UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA '> BOARD OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES. REPORT ON THE RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS INTO C I D E R - M A K I N G , CAEKIED OUT ON BEHALF OF THE BATH AND WEST AND SOUTHERN COUNTIES SOCIETY IN THE YEARS 1893-1902, BY F. J. LLOYD, F.C.S., F.I.C. JJrcsmttb to both |)cm00 of -parliament br dTommani of 3)i0 JEajestg LONDON: PRINTED FOR HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE, BY DARLING & SON, LTD., 34-40, BACON STREET, E. And to be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from EYRE & SPOTTISWOODE, EAST HARDING STREET, FLEET STREET, E.G., and 32, ABINGDON STREET, WESTMINSTER, S.W. ; or OLIVER & BO YD, EDINBURGH ; or E. PONSONBY, 116, GRAFTON STREET, DUBLIN. 1903. [Cd. 1868.1 Price M. 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And to be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from EYRE & SPOTTISWOODE, EAST HARDING STREET, FLEET STREET, E.G., and 32, ABINGDON STREET, WESTMINSTER, S.W. ; or OLIVER & BOYD, EDINBURGH ; or E. PONSONBY, 116, GRAFTON STREET, DUBLIN. 1903. [Cd. 1868.1 Price M. CLC. CONTENTS. Pagt INTRODUCTION ix Cleanliness x THE CONSTITUENTS OF APPLES AND APPLE JUICE 1 THE ANALYSIS OF APPLES, APPLE JUICE, AND CIDER 2 The Hydrometer 3 The Saccharometer ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4 Estimation of Solids 4 Do. Acidity 4 Do. Sugar 5 Do. Tannin ... 5 Do. Alcohol 6 Do. Albumin, &c 9 Do. Salicylic Acid 9 THE SEASONS 1893 TO 1902 11 THE INFLUENCE OF SEASON ON APPLES AND THE APPLE CROP ... 16 THE INFLUENCE OF LOCALITY ON APPLES 18 THE ORCHARDS 18 Apple Trees 18 Varieties of Apples 19 French Cider Apples ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19 Best Varieties 20 Unnamed Apples 22 Buying Apples 22 Action of Frost on Apples 22 GATHERING THE APPLES 23 Rotten Apples 25 Storing the Apples 26 Hurdle Stores 26 Rain on Apples 28 Effect of Storing Apples 28 WHEN SHOULD CIDER-MAKING COMMENCE? 28 1500 G 65- Wt 10116 12/03 D&S 8 15408 Q1 R IV Page. THE MANIPULATION OP THE APPLES 29 Trough to Clean Apples 29 'Washing Apples 30 GRINDING THE APPLES 31 CRUSHING THE PIPS 33 PRESSING THE POMACE 34 EXTRACTING THE JUICE 37 Pomace 37 Cheese .. 38 Cloths 38 Thin Cloths 38 Colour 40 Quantity of Juice 40 Tannin 41 UTILIZING THE ONCE-PRESSED POMACE FOR FEEDING 41 Vinegar Making 42 Repressing the Pomace ... 42 Small Cider 42 THE APPLE JUICE 42 Yeasts 43 CLARIFYING THE JUICE 44 Filtration through Bags 46 Maignen's Filter 46 Keeving 47 Influence of Temperature on Keeving , 48 Backing from Keeve 48 FERMENTATION IN KEEVE 49 White Heads 49 Cause of White Heads 50 Effect of White Heads 51 TREATMENT OF JUICE FROM KEEVE 52 Maignen's Filter 53 The Invicta Filter 53 Fermenting Barrels ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 55 Bunging down Barrels ... ... ... ... ... ... 55 Pressure in Barrels ... 55 Safety Bungs ... 57 FERMENTATION IN BARRELS 58 Page. CLEARING THE CIDER 58 Racking ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 58 Natural Clearing 59 Sulphuring 59 FINING AND FININGS 59 When should Cider be Racked ? 60 BLENDING 69 Why Blend? 69 When and How to Blend 69 A STANDARD OF COMPOSITION AND DILUTING THE JUICE 71 Adding Sugar ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 71 FILTERING THE CIDER 72 STORING THE CIDER - 73 Position of Barrels 73 Spiling 74 DRAWING FROM BARRELS 75 Carbonic Acid 75 BOTTLING 76 DISGORGING , 78 RECORDS 79 SMALL CIDER 82 EARLY-MADE CIDER 85 PRESERVATIVES 88 FERMENTATION AND THE CHEMICAL CHANGES WHICH TAKE PLACE IN THE FERMENTING JUICE 91 Top and Bottom Fermentation 94 Rate of Fermentation 94 Impure Fermentation 95 SECONDARY FERMENTATION 97 Acidity Reduced by Fermentation 97 PURE OR SELECTED YEASTS 98 Pure Cultures 99 OILY CIDER ., 102 vi Page. SICK CIDER , 107 Matching 107 WHAT is GOOD CIDER ? 107 Flavour 108 Colour Ill Clearness Ill Keeping Quality ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 112 WHAT KIND OF CIDER DOES THE PUBLIC WANT? 112 APPENDIX COMPOSITION OF APPLES 114 Vll BOARD OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES. The Secretary, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. SIR, WITH this, I have the honour to lay before you a Report prepared by Mr. F. J. Lloyd on the results obtained in the Investigations on the Manufacture of Cider, carried out since 1893 under the direction of the Bath and West and Southern Counties Society. All the work has been conducted at the Home Farm of Mr. Neville-Granville, who has most kindly furnished the necessary accommodation, and to whom those interested in the development of the Cider Industry are much indebted. The experiments have aroused much interest in the West and South-West of England, and it is with a view to placing the results before a larger public that the present Report is now submitted for publication. The Board have annually inspected the work here dealt with, and have been able to give it considerable financial support, the aggregate amount granted to the Society specifically for Cider Research being 600, which sum does not include any part of the Board's general grants paid to the Bath and West Society before 1896-97. The ten years of pioneer work covered by this Report have strikingly revealed the possibilities of further improvements in English Cider and other Orchard products, and have led to the formation of the National Fruit and Cider Institute, which has now started work with a large measure of local support, and with the hearty co-operation of many public bodies. I have the honour to be, Sir, Your obedient Servant, WM. SOMERVILLE. November 7th, 1903. viii BatK and West and Southern Counties Society, 4, Terrace Walk, Bath, November 19th, 1903. The Secretary, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. SIR, I AM directed by the Council of the Bath and West and Southern Counties Society to transmit to you, to be laid before the Board of Agriculture, the accompanying special Report, prepared, in compliance with the request contained in your letter of the 7th of February, 1902, by Mr. F. J. Lloyd, F.C.S., F.I.C., on the results of the Investigations into Cider making carried on by the Society, in conjunction with the Board, since 1894. The Report reviews the progress of the Investigations from their commencement in that year to the end of the past season, and indicates the lessons of practical value to Cider makers which have been elicited. I am, Sir, Your obedient Servant, THOS. F. PLOWMAN. INTRODUCTION. The object of science is to teach, men how to control, so far as may be possible, the forces of Nature. It is evident that before we can control them, we must thoroughly know and understand what these forces are and how they work. It is by studying these natural agents, and then by showing men how to control their effect in the industry with which they are concerned, that science becomes of practical value. Probably no industry depends so much upon natural forces as does that of agriculture; hence no industry should derive greater benefit from science. And this is especially true of that branch of agriculture the Cider Industry. Cider is the fermented juice of the apple. There are two varieties. Sweet cider, so called because it has a sweet taste, for fermentation has proceeded only slightly and much of the natural sugar of the juice is left in the liquid; and dry cider, in which fermentation has proceeded so far that but little of the original sugar remains. Cider made in one district will differ materially from cider made in another district, and that made on one farm will differ from that made on another farm in the same district. Indeed, when these investigations were first started it was even difficult to find two or three barrels in the same cider- house which were alike. Uniformity of product is essential to success in all industries, and therefore such a state of affairs was very unsatisfactory to those who were interested in cider making. No man in England has done more to really promote the Cider Industry than Mr. R. Neville Grenville, of Butleigh Court, Glastonbury, and how the experiments on which I have now to report were started, is best told in his own words, taken from an admirable article entitled : * " Some Practical Hints on Cider Making," which was published in the journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England in 1901. "In 1893, the Migratory Cheese School of the Bath and West of England Society was being held on one of my farms at Butleigh, and Mr. F. J. Lloyd, under whom it was carried on, kindly consented to keep his laboratory going after the Cheese School was over, and to turn his attention to the scientific examination of the cider problem. " The following year, 1894, I induced the Bath and West of England Society to take the matter up in earnest, and from then until now they have carried on the scientific part of the experiments at Butleigh, I undertaking to provide the apples and the necessary plant for the work. " The Board of Agriculture latterly helped the Society to the extent of 100 a year." The results of these experiments were published each year in the journal of the Bath and West of England Society. The same subject thus became mentioned in various years and the information was disconnected and intermittent. At the request of the Society 1 have prepared for the Board of Agriculture the following consecutive account of the work done. It does not pretend to be more than a re-arrangement of my previous reports. Although I have not attempted to make it a treatise on cider making, but have confined the report almost entirely to the work done at Butleigh, yet it covers most of the ground of cider making. Cleanliness. Some see, or pretend to see, in these experiments no other result than that they have impressed upon all cider makers the necessity of cleanliness. To say that cleanliness is essential to success in cider making is merely to utter a platitude. It is a simple expedient on the part of those ignorant of detail to hide their ignorance under a general principle. Undoubtedly the secret of success in cider making, as in dairying, is cleanliness.* But while it is easy to say this it is very difficult to realize what this cleanliness is and how it may be best attained. Numerous precautions are required, many of which at first sight seem almost unreasonable. Cleanliness is necessary in the orchard, in gathering, storing and grinding the fruit, and in pressing the pomace. XI It is necessary in handling the juice, in storing it, and in purifying it from sediment. Needless to say it is necessary in every article with which the cider comes in contact in the cider-making and storing rooms, and in the people who have to deal with the manufacture. To arrive at the perfection of cleanliness has been a constant effort of the experiments at Butleigh. But even after some years of work we have not yet discovered all the ways in which cleanliness can be observed. To realise the conditions which make for cleanliness has been one of the main objects of the experiments, and how this has been done will be fully stated in this report. But to explain what cleanliness is, and whence uncleanliness comes, how to remedy it, and how best to treat cider in which, from want of cleanliness, certain injurious changes have taken place, is the work of the scientist and is as yet scarcely trodden ground. In the course of my experiments it soon became evident that the final product cider depended for its character on three great factors. 1st. The composition of the apples and the juice obtained from them. 2ndly. The methods of manipulation and apparatus employed in making the cider; and 3rdly. The fermentation which takes place in the juice. All these have been studied; what seemed to be improve- ments have been introduced, and the changes which take place and which in the past were, one may say, absolutely uncon- trolled, can now be, and, by the best makers are, carefully controlled. Where before good cider was a chance product, it is now the result of carefully-controlled action. In fact, an attempt has been made to lift the manufacture of cider out of the rut of rule of thnmb, and to make it a scientific industry. XII People who will not take a little trouble to make good cider had better give up cider making altogether. They destroy the reputation of cider; they cannot sell what they make, and those who drink the stuff they produce would be better in health without it. Such cider makers will learn too late that they have allowed an opportunity to slip which will not return. How true this is may be best shown from the following facts. Large quantities of apples were sold in Somerset in 1897 which were taken to France for the manufacture of cider. How was it that the French cider maker could afford to buy apples in Somerset at a price which presumably paid the Somerset farmer better than converting them into cider ? It was simply because many Somerset farmers have not learnt how to make a drink which can compare in quality with that made by our neigh- bours across the Channel. If this continues what will be the result? The demand for cider, which is growing rapidly in England, will induce the French cider maker to put upon the English market a drink more suitable to the tastes of the public than that made at home, and if once the foreigner gains the favour of the consuming public English makers will be unable to oust their more enterprising rivals. I believe that with careful attention to the facts and advice given in this report, cider makers will be able to compete with any foreign imports, and that if well made, cider will become a national beverage. FREDK. J. LLOYD. Muscovy House, Trinity Square, London, E.C. BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. REPORT ON THE KESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS INTO CIDER-MAKING, CARRIED OUT ON BEHALF OF THE BATH AND WEST AND SOUTHERN COUNTIES SOCIETY IN THE YEARS 1893-1902. BY F. J. LLOYD, F.O.S., F.I.C. The Constituents of Apples and Apple Juice. An apple consists, from the practical cider maker's point of view, of two parts, juice and marc, or solids not in solution. If the whole of the soluble constituents are extracted, only about 4 per cent, of solids remain, but in ordinary cider making, by one pressing it is seldom possible to extract more than 75 per cent, of the juice and by subsequent second treat- / ment about 10 per cent., so that the marc always contains some of the juice. In an unripe apple the proportion of juice is less. The mark then contains substances (pectin compounds) which during ripening gradually change into soluble compounds and enter the juice, thus increasing its value for cider and also changing its character. Hence the necessity of using ripe apples. The most important constituent of the juice is sugar. Two Sugar, kinds of sugar are present, grape sugar and cane sugar. But as both of these are fermentable their presence has more of a scientific than a practical interest, hence in using the word sugar one refers to the total quantity present. The acidity of the juice is due to an acid known as Malic Acidity. Acid. The quantity of this acid present in apples varies accord- ing to the kind of apple. In the juice of some it amounts to over 1 part per cent. In the juice of others to only 0.1 or 0.2. The quantity present also varies according to season, as may be seen from the average analyses of the juice from press, p. 17, and this variation does not appear to correspond in any way with the other constituents. Thus in 1893 and 1894 the average acidity present in the juice of six varieties of apples was the same (see p. 11), yet the solids varied greatly, being 15.7 per cent, and 10.7 per cent, respectively. There is a very wide-spread opinion that the natural acidity of the apples is much greater in a poor season than in a good one. The results of experiments prove this opinion to be erroneous. But it is found that the apple juice during a poor, wet season has a tendency to become acid rapidly, and this has probably given rise to the above opinion. Tannin. Tannin is the third substance of importance. It has the property of precipitating albumin and so helps to clear the juice, its strong astringent flavour is marked in some varieties of cider apples, and also in cider made from such apples. Extractive^. The juice contains some soluble pectin compounds, a little albumin, and other substances. In this report these taken together are called " extractives/' their distinct character not having as yet been determined. A small quantity of mineral matter is also present in solution in the juice. The Analysis of Apples, Apple Juice, and Cider. The quality of cider depends mainly upon two great factors : first, the original composition and condition of the apples, and the apple juice, and, secondly, the fermentation which takes place in the juice. Before we can satisfactorily discover what are the many causes which influence the composition of the apples and the juice obtained from them, we must have some means of estimating analytically the composition of the juice. The following system has been adopted in these investiga- tions : Weight of Six to ten apples are carefully weighed and the weight Apples. divided by the number of apples taken. This gives the average weight of each apple, as shown in column 4 of the Appendix. Percentage of Juice. The apples are ground in a small machine, a kind of modified sausage machine having been adapted for the purpose. No very satisfactory machine has yet been found. The pulp is placed in a small hand-press such as is used for pharmaceutical purposes and the juice extracted and weighed. This press is also faulty, as it is difficult to ensure the same pressure being applied to each sample. A press is wanted the screw of which works in a lever, from the end of which a definite weight is suspended. The pulp would then always be submitted to the same pressure, and if this acted for a definite period, the results would be as uniform as could be expected. Those results which have been obtained under admittedly uncertain conditions are given in the Appendix, column 5. The nature of the pulp which remains, and how this varies at different periods in the growth of the apple, has been to a slight extent examined, but the investigation presents many difficulties. A good description of the substances present in this pulp and the changes which, take place in the ripening of fruit will be found in Dr. 1ST. Granger's " Obstweinkunde."* The analysis of the juice is conducted as follows : It should be first strained through a moderately fine cloth or muslin. This represents the weight of a given volume of juice when The Specific compared with the same volume of distilled water. In writing Gravit y- and print it is nearly always abbreviated to Sp. Gr. The temperature of the juice should be exactly 60 P. If it is not, then either the juice must be brought to this temperature or a correction made for the temperature by means of a table or by calculation. The most accurate method of estimating the Sp. Gr. is to fill a bottle known to hold exactly 100 grammes or 1,000 grains of distilled water with the juice to be tested, and then to carefully re-weigh. The juice instead of weighing 100 grammes or 1,000 grains will be found to weigh, say, 106.55 grammes or 1065.5 grains. If the temperature is 60 F. then the Sp. Gr. of the juice is 1.0655. But if the temperature is not 60 F. then a correction is made. The most simple correction and one which is fairly accurate is when the temperature is below 60 F., deduct from the fourth figure of the specific gravity as many points as the temperature is below 60 F. For example : the temperature is, say, 50 F. or 10 below 60. The gravity shown is 1.0655, and from this deduct 10 leaves 1.0645, which is the true Sp. Gr. at 60 F. When ^the temperature is above 60 add, instead of deducting, the points which represent the difference in temperature ; thus if the temperature is 65 F. we have Gravity shown Add for temperature True gravity 1.0655 5 1.0660 A more simple and nearly as accurate method of estimating The the gravity is by means of the Hydrometer. This instrument Hydrometer, should be called the Gravimeter, in America it is called the * Published by B. F. Voigt, Weimar, 1895. The Saccharo- meter. Densimeter. The stem contains a scale graduated from 1,000 to 1,100, and showing 100 divisions. This only gives the gravity to the third decimal place, and, therefore, corrections for temperature are more difficult to make, but can be made as above described by first adding another to the result obtained, and then correcting. In taking the gravity of liquids they should be as clear as possible and contained in a glass cylinder which leaves ample scope for the hydrometer to rise and fall. The hydrometer must be clean, free from grease, and the upper part of the stem dry. It should be inserted into the liquid until nearly as deep as it will subsequently fall; thus, if the gravity is supposed to be about 1.060 insert to 1.050 and then let go. It will fall below the 60, then gradually recover itself and come to rest. The line which corresponds with the surface of the liquid will represent the gravity. Thus, if it rest at 61 then the gravity is 1.061. Owing to froth it is sometimes difficult to read from above, the hydrometer can then be read from below. The gravity of the juice is, by some makers taken by the saccharometer, an instrument the same shape and used in the same way as the hydrometer, but graduated, and supposed to show the percentage of sugar in the juice. The results obtained with this instrument were found to be most unsatis- factory. As the solids of the juice are composed of several constituents besides sugar, the saccharometer is unreliable. A fairly accurate guide to the amount of solid matter in the apple juice may be obtained with the simple hydrometer by the following formula: Sp. Gr. x234 234. Thus if the specific gravity be 1.06 multiply by 234 = 248.04, deduct 234 = 14.04, which will be very nearly the percentage of solid matter present in the juice of the apple. The result obtained is not absolutely accurate, being slightly low with a rich juice and slightly too high with a poor juice. But for practical purposes this simple method will be found useful. The solids are more accurately estimated by evaporating 5 cubic centimetres to dryness on a water bath and drying the residue at 100 C. (212 Fahr.) for a definite time, viz., six to ten hours. I find by experiment that it is not possible to obtain the solids absolutely dry, for if continuously dried they lose weight constantly for several days. It was therefore thought better to carry out a uniform system rather than attempt to obtain an absolute result. Estimation The acidity of the juice is determined by means of a of Acidity. standard solution of alkali, each cubic centimetre of which is equivalent to 0.01 grammes of malic acid. The indicator used The Solids. ia litmus paper, for the colour of the apple juice prevents any change in a liquid indicator being seen. The apparatus is exactly similar to my Acidimeter, now so largely used by cheese makers. It consists of a graduated burette into which the standard solution of alkali is poured up to the zero mark. Ten cubic centimetres of apple juice or cider are placed in a white porcelain dish and the soda solution gradually added from the burette. The cider changes colour as the acid becomes neutralized. If the glass rod which is used to stir the cider in the dish is brought in contact with a small strip of blue litmus paper it will make a red mark where it touches the paper, but as the acidity gets neutralized by each addition of alkali, each new mark gets fainter and fainter until at last no red can be seen. The acidity of the liquid has been neutralized. If the number of cubic centimetres of alkali used is now noted, this will show the acidity. Thus, if 3.5 cubic centi- metres have been taken then the acidity is 0.35 per cent. Those who have the acidimeter for cheese making can use it for cidietr making also. But they must get another alkali solution or else make a slight calculation. The real acidity of cider is only three-fourths of that shown with the lactic acid soda. Thus, when using this soda deduct from the result one-fourth, this will leave the true acfdity. For example, 10 c.c. cider take 6.4 c.c. of lactic acid soda, deduct one-fourth, 1.6 c.c., this leaves 4.8 c.c., or 0.48 per cent, of malic acid present in the cider. The sugar. There are present in apple juice at least two Estimation varieties of sugar grape sugar and cane sugar. If the sugar of Su g ar - is estimated in the juice by Fehling's method or Pavy's modifi- cation thereof, the grape sugar only is shown. In order to estimate the total amount of sugar it is necessary to convert it all into one variety by heating the juice with dilute hydrochloric acid (1 per cent.) for thirty minutes. The total sugar, including that which is thus " inverted/' is then estimated by means of Pavy's modification of Fehling's solu- tion. By deducting from this total sugar the amount of grape sugar originally found, we obtain by difference the cane sugar. The tannin is by far the most difficult substance to estimate, Estimation and at present the methods at our disposal for the purpose are of Tannin, not very satisfactory. However, it was necessary to adopt some method, and, after many experiments, the most suitable method appeared to be that of Neubauer. A standard solution contain- ing 0.785 grammes of permanganate of potash per litre is employed. Tannin has the power of decolourising the solution. To determine the exact point of complete decolourization a solution of indigo is added to the juice as an indicator. The estimations are made as follows : 5 cubic centimetres of apple 15408 R 6 Estimation of Alcohol. juice are taken for examination, to these are added 5 cubic centimetres of indigo solution of such, a strength that the 5 cubic centimetres will be decolourised by exactly 1 cubic centimetre of permanganate solution. Next 5 cubic centimetres of dilute (1 in 10) sulphuric acid are added, and the whole is made up with distilled water to 200 cubic centimetres. To this liquid the standard solution of permanganate is carefully added until the blue colour of the liquid disappears. The quantity of permanganate required (less the 1 cubic centimetre, required by the indigo), gives the amount which has been decolourised by the tannin. In these determinations it is assumed that the tannin present in the apple juice has the composition C 14 H 10 O 9 and that 1 cubic centimetre of the per- manganate solution is decolourised by 0.001 gramme of tannin. The strength of the permanganate solution must be checked by experiments on pure tannin. The alcohol is estimated in 100 c.c. of the cider to which a quantity of carbonate of lime has first been added sufficient to neutralize all the acidity. This is necessary, as otherwise volatile acids would come over. About 70 c.c. of liquid is distilled, the distillate made up to 100 c.c. brought to 60 F. and its specific gravity accurately determined in a 50 c.c. bottle. The percentage of alcohol present is found by means of the following table : TABLE FOR THE ESTIMATION OF ALCOHOL (STEVENSON). Sp. Gr. of Distillate. Alcohol by Weight. Alcohol by Volume. Sp. Or. of Distillate. Alcohol by weight. Alcohol by Volume. Sp. Gr. Distillate. Alcohol by- Weight. Alcohol by Volume. 9880 7-10 8'80 9890 6-40 8-00 9900 5.75 7-15 9881 7-00 8-75 9891 6-35 7-95 9901 5-70 7-05 9:82 6-95 8-65 9892 C-30 7-85 9902 5-65 7-00 9883 6-90 8-60 9893 6-20 7-80 9903 5-60 6-95 9884 6-80 8-50 9894 6-15 -7-70 9904 5-50 6-85 9885 6-70 8-40 9895 6-10 7-60 9905 5-54 6-80 9886 6-65 8-35 9896 6-00 7-55 9906 5-40 6-75 9887 6-60 8-30 9897 5-95 7-45 9907 5-30 6-70 9888 6-55 8-15 9898 5-90 7-40 9908 5-25 6-60 9889 6-50 8-10 9899 5-85 7-30 9309 5-20 6-50 Sp. Gr. of Distillate. Alcohol by Weight. Alcohol by Volume. Sp. Gr. of Distillate. Alcohol by Weight. Alcohol by Volume. Sp. Gr. of Distillate. Alcohol by Weight. Alcohol by Volume. 91)10 5-15 6-40 9920 4-50 5-65 9930 3'90 4-90 9911 5-05 6-30 9921 4-45 5-55 9931 3-85 4-85 9912 5-00 6-20 9922 4-40 5-50 0932 3-80 4-80 9913 9914 4-95 4-90 0-15 6-10 9923 9924 4-35 4-25 '5-40 5-30 9933 9934 3-75 3-65 4-70 4-65 9915 4-80 6-00 9925 4-20 5-25 9935 3-60 4-55 9916 4-75 5-95 9926 4-15 5-20 9936 3-55 4-50 9917 4-70 5-90 9927 4-10 5-15 9937 3-50 4-45 9918 4-65 5-80 9928 4-00 5-05 9938 3-40 4-30 9919 4-55 6-70 9929 3-95 5-00 9939 3;35 4-25 9940 3-30 4-15 9950 2-75 3-50 9960 2-15 2-70 9941 3-25 4-10 9951 2-70 3-40 9961 2-10 2-65 9942 3-20 4-00 9952 2-60 3-30 9962 2-05 2-60 9943 3-15 3-95 9953 2-55 3-20 9963 2-00 2-50 9944 3-10 3-85 9954 2-50 3-15* 9964 1-95 2-45 9945 3-00 3-80 9955 2-45 3-10 9965 1-90 2-40 9946 2-95 3-75 9956 2-40 3-00 9966 1-85 2-30 9947 2-90 3-70 9957 2-35 2-90 9967 1-80 2-20 9948 2-5 3-60 9958 2-30 2-*5 9968 1-75 2-15 9949 2-80 3-55 9359 2'20 2-80 99G9 1-65 2-05 9970 1-60 2-00 9980 1-05 1-30 9930 0-55 0-65 9971 1-55 1-95 9981 1-00 1-25 9991 0-45 0-55 9972 1-50 1-85 9982 0-95 1-20 9992 0-40 0-50 9973 1-45 1-80 9933 0-90 1-10 9993 0-35 0-45 9974 1-40 1-75 9984 0-85 1-C5 9994 0-30 0-40 9975 1-35 1-70 9985 0-80 i .', 9995 0-25 0-30 997G 1-30 1-65 998G 0-75 0-90 9996 0-20 0-25 9977 1-25 1-55 9987 0-70 0-85 9997 0-15 0-20 9978 1-20 1-45 9988 0-65 0-80 9998 o-io 0-15 9979 1-20 1-40 9989 0-60 0-70 9999 0-05 0*05 15408 B 2 A rapid method of estimating the alcohol which is of value where large numbers of samples have to be analysed quickly, as at Shows, may here be mentioned. It is not absolutely accurate, but if carefully carried out gives very fairly accurate results. It is based upon this fact. The specific gravity of a sample of cider depends upon two factors, the percentage of solids in solution which raises the gravity and the percentage of alcohol which lowers it. If the specific gravity of the cider is taken, then the alcohol evaporated off by boiling the liquid down to about one-third its volume, making up to the original volume and again taking (the gravity, the difference between these two gravities is due to the alcohol. But the alcohol can not be determined simply by deducting the one gravity from the other. The method of procedure is as follows:- Divide the specific gravity of the cider by the specific gravity of the liquid left after evaporating the alcohol, the resultant or quotient represents the specific gravity of the alcoholic distillate which has passed off. By the table 011 p. 6-7 it is easy to discover what percentage of alcohol this represents. The following is an example of this method. The original cider had a gravity" of 1.0369, the liquid left after evaporating the alcohol had a gravity of 1.0422, by dividing the former by the latter we obtain the result, .9949, which, by our table, represents 3.55 per cent, of alcohol by volume. 1-0422 ) 1-03690 ( -9949 93798 98920 93798 51220 41688 95320 By distillation this cider yielded 3.60 of alcohol by volume, showing that the method is fairly accurate. If the solids in cider were of uniform composition we could determine by calculation what would be the specific gravity of the liquid freed from alcohol from the solids. I find that this cannot be done with absolute accuracy, but the following formula has given very satisfactory results, where S. represents the solid matter per cent, then : Specific gravity of cider I = ^^ + g _ 2 freed from alcohol. 1 9 For example, a cider contains 7 per cent, of solids, the gravity of the liquid when freed from alcohol would be 1-0100 7 -2 = 5 x -0039 = -0195 1-0295 A table may be made to represent the gravity equivalent to each per cent, and decimal of a per cent, of solids. The albumin may be precipitated in the clear liquid by Estimation bringing this to nearly boiling point. It is then filtered off of Albumin, on a tared filter and weighed. The solution is then evaporated to a small oulk and alcohol added. This precipitates the pectin. I have found these determinations difficult and unsatisfactory. The solids are burnt over a low flame. It is not easy to Estimating obtain a good white ash. the mineral matter. The Detection of Preservatives. The detection of salicylic acid in cider presents some Salicylic difficulty. Acid. Attempts to trace this acid were first made on the residue left after distilling the alcohol, by making this slightly acid and extracting with ether. The ether solution took up colour- ing matters, and also tannin, or similar compounds, and the characteristic colour reaction given by salicylic acid with ferric chloride solution could not be obtained. Several solvents, both alone and combined with ether, were tried, but only rarely could any colour reaction be obtained, and then it was not a satisfactory one. A series of experiments on cider to which definite quantities of salicylic acid had been purposely adued, proved that all the usual methods failed in detecting its presence. It then occurred to me that it might be possible to distil the salicylic acid in a current of steam, and an experiment proved that when it was present in considerable quantity sufficient came over for the distillate to give the characteristic colour with ferric chloride solution. My next experiments were directed to discover whether the salicylic acid could be thus obtained without passing steam through the liquid, but by merely boiling. The results were satisfactory. Hence the method adopted was to take 100 c.c. of cider, make alkaline with soda, and distil off the alcohol (50 c.c. is suffi- cient). The residue was then made acid with sulphuric acid, and ddstillates of 10 c.c. taken off and marked 1, 2, 3, 4. These were tested with 1 per cent, solution of ferric chloride. It was then 10 found that sometimes the first distillate, or even the first two, would not show any colour reaction, but only the third, or perhaps the fourth, and it soon became evident that this depended on the quantity of salicylic acid present. Quantitative experiments were next made, and when operat- ing on 100 c.c. of liquid the following results were obtained : The presence of 1 part of sodium, salicylate in 10,000 parts of cider could be detected in the first distillate generally, and certainly in the second; the presence of 1 part in 20,000 was visible in the second or third distillate, and of one part in 30,000 in the third or fourth distillate. If present in smaller quantities it could not be detected when working with 100 c.c., though by concentrating a larger bulk of cider it would be possible to detect even smaller quantities. However, as five grains to the gallon can be found with certainty, and as less would scarcely act as a preservative, it is seldom necessary to work on a larger volume than 100 c.c. In 1900 this method was applied to the samples exhibited at the show at Bath. To my surprise no less than 20 out of 84 exhibits gave the colour reaction of salicylic acid. Without letting the exhibitors know the result of my analyses, one or two were questioned by the Steward as to whether they had not used some preservative or anti-ferment. They so stoutly denied having done so, that it was decided not to take any action, and mainly for two reasons. It was thought, first, that it might be possible for salicylic acid to be naturally present in apple juice, and secondly, that iny method of analysis might be faulty, or the results be due to some substance other than salicylic acid. Repeated examinations have been made of cider known to be genuine, and I have not been able to find any salicylic acid naturally present in apple juice, nor produced by fermentation in juice which was known to be free from added matter. It was possible that other compounds might produce the same reaction as salicylic acid, therefore experiments were made to determine whether this were so. Phenol, which itself gives a somewhat similar reaction, when added to cider, even in comparatively large quantity, and distilled gives no colouration. Saccharin, which can be decomposed and produces salicylic acid under certain condi- tions, might possibly be so decomposed by the treatment with soda. Experiments have proved that this is not the case. I then tried whether fermentation proceeding in a liquid containing saccharin, might bring about decomposition, but after fermentation these samples were tested, and no salicylic acid could be discovered. To make quite certain that I had left no possible means untried of proving the substance which I had found in these exhibits to salicylic acid, I wrote to Professor H. Armstrong, 11 IMi.S., who suggested that the bromine compound might be examined. This substance crystallises in a very characteristic manner, and I found that even in most dilute solutions, like these distillates, the crystals were formed, and could be centrifugally separated and distinguished when examined under the microscope. One somewhat interesting fact was observed during the continuance of these observations, namely, that solutions con- taining salicylic acid are liable to decomposition by the growth of certain fungi, and that in due course the whole of the salicylic acid disappears. The Seasons 1893 to 1902. 1894. A late frost in the spring cut off the blossoms of the apple trees and so caused the apple crop to be exceedingly small. The year was one characterised by little sunshine, and much wet. Two results followed the want of sunshine and the exces- sive rains; one was that the apples during October and November did not properly ripen on the trees, and the other that it was not possible to store them in hurdle stores, to ensure subsequent ripening. The effect of the bad season on the composition of the apples was very marked, as may be seen from the following table : COMPOSITION OF APPLE JUICE. 1893. 1894. VARIETY Sp. Gr. Solids. Acid. Sp. Gr. Solids. Acid. New Cadbury 1-0574 14-0 16 1-0415 9-14 16 Tom Hooper 1-0632 15-4 72 1-0520 11-38 70 Red Jersey 1-0680 16-5 20 1-0470 10-72 19 Kingston Black ... 1-0680 16-5 32 1-0500 11-34 44 Royal Somerset ... 1-0550 13-5 60 1-0435 9-48 71 Gins 1-0750 18-1 39 1-0526 12-06 23 Average 1-0644 15-7 40 1-0477 10-70 40 The amount of total solids in the juice was no less than 5 per cent, lower in 1894 than it was in 1893. This 5 per cent, is sugar. Hence the juice from which the cider had to be made in 1894 contained one-third less fermentable ynaterial than in 1893. The next point to be noted is that the average amount of acid (present in these apples is the same in both years. 12 1895. This was a better year than 1894, but not so good as 1893, as regards conditions favourable to the apple crop. The season was a plentiful one, and the apples were of fair quality, better than in 1894, but not so good as 1893. This is seen from the table on p. 17, which gives the average composition of the juice from the press for the ten years during which the observations have been in progress, and these figures prove that in 1895, the quality of the apple juice in bulk fell considerably below that of 1893. 1896. This year was characterised by bright sunshine, a high temperature and an exceptionally small rainfall. There was only a small apple crop. The season was an early one, that is to say, the apples ripened sooner than usual. The apples yielded less iuice per 1,000 Ibs. weight than was obtained in 1895. Thus, in" 1895, 1,000 Ibs. of apples yielded 650 Ibs. of juice, while in 1896, from the same weight of apples, only 615 Ibs. of juice were obtained. But if the juice was less in volume it was better in quality, as shown in the table of average composition of juice from press, p. 17. The composition of the juice was nearly as good as in 1893, with respect to total solids, and was better than in 1893 in not being quite so acid. How much better it was in 1896 than in 1895 may be estimated by comparing the average specific gravity of the apple juice from each " cheese " made in these years. This in 1895 was 1.0534, in 1896 it was 1.0625. In other words, in 1895 the juice contained about 11 per cent, of fermentable sugar capable of yielding 5J per cent, of alcohol; in 1896 it contained about 13 per cent, fermentable sugar, capable of yielding 6J per cent, of alcohol. 1897. The characteristics of the season were a more than average amount of sunshine, especially during the month of October, an exceptional rainfall in August, a low temperature combined with a large rainfall in September, and an exception- ally high temperature in October. The effect of the season upon the apple crop varied greatly in different localities, in some districts the crop being very small. The effect at Butleigh may be gathered from the following figures. The total volume of juice yielded was about 3,000 gallons as compared with 1,000 gallons in 1896 and 9,000 in 1895. The yield of juice per 1,000 Ibs. of apples, was 616 Ibs, as compared with 615 Ibs. in 1896, and 650 Ibs. in 1895. The characteristic of the apple juice in 1897 was a high percentage of acid, while the total solids were higher than in 1895, but below those of 1893 and 1896. 1898 was a season of very small rainfall, warm air tempera- ture, and varying sunshine. The effect of the season upon the yield of apples was injurious, there being a much smaller yield than the average. As regards the quantity of juice which these apples yielded the effect was not striking. 1,000 Ibs. of 13 apples yielded 621 Ibs. juice, which is only 6 Ibs. more than was obtained in 1896, and 5 Ibs. more than was obtained in 1897. The average quality of the juice was better than in 1897, though not so good as in 1896 or 1893. The apples of 1898 were all much smaller than in 1897 or 1896. These apples in most cases also produced a smaller percentage of juice. Hence the quality of that juice was, as a rule, better than in 1897. 1899. The period of growth of the apple crop in 1899 was both dry and warm, there had been no frosts in the early part of the season to destroy the blossoms, and the result was a fairly good crop. The weather was such as to ensure the apples being fully ripe. For not only was the period of bright sunshine very considerably above the average, but the air temperature during the months of August and September, in which months probably the greatest development of the apple occurs, was also far above the average, in spite of the heavy rainfall of the latter month. The combined result of these conditions was more marked upon the composition of the apples than upon the quantity of the crop. The apples yielded not only more juice but juice of better quality than in any former year of the observations. Thus, as regards the quantity of juice, 1,000 Ibs. of apples yielded 654 Ibs. of juice. This was the highest recorded yield of juice since 1895, when it was first estimated. In that year the yield was 650 Ibs., while in 1896, 1897 and 1898 it was only 615, 616 and 621 Ibs. respectively. The quality of the juice was also better than any which had been obtained since 1893 ; this is somewhat remarkable con- sidering the volume. In 1895 the large volume of juice was of poor quality, with a specific gravity of only 1.052. But the average specific gravity of .tlfe juice during the season 1899, was 1.061, which is even higher than that of 1893. The high proportion of solids in the juice was accompanied by a small proportion of acid. Thus, the season of 1899 yielded a juice of exceptional quality, which resulted in the production of excellent cider. 1900. The chief characteristic of the season was the small amount of rain during July, August and September. Then came a heavy rainfall in the month of October, which caused the fruit to fall on to the damp soil amid the leaves of a rapid autumnal change. The want of moisture in the early part of the season seemed to check the growth of the apples, and they remained, and were at the time of being gathered, exceptionally small. As a rule H small apples yield a rich juice. But this year was an excep- tion; the juice was not so rich as one would have expected. The average composition of the juice from press was slightly below that of 1899. The apples yielded a high percentage of juice, 1,000 Ibs. of apples giving 692 Ibs. oi juice, the highest proportion yet recorded. Some of the apples used in this experiment were in fair condition, but the majority, like most of the apples that season, were undoubtedly moist, and this may partly account for the high proportion of juice. That the effect of the season upon the apple crop is marked, irrespective of district and variety, is well shown by the following extract from a letter sent me by Mr. H. L. T. Blake, of Fairfield, Bridgwater. "The summer of 1899 was very hot and dry, and in consequence of there being no rain when or after the fruit was forming, there was no natural thinning of the crop. The apples, therefore, in many orchards were thick in clusters on the trees, and were very small in size. Notwithstanding that, they ripened well; and in the thirteen cheeses I put up in 1899, the specific gravity of the juice as it came direct from the press averaged 1.068. On referring to my notes for the year 1900, I find that although the summer of 1900 was as hot and dry as 1899, the specific gravity of the juice of last year's apples, though grown from the same orchards, ranged from 1.052 to 1.060, representing an average of only 1.057 as compared with 1.068 in 1899." The season, therefore, had more marked effect on the apples at Fairfield than on those at Butleigh. 1901. The season was one of small rainfall, with high temperature, and during the months of April, May and June, of more than usual bright sunshine. Towards the end of the ripening season there was, however, less sunshine than there had been during the previous two years. The apples, conse- quently, ripened more slowly than had been expected, and the crop was not large. The total yield of the apples at Butleigh was about 6,000 gallons of juice. The apples on an average were not quite so small as in 1900, but individual varieties varied greatly in size as compared with former years, some being much smaller, others much larger. The percentage of juice was high when working on the bulk, 1,000 Ibs. of apples yielding 690 Ibs. of juice. It will be seen that while the specific gravity of the juice was not so high as in the two previous seasons, it was as high as it had been since 1893. The most marked peculiarity of the juice was its low acidity. The following tables summarise some of the most important factors regarding the seasons, during which the experiments were conducted : 15 L>- -"^ Tfi CO OO (M OS O g o o 6 ^ 1 + 1 t- CM Ci 5 CO ^ CO ^ h 00 g T-H O T 1 I 1 1 ^ T 1 O> O * oo "^ o A) O CM O 1 1 + CO O CO O * t^ CM O "i O^ Al CM O 1 1 H h 1 t- oo c 5 "* * t- CO O 5 CO OO CM - 1 1 + 1 Tfi OO l>- !> xO i I CO ^ i^H CO O CM 1 + H h | i 00 CO 00 r-t OS CO CO O OO TH O CM O 1 1 H h | 00 00 4 CO O O OS CM s 1 + " h | os t>- t> 00 et t>- CM CO CO " + + + OS iO O^ CO oo Al T^H T^ -1 TH + 1 1 N : jg ^ s a rw D -5 I 4 p ft 1 _3 ^ 2 O 9 CM cp T 1 cp OS os CO CO O CM (N 1 7 | + + 7 7 CO CM CM O CO o CO CM 5 00 7 05 CO 7 CM T 1 O o o CM 1 OS cp CO + 1 + + + + w CM Al GO CM 3 CO CM OS g 00 cp 1 1 i 1 1 B ^H w 1 ~* l~ 1 O 1 1 _l I O ' 17 ~T~ ' *d tf >>. " ^ri t"" oa t" 1 * ^^ 2 a O CM 00 CO ip ^ ^ CO % PQ + + + 2 + I + I K o CO CM OS o g CO CO O W s CO CO E CO OS CM 5 _1_ _j_ 1 _j_ I 1 . r Di 1 1 1 S CQ 1 | + 1 EMPERAT BRIGHT o rH CO T 1 IO o CM T-> T-H cp I> co CO cp CM T-H CM H 1 1 1 -{- 1 1 + 1 S -5 (M OS CO CM CO xO cp cp CM CM T 1 CO o Tl CM C*4 + + 1 + 7 + + + ' 1 PH : : 1 ^ "S n O -V OD ~B 1 1 3 o O "3 i-a 1 o O 16 The Influence of Season on Apples and the Apple Crop. Upon this very large and intricate subject it is only possible to make a few statements which' at present seem justified from the observations at Butleigh. The composition of the apple is greatly affected by the season, but how and why is a problem which I have not as yet attempted to investigate. I here point out some of the evidences of this effect because the subject is worthy of investi- gation. So also are the changes in composition due to locality, that is to say, due to soil as distinct from climatic conditions. Not that we can alter either the one or the other ; but the more thoroughly we understand the processes of nature, the more mastery we shall obtain over the products which are the results of such processes. The yield or crop varies from year to year. Most people may have noticed that, as a rule, an exceptionally prolific year of any one fruit, like the apple, is followed by a season oi exceptional scarcity. The apple crop of 1896 confirmed this general rule, for while 1895 was a most prolific yelar, in 1896 many cider makers found a difficulty in obtaining sufficient apples to make any cider at all. The same is true of individual apple trees. As a rule those which yield heavily one year yield but slightly the following year. Hence, in estimating the value of a particular variety of apple the yield of that variety cannot be determined upon the result of one season only, but requires that the average oi several should be taken. The chief cause of a small crop has been a late frost in the spring, as in 1894. The second cause would appear to be a dry season, and inability of the trees to obtain sufficient moisture or sap to fully form the apples. The Composition of the Juice varies according to the Season. This is best seen by the following table, showing the average composition of the juice obtained at Butleigh from practically the same orchards year after year : 17 AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF JUICE FROM PRESS. Year. Number of Samples. Sp. Gr. Solids. Acid. 1893 6 1-060 14-40 63 1894 11 1-050 11-14 60 1895 13 1-052 12-24 46 X 1896 5 1-057 14-02 40 1897 5 1-053 13-26 68 1898 5 1-C56 13-62 51 1899 14 I -061 15-57 44 1900 54 1059 1901 12 1-057 14-43 34 1902 8 1-047 11-43 53 Want of sunshine towards the end of the season causes the apples to ripen slowly, so delaying the manufacture, and also tends to diminish the crop. This was noticed in 1901, as compared with 1899 and 1900. If this lack of sunshine is accompanied with heavy rain the apples do not appear to ripen properly on the trees. This was remarked in 1894. It is probably best under 'such conditions to gather the apples and ripen them in store. In 1902 the low temperature and want of sunshine not only prevented the apples from ripening but caused the juice to contain a larger proportion ol " extractives " than in any former year. Passing from the crop as a whole to individual varieties oi apples, it would appear that the season does not affect all varieties of apples alike, a season suitable for one variety is not suitable for another. Many illustrations of this fact may be found by studying the analyses in the Appendix. It is also well illustrated by the following facts : The apples Kingston Black, N"ew Cadbury, and Butleigh No. 14, yielded in 1898 a juice of higher specific gravity than in 1899, while Chisel Jersey and Red Jersey apples did the reverse. Evidently the cider maker in any attempt to improve his orchards by reducing the number of varieties of apples must not overlook this important consideration. Apples of the same variety and from the same tree vary each year : (1) In average size or weight ; (2) In the proportion of 18 the juice which they yield; and (3) In the gravity of the juice. It is somewhat remarkable that the proportion of juice does not appear to depend upon the average size, for small apples will at times give a large, at other times a small, proportion of juice. Most frequently the gravity of the juice appears to increase as the size of the apple decreases, hut this is not invariable. Thus, while in nearly all instances the average weight of the samples in 1898 was below that of the same variety in 1897, yet in many cases the composition of the juice of these smaller apples was almost the same as that of the larger apples produced in 1897. Influence of Locality on Apples. There is still another factor which appears to influence the composition of the apple juice, and that is locality. Into this subject we have not yet attempted to enter fully, but the following results are interesting : COMPOSITION OF JUICE FROM KINGSTON BLACKS. Grown at Sp. Gr. Acid. Sugar. Tannin. Solids. Butleigh ... 1-0672 64 14-08 216 16-60 East Lambrook 1-0695 41 15-62 302 17-08 1 Cider making com- mences in the orchard. Apple trees. The Orchards. In the ripe apple as it hangs upon the tree, nature supplies us with all the essentials for good cider. But the apples will differ in quality. Hence, cider making commences in the orchard. If the orchard be neglected no amount of care will convert its produce into cider that will compete with the pro- duce of a well-stocked, well-kept orchard. How to obtain the best fruit may seem to many a difficult problem. To improve the orchards it is desirable for several reasons that the trees should be numbered; first, in order that speci- mens may be obtained from the same trees in consecutive years, and analysed ; and secondly, that graftings may be taken from those trees which are found to produce apples of good quality for cider making. The analysis should help materially in promoting the supply of good fruit trees; for as the great 19 variation in value between different varieties of apples becomes more generally recognised, greater care will, it is hoped, be taken in the planting of good cider fruit trees. The system which is being adopted at Butleigh is to graft new trees with those varieties which have, after repeated analyses, proved to be the best. This seems to me the most satisfactory method that can be adopted. Analysis proves that apples of the same variety when grown in different localities -differ considerably in composition. Instead, therefore, oi buying this or that variety said to be of excellent quality, farmers would do far better if they endeavoured to find out which are the best apples produced on their own land, and commenced with cultivating these varieties. It was to help farmers to do this that analyses of apples sent to Butleigh were made free of cost to the senders. As new trees of good varieties come into use the older and least desir- able varieties should be dispensed with. Each soil has such an influence upon its produce, that we cannot afford to neglect what may be termed its likes and dislikes. Hence, our first consideration should be to secure the maximum produce of the best variety that we know this soil is capable of produc- ing. Subsequently there will be time enough to experiment as to its capability of growing other varieties which have been proved in other districts to be valuable. Varieties of Apples. The number of apples which have been analysed at Butleigh is about 500, comprising many varieties. JsFow it is self-evident that all these varieties cannot be equally good, that probably some are quite useless or even detrimental to the cider. In fact, from a careful study of these analyses, it is very evi- dent that much has yet to be done to improve the cider fruit of this country. From at least one-half of the apples it would be quite hopeless to expect to make first-class cider. If we compare these results with those from apples used for cider making on the Continent, we shall better appreciate how little has yet been done in England to improve cider fruit. In a little work on agriculture, written for scholars in French elementary schools by Les Freres de Tlnstruction Chretienne, 9 lde i r the following ten varieties of apples are stated to be among the pp es * best grown in France for cider making. Appended to each is the analysis of the juice as given in a pamphlet published by the Syndicat Pomologique de France, showing the analyses of these varieties from specimens which were exhibited at the shows of that society during the years 1892-94. 20 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF JUICE OF FRENCH APPLES. Best varieties. Name ot Fruit. Average Weight of aii Apple. Juice extracted from 1,000 Ihs. of Apples. Density of the Juice Sugar in Juice. Acidity expressed as Sulphuric Acid. Tannin. Muci- lage. IST SEASON. Oz. Lbs. Percent. Per cent. Percent. Blanc Mollet ... 1-38 740-0 1-0740 13-85 155 2JO 40 Doux Joseph ... 1-42 492-1 1-0916 18-15 156 528 57 Saint Laurent ... 1-12 696-0 1-0750 15-26 150 255 33 2ND SEASON. Bramtot 1-83 664-8 1-0888 20-35 194 335 15 Launette Grosse .. 1-76 1-0320 18-10 350 480 Marcchal... 1-93 748-0 1-0780 15-25 160 510 45 Medaille d'Or ... 1-15 1-0942 19-64 188 1-120 45 3RD SEASON. Frequin Audievre 1-28 769-0 1-0740 16-05 125 215 14 Grise-Dieppois ... MS 499-1 1-1164 21-10 155 790 27 Reine des Pommes 2-80 560-5 1-0700 16'2-> 260 418 29 Which then are the best or most desirable varieties to grow ? This is a subject to which in the future special attention should be paid with a view to the cultivation of the best varieties and the gradual elimination of the others. But numerous observations will be needed. To answer this question many points have to be considered, several of which are purely horticultural. I shall merely dwell upon those of most importance. It is necessary to discover and record for each variety 1st. Its time of ripening; 2nd. The weight of a crop from a single tree year after year so as to eliminate the fluctuations due to season ; 3rd. The volume of the juice of these apples year after year; 4th. The average composition of this juice; 5th. The kind of cider which the juice will produce when used alone. Only by a combination of these five factors can we hope to ultimately arrive at a just estimate of the value of each variety of apple for cider making. The first desideratum is that the apples should be late in ripening ; it will subsequently be shown in this report that the later the period of making the cider the better the produce, and why this is. The second and third desideratums are self-evident. How- ever good a particular apple may be, if the crop is very small or the proportion of juice very small, these facts must tell against its value. The fourth and most important consideration is that the juice should have a composition suited for cider making. To determine what this composition should be is a most difficult problem. As the cider made in 1899 was the best produced during the pourse of these observations, we are justified in assuming that the juice then obtained was not far from being a fair example of what to aim at. The first characteristic of the juice was its high proportion of solids (15.57 per cent.), which also meant a larger quantity of sugar than usual. The amount of acid and the amount of tannin were on the other hand far below the usual percentages. These facts suggest some interesting hypotheses. The analyses of apples show that the table varieties contain as a rule far more acid than the cider varieties. This acid probably accounts for the difficulty experienced in making good cider from table fruit. Again, the low percentage .of tannin suggests the question : Is it qujite certain that the -very rough-flavoured apples, which are'generally believed to be the best for cider making, are really the best ? So long as cider was made for " the use of the men, one can well imagine that these constituents were valuable, for they helped to give the drink an acidity and roughness which only an agricultural labourer could appre- ciate, and which probably helped to make the cider last longer than it otherwise would have done. But the man who makes cider for sale must be guided by the desire that he who drinks once shall drink again. We know that it is frequently possible to have too much of a good thing, and this probably applies to acid and tannin in cider fruit. The apples of 1899 were peculiarly rich in those indeter- minable and unknown constituents, to which the title of " extractives, &c.," is given in my analyses. Previous to 1899 I considered an excess of these constituents as detrimental to the manufacture of good cider. Moreover, experiments have shown that when they were diminished the cider was materially improved. Upon re- considering these experiments in the light of the above facts, 15408 C Unnamed varieties. Buying apples. 22 it is seen that the acidity and the tannin were in all of them at the same time diminished. While, therefore, the results obtained are undeniable, the previous explanation becomes doubtful, and we have yet to learn how far the improvement in the cider was due to the diminished extractives, and how far to the smaller quantities of acid and tannin present in the juice. 5. It is desirable for many reasons to know what kind of cider the juice of each variety of apple will produce when used alone. Such knowledge .will probably afford us consider- able insight into the cause of flavour in cider and also supply the data for a scientific system of blending. A very large proportion of the apple trees growing in the West of England are unnamed and unknown, and some steps certainly ought to be taken to discover the names and the value of the many unknown varieties now existing. How excellent some of these varieties are has been shown from the analytical results obtained at Butleigh, see especially No. 14. A further striking illustration was obtained among some of the apples sent from the Somerset County Farm, at Bickenhall, of which neither the name, origin, nor history seems to be known. Of these No. 10 is of quite exceptional quality; No. 6 and No. 4 are also good. No. 11, though rich in solids, contains too much acidity, and appears to be more of a dessert apple. It is evident that Nos. 2 and 9 are the kinds of apple which are not worth growing for cider making, when we consider that the same land and the same season enable another variety to produce 50 per cent, more solid matter. In 1898 Mr. Neville Grenville purchased the apples from an orchard which, though on a different soil, had the reputa- tion of producing good cider. The juice from these apples proved to be of poor quality, the average specific gravity of the juice being only 1.0538, and the solids under 13 per cent., which was much below the average of the year for Butleigh. This shows the necessity of care when buying apples for cider making. They ought to be paid for not merely by volume or weight as at present, but according to the quantity and quality of the juice they yield. Action of Frost on Apples. Mr. J. II. Symes, being anxious to determine what effect frost had on apples, sent me some ripe Pippins (No. 299), and others of the same variety, which were frosted (No. 300). It will be seen that there is a close resemblance in composition between the two, except that the frosted apples were larger, and appear to have developed further than the others. Hence they gave more and richer juice. The acidity, tannin, and ex- tractives are very similar in both juices; the only difference is the high, proportion of cane sugar in the frosted apples, and this is not likely to be due to the action of the frost. We may therefore conclude that if frosted apples are not suitable for cider making, as sohie believe, it is due either to changes in composition, not apparent from an ordinary analysis, but which might be discovered by special investiga- tion; or to changes affecting the yeasts, &c., which grow on the apple, and produce a desirable or undesirable fermentation in the juice. It is quite within the range of probability that frost may destroy desirable organisms, and leave undesirable organisms alive, so that these subsequently get the mastery during fermentation and so spoil the resulting cider. Gathering the Apples. If in future we must strive to obtain better fruit for the manufacture of cider,, in the meantime, it is necessary that we should utilise to the best advantage that which we already possess. The first question which arises is, ought the fruit to be picked or allowed to drop? Undoubtedly it should be picked. At present much of the cider fruit of this country is left upon the trees until it drops, and is then collected into heaps on the ground, and exposed to the sun, air and rain. It is disheartening to see how many farmers utterly ignore the necessity for cleanliness, in this first stage of cider making. On the 28th of October, 1897, I had occasion to travel for many miles in Somerset. It was an excessively damp morning ; a very heavy dew had fallen during the night, and a Scotch mist hung over the land. In Some places the apples were still unpicked, while hundreds, wet, bruised and dirty, were lying under the trees upon the cold, damp grass, a tempting breakfast for. slugs and worms, and every other variety of apple consuming life, animal or vegetable. Every mould or fungus which came in contact with the apples was revelling in the ample store of sweet, moist food they supplied, and growing apace, consuming the best part of the apples, destroying their value for cider making, and planting in the remainder the germs of a subsequent injurious fermenta- tion and decay. In other places I saw men gathering the reeking-wet apples, evidently intent upon making as much so-called cider as possible, utterly regardless of its quality. Now, as the same time, the same labour, and the same capital must be employed, whether men make cider worth 4d. a gallon, or cider worth Is. a gallpn, it is extraordinary that a little more foresight is not exercised so as to do things at the right time and in the right way. It is best to gather the apples by hand ; this can only be done with short trees; where the trees are high it is necessary to 15408 C 2 24 shake the apples down with the aid of a long crook, the apples as they fall should be collected in a cloth, or, what is better and cheaper, a large net. This must be kept well off the ground. FIG. 1. The fruit should not be allowed to drop. An apple which has dropped upon the soil, in the first place collects dirt; secondly, it is bruised ; and thirdly, it soon begins to discolour and decay. The evil effect of allowing the apple to collect dirt is so self-evident that it needs no comment. Not only does it pick up dirt from the soil but this frequently gives a distinctly bad flavour to the resulting juice. To put this statement to the test Mr. Blake made an experi- ment which completely confirmed its truth. In writing to me he thus describes the test : " An experiment made by me in 1899 was the manufacture of cider from apples that had been allowed to lie on the damp ground for a long time, with the object of determining for myself whether such apples would impart an earthy taste to the cider made from them, and I find that this has distinctly been the case. " The farmer who kindly let me have those apples admitted the fact on my letting him taste a sample of the cider later on, and said it would be a good practical lesson to him not to let his apples lie on the ground for the future." When the apple in a bruised condition is left exposed to the rain, there can be no doubt whatever that much of its nutriment is washed out, and the sugar being thus lost, the 25 resulting juice is impoverished. Whether the apples, by being bruised and decaying, are any the worse for cider making, is a point upon which there seems much difference of opinion. But it is only necessary to carefully examine a number of Rotten apples in a field " store " or heap, to see that any mould which a PP leg * is growing is always found on the bruised and decaying part. This mould will subsequently find its way into the juice, where its spores will act as ferments detrimental to the cider, and will invariably give it a characteristic mouldy flavour. In such bruised apples the decay is not always of one kind, two varieties, " brown " and " black " rot being easily recognis- able. The latter is, I believe, universally regarded as bad ; opinions differ, however, with respect to the " brown " rot. An experiment was therefore made to determine the effect of allowing the apples to get rotten. The apples being hand- picked and kept in a clean and dry place, until a sufficient number were rotten to permit of analyses being made of both sound and rotten specimens. The results obtained were as follows : COMPOSITION OP JUICE FROM SOUND AND ROTTEN APPLES. . Sp. Gr. Acid. Sugar. Tannin. Solids. Sound 1-055 23 12-50 54 13-70 Rotten (Brown Rot) 1-055 18 12-19 168 13-42 From these results it is evident that two distinct changes take place : first, the tannin is precipitated in large part by allowing the apple to rot, and so does not enter the juice; secondly, the acidity slightly diminishes and there is a loss of sugar. The rottenness was that known as " brown " rot. The juice of the rotten apples was of far darker colour than that of the sound apples, and upon keeping it in clear glass bottles, so that the changes taking place might be observed, it was found that the juice from the rotten [apples cleared far more rapidly, as fermentation progressed, than that from the sound apples. Further, the apples lose considerably in weight by rotting 1 , and their iuice contains far more matter in suspension than that from sound apples, which probably accounts for its clear- ing more rapidly. Whether under any circumstances the apples should be allowed to get rotten in a dry store or not may remain for the present an open question, and one for future inquiry, but there is clearly no doubt that the effects produced by allowing them to fall and rot on the ground are detrimental to the manufacture of good cider, especially if the apples be exposed to the rain. Storing the apples. 26 This custom, which is unfortunately almost universal in the West of England, cannot therefore be too strongly condemned. The apples should never be allowed to lie on the ground, even in heaps. The next question is, when should the apples be picked? I am convinced that cider apples ought to be picked before they have become quite ripe. Immediately the apples from a tree begin to drop, it is time for all the fruit upon that tree to be gathered. The apple appears to attain a maximum size before it commences to ripen. When once it has attained that size and the process of ripening has commenced, nothing is gained by leaving it upon the tree. If left it merely ripens and certain chemical changes take place within it by which the sugar increases, &c. These changes, however, take place to the same extent if the apple is taken off the tree, and the con- nection between the apple and the tree does not, so far as I am able to judge at present/ in any way affect the later stages of the ripening process.* If the apples have been picked before they are quite ripe they must be stored away to ripen. The best storing room is a dry, well-ventilated loft, the floor of which is divided into bins in which different varieties of apples may be stored separately. If no loft is available they may be left in the wagons in which they were placed when first gathered, provided these wagons are covered, or placed in a covered shed. Or the apples may be Hurdle stores. FIG. 2. stored in the hurdle stores, Figs. 2 and 3, described by Mr. Harper as follows : " Every farmer has sheep hurdles upon his farm, which are only fully in use during the lambing season; L. Lindet, who has made a study of the ripening of cider apples, comes to a similar conclusion. 'Compte-Rendus, 1893. 0' FIG. 3. in any case they cost but little. When the fruit is about to be gathered, drive a hurdle into the ground, strengthening it, if it is a high one, by driving a stake into the ground by it. Another hurdle should then be placed parallel to the first, and sufficiently near to allow of another being placed like a shelf upon the bottom rail of the first hurdle, and the second rail from the bottom of the other hurdle. A hurdle should be driven in at each side, and the series may be continued an indefinite distance. Some use wreath hurdles, made of willow with twigs interlaced between the bars. Others use a thick coating of straw or fern on the bottom, with some straw turned up at the sides to keep the fruit from running out. When the produce of a tree, or of several .trees of one sort, has been gathered, it is put into this receptacle, which, as will be evident, is very easily put up. Apples stored in this way are kept off the ground, and the air can get under, over, and round them." Some experiments were made with apples picked and kept in hurdle stores ; the result was most satisfactory. The apples were cleaner, riper, and less rotten than those obtained in any other way. When in stores and under cover, they can be left until opportunity arises for making them into cider. But where there is no provision for storing apples the cider making has to be carried out at a breakneck speed, to keep pace with the fall of the apples. It is essential that the apples when in the hurdle stores should be well covered, so as to prevent the rain penetrating into the store. Owing to the considerable amount of rain which fell at Butleigh during the months of November and December, 1895, this was not alwaj^s ensured, and the result is well shown in the following analyses : COMPOSITION OF JUICE FROM WHITE JERSEYS. Acid. Sugar. Total Solids. 7th November Picked from Tree 16 11-49 12-62 20th November Placed in Hurdla 22 11-90 12-76 . Store. 16th December Taken from Hurdle 26 11-33 12-26 Store, washed with rain. Evidently from these figures it is better, if possible, to store the apples on a dry floor in a loft, provided they are not packed too thickly and are moved regularly to prevent heating. One advantage of this system is that the apples dry, losing a little moisture, consequently the gravity of the juice becomes greater, and the resulting cider stronger, than it would be if the apples had been ground when wet. This is shown by the following results : COMPOSITION OF JUICE FROM RED JERSEYS STORED IN LOFT. Sp. Gr. Acid. Sugar. Total Solids. 22nd October 1-0617 15 14-70 15-44 5th November 1-0660 16 14-92 16-14 When should Cider making commence ? Temperature. No factor plays such an important part in the manufacture of cider as that of temperature. The cooler the season the better the make. Hence, cider making should be delayed as long as possible. It therefore follows, unfortunately, that the season most favourable for the ripening of the apples is not best adapted for the making of cider. If, therefore, the ripening season is an early one, the make has to be put off longer than usual, and it is necessary to pick the 29 apples before they have reached such a state of ripeness as would be permissible in a later season. This is apparent when once noticed. In such a warm season the apples will not keep so .well nor so long as could be desired, unless they are picked early, otherwise a certain amount of waste and decay will take place in the sWes. The Manipulation of the Apples. In the manufacture of cider at Butleigh an endeavour was made to carry out every improvement in a simple, practical manner, so that any cider maker without going to unnecessary expense could do the same. Sufficient space for storing the apples and allowing them to get ripe did not exist there, more especially in a plentiful year, so that frequently the apples had to be ground a few days after being brought into the loft or storing-room. The apples were brought in, as on most farms, in a state which although it does not satisfy scientific requirements was universally deemed to be the best that could be secured. In other words, more or less material which ought not to be present is brought in with them. How fo clean the apples and how to get rid of this extraneous matter has always been a difficulty with every cider maker. But it must be done. Mr. Neville Grenville secured it by a simple and yet effective Trough contrivance. A trough of wood, about ten to twelve feet long, to clean twelve inches wide, and with sides seven inches Eigh, was a PP les - made. This was placed in the storing-room, with one end leading into the shoot which fed the mill, and the other raised about two to three feet from the floor on a wooden trestle. Along the bottom of this trough, at intervals of about two feet, were fixed slips of wood half an inch thick, nailed on diagonally and bevelled off on the side away from the mill. The effect of these strips was to slightly arrest the speed of the apples, and to cause their flow to be alternately from side to side of the trough, as they rolled down the slope from the upper end, where they were fed into the trough. A man or boy stood by the trough, and a,s the apples rolled along picked out all those that were rotten, gathering up from time to time the leaves, stems, pieces of rotten apple, and other extraneous matter which, owing to their inability to roll, were left in the trough, and thus easily separated from the apples. The amount of useless material removed in this way from apples, which to all appearance were fairly clean, was astounding. Subsequently an improvement was made to th trough which proved most valuable as a means of further cleansing the apples. This consisted of putting into the trough a false bottom of semi-circular laths. The laths are fixed to narrow strips of wood, which raise them 2 inches off the bottom of the 30 trough so that they form a grating. This grating is made in lengths of three feet. One length could thus be removed at a time for clearing out the refuse which had accumulated beneath it. The laths ran parallel to the sides of the trough, about IJ-ins. apart. Probably it would be best to have the bottom of the trough open, so that the dirt might fall through on to the floor, and thus do away with the frequent removal of the lath bottom for cleansing the trough. The result of the removal of the dirt effected by the trough was most marked, the juice being purer to the taste, and in every respect far more clean. The colour of the cider was much lighter than when {he rotten apples were left in. I would most strongly recommend cider makers to adopt this simple system of cleaning the apples. Another system of cleaning the apples upon which experi- ments have been made is by washing them. Washing Washing apples for cider making is a custom seldom, I apples. think, resorted to in England; but it is practised in both Germany and Switzerland, and in both these countries most excellent cider is made. It is also being introduced into France, and a special apparatus is made for the purpose at Cherbourg. The first advantage that can be claimed for the process of washing is that it gets rid of the dirt. The possible disadvantages sometimes said to accrue, are: 1st. That it washes out some of the sugar; and, 2ndly. That it washes the yeasts, necessary for the fermentation of the juice, off the apples. An elaborate examination of the influence of washing cider apples, so far as it affects the composition of the juice, has been made by Mons. A. Truelle, and published in the " Journal de 1* Agriculture-," July-August, 1899, and those who are making a study of cider might, with advantage, carefully read this article. My experiments were on a large scale, and the apparatus at my disposal was not of the best. The best method of wash- ing the apples in bulk that I could devise was to dip them, when suspended in special baskets, into a tank of water several times, and then allow them to drain and partly dry on a floor until sufficient were washed for a cheese. Two cheeses were made up from the same bulk of apples, one lot being washed and the other lot unwashed. The specific gravity of the juice was, from-- Unwashed apples ... ... ... 1.057 Washed apples ... 1.056 'The loss of the solid matter in the juice due to washing was therefore scarcely perceptible. As regards fermentation, this proceeded more regularly and only slightly less rapidly in the juice from the washed apples than in that from the unwashed apples, so that there would appear to have been no material 31 loss of yeasts 'due to washing. "Vyhat little there was Could probably do no harm,* as a slow fermentation is always desir- aoie. The flavour of the cider from the washed apples was beiier than that from the unwashed apples. Grinding the Apples. The apples as they leave the trough pass into the mill. There are several mills at present in use. First, there is the old stone mill, which has many disadvantages, being slow and dirty. It certainly does crush the apples thoroughly. Another kind of mill is made of two iron rollers so cast that they fit into one another. These iron rollers, do not separate the cells of the apple sufficiently. The mill simply crushes the fruit, and in no sense of the word can it be said to disintegrate it. Another mill is the " Tooth mill," having two stone rollers under it. In the top set of rollers the teeth of one roller fit into openings in the other. These mills do their work fairly FIG. 4. well. A still better mill is the one called a " Scratcher." It is best for this reason, that it disintegrates the apple cell from cell. The Scratcher, Fig. 4, tears the fruit to pieces; and has * This is a subject still needing investigation, as it may be that beneficial yeasts are more easily washed off the apples than are ' wild yeasts. It is, however, more probable that the latter are most easily washed off, in which case washing would have a new and enhanced value. 32 the immense advantage of grinding as fast again as any other mill known. The two stone rollers under a " Scratcher " are not necessary. FIG. 5. The mill, Fig. 5, or grater used on the Continent contains wrought-iron knives, which first break the apple into pieces. These fall down and are crushed between two adjustable ribbed stones. The influence the mill has upon the results obtained is well shown in the following experiment. Two lots of apples were ground, one in a Scratcher, one in a Continental mill, and submitted to pressure in the same press and for the same period. The results obtained were : Yield. 1,000 Ibs. Apples. Juice. Pressed Pomace. Lbs. Lbs. Pomace from Scratcher 720 280 Pomace from Continental Mill 650 350 33 Crushing the Pips. The majority of English mills crush the pips, and this is Pips should often thought desirable, but it is not supported by the experi- not |> e ence of foreign makers nor of many in England. Hence one c e ' of the chief characteristics of all foreign mills, is that they are so constructed as not to break the pips. Whether they are better than the English mills and which of the many used in England are good, are questions for future investigation. This is more especially desirable because, when the last. trials were held, crushing the pips was considered an essential point in the action of the mill. If in such tests the force expended, the time occupied, the nature of the work done, and the suscepti- bility of the crushed apples to pressure were recorded and these could easily be determined by modern appliances in the hands of competent engineers and judges the results would prove of the utmost value to cider makers. In England it was generally considered desirable to crush the pips when grinding the apples, as they were supposed to give a good flavour to the cider. Mr. Harper, however, considers that grinding the apple pips is detrimental to the manufacture and keeping quality of cider. A number of pips were collected by me and analysed. They were found to contain from 37 to 39 per cent, of moisture (water), and when dried had the following composition: COMPOSITION OF APPLE PIPS [DEIED AT 212 F.]. Oil 18-60 Nitrogenous constituents (albuminoids) ... 33' 12 Carbo-hydrates, &c. ... 26'08 Woody fibre 18'55 Mineral matter 3'65 100-00 As the brewer finds too much nitrogenous matter detrimental in brewing it was thought possible that the pips, if ground, might prove detrimental in cider making. Numerous experiments have therefore been made at Butleigh with apples of the same kind, one cheese being put up with pomace containing crushed apple pips, the other with pomace in which the pips were not crushed. The result has invari- ably been that a better flavoured cider was obtained when the pips were not crushed or broken. The flavour of the pips is not desirable, and if they are crushed, this can at times be detected in the cider, especially if it is dry cider. Hence we now lay it down as one of the rules at Butleigh that the pips must not be crushed. I have also been informed* on numerous occasions that cider made from pomace with crushed pips will not clear so easily nor so well as that made from pomace with the pips whole. Pressing the Pomace. There are many kinds of presses, "but any one of the nine or ten varieties commonly used will serve the purpose. The press originally used at Butleigh was one of the old- fashioned type seen in nearly every west-country cider house. Fig. 6; It did its work well, but required a considerable amount of manual labour. FIG. 6. In 1895 a new press was procured. Fig. 7. This was the quadruple gear hand-press shown in the annexed illustration. This press obtained the first prize at the trials of cider-making apparatus conducted at Grlastoiibury in 1890, in connection with the show of the Royal Agricultural Society at Plymouth. The pressure is obtained by means of a mechanical arrangement, by which it is possible either to apply pressure rapidly, or, by a slight alteration of the gear, to obtain greater pressure, though 35 necessarily more slowly. It is claimed for this press tliat it is capable of exerting a pressure of eighty tons. "Whether this be so or not, it has proved an efficient press as compared with FIG. 7. that previously used. This will be best seen by a study of the following results of experiments : OLD PRESS. 1,000 Ibs. Pomace. Juice. Pressed Pomace. Lbs. Lbs. In 1894 1st Experiment 693 307 2nd Experiment 743 257 36 NEW PRESS (WORKMAN). 1,000 Ibs. Pomace. Juice. Pressed Pomace. In 1895 1st Experiment Lbs. 706 Lbs. 294 2nd Experiment 720 280 The pomace in each of these experiments was in the press on an average for four hours. The Continental press, Fig. 8, differs from the English press in that the pulp is enclosed in a cage. But the most striking difference is in the system adopted for obtaining pressure. FIG. 8. This is done by a double lever mechanism, so arranged that pressure is applied whether the lever be worked backward or forward ; the man does not have to walk round the machine, and need scarcely change his position. Hence the press can be placed in any convenient situation, even in a corner. 3T Before giving the results of my. experiments with the Continental press, it is necessary to state that in the countries where- they are used the method of cider making adopted is different to that hitherto adopted in England. It is of far less importance to the foreign cider maker, who makes small cider (see p. 82), to o'btaiii the whole of the juice out of the apple at the first pressing than it is to the English cider maker, who presses as a rule once only. Hence, the Continental press is not made to take out all the juice like our English press. This will be seen from the following results of two experiments. 1,000 Ibs. of apples yielded from an old English press SOT Ibs. of pomace and 693 Ibs. of juice.* The Continental press yielded, from 1,000 Ibs. of the same apples at the' same time, 450 Ibs. of pomace and 550 Ibs. of juice. In a second trial, 1,000 Ibs. of apples yielded in the English press 257 Ibs. of pomace and 743 Ibs. of juice, while from 1,000 Ibs. of the same apples the Continental press gave 438 Ibs. of pomace and 562 Ibs. of juice. Taking the mean of these results, the English press yielded 718 Ibs. of juice, the Continental press only 556 Ibs. It is only right to here state that since these experiments were made there has been considerable improvement in the method of manipulating the Continental press, evidently based on the Butleigh experiments. Also the outer casing has in many instances been done way with, and the cheese made up in the manner adopted at Butleigh and described later on. In the case of small makers, where not many hands are available, it is well to have a travelling double-bedded press, The advantage of this is that while one lot of .juice is running out, another *' cheese " can be put up. While watching two or three powerful men labouring to obtain sufficient pressure upon the pomace to extract all the juice, the thought arises, could not this power be obtained far jnore easily and at less cost by some more simple method? Surely in no other industry where pressure is required is it obtained in so primitive a fashion, and it is impossible- to believe that this method will long remain in vogue. The most efficacious method of obtaining pressure is by hydraulic power. Already in large establishments the hydraulic press is used, but unfortunately its high price pre- vents it for the present becoming more generally employed. Extracting the juice. The ground apples are termed pomace, probably from the Pomace. French words Pommes Macerees. To extract the juice from this pomace it has to be subjected to pressure. The old system, ' This may easily be converted into gallons, tfre average weight of one gallon of apple juice being 10 Ibs; 15408 D Cheese. Cloths. 38 still in vogue in many parts of Somerset, was to build up on the table of the press a mass of pomace mixed with straw " reed " to hold it together during the period of pressure. The mixture of pomace and straw is called a " cheese/' The straw does not sufficiently bind the pomace to enable it to be pro- perly pressed by one application of the press. Pressure has therefore to be taken oil after some time ; the edges of the cheese are then trimmed with a knife, the trimmings placed upon the top of the cheese and the whole re-submitted to further pressure. This process is sometimes repeated. The time and trouble involved is great, and it was determined to improve upon this method. The pomace was wrapped in thick Manilla cloths, Fig. 9, and between these cloths gratings of wood, FIG. 9. Fig. 10, were interposed to keep the cloths in position and to secure uniform pressure upon the mass. These thick Manilla cloths are expensive, difficult to wash, and more difficult to keep clean, they involve a large amount of labour, which it was desirable if possible to avoid. After many experiments it was found that there was no need for such a substantial texture Thin cloths, to be used, and thin cloths were introduced in their place. These cloths consist of what is known as netting shading. It is inexpensive to buy, easy to manipulate and also to wash. The cloths are infinitely better than straw, and once they have been used no one would wish to go back to the old system of reeds. It was doubted whether the thin cloths would with- stand the pressure necessary to extract the juice, but they have be*< 9 9 d o 03 n . d at d * CO 1 -ill a g to ** r H 1 l.!|i dV tO * CD jg C^J CO O p- a . i > C-i . O C I ^|| I f-4 r^ c/: i ; . 1 tit M .s a -.a w 1 1^ g : M o 3 1! 1 . i : : s-T ^ "o ^ r^ 4-3 H CS JH H E :ll o co 9 i 1 !f|| 1 Q IN O t>0 a s 43 '^2 S a P. 1 S 5 I s _l=^=L. I CJ * co,g ^ a bo a 5 < Q Q) s tf r> co 9 9 ft ft rcJ^ |5 S w <1 ^ si "o a o : g ^ " 2 | n^ ',0343 9-06 58 2-56 7-19 226 4 ,, 1-0287 7-96 61 3-18 5-97 229 5 1-0243 6-99 62 3-C3 5-29 209 6 1-0203 6-14 64 4-06 4-27 218 7 1-0177 567 66 4-35 3-68 227 97 The above table is the average of six barrels which were all inoculated with pure yeast cultures, and so may be considered to have fermented under the most regular conditions. By deducting the sugar present at the end of the seventh week from that present in the original juice, we find that 9.03 per cent, has been converted into alcohol, of which it has produced 4.35 per cent. Theoretically, according to Pasteur, the amount of alcohol should have been 4.38 per cent, in an abso- lutely pure fermentation. These results then are remarkably close to the theoretical yield. Thus each year, as greater care was taken in the manufacture of the cider, the amount of alcohol actually produced ap- proached nearer and nearer to the quantity that theoretically should be produced. The above facts led me, in 1895, to the assumption that " a purer fermentation has taken place each year," and the above results, obtained with pure cultures of yeast, prove, 1 think the correctness of that assumption. They also show that, by estimating the amount of alcohol produced from a given quantity of sugar, we have a simple means of determining whether a proper or improper fermenta- tion has taken place in the apple juice. The practical advantage of this should be enormous to cider makers. For, while as yet it is most difficult to determine by microscopical examination the purity of the ferments present in the juice, it is not difficult for any well-trained careful chemist to accu- rately estimate the amounts of sugar and alcohol present at various stages of the manufacture. Such are the changes produced by the first or alcoholic fermentation. Secondary Fermentation. The term secondary fermentation has, I find, two distinct meanings. Many people use it simply to express any change which has been detrimental to the cider, and they are not wrong in saying that such change is due to a secondary fermentation, but then it is a detrimental fermentation, and so will be treated by me as a " taint," or disease. I apply the term secondary fermentation to those normal changes which take place in good cider after the primary fermentation or production of alcohol has taken place. What the changes are which take place in the juice during Acididy the period of ripening, spoken of as the second fermentation, reduced by I cannot at present state, but one result is evident, and explains fermenta- why it is that ciderand probably every other fermented tion * liquidmellows and becomes soft with age. This slow fermentation of ripening causes a diminution of acidity. 98 That such a change takes place invariably with good cider is well shown by the following results : Some cider contain- ing 0.65 per cent, of acid was bottled for experimental pur- poses, and some months afterwards was again analysed. It then contained only 0.48 per cent, of acid (malic). In another instance, the juice contained, when bottled on the 24th January, 1896, 0.62 per cent, of acid; on 7th May, 1896, 0.53 per cent.; and on 2nd November, 189^ 0.45 per cent, of acid. The proof of this change being due to fermentation has been strongly demonstrated by the experiments 011 preservatives. For instance, the cider used in experiments 8 to 13 when bottled contained .68 per cent. acid. At the end of eleven months the cider containing formalin, in which fermentation had been stopped, showed .65 per cent. acid. Those containing sodium salicylate in which fermentation was checked showed .63 per cent, and .60 per cent, respectively. In the cider con- taining borax the acidity had been reduced to .58 per cent., in that which was Pasteurised and to which yeast had been added the acidity was .51 per cent., but in the samples kept as a check, and in which most fermentation had taken place, the acidity was reduced to .43 per cent. This reduction of the acid materially softens the cider, and it probably does more than this. What becomes of the acid? My impression is that, in some way or other, though how is not yet certain, it goes to produce those flavouring substances which are present in well-matured cider, and which are certainly not present in the juice when it is bottled.* There is further evidence to prove that this diminution of acidity is essential to a good cider, for whenever a sample of cider is of inferior quality, no matter from what cause, the acid in it instead of having diminished has invariably increased. Pure or Selected Yeasts. It has been stated that the fermentation which takes place in apple juice, and converts it into cider, is brought about by minute vegetable cells termed yeast. These cells grow on the outside of the fruit and are not confined to apples, being found on grapes, &c. There are many varieties of yeast; and each yeast, in addition to producing alcohol, appears to have the power of affecting both the flavour and aroma of the liquid in which it grows. As certain apples have the reputation of making superior cider to that made from others, I was anxious to discover, if possible, whether they had special yeasts growing upon their Many flavouring substances consist of compounds of acids and alcohols, and it is probable that this accounts for the diminution of the acid with the increase of flavour. 99 skins, or if this result was due to the chemical composition of the apple. A few experiments were made in 1894, to isolate the yeasts present on certain apples, and pure cultures were obtained with which some filtered apple juice was inoculated. Some apple juice was also inoculated with yeasts obtained from other sources. In all, six varieties of yeast were used, the original sources being as under : No. 1, from black grapes (hot-house) ; No. 2, from white grapes (hot-house) ; No. 3, from pure cider yeast culture (foreign) ; No. 4, from Kingston-Black apples; No. 5, from Gin apples; No. 6, from pure cider yeast culture (foreign) ; and the resulting ciders, although all were originally the same juice, were totally distinct both in flavour and aroma, showing that to a large extent, these qualities depend upon the parti- cular kind of yeast which produces the fermentation. To obtain a large, pure culture of a particular yeast is no How to easy task. The yeasts are first washed or scraped off the skin ^ tain a P IT T . T ,. PI pure culture, oi the apple or grape into a solution 01 sugar, &c., known as Pasteur's liquid. With a drop of this liquid some apple juice gelatine was inoculated and poured out into a Petri dish.* Every yeast cell present now grows and produces a colony, which if of perfect contour may be said to represent a single yeast cell. This was gradually cultivated in proper nutri- ment until there was a sufficient quantity to ferment a hogs- head or two of apple juice. The great difficulty was to keep every solution in which the yeast was cultivated, pure and free from contamination. For the first culture a minute portion of the pure yeast is transferred to a test-tube contain- ing sterile apple juice gelatine. This growth, if upon examination it is found to be free from any contamination is called a " pure culture." Having obtained these pure yeasts, it was next necessary to cultivate them in bulk. They were first grown in 10 cubic centimetres of cider. From the 10 cubic centimetres of cider they were transferred to 100 cubic centimetres in a Pasteur's flask. After full growth had taken place, they were each transferred into cone-shaped, flat-bottomed glass flasks con- taining 300 cubic centimetres of Pasteur solution. This solu- tion contains cane sugar and all the mineral and other * Since these experiments were made the more modern system of Hansen, starting with an individual cell cultivated in a moist chamber ha,s been adopted. 100 constituents necessary to the growth of yeast. It had to be employed as this work was proceeding during the summer, when apple juice could not be easily obtained in sufficient quantity. However, the Pasteur solution answered the purpose. The yeast was now growing vigorously and increasing materially in bulk. So soon as fermentation stopped, it was transferred to a large flask containing 1,500 cubic centimetres of Pasteur solution, and subsequently to metal vessels con- taining 3,000 cubic centimetres of solution. This was done prior to the commencement of cider making. At Butleigh the yeasts were transferred to six small barrels, each containing eight gallons of sterile apple juice. The apple juice was first sterilised by passing super-heated steam into it for twenty minutes. Finally, the yeast was placed in large barrels, which were filled with apple juice. The cider made with these pure cultures confirmed the results obtained in previous years, namely, that the yeasts give a distinct flavour to the cider, according to the variety em- ployed. With the yeasts obtained from the grapes the result- ing liquid has been more like wine than cider, having a slight but distinct wine flavour. In 1899 I was anxious to determine how far selected yeasts obtained from fruit abroad would affect the cider produced from the juice of English apples. I therefore wrote to Mons. Gr. Jacquemin, the celebrated French chemist, who has made a special study of yeasts, and asked him to send me four varieties of yeast which had been proved to yield good cider in France. He replied that he had sent my letter to the Institut la 'Claire, of which he is scientific adviser, and asked them to forward me certain varieties. The " Institut la Claire " is the best-known institute (one cannot term it a factory) engaged in the production of cultures of pure yeasts, for the manufacture of wine and other fermented liquors. The institute is situated at Le Locle, in Switzerland, at an elevation of over 3,000 feet. One of the most essential features of the preparation of pure cultures on a large scale is to ensure the purity of the atmosphere. Hence the desirability, if not necessity, of having a station at as great an altitude as possible. I, who have had to work mainly in London in preparing pure cultures of yeast, know to my loss and dis- appointment how immensely difficult it is to keep the cultures pure in such a contaminated atmosphere. M. James Burmanne, the Director of the Institut, sent me four different cultures representing the pure yeast found in the cider of the following districts: 1. Auge ; 2. Orne; 3. Cal- vados ; 4. Bondy. At the same time he wrote as follows : 101 " Each flask of concentrated cider yeast represents one kilo- gramme (about 2 Ibs.) of our active pure yeast. You must proceed as follows, for each flask : Take a litre of water and dissolve in it 100 grammes of sugar, 5 grammes of tartaric acid, and 5 grammes of ammonium phosphate. Boil for a quarter of an hour and then cool to 30 0. (86 F.). " The yeast in one of the flasks is then added to this liquid, and the whole allowed to ferment in a large flask at a tempera- ture of from 68 F. to 78 F. At the expiration of five or six days when the fermentation is active, the contents may be considered to represent one kilo of active yeast." The yeasts having been prepared in this way were next transferred to Pasteurised cider, and when this was in active fermentation it was placed in a keeve. Preparations had been made to fill five keeves with juice of the same composition. Four of the keeves contained the four selected yeasts, the fifth keeve being used as a check to determine what kind of cider would be produced by the juice without a selected yeast. The juice from each keeve was kept separate, and, when it was filtered, a number of bottles were filled with the cider> as also a barrel. After standing for one year, so as to enable the flavour and aroma that might be produced by each yeast to be developed, these ciders were very carefully examined. The results were as follows : the natural juice which contained no " selected " yeast had certainly produced the most typical cider. The four selected yeasts produced liquids which were not what we should call cider. They would, in fact, be better described by the German term Apfelwein (apple wine). They possessed the flavour of a light Rhine wine without the alcoholic strength. It would thus appear that the selected cider yeasts which have given very satisfactory results abroad do not succeed so well when used to ferment the juice of our English apples. These results were somewhat similar to those previously obtained with selected yeasts of my own cultivation. Those obtained from grapes had produced a liquid having none of the characteristic flavour and aroma of good cider. On the other hand very excellent cider was obtained when the yeast selected had been taken from a variety of apple generally accredited as producing good cider. A pure culture of yeast selected from the Kingston-Black apple when used to ferment the juice of other apples had produced a cider having to a certain extent the flavour and aroma of cider produced from Kingston-Black apples. This very remarkable result needs to be confirmed, and opens up a wide field of enquiry. We are forced to the conclusion that if we desire to produce the best cider we must first seek for the best varieties of yeasts 15408 H 102 to be found on the apples which, we have to deal with. It is not unlikely that the composition of the juice of the applea may so greatly affect the influence and power of a selected yeast that one which would give the best results with the juice of the apples of Somerset might not give equally good results either with Herefordshire apples or Devon apples. Thus the further study of the problems of cider making must open up a field of investigation far wider than has been anticipated in the past. The cultivation of these pure yeasts upon a suffi- cient scale to enable experiments to be carried out in several counties would not necessitate a much greater outlay than would be required for the cultivation of the yeasts for one county only. But the expense must Ke greater even for the county of Somerset than these experiments have hitherto entailed, and until this expense can be met, I fail to see how any further development of this work with pure selected yeasts is likely to benefit the cider makers of the country generally. Undoubtedly a far better cider can be produced by the em- ployment of a selected yeast than by the uncontrolled miscel- laneous fermentation which is now mainly relied upon to produce cider. In a juice fermented with a pure yeast, fermentation pro- ceeds more slowly, the juice keeps much clearer, and, if desired, the sweets (sugar) may be retained longer than is possible when the juice is allowed to ferment naturally. But to succeed with a pure yeast it is essential to employ sufficient to adequately inoculate the juice at the commencement, other- wise from a want of sufficient pure yeast the juice will ferment far too slowly. Taints or Diseases of Cider. Oily Cider. In 1898 a large quantity of cider in bottle became thick, so that it would pour out like oil, yet not so thick as to be what is termed in milk ropey. Hence we have termed it oily cider, though undoubtedly it is a species of ropiness. Oily cider, also called ropey, stringy, slimy, &c., is known in all cider-producing countries. The French term the com- plaint graissage, the Germans schleim bildung. The substances formed in the cider which give it this thick character are known to scientific men as mannite and gum, and are produced out of sugar. Hence the greater the pro- portion of sugar in the liquid tjie greater the quantity of these two substances which may be produced. As cider is usually filtered and bottled when it has a Sp. Gr. of 1.015 to 1.020, it contains far more sugar than the cider which is kept in cask, which is generally filtered only after the Sp. Gr. has fallen to 1.010. Therefore, it is in bottled 103 cider that the trouble is generally most marked. When the same cider has been partly bottled and partly left in cask, that in bottle has been distinctly oily, while that in cask has shown only a slight oily tendency. The three questions to which an answer must be sought when investigating such a trouble are : (1) What is the cause of this oily cider? (2) How does the cause get into the cider? and (3) Can the oily nature be cured ? (1) The cause of oily cider, given by practical writers, is varied. Some say it is due to : (A) Heat; (B) The use of frost-bitten apples; (c) Want of cleanliness in the casks; (D) Want of tannin in the juice, &c. Those who treat the subject more scientifically say that it may be produced (E) By a special kind of yeast ; (P) By aerobic bacteria; and (G) By anaerobic bacteria, or those which cannot live in the air. Let us now examine these supposed causes seriatim. (A) Heat. Those who put it down to the heat of the summer mistake for the actual cause what is only an augmenting influ- ence. The same heat will be felt in many cider cellars, and even greater heat in some seasons, and yet there will be no oily cider. In years gone by heat was supposed to be the cause of many chemical changes which are now known to be brought about by micro-organisms. The reason why such changes are more pronounced in a warm season than in a cold is due simply to the fact that warmth promotes the growth and activity of micro-organisms, and so increases the amount of chemical change which they bring about. (B) The use of frost-bitten apples; and (D) Want of tannin in the juice, have been proved not to be the causes at Butleigh; and (c) Want of cleanliness in the casks is most unlikely, as will be seen subsequently. That it is due to some living cause is well shown by the following experiment : The sediment from a bottle of oily cider was collected and placed in a bottle of good cider. Two months after this cider had become oily. This experiment shows how very necessary it is, when any trouble arises, to completely destroy, and not to leave in, or even near, the cider house, that living bacterial matter which, in the form of sedi- ment in bottle or cask, may if disseminated, cause a veritable epidemic of the complaint to which it can give rise. Pasteur found that some oily or viscous wine was caused by a bacterium, which as it consisted of little spheres having the habit of growing in chains, we should term a streptococcus. In many samples of oily cider, even after the most careful examination, I have been unable to find any streptococci or 15408 H 2 104 even cocci, so that in cider the change appears to be due to some other organism. It has not heen niy good fortune to discover any exact description of either a yeast or any bacterium which would produce oily cider, and until these have been discovered, thoroughly studied, and most accurately and minutely described, it will be quite impossible to discover whence such yeasts or bacteria come, how they get into the cider, or how they are to be guarded against. It is a remarkable fact, that while oiliness in milk and beer are known to be produced by many organisms which Lafar has described in his Technical Mycology, this author writes : " With regard to the ropiness of cider, the most frequent malady to which this beverage is subject, nothing reliable can at present (1898) be reported." (2) Putting aside for the present a consideration of what is the nature of the organism which produces this oily cider, we come to the second problem, how did it get into the cider ? The numerous suggested origins of the trouble have been tested one by one with all the care and thoroughness possible, and yet we are not in a position to say definitely whence it comes. Let me give some illustrations of the work which this has entailed. The oily cider was first markedly noticed in some which had been blended to obtain a liquid specially suited for bottling. For this purpose of blending, Mr. Neville Grenville had obtained some large barrels which, after being most thoroughly cleaned, were well waxed with paraffin. Was it the paraffin, was it the new barrels, or was it a constituent of the blend which had caused the oiliness? Experiments were made with paraffin in fermenting apple juice and in old cider. Neither had any effect on the paraffin, nor did the paraffin affect the cider. The history of the barrels was most carefully investigated, and it was found that iney had not previously contained oily cider, or cider which subsequently became oily. Nor could any evidence be obtained to show that it was due to the blend- ing. Subsequently two very oily samples were discovered, neither of which had been near paraffin nor in new casks, nor blended, thus finally disposing of our three assumptions. Some blends which contained small cider were oily, and it was thought to be clue to the small cider, but this hypothesis was found to be untenable. The cider is bottled at Butleigh in patent screw-stoppered bottles, so that it might have been due to the bottles or stoppers becoming contaminated. It so happened that Mr. Neville Grenville had allowed a neighbour to have some cider and to bottle it himself in ordinary corked wine bottles. Fortunately this cider was not all consumed, and the remaining bottles were sent to me. The cider was oily. 105 Thus the bottle theory was disposed of. The fact that this cider had been bottled at Butleigh seemed to indicate that the atmosphere in the cellar was contaminated. On a careful examination of the records it was found that some cider was bottled 011 the 27th July, and another barrel was bottled the next day, the 28th July. That bottled on the 27th was very oily, while that bottled on the 28th was excellent,, and had no sign of oiliness. It is scarcely possible that any climatic or other conditions could so affect the atmosphere of the cellar as to render it one day capable of inoculating all the bottles with the microbe which produces oily cider and the next day to be free from this microbe. Such are a few of the attempts to solve this perplexing problem. After full consideration of the results so far obtained the only possible causes that seem left are : First, that the apples themselves were contaminated ; or, secondly, that the water used for washing the bottles and barrels at Butleigh may be liable to contamination, though as this water comes from good springs it is hardly possible. There are, however, many facts which it is difficult to explain on either assumption, as, for example, why in such case all the cider was not oily. Some experiments started in 1901 regarding flavour in cider were in 1902 concluded. It was then found that of three samples of cider made from distinct varieties of apples one was oily. This fact strengthens an opinion which has for some time been present in my mind, that the cause of oily cider is an organism or organisms growing upon special varieties of fruit under special conditions of climate. Among the samples of oily cider which were kindly sent to me during 1900 was one showing the trouble to a very marked extent. This, after repeated microscopical examinations, appeared to contain only one variety of yeast, present in very small quantities, and three varieties of bacteria : (A) The most numerous was a very large, long bacillus; (B) Less numerous was a very thin, fairly long bacillus ; and (c) Was a large micrococcus. The first experiment made was to place a portion of the cider into a clean, sterile bottle and shake it well up with the air; the gases given off from the cider were driven out of the vessel with a current of air, and the cider was again well shaken. Having repeated this operation several times, the cider was found to lose its oily character and became as limpid as ordinary cider. This experiment seemed to confirm my former work, which showed the change to be due to anaerobic organisms. 106 To check this, several plate cultures were started, each well seeded with the cider, and in varying proportions. A few yeast colonies grew on the plates but none of the bacteria. There were one or two colonies of bacteria, but when the organisms were examined under the microscope, they were quite distinct from those present in the cider, and were probably air contaminations, unavoidable in all bacteriological work, especially when carried on in the contaminated and dust-laden atmosphere of the City of London. Attempts were then made to grow the organisms in an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas. At first it seemed as if the work would prove futile ; but after waiting for five or six weeks, some growths were visible on cider solidified with agar, and kept hermetically sealed in a moist chamber filled with carbonic acid gas. All these growths have been studied; and when sufficient material was obtained they were taken to Butleigh, and freshly filtered cider was inoculated with the various cultures and with mixtures of these cultures, for it is quite possible that this complicated change in apple juice may be brought about only by a combina- tion of two or more of these organisms. It may be that cider ordinarily contains constituents which inhibit the growth of the culpable yeast or bacterium, such, for example, as the presence of tannin in such quantity as is ordinarily found in the juice at Butleigh. In some samples of oily cider the yeasts have been more numerous, as also the varieties of bacteria; and in one sample rto organism similar to the three above-mentioned could be discovered. (3) The remedies for oily cider which have been proposed are numerous, but have little scientific foundation. Backing into a freshly-sulphured cask ; adding glucose, cream of tartar, and pure yeast, re -fermenting, racking, &c. ; adding tannin; cachou; crushed mountain-ash berries; broken gall-nuts ; alcohol ; Spanish earth ; and aerating the cider, have all been suggested by various writers. It is said by some makers that if left for a time the cider will lose this oily character. Whether I his were so or not could easily be proved, for which purpose bottles of oily cider were put aside. But the longer the cider was kept the worse it became. The result of some laboratory experiments convinced me that by aerating this cider it would lose its oily character. This aeration was easy to obtain on a small scale, but how to do it on a large scale was another problem. After full considera- tion the following experiment was made. The pomace from a cheese was carefully broken up and placed in a large open tub, the bottles of oily cider were emptied 011 to the pomace, the contents of the tub were well stirred, and after standing for 107 twenty-four hours the contents were placed in the press and re-pressed as for the manufacture of small cider. The juice which came from the press had nearly lost its oily character. It was placed in a barrel to ferment, and partly lost the oily character and peculiar taste it formerly had, and subsequently turned out very fair draught cider. But it was not a good cider. The oily or slimy fermentation imparts to the liquid an unpleasant flavour which cannot be entirely got rid of. This investigation serves to show how difficult are the problems relating to cider making which science has to solve, and how necessary it is, if any lasting progress is to be made, for such experiments to extend over the whole year and not be confined merely to the three months of cider making. Sick Cider. I have nearly always found that sulphuretted hydrogen was present in, and given off by, " sick " cider, which is cider having an insipid and unpleasant taste and aroma, Whether this peculiar disease or taint in cider is due entirely to this sulphuretted hydrogen or not has yet to be determined, but it seems probable. This gas is sometimes produced in the fermenting juice soon after it leaves the keeve. At other times its formation appears to be delayed until a later stage in the fermentation. One cause of the gas being produced in the fermenting cider was soon discovered. The juice was fermenting in casks which had been " matched/' i.e., had sulphur burnt in them for an Matching, experiment, it not being usual to do this at Butleigh as it is in some districts. Sulphur when burnt is converted into an oxide (sulphur dioxide), which is absorbed by the juice and probably the yeast, in its avidity for oxygen, decomposed this substance, robbing it of oxygen and causing the sulphur to combine with hydrogen, thus forming sulphuretted hydrogen. This fact is of some practical importance. The object of matching cider, a custom still much in vogue, is to prevent fermentation. It seems evident from the above statements, which have been amply proved by experiment, that unless care be taken to obtain the cider in such a clear condition that the matching is likely to prove efficacious, it will not only fail in its object, but will also destroy the quality of the cider. What is Good Cider ? Having carefully considered the method of manufacture, the nature of fermentation, and some of the troubles of cider makers, we may now ask What is good cider? 108 The essential conditions of good cider, placed in the order of their merit or importance are : first, flavour ; secondly, good appearance, which includes both colour and clearness; and lastly, keeping quality. How to obtain these conditions has been the object of the experiments at Butleigh. To obtain flavour it is well known that first and foremost the introduction into the juice of any substance which would impart an unpleasant flavour thereto must be prevented. The various means which have been adopted to ensure this end have been described. If perfect purity of the juice could be insured, then it becomes evident that the flavour of the resulting cider would depend either upon the original flavour of the apples or apple juice, or upon changes which had taken place during fermentation. The flavour doubtless depends to a certain extent upon the original flavour of the apples, for if cider is made from one variety of apple only, and if this has a special, distinct, and marked taste of its own, such, for example, as the Foxwhelp, this flavour of the apple will be present in the resulting cider. Evidently, then, the flavour of other varieties of apples which may not be so marked, must still contribute to the flavour of the resulting cider. These flavouring compounds form an infinitely small part of the original juice, and their true flavour only becomes marked when all the sugar has been converted into alcohol. Even then they are to a certain extent masked by the other constituents present in the juice, as, for example, the acid, but when both acid and sugar are present they are considerably hidden. On the other hand, a small percentage of sugar and of acid appear to enhance the good flavour. This is the reason why cider makers are anxious to leave in the cider a certain amount of sugar. Probably the most difficult task of the cider maker is to retain in the juice this small amount of sugar, or, as it is often called, " sweets." Unfortunately the desire to do so has outweighed all other considerations with some makers, more especially in Devon and Hereford, and, as often happens with things which are good in moderation, this desire having been carried to excess, has produced a greater evil than the one which it was originally intended to counteract. Those who study these investigations into the manufacture of cider, will find how to retain sufficient sugar in the cider without having it too sweet or needing to have recourse to preservatives. The tannin will also affect the flavour. But probably of most importance as affecting flavour are the extractives or 109 non-fermentable substances present in the juice; and if these are in excess they will so cover the flavour due to fermentation as to materially lessen the value of the resulting liquid. The influence of these non-fermentable constituents was first noticed in 1896. It was considered somewhat remarkable that, in the opinion of a great number of those who tasted the cider made in that year, the small cider was preferred to the cider produced by the fermentation of the whole juice. After a careful study of all the facts, it seems reasonable to conclude that this was due to the smaller quantity of non-fermentable constituents present in the small cider. Experiments were started to test this view. Some apple juice from windfalls was fermented as usual in one barrel, while a portion of similar juice was diluted with one-half its own volume of water, by which the non-fermentable consti- tuents would be greatly reduced, and sufficient sugar was then added to make the liquid contain the same amount of sugar as the whole juice. The result was a better cider from the diluted juice than from the whole juice. It is probable that the amount of these non -fermentable constituents depends, partly upon the season, partly upon the variety of apple, and partly upon the care which is taken in the management of the orchard ; but, considering their importance, it is evident that their further investigation will be necessary. As the amount of sugar, acid, tannin, and extractives, vary in every sample of cider, it is evident that uniformity cannot be easily obtained in a bulk of liquid, unless some means exist for blending the iuice either before or after fermentation. Experiments which have been made at Butleigh prove that, as a rule, blending the juice improves the quality. Another factor which plays an important part in the produc- tion of flavour in cider is the nature of the fermentation. This has been proved by the experiments with pure yeasts. The results of experiments showed that, to some extent, the flavour varied according to the character of the pure yeast employed. That made with yeasts obtained from grapes had a distinctly vinous flavour. That made with yeast originally taken from the Kingston Black apple had a slight flavour of the Kingston Black apple, but only very slight. That made with a pure cider yeast had more of the flavour of cider, or perhaps, it would be better to say did not bring into the mind the i^ea of any flavour other than that of cider. But in spite of these slight differences, there was an undoubted similarity between all these samples, and this I attributed to the flavour of the original apple juice. 110 It seemed to me, however, that neither the aroma nor the flavour of the cider were present in the original apple juice. The apple juice has, of course, a flavour and aroma of its own. But watch the juice as it ferments; the flavour, which is largely due to sugar, gradually disappears, so also does the original aroma. Indeed, if from accident or for experimental purposes the juice be allowed to ferment to dryness, both flavour and aroma have gone. Such a dry cider will contain (besides water) alcohol, a little malic acid (which is the acid present in the apple juice), some mineral matter, tannin, and about 1 to 2 per cent, of other substances extractives. To what then will it owe its flavour? Partly, perhaps, to the malic acid, but, so far as is known, none of the other substances give it any special flavour. Some think that the flavotiring_matter present in the apple remains intact in the cider, and that the flavour will depend mainly, if not entirely, upon these substances. To a very slight extent only is this true. I remember full well the first time I ever tasted such nauseous liquid, for no other word adequately describes it. I said to the men, " Well, that is useless ; it might as well be thrown away." I shall not easily forget the amused smile of contempt and the look of superior knowledge which came into the foreman's face, as he said, " Lor, Sir ! That'll come to hisself in time," And it did, many months after, though rough, dry, and sour, possess an aroma and flavour which would justify one saying it was not such bad cider, as cider then went. I could not help comparing the difference to that which exists between curd as it is vatted and the ripe* cheese obtained months afterwards. The absence of all aroma and flavour from juice which had just fermented to dryness con- vinced me that the aromatic and flavouring constituents subse- quently formed are the products of a fermentation quite distinct from the mere formation of alcohol which first takes place. When then are they formed? When matured cider is gently distilled, certain volatile aromatic compounds, probably ethers, having in a concentrated form the same bouquet as the cider itself, pass over with the alcohol. In order to determine when these substances were produced, the juice as it came from the press, and the same juice at intervals of a fortnight, was distilled and all the distillates were kept. These were subsequently compared, and it was found that no flavour or aroma was present in the distillate from the juice; that at each stage of the fermentation the aroma became a little more marked, but that no flavour could be found in the distillates until the cibler was filtered. While it then showed marked aroma, the flavour was only slight. Ill These changes, and the production of aroma and flavour are most marked in cider which has been in bottle for a long period. If, therefore, they are brought about by organisms which have been growing in the cider, these should be found in the sedi- ments which are formed in the bottles. A number of such sediments have been examined, and permanent preparations made thereof. These sediments at first are composed mainly of yeast-cells, subsequently they are composed mainly of bacteria. Hence, that the yeasts are alone instrumental in producing the aromatic and flavouring compounds is, I think, doubtful. What part the bacteria play we know not; but we seldom find organisms present in any produce which are not actively engaged either for the benefit or the injury of that produce. Hence, as I am referring now to cider of the best quality, we must assume that these bacteria play an active and beneficial role in the ripening, if I may use the word, of that cider. Bacteria, therefore, appear to be the main cause of the ripening of cider; of those changes which are generally designated as secondary fermentation. But the amount of gas found in these bottles of cider, and the diminution of the vsugar contents of the juice, indicate plainly that changes produced by yeast must also have taken place. What, then, has finally become of the yeast cells Y Are they disintegrated ? And by their disintegration have they contributed to this flavour production ? Or have they supplied foods for the bacteria? All these questions need to be answered. The questions What are these bacteria? Are they alike, are they different; are some capable of producing one flavour, others of producing another flavour? raise problems of still greater importance, which have yet to be investigated. Colour. We may now pass to a consideration of appearance. The cause of the colour of the cider has been experimented upon. It depends partly upon the natural colour of the apple juice, partly upon the freedom of this juice from extraneous sub- stances as, for example, the juice of rotten apples and partly on the treatment of the pomace after it leaves the mill and before pressing, for if then exposed to the air it gets darker and the resulting juice is more highly coloured. As we do not believe in highly-coloured juice, precautions are taken to prevent all these sources of high colour. Clearness is more difficult to obtain, especially with cider in bottle. It can be obtained in bottle by disgorging, as is done in the wine industry ; but the cost of this process would be prohibitive. It is easy to obtain a dry cider in bottle without much, deposit, provided the juice is placed in the bottles imme- diately it conies from the filter, and is not filtered until nearly the whole of the sugar has been fermented. There is a general opinion that sugar candy will not ferment if placed in the juice at this time, and experiments were made to determine how far this assumption was correct. But the sugar candy will ferment. That a certain amount of fermentation should proceed in the bottle is necessary to give the cider " life," and the difficulty up to the present has been to obtain this " life," without too much deposit. The value of the filter as a first means of obtaining a clear juice has been so amply demon- strated that nothing further need be said on the subject. The want of a cheap filter still exists, and anyone who will turn his attention to the production of both a cheap and effective filter for cider will undoubtedly reap a rich reward. Lastly, as regards keeping quality. It has been found at Butleigh that if care is taken in obtaining the juice free from impurities in the first place, if the fermentation of the juice is carefully watched by means of the hydrometer, and, while allowed to proceed far enough, is yet not allowed to proceed too far before filtration takes place, and that if subsequently the barrels are kept air-tight, the cider not only keeps well, but improves in quality by keeping. If the juice is allowed to ferment to dryness before it is filtered, so that no subsequent fermentation takes place to restore life to the cider, it will be far more difficult to keep. What kind of Cider does the Public want ? The great want of cider drinkers, especially of those who are taking it under medical advice, is a " dry " cider. Some would appear to desire an " extra dry " cider. I do not see how they are to obtain such an article unless they are prepared to pay a much higher price for it than they seem willing to do at present.- The production of an extra dry cider of good quality is almost as difficult as the production of an extra dry champagne. If consumers would recognise this and be willing to pay a fair price for the skill required in its production, there are, I am sure, many cider manufacturers who could, and would, make it. But one might as reasonably expect to buy champagne at the price of claret as " extra dry " cider at the price of the ordinary sweet draught produce of the country. Some cider merchants say that the majority of cider drinkers want sweet cider. This being comparatively easy to produce, is therefore likely to remain the chief product of cider makers. But other merchants inform me that the growing demand is for a dry cider, and that, too, is my own 113 opinion, hence, it seems certain that the introduction of good dry cider would well repay any maker who would put it upon the market. By careful attention to the information contained in this report, such dry cider can be made, though necessarily with more trouble than is requisite for the production of a sweeter liquid. In the future three brands of cider ought to be made, " A," extra dry, that is containing not more than 2 per cent, of sugar ; " B," dry, containing under 4 per cent, sugar ; and " C," sweet, containing over 4 per cent, sugar. But it is worth bearing in mind, that 5 per cent, of sugar represents one ounce of solid sugar in every pint of cider, and those who like " sweet " cider should realize this fact. It may account for much of the evil effects sometimes attributed to cider drinking. There is this advantage about dry cider. It contains more alcohol and less sugar than ordinary cider, and is, therefore, far less liable to " go wrong." The alcohol acts as a natural preservative, and the small proportion of sugar renders other changes improbable. The great difficulty is to prevent " acetification," and this can only be done by keeping the cider so that the air cannot gain access to it. The public taste has of late years gradually but markedly favoured " dry " wines. Place before the public a good dry cider and few would ask for wine. Landlords and tenants in cider-making counties should com- bine to develop the capabilities of this industry, and strive to retain for English agriculturists at least one source of income which the foreigner has not yet taken from them. 114 District Glastonbury. S. Totnes. D. & CO ? g 5 S g & ti I Butleigh. S. co' o p Stogumber. Langport. S. Keynsham. S. CO ! 1 ri 4^ 1 : : : : : : . : : ; ; ; Grower. : aj : | II ^ S W f ^ ^ 1 1 'S co S H ' PH" r^ W. Reynolds "a! S & w o p hi W. Reynolds fee .2 M fe i-s J. C. Waterman If * CO ? ? 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 ' 1 I 5 1 O CO tQ 999 i^: jo t^ o O CO 9 9 o o 9 CO 1 00 1 1 iO 9 U5 1 CO ill CO I t- 1 ' J (H I 1 1 S 1 1 I 1 ^ * rH IO OO CO I eq co O 1 1 1 1 i 1 cp 1 1 I iO QD to* >S co (N Q >o 1 1 co CO CO OS CO B i i -1- IO IO rH -OS_ . _ O5- -O -. CO 00 O> 1- 1 OS QD OS OS GO iO OS CO iO OS CO iO OS GO CO OS CO Name of Apple. Allen Appleby Barton Bitter Sweet.. Bastard Dorset Bastard Pumroy Bedan ! i 1 a 1 s 1 ta 1 1 pq 01 1 CO 1 1 116 Hereford. H. 02 02 ' '!' Norfolk. CO i PQ CO d P Butleigh. S. Martock. S. Tiverton. D. ! 02 GO oi P r* S o o o || Butleigh. S. Sutton Montis. S. Hereford. H. . s : c . - v . : : : : e ; John Watkins ^ i-iji r?5 r4 c 1 R. Neville Grenvil 6 P R.Neville Grenvil 1 W hi 1 o 1-5 W J 1 5 J & a R. Neville Grenvil s 2 1-5 P John Watkins 1 1 1 1 1 1 P I^ 1 00 i iiil r^ I 1 ? IIS? 9 9 o CO ? t>> OC O O 1 1 ^ 1 Ills CO ip CO S 1 CO I 1 1 ;l S I j 1 i 00 O 1 1 g I l-H II ? CO o OS i I 1 o -^ o ^ rH t^ rH lO t>. 1C CO 9999 9 9 I 1 10 Ills OS rH CO 1 rH OS I 1 OS OS 1 1 co eo CO 2 rH CO (N 1 eo o o S P P P 1 6 p c> P 6 P Blood Bottle . 00 1 Bradninch Bit t 1 >H -( M PQ * * 1 1 & 116 District. P I 1 ,0 King^sbury. S. Staverton. D. P 1 Sutton Montis. S. Butleigh. S. Taunton. S. O2 a -p 02 CO jJ P 1 1 Hereford. H. Tenbury. W Hereford. H. Grower. W H hi H. Hardeman | ;4 W W 2 p >-i > o5 CO 9 00 o g 9 i JO 9 9 . i 8 s t so 1 CO | JO 1 5^ ..*i Lo 1 SO rH S 1 CO 9 I S o CO rH rH rH rH 1 1 00 t- s o! 00 00 00 O5 00 05 GO O5 1 OS O5 GO CO so 05 00 00 SO O5 O5 OO GO c : : ; : ; ; ; : : : : : : Name of Apple. Brown's Apple Brown Thorn bo a i | O 1 * d Cherry Hereford Cherry Norrnan Cherry Pearmain nr CO* OQ OD g j : od | od * J ^ a fr , J^|^^|^^ 1 ! ! 1 ! - ! 1 a i a: a j| ^ a s OQ OD w CO* 02 QQ' CO* ^ si s c & * o o o a B "S p p & a M -S "S S co cQ . M co" 1 : : :" "j'-jj 1 tis^^^jg^ .gag'siss^ w^^S^J^-p ^ OD . Bj Ut h? W p W fc cb H,' p3 P* HS* d Hi pg ! ^5 -S ^ " J 1 ^ ' 1 Ha' ^ P 6 p 1 CO O CO CO ^ I 1 i-H CO OS 1 1 1 rH C t- "* O 1 * 8^ *f* CO O CO CO O *O OS ^"tn i 1 1 O IO i I O CO r 1 rH o CO s 1 * ^ o * -* CO r-H CO CM CO CM i H CM i H O CO 'O -^ O N i I O CM t~ i I CO OS (M CO i-H O CM C<1 O o 1 1 1 ^ *\" *!* SP 9 1 rH rH S<1 CM CM O CO t~ CO CO OS CM CO CO CO OS OS CO 1 OOSr-icoOOOSt~ CO"*r IOCOOSOCO CO I-H O rH SCO O O -* CM 1.O ^H -* CM CO t^ r-l b is cb cb * cb CM CO CO 9 CO O O C^ G^ C^ ^H O SO 00 o o co t- co O O i I OS to CM CO IO IO O >O IO o o o pop 9 CO IO p R II 00 (M >O GO t- 1 1 55 t< to 8> id 1 8 CO I >0 t- P< 00 CO CO 1 IO CO ^( >O O t~ 1 1 1 C5 CO O O O CM cb cb fn cb CM CM 2 1 ss lgsiS s COt>-CMI^..^COOSCM CMOt-^^Ct-CMCO (M ,_| ^H (M .1 CO CM i 1 1C lO I s * CO CO OS -H IO OS OS OS OS OS OS O OS COCOOOCOCOCOOSCC OSCOl^OS. iCOCMrH ososososoosoo CO CO CO GO OS CO OS OS OS OS CO CO OS CO . t-i -2 * g llssss'll o o 6 15408 : : - : S 1 1-i ao fl , 1 1 i 1 ! d 1 ^ 1 S 1 1 1 86888 8 1 p-l s 1 o s IL p o u I 118 Distnot. 02* 1 ,4 ho I 02* 6 ft 02' o ft Norfolk. Hereford. H. Butleigh. S. Tiverton. D. Hereford. H. Kingsbury. S. ft 1 1 02* fr PJ ^2 1 o &" Sutton Montis. S N. Wootton. S. O ; ; 1 9 1 o CO 9 (N CO -* I I ** s & CO CO O CO CO CO rH -^ R n S<1 rH (M H 3* ; HH CO O CO _ g S O MC5 o 1 i|i IP ^ (Dw o 1 1 8 1 S 1 I 1 10 CO o 1 1 1 * 1O S S !>. g 1 CO 00 O OS OS CO CO OS OS CO t^ OS CO o O5 CO >o OS CO >o O5 CO cs C5 CO CN iO O OS OS CO p^ Name of Apple. 1 S s S 4^> b 6 ft s 1 1 Q Crow's Egg Cowarne Red... Coxon Onions Cox's Pomona Cumme Hereford ... Dabinet Diptford Bitter Sweet O) 1: ^ o> > o ft CO O) CO O i l 9 CO t- 1 CO ip 1. I III? CX| CO * N os cp C^-J CO CO r- 1 O ip cp ^ CO CO cb CO cp o OS cb 1 1 * os CN CO OS "* OS 58 % cb OS n I-H co ro co co ^H ^ US * us co cq 1 ( CO 9 cp S CO 9 OS cp i-H 10 9 o >o c~ co US CO ** OS U5 US 1Q US cp o cp o i o 1 CO CO CO 9 99 1 1 CO o CO 9 b- CO 9 9 1 1 1 5! I 8 ills 8 3 > CO CC ^H us us us i exj ! o CO AH US CO IIIS CO O CO 10 cxj cxi r-H co AH 2 S 1 1 OS 1O OS CO CO s CO CO 1 - CO OS o CO o I;- CM 1 CM CO 1 CO OS 1 COM' 3 & CO CO O ICO CO 1C i-H -M CO O CO CO OS o CO oo o OS Si OK ' CO CO . CO t- 1C rH OS CM 6 & 1 I t- CO CO 1 1 rH CO O 1 l-H CO CO cS c> 6 o o : - Goodson No. 4 Golden Bitter Sweet.. Grainger s 1 s Green Cadbury 5 f Green Pippin 121 Tiverton. D. Hereford. H. od 1 W W. Pennard. S. ,4 bo 1 eq S' Tiverton. D. Butleigh. S. OQ d o 1 Glastonbury. S. Butleigh. S. Butleigh. S OQ j w John Watkins R. Neville Grenville 1 1 * hi R. Neville Grenville ft 1 W R. Neville Grenville a bJ HH t 3 I; 1 ' ^H pQ H^ ^j R. Neville Grenville 6 ft 1 1 1 1 1 ip rH rH ! 1 l^ I Siii 1 1 OS 1 3 O CO S 1 1 i i OS i 1 0) . . . Grower. 1 R. Neville Grenvill t 1 03 1 O p J. C. Waterman . B. Chiffers ... H. Hardeman J. Badcock... H. Hardeman Swanley Cider Co.. R. Neville Grenvill Swanley Cider Co.. I d J. E. Richards . P i i i CN <} 2 1 i i CO CO OS CO CO 3 CO t- 9 ! ! I ! I CO CO CO I 1 CO OS o (M CO s CO CO -n CO i s CM o H O 3} ** cp o cp I 1 II CO cp 1 ? AH 1 OS rH CO (M CO CO 1 OS CO I 5 - r 1 oo AH l-H ! I OS 2 CO -stl ip CO OS O i ( OS CO 1 I 1 6 i i O CO CO cb g =31 8 3 o s ^ o (M O CS 1C CO o N i i p. If CO cp O OS o p p OS -f p I p t- 9 OS CO p CO o p cc p CO p COO'S if! CO CO g 8 8 1 ^ o g I OS 1 CO ii i 2 i CO o ! 1 CN AH cp cp cp I 1 I ( o 9 CO 1 I g 1 1 i I S T t CO OS CO i-H I 1 I CO OS 1 B IP o> . 3 125 Glastonbury. S. Butleigh. S. CC I CO CO* 1 ' CO f co p cc cc 1 "S o cc" cc a ^ a? 1 1 1 & I * |1 co ^ co pq cc 1 ' 1 ! hj a R. Neville Grenvill< a co W fco o 6 1 PH M ^. O a o R. Neville Grenville 1 1 ti 1-5" o p 1 o* 1 1 3 1 1 ti a | * ;1 ^ * * ^ p^ 1 ' 3 hs 1 CO CO ' 1 1 2 ^3 s cb 1 I 0 1 CO 1 1 1 1 1 i ! CO ip cb cb CO CO cb 1 1 i 1 ? rH ' I g s ,0 GO i I (M co P ^ ^ 1-3 J. C. Waterman HP 1 & & d R. Neville Grenvil i EH 1-3* John Watkins || 1 I OO CO CO oo rH rH rH 5 1 1 I 1 1 g op o 1 1 .2 d 5 1 CO rH O o rH y Hi CO I OO 9 1 O o OS 1 IO i 9 CO IO o o p 00 b- o 10 CO o SO p coO o 1 bC *^ 85P S 1 1 so 8 so so 1 I 1 1 1 3 rH 1 1 !r! ! 1 op rH CO CNJ 8 00 CXI b- CO 1 1 o o so C5 rH 1 o O5 i 2 i 1 I o OS OS CO >o i lO OS CO CO OS CO G} G) OO CO i . GQ . . 1 ^ .-2 fr Painsf ord (S Pommes. Pear Apple Pertheyre Pip Jersey Pit Crabs Plymton Gres Pocket Apple d Portwinea I 1 W I Red Cap Jers< 1 5 . o* | P -2 H d P 128 District. Butleigh. S. Baltonsboro'. S. 02 02 02* >$ ft ft ^ 4J C3 M 02* | 02 1 | 1 W CM w Sutton Montis. S, 1 1 W 02 S) 1 o> CD Grower. R. Neville Grenvill J. C. Waterman .. Do. Do. R. Neville Grenvill 6 ft J. C. Waterman .. H. TIardeman CO .9 | o O ft H. Hardeman 1 S R.Neville Grenvill 1 i CO CO 2 ^3 cp S 1 \ i * ? 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