to trample upon the religious and political liberties of those who had deserted them in their hour of need. The consequence of this was that celebrated war which for thirty years desolated Germany, whose liberties were saved only by the valour of Gustavus Adolphus and of his generals, and the policy of that great statesman Richelieu, a service which that country was, however, obliged to repay, by giving up Alsatia to France, and its finest northern provinces to Sue- den. The treaty of Westphalia, which terminated the war of thirty years, regulated with great minuteness the relations between the Roman Catholics and Protestants of Germany, securing the rights of the smallest community in that coun- try, but containing not a single word in favour of the Bohe- mian Protestants. No stipulation whatever was made, cither for their religious freedom, or even for the smallest compen- sation to those \vlio had been driven into exile and deprived of their property, for the sake of that very cause, the rights of which \\< TO secured by that celebrated treaty. These ad- vanfa'_ f< > were, however, only for the Germans; and it B that the Bohemian Protestants, Ix-inir Slavonians, were deemed unworthy of sharing them. They could, indeed, exclaim with the prophet of old," I called on my friends, but they did BOHEMIA. 115 not listen to mo." Had the days of that truly Christian hero (Justavus Adolphtlfl been prolonged, the fate of Bohemia would have been different ; but the principal author of the Westplialian treaty seems to have acted on that occasion in accordance with his celebrated saying, Quantilla sapientia re pifur Muni/us lor no policy is wise which is not founded upon justice. This circumstance awakens in a Slavonic mind a [>ain fid reflection, namely, that the Bohemians were treated on that occasion by the Swedes and Germans, with whom they were connected by religious ties, in the same manner as the Poles have been in our days by the nations of western Europe, who have evinced such strong sympathies in their favour, and whose most evident interest it was to support them. It is a remarkable fact, the importance of which seems not to have been observed by the writers of western Europe, that in the fifteenth century, when religious opinions still powerfully influenced political transactions, the Roman Catholic Poles supported and allied themselves on many occasions with the Hussite Bohemians against the Roman Catholic Germans, whilst neither community of religious opi- nions, political sympathies, nor even identity of interests, could ever secure to the two above-mentioned nations any support against their enemies from the powers and nations of western Europe, though they made no scruple in using them as tools for their selfish ends. Is it, then, really true, that those Slavonians who are now struggling for their rights, must no longer look for assistance to the west, but turn their regard to that great Slavonic nation, the progress of whose power they had hitherto strenuously opposed ? This is an opinion which is rapidly growing amongst the western and southern Slavonians, and recent events have not been calcu- lated to stop its progress. The statesmen of western Europe will therefore act wisely by giving this subject their serious consideration, ere it be too late. The sufferings which Bohemia underwent during the war of thirty years were beyond description severe. That unfortu- nate country was ravaged with no less barbarity by the Pro- testant Swedes and Saxons than by the Roman Catholic bands of Tilly and Wallenstein. The number of large and small towns, which at the beginning of the war had been com- puted at seven hundred and thirty-two, was reduced to less than the half of it ; out of thirty-four thousand seven hundred villages, only about six thousand remained ; and the popula- tion sunk from about three millions to nearly seven hundred and eighty thousand souls. A great number of Germans, attracted by the new land- ] 1 6 CHAPTER V. owners and the patronage of the government, settled on the waste lands of Bohemia, and gradually repeopled its desolated towns ; the consequence of which was, that whole districts were so entirely Germanized, that not a single inhabitant of them spoke Bohemian. The public education was entirely in the hands of the Jesuits, whose systematic hostility to the Slavonic nationality of Bohemia I have related. It was there- fore natural that all the upper and middle classes should be- come entirely Germanized, and that the national language, although not legally abolished,* should be in imminent danger of sharing the fate of its sister dialect, which had been spoken by the Slavonians of the Baltic (page 6). Fortunately it was saved by the efforts of some patriotic individuals, at the head of whom I may unhesitatingly place the excellent Bal- binus, whom I have already several times mentioned. He vin- dicated in a treatise the claims of his national language, pointing out all its merits, and the absurdity as well as injus- tice of the attempts which were made to destroy it. Several patriots continued to labour in the same cause, amongst whom stands conspicuous Field- Marshal Kinsky. The Em- peror Joseph the Second, in 1781, proclaimed his edict of tole- ration, in consequence of which many persons in Bohemia who had secretly professed Protestantism openly declared their religious persuasion. It is supposed that this monarch was for some time undecided whether he was to introduce the Bo- hemian or German language for official purposes throughout the whole extent of his empire. The idea of forcing one and the same language upon the different nationalities, entirely distinct from each other by origin and language, which com- pose the population of the Austrian states, was undoubtedly preposterous. Joseph, however, resolved to execute such a scln'ine; and for this purpose he adopted the German, in preference to the Bohemian, which was natural enough, con- sidering the inferior condition into which the latter had fallen, although it is easily understood by the majority of the Aus- trian population, composed of Slavonians, to whom German is an entirely unknown tongue. In consequence of this reso- lution, German was substituted for Latin as a medium of in- struction at the University of Prague, and introduced for the same purpose into schools of every description, not ex- cepting the. primary ones; whilst all children who had not been taught German were prohibited from being admitted to * The r>olirmian laninia^e \vii-; declared l>y repeated ordinances to have fhta aa the German, lut practicaily, itani '-rscded, ly -named idiom, except in the communication! of tlio local authorities with the uneducated indenUfflding only their national idiom. BOHEMIA. 117 tlio Latin schools,* and even from being apprenticed to trades. Thus the irreatrst opponent of the .Jesuits devised a measure, nmiv destructive to the Slavonic nationality of Bohemia than all the means which these fathers had employed for that very purpose during a century and a, half. This open aggression upon the Bohemian language raised the national spirit; and great efforts have heeii continually made since that time to promote the national language and literature. The ordinance of Joseph was withdrawn with the rest of his plans; but tho impulse given to the national literature continued with in- creasing energy, so that it has already reached a high ohomia, find supported by their own merit, independent of all extraneous circumstances, were much spivnd in Poland, as is evident from the regulations of the Ju >man Catholic clergy to which I have already alluded (page 122); and there can be no doubt that they were entertained by many, and prepared the ground for the reformation of the sixteenth century.* * It is a remarkable fact, that tho earliest production of the Polish poetry extant, with the exception of the Hymn to the Virgin,* is a little poem in praise of the English reformer, composed abont the middle of the 15th century, by Andreas Galka Dobszynski, M.A. of the University of Cracow. As I am sure that it will not be uninteresting to my English readers to see the impression produced by their great countryman in such a distant quarter as the author's native land, I shall give them the following translation of the poem in question, which I have made as literal as possible : " Ye Poles, Germans, and all nations ! Wicklyffe speaks the truth ! Heathendom and Christendom have never had a greater man than he, and never will have one. " Whoever wishes to know himself, let him approach Wicklyffe ; whoever will enter the ways which he has pointed out, will never err. " He has tmveiled Divine wisdom, human knowledge, and things that were hidden to philosophers. " He has written by inspiration abont the ecclesiastical dignity, the sanctity of the Church, the Italian Antichrist, and the wickedness of the Popes. " Ye priests of Christ, who are called in by Christ, follow Wicklyffe. " The imperial popes are Antichrists ; their power is derived from the Antichrist, from imperial German grants. " Sylvester, the first pope, took his power from the dragon Constantine, and diffused his venom over all the churches. Led by Satan, Sylvester deceived the emperor, and got possession of Rome by fraud. " We wish for peace, let us pray to God ; let us sharpen the swords, and we shall conquer the Antichrist. Let us strike the Antichrist with the sword, but not with one made of iron. St Paul says, ' Kill the Antichrist with the sword of Christ.' " Truth is the heritage of Christ. The priests have hidden the truth ; they are afraid of it, and they deceive the people with fables. O, Christ, for the sake of thy wounds, send us such priests as may guide us towards the truth, and may bury the Antichrist ! '' The same author wrote a Latin commentary on the metaphysical works of Wicklyffe, tho manuscript of which is preserved in the library of the University of Cracow. He was obliged to retire from Cracow, but found a refuge at the court of Buleslav, prince of Oppeln, in Silesia, who professed the doctrines of Huss. I have extracted these particulars from the history of the Polish literature by Professor Michael Wiszniewski, a pupil of the University of Edinburgh, and for a considerable time professor in that of Cracow. This work, which is certainly in no way inferior to the most cele- brated productions of this kind, as, for instance, those of Tiraboschi, (iin- ghene, Sismondi, &c., has not, unfortunately, been brought to a conclusion by its accomplished author, who was induced b^ the present melancholy condition of our country to retire from his native land, and to settle in Italy, a circumstance which is much to be deplored, because it is a truly * This celebrated hymn, which was generally suns by the Polish warriors before the begin- ning of the battle, and is supposed to have been composed by St Adalbert in the beginning of the eleventh century, has been translated into English by Dr Bo wring, in his specimens of the Polish poets. CHAPTER VI. A powerful impulse to the advance of the national intellect in Poland was given by the establishment, in 1400, of the University of Cracow, which produced Copernicus in about a century after its foundation. The chairs of this learned establishment were filled chiefly with natives of the country, which contained already many accomplished scholars, formed in the Italian universities and in that of Paris, but parti- cularly at Prague, where the Poles had a college of their own. A great stimulus to learning was now given by the honours, emoluments, and prospects of preferment attached to the chairs of the University of Cracow, because the candi- dates to the vacant episcopal sees were generally chosen from amongst the most celebrated professors of that learned establishment. This encouragement to letters produced a noble result, for it gave to the Polish Church, during the fifteenth century, many prelates distinguished for their piety, learning, and enlightened views. The most celebrated of these were Dlugosh, who rendered great services to his country by his patronage of learning, by several important diplomatic transactions, and by composing its Annals, a work which is well known to the historical students of all Europe; and Mar- tin Tromba, archbishop of Gniezno, primate of Poland, who took a prominent part at the Council of Constance, but who is particularly remarkable for a project which he seems to have entertained, of establishing in his country the worship in the national language, or at least of rendering the Latin liturgy intelligible to the generality of the people, for which purpose he ordered the liturgical books to be translated into Polish.* A remarkable proof of the enlightened vie\vs enter- tained by the Polish clergy of that period is the treatise which was presented to the council of Constance, and publicly read on the 8th July 1418, by Paul Voladimir, doctor of law, rec- tor of the University of Cracow, and canon of its cathedral, by which he disproved the principle maintained and acted upon by the German knights, that Christians were permitted to national service which the author has rendered to his country by the work in question. May happier circumstances permit him to resume and to complete liis useful labours for the benefit of his country and the advantage nil literature! though his own reputation has no need <>f any farther exertions in order to be firmly established in the literary world. * A.MS, of this translation was preserved at Warsaw in the library of Zaluski, so called from the name of two bishops, brothel's, who collected it pains and expense. Et was considered one of the richest in Kurope, and the patriotic pn-l;it.-s by whom it had been formed ^ave it to the public; but, at the final dismemberment of Poland in IT!*"', this splendid library was transported to St Petersburg. This act of spoliation d in a very careless manner, and a -reat many valuable works were lost oil that occa- sion. POLAND. 125 coiirrrt hiJnfJf ly force of arms, and that tlie lands of the wjnl<'ls belonged to Christians a principle upon which tho granted these knights tho possession of Prussia, inha- bited by a Pagan population, and which, in virtue of that grant, they conquered and baptized, but reduced to the most oppressive bondage. The most striking evidence of the ad- vanced stato of intellect during the fifteenth century in Poland is. however, the project of reforming the church, presented to the Polish diet of 1459, by Ostrorog, palatine of Poscn. In this project, although he did not touch either the dogmas or the rites of the Roman Catholic Church, he unreservedly pointed out its abuses, and proposed reforms of such a deci- sive nature, that their adoption would have brought about a separation from Rome, perhaps more speedily than the boldest attacks of a dogmatic reformer.* There were in many coun- tries private individuals who attacked the abuses of the church without leaving its pale; but this was a public exposition of these abuses, made by a senator of the realm to the assembly of its states. It shows what spirit animated the Polish states- men during that period; and it was undoubtedly owing to a similar disposition of his senate that King Cazimir the Third \vas enabled to assist the excommunicated king of Bohemia, George Podiebradski (page 102), notwithstanding the most vio- * In this plan of reforming the Church of Poland he maintained that, Christ having declared that his kingdom was not of this world, the pope had no authority whatever over the king of Poland, and should not be even, addressed by the latter in humble terms unbecoming his dignity; that Rome was drawing every year from the country large sums under the pretence of religion, but, in fact, by means of superstition; and that the bishop of Rome was inventing most unjust reasons for levying taxes, the proceeds of which were employed, not for the real wants of the church, but for the Pope's pri- vate interests; that all the ecclesiastical lawsuits should be decided in the country, and not at Rome, which did not take " any sheep without wool;" " that there were, indeed, amongst the Poles people who respected the Ro- man scribblings furnished with red seals and hempen strings, and suspended on the door of a church; but that it was wrong to submit to these Italian deceits." lie farther says "Is it not a deceit that the pope imposes xipon, us, in spite of the king and the senate, I don't know what, bulls called in- dulgences ? He gets money by assuring people that he absolves their sin; but God has said by his prophet ' My son, give me thy heart, and not money.' The pope feigns that he employs his treasures for the erection of churches; but he does it, in fact, for enriching his relations. I shall pass in silence things that are still worse. There are monks who praise still such fables. There are a great number of preachers and confessors who only think how to get the richest harvest, and who indulge themselves, after having plundered the poor people." He complains of the great number of monks unfit for the clerical office, saying, tf After having shaven his head and endowed a cowl, a man thinks himself fit to correct the whole world. He cries, and almost bellows, in the pulpit, because he sees no opponent. Learned men, and even those who possess an inferior degree of knowledge, cannot listen without horror to the nonsense, and almost blasphemy, uttered by such preachers." 126 CHAPTER VI. lent opposition of the pope and the Polish bishops, and which he would not have dared to brave, if he had not been supported by what may be called the public opinion of his country. It is evident, from what I have said, that the ground for an ecclesiastical reformation was sufficiently prepared in Poland before, this movement had commenced in Germany and Swit- zerland ; and I am much inclined to believe that it would have originated in Poland without any impulse from abroad. And, indeed, it was virtually begun by a work published at Cracow in 1515, consequently two years before Luther had proclaimed his opposition to Rome, and which openly advocated the great principle of the Reformation " that the gospels alone must be believed, and that human ordinances may be dispensed with." * The doctrines of Luther spread with great rapidity in the towns of Polish Prussia, inhabited chiefly by German burghers, and maintaining a frequent intercourse with Ger- many. At Dantzic, the principal city of that province, and which enjoyed, under the sovereignty of the Polish monarchs, a perfect self-government in all its internal affairs, the Refor- mation of Wittenberg made such progress, that in 1521 five churches were given up to its followers. The reformers, un- fortunately, were blinded by their success, and, instead of prosecuting their advantages by the same means with which they had gained them persuasion they resorted to violence, w^hich gave to their movement a political character. Four thousand armed inhabitants surrounded the townhall with pointed cannons, and compelled the council, composed of the aristocracy of the city, to dissolve themselves, and to sign a declaration, that it was by their own actions that they had provoked the insurrection. The new council, chosen from among the movement party, entirely abolished the Roman Catholic mode of worship, closed the monastic establishments, ordered that the convents, and other edifices devoted to the use of the clergy, should be converted into schools and hospi- tals, and declared the treasures of the church to be public property, but left them untouched. This revolution was not justifiable, because a very great part of the inhabitants of Dantzic adhered to the old church, and had an indisputable Hirht to enjoy the same religious liberty which the reformers claimed for themselves. The change of lesiastical and political order, effected by the violent act of a party, and not by the deliberate votes of all the citi/'-ns, s illegal as it was unjust, and could not be considered in * EJ.' -. Two pivvioiis works, / ><' Vero ('- -1 /' M-itr'nif.' '., publish <1 at Cracow in 1504, also contained opinions which Koine considers a- her POLAND, 127 any other light by the sovereign of the country, whatever might have been his personal views on religion. Thf throne of Poland wa sat that time occupied by Sigisnmnd the First, a monarch of noble and upright character and enlight- ened views. A deputation of the old town-council of Dant/ic, dressed in mourning, appeared in his presence, supplicating him to save the city, which was going to utter ruin by the introduction of heresy, and to restore by his authority the ancient order of things. They assured him, at the same time, that the principal citizens, and a great part of the inhabitants, desired such a restoration. The king summoned the authors of the revolution to appear before his tribunal. They pro- tested their loyalty, but did not obey the summons. They were outlawed by a diet ; and the king proceeded himself to Dantzio, restored the ancient order of things, whilst the prin- cipal leaders of the movement, tried before the royal tribunal, were either executed or banished. This act of Sigismund the First was a purely political mea- sure, and by no means a religious persecution ; and, indeed, had he allowed a revolution to take place without his consent in a town subject to his authority, it might have been followed by similar occurrences in other parts of his dominions, and seriously compromised the peace and safety of the whole coun- try. He did not commit a single act of persecution against the disciples of Protestantism, which was spreading in differ- ent parts of his dominions ; and had the reformers of Dantzic contented themselves with promoting their cause in a peaceful manner, he would certainly never have interfered with them ; and indeed, although, in restoring the ancient order of things in that town, he prohibited heresy, yet when Lutheranism be- gan, a few years afterwards, to be again preached within its walls, and to spread amongst the inhabitants, he never molested them on that account, and Lutheranism became, under the subsequent reign, the dominant creed of that city, but without infringing upon the religious liberty of the Roman Catholics. Sigismund publicly declared his tolerant views in an answer given to the celebrated antagonist of Luther, John Eck or Eckius, who dedicated to him a work against Luther, urging him to persecute the heretics, and recommending to him, as an example worthy of imitation, Henry the Eighth of England, who had just then published a work against the German re- former. In that answer he says, amongst others " Let king Henry write against Martin ; but with regard to myself, I shall be king equally of the sheep and goat." The advanced state of the national intellect, to which I have allude.d, was very favourable to the reception of the doctrines 128 CHAPTER VI. of the Reformation in Poland, and their spread was particu- larly facilitated by its political condition ; because perhaps no country in the world enjoyed at that time an equal degree of liberty with Poland. It is true that this liberty was confined to the class of nobles, but they could not be compared with the nobility or gentry of western Europe. They formed a kind of military caste, comprehending about the tenth part of the population of the country, which made the number of persons enjoying political rights, when compared with the rest of the inhabitants of the country, much larger than that of the French electors before the introduction of uni- versal suffrage. There were amongst them families possessed of wealth and influence equal to that which was enjoyed by the most powerful barons of feudal England ; whilst others tilled their land themselves. Yet, notwithstanding the great- est disparity of fortune, they were all equal in point of law. The house of the poorest was as much his castle as the palace of the richest, and^ his person was equally pro- tected by the neminem captivabimus, or the Polish habeas corpus.* This powerful body was no less jealous of the encroachments of the clergy upon its liberties than of those made by the royal authority, and this circumstance could not but facilitate the spread of new opinions on religious subjects. The towns, of which there were at that time many in a very flourishing con- dition, were governed by the municipal laws of Germany, which rendered them in their internal affairs little republics, because each of them was governed by elective magistrates, who ad- ministered justice in civil as well as in criminal cases. A contemporary writer relates, that the works of Luther were publicly sold in the University of Cracow, read by many, and not disapproved by the Polish divines ; and he adds, speaking of himself, that when he read these works out of curiosity, old opinions were, in his mind, gradually giving way to new oncs.'f' This was the general disposition of the en- lightened classes in Poland, but they were more doubting than convinced. A secret society, composed of the first scholars of the day, clergymen as well as laymen, met frequently to discuss religious subjects, and particularly tin; new anti-Romanist pub- lications which appeared in different parts of Europe, and which they received through Lismanini, a learned Italian * Tli' iished by the diet of 1431. According to this l;i\v, the king, who represented then not only the executive but also the judicial power, could not imprison any noble except in cas>> of hein^ taken in/r// obliged to admit him to bail on a security proportional to the guilt of which he was accused. t Modrzewbki. POLAND. 12.0 monk, confessor of Bona Sfor/a, queen of Sigismund the First, who took a very active part in these meetings. The Roman holic tenets, which have no scriptural foundation, were fnvly canvassed 1>\- that society; but at one of its meetings a priest, called Pastoris, a native of Belgium, attacked the mystery of the Trinity, as being inconsistent with the unity of the Supreme Being. This doctrine, new at that time in Poland, although already broached in the works of Servetus, startled in such a manner the members present, that they be- came mute with astonishment, perceiving with terror that such a proposition would lead to the subversion of revealed religion. It was adopted by several members of the above-mentioned society ; and it laid in Poland the foundation of that sect whose opinions became afterwards known under the name of Socinianism, although neither Lelius nor Faustus Socinus may be considered as its true founders. On the other hand, this daring proposition had the effect of frightening many timorous minds, and deterring them from any farther attempt against Romanism, so that they preferred to remain within the pale of the established church, in spite of its acknowledged errors and abuses, rather than venture on a dangerous course, which might lead them to pure deism, and reduce the gospel to a simple code of morality. There were many, however, who, firm of mind and inspired with true piety, resolved to search for the truth, not by the sole guidance of human reason, but by the test of holy Scripture. At the time when this religious movement was agitating the minds of the superior classes at Cracow, a more powerful im- pulse to this movement amongst the bulk of the population was given, in the province of Posen, by the arrival of the Bohemian Brethren, whose expulsion from their own country I have related above (page 96). The exiled Brethren, whose number amounted to about a thousand souls, left their coun- try, and proceeded to Prussia, where its duke, Albert of Bran- denburg, a zealous reformer, offered them an asylum. They were obliged to pass, on their way, through Posen ; and when they arrived at that place, in June 1548, Andreas Gorka, supreme judge of the provinces of Great Poland,* a nobleman possessed of immense wealth, and who had already embraced the doctrines of the Reformation, received them with the greatest kindness, and located them on his estates. The * Poland was politically divided into Great and Little Poland. The first of these provinces, comprehending its western part, was thus called on ac- count of its being the original seat of the Polish state, which gradually ex- panded towards the east and south, although its extent was smaller than that of Little Poland, comprehending the south-eastern part of the country. K ISO CHAPTER VI. Brethren publicly performed Divine service; and their hymns chanted and their sermons preached in the Bohemian language, intelligible to the inhabitants of the country, gained for them at once the sympathies of the population. The Slavonic origin and language of the Bohemian Brethren gave them many ad- vantages which Lutheranism, being of German growth, did not possess, and created reasonable hopes of converting the whole province, where they had met with such an hospitable recep- tion. But the Bishop of Posen, perceiving the danger with which his spiritual dominion was menaced by the presence of the Brethren, obtained from the king, Sigismund Augustus, who had just succeeded his father, Sigismund the First, an order that they should quit the country. This order might have been easily evaded, or its recall obtained ; but the Brethren, afraid of creating some disturbance, proceeded to Prussia, where its duke granted them the rights of naturali- zation, full religious liberty, and a church for their use ; whilst his 'patronage sheltered them from the attacks which the Lu- theran divines began to make upon their dogmata.* Next year, 1549, many of the Brethren returned to Poland, where they had been so well received, and continued their labours unmo- lested. Their congregations rapidly increased ; many of the principal families, as the Leszczynski, Ostrorog, &c., embraced their doctrines ; and in a short time they established about eighty churches in the province of Great Poland, besides many others scattered throughout different parts of the country. An accidental circumstance which took place about the same Treatly accelerated the diffusion of Protestant doctrines over all Poland. The students of the University of Cracow having got into a scuffle with the beadles of the rector, the latter made use of firearms, by which several students were killed. The students all united in demanding signal justice against the murderers of their comrades, accusing the rector of the university, who was a dignitary of the church, of having ordered this crime. This accusation was disproved, and satis- faction was promised; but they were so irritated, that not- withstanding the efforts of several influential persons, they li-i't Cracow in a body, and, with the exception of some few who came, back, repaired to the foreign universities, but particularly to * The protection of the duke sheltered the Bohemian Brethren from (he utioii of the Lutheran divines of Prussia only till his death, after which the pel-seen* ion -ved. In l."Jb's, they were prohibited from having public worship, ordered to si-n the twenty articles of the Coi ' established in 1'i i from having any communication with their brethren, either in Poland or Bohemia. Tm.s induced them to emi- grate in l.">7 -I t<> Poland, v. hero their chure; i-ily increased amongst the cognate population, and where religious liberty was legally established. POLAND. 131 the Protestant academy at Goldberg, in Silesia, and tlio ncwly- orertrd UniviTsity of Konigsberg,* whence the greater part of them returned strongly imbued with Protestant opinions. The influence which the Protestant opinions had acquired in Poland became apparent \vhrn a priest in the vicinity of Cracow married, and was summoned for this act before the tribunal of the bishop of his diocese. He obeyed the sum- mons, but appeared in company with so many influential friends, that tlio prosecution was abandoned. The first de- cided step against the Roman Catholic Church was made by Olesnieki, a wealthy nobleman, who turned out the nuns from a convent in the town of Pinczow, belonging to him, ejected the images from the church, and established the Protestant worship according to the Confession of Geneva. This exam- ple was followed by many, and Protestantism spread with an extraordinary rapidity, particularly in the province of Cracow. The Roman Catholic clergy, whose unceasing denunciations of heresy, and citations before ecclesiastical tribunals of here- tics, proved unavailing, convened, in 1551, a general synod, presided over by the primate himself. It was on that occasion that Hosius, bishop of Ermeland, and of whom I shall have but too much occasion to speak, composed his celebrated Confession of the Catholic faith, which has been confirmed by the Church of Rome as the true exposition of its creed. The synod resolved that all the clergy, of whom many were sus- pected of heresy, should subscribe to this creed, and peti- tioned the king to exact its subscription from the laity. It adopted not only many resolutions for preventing the spread of heresy, but decided on making a real war against the here- tic nobles, and on imposing for that purpose a considerable tax on the clergy. A most severe persecution was to be com- * The University of Konigsberg contributed much to the spread of scrip- tural knowledge iu Poland. The first Polish Gospels and the first anti- Romanist works in that language appeared under the direction of that learned institution. It was established in 1544 by Albert, duke of Prussia, witJi the object of promoting Protestant principles and education amongst the Ger- man, Polish, and Lithuanian populations of Prussia. There is a curious anecdote attached to the foundation of this university. In those times the sanction of the pope or the emperor seems to have been considered as in- dispensable to the foundation of a university; and Sabinus, the first rector of that of Konigsbcrg, was so strongly impressed by this idea, that he applied to Cardinal Uembo, in order to obtain from the pope, by his instru- mentality, a charter for a university, established with the avowed object of opposing his authority. Uenibo politely dec-lined the ridiculous request. The emperor likewise refused to ^runt the demanded charter; but it was obtained from the king of Poland, Sigismund Augustus, who g.ive it. as liege lord of the Duke of Prussia. It is curious that the charter for the erection of a Protestant university was countersigned by the Roman Catholic bishop Pad- niewski, chancellor of Poland. 132 CHAPTER VI. menced against the heretics, and the king's assistance for this object was to be secured by the bribe of the confiscation of the property of the heretics. The representations made by some moderate prelates about the danger of attacking such a powerful body as the Polish nobles, were silenced by the voice of passion. The synod decided on putting into execution its vio- lent resolutions; and the bishops filled the country with judi- cial citations against the clergy and nobles who had broken off their connection' with the Roman Church. They were con- firmed in their resolution by the court of Rome, which recom- mended, by an encyclical letter, the extirpation of heresy. It was, however, more easy to pass such resolutions against heresy than to put them into execution, in a country where the liberty of the citizens was so fully established as it was in Poland. A few solitary instances of bloody persecution, per- petrated in the darkness of a convent or a dungeon, seem to have really occurred; but the first open attempt to arrest the progress of the reformers produced an effect quite contrary to that which had been intended by it. Stadnicki, an influential nobleman, established in his estates of Dobiecko* the reformed worship, according to the Confession of Geneva. Having been cited on that account by the bishop of his diocese, he offered to give a justification of his religious opinions; but the ecclesiastical tribunal rejected that offer, and condemned him, by default, to civil death and loss of property. Stad- nicki denounced this act of the clergy in the strongest terms to an assembly of nobles, who perceived with terror the dis- position manifested by the church to assume a power that might prove more dangerous to their liberty than the autho- rity of the monarch, which had always been the object of great jealousy on their part. The idea of becoming subject to the sway of a body which, directed by an irresponsible foreign leader, sought to usurp the right of deciding upon the life, property, and honour of the citizens, filled the minds of the Polish nobles with horror; and the outcry raised by the Pro- testant Stadnicki was re-echoed throughout Poland, even by those nobles who remained within the pale of the Roman Church. It roused a universal indignation against the clergy, and their pn tensions became almost the exclusive subject of the discussions which took place at the elections of 1552. f All the country unanimously, and in a decisive manner, iu- * In the i --Irian Poland. t The Polish constitution, like that of Hungary, was not representative, but delei,'ative, i.e., the subject- to lie brought forward at the diet were not decided by its ineinhers, luit by their constituencies, according 1 to whose in- structions the members were obliged to speak and to vote. structed their delegates at the diet to restrict the authority of the bishops. The tendency of the diet of ir>r>2, convened under such auspices, could not be doubtful for a moment ; and the reli- gious opinions of a great many of its members became imme- diately manifest. At the mass, which was usually performed before the opening of the deliberations, several nuncios turned away their faces during the elevation of the host, whilst the monarch and the senate were bowing their knees before the sacrament. Raphael Leszczynski, a nobleman of great wealth and influence, expressed his opinions in a still moro decided manner, by covering his head during the most sacred ceremony of the Roman Church. The Roman Catholics dared not to reprove this open contempt of their worship ; and the Chamber of Nuncios (the House of Commons) expressed its approval of that bold manifestation of anti-Romanist opinions, by electing as marshal or chairman of their chamber the same Leszczynski, who had shortly before resigned his sena- torial dignity, in order to become a nuncio.* This act re- moved every doubt about the real disposition of the majority of the diet ; and, indeed, this disposition was so general, that parties opposed in politics agreed in their hostility to the episcopal jurisdiction, which it was now quite impossible to retain. The king, who was naturally inclined to moderation, tried to arrange this affair by conciliatory means ; but hav- ing failed in this attempt, he stipulated with the diet that the clergy should judge whether the doctrine was orthodox or heretical, but should not apply any temporal punishment to those whose creed it condemned. Thus religious liberty for all confessions was virtually established in Poland in 1552, at a time when in other countries, even in Protestant ones, this liberty was exclusively enjoyed only by one favoured persua- sion. The general opposition to the ecclesiastical authority had been greatly promoted by an individual who has obtained a considerable name in the religious and literary history of his time, one who might have rendered great services to his country in respect to religion, literature, and politics, if his eminent talents had not been degraded by an uncontrollable violence of passion, and an utter want of principle. Stanislaus Orzechowski, better known to learned Europe under his Latinized name of Orichovius,-f was born in 1513, * This R. Leszczynski adopted for his motto, Malo periculosam llbertatem quam tutum serritium. He was a descendant of Wenceslav Leszczynski, who zealously defended Huss at the Council of Constance (page 47), and lineal ancestor of Maria Leszczyuski, the virtuous queen of the profligate Louis the Fifteenth of France. t Vide Bayle, art. Orichvrius. 134 CHAPTER VI. in the palatinate or county of Russia (present Galicia). He studied in the German universities, and was when at Witten- berg a great favourite with Luther and Melancthon. He afterwards visited Rome, and returned to his country in ]/> !:>, thoroughly imbued with the doctrines of the reformers ; but perceiving that they could not afford him any worldly advan- tage, whilst the Roman Church could dispose of wealth and honours in favour of its defenders, he took orders, and was promoted to a canonry. He soon, however, began to express his real opinions, and publicly married. He was excommu- nicated, and condemned to severe penalties; but he found such strong support amongst a great number of influential friends, that nobody dared to execute the sentence against the refractory priest ; and his writings and speeches at many public meetings powerfully contributed to the establishment of religious liberty by the law of 1552. But before this event took place, Orzechowski became reconciled to the Roman Church. He was absolved from excommunication, and sub- mitted his marriage to the authority of Rome ; and a confir- mation of it was promised him by the bishops, who did every thing to seduce such a powerful writer from the Protestant party. The pope, however, delayed to give a decision on that important subject, as he dared not allow such a danger- ous precedent as the confirmation of a priest's marriage ; and moreover, Orzechowski was no longer so formidable as he had been before, having lost, by the change of his opinions, the extraordinary influence which he had enjoyed over the whole nation. He soon perceived that Rome wished only to amuse him. and ho began again to attack it with powerful argu- ments and most bitter invectives.* His works were put into * In order to give an idea of the virulence of his style, I shall quote some passages of his letters to Tope Julius the Third : " O, holy father, I con- jure you, for God's sake, for the sake of our Lord Jesus Christ, and of the holy angels, to read what I am writing to you, and give me an answer ! Do not play any tricks with me. I shall not give you any money ; I do not v\i-h to have any bargains with you. You have taken gratis ; you must also give gratis." In another place, he addresses the. same pontiff: "Con- sider, Julius, and consider it well, witli what a man you will have to do, not with an Italian, indeed, but with a Jtussincyr not with one of your mean popish subjects, but with the citizen of a kingdom where the monarch himself [Obliged to obey the law. Yon may condemn me, it' you like, to ut such is not the c.i^e with us, where the law rule-; even tin; throne. The king, our lord, cannot do what he likes; he mn"2, and it was revived at that of 155.">, when the- Chamber of Nuncios, or House of Commons, represented to the king the necessity of convolving a national synod, pre- sided over by the king himself, and which should reform the church on the basis of the Holy Scriptures. Not only were the representatives of all the religious parties of Po- land to be admitted to that assembly on equal terms, but it was even proposed to invite the most celebrated reform- ers of Europe, such as Calvin, Beza, Melancthon, and Verge- rius, who was at that time in Poland. But the greatest hopes for introducing a reformation of the established church were placed in John Laski, or A Lasco, who had acquired a great reputation by having laboured for the advance of the same cause in Germany and England ; and I therefore hope that a few details about this eminent countryman of mine will not be uninteresting to my readers. CHAPTER VII. POLAND (CONTINUED.) Account of John A Laski or Lasco, his family, and of his evangelical labours in Germany, England, and his own country Arrival of the papal nuncio Lippomani, and his intrigues Roman Catholic synod of Lowiz, and judicial murder of a poor girl, and of some Jews, perpetrated by that assembly through the influence of Lippomani Prince Radzivill the Black, and his services in promoting the cause of the Reformation. The family of Laski produced during the sixteenth century several individuals who rendered their names conspicuous in the church, in the council, and in the camp. John Laski, archbishop of Gniezno, published, when chancellor of Poland, the first collection of the laws of his country in 1506, well known under the name of the Statutes of Laski. He had three nephews, all of whom acquired a European reputation. Stanislaus resided a long time at the court of Francis the First of France, accompanied that monarch to the battle of Pavia, and shared his captivity ; after which he returned to his native land, where he was successively invested with the first dignities of the state. Jaroslav, whose extraordinary talents and acquirements as a warrior and a statesman were extolled by the first writers of his times, as Paul Jovius, Erasmus, &c. acquired a great celebrity for having been the main cause of the Turkish intervention in Hungary, which produced the first siege of Vienna by their army in 1529.* * After the death of Louis Jaghellon, king of Hungary, who perished at the battle of Mohacz against the Turks, in 1525, without leaving issue, a strong party elected John Zapolya, wai wode of Transylvania, who could not, however, maintain himself against Ferdinand of Austria, elected by an opposite party, and who, being married to a sister of the late king, succeeded to him in Jiohomia, and was supported by his brother, the Kmperor Charles the Fifth. ,i retired to Poland, where Jaroslav Laski proposed to him the pro- replacing him on the throne of Hungary by the assistance of the Turks. /ap'.lya t^ave unlimited powers to La-ki, and promised hi; reward of h: , the sovereignty of Transylvania. Laski repaired to < iitinople, as the repi esentative of an exiled monarch, having no ad- vantages to oiler, and everything to demand ; and yet his negotiation was fco sucees-ful, that, having arrived in December LVJ7, h" signed a tp alliance againt Austria on the -JOth of February l.VJs, by which Sultan Sulyin.m -n^:i^--d to replae Z;ipIva on the throne of Hungary, without exacting that lie should become the vassal of the Porte, but only acknow- ledge the sultan as a protector, or, according to the expression used in the JOHN A. LASCG. POLAND. ISO The third of the brothers was John Laski the reformer. He was born in 14-Di); and being destined from his boyhood for the chureli, he received a learned education, and afterwards visited different parts of Europe, wln-ro he became acquainted with the most eminent scholars of that time. In 152 1< ho was introduced in Switzerland to Zuinglius, who sowed in his treaty, as an el dor brother. It is very remarkable, that the rapid success of Laski's negotiation was chiefly facilitated by the Slavonic alHnities, of which 1 have quoted several instances in the course of this work. The vi/ier and the principal oflicers of the Turkish state were at that time Slavonians of 15.>~nia, who, having embraced Jslamism towards the end of the fourteenth century, became the most loyal subjects of the Porte, with- out abandoning their native language and a strong attachment to their .Slavonic nationality. The Slavonic language was at that time as much spoken at the sultan's court as the Turkish ; and Laski could freely converse with the vizier and other Turkish grandees, who treated him as a country- man. Laski left a diary of this negotiation, which contains the following remarkable words, addressed to him by Mustapha Pasha, a native of Bosnia, who greatly contributed to the success of his negotiation : " We are of the same nation. You are a Lekh,* and I am a Bosnian. It is therefore a natural affection that one loves more his own than another nation.'' These words, addressed by a Mahommedan Slavonian, invested with a high dignity in the Turkish empire, to a Christian Pole, prove the strength of the Slavonic affinities, and to what account they may be turned by a monarch or cabinet who will know how to take advantage of this circum- stance, in consequence of this treaty, a Turkish army replaced Zapolya on the throne of Hungary, and even laid siege to Vienna, which had nearly been taken. Zapolya, however, forgot what he owed to Laski, or perhaps he could not bear to owe him so much. Laski, instead of receiving the principality of Transylvania as a reward of his services, was accused of dangerous machinations, and confined in a castle, although treated with all the consideration due to his rank. He was released through the efforts of some influential friends. His innocence was proclaimed by royal letters patent ; and he received as an indemnity for the sums he had expended in the service of Zapolya the towns of Kesmark and Debreczyn. Laski's haughty spirit could not, however, be appeased by an act of justice wrung with difficulty from a monarch who owed to him the throne. He left the service of Zapolya, and resolved to undo his own work by depriving him of the Hungarian crown. He therefore repaired to his antagonist, Ferdinand of Austria, who received such a valuable ally with open arms. In 1540, when Ferdinand was assembling an army for reconquering Hungary, Laski went as his ambassador to Constantinople, in order to prevent Solyman from giving assistance to Zapolya. His appearance at the Ottoman court, in a capacity diametrically opposed to that in which he had acted twelve years before, excited the anger and suspicion of the sultan, who ordered him to be imprisoned. His life was even for some time in danger ; but he suc- ceeded in appeasing the sultan's anger, and received from him marks of favour. He fell, however, dangerously ill at Constantinople ; and having returned to Poland, he died in 1542, from the effects of this illness, which was strongly suspected to have originated from poison. His son, Albert Laski, palatine of Sieradz, visited England in 13S3, where Queen Elizabeth received him with great distinction. The honours which were shown to him at Oxford, by the special command of the queen, were equal to those rendered to sovereign princes. Vide Wood's History and Antiquities of Ox- ford, English translation, vol. ii., pp. 215-218. * An ancient name of the Poles, given to them by the Russians, and adopted by the Turks. 140 CHAPTER VII. mind the first doubts about the orthodoxy of the Roman Church. He spent the year 1525 at Bale, with Erasmus, in whose house he lived, and who entertained for him a regard bordering on enthusiasm. Laski showed the value which he attached to the friendship of Erasmus, by administering to his wants with as much generosity as refinement. He not only paid with great liberality for the expenses of house-keep- ing during his residence in Erasmus' house, but he purchased the library collected by that celebrated scholar, leaving to him its use during his lifetime ;* and it was probably from Erasmus that he derived that great mildness and suavity by which all his proceedings, notwithstanding their strength of purpose, were characterized, and to which, as is apparent from Erasmus's letters, he was naturally disposed. Laski returned to Poland in 1526, with a strong bias to- wards the doctrines of Protestantism. He remained, however, in the established church, entertaining a hope that it would be possible to effect its reformation without seceding from the obedience of Borne; and it was in accordance with that opi- nion that Erasmus was induced by him to represent to the Polish monarch, although very cautiously, the necessity of sonic reforms. The influence of his family connections, united with his own merit, would have certainly raised Laski to the first dignities of the Polish Church, and his preferment in it was rapid, for he was nominated by the king, bishop of Cuja- via. But he presented himself to the monarch, and frankly stated to him his religious views, which would not permit him to accept the proffered dignity. The king respected the mo- tives of Laski, and provided him with letters of recommenda- tion to several monarchs. He left his country in 1540, and declared his adherence to the Protestant Church as it was established by the reformers of Switzerland, and completed his separation from Rome in 1540, by marrying at Mayence. ive and diversified information, his upright cha- racter, and the friendly intercourse which he maintained with the first scholars of his time, acquired for him a great reputa- tion amongst the Protestant princes, who sought to attract * The letters of Erasmus contain expressions of the jrcatest admiration for the talents and character of Liski. He says that, although an old man, lie 1 many things from youn^ Laski, and improved by his company. Al- though La^ki was then only twenty-six years old, he seems to have been already favourably known to the most eminent pi-rsons of his tim , evident from a letter of Krasmns to Margaret of Navarre, sister of F ram-is rtt of France, on the IT8 of her royal brother at Pavia, ami in which he mentions the letters written by that <|iieen to John , who then lived in his hou-e. It i> probable that Laski became ac- quainted with the (^ueen of Navarre through his brother Stanislaus, who, as 1 have mentioned, was attached to the court of Francis the First. POLAND. 141 him to their states. The sovereign of East Fricsland, where the reformation of the church had been in some degree com- menced in J.">_!S, tit-sired La^ki to complete that work. Laski hesitated a lonir time to undertake this arduous task, pointing out his friend Hardenbcrg as a fit person for it, till at last, induced by the entreaties of the sovereign and the principal inhabitants of the above-mentioned country, he accepted the proffered charge in 1543, and was nominated superintendent of all its churches. The difficulties which ho had to encounter in accomplishing the reformation of the churches of Friesland were indeed very great; for he was obliged to struggle against the marked reluctance to the entire abolition of Romanist rites, many of which were still retained by the churches of that country against the corruption of the clergy and, above all, against the lukewarmness in religious matters which prevailed amongst many persons. The uncompromising zeal of the Polish reformer, and his perseverance, unshaken by any disappointment, succeeded, after six years of hard struggle, in weeding out completely the remnants of Romanism, and in fully establishing the Protestant religion. During that period, interrupted by some intervals, in which Laski, disgusted by the obstacles which were continually thrown in his way, had been obliged to resign his office, he abolished the worship of images, introduced an improved order of hierarchy and church discipline, established a pure scriptural mode of receiving communion and of explaining its meaning, and determined a confession of faith; so that he may be considered as the real founder of the Protestant Church of Friesland. The confession of faith which Laski drew up for the churches of Friesland maintained the same doctrine about the commu- nion that has been adopted by the reformers of Switzerland and the Anglican Church; and it raised, on that account, vio- lent indignation amongst the Lutherans. The divines of Hamburg and Brunswick attacked Laski in the most abusive and coarse manner, which he answered by opposing argument to the low abuse of the Lutherans. A marked leaning to- wards Lutheranism began, however, to prevail amongst many inhabitants of Friesland ; and this party rapidly increasing, loudly proclaimed the project of calling Melancthon, in order to establish the Lutheran mode of worship, instead of that which had been introduced by Laski. All these difficulties compelled the Polish reformer to resign the supreme direction of the ecclesiastical affairs of Friesland, a*nd to limit his sphere of action to the ministry of a church at Emden, the capital of that country. In 1548, Laski received a most flattering invitation from 142 CHAPTER VII. Archbishop Cranmer to join the many eminent reformers who were then called from several parts of the continent to Eng- land, in order to complete the reformation of its church. This invitation was chiefly made by the influence of Peter Martyr and Turner, the latter of whom particularly recommended Laski to the Protector, Somerset, who wrote himself on that occasion to the Polish reformer. Although Laski had still a strong party in Friesland, and enjoyed the favour of the sove- reign princess, who w r as very reluctant to part with him, he resolved on accepting Cranmer's invitation. Being, however, uncertain as to the real principles on which the reformation of the English Church was to be effected, he decided on pre- viously making only a temporary visit to England, in order to become thoroughly acquainted with the projects of the English reformers. He therefore took a temporary leave of the congregation whose minister he was, and repaired to Eng- land, where he arrived in September 1 548. A residence of six months at Lambeth with Archbishop Cranmer established an intimate friendship between these two eminent reformers, who entirely coincided in their views on the reformation of the church in point of doctrine, as well as in that of hierarchy and ecclesiastical discipline. He returned to Friesland in April 1549, having produced in England a most favourable impres- sion, which is evident from the high praises with which Lati- mer extolled him, in a sermon preached before King Edward the Sixth.* Laski found the affairs of his congregation in a very dan- gerous state; and the introduction of th './*( into Fries- land accelerated his departure from that country. He visited 1 parts of Germany, and afterwards went to England, win-re lie arrived in the spring of 1550. Laski was appointed superintendent of the foreign Protes- tant congregation established at London ; and his nomination, * Latimer made way for his reception, and in one of his sermons before Kin-? Kdward made honourable- mention of him, usini^ an argument proper for that audience, vi/., how much it would tend to the briii^in^ down of dud's ble.-sinjr upon the realm to receive him and such pious exiles as he. " John A Lasco was here, a ^reat learned man, and, us they say, a noble- man in his country, and is ,'>" e his way ajjain. It' it be for lack of tainment, the more th<> pity. I could wish such men as he to he in the realm, for the realm should prosper in receiving them. 'He that received yon received me,' saith Christ ; and it should be for the kind's honour to them, and to keep them.'' > s 'v f The well known ecclesiastical regulation proclaimed by Charles ihe Fifth, after his \ictory over the 1'roteMants, as a temporary enactment until the alf.iirs of t In- church should be settled by a general coir.cil. It allowed to the Protestants of Germany the communion of two kinds, whilst it compelled them \ .11 the lloman rites and tenets. It was abolished by the treaty of I'assau in ! TOLA MX 143 made by Edward the Sixth, on tin 1 2,>d July 1.550, was couched in the most Hat! "ring UTIUS. The congregation received the church of Austin Knars, and a charter, conferring on them all the rights of ;i corporation. It was composed of French, Germans, and Italians, who found an asylum and liberal sup- port from the English government. The object of such a congregation was very important, and proves the enlightened zeal and extensive views of Cranmer, as it might easily have become the seed of reformation in those countries whence its members were obliged to flee. Laski had considerable trouble in maintaining the liberty of his congregation, the members of which were repeatedly molested by the authorities of the parishes where they resided to attend the local churches, and who, besides, frequently quarrelled amongst themselves. In the following year he was appointed one of the commissioners for the reformation of the ecclesiastical law, in conjunction with Latimer, Cheek, Taylor, Cox, Parker, Cook, and Peter Martyr. It seems that the position of Laski in England was very favourable, and that he took advantage of it in order to support learned foreigners, who were obliged to seek refuge there on account of their re- ligion. Melancthon, in a letter addressed to Laski in favour of such exiles, alludes to this circumstance, and recommends himself to his patronage. The demise of Edward the Sixth, and the accession of Mary, arrested the progress of the Eeformation in England ; but the congregation of Laski was permitted to leave the country without molestation. They embarked on the 15th September 1553, at Gravesend, whilst crowds of English Pro- testants were covering the banks of the Thames, and invoking on their bent knees Divine protection for the pious wanderers. A storm scattered their little fleet, and the vessel which bore Laski entered the Danish port of Elsinore. The King of Denmark received them favourably at an audience, and did not refuse an hospitable reception to the pilgrims ; but his chaplain, Noviomagus, a zealous Lutheran, succeeded in chang- ing the mind of his master. He violently attacked the Gene- vese Confession, at which time Laski, being invited by the king, was present. Laski deeply felt this mean breach of hospita- lity committed by the Danish clergy, who did not limit their persecution to such a despicable proceeding as to insult a man in misfortune, but proposed to him to abandon what they called his heresy. The apology for his creed, which Laski presented to the king, did not soften the odium theoloyicum of the Lutheran divines ; and one of them, named Westphalus, called the wandering church of Laski the martyrs of the devil ; 144 CHAPTER VII. whilst another of them, Bugenhagius, declared that they ought not to be considered as Christians. The congregation of Laski received intimation that the king would rather suffer Papists than them in his dominions ; and they were obliged to embark, notwithstanding the inclemency of the season, the children of Laski alone being permitted to remain till the re- turn of more favourable weather. The same hatred of the Lutherans was shown to the congregation of Laski at Lubeck, Hamburg, and Rostock ; and the Lutheran ministers, in whose minds theology seemed to have stifled Christianity, refused even to listen to their doctrine, condemning them without a hearing. Dantzic gave an asylum to the remnants of the un- fortunate congregation ; and Laski himself, who retired to Friesland, was received with every mark of respect and at- tachment. He thence sent to the King of Denmark a severe remonstrance against the unmerited treatment he had met with in his states ; and he soon received an invitation from that great monarch of Sweden, Gustavus Vasa, to settle in his dominions, with a promise of full religious liberty to him and his congregation. Laski did not avail himself of this liberal offer, apparently intending to settle in Friesland, where he had laboured with so much advantage to the cause of the Refor- mation. The growing influence of Lutheranism, and hostility from influential quarters, rendered his residence in Friesland very irksome, and he retired to Frankfort- on -the -Maine, where he established a church for the Belgian Protestant re- fugees. Laski maintained a constant intercourse with many of his countrymen on religious and personal affairs, and enjoyed the regard of his sovereign, to whom Edward the Sixth wrote during Laskfs residence in England, bestowing upon him the greatest commendations. He never lost sight of his great ob- ject, which was to promote the cause of the Reformation in his own country as soon as a fit opportunity for action might present itself. When he engaged in his labours in Friesland, as well as in England, it was always with the express condi- tion that he should be able to return to his native land, as soon as its religious affairs should render his presence useful and necessary. During his residence at Frankfort, Laski was mostly en- gaged in attempts to unite the two Protestant Churches, i. e., the Lutheran and the Reformed. fl was encour;iL< .1 to pro- mote this union by the letters of his sovereign, Sigismund Auirustus, who considered such a union an important step to- . > an amicable settlement of the religious differences which agitated his kingdom, and which he had much at heart. This POLAND. I 1 o union was, moreover, of the greatest consequence to the Pro- testant canst* in grncral, weakened as it was by the unfortu- nate dissensions between its two principal confessions. In- duced by such motives, Laski presented to the senate of Frankfort a memorial, wherein he proved that there was not sufficient cause for dividing the two Protestant Churches. A discussion on this important subject, fixed for the 2-d May 1556, and favoured by several German princes, was expected to produce that desideratum. It is more than doubtful if such a result would have been obtained; but the Lutheran divine Brentius put a stop even to an attempt of this kind, by de- manding that the Reformed Church should sign the Confession of Augsburg. This led to discussions, which widened the breach, instead of effecting a reconciliation. Laski, however, did not despair of effecting the desired union ; and in order to make a last effort, he went to Wittenberg, having been in- duced by the Duke of Hesse to converse with Melancthon on this important subject. He was received with great distinc- tion, but did not succeed in obtaining an official discussion on the subject in question. Melancthon, however, intrusted him with a letter to the King of Poland, to which he added the modified Confession of Augsburg, with the promise of adding a more ample explanation on that subject, if the king should decide on establishing the Reformation in his country. Before Laski returned to Poland, he published a new edi- tion of his account of the foreign churches which he superin- tended in London, as well as after his expulsion from England, which he dedicated to his monarch, the senate, and all the states of his country. He explained, besides, in a calm and dignified manner, but with strong argument, his views about the necessity of reforming the Church of Poland, and the mo- tives which induced him to reject the doctrines and hierarchy of Rome. He maintained that the gospels alone were the true foundation of religious doctrine and of ecclesiastical discipline, and that neither tradition nor long-established custom could have any authority whatever ; that even the evidence of the fathers of the church was not decisive, as they have frequently expressed opinions widely different one from another, and had endeavoured to establish a complete unity of faith, without ever attaining this desideratum ; that the surest means of re- moving every doubt and uncertainty was to investigate the doctrine and the organization of the primitive apostolical church ; that the words of the gospel cannot be expounded, and its sense extracted, by expressions entirely foreign to its spirit ; and that councils and learned divines had in this re- spect committed many abuses. He also stated, that the pope L 146 CHAPTER VII. was raising great obstacles to the restoration of the gospel, which it was necessary to overcome ; and that a very prosper- ous beginning to that effect was already made, the king not being adverse to the reform which was demanded by the greatest and best part of the nation. The reforms, however, should be carried on with great judgment, because every one who reasoned against Home was not necessarily orthodox. It was necessary to take care that, instead of the old tyranny, a new one should not be raised ; or that, on the other hand, too great indulgence should not give birth to atheism, to which many people seemed to have a great inclination. " The dis- pute, 11 said he, " about the true meaning of the eucharist being till now doubtful and indefinite, it is necessary to pray God that he may enlighten us on this important subject. How- ever, the body and blood of our Lord are received only by faith ; there is neither bodily nor personal presence in the communion. 1 ' Besides this exposition of his religious princi- ples, he added some explanations relating to himself ; as, for instance, that he never was an exile from his country, but left it with the sanction of the late monarch, and that he had ful- filled in many countries the duties of a Christian pastor. Such an eminent character as Laski was undoubtedly the most fit person to take the lead of the Reformation in Poland; and it was natural that the Protestants should look to him with hope and admiration equal to the malice and hatred with which he was viewed by their antagonists, who were spreading the foulest calumnies against him. Laski arrived in Poland in the end of the year J 556; and as soon as his arrival became known, the bishops, excited by the papal nuncio Aloysius Lip- pomuni, held a meeting, in order to deliberate about the man- ner of acting against " the butcher (carnifex) of the church, 11 as they called him. They represented to the king the dangers of the arrival of such a man as Laski, who, according to their version, was an outlawed heretic, and who, being expelled from every place, returned to his native land in order to produce troubles and commotions; that he was collecting troops, in order to destroy the churches of the diocese of Cracow, in- tending to raise a rebellion against the monarch, and to spread riots and depredations all over the country. This rep; tat ion produced no effect whatever upon the royal mind. Ui was, soon after his ivturn, intrusted with the super- iut indence of all the reformed churches of Little Poland. The united influence of his learning, moral character, and high family connections, particularly contributed to the spread and establishment of the tenets maintained by the Swiss re- formers amongst the higher classes in the land. The great 1-47 objects which lie kept steadily in view were, to unite all the Protestant sects of his country, and finally, to establish a ivformi'd national church, modelled on the plan of that of .Kngland, of which he was a great admirer, and in which ho continued to take an active interest to the end of his life.* The difficulties with which Laski had to cope were greatly in- creased by the rise of antitrinitarian doctrines amongst the churches which he superintended, and against which he main- tained a successful polemical struggle. He took an active part in many synods, and in the version of the first Protestant Bible in Poland. He also published several works, most of which are now lost. His death in 1560 terminated his unwea- ried exertions in the cause of the Reformation, and prevented him from executing the great designs for which he was making adequate preparations, and for which he was undoubtedly better qualified than any other man in his country. Unfor- tunately we have much less information about the exertions which he made after his return to Poland, than about the labours which he had performed in foreign countries. This scarcity of materials for illustrating the latter part of his life may be- chiefly attributed to the careful destruction of all re- cords relating to the Protestant doctrines and their promoters, which was systematically carried on by the lloman Catholic clergy, but particularly by the Jesuits. This must especially have been the case with Laski, as his descendants, having turned Romanists, have undoubtedly endeavoured to destroy all that referred to the labours of their ancestor, whom they naturally considered as a heretic.-)- * lie (A Lasco) was alive at the accession of Queen Elizabeth to the Eng- li.^h throne ; and though he came not back then to England again, whence he departed upon King Edward's death, yet, according to the great interest he had there with the most eminent persons, and even with the queen her- self, he neglected not by his letters to promote the Reformation, and to give his grave counsel in order thereto. And Zanchy, public professor at Stras- burg, knowing the sway he held there, in a letter to him in the year 1558 or 1559, addressed him in these words : That he doubted not he had before now written to the queen, and given her his advice what he judged tit for the preservation of her kingdom, and for restoring the kingdom ot Christ. Yet he would not omit to pray him to do it again and again by his repeated let- ters. " For I know," said he, " how great is your authority with the English, and with the queen herself. Now, certainly, is the time that you, and such as you, should by your counsels help so pious a queen, and consult for the safety of so great a kingdom, yea, and succour the whole Christian church, every where so afflicted and vexed; for we know that if Christ's kingdom be happily introduced into the kingdom of England, no small aid will thence come to all the other churches dispersed through Germany, Poland, and other countries." (Vide StrypJs Memorials of Cranmer, pp. 238, 239.) t Laski was twice married; the second time in England. He left n~'ne children, of whom the most remarkable was Samuel Laski, who served with distinction in the armies of his country, and was employed in some very 148 CHAPTER VII. The convocation of the national synod, promoted by Laski, and even by many who, remaining within the pale of the Ro- man Catholic Church, wished for the establishment of a na- tional one, was strenuously opposed by Home and its partizans. The pope, Paul the Fourth, despatched to Poland one of his ablest servants, Lippomani, bishop of Verona, and sent letters to the king, the senate, and the most influential noblemen of the country, promising that he would effect all necessary re- forms, and restore the unity of the church by a general coun- cil; but the fallacy of such a promise was ably exposed by the celebrated Italian reformer Vergerio,* who was then in Poland. The pope's letterf to the king is very remarkable, important diplomatic missions. The family of Laski, whose immense riches were exhausted by their ambitious projects, dwindled into comparative insig- nificance, and became Roman Catholic. There is, however, as I understand, one branch of that family which continues in the Protestant confession. * Vide M'Crie's Reformation in Italy. f The contents of this letter are as follows : " If I am to credit the re- ports that reach me, I must feel the most profound grief, and even doubt of your own and your realm's salvation. You favour heretics ; you assist at their sermons; you listen to their conversation, and you admit them, to your company and board ; you receive their letters, and you write to them ; you suffer their works, sanctioned with your name, to be read and circulated; you do not forbid heretical assemblies, conventicles, and preachings. Are you not, therefore, yourself a supporter of the rebels and antagonists of the Catholic Church, since, instead of opposing, you assist them? Can there be a greater proof of your attachment to the heretics than this, that, contrary to your oath and the laws of your country, you grant the first dignities of the state to infidels ? Indeed, you animate, you feed and spread heresy, by the favours you bestow on heretics. You have nominated, without waiting the confirmation of the apostolic see, the Bishop of Chelm to the bishopric of Cnjavia, although ho is infected with the most abominable errors. The Pa- latine of Vilna (Prince Ilarl/iwill), a heretic, the defender and chief of heresy, is entrusted by you with tlie first dignities of the country. lie is chancellor of Lithuania, palatine of Vilna, the most intimate friend of the king in private and in public, and may be considered in some measure as regent of the kingdom, and the second monarch. You have abolished the jurisdiction of the church, and you have allowed, by an enactment of the diet, every one to have such preachers and such worship as he may choose. John Laski and Vergerius have arrived by your orders in your country. Yon have tfiven to the inhabitants of lOlbing and Dant/ig an authorization to abolish the Roman Cuholic religion. Should my admonition against such crimes and scandals be despised, I shall be obliged to make use of different and more effect ive means. You ought to change your proceedings altoge- no faith to those who wish you and your realm to rebel B| the church and against true religion; execute the ordinances of your rs; abolish all the innovations which have been introduced into your kingdom ; restore to the church its suspended jurisdiction; take from tics the churches which they have usurped ; expel the teachers which infect the country with impunity. "What m ccsMty have yon to wait fora general council, when you ; rly and ellici- nt means to extirpate : Should, however, our jirocnt admonition remain without effect, we shall be obliged to make use of those arms which the apostolic see never employs in vain against the obstinate rebels to its authority. God is our POLAND. 1-1.0 giving a good idea of the advanced state of Protestantism in Poland at that time, and an additional evidence, if that wero ~ary. of the real nature of the papal pretensions, \\hich, as is the boast of the Roman Catholic Church, are unchange- able. Lippomani's mission was not without effect. Ho reani- mated the wavering coin-ago and fainting zeal of the clergy, increased the vacillation of the king by assuring him that Home would grant such concessions as might be proved to be indispensably necessary, and even succeeded, by his intrigues, in fomenting discord amongst the Protestants ; and he neu- tralized the activity of those who remained in the Church of Borne only because they expected that a national synod would reform its abuses, by assuring them that a general council would introduce all the necessary ecclesiastical reforms. His advice to the king to extirpate heresy by acts of violence against its leaders having become known, raised against him a violent hatred throughout the country, so that when he en- tered the Chamber of Nuncios of the diet of 1556, he was re- ceived with a general outcry, " /Salve, progenies mperarum /" welcome, generation of vipers ! He assembled a general synod of the Polish clergy in the town of Lowicz, which ex- pressed bitter lamentations about the internal and external dangers of the church, and passed many resolutions for im- proving its condition and coercing the heretics. The attempt which the synod made to assert its jurisdiction proved, how- ever, unsuccessful. Lutomirski, a canon of Premysl, w r as cited, on suspicion of heresy, to appear before the synod. Lutomirski seized that opportunity publicly to declare his Protestant opinions ; and he arrived with a large number of friends, each of whom was provided with a Bible, as the most efficient arms against Romanism. The synod dared not to open the prosecution against such a bold antagonist of Rome ; and the doors of the hall where he was to be tried wero closed against the accused and his friends. Having failed to assert its jurisdiction in a case of heresy, the synod tried it with lamentable success in a case of sa- crilege. In order to have a better chance of attaining their object, the clergy now chose their victim from amongst the inferior class of society. Dorothy Lazecka, a poor girl, was accused of having obtained from the Dominican monks of Sochaczew* a host, feigning to receive communion. It was witness that we have not neglected any means ; but as our letters, embas- sies, admonitions, and prayers, have been without effect, we shall have re- course to the utmost severity." {Vide Raynaldus ad Ann. 155G). * A little town between Lowicz and Warsaw, thirty-eight English miles from that capital. 150 CHAPTER VII. said that she wrapped that host in her clothes, and sold it to the Jews of a neighbouring village, by whom she had been instigated to commit this act of sacrilege by the bribe of three dollars and a gown embroidered with silk. This host was said to have been carried by the Jews to the synagogue, where, being pierced with needles, it emitted a quantity of blood, which was collected into a flask. The Jews tried in vain to prove the absurdity of the charge, arguing, that as their religion did not permit them to believe in the mystery of transubstantiation, they never could be supposed to try a similar experiment on the host, which they considered as a mere wafer. The synod, influenced by Lippomani, condemned them, as well as the unfortunate woman, to be burned alive. The iniquitous sentence could not, however, be put into exe- cution without the exequatur, or the confirmation, of the king, which could not be expected to be obtained from the enlight- ened Sigismund Augustus. The Bishop Przerembski, who was also vice-chancellor of Poland, made a report to the king of the above-mentioned case, which he described in expres- sions of pious horror, entreating the monarch not to allow such a crime, committed against the Divine Majesty, to go un- punished. Myszkowski, a great dignitary of the crown, who was a Protestant, became so indignant at this report, that he could not restrain his anger, and was only prevented by the presence of the king from using violence against the prelate, the impiety and absurdity of whose accusation he exposed in strong language. The monarch declared that he would not believe such absurdities, and sent an order to the Starost (chief magistrate or governor) of Sochaczew to release the accused parties ; but the vice-chancellor forged the exequatur^ by attaching the royal seal without the knowledge of the monarch, and sent an order that the sentence of the synod should be immediately carried into execution. The king, being informed of this nefarious act of the bishop, immediately M-hed a messenger to prevent its effects. It was, how- ever, too late ; and the judicial murder was perpetrated. This iniquitous affair has been recorded by Protestant as well as Roman Catholic writers. The well-known ecclesias- tical historian Baynaldus, who wrote by the order of the court of Koine, and published his work with its approbation, an account of this scandalous affair, and remarks, that this splendid miracle had most opportunely happened in Po- land, and that the Almighty God had willed to confound by it those- who foolishly demanded the communion of both kinds, as it was proved ]>v this miraHe that the body and blood of Christ were contained in either of the kinds. Comment is :WILL THE BLACK \M>. superfluous on these remarks of the learned historian of the Human Catholic- Church.* This atrocity filled Poland with horror, and the hatred which Lippomani had already inspired was still more increased by it. He was attacked in pamphlets, caricatures, &c., and even his lii'e was in danger; he was therefore obliged to leave the country. Amongst the many efforts which Lippomani made during his stay in Poland to restore the authority of his church in that country, I must not omit his attempt to convert that very Prince Radzivvill, palatine of Vilna, whose favour with the king the pope so bitterly reproached that monarch with (page 148). Lippomani addressed to him a letter, in which he feigned a doubt of Radziwill's heresy, and represented to him that he would be the most perfect of all men if he were faithful to the true church. Radziwill sent an answer to this epistle, composed by Vergerius, full of severe animadversions against Rome. This eminent individual deserves particular notice, as having been undoubtedly the greatest promoter of the cause of the Reformation in his country. Nicholas Radziwill, surnamed the Black on account of his dark complexion, sprung from an already wealthy and influen- tial family of Lithuania, was a man of great natural abilities, which were developed by a careful education and extensive travel. King Sigismund Augustus having married his first cousin, Barbara Radziwill, he was brought into intimate con- tact with his sovereign, whose unlimited confidence he ob- tained. He was created chancellor of Lithuania and palatine of Vilna, employed on the most important affairs of the state, and his wealth increased by the grant of extensive demesnes. He several times visited, as ambassador, the courts of Charles the Fifth and Ferdinand the First, where he earned the repu- tation of being the most accomplished gentleman of his time; and he received from Charles the Fifth the dignity of a prince of the empire, not only for himself, but for all his family. Rad- ziwill was converted to the doctrines of the Reformation chiefly by his intercourse with Bohemian Protestants at Prague ; and he embraced the Confession of Geneva about 1553. From that period he devoted all his" influence and wealth to promote the cause of his religion. That influence in Lithuania was immense, for he was intrusted by the mo- narch with almost the whole government of that country, where the royal authority was then much greater than in Poland. This, added to the popularity which he enjoyed on account of his personal qualities, gave him great facilities for * RaijiKildus ad Annn'' 152 CHAPTER VII. carrying on in Lithuania, according to the expression of the reformers of that time, " the pious and glorious war against Rome." The clergy found themselves powerless against such a formidable antagonist, and a great number of them embraced the reformed confession. Almost the whole of the Roman Catholic nobles, including the first families of the land, and a great number of those who had belonged to the Eastern Church, became Protestants ; so that in the diocese of Samo- gitia there were only eight Roman Catholic clergymen re- maining. The reformed worship was established not only in the estates of the nobles, but also in many towns ; and Rad- ziwill built a splendid church and college for his confession at Vilna, the capital of Lithuania. He supported with great liberality many learned Protestants ; and it was at his expense that the first Protestant Bible was translated and printed at Brest, in Lithuania, in 1564,* besides many other works against Rome and in favour of the Reformation. The last years of his life were chiefly devoted to the promotion of the cause of his religion; and had his days been spared, it is very probable that he would have finally succeeded in persuading the monarch, with whom he had such influence, to embrace that religion; but, unfortunately, he died in the prime and vigour of life, in 1565. His last thoughts were about the welfare of that cause which he had so zealously promoted during his life; and on his deathbed he entreated his eldest son, Nicholas Chris- * This Bible, beautifully printed in folio, is well-known to book collec- tors under the name of the Radziwillian Bible. The late Duke of Sussex liad in liis library a splendid copy of it, for which he paid L.50. The son of Nicholas Etodziwill having turned Roman. Catholic, spent five thousand ducats in the purchase of copies of it, and caused them to be burned in the market-place of Vilna, in order to amend, as much as was in his power, the injury which his lather had done to his church by its publication. Rad- ziwill dedicated this Bible to his sovereign, urging him, in the following strong expressions, to abjure Romanism: ''But if your Maj sty (which may Cod avert !), continuing to be deluded by this world, unmindful of its vanity, and fearing still some hypocrisy, will persevere in that error which, according to the prophecy of Daniel, that impudent priest the idol of the Roman temple, the now manifest disturber of Christian peace, and sower of tares, has made abundantly grow in his infected vineyard, like a true and ntichrist, if your Majesty will follow to the end that blind chief of ft generation of vipers, and lead us, the faithful people of Cod, the same it is to be feared that the Lord may, for such a rejection of his truth, condemn us all, with your Majesty, to shame, humiliation, and de- n, and afterwards to eternal perdition." This strong language, public' d to the monarch by one who stood first in his favour and confidence, shows that Si^isimind AuiMi;">!) an attempt was made to deprive the bishops of their senatorial dignities, on account of their oath of fide- lity to the pope, which was in direct opposition to their duty to their country. Ossolinski, who made this motion, read publicly the formula of the above-mentioned oath, explaining its dangerous tendency to the interests of the country ; and concluded by saying, that if the bishops fulfilled the obliga- tions to which they were bound by that oath, they were trai- tors, and not guardians, of the state. The motion was not carried, probably because a general reform of the church was soon expected to take place ; and the diet of 1563 passed a resolution that a general national synod, representing all the religious parties in Poland, should be convoked. This measure, although much favoured by the primate of Poland, Archbishop Uchanski, whose bias towards the doctrines of the Reformation was manifest, was, however, prevented by the celebrated papal diplomatist, Cardinal Commendoni, who had already displayed great talents in some important negotiations, but particularly during his mission to England in 1553, where he assisted Queen Mary, by his advice, in the restoration of Romanism. Commendoni laboured particularly to excite apprehensions in the mind of the king that the convocation of a national synod, instead of restoring peace and union to the Polish Church, would only lead to political disorders, and the unfor- tunate differences which agitated the Protestant party gave great weight to the arguments of the cardinal.* able impatience, and set himself to rebut them most bitterly, speaking against them with infinite vehemency. (History of the Council of Trent, by Pietro Soave Polano (Sarpi) ; translated by Sir Nathanael Brent, London, 1626, page 374.) * The biographer of Commendoni gives the following account of this im- portant affair, which, if it had not been for the skill of the papal diplomatist, would have upset the dominion of Rome in Poland for ever : " The chiefs of the heretics, who were the first noblemen of the country, being powerful in themselves, and having great influence at the court and amongst the na- tion, sought the more to strengthen their party, as they saw that Commen- doni was acting strongly for the Roman Catholics. They directed all their efforts to convoke a national council, where they might determine their re- ligious affairs according to the customs and interests of the state, and with- out the participation of the pope [a most important confession of a zealous Romanist, that the interests of the state are contrary to those of the pope.] They had at their disposal an archbishop (Uchanski), who, by his dignity, was equally influential in the senate and amongst the clergy, and whose hopes they flattered with their promises. Commendoni discovered the de- signs and intrigues of Uchanski and the heretics ; and, as he applied himself to destroy all their measures, he resolved to dissimulate all that lie had heard about them, because he did not think proper to irritate, in that state of af- fairs, a man who was of great importance by his riches, his dignity, and his 158 CHAPTER VIII. the Lutherans, who after that time desisted from their attacks on the Bohemian Church. The year 1569 was marked by one of the most important events in the history of my country, the union of Poland and Lithuania, accomplished by the diet of Lublin.* The princi- pal noblemen belonging to the three Protestant confessions of Poland, who were assembled at that diet, resolved to promote by all possible means a union of their churches, and to ac- complish it in the following year, expecting that Sigismund Augustus, who had many times expressed a wish to see such a union effected, would at last decide on embracing Protes- tantism. They were no less anxious to put a stop to the scandal caused by the dissensions amongst the Protestants, which were very injurious to their cause. The town of San- domir was chosen for the assembly of a synod destined to accomplish the great work of the union ; and it assembled in April 1570. This synod was composed of several influential noblemen, as, for instance, the palatines of Cracow, Sandomir, &c. belonging to the different Protestant confessions, and the leading ministers of those confessions. After much debate, it was finally concluded and signed on the 14th April 1570.-J- Had this union remained unimpaired, the triumph of the Protestant cause would probably have been soon accomplished in Poland. This was clearly perceived by the Romanists, who most virulently abused it in several publications, endeavouring to throw ridicule and contempt upon it. The danger, how- ever, which soon began to threaten that union, and finally dissolved it, bringing about the ruin of the Protestant cause in Poland, arose not in that hostile quarter, but in the very camp of the Protestants. In fact, this covenant laboured untl'T a great defect, and contained in some measure the seeds of its own dissolution, by having attempted a dogmatic union between confessions whose tenets upon the cucharist have such marked differences. It was therefore no wonder that the * Lithuania and Poland wore hitherto united only by a common sovereign, who was hereditary in the first and elective in the second of these countries. J>y the act of union, the kin/ ///,- <'t>n.-;-nfii!> >'',,,;,, Ch/in-h in , by F. Lukav/ewic/, in Polish. 1 have ^ivon the particulars of this transaction in the ninth chapter, first volume, of my History of the Reforma- tion in Pv' \M>. 159 Liithcrans, whoso dogma of the consufatantiation is much nearer to that of til- '-tfiuitlrthm tlian to tbo doctrine held upon the cominunion ly the Bohemian and Genevese confes- sions, which reject altogether the real presence, frequently expressed their inclination rather to join the Church of Home than the other Protestant confessions. Many synods, com- posed of delegates from all the Protestant confessions in Po- land, tried in vain to prevent the disruption of the alliance established amongst them at Sandomir, by appeasing or coer- cing the attempts made by several Lutheran divines to bring about this disruption. The most violent attacks upon the union of Sandomir were made by the Lutheran minister of Posen, Gcricius, whoso self-love and vanity were greatly ex- cited by the adroit flattery of the Jesuits, who called him the only true Lutheran of Poland; and by Enoch, another mini- ster of the same confession, who, unable to endure the severe discipline of the Bohemian Church, had gone over to the Lu- therans. Their hostility, excited from abroad, became so violent, that they went so far as to maintain in their sermons, that it was much better to become a Romanist than to adhere to the union of Sandomir; that all those Lutherans who fre- quented Bohemian churches were forfeiting the salvation of their souls, and that it was much worse to join the Bohemi- ans than the Jesuits. This violence caused great scandal, and many Protestants, whose minds were unsettled, became so disgusted by these disgraceful proceedings, that they aban- doned their congregations, and returned into the pale of the old church. This was the case with many noble families; and their example was followed by thousands of common people. It would have been much more advisable, in concluding a covenant among the different Protestant confessions of Po- land, to adopt for its basis a doctrine common to them all ; as, for instance, salvation by faith, and leave untouched the dog- matical differences about the eucharist, which are too marked to be reconciled; and, instead of attempting to settle points of belief, which must be left to individual convictions, the Pro- testants of different denominations should have agreed about practical measures for insuring the liberty of all, and render- ing inocuous the unrelenting hostility of their common enemy an object which could have been easily attained by organizing a common centre of action. This, unfortunately, was not done; and it is one of the principal causes of the ruin of Pro- testantism in Poland. The hostility of the Lutherans to the other Protestant con- fessions was undoubtedly very injurious to the interests of all the Protestants; but a much more dangerous enemy than the 160 CHAPTER VIII. Lutheran odium theoloyicum, or even all the machinations of Home, arose in the midst of the Genevese Church, which had be- come predominant in Lithuania, and in a great part of southern Poland I mean the antitrinitarian doctrines, which, as I have said (page 128), began to be openly broached in Poland at the meeting of a secret society, about 1546. The works of Ser- vetus had a considerable circulation in Poland; Lselius So- cinus, who visited that country in 1551, had undoubtedly pro- pagated the same opinions; and Stancari, a learned Italian, Professor of Hebrew in the University of Cracow, contributed to the same end, by maintaining that the mediation of our Lord Jesus Christ was made only according to his human, and not to his divine, nature. But the individual in Poland who first embodied the antitrinitarian opinions into one posi- tive doctrine was a certain Peter Gonesius or Goniondzki. Having studied in several foreign universities, he changed, in Switzerland, from a zealous Romanist to an antitrinitarian. He returned to Poland apparently a proselyte to the Genevese confession; but at a synod of that confession, in 1556, he re- jected the usual mode of receiving the Trinity, and maintained the existence of three distinct Gods, but that the true Godhead belonged only to the Father. The synod, afraid of producing a secession, sent Gonesius with his confession to Melancthon, who tried in vain to change his opinions. Gonesius gave a more complete development of his doctrine at the synod of Brest, in Lithuania, in 1558, when he read a treatise against the baptism of infants, and added the significant words, that there were other things which had crept from Popery into the church. The synod imposed silence upon Gonesius, under penalty of excommunication; but he refused obedience, and found a great number of adherents who embraced his opinions. The prin- cipal of these adherents was John Kiszka, commander-in-chief of the forces of Lithuania, a nobleman possessed of immense wealth and great influence, who zealously promoted the esta- blishment of churches maintaining the supremacy of the Father over the Son. But the doctrines of Gonesius, which i bled more those of Arius than the opinions of Servetus, only served as a transition to a complete denegation of the m\ of th' Trinity, as well as the divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ. Gonesius soon numbered amongst his adherents many individuals distinguished by their rank and learning, nobles as well as ministers. The divines who had embraced the anti- trinitarian doctrines were soon divided into different shades of opinion; but the spread of these doctrines was so rapid, that they im-naerd with great danger the reformed churches, in the bosom of which they had originated. Their danger .'TUS SOCINUS POLAND. 1(11 was increased by the death of their most eminent champion, John Laski, who was in himself a host in the defence of tho Reformat ion against its internal and external enemies. Pro- vidence had left to them, however, some strenuous defenders, who opposed with unabated y.eul and undaunted courage tho evil which was advancing with an apparently irresistible force, and which had infected many of tin. 1 most eminent ministers of the reformed church; but their efforts to prevent a division of their church, which could not but be very prejudicial to the interests of the cause of the Reformation, remained un- cssful. Notwithstanding all the attempts to preserve a union, the breach became complete in 15C2; and in 1565 the antitrinitarian church, or, as it w 7 as called by its members, the Minor Reformed Church of Poland, was entirely constituted. It had its synods, schools, and a complete ecclesiastical organi- zation. The principal tenets of that church, embodied in its confession, published in 1574, were as follow: " God made the Christ, i. e., the most perfect Prophet, the most sacred Priest, the invincible King, by whom ho created the new world. This new world is the new birth, which Christ has preached, established, and performed. Christ amended the old order of things, and granted to his elect eternal life, that they might, after God the Most High, believe in him. The Holy Spirit is not God, but a gift, the fulness of which the Father has granted to his Son. 1 ' The same confession prohi- bited the taking of oaths, or suing before tribunals for any injury whatever. Sinners were to be admonished; but neither penalties nor any other kind of persecution were ever to be inflicted. The church reserved to itself only the right to ex- clude refractory members. Baptism was to be administered to adults, and considered as the sign of purification, which changes the old Adam into a heavenly one. The eucharist was to be understood in the same manner as by the Church of Geneva. Notwithstanding the publication of this catechism, great differences of doctrine continued to prevail amongst the antitrinitarians, who agreed only in one point, i. e., the supe- riority of the Father over the Son ; but whilst some of them maintained the dogma of Arius, others went so far as to deny the divinity of Christ. These doctrines received a definite form from the celebrated Faustus Socinus, whose name has been unjustly given to a sect of which he was by no means the founder. He arrived in Poland in 1579, and settled at Cra- cow, whence, after a sojourn of four years, he transferred his residence to a village called Pavlikovice, situated in its vici- nity, and belonging to Christopher Morsztyn, whose daughter Elizabeth he soon afterwards married. This marriage, by M 162 CHAPTER VIII. which he became connected with the first families in Poland, greatly contributed to the spread of his opinions amongst the higher classes of that country, and paved the way for that extraordinary influence which, after having been for some time repulsed by the antitrinitarian congregations who differed from his views, he acquired over all of them. He was invited to assist at their principal synods, and took a leading part in them. Thus, at the synod of Wengrow, in 1584, he success- fully maintained the doctrine of the worship of Jesus Christ, and that its rejection would lead to Judaism, and even atheism. At the same synod, and at that of Chmielnik, he powerfully contributed to the rejection of the millennarian opinions taught by several antitrinitarians. His influence was completely established at the synod of Brest, in Lithuania, in 1588, when he removed all the differences which divided the antitrinita- rians of Poland, and gave unity to their churches by moulding their hitherto undefined and discordant dogmata into one com- plete religious system. Socinus was several times exposed to the persecution of Romanists, but without receiving any serious injury. At last the publication of his work De Jesu Christo Servatore, at Cra- cow, raised a violent hatred against him ; and during his resi- dence in that city, a rabble, headed by the students of the university, invaded his house, dragged him thence, treated him with the greatest indignity, and would certainly have mur- dered him, had he not been rescued by the professors of the university, Wadowita and Goslicki, and the rector himself, Lelovita, all Roman Catholic clergymen. These noble-minded iin-ii succeeded in saving their most formidable polemical anta- gonist, by deceiving the mob, and exposing themselves to per- sonal danger. Socinus on that occasion lost his library, which was destroyed by the mob, together with his manuscripts, amongst which he particularly regretted a treatise which he had composed against the atheists. After that disgraceful event, he transferred his residence to Luklavice, a village situ- ated at the distance of nine Polish miles (forty-two English) from Cracow, whore an antitrinitarian church had existed for some time. He settled in the house of Adam Blonski, the owni-r of that place, and remained there till his death, in 1(>07. When he lost his wife, to whom he was passionately attached, the fortitude and resignation with which lie had formerly sup- ported adversity seemed to abandon him, so that for many months ho was unable to resume his occupations. He left one daughter, nann-d A^nes. who married Wy8ZOWaty, a Lithua- nian noble, and became mother of a celebrated author of that mini". About the same time, he lost a considerable income, POLAND. 163 which he luul regularly derived from his estates in Tuscany, and which lie spent with great liberality; these estates having been confiscated on the death of his friend and benefactor Francesco de Medici, the reigning Duke of Tuscany. lie lieivfoiv obliged to accept the bounty of his friends; but he bore this severe trial, as well as many physical sufferings, with patience and nieekm s>, and seems to have possessed a most amiable disposition. His polemical writings are free from the virulence which at that time disgraced the contro- versial works of Romanists as well as Protestants. His learn- ing and talents were certainly of the first order; and there can be no doubt of the sincerity of his piety and the purity of his intentions; and this gives cause to lament the more that such virtues and talents should have been employed, with such deplorable success, to promote doctrines not only erro- neous in themselves, but leading to consequences which neither Socinus nor any other of the sincere promoters of them had anticipated. Already, during Socinus's lifetime, some more daring fol- lowers of his sect began to deny revelation altogether, as, for instance, Budny, whose translation of the Old Testament is considered to be one of the most correct that ever has been made, but whose commentaries on these Scriptures, as well as on the New Testament, caused him to be deposed from the ministry as an infidel. The rationalist opinions, as they are now called in Germany, promoted by the antitrinitarians, are not congenial to the Slavonic mind, and would not have pro- duced any important consequences in that country had they been broached at least half a century later; because the Re- formation being once established, and the excitement of such a revolution having abated, the antitrinitarian speculations would have obtained only a small number of adherents amongst scholars and divines, without exercising any influence on the bulk of the population, for which the speculative nature of their doctrines is entirely unfit. But coming, as they did, in the midst of the religious contest between Rome and Pro- testantism, they did immense harm to the cause of the latter. At a time when the triumph of that cause could be accom- plished only by the closest union of its adherents, and an un- remitting zeal and perseverance in the pursuit of that object, the antitrinitarians struck a mortal blow at it, by sowing doubt and uncertainty amongst its defenders, and thereby destroying the mainspring of that energetic and persevering action by which alone a cause is rendered triumphant, i. e., an unshaken belief in its justice and truth. The boldness of these doctrines, which removed, or at least unsettled, the land- 161 CHAPTER VIII. marks between the exercise of human reason and faith in the revealed truths of the gospel, struck terror into many timor- ous consciences, and made them seek refuge in the absolute authority of the lloman Church, which took advantage of these circumstances in order to support its doctrines concern- ing the Scriptures. Indeed, Archbishop Tillotson justly ob- serves, that although the Socinian writers have combated with great success the innovations of the Roman Church, they have at the same time furnished that very church with strong argu- ments against the Reformation. During the present century, Rationalism has produced the same effect on some master minds of Germany, as Stolberg, Werner, Frederic Schlegel, &c. The doubt and uncertainty created by the above-men- tioned doctrines produced amongst many Protestants indiffe- rence to the doctrines which separate the reformed churches from Rome; and this circumstance may be regarded as one of the principal causes which undermined Protestantism in Po- land; because it could not be expected that persons impressed with such a feeling would sacrifice their worldly interest for the sake of their religious principles, and much less that they would endure persecution on that score. This circumstance, I think, may account in a great measure for the lamentable success with which, as I shall show in another chapter, Sigis- mund the Third withdrew so many families from Protestant- ism, by reserving to Romanists offices and riches, and expos- ing their antagonists to different kinds of persecution. The rules of morality prescribed by the antitrinitarians were exceedingly strict, for they endeavoured literally to observe many precepts of the gospel, without any regard to circumstances which might render their application, if gene- rally adopted, productive of more harm than good. The doc- trines which Socinus himself maintained concerning political powers, and which he developed in his letter to Palseologus, were those of passive obedience and unconditional submis- sion; and he strongly condemned the insurrection of Holland a iru i list the Spanish oppression, as well as the resistance oil'. -red by the French Protestants to their persecutors. I };i vie justly observes, that Socinus speaks on that occasion rather as a monk whose pen had been hired lor the purpose of vilifying and making odious tin,' Protestant Reformation, than a* a refugee from Italy. This doctrine, however, was not unconditionally accepted by the Socinians of Poland ; and their synods of i :>:H; and L 598 allowed them totakeadyai of all the privileges enjoyed bythe Polish nobles, such as pi sion of dignities and ollices, and making use of arms, but only when compelled to do so in self-defence. This liberty dis- POLAND. 165 pleased tlii 1 inferior class of the Socinians ; and by their in- fluence a resolution passed the synod of 1605, declaring that Christians ought rather to a 1 andon the countries exposed to the predatory forays of the Tahtars, than to kill their inva- ders in defending the country. This preposterous doctrine, destructive of the safety of a state particularly exposed, as Poland was, to constant aggressions, repugnant to the national character, and, moreover, contradicted by the ex- ample of primitive Christians, who valiantly fought in the Roman legions, could not be strictly observed by the Polish Sorinians, many of whom distinguished themselves in the career of arms. Socinus did not himself compose a catechism of the sect to which he gave his name. It was composed by Smalcius, a learned German Socinian, who had settled in Poland, and by Moskorzewski, a learned and wealthy nobleman. It is a de- velopment of that of 1574 (page 16J), and is well known to students of divinity under the name of the Racovian Cate- chism, on account of its being published at Racow, a little town in southern Poland, which contained a Socinian school, celebrated over all Europe. It was published in Polish and Latin ; and an English translation of it appeared in 1 652 at Amsterdam. In the same year the English Parliament, by a vote given on the 2d of April, declared that " the book en- titled Catechesis Ecclesiarum in Regno Polonice, &c., commonly called ' the Racovian Catechism,' doth contain matters that are blasphemous, erroneous, and scandalous ;" and ordered, in consequence, " the sheriffs of London and Middlesex to seize all copies, wherever they might be found, and cause them to be burnt at the Old Exchange, London, and at the New Palace, Westminster."" Mr Abraham Rees in 1819 published a new English translation of this catechism, ac- companied by a historical notice. The Socinian congregations, chiefly composed of nobles, amongst whom there were many wealthy landowners, were never numerous. They had, however, several schools, fre- quented by pupils of different confessions, and of which Racow was the most celebrated. They produced many eminent scholars and authors, particularly on theological subjects. A collection of their divines, known under the name of the BibllotTieca Fratrum Polonorum, occupies a high place amongst theological works, and is studied by Protestants of all deno- minations. At the time of the conclusion of the Consensus of Sando- mir, i. e., in 1570, the Protestant cause had reached the acmo of its prosperity. It is impossible to know the precise 166 CHAPTER VIII. number of the churches which the Protestants had at that time. The Jesuit Skarga, who lived in the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centuries, maintains that about two thousand churches had been taken from the Roman Catholics by Protestants of various denominations. There is no doubt that the principal families of Poland had embraced Protestantism, although many abandoned it, soon disgusted by the dissensions of the Protestants, and fright- ened by the antitrinitarian speculations.* They had esta- blished several schools, and a great number of printing-offices, \vhence issued not only polemical, but also literary and scientific works. The excitement created by the Reforma- tion in the minds of the nation gave a strong impulse to an intellectual movement, which produced the most beneficial results to the country. The great and most effective weapon with which the Protestants in Poland, as elsewhere, attacked the Established Church, was the translation of the Scriptures into the national language, supported by polemical works in the same idiom. The Roman Catholics defended their church with similar arms ; and this controversial struggle compelled both parties engaged in it to apply themselves to severe studies. The knowledge of Greek and Hebrew was added to that of Latin, which was already general. This had a most favourable influence upon the national literature, which rose with an extraordinary rapidity, and produced a great number of works on different literary and scientific subjects, in the na- tional language, as well as in Latin. The versions of the Bible made by Protestants as well as Roman Catholics are patterns of a pure language and correct style, and are studied, as well as the other productions of the sixteenth century, the Augustan era of the Polish literature, as models for imitation by the Polish writers of the present day. The works relating to jurisprudence and politics published during that period show n decided tendency towards the amendment of the defective constitution of the country, which was reducing too much the executive power vested in the king; and the reform of many abuses, which was accomplished at the diet of 1 564, was already an important step towards that end. Yet although the Po- lish constitution had many defects, these were irroatly out- weighed by the advantages of a liberty which had not yot * The following families, whose members occupied the first dignities of the state, emltraeeil Protestantism during the sixteenth century :- will, Xaiiii.yvki, I'otocki, Le^zc/.ynski, Sapirha, Ostrorog, Olesnicki, Sienin- Fki, Szafraniec, Tenccyiuki, OMolinaki, Jordan, Zborowdci, (lorka, M . Cluxlkiewicx, Mels/tynski, 1 )eiul.inski, I'M mar, P.oratynski. Turlo, Lnhomir-ki, I >y.ialynski, Sieniaw.ski, Zaremba, Maluchowski, Bninski, AVielopoIski, &c. &c. &c. POLAND. 1C7 Crated into licentiousness. Religious freedom was at that time enjoyed in Poland to a degree unknown in any other part of Kurope, where generally the Protestants were perse- cuted by the Jvomunists, or the Romanists by the Protestants. This freedom, united to commercial advantages, and a wide field for the e\"ivise of various talents, attracted to Poland crowds of foreigners, who fled their native land on account of religious persecution, and many of whom became, by their in- dustry and talents, very useful citizens of their adopted coun- try. There were at Cracow, Vilna, Posen, &c., Italian and French Protestant congregations. A great number of Scotch settled in different parts of Poland; and there were Scotch Protestant congregations not only in the above-mentioned towns, but also in other places, and a particularly numerous one at Kieydany, a little town of Lithuania, belonging to the Princes Kadziwill. Amongst the Scotch families settled in Poland, the principal were the "Bonars, who arrived in that country before the Reformation, but became its most zealous adherents. This family rose, by its wealth, and the great merit of several of its members, to the highest dignities of the state, but became extinct during the seventeenth century. There are even now in Poland many families of Scotch descent belonging to the class of nobles; as, for instance, the Hali- burtons, Wilsons, Ferguses, Stuarts, Haslers, Watsons, &c. Two Protestant clergymen of Scotch origin, Forsyth and Inglis, have composed some sacred poetry. But the most con- spicuous of all the Polish Scotsmen is undoubtedly Dr John Johnstone, perhaps the most remarkable writer of the seven- teenth century on natural history.* It seems, indeed, that * I think that, writing as I do these sketches in the capital of Scotland, it will not be out of place to give a few details about this remarkable Scoto- Pole. John Johnstone was born in 1603, at Szamotuly or Satnbter, a little town in the province of Great Poland. His father, Simeon Johnstone, was a Protestant minister, descended from the Johnstones of Craigbourne, in Scotland. John studied in different schools of his native land, and went in 1622 to England, and then to Scotland, where he continued to study till 1625, when he returned to his native town. The same year he undertook to superintend the education of two sons of Count Kurzbach, and remained with them at Lissa, a celebrated Protestant school, situated in his province, till 1628, when he went to Germany; and after having resided at several of its universities, he arrived in 1629 at Franeker, in Holland, where he con- tinued for a year studying medicine. He prosecuted the same studies at Leyden, London, and Cambridge. Having returned to Poland, he left it again as tutor to two young noblemen, Boguslav Leszczynski and Vladislav Dorohostayski, with whom he revisited Leyden and Cambridge, where he received the diploma of a doctor of medicine; after which he continued to travel with his pupils through other parts of Europe, and returned to Poland towards the end of 1636. The next year he married; but having soon lost his wife, he married again in 1638, and by that marriage had several chil- dren. In 1642 the Universities of Frankibrt-on-the-Oder and of Leyden 168 CHAPTER VIIT. there is a mysterious link connecting the two distant coun- tries, because if many Scotsmen had in bygone days sought and found a second fatherland in Poland, a strong and active sympathy for the sufferings of the last-named country, and her exiled children, has been evinced in our own times by the natives of Scotland in general, and by some of the most dis- tinguished amongst them in particular. Thus it was an emi- nent bard of Caledonia, the gifted author of the Pleasures of Hope, who, when Sarmatia fell, unwept, without a crime, has thrown, by his immortal strains, over the fall of her liberty, a halo of glory which will remain unfaded as long as the English language lasts. The name of Thomas Campbell is venerated throughout all Poland, but there is also another Scotch name which is enshrined in the heart of every true Pole. It is that of the noble-minded individual whose unremitting efforts to vindicate the cause of injured countries, and to alleviate the sufferings of their exiled children, will form a bright page in the history of a time rendered but too often offered him chairs of medicine; but he declined these offers, preferring to reside in his own country, where he lived at Lissa as physician to his former pupil I5oguslav Leszczynski. The wars which desolated Poland in 1655-60, compelled him to leave it; and he retired to an estate which he had pur- chased near Liegnitz, in Silesia, where he remained till his death in 1675. His body was transported to Lissa, and buried there. His principal works are, T}"iiim>n<,'J, and 1GGG. J/i*r<,,-i>i ruircrsatis, drills et Ecdesiastica, <.r ' 1633: Levden, 1633 and 1638; Amsterdam, 1644; Frankfort, 1672, continued till that year. De Natura; Constantia, Qc. Amsterdam, 1632; translated into Eng- lish, under the title, " The, Jfistory of the Constancy of Nat in;-, wikerein t mpari*g // ///. foriiifr, if if iifiinf'i'nh'il that the World does not ut'ircrttilfy ;- cay" &c.: London, 1657. Systema Dendrologicum : Lissa, 1G4G. // tuT'il'it fttt, A rilius, 7V .i'itfilms: Frankfort, 1650, two vols. This edition is much valued, on account ot the plates, executed by the celebrated Merian. J7: translated into Knglish, under the title, " illustrated by copperplates : Amsterd:im, lo'7 s . ^'otit'nt I /'///V: Lipsi;p, 16f)'J. J)<-niirauie worlc, \1., xli., and X<.tir,,i,i Supplement a M- < /-', vol. ii. The number of works enumerated here, and wh: n-d in their time, shows the extraordinary merit of the Scoto- Polish writer, who was not surpassed, if even (.quailed, in Kurope by any of his contempo- raries. CARDINAL POLAND. 1 CD gloomy by the universal worship of success, without much rc- ganl to its moral merits and demerits. It is almost super- fluous to say that I allude to that friend of the friendless, the patron and defender of all those who had been either nation- ally or individually wronged Lord Dudley Stuart. Notwithstanding the injuries which the Protestant cause in Poland had received from its internal dissensions, its situation was more favourable than that of its antagonists. The majo- rity of tho influential nobles were on its side, whilst many powerful families, and the bulk of the population of the eastern provinces, belonged to tho Greek Church, and were as much opposed to Rome as the Protestants. I have already men- tioned (page 155), that the primate of Poland was strongly inclined towards the doctrines of the Reformation ; and this was the case with many prelates and inferior clergymen of that church, who were ready to co-operate in the establish- ment of a reformed national church, but had a great aversion, as well as many laymen, to join any of the Protestant sects, whose unfortunate dissensions were often more calculated to unsettle than to edify the minds of men. The great majority of the lay members of the Polish senate were either Protes- tants or followers of the Greek Church; and the king gave a decided proof of his approbation of Protestantism, by nomi- nating a lay senator the Roman Catholic bishop Pac, who had become a Protestant. The Roman Catholic Church in Poland was on the brink of ruin ; and was only saved by the efforts of one of those powerful characters who occasionally appear in history, accelerating or arresting for centuries the march of events. This character was Hosius, not inaptly called the Great Cardinal. Stanislaus Hosen (Latinized Hosius) was born at Cracow in 1504, of a family of German descent, which had acquired considerable wealth by trade. He was educated in his own country, but completed his studies at Padua, where he con- tracted an intimate friendship with the celebrated English prelate, Reginald de la Pole (Cardinal Polus.) From Padua he went to Bologna, where he took tho degree of doctor of laws, under Buoncompagni, afterwards Pope Gregory the Thirteenth. Having returned to Poland, he was recommended by the bishop of Cracow, Tomicki, to Bona Sforza, queen of Sigismund the First, who took him under her patronage, and insured his rapid preferment. The king entrusted him with tho affairs of Polish Prussia, and nominated him canon of Cracow. He early made himself conspicuous by his animo- sity to the Protestants. However, at first he did not attack them himself, but only instigated other preachers to declaim 170 CHAPTER VIII. from the pulpit against their religious innovation?, imitating, as his biographer (Rescius) says, "the prudence of the ser- pent." He was created bishop of Culm, and entrusted with important embassies to the Emperor Charles the Fifth, and to his brother Ferdinand, the duties of which he discharged in a most creditable manner. Being nominated bishop of Ermeland, by which he became the chief of the church of Polish Prussia, and acquired a great influence in that pro- vince, he strove in vain to oppose the progress of Lutheranism, which, in spite of all his efforts, rapidly spread over that pro- vince, and became the persuasion of the majority of its inha- bitants. No Roman Catholic prelate had ever combated the progress of the Reformation with more zeal than Hosius; and he displayed in this struggle activity and talents equal to his zeal. He dictated at the same time to several amanuenses ; during his meals he often transacted most important business, read and answered letters which he continually received from different parts, or listened to the reading of some new work. He was thoroughly acquainted with the political and religious history of all Europe, and was well informed about the doings and movements of every principal reformer of his time, and was always ready to counteract his exertions. In order to oppose the progress of the Reformation, he continually ad- dressed the king, the principal noblemen, and the clergy ; he assisted at the diets, and at many provincial meetings, con- voked synods, chapters, &c. This extraordinary activity did not prevent him from composing many works which have earned for him the reputation of being one of the greatest writers of his church, and which have been translated into the principal languages of Europe.* He wrote with equal facility in Latin, Polish, and German, adapting his style to the dispo- sition of his readers in a most skilful manner. Thus his Latin works show the deep, erudite, and subtle theologian ; whilst * The principal works of Hosius are, Confessio CatJwlicte Fi'lii (7/nVM//<>'7. I'lojuiiinatio i : Antwerp, 1 .").">!). <'/' , in English, A .Most F.xcellente Treat yse of the neginning of the s in our Tyine. Tr. i:i into Kn^'M 1 , 1,\ Uidiard Shadlock : Antwerp, l.jf>'.~>. I >, 1 ',,}mn>tnin<' ?iil> iitrn^ue ^/ . The l>e-t edition of his works is considered tliat of C'olo^ne in 1 ">M, which contains also liis written to many eniii.e.it pej-smis of his time. His life, written by Itescius (Ilcszka), was imblislied at Koine in 1 POLAND. 171 in his Gorman productions he successfully imitates the sturdi- .){' Luther's stylo, condescending to broad humour, and coarse but striking expressions ; and in his Polish composi- tions, ho assumes a light, and even playful manner, adapted to the character and taste of his countrymen. He made a par- ticular study of the polemical works written by authors be- longing to one Protestant confession against the followers of another ; and he skilfully took advantage of the arguments by which some of those writers were infatuated enough to re- commend the application of penal laws against those who erred in religious matters. He did not scruple repeatedly to advise that faith should not be kept with heretics, and that it was necessary to confute them, not by argument, but by the au- thority of the magistrate. He himself made a full confession of his principles on that subject, in a letter which he addressed to the notorious Cardinal of Lorraine (Guise), congratulating him on the murder of Coligny, the news of which, as he him- self said, filled his soul with an incredible joy and comfort ; and he at the same time thanked the Almighty for the great boon conferred on France by the massacre of St Bartholo- mew, imploring him to show equal mercy to Poland.* Yet this prelate, who entertained such abominable senti- ments, was in every other respect adorned with the noblest qualities that honour mankind ; and although the eulogy paid to him by the sceptic Protestant Bayle, who calls him the greatest man that Poland had ever produced, is much exag- gerated, there is but one opinion, not only regarding his splendid talents, but also his eminent virtues and piety. His faults, therefore, were not his own, but the unavoidable con- sequences of the precepts of his church, which he zealously but conscientiously followed. His fervour for that church was such, that he declared, in one of his polemical works, that the Scriptures, if it were not for the authority of the same church, would have no more weight than the fables of ^Esop.f He was nominated Cardinal by Pope Pius the Fourth, in 1561, and appointed President of the Council of Trent, of which commission he acquitted himself to the entire satisfaction of the pope. Having been appointed grand penitentiary of the church, he spent the last years of his life at Rome, where he died in 1579, in the seventy-eighth year of his age. Hosius was a no less consistent Romanist in politics than he was in religion. He maintained that subjects had no rights whatever, but that they owed a blind submission to the sove- * Vide in Hosius' works, Epistola Carolo Cardinali Lotharingo, &c. ; Sublacio, 4to, Septembris 1572. f Vide Bayle , art. Hosius. 172 CHAPTER VIII. reign, who was responsible to none for his acts ; and that it was a sin to judge him. Like many other Romanist writers, he ascribed the political innovations to the doctrines of the Reformation ; and expressly stated that it was the reading of the Scriptures which rendered people seditious ; and he par- ticularly inveighed against those women who read the Bible. The deep learning which made Hosius universally regarded as one of the first luminaries of the Roman Church, could not, however, free his mind from the unchristian notion inculcated by the same church, that voluntary self-torment is acceptable to the Father of all mercy ; and, being a rigid observer of those practices, which are more in accordance with Pagan rites than with the mild precepts of Christianity, but which that church recommends, he frequently lacerated his own body by severe flagellations, spilling his own blood with the same fervour as he would have spilled that of the opponents of the pope. Such was the celebrated individual who, seeing that all his efforts to combat the progress of the Reformation in Poland were fruitless, adopted a measure for which he deserved the eternal gratitude of Rome, and the curses of his own country. He called to his assistance the newly-established order of the Jesuits, which, by its admirable organization, zeal, and acti- vity, but chiefly, perhaps, by that reckless disregard of every principle which stood betwixt it and the object at which it aimed, succeeded in saving Romanism from impending ruin over all Europe, and even in restoring its sway in many places where it had already been annihilated. As early as 1 558, the order despatched one of its members, named Canisius, to Poland, for the purpose of examining into the state of the country. Canisius reported that it was deeply infected with heresy, ascribing that state of things chiefly to the aversion of the king to repress Protestantism by sangui- nary measures. He had many conferences with the heads of the Roman clergy in Poland about the establishment of the Jesuits in that country ; but he returned without having ob- tained any positive result of his mission. In 1564, Hosius, on his return from Trent, perceiving the increase of Protes- tantism in his diocese, addressed himself to the celebrated general of the Jesuits, Lainez, and requested him to send him some members of his ordi-r. Lainez immediately despatched ral .Ji'Miits from Rome, at the same time ordering a few others from (Germany to join them. Hosius located his wel- come guests at Braunsberg, a little town in his diocese, and richly endowed the nascent establishment which was soon to spread over all Poland. An attempt was made in 1561 to POLAND/ 173 introduce the Jesuits into Klbing; but the Protestant inhabi- tants of that town manifested such a violent opposition to the admission of an order which had come with the avowed de- termination of extirpating heresy, that Hosius, while deplor- ing the infatuation of Elbing, which, as he maintained, was ing its own salvation, was obliged to desist from his project. At first they did not make any rapid progress; and it was only six years after their arrival in Poland that the bishop of Posen, induced by the papal legate, established them in that town ; and having persuaded the authorities of the city to give them one of the principal churches, with two hospitals and a school, he endowed them with an estate, and made them a present of his library. They insinuated them- selves into the favour of the Princess Anna, sister of King Sigismuud Augustus, who promoted their interest with all her influence. The primate Uchanski, who was, as I have said (page 155), strongly inclined towards the doctrines of the Reformation, endeavoured, when the prospects of their speedy establishment in Poland were destroyed by the demise of Sigismund Augustus, to obliterate the suspicions of Rome by the display of great zeal for its interests ; and he became a great patron of the new order. His example was followed by many bishops, who relied for the defence 'of their dioceses more on the intrigues of their new allies than on the efforts of the local clergy. In another place, I shall describe the rapid increase of the number and influence of the Jesuits, when it will be my melancholy task to draw a picture of the unceas- ing intrigues and agitation by which that order succeeded in crushing the anti-Romanist party in Poland, sacrificing the national prosperity and the most vital interests of the coun- try to the restoration of the papal dominion. CHAPTER IX. POLAND (CONTINUED). State of Poland at the death of Sigismund Augustus The intrigues of Car- dinal Coramendoni, and the jealousy of the Lutherans against the fol- lowers of the Genevese confession, prevent the election of a Protestant candidate to the throne Project of placing a French Prince on the throne of Poland suggested by Coligni Perfect equality of rights for all the Christian confessions established by the Confederation of 1573 Patriotic behaviour of Francis Krasinski, bishop of Cracow, on that occasion Effects of the massacre of St Bartholomew in Poland Ap- pearance of the electing diet described by a Frenchman Election of Henry of Valois, and concessions obtained by the Polish Protestants for their French brethren Arrival of the Polish embassy at Paris, and favourable effects of it on the condition of the French Protestants- Attempts to prevent the new king from confirming by his oath the rights of the anti-Romanists of Poland Henry compelled by the Protestant leaders to confirm their rights at the coronation Flight of Henry from Poland, and election of Stephen Batory His sudden conversion from Protestantism to Romanism brought about by the Bishop Solikowski The Jesuits gain his favour by a pretended zeal for literature and science. SlGISMUND AUGUSTUS, whose manifest inclination towards the doctrines of the Reformation inspired the Protestants with an apparently well-founded hope that, notwithstanding his wavering character, he would finally decide upon the establish- ment of a national reformed church, died in 1572, without issti"; and the Jaghellonian dynasty, which had reigned in Poland for two centuries (1386-1572), became extinct by his death. This circumstance placed Poland in a trying position, because the election of a monarch, which had existed only in theory so long as the Jaghellonian dynasty continued without interruption, was now fairly to be put to the test by its ex- tinction. The religious parties which then divided Poland increased the difficulties attending the election of a monarch, as the Protestants were anxious to bestow the crown of their country on a candidate of their own persuasion, whilst, on the other hand, the Roman Catholics were strenuously labouring to insure the throne to a /ealous Mipport'-r of their church. This last party hegan its intrigues even In-fore the death of Sigifimimd Augustus, and it found an able leader in the cele- brated papal diplomatist, Cardinal Comniendoni, whose lir>t visit to Poland I have mentioned in pair*' \~>~>. and v\ho had again arrived in that country, in order to embroil it in a war POLAND. 175 with the Turks. Commendonfs project was to establish on the Polish throne the Archduke Ernest, son of the emperor Maximilian the Second; and for that purpose he induced seve- ral Roman Catholic noblemen to adopt the following plan: The archduke was to be previously elected Grand Duke of Lithuania, after which he was to levy an army of twenty-four thousand men, in order, if necessary, to compel the senate of Poland to imitate the example of Lithuania. Having united the Romanist party, Commendoni sought to divide and weaken that of the Protestants, whose leader was John Firley, palatine of Cracow, and grand marshal of Po- land.* He was the head of the followers of the Genevese confession, and, as grand marshal, the first officer of the state. His high station, and the popularity .which he enjoyed, ren- dered him exceedingly influential, so that he was supposed by many to aim at the crown of his country, and not without a great chance of success. Personal enmity, and, perhaps even more, the fear of seeing the ultimate triumph of the Genevese or Reformed Church in Poland by the election of Firley, in- duced the powerful family of Zborowski, who professed Luther- anism, to oppose him ; and the same religious jealousy caused the Gorkas, another influential Lutheran family, to join the Zborowskis against Firley. Commendoni took advantage of this unfortunate division amongst the Protestants, and increased it by means of Andreas Zborowski, one of the family who had remained a Romanist, and who was entirely devoted to the cardinal, whose intrigues in exciting the jealousy of the Zbo- rowskis against Firley were so successful, that this powerful family abandoned the Protestant interest, and declared for a Roman Catholic candidate to the throne. Commendoni in- formed the emperor of the success of his intrigues, requesting him to send money, and secretly to advance his troops towards the Polish frontier. He represented that by these means, and with the assistance of the zealous Romanists, the archduke might be put in possession of the Polish throne, without sub- scribing to any conditions restricting his authority, and in spite of all the efforts of the Protestants.-}- This infamous plot of Commendoni against the political and religious liberty of Poland, which would have involved that country in the hor- rors of a domestic war, without securing its throne to the archduke, was frustrated by the prudence and moderation of * The grand marshal was invested with the supreme direction of the exe- cutive power. t The details of this plot have been described by Commendoni's secretary and biographer, who had himself taken part in it. (Vide Vie de Commendoni, par Gratiani, livre iv., c. iii. 176 CHAPTER IX. the emperor himself, who, although desiring to place his son on the throne of Poland, clearly saw the impossibility of attain- ing that object by violence and treason, and therefore prefer- red to seek it by means of negotiation. The momentary influence which Coligny and the Protestant party enjoyed at the court of France, after the pacification of St Germain in 1570, produced a decisive effect upon its foreign relations, and particularly on those with Poland. Co- ligny and the Protestants meditated a great scheme of politi- cal and religious combination, the object of which was to humble Romanism, and its chief support, Spain. His inten- tion was to unite the divided Protestants into one centre, in order to give a uniform tendency and action to their cause, which would have insured its triumph through all Europe. Coligny saw the importance of Poland- in such a combination, and thought that, the Protestant cause having once prevailed in France and Poland, these two countries, united by a poli- tical and religious alliance, would speedily overturn the domi- nion of Rome and of the house of Austria. Coligny, there- fore, advised the French court to make every possible effort in order to place Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou, on the Polish throne ; and Catherine de Medicis eagerly seized on that project for the aggrandizement of her son. This plan was conceived during the lifetime of Sigismund Augustus ; and an ambassador called Balagny was sent to Poland, under the pretence of demanding the hand of the Princess Anna, sister of Sigismund Augustus, for the Duke of Anjou, but, in fact, to collect information about the real state of the coun- try, and the principal,parties prevailing there. Several provincial assemblies, and a general one of the states of Poland, adopted effective measures for maintaining the peace of the country during the interregnum. The affairs of the state were conducted during that time by the great mar- shal, in the name of tho primate and the senate. The diet of convocation* was assembled at Warsaw in January 1 573. The Roman Catholic clergy thought no longer of crushing the anti- Komunists, but only of preserving their own position. Karn- kowski, bishop of Cujavia, therefore proposed to pass a law which, by establishing a perfect equality of rights to all tho Christian confessions of Poland, should guarantee the digni- :<1 privileges of the Unman Catholic bishops, abolishing, * The diet of convocation was that which assembled after the demise of the. monarch, in order to fix tho time and place of the election, to convolve the elective a-sem!>ly, and to adopt tho in ce.-.-avy i!i> r the main- tenance of the peace and safety of the country. It v, >. c., the senate voted al'm^ \vi-h the chamber of nuncios, and atVairs were decided by the majority, and not by tho unanimity, of the votes. 7R/VNCIS KRAS1USK1 POLAND. 177 however, the obligation of church patrons to bestow the bene- fices in their u'ilt exclusively on Roman Catholic clergymen. This project \v;is reudilv accepted by the diet; but the insti- gations of Coimnendoni produced a, complete change in the opinion of the bishops, who now protested against that very measure which had originated with one of their own body, and refused t<> sign it, with the exception of Francis Krasin- ski, bishop of Cracow and vice-chancellor of Poland, who, pre- ferring the interests of his own country to those of Koine, signed the act in question, which was accepted by the diet on the (Ith January ]")7o. lie was bitterly censured by Rome for his patriotism ; and Commendoni considered him as of suspicious orthodoxy, and entirely devoted to Firley.* The * This prelate had indeed very much at heart the reformation of the na- tional church, and he made strong representations on this subject to the king, Sigisniund Augustus, in 155"). Jle was no less distinguished by his politi- cal talents than he was by his enlightened views upon religion. ,1 have mentioned (page 136) that he had studied at Wittenberg under Melanc- thon. Jle completed his ecclesiastical education at Rome, and was created, after his return to Poland, canon of Lowicz and archdeacon of Kalish. He went twice to Rome for the affairs of the Polish church, and was afterwards pent by King Sigismund Augustus as ambassador to the Emperor Maximi- lian the Second. He contracted during his embassy an intimate friendship with Stephen Batory, then envoy of John Zapolya, prince of Transylvania, at the imperial court; and when Batory was afterwards imprisoned by the emperor, Krasinski made great efforts to obtain his liberation, and suc- ceeded in this object through his interest with the emperor. He greatly contributed by his talents and zeal to bring about the legislative union of Poland with Lithuania in 1569 (page 158). lie was rewarded for this ser- vice with the dignity of vice-chancellor of Poland, and soon afterwards created bishop of Cracow. The bishopric of Cracow had a very large income, particularly as the sovereignty of the duchy of Severia, with all the royal prerogatives (coining of money, conferring the rank of nobility, &c.), was attached to it. The bishops of Cracow, therefore, generally left large fortunes to their relatives, but Krasinski expended all his wealth for the benefit of his church, or for patriotic objects. Thus, when his country was in a state of great distur- bance, after the sudden flight of its monarch Henry of Valois, and the Tah tars invaded its borders, Krasinski sent, at his own expense, a body of cavalry to the army employed against the enemy, for which he received the thanks of the diet. I The election to the throne of Poland of Stephen Batory, who, as I have said, was a friend of Krasinski, and under personal obligation to him, would have probably placed the patriotic prelate at the head of the Polish church, but he died in 1579, at the age of 54. The last act of his life was to despatch at his own expense to the camp of his king, who was then besieging the refractory town of Dantzic, 50 cuirassiers, and 200 in- fantry. He was already very ill when he performed this last act of a life devoted to his country, and the news of his death reached his royal friend, together with the troops which he had sent to his camp. The medal on the subjoined plate was struck for him by his subjects of Severia, amongst whom he was very popular. The author of this sketch descends from a brother of the subject of this notice. N 178 CHAPTER IX. same diet fixed the election of the monarch for the 7th April, at Kamien, in the vicinity of Warsaw. Several candidates were presented for the vacant throne ; but there were only two real competitors, the Archduke Er- nest of Austria, and Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou. The archduke's party, conducted by Commendoni, was very strong at the beginning, but it soon lost ground by many errors which the emperor's agents committed, but particularly by the jealousy excited against the house of Hapsburg by point- ing out the injuries which its dominion had inflicted upon the liberties of Bohemia. This jealousy grew so strong, that Commendoni, considering the archduke's case hopeless, trans- ferred his influence to the party of the French prince. The policy of France was conducted on that occasion with extraordinary skill. As the great object of placing a French prince on the throne of Poland was to crush the overgrown power of Austria and Spain, by raising the Protestant cause in Europe, the French court sent an agent called Schomberg to Germany, before the death of Sigismund Augustus, in order to induce the Protestant princes of that country to conclude an alliance with France, as well as to support its views in Poland. As soon as the death of Sigismund Augustus was known, Montluc, bishop of Valence, was sent as ambassador to Poland, furnished with ample instructions by Coligny ; but he had not yet crossed the frontiers of France when the massacre of St Bartholomew was perpetrated. It is well known that Coliirny was one of the victims of that abominable act ; and Mnntluc, on receiving the news of it, saw at once its injurious effect on the French interests abroad, and suspended his journey. Catherine de Medicis perceived, however, the ne- cessity of following the same line of foreign policy which had been adopted previously to that execrable act, and Montluc received orders to continue his journey, whilst his instructions, framed by Coligny, remained unaltered, which is the most splendid evidence of the talents and patriotic views of that great man. Montluc arrived in Poland in November l.">72, and found tln-iv. the state of parties entirely changed. The Romanists, despairing of the archduke's success, had, since the massacre of St Bartholomew, become zealous partisans of the Duke of The family of Krasinski may boa^t of another patriotic prolate, Ailam Kr.isinski, bishop of K.iminietx, whose efforts to li Iterate his mnntry from fii amply de-erihed by the well-known I'Ycnrh author Knlhiere. in hi I in:iy add that it w;is at tin' million of the same Adam Krasinski that the rleetion of the kin^s \\a> abolished, and the heredity of the throne ill Poland proclaimed by the celebrated constitution of the 3d M POLAND. 17.0 Anjoti, whom they considered as the exterminator of heivs\ ; whilst tin 1 Protestants, indignant at tlic murder of their brethren in I'Yauro. abandoned the interest of that country, the policy of which, since the death of Coligny, they could not consider otherwise than as hostile to Protestantism. Even many Roman Catholics were disgusted by the atroci- ties committed in France, the details of which were spread over all the country by means of publications on that subject.* Montluc had therefore immense difficulties to overcome, in order to attain the object of his mission. He was strongly supported by his court, which made the greatest efforts to prove that the affair of St Bartholomew had originated en- tirely from political, and not religious motives ; and the Duko of Anjou himself, in a letter addressed to the states of Poland, disclaimed his participation in the atrocities of Paris. The diet of election opened in April 1573. A contempo- rary writer, who was present at the scene, describes it as re- sembling more the camp of an army than a civil assembly, all parties being armed ; but what most excited the admiration of that author was, that not the slightest bloodshed took place. ( The details of the election of Henry of Valois belong to the political history of Poland ; it will therefore be sufficient here to say, that, notwithstanding the great difficulties which the massacre of St Bartholomew had thrown in the way of Montluc, he succeeded, by dint of extraordinary efforts, in * Choisnin, a Frenchman, who was with Montluc in Poland, and de- scribed his embassy, says that all the ladies of Poland, in speaking of the massacre of St Bartholomew, shed tears as profusely as if they had been wit- nesses of the scene. t "There were already at Warsaw many armed gentlemen and many lords, accompanied by a great number of their friends and vassals, who had arrived from all parts of the- kingdom. The plain where they had pitched their tents, and where the diet was to take place, had all the appearance of a camp. They were seen walking with long swords at their sides, and .some- times they marched in troops, armed with pikes, muskets, arrows, or jave- lins. Some of them, besides the armed men whom they brought for their guard, had even cannon, and were as if entrenched in their quarters. One might have said that they were going to a battle, and not to a diet ; and that it was an array of war, and not a council of state; and that they were as- sembled rather to conquer a foreign kingdom than to dispose of their own. At least it was possible to suppose, on seeing them, that this affair would be decided rather by force and by arms, than by deliberation and votes. " But what appeared to me the most extraordinary was, that amongst so many companies of armed men, and with such impunity, at a time when neither laws nor magistrates were acknowledged, neither a single murder was committed, nor a sword drawn ; and that these great differences, where the matter was to give or to refuse a kingdom, produced nothing but a few words ; so much is this nation averse to spill its blood in civil contests." (Vide Vie de Cummendoni, par Gratiani, livre iv., chap, x.) 180 CHAPTER IX. overcoming them. He denied all the charges which were brought forward against his candidate, promised every thing which was demanded, subscribed to every guarantee of po- litical and religious liberty which was required, and finally obtained his object. The Protestants had no foreign prince of their confession to present as a candidate; they wished, therefore, to elect a native of the country ; but the jealousy of the Lutherans, to which I have alluded (page 175), ren- dered this impossible. The Protestants, therefore, perceiving that their opposition to Henry's election might embroil the country in a civil war, resolved to accept this candidate, ex- acting from him the most ample securities for their rights. The influence of Firley, who was the principal leader of the Protestant party, prescribed conditions favourable not only to the Protestants of Poland, but also to their brethren of France ; and these the French ambassador was obliged to sign, or to see the election of his candidate annulled. J3y these conditions, signed on the 4th May 1573, the king of France was to grant complete amnesty to the Protestants of that country, as well as perfect liberty in religious exercises. All who wished to leave the country were at liberty to sell their property, or to receive their incomes, provided they did not retire into the dominions of the enemies of France ; whilst those who had emigrated could return to their homes. All proceedings against persons accused of treason were to be cancelled. Those who had been condemned were to be re- stored to honour and property, and a compensation was to be given to the children of those who had been murdered. Every Protestant who had been exiled or obliged to flee was to be restored to his property, dignities, &c. The king was to as- sign in every province towns where the Protestants might exercise their religion, &c.* These conditions, which the Polish Protestants, forming only a part of the nation, .so anxious to secure to their brethren of France, may give an idea of the advantages which the Protestant cause in general would have derived from the final establishment of the Reformation in Poland. It is scarcely possible to doubt, con- sidering the great political importance of Poland at that time, and the zeal which the Polish Protestants evinced on every occasion to support their brethren abroad, that the triumph <>f Protestantism in Poland would have brought about the same result throughout all Europe. An embassy, composed of twelve noblemen, amongst whom Were several Proteetanta, went to Paris, in order to announce to the Duke of Anjou his election to the throne of Poland. * Popelinicre, Il'uloirc tl, >1, vol. ii., fol. 176, p. 2. POLAND. LSI Thnaniis describes the universal admiration which they ex- cited in Paris by the splendour of their retinues, and even more by their learning and accomplishments.* Their arrival produced a favourable effect on the affairs of the French Pro- totants. The siege of Sancerro was discontinued, and tho Protestants of that town received more tolerable conditions.^ Although it was difficult for the court, on account of the pre- dominance of the Romanist party in France, to grant to the Protestants the favourable terms which had been promised by Montluc, it made to them, by the edict of July 1573, several important concessions. Thus, all accusations and libels against them w r ere prohibited ; the towns of Montauban, Bochelle, and Nismes had conceded to them the free exercise of the Protestant religion, which might be professed privately every where except within two leagues of Paris ; and the lives and properties of the Protestants were declared inviolable. Not- withstanding these concessions, the Protestant members of the Polish embassy, although abandoned, and even opposed, by their Roman Catholic companions, insisted upon the ful- filment of the conditions given by Montluc ; but their de- mands produced no effect.^ Whilst the Polish embassy was on its way to Paris, the Romanist party tried by intrigues to destroy the effect of the constitutional securities given to the religious liberty of the country. Hosius argued that the law of the 6th January 1573 (p. 177) was a criminal conspiracy against God, and therefore should be abolished by the new king; and he urged the archbishop of Gniezno, and the notorious cardinal of Lorrain, to prevent the newly-elected monarch from confirm- ing by his oath tho religious liberties of Poland. And when Henry had taken that oath, he openly recommended to him * There was not a single one amongst them who did not speak Latin ; many knew the Italian and the Spanish languages ; and some of them spoke our own tongue with such purity, that they might be taken for men educ-ated on the banks of the Seine and the Loire, rather than for inhabitants of a country watered by the Vistula and the Dnieper. They have quite bhamed our courtiers, who are not only ignorant themselves, but are, moreover, de- clared enemies of every thing called knowledge. They could never answer any question addressed to them by these foreigners, otherwise than by a sign, or blushing with confusion. (T/ntanus, lib. Ivi.) t The contemporary French historian Popeliniere observes, in reference to that occasion, that the inhabitants of Sancerre, already half dead, were delivered by such a distant people (the Poles) more than by their neigh- bours. (Vol. ii.,fol. 100, p. 2.) $ Popeliniere gives the text of the remonstrance addressed to Charles tho Ninth by the Polish ambassadors, extending over four pages in folio. ( Vide his History, vol. ii., fol. 196, et seq.} They also strongly urged the king to ob- tain the liberation of Coligny's widow, detained at Turin, and to revise the affair of Coligny, who had been condemned by a partial and unjust tribunal. 182 CHAPTER IX. perjury, maintaining that an oath given to heretics may be broken even without absolution.* William Euzeus, the con- fessor of Henry, was commissioned to explain to the monarch the duty of breaking the pledges given by him to the nation, and guaranteed by the sanctity of an oath. But Solikowski, a learned and zealous Roman Catholic prelate, addressed to Henry even more dangerous advice than that of Hosius, re- presenting that, submitting to the necessity, he should promise and swear every thing that was demanded of him, in order to prevent a religious and civil war; but that, once possessed of the throne, he would have every means to crush heresy even without violence. The solemn presentation of the diploma of election to Henry took place on the 10th September 1573, at the church of Notre Dame at Paris. The Bishop Karnkowski, a member of the Polish embassy, at the beginning of the ceremony entered a protest against the clause for securing religious liberty, in- serted in the oath which the new monarch was to take on that occasion. This act produced some confusion, the Protestant Zborowski having interrupted the solemnity with the follow- ing words, addressed to Montluc: " Had you not accepted, in the name of the duke, the conditions of religious liberty, our opposition would have prevented this duke from being elected our monarch." Henry feigned to be astonished, as if he did not understand the subject in dispute; but Zborowski addressed him, saying, " I repeat, sire, that if your ambassa- dors had not accepted the condition of liberty to the con- tending religious persuasions, our opposition would have prevented you from being elected king; and that if you do not confirm these conditions, you shall not be our king." After tliis, the members of the embassy surrounded their new mo- narch, and Herburt, a Roman Catholic, read the formula of the oath prescribed by the electing diet, which Henry repeated without any opposition. The Bishop Karnkowski, who had stood aside, approached the king after he had sworn, and pro- tested that the religious liberty secured by the royal oath was not to injure the authority of the Church of Rome; and the * Ifosius despatched his confidant, and afterwards his biographer, "Re7.'{, amongst other things, "that he ou^ht not to follow the example of Herod, hut rather that of David, who, to his greatest praise, kept not what he ha I the ii^htlcssly sworn. Jt mattered not in the present ea^e about a single, . hut about thousands of souls who will he delivered into the power of the d.-vil. As the kin- had sinned with IVter, so ou^ht he to atone wi;li him for his sin, amend his error, and rellect that the oath was not a bond for iniquity; and that there \\as no ;'>r him to he ahsolved from his oath, 1. ordiii to every law, all that he had inconsiderately done was neither binding nor had any value." POLAND. 183 king gave him a written testimony in favour of that pro- test. II (Miry left Paris in September, but travelling very slowly, arrived in Poland only in January 1574, Although ho had confirmed by his oath the religious liberties of Poland, the fears of tho Protestants were not entirely allayed, and they resolved carefully to watch their antagonists at the diet of the coronation. These fears were well founded; and Gxatiani, the secretary and biographer of Commendoni, who had left Cracow with the instructions of the Romanist party, met Ilenrv in Saxony, where he represented to him that he had the right of governing Poland as an absolute monarch, and traced to him a plan for destroying the religious and political liberties of that country, which he had sworn in the most solemn manner to preserve. The arguments of Hosius, that the oath by which the monarch confirmed the rights of the heretics was not binding, became known, as well as his letters addressed to the Polish clergy, recommending them to upset the law of the 6th January 1573, and in which he stated that what the king had promised at Paris to the anti-Romanists was but a feint, and that as soon as he should be crowned, he would expel all religions contrary to Rome. The bishops openly manifested their intention of changing the formula of tho Parisian oath; whilst the legate of the pope instigated his party to break its stipulations. These machinations pro- duced their natural effect, and roused the just suspicions of the Protestants to such a height, that many of them were readv to prevent the coronation of Henry, and to declare his election null and void, so that the country was on the brink of a religious war. The king himself was apparently unbiassed by either party, but he declared his readiness to take an oath unanimously prescribed to him by the senate and the chamber of nuncios, by which he was casting a doubt on the legality of the oath he had taken at Paris, which was prescribed, not unanimously, but by the majority of the national representatives. The in- fluence of the Romanists was becoming more and more evi- dent; and although the hour of the coronation was approaching, there was nothing yet decided about the formula of the oath which was to be sworn by the monarch on that occasion. Be- fore the beginning of the solemnity, Firley the grand marshal, Zborowski the palatine of Sandomir, Radziwill the palatine of Vilna, and some other Protestant leaders, adjourned to the closet of the king, and proposed to him either to omit entirely that part of the oath which related to the religious affairs, i. -, which they were obliged to distribute to nobles, who held them lor lite. A gift of this nature, originally meant as a rewar.i culled /./. <1 ;i JM,\\< r;ul influence in untry ; and tln^r he employed for the advantage of his coreligionists, supporting them with all the means at his dis- POLAND. 191 posal. Ho gave an asylum and maintenance to the ministers who were expelled by tho sons of Radziwill the Black. He attached to his court learned Protestants, encouraged their labours by his liberality, and by his patronage promoted me- ritorious individuals of his confession to the dignities and offices of the state. Having always at his court and in bis castles a considerable number of armed retainers, and being the commander-in-chief of the Lithuanian forces, he kept the Jesuits in order, and prevented them, in every corner of Li- thuania, from openly persecuting his coreligionists. But by his death the Protestants lost that support. Weakened by age, and exhausted by the fatigues of many campaigns, ho died in 1584. His death was a cause of great affliction to the Protestants, but of no less joy to the Jesuits, for a tower of strength to the Helvetian Confession had fallen. It is true that his son Christopher succeeded to all his dignities; but as he had not done the same services to his country as his father, he did not possess his influence, whilst the Jesuits could oppose to him the Roman Catholic branch of the Radzi- wills. This branch now made the greatest efforts to undo the work of their father Radziwill the Black ; and his son George, cardinal and bishop of Vilna, declared a war of extermination against the anti-Romanists of Lithuania. Immediately after having taken possession of his diocese, he ordered the Pro- testant works in all the libraries of Vilna to be violently seized, and burned before the church of the Jesuits' college. A Pro- testant printer in that town continuing to print books of his confession, without any regard to the episcopal prohibition, the Jesuits bribed his workmen, who, having stolen the types, ran away, and were sheltered by the Jesuits. There was not a corner of Lithuania where these fathers had not established their missions; and they were to be met in the houses of the nobles, in churches, at festivals, burials, fairs, in short, every where, and always making converts to their church. They endeavoured to reach the hearts of the multitude through their eyes, by means of scenic religious exhibitions, representations of the canonization of saints, expositions of reliques with the greatest pomp and display, processions, &c. All this was calculated to impose upon the multitude, and to gain them over, in order to overpower the Protestants, whose worship the Jesuits never ceased to ridicule and to render odious in their polemical writings, always full of personalities. They spread calumnies against the most virtuous and the most learned individuals amongst the anti-Romanists, particularly against those who belonged to the Helvetian Church, Thus, for instance, they 192 CHAPTER X. called Volanus,* who, by his abstemious manner of living, reached the age of nearly ninety years, a drunkard. They invented a story against Sudrowski,*f 1 whose learning was equal to that of the most erudite amongst them, that he had been guilty of a theft, and had performed the office of an executioner. They ridiculed the Protestant synods and wor- ship in every possible manner. Whenever a synod was con- vened, a pamphlet immediately appeared, containing a letter from the devil to the members of that assembly, some absurd story about its deliberations, &c. When a Protestant mini- ster married, he was sure to have his epithalamium written by the Jesuits; and no sooner did one of them die, than the same fathers published letters addressed by him from hell to the principal persons of his congregation. All these productions, composed generally in doggrel verse, and full of coarse wit, necessarily produced a great effect upon the minds of the multitude. The Protestants refuted the calumnies propa- gated against them by the Jesuits; but the Jesuits repeated them over and over again, and finally succeeded in cre- ating a general hatred and contempt for the Protestant ministers. J These proceedings, which had their origin in the reign of Stephen Batory, were carried on with increased activity under that of Sigismund the Third, who was entirely devoted to the cause of the Jesuits. The schools and colleges which they opened every where became the most powerful means of con- version. The instruction was gratuitous; and they not only admitted, but endeavoured to attract to these establishments, Protestant pupils, or such as belonged to the Greek Church, by the reputation of the professors, and the great courtesy of their manners. This apparent liberality, which opened their schools gratuitously, without any regard to the confession of the pupils, gained them many partizans, even amongst anti-llo- manists ; and as there were many instances of pupils who had * Andreas Volanus (Volan), born in Silesia, but educated in Poland, where lie arrived in liis early youth, was one of the most learned men of his time. Supported by the patronage of lladziwill the Black, he was invested with important offices, which he discharged with much credit, and was rewarded with grants of landed property, lie composed several political wori. lie is chiefly known by hi.s polemical writings against the Jesuits and Soci- Jiiuns. lie died in lo'lO. t Sudnnv.ski Stanislaus was a most learned and virtuous man, a minister of Ihe 1 lelvi'tian Cliurch, and superintendent of the districtof Vilna. lie pub- lished several works, one of which, entitled // / -ifi-i. ]!)2.) Lukaszeicicz, vol. i., pp. -17 POLAND. 193 completed their studies in the Jesuit colleges without aban- doning their crec'd, many Protestant and Greek parents were induced to send their children to these colleges, which, be- sides the advantage of a gratuitous education, were to be found every where ; whilst, in order to educate their children at a Protestant school, they were generally obliged to send them to a considerable distance. The Protestants had, in- deed, founded several excellent schools, in which the system of education was far superior to that of the Jesuits ; but as they were supported by voluntary contributions, they were unable to compete with those of their antagonists, which pos- 1 ample- and perpetual endowments. Many of those schools deriving their chief support from the liberality of some great families by whom they were founded, ceased to exist, or were converted into Roman Catholic establishments, as soon as their patrons returned into the pale of the old church. The Jesuits took the greatest care to attach their pupils to their order, by treating them with extreme kindness, and in- dulging them in every way, endeavouring to detain them under their tuition as long as possible, in order to become thoroughly acquainted with their dispositions, and to form them into use- ful tools for the promotion of their ends.* The Protestant * The system of education pursued by the Jesuits is admirably described by Broscius, a zealous Roman Catholic clergyman, professor in the univer- sity of Cracow, and one of the most learned men of his time, in a work pub- lished in Polish about 1620, under the title, Dialogue of a Landowner with a Parish Priest. This work excited the violent anger of the Jesuits ; but as they were unable to wreak their vengeance on the author himself, it fell on the printer, who, at their instigation, was publicly flogged, and afterwards banished. I extract from it the following remarks on their system of edu- cation. He says "The Jesuits teach children the grammar of Alvar, which it is very difficult to understand and to learn ; and much time is spent at it : This they do for many reasons : First, that by keeping the child a long time in the school, they may receive as long as possible the above-men- tioned presents [in another part of his work he proved that the Jesuits re- ceived in gifts from the parents of the children, whom they pretended gra- tuitously to educate, much more than they would have got, had there been a regular payment] ; second, that by keeping the children for a long time in the school, they may become well acquainted with their minds ; third, that they may train the boy for their own plans, and for their own purposes ; fourth, that in case the friends of the boy wish to have him from them, they may have a pretence for keeping him, saying, give him time at least to learn grammar, which is the foundation of every other knowledge ; fifth, they want to keep boys at the school till the age of manhood, that they may engage for their order those who show most talent or expect large inhe- ritances. But when an individual neither possesses talents nor has any expectations, they will not retain him. And what can he do ? Knowing nothing, and being unfit for any useful occupation, he must request the fathers to take care of him ; and they will provide him with some inferior office in the household of a benefactor of theirs, that they may make use of him afterwards as a tool for their views and purposes." CHAPTER X. pupils were made the object of particular attention by the Jesuits ; and having seduced the children, they obtained a powerful means of acting successfully on their parents. Whilst they were persecuting in every way the Protestant ministers and writers, they lavished every means of seduction on Protestant laymen, particularly men of rank and wealth. They insinuated themselves into their intimacy by their agreeable manners, extensive information, and varied accomplishments, and not unfrequently by rendering them important services. Having once established their influence in this manner, they endea- voured to convert those families, or at least some of their members, upsetting their faith by the subtilty of their argu- ments, or by witty strictures upon its tenets ; and having weakened their belief, they easily secured their conversion, by pointing out this step as the surest road to royal favour, and all the advantages dependent upon it. They were, besides, great match-makers, arranging marriages between Protestants of consequence and Roman Catholic ladies who had the ad- vantages of beauty, accomplishments, or fortune, but were entirely under their influence. This policy proved exceedingly successful, for many Roman Catholic wives, if they did not succeed in converting their husbands, generally managed to educate their children in the tenets of their church ; so that many Protestant families in this manner became Romanists. The missionary zeal of the Jesuits often produced most de- plorable consequences in the bosoms of Protestant families, converting many a happy home into the abode of strife and wretchedness. Many families who had withstood all the bribes of worldly advantages with which they were tempted to desert their faith, were subjected to the severest affliction, by having some of their children seduced from their religion, to a church which bade them look upon those who had hither- to been the objects of their reverence and affection as enemies of God, doomed to perdition. And it was not unfrequently the case, that the affectionate entreaties, the deep anguish, nay, the despair, of those misguided but sincere victims of spiritual seduction, exercised a more powerful influence on the hearts of their parents, than could have been produced upon thoir minds by the most cogent reasoning. And, indeed, it is well known that the Church of Rome has won to herself more proselytes by touching the heart and striking the imagination, than by convincing through argument. I cannot omit a characteristic anecdote, which illustrates the great tact and discernment of the Jesuits. During a riot at Vilna, instig.-ited by those fathers who had excited the po- pulace of that city against the Protestants, the son of a Pro- POLAND. 195 ;iit noblo named Lenczycki, a boy of fifteen, went into tho midst of ;iii infuriated mob, crying, " Death to the heretics," and boldly proclaimed himself a Protestant, ready to die for his religion. The Jesuits were struck with admiration of tho heroic conduct of the noble boy. They not only took care that no harm should be done to him, but overwhelmed him with caresses, and restored him in safety to his parents. They then made great efforts to seduce him, and finally succeeded in their object, so that he became one of the most distinguished members of their order, and made many converts, including his own parents. The Polish Jesuits produced some men of eminent talents ; such, for instance, as Casimir Sarbievvski, who is generally con- sidered as the first Latin poet amongst the moderns ;* Smi- glecki, or Smiglecius, whose treatise on logic was long used in the schools of several countries, and was reprinted at Oxford in 1658, and some few others ; but their system of education, as has been truly described by Broscius (page 193), was better calculated to arrest than to advance the progress of the intel- lect of the pupils ; for they practised the same system in Po- land as in Bohemia, where, according to a remark of Pelzel, whom I have quoted (page 112), " they imparted to their pupils only the outward shell of knowledge, retaining the ker- nel for themselves." The melancholy effects of their education soon became manifest. By the close of Sigismund the Third's reign, when the Jesuits had become almost exclusive masters of public schools, national literature had declined as rapidly as it had advanced during the preceding century. It is re- markable, indeed, that Poland, which, from the middle of the sixteenth century to the end of the reign of Sigismund the Third (1632), had produced many splendid works on different branches of human knowledge, in the national as well as in the Latin language, can boast of but very few works of merit from that epoch to the second part of the eighteenth century, the period of the unlimited sway of the Jesuits over the na- tional education. The Polish language, which had obtained a high degree of perfection during the sixteenth century, was soon corrupted by an absurd admixture of Latin ; and a bar- barous style, called Macaronic, disfigured Polish literature for more than a centnry. As the chief object of the Jesuits was to combat the anti- Romanists, the principal subject of their * Grotius was such an admirer of Sarbiewski, that be said of him, "Non solum equarit, sed etiam superarit, Horatium." However flattering to the na- tional self-love of the author this judgment regarding his countryman, by such an authority as Grotius, may be, he is afraid that he cannot conscien- tiously subscribe to it. 196 CHAPTER X. instruction was polemical divinity ; and the most talented of their students, instead of acquiring sound knowledge, by which they might become useful members of society, wasted their time in dialectic subtilties and quibbles. The disciples of Loyola knew well, that of all the weaknesses to which human nature is subject, vanity is the most accessible ; and they were as prodigal of praise to partizans as they were of abuse to an- tagonists. Thus the benefactors of their order became the objects of the most fulsome adulation, which nothing but the corrupted taste acquired in their schools could have rendered palatable. Their bombastic panegyrics, lavished upon the most unimportant persons, became, towards the end of the seventeenth century, almost the only literature of the country proof sufficient of the degraded state of the public to which such productions could be acceptable. An additional proof of the retrocession of the national intellect, and the corruption of taste, under the withering influence of the Jesuits, is, that the most classical productions of the sixteenth century, the Augustan era of the Polish literature, were not reprinted for more than a century, although, after the revival of learning in Poland, in the second half of the eighteenth century, they went through many editions, and still continue to be reprinted. It is almost superfluous to add, that this deplorable condition of the national intellect produced the most pernicious effects on the political as well as social state of the country. The enlightened statesmen who had appeared during the reign of Sigismund the Third, the Zamoyskis, the Sapiehas, the Zol- kiewskis, whose efforts counterbalanced for a time the baneful effects of that fatal reign, as well as some excellent authors who wrote during the same period, were educated under an- other system ; for that of the Jesuits could not produce any political or literary character with enlarged views. Some ex- ceptions there were to this general rule ; but the views of en- lightened men could not be but utterly lost on a public which, instead of advancing in the paths of knowledge, wore trained to forget the science and wisdom of its ancestors. It was therefore no wonder that sound notions of law and right be- came obscured, and gave way to absurd prejudices of privi- lege and caste, by which liberty degenerated into licentious- ness ; whilst the state of the peasantry was degraded into that of pro-diul servitude. It is well known that the Jesuits have been accused in many countries of favouring laxity of manners ; and there is no doubt that many of their works have a decided tendency to weaken every precept of morality. This charge, however, I sincerely believe, cannot be laid at the door of the Polish POLAND. 197 Jesuits. They inflicted an immense injury upon the nation by tin fade movement which their education gave to the national intellect: the generations brought up in their schools knew nothing but bad Latin ; were full of prejudice, unruly, and riotous ; but it is universally admitted that their manners were pure, and that domestic life in Poland was, dur- ing that period, graced by truly patriarchal virtues. I do not think, besides, that amongst the many casuistic writers of their order, who have advocated principles of more than doubt- ful morality, there is one Polish Jesuit. The Jesuits having in some measure broken the ranks of the Protestants, began to make preparations for subjecting to the dominion of Koine the Eastern or Greek Church of Poland, which was then adhered to by about one-half of the population of the country, including many of its first families. The lands inhabited by that population did not originally belong to Po- land, but were united to it during the fourteenth century. I shall describe, in another part of this work, the establishment of the Greek Church amongst the Slavonic populations, com- prehended under the general name of Russians, and give a short sketch of their history. I shall now only state, that the principality of Halich, or present Galicia, was united to Po- land in 1340, not by mere conquest, but by the right of suc- cession to its sovereignty claimed by the king of Poland, Cazimir the Great, on the extinction of the reigning family of Halich. That wise monarch insured at once this important acquisition to his country, by confirming all the ancient rights and privileges of the inhabitants, and by extending to them all those liberties which Poland then already enjoyed. The greatest part of the population professing the tenets of the Eastern Church, were, however, acquired by Poland in 1386, through her union with Lithuania, by the marriage of Jaghel- lon, grand duke of that country, with Hedvige, queen of Po- land, and his consequent election to its throne. The manner in which the sovereigns of Lithuania established their do- minion over that population is very remarkable, and, I think, without parallel in modern history. The Lithuanians, or Lettonians, constitute a separate race, distinct from the Slavonic or Teutonic. Their language, a branch of that of the great Indo- Germanic family, is consi- dered more nearly related to the Sanscrit than any other mo- dern or ancient idiom of Europe.* This race inhabited from * The late Professor Bohlen of Konigsberg, who was considered a great Sanscrit scholar, told the author that he had submitted to Lithuanian pea- sants whole phrases in Sanscrit, which they were perfectly able to under- stand. In relating this curious circumstance, the author himself is, however, 198 CHAPTER X. time immemorial the shores of the Baltic, from the mouths of the Vistula eastwards to the banks of the Narva, and extended to a considerable distance southwards. They were divided into Prussians, Lettonians or Livonians, and Lithuanians, dif- fering from each other by slight dialectic variations. The conquest and conversion of the Prussians was attempted by the Polish monarchs during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, but with only very transient success. This object was achieved in the thirteenth century by the German order of Knights Hospitallers, who partly exterminated and partly converted, but reduced to the most oppressive bondage, the natives of the land; and a similar fate about the same time befel the Lettonians or Livonians, from another German order, that of the Sword-bearers. The remainder of this race, or the Lithu- anians, succeeded, however, not only in maintaining their national idolatry and independence, but in establishing a powerful empire by the conquest of the western Russian prin- cipalities, which far surpassed in extent the original seats of the conquerors. This conquest was achieved more by policy than by force of arms, and under very peculiar, circumstances. The above-mentioned principalities, inhabited by a population converted to the Christianity of the Greek Church, had been in a state of great weakness and disorder since the invasion of the Mongols in 1240, of which I shall speak in treating the subject of Russia, and were, moreover, frequently exposed to the ravages of those barbarians. The Lithuanian sovereigns began about the middle of the thirteenth century gradually to occupy these principalities, securing to their inhabitants the undisturbed enjoyment of their religion, language, and local customs, and appointing as governors of these provinces princes of the reigning family, who became converts to the church, followed by the populations entrusted to their govern- ment. Internal troubles suspended for some time the deve- lopment of the Lithuanian empire; but these having settled, it rapidly advanced, particularly after the accession of Ghedimin, about 1320. This sovereign, endowed \\ith great military and political qualities, occupied, almost without re- sistance, the country extending between the Lithuanian do- minions and the Black Sea, which he organized in a feudal manner, entrusting the several principalities into which it was divided to his sons, who held them as his vassals, or leaving th<- princes whom ho found established there to rule in the same capacity tin ir possessions. His sons, who wen; entrusted with these provinces, were all baptized, and received into the Greek unable - any opinion as to its correctness, not being a competent judge of the subject. POLAND. Church; and some of them married to the princesses belonging to the families which had reigned over these countries. Ho himself assumed the title of the Grand Duke of Lithuania and Russia; and although he remained in the idolatry of his na- tion, his Christian subjects became so loyal to their Pagan sovereign, that they faithfully served him in all the wars, not only against the followers of the Western Church Germans and Poles but even against those who belonged to their own, i.e.) Moscow. The Russian dialect of the north-western prin- cipalities, or that of White Russia, which were first annex* d to Lithuania, was adopted for the official transactions of that country, and continued so till about the middle of the seven- teenth century, when it was gradually superseded by that of the Polish. Ghedimin was succeeded by his son Olgherd, an ambitious and talented prince, who was baptized into the Greek Church on his marriage with a princess of Vitepsk. He attended Christian worship at Kioff, and other towns of his Russian possessions, built churches and convents, and was prayed for by his Christian subjects as the orthodox Grand l)uke Olgherd ; but at Vilna, the capital of Lithuania proper, he sacrificed to his national idols, and adored the sacred fire which was kept continually burning in a fane of that capital a religious dualism which has no parallel in history, except, perhaps, in the dignity of the supreme pontiff of Rome, retained for some time by the Christian emperors of Constantinople. He is said to have died as a Christian; but his body was burnt with all the Pagan rites of his ancestors. Several of his sons were baptized and educated in the tenets of the Greek Church ; but Jaghellon, who succeeded him on the throne, was brought up in the Pagan creed of his nation. He became, however, a convert to the Christianity of the Western Church in 1386, on his marriage with Hedvige, queen of Poland, to the crown of which country he was elected at the same time. He also brought about the conversion of the Lithuanian idolaters * to the same church, whilst the followers of the Greek Church re- mained in their former confession. * Paganism lingered, however, in Lithuania for a considerable time after the conversion of its sovereign. This was particularly the case in Samo- gitia, a province lying near the shores of the .Baltic, southward of Courlaud, where the last sacred grove was cut down, and the national idolatry entirely abolished, only in 1420. It is a curious fact, that in 1390 Henry the Fourth of England, as Earl of Derby, engaged in a crusade, along with the German knights of Prussia, against Lithuania, which was re-presented by those knights as still Pagan, although it had already been baptized four years before. Henry fought under the walls of Vilna against the Lithuanians and Poles, and in single combat killed Prince Czartoryski, brother to Jaghellon. This fact is related in the Lithuanian chronicles, as well as by Walsingham, who says that Henry killed the brother of the king of Polayne. 200 CHAPTER X. The archbishops of Kioff, metropolitans of the Russian churches, transferred their residence in the middle of the thirteenth century to Vladimir, and afterwards to Moscow, whence they maintained their spiritual jurisdiction over the churches of the Lithuanian dominions; but the Grand Duke Vitold, whom I had an opportunity of mentioning (page 71), in 1415, caused the election of an archbishop of Kioff, indepen- dent of that of Moscow. The union between the Eastern and Western Churches, concluded at Florence in 1438, was not acceded to by the Lithuanian churches, although some prelates had attempted to introduce it. The churches of Halich, united with Poland in 1340 (page 197), acknowledged the archbishop of Kioff as their metropolitan, and he himself depended on the patriarch of Constantinople, from whom he received his consecration. The Greek Church of Poland had therefore a completely organized hierarchy, and a great number of con- vents and other ecclesiastical establishments, endowed with considerable landed property. The bishops were elected by the nobles or landowners, confirmed by the king, and then consecrated by the archbishop. Thus the hierarchy of that church was generally composed of nobles, many of whom were men of learning, often educated in foreign universities, or in that of Cracow. 1 have already said that many great families of Lithuania belonged to the Greek Church. Such were the Princes Czartoryski, Sanguszko, Wiszniowietzki, Ostrogski, &c. The Greek subjects of Poland were no less loyal to their country than the Roman Catholics: they filled the highest offices of the state; and it is remarkable that the greatest victory which the Poles ever won over the Muscovites, that of Orsha, in 1515, was gained by Prince Constantino Ostrogski, a follower of the Greek Church, and a zealous opponent of its union with Rome. Such was the state of the Greek Church in Poland when the Jesuits undertook to subject it to the supremacy of Rome, by introducing the union of Florence. They commenced their work by the publication of writings advocating that union, at the same time making every possible effort to gain over to their cause the most influential clergymen of that church, particularly by holding out to them the prospect that their bishops would have seats in the senate, like those of the ]v nnan Catholic Church. They did not attempt to convert ijiiU ln-lonving to the Greek Church who frequented their schools, as they did those of the Protestants; they merely tried to gain them over to their views regarding the union with Rome, which having accomplished, they induced them to enter the church to which they belonged, instructing POLAND. 201 them to conceal their intentions, but to prepare quietly and cautiously the ground for the projected union, until the pro- per time to act openly should arrive. The charge of assum- ing the mask of a religious confession opposed to their own church, in order to undermine- and destroy it, has been often made against the Jesuits ; but I do not think that it is possi- ble to establish in any case such strong and indubitable evi- dence of this nefarious proceeding, as that which is afforded by the history of the union of the Greek Church of Poland with Rome, brought about by their machinations. The indi- vidual chosen by the Jesuits to play the principal part in this drama, which inflicted a mortal blow on the most vital in- terests of Poland, was a Lithuanian noble called Michael Rahoza, educated in their schools, and who, having taken orders in the Greek Church, was rapidly promoted by the in- fluence of his protectors, and nominated, at their recommen- dation, by King Sigismund the Third, archbishop of Kioff. in violation of the established custom, according to which ho should have been elected by the nobles of his church, and only confirmed by the king. The Jesuits, who directed all his actions, addressed to him a written instruction how he was to destroy the party opposed to Rome, and feign at the same time an attachment to that party. This remarkable document, which throws a strong light upon the unscrupulous means by which some zealous adherents of Rome try to over- come its opponents, has been printed in the work of Lukasze- wicz, which I have repeatedly quoted ; and in the note below I give its literal translation from the original Polish, retain- ing the Latin expressions with which it is interlarded.* It * " It is our wish that you should consider our counsels and exhortations, as a proof of our good wishes for yourself, as well as for the general good of the Catholic Church. Because, although we readily acknowledge that it is our duty and profession to promote, above all things, the increase of the Church universal, it is nevertheless this same erM i;Mi i-cc!. M .stical authority, t. e., the patriarch of Constantinople ; for- gettmx that tin .to depended upon the i>ope, who : Mii'l.itiU' aiithuiity than tie pa'ri.irvh. * The protop.ip.'i is one TI>!I priest, and the holiest to which a secu- lar clergym.m t'luirch can rise, all ecclesiastical dignities being reserved in that church tor the regular clergy. POLAND. 203 regarding his zeal and talents, tempted by the hope of occu- pying one of the highest dignities in the state, and taught how to pursue a systematic line of policy, consisting of a of deceits and positive frauds. This document may give an idea of the means employed by the Jesuits and their tools for gaining the other members of the Greek Church of Poland ; and it is no wonder that they made considerable pro- gress. When the ground was prepared in this manner, the archbishop of Kioff, in 1590, convened a synod of his clergy at Brest, in Lithuania, to whom he represented the necessity of a union with Home, and the advantages which would thereby accrue to their country and to their church ; and, indeed, it was certainly not only more flattering to the self-love of the clergy, but even more congenial to the feelings of the more intelligent of them, to depend upon the head of the Western Church, who was surrounded by all the prestige that wealth and power can give, and whose authority, supported by men of the most eminent talents and learning, was acknowledged by powerful vices, or simply by gifts. Ceremonies (Roman) must not be suddenly intro- duced into your church; this may be gradually effected. Disputes and con- troversies with the Western Church are, in speciem, not to be neglected ; and other similar means are to be employed in order to cover every trace of your undertaking, by which not only the eyes of the populace, but even those of the nobles, may be blinded. Separate schools may be opened for their youths, provided the pupils are not prohibited from frequenting Catho- lic churches, and completing their education in the schools of our society. The word union must be entirely banished : it will not be difficult to sub- stitute another word more supportable to the ears of the people. * Those who attend elephants avoid to wear red coats.' With regard to the nobles in particular, it is necessary above all things to inculcate on them (making of it a case of conscience) that they should have no connection with the heretics, either in Poland or in Lithuania, but, on the contrary, faithfully assist the Catholics in eradicating them. This advice is in our opinion of the greatest importance, because, until the heretics shall be exterminated in our country, no perfect concord and union between the Greek and Ca- tholic Churches may be expected to take place in it. For how can the fol- lowers of the Eastern Church entirely submit to the authority of the holy father, so long as there are in Poland people who, having formerly been members of the Western Church, have revolted against its authority ? For the remainder, let us rely in the first place upon God, and then upon the vigilance of his majesty the king, who has in his hands the disposition Benefici- orum spirit ualiu in, as well as on the zeal of those landowners who, having in their estates the jus jiatronatus, will admit to the performance of the Divine worship only Uniats; having at the same time a good hope, that such a pious and saintly monarch, and his council, so ardently zealous for the Ca- tholic worship, who have already begun to oppress the apostates from the holy Catholic religion, partly by the tribunals, and partly by the diets, will give in the same manner such a pull to the obstinate schismatics, that, nolens miens, they shall submit to the authority of the holy father. We monks shall not be wanting in assisting this work, not only by our prayers, but also by our labours in the vineyard of the Lord." (Extract from a let- ter addressed by the College of the Jesuits of Vilua to the Archbishop Rahoza. Lukaszcicicz, vol. i., p. 70.) 201 CHAPTER X. and civilized nations, than on the patriarch of Constantinople, the slave of an infidel sovereign, by whose appointment he held his dignity, and presiding over a church degraded by gross ignorance and superstition. The archbishop's project found much favour with the clergy, but met with a strong opposition from the laity. Another synod was convened at the same town in 1594, at which several Roman Catholic pre- lates assisted. After some deliberation, the archbishop and several bishops signed their consent to the union concluded at Florence in 1438, by which they admitted the Filioque, or the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, purgatory, and the supremacy of the pope; retaining the Slavonic language in the celebration of Divine service, and the ritual, as well as the discipline of the Eastern Church. A delegation was sent to announce this event at Rome, where it was received with great distinction by Pope Clement the Eighth. After the return of that delegation, the king, in 1596, ordered the convocation of a synod for the publication and introduction of the union. It assembled again at Brest; and the archbishop of Kioff, as well as the other prelates who had subscribed to that union, made a solemn proclamation of this act, addressed thanks to the Almighty for having brought back the stray sheep into the pale of his church, and excom- municated all those who opposed the union. The greater part of the laity, with Prince Ostrogski, palatine of Kioff, at their head, as well as the bishops of Leopol and Premysl (the present Galicia), declared, however, against that measure; and the prince assembled a numerous meeting of the nobility and clergy adverse to Rome, at which the bishops who had brought about the union were excommunicated. The party of the union, however, supported by the king and the Jesuits, began an active persecution against its opponents, and a great number of churches and convents were taken from them by violence. Rudzki, who succeeded Rahoza in the metropolitan see, and who, having been educated and converted from Pro- testantism by the Jesuits, had become their blind tool, was promoting the union with a high hand. The bishop of Pol- otzk, Josaphat Konccwicz, a prelate of irreproachable life, but of a most intolerant zeal, having mot with great opposi- tion in his diocese, proceeded against his antagonists with such violence as to excite a great alarm amongst the wiser of tin- Roman Catholics. Prince Leo Sapielia, ehunrrllor of Lithuania, one of the most eminent statesmen the country has produced, strongly represented to Kmieewie/ that his proceedings were as impolitic as they \veiv unchristian. His letter, a translation of which will be found in the note below, PRIICE LEO SAPIEIA. POLAND. 20,") gives a fair idea of tho violence of the Romanist party, as well as of tin 1 mischief which they were inflicting upon the country.* But tho influence of the Jesuits was already strong enough to render nugatory the efforts which Sapieha was making to avert *Sapieha,in this letter, dated Warsaw, April 12, lG22,eays, "By the abuse of your authority, and by your deeds, which originate rather in vanity and personal hatred than in charity towards your neighbour, and are contrary to the laws of our country, you have kindled these dangerous sparks, which may produce an all-consuming fire. Obedience to the laws of the country is more necessary than the union with Rome. An ill-judged propagation of the union injures the majesty of the sovereign. It is right to labour that there should be but one fold and one shepherd; but it is also necessary to labour with reflection, and not to apply the cogi intrare, which is contrary to our laws. A general union can be promoted only by charity, and not by force; therefore it is no wonder that your authority meets with opposition. You inform me that your life is in clanger; but I think it is your own fault. You tell me that you are bound to imitate the ancient bishops by sufferings. The imitation of the great pastors is indeed praiseworthy, and you should imitate their piety, doctrine, and meekness. Read their lives, and you will not find that they brought indictments before the tribunals "of Antioch or Constantinople; whilst all the courts of justice are busied with your prose- cutions. You say that you must seek defence against, the agitators. Christ, being persecuted, did not seek for it, but prayed for his persecutors : so ought you likewise to act, instead of scattering offensive writings, or utter- ing menaces, of which the apostles have left no example. Your sanctity assumes that you are permitted to despoil the schismatics, and to cut off their heads : the gospels teach the contrary. This union has created great mischief. You offer violence to consciences, and you shut up churches, so that Christians perish like infidels, without worship or sacraments. You abuse the authority of the monarch, without even having asked permission to make use of it. When your proceedings cause disturbances, you directly write to us that it is necessary to banish the opponents of the union. God forbid that our country should be disgraced by such enormities ! Whom have you converted by your severities ? You have alienated the hitherto loyal Cossacks ; you have converted sheep into goats ; you have drawn danger on the country, and perhaps even destruction on the Catholics. The union has not produced joy, but only discord, quarrels, and disturbances. It would have been much better if it had never taken place. Now, I inform you that, by the king's command, the churches must be opened and restored to the Greeks, that they may perform Divine service. We do not prohibit Jews and Mahommedans from having their places of worship, and yet you are shutting up Christian temples. I receive threats from every part, that all connection with us will be broken off. The union has already deprived us of Starodub, Severia, and many other towns and fortresses. Let us be- ware that this union do not cause your and our destruction." This condem- nation of the bishop's conduct by Sapieha is the more remarkable, as he was himself born and educated a Protestant, but afterwards seduced into Romanism. Leo Sapieha rendered considerable services to his country in the council and in the field, and united in his person the two dignities of chancellor and hetman, or commander-in-chief, of Lithuania. The Lithua- nian statute, or code of laws, which was composed under his superinten- dence, enjoyed a great popularity amongst the inhabitants of the provinces which were governed by it, and when it was abolished under the reign of the present emperor in the Polish provinces of Russia, it was retained in the governments of Chernigoff and Pultava (which was torn from Poland in the seventeenth century), as a special favour to the inhabitants of those provinces. 206 CHAPTER X. the growing evil. Koncevvicz pursued his career of persecu- tion until the inhabitants of Vitepsk, who had on many occa- sions distinguished themselves by their loyalty to the crown of Poland, excited by that persecution, rose on the 12th July 1623, and murdered the intolerant prelate, who received the honours of canonization in 1643 ; and this crime was followed by a severe punishment. The most pernicious political consequence produced by the union was the disaffection of the Cossacks of the Ukraine, who were zealously attached to the tenets of the Eastern Church. They composed a large armed body, inured to the dangers and hardships of a mili- tary life by a constant border warfare with the Turks and the Tahtars. The Cossacks, who had received a regular or- ganization from Stephen Batory, loyally served Poland, not only against her Mahommedan neighbours, but also against the Muscovites, who professed the same creed as themselves. It was therefore as impolitic and dangerous as it was unjust, to irritate the followers of the Eastern Church by a religious per- secution, which might easily convert them from loyal subjects into deadly enemies. Attempts at forcing the union upon the Cossacks produced some partial outbreaks amongst them, which, however, were easily put down, as the great bulk of the population were retained in their loyalty by the great popula- rity which Prince Vladislav, eldest son of the king, enjoyed amongst them, as well as by their no less popular hetman, or commander-in-chief, Peter Konaszevvicz. This leader ren- dered immense services to his country during its wars with Turkey and Moscow ; but he was a no less devoted son of the Eastern Church than of Poland. It was under his protection that the party opposed to the union convened a synod at Kioff, which elected an archbishop of that place, and other prelates, instead of those who had accepted the union, and they were consecrated by Theophilus, patriarch of Jerusalem, who had arrived at Kioff, on his return from Moscow to the east. Thus the union divided the Eastern Church of Poland into two op- posite and hostile churches, and the ecclesiastical disruption was soon followed by one of a political nature. But I must now return to the affairs of the Protestants. CHAPTER XL POLAND (CONTINUED.) Deplorable success of Sigismund's efforts to overturn the cause of Protes- tantism in Poland Disastrous consequences of his policy to the coun- try, notwithstanding the services of several eminent patriots Potocki Zamoyski the Great Christopher Itad/iwill Melancholy effect of Sigismund's conduct on the external relations of Poland Reign of Vladislav the Fourth, and his fruitless attempts to overcome the influ- ence of the Jesuits. THE union of Brest, although rejected by a great number of the nobles and clergy, as well as by the great majority of the inferior classes, was, however, accepted by many influential clergymen and rich nobles, which gave increased strength to the party of the Jesuits, and emboldened them to proceed with greater violence against the Protestants, adding perse- cution to seduction. The laws of the country not permitting the anti-Romanists to be oppressed by public authorities, the Jesuits effected the same end by exciting the lower classes, through means of the pulpit and the confessional, to acts of violence against Protestant churches and schools, as well as against ministers, and insuring, by their intrigues, impunity for these crimes. I have stated that King Sigismund the Third, during his long reign, conferred the most important offices of the state on individuals recommended to him by the Jesuits. The courts of justice were composed of elective magistrates, returned for a short time ; and it was therefore easy for the Jesuits to fill these tribunals with persons devoted to their interests ; because, having attained an almost exclu- sive control over the education of the nobles, or the ruling class of the country, the generations educated in their schools were entirely under their direction ; and this gave them an immense influence over the administration of justice through- out the whole country. It was therefore no wonder that the perpetrators of the greatest outrages upon the Protestants should escape punishment with such tribunals, who acquitted the guilty by legal quibbles, a flaw in the evidence, &c. ; or, when the case was too flagrant, the guilty were provided with means of escaping by flight from the consequences of the de- cree which the tribunal could not avoid awarding against the 208 CHAPTER XI. culprits. In many cases the guilty were sheltered from punish- ment, the aggrieved parties being often prevented by intimi- dation from prosecuting the offenders, as well as by the consi- deration that such a step would produce no other result than expense to the prosecutor. Attempts to destroy Protestant places of worship, to disturb their burials by offering indigni- ties to the dead bodies, and to ill-treat the ministers, had been made even before the accession of Sigismund the Third, but they generally met with proper punishment. Under the reign of that monarch, however, a systematic war by mob riots, ex- cited by the Jesuits or their tools, was begun against the Protestants. Thus, in 1591, the Protestant church of Cracow was burned down by a mob, led on by some students of the university, and instigated by the Jesuits.* No justice against the perpetrators of this crime was obtained ; and the Protes- tants, in order to avoid the recurrence of a similar calamity, transferred their place of worship to a village in the vicinity of Cracow, where, however, they were not always secure from repeated attacks. This, and the personal insults and acts of violence to which the Protestants were frequently exposed, induced a great number of the Protestant citizens to emigrate from that city, by which its welfare was much injured. The Protestant churches at Posen, Vilna, and other places, were destroyed in the same manner, the graves of the dead pro-, faned, and the ministers ill-treated. In addition to personal violence, the Protestants had often to contend with attacks on their property, for which, through the influence of the Ro- man Catholic clergy, they could get no redress. The dying were subjected to every kind of vexation, for the purpose of extorting from them a word or a sign which might warrant that they had abjured their creed before their death. The nearest relations parents, and even children undertook the task of disturbing the last moments of their dying relatives a proceeding more calculated to unsettle their minds, and fill * Ileydensteyn says that this riot was occasioned by some Scotch, who had then a considerable congregation at Cracow, and who, having commenced a public disputation about religion, which led to a quarrel, were carried away by the part f<>rinn liKjen'nnn to such a dogreo, that they killed some of their adversaries. The contemporary Thuanus positively states that it. was produced at the instigation of the Jesuits. The Jesuit Skanja, who published a pamphlet on that occasion, accused the Protestants of having be^iin the riot, and maintained, in the lame pamphlet, that what existed un- lawfully illicit be destroyed without injustice ; and that this was the case with the I'n.testant church of Cracow, because the local bishops, to whom, by the authority of (Jud, judgment concerning tho truth of reli-ion exclu- sively belongs, had not authori/i >, libri ii., Venice, 15G3 ; a work which is held in high esteem by clas- sical scholars, and was reprinted several times, and soon afterwards De con- stitut'tonibus et immunitatibus a!m< iinicersitatis Patavincc and De perfecto senatore synt' r,n'mi ]>erse in script is rcHijuit, inajciinc ex tituicorum sen- .'vc., &c., 1G04. Tin- contemporary Thuanus speaks with great praise of Zamoyski. His iants continue to occupy a high position in their native land, and are well known in this country. * King! Ho not tourhtheswi.nl, lest a late posterity slivihl caM ynti ; and us "*. We arc ckctiTs of kings, destroyers of tyrants, lleign, but do not comm.iiid. 1'OLAXO. order to put a stop to the daily growing evil. Unfortunately lor Poland he died soon afterwards, and things went from bad to worse, so that a civil war was produced. This war was ended by the defeat of the opponents of Sigismund, and the conclusion of a peace arranged by the efforts of several influential patriots, but it did not arrest the downward tendency into which that infatuated monarch was hurrying the country. I have described above the baneful influence of the Jesuits on the national education (page 193), and the discontent of the followers of the Eastern Church produced by the same cause (page 206). These two circumstances became afterwards a source of numberless woes to Poland, and the main cause of the decline and fall of that kingdom ; but the melancholy effects of the same influence on the foreign affairs of that country became manifest even during the reign of Sigismund himself. Thus he lost his own hereditary kingdom of Sweden, where he tried to restore Romanism, and involved Poland in a war with that country, which ought to have been her most natural and efficient ally, having with her one and the same individual for a sovereign. The fine province of Livonia, particularly important on account of its seaports, which had submitted to Poland under Sigismund Augustus, and was inhabited by a Protestant population, was lost by the inconceivable bigotry of that monarch. Strong discontent was created amongst its inhabitants by the introduction of the Jesuits into Riga under Stephen Batory, and this circumstance greatly facilitated its conquest by the Swedes. It would, however, have been saved by Prince Christopher Radziwill, who valiantly defended that province against the Swedes, and maintained, through his personal influence, its population in their allegiance to his sovereign. But Sigismund and his wretched advisers, who hated Radziwill on account of his being a zealous Protestant, refused to send him any assistance.* Thus, in order to pre- * Prince Christopher Radziwill was son of Christopher Radziwill, pala- tine of Vilna, and hetman of Lithuania, who had distinguished himself by many military achievements, and grandson of Radziwill Rufus (page 183). I ex- tract the following notice about him from a work on the Polish nobility, by the Jesuit Niesiecki, whom I have already quoted, and to whom it is necessary to give credit, that, like his Bohemian fellow-Jesuit Balbinus, he renders justice to the merits of many of his countrymen, whose creed he condemns : "Having joined with a considerable force of his own the hetman Chod- kiewicz (a celebrated warrior), he distinguished himself so much against tho Swedes, that Chodkiewicz, perceiving his great valour and military talents, obtained for him the appointment to the office of field hetman (second in command). Now, when Chodkiewicz was engaged against the Turks, tho Swedes unexpectedly invaded Livonia, and took Riga. Radziwill having assembled as many troops as he could, harassed the enemy, and obtained several advantages over him, but as he did not receive any reinforcements, he could not arrest, with a handful of soldiers, the overwhelming force of CHAPTER XI. vent a Protestant subject from distinguishing himself, although it was against a Protestant nation, an important province was the enemy, who invaded Lithuania, and took Radziwill's own castle, Birzen. Radziwill succeeded, however, notwithstanding the small number of his troops, in preventing the Swedes from penetrating farther into Lithuania. This mischief was chiefly caused by the hatred of some people about the king, who could not look without envy on the deeds of that most excellent man, and calumniated him before the monarch, so that it came to pass that the great generalship of Lithuania, after the death of Chodkiewicz, was not given, as it ought to have been, to this nobleman, who had rendered such services to his country. Notwithstanding this mark of royal disfavour, Rad- ziwill received the thanks of the diet for his defence of Lithuania, lie did not, however, take any part in military affairs during the life of Sigismund the Third, but after the accession of Vladislav the Fourth, he was created great hetman and palatine of Vilna. He concluded (1634) the peace with Muscovy, and afterwards made an expedition against the Swedes, which was soon ended by the conclusion of a peace. lie was strong in action and mighty in coun- sel. He died 1640, and was a zealous patron and defender of the*Genevese sect," Niesiecki, vol. viii., p. 54, t. ed. of 1841. Radziwill was indeed as zealous a defender of the reformed religion as his father and grandfather, whose immense wealth and high dignities, no less than their eminent talents and patriotic virtues, had devolved upon him. He published, at his own expense, a new edition of the Bible, with a dedication to his monarch, in which he said, in the name of his fellow- Protestants, that they were ready to appear before the Anointed of the Lord, and render an account of their faith, not from any human doctrines and traditions, but from the Scriptures inspired by the Holy Ghost. Although he did not make use of any such strong expressions as those which his predecessor Radziwill the Black had employed in his dedication of the same Bible to Sigismund Augustus (page 152), he alluded to that dedication as a precedent to his own. The abolition of the Protestant church and school at Vilna, which was erected by the ancestors of Radziwill, and which all his efforts could not prevent, broke the heart of the old warrior, whose long life was spent in the service of his country, by defending it from the attacks of its external enemies, and struggling against the still more dangerous hostility of the Jesuit advisers of the monarch. His son Janus, palatine of Vilna, and hetniau or great general of Lithuania, was a gallant soldier and skilful leader, who rendered great services to his country during the war of the Cossacks (16-1S- 54.) He defeated those rebels several times, who had devastated many other provinces, and secured Lithuania from their inroads. When Poland was invaded in 1655 by Charles Gustavus of Sweden, who was joined by many malcontents, and King John was obliged to retire from the country (ri chapter), Lithuania was overrun by an immense Muscovite army, united with the revolted Cossacks, to whose assistance it was sent by tli The Lithuanians, placed in such a perilous situation, acknowledged the king of Sweden as their hei-editary sovereign, and declared their own independ- ence from Poland, This was done by a convention concluded at Keydany on the 18th August 1651, and signed on behalf of Lithuania by Prince .lanns Rtul/iwill, a Protestant, the bishop of Samogilia, and another Roman Catho- itor. It was therefore a purely political, and not a religious affair; and was brought about, not for the separate interests of the Protestants, but for those of the Lithuanians in g' had no other meair from a barbarous and cruel enemy, than by acknowledging the sovereignty of u monarch whose authority w. land ; and \ to say, tin-re are many writers who BflClibe all this affair to the l/.iwill, an >nts of hav- ing abetted the Swedes, notwithstanding that a simple narration of facts POLAND. sacrificed. Tho same tiling occurred in Polish Prussia, when- 1 towns, irritated by the attempts which were made by the Jesuits against their religious liberty, scarcely made any anco to Gustavus Adolphus, though favourable circum- stance pivvoiited tin; loss of that province to Poland. His son, Prince Vladislav, was elected tzar by the Muscovites in 1612, and would have occupied their throne without oppo- sition ; but instead of taking advantage of a circumstance so favourable to Poland, Sigismund refused to confirm the treaty concluded to that effect by the Polish general Zolkiewski, and tried to possess himself of the crown of Moscow. His known bigotry, and his zeal to propagate the union with Rome, were too well known, and led the Muscovites to a desperate resist- ance against a connection with Poland, which they themselves had before sought. The influence of his Loyolaite advisers rendered him entirely subservient to the policy of Austria, whose interests he always promoted, to the detriment of those of his own kingdom. Thus, when the Bohemians rose in de- fence of their religion and political liberties against the house of Austria, instead of imitating the policy of Casimir Jaghel- lon (page 102), who had supported that cognate nation against a similar oppression, he sent, without the consent of the diet, which, according to the constitution, was required for a war, a strong body of Cossacks into Hungary, which greatly con- tributed to arrest the progress of Bethlem Gabor, prince of Transylvania (page 109) ; and having irritated the sultan by this breach of neutrality, he involved Poland in a war with Turkey, as unnecessary as injurious to her interests. These calamities outweighed by far the advantages of the provinces proves the contrary. This is, however, not a single instance of the injustice with which the Polish Protestants have been treated by many writers, simply from having been no better than their Roman Catholic countrymen, whilst the many services rendered to their country by Protestant warriors and statesmen are usually recorded without any mention of the religion of these eminent individuals, so that the generality of readers believe them to have been Roman Catholics. It is very remarkable that many Polish writers, who cared very little about Romanism, could not got rid of an in- voluntary prejudice against the Protestants ; and it proves, perhaps, more than any thing, the truth of the calumniarc / <7 !><>/; ', a principle of which the Jesuits have made frequent application against their living and dead opponents, and of which I have given a specimen on page 191. Prince Janus Radziwill died in 1655, soon after the aft'air to which I have alluded. He left one child, a daughter, who married her cousin, Prince Bogu- slav Radziwill, the last Protestant of his family, who died 1GG9. He had one daughter, Princess Louisa, who was married to a prince of Brandenburg, son of the great elector, and after his death to the prince palatine of Neuburg. The royal house of Bavaria is descended from that princess, and it is on this account that every Radziwill is a knight of the Bavarian family order of St Hubertus. 21 G CHAPTER XI. which were conquered from Muscovy under his reign, but were lost in a quarter of a century after his death. Being a Protestant, I may be suspected of having exagge- rated the pernicious influences of the Roman Catholic reac- tion upon the destinies of my country ; but this is a fact which is now acknowledged by every impartial historian, and em- phatically proclaimed by a contemporary writer of acknow- ledged merit, and a Roman Catholic bishop himself (Piasecki), who positively declares that all the mischief which happened during the reign of Sigismund the Third was entirely due to the influence of the Jesuits.* Sigismund was succeeded by his eldest son, Vladislav the Fourth, who was of a character entirely opposed to that of his father. His mind was enlightened by considerable infor- mation, which, with his experience of the evils caused by the bigotry of his father, produced in him so strong a dislike to the Jesuits, that he never would admit any member of that order to his court. His naturally benevolent disposition and upright character made him loathe persecution, as well as every de- viation from conduct strictly honourable. He bestowed his favours and the offices of state according to the merit of the individuals, and without any regard to their religious persua- sion. His sincere efforts to arrest religious persecution were, however, unable to overcome the spirit of intolerance and bigotry which the Jesuits had widely diffused, particularly amongst the numerous class of the inferior nobles educated in their schools. Although he succeeded in repressing the mob riots against the Protestants, he was unable to prevent two great acts of legal persecution against the anti-Romanists, namely, the abolition of the Protestant church and college at Vilna in 1640, and that of the celebrated Socinian school of Racow, ordered by diets, on account of alleged insults offered by the pupils of those schools to statues of saints. Vladislav made great efforts to allay the irritation created amongst the * " Subter finem ejusdem anni (1616) decesserat quoquc cuUculi rc>jii pr s1it'1r.-(iif, i*ti tuggereboHt, quid rex decerturit^ i'ii/to majori reipubliccc periculo, quod fid hiijns)iinica fuit crmrtiin, ti-.n in If, ct tamen sacnl^fii <-riin<-ii r<-pni/-' :> brethren, which was granted them with much liberality by the Protestants of these countries. It contains a description of the most revolting barba- rities inflicted upon Protestants, without respect to age or sex ; and concludes with the words, dolor vctat j)/ut\t zcwicz contains the whole of the judicial proceed- ings relating to this crime. TOLAM). culing the arguments of tho author. This circumstance was found out by a debtor of Lyszczynski, called .Ur/oska, who denounced him as an atheist, delivering, as the evidence of his accusation, a copy of the work, with the above-mentioned an- notation, to Witwicki, bishop of Posen, who took up the affair with the greatest keenness. lie was zealously seconded by Xaluski, bishop of Kiotf, a prelate known for his great learn- ing, and not devoid of merit in other respects, which, however, proved no check against religious fanaticism.* Tho king, who was very far from countenancing such enormities, at- tempted to save Lyszczynski, by ordering that, being a Lithu- anian, he should be judged at Vilna; but nothing could shelter the unfortunate- man against the fanatical rage of the two bishops; and the great privilege of a Polish noble, that he could not be imprisoned before his condemnation, and which heretofore was sacredly observed, even with great criminals, was violated. On the simple accusation of his debtor, sup- ported by two bishops, the affair was brought before the diet of 1689, before which the clergy, but particularly Bishop Za- luski, accused Lyszczynski of having denied the existence of God, and uttered blasphemies against the holy virgin and the saints. Tho unfortunate victim, horrified by his perilous po- sition, acknowledged all that was imputed to him, made a full recantation of what he might have said or written against the doctrines of the lloman Catholic Church, and declared his entire submission to its authority. This was, however, of no avail to him; and the diet, instigated by the blasphemous representations of the clergy, decreed that Lyszczynski should have his tongue pulled out, be beheaded, and then burnt. This atrocious sentence was executed; and Zaluski himself gives a relation of what he considered an act of piety and jus- tice. The king was horrorstruck at this news, and exclaimed that the inquisition could not do any thing worse. Justice requires it to be added, that Pope Innocent the Eleventh, in- stead of approving, bitterly censured, this disgraceful affair. Atrocities similar to this which I have related have taken place in different parts of Europe; and it was just about that time that not only men, but women and young girls, were murdered in Scotland, not for an alleged blasphemy against God, but for refusing to acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of the king. The remarkable part of this event is the effect of the Humanist reaction upon the country, as proved by the fact that the king was now unable to prevent an act of atro- cious fanaticism, which a century before he would not have * This prelate must not be confounded with either cf the prelates men- tioned in note, p. 124. Q 226 CHAPTER XII. been permitted to commit. I commend this circumstance to the consideration of all those who believe a Roman Catholic reaction impossible. Zaluski gives the following account of this nefarious trans- action : " After the recantation the culprit was conducted to the scaffold, where the executioner tore with a burning iron the tongue and the mouth, with which he had been cruel against God; after which his hands, the instruments of the abominable production, were burnt at a slow fire, and the sacrilegious paper was thrown into the flames; finally, himself, that mon- ster of his century, that deicide, was thrown into the expia- tory flames, if such a crime may be atoned for." * I think that these lines of the learned bishop are as blasphemous as any thing that could be imputed to the unfortunate victim of his fanaticism. The Elector of Saxony, who was elected after the demise of John Sobieski in 1696, under the name of Augustus the Second, on his accession, confirmed, in the usual manner, the rights and liberties of the anti-Romanists; but a new condi- tion was added to the Pacta Conventa, or the constitutional guarantees to which the kings swore at their election, that he should not grant them any senatorial or other important dig- nities and offices. Although that monarch was by no means a bigoted Roman Catholic, but rather indifferent about reli- gious matters, having abandoned the Lutheran Confession for the sake of the crown of Poland, he permitted the bishops to do as they chose with the heretics, in order to gain them over to his political views. The accession of Stanislaus Leszczyn- ski, who was elected in 1704, after the expulsion of Augustus by Charles the Twelfth, inspired the Protestants with the hope that they might yet peacefully enjoy all the rights which the constitution of the country guaranteed to them, in common with the other citizens. These expectations were warranted by the enlightened mind of the newly-elected monarch, a as by the influence of Charles the Twelfth, to whom he owed his crown. The treaty of alliance concluded between Kin^ Stanislaus and the Swedish monarch, expressly guaranteed to the Protestants of Poland the full enjoyment of the rights and liberties secured to them by the laws of the country, abolish- ing all restrictions established in later times. The hoj i 'rotestants, who were persecuted by the troops of lVtrire. The diet, therefore, convoked for tho confirmation of the treaty between Augustus the Second and the nation, lasted only seven hours, during which the above- mentioned treaty wa* read and signed ; and on that account it has been nicknamed the dumb diet. The king gave a de- claration to the Protestants, who petitioned him on the sub- ihat the rights secured to them by law 7 were not invali- dated by the treaty in question. This declaration, as well as the explanations given to Leduchowski, could not be of much service to the Protestants, because the word abuses gave tho greatest latitude to Romanist persecution, as all religious transactions not belonging to their own church were considered by its zealous followers as so many abuses that ought to bo abolished. This first legal enactment against the religious liberty of the Protestants, surreptitiously obtained, did not touch their political rights; and yet at the diet of 1718, Piotrowski, a. Protestant member, was prevented by the priestly faction from taking his seat, in spite of the remonstrances of the moro enlightened members of the diet, although there was no law excluding Protestants from the legislature of the country. But the most flagrant act of persecution committed during the reign of Augustus the Second was the affair of Thorn, which produced a great sensation over the whole of Europe. The town of Thorn, situated in Polish Prussia, and inha- bited chiefly by a population of German origin, became Pro- testant in the sixteenth century. The citizens were always distinguished by their loyalty to the kings of Poland ; and they valiantly defended their town against Charles tho Twelfth, remaining firm in their allegiance to Augustus tho Second. It was the invariable policy of the Jesuits to plant their establishments in the midst of anti-Romanist popula- tions, in order to make proselytes from amongst them for their church. Thus, after a long opposition to them by the inha- bitants, they succeeded in establishing their college in that town, tho Protestant inhabitants of which were exposed to continual annoyance from the pupils of the college, who wero those -who wished to dethrone the monarch, having himself no other object than to secure the liberty and peace of his country. (Vide Eulhl res Hitt. dc I' Anarchie de fa Pvloyne, torn, ii.) Such AMIS the eminent patriot, the last who stood up for the rights of his fellow-citizens whose creed way not his own ; and the religious feeling by which he was guided in the dis- posal of his property, when its sacrifice was not required by the wants of the country, sufficiently proves that he did not act on that occasion from princi- ples of religious indifference, miscalled philosophical. 230 CHAPTER XII. inspired, as elsewhere, with a fanatical hatred of the Protes- tants. The ministers were also continually harassed by the Jesuits. It was natural that such proceedings should produce vio- lent irritation, and lead to collisions; and indeed, on the 16th July 1724, a fight took place, during a procession of the Jesuits, between their pupils and a number o,f Protestant boys. One of the former being arrested for his riotous con- duct by the authorities of the city, his comrades seized a Protestant boy, ill treated him, and carried him as a prisoner into their college, the rector of which refused to liberate him on the demand of the authorities of the town. This produced a great excitement amongst the inhabitants; and a large crowd assembled before the college, and liberated the Protestant boy, without, however, committing any excesses. As they were retiring, shots were fired at them from the college, which excited the crowd to such a degree, that it broke into the col- lege, carried away the furniture, and burnt it. Order was, however, soon restored, and no lives were lost. The Eoman Catholic writers maintain that the people, hav- ing taken possession of the college, destroyed several images of the Saviour, of the Virgin, and of the saints, threw upon the ground the host, and offered various insults to their reli- gion ; but this allegation is denied by Protestants. It is, however, very likely that some images were destroyed by the populace. This afforded the Jesuits an excellent opportunity for in- flicting a new blow on the Protestants of Poland. They therefore immediately spread over all the country a printed account of what they gave out as a sacrilege, representing it to the nation as an insult offered to the Divine Majesty, call- ing out for exemplary vengeance on the Protestants of Thorn, and recommending that their churches and schools should be taken from them, and, together with the government of the city, be handed over to the Romanists. Their representation produced a strong impression on the public mind ; and the consequent excitement was so great, that at the elections, which were then proceeding, the constituencies enjoined tln-ir representatives not to enter upon the discharge of any duty until the offended majesty of God should be avenged. No kind of agitation, indeed, was omitted that could inspire a fanatical hat ml against the Protestants of Thorn. Agents Mm- employed for the purpose of circulating prints over all the country, n presenting the alleged sacrilege ; public fasts and prayers were ordered by the clergy; and both the pulpit and the confessional were converted into powerful engines of POLAND. agitation. Thcro was also no lack of alleged miracles, as, for instance, that the broken images had emitted blood, &c. A commission, composed of ecclesiastics and laymen, all Roman Catholics, was appointed by the king to investigate the affair. At the investigation, which was directed by tho Jesuits, only the evidence of witnesses presented by them was admitted, whilst those whom the Protestants brought forward were rejected, on the alleged ground of their being accomplices in the crime. More than sixty persons were imprisoned; and the affair was brought before the tribunal called the Assessorial Court, which was the supreme court of appeal for the towns. This tribunal, composed of tho first judicial officers of the state, would certainly have given a fair trial to the accused party; but it was swamped by the addition of forty new mem- bers, chosen for the occasion, under the influence of the Jesuits. The advocate of Thorn contended that the commission, being exclusively composed of Roman Catholics, was illegal, that the witnesses had not been confronted, and that no de- fence of the accused persons had been admitted. His efforts, however, proved unavailing. The defence of Thorn was not received ; and a decree was pronounced on the sole evidence of the commission. This decree, to which was prefixed the blasphemous declaration that " God, had not received an ade- quate revenge,"" condemned the president of the town council, Koesner, to be beheaded, and his property to be confiscated. The crime imputed to him was merely that ho had not done his duty at the breaking out of the riot, a charge which, even if proved, could be punished only by the loss of office. The vice-president of the town, and twelve burghers, accused of having excited the riot, were condemned to the same pen- alty ; whilst several individuals were condemned to fines, im- prisonment, and corporeal punishment. The same decree ordained that half of the city council and of the town militia, with all its officers, should be Roman Catholics. The college of the Protestants was to be given to them, as well as the church of St Mary. The Protestants were permitted to have schools only beyond the walls of the city; and they were pro- hibited from printing any thing without the approbation of the Roman Catholic bishop. The diet confirmed this decree; and both the president and vice-president of the town, who had been hitherto free, were arrested. Representations were addressed to the king from many places in favour of the condemned; and the city coun- cil of Thorn petitioned for at least a respite in their behalf; but all in vain. The Jesuits, on the contrary, succeeded'in accelerating the term of the execution by a week. 232 CHAPTER XII. There was, however, one circumstance which promised to prevent the execution of this atrocious sentence, and probably induced many members of the tribunal to sign it. It was the condition that the Jesuits should confirm by an oath the facts presented in the indictment a condition which the law abso- lutely required from the prosecuting party for the execution of such a sentence, and which, on this occasion, it seemed impossible to fulfil, on account of the sacred calling of that party, which, it was presumed, would restrain them from an asseveration equivalent to the signature of a death-warrant. The commission entrusted with the execution of the decree assembled on the 5th December 1724, in the town-hall of Thorn, and the accused and accusing parties were summoned to their presence. The last-named party was represented on the occasion by Pater Wolenski and other Jesuits. When the sentence was read, and the confirmatory oath required, Pater Wolenski answered with an assumed mildness, that, as a clergyman, he was not thirsty of blood Rcligiosiim noil sitire sanguinem. But he made a sign to two other Jesuits, Piotrowski and Schubert, who bent their knees, and pro- nounced the required oath. Six laymen belonging to the lowest of the populace did the same, although the decree required that they should be of the same rank as the accused parties.* The sentence was executed on the 7th December. The aged Roesner, a man universally respected, and who had given proofs of his patriotism by valiantly defending Thorn against the Swedes, was beheaded at an early hour, in the yard of the town-hall. He rejected the proposal of saving hie life by the abjuration of his religion, and died with the constancy and resignation of a Christian martyr. He could have easily 1 himself by flight, having been free during all the time of the trial; but he was conscious of his innocence, and, moreover, afraid by such a step of bringing fatal consequences on the town which he governed. He himself announced his condemnation, saying, " God grant that rny death may peace to the church and to the town! 11 His body was buried with all the honours due to his station. The vice-president, Xerniko. who, according to the sentence, was much more guilty than llocsncr, was respited, and finally pardoned. Tlio others condemned were executed, with the excejition of one, who embraced Humanism. The church taken from the Lutho * Strimosius, a Protestant author, s.iys, that tin 1 ]>a]>al nuncio in Poland, Santini, did not approve of the affair of Thorn, and forbade the Je.Miit.s to take tin; oath rrquiml for the execution of tli- sentence. Jt is also said that the same nuncio had obtained ;t delay of the sentence, hut that \\heu it arri\cd at Thorn all was over, aud that'he sent an accusation against tho Jesuits to Koine. roi.Am 233 runs was consecrated next day; and the Jesuit Wicruszowski delivered on that occasion a sermon on First Maccabees, iv. 3(5, IS, ">7, in which ho apostrophized the commissioners who had put the sentence into execution, as men more like angels than human beings " '// potias angd'ts quuui horn lit il/ tin The judicial murders of Thorn are tho more painful to contemplate, that Poland had been free from such cruelties at a time when almost every part of Europe was inundated with blood on account of religious differences; and even at so early a period as 1556, when the influence of Lippomani caused the murder of some Jews and a poor Christian girl, which I have related (page 150), a general feeling of indignation was ex- cited throughout the country ; yet in 1724 the Jesuits could raise a general outcry for vengeance against the imaginary offenders of the Deity. Far be it from me to excuse Poland on the ground that there is no country which has not disgraced itself by much greater enormities. What is wrong in itself can never be justified by the example of others. I however think, that a close and impartial investigation of that atro- cious transaction will show that the blame of it was unjustly laid on the Polish nation, and that it should entirely rest with that antinational faction, which made the nation a tool for the attainment of its objects. It is very easy for a strongly orga- nized body, governed by one chief, extending its ramifications over all the country, and influential with all classes of society, to produce a general excitement on any subject whatever, but particularly on one connected with religion, and the more so if that body has at its command two such powerful engines for working on the minds of the people as the pulpit and the confessional. Was it therefore extraordinary that the em- ployment of such means produced their natural effect on the mass of the nation, and that the voice of some few enlightened persons was silenced by the outcry of the multitude? I would ask every impartial and reflecting reader, whether it does not happen in every free country, that the opinion of the great majority, generally called public opinion, is sometimes so mis- led on subjects connected either with religion or politics, by the arts of agitation, that prudent persons, notwithstanding their intellectual superiority over the multitude, must either submit or give place to others who partake of, or profit by, its determination \ Such was the case in Poland, when the agi- tation which the all-powerful society of the Jesuits had pro- duced, by means of misrepresentations, directed the election of the members of the diet, and chose the commission for in- vestigating the affair of Thorn. 234 CHAPTER XII. These considerations could not, however, occur in the first moment of excitement caused by the news of that deplorable event, which undoubtedly did great injury to Poland in the opinion of all Europe. The Protestant monarchs and the states of Holland addressed remonstrances on the subject to the king of that country; and the English ambassador to the German diet, Mr Finch, delivered at Ratisbon, on the 7th February 1725, a most violent speech on the subject, threaten- ins Poland with war if the of the Protestants were not redressed. These menaces only did harm to the Polish Protestants, by irritating the nation, and gave to their ene- mies additional facilities for persecuting them. Immediately after the affair of Thorn, Szaniawski, whose treasonable and treacherous proceedings against the safety of his country and the religious liberty of its citizens I have described (page 227), and who had become bishop of Cracow, issued, on the 10th January 1725, a pastoral letter, in which, after inviting the Protestants to enter the pale of his church, he declared to those who would not obey his invitation, " that they ought to know that he was their pastor, as they had entered by bap- tism the doors of the church, and were its disobedient chil- dren and subjects." He then proceeded, ordering " that the Protestants should observe the Roman Catholic feasts, and bo subject to the Roman Catholic parish priests; that their mar- riages should be celebrated in Roman Catholic churches, and by the Roman Catholic clergy, according to the ordinances of the Council of Trent; and that marriages contracted before a Protestant minister or a civil magistrate should be regarded as null and void;"" because the tribunal of the papal nuncio had declared, on the 25th October 1723, in a cause at Cracow, that " the marriages of the anti-Romanists contracted before a heretic minister were not valid." * Thus a papal nuncio and ti Roman Catholic bishop prescribed laws in matters of reli- gion to Protestants. The Protestant powers of Prussia, Sweden, Denmark, and Holland, continued from time to time to make representations in favour of the Polish Protestants; and the English minister at the Polish court, Mr Woodward, in 1731, presented a me- morial to the king, enumerating the various oppressions to which the Protestants were exposed, requesting the abolition of those abuses, and the restoration of the Protestants to their riifhts. and concluding with a threat of retaliation on the Unman Catholics living in Protestant states. The- ranc< S, howev< r. instead of alleviating the persecutions of the Polish Protestants, served only to ii. heir seve- * /,//' | oL I., i'. ''~>l, gives the whole of this pastoral letter. POLAND. rity; and the throat of Mr Woodward to retaliate the wrongs of the Polish Protestants upon the Roman Catholics of the Protestant states, who were quite innocent of these wrongs, was not only unjust, but particularly inconsistent, coining, as it did, from the minister of a country where penal laws against the Roman Catholics were established. All this gave a great handle to the enemies of the Protestants in Poland, who re- nted these Protestants as living under the influence of foreign powers, and who succeeded in enacting a law in 1 7'j'2, by which anti-Romanists were excluded from all public offices. To the honour of the nation, the legal persecution was not permitted to go farther; and the same law declared the peace, the persons, and the property of the anti-Romanists inviolable, and that they might hold military rank, including that of general officers, and possess starosties or crown-lands. The condition of the Protestants during the reign of Au- gustus the Third, from 1733 to 1764, was melancholy indeed, as is evident from the memorial which they addressed to his successor, King Stanislaus Poniatowski,and to the diet of 1766; in which they said, amongst other things " Our churches have been partly taken from us, under various pretences, and arc partly falling into ruins, as their reparation is prohibited, and a permission for doing it cannot be obtained without much difficulty and cost. Our youths are obliged to grow up in ig- norance, and without the knowledge of God, as schools are forbidden to us in many places. Many difficulties are fre- quently opposed to the vocation of ministers to our churches; and their visits to the sick and dying are exposed to much danger. We must dearly pay for permission to perform the rites of baptism, marriage, and burial, because the price for it is arbitrarily fixed by those who give this permission. The burying of our dead even at night is exposed to great danger; and we are obliged, in order to baptize children, to carry them out of the country. The jus patronatus in our estates is dis- puted to us; and our churches are subject to the visitation of Roman Catholic bishops; our church discipline, maintained according to the ancient order, is subject to great impediments. In many towns, people belonging to our confession are com- pelled to follow Roman Catholic processions. The ecclesias- tical laws, or jura canonica, are imposed upon us. Not only are children proceeding from mixed marriages obliged to be educated in the Roman Catholic religion, but children of a Protestant widow who marries a Roman Catholic are obliged to follow the religion of their stepfather. We are called here- tics, although the laws of the country accord to us the name of dissidents. Our oppression becomes the more grievous, as wo 236 CHAPTER A have no patron either in the senate, or at the diets, the tri- bunals, or any jurisdiction whatever. Even at the elections we dare not appear without exposing ourselves to an evident danger; and for some time we have been cruelly used, in oppo- sition to the ancient laws of the country." This gloomy picture of the universal oppression which weighed on the Protestants of Poland during the reign of the Saxon dynasty was relieved by one single exception, in a quarter where it could least have been expected. Providence sent them a kind friend and efficient protector in the person of Cardinal Lipski, bishop of Cracow. This noble-minded prelate preserved under the Roman purple the heart of a true Christian and patriot ; and he not only protected the Pro- testants in his diocese from the vexations of his clergy, and permitted them to repair their churches, but he made repre- sentations in their favour to the tribunals, and interceded for them to the king. It was probably owing to this enlightened prelate that the Protestants preserved their few remaining churches in the province of Little Poland, which was under his spiritual jurisdiction ; whilst during the reign of the same dynasty they lost about half of those which they possessed in Great Poland and Lithuania. CHAPTER XIII. POLAND (CONTINUED). Melancholy condition of Poland under the Saxon dynasty Subserviency of the Saxon Court to Russia Efforts of the I'rinccs Czartoryski 'and other patriots to raise the condition of their country Restoration of the anti-Romanists or Dissidents to their ancient rights by foreign in- fluence Observations on this subject General remarks on the causes of the fall of Protestantism in Poland Comparison with England Present condition of the Polish Protestants Services rendered by Prince Adam Czartoryski to the cause of public education in the Polish provinces of Russia, and advantages derived from them by the Protes- testant schools of these provinces Melancholy fate of the Protestant school of Kieydany Biographical Sketch of John Cassius, Protestant minister in Prussian Poland High School of Lissa, and Prince An- tony Sulkowski. THE state of Poland at the close of the reign of the Saxon dynasty is described by the eminent Polish historian Lelevel, in the following words : " From the beginning of the reign of John Casimir and the wars of the Cossacks, to the end of the Swedish war and the dumb diet, i.e., from 1648 to 1717, a period of seventy years, different kinds of disasters de- solated the Polish soil and nation. These calamities caused the decline of Poland, whose limits were narrowed by the loss of many provinces, whilst its population was diminished by the emigration of the Cossacks, the Socinians, and a great number of Protestants, as well as by the exclusion from the rights of citizenship of the remaining dissidents. The nation was rendered weak by general impoverishment and distress ; by the system of education, which was either conducted by Jesuits or entirely neglected ; and finally, by the exhaustion consequent on the convulsive struggles which had agitated the country during seventy years. Poland was plunged into a state of stupor : she lost, during the reign of the Saxon dy- nasty, all her energy, and remained inactive, scarcely giving any signs of life, save those that indicate paralysis. Accus- tomed to suffering and humiliation, she imagined herself to be happy ; imbued with false principles, she was satisfied to live in disorder, possessing still a considerable tract of land, and to preserve republican institutions, though surrounded by absolute powers, which increased even as she decreased. 238 CHAPTER xin. " Poland formed a republic ; but for a long timo she had been dependent in all her actions on foreign tutelage. Tho two kings of the Saxon dynasty had no reluctance to subject her to the influence of Russia, and to keep her under the pro- tectorate of Peter the Great, of Anna, and Elizabeth. The court of St Petersburg made continual protestations of the in- terest which it took in the safety of the monarch, as well as in the peace, welfare, and liberty of the republic. It gave frequent assurances that it would not regard with indifference any attempt at altering or injuring them ; and that, in order to prove its sincere friendship for the king and the republic, it would never suffer the formation of the smallest confedera- tion, or any attempt at innovation directed against the sacred person of the king, or against the republic, its liberty and rights, by whomsoever, and under what pretence soever, they might be undertaken ; but that, on the contrary, it would adopt the necessary measures for obviating similar cases."* Such was the melancholy condition to which Poland was reduced by the circumstances which the anti-Romanist reac- tion, conducted by the Jesuits, had brought about. A de- grading dependence upon the Russian court constituted, in- deed, the whole political system of Augustus the Third, and of his minister, Count Bruhl, who ruled in his name. It was very natural that in this state of things many Poles should resort to the court of St Petersburg, as the surest means of obtaining favours at their own. It was still more natural that the Protestants, who were in such a state of op- pression, should do the same ; and, indeed, nothing could be more easy for the Russian court than to redress, by its influ- ence in Poland, the wrongs of the anti-Romanist inhabitants of that country, or at least to alleviate their sufferings, if it acted upon the declarations which it repeatedly made to main- tain the peace, the rights, and the liberty of Poland, decla- rations which could not but furnish an additional motive to those whose peace, rights, and liberty were violated, to claim the fulfilment of promises made in the most solemn manner by a power which was quite able to keep them. I3ut the Russian court meant, by tin 1 maintenance of the rights and liberty of the Polish republic, nothing else than the main- tenance of its defective constitution, with all the abuses which rendered the country powerless, and consequently unable to shako off its dependence upon Russia ; and the Protestants received any alleviation of their wrongs from that quar- ter. The necessity of remedying this wretched state of things, * Lclcvcl's lliftvry cj tlic lltijn cf Manislaus Ponlatomki. POLAND. which tliron toned the country with imminent ruin, was frit, c\. rv day more and more by several enlightened patriots, but particularly so by the princes Czartoryski. This family, pos- sessing immense wealth and influence, undertook to reform the vicious constitution of their country, by the establishment of a well-organised monarchy, which certainly was the only means of raising that country from the humiliating position into which it was plunged by its defective form of government. In order to attain this object, they had to struggle against inveterate prejudices and powerful parties ; and they resolved, as the best means for removing these obstacles, to enlighten the nation, whose intellect was darkened by that wretched system of public education of the Jesuits which I have de- scribed (page 193). They promoted, by the utmost exertions, science and literature, and by every means created partizans throughout all the country. They elevated to a certain de- gree of consideration families of little note, and raised those who had been reduced by adverse circumstances ; and, having gained over Count Bruhl, minister of Augustus the Third, by rendering him some important services, they disposed, through his medium, of public charges, which they bestowed upon meritorious individuals. They sought out men of superior talents, and such as by their writings exercised an influence on public opinion ; and by their exertions they diffused a taste for science and literature amongst the nation. They were powerfully assisted in their noble efforts by Konarski, a Ro- man Catholic clergyman of the order of the Patres Pii, who established schools, in which the system of education was as much calculated to advance the intellect of the pupils, as that of the Jesuits was to arrest its progress. Having prepared the ground in this manner, they succeeded, at the diet of con- vocation (page 176, note), assembled after the demise of Au- gustus the Third in 1764, in overcoming, by means of the Russian troops which had been sent to promote the election of their relative Poniatowski, the republican party, and in in- troducing several most salutary reforms into the constitution of their country, by which the executive power was strength- ened, and the facility of dissolving diets by the veto of one member limited. The Russian government soon perceived, however, that this increase of the royal authority was contrary to its own influence. It therefore gave its support to the re- publican party, which abolished all the reforms introduced by the Czartoryskis, and which would have saved Poland from the partition of her territory, which took place a few years afterwards. It was under these circumstances that the Empress Cathc- 240 CHAPTER XIII. rine, who courted the adulations of Voltaire and other writers of his school, by whom she was extolled for her liberality, de- clared for the anti-Romanists, or, as they were officially called, dissidents, of Poland, and was joined by Frederic the Second of Prussia. The demands of these monarchs were proffered in such a dictatorial manner, that they offended the national pride of many who would not have opposed the claims of the dissidents on religious grounds. The influence of Russia caused these dissidents to form two confederations, at Thorn in Polish Prussia, and at Slutzk in Lithuania, for the reco- very of their rights. These two confederations, composed of Protestants and of the Greek bishop of Mohiloff. as there were no longer any nobles following the Greek Church in Poland, although a great number of its followers were found amongst the peasants, reckoned only five hundred and seventy-three members. Many Protestants loudly disapproved of such vio- lent measures, declaring that the safety of the country was the first law, and that it was much better to suffer abuses, and to submit to the injustice of their own countrymen, than to expose the state to commotions dangerous to its independ- ence.* They were, however, unable to retrace their steps, and a great number of them \vere unwillingly compelled by the Russian troops to join these confederations. The limits of this sketch do not permit me to enter into an account of all the political intrigues with which the cause of the Protestants was mixed up from 1764 to 1767, and the de- tails of which I have given in a separate work.f I shall therefore only state, that in 1767 the dissidents of Poland were readmitted to equal rights with the Roman Catholics, after a long negotiation, in which not only the Russian am- dor and the Prussian minister, but also those of England, Denmark, and Sweden, took a part. This restoration of the Polish Protestants to their ancient rights by the interference of foreign powers, was an event which every patriotic Protestant was much more inclined to deplore than to exult in; and there can be no doubt that arno result would have been brought about a few years later by the rapid progress which the national intellect had made subsequently to that event, particularly since the aboli- tion of the order of the Jesuits in 17734 There cannot, I * This is stated l,y Rulhiriv, who is l.y no HUMUS partial to the Protcs- ( Vi.l,- his //;>/,.;/-,- / / I'vli' : iH.; vol. ii., ]>. .'J.VJ, edition of IM!' . Ami it. is a well-known fact, that they bitterly regretted having be- "f foivi^,, influence. >>/ .///. /. , ', vol. ii., pi'. -J-J'2-.'r, 1. ;': The. oon temporary author Wulch. Protestant, is of the same opinion. (Vul- hi-- I vol. vii.) POLAND. 21-1 think, be er proof of the extent of that progress, or oi the generosity of the national character, than this important fact, that notwithstanding the justly odious circumstances under which tho Protestants had been restored to their ancient rights, and that tho foreign powers which had pro- moted their interests in such a zealous manner entirely aban- doned them when the object was to exact from the nation a mock consent to the first spoliation of the Polish territory, they were not exposed to a renewal of persecution. In concluding this narrative, I cannot help remarking, that although the means by which the Protestants obtained tho restoration of their ancient rights were undoubtedly unjustifi- able, and are deeply to be regretted, the charge which many have brought against them, of having been instrumental in abetting the views of Russia, by claiming her protection for the restoration of their rights, is perfectly absurd. Was it the fault of the Protestants that Russian influence placed Au- gustus the Third on the throne of Poland, at whose accession the political rights of these Protestants were abolished ? Was it the fault of the Protestants that this very Augustus and his ministry kept Poland, during all his reign, in the most dis- graceful subserviency to the court of St Petersburg ? That he reduced the country to such a state of dependence on that court, that it placed on her throne his successor Poniatowski ? Is there any justice in denouncing a small minority of oppress- ed citizens, for having sought redress from the same quarter whither many of their Roman Catholic countrymen resorted for the purpose of getting personal advantages, and whence others believed that the safety of their country was alone to be obtained ? The Protestants were wrong in acting as they did : they ought to have defended their cause by all constitu- tional means, and rather suffered every kind of persecution than sought redress from abroad ; and they ought to have preserved themselves pure from that general contamination which disgraced so many of their Roman Catholic countrymen. This, however, would have been a heroism almost above weak human nature ; and it cannot be wondered at that, goaded by persecution, they committed the same fault as that of which a far greater number of their Roman Catholic countrymen were guilty without having adequate ground of excuse, and of which a deplorable example was set by the court, which in some measure forced the whole nation into that disgraceful course. And yet the reliance of the Protestants on foreign protection was made a constant theme of reproach against them, and their claims were sincerely opposed by many on that ground ; and there are even now writers who, in speak- R 242 CHAPTER XIII. ing of this unfortunate circumstance, continue to throw on the small Protestant minority the blame of a fault for which the large Roman Catholic majority is mainly chargeable, with as much justice as it is clone in another case which I have men- tioned on page 215, note. No one, however, who is acquainted with the histpry of mankind will wonder at this strange and inconsistent proceeding ; for, unfortunately, every where, and at all times, the weaker has been made to bear the blame of the stronger. It is very remarkable, that every public misfortune which visited Poland, seemed to fall with particular weight on the Protestants of that country, whose prosperity was linked with the most brilliant era of the Polish annals, the palmy days of Sigismund Augustus and Stephen Batory. Thus the cala- mities to which Poland was subject during the reign of John Casimir (page 220), had the most deplorable effect on the affairs of the Protestants. The treaty of 1717, which struck the first blow at the national independence, imposed also the first legal restriction on the religious liberty of the Protestants. The long reign of the Saxon dynasty, which, by enervating the national energy, prepared the fall of Poland, was also de- structive of the remaining liberties of the Protestants ; but nowhere did this coincidence appear in so striking a manner as on the closing scene of Poland, the most fatal day of her annals, the 5th November 1794. Amongst the small number of troops destined to defend the extensive fortification of the suburb Praga against the numerous forces of Suwarroff, were included a part of the guards of Lithuania, almost exclusively officered by Protestant nobles of that province, and the fifth regiment of infantry, which also contained many of them. The commander of this last-named regiment, Count Paul Grabow- fcki, belonging to a distinguished Protestant family, a young man of great merit, was then laid up with illness. He drag- ged himself, however, from his sick bed, in order not to miss the post of honour on the night when the attack was expected. lie found a glorious death at the head of his regiment, which, together with the Lithuanian guards, were all lost on that oc- i not a single man escaped not a sinirle man surren- dered. This fatal day threw into mourning almost all the noble IVofo.stant families of Lithuania, each of them having a near or distant relative to lament. If the Protestants of Poland n-mlerod themselves obnoxious to reproach by the means which they employed for the redress of their wrongs, they nobly atoned for tiiis error by this expiatory sacrifice on the funeral pile of their country. Having now concluded a rapid sketch of the fortunes of the POT. AND. Information in Poland, T venture to offer a few general remarks on the subject. The rapid progress made in Poland by the doc- trines of the Information was chiefly owing to the {'act, that they had found the ground favourably prepared for their re- oeption, as well by the doctrines of lluss as by the free insti- tutions of the country ; whilst the main cause which prevented their triumph, and brought about that of their adversaries, may be ascribed to the circumstance that these doctrines were propagated only by individual exertions, and not by the su- preme authority of the country, which remained with the- Roman Catholics. They were breaking up the established church into fragmentary communities, but were not reform- ing it ; and therefore were unable to establish a uniform sys- tem of national worship, which, as was the. case in England and Scotland, would have powerfully promoted its reception by the whole country. The vicinity of Germany, and the German element spread amongst the population of the towns, facilitated the diffusion of Lutheranism in that quarter ; whilst the Bohemian Confession, favoured by the similarity of lan- guage and the sympathies of race between the Poles and Bohemians, made rapid progress in the province of Great Po- land. At the same time, the Genevese Confession, supported by the strenuous efforts of Radziwill the Black (page 151), ex- tended with wonderful rapidity over Lithuania, and made very great progress in southern Poland, where it was pro- moted by several influential families. The extraordinary suc- cess which the cause of the Reformation had obtained in Poland was, however, followed by a series of unfortunate events, which would have produced every where the same results as they did in that country. The success, as well as the reverses, of the Reformation, in all the countries into which it was introduced, was mainly decided by the influence of nionarchs, or rather individuals invested with power, who had promoted or resisted its progress. Thus, had the Refor- mation of Luther not been embraced by the Elector of Saxony and other German princes, and afterwards saved from the Roman Catholic reaction or the interim of Charles the Fifth, by Mauritius of Meissen, would it have been established in a great part of Germany so easily as it was ? And had not the interference of Gustavus Adolphus arrested the progress of Ferdinand the Second, might not Protestant Germany have shared the fate of Bohemia and Austria proper, where Pro- testantism was annihilated by that same Ferdinand ? It was owing to the efforts of that glorious monarch of Sweden, Gus- tavus Vasa, that the Reformation was so rapidly established in his country ; and the same thing took place in Denmark 24i< CHAPTER XIII. under Christian the Third. And would England have now been Protestant, if Queen Mary had succeeded to the throne immediately after the death of her father, when an interval of six years, during which the reformation of the church had been zealously promoted by such a great man as Cranmer, did not prevent that queen from finding a Parliament which pro- claimed the abolition of all that had been done under the reign of her predecessor ? And had the reign of that same queen been prolonged for twenty years, and succeeded by a Roman Catholic sovereign, who can say whether Protestantism would have been the dominant religion of Great Britain, or only the persuasion of a small minority of its inhabitants ? On the other hand, had Francis the First embraced the cause of the Reformation, would not France have now been a Protestant country ? And might not this salutary revolution have been brought about at a later period, if Henry the Fourth had been more firm in his religion ? The same causes which influenced the fortunes of the Re- formation in different parts of Europe, produced the same effect in Poland. Had the days of two such powerful pro- moters of religious truth as Radziwill the Black and John Laski been prolonged, it is very probable that their influence, particularly that of the former, would have decided the waver- ing mind of Sigismund Augustus to embrace that truth by which its triumph would have been at once achieved in Po- land ; but, unfortunately for the cause of scriptural religion, and for that of Poland, their days were cut short at the very time when they were making the most strenuous efforts to establish a reformed national church in their country, and when Protestantism stood in particular need of the assistance of such men, in order to withstand the attacks of such formi- dable champions of the Roman Church as Hosius and Com- rnendoni. The seduction of Batory from Protestanism to Romanism was another blow to the Protestant cause in Po- land ; and the reign of Sigismund the Third, who, during nearly half a century, incessantly laboured for the destruction of the anti-Romanist confessions in his kingdom, produced in Poland the same effects which it would have brought about in any other country. The Protestants themselves undoubtedly committed many lamentable errors, the principal of which were their divisions, caused by the jealousy and ill-will which the Lutherans bore to the <{enevr.se and Bohemian Confessions. It was that un- fortunate feelinir which, after the demise of 8igi0mund Au- gustus, prevented the election of a Protestant to the throne of Poland (page 175) ; and the declamations against the two 245 above-mentioned confessions, mado by several Lutheran di- . \\lio openly declared their preference of the Roman Church to these confessions, could not but act most inju- riously on the interests of all the Protestants. The Polish Lutherans are not, however, exclusively chargeable with tho deplorable proceedings to which I am alluding; for, unfortu- nately, the conduct of their brethren in Germany was no less blameable, and produced even more disastrous consequences, because, as I had an opportunity of relating (page 110), their miserable jealousy of the Reformed Confession dissolved the evangelical union, and brought about the destruction of Pro- tcstanism in Bohemia and Austria proper. One of the great causes of the weakness of tho Protestants in Poland, was the defective organization of their churches, which lacked a common centre. The Genevese and Bohemian Churches, which concluded a union in 1555, were at that time sufficiently numerous to stand a successful contest against their enemies, if they had established a central government, having a permanent action. This was, however, not the case; but each of the three provinces into which the country was politically divided, Great Poland, Little Poland, and Lithu- ania, had its separate ecclesiastical organization, entirely in- dependent of each other ; and they only occasionally united at general synods, the great national convocation of the Polish Protestants. This was a serious defect, because long intervals always took place between the meetings of the general synods, which left unprotected the affairs of the Pro- testants, exposed, meanwhile, to the unceasing persecution of the permanently established Roman Catholic authorities. In order to counteract their enemies, the Protestants should have established a kind of permanent committee, sitting in the capital of the country, unceasingly to watch over their inte- rests. Unfortunately nothing of the kind was done ; and the few general synods which had met were, notwithstanding the great zeal of their members, never able to obtain the objects of their convocation ; and, indeed, it is almost without exception the case, that numerous meetings which occasionally assemble for some important object produce only a powerful excite- ment, followed by a corresponding recoil and lassitude, which renders nugatory all the good intentions which had been ex- pressed at these meetings. This, I think, is the cause why the strongest resolutions passed at the Protestant assemblies of the above-mentioned kind prove but too often vox, vox et prcvterea nihil; whilst the Roman Catholics, without making any public demonstration, quietly but steadily advance to- wards the accomplishment of their objects. 21-G CHAPTER XIII. A great fault was also committed by the Polish anti-Ro- manists at the diet of ] 573, which guaranteed to them reli- fious and civil rights equal to those of the Roman Catholics. t was not sufficient, as experience proved, to exact a gua- rantee of their rights by the legislature of their country a guarantee which the Roman Catholic clergy at once declared invalid, by their refusal to subscribe to it, and which their efforts soon rendered nugatory, and finally destroyed ; the anti-Romanists ought not to have desisted until they had ren- dered their enemies innocuous, by depriving them of the means of injuring them, and reducing them to an equal foot- ing with themselves, that is, until they had excluded the bishops from the senate, and declared by the voice of the legislature that the Church of Rome was not the dominant church of Poland, and thereby wrested from her the means of exercising that influence on temporal affairs which she pos- sessed in preference to the anti-Romanist confessions. Had the Roman Church been reduced to such a state, her anta- gonists would have had the advantage of opposing her on equal grounds, instead of being duped, as they were, into a peace, from its very nature delusive and impossible, with an enemy who, regarding them as rebels and usurpers, abstained from combating them only when prevented by the impossibility of doing so. The Protestants, at that time united with the fol- lowers of the Eastern Church, were sufficiently strong to ac- complish that triumph which alone could give them security; and the public opinion in Poland was then such as to ensure them strong support, even from many Roman Catholics. But they despised their enemy, imagining that the public opinion of untry to which I have alluded would always remain the panic; and therefore, instead of following a course which every sound principle of self-preservation ought to have dictated to them, they guaranteed all the existing rights and privi- of that very church whose bishops, with a single excep- tion, refused to do the same thing in their favour (page 1 77). The, Protestants made continual efforts to strengthen their position, by improving their internal condition, by the esta- blishment of schools, publication of the Bible and religious works, &o.; but the reaction was so strong and rapid, and the attacks of their enemies so unceasing, that they had to \itli the greatest difficulties in this respect, particularly as their forces decreased in the same ratio as those of their adversaries ii; 1 have described in its proper place l(l:j) the, destructive effects of the antitrinitarian doc- trines on the cause of the Reformation in Poland. I do not wish to extenuate in any way the faults with which I'OLAXD. '21-7 the anti-Ror.i:ini-ts of Poland had rendered themselves char-e- able; but 1 repeat my conviction, that the external cirnim- staiires \vhich principally destroyed tlie cause of the .lie for- mation in Poland would have produced the same effect in any other country. I have already expressed my opinion that the triumph of the Reformation in England would have been very doubtful if the reign of Queen Mary had lasted for a consider- able time, and if, instead of having been succeeded by Eliza- beth, she had left the throne to a Roman Catholic successor. Let me add, that James the Second a monarch who was not possessed of the arts and means of seduction which Sigiemund the Third had at his command, but who stood alone in his belief against a Reformed Established Church, with a Parlia- ment and the great majority of the nation belonging to it notwithstanding all these difficulties of his position, succeeded, during his short reign, in seducing many individuals, who bar- tered their religion for the monarch's favour. And who can tell what would have been the consequences, if, instead of fol- lowing the dictates of his bigotry, and his despotical propen- sities, he had acted with that consummate skill which gene- rally characterizes the proceedings of the Jesuits? But let me go one step farther, and admit a contingency which I hope never will take place, leaving, however, the decision of its possibility to the judgment of my readers. Supposing, then, that there was in Great Britain a faction Jesuit, or whatever may be its name having for its object to restore the dominion of the Church of Rome; that this faction should prosecute its object with unabated perseverance and great skill, employ- ing all possible means for the attainment of its end; that it should condescend to the same means which w r ere employed by the Jesuits to subject the Eastern Church of Poland to the dominion of Rome, namely, assume the garb of the ministers of that very church which it was their object to subvert or to subdue, as is evident from the document which I have given in page 201 ; that literature, the most powerful engine for promoting good or evil in a civilized country, should be turned by that same faction into an efficient tool, employing the greatest learning and first-rate talents in order to mislead public opinion, and gain it over to their views by means of publications adapted to the highest and to the lowest degrees of mental cultivation by works of philosophy, poetry, his- tory, as well as by novels, popular tracts, nay, even nursery books; that all such works should have a more or less open, but always one and the same tendency to depreciate Protes- tantism and to extol Romanism; whilst the Protestants, either unwilling, from an imprudent contempt of their adversaries, 248 CHAPTER XIII. or unable, from want of a proper organization, to make simi- lar efforts in order to enlighten public opinion, should content themselves with heralding about the triumphs of their enemies, and littering bitter complaints against their progress, instead of adopting efficient measures for counteracting their influence and arresting their progress; and that these efforts of the Eomanist faction to which I have alluded should gain for them a strong party amongst the upper classes of the country, and thereby enlist to the assistance of their cause the power- ful influence of rank, wealth, and fashion influence which is powerful every where, but particularly in this country, where the great disproportion between capital and labour establishes a much stronger dependence of the employed on the employer, of the tradesman on the customer, than that which existed between the various grades of feudal society, and where often the most decided radical in politics submits to the prestige of rank and fashion, against the seductions of which even many seriously disposed persons are not always entirely proof; were all the agencies which I have here enumerated, as well as many others which it is superfluous to mention, once brought to bear upon the Protestantism of this country, with the same force as they were, mutatis mutandis, in Poland, who may fore- tell their results. It is now about two years since these remarks, which I gave in the first edition of this work (page 373, et seq.), were writ- ten. I leave to the judgment of my readers to decide whether the events which took place subsequently to that time have served to corroborate or to disprove the views expressed in these remarks. With regard to the present condition of Protestantism in Poland, it is by no means such as the friends of the Reforma- tion would desire. Szafarik, in his Slavonic ethnography, com- putes the number of Protestant Poles in round numbers at four hundred and forty-two thousand, the great majority of whom are in Prussia proper and Silesia. There is a considerable num- ber of Protestants in Poland, but they are German settlers, of whom many, however, have become Polanized, and are Poles by language and feeling. According to the statistical account published in 1845, there were in the kingdom of Poland, i. e., that part of the Polish territory which was annexed to Russia by the treaty of Vienna, in a population of four millions eight hundred and fifty-seven thousand two hundred and fifty; two hundred and fifty-two thousand and nine Lutherans, three thousand seven hundred and ninety reformed, and live hundred and forty-six Moravians. I have no statistical data regarding the Protestant population in other Polish provinces under the PRINCE ADAM C/MTURYSKI Russian dominion. I can therefore only say, from personal knowledge, that about twenty years ago there were between twenty and thirty churches of the Genevese Confession. Their congregations, consisting principally of the gentry, aro far from being numerous, with the exception of two, whose con- gregations, composed of peasantry, amount to about three or four thousand souls.* The same confession possessed several schools of a higher description in Lithuania, chiefly established and supported by the Protestant branch of the family of the princes Radziwill. There were such schools at Vilna, Siemia- tycze, Brest, Szydllow, Birze, Slutzk, and Kieydany. Of these only the two last named endured to our times, having been endowed by their founders, the Bad zi wills, with considerable estates, and sheltered from Romanist persecution by that powerful family, which, even when professing the Roman Ca- tholic religion, continued to show much kindness to the foun- dations of their Protestant ancestors. In 1804, the school department of the University of Vilna, comprehending all the provinces torn from Poland by Russia, received a new orga- nization from Prince Adam Czartoryski, whom the Emperor Alexander (whoso sentiments were undoubtedly as benevolent as his views were liberal and enlightened, but over which un- fortunately an evil-minded influence seems to have cast a cloud in the latter years of the reign of that monarch) had created Curator, i. e., supreme director of that department. This organ- ization introduced a system of public education not inferior to that which may be found in any part of Europe; and instruction was communicated in the Polish language, whereby the Polish nationality was preserved under the dominion of Russia. The above-mentioned Protestant schools of Kieydany *f* and Slutzk were largely benefited by the new organization, in consequence of which they were considerably enlarged, received additional incomes by a permanent annual grant from the general fund of the educational department, and a stipend for their pupils, who studied at the University of Vilna, in order to become professors at the same schools. Thus Prince Czartoryski, in rendering a service to his country in general, has at the same time conferred a great benefit on his Protestant countrymen, by raising the condition of their schools; and as the evidence of history proves that the cause of religious truth has always been promoted by a sound and general system of public education, * They are distinguished from the surrounding peasantry by a better edu- cation, each of them being able to read aud to write, as well as by superior moral conduct and habits of industry. t I have mentioned on page 167, that Kieydany was remarkable for having a large Scotch congregation. 250 CHAPTER X11I. he had done a no mean service to that cause by the introduc- tion of such a system into the Polish provinces of Russia. The services of this eminent patriot are, however, sufficiently known in this country, as well as in the rest of Europe, and they have no need of my praises in order to be duly appreciated by the enlightened, liberal, and high-minded among all nations; and I had an opportunity of mentioning the efforts which his family had made to raise the intellectual, and to improve the political, condition of their country (page 239). The school of Slutzk is, I believe, still in existence, though greatly modified ; but that of Kieydany, which had flourished during more than two centuries, and withstood all the Romanist persecutions, was abolished in 182-i under the following melancholy cir- cumstances: In 1823, the Russian senator Novosilzoff, who was entrusted with the supreme direction of the civil affairs of Lithuania under the Grand Duke Constantino, began, by different vexatious measures, to oppress the educational estab- lishments of that province, which created great excitement amongst their pupils; and it was far from being allayed by the severities with which the boyish manifestations of dis- content were punished, as well as by the inquisitorial pro- ceedings applied to the University of Vilna and the schools of its department. A secret circular was sent to all the rec- tors of colleges and schools, enjoining them to watch the libel- lous compositions which the pupils might compose against the measures alluded to, and to report them to the authorities. It happened that the son of the Rev. Mr Moleson (descendant of those Scotch families whom I mentioned on page 167), a Protestant minister, and rector of the school of Kieydany, a spirited lad of seventeen, discovered by chance, amongst the papers of his father, the above-mentioned circular, and, pro- voked by it, resolved to play a trick on the authorities, by composing and placarding some libels, of which otherwise he would never have thought. Conjointly with some students, he composed and stuck on the w^alls of some houses a silly libel against the Grand Duke Constantine. Novosilzoff himself proceeded to Kieydany in order to in- vest i gato this affair: the authors of the libel were soon disco- vered, and the case was submitted to a court-martial, which condemned young Moleson, and another boy of his age, called Tyr, for an offence which would have been punched where else with a schoolboy ""s correction, to perpetual labour in the mines of Nerchinsk in Siberia; and the sentence was immediately executed. The college of Kieydany wu< abolished by an ul-\ and all its pupils prohibited from being admitted into any public school. Prince Galitzin, minister of public POLAND. 251 instruction in Russia, endeavoured to counteract the barbar- ous ordinance, which deprived of education about two hundred youths, innocent even of the puerile trespass of their hot- brained comrade, but his honest intentions were thwarted by the influence of Novosilzoff. The Protestant clergy of the Genevese Confession in Lithu- ania derive their support from estates, as well as from other kinds of property, belonging to their churches, and with which they have been endowed by their founders. The ad- vantages of a permanent endowment over the voluntary prin- ciple lias been strikingly illustrated by the Protestant churches and schools in Poland, because, whilst almost all those which were supported by the last-named means fell, as I have already observed on page 193, to the ground as soon as their patrons or congregations, by whom they had been supported, became unfaithful to their religion, were dispersed or impoverished by persecution, or other causes, whilst all those churches and schools which had the advantage of a permanent endowment withstood almost every kind of adversity, and greatly contri- buted to maintain in their faith the Protestant inhabitants of the places where they were situated. In speaking of this subject, I cannot refrain from observing, with no little grati- fication to my national feelings, that, notwithstanding the im- mense influence which the Jesuits exercised over my country, it never was able to obliterate the sense of justice and legality from the national mind so much as to obtain a confiscation of the property belonging to the Protestant churches and schools, though these fathers have given abundant proofs that there would be no lack of intention on their part to do so if they could. The schools of Slutzk and Kieydany were of the greatest advantage to the Protestants of Lithuania, because not only the education was gratuitous, but there were foundations in both of these schools for poor pupils, who were entirely main- tained at the expense of these establishments. The educa- tion which they received in these schools was such as to fit them to enter a university. The ministers and professors of the schools studied at the Protestant universities abroad. Foundations for such students were made at Konigsberg by the princes Radziwill, at Marburg, by a queen of Denmark, who was a princess of Hessen, at Ley den, by the house of Orange, and one at Edinburgh, by a Scotch merchant, who had a long time traded in Poland. The last-named foundation is very small, and when there is no claimant for it, is employed for some other object. The other foundations which I have mentioned, I believe, have not been abolished, and at least 252 CHAPTER XIII. some of them are made use of by the Protestants of Prussian Poland. The Russian government has prohibited those of Lithuania and the kingdom of Poland to resort to the foreign universities, but gives a stipend to their students of divinity at the University of Dorpat. The universities of Vilna and of Warsaw, which had been of so much advantage to the Polish youths of every confession, have been abolished after the events of 1831, and the general system of education has undergone a modification which unfortunately cannot be considered as an improvement. In Prussian Poland there were, according to the census of 1846, in the provinces of western Prussia, or ancient Polish Prussia, in a population of one million nineteen thou- sand one hundred and five, five hundred and two thousand one hundred and forty-eight Protestants ; and in that of Posen, in a population of one million three hundred and sixty- four thousand .three hundred and ninety-nine, there were four hundred and sixteen thousand six hundred and forty- eight Protestants. Amongst these Protestants there are Poles, but unfortunately their number, instead of increasing, daily decreases, owing to the efforts of the government to Germanize, by all means, its Slavonic subjects. The worship in almost all the Protestant churches is in German ; and the service in Polish, instead of being encouraged, is discouraged. The continual efforts of the Prussian government to Ger- manize the Slavonic population of its Polish province, gave to Romanism in that province the great advantage of being con- sidered, and not without justice, the bulwark of the Polish nationality, and inflicted a great injury upon Protestantism. The bulk of the population call Protestantism the German religion, and consider the Church of Home as the national one. Owing to this cause, many patriots who would have been otherwise much more inclined to Protestantism than to the Church of Rome, have rallied under the banner of the latter, as the only means of preserving their nationality from tin: < nroachmcnt of Germanism. It is on this account that the German press accuses the Poles of Posen of being bigoted Romanists, and under the dominion of the priesthood. This I may emphatically deny. The Polish League, or the National iation of Prussian Poland, which had been formed in l.sls for the preservation of its nationality by legal and con- stitutional means, but particularly by the promotion of educa- tion, the national language, and literature, and which compre- hended almost every respectable Polo of that province, had for its honorary president the Archbishop of Posen, whilst the chairman of its directing committee was a Protestant noble- POLAND. 253 man, Count Custavus Potworowski. The author of this .sketch has given, as he hopes, undoubted proofs of Iiis strong Protestant opinions, in his History of the Reformation i,i Poland a work which, particularly in its German transla- tion, has been widely circulated over his own country ; and he is proud to say that, far from injuring him in the opinion of his countrymen, .full justice has been rendered to the sin- cerity of his convictions, even by those who are diametrically opposed to his religious views ; as a proof of which he may adduce the fact, that the national association to which he has alluded had done him the honour of appointing him their cor- respondent. The strongest evidence, however, of the com- plete absence of religious fanaticism amongst the Roman Ca- tholic Poles, and of their readiness to acknowledge the merits of their Protestant countrymen, is the esteem in which they held the lamented John Cassius, Protestant minister of Orzes- zkowo, a place not far from Posen, whoso death, in 1849, was a severe loss to the cause of his religion and of his country. I therefore hope that a few particulars about this distinguished individual will not be uninteresting to my readers. John Cassius was descended from an old family, belonging to the Bohemian Brethren, which settled in Poland during the persecutions which that truly Christian community had suf- fered in their own country (page 97), and which produced in the land of its adoption several ministers distinguished by their piety and learning. He fully inherited those eminent qualities of his ancestors which gave an additional grace to the ardent patriotism which animated his heart and directed his actions. He united for some time, with the duties of a minister of religion, the office of a professor of classics at the high school of Posen, where his talents, and his zeal to form the pupils into useful citizens, gave general satisfaction, and gained for him the universal esteem of his countrymen. The government, however, not approving of his national tendencies, dismissed him, in 1827, from his office, as a persona ingrataio the authorities, offering him, at the same time, a much more advantageous situation in Pomerania. Cassius rejected this proposal, which was calculated to withdraw him from a circle of activity useful to his country, notwithstanding that he had no other means of maintaining his numerous family than a very moderate income, attached to his ministerial function. This sacrifice was, however, richly compensated by the uni- versal esteem of his countrymen ; so that there w r as no public affair of importance with which he was not connected ; and the zeal, talents, and singleness of purpose which he displayed on many occasions, whenever an opportunity was afforded him 254 CHAPTER XIII. of rendering a service to his countrymen in their public or private affairs, won for him, though but a simple Protestant minister, an influence amongst men of all religious denomina- tions, which few, if any, of the high dignitaries of the estab- lished church possessed. His countrymen were not unmind- ful of his services, and care was taken that his children should receive the very best education. The misfortunes which, in 1848, befel his native land, broke his patriotic heart, and his death was lamented as a national calamity. The principal citizens of the province, including the highest dignitaries of the lloman Catholic Church, assisted at the funeral of the Christian patriot, and went into mourning to honour his me- mory. His family is provided for; and a subscription has been raised to erect a monument in order to commemorate his services, and the gratitude of his countrymen. The example of the late Cassius proves what advantages Protestantism might have obtained in Prussian Poland, and in other Slavonic countries, had it been there promoted by the same means by which it once made such rapid progress in these countries, and which have greatly promoted its success every where, i. 0., nationality, which a pure form of Christia- nity develops, elevates, and sanctifies, by rendering it instru- mental in carrying out the great ends of religion; for it is only an erroneous church, or a guilty system, which degrades religion into a tool for political objects, that will attempt to destroy the feelings of nationality, sacred to every people which has not sunk into that state of moral and mental degra- dation which leads it to consider physical welfare as the only object to be striven for. I cannot conclude this sketch of the religious history of my country without speaking of the most important Protestant institution which is still remaining on the soil of my country, and which I sincerely believe might be of the greatest service to the cause of Scriptural religion, if, instead of being obliged to struggle against the systematic Germanization of the Prus- sian government, to which I have alluded on page 252, it was rendered thoroughly national; I mean the High School of Lissa or Leszno, in Prussian Poland. I have taken several opportunities to mention in the course of tliis sketch, that the powerful familyof the Lcszczynskis, owners of that place, from which they derived their name, had dis- tinguished themselves as adherents and champions of religious truth ever since the times of Huss. (pair: 1 IT.) Ixaphael Les- ye/.ynski, whose hold manifestation against the Church of Koine I have related (pat:* 1 l.'i.'l). L r ave the Roman Catholic Church of Leszno to the JJolieinian JJrethrcn in 1550, andesta- blishcd there a school in 155."), which was much increased in 1 GO 1 by his (K'S'ceiulant, Andreas Leszczynski, palatine of Brzest in C'ujavia. It was, however, a kind of primary school, but when Leszno rose to a high degree of prosperity by the immigration of many thousands of industrious Protestants, whoiled for refuge to *Great Poland from Bohemia and Moravia on account of the persecution by which the battle of Weis- senberg (16-0) was followed in these countries (vide page 110), the owner of that place, Raphael Leszczynski, esta- blished there, 1628, a higher school for the Helveto-Bohe- mian Confession, and endowed it with great munificence. Besides the ancient, the Polish, and German languages, many other sciences were taught in that school, as mathematics, universal history, geography, natural history, &c. It was conducted by men of the most eminent learning, as, for in- stance, the Scoto-Pole, Johnstone, whom I have mentioned on page 167, and who composed for this school a manual of universal history, published at Leszno, 1639. The most remarkable individual who taught at that school was un- doubtedly John Amos Coinenius,* whose works acquired for * Comenius was born 1592, at Komna, in Moravia, whence he derived his name. After having studied in several universities, he became, 1618, pastor and master of a school at Fulnek, a place in his native land. He had early conceived a new method of teaching languages; he published some essays, and prepared some papers on this subject, which were destroyed in 1621, with his library, by the Spaniards, who took the town where he resided. The outlawry of all the Protestant ministers of Bohemia and Moravia in 1624 compelled Comenius, with many others, to seek refuge in Polaud. He became pastor of the Bohemian Church of Leszno, and professor of Latin at its school. He published, in 1631, his Janua Linguarum Reserata, i.e., The Gate of Languages Unlocked, which rapidly gained for its author a prodigious reputation ; and Bayle is right in saying, that had Comenius only published this book he would have immortalized himself, for it was translated and pub- lished during his lifetime, not only in twelve European languages, viz., Latin, Greek, Bohemian, Polish, German, Swedish, Dutch, English, French, Spa- nish, Italian, and Hungarian, but also in several Oriental, as Arabic, Turkish, and Persian. It may be added, I think, that it ought to establish the repu- tation of Leszno, where it was published for the first time, and was com- posed for the use of its school. The reputation of Comenius induced the Swedish government to offer him a commission for regulating the schools of that kingdom, but, preferring his residence at Leszno, he only promised to assist by his advice those whom the Swedish government should employ for this object. He then translated into Latin a work on a new method of in- structing youth, which he had written in Bohemian, and it was published in London, 1639, under the title " Pamopldce Prodroinus" Can English transla- tion of it by J. Collier, entitled, " The Forerunners of Universal Learn- ing," was published in London, 1651.) This work increased so much his reputation, that the English parliament invited him, in 1641, to atsist in the reformation of the schools of this country. He arrived at London, 1641, but the civil war which broke out in Great Britain prevented his employ- ment, and he went, therefore, to Sweden in 1642, whither he was invited by persons of great influence. After several conferences with the Chancel- 256 CHAPTER X11T. him a more than European fame, and who, at a time when al- most all the schools of Europe kept to the old methods of in- struction, calculated only to waste the time of the pupils, dared to open a new road on that important field, by composing for the school of Leszno his celebrated Janua Linguarum Reserata. which greatly facilitated the acquisition of foreign languages. This school was frequented by Protestant pupils, not only from all parts of Poland, but also from Prussia, Silesia, Bohe- mia, Moravia, and even Hungary; and it had a printing-office attached to it, from which many important works in Polish, Bohemian, German, and Latin, have issued. The town of Leszno, which, as I have said, was destroyed in 1656, was rebuilt, and its school reopened in 1663, by the united efforts of the Protestant inhabitants of that city and of the province in which it is situated, and a seminary for future ministers was attached to it. This school was, how- ever, very inferior -to that which was destroyed, because a great part of its property was lost, and the Protestants were gene- rally ruined by war and persecution. The town of Leszno, how- ever, gradually recovered its prosperity by the patronage of the family Leszczynski, who, although they had passed to the lor Oxenstierna, it was decided that he should settle at Elbing, a town in Polish Prussia, and compose there a work on his new system of teaching; having received a considerable stipend, which permitted him to devote his whole time to the invention of general methods for facilitating the instruc- tion of youth. Having spent at Elbing four years, engaged in this work, lie went to Sweden, and submitted his MS. to a commission appointed for its examination, which declared it worthy of being published when complete, but I don't know whether it was ever published. He spent two years more at Elbing, and then returned to Leszno, 1650. lie went to Transylvania, where he was invited by the reigning prince, Stephen Ragotzi, to reform the public schools. He composed a regulation for the Protestant college of Baros Patak, according to the principles of his Pansophke Prodromus. After a residence of four years in Transylvania, he returned to Leszno, and super- intended its school until the destruction of that city, which I have mentioned on page 320. lie fled to Silesia, and, after having wandered in several parts of Germany, he finally settled at Amsterdam, where he died, 1671, in prosperous circumstances. Besides the works already mentioned, Comenius wrote: ^>/n<>)#is Phijf';t ' 1> '>nnuta', Amsterdam, 1641; published in English, 16. r >2. Port F-i; r,it,i, f,-n Xr,i ,t C./wy. M'thi.nlusinnnis Aries ac Sclent its (uU'wiitl'i, ( )xon, 1637, and many other works. His great learning did not keep him from superstition, and he became a firm believer in all those prophecies which circulated amongst the Protes- tants of Germany, liohemia, and Moravia, about the immediate coming <>f the millennium, revolution, the ruin of the antichrist, (i. e., the pope), &<., and which were the results of imaginative minds excited by j.ersecnti'Mi. i and published at Amsterdam, 16">7, in a work entitled, " /,//.; r lie Visions of Drabitius, a Moravian; Kot terns, a Silesian ; and Christina Poniatow^kt, a Polish lady, who predicted the spec. ly overthrow of Romanism, and the destruction of Austria by Sweden, Cromwell, and llagoki. This work considerably injured him in the eyes of many of his contemporaries. PRINCE ANTONY SDLKOSKIE. I'OLANH. 257 Koinan Catholic Church, were far from persecuting the Pro- testant inhabitants of their possessions, but, on the contrary, usc.nl all their influence to shelter them from the oppression of the rli-riiy. .1 hiring the commotions produced by Charles the Twelfth, the inhabitants of Leszno warmly espoused the party of their hereditary lord, King Stanislaus Leszczynski, which drew upon them the resentment of his adversary, King Augus- tus the Second, elector of Saxony, and his allies the Russians, who burnt the town in 1707. The town was, however, rebuilt ii few years afterwards, as well as the Protestant church and school, which was reopened by dint of great sacrifices and efforts on the part of the Protestant inhabitants of the city and the province in which it is situated. In 1738, Leszno was acquired by the family of the Princes Sulkowski, who proved to it as kind and useful patrons as the Leszczynskis had been. The school gradually improved under the superintendence of several rectors of the family of Cassius (the same which has produced the distinguished individual of this name, an account of whom I have given, page 253); but this institution, which is now the best of all similar establishments in Poland, and not inferior to any in Germany, owes its present state of prospe- rity to the fostering care of the late owner of Leszno, Prince Antony Sulkowski,* who, after a brilliant military career in * I hope that a short notice of the life of that distinguished individual, to whom the principal Protestant educational establishment of Poland owes so much, will not be unacceptable to the readers of this sketch; and its author takes this opportunity to pay a tribute to the memory of his lamented friend, whose sympathies have cheered the most trying moments of his exile, and whose loss will ever be deeply felt by him. Prince Antony Sulkowski, son of Prince Sulkowski, palatine of Kalisz, was born at Leszno, 1785. After having completed his studies at the University of Gottingen, he was on his travels when the success of the French emperor in Prussia raised in the Polish nation a hope of recovering their independence. Sulkowski hastened from Paris, where he was at that time, and having returned to his native land towards the end of 1806, was immediately nominated by Napoleon colonel of the first Polish regiment to be raised. The enthusiasm for the national cause was so great, that it enabled Sulkowski to perform his task with such rapidity, that on the 23d February of the following year (1807) he carried the fortified town of Dirshau at the head of his newly-levied regiment, lie took a part in the remainder of the campaign, which ended in the peace of Til-it, by which a part of Poland was restored, under the name of the Duchy of Warsaw. In 1808, when several detachments of the newly-created Po- lish army were ordered to Spain, the regiment of Prince Sulkowski was amongst them; and although he had been married but a few months to Eve Kicki, a lady of great beauty and accomplishments, to whom he had been attached from his early youth, and could be easily relieved from that ardu- ous service, he thought it his duty to join his companions in arms on that occasion. Arrived in the Peninsula, he distinguished himself at the battles of Almonacid and Ocara, as well as by his defence of Toledo. When Ma- laga was taken by the French, Prince Sulkowski was made governor of that town, and notwithstanding the universal hatred which animated the Spa- S 258 CHAPTER XIII. the service of his country, exchanged it for the retirement of private life in the midst of his family, leaving it only when. niards against the invading armies, he succeeded by his conduct in gaining the affection of its inhabitants. lie was promoted to the rank of major- general, and returned to his country in 1810, where he remained till the memorable campaign of 1812, in which he commanded a brigade of cavalry, took a part in the principal battles, and was severely wounded during the retreat. Having recovered from his wounds, and been promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general, he joined the Polish army under Prince Poniatowski, and fought at the battle of Leipsic at the head of a division of cavalry. It tvas after this battle that he was thrown into the most difficult circumstances, in which his strict honour and integrity were shown to great advantage. A few days after the death of Prince Poniatowski, he was nominated by the Emperor Napoleon chief commander of the remnant of the Polish corps, which, notwithstanding its great losses, had still preserved all its standards and artillery. This command was given to Sulkowski at the general request of his countrymen, notwithstanding his youth (he was then twenty-nine years old), and the presence of several older generals. The Polish troops, exasperated by long suffering, and weary of fighting for a cause which, as it had not promoted that of their country, and had now become entirely sepa- rate from it, threatened to reduce them to the condition of mercenaries, loudly urged their chief to return home, particularly as their then lawful sovereign, the king of Saxony, had remained at Leipsic at the desire of Na- poleon himself. He reported the case to the emperor, who promised to give an answer in a week ; this satisfied the troops, and the march towards the Ilhine continued ; but when the fixed term had elapsed, and the expected derision was not given, the excitement amongst the Poles became so violent, and their accusations against Prince Sulkowski, of being ready to sacrifice them to the views of his personal ambition, so loud, that, in order to engage them to accompany the emperor to the frontier of his dominions, he gave his word of honour that in no case whatever would he pass the Ilhine. This solemn promise allayed the excitement of the troops, and they continued their march. When they had arrived at a place called Schluchtern, the rmp'Tor, passing before the Polish corps, called Sulkowski,and asked whether it was true that the Poles wished to leave him ? " Yes, sire," answered the prince, " they beseech your majesty to authorise them to return to their homes, as their number is already too insignificant to be of any value to your majesty." The French emperor objected to it ; and having assembled the Poles, delivered to them one of those speeches by which he knew so well how to excite the enthusiasm of the soldier, and it did not fail to produce its wonted effect. The Polish troops, exalted by the imperial speech, forgot all their former resolutions, and promised to follow Napoleon to the last. It may be easily imagined how cruel. the position of Prince Sulkowski was rendered by this unforeseen circumstance; ho was placed in the painful alternative, either of not adhering to the word by which he had bound him- self to his companions in arms not to pass the Ilhine in any case whatever, .icrifiein^ at so young an age all his views of ambition and glory (for the Kmperor Napoleon, notwithstanding his reverse at Leipsic, had still a great of retrieving his fortunes), and what was more important, exposing himself to the various comments to which his conduct would become una- voidably subject in such a case. lie chose, however, tho latter course, thinking that there could be no compromise with a word pledged in such a solemn ami explicit manner as his had been, notwithstanding that his coun- trymen, who were not bound by a similar pledge, had changed their restilu- tion. I: e, and obtained the p of the emperor, to return to his lawful .o\ eivi^n, the king of Saxony, wln> at that time unknown, and left the French army, accompanied by the officers of his staff, POLAND. 259 required by the common interests of his countrymen. Y< ( the occupations to which ho devoted himself during this who shared his resolution. Having learned that his monarch was a pri- soner at Uerlin, lu- utltlivssed to him irom Leu sic a letter, requesting a dis- charge for himself and the officers who h:id i.ccompaniod him, and soon afterwards ho ohtained from the allied nionarchs })ermissiou to join his family. It is but fail- to add, that justice was rendered hy his count 1-3 -men to his conduct. Now hopes were raised for Poland at the congress of Vienna hy the Ennx ror Alexander. Prince Sulkowski was called to aid in the formation of a Polish army, and he gladly joined in a service where ho expected to he useful to his country. Although the congress of Vienna did not which had been entertained of seeing Poland restored to a findependeucejit erected a small portion of its ancient dominions into a constitutional kingdom, subject to the emperor of llussia as king of Poland. This was sufficient to stimulate the exertions of the Polish patriots to uphold that imperfect creation, more particularly as the stipulation to grant national institutions to those parts of ancient Poland which remained provinces of liussia, Prussia, and Austria, held out, in some respects, a prospect of tho entire restoration of that country. Prince Sulkowski, therefore, entered the service of the new kingdom, and was nominated aide-de-camp-general of the Emperor Alexander. But as the new kingdom was soon abandoned to the tyrannical caprices of the Grand Duke Constautine, Sulkowski demanded his discharge, frankly stating to the emperor the reasons which induced him to do so. The emperor, however, requested Sulkowski to remain, declaring that the circumstances he complained of were but temporary, and that he would amend them. Sulkowski, who was obliged on account of his duties to visit St Petersburg!! several times, and received the greatest marks of kindness from the Emperor Alexander, insisted on leaving the service, and, after many refusals, obtained his discharge in 1818. After that time lie settled in his castle of lleisen, in the vicinity of Leszno, and devoted himself to the education of his family, which, since the loss of his accomplished and virtuous princess (1824) devolved entirely on himself, and the promotion of the welfare of his tenants and dependants. A new career, moreover, was thrown open to his patriotism when the grand duchy of Posen, where Leszuo is situated, re- ceived a provincial representation, of which he was created a hereditary member. He presided over the assembled states of his province, and was created a member of the council of state of Prussia. This placed him in a very difficult and delicate position between the monarch and the provincial states, the deputies from which justly complained of the various and constant encroachments made by the government on the nationality of the province, the conservation of which was guaranteed by the treaty of Vienna. Enjoy- ing the confidence of both parties, he succeeded, by his firmness in defend- ing the privileges of nationality, in gaining the confidence of his countrymen, whilst the monarch rendered justice to his moderation in the conscientious discharge of his arduous duties. He kept, however, aloof as much as he could from public affairs, devoting his time to the useful occupations which I have described in this note. A premature death cut short his useful career, on the 14th April 1835, and plunged his family into profound grief, and all those who had known him, either personally or by reputation; but by none was his loss more acutely felt than by the school of Leszno, which was so much indebted to him. Professors and pupils attended his funeral, and deposited, with a pathetic speech of the rector, a wreath on the coffin of their benefactor, whose memory will long live in their grateful hearts. This notice of Prince Sulkowski was inserted by the author in a work which ho published about ten years ago, The History of the Reformation in Poland, vol. ii., page 334, &c., and he takes this opportunity of reproducing 260 CHAPTER XIII. retreat, if not so conspicuous as those which he had followed in the earlier part of his life, were neither less valuable nor useful to his countrymen. He undertook himself the superin- tendence of the school of Leszno, and, sparing neither fatigue nor expense for its improvement, succeeded in bringing it to a state of prosperity equal to that which it enjoyed in the palmy days of the Leszczynskis. The school is now divided into six classes, where the pupils are taught religion, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew; the Polish, German, and French languages and literature; mathematics, natural history and philosophy, geo- graphy and history, drawing and music. As it is now fre- quented by a great number of the Roman Catholic youth, a clergyman of that confession is attached to the college for their religious instruction. The number of pupils is about three hundred, and each of them had in the late prince a paternal friend, who was always ready to give advice, assistance, and liberal support, to those who needed and deserved it by their behaviour, and his influence was constantly employed to pro- mote their views after they had quitted college. Sulkowski was indeed a noble specimen of the enlightened views enter- tained now by the most distinguished Roman Catholics of my country (a subject to which I have alluded on page 253), by whom, to my knowledge, difference of religion was never considered when it mattered to serve their countrymen. Having now concluded the religious history of two cognate nations, which is intimately connected with that of Protes- tantism, I shall endeavour to delineate the religious state of the great Slavonic empire, which is already exercising a power- ful influence, not only on the nations belonging to the Slavonic race, but on the affairs of Europe in general, and even on those of Asia. it, as his feelings and opinions on this subject remain unaltered. lie is happy to add, that the subjoined likeness, which was communicated to him by the family of his deceased friend, bears a most striking resemblance to the original. CHAPTER XIV. RUSSIA. Origin of the name of Russia Novgorod and Kioff First Russian Expedi- tion against Constantinople Repeated Expeditions against the Greek empire, and commercial intercourse Introduction of Christianity into Russia, and influence of Byzantine civilization upon that country Ex- pedition of the Christian Russians against Constantinople, and predic- tion about the conquest of that city by them Division of Russia into many principalities Its conquest by the Mongols Origin and progress of Moscow Historical sketch of the Russian Church from its foundation to the present day Its present organization Forced union with the Church of Russia of the Greek Church united with Rome Account of the Russian sects, or Raskolniks The Strigolniks The Judaists Ef- fects of the Reformation of the 16th century upon Russia Emendation of the sacred books, and schism produced by it Horrible acts of super- stition The Starovertzi, or followers of the Old Faith Pagan super- stitions The Eunuchs The Flagellants The Malakanes, or Protes- tants The Duchobortzi, or Gnostics Horrible superstitions into which they fell Count Woronzoff's proclamation to them on that subject. THE ecclesiastical history of Kussia does not, like that of Bo- hemia and Poland, exhibit those physical and moral struggles between religious parties, whose forces were so equally balanced as to render the issue of the contest for a time doubtful. The Eastern Church, established in Kussia since the conversion of that country to Christianity, had no rival to contend with ; and it has only been, and is now, disturbed by its dissenting sects. The name of Kussia, which, since the time of Peter the Great, has been substituted for that of Muscovy, is applied to a vast tract of land, the whole of which is not even now under the dominion of the emperor of Kussia. It originated in the ninth century, when a band of those Scandinavian adventurers who are known in the Byzantine history under the name of Varingians,* and who had the peculiar surname of Kusses, founded, under a chief called Kuric, a state in the vicinity of the Baltic Sea, by establishing their dominion over several * The Varingians or Varegues were Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon ad- venturers, who served as bodyguards to the emperors of Constantinople. There have been many origins assigned to the name Russes or Russians, but the most probable of them is, that it was derived from Ruots or Ruts, the Finnish name for Sweden, and that the Slavonians adopted it from the Fins, who lived between them and Sweden. 2G2 CHAPTER XIV. Slavonic and Finnish tribes. This new state, of which the capital was Novgorod, took, from the name of its founders, the appellation of Russia, in the same manner as the province of Neustria assumed the name of Normandy, from the North- men, Gallia that of France, from the Franks, &c. A remarkable event took place during the reign of Euric, which, by .bringing the Scandinavian conquerors into closer contact with Greece, promoted the spread of Christianity in the countries under their dominion. Two Scandinavian chief- tains, called Oskold and Dir, who had arrived with Ruric from their common country, undertook an expedition to Constanti- nople, by descending the course of the Dnieper. It is pro- bable that their object was simply to enter the imperial ser- vice, as was frequently done by their countrymen ; but having seized, on their way, the town of Kioff, they established there a dominion of their own. Having increased their forces by fresh arrivals of their countrymen, and probably by the natives of the country, they made a piratical expedition in 866 to the shores of the Thracian Bosphorus. They committed great ravages, and even laid siege to Constantinople, where the name of the Russians (Pug) was then heard for the first time. A storm, ascribed by the Greeks to a miracle, scattered and partly destroyed the piratical fleet ; and the Byzantine writers who describe this event, add, that the Russians, terrified by the miracle, demanded baptism ; and an encyclical letter of the patriarch Photius, issued at the close of 866, corroborates this statement. Be that as it may, there are many traces of Christianity having begun about that time to spread amongst the Slavonians of the Dnieper and their Scandinavian con- querors. This was greatly facilitated by the commercial in- tercourse which existed between these Slavonians and the Greek colonies on the northern shores of the Baltic Sea, whence traders probably visited KiofF and other Slavonic countries. The dominion of the Khozars, friends to the Greek emperors, and which had been established over those parts previously to the arrival of the Scandinavians, could not but be favourable to these relations.* * The Khozars, an Asiatic nation which inhabited the western shores of Mentioned by tin.; Ily/antine writers fur the first time in (>-Jf>, when the Kmperor lleraclius concluded an alliance.* with their monarch, who joined him with a considerable force jiijain in th;it I-y which Jlcraclins completely overcame the Persians. that tiino the Klioxars remained faithful al'lies of Constantinople ; and the e; Ttions to maintain the fidelity of those valuable . The Khu/.ais occupied all the countries situated between the banks of the Vol^a, ti , and the Crimea, extending their conquest northward to the banks of the river Oeca. Their capital, called l>allanghiar, was situated about the present Astrakhan, and they possessed many other RUSSIA. 263 Kuric died in 879, and was succeeded by Oleg, as guardian to his infant son Igor. Oleg proceeded in 882 towards tho south with a largo i'orce, composed of Scandinavians, a as natives of the new empire; subjugated all the country along the I hiieper ; and, having established his capital at KioiK, extended his conquest over many Slavonic lands, which, being now united with tho empire founded by Kuric, equally assumed the name of Kussia. Gleg in 906 undertook an expedition against Constantinople, besieged it, and compelled the em- peror to pay him a large contribution. Ho then concluded a treaty of peace and commerce, which was revived in 911, and the details of which, preserved by Nestor (page 8), present an interesting picture of the intercourse which existed at that time between Greece and the subjects of Oleg. His successor, Igor, after having remained for a considerable time at peace with the Greeks, made an expedition in 941 into Asia Minor, where he committed great ravages. He was defeated by tho Greeks, and peace was restored in 945, by renewing the treaty of Oleg with some modifications. The constant intercourse between the Greeks and tho new Russian empire spread Christianity amongst the inhabitants of the latter to a considerable extent. Olga, widow of Igor, and who ruled his empire during the minority of her son Svia- toslav, went in 955 to Constantinople, where she was baptized with great solemnity ; but her example was not followed either by her son or by any considerable number of his subjects. Sviatoslav was a most warlike prince, who extended his con- quests to the foot of the Caucasian mountains. Being invited by the Greek emperor Nicephorus, he made an expedition into Bulgaria, and, having conquered that country, resolved to fix his residence there. This involved him in a war with Greece, during which he penetrated to Adrianople. It was therefore not for the first time that in 1829 the Kussians paid that city a visit. Sviatoslav was, however, defeated by the Greek em- peror, John Tzimizches, and obliged to resign all his conquests by a treaty of peace. He was killed on his return to KiofF, and succeeded, after a domestic war between his sons, by one of them, Vladimir, who received baptism in 986, married a towns, enjoying a great commerce, and many refinements of the Byzantine civilization. The most remarkable circumstance relating to that nation is, however, that about the middle of the eighth century their monarchs em- braced the Jewish religion, but were a century afterwards converted to Christianity by the same Cyrillus and MethodiusAvho became afterwards the apostles of the Slavonians (page 21). The empire of the Khozars, which was weakened by the continual attacks of the Mahommedans, and other un- fortunate circumstances, was finally destroyed in 1016 by its ancient allies the Greeks. 2G4 CHAPTER XIV. Greek princess, and introduced Christianity into his dominions, having ordered the idols and their fanes to be destroyed, and his subjects to receive baptism. The empire of Vladimir, which became known under the name of Russia, extended from the vicinity of the Baltic to the Black Sea, and from the banks of the Volga and the foot of the Caucasian mountains to the Carpathian ridge and the rivers San and Bug. It was composed of different Slavonic populations, and in the north, of several Finnish tribes, all of whom, though comprehended under the general name of Rus- sians, greatly differed amongst themselves, and were kept to- gether, not by any regular system of government, but by the common bond of one sovereign, whose authority consisted merely in the levying of a certain tribute, which generally was paid by them when the sovereign or his delegates were able to exact it. The constant intercourse between Constantinople and Kioff greatly facilitated not only the establishment of Christianity in the last-named capital, but also the introduction of the Byzantine civilization, arts, and refinement, which had pro- bably begun to be imported from Greece even before the es- tablishment of the Christian religion. The German annalist Dittmar, of Merseburg, to whom an account of Kioff was com- municated by some of his countrymen who had been there with the expedition of Boleslav the First, king of Poland, in 1018, calls that town, on account of the great number of churches, market places, public edifices, and the quantity of riches which it contained, the rival of Constantinople, adding, that a great number of Greeks were settled there. Vladimir died in 1015, and divided his empire amongst his numerous sons, who were to hold their states under the suzerainty of the eldest, residing at Kioff, and enjoying the title of the Grand Duke of Russia. This arrangement produced considerable disturbance, until one of his sons, Yaroslav, reunited under his sceptre the paternal dominions. Yaroslav was a great monarch, and powerfully promoted the Christianization and civilization of his empire. He built many churches and convents by Byzan- tine architects, founded new towns, established schools, at- tracted to his dominions Greek clergymen, scholars, and artists, and caused tin.' translation of many works from the, k into the Slavonic. His zeal for the Christian religion did not, however, pn -vent him from following up the attempts of his 1'a^an ancestors against Constantinople. Under the pivh-iice of ill-usaire, wlii.-h some of his subjects had received in the imperial city, he declared war against the Emperor urssiA. Constantino Monomachos, and in 1013 sent a largo force, which marched along the shores of the Black Sea, and \vas supported by a numerous fleet. The Russian fleet reached the mouth of the Bosphorus, where, after a long-contested battle, it was partly burned by the Greek fire, and its re- mainder compelled to retire. The land expedition reached Varna, but, deprived of the support of the fleet, it was, after a desperate resistance, overcome by the Greeks, and either destroyed or taken prisoners.* This was the last expedition which the Russians made against the Greek empire. Russia, torn by internal commo- tions, in consequence of her territory being divided amongst the successors of Yaroslav, lost all power for external action, and ended by becoming herself the prey of foreigners. If it were not for that circumstance, it is probable that the pre- diction which was found in the eleventh century inscribed under the statue of Bellerophon, at Constantinople, that the imperial city was to be taken by the Russians, "a rare pre- diction," as Gibbon says, " of which the style is unambiguous and the .date unquestionable,"-)- would have been centuries ago fulfilled. It is, however, far from improbable that we shall see the legendary doom of the beautiful metropolis of the east accomplished in our own days. Yaroslav divided his empire amongst his sons, leaving the title of the grand duke, and the supremacy over the other princes, to the eldest. This supreme authority was inherited, according to the custom of all the Slavonic countries, not by the order of primogeniture, but by that of seniority, i. e. 9 that the deceased grand duke was succeeded by the eldest mem- ber of his dynasty. This arrangement could not but lead to constant troubles, particularly as the different principalities were continually subdivided amongst the sons of the deceased sovereign. Russia became thus divided amongst a great num- ber of petty princes, warring between themselves, and exposed to continual invasions of their foreign neighbours. The au- thority of the grand dukes of Kioff sunk, under these circum- stances, into complete insignificance ; whilst two powerful principalities, founded by the talents of their rulers, arose in the south and in the north-east. The first of them was that of Halich, comprehending the eastern part of the present Austrian province of Galicia, and a part of the Russian go- vernments of Volhynia and Podolia ; the second of them was * It is remarkable that the Russian campaign of 1828 and 1829 was con- ducted on exactly the same plan as that followed by Yaroslav's expedition in 1043. t Gibbon, chap. Iv. 266 CHAPTER xiv. the principality of Vladimir, on the Klasma, comprehending the Russian government of that name, with some adjacent provinces, and whose sovereigns assumed the title of Grand Duke. There were also three republics, governed by entirely popular forms, Novgorod, Pleskow, and Viatka, a commu- nity formed by emigrants from Novgorod, in the place which now boars that name. Thus Eussia was divided into different states, frequently at war amongst themselves, inhabited by populations differing from one another as much as they differed from the Poles, Bohemians, and other Slavonic nations, having only a common name and the same dynasty, to which all the numerous sove- reigns of that country equally belonged. The only real bond of union amongst all these states was the same church, go- verned by the archbishop of Kioff, its metropolitan. Such was the state of Russia when the Mongols, commanded by Batoo Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, invaded that country in 1238, 1239, and 1240, committing the most horri- ble devastations. They extended their ravages over Hungary and Poland, and advanced as far as Liegnitz, in Silesia, where, having defeated a Christian army, they might easily have pene- trated to the Rhine ; but, fortunately for Europe, some events in Central Asia recalled them to the shores of the Caspian Sea. Batoo Khan fixed his camp on the banks of the Volga, and summoned the princes of Kussia to pay him homage, threaten- ing them with renewed devastation in case of refusal. Nothing remained but to obey ; and the Grand Duke of Vladimir paid homage to Batoo in his camp on the Volga, and afterwards to the Grand Khan Kooblay, near the great wall of China. His successors received the investiture from the descendants of Batoo, who became independent under the name of the Khans of Kipchak. About the beginning of the fourteenth century, the petty Prince of Moscow, having ingratiated himself with the khan, obtained from him the hereditary dignity of Grand Duke, to which an authority over the other princes of Russia was at- l, and which hitherto had not been exclusively vested in one of their branches. His successors endeavoured, as an in- variable line of policy, to court by all possible means the favour of their suzerain the khan, by whoso assistance they continually in their power at the expense of other princes of Russia. Thus the power of the grand dukes of Moscow 'gradually increased, whilst that of the khan was at the same time declining by internal commotions, until the for- mer became so strong as to shake off the dominion of the latter, towards the end of the fifteenth century. RUSSIA. 2G7 Such was tho origin of Moscow, tho nucleus of tho present an eni])ire, formed from tho north-eastern principalities of ancient Russia. I have related in the tenth chapter, page l.'7, <7 .v, when a man of an inferior condition, named Karp Stri- golnik, began publicly to inveigh against the custom then pre- vailing amongst the Kussian clergy, which obliged every priest to pay a certain sum of money for his ordination to the bishop. He represented that such a custom was simony, and that Christians should keep aloof from priests who had purchased their ordination; he also attacked the confession before a priest as unnecessary, and his opinions found many adherents. This produced in the streets of Novgorod a combat between them and the partizans of the established order. The former were defeated, and their principal leaders, including Strigol- nik himself, thrown from the bridge into the river and drowned. The death of these reformers, instead of extinguishing their doctrines, increased the number of their followers, which is evident from the pastoral letters of several bishops, and even of the patriarchs of Constantinople, to whom reports about that sect had been made. The republican institutions of Nov- gorod and Plescow, where the Strigolniks were spread in great numbers, offered them a considerable degree of liberty; but when these republics were reduced into provinces of Moscow (at the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century), a severe persecution compelled them to seek .shelter in the Swedish and Polish dominions, and it seems that their descendants may be traced amongst the present Raskolniks. Another more remarkable sect rose during the latter part * It is a remarkable fact, that a bishop of tho Established Russian Church at Mohiloft', Barlaam, a very learned man, declared in 1812, when that town was occupied by the French, for the new order of tilings, and ordered a Te !>/( ID on the occupation of Moscow by the armies of Napoleon, lie >yas de- posed by the Russian government, and confined in a convent. 272 CHAPTER XIV. of the fifteenth century in the same republic of Novgorod. Its real nature is, however, very obscure, because the only positive data which we have about its tenets are contained in a pole- mical work written against them in 1491, by a certain Joseph, abbot of the convent of Volokolamsk; and consequently we are obliged to form our judgment of this sect, as well as of the Strigolniks, on the sole evidence of their enemies. According to the account of the above-mentioned author, a Jew named Zacharias, whom he calls a vessel of Satan, a sor- cerer, a necromancer, an astrologer, and even an astronomer, arrived about 1470 at Novgorod, where he began secretly to teach that the Mosaic law was the only true religion, and that the New Testament was a fiction, because the Messiah was not yet born; that it was a sin to worship images, &c. With the assistance of some other Jews, he seduced several priests of the Greek Church, with their families; and these became so zealous in their new confession, that they wished to be cir- cumcised. Their Hebrew teachers dissuaded them, however, from this resolution, which would have exposed them to the danger of being discovered; and advised them outwardly to conform to Christianity, as it was sufficient that they should be real Israelites in their hearts. They followed this advice, and secretly laboured with great success to increase the num- ber of their proselytes. The chief promoters of this sect were two priests called Dionysius and Alexius, the proto-papas of the church of St Sophia (the cathedral of Novgorod), one named Gabriel, and a layman of high rank. The outward conformity of these secret Jews to the Greek Church was so strict, that they got the reputation of great sanctity. It was on this account that the Grand Duke of Moscow, having reduced the republic of Novgorod into a pro- vince of his empire, transferred to his capital the two above- mentioned priests, Dionysius and Alexius, placing them as proto-papas of two of its principal churches. Alexius gained the favour of the Grand Duke to such a degree, that he had always free access to him, which was a distinction enjoyed only by very few. He laboured, meanwhile, with great suc- cess in the propagation of his sect, which was secretly embraced by many clergymen and laymen, and, amongst others, by Koo- ritzin, the secretary of the Grand Duke, and Zosimus, the abbot of the convent of St Simeon, who, having been rccom- iiN-ndi'd by Alexius to the favour of the Grand Duke, was elevated in 1-1-90 to the dignity of the Archbishop of Moscow. Tims a secret follower of Judaism became the head of the Russian Chuivh. The existence of this sect is a historical fact; but it is 273 quite impossible to ascertain what was the real nature of its tenets whether it was a purer mode of Christianity, which rejected t lie images and other gross superstitions of the Greek Church, or simply a deistieal sect for it is difficult to believe that pure Judaism should have found proselytes among Chris- tians, and particularly amongst the clergy, who had heeii acquainted with the Mosaic law without having ever been tempted to adopt it as their religion a circumstance of which, with the exception of the celebrated Uriel d'Acosta, I be- lieve there is scarcely any instance in history;""' because, al- though there w f ere, as is well known, in Spain and Portugal many Jews who concealed their religion under an outward conformity to the Roman Catholic Church, performing even ecclesiastical functions, they were born Jews, whom a persecu- tion compelled to act in this manner, and not Christians who had embraced Judaism. The account of this sect by the above-mentioned Joseph is so full of abuse and invective, that it excites a strong suspicion of being at least much exagge- rated. He gives, however, the names of some of those secta- rians who left the country in order to be circumcised; he also repeatedly accuses them of having practised magic and astro- logy; and this accusation throws a faint light upon the sect, by creating the supposition that it was one of those mystical sects of which traces may be found during the middle ages. Alexius and several leaders of the sect died enjoying the repu- tation of pious Christians; but its existence was discovered by Gennadius, bishop of Novgorod, who sent several of its fol- lowers, with the evidence which he collected against them, to Moscow, without knowing, however, that the metropolitan himself, and the secretary of the Grand Duke, belonged to it. He accused them of having called the images of the saints logs; of having placed them in unclean places, and gnawed them with their teeth; of having spit upon the cross, blas- phemed Christ and the Virgin, denied future life, &c. The Grand Duke ordered a synod of bishops and other clergymen to be convoked at Moscow on the 17th October 1490, to judge the case. The accused, amongst whom were the above-men- tioned proto-papas, Dionysius and Gabriel, besides many others, steadily denied the charges made against them; but such a number of witnesses, as well as other evidence, \verc brought against them, that their denial was not accepted. Several members of the synod recommended that the accused should be put to the torture, and then examined; but this * I speak here of Christians, because there were many Jewish proselytes, amongst Pagans. The Iduineans were converted by Herod the Great to Judaism ; and I have mentioned the Khozars in page 262. T 274 CHAPTER XIV. was not allowed by the Grand Duke a most astonishing cir- cumstance, considering the barbarity of the age, and the per- sonal disposition to cruelty of that sovereign. The synod was therefore obliged to content itself with anathematizing and imprisoning the sectarians. Those who were sent back to Novgorod met with a severer treatment. Attired in fantastic dresses, intended to represent demons, and having their heads covered with high caps of bark, bearing the inscription, "This is Satan's militia," they were placed backwards on horses, by order of the bishop, and paraded through the streets of the town, exposed to the insults of the populace. They had afterwards their caps burnt upon their heads, and were con- fined in a prison a barbarous treatment undoubtedly, but still humane considering the age, and compared to that which the heretics received during that as well as the following cen- tury in Western Europe. Zosimus and Kooritzin continued, however, to propagate their opinions ; and it is said that, owing to that secret pro- paganda, doubts about the most important dogmata of the Christian religion spread amongst the people, and clergymen and laymen disputed about the nature of Christ, the mystery of the Trinity, the sanctity of images, &c. This, however, I think, was a natural consequence of the excitement created by the real or imaginary disclosures made by the judgment of the heretics. The metropolitan Zosimus was at last accused of heresy by the same Joseph, in an epistle addressed to the bishop of Susdal. It is not certain whether or not this led to an investigation about the orthodoxy of the head of the Rus- sian Church. .It is only known that he resigned his dignity in 1 494, and retired into a convent. Kooritzin continued to en- joy the favour of the monarch, and was employed by him on an embassy to the Emperor Maximilian the First ; but the abbot Joseph and the bishop Gennadius, whose hatred of the heretics was inextinguishable, discovered about the beginning of the sixteenth century a considerable number of these sec- tarians, who fled from their persecution to Germany and Lithuania. Kooritzin and several of his adherents being ex- amined about their opinions, openly defended them. The Grand Duke now delivered them to tne tender mercies of their persecutors; in consequence of which, Koorit/in, the abbot of the convent of St Grorp' at Novgorod, named Cassian, and several others, \v<-re burnt alive. Karamsin, who has de- scribed this event, has not stated the real nature of the opi- nions OOnfe&Bed by Koorit/in and his associates, becaus. . seems, he could not rely on what was ascribed to them by their bitter accus urssiA. i!7-"> The sect semis to have disappeared since that time. Tlu-rb is, however, now a sect of the K-iskolniks, which observ< Mosaic law, and is generally known under the name of Subot- ni/i'i, or Saturday-men, on account of their observing Saturday inMead of Sunday, as a holiday ; but it has not yet been as- certained whether they have entirely adopted the religion of the Jews, or whether their religion is a mixture of Christia- nity with Mosaic rites. I am inclined to the latter supposi- tion; because I think that in the former. case they would have established a connection with the real Jews, of which there is, however, no trace. The Reformation, which made many converts amongst the members of the Greek Church of Poland, produced scarcely a perceptible impression upon that of Russia. The Russian chronicles relate, that in 1553 a certain Mathias Bashkin began to teacli that there were no sacraments, and that the belief in the divinity of Christ, the ordinances of the councils, and the holiness of the saints, was erroneous. When examined on this subject by the authorities, he denied the charge ; but being imprisoned, he confessed his opinions, and named seve- ral individuals who shared in them, stating that these opinions had been taught to them by two Roman Catholic natives of Lithuania, and that the bishop of Resan had confirmed them in these errors. A council of bishops, convened for that ob- ject, condemned the heretics to be imprisoned for life. This is all that is related on this subject by the Russian chronicles ; but it is impossible to form any correct opinion whether the doctrines alluded to were the antitrinitarian tenets, which were beginning to spread about that time in Poland, or only Protestant ones, but misrepresented by ignorant and bigoted chroniclers. The most remarkable part of it is, that a bishop seems to have entertained these opinions. He resigned his episcopal dignity on account of illness, which was perhaps a pretext, to save him from deposition and from public scandal. That the doctrines of the Reformation had penetrated into the dominions of Moscow, is evident from the following state- ment of a Polish Protestant author, Wengierski, who wrote under the name of Regenvolscius. He says that in 1552, three monks, called Theodosius, Artemius, and Thomas, ar- rived from the interior of Muscovy at Vitepsk, a town of Lithuania. They knew no other language than their own, nor had they any learning. They, however, condemned the idolatrous rites, and cast out the images from houses and churches, breaking them into pieces, and exhorting people, by their speeches and writings, to worship God alone through our Lord Jesus Christ. Having, however, excited by their zeal 276 CHAPTER XIV. the hatred of the superstitious people, strongly attached to the worship of images, they left Vitepsk, and retired into the in- terior of Lithuania, where the Word of God already resounded with more freedom. Theodosius, who was more than eighty years old, died soon afterwards ; Artemius retired to the prince of Slutzk ; and Thomas, who was more eloquent, and had a better knowledge of the Scriptures than the others, be- came a minister in the church of God, and settled at Polotzk, where the pure religion had begun to appear, in order to teach the faithful, and to confirm them in the knowledge of God and in piety. Having faithfully discharged the duties of his voca- tion during several years, he finally sealed by his death the principles of the new doctrines. When the tzar of Moscow, Ivan Vassilevich, captured Polotzk, in 1563, and committed many cruelties against the inhabitants, he ordered Thomas to be drowned in the river, because he had formerly been his sub- ject, and had belonged to his church. The good seed which he had sown at Vitepsk produced, however, abundant fruit, be- cause the inhabitants became disgusted with the idolatrous rites ; and, having got from Lithuania and Poland preachers of the pure word of God, they built a church. (/Slavouia Re- form, p. 2G2.) It is well known that there are many Protes- tants in Kussia ; but they are all of foreign origin, with the exception, 1 believe, of the family of the Counts Golovkine, who became Protestants in Holland in the beginning of the eighteenth century, and continued in that persuasion. I think, however, that Count Golovkine, who was sent as am- bassador to China in 1805, was employed on other diplomatic missions, and is the author of several works in French, was the last Protestant of this family. A great commotion in the Russian Church was produced by the emendation of the Scriptures and the devotional books, effected under the Tzar Alexius by the Patriarch Nicon. During the long period of the Mongol domination, the whole country fell into a state of great barbarity ; and the dorgy, although enjoying considerable immunities under that domi- nation, sunk into the grossest ignorance and superstition, from which they did not emerge after the emancipation of their country from tin.' \oko of tho Asiatics. The transcription of all the sacrod and devotional hooks, entrusted to ignorant copyists, became gradually so disfigured, that their sense was often entirely lost, and the text of one copy dill* red from that of another. Already, in ].')'20. the T/;ir Vassili Ivanovich rc- jui-sted the monks of Mount Athos to send him a man capable of Correcting tin- t'-xt of th-- sacred hooks ; and a ( Jreek monk called Maximus, well versed in the (I reek and the old Slavonic KTSSIA. 277 languages, was sent, in consequence of this request, to Moscow. He was received with great distinction, and laboured for ten years with great assiduity in comparing the manuscripts of the Slavonic version with the original Creek text; but the superiority of his knowledge excited the jealousy of the igno- rant clergy of Moscow, who accused him of corrupt inir, instead of correcting, the sacred books, in order to establish a new doctrine. All the justifications of Maximus could not save him ; and he was confined in a convent, where he remained till his death in 1555. Several efforts were made in vain to correct the sacred books. At last the Patriarch Nicon assembled a council for that purpose at Moscow in 1654, at which the Patriarch of Antioch, that of Servia, and fifty-six bishops, were present ; and it decided upon correcting the Scriptures and the litur- gical books used by the Russian Church. In consequence of this decision, the Tzar Alexius ordered old manuscripts of the above-mentioned writings to be collected from all parts. The agent who was sent for that purpose to the convents of Mount Athos brought more than eight hundred Greek manuscripts, amongst which there was a copy of the Gospels written in the beginning of the eighth century, and another in the tenth. The patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, and several other Greek prelates of the east, sent more than two hundred manuscripts. The differences which arose between the Tzar Alexius and the Patriarch Nicon, which ended in the deposi- tion of the latter by a council in 1664, arrested for some time the accomplishment of the projected reform ; but it was finally decided by the above-mentioned council, which, presided over by the tzar himself, was composed of the patriarchs of Alex- andria and Antioch, who acted also in the name of those of Constantinople and Jerusalem, and of a great number of Rus- sian and eastern prelates. In consequence of this decision, the text of the Scriptures and the liturgical books was fixed in conformity to the oldest Slavonic manuscripts, which had been found to give the most faithful translation of the Greek original and the Septuagint version, and printed. Although this important reform was accomplished with the sanction of the highest authorities of all the eastern churches, it met with numerous opponents in the country. Paul, bishop of Kolomna, with many priests, and an immense number of laymen, chiefly of the inferior classes, declared against what they called the Niconian heresy ; and that the measure in question did not correct-, but corrupt, the sacred books and the true doctrine. The refractory bishop was deposed, and confined in a convent ; and severe measures were adopted 278 CHAPTER XIV. against the adherents of the imcorrected text ; but the perse- cution served only to excite their fanaticism, and occasioned violent riots even within the walls of the capital. The oppo- sition to the new order of things manifested itself with parti- cular violence in the north, on the shores of the White Sea ; and its partizans were called, on that account, Pomorane^ i. e., inhabitants of the coast. Their principal seat was the fortified convent of Solovietzk, situated on an island of that sea. After a long and desperate resistance, it was taken by storm in 1678, and a great number of its defenders threw themselves into the flames, in order to obtain the martyr's crown. TheJSa*oifc, or schismatics as they were now called by the established church, spread their opinions over all Siberia, the country of the Cossacks of the Don, and in different other distant pro- vinces. A great number of them emigrated to Poland, and even to Turkey, where they formed numerous settlements. The fanaticism excited by persecution degenerated into the wildest acts of superstition. The doctrine that the surest means of obtaining salvation was a voluntary suicide, through means of what they called the baptism of fire, caused a great number of victims ; and it is an averred fact, that numbers of people of every age and sex shut themselves up in houses, barns, &c., and having set them on fire, perished in the flames, reciting prayers and singing hymns; and it is generally believed that instances of this atrocious superstition occur even now in some distant provinces, particularly in Siberia and the north, where many llaskolniks have formed settlements in the most secluded parts of immense forests, so that their very i.-xistcnco is unknown to any other people.* The Raskolniks are divided into two great branches, the Po- pornlu-hiiHi, or those; who have priests, and the fiezpopoio- shchina, or those who have none. They are subdivided into a great number of sects, of which several arose in con >cquence * The atrocious scenes which I have mentioned in the text are not only described by the eccloiastical authors of Russia who wrote against the Jia^kolniks, hut are also related by the well-known srientifir travellers who have explored the remote provinces ot Un^ia during the la^t ceiitur\ (Imolin, I'allas, (ienr^i, Lepekhine, iVc. JJaron 1 laxthansen, who vi>ited Russia in 1S43, savs, that a tew years ain> a number of these fanatics a^'-m- hled on an estate belonging to one M. (louriefr', situated on the left, hank of the Vol^a, and resolved to sacritice t hemseUvs by mutual murder. At'' or some preparatory rites, the horrid design was put into execution. Thirty- , individuals had been murdered, when attachmeir to lite arose in a younj; \\uiiian, who lied to a neighbouring village, and iiiir on. A number ot' people hastened to ih BC6D6 of these atrocities ; but they found for; \ e , en individuals murdered, and two mur- derers still alive. They were taken, and received the punishment of the knout ; hut they exulted at every la-h, rejoicing to suii'-r martyrdom. ror>ni, and sacrifice hens to them, and they adore the fire, which they call Smroj'ich." The three first named deities had, accm <1- ing to Nestor (page 8). their idols at Kioff, before the introduction of Chris- tianity. Nothing is known about Sim and Kegl. The belief in the exist- ence of Villas, or beneficial fairies, is even now one of the superstitions of the Morlacchi in Dalmatia. K<>n>v;iy is the appellation of the wedding-cake in different Slavonic countries. The name Svarojich, given to fire by its wor- shippers, is the patronymic of Svarog,* the Vulcan of the ancient Slavo- nians. It is very probable that the secret rites which are performed by some of the Raskolniks are nothing but the continuation of the old Slavonic idolatry to which the manuscript in question alludes. * The resemblance of this word with Surya and Sourug, the Indian names of the sun, is one of the traces of ihc early Asiatic origin of tlie Slavonians. 282 CHAPTER XIV. not known what privileges are attached to this dignity. They generally assemble for their mysterious worship at night, from Saturdays to Sundays. They have some secret signs by which they know each other, one of which, it is said, consists in placing a red handkerchief on the right knee, and striking upon it with the right hand. They have in their houses pictures of Peter the Third, with the above-mentioned sign of their sect.* The Khlestovshchiki, or Flagellants,f are considered as a branch of the Skoptzi. They impose upon themselves flagel- lation and some other penances, of which there are many ex- amples amongst the orthodox adherents of the Western Church; but it seems that they have mysterious doctrines and rites, marked by the wildest superstition.^ The most remarkable of all the Raskolniks are undoubtedly the Malakanes and the Dookhobortzi. Malakanes is a nick- name given to the members of that sect, because they eat milk, in Russian malaJco, on fast-days; but they call themselves Istlnneeye Christiane, i. e., true Christians. Nothing is known about their origin. It is only said, that about the middle of the eighteenth century a Prussian non-commissioned officer, prisoner of war, settled in a village of the government of Kharkow amongst the peasantry, and gained such an influence over them, that they consulted him on every occasion, and al- ways followed his advice. He had no home of his own, but went from cottage to cottage, reading and explaining the Bible every evening to an assembly of villagers, and continued to do so till his death. No further particulars about him, nor even his name, could be discovered by those who made re- searches on that subject; and the only thing which is known * These details arc chiefly taken from the work of Baron Ilaxtlmnsen, ,SV ////;/;/ }/// /'.-://///./. The author of this sketch happened in 1820 to be at Bobruisk, a fortress on the Jieresina, where, a short time before, a mission- ary of that sect, who had arrived from the interior of Russia, had induced about a hundred soldiers to join it by the forms required for that purpose. lie was sentenced to have the knout, and his converts were transported to Siberia. f From kfift'ftut, to flog. These sectarians arc aroused of the same guilty extravagances which -cribcd to the Adamites. And it is said that, the police of M sin-prised one of their meetings in 1\vn from exhaustion ; but \tra\a^anccs in.iy be found in (iivat I'.ritain and America. 1 markable that the l-'ia^cllan; s of the middl a^e had b-rii aCCOSed of the guilty extravagances which arc ascribed to the Khlestovshchiki ; and it is ve: y possible that in both cases they were the natural result of an over- excitement of the imagination, produced by continual self-torment. IUSSIA. 283 is, that he lived in a village inhabited by the Malakancs. It is, however, much more probable that he had found an already existing religious community with which his opinions coincided, than that lie was its founder; because it is said that a similar community was discovered about the same time in the govern- ment of Tambof. This sect is not numerous. About three thousand of its members are settled in the government of the Crimea, where they were visited in 1843 by Baron Haxthauscn, who obtained from them the following explanation of their creed : They acknowledge the Bible as the word of God, and the unity of God in three persons. This triune God, uncreated, self-existent, the cause of all things, is an eternal, immutable, and invisible Spirit. God dwells in a pure world ; He sees all, He knows all, He governs all ; all is rilled with Him. He has created all things. In the beginning, all that was created by God was good and perfect. Adam's soul, but not his body, was created after the image of God. This created immortal soul of Adam was endowed with heavenly reason and purity, and a clear knowledge of God. Evil was unknown to Adam, who possessed a holy freedom, tending towards God the Crea- tor. They admit the dogma of the fall of Adam, the birth, death, and resurrection of Christ, in the same manner as other Christians, and expound the ten commandments in the following manner: " The first and second forbid idolatry; therefore no images are to be worshipped. The third shows that is sinful to take an oath. The fourth is to be observed by spending Sundays and other festivals in prayer, singing praises to God, and reading the Bible. The filth, by ordering to honour parents, enjoins to be obedient to every authority. The sixth prohibits two kinds of murder, first, the bodily, by a weapon, poison, &c., which is a sin, except in case of war, when it is not sinful to kill in defence of the tzar and the country; and, second, the spiritual murder, which is committed by seducing others from the truth with deceitful words, or en- ticing them by bad example into sin, which leads them to everlasting perdition. They also consider it murder when one injures, persecutes, or hates his neighbour ; according to the words of St John, ' He who hates his brother is a mur- derer. 1 With regard to the seventh commandment, they con- sider as a spiritual adultery even a too great fondness of this world and its transient pleasures ; and therefore, not only un- chastity, but also drunkenness, gluttony, and bad company, should be avoided. By the eighth they consider every violence and deceit as theft. By the ninth commandment, every in- sult, mockery, flattery, and lie, is considered as false witness. 284 CHAPTER XIV. By the tenth, they understand the mortification of all lusts and passions." They conclude their confession of faith by the following words : " We believe that whoever will fulfil the whole of the ten commandments of God will be saved. But we also believe that since the fall of Adam no man is capable of fulfilling these ten commandments by his own strength. We believe that man, in order to become able to perform good works, and to keep the commandments of God, must believe in Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God. This true faith, necessary for our salvation, we cannot find any where else but in the Word of God alone. We believe that the Word of God creates in us that faith which makes us capable of receiving the grace of God." With regard to the sacrament of baptism, they say, " Although we know that Christ was baptized by John in the river Jordan, and that the apostles have baptized others, namely, as Philip did with the eunuch, yet we understand by baptism, not the earthly water, which only cleanses the body but not the soul, but the spiritual living water, which is faith in the triune God, with- out contradiction, and in submission to his holy Word; because the Saviour says, ' Whosoever believeth in me, from his body streams of living water will flow; 1 and John the Baptist says, 4 A man can take nothing which is not given him from heaven ; ' and Paul says, ' Christ has not sent me to baptize, but to preach.' We therefore understand by the sacrament of bap- tism, the spiritual cleansing of our soul from sin through faith, and the death of the old man with his works in us, in order to be newly clad by a pure and holy life. Although, after the birth of a child, we cleanse with real water the impurities of his body, we do not consider it as baptism. With regard to the Lord's Supper, it was a commemoration of Christ; but the words of the gospel are the spiritual bread of life. Man lives not by bread alone, but by every word of God. The Spirit gives life; flesh is of no use. The receiving of the earthly bread and wine is therefore unnecessary." It is very curious that this sect, which has such a spiritual creed, is exclusively composed of common peasants, quite illi- terate, living in the midst of a population plunged into gross superstition, and almost idolatry, as is tin 1 case with the fol- lowers of the Greek Church in llussia. The works of the well known German mystical writer, .Tung Stilling, which wcro translated into Russian, arc very popular amongst the Mala- kanes, who are generally believers in the millennium. In is:};), one of them, called Terentius Bclioreff, began to preach repent.-ince. announcing that the millennium should lie-in in thirty months, and ordered that every business, and all kinds RUSSIA. 285 of work, except the most indispensable, should bo abandoned; but that people should spend their whole time in prayer and singing. He declared himself to bo the prophet Elias, sent to announce the coming of the Lord, whilst his companion Enoch was sent with the same mission to the west. He announced the day when he was to ascend to heaven, in the presence of all. Several thousands of Malakanes assembled from different parts of Russia. On the appointed day, he ap- peared on a cart, ordered the assembled crowd to pray on their knees, and then, spreading his arms, he jumped from the cart, and fell on the ground. The disappointed Malakanes delivered the poor enthusiast to the local police as an impos- tor. He was imprisoned, but having for some time remained in confinement, he spoke no more of his being the prophet Elias, but continued to preach the millennium in prison, and after his release, till his death. He left a considerable num- ber of followers, who often assemble to spend days and nights in continual prayer and singing. They introduced the com- munity of goods, and emigrated, with the permission of the government, to Georgia, where they settled in sight of Mount Ararat, waiting for the millennium, and where a colony of Lutherans from Wurtemberg had settled before, for the same purpose. It' it is strange to find amongst the illiterate peasantry of E/ussia religious opinions of such a pure and spiritual charac- ter as those which are held by the Malakanes, how much more startling it is to meet amongst that peasantry doctrines which were entertained by the Gnostics, who belonged to the most intellectual classes of the Roman society. Such is, however, the case with the Duchobortzi, or Combatants in Spirit.* The origin of this sect is unknown. They derive it themselves from the three youths who were thrown into a burning oven by Nebuchadnezzar, for having refused to worship his image (Daniel iii.) a saying which probably bears an allegorical meaning. They have no written records about their sect, or at least none have hitherto been discovered. My own opinion, however, is, that they are a continuation of the sect of the Patarenes, who maintained exactly the same doctrine about the fall of the soul before the creation of this world as the Duchobortzi, and who were very numerous in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in Servia, Bosnia, and Dalmatia, but of whom no mention is made since the latter part of the fifteenth century. It is very natural to suppose that some of these sectarians, persecuted in the south, sought refuge * From Duck, ch pronounced as iii loch (Scotice) spirit or ghost in all the Slavonic dialects, and borctz, wrestler or combatant. 286 CHAPTER XIV. amongst their Slavonic brethren of Russia, particularly as the dialect of the country which they had inhabited is much akin to that of Russia. Be this as it may, the Duchobortzi were discovered, some years before the middle of the eighteenth century, in different parts of Russia. They were much perse- cuted under the reign of Catherine and Paul, particularly on account of their refusal to serve in the army; and they bore that persecution with remarkable firmness, resignation, and meek- ness. The Emperor Alexander granted them perfect tolera- tion, and permitted them to establish settlements in the south of Russia, on the banks of the river Molochna, where they distinguished themselves by their industry and honesty. With regard to their dogmas, I give below the confession of their faith, which, in the time of their persecution under Catherine, they presented to Kochowski, governor of Ekaterinoslav, and which, considering that it is composed by illiterate peasants, is truly astonishing, for the abstract ideas and refined expres- sions which it contains: " Our language is rude before every one ; the writers are expensive, and it is not easy for us who remain in prison to get them ; therefore this declaration of ours is so badly writ- ten. Considering this, we request thee, sir, to forgive to us, who are but little acquainted with the art of writing, the dis- order of thoughts, the indistinctness and defectiveness of exposition, the unskilfulness of speech, and the unripeness of words ; and if, having clothed the eternal truth in coarse language, we have thereby disfigured its divine face, we beg of thee not to be tired of it on this account, because it is beautiful by itself, from and in all eternity. " God is only one, but he is one in the Trinity. This holy Trinity is an inscrutable Being. The Father is the Light, the Son is the Life, the Holy Ghost is the Peace. In man the .Father is manifested as the memory, the Son as the n ;i- son, the Holy Ghost as the will. The human soul is the image of God ; but this image in us is nothing else than the memory, the reason, and the will. The soul had existed be- fore the creation of the visible world. The soul fell before the creation of the world, together with many spirits, who then fell in the spiritual world, in the world above ; therefore the fall of Adam and Kve, which is described in the Scripture, must not be taken in its usual sense; but this part of the Scripture is an imnire, wherein is represented, firstly, the fall of the human soul {'mm a state of exalted purity in the spiri- tual world, and before it came into the world ; secondly, the fall which was repeated by Adam, in the b.-ginnin.ir <>f the days of this world, and which is adapted to our understand- RLV ing; tliinlly, the fall which, since Adum, is spiritually and carnally repeated by all of us men, and which will bo repeated till the destruction of the world. Originally the fall of the soul was brought about by its contemplating itself, and be- ginning to love only itself, so that it turned away from the contemplation and love of God ; and by a voluntary pride. NVhon the soul was, for its punishment, enclosed in the prison of the body, it fell for the second time in the person of Adam, through the guilt of the seductive serpent ; that is to say, through the evil corrupted will of the flesh. At present, the fall of all of us is caused by the seduction of the same serpent, which has entered into us through Adam, through the use of the forbidden fruit, i. y (iod ; but they maintain that every tiling in them lias a mys- terious meaning, which was exclusively revealed, and is intelli- gible exclusively, to them ; and that all is symbolic. Thus the history of Cain is an allegory of the wicked sons of Adam, who persecute the invisible church, typified by Abel. Tho confusion of tongues is nothing else than the separation of churches. The drowning of Pharaoh is the symbol of the defeat of Satan, who will perish, with all his adherents, in the Red Sea of fire, through which the elect, i.e., the Duehobortzi, will pass uninjured. They explain in the same manner the New Testament ; as for instance, the turning of water into wine at the marriage of Cana, signifies that Christ will, at tho mysterious marriage with our soul, turn in our heart the water of the tears of repentance into a holy, paradisaic, spiritual wine into a beverage of joy and happiness. It is remarkable, indeed, that the metaphysical creed of these sectarians could not preserve them from the grossest and most revolting superstition, an additional proof that metaphysical speculations sometimes lead their votaries to consequences from which the common sense of an ignorant man would have recoiled, and are but a poor substitute for the positive princi- ples of religion. It is generally maintained that they have secret doctrines and rites, the mystery of which never has been unravelled ; as even those of them who had passed to the es- tablished church keep an obstinate silence on this subject. Whether this opinion is correct or not, I cannot say. The following circumstance seems, however, to be an undoubtedly established fact. An individual named Kapustin, a discharged non-commis- sioned officer of the guards, joined, about the beginning of this century, the Duehobortzi settled on the banks of the Mo- lochna. His imposing appearance, and his extraordinary abilities, but particularly his great eloquence, gave him such an influence over these sectarians, that they considered him as a prophet, and blindly submitted to all his dictates. He established amongst his followers the doctrine of the transmi- gration of souls, teaching that " the soul of every believer was an emanation of the Godhead, the Word made flesh, and would remain upon earth, but change its body, as long as the created world was to exist. That God has manifested himself as Christ in the body of Jesus, who w r as the Wisest and most perfect of men that ever lived ; and that, therefore, the soul of Jesus was the most perfect and purest of all souls. That u 290 CHAPTER XIV since the time when God manifested himself in Jesus, He always remains with mankind, living and manifesting himself in every believer ; but the individual soul of Jesus, according to what he declared himself, saying, 4 1 shall remain with you to the end of the days, 1 continues to dwell in this world, changing its body from generation to generation, but retain- ing, by a particular dispensation of God, the memory of its former existence. Therefore every man in whom the soul of Jesus is dwelling knows it. During the first ages of Chris- tianity this fact was universally acknowledged, and the new Jesus was known to all. He governed the church, and de- cided all the controversies about religion. He was called the pope ; but false popes soon usurped the throne of Jesus, who lias retained only a small number of faithful followers and true believers, according to what he has predicted himself, that many are called, but few are chosen. These true believers are the Duchobortzi ; Jesus is constantly amongst them, and his soul animates one of them. Thus Sylvan Kolesnikof (a leader of their sect), whom many of your old people have known, was a real Jesus ; but now I am he, as true as heaven is over my head, and the earth under my feet, I am the true Jesus Christ, your Lord. Therefore fall down upon your knees and worship me !" and they all fell down and worshipped him. Kapustin introduced a perfect community of goods amongst his followers. Thafields were cultivated in common, and their fruits divided according to the necessities of every one ; some manufactures were established, and the colony became flou- rishing. In 1814 he was imprisoned for making proselytes, but after some time liberated on bail. A report was then spread that ho had died ; but the authorities having ordered the grave to be opened where he was said to have been buried, found that it was the body of another man. All efforts to trace his abode proved vain ; and it was discovered only after his real death, that he had spent several years in a secluded cavern, whence he directed his followers. Kapustin estab- lished a council of thirty persons, twelve of whom were called :i] jostles. This council chose for his successor his son, a youth of about fifteen years, weak-minded and disorderly, but the irov.-rnment of the community was conducted by the council. They could not, however, maintain that absolute sway which had been exercised by Kapustin over the minds of his fol- lowers ; and their authority, as well as the truth of their doc- trine, began to be questioned by many, who showed symptoms of revolt. The council formed amongst themsrlvcs a tribunal for the maintenance of their authority ; and those who had resisted them, or were suspected of an intention to RUSSIA. i>f)l desert their community and join the established church, were inveigled or carried by force into a house built upon an island of the Molochna, and called Ray i Muka, i.e., paradise and torment, and put to death in different ways. In this manner about four hundred individuals disappeared. The government was informed of it, and a great number of dead bodies were found, some of which were mutilated, whilst others showed that they had been buried alive. The judicial inquiry into that horrid business, which had begun in 1834, was concluded in 1. ( ). The emperor ordered that all the Duchobortzi be- lon^ing to that colony should be sent into the Trans-Caucasian provinces, and there divided into separate settlements, and placed under a strict surveillance. Those, however, who were willing to enter the established church were permitted to re- main in their old settlements. The account of these acts of atrocious superstition, perpe- trated in our own days, would be incredible, if it were not corroborated by such high authority as that of Count, now Prince, Woronzoff, who is well known in England. The fact related here took place in a province intrusted to his admi- nistration. Baron Haxthausen, from whose work I have ex- tracted the details of this affair, gives the translation of a proclamation addressed to the above-mentioned Duchobortzi, and signed by Count Woronzoff, as governor-general of the provinces of New Russia and Bessarabia, on the 26th January 1841. In this proclamation he publishes the imperial order about their transportation to the Trans-Caucasian provinces, and states that they had in the name of their creed, and by the command of their teachers, committed murders, and cruelly used people, giving asylum to deserters, and concealing the crimes of their brethren, who were now in prison awaiting a just punishment. In consequence of this order, about two thousand five hundred individuals went to the Trans-Cauca- sian provinces, whilst the remainder conformed to the estab- lished church ; but it scarcely can be doubted that they did it only in an outward manner. My authority gives no in- formation about those who, as it appears from Count Woron- zoff's proclamation, were convicted of the crimes to which ho alludes, and the details of whose trial would certainly deserve a prominent place amongst the causes celelres of Europe. CHAPTER XV. RUSSIA (CONTINUED.) Account of the Martinists, or the Religious Freemasonry, and their useful labours Their persecution by the Empress Catherine They resume their labours under the Emperor Alexander Promote Bible Societies, &c. General observations on the Russians Constitution given by the Poles to Moscow Sketch of the religious condition of the Slavonians of the Turkish Empire General Observations on the present condition of the Slavonic nations What may Europe hope or fear from them Causes which now oppose the progress of Protestantism amongst the Poles Means for promoting scriptural religion amongst the Slavonians Favourable prospects for it in Bohemia Successful labours of the llev. F. W. Kossuth at Prague Reasons why the British and Ameri- can Protestants should pay some attention to the religious condition of the Slavonians Alliance between Rome and Russia Influence of des- potism and free institutions upon Romanism and Protestantism Causes of the renewed strength of Romanism at present How it may be coun- teracted Importance of a connection between the British and Slavonic Protestants. I SHALL conclude my sketch of the religious sects of Russia by a short account of the Martinists, who deserve an honourable place in the annals of religion, as well as in those of free-ma- sonry, because they practised, by means of the masonic lodges, the .sublime precepts of religion ; and perhaps free-masonry never had an opportunity of displaying a nobler sphere of activity than it had under the name of Martinism in Russia. The G'hevalier St Martin is not so much known as he de- serves.* It would, however, exceed the limits of this sketch to give here a biography of this remarkable man, who, at a tiiiK; when the infidel school of philosophy exercised a complete authority over the public opinion of France, was steadily labouring to spread the doctrines of pure Christianity, al- though tinged with a considerable admixture of mysticism. lie endeavoured to establish his doctrines by means of the masonic lodges, and to give them a religious and practical tcndi'iiry. li<- did not succeed in accomplishing this object in his own country, although he had obtained some success * The Chevalier St Martin was born in 17W, ami died in 180.1. His princijial work- an\ /' ; : ' rf, Dieu rJIvin,, \ '1 -tailed account of his life and works may be found in the Jjiujr!cen in general - and there c;ui be no doubt th.'it it, was in ft great measure actuated l>y a men- tal disease no Pole c;ui ever forget his truly chivalrous behaviour towards ;-/.ko, to whom he went himself to announce his liberation, and whom n-ed that, had he been on the throne, he would IK-VIM- have permitted the destruction of Poland. The same monarch, immediately after hi- sion, granted to the Polish provi: ! by his mother, the maintenance of the national lan^n.; and local administration. RUSSIA. 207 those who were imprisoned at the same time when I was," was NovikofTs answer. The Martinists could not resume their former labours ; they continued, however, quietly to maintain and to promote their ideas. The Kmperor Alexander, who, after the French war, began to incline towards religious mysticism, particularly by the influence of the celebrated Madame Krudencr, and who sincerely wished to promote the good of his country, called the Martinists to his counsels. He intrusted one of them, Prince Galitzin, with the department of the religious affairs and public education of the country. Galitzin and other Martinists made great efforts to promote public educa- tion, and to spread a religious spirit in the country. It was then that the Bible societies were promoted by the influence of the Government, and that many foreign works of a religi- ous character, as, for instance, those of Jung Stilling, &c., were translated and published. A religious periodical with a mystical tendency, entitled the " Messenger of Sion," was published in Russian, by a M. Labzin. It had a considerable circulation ; and it seems that there was a good number of persons entertaining these opinions ; but as there is no publi- city in Russia, it is exceedingly difficult to ascertain the real state of things. One thing, however, is certain, that all the liberal and religious tendencies which had manifested them- selves under the reign of the Emperor Alexander have dis- appeared in Russia, and given way to a line of policy, the object of which is to mould the various national and religious elements contained within the limits of the Russian empire into one system of ecclesiastical and national uniformity, a policy which. I think, is more calculated to weaken and de- stroy than to fortify the conservative elements of a state. I have mentioned (page 270) the persecution of the Greek United Church, which has taken place under the present government ; and the attempts which have been made to sub- vert the Protestant Church of the Baltic provinces are well known. It was also in consequence of the policy alluded to that the Bible societies were prohibited, and the Protestant missionaries, who were labouring in the Asiatic provinces of Russia, forbidden to prosecute their labours. I confess that it is with feelings of no ordinary gratification that I have dwelt upon facts which throw a cheering light upon the gloomy but unfortunately true picture which has been often drawn of the social condition of my Slavonic brethren of Russia. The example of the Martinists and of the Malakanes, taken from the upper and the lower classes of Russian society, proves that the long despotism which has 298 CHAPTER xv. weighed for centuries, and still weighs, over that country, and the no less baneful influence of prsedial and domestic servitude, have not destroyed in its inhabitants all the germs of the noblest moral qualities which, under more favourable circumstances, would have been fully developed.* The sufferings which have been inflicted on the author's nation by the government of Russia are well known, and it is on account of his opposition to that government that he is in this country. He has, however, no hesitation in declaring, in the name of his countrymen, that their feelings towards the Russians are not those of revenge, but of a deep regret at seeing them converted into wretched tools of oppression, considering it a more deplorable lot than that of being op- pressed ; and they hope that a nation which may boast of the republican glories of Novgorod, and has produced a Minine and a Pojarski, is reserved for better things. *)- Many were the struggles which had divided the two cognate nations, and victory has more than once crowned the Polish eagles ; but few nations, if any, can boast of such a glorious triumph as that which was obtained in 1612 over Moscow by the Polish General Zolkiewski. Having defeated the Russian forces, Zolkiewski marched upon their capital, which, a prey to an- archy and faction, trembled at the approach of the dreaded enemy. To avoid the impending ruin of their capital, the council of the Boyars offered, through Zolkiewski, the throne of their country to the son of his monarch, demanding no other condition than security for their church. The victori- * Few instances, perhaps, afford a stronger illustration of the debasing in- fluence of despotism than that which is afforded by tin.- example of Count opchine, by whose order Moscow was set on fire in 1S12. This splen- did act of patriotism, which induced a nation to devote its own capital to the Humes, in order to liberate the country from a foreign invader, deserves the sincere admiration of every true patriot, should even the interests of his own country, as was the case with that of the author's, have suil'rred by it. It should be, indeed, the cause of a just pride to every Russian, but particu- larly to the principal actor of that terrible but sublime drama, Kostopchine. And yet the obsequiousness of the courtier stilled in the heart of that man the spirit of the hero. Having learnt that the Kmperor Alexander did not i.pprove of the idea that Moscow bad been destroyed by the .Russians them- ..Ithough it was the fact, Kostopchine published a pamphlet in French, disclaiming this heroic action for himself and his nation, and as- cribing the burning of the Kns-ian capital to the French. Alas for a nation which is obliged to disavow actions in which every other would have exulted ! t Russia being thrown into a state of anarchy, and a war with Poland, in consequence of iln- treaty concluded by Zolkiewski, described in the I having been broken by King SigUmund the Third, was on the brink of ruin. "It was saved by th-- patriotism of Minine, a common burgher of Nijni Nov- gorod, and I'rince Pojurski, whom the former induced to place himself at the head of an armed force. ZOLXIEKTCKI. TURK voMANS. 209 ous general accepted that proposition, but added the condi- tion, that a constitution which guaranteed to the inhabitants i-urity of their lives, property, and the right of self-taxa- tion, should be established at the same time in Muscovy. Thus the victor bestowed liberty upon the vanquished, and having entered the capital at the request of the Boyars, he established order, and gained the unlimited confidence of the inhabitants. When, in order to accelerate the fulfilment of the treaty concluded by him, Zolkiewski departed from Mos- cow, he left that capital, which had been filled with terror and consternation at his approach, amidst the universal re- gret* of the population. The principal persons of the country accompanied him to the gates of the city ; whilst all the win- dows, and even the roofs of houses in the streets through which he passed, were filled with people invoking the blessings of heaven on the Polish general, whom a short time before they had dreaded as their most terrible enemy.* We Poles shall be always more proud of this triumph of our Zolkiewski than of all the victories which our nation ever obtained ; and let the Ivussians glory in the bloody feats of their Suvvarroff and the massacre of Praga. The Slavonians of the Turkish empire were converted at a more early period than the other nations of their race, which was a natural consequence of their vicinity to, and their fre- quent intercourse with, Constantinople. They have remained since that time under the jurisdiction of the Greek patriarch; and their ecclesiastical history does not present any peculiar features of interest, except the sect of the Bogomiles, which prevailed in Bulgaria, and which, as is evident by its name, being derived from Boh, God, and niHny, have mercy, was of Slavonic origin; and that of the Patarenes, which, imported, as it appears, from Italy, was very numerous in Servia, Bosnia, and Dalmatia, from the twelfth to the fifteenth century. The account of these sects may be found in all ecclesiastical histo- ries; but there is still much uncertainty about the real nature of their doctrines, which my limits will not permit me here to investigate;-)- and I have already remarked, that the Pata- * Karamsin has justly observed, that the accession of Vladislav would have changed the fate of Russia by weakening the autocracy, and perhaps, by the same means, that of the whole of Europe, if his father, King Sigis- mund, had had the wisdom of Zolkiewski. This, unfortunately, was not the case, as I took occasion to relate in page 215. Zolkiewski, unable to obtain from Sigismund the confirmation of his treaty, retired in disgust, and took no more any part in the affairs with Russia. He left his retreat when tho country was threatened by the Turks, and perished in a battle against them, 1620. t A very interesting dissertation on these sects will be found in Sir Gard- ner Wilkinson's last work, Dalmatia and Montenegro, vol. ii., p- 97. 300 CHAPTER XV. renes entertained doctrines similar to those of the Ducho- bortzi (page 285). A considerable number of Servians, in- chiding many noble families of that country, embraced Ma- hommedanism towards the end of the fourteenth century. They have preserved their Slavonic language, their national and family traditions, and the characteristic trait of the Sla- vonic nation attachment to their race* uniting with these feelings an ardent devotion to the creed of the Alcoran and the rule of the Moslem. A great number of these Slavonians distinguished themselves in the Turkish service, and were in- vested with the highest dignities of the state. Their number amounted, according to Szaffarik's Slavonic Ethnography, to half a million of souls, besides three hundred thousand Bul- garians, who have also become followers of Mahommed. Having now concluded a rapid sketch of the religious his- tory of the Slavonic nations, I shall add a few general obser- vations on this subject, as well as on a few topics immediately connected with it. My object in producing this sketch was, not to amuse my readers for this may be, I think, attained in a more effective manner by works of fiction than by his- tory; my intention was to add a mite to the service of the Protestant cause in general, by bringing forward new, evidence in its favour, and thus to enlist the interest and support of the British Protestants for the same cause in the Slavonic coun- tries. The Protestants of Great Britain embrace, in their zeal for promoting Christian truth, the remotest nations of the globe, and immense sums are generously expended in the Word of God in their languages. British and American missionaries make efforts to Christianize the savage islanders of the Pacific, as well as the learned Brahmins of India; for the same noble object they seek in every country of the world for the scattered children of Israel; and they have visited the Nestorians, and other remnants of the Chris- tian churches in the east, in order to resuscitate amongst them the obscured and almost extinct truths of the gospel. T]KTO is also no want of exertions to assist in the reanimation and spread of these truths in several parts of Western Europe; but the Slavonic nations seem alone to bo forgotten. The race which produced John 1 1 UPS, and has given proofs of its devotion to the truths proclaimed by that great reformer, thnn which no nation can show greater, excites less int in the minds and hearts of the British Protestants than the inhabitants of the interior of Africa, or those of the polar is. And yet this race, which comprehends nearly the * I havo quoted a remarkable in>Uim % e of their Slavonic s^'ijipath'cs in fJKNERAL OBSERVATIONS. SOI third part of the whole population of Europe, occupies more than ii half of its territory, ancl extends its dominion over the whole of Northern Asia, contains only about one million five hundred thousand Protestants. I therefore think that those British Protestants who have really at heart the promotion of the cause of true religion, even in the remotest parts of the world, should, for the sake of that cause, pay at least some attention to its present condition and future prospects, in a quarter near their homes, and where the most important poli- tical as well as religious interests of Europe will undoubtedly be decided either for good or for evil. The experience of history should, I think, direct the attention of British Pro- testants to those nations where the writings of their own Wickliffe had produced a powerful effect, whilst they found no echo amongst the inhabitants of other countries (pages 38 and ] 23). A strong ferment is now agitating the minds of the Slavonic nations; and its result may be productive either of great good or of no less evil to Europe, according to the direction which may be given to the movement resulting from this ferment. It may be one of intellectual, political, and religious progress, leading to the establishment of constitu- tional government and reformed churches in the Slavonic lands, and may serve to promote and consolidate the same order of things in other countries; but it may also lead to a war of races, in which the national antipathies and pride may be roused to such a pitch, that all other considerations will be silenced by the feeling of revenge for real or imaginary wrongs, and by the dazzling idea of national grandeur, how- ever delusive that may prove in the end. Nations, as well as individuals, are capable of the most elevated sentiments, as well as of the w r orst passions. They are capable of genero- sity, kindness, and gratitude, but no less of arrogance, greedi- ness, and revenge with this difference, that the last-named feelings, though always reprobated in an individual, are but too often regarded as virtues when, animating a nation, they assume the garb of patriotism; and it is not unfrequent that men who would never infringe the strictest rules of morality so long as they are acting in their individual capacity, will not hesitate to adopt the principle of " our country, right or wrong." This observation is applicable to every nation, and particularly to the Slavonians, whose national feelings have been irritated by the recollection of historical wrongs which they had received from the Germans, and whose memory, in- stead of being obliterated by soothing the wounded feelings of the injured party, is, on the contrary, sedulously preserved by new acts of aggression on its nationality, as well as by the 302 CHAPTER XV. works of German writers, boasting of those deeds of oppres- sion by which their ancestors exterminated the Slavonic inha- bitants of whole provinces (page 6), and proclaiming an inten- tion of continuing the work of their forefathers, by subjecting the modern Slavonians to the political supremacy of Germany. Amongst the works of the kind alluded to, the most remark- able, undoubtedly, is that of M. Heffter, and which I regret not to have known when I wrote my essay on Panslavism. It is entitled, Der Weltkampf der Deutschen und der Slaven ; or the Universal Struggle between the Germans and Slavonians, 1847. It is a well- written work, with great knowledge of the subject, and contains a detailed description of the subjugation of the Baltic Slavonians by the Germans, which I have related in my first chapter. Few works are, however, more calculated to rouse the most violent feelings of national animosity against the Germans amongst the Slavonians than this to which I allude; for its whole tenor is a continual prean on the events pithily described in the following words of Herder: " The Slavonians were either exterminated or reduced to bondage by whole provinces; and their lands were divided amongst bishops and nobles." And the learned author, after having ad- duced all the historical evidence which he was able to collect against the national character of the Slavonians, excluding, however, systematically, every favourable testimony given to that character by his own countrymen, and which I have quoted in my first chapter, declares, on page 459, that the Sla- vonians cannot even claim to have any interest excited in their fate, having deserved it by their own conduct. The same author observes, that the last act of the national struggle was that violation of every principle of international law which met with such general reprobation in this country, i. e., the incor- poration of the republic of Cracow with Austria (p. 455); and he exults in the idea that Germanism will steadily pursue its coiKjuering progress in the Slavonic lands, and generously con- descends to allow the Slavonians to cultivate their language and literature, on condition of making no attempt at political emancipation; and he declares that the Slavonians, under the German dominion of Prussia and Austria, cannot have any hope of ever attaining this object, which the Germans never will permit. The same sentiments were uttered by the diet <>f Frankfort, forgetting that the Slavonic population of the Autri-in empire is more than double that of its German one; and I have gi von extracts from other German writers, express- ; milar opinions, in my essay on 7^/,.-A/>vV;;j (page 133). All these manifestations of a positive intention to keep the Slavonians politically under the dominion of the Germans, CJKNERAL OBSERVATIONS. 303 produced an immense irritation amongst tho Slavonians of Prussia and Austria.; and it is to bo feared that subsequent ( ^vents, as well as tho policy which is now pursued by the Aus- trian cabinet, liavo not allayed this unfortunate feeling, and that it may, particularly in case of a new political commotion in the west, produce collisions as well as combinations, of which the statesmen of Europe "have never dreamed in their philosophy.' 1 I take this opportunity most earnestly to repre- sent to tho periodical press and the public men of this coun- try, the great importance which is attached to the opinions expressed by them in tho countries to which these opinions refer. Thus, for instance, the hostile articles of the English press, and similar speeches in both Houses of Parliament, caused by accusations, either entirely unfounded, or produced by parties equally guilty of the excesses imputed by them to the Poles, produced upon my country a strong and deplorable effect. The manifestations of ill-will to which I have alluded have generally originated in a momentary excitement, produced by a wrong impression, or simply uttered in opposition to the English political party favourable to the Polish cause ; and sometimes without any other reason than a fit of ill-humour in an individual, who vented it against the Poles because they gave him the first opportunity for doing so. Their impression upon the British public, accustomed to violent expressions of poli- tical feeling, was therefore not lasting ; and perhaps many of the parties who had indulged in the above-mentioned mani- festations forgot them soon afterwards themselves. The im- pression which the circumstances alluded to have produced in Poland was, however, deep and painful ; because the reports of all these hostile expressions, which were either contained in the newspapers or made use of in parliamentary debates, were sedulously circulated in Poland, whilst all the manifestations of sympathy which were made at that time by the British press or public men, for the above-mentioned country, were carefully withheld from the knowledge of its inhabitants.* * It may here be observed, that the Russian cabinet, in obtaining several times from the French government the expulsion of some Polish refugees from Paris, or even France, had a much more important object in view than simply to vex these individuals. The Russian diplomacy is too wise to con- descend to such puerile acts of oppression, in order to prevent those refugees from indulging in hostile manifestations against Russia ; for it knows well that, expelled from France, they may do the same in England or Belgium, and that it only served to produce on the French public an impression un- favourable to that country. Its real object in obtaining from the French government those acts of subserviency to its dictates, was to show in Poland the power of the Russian influence in France, and that the Poles had nothing to expect from the French government. It has completely succeeded in this object ; and justice demands it to be added, that it has rendered a con- 304 CHAPTER XV. These circumstances have rendered a very great service to Rus- sia, by weakening the moral influence of England in the east of Europe, and by increasing in the same ratio that of Russia, which has been greatly augmented by the recent events of Hun- gary. And yet, can there be any doubt that the moral influence of England may powerfully promote the advancement of ra- tional liberty and civilization in many a quarter, and that the true interests of Great Britain require that she should endea- vour to establish every where such an influence, and employ it for the ends alluded to, in order to counteract tendencies of an opposite character, and hostile, not only to her political and commercial, but even religious interests. No one need longer doubt the desire of Russia to conquer Turkey, and that, sooner or later, she will attain this object, unless deprived in time of the means to do it. The surest means by which Russia may subjugate the Ottoman empire, or at least inflict upon it a mortal blow, is to gain over the Turkish Slavonians, which she may now accomplish more easily than ever, since Austria, by the recent events of Hungary, but particularly by her suicidal policy in that country, has become powerless to oppose the progress of Russia in that quarter. This progress may yet be arrested, however, I think, not by abusing Russia for doing what every other power situated as she is would have probably done, but by adopting the best devised means for this object ; and I sincerely believe that there are none other which may be effectually employed for the attainment of this desideratum, than those which I have pointed out in my essay on Panslavism and Germanism, and alluded to in the preface of the present work, page xiii., namely, a free de- velopment of the nationality of the Western and Southern Slavonians, which the establishment of a bona fide constitu- tional regimen in Austria may promote in the most efficient manner. It is greatly to be feared that it will soon be too late, if the Western Slavonians, abandoned by Europe, and < -\ posed to the unwise efforts of Germany to keep them in a state of political subordination, should finally give way to the opinion which is rapidly gaining ground amongst them, that the only means for the Slavonians to obtain a position in the society of European states, is to sacrifice the interests of their separate branches to those of their whole race, and to s'-ek compensation for this sacrifice in the glories of ,-1:1 em- pire which, comprehending their whole race, would undoubt- edly give it a decided preponderance in the affairs of the world. All those who have studied the state of the Slavonic sHiTulile service to tli" J'ignated by the name of (ierman Catholics, ami that the extremes of Uonge, and other leaders of the movement originated by him, were ascribed to all of them. It was therefore MTV natural that the tendency of Czerski should be easily represented as antinational and infidel. (JKNERAL OBSKRVATIONS. 307 the influence of German Protestantism on the Poles are appli- cable to the Bohemians and other Slavonians. The Protestants who may promote in the most effective manner the cause of their religion amongst the Slavonians are those of Great Britain and of America ; and the example of the great impression which the doctrines of Wicklyffe pro- duced in that distant quarter is a sure pledge that the truths of the gospel promoted by the countrymen of that great refor- mer may obtain in the same quarter better success than might be expected. This, however, must be done with great pru- dence and discretion. I am perfectly convinced that every attempt at personal conversion would be, under the present circumstances, productive of more harm than good to the cause of Protestantism in those quarters. The first and indispensable step towards the restoration of the Protestant cause in the Slavonic countries is a revival of the remaining Protestant Churches, by reanimating their religious spirit, and restoring their injured nationality. No efforts should be spared for the attainment of this object, because the full development of the religious spirit and nationality of those churches will be a seed bearing abundant fruit ; the existence of such churches will meet with great approbation from many Roman Catholics, who are strongly opposed to German Protestantism, which, as I have shown, has been degraded into a tool for political ends. The spread of the Scriptures, but particularly of the New Tes- tament, in the national language, should be also promoted as much as possible, using, in preference, the Roman Catholic authorised versions, in order that the clergy of that church should have no reason to oppose their circulation. Transla- tions of the best Protestant devotional works might be very beneficial, but those of a controversial character should be avoided, because the object of these translations must be to conciliate the Roman Catholic or Greek Slavonians, by prov- ing to them that Protestantism is not infidelity, as many of them sincerely believe, but a purer form of Christianity, and not to hurt their feelings by an attack upon what is sacred to them. In short, the object of the Protestant efforts in those parts should be to enlighten and to improve, and not to destroy ; for it will be much more easy to subvert the existing ecclesiastical order than to build up a new one, and an imper- fect edifice is certainly preferable to a heap of ruins. A gra- dual reform of the national churches in the Slavonic countries will have a beneficial influence on the religious and intellectual progress of the nation, and is therefore sure to meet with the approbation and support of all the thinking men in those parts, who will oppose every attempt at violent innovation, as 308 CHAPTER XV. more calculated to upset than to edify the minds of the people. The greatest Slavonic country, Russia, is entirely shut against every Protestant effort, and the Protestant missiona- ries are not even allowed to convert the Pagan and Mahom- medan populations under the dominion of that country. Bo- hemia is the country where a reanimation of Protestantism, intimately connected with that of its Slavonic nationality, is now taking place. I have alluded to this circumstance in 1849, in the first edition of this work (page 460), expressing a hope that the development of the Slavonic nationality in that coun- try would probably be soon followed by a religious movement, and I have expressed similar hopes in page 118 of the present edition. I am now able to say, with the utmost gratification, that my hopes in this respect have not been disappointed. Many British Protestants have undoubtedly heard of the suc- cessful efforts of the Protestant pastor (of the Genevese or Presbyterian Church), Kossuth,* to reanimate and to extend the national Bohemian Protestant Church ; and I have received from Prague, in a letter dated July 9th, this year (1851), the following details about the labours of this modern reformer. The number of Bohemian Protestants at Prague and its vicinity was very small, and they had no church of their own, as the only Protestant place of worship at Prague was a Lutheran chapel. In 1784 they petitioned the government to authorise them to build a church, but the request was refused, because the laws of Austria require that the congregation should amount to 500 souls in order to obtain such a permission. In 1846, the Rev. Frederic William Kossuth, to whom I have alluded, un- dertook to found a real Bohemian Protestant congregation at IVairne; and he succeeded, by dint of great efforts and perse- verance, to reanimate the zeal of its members, by preaching the pure word of God. lie acted at the same time upon their national feelings, reminding them that they were the descend- ants of the great and glorious Hussites; and this made a powerful impression on many Roman Catholics, amongst whom several converts were made. The year 1848 brought religious liberty to Austria; the gospel could bo preach. -d with more freedom. The room where Kossuth preached was filled every Sunday, and Roman Catholics joined his OODgregatioD by hundreds. This excited the attention of t!ie ifvi'miient and of the Roman C.itholiu vim Ix-^an t.o pivnch '~.\ )>if, whence St John saw arising a smoke, the locusts arising from which, in order to devastate the earth, darkened the sun, has been opened, llnico changes of minds, a greater corruption of youth, a contempt of sacred things and of the holiest laws, spread amongst the people ; in a word, the most deadly bane to society, as is proved by the experience of the remotest ages, that states which had been flourishing with wealth, power, and glory, fell by this only evil an immoderate liberty of opinion, license of speech, and love of novelty. " To this belongs that baneful, detestable, and never to be sufficiently exe- crated liberty of the book trade to publish any writing whatever, and which some people dare to demand and to promote with so much clamour. We are horrified, venerable brethren, considering by what monstrous doctrines, or rather errors, we are overwhelmed, and which are disseminated every 314 CHAPTER XV. at Rome, after its restoration by the French. Protestant Christianity requires for its development liberty, and its greatest enemy is despotism, whatever form it may assume, clerical, monarchical, or democratic ; for it is all the same whether the liberty of spreading the pure Word of God, and the propagation of evangelical truth, bo impeded by the re- gulations of an absolute power or by those of a republican authority or faction. As an example of it, I may quote the fact that it was in consequence of the establishment of a con- stitutional regimen in Piedmont that the Waldensians ob- tained the full enjoyment of civil and political rights ; and that it was the absolute government of Russia which prohibited the Protestant missionaries from continuing their labours in its Asiatic provinces. The same sacred cause can never be benefited by an alliance with, or the support of, an arbitrary power ; and history proves that Protestantism was never so where by means of an enormous multitude of books, pamphlets, and all sorts of publications, small of size, but of immense malice, and the curse issuing from which is spreading, we lament to say, over the whole earth. There are, however, oh, grievous to say ! men who have arrived at such a degree of impudence as obstinately to maintain that the deluge of error which issues from this source is sufficiently compensated by a book in defence of truth and religion which occasionally appears amidst that flood of wickedness ! It is undoubtedly unlawful, and contrary to all ideas of justice, to allow a certain and greater evil, merely because there is a hope that some good may result from it. Now, what man in his senses will say that poisons should be permitted freely to circulate, publicly to be sold and carried about, nay, even to be drunk, because there is a remedy which may sometimes save from de- struction those who take it ? " The discipline of the church in destroying the pestilence of bad books has been quite different since the times of the apostles, of whom we read that they burned a large number of books (Acts xix.) It is sufficient to p;Tiise the laws which were enacted on this subject by the Fifth Council of Lateran, as well as the constitution published afterwards by Leo X., our predecessor of happy memory, that that which was wisely invented for the in- crca^c of faith and the propagation of uteful sciences, should not be pcrwtcd to // uses, and become injurious to the salvation of the faithful. It was also particularly the object of the fathers of the Council of Trent, who, in order to remedy such an evil, issued a .salutary decree, ordering an index of such books to bo made as should contain any impure doctrine. It is w<. viyorousfy to combat, said Clemens XIII., our predecessor of happy memory, in his encyclical letters about the proscription of pernicious books, it is necessary viyorouxly to combat, as much as the occasion require?, in order to ex- terminate the deadly poison of so many books, for the matter of error will never be remor.d uii[f*s the yuilty elements of er'd are destroyed by fire. It is there- for^ sufficiently evident, from the constant cure with which this holy apos- tolical see has endeavoured in all ages to condemn injurious and supported books, and to wrest thorn from the hands of men, how false, rash, injurious (o that very apostolical see, and abounding with evils to the Christian people, is tho doc: rip of those who not only reject tin; c 'iisure of books as a li-;ivy and oppressive thing, but have even arrived at such a degree of wickedness, that they represent it as opposed to the principles of right and justice, and dare to refuse to the church the right of establishing and exercising it." (JKNKRAL OHSKIiVATIONS. 81J weak as when degraded into a tool or pretence for political objects or passions. I know that there are many pious and sincere men, particularly in Germany, who, frightened by the excesses of political aberrations and religious unbelief, look not only for the maintenance of social order, but also for that of religion, to the strong hand of an absolute power. It is foreign to my subject to discuss here how far they are war- ranted in their first supposition ; but with regard to the second, I would only observe, that it is under the absolute governments of Germany, and when their subjects have had no liberty of discussing political affairs, that Pantheism has been widely spread, and that doctrines subversive of every principle of religion and morality, principles from which the infidel French writers of the eighteenth century would have shrunk with disgust, have been openly propagated in that country. Great and terrible as have been the commotions which have agitated continental Europe since February 1848, and the end of which, notwithstanding the apparent calm which is now prevailing on the continent of Europe, we are far from having reached, they have been only the natural effect of long ac- cumulated causes, and had been in a great measure foreseen and predicted by those who had watched their progress, al- though the suddenness of their outburst startled even those by whom it had been for a long time expected. Yet, if the outbreak of unsatisfied political and social wants and passions was foreseen by many, the turn which the events produced by it has assumed was little expected by them. Of all the facts, however, which came to light, in consequence of the commo- tions to which I have alluded, none is perhaps more striking than the immense strength which the Romanist or priestly party has now manifested in France, by employing the forces of that country to crush the nascent political and religious liberty of Home. It is, however, only the natural result of long and persevering efforts which that party has been making with unabated vigour. Diametrically opposed as I am to their views and objects, and deeply as I deplore their errors, I think that the unshaken fidelity which they have shown to their cause is far from deserving blame. Nothing, indeed, could be more desperate than the condition of Romanism ap- peared to be at the time when Napoleon was in the zenith of his glory, its capital reduced to a provincial town of the French empire, its head a captive, and a complete indiffer- ence to its doctrines, and a contempt for its ceremonies, pre- vailing amongst all the educated classes of society. It was under these circumstances that some gifted and zealous indi- 316 CHAPTER XV. viduals undertook to restore by their writings the fallen con- dition of the Roman Church. Lamennais* work, Sur V Indiffer- ence en Matiere de Religion* produced an immense sensation ; and it was ably and zealously seconded by many other produc- tions, but particularly by those of Count Joseph de Maistre and the Vicomte de Bonald. These works, written in a splen- did style, attacked their opponents with the most captious argument, overwhelming them with an immense number of facts adapted to their purpose. It was therefore no wonder that such a union of talent and learning, animated by a sin- cere zeal, produced a powerful effect, particularly at a time when the want of religious principles was beginning to be generally felt, and that many ardent young minds rallied round the standard of the Roman Church, raised by such powerful champions. This party, which advocated at the same time political absolutism, rapidly increased, and was joined by some Protestants, men of uncommon talent, who passed to the Roman Church, and devoted their pens to its service. f This party, supported by the influence of the Roman court, the restored Bourbons in France, and the policy of Metternich, obtained a great influence; but this success made them abandon their usual prudence, and seduced them into measures of a violent reaction, under the reign of the bigoted Charles the Tenth, which greatly contributed to bring about the revolution of July 1830. This was a severe blow upon the party. It did not, however, dishearten them ; but, taught by experience, they no longer leant for support upon the govern- ment, as they had done from 1815 to 1830, but began now to work directly upon the people, employing, with redoubled vigour, the press, the pulpit, and the confessional ; and we are now witnessing the result of these persevering efforts. It is but natural that this party should have been now joined by crowds of men who have no other principles than those of their interest, and by waiters on Providence, who find that the successful cause must be the right one ; for, unfortunately, this was and will be the case always and every where. Justice, however, compels me to acknowledge, that the Romanist party has been joined by many sincere men, whose better judg- ment was misled by their feelings. The generality of men will not examine into the real merits or demerits of a cause, but judge of its worth by the manner in which it is defended. ' Lamennais, who had rendered immense services to the cause of Rome by liis powerful pen, hud finally his eyes opened to its delusions; but, un- iortunuti'ly, he went to another extreme. t Such were, t'..r instance, the well-known German political writers, Hal- ler, Jarcke, Philips, &c. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 317 They will join that on the side of which they find great intel- lectual powers and unfeigned zeal; whilst they will often con- demn and despise the best of causes which has not the advan- tage of bi'ini: thus represented. The great zeal and the ail'ee- tionate warmth with which the Romanists seek to win over their opponents, particularly such as, by their wealth, station, or talents, may be converted into useful allies, have often ob- tained a greater degree of success than the most logical argu- ments presented in a frigid manner. A public proclamation of truth from the pulpit, the platform, or through the press, will often, though supported by the most cogent reasons, fail in producing such a strong impression as that which may be effected by individual exertion. And is it not very natural, that those who go into the highways gather more converts than those who remain at home, waiting until people shall knock at their door for admission ? It is not only the poor in spirit who are in want of support ; but there are men rich in intellect, but whose doubting minds and aching hearts will often easily submit to the genial influence of an affectionate interest, but recoil from the chilling touch of stern reason, un- assisted by the magic powers of true sympathy. This was the case with many gifted individuals in Germany, and perhaps in a less distant quarter, whose position and principles place them above the suspicion of having been actuated by the base motives of personal interest, and whose superior intellect would have resisted the most captious arguments, but whose warm heart and vivid imagination were not proof against the fascinations of an intellectual and affectionate intercourse. I hope that, having described as I have done the unprinci- pled proceedings of the Jesuits, and the calamities which they brought upon my own country and Bohemia, I cannot be sus- pected of any bias towards their order. Yet truth, the first duty of a historian, demands that justice should be rendered to those qualities which they have displayed on so many oc- casions. There can be but one opinion about the unscrupul- ous manner in which they have but too often prosecuted their objects ; but their zeal and devotion to their church, their perseverance in the pursuit of once commenced undertakings, their learning, prudence, tact, and skill in conducting the most difficult affairs, are worthy of a better cause ; and had half of those qualities been possessed by their opponents, many things would have turned out differently from what they have done. The Jesuits do not talk, but act ; for they know that words without deeds cannot produce either respect or confidence, but are only fit to discredit the best of causes, by throwing doubt on the sincerity of its promoters, and by creating a SI 8 CHAPTER XV. suspicion that they are used only as a blind to cover the real weakness of the cause. They are bitter enemies, but true friends ; and their adherents may rely upon their assistance as much as their opponents may fear their hostility. It is therefore no wonder that this party is served with so much zeal and devotion. They are hated, but not despised ; but hatred is generally akin to fear, and fear leads often to sub- mission. Is it not then natural, that a party which is feared by its enemies and trusted by its friends should have great advantages over one which does not awaken either of these feelings ? The Jesuits are eminently practical; for they always em- ploy the means best adapted for the attainment of the proposed end, knowing well that the want of ability cannot be supplied by good intentions alone. They do not indulge in puerile self- gratulations on an insignificant success; but they consider it only as a stimulus for increased exertion, and as a stepping- stone for the attainment of more important results. They do not wait the approach of the danger, and attempt to frighten away their enemy by vague denunciations; but they calmly examine his strength and position, his means of injuring them, his movements, and his probable intentions, and adopt the ne- cessary measures in order to meet him on all these points. Common prudence prescribes this manner of acting; and it is not its use, but its abuse, which is condemnable. The gospel prescribes to its promoters, not only to be harmless as doves, but also to be wise as serpents; and it commends prudence by the example of the man who builds a tower, and of the king who goes to war. The cause of truth cannot be forwarded, but only degraded, by those preposterous means which the .!< -nits have successfully employed for its destruction in many countries; but no one can deny that this cause may effectually be promoted by knowledge, talent, and prudence, and that these noble gifts of Providence should be employed for the promotion of this great object. If it be wrong to work in darkness, and to assume the colours of a party to which we are opposed, as was done in the case which I have described in page 201, is it therefore right to hold council in the streets, to proclaim on the tops of the houses unaccomplished scb^mcs; and to sing preans for victories which are still to be gained ? The employment of learning to pervert the truth, which the Jesuits have practised on many occasions, cannot be too much stirm:itis(Ml; but the most efficient means to counteract this unprincipled proceeding, as well as every otln-r means for the propagation of error, is knowledge. " Knowledge is power," as has been said by the great English philosopher, \ URAL OBSERVATIONS. .') 1 f) and it is particularly so when applied to the defence of truths the most important to mankind. It was by the power of know- ledge that NVu'klyife, Huss, and the reformers of the sixteenth century, were enabled to shake off the spiritual thraldom which Rome had established during the middle ages; and it is not by ignorance that its reactionary efforts can ever be counteracted. The wonderful organization of the Jesuits, which has been compared to a sword, of which the hilt was at Rome and the edge every where, cannot be imitated by Protestants. The moral slavery which their order imposes upon its members is too diametrically opposed to the spiritual liberty which is the principal characteristic of Protestantism; but it is going, I think, to another extreme, to admit that Protestantism is in- capable of organization an assertion which the Roman Catho- lics repeat as a taunt, and which many Protestants acknow- ledge as a melancholy fact. I consider, however, this assertion by no means founded in truth, for it would be the same as to declare that liberty is incompatible with order; and I am con- vinced that, if many Protestant societies have been deficient in that mainspring of a powerful action, a proper organization, it is because the necessity of it has not yet been sufficiently felt. There can be no doubt, however, that an organization which should unite into one focus all the talents and learning scattered amongst the Protestants, and give to its action that universality which their adversaries are displaying in order to mislead public opinion in more than one country, would soon produce palpable effects. The possibility of an efficient Pro- testant organization, and its great advantages, have been prac- tically demonstrated by the powerful association created by the genius of Wesley. The Wesleyan body does not require the eulogy of such an humble individual as the author of this essay; and their great services, particularly in raising the reli- gious, moral, and intellectual condition of the labouring classes, are acknowledged on all hands. I shall only remark, that although there may undoubtedly be found amongst other Pro- testant denominations as good, pious, and zealous Christians as amongst the Wesleyans, none of them has made such a continued and great progress as that branch of Protestantism, m extending its active and useful sphere an advantage which is entirely due to its efficient organization. May it long pre- serve this mainspring of its vitality, and continue to develop more and more the field of its Christian labours, extending them to the lands inhabited by the race whose religious his- tory I have attempted to delineate in this sketch ! In taking leave of my readers I shall observe, that although 320 CHAPTER XV. the British Protestants have hitherto entirely overlooked the religious condition of the Slavonic nations, that of their own country is as constant an object of observation and comment amongst these nations, as it is in the rest of Europe. The Church of England is the principal point to which the univer- sal attention of the Continent is directed. All the affairs of that church are carefully watched, because many hopes and fears are attached to its destiny. This attention was awa- kened for the first time by the celebrated work of Count Joseph Demaistre, Du> Pape, published more than thirty years ago,* in which he confidently predicts the return of the Anglican Church to Rome ; and the tendencies in that direction which have been manifested by several clerical and lay members of that church, have given an immense weight to this prediction. The importance of these tendencies has been greatly exagge- rated by the Romanist party, who have succeeded in spread- ing widely the opinion that the Church of England is on the eve of being reunited with Rome. The most unfavourable reports about the condition of the English Church are at the same time sedulously propagated, representing it as fast verg- ing towards dissolution ; whilst those only who have lived in England are able to appreciate the learning and piety of its prelates, as well as the zeal, devotion, and truly Christian virtues displayed by its working clergy, who have often to struggle with severe hardships in the discharge of the arduous duties of their sacred calling. All this is done not without an object ; because an intimate connection between the most im- portant Protestant Establishment, for such the Church of England undoubtedly is, and the Protestant Churches of the Continent, cannot but be very beneficial to the Protestant cause in general, and give it powerful means of counteracting the reactionary efforts of Rome, as well as the dangers aris- ing from an opposite quarter. The importance of such a mea- sure was perceived by Cranmer, who promoted it by attracting to England eminent Protestant divines from the Continent, and by sheltering the religious refugees from different parts of Europe. This was a preliminary step to the establishment of a permanent connection, which, if the days of Edward the Sixth had been prolonged, would have probably led to impor- tant consequences. It would be foreign to my subject to dis- liere the state of relations which exist between the Pro- tesi.-uits of Western Europe and those of Great Britain; but I would once more earnestly press upon the attention of tho latter, tho great advantages which may result to tli true religion, ane Slavonians, which, in the present j-tate of communica- tion, may be very easily accomplished, if undertaken by some intelligent travellers. Such a connection, if properly and steadily effected, may be productive of incalculable benefits, because the development of Scriptural religion amongst the Slavonians to whom I have alluded would have a powerful in- fluence upon their whole race. This is, I think, a subject deserving of the attention of all sincere and thinking Protes- tants of Britain. I conclude this rapid sketch of the religious history of the Slavonic nations, by expressing my sincere gratitude to my countrymen in particular, and my Slavonic brethren in general, for the indulgent and encouraging manner in which they have judged the efforts which I have already made to bring before the English public their political and religious condition, and for the support which they have given me by their communi- cations on various important subjects, which are invaluable to one who, like myself, is placed at a great distance from the countries which were the subject of his labours, and which were, in particular, of the greatest service to me in publishing the present edition ; and I sincerely hope that this sketch will meet with the same approbation in the quarters I have alluded to, and that it will be judged more by the sincerity of my intentions than by my ability to execute them. APPENDIX. APPENDIX A. Survey of the Slavonic Populations, according to the different States to which they belong. Computed by Szaffarik in 1842. HEPUBMC CRACOW. Great Russians, or Muscovites, . . . Little Russians, or Ruthenians, . . . White Russians, . . Bulgarians Servians, or Illyrians, 35,314,000 10.370, 0') 2,726,000 8 ',000 100,000 2,774,000 'rono 2,S94.fiHI gO] 000 3,5 : 0,100 2,630,000 " irun.n .1 :-:,. r ,s7,o i.i 5,294,000 8)1 000 Carynthians, . . . Poles Bohemians and Mo- ravians, . . Slovacksin Northern Hungary, .... Lusatians," or Wends, 4,9i-J,"00 1,151,'000 2,341 000 4,370,000 2,753,000 1,982,000 44,000 38 r OO IS'.OOO 60,00 4,111,0 'i 2,753,000 Do. Lower, .... .. .. 44,00) .. .. Total 53,502,000 16,'. 91, 000 2,108,000 6,10 ,000 13 ',000 60,000 feOMM Survey of the Slavonic Populations, according to the different Religious Per- suasions to which they belong. Computed by Szaffarik in 1842. OHBEK CJIUBCH. HOME. Great Russians, or Musco- vites, Little Russians, or Malo- 35,314,000 10 154 00 ) 2990000 White Russians, .... Bulgarians, . . . . 2376.000 3,287 000 350.0 "iO ooo 2"0 o'flO Servians, or Illyrians, . . 2,880,000 801 00) 550 000 Carvnthians, Poles l,13s.O'iO 8 ')".'? 000 13.000 Bohemians and Moravians, . Slovacks (in the north of Hungary 1 ), 4,--'7u,U')0 1 953 wo Lusatians, or Wends, Upper, Lusatians, or Wends, Lower, 10,000 44,01 Total 54 Oil 000 o 99(1 ooo 1Q TV) 000 1 531 000 800 00 ) 324 APPENDIX. APPENDIX B. The Hungarian state was founded at the beginning of the tenth cen- tury, whim the Asiatic nation of the Hungarians or Magyars, having arrived from the country about the Ouralian mountains, destroyed the Slavonic state of great Moravia,* and conquered the lands forming the ancient Dacia inhabited by Slavonians and partly by Wallachiuns, who are the descendants of Roman colonists settled in those parts, during the time of the Roman domination. Christianity was esta- blished in Hungary (972-97), and its frontiers were considerably ex- tended at the beginning of the twelfth century, by the Slavonic kingdom of Croatia, which, after the extinction of its native dynasty, volunta- rily chose for its monarch Coloman the First, king of Hungary. The Hungarian state was thus composed of three different populations, viz., the Hungarian Proper, the Slavonic, and the Wallachian, to which was gradually added a number of Germans who immigrated into that country at different periods, but particularly under the Austrian rule. At an early period, and perhaps simultaneously with the establish- ment of the Christian religion, the Latin language was adopted for all the official transactions of Hungary. This was a very wise measure, as it established a common medium of communication between the heterogeneous elements of the population. It removed the most active cause of dissension between nations of entirely different origin and language, and established in some measure an equality between the conquerors and the conquered by placing them both on a neutral ground. History shows that whenever a nation was conquered by an- other, a long struggle ensued between the two races, represented by their languages, until the nationality of the conquered was extermi- nated by that of the conquerors, as was the case with the Slavonians of the Baltic; or that the nationality of the conquerors became ab- sorbed bv that of the conquered, who were superior to them in num- as was the case with the Franks in Gallia, the Danes in Nor- mandy, and in some measure with the French Normans in England. The annals of Hungary present no struggle of this kind, and although that country was exposed to foreign conquest and internal commotions, the parties by which it was torn were either political or religious, but \\ i never see any contest between the different races which compose iis population. Thus Hungary presents a rare instance in history, of a state composed of the most heterogeneous populations, and united only by the common tie of the same language, foreign to them all, but equally adopted by them, and which, notwithstanding this diversity of its constituent elements, withstood the most terrible storms by which ir \\ as out wardly assailed and inwardly agitated ; and even preserved its free constitution under a line of monarchs who ruled with absolute power over the rest of their dominions. This fact, perhaps, unparal- leled in history, is, we believe, entirely to be ascribed to the circum- * The kingdom c.f (Jn-at .M..- >t limited to the province which HOW hears this name, hut it extended OV.T the greatest part of the present Hungary, and sumo nt countries. Vide p. 20. A1TKNMIX. 325 stance which had removed the most active cauy the Asiatic nation of the Avars, who had been induced by the court of Byzantium to attack the Slavonians. The Avars, however, became more formid- able enemies to the Greek empire than the Slavonians had been ; and these last, now marching under the banner of the Avars, and as their vanguard, penetrated to the very walls of Constantinople. The whole of the Peloponnesus was devastated by the Slavonians, with the ex- ception of the Acrocorinthus, with its two seaports (Cenchrea and Lecheum), Patras, Modon, Coron, Argos, with the adjacent country Anapli, in the present district of Praslo, Vitylos on the western slope of the Taygetus, and the highlands of Maina. The rest of the Pelo- ponnesus was reduced to a complete desert, and the inhabitants who had not perished or been dragged into captivity, fled either to the above-mentioned strong places, or to the islands of the Archipelago. The Slavonians, having thus conquered Morea, made there a per- manent settlement. This is a fact which may be easily proved by a careful perusal of the Byzantine authors. Cedrenus, Theophanes, and the patriarch Nicephorus, who wrote in the eighth century, call the country from the Danube to the highlands of Arcadia and Mes- senia, Sclabinia, i. 0., the country of the Slavi or Slavonians ; and Con- stantine Porphyrogenetus says, that the whole of the Peloponnesus was, at the time of Constantiue Copronymus (741-75), Slavonized and barbarized. The dominion of the Avars, who had nearly ruined the Greek em- pire, was shaken to its very foundation by the revolt of the Slavonians in the West during the reign of the Emperor Heraclius (6 J 0-41), the Slavonic nation of the Serbs and Chrobats (Servians and Croats) having been called by that emperor to expel them from the provinces south of the Danube. This left the Slavonians in quiet possession of the Peloponnesus, and the other lands they had wrested from the Avars, where, as they had done in other countries, following the bent of their natural disposition, they adopted the peaceful pursuits of agriculture and industry, and soon lost that warlike character they had displayed during their invasion of the Greek empire. This afforded to the Byzantine monarchs the means of attacking them with success; and Constans the Second (G4-2-68) began a war on the country of Slavonia, in order to open a communication between the capital on one side, and Philippi and Thessalonica on the other. Justinian the Second (G85 95 and 705 -10) also made a successful ex- pedition against the Slavonians, and transplanted a great number of prisoners he took into Asia Minor. The Greek empire having become invigorated for a time, under the Isaurian dynasty, Constantine Cop- ronymus advanced in his conquest of Slavonia as far as Berea, to the south of Thessalonica, as is evident from an inspection of the frontiers S3 2 APPENDIX. of the empire made by order of the Empress Irene in 793. The Slavonians of the Peloponnesus were conquered under the reign of the Emperor Michael the Third (842-67), with the exception of the Milingi and Eserita?, who inhabited Lacedemonia and Elis, as is related by Constantine Porphyrogenetus :* and their final subjugation was accomplished by the Emperor Basiliusthe First, or the Macedo- nian (867-86) ; after which, the Christian religion and the Greek civilization completely Hellenized them, as their brethren on the shores of the Baltic were Germanized. The influence of the occupation of Morea by the Slavonians is still traceable in that country. Many localities described by Pausanias, and even Procopius, have disappeared, and have been replaqed by others, bearing Slavonic names, as Goritza, Slavitza, Veligosti, &c. &c. It is almost superfluous to observe, that the inhabitants from whose language the names of localities were derived must have re- mained a considerable time on the spot, when the names continue in use after the people themselves have disappeared as a nation from the country where the places named by them are situated. It appears, therefore, that the present population of Morea has at least as much Slavonic as Hellenic blood in its veins. " The Moreote character bears," however, as a modern traveller has observed, t u a far stronger resemblance to that of the ancient Greeks than of the Slavonians, or any other people, as do their customs, the habits of their different communities, their feelings, and dispositions ; and though they inherit few of the noble qualities of their ancestors, they possess their acuteness and cunning, and are equally dolis instruct* ct arte Pelasga with the Greeks of old." This is certainly not the case with the Slavonians. * !> ando Imperio, part ii., chap. Ivi. t Sir Gardner Wilkison, in his Daliiiatia and Montencyro, vol. ii., page 453. THE END. .) UY JOHJSSIONK A> . IlKjH STUBKT. BY TIIK SAMi: ACTIlOlt. I. Iii one Volume, price 10s. 6d., PANSLAVISM AND GERMANISM. BY COUNT VALERIAN KRASINSKI. London : T. C. NEWBY. " I know no more striking anticipation of public events than has been offered by Count VALERIAN KKASINSKI'S work on Punslacism and Gfrmanitt* t published at the beginning of last year." Letter to the Marquis of Lansdown, by R.Mohktun lllks, J/.P., on the events f/1848. In Two Volumes, price 1, Is., HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE RISE, PROGRESS, AND DECLINE OF THE REFORMATION . IN POLAND ; AND OF THE INFLUENCE WHICH THE SCRIPTURAL DOCTRINES HAVE EXERCISED ON THAT COUNTRY, IN LITERARY, MORAL, AND POLITICAL RESPECTS. BY COUNT VALERIAN KRASINSKI. London : NISBET & Co., 21 Beruers Street. "The reader will be as much surprised by the excellent style in which this book is written, as he will be instructed by the novel information which it contains. Count Krasinski's English would not disgrace any native his- torian; and his learning is such as could hardly be possessed by a writer of our own country. He is conversant with languages which do not often enter into the range of acquirement of the English students, and with points of history that, to the common reader at least, are quite unfamiliar. We are very glad, for our part, to bear testimony to his merits, and to welcome and thank a foreigner who has really rendered a service to the literature of our own country.'' The T> ' We must repeat, that the book before us is a valuable contribution to modern history, and that it will, if we are not mistaken, be favourably re- ceived by the public." The Atlici " This is a book of deep and melancholy interest, from the perusal of which he must be a superficial or a very learned student who does notarise ' a sadder and a wiser man.' " Dublin Unitirslty Magazine. III. Price 15s., THE COURT OF SIGISMUND AUGUSTUS; OR, POLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, AX HISTORICAL NOVEL, ILLUSTRATING THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF POLAND DURING THE TIME OP ITS REFORMATION. BY A. BRONIKOWSKI. FREELY TRANSLATED, AND ILLUSTRATED WITH NOTES AND A H^TORICAL INTRODUCTION, BY COUNT VALERIAN KRASINSKI. London : LONGMAN, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, and LONGMAN, Paternoster Row. " The Court of Sigismund Augustus is indeed an admirable novel ; it is, in the best sense of the word, a historical novel, presenting characters who played important parts in that great drama which, during the sixteenth century, was acting in every part of Europe ; and it delineates them with a force, a vividness, and a perfect keeping, that makes us almost mistake the novelist for .the historian." Athenceum. IV. Price Gd., LETTERS TO A FRIEND ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE POPISH HIERARCHY IN ENGLAND. " I \\ish all Kngli.shmen could write as good English and as good sense.'' J'I-'.IH JlA-60m-3,'65 :GslO)476B < General Library University of California Berkeley *\HE~VNfVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY