^^^^^OJl-IVo^^ ^ ^4^ ^ .0037(7 ... <* ci-jtMNO FIRST SEEIES No. 25 FEBRUARY, 1919 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES STUDIES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES VOLUME VII No. 2 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES AND DELINQUENTS IN IOWA A STUDY OF THE SOURCES OF SOCIAL INFECTION BY Lewis IIenprtx Mounts, Pti. D. PUBLISHED BY TIIK UNIVERSITY, IOWA CITY Issued monthly throughout the year. Entered at the post office at Iowa City, Iowa, as second class matter. Aceeptatice for mailing- at special rate of postage provided for in section 1103, Act of Congress October .S, 1917, authorized on July 3, 1918 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES F. E. Haynes, Ph. D,, Editor VOLUME VII No. 2 DEPENPENTS, DEFECTIVES AND DELINQUENTS IN IOWA A STUDY OF THE SOURCES OF SOCIAL INFECTION BY Lewis Hendrix Mounts, Ph. D. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVEESITY, IOWA CITY Hi. EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION The purpose of this study is fully explained by the author in the introductory chapter. A certain amount of delay in its publication has been unavoidable owing to a number of cir- cumstances. After the work was undertaken, the plan was re- vised and enlarged, with the object of making the study as complete as possible. ]\Iuch of the statistical material used does not become available for some time after the end of the period which it covers. Physical conditions due to the war period have also combined to prevent its earlier publication. F. E. Haynes University of Iowa Iowa City, Iowa. CONTENTS Chapter Page Editor's Introduction 3 I Introduction 7 II Crime 11 III Inebriety 28 IV Juvenile Delinquency 36 V Dependence 54 VI Defectives 67 VII The Influence of Certain Factors upon Soclil Infection 110 VIII The Results and Their Social Significance 129 Notes and References 160 I INTRODUCTION PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY Despite undoubted progress in many lines toward human betterment, society is as yet far from free from those abnormal social conditions of which criminality and dependence are the most conspicuous. Through an analogy between these and abnormal physical conditions, the term social diseases has come to be applied to them. Their propagation and transmission is quite fittingly described as social infection. The amelioration of these diseases is the aim of the social worker. Before effective treatment is possible, however, various preliminary steps are essential, the chief of which are the location of the infection and the ascertaining of its causes. The purpose of this study is to make a contribution to the first, and throw a little light upon the second. LIMITATIONS OF STATISTICS Since this study covers the whole State of Iowa with its many counties and cities, each of which must be studied sep- arately, if it is to be scientific, it must almost of necessity be a statistical one. As such, it has both the merits and the short- comings characteristic of statistics in general. For separate cases of criminality or of dependence, there are both social and individual causes, concerning Avhich students of social problems have widely varying opinions. This study, in so far as it deals with causes, touches necessarily only broad, social ones. In all statistical work the element of chance is a factor, and no reliable results are possible unless a sufficiently large number of items or a sufficiently long period of years is covered to eliminate it. This has been done so far as possible in this study. In some instances, however, it is open to question whether sufficient data was obtainable to render the results significant, (7) 8 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES Even after reliable statistics have been obtained over a long enough period to eliminate chance variation, difficulties still re- main in regard to the interpretation of these figures. This is es- pecially true if attempts are made to compare individual com- munities. A town witliout peculiarly serious social problems, but strict law enforcement, may show higher criminal rates than a town, presenting such problems, but accompanied by lax enforcement of the law. A high dependency rate may mean serious poverty, inefficiency of administration, or merely the giving of adequate care to all dependents. If wide areas are considered and compared, local differences counter-balance one another, and reliable results may be secured from interpreta- tion ; but contrasts of individual communities require much more care. SOURCES One of the first discoveries incidental to this investigation was the finding of an expectedly large amount of statistical material, valuable from the point of social science, collected and published in the biennial reports of the State Board of Control. This board, according to Iowa law, manages the State institutions for criminals, defectives, and dependents, and has some slight super- vision over county homes and juvenile delinquents. Supple- mentary material has been found elsewhere, notably in the State Auditor's reports, in the reports of the State Board of Parole, and in the State reports on criminal statistics issued previous to the establishment of the Board of Parole. The work of the investigation has been largely the arrangement and the analysis of the statistical data already at hand. It was, there- fore, found possible to cover a greater length of time, and secure more reliable results than would have been possible had such data not been already collected. CHARACTER OF STATISTICAL DATA Much caution, however, was necessary in the utilization of these statistics. Some are far from being reliable ; others are by no means complete. Sufficient care had not been taken in the compilation of the reports, to eliminate in all cases from totals, duplications in number of commitments incidental to the trans- fer of inmates from an old to a new institution. In some DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 9 comparative tables covering a period of years, figures not prop- erly comparable were used ; in one case figures for total number of inmates were used in a comparative table of the number of new commitments. For a considerable per cent of the years covered, two sets of statistics of the number of inmates in county homes are given, and these do not agree. Yet, representative, if not accurate, figures for a sufficient period of years are believed to have been secured. The completeness of the figures as to the number of cases before the juvenile courts is perhaps subject to challenge. METHODS USED The statistics obtained, much remained to be done before their interpretation was possible. This will be better understood in view of the following facts. In Iowa there are ninety-nine counties varying in size and population, for each of which sta- tistics had to be secured and reduced to a form rendering com- parison possible. In addition, there are forty-one towns or cities which according to either the 1905 State Census or the 1910 Federal Census contained four thousand or more inhabitants. For each of these certain data was available, though covering by no means so many items nor so long a term of years as the data for the counties. In view of the great variations in population in various communities, it was useless to use absolute figures in comparisons. Every item of statistical information in regard to each one of the one hundred forty communities or local divis- ions had to be reduced to a rate per thousand, percentage, or per capita basis. This, of course, required a vast amount of mere mechanical mathematical work, care being taken moreover, to check up the work, and to eliminate so far as possible errors in calculation which would render the results of the study un- trustworthy. In calculating rates and percentages, the popu- lation as given by the 1910 Federal Census was used as the basis, except in a few instances where the degree of change in population between the beginning of the period and 1910 ren- dered this basis too inaccurate.^ In the rendering of the long tables available for comparative purposes and in their interpretation various devices are used. Most of these are simple, and need no explanation. Mention, 10 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES however, should perhaps be made of the coefficient of correla- tion. Some experiments with Karl Pearson's coefficient of cor- relation led to the conclusion that its use would involve more work than the results obtainable would warrant. Spearman's '* foot-rule formula" for measuring correlation, based upon ranks rather than absolute numbers, is sufficiently reliable and easy of utilization and accordingly considerable use has been made of it. This formula has certain limitations inherent in its being based upon ranks, but these are not sufficiently serious to forbid its use.' OUTLINE OF STUDY A general consideration of the statistics obtained, with some slight attempt to indicate the outstanding features of the tables, will form the main part of the study. Special attention will be given to the question of correlation between social infection and the degree of concentration of the population in cities. The data as to criminality, inebriety, juvenile offenses, dependence, tuber- culosis, feeble-mindedness, and insanity will be treated in order. This general consideration will be followed by the investigation of certain factors which may throw further light upon the sig- nificance of the statistics, the influence of race, industrial condi- tions, and constructive social work. II CRIME SOCIAL ATTITUDE TOWARD CRIME Society in its evolution has at different periods looked upon crime and upon criminals in very different ways. In primtive society, punishment was merely a matter of private vengeance, but organized society came more and more to intervene between the criminal and the avenger until finally punishment came to be a matter of the State, not of the wronged individuals. A period of repression followed, in which it was attempted without success, to root out crime through cruel punishment. Punishment was almost exclusively capital or corporal, imprisonment being merely for temporary detention. Then came the classical school with their revolt against extreme severity and their demand that the punishment fit the crime, a faiilty idea, but a real advance over the earlier practice. Imprisonment began to come in as a method of punishment. Close study of the individual criminal seems to be largely due to Lombroso and other members of the Italian school who began their work about the middle of the nineteenth century. Though going perhaps to an extreme in their emphasis upon individual characteristics as a cause of crime, their work has been funda- mental to the scientific study of the criminal. The drift in more recent years seems to be toward an emphasis upon the social causes productive of crime. According to this view the indi- vidual characteristics, which give the individual an inclination toward crime, may be evidence of degeneracy which is itself partly social in origin. It is only upon the social conditions tending to produce crime that any light can be thrown by this study, TREATMENT OF CRIMINALS IN IOWA Criminal justice in Iowa is administered by a variety of courts. Those accused of minor offenses are tried in township, (11) 12 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES justice or city police courts. Those held for more serious offenses are brought before the grand jury and, if indicted, held for trial before the district court. Imprisonment is in county jails, the State reformatory, or the State penitentiary. City lock-ups are used for purposes of temporary detention. The State penal institutions have progressive and efficient management, but the same cannot be said of the local jails. There is little or no attempt at proper separation and classification, the first offender being placed with habitual criminals. Not infrequently neglect, bad sanitation, and even brutality are characteristic. STATISTICAL MATERIAL The statistics available in regard to crime in the various civil divisions of the State cover more points and are more reliable than those for any other of the topics investigated. The first source utilized was the biennial reports of the State Board of Control. These give, along with other data as to the penal insti- tutions, statistics as to the number of offenders committed to these institutions from each county and from each city of four thousand or over. The statistics for counties are complete for the fiscal years from the establishment of the Board in 1898. Those of commitments from cities are complete except for two bienniums, 1898-1899, and 1907-1908. In addition, the reports from 1909 classify the criminals according as they come from country districts, small towns, or cities of varying size. Valuable supplementary material is offered by other State reports, notably statistics as to the cost of criminal prosecution and the number of criminal convictions in each county for each year from 1898 to 1914. For the years 1898-1908 this data is given in the State reports on criminal statistics, thereafter in the reports of the Board of Parole. Statistics classifying the criminal convictions for each county according to the seriousness of the nature of the charge are available, but were not utilized in this study. The statistics as to the number sentenced to penal institutions are, except for a very few years, not comparable to the Board of Control figures as to penal commitments : the twelve-month periods covered by the two sets of figures begin and end at different times in the year. DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 13 The statistics as to crime thus obtained will be considered under the following heads : cost of criminal prosecution, number of convictions, and number of penal commitments. COST OF CRIMINAL PROSECUTION Table I gives the counties of the State arranged in the order of their average per capita expenditure per year for criminal prosecution, exclusive of the salary of the county attorney.^ An extra column gives for comparison the rank of each county in per cent of urban population, TABLE Ji Comparative Table, Per Capita Expenditure for Criminal Prosecution in Iowa Counties 1898-1914 (Note: number is rank of county in each case) County Average annual per capita expenditure in dollars Eank of county in per cent of urban population 1. Emmet .852 32 2. Polk .790 1 3. Lee .409 11 4. Clinton .393 8 5. Mahaska .379 41 6. Scott .336 3 7. Lucas .335 49 8. Marshall .325 16 9. Monroe .298 98 10. Appanoose .295 19 11. Winneshiek .279 91 12. Madison .276 83 13. 14. Wapello Linn .273 .266 9 7 15. Des Moines .255 6 16. Cerro Gordo .246 13 17. Hardin .240 29 18. 19. 20. Clayton Dubuque Jones .238 .234 .226 70 4 40 21. Keokuk .224 45 22. Decatur .219 55 23. 24. Fayette Warren .215 .213 43 31 25. Montgomery .212 22 26. Johnson .209 23 14 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES State of Ion a .208 27. Muscatine ,207 28. Fremont .207 29. Howard .205 30. Boone .201 31. Jasper .190 32. Pottawattamie .185 33. Davis .184 34. Chickasaw .182 35. Dickinson .169 36. Plymouth .167 37. Taylor .167 38. Buchanan .166 39. Tama .165 40. Van Buren .164 41. Ringgold .164 42. Benton .163 43. Jackson .159 44. Mills .158 45. Floyd .155 46. Winnebago .155 47. Greene .155 48. Palo Alto .154 49. Cass .147 50. Crawford .141 51. Worth .138 52. Harrison .135 53. Allamakee .135 54. Marion .135 55. Iowa .133 56. Clay .132 57. Adams .131 58. Page .130 59. Woodbury .129 60. Wayne .127 61. Clarke .126 62. Louisa .125 63. Cedar .124 64. Carroll .124 65. Union .122 66. Poweshiek .121 67. Story .120 68. Washington .120 69. Henry .113 70. Hancock .112 71. Jefferson .111 72. Osceola .110 73. Wright .109 74. Pocahontas .109 75. Franklin .105 Average 10 89 68 20 53 12 99 73 62 61 59 67 52 72 80 37 47 27 18 51 64 58 28 65 97 48 87 56 94 79 96 21 2 38 75 57 74 33 15 34 17 50 46 85 63 82 24 90 93 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 15 5 60 76 39 95 66 30 35 71 77 84 44 69 92 78 . 42 36 14 54 25 88 81 86 26 It will be seen that only twenty-six of the counties have an expenditure per capita higher than the average for the State, while seventy-three have less. This result may be due to either of two reasons; there may be a larger number of counties with an extremely low rate, which would shift the State average much to one side; or else the high per capita rate may be character- istic of the counties with large population. The first of these explanations deserves some consideration, since the highest counties have a rate much farther above than the lowest have below ; but this contrast is limited to the first five counties, and is very great for only two. We are safe in inferring that as a rule the counties with the larger population have the higher rate. A very apparent exception, however, is that of Emmet, which, though very far down in the scale in population, has the highest per capita rate. The higher rate for counties of large population is of interest, because of its bearing upon the question of the effect of urban residence upon crime. The correlation between the population of the counties and the per cent living in towns or cities is not 76. Black Hawk .104 77. Sac .104 78. Ida .100 79. Mitchell .100 80. Audubon .099 81. Buena Vista .098 82. Cherokee .097 83. Hamilton .097 84. Lyon .097 85. Delaware .097 86. Butler .096 87. Bremer .092 88. Guthrie .091 89. Shelby .090 90. Monoua .089 91. Humboldt .086 92. Calhoun .084 93. Webster .080 94. Sioux .074 95. Dallas .073 96. Adair .064 97. Kossuth .060 98. Grundy .059 99. 'Brien .052 16 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES perfect because of the varying area of counties, the existence of large mining camps or of rural villages, offering town conditions, but it is close enough to indicate that counties with a high per cent of urban population have a high per capita expenditure for criminal prosecution. A comparison of the rank of the counties in cost of criminal prosecution with their rank in urban per cent will throw further light upon tliis Question. Of the twenty-six above the State average, just one-half rank among the first twenty-six in per cent of urban population. The normal number would be 26/99ths of twenty-six, or not more than seven. Of the same twenty-six counties all but five come in the upper half of the counties in urban population, instead of the normal half, or thirteen. A considerable number of these, however, are not far above the median, fifty. In the upper portion of the table there seems to be a definite correlation between per cent of urban population and per capita expenditure for criminal prosecution. The correlation is not so apparent at the other end of the table, though its existence is not entirely disproved. Of the lower twenty counties only six as compared to a normal 20/99ths of twenty, or four, are included in the lower twenty counties in urban per cent. Of the twenty, twelve instead of the normal ten come from the lower half of the counties in urban per cent. A possible explanation of this lesser degree of correlation may lie in the existence of a fairly fixed minimum of expense neces- sary to the maintenance of any judicial system independent of the number of cases tried. The use of Spearman's formula for correlation gives .207 as the coefficient of correlation between the ranks in per capita expenditure and in urban per cent. According to a formula suggested by Spearman, the probable error is .043, about one- fifth the coefficient. There seems to be definite correlation, though not very high. Emmet, Polk, Lee, Clinton, and Mahaska counties alone show any extreme rate of expenditure. The location of Emmet at the head of tlie list is difficult of explanation. The existence of fairly large cities in the other counties, notably Des Moines in Polk County, render their high rates less surprising. The DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 17 presence of a considerable coal mining population may help to account for the situation in Mahaska County, since its chief city, Oskaloosa, had less than ten thousand inhabitants in 1910. The high rank of Lucas County can only be explained by its prox- imity to a coal mining section. Somewhat surprising is the abnormally low rank of Woodbury, Blatik Hawk, and Webster counties, despite the three cities of Sioux City, Waterloo, and Ft. Dodge in these counties. CRIMINAL CONVICTIONS A second line of approach to the question of the comparative criminality of the various counties is through the statistics as to the number of criminal convictions in each county. These are summarized in Table II. The rank of each county in urban per cent is shown in a parallel column for purposes of comparison. TABLE II- Comparative Table, Criminal Convictions iu Iowa Counties, 1898-191i No. criminal 1 con- Rank of county viction s per 1,000 iu per cent of County popula tion per yr. urban population 1. Polk 1.27 1 2. Lucas 1.09 49 3. Cherokee 1.07 30 4. Monroe 1.06 98 5. Appanoose 1.04 19 6. Mahaska 1.02 41 7. Madison 1.02 8;? 8. Adams .98 96 9. Page .98 21 10. Wapello .95 9 11. Benton .87 37 12. Linn .85 7 13. Pottawattamie .75 12 14. Cerro Gordo .75 13 15. Jones .73 40 IG. Marion .72 56 17. Woodbury .72 2 18. Montgomery .69 22 19. Cass .68 28 20. Taylor .68 59 21. Poweshiek .67 34 22. Ringgold .67 80 18 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 23. Washington .64 24. Dickinson .63 25. Scott .62 26. Clarke .62 27. Guthrie .61 28. Howard .61 29. 30. Story Boone .59 .59 31. Fayette .57 State of Iowa .57 32. Union .56 33. Mills .56 34. Van Buren .56 35. Harrison .53 36. Tama .53 37. Fremont .52 38. 39. Jasper Marshall .51 .50 40. Hardin .49 41. 42. 43. Wayne Clay Winnebago .48 .47 .46 44. Pocahontas .46 45. Chickasaw .46 46. Muscatine .45 47. Black Hawk .45 48. Lee .45 49. Clinton .44 50. Webster .44 51. Mitchell .43 52. 53. Wright Decatur .43 .43 54. 'Brian .42 55. Kossuth .42 56. 57. 58. Floyd Dubuque Winneshiek .42 .42 .41 59. Monona .41 60. Clayton .41 61. Des Moines .41 62. Audubon .39 63. Humboldt .39 64. Calhoun .38 65. Sac .38 66. Keokuk .38 67. Palo Alto .37 68. Jefferson .37 69. Cedar .37 70. Warren .37 50 62 3 75 69 68 17 20 43 Average 15 27 72 48 52 89 53 16 29 38 79 51 90 73 10 5 11 8 14 39 24 55 26 81 18 4 91 78 70 6 95 42 36 60 45 58 63 74 31 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 19 71. Buchanan .36 72. Crawford .35 73. Dallas .35 74. Hancock .35 75. Henry .34 76. Louisa .34 77. Grundy .34 78. Iowa .33 79. Emmet 32 80. Delaware .30 81. Jackson .30 82. Plymouth .30 83. Franklin .29 84. Johnson .28 85. Carroll .28 86. Greene .28 87. Osceola .28 88. Hamilton .28 89. Buena Vista .27 90. Bremer .27 91. Adair .27 92. Davis .26 93. Worth .26 94. Butler .25 95. Shelby .25 96. Ida .18 97. Lyon .18 98. Allamakee .18 99. Sioux .16 67 65 25 85 46 57 86 94 32 77 47 61 93 23 33 64 82 35 66 44 88 99 97 84 92 71 87 54 As in Table I, the State average is in the upper third of the counties, between numbers 31 and 32. Two explanations have already been suggested for such a situation : ( 1 ) more extreme variation above the average than below, and (2) the larger population of the counties of high rate. The first of these would seem to have little weight, the range above being .70 a.s compared to .40 below, and more than half of this larger range is limited to one county, Polk, The counties above the State average should have the larger population and should be the counties of high per cent of urban population. The counties at the extremes of the table will therefore be studied more closely in regard to this point. Of the thirty-one above the State average, fourteen come within the upper thirty- one counties in urban per cent as contrasted with a normal 31/99ths or ten. Of the same thirty-one, instead of a normal of sixteen, we find twenty-four come from the upper half of the 20 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES counties in nrban per cent. It is evident, then, that th e counties with high rates of criminal convictions contain an unusual proportion of those with a high per cent of urban population. For comparison, the lower twenty counties were also studied. Of this number, nine as contrasted with a normal of four are included in the lower twenty in per cent of urban population. Of the twenty, fifteen come from the lower half in per cent of urban population, the normal proportion being ten. This analysis of the ranks of the counties in the two tables certainly gives a basis for a conclusion as to the existence of actual correlation between the criminal conviction rate and the per cent of urban population. The use of Spearman's formula gives .233 as the coefficient of correlation, the probable error being .043, strong confirmatory evidence. Looking now at the individual counties, we are not surprised to note the position of Polk County. Its high rank in the cost of criminal prosecution would cause us to expect this result. Remarkable, however, is the contrast in the case of Emmet County, first in per capita expense for criminal prosecution, but seventy-ninth in rate of criminal convictions. Industrial con- ditions are probably responsible largely for the rank of the next few counties, Monroe, Appanoose, and Mahaska, all alike hav- ing a far larger proportion of their population engaged in coal mining than have any other counties in the State. The rank of Lucas and Cherokee is more difficult of explanation. Lucas Count}', as already noted, is located on the edge of a coal min- ing district, and contains some mines, and so may be somewhat affected by the conditions surrounding them. Notable at the other end of the table is the low rank of Muscatine, Black Hawk, Lee, Clinton, Webster, Des Moines and Johnson coun- ties, when we consider their high rank in per cent of urban population. PENAL OFFENSES More important no doubt than either the cost of criminal prosecution, or the mere number of convictions, is the question of the seriousness of the offenses. Our best source of material DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 21 on this subject is the statistics of the Board of Control as to commitments from the various counties and cities to our penal institutions. These statistics have been summarized for the counties in the following table which includes as in previous tables comparative rank in per cent of urban population. TABLE III" a rat ive Table, Penal Commitmeuts from Iowa Counties, 1898-19 County No. per 1,000 population Rank of county in per cent of urban poiHilation 1. Polk 10.06 1 2. Mills 6.89 27 3. Pottawattamie 6.52 12 4. Linn 5.83 7 5. Wapello 5.64 9 6. Woodbury 5.13 2 7. Mahaska 4.96 41 8. Chickasaw 4.81 73 9. Scott 4.78 3 10. Union 4.69 15 11. Monroe 4.33 98 12. Des Moines 4.32 6 13. Jones 4.30 40 14. Clarke 4.28 75 15. Lee 4.14 11 16. Cerro Gordo 4.08 13 17. Lucas 4.04 49 18. Fremont 3.97 89 19. Marshall 3.90 16 20. Osceola 3.78 82 21. Madison 3.71 83 22. Adams 3.64 96 23. Dickinson 3.56 62 24. 25. Montgomery Webster 3.49 3.47 22 14 26. Cass 3.47 28 27. Muscatine 3.42 10 28. 29. Page Plymouth 3.37 3.37 21 61 State of Iowa 3M Average 30. Benton 3.28 37 31. Crawford 3.14 65 32. Black Hawk 3.12 5 33. Clinton 3.02 8 22 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 34. Appanoose 3.00 35. Clayton 2.97 36. Fayette 2.94 37. Dubuque 2.87 38. Cherokee 2.87 39. J ohnson 2.86 40. Keokuk 2.84 41. Boone 2.82 42. Wayne 2.66 43. Poweshiek 2.65 44. Kinggold 2.63 45. Marion 2.61 46. Palo Alto 2.60 47. Calhoun 2.57 48. Winneshiek 2.53 49. Jasper 2.52 50. Harrison 2.46 51. Mitchell 2.46 52. Washington 2.41 53. Carroll 2.39 54. Greene 2.37 55. Louisa 2.33 56. Taylor 2.33 57. Jefferson 2.32 58. Dallas 2.29 59. Wright 2.28 60. Decatur 2.20 61. Henry 2.20 62. Hardin 2.20 63. Warren 2.09 64. O'Brien 2.09 65. Story 2.03 66. Buena Vista 2.00 67. Van Buren 2.00 68. Cedar 1.07 69. Monona 1.92 70. Clay 1.88 71. Buchanan 1.87 72. Howard 1.86 73. Sac 1.81 74. Worth 1.81 75. Humboldt 1.81 76. Lyon L78 77. Jackson 1.74 78. Guthrie 1.73 79. Iowa 1.68 80. Ida 1.68 81. Winnebago 1.59 82. Audubon 1.58 19 70 43 4 30 23 45 20 38 34 80 56 58 36 91 53 48 39 60 33 64 57 59 63 25 24 55 46 29 31 26 17 66 72 74 78 79 67 68 60 97 42 71 47 69 94 76 51 95 83. Emmet 1.53 84. Kossuth 1.50 85. Bremer 1.45 86. Tama 1.44 87. Pocahontas 1.35 88. Hamilton 1.35 89. Sioux 1.34 90. Delaware 1.29 91. Butler 1.29 92. Adair 1.25 93. Hancock 1.10 94. Davis 1.05 95. Floyd 1.05 96. Shelby .97 97. Allamakee .92 98. Grundy .88 99. Franklin .88 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 23 32 81 44 52 90 35 54 77 84 88 85 99 18 92 87 86 93 Again the State average is within the upper third of the counties, so that but twenty-nine counties have a rate of penal commitment above the State average, while seventy are below. Crime seems to center in certain localities. A comparison of the range above and below, 7.70 above and 2.58 below shows a remarkable contrast, but the elimination of Polk County changes this greatly, giving 3.53 and 2.58 as the comparative range. Though this wide range above the average evidently in part at least accounts for the high State average, there would seem to be still some probability of concentration in the counties of larger population and, as a corollary to that, in those of higher urban per cent. Investigation of the upper twenty-nine counties with this question in mind shows that in their number, instead of the normal eight and fifteen from the upper twenty-nine and the up- per half of the counties in urban per cent, we find seventeen and twenty from these respectively. The lower twenty counties show clearly the same tendency. They contain from the lower twenty and the lower half of the counties in urban per cent, ten and sixteen respectively, instead of the normal four and ten. This evidence of correlation between the rate of penal commit- ments and the urban per cent is confirmed by the use of Spear- man's "foot rule measure", which gives .390 as the coefficient of correlation, with a probable error of only .043. In this connection Table IV is of significance. 24 UNIVERSITY OP IOWA STUDIES TABLE IV' Number of Penal Commitments, 1909-1914 Rural or urban No. per 1000 Division of population Country Villages and towns Towns 2000-4000 Towns 4000-8000 Cities 8000-25000 Cities 25000 and o' .22 1.31 2.13 1.32 1.58 1.79 The table is in the main self-explanatory. The abnormally low rate from the country stands out most prominently. The great contrast is clearly between conditions in the open country and those in the villages, rather than between the villages and the cities. The fact that the maximum rate is for towns of two thousand to four thousand is the most surprising feature. A possible explanation is the greater likelihood of detection and arrest of a criminal in towns of that size than in the larger cities. Perhaps the fact that these towns are rather on the borderline may in part explain. In them the really serious problems of urban life begin to appear, but they are too small for the ade- quate support of the agencies developed in larger cities to meet these problems. Frequently residents of such towns may not realize that any serious social problems exist and neglect is the result. The conclusion that an undue proportion of our penal offend- ers come from cities is borne out by the following table, giving the penal rank of all Iowa cities of over four thousand popula- tion, for the years 1901-1906, and 1909-1914. TABLE V« Comparative Table, Penal Commitments from Cities of Iowa Rank of County it Co. in No No. per 1,000 Rai ik in which Commit- City po pulation l>oi Illation located ments 1. Oskaloosa 8.13 18 Mahaska 7 2. Des Moines 6.55 1 Polk 1 .-{. Atlantic 6.36 34 Cass 26 4. Chariton 5.71 41 Lucas 17 5. Ccnterville 5.58 20 Appanoose 34 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 25 6. Marion 5.45 35 Linn 4 7. Red Oak 4.97 31 Montgomery 24 8. Clarinda 4.91 40 Page 28 9. Ottumwa 4.83 10 Wapello 5 10. Creston 4.33 21 Union 10 11. Sioux City 4.22 2 Woodbury 6 12. Mason City 4.05 15 Cerro Gordo 16 13. Cedar Rapids 4.00 5 Linn 4 14. Council Bluffs 3.95 6 Pottawattamie 3 15. Marshalltown 3.74 14 Marshall 19 16. Bobne 3.09 16 Boone 41 17. Shenandoah 3.09 27 Page 28 18. Muscatine 3.03 11 Muscatine 27 19. Davenport 2.98 3 Scott 9 20. Le Mars 2.89 38 Plymouth 29 21. Newton 2.86 33 Jasper 49 22. Keokuk 2.78 13 Lee 15 23. Fort Dodge 2.75 12 Webster 25 24. Iowa City 2.60 17 Johnson 39 25. Burlington 2.54 9 Des Moines 12 26. Fort Madison 2.25 19 Lee 15 27. Clinton 2.23 8 Clinton 33 28. Dubuque 2.21 4 Dubuque 37 29. Waterloo 2.16 7 Black Hawk 32 30. Webster City 2.12 24 Hamilton 88 31. Washington 2.08 36 Washington 52 32. Grinnell 2.02 25 Poweshiek 43 33. Albia 1.96 29 Monroe 11 34. Fairfield 1.81 28 Jefferson 57 35. Charles City State of lotva 1.73 1.54 23 Floyd 95 36. Perry 1.51 32 Dallas 58 37. Glenwood 1.51 39 Mills 2 38. Oelwein 1.16 22 Fayette 36 39. Cedar Falls 1.00 26 Black Hawk 32 40. Ames .77 37 Story 65 41. Cherokee .000 30 Cherokee 38 Of the forty-one cities enumerated, thirty-five have a rate above the State average, a vivid contrast with tiie counties as shown in Table III, of which only twenty-nine out of ninety- nine had a rate above that for the State as a whole. Only six cities of quite small size have a rate below the State average. This comparative high city rate may be due to different causes. It may mean that city life is more attractive to the criminally inclined and they move there from the rural com- 26 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES munity. Quite possibly it means that the city environment puts a greater strain upon the individuals witli an inborn tend- ency towards crime, and so they become criminals in the city whereas in the country they might remain law-abiding. Only slight correlation, however, seems to exist between the size of the city and the penal rate. Spearman's formula gives a coef- ficient of correlation of .118 with a probable error of .067. There probably is slight correlation, but our statistics furnish no conclusive evidence. The investigator is disposed to reject as entirely untenable any theory that lack of law enforcement accounts for the low rate in country districts. This may be true of minor offenses, but certainly not of penal crimes. A study of the rank in penal rate of the thirty-seven counties in which these forty-one cities are located is illuminating. Of the thirty-seven, twenty-six come within the upper thirty-seven counties in penal rate. Of the remaining eleven, only two con- tain cities of over six thousand population and these counties, Johnson and Boone, rank thirty-ninth and forty-first respect- ively in penal rate. The low rate of the other counties can be explained by the small proportion each city forms of its coun- ty's population. A study of the rank of individual counties in Table III shows Polk again at the top with a rate far above that of any other county — more than forty-five per cent above that of the second in order. This can only be explained by the presence of Des ]\Ioines, the one really large city of the State. Reference to Table V, however, shows the rate of Des Moines itself to be exceeded by that of one other city, Oskaloosa, though the Des Moines rate is high. The abnormally high rate of Polk County is due more to its abnormally high per cent of urban population than to an abnormally high rate for the city itself. The pres- ence of a mining population is one factor in explaining the high rate for Mahaska and Monroe counties, and to a lesser de- gree of Wapello ; it is also one of the factors present in Polk as well. This may be a large factor in explaining the high rates for Oskaloosa and Centerville in Table V. Mills County has a fairly high urban per cent and is not far from the cities of Council Bluffs and Omaha. The remaining counties of notably DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 27 high rank have either large cities or relatively high urban per cent. No county containing a large city shows a very low rank in this table as was the case in the table for cost of criminal prosecution and for number of criminal convictions. Statistical evidence, both for all offenses and for the more serious offenses, goes to show that urban communities have worse records than have rural communities. Little parallel evidence from other States is available. Mr. Kneeland in his discussion of Commercialized Prostitution in New York shows that a somewhat larger proportion of the inmates of in- stitutions for fallen women come from urban centers than from rural districts.^ According to a special report issued by the United States Bureau of Census of males committed to prisons or jails of any type, only 6.8 per cent were engaged in any form of agriculture, stock-raising or lumbering.^" Yet accord- ing to the 1910 United States Census, 29.3 per cent of the male population above ten years of age was engaged in some one of these occupations. A larger per cent of major offenders than of minor, 13.5 per cent as compared with 5.6 per cent, came from these occupations, yet even this larger per cent of major offenses is disproportionately low, less than half a normal proportion.^^ The evidence available then seems to corroborate the findings for Iowa showing crime more urban than rural. The results for Iowa do not, however, indicate that niral criminality is proportionately of a more serious type than urban. Ill INEBRIETY JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY OF INEBRIETY Whether the inebriate is primarily a delinquent or a defective, he is at least near the border line between the two. In ordinary legal procedure, he is commonly treated as a delinquent, and 80 it will not be out of place to consider him at this point in this study. It is evident that he is the product to a considerable degree of the same unwholesome social conditions as the delin- quent and the dependent, and the inclusion of the study of the inebriate will give us another angle of approach to our problem. It might be added that drunkenness is frequently looked upon from two points of view in its relation to crime and dependence, either as a prime factor in the production of crime and poverty, or as a product of the same forces that produce them. There is certainly considerable reason for each view. Either, however, would justify the study of the inebriate. DANGERS OF MISINTERPRETATION Statistics about inebriety are perhaps more subject to misin- terpretation than any of the others discussed in this paper and the danger is increased by the great popular interest in and strong feeling upon the liquor question. The figures given in this chapter can not fairly be used as a basis for contrasting the amount of intoxication in one community with that in another. There are in the first place dangers involved in any such compar- ison, because of the great variation among communities in regard to strictness of law enforcement. Probably in no sphere is this variation greater than in various aspects of the liquor question. In the second place the statistics are for inehriety and not for intoxication. The inebrite has, in most cases, become so gripped by the habit that he will secure liquor whether he lives in a town with open saloons or not. (28) DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 29 Intoxication is a much broader problem. The Cosson Com- mittee report of 1912 estimated that of all arrests in Iowa, on the average from 46 to 52 per cent of the number are for in- toxication, while in some counties the number rises as high as 65 per cent.'-^' For an estimate of the comparative amount of intoxication in different communities, a study should be made of the number of arrests, not the number of inebriate commit- ments nor even the number of criminal convictions, since these cover but a very small part of the problem. In 1908 there were 4800 commitments to the Polk County jail alone, and only 1113 criminal convictions for the whole State. In the third place, those addicted to the drug habit as well as to the liquor habit are included among those committed to the State hospitals for inebriates, and this would militate against any valid conclu- sions as to how individual communities compared in the exces- sive use of liquor." MATERIAL AVAILABLE The material available for this study is parallel in all partic- ulars to that already used in the study of penal commitments, except for the years covered. The State Board of Control re- ports give figures for counties for the entire period since the opening of the first hospital for inebriates in 1903. For cities, figures are available except for the 1907-1908 biennium. Ex- amination showed, however, that the figures for the years 1903 and 1906 were useless for the purpose of this study owing to failure to eliminate duplications arising from transfers of pa- tients to newly opened hospitals. The figures for these years were accordingly rejected. INEBRIATE HOSPITAL COMMITMENTS The statistics as to commitments to the State hospitals for inebriates from the several counties are summarized in Table VI. 30 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES TABLE VI^* Comparative Table, Commitments to State Hospitals for Inebriates from Iowa Counties, 1904, 1905, 1907-1914 County 1. Polk 4.93 2. Wapello 4.29 3. Winneshiek 3.59 4. Linn 3.19 5. Webster 2.93 6. Palo Alto 2.74 7. Wayne 2.66 8. Lee 2.59 9. Carroll 2.49 10. Chickasaw 2.41 11. Sac 2.23 12. Fayette 2.22 13. Woodbury 2.19 14. Johnson 2.16 15. Black Hawk 2.14 16. Mahaska 2.04 17. Hamilton 1.92 18. Story 1.91 19. Jefferson 1.88 20. Clayton 1.88 21. Dickinson 1.84 22. Marshall 1.82 23. Humboldt 1.81 24. Boone 1.77 25. Pottawattamie 1.76 26. Marion 1.74 27. Hardin 1.72 28. Lucas 1.69 29. Plymouth 1.69 30. Ida 1.68 State of Iowa 1.62 31. Harrison 1.60 32. Appanoose 1.50 33. Sioux 1.49 34. Keokuk 1.42 35. Scott 1.40 36. Union 1.38 37. Kossuth 1.37 38. Franklin 1.35 39. Pocahontas 1.35 40. Madison 1.34 Rank of county No. of commitments in per cent of per 1,000 population urban population 1 9 91 7 14 58 38 11 33 73 60 43 2 23 5 41 35 17 63 70 62 16 42 20 12 56 29 49 61 76 Average 48 19 54 45 15 81 93 90 83 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 31 41. Dallas 1.31 42. Cerro Gordo 1.28 43. Vau Buren 1.26 44. Cherokee 1.25 45. Poweshiek 1.22 46. Decatur 1.22 47. Fremont L22 48. Clay 1.18 49. Butler 1.17 50. Beuton 1.17 51. Allamakee 1.15 52. Delaware 1.12 53. Lyon 1.09 54. Tama 1.08 55. Davis 1.05 56. Jasper • 1.04 57. Audubon 1.03 58. Monroe 1.02 59. Osceola 1.00 60. Montgomery .96 61. Cedar .96 62. Bremer .95 63. Calhoun .94 64. Guthrie .92 65. Emmet .92 66. Page .92 67. Crawford .90 68. Mills .88 69. Muscatine .88 70. O.Brien .87 71. Jackson .85 72. Grundy .81 73. Jones .79 74. Hancock .79 75. Clinton .77 76. Clarke .75 77. Dubuque .71 78. Iowa .71 79. Washington .70 80. Henry .64 81. Louisa .62 82. Worth .60 83. Cass .58 84. Buena Vista .56 85. Greene .56 86. Wright .56 87. Buchanan .56 88. Adair .55 89. Floyd .53 90. Mitchell .52 25 13 72 30 34 55 89 79 84 37 87 77 71 52 99 53 95 98 82 22 74 44 36 69 32 21 65 27 10 26 47 86 40 85 75 4 94 50 46 57 97 28 66 64 24 67 88 18 39 32 UNIVERSITY OF lOAVA STUDIES 91. Winnebago .50 92. Des Moines .50 93. Ringgold .46 94. Shelby .42 95. AdaniH .36 96. Monona .36 97. Taylor .25 98. Howard .23 99. Warren .16 51 6 80 92 96 59 68 31 As usual only a small per cent of the counties have a rate higher than the State average, thirty in this ease, as opposed to sixty-nine with a lower rate. The range, however, above is more than twice that below, 3.31 to 1.46. This great contrast, however, is limited largely to the extreme counties. With three counties eliminated at the top and three at the bottom, the con- trast becomes small, 1.57 above to 1.26 below. Extreme con- centration does not exist to a great enough degree, it seems, to account for the location of the State average ; the only other explanation is large population in the counties with high rate, i. e., concentration in counties with high urban per cent. Ex- amination of the table tends to confirm this conclusion, though the case is not as strong as in previous tables. In the absence of any correlation, we would normally find within the first thirty of this series, about three-tenths of any part of any other series in which the ninety-nine counties might be grouped, i. e., nine from the first thirty, fifteen from the upper half. The first thirty counties, however, in this table include thirteen of the fii*st thirty counties in urban per cent and twenty of the upper half. A similar situation exists at the other end of the table. In- stead of the normal four, the twenty counties include five of the twenty counties lowest in urban per cent and thirteen of the lower half of the counties in, urban per cent instead of the nor- mal ten. While the differences are perhaps not large enough to eliminate danger from chance variation, the fact that all variations at both ends of the table are in the same direction confirms the belief that actual correlation and not mere chance accounts for the phenomenon. The use of Spearman's formula for measuring correlation gives a coefficient of .153 with a probable error of approximately DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 33 .043. Correlation seems to exist, but it is nmeli less marked than in the statistics as to crime. Of individual counties, one is surprised at the high rate of AVinneshiek, Palo Alto and Wayne, and the very low rank of Clinton, Dubuque, and Des Moines counties. Wayne County contains some coal mines and borders upon the coal mining section of Appanoose County. The urban per cent given for Wayne is lower than it should be owing to the fact that several rural villages within its borders are unincorporated. These might offer some explanation, though liardly sufficient. Racial characteristics of the population of Clinton, Dubuque, and Des Moines counties might enter into the question of rate there. Clinton and Dubuque counties have contained saloons through- out the period, but the racial charactertistics of the population may have prevented that condition from producing a high rate of inebriety. Table VII summarizes the facts as to the commitments from rural communities and urban communities of various sizes. TABLE VII^5 Eural and Urban Commitments to Hospitals for Inebriates, 1909-1914 Eural or urban No. per 1,000 division population Country .268 Villages and towns .852 Towns 2,000-4,000 1.977 Towns 4,000-8,000 1.858 Cities 8,000-25,000 2.330 Cities 25,000 and over 2.100 The comparatively small number of commitments from the open country is very noticeable. More than three times as high a rate is shown for villages and towns under 2000, tiiough this rate is less than half that for any other urban division. The table shows some irregularities which, however, may not be of much significance. The slightly lower rate for cities above 25,- 000 than for those of 8000 to 25,000 population is surprising. Tli(! absence of close correlation between the size of the com- 34 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES munity and the rate of commitment to the hospital for inebriates is further shown by the following table giving the rank of cities in rate of inebriate commitments. TABLE Villus Commitments to State Hospitals for Inebriates from Cities of Towa, 1904, 1905, 1909-1914 Rank of County in Co. . in No City No. per 1,000 Rank in which commit- population population located ments 1. Perry 6.26 32 Dallas 41 2. Ames 5.68 37 Story 18 3. Le Mars 5.05 38 Plymouth. 29 4. Des Moines 4.92 1 Polk 1 5. Cedar Eapids 4.36 5 Linn 4 6. Ottumwa 4.29 10 Wapello 2 7. Webster City 4.03 24 Hamilton 6 8. Fort Dodge . 3.99 12 Webster 5 9. Oelwein 3.48 22 Fayette 12 10. Centerville 3.46 20 Appanoose 32 11. Boone 2.90 16 Boone 24 12. Keokuk 2.64 13 Lee 8 13. Marshalltown 2.54 14 Marshall 22 14. Waterloo 2.43 7 Black Hawk 15 15. Fairfield 2.41 28 Jefferson 19 16. Ft. Madison 2.36 19 Lee 8 17. Iowa City 2.28 17 Johnson 14 18. Grinnell 2.18 25 Poweshiek 45 19. Newton 2.17 33 Jasper 56 20. Council Bluflfs 2.14 6 Pottawattamie 25 21. Sioux City 2.11 2 Woodbury 13 22. Red Oak 2.07 31 Montgomery 60 23. Oskaloosa 2.03 18 Mahaska 16 24. Creston 2.02 21 Union 36 25. Albia 2.02 29 Monroe 58 26. Cedar Falls *2.00 26 Black Hawk 15 27. Shenandoah 1.81 27 Page 66 28. Mason City 1.42 15 Cerro Gordo 42 29. Marion 1.36 35 Linn 4 30. Davenport State of Iowa 1.35 1.26 3 Scott 35 31. Washington 1.14 36 Washington 79 32. Clarinda 1.04 40 Page 66 33. Glenwood .98 39 Mills 68 34. Muscatine .93 11 Muscatine 69 35. Clinton .86 8 Clinton 75 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 35 36. Cherokee .82 30 Cherokee 44 37. Charles City .68 23 Floyd 89 38. Dubuque .64 4 Dubuque 77 39. Chariton .52 41 Lucas 28 40. Atlantic .44 34 Cass 83 41. Burlington .41 9 Des Moines 92 It is noteworthy that the three cities with the highest rate are all under 5000. It should be pointed out that the statistics for Ames cover only the period since the 1910 census, not a sufficient period to eliminate chance variation. Of the three cities with the lowest rates, Burlington and Dubuque are both among the largest cities of the State. The large per cent of people of foreign birth or parentage in these cities may be an element in the situation. Thirty cities have a rate above the State average, about the same as for penal commitments. Spearman's formula gives a coefficient of correlation of .168 with a probable error of .067, hardly to be expected from a superficial view of the table. Of the thirty-seven counties in which these cities are located, twenty-one are included in the upper thirty-seven counties in rate of commitments to the hospital for inebriates. Of the seven- teen cities not in these counties, ten have a population of less than 5000, and two between 5000 and 6000, but the remaining five range from 11,000 to 38,000. Racial peculiarities in the use of liquor and in lack of susceptibility to the more serious evils resulting from it may play a part. Some of the cities have had no saloons for many years; some had them throughout the period covered by the study. IV JUVENILE DELINQUENCY SOURCES OF DATA Of very great importance is the question of the tendency to- ward crime among the children and young people, and of the conditions liable to create such a condition. The biennial re- ports of the State Board of Control give considerable statistical material of value in an investigation of this kind. Most reliable are the statistics given for the two state industrial schools, in all respects parallel to those already described for penal institu- tions. Less reliable but still accurate enough to be of value are figures given in the Board of Control reports as to the cases before juvenile courts. For the calendar years, 1906-1913, figures as to total number of cases are available. Only for the last four years of this period, however, are there anything like complete statistics, classifying these cases under the proper heads of juvenile delinquency, neglect, and dependence. Some other tables as to State care of children are given in the Board of Control reports, but these are either incomplete or mere duplications. The statistics as to commitments to the state industrial schools, because they are more complete and reliable, will be first examined. These are summarized for the counties in Table IX. TABLE 1X^7 Comparative Table, Commitments to State Industrial Schools from Iowa Counties, 1898-1914 Rank of county No. per 1,000 in per cent of County rank population urban population 1 9 10 8 41 (36) 1. Polk 4.54 2. Wapello 2.94 3. Muscatine 2.88 4. Clinton 2.69 5. Mahaska 2.61 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 37 6. Linn 2.47 7. Marshall 2.38 8. Lee 2.34 9. Woodbury 2.20 10. Pottawattamie 1.99 11. Harrison 1.90 12. Wayne 1.85 13. Dickinson 1.84 14. Montgomery L81 15. Clarke 1.77 16. Monroe 1.77 17. Lucas 1.76 18. Union 1.62 19. Scott 1.62 20. Decatur 1.59 21. Page 1.54 22. Henry 1.50 23. Boone 1.48 24. Black Hawk 1.45 25. Benton 1.38 State of Iowa 1.34 26. Webster 1.33 27. Cerro Gordo 1.32 28. Jasper 1.29 29. Fremont 1.28 30. Dallas 1.27 31. Einggold 1.24 32. Des Moines 1.22 33. Mills 1.20 34. Audubon 1.18 35. Cass 1.16 36. Dubuque 1.11 37. Hardin 1.10 38. Adams 1.09 39. Chickasaw 1.04 40. Buchanan 1.01 41. Wright 1.00 42. Jones 1.00 43. Hamilton .94 44. Howard .93 45. Johnson .93 46. Winneshiek .92 47. Poweshiek .92 48. Franklin .88 49. Appanoose .87 50. Monona .84 51. Kossuth .82 52. Floyd .82 53. Washington .80 7 16 11 2 12 48 38 62 22 75 98 49 15 3 55 21 46 20 5 37 Average 14 13 53 89 25 80 6 27 95 28 4 29 96 73 67 24 40 35 68 23 91 34 93 19 78 81 18 50 38 UNIVEKSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 54. Taylor .80 55. Clayton .78 56. Warren .77 57. Keokuk .76 58. Jefferson .75 59. Fayette .74 60. Cedar .73 61. Delaware .73 62. Iowa .71 63. Louisa .70 64. Story .62 65. Jackson .61 66. Allamakee .58 67. Humboldt .57 68. Clay .55 69. Pocahontas .54 70. Davis .53 71. Mitchell .52 72. Bremer .50 73. Winnebago .50 74. Crawford .50 75. Adair .49 76. Marion .48 77. Guthrie .46 78. Tama .45 79. Madison .45 80. Carroll .45 81. Osceola .45 82. Buena Vista .44 83. Emmet .41 84. Worth .40 85. Sioux .39 86. Greene .37 87. Lyon .34 88. Cherokee .30 89. Grundy .29 90. Calhoun .29 91. 'Brien .29 92. Van Buren .27 93. Ida .27 94. Plymouth .26 95. Butler .23 96. Shelby .18 97. Hancock .16 98. Sac .12 99. Palo Alto .07 59 70 31 45 63 43 74 77 94 57 17 47 87 42 79 90 99 39 44 51 65 88 56 69 52 83 33 82 66 32 97 54 64 71 30 86 36 26 72 76 61 84 92 85 60 58 Attention is called to the small number of counties having an average rate higher than that for the State as a whole, only DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 39 twenty-five as compared with seventy-four having a lower rate. This indicates a large degree of concentration of the evil in certain sections. The range above the State average is much higher than that below, 2.20 to 1.27, but this contrast is much less striking if the one extreme county, Polk, is omitted; it is then but 1.60 to 1.27. The counties with the high rate must apparently be those of the larger population, and so of high urban per cent, in order to account for the high State average. That they do contain in their number an undue proportion of the counties of high urban rate, further study of the table shows. In the upper twenty-five, by normal proportion we would expect six or seven from the upper twenty-five and twelve or thirteen from the upper half of the counties in per cent of urban population. Instead, we find fifteen from the upper twenty-five and twenty-one from the upper half. The counties of low rate of industrial commitment likewise appear to be counties of lower per cent of urban population. In the lower twenty, instead of the normal four, we find seven of the twenty counties lowest in rank in urban per cent. In the same twenty, instead of the normal ten, we find sixteen of the lower half of the counties ranked according to urban per cent. This parallelism of commitment rate and urban per cent is especially noticeable in the first ten counties. Of the ten coun- ties, nine come in the first sixteen in urban per cent, the one exception (Mahaska) being a county in the coal mining district. For counties containing large cities, Des Moines and Dubuque rank quite low, thirty-second and thirty-sixth respectively.^* The comparative number of commitments from the country, small towns, and cities of various sizes is shown clearly in the following table : TABLE X'9 Rural and Urban CommitnientH to State Tnilustrial Schools, 1909-1914 Rural or urban No. per 1,000 division population Country .0072 Villages and towns .060 Towns 2000-4000 .941 40 UNIVERSITY OP IOWA STUDIES Towns 4000-8000 1.002 Cities 8000-25000 1,360 Cities 25000 and over 1.420 The most prominent feature of this table is tlie almost neg- ligible number of commitments from the open country. It has been suggested that this is due to the close acquaintance ex- isting among all members of the rural community, and a re- sulting unwillingness to offend any family by complaining about their children. This fact of close acquaintance, however, is almost equally characteristic of the town under two thousand in population, but the rate is about eighty times that for the open country. The fact would seem to be that the open country gives children and young people full opportunity for giving vent to their natural energy and exuberance of spirits, without coming into serious conflict with social interests, as is liable to happen when population is more crowded, even if no more so than in a village. Above the open country there is a steady rise in the rate corresponding to the increase in size of the town or city. The correlation between the size of the community and the rate of commitments is much closer for the industrial schools than for either penal commitments or inebriate commitments, in the tables for each of which irregularities existed. The data obtained for the cities above four thousand is sum- marized in Table XI. TABLE XI2» Comparative Table, Commitments to State Industrial Schools from Cities of Iowa, 1906, 1909-1914 Rank of County in Co. in no. No. per 1,000 Rank in which commit- City population population located ments 1. Des Moines 2.420 1 Polk 1 2. Muscatine 2.411 11 Muscatine 3 3. Cedar Rapids 2.286 5 Linn 6 4. Oskaloosa 2.113 18 Mahaska 5 5. Marshalltown 1.944 14 Marshall 7 _, DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 41 6. Ottiimwa 1.908 10 Wapello 2 7. Eed Oak 1.863 31 Montgomery 14 8. Chariton 1.731 41 Lucas 17 9. Perry 1.728 32 Dallas 30 10. Davenport 1.650 3 Scott 19 11. Shenandoah 1.608 27 Page 21 12. Mason City- 1.603 15 Cerro Gordo 27 13. Washington 1.598 36 Washington 53 14. Boone 1.548 16 Boone 23 15. Newton 1.516 33 Jasper 28 16. Sioux City 1.505 2 Woodbury 9 17. Keokuk 1.499 13 Lee 8 18. Fort Dodge 1.287 12 Webster 26 19. Council Bluffs 1.271 6 Pottawattamie 10 20. Clarinda 1,218 40 Page 21 21. Grinnell 1.191 25 Poweshiek 47 22. Creston 1.155 21 Union 18 23. Iowa City 1.090 17 Johnson 45 24. Cherokee 1.074 30 Cherokee 88 25. Albia 1.057 29 Monroe 16 26. Centerville 1.009 20 Appanoose 49 27. Fairfield 1.006 28 Jefferson 58 28. Webster City .960 24 Hamilton 43 29. Waterloo .936 7 Black Hawk 24 30. Marion .909 35 Linn 6 31. Fort Madison .899 19 Lee 8 32. Clinton .860 8 Clinton 4 33. Charles City .849 23 Floyd 52 34. Oelwein .829 22 Fayette 59 35. Dubuque .747 4 Dubuque 36 36. Le Mars State of Iowa .722 .604 38 Plymouth 94 37. Burlington .452 9 Des Moines 32 38. Atlantic .439 34 Cass 35 39. Glenwood .432 39 Mills 33 40. Ames .415 37 Story 64 41. Cedar Falls .199 26 Black Hawk 24 There is no doubt that cities have an undue proportion of industrial school commitments, thirty-six out of the forty-one ranking above the State average as contrasted with but twenty- five out of the ninety-nine counties. The thirty-seven counties in which the forty-one cities are located include within their number nineteen out of the twenty- Hve counties with a rate above the State average. Of these thiity-seven counties, twenty- six come within the upper thirty-seven in number of commit- 42 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES ments. Of the eleven cities located in counties not coining within this upper thirty-seven, only four are above 5000 in population, only two of these above 6000, and only one of these, Iowa City, above 7000. The small part these cities form of the population of their respective counties accounts for the low rate of commitments. In no place is the influence of the size of the principal city upon a county's rate more clearly shown than in a comparison of Polk and Muscatine counties on the one hand, and of their respective cities, Des Moines and Muscatine, on the other. Polk County has a rate considerably more than fifty per cent higher than that of Muscatine County ; the difference in rate between the two cities is almost negligible. To be sure the city rates are not based on the same number of years as the county rate, but there is no difference in the rates for the different years covered which would disturb the validity of the comparison. Notable features of Table XI are the high rate for cities as small as Muscatine, Oskaloosa and Marshalltown. Muscatine had, according to the 1910 census, the largest absolute number of children under sixteen employed in industrial enterprises of any city in the State. Oskaloosa has coal mines in close proximity. The reaction of industrial conditions upon juvenile delinquency is distinctly illustrated. There is no satisfactory explanation of the Marshalltown situation. The high rate of Chariton may possibly be due to the fact that the period covered (three years) was insufficient for the elimination of variations due purely to chance. For so large a city, Sioux City comes well down the list, which is probably due largely to efficient probation work for juvenile delinquents. Notable indeed is the low rate of Waterloo, Du- buque, and especially Burlington, the rate of the last named city being below the State average. Dubuque has a paid pro- bation officer at present, but has not had one long enough to account foi" the low rate for the years covered. Both Waterloo and Burlington have for some time had efficient social ser\'ice organizations at work. Spearman's formula gives .207 as the coefficient of correlation between the size of the citv and the DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 43 commitment rate, the probable error being ,067. This is consid- erably higher than in the case of penal or inebriate hospital commitments. JUVENILE COURT CASES The statistics as to total number of cases before the juvenile courts of the different counties for the whole period without reference to the character of the cases are summarized in Table XII. TABLE XII" Comparative Table, Total Gases before Juvenile Courts in Counties of Iowa, 1906-1913 Rank of county No. per 1,000 in per cent of County population urban population 1. Polk 18.04 1 2. Linn 13.32 7 3. Scott 7.30 3 4. Woodbury 7.20 2 5. Black Hawk 6.19 5 6. Muscatine 4,91 10 7. Pottawattamie 4.23 12 8. Dubuque 3.69 4 9. Mahaska 3,28 41 10. Kinggold 2,94 80 State of Iowa 2.74 Average 11. Harrison 2.72 48 12. Marshall 2.54 16 13. Buchanan 2.28 67 14. Clinton 2.27 8 15. Cerro Gordo 2.24 13 16. Clarke 2.24 75 17. Lee 2.07 11 18. Appanoose 2.06 19 19. Poweshiek 1.99 34 20. Adams 1.91 96 21. Webster 1.88 14 22. Emmet 1.83 32 23. Buena Vista 1.81 66 24. Floyd 1.81 18 25. Humboldt 1.81 42 26. Jones 1.78 40 27. Story 1.71 17 44 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 28. Cedar 1.69 29. Lucas 1.62 30. Adair 1.60 31. Pocahontas 1.49 32. Dallas 1.48 33. Boone 1.45 34. Montgomery 1.45 35. Jasper 1.41 36. Page 1.37 37. Jackson 1.36 88. Franklin 1.35 39. Johnson 1.31 40. Mitchell 1.27 41. Marion 1.26 42. Jefferson 1.25 43. Benton 1.25 44. Louisa 1.24 45. Washington 1.20 46. Monona 1.20 47. Bremer 1.20 48. Kossuth 1.18 49. Clay 1.18 50. Delaware 1.06 51. Sioux 1.06 52. Mills 1.01 53. Wayne .99 54. Iowa .98 55. Clayton .98 56. Carroll .89 57. Winneshiek .87 58. Monroe .87 59. Grundy .81 60. Van Buren .80 61. Union .78 62. Warren .77 63. Wapello .77 64. Chickasaw .72 65. Des Moines .69 66. Hamilton .68 67. Decatur .67 68. Tama .66 69. Green .62 70. Keokuk .61 71. Winnebago .59 72. Palo Alto .58 73. Cass .58 74. Wright .56 75. Hancock .55 76. Henry .54 77. Allamakee .52 74 49 88 90 25 20 22 53 21 47 93 23 39 56 63 37 57 50 78 44 81 79 77 54 27 38 94 70 33 91 98 86 72 15 31 9 73 6 35 55 52 64 45 51 58 28 24 85 46 87 78 79. Fayette Davis 80. Madison 81. Fremont 82. Osceola 83. Audubon 84. Howard 85. Cherokee 86. Crawford 87. Worth 88. 89. Lyon Dickinson 90. Guthrie 91. Hardin 92. 93. 94. Taylor Shelby Butler 95. Calhoun 96. 'Brien 97. Ida 98. 99. Plymouth Sac DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 45 .50 43 .45 99 .45 83 .45 89 .45 82 .39 95 .39 68 .36 30 .35 65 .30 97 .27 71 .25 62 .23 69 .19 29 .18 59 .18 92 .18 84 .12 36 .12 26 .00 76 .00 61 .00 60 Attention is at once drawn to the fact that so few counties (ten) have a rate higher than that for the State as a whole. This phase of juvenile delinquency would seem to be much more concentrated in certain centers than any which we have studied. The range above the State average is many times that below, 15.30 as contrasted with 2.74, but the extreme character of the contrast largely disappears with the elimination of the two highest counties, Polk and Linn, as it is then but 4.56 to 2.74. These two counties have a disproportionately high rate. Con- centration in counties of large population and high urban rate is very marked. Of the ten counties with a rate above the State average, seven come in the upper ten in per cent of urban pop- ulation. The normal number would be a fraction over one. Only one instead of five, and that the lowest one of the ten comes in the lower half of counties in urban per cent. Within the first eight counties are the seven containing the seven largest cities in the state. Looking at the other end of the table, we find a similar though not so extreme a situation. In the twenty counties lowest in rate of cases before the juvenile court, instead of the normal four, there are seven of the twenty lowest in urban per cent. 46 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES In the same twenty counties, instead of the normal ten, there are sixteen of the lower half of the counties in urban per cent. From a study of both ends of the table there appears to be a positive correlation between the rank in the rate for cases be- fore the juvenile court and in the rank in urban per cent. This seems true at both extremes of the table though much the more marked at the upper end. The use of Spearman's formula indicates a considerable de- gree of correlation, the coeffiicient obtained being .301 with a probable error of .043. A weakness of this formula lies in its failure to take into account variations in the degree of differ- ence between those next in rank, variations which are quite large in this table. The correlation in this case of actual rates is no doubt much greater than that for ranks. Wapello and Des Moines counties rank abnormally low, 64 and 66 respectively. For Des Moines County this has been seen to be accompanied by a comparatively low rate of commitment to the industrial schools, but Wapello has a very high rate. This rather paradoxical situation raises a question as to the ac- curacy of the figures for the number of eases in Wapello County. JUVENILE DELINQUENCY The statistics as to the cases of juvenile delinquency brought before the juvenile courts of the various counties are summar- ized in Table XIII. TABLE XIII22 Comparative Table, Cases of Juvenile Delinquency before Juvenile Courts in Iowa Counties, 1910-1913 Rank of county No. per 1,000 in per cent of County population urban populatiot 1. Polk 6.83 1 2. Linn 3.75 7 3. Muscatine 2.85 10 4. Woodbury 2.82 2 5. Black Hawk 2.21 5 6. Ringgold 1.78 80 7. Scott 1.45 3 8. Harrison 1.34 48 9. Appanoose 1.32 If 10. Pottawattamie 1.15 12 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 47 11. Dubuque Lll 12. Humboldt 1.07 13. Dallas 1.06 State of lown 1.06 14. Kossuth .96 15. Mahaska .94 16. Buena Vista .88 17. Montgomery .84 18. Clarke .84 19. Lee .82 20. Cerro Gordo .80 21. Marshall .79 22. Cedar .79 23. Benton .78 24. Clinton .77 25. Adams .73 26. Clay .63 27. Pocahontas .61 28. Webster .61 29. Iowa .60 30. Wayne .58 31. Delaware .56 32. Buchanan .56 33. Jasper .55 34. Franklin .54 35. Lucas .51 36. Emmet .51 37. Bremer .50 38. Story .50 39. Boone .47 40. Jackson .47 41. Des Moines .47 42. Washington .45 43. Davis .45 44. Marion .43 45. Henry .43 46. Monona .42 47. Page .42 48. Floyd .41 49. Van Buren .40 50. Louisa .39 51. Howard .39 52. Warren .38 53. Poweshiek .36 54. Adair .35 55. Chickasaw .33 56. Wapello .32 57. Mills .32 58. Tama .32 4 42 25 Average 81 41 66 22 75 11 13 16 74 37 8 96 79 90 14 94 38 77 67 53 93 49 32 44 17 20 47 6 50 99 56 46 78 21 18 72 57 68 31 34 88 73 9 27 52 48 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 95 40 98 35 63 97 54 28 89 55 45 70 71 59 51 23 39 83 30 26 87 69 82 24 91 85 86 64 15 36 84 65 33 29 43 62 76 58 61 60 92 Though not so noticeable as in Table XII, still the smaller num- ber of counties with a rate above the State average (thirteen) is very suggestive; the problem of the juvenile delinquent seems peculiarly acute in certain centers. The range above is again many times that below, 5.77 as contrasted with 1.06, but the contrast again largely disappears with the elimination of Polk 59. Audubon .32 60. Jones .31 61. Monroe .31 62. Hamilton .31 63. Jefferson .31 64. Worth .30 65. Sioux .28 66. Cass .26 67. Fremont .26 68. Decatur .24 69. Keokuk .24 70. Clayton .23 71. Lyon .21 72. Taylor .18 73. Winnebago .17 74. Johnson .15 75. Mitchell .15 76. Madison .13 77. Cherokee .12 78. 'Brien .12 79. Allamakee .12 80. Guthrie .12 81. Osceola .11 82. Wright .11 83. Winneshiek .09 84. Hancock .08 85. Grundy .07 86. Green .06 87. Union .06 88. Calhoun .06 89. Butler .06 90. Crawford .05 9L Carroll .05 92. Hardin .05 93. Fayette .04 94. Dickinson .00 95. Ida .00 96. Palo Alto .00 97. Plymouth .00 98. Sac .00 99. Shelby .00 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 49 and Linn counties, 1.79 to 1.06. This result confirms the evi- dence of the preceding table as to the serious nature of the problem in these counties. Of the thirteen counties with a rate above the State average, instead of the normal proportion of less than two, eight are included in the thirteen counties of highest rank in urban per cent, and twelve in the upper half. The correlation in the upper portion of the table is fairly close. In the lower portion of the table the correlation is not so close, though the tendency is in the same direction. Of the twenty counties lowest in the rate of juvenile delinquency, instead of the normal four, there are in- cluded six of the twenty lowest in urban per cent, and instead of the normal ten, there are included fourteen from the lower half in urban per cent.^^ Of individual counties, Ringgold has a high rate, the reason for which is not evident. Harrison and Appanoose are also high. The presence of a large coal mining population in Ap- panoose County may explain the situation there. Des Moines County and, to a greater degree, Wapello have unexpectedly low rates as noted in Table XII. JUVENILE NEGLECT The available statistics as to cases of neglected children are summarized in Table XIV. TABLE XIV^* Comparative Table, Cases of Juvenile Neglect before Juvenile Courts in Iowa Counties, 1910-1913 Rank of county in per cent of urban population 1 3 5 17 2 86 70 7 93 27 County No. per 1000 population 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Polk Scott Black Hawk Story Woodbury 2.14 .83 .82 .66 .59 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Grundy Clayton Linn Franklin Mills .52 .47 .44 .41 .38 50 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 43 94 79 12 Average 56 22 8 ■ 10 38 28 11 25 40 75 80 41 72 44 66 30 6 9 34 47 48 21 13 98 4 Only thirty-nine counties report any eases, and for many counties, the numbers are too small for the drawing of valid conclusions. It may be worth noting, however, that the thirty- nine counties include in their number twenty-two of the thirty- nine counties of highest urban per cent, while a normal propor- tion would be sixteen. The fourteen counties with a rate above the State average include six of the first fourteen counties in urban per cent, while the normal share would be two. The county containing the one really large city in the State has a rate two and one-half times that of the second county. JUVENILE DEPENDENCE Wliile perhaps according to strict logic, consideration of this topic should be in the chapter on dependence, it seems of more 11. 12. Fayette Iowa .36 .33 13. 14. Clay Pottawattamie .31 .25 State of Iowa .23 15. Marion .22 16. 17. Montgomery Clinton .18 .18 18. Muscatine .17 19. 20. Wayne Cass .16 .16 21. Lee .14 22. Dallas .13 23. Jones .10 24. Clarke .09 25. Einggold .08 26. Mahaska .07 27. Van Buren .07 28. Bremer .06 29. Buena Vista .06 30. Cherokee .06 31. Des Moines .06 32. 33. Wapello Poweshiek .05 .05 34. Jackson .05 35. Harrison .04 36. 37. Page Cerro Gordo .04 .04 38. Monroe .04 39. Dubuque .03 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 51 practical value to consider all problems of juvenile welfare to- gether. The statistics available are summarized in Table XV. TABLE XV Comparative Table, Cases of Juvenile Dependence in Juvenile Courts in Iowa Counties, 1910-1913 Rank of county No. per 1000 in per cent of County population urban population 1. Linn 3.24 7 2. Polk 2.34 1 3. Scott 2.05 3 4. Woodbury 1.32 2 5. Muscatine .98 10 6. Buchanan .86 67 7. Adair .76 88 8. Jones .68 40 9. Dubuque .63 4 10. Union .60 15 11. Webster .52 14 12. Clarke .47 75 13. Lucas .44 49 14. Decatur .43 55 15. Black Hawk .42 5 State of Iowa .43 Average 16. Cerro Gordo .40 13 17. Clinton .33 8 18. Chickasaw .33 73 19. Buena Vista .31 66 20. Hamilton .31 35 21. Pottawattamie .29 12 22. Page .25 21 23. Dallas .21 25 24. Adams .18 96 25. Allamakee .17 87 26. Harrison .17 48 27. Cedar .17 74 28. Wayne .16 38 29. Clayton .16 70 30. Hardin .14 29 31. Jackson .14 47 32. Lee .14 11 33. Marion .13 56 34. Jefferson .13 63 35. Guthrie .12 69 36. Osceola .11 37. Wapello .11 38. Keokuk .09 39. Winneshiek .09 40. Boone .07 41. Franklin .07 42. Van Buren .07 43. Fremont .06 44. Mills .06 45. Montgomery .06 46. Monona .06 47. Calhoun .06 48. O'Brien .06 49. Crawford .05 50. Johnson .04 51. Benton .04 52. Jasper .04 52 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 82 9 45 91 20 93 72 89 27 22 78 36 26 65 23 37 53 No cases are reported from forty-six of the ninety-nine counties. For many others the numbers are too small for much confidence to be put in the evidence as to dependence, since chance variations may play too large a part. Some of the feat- ures of the table, however, are suggestive. Only fifteen of the counties report a rate higher than the State average. This seems to mean concentration of the problem in counties of large population and high urban rate. The first four counties in the table are the four counties of largest population in the State, each of them containing a large city. The fifth county, Mus- catine, has a city of only medium size, but it is one in, which, as brought out in all previous tables dealing with children and young people there seems to be serious evils in regard to child welfare. Closely connected with this is the presence of the largest number of cliild industrial workers in any city in the State, as already noted. The city also passed through a serious industrial conflict in the spring of 1911. The fifteen counties ranking above the State average contain nine of the first fifteen counties in urban per cent, instead of the normal two or three. Of the fifteen, eleven come from the upper half of the counties in urban per cent, as contrasted with a normal seven or eight. The first twenty-one counties contain every city with a population of over 25,000 in 1910. The prob- lem seems centered in the large cities. This is not always true, however, for Des Moines County, with its city of Burlington, DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 53 ninth in size in the State, reports no cases of juvenile depend- ence, a situation similar to that found in earlier tables dealing with problems of child welfare. Long establislied and efficient social service organizations probably account for this condition. The evidence is conclusive that in. Iowa juvenile delinquency is an urban rather than a rural problem. Like results have been found elsewhere upon investigation. Reports from the two industrial schools in Ohio confirm this conclusion. A much larger proportion of girls first go wrong in large cities than in either the open country or the village. Of the boys under care of the Ohio industrial school for boys, "the superintendent states that at least 65 per cent are received from cities; about twenty per cen.t from the villages and not over ten per cent from the open county." The Michigan Industrial School for boys shows a similar record.*^ V DEPENDENCE TREATMENT IN IOWA Public poor relief as administered in Iowa comes under the ordinary divisions of outdoor and indoor relief. The officials primarily responsible for its administration are the county su- pervisors, who are subject to no State supervision, beyond the fact that county homes including insane persons among their inmates are subject to inspection by the State Board of Control. Indoor relief is in county institutions legally known as county homes, ordinarily located upon county farms. One of the chief evils characteristic of the system is the herding together in the institution without classification of defectives of various sorts, vagrants and semi-criminals, and the worthy but unfortunate poor. There is seldom any skilled care of inmates, as the chief qualification required of superintendents is ability to make the farm pay. Lack of proper restriction upon admission and re- lease, and of suitable employment for inmates are other serious defects. In the administration of outdoor relief the supervisors are assisted by the local township trustees and, in municipalities, by the overseer of the poor, in all but a very few cases, persons of no special training for their tasks. In a few cities, the administra- tion of public relief has been entrusted to the city Charity Or- ganization Society. An experiment of this kind, begun, in Keokuk in 1899, was reported to have worked well and to be still in operation in 1905. Later it seems to have been discon- tinued. Grinnell and Waterloo have had such an arrangement for several years, and more recently Ottumwa, Oskaloosa, Ce- dar Rapids and Fort Dodge have adopted the plan.. In addition to public outdoor relief, special provision is made for the relief of soldiers and their dependent relatives. No satisfactory statistics are available as to relief given by volun- tary charitable enterprises. (54) DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 55 Of the ninety-nine counties in Iowa, ninety-seven, possess county homes, while the remaining two, Osceola and Harrison, provide for the boarding out of dependents. Three counties, Crawford, Emmet, and Ida, have had poor farms in use but a comparatively short time.^'' INDOOR RELIEF Statistics as to the number of inmates in the county homes are published in the biennial reports of the State Board of Con- trol. Comment has already been made as to the defects of these statistics, although the figures for the later years seem some- what improved. No figures, however, are given for Crawford, Emmet, or Ida Counties. Data in regard to these counties was secured by correspondence from the steward of the county home, or from the county auditor, and does not cover so long a period of years. The statistics as to the number of inmates in the county homes, or persons boarded by the county, are summarized in Table XVI. This table differs from those hitherto considered dealing with institutions as it is based on the total number of inmates at a given time rather than upon the number of com- mitments during a given period. TABLE XVI^s Comparative Table, Inmates in County Homes in Iowa, Average June 30, 1910, 1912, 1914 Rank of county No. per 1000 in per cent of County population urban population 1. Jefferson 3.47 63 2. Jackson 2.59 47 3. Marshall 2.59 16 4. Van Buren 2.55 72 5. Des Moines 2.54 6 6. Wapello 2.31 9 7. Linn 2.21 7 8. Fayette 2.17 43 9. Bremer 2.13 44 10. Johnson 2.12 23 11. Davis 2.05 99 12. Boone 2.00 20 56 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 13. Cedar 1.99 14. Fremont 1.98 15. Allamakee 1.96 16. Winneshiek 1.95 17. Jones 1.94 18. 19. Clayton Hancock 1.94 1.91 20. Washington 1.86 21. Polk L82 22. Tama 1.81 23. Lee 1.72 24. Decatur 1.71 25. Henry 1.66 26. Lucas 1.50 27. Clinton 1.49 28. Muscatine 1.41 29. Louisa 1.40 30. Worth 1.30 31. 32. Jasper Butler 1.27 1.27 33. Dallas 1.26 34. Mahaska 1.24 35. Marion 1.22 36. Keokuk 1.21 37. 38. Montgomery Benton 1.18 1.17 39. Chickasaw 1.15 State of Iowa 1.12 40. Delaware 1.12 41. Poweshiek 1.07 42. Pocahontas 1.04 43. Cerro Gordo 1.01 44. Scott .91 45. Crawford .90 46. 47. Dubuque Buchanan .89 .83 48. Madison .81 49. Warren .81 50. Union .80 51. 52. 53. Wayne Taylor Iowa .78 .78 .76 54. Osceola .73 55. Hamilton .68 56. 57. 58. Page Appanoose Hardin .67 .66 .65 59. Howard .64 60. Webster .60 74 89 87 91 40 70 85 50 1 52 11 55 46 49 8 10 57 97 53 84 25 41 56 45 22 37 73 Average 77 34 90 13 3 65 4 67 83 31 15 38 59 94 82 35 21 19 29 68 14 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 57 33 27 86 75 78 12 18 81 69 80 61 98 32 92 76 88 5 64 54 17 2 30 93 42 62 95 66 28 60 36 24 96 48 26 39 58 79 71 51 One is impressed in this table with the comparatively large number of counties having a rate above the State average, thirty-nine as compared with thirty-one above the State average for rate of criminal convictions, the largest number hitherto noted. This creates a presumption tliat dependence is less pe- culiarly characteristic of the counties of large population than is criminality. The range above the state average is consider- ably larger than that below, though the contrast is hardly as 61. Carroll .60 62. Mills .57 63. Grundy .56 64. Clarke .56 65. Monona .52 66. Pottawattamie .51 67. Floyd .51 68. Kossuth .50 69. Guthrie .50 70. Einggold .49 71. Plymouth .46 72. Monroe .46 73. Emmet .46 74. Shelby .44 75. Ida .44 76. Adair .44 77. Black Hawk .44 78. Greene .44 79. Sioux .42 80. Story .41 81. Woodbury .40 82. Cherokee .40 83. Franklin .38 84. Humboldt .38 85. Dickinson .37 86. Audubon .36 87. Buena Vista .35 88. Cass .35 89. Sac .34 90. Calhoun .33 91. Wright .32 92. Adams .30 93. Harrison .30 94. 'Brien .29 95. Mitchell .25 96. Palo Alto .22 97. Clay .21 98. Lyon .21 99. Winnebago .20 58 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES great as has been true in previous tables, the figures are 2.35 and .92 respectively. With the elimination of the most ex- treme example, the range stands at 1.47 above and .92 below. Wliile considerably more than half the counties fall beloM^ the State rate, the evidence for concentration in counties of large population or high urban per cent is not very conclusive. Considering now the correlation in rank, we find similarly inconclusive results. In the upper thirty-nine counties we would normally expect to find sixteen of the first thirty-nine counties in any other uncorrelated series. There are, however, only thirteen of the first thirty-nine in urban per cent. The thirty-nine would normally contain about twenty from the first half of another series; there are twenty-one of the upper half in urban per cent. The lower twenty contain only three from the lower twenty in urban per cent instead of the normal four. From the lower half we find ten, the normal proportion. These figures certainly give no indication of any correlation between rank in rate of inmates in county homes and rank in urban per cent. Spearman's formula gives a coefficient of correlation of ,042, with .043 as the approximate probable error. The table is different in many respects from any hitherto considered. The first four counties contain no city of any great size, quite unusual in itself. The fifth county, Des Moines, contains a large city, namely Burlington, but one which in various other tables has shown an unusually low rate. The next counties, Wapello and Linn have, however, ordinarily shown high rates. The comparatively low rate of Polk county is peculiar. Black Hawk and Woodbury counties, despite their large city population, rank quite low, seventy-seventh and eighty-first respectively. The State reports give no such data in regard to the rural and urban distribution of inmates of county homes. A ques- tionnaire sent to county home stewards secured apparently trustworthy information from counties containing something over one-eighth of the State's population. The results are sum- marized in Table XVII. Rates for the larger urban centers are not very trustworthy because of the small number covered. DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 59 TABLE XVII«9 Kural and Urban Inmates of County Homes, August 1916 Eural and urban No. inmates per division 1000 population Total population covered 1.29 Open country .92 Villages and tovpns 1.72 Towns 2000-4000 2.61 Towns 4000-8000 .48 Cities 8000-25000 (a) Cities 25000 and over 1.74 This table parallels pretty closely those of like type for var- ious phases of criminality, and requires little comment. Open country rates are, as usual, low. Village rates are somewhat higher than hitherto, as compared with larger urban centers, though chance variation may account for much in the rates of larger urban centers. OUTDOOR RELIEF The number of inmates in the county institution taken alone is no accurate index of the poverty and dependence of the county. It may be merely an indication, of a policy on the part of the supervisors to emphasize indoor relief and limit outdoor relief. For the statistics to be of value they must be checked by comparison with the statistics for outdoor relief. Seemingly reliable figures on this point are contained in the annual re- ports of the State Auditor beginning with the fiscal year 1909. The material thus obtained is summarized in Table XVIII. TABLE XVIII^" Comparative Table, Expenditure for Public Outdoor Belief in Towa Counties, 1909-1913 Rank of county Per capita in per cent of County expenditure urban population 1. Scott $.570 3 2. Emmet .554 32 3. Poweshiek .483 34 4. Dubuque .481 4 5. Clinton .459 8 (a) No city of this size in counties covered. 60 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 6. Webster .423 7. Black Hawk .354 8. Delaware .352 9. Calhoun .348 10. Cass .333 11. Carroll .326 12. Cedar .325 13. Henry .322 14. Wapello .321 15. Boone .318 16. Ida .307 17. Crawford .301 18. Story .296 19. Appanoose .288 20. Pottawattamie .286 21. Tama .286 22. Buena Vista .282 23. Madison .278 24. Cerro Gordo .274 25. Pocahontas .273 26. Mahaska .269 27. Jones .267 28. Mills .263 29. Van Buren .257 30. Monroe .257 31. Johnson .257 32. Washington .253 33. Woodbury .253 34. Marion .253 35. Keokuk .250 36. Mitchell .247 37. Floyd .243 State of Iowa .238 38. Harrison .230 39. Union .229 40. Worth .229 41. Jackson .227 42. Franklin .226 43. Lucas .223 44. Davis .218 45. Iowa .215 46. Kossuth .214 47. Linn .212 48. Wayne .210 49. Benton .208 50. Wright .201 51. 'Brien .201 52. Polk .200 53. Plymouth .200 14 5 77 36 28 33 74 46 9 20 76 65 17 19 12 52 66 83 13 90 41 40 27 72 98 23 50 2 56 45 39 18 Average 48 15 97 47 98 49 99 94 81 7 38 37 24 26 1 61 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 61 82 53 21 35 44 22 59 86 55 89 29 6 69 85 54 62 64 30 10 43 58 60 80 31 11 87 57 96 51 91 68 92 42 70 71 75 73 79 63 25 78 16 67 88 95 84 The similarity of this table to Table XVI as to imnates of the county homes will be at once observed, namely, the large 54. Osceola .197 55. Jasper .197 56. 57. Page Hamilton .194 .194 58. Bremer .193 59. 60. Moutgomery Taylor .192 .192 61. 62. Grundy Decatur .187 .186 63. Fremont .185 64. Hardin .179 65. Des Moines .176 66. Guthrie .173 67. Hancock .173 68. Sioux .173 69. Dickinson .171 70. Greene .171 71. Cherokee .165 72. Muscatine .160 73. 74. Fayette Palo Alto .160 .158 75. Sac .158 76. 77. Ringgold Warren .157 .156 78. Lee .154 79. Allamakee .153 80. Louisa .153 81. Adams .152 82. 83. Winnebago Winneshiek .152 .152 84. Howard .150 85. Shelby .147 86. Humboldt .146 87. 88. 89. Clayton Lyon Clarke .144 .142 .140 90. Chickasaw .139 91. 92. Clay Jefferson .139 .136 93. Dallas .136 94. Monona .134 95. Marshall .121 96. Buchanan .114 97. Adair .112 98. Audubon .105 99. Butler .101 62 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES number of counties ranking above the State average, thirty- seven in this case as compared with thirty-nine in the preced- ing table, and contrasted with thirty-one, the highest number in any table on criminality. The range above is. 332 as contrasted with .131 below. From these figures no very conclusive evi- dence can be drawn as to the existence of the higher rate in counties of larger population and high urban per cent, though on the other hand its existence is not disproved. Further study of the distribution of the counties in the ser- ies, however, tends to create a presumption that such a correla- tion does exist. Among the upper thirty-seven counties we find, instead of fourteen, the normal number in absence of any corre- lation, twenty of the first thirty-seven counties in urban per cent. Instead of the normal nineteen, we find twenty-five from the upper half in urban per cent. Among the lower twenty, instead of the normal four, we find six of the lower twenty in urban per cent. In the same twenty we find instead of the normal ten, seventeen from the lower half of the counties in urban per cent. Though in some cases small, every variation is in the direction of positive correlation. This is in direct con- trast with the distribution in the preceding table which offered no conclusive evidence. The use of Spearman's formula shows a marked difference, giving a coefficient of correlation of .248 as contrasted with one of .042 with a probable error of approx- imately .043. A further contrast is offered by the fact that of the first five counties, three instead of one contain large cities. Remarkable is the fact that Des Moin,es County, ranking fifth in the preced- ing table, in this ranks sixty-fifth. Polk County ranks even lower than before, while Black Hawk and Woodbury, remark- ably low in the preceding series, here show a much higher rank, thougk Woodbury is still not ver>' high. METHOD OF CORRELATION OF EVIDENCE AS TO DEPENDENCE The few instances noted at the close of the previous section indicate the lack of close correlation between the two tables, and the necessity for a combination of the two in order to ascertain with some degree of accuracy the comparative amount of de- DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 63 pendence in the various counties. Figures as to the total amount expended by each county upon the relief of the poor could have been secured from the State Auditor's report, but in the opinion of the investigator these would not have been very serviceable. In many counties, the first qualification of a satisfactory county home steward is that he must be an excellent farm manager and must make the farm pay. Accordingly, the net cost of maintenance of the county farm may be practically no index at all of the amount of dependence represented by the inmates of the institution. Number of inmates rather than ex- penditure is the proper evidence. The problem was to combine the evidence of a table giving number of inmates per thousand of population and one giving per capita expenditure. An attempt at solution was made, not by combining the actual figures for each county in each series, but by adding the rank of each county in one table with its rank in the other and then ranking the counties in the order of the resulting figures. While open to some objections because it does not allow for wide variations in the degree of differ- ence between counties adjoining in rank, and because it gives rise to numerous instances where the rank is the same, this method seemed sufficiently accurate to be of service. The result is shown in Table XIX. TABLE XIX^^ Comparative Table, Banking of Iowa Counties in Total Dependency, a Combination of the Number of County Home Inmates and Outdoor Relief Expenditure Home outdoor Per eent of inmates relief urban population 6 14 9 13 12 74 12 15 20 27 5 8 4 29 72 25 13 46 10 31 23 2 41 47 22 21 52 12 27 40 41 3 34 44 1 3 Total dependency 1. Wapello 2. Cedar 3. Boone 4. Clinton 5. Van Buren 6. Henry 7. Johnson 8. Jackson 8. Tama 10. Jones 10. Poweshiek 12. Scott 64 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 13. Delaware 40 8 77 14. Dubuque 46 4 4 15. Washington 20 32 50 16. Linn 7 47 7 17. Davis 11 44 99 18. Mahaska 34 26 41 19. Crawford 45 17 65 20. Webster 60 6 14 21. Bremer 9 58 44 21. Cerro Gordo 43 24 13 21. Pocahontas 42 25 90 24. Lucas 26 43 49 24. Marion 35 34 56 26. Des Moines 5 65 6 26. Worth 30 40 97 28. Keokuk 36 35 45 28. Madison 48 23 83 30. Carroll 61 11 33 31. Polk 21 52 1 32. Emmet 73 2 32 33. Appanoose 57 19 19 34. Fremont State of Iowa 14 63 89 Av 35. Fayette 8 73 43 36. Black Hawk 77 7 5 37. Decatur 24 62 55 37. Hancock 19 67 85 37. Jasper 31 55 53 37. Pottawattamie 66 20 12 41. Benton 38 49 37 42. Union 50 39 15 43. Mills 62 28 27 44. Ida 75 16 76 45. Jefferson 1 92 63 46. Allamakee 15 79 87 47. Montgomery 37 59 22 48. Cass 88 10 28 48. Iowa 53 45 94 48. Marshall 3 95 16 48. Story 80 18 17 52. Calhoun 90 9 36 52. Wayne 51 48 38 52. Winneshiek 16 83 91 55. Muscatine 28 72 10 56. Lee 23 78 11 57. Monroe 72 30 98 58. Floyd 67 37 18 59. Clayton 18 87 70 60. Osceola 54 54 82 61. Buena A''ista 87 22 66 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 65 61. Louisa 29 80 57 63. Hamilton 55 57 35 63. Page 56 56 21 63. Taylor 52 60 59 66. Woodbury 81 33 2 67. Kossuth 68 48 81 68. Hardin 58 64 29 69. Grundy 63 61 86 69. Plymouth 71 73 61 71. Franklin 83 42 93 72. Dallas 33 93 25 72. Warren 49 77 31 74. Chickasaw 39 90 73 75. Butler 32 99 84 75. Harrison 93 38 48 77. Mitchell 95 36 39 78. Guthrie 69 66 69 79. Wright 91 50 24 80. Buchanan 47 96 67 80. Howard 59 84 68 82. 'Brian 94 51 26 83. Einggold 70 76 80 84. Sioux 79 68 54 85. Greene 78 70 64 86. Cherokee 82 71 30 86. Clarke 64 89 75 88. Dickinson 85 69 62 89. Monona 65 94 78 89. Shelby 74 85 92 91. Sac 89 75 60 92. Humboldt 84 86 42 92. Palo Alto 96 74 58 94. Adair 76 97 88 94. Adams 92 81 96 96. Winnebago 99 82 51 97. Audubon 86 98 95 98. Lyon 98 88 71 99. Clay 97 91 79 In a series obtained as in this comparison, it is somewhat difficult to locate the State average. If the State as a whole had been given, a rank in each series, and the necessary changes in the rank of the counties had been made, it would have had an average rank equal to that of Fremont County. Accordingly, it is given the same rank in the combined table. There are then thirty-three counties with a i-ank above that of the State as a whole. No satisfactory statement of range can be given from this table based upon ranks. It may be of interest to note 66 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES that the suras of the rankings in the original tables of the ex- treme counties in the combined table are twenty and one hun- dred eiglity-eight respectively, as compared with a possible two and one hundred ninety-eight under perfect correlation. The two tables as a whole would show a considerable degree of corre- lation, but individual counties show wide variations. The fact that only thirty-three counties have a rank above that of the State as a whole again suggests the idea of correlation between dependence and large population and high urban per cent. Further analysis of the table would indicate at least a slight degree of correlation. In the thirty-three counties ranking higher than the State as a whole, instead of eleven, the normal number in case of no correlation, we find fourteen from the first thirty-three in urban per cent. The same thirty-three counties contain, instead of the normal seventeen, twenty-two from the upper half of the counties in urban per cent. The lower twenty counties in the combined dependence series contain, instead of the normal four, five of the lower twenty counties in urban per cent and, instead of the normal ten, seventeen from the lower half of the same series. It is clear then that in every case the variations from the normal distribution are in the direction of positive correlation.^^ It is interesting to notice that the first ten counties contain but one having a city of over 25,000 population, though the counties containing the larger cities begin to appear immediately afterward. Polk County with the one really large city in the State ranks but slightly above the State average. It appears that dependence is less peculiarly characteristic of the larger cities than is criminality. This may, however, be very largely due to the better organization of voluntary charity in these cities, no indication of which appears in these statistics. It should be borne in mind that the exact significance of the records of individual counties can not be ascertained without a knowledge of the local condition and policy of poor relief. In- vestigations in Grinnell and Ottumwa have shown, that indis- criminate granting of relief accounted at least in part for the records of Poweshiek and Wapello counties. The failure to give adequate relief may account for low records in some other places. VI DEFECTIVES SCOPE OF STUDY OF DEFECTIVES In the preceding sections an effort has been made to investi- gate the records of the various Iowa communities in two phases of social infection, crime and dependency. A third pliase, that of the defectives, will now be considered. In the study of de- fectives no effort has been made to include all defectives, but only those a consideration of whom should logically be included in the scope of a study of social infection. In order for any class of defectives to warrant such consideration, it has been felt that the defect should be, first one of sufficiently wide- spread and serious character to be of social significance, and secondly one in a measure at least due to social causes and amenable to social control. The scope of the study was likewise limited in a measure by the character of the data available. For these reasons, it has been found advisable to include within this study only the tuberculous, the feeble-minded and the in- sane. Owing to the character of the data available a separate study of epileptics has been impossible, and it has proved neces- sary to classify them with either the insane or the feeble- minded.^'^ STATISTICAL BASIS The statistical material forming the basis for this study was secured primarily from the biennial reports of the State Board of Control, which furnished fairly complete data for all state institutions, and certain data for county and private institu- tions. In a number of instances supplementary data has been secured through personal correspondence with county and pri- vate institutions, and with county officials, through question- naires and from county financial reports. (67) 68 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES LIMITATIONS OF STATISTICS Statistics in regard to defectives, perhaps, even more than those in regard to criminality and dependence have their limi- tations. In this study only defectives in institutions could be considered and, in the case of many local communities the rates given will be more a measure of the degree of care and super- vision of defectives, than of the serious character of the local problem. As has been repeatedly said in earlier sections of the study, the true signifieence of the record of any local community can not be understood without a knowledge of local conditions and of local policy in regard to the care of the class under con- sideration. This, it is believed, must be borne carefully in mind in a study of tuberculous and the feeble-minded, but is of much less significance in a consideration of the insane, for whom the demand for custodial care is much more imperative. When one passes from the consideration of local communities to wider areas, these limitations are less serious since the local divergences in policy tend to counterbalance one another. With these points clearly in mind we may proceed to a consideration in detail of the tuberculous, the feeble-minded, and the insane, taking them up in the order named. TUBERCULOUS Iowa, as other states, has of recent years seen a great de- velopment of public interest and concern in regard to the men- ace of tuberculosis, and in efforts toward prevention and cure. After an investigation by the State Board of Control as to the extent of the disease in Iowa, the General Assembly in 1906 established "a state sanatorium for the care and treatment of persons afflicted with incipient pulmonary tuberculosis." This institution, was opened February 1st, 1908.'''* Since that time it has been much enlarged and provision made for the treatment of more advanced cases. Since 1906 a considerable amount of educational w^ork has been carried on under the direction of the State Board of Control, through the printing and circulation of pamphlets and the employment of lecturers. In addition the bill passed in 1909, permitting counties to establish public liospitals, authorized them to establish also de- partments for the care of tuberculous patients. An act of 1913 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 69 increased the tax allowed for the support of such county hos- pitals. Only four counties have up to date made any provision for treatment of tuberculosis, Scott, Woodbury, Polk and Wapel- lo, and of these the Wapello institution was not open for patients till the close of the period covered by this study. Dubuque County has voted to establish a sanatorium, Black Hawk County will vote on the matter this fall, (1917), and Polk County will decide whether or not to provide better facilities for care of the tuberculous. Practically full data in regard to the State Sanatorium at Oakdale is available in published State reports. Statistics in regard to the count j^ institutions could be secured only by cor- respondence or from county financial reports. The statistics thus obtained will be utilized first for a comparison of the rec- ords of the individual counties of Iowa, secondly in a compari- son of the various rural and urban divisions of the State's pop- ulation, and finally for a comparison of individual cities. RECORDS OF COUNTIES The data secured in regard to admissions to institutions from the various counties is summarized in Table XX. As in preced- ing tables the counties are arranged in the order of their rank, and an extra column gives for comparison the rank of each county in per cent of urban population. TABLE XXS5 Comparative Table, Admissions to Public Tuberculosis Sanatorium from Iowa Counties, 1908-1916 Bank of count}' in No. per 1000 per cent of urban County population population 1. Poweshiek 3.47 34 2. Scott 3.33 3 3. Johnson 3.32 23 4. Worth 3.32 97 5. Linn 3.28 7 6. Polk 3.00 1 7. Boone 2.43 20 8. Bremer 2.21 44 9. Benton 2.03 37 10. Humboldt 1.89 42 70 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 11. Keokuk 1.84 12. Decatur 1.84 1.3. Woodbury 1.69 14. Lee 1.63 1.^. Lucas 1.63 16. Iowa 1.63 17. Marshall 1.52 18. Cedar 1.52 19. Davis 1.50 20. Van Buren 1.46 21. Story 1.45 22. Clinton 1.39 23. Tama 1.35 24. Hardin 1.34 25. Wapello 1.32 26. Emmet 1.32 27. Kossuth 1.32 28. Jefferson 1.32 29. Des Moines 1.27 30. Greene 1.25 31. Palo Alto 1.23 32. Taylor 1.23 33. Black Hawk 1.23 State of Iowa 1.18 34. Winnebago 1.18 35. Cerro Gordo 1.16 36. Washington 1.15 37. Jones 1.10 38. Ida 1.06 39. Winneshiek 1.06 40. Dubuque 1.04 41. Hamilton 1.04 42. Hancock 1.02 43. Muscatine 1.02 44. Fayette 1.00 45. Clayton .94 46. Warren .93 47. Webster .92 48. Henry .91 49. Pocahontas .88 50. Adair .83 51. Buchanan .81 52. Union .78 53. Butler .76 54. Jackson .75 55. Mahaska .74 56. Calhoun .70 57. Louisa .70 58. Einggold .70 45 55 2 11 49 94 16 74 99 72 17 8 52 29 9 32 81 63 6 64 58 59 5 Average 51 13 50 40 76 91 4 35 85 10 43 70 31 14 46 90 88 67 15 84 47 41 36 57 80 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 71 69 77 39 33 95 38 24 93 60 86 73 18 66 75 53 65 71 21 56 25 26 82 87 98 61 48 68 62 30 12 83 28 19 79 54 96 89 27 92 22 78 On examination of this table, one notes at once that exactly one-third of the counties, or thirty-three, have a rate above the State average, and two-thirds a rate below. This may be due in part to the fact that the range above the State average is larger than that below, 2.29 as compared with 1.18, but this wide difference in range largely disappears after the first six 59. Guthrie .69 60. Delaware .67 61. Mitchell .67 62. Carroll .65 63. Audubon .63 64. Wayne .62 65. Wright .61 66. Franklin .61 67. Sac .60 68. Grundy .59 69. Chickasaw .59 70. Floyd .58 71. Buena Vista .56 72. Clarke .56 73. Jasper .55 74. Crawford .55 75. Lyon .55 76. Page .54 77. Marion .53 78. Dallas .47 79. 'Brien .46 80. Osceola .45 81. Allamakee .40 82. Monroe .39 83. Plymouth .39 84. Harrison .39 85. Howard .39 86. Dickinson .37 87. Cherokee .36 88. Pottawattamie .36 89. Madison .32 90. Cass .32 91. Appanoose .31 92. Clay .31 93. Sioux .28 94. Adams .27 95. Fremont .26 96. Mills .25 97. Shelby .18 98. Montgomery .12 99. Monona .00 72 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES counties, so that this explanation alone is insufficient. A pre- sumption is created that the counties above the state average have a larger population, and parallel with it, a larger per cent of urban population than those below. That this inference is not unfounded is borne out by a comparison of the first thirty- three counties and the last twenty counties in the table, with the ranks of these counties in per cent of urban population. In- stead of the normal eleven the first thirty-three counties in- clude within their number fifteen of the first twenty counties in per cent of urban population. Instead of a normal seven- teen, the same thirtj^-three contain twenty-one counties from the upper half in urban per cent. A like correlation is found at the other end of the table. The twenty counties lowest in rank in admission to sanatoria include seven of the lower twenty and thirteen of the lower half of the counties in urban per cent, instead of the normal four and ten respectively. There seems therefore pretty clear evidence of the correlation between rank in admission to the sanatoria an.d rank in urban per cent. Use of Spearman's formula gives .185 as the coefficient of corre lation, with only .043 as the probable error. Turning now to a consideration of the records of individual counties, we are somewhat surprised to find Poweshiek County with the highest rate of admission. This county con.tains no city of importance, and has had very efficient social work car- ried on in its largest town, Grinnell, the scope of which has been enlarged to cover the county. This record must be due, at least in considerable measure, to popular education in regard to the necessity of caring for the tuberculous, and to a generous policy in regard to their support in institutions. Of the next five counties, Scott, Johnson, Worth, Linn, and Polk, the high rank of four of them can best be explained by the close proximity of sanatoria, so that both people and offi- cials are well aware of the facilities available and of their value. Both Scott and Polk counties have established county tuber- culosis sanatoria. Johnson County and Linn Count.v are in most direct proximity and have easiest access to the state sanatorium at Oakdale. The investigator is unable to offer any explanation for the record of Worth, a county with no large cities or mines, and not in close proximity. Like Boone County, DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 73 seventh in rank, it has direct railway connections with Cedar Eapids, one terminus of the internrban on which Oakdale is situated, but many other counties have as direct access. Yet it must be noted that three out of the next four comities, Bremer, Benton, and Keokuk have similar direct access. Woodbury County, thirteenth in rank, has a county sanatorium. The reason for the records of Humboldt and Decatur is not appar- ent. A number of the counties next following in the table are counties near at hand, having direct access to sanatoria, or with high urban per cent. The most vivid impression one obtains from a superficial examination of the records of the various counties is that of the comparatively high rank of counties located near or with direct access to institutions for care of the tuberculous. Some counties have unexpectedly low records. Botli Des ]\Ioines and Black Hawk, ranking twenty-ninth and thirty- third respectively, are comparatively low when we consider their high urban per cent. This is more true in the case of Dubuque County, ranking fortieth. Muscatine County, with its industrial troubles and bad record in juvenile delinquency, ranks only forty-third. Mahaska, never below twentieth in criminality or dependence tables, here ranks fifty-fifth. Mon- roe and Appanoose counties, with the highest per cent of popu- lation engaged in coal-mining, and unfavorable records in crim- inality and dependence rank eighty-second and ninety-first re- spectively. All in all, we are inclined to believe these facts are as much a record of intelligence and interest in the problem of prevention of tuberculosis, as of the seriousness of the prob- lem in each county. RECORD OF RURAL AND URBAN DIVISIONS In view of the evidence already found supporting the theory of correlation between, rate of admission to sanatoria and con- centration of population in urban cen'ers. Table XXI given be- low will be of interest. This table includes data only for Oak- dale. Parallel data for county institutions is not available. 74 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES TABLE XXP6 Admissions to State Tuberculosis Sanatorium, 1909-1916 Rural or urban No. of admissions division per 1000 population Country .54 Villages and towns 1.25 Towns 2000-4000 1.38 Towns 4000-8000 1.07 Cities 8000-25000 2.44 Cities 25000 and over 1.71 In this table the low rate for the open country substantiates in a measure the theory of correlation between admission rate and concentration of population in urban centers. The rate for villages and towns under 2000 is, however, fairly high, exceed- ing that of towns of 4000-8000. The great contrast between this village rate and that for the open country is another evi- dence of the fact, borne out by the results found in the study of crime and juvenile delinquency, that villages are more urban than rural, and that the contrast between their problems and those of the open country is greater than the contrast between them and those of the larger urban centers. While all urban cen- ters have much higher rates than does the open country, the rate does not increase with any regularity as the size of the city in- creases. A similar phenomenon appeared in the tables dealing with penal commitments and inebriate hospital commitments. Only in juvenile delinquency is the correlation of rate with size of city marked. Especially surprising is the very high rate for cities, 8000-25,000, higher even than for cities above 25,000. The presence of county sanatoria in counties containing the three largest cities, and the use of a neighboring county institution by one or two other cities, accounts in part for this, but not for the great disparity between this rate and that for smaller urban centers. RECORD OF INDIVIDUAL CITIES Table XXII summarizes for tis the record of individual cities in commitments to Oakdale. The data is incomplete in that admission to county institutions are not included. This must considerably lower the rate for Davenport, Des Moines, and DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 75 Sioux City, in Scott, Polk, and Woodbury comities, and slightly that of Dubuque, since Dubuque County has sent a number of patients to the Scott County institution. TABLE XXII" Comparative Table, Admissions to State Tuberculosis Sanatorium From Cities of Iowa, 1909-1916 Rank of County in county in No. per 1000 Rank in which number of City population population located admissions ]. Towa City 5.95 17 Johnson 3 2. Grinnell 5.16 25 Poweshiek 1 3. Cedar Rapids 4.63 5 Linn 5 4. Boone 3.96 16 Boone 7 5. Cedar Falls 3.90 26 Black Hawk 33 6. Ames 2.84 37 Story 21 7. Keokuk 2.78 13 Lee 14 8. Des Moines 2.50 1 Polk 6 9. Marion 2.05 35 Linn 5 10. Fairfield 2.01 28 Jefferson 28 11. Oskaloosa 2.01 18 Mahaska 55 12. Ottumwa 1.86 10 Wapello 25 13. Marshalltown 1.72 14 Marshall 18 14. Burlington 1.69 9 Des Moines 29 15. Davenport 1.67 3 Scott 2 IC. Oelwein 1.49 22 Fayette 44 17. Ft. 'Do(1ge 1.48 12 Webster 47 18. Mason City 1.20 15 Cerro Gordo 35 19. ainton 1.17 8 Clinton 22 20. Chariton 1.05 41 Lucas 15 21. Clarinda 1.04 40 Page 76 State of Iowa 1.03 Average 22. Ft. Madison .90 19 Lee 14 23. Muscatine .87 11 Muscatine 43 24. Waterloo .82 7 Black Hawk 33 25. Shenandoah .80 27 Page 76 26. Sioux City .71 2 Woodbury 13 27. Washington .68 36 Washington 36 28. Dubuque .60 4 Dubuque 40 29. Centerville .58 20 Appanoose 91 30. Cherokee .55 30 Cherokee 87 31. Creston .43 21 Union 52 32. Perry .43 32 Dallas 78 33. Council Bluffs .38 6 Pottawattamie ( 88 23 Floyd 70 39 Mills 96 38 Plymouth 83 24 Hamilton 41 29 Monroe 82 34 Cass 90 33 Jasper 73 31 Montgomery 98 76 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 34. Charles City .34 35. Glenwood .33 36. Le Mars .24 37. Webster City .19 38. Albia .00 39. Atlantic .00 40. Newton .00 41. Red Oak .00 This table like the one giving comparative count}' records, bears evidence as to the significance of proximity and easy ac- cess to sanatoria. Iowa City and Cedar Rapids, the cities most conveniently located, ranking first and third respectively. Comment has already been made upon the high record of Powe- shiek County in which Grinnell is located. Black Hawk County had a low rank comparatively. Waterloo, its largest city, par- allels this with quite a low rate, but Cedar Falls in the same county ranks high. Despite the presence of county institutions at hand Des Moines and Davenport rank fairly high in ad- missions to Oakdale. Sioux City, however, ranks low. Musca- tine has a fairly low rate as also has Council Bluffs. Oskaloosa has a high rank though the rate of Mahaska County as a whole is low, Centerville and Albia in Appanoose and Monroe coun- ties respectively rank low, Albia having no admissions at all in the six years for which data is available. A marked feature in this table is the small number of cities with a record higher than the State average, only twenty-one, as compared with from thirty to thirty-six in the tables on in- ebriate hospital, penal, and industrial school commitments. In view of the lowness of the rate for the open countiy, this makes it evident that the larger cities must for the most part have the higher rates. The use of Spearman's "foot-rule" measure of correlation gives a coefficient of .193 with a probable error of .067, fairly high when we consider the incomplete character of the data for Davenport, Des Moines, Sioux City, and Dubuque, Of the thirty-seven counties in which these forty-one cities * are located, eighteen come within the upper thirty-seven coun- ties in rate of admissions to tuberculosis sanatoria. Of the twenty cities in the remaining nineteen counties, one half or ten DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 77 are under 5000 population, two between 5000 and 6000, three be- tween 6000 and 7000, but the remaining five range from 9000 to 38000. CAEE OF FEEBLE-MINDED There is little of special significance in the care of the feeble- minded. One large state "Institution for Feeble-Minded Children" has been provided and is under the efficient super- vision of the State Board of Control. But this institution can not care for all the feeble-minded. Many are given food and shelter and perhaps some care in the various county homes in the State, institutions without supervision, and whose inmates come and go pretty much as they please. A few, but very few, are reported as present in private sanatoria or hospitals. SOURCES OF STATISTICAL DATA Data in regard to the feeble-minded in the State institution at Glenwood is provided in, the biennial reports of the State Board of Control. As has already been mentioned in the discus- sion of the data on county home population, the data is repre- sentative if not absolutely accurate. Additional data in regard to private institutions was secured through the sending of ques- tionnaires to the county home stewards. RECORDS OF INDIVIDUAL COUNTIES Owing to the fact that data in regard to the feeble-minded in county homes deals with inmates present, not with admissions, all tables in which they are included have necessarily been made out on that basis, and rates given are based on the average num- ber present on June thirtieth of the years for which data is available. No satisfactory infonnation in regard to those in county homes is to be secured for the period before 1901 or for the biennium 1907-1908. Table XXIII summarizes for us the data secured. 78 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES TABLE XXIII^ Comparative Table, Feeble-Minded From Counties of Iowa in Institutions, 1901-1916 No. per 1000 Rank of county in per cent of ur County population ban population 1. Mills 1.45 27 2. Jones 1.22 40 3. Davis 1.20 99 4. Cass 1.15 28 5. Crawford 1.12 65 6. Lee 1.11 11 7. Marshall 1.10 16 8. Union 1.10 15 9. Jackson 1.09 47 10. Page 1.04 21 11. 12. Ringgold Madison 1.04 1.02 80 83 13. Lucas 1.01 49 14. Louisa .98 57 15. Jefferson .98 63 16. Harrison .97 48 17. Fremont .97 89 18. Keokuk .95 45 19. 20. Wapello Des Moines .93 .93 9 6 21. Decatur .92 55 22. Clarke .91 75 23. Van Buren .88 72 24. 25. Montgomery Jasper .88 .87 22 53 26. Adams .85 96 27. Adair .84 88 28. Greene .83 64 29. 30. Taylor Woodbury .83 .82 59 2 31. 32. Washington Mahaska .82 .81 50 41 33. Benton .81 37 34. Humboldt .80 42 35. Dallas .80 25 36. Cedar .79 74 37. Polk .77 1 38. Allamakee .72 87 39. Iowa .70 94 40. Cerro Gordo .69 13 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 79 Average 77 34 3 81 10 4 7 44 70 12 38 36 20 86 76 56 67 68 23 62 39 85 43 78 8 52 18 60 19 46 31 69 29 84 5 14 82 66 90 17 51 54 35 24 33 58 92 91 State of Iowa .69 41. Delaware .69 42. Powesheik .68 43. Scott .66 44. Kossuth .65 45. Muscatine .65 46. Dubuque .64 47. Linn .63 48. Bremer .63 49. Clayton .63 50. Pottawattamie .62 51. Wayne .62 52. Calhoun .62 53. Boone .62 54. Grundy .62 55. Ida .61 56. Marion .60 57. Buchanan .58 58. Howard .58 59. Johnson .57 60. Dickinson .57 61. Mitchell .57 62. Hancock .56 63. Fayette .56 64. Monona .56 65. Clinton .56 66. Tama .55 67. Floyd .55 68. Sac .54 69. Appanoose .53 70. Henry .52 71. Warren .52 72. Guthrie .52 73. Hardin .52 74. Butler .51 75. Black Hawk .51 76. Webster .49 77. Osceola .49 78. Buena Vista .48 79. Pocahontas .45 80. Story .45 81. Winnebago .45 82. Sioux .45 83. Hamilton .44 84. Wrio^ht .43 85. Carroll .42 86. Palo Alto .42 87. Shelby .41 88. Winneshiek .41 89. Clay .40 90. Monroe .39 91. Plymouth .39 92. Worth .38 93. Audubon .36 94. Franklin .34 95. Cherokee .33 96. 'Brien .31 97. Lyon .28 98. Chickasaw .17 99. Emmet .08 80 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 79 98 61 97 95 93 30 26 71 73 32 One is at once impressed with the comparatively large pro- portion of counties with a rate above the State average, forty as compared with thirty-three in the table dealing with the tuberculous. In no previous table has so large a number come above the State average, though that on county home inmates approached it. This fact would indicate a lesser degree of cor- relation between rate and per cent of urban population. The same point is brought out by a more detailed study of the forty counties above the State average, and of the lower twenty counties. Of the forty we find only fifteen instead of the nor- mal sixteen, in the upper forty counties in per cent of urban population. Of the forty, however, twenty-one instead of the normal twenty come in the upper half of the counties in urban per cent. The lower twenty counties in the table include in their number six from the lower twenty counties in. urban per cent and thirteen from the lower half, instead of the normal four and ten respectively. Our evidence from this quarter in regard to correlation is inconsistent and inconclusive. Forty counties have rates above the State average and fifty- nine below. The range above the State average is .76 as com- pared with .61 below, but with the elimination of the two ex- tremes the range above is only .53 as compared with .52 below. There would seem here to be some evidence of correlation of rate with population. The use of Spearman's formula gives a coefficient of correlation of .076 with a probable error of .043. There may be true correlation but the evidence is not con- clusive. Turning now to a consideration of the records of individual counties we find that the people of the immediate vicinity of the DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 81 State institution have evidently learned to utilize it, since Mills County, in wiiich Glenwood is located, has the highest rate. Witiiin the first ten are found three other counties located com- paratively near Glenwood, Cass, Union and Page. Crawford too is fairly near and has direct railway connections with Coun- cil Bluffs, quite near by. It is remarkable that these counties, witiiout any large cities should show such a record, despite the obscuring influence of the fact that feeble-minded in the county home, as well as those at Glenwood, are included. The table shows certain other pecularities. Pottawattamie County, though containing a large city. Council Bluffs, and near at hand has a very low record, ranking fiftieth, paralleling the record of this comity in admission to tuberculosis sanatoria. The first five counties in the table contain no cities above 5000 in population. Lee and Marshall counties, containing Keokuk and Marshalltown respectively, rank sixth and seventh, but thereafter no county with a city over 5000 appears until we reach Wapello and Des Moines, ranking nineteenth and twen- tieth. Of the counties containing the really large cities of the State, "Woodbury comes thirtieth and the others are scattered all the way from thirty-seventh to seventy-fifth. ^lahaska ranks thirty-second, ]\Iouroe and Appanoose, the chief mining counties, ninetieth and sixty-ninth. City and mining camp con- ditions seem to have little influence on the record. Use of Spear- man 's formula gave a coefficient of only .076, with a probable error of .043 for the correlation between rank in feeble-minded in institutions, and rank in urban per cent. This is by no means conclusive evidence of real correlation. In fact the chief item of general interest in the table is the suggestion of correlation between the number of inmates in institutions and proximity or access to the State Institution for Feeble-lMinded at Glenwood. In connection with this point, Table XXIV, giving the record of the twent}^ counties with the highest average rate for inmates in the State Institution at Glenwood will be of interest. 82 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES TABLE XXIV-^» Comparative Table, Inmates of State Institution for Feeble-Minded Children From Twenty Counties With Highest Eates, 1901-1916 No. inmates per County 1000 population 1. Mills 1.24 2. Cass 1.01 3. Union .95 4. Harrison .93 5. Page .92 6. Crawford .91 7. Marshall .91 8. Montgomery .84 9. Adams .84 10. Madison .82 11. Ringgold .80 12. Des Moines .78 13. Woodbury .78 14. Clarke ' .78 15. Jones .77 16. Humboldt .77 17. Jackson .75 18. Polk .72 19. Fremont .71 20. Dallas .71 GlenAvood is located in i\Iills County not far from the south- west corner of the State. Keeping this in mind, let us turn our attention to the portion of the State, lying west of the middle point in the southern boundarj^ and south of the middle point in the western boundary, forming roughly the south-west quar- ter of the State, and containing somewhat less than one-fourth its area. Within this section are included the whole of nine- teen comities and a large portion of two others. Of the twenty- one counties, instead of a normal four or five, we find thirteen within the number of the twenty counties of highest rank in rate of inmates of the State Institution for Feeble-Minded Children. Of the eight counties not included five are on the northern or eastern border of the section, comparatively remote from Glenwood. Of the four counties bordering Mills, three are included in the table, and the fourth, Pottawattamie, has already been noted as having a somewhat abnomially low rec- ord in other tables. Yet it ranks higher in this table than in DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, bfeLlNQitJEl^TS' " y 83', any other for defectives. There is certainly clear evidence tiiat a quite disproportionate share of the inmates of the State Insti- tution are drawn from the quarter of the State in which it is located. RECORD OF RURAL AND URBAN DIVISIONS While we have thus far found little evidence of any correla- tion between rate of inmates in institutions for the feeble- minded and urban residence. Table XXV, summarizing the data on this point, so far as inmates of the State Institution at Glen wood are concerned, will be of interest. The table is based on admissions, not number of inmates, as the nature of the data available necessitated. TABLE XXYio Admissions to State Institution for Feeble-Minded Children, 1909-1916 Kural or urban No. per 1000 division population Country .32 Villages and towns .84 Towns 2000-4000 .70 Towns 4000-8000 .68 Cities 8000-25,000 .85 Cities 25,000 and over . .71 The chief points that impress us from this table are the usual low record of the open country, the quite high record for vil- lages and towns under 2000, almost equalling the highest urban rate, and the lack of correlation between size of urban centers and the rates. This table bears strong witness to the much greater contrast between conditions in the open country and villages, than between those in villages and larger urban centers. We are, however, struck by the fact that llie village rate is higher than that for most classes of cities. A possible partial explanation lies in the fact that the southwestern, quarter of the State, already shown to furnish an abnormal proportion of the inmates of the institution at Glenwood, contains but a very small proportion of the cities of the State, only eight of the forty-one over 4000 in population. Table XXV is unsatisfactory in. that it is based only upon 84 UNITEBSITY OF IOWA STUDIES data for the State institution, data for the county homes not being available. An effort was made through the sending of a questionnaire to the steward of each county home to secure comparable data in regard to these institutions. Returns were incomplete and often unsatisfactory, but apparently reliable returns in regard to the feeble-minded were secured from counties containing about one-fourth the population of the State. For the larger urban groups information was secured from an insufficient number of cities for the rates to be trust- worthy. For the total population., the open country, and the urban groups of smaller size, the results should be accurate. The findings are summarized in Table XXVI. TABLE XXVI^^ Rural aud Urban Comparison, Feeble-Minrled In County Homes, Certain Counties of Iowa, August, 1917 Division No. per 1000 considered population Total population covered .28 Country .30 Villages .28 Towns 2000-4000 .22 Town's 4000-8000 .38 Cities 8000-25,000 .31 Cities 25,000 and over .04 The chief point of interest in this table is the high rate for the open country, somewhat higher than the average rate for the total population covered. Rural districts, as compared with urban centers, care for a larger proportion of their feeble- minded in the county homes. The reason for this is not- appar- ent. Possibly the rural districts are less well informed in re- gard to facilities provided at the State institution, and more familiar with the county home, located as it is on a farm in the open country. Possibly, also, this may indicate a greater tend- ency for rural districts to neglect the feeble-minded, until they become dependent and are sent to the county home as paupers. The rate of rural admissions to Glen wood as compared with the State average, 1910-1916, was .32 as contrasted with .59. For inmates in county homes the comparative rates for the DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 85 area studied are .30 and .28 respectively. More feeble-minded are admitted to Glenwood iu each bieunium than are present at any one time in all the county homes. Accordingly the rate of the country, slightly above the average for county homes, is far from counterbalancing the open country's comparatively low record in admission to Glenwood. So far as inmates in insti- tutions are concerned, the rate for the open country is very much below the average, and still farther below the rate for any class of urban centers. A careful study of feeble-mindedness in. New Hampshire, however, in which care was taken to locate all cases outside institutions as well as inside, gave the following result: "The relative amount of feeble-mindedness gradually increases from the smallest proportion in the most populous county in the state, to the largest in. the tw^o most remote and thinly popu- lated counties, showing clearly the extent of the social needs of the rural districts. "^^ RECORDS OF INDIVIDUAL CITIES Table XXVII gives us the data available as to the admissions from the cities of the State over 4000 in population, and iu parallel columns the rank of the counties, in which the cities are located, in average rate of inmates present in the State Insti- tution for Feeble-Minded. TABLE XXVII''-^ Comparative Table, Admissions to State Institutiou For Feeble-Minded Children From Cities of Iowa, 1906, 1909-1916 Rank of County iu county in No. per 1000 Bank in which average no City population popu latioi 11 located inmates 1. Creston 2.31 21 Union 3 2. Newton 1.95 33 Jasper 28 :i. Atlantic 1.75 34 Cass 2 4. Des Moines 1.62 1 Polk 18 5. CTiariton 1.58 41 Decatur 32 6. Glenwood 1.48 39 Mills 1 7. Ottiiniwii 1.41 10 Wapello 26 8. 8ioux City 1.34 2 Woodbury 13 86 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 9. Boone 1.26 16 Boone 56 10. Marion 1.14 35 Linn 48 11. Mason Oity 1.07 15 Cerro Gordo 30 12. Shenandoah 1.00 27 Page 5 13. Council Bluffs .99 6 Pottawattamie 33 14. Burlington .99 9 Des Moines 12 15. Waterloo .97 7 Black Hawk 89 16. Le Mars .96 38 Plymouth 76 17. Oskaloosa .95 18 Mahaska 35 18. Keokuk .93 13 Lee 22 19. Albia .91 29 Monroe 84 20. Cedar Falls .89 26 Black Hawk 89 21. Davenport .86 3 Scott 40 22. Marshalltown .82 14 Marshall 7 23. Grinnell .79 25 Poweshiek 67 24. Clarinda .78 40 Page 5 25. Ft. Dodge .77 12 Webster 64 26. Webster City .77 24 Hamilton 72 27. Clinton .74 8 Clinton 50 28. Ames .71 37 Story 75 29. Washington .68 36 Washington 80 State of Iowa .65 Average 30. Muscatine .62 11 Muscatine 38 31. Cedar Eapids .61 5 Linn 48 32. Iowa City .59 17 Johnson 41 33. Dubuque .55 4 Dubuque 42 34. Centerville .43 20 Appanoose 63 35. Bed Oak .41 31 Montgomery 8 36. Fairfield .40 28 Jefferson 95 37. Ft. Madison .22 19 Lee 22 38. Cherokee .00 30 Cherokee 93 39. Perry .00 32 Dallas 20 40. Charles City .00 23 Floyd 69 41. Oelwein .00 22 Fayette 92 This table presents some evidence parallel to that already noted in regard to the influence of proximity to GlenMood upon the use made of the State institution. Creston ranking first and Atlantic ranking third are both comparatively near it. Glenwood itself ranks sixth. Shenandoah and Council Bluffs rank twelfth and thirteenth. Des Moines ranks fourth but, while just within the south-west quarter it is too far distant for this fact to be of much significance. There are but two other cities of over 4000 in the south-west quarter, Clarinda and Red Oak, and these have comparatively low rank. Of the eight DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 87 cities in the entire section, six come in the upper one-third. The section contains, however, a very small proportion of the cities of the State. Large cities do not rank very high in the table, perhaps owing in part to the distance of most of them from Glenwood. Council Bluffs, however, though quite near at hand is almost a third of the way dovv-n the list. Des Moines located on the edge of the south-west quarter of the State, ranks fourth and Sioux City on the western border ranks eighth. Ottumwa, directly east of Glenwood on a through line of raib.vay ranks seventh. Burling- ton and Waterloo have somewhat higher records than in most tables, — ranking fourteenth and fifteenth respectively. The other large cities are well scattered through the remainder of the table, Dubuque ranking lowest, thirty-third. Of the forty- one cities, twenty-nine have rates above the State average, a con- siderably larger number than in the corresponding table on ad- missions to the State Tuberculosis Sanatorium. The use of Spearman's formula gives no evidence of correlation between rate and size of city, the coefficient resulting being .007 with a probable error nearly ten times as large, .067. Of the thirty-seven counties containing the forty-one cities, seventeen as compared with a normal fourteen come within the upper thirty-seven counties in rate for inmates in Glenwood. The comparatively high rates for villages and towns under 2000 and the small proportion of cities in the south-west part of the State are probably the factors rendering this possible in spite of the low rate for the open country. FEEBLE-MINDED OUTSIDE INSTITUTIONS It must be borne in mind that but a fraction of the feeble- minded are cared for in the State institution. "Reliable statis- tics concerning defectives in this country are not in existence, but we may probably assume that there is one feeble-minded per- son to every five hundred of the general population, or say, four thousand five hundred to the State of Iowa. I refei- to those who are generally recognized as such." Including all those properly classed as feeble-minded, something over six thousand has been given as a fair estimate of the total number in lowa.^'' Yet in 88 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES June, 1916, the Iowa Institution for Feeble-Minded Children contained only 1,494 inmates, while only 265 persons classified as feeble-minded were to be found in the county homes, a total of 1,759 or less than. 40 per cent of the minimum estimate. ]More accurate data as to total number of feeble-minded is given in a study of feeble-mindedness in New Hampshire. "In the whole state there are 947 cases of feeble-mindedness in insti- tutions and 2019 recorded cases at large. In the fifty-two towns studied intensively the questionnaires showed 350 cases and the personal canvass 1,391. Supposing that this rate of actual cases to cases reported in answer to the questionnaire prevails in the other 183 towns, the total for the state will stand at 4,115 or near 1 per cent of the population. "<^ Less than one-fourth the probable number of cases in. New Hampshire are in institutions. If this holds for Iowa the total number would be very near seven thousand. No data is available as to the distribution of the large but unknoA\'n number outside institutions. CARE OF THE INSANE Provisions for the care of the insane closely parallels that for the feeble-minded, except that instead of a single institution, we find four, well located — one in each quarter of the State, and that the State Board of Control since 1900 has exerted some supervisory power over county and private institutions. Pre- vious to 1900, as ascertained by a careful investigation, condi- tions in private institutions were good in many respects; tiie inmates were kindly treated, and there is no evidence of any crael treatment or abuses. Tliere was, however, little or no effort toward remedial treatment, most of inmates being of the chronic type of insanity, and insufficient provision was made for the exercise, amusement, and employment of patients. Very different conditions existed in county homes. In a few, conditions were quite good, but there was an utter lack of uni- formity. Of trained attendants for the insane, there were very few. The county steward at best was a good farmer, with little understanding of his insane charges and little time to give to their care. Owing to lack of training, the influence of politics upon the appointment of stewards, the popular demand for economy in the management of the county home, and lack of DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 89 public interest, serious evils existed in many county institu- tions. In some places serious moral abuses were tolerated, or promoted, and in many there was lack of proper facilities for cleanliness, insuiHcient or no provision for separation of the in- sane from otlier classes and of the sexes from one another, and use of barbarous methods for coercion, and restraint of the more violent insane, though only incurable and harmless pa- tients were supposed to be kept in county institutions.^'^ Largely as a result of tliis investigation an act of the General Assembly in 1900 placed under the supervision of the State Board of Control "all county and private institutions in which were kept insane peraons and required that each institution be inspected twice annually." The State Board of Control en- tered at once upon the task of carrying out its new responsibili- ties ; inspections were made ; and regulations were drawn up. According to the 1903 report marked improvement in condi- tions followed as most officials were quite ready to cooperate. The report states that "In few if any, of the county and pri- vate institutions are the inmates so well cared for as they would be in State hospitals. This fact should be sufficient to prevent the construction of new county institutions for the insane and is a strong argument in favor of closing those already, in ex- istence."^'' Further powers were finally granted by law in 1909, but the system of county institutions still continues. The State Board of Control report for 1916 thus summarizes present conditions: "The state inspector of county homes and also of private insti- tutions, has reported to the board regularly the conditions of the various places where the insane are cared for, and gives flatter- ing reports of the care of the insane at private institutions and at most of the county homes. There are a few counties which have been somewhat dilatory in providing the best way of tak- ing care of the insane but these instances are few, and the board of supervisors of the various counties seem to desire to work in harmony with the prevailing notion of the people and of the firmly established notion of the Board of Control of State Institutions, that those of our citizens afflicted with mental dis- eases should receive the best and tenderest care."''« The different counties, however, pursue no uniform policy in 90 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES regard to care of the insane. Some keep all their insane in State institutions, while some provide for a large proportion in their county homes; only one, Clayton, has a hospital under separate management from the county home ; some support a considerable number of insane in private institutions. The private hospitals in the State are four in number. Of these one in recent years has not had more than two or three persons legally adjudged insane under its care. The other private in- stitutions, located in Davenport, Council Bluffs, and Dubuque care for a considerable number of insane most of whom come from Iowa. SOURCES OF STATISTICAL MATERIAL As in earlier phases of this investigation the biennial reports of the State Board of Control were the chief source of data in regard to inmates of both State and county institutions. Cer- tain supplementary data was secured through correspondence with the three large private institutions, county auditors, and county home stewards. In a very few instances county finan- cial reports proved of value. No attempt was made to secure data in regard to the small private hospitals. In some of the biennial reports two sets of figures are given for insane in county institutions, one based on steward's reports, one on the results of inspections under the authority of the Board of Control. The latter figures are those used by the reports in the compar- ative tables for successive years and appear the more accurate. These figures have been utilized in all cases \\iiere the two sets are available. They do not include in their totals the inmates of county homes, ''held as insane but not so adjudged" and these have accordingly not been included in any phase of this study. Whether or not the tuberculous and feeble-minded are to be cared for in an institution is largely a matter of choice rather than of necessity, and practice in this regard varies widely according to the degree of intelligence and social outlook of the communities concerned. This is much less true of the insane. The latter can not be left to Iheir own devices since to leave them would in many cases mean danger to the lives and prop- erty of others. Accordingly we are safe in assuming that the DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 91 records in regard to number of insane in institutions throw some real light on the seriousness of the problem of insanity in the several communities. RECORDS OF INDIVIDUAL COUNTIES Practically complete data in regard to the inmates of State, county, and private institutions from each county of the State was secured. This is summarized in Table XXVIII. TABLE XVIII^s Comparative Table, Inmates in Hospitals For The Insane From Counties of Iowa, 1901-1916 Eank of county No. per 1000 in per cent of County population urban population 1. Lee 3.56 11 2. Scott 3.47 3 .3. Jefferson 3.24 63 4. Henry 3.21 46 5. Des Moines 3.06 6 6. Van Buren 3.21 46 7. Jones 3.06 6 8. Clinton 3.05 72 9. Winneshiek 3.00 40 10. Montgomery 2.98 8 11. Clayton 2.87 70 12. Johnson 2.76 23 13. Mitchell 2.67 39 14. Worth 2.63 97 15. Wapello 2.62 9 16. Boone 2.59 20 17. Allamakee 2.56 87 18. Iowa 2.56 94 19. Lucas 2.54 49 20. Benton 2.53 37 21. Howard 2.51 68 22. Marshall 2.50 16 23. Webster 2.48 14 24. Dubuque 2.46 4 25. Buena Vista 2.40 66 26. Page 2.39 21 27. Madison 2.34 83 28. Marion 2.33 56 29. Ida 2.32 76 30. Hancock 2.32 85 92 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 31. Hardin 2.29 32. Union 2.28 33. Davis 2.28 34. Decatur 2.28 35. Dallas 2.27 36. Mahaska 2.27 37. Chickasaw 2.26 38. 39. Washington Bremer 2.26 2.25 State of Iowa S.23 40. Shelby 2.21 41. Louisa 2.20 42. Delaware 2.20 43. Poweshiek 2.20 44. Buchanan 2.19 45. Polk 2.18 46. Jackson 2.17 47. 48. Floyd Humboldt 2.16 2.13 49. Muscatine 2.11 50. Linn 2.08 51. Tama 2.05 52. Calhoun 2.03 53. Warren 2.02 54. Mills 2.02 55. Adams 2.01 56. Cedar 1.99 57. Clarke 1.97 58. Fremont 1.97 59. 60. Winnebago Fayette 1.96 1.95 61. 62. Plymouth Harrison 1.91 1.90 63. Cass 1.89 64. 65. Clay Crawford 1.87 1.86 66. Cerro Gordo L86 67. 68. 69. Jasper Story Pottawattamie 1.85 1.83 1.80 70. Keokuk 1.79 71. Audubon 1.79 72. Hamilton L78 73. Guthrie 1.78 74. Pocahontas 1.76 75. Sac 1.74 76. Green 1.74 77. Adair 1.74 78. Monona 1.73 29 15 99 55 25 41 73 50 44 Average 92 57 77 34 67 1 47 18 42 10 7 52 36 31 27 96 74 75 89 51 43 61 48 28 79 65 13 53 17 12 45 95 35 69 90 60 64 88 78 79. 80. Woodbury Cherokee 1.71 1.70 81. 82. Wayne Osceola 1.63 1.62 83. 84. Einggold Black Hawk 1.61 1.60 85. Carroll 1.57 86. 87. Taylor 'Brien 1.52 1.52 88. Monroe 1.49 89. Emmet 1.49 90. Franklin 1.48 91. 92. Grundy Palo Alto 1.45 1.44 93. 94. Wright Butler 1.44 1.43 95. Lyon 1.38 96. 97. Appanoose Kossuth 1.38 1.38 98. Sioux 1.31 99. Dickinson 1.20 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 93 2 30 38 82 80 5 33 59 26 98 32 93 86 58 24 84 71 19 81 54 62 In this table we find thirty-nine counties having a rate above the State average, a number exceeded only in the table dealing with the feeble-minded. This would indicate the absence of a high degree of correlation between the rate and the per cent of urban population in the counties. The range above the State average is slightly greater than that below, 1.33 as compared with 1.03, but this is a comparatively slight difference and dis- appears when a small number of counties are eliminated. With the seven counties at either extreme eliminated, the I'auge above is reduced to .77 and that below to only .79. There must then be some correlation. Special examination of the thirty-nine counties above the State average and the twenty counties at the other end of the table gives the following results. The upper thirty-nine counties contain within their number seventeen of the upper thirty-nine counties in rank in per cent of urban population, and twenty- two from the upper half, instead of the normal sixteen and twenty. At the other end of the table, we find in the lower twenty, seven from the lower twenty in urban per cent and twelve from the lower half instead of the normal four and ten. The divergence from the normal is not large but in each in- 94 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES stance it is in the direction of positive correlation, thus reducing the likelihood of its being mere chance variation. The use of Spearman's formula gives .132 as the coefficient of correlation with .043 as the probable error. The evidence points to the existence of actual correlation between rank in rate and rank in per cent of urban population though not correlation of a high degree. Considering now the records of individual counties, we are not especially surprised to find Lee and Scott ranking first and second, as both have cities of importance and a large degree of concentration of population in urban centers. Des Moines County, ranking fifth, contains a large city. In practically every table dealing with criminality it had a low rate, but in dependence and care of defectives it ranked much nearer the top. The only explanation apparent for the rank of Jefferson, Henry and Van Buren counties, third, fourth and sixth in order, is their proximity to the State hospital at Mount Pleas- ant in Henry County. There is no obvious explanation for the record of Jones and Winneshiek, ranking seventh and ninth. Clinton, eighth, has a large city. Montgomery, tenth, has fairly high rank in, urban per cent and is near the State hospital at Clarinda. Clayton has a fairly large county hospital located in a different place from the county home, and may possibly care more completely for its insane in institutions than does the average county. Wapello County, with a bad record in the tables on criminality and dependence, ranks fifteenth. Du- buque County ranks somewhat higher than usual, twenty- fourth. Mahaska County ranks thirty-sixth. Many of the counties containing large cities rank very low, — Polk forty-fifth, Linn fiftieth, Pottawattamie sixty-ninth, Woodbury seventy- ninth and Black Hawk eighty-fourth. It would seem large cities do not have abnormally high rates. Neither do mining counties ; Monroe and Appanoose rank eighty -eighth and ninety- sixth respectively. INFLUENCE OF PROXIMITY TO STATE INSTITUTIONS Attention has already been called, in the discussion of the tuberculous and the feeble-minded, to the influence of proximity to institutions upon rates of admission to those institutions.„ DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 95 Hospitals for the insane are fairly evenly distributed through- out the State. Yet proximity seems to have at least a slight in- fluence. Table XXIX gives the rank and rates of the twenty- five counties of highest rates of inmates in State hospitals for the insane. TABLE XXIX^o Comparative Table, Inmates of State Hospitals for Insaue From 25 Iowa Counties With Highest Rates, 1901-1916 No. per 1000 County population 1. Lee 2.83 2. Mitchell 2.61 3. Jones 2.58 4. Henry 2.57 5. Worth 2.51 6. Howard 2.50 7. Page 2.38 8. Montgomery 2.37 9. Buena Vista 2,34 10. Clinton 2.33 11. Webster 2.32 12. Ida 2.32 13. Iowa 2.32 14. Madison 2.30 15. Hardin 2.25 16. Benton 2.21 17. Shelby 2.21 18. Davis 2.17 19. Union 2.14 20. Humboldt 2.13 21. Buchanan 2.13 22. Floyd 2.09 23. Calhoun 2.03 24. Adams 2.01 25. Delaware 2.00 Within this table we find three out of the four counties contain- ing State hospitals, instead of the normal one. Two of these counties rank quite high. The fourth county, Cherokee, is forty- eighth out of ninety-nine counties in rank in. rate of inmates in State hospitals. All four occur within the upper lialf in rank in rate of inmates. Special attention has been given to the thirty counties either containing a State hospital or touching a 96 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES county which contains one. Of the thirty counties located in closest proximity to State hospitals, seven, instead of the normal six come within the first twenty in Table XXIX, ten, instead of a normal seven or eight, within the first twenty-five. Proxim- ity to a State hospital would seem to have some influence upon the use made of the institution, but the correlation is by no means so close as in the case of institutions for the tuberculous and feeble-minded. Counties containing State insane hospitals rank high, but the influence beyond their borders is not marked. Paralleling this record for Iowa, we quote the following from the report of the Michigan commission to investigate mental de- fectiveness. "It is important to note tliat all counties in which are located the larger State Hospitals for the Insane have high rates. There is no reason for believing that conditions which may be productive of insanity are more prevalent in these counties than in others. These factors are certainly less than in counties of largest population. It seems probable that in these counties a smaller number of insane avoid commitment to insti- tutions than in other counties. This may be due to familiarity with the administration and benefits of institutional treatment, and a more wide-spread interest in the care of the insane, re- sulting from the proximity of a State Hospital, and conse- quently less hesitation in placing those who are insane under treatment. ' '^^ COMPARISON, RECORDS OF MEN AND OF WOMEN In some statements recently made the theory has been put forth tliat among the insane are an abnormal proportion of wo- men from the rural districts, "One statement appearing in a text on agricultural education quotes Georgia Club studies to the effect that '80 to 90 per cent of insane asylum inmates are wives and daughters of farmers.' The state commissioner of common schools of Ohio recently made the statement in a pub- lic address that in one of the Ohio State Hospitals for the in- sane 67 per cent of the women were from the country. The lat- ter statement is probably well founded and points to a real problem in country life." Another author states, as a well known fact, that "in the United States farmer's wives are much more likelv to become insane than are farmers.^- DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 97 In view of the existence of this opinion, an analysis has been made of the comparative records of men and women. Tables XXX and XXXI summarize results for the counties of the State. TABLE XXX--^ Comparative Tabie, Female Inmates in Hospitals for the Insane From Counties of Iowa, 1901-1916 Bank of county No. per 1000 in per cent of County population urban population 1. Lee 1.87 11 2. Scott 1.78 3 3, Jefferson 1.73 63 4. Van Buren 1.62 72 5. Henry 1.58 46 6. Des Moines 1.55 6 7. Montgomery 1.55 22 8. Clinton 1.48 8 9. Clayton 1.40 70 10. Hardin 1.39 29 11. Wapello 1.38 9 12. Decatur 1.32 55 13. Mitchell 1.31 39 14. Ida 1.29 76 15. "Winneshiek 1.29 91 16. Davis 1.29 99 17. Dubuque 1.27 4 18. Madison 1.26 83 19. Jones 1.24 40 20. Johnson 1.19 23 21. Lucas 1.19 49 22. Union 1.16 15 23. Marshall 1.16 16 24. Allamakee 1.16 87 25. Mahaska 1.14 41 26. Boone 1.14 20 27. Buena Vista 1.14 66 28. Muscatine 1.14 10 29. Linn 1.13 7 30. Benton 1.12 37 31. Webster 1.11 14 32. Polk 1.10 1 33. Dallas 1.10 25 34. Bremer 1.08 44 98 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES State of Iowa 1.06 35. Page 1.05 36. Warren 1.05 37. Tama 1.02 38. Washington 1.02 39. Louisa 1.02 40. Cedar 1.01 41. Clarke 1.01 42. Clay 1.01 43. Delaware 1.00 44. Iowa 1.00 45. Poweshiek .99 46. Hmnbodlt .99 47. Chickasaw .98 48. Howard .98 49. Greene .96 50. Jasper .95 51, Marion .95 52. Emmet .94 53. Floyd .94 54. Audubon .94 55. Fayette .94 56. Buchanan .93 57. Jackson .91 58. Winnebago .91 59. Cass .90 60. Adams .89 61. Plymouth .88 62. Carroll .88 63. Worth .85 64. Osceola .85 65. Hancock .83 66. Story .82 67. Harrison .81 68. Woodbury .81 69. Ringgold .80 70. Shelby .80 71. Cerro Gordo .80 72. Pottawattamie .80 73. Calhoun .79 74. Fremont .79 75. Mills .78 76. Butler .76 77. Sac .76 78. Taylor .75 79. Black Hawk .75 80. 'Brien .74 81. Cherokee .73 82. Adair .73 Average 21 31 52 50 57 74 75 79 77 94 34 42 73 68 64 53 56 32 18 95 43 67 47 51 28 96 61 33 97 82 85 17 48 2 80 92 13 12 36 89 27 84 60 59 5 26 30 88 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 99 83. Hamilton 84. Guthrie 85. Keokuli 86. Wayne 87. Crawford 88. Wright 89. Monroe 90. Palo Alto 91. Monona 92. Sioux 93. Pocahontas 94. Lyon 95. Grundy 96. Kossuth 97. Appanoose 98. Franklin 99. Dickinson .73 .72 .70 .67 .67 .64 .64 .63 .62 .59 .59 .59 .56 .52 .51 .44 .37 35 69 45 38 65 24 98 58 78 54 90 71 86 81 19 93 62 TABLE XXXI^^ Comparative Table, Male Inmates in Hospitals for the Insane, From Counties of Iowa, 1901-1916 Eank of county No. inmates per in per cent of County 1000 population urban population 1. Worth 1.77 97 2. Jones 1.76 40 3. Winneshiek 1.69 91 4. Scott 1.69 3 5. Lee 1.68 11 6. Henry 1.63 46 7. Johnson 1.57 23 8. Iowa 1.56 94 9. Howard 1.53 68 10. Des Moines 1.51 6 11. Jefferson 1.51 63 12. Clinton 1.50 8 13. Hancock 1.49 85 14. Clayton 1.47 70 15. Boone 1.45 20 16. Van Buren 1.43 72 17. Montgomery 1.41 22 18. Shelby 1.40 92 19. Benton 1.40 37 20. Allamakee 1.40 87 21. Marion 1.38 56 22. Webster 1.36 14 23. Mitchell 1.36 39 100 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 24. Lucas 1.35 25. Page 1.35 26, Marshall 1.34 27. Chickasaw 1.28 28. Buena Vista 1.26 29. Buchanan 1.26 30. Jackson 1.26 31. Washington 1.24 32. Wapello 1.24 33. Calhoun 1.24 34. Mills 1.23 35. Floyd 1.22 36. Poweshiek 1.21 37. Delaware 1.20 38. Dubuque 1.20 39. Crawford 1.19 40. Louisa 1.19 41. Fremont 1.18 42. Dallas 1.17 43. Pocahontas 1.17 44. Bremer 1.17 State of loiva 1.17 45. Humboldt 1.15 46. Mahaska 1.13 47. Adams 1.12 48. Union 1.12 49. Monona 1.11 50. Keokuk 1.08 51. Harrison 1.08 52. Madison 1.08 53. Polk 1.07 54. Guthrie 1.06 55. Cerro Gordo 1.06 56. Hamilton 1.06 57. Winnebago 1.05 58. Franklin" 1.05 59. Plymouth 1.03 60. Tama 1.03 61. Ida 1.03 62. Fayette 1.02 63. Adair 1.01 64. Story 1.01 65. Pottawattamie 1.00 66. Davis 1.00 67. Cass .99 68. Sac .99 69. Warren .99 70. Cedar .98 49 21 16 73 66 67 47 50 9 36 27 18 34 77 4 65 57 89 25 90 44 Average 42 41 96 15 78 45 48 83 1 69 13 35 51 93 61 52 76 43 88 17 12 99 28 60 31 74 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 101 71. Muscatine .97 72. Cherokee .97 73. Wayne .96 74. Clarke .96 75. Decatur .96 76. Linn .95 77. Green .94 78. Hardin .91 79. Woodbury .90 80. Jasper .89 81. Grundy .88 82. Appanoose .87 83. Clay .86 84. Kossuth .86 85. Black Hawk .85 86. Monroe .85 87. Audubon .85 88. Dickinson .83 89. Palo Alto .81 90. Ringgold .81 91. Lyon .79 92. Wright .79 93. 'Brien .78 94. Osceola .77 95. Taylor .77 96. Sioux .72 97. Carroll .69 98. Butler .66 99. Emmet .55 10 30 38 75 55 7 64 29 2 53 86 19 79 81 98 95 62 58 80 71 24 26 82 59 54 33 84 32 In a comparison of these tables we note, first of all, that in the table for women, only thirty-four counties have records above the State average as compared with forty-four in the table for men. The range above and below for women is .81 and .69 re- spectively, for men .60 and .62. This would lessen the signifi- cance of the location of the State averages, as evidence of high- er degree of correlation between women's rates and concentra- tion of population, as compared with the rates for men, but would not entirely offset it. There seems greater range of var- iation in the rates for women, the highest being .10 higher than the highest for men, and the lowest .18 lower tlian the lowest for men. Of considerable interest are the comparative records of indi- vidual counties. In the table for women, Lee and Scott, two counties, largely urban in character, have the hig'iest i-ates, 102 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES but in the table for men these are surpassed by Worth, Jones, and Winneshiek counties. Of these Jones has not very high rank in urban per cent and the others very low rank. Of the counties containing cities of importance Des Moines ranks sixth in the table for women, tenth in that for men. Clinton ranks eighth in that for women, twelfth in that for men. WapeUo drops from eleventh to thirty-second, and Dubuque from sev- enteenth to thirty-eighth; ^Muscatine, Linn and Polk counties likewise drop from twenty-eighth, twenty-ninth and thirty-sec- ond in the table for women to seventy-first, seventy-sixth and fifty-third in that for men. Woodbury and Black Hawk change from sixty-eighth and seventy-ninth in the table for women to seventy-ninth and eighty-fifth in the table for men. On the other hand Webster and Pottawattamie counties rise from thirty -first and seventy-second in the table for women to twenty- second and sixty-fifth in the table for men. Of the thirteen counties containing the thirteen largest cities in the State, eleven have a higher rank in the table for women than in the table for men. The evidence certainly indicates that the com- paratively high rates for women are in the urban rather than the rural communities. Use of Spearman's formula gives similar results. The coef- ficient of correlation, between rank in rate of inmates in insane hospitals and rank in urban per cent is .173 for the table for women, .074 for the table for men, with the same probable error of .043. RECORD OF RURAL AND URBAN DIVISIONS In the discussion of this question of whether or not a dispro- portionate number of women in the rural districts become in- sane, Table XXXII will be of interest. Because of the character of data available this is based upon admissions, not upon num- ber of inmates, and includes only those admitted to State insti- tutions. DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 103 TABLE XXXII54 Rural and Urban Admissions to State Hospitals for Insane, 1909-1916 Division considered No. per 1000 population Males Females Total State as whole 2.00 1.44 3.44 Country 1.24 .61 1.85 Villages and towns 3.20 2.69 5.89 Towns 2000-4000 2.81 2,48 5.29 Towns 4000-8000 2.30 1.86 4.16 Cities 8000-25,000 2.86 2.10 4.96 Cities 25,000 and over 2.29 1.85 4.14 Considering first the totals for different rural and urban divisions, we find that the total rate for the open country is con- siderably less than half that for any other division and not very much above half the State average. Quite astonishing, howfver, is- the rate of villages and towns under 2000, consid- erably higher than that for any other division considered, and in addition very near in rate we find the class of towns next larger in size, those from 2000 to 4000. Rates for the larger cities are lower, though not decreasing regularly with the in- crease in population. All urban centers have much higher rates than does the open country, but there is no great degree of correlation, either direct or inverse, between rate and size of the urban center. All urban divisions likewise have rates con- siderably above the State average. Turning now to a consideration of the rates for men and wo- men we find that those for each rise and fall with the changes in division considered, in a way paralleling the fluctuations in total rate already noted. Contrasts, however, are noticeable. The rate for men is always considerably^ higher than that for women. According to the statements quoted earlier in the section, though not according to tlie records found for Iowa, we would expect this contrast to be least for the open country, if apparent there at all. Instead we find it greatest here. Not only is the rate of insanity among women lower in the open country than elsewhere, but it is much lower there tlian else- where in comparison with tlie rate for men and the total rate. For the open country the rate for women is less than half tliat 104 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES for men. For the State as a whole it is almost three-fourths, while for all urban divisions it is higher still, the ratio being least for cities 8000-25000. It must be borne in mind that this table considers admissions to State institutions only and would have been altered if data for private and county institutions could have been included in it. During the period studied the numbers of men, and of women included among the insane in county homes have been practically equal, the exact average for men being 469.6 and that for women 468.7, and as will be shown later, a somewhat larger proportion of these come from the open country than is true of inmates of the State hospitals. The State institutions, however, have contained over four-tifths of the insane in public institutions. About one and a half times as many women as men are cared for in the private institutions. These, however, are located in Davenport, Council Bluffs, and Dubuque, and draw a very high per cent of their population, considerably more than Avhat comes from this State from the three counties, Scott, Pot- tawattamie and Dubuque. As has already been noted two of the three rank higher in the table of county rates for insanity among women, than in the corresponding table for men. Com- plete data for county and private institutions would no doubt tend to counterbalance the very low rate for women, in the open country, but would be far from sufficient to fully offset it. Because of interest in a comparison of rural and urban rates of insanity, questionnaires were sent to the county home stew- ards in an effort to get accurate knowledge of the proportion of county home inmates of different classes coming from the open country and from urban centers as classified according to pop- ulation. As already noted, results were incomplete but repre- sentative and trustworthy except for the cities of larger size. Regret is felt that little information in. regard to sex division of the inmates was obtained. Table XXXIII summarizes the returns. DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 105 TABLE XXXIII55 Kural and Urban Insanity in County Homes, Certain Counties of Iowa, August, 1917 Division No. insane per considered 1000 population Total population .57 Country .58 Villages and towns .37 Towns 2000-4000 .67 Towns 4000-8000 .32 Cities 8000-25,000 ,64 CHties 25,000 and over 1.01 Upon comparing this table with the parallel one for admis- sions to State institutions for the insane, two features stand out, the comparative increase in rate for the open country, here slightly above the rate for the State as a whole, and the great decrease in the rate for villages and towns under 2000. The open country rate, however, is very little above the State average and, with only one-fourth as many insane in county as State institutions, will not go far toward counter-balancing the record in the other table. The same holds true with reference to the record of villages and towns, though their variations both above and below the State average are larger than those for the open country. Towns 2000-4000 still show a comparatively high rate. The exceedingly high rate for cities above 25000 is based on returns from only one city. RECORD OF INDIVIDUAL CITIES The record for individual cities in total number of insane ad- mitted to State hospitals and the proportions of men and women among them are given in Table XXXIV. 106 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES TABLE XXXIV^" Comparative Table, Admissions to State Hospitals For Insane From Cities of Iowa, 1909-1916 Eank in City population No. per 1000 population 4) AA a S S Males Females Total 1. Atlantic 34 5.92 2.63 8.55 1 14 2. Keokuk 13 4.57 3.14 7.71 2 6 3. Shenandoah 27 3.22 4.22 7.44 13 2 4. Ft. Madison 19 4.27 2.81 7.08 4 10 5. Glenwood 39 2.47 4.52 6.99 27 1 6. Clarinda 40 2.61 3.91 6.52 24 3 7. Cedar Rapids 5 3.32 3.20 6.52 11 4 8. Perry 32 3.67 2,81 6.48 6 11 9. Marshalltown 14 4.56 1.79 6.36 3 29 10. Ames 37 3.16 3.16 6.31 14 5 11. Charles City 23 3.73 2.38 6.11 5 18 12, Oskaloosa 18 3.49 2.54 6.02 8 15 13. Eed Oak 31 2.90 3.11 6.00 20 7 14. Creston 21 3.61 2.17 5.78 7 22 15. Albia 29 3.35 2.35 5.70 10 19 16. Des Moines 1 3.15 2.52 5.67 15 16 17. Ft. Dodge 12 2.51 2.96 5.47 19 8 18. Chariton 41 2.64 2.64 5.27 23 13 19. Mason City 15 3.29 1.87 5.16 12 26 20. Sioux City 2 2.97 2.17 5.14 18 21 21. Cedar Falls 26 2.83 2.30 5.13 22 20 22. Waterloo 7 2.36 2.66 5.02 29 12 23. Centerville 20 2.88 2.02 4.90 21 24 24. Iowa City 17 3.47 1.39 4.86 9 36 25. Boone 16 3.00 1.84 4.83 17 28 26. Fairfield 28 3.02 1.61 4.68 16 32 27. Newton 33 1.73 2.82 4.55 36 9 28. Ottumwa 10 2.45 2.09 4.54 28 23 29. Burlington 9 2.51 1.97 4.48 26 25 30. Le Mars 38 1.92 2.41 4.33 35 17 31. Clinton 8 2.11 1.84 3.95 32 27 32. Muscatine 11 2.23 1.67 3.89 31 31 State of Iowa 2.U 1.61 3.85 29-30 32-3, 33. Davenport 3 2.23 1.56 3.79 30 34 34. Grinnell 25 1.99 1.79 3.77 33 30 35. Washington 36 2.51 1.14 3.65 25 38 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 107 36. Council Bluffs 6 1.95 1.40 3.35 34 35 37. Marion 35 1.59 1.59 3.18 37 33 38. Webster City 24 1.54 1.15 2.69 38 37 39. Dubuque 4 1.22 .99 2,21 40 39 40. Oelwein 22 1.33 .66 1.99 39 41 41. Cherokee 30 1.02 .68 1.71 41 40 As already noted, there is little if any correlation between size of urban center and insanity rate. Superficial investiga- tion of this table points in the same direction. The town with highest rate is of comparatively small size. Keokuk, the sec- ond, is much larger, but the third is again small. No large city is found until we reach Cedar Rapids, seventh in order. Des Moines, the next large city, is sixteenth. Use of Spear- man's coefficient gives like results. No direct correlation is to be found between rank in population and rat« of admission, for all insane, or for either men or women. Elimination from consideration of cities making large use of private institutions and so not offering normal conditions, still left the result in- conclusive ; either no coefficient was obtained or one much less than probable error. Certain towns and cities show peculiar records in the com- parative numbers of men and women admitted to hospitals for the insane, but probably these are not very significant. The absence of data for county and private isstitutions, which receive a larger proportion of women than do the State insti- tutions and the possibilities for chance variation in relatively small cities render such evidence of doubtful value. RECORDS ELSEWHERE By v;ay of comparison certain figures obtained by an anal- ysis of material furnished in the United States Bureau of Census Bulletin on Insane and Feeble-Minded in Institutions, 1910, Avill be of interest." In this report all population living in the open country or villages and towns under 2500 is classed as rural. For Iowa this would seem very unwise, including as it would under one head the divisions of the population having the lowest rate and the highest rate of insanity respect- ively. But the figures are nevertheless of some value. They show that the rate per thousand of admissions to insane hos- 108 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES pitals from rural districts, so defined, was for 1910 .414, that of admissions from urban centers, .860, more than twice as great. Of the total population of the country 53.7 per cent in 1910 was classed as rural. Of the total number of insane ad- mitted to the institutions in that year only 33.6 per cent were of rural residence. In the west north central states, 66.7 per cent of the population was reported as rural but only 51.7 per cent of the insane admitted to hospitals were so classified. In, reference to the question of insanity among women in rural districts, it is worth noting that, for the country as a whole, of the total number of women admitted to hospitals for the insane, only 32.9 per cent were of rural residence while the corresponding figure for men is 34.2 per cent. For the west north central states, the corresponding figures are 48.6 per cent and 54.1 per cent for women and men respectively. There is no evidence here of an abnormal rate of insanity in rural districts. The value of this evidence, however, is min- imized by the inclusion of village population with that of the open country.^^ CHARACTER OF INSANITY The United States Census Bulletin already quoted, a study of admissions to the New York Hospitals, and a study in jMichigan reveal some interesting facts in regard to the differ- ences in character and cause of insanity in rural and urban districts. The United States Census figures show that 15.2 per cent of all admissions to insane hospitals, 21.2 per cent of those from urban, districts, and 10.2 per cent of those from rural districts were for general paralysis or alcoholic psychosis. The rural rate of admission for these types of insanity is .042 per thousand population, while the urban rate is .182 or nearly four and one-half times as great. According to the New York study, "the urban communities appear to contribute to the in- sanity roll because of the dissipations of the city. In 1910, seventeen per cent of all men admitted, and eight per cent of all women admitted to the state hospitals, were admitted be- cause of paresis due to venereal diseases of one sort or another. It is also claimed that 'fully thirty per cent of the men and ten per cent of the women admitted to the state hospitals of New DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 109 York are sent there either directly or indirectly because of the use of alcohol. ' It appears that rural insanity, on the other hand, is more the result of isolation. Melancholia and senile dementia are the characteristic rural mental disorders." The results of the Michigan study likewise go to "show that urban in- sanity is closely related to venereal disease, alcohol and diTigs, while rural insanity is due to hereditary defect, isolation, and old age."5» No serious attempt has been made in this study to secure data in regard to the character of insanity in Iowa, or to compare the character of the insanity of rural with that of urban communities. It should be noted, however, that a con- siderably larger per cent of the rural insane than the urban insane are kept in the county homes. Likewise a much higher proportion of the insane among women than of the insane among men are kept in county institutions. The character of the insanity most common in rural districts and among women may be in a considerable measure responsible. The fact that women, normally less subject to dissipation than men, and rural districts likewise normally less affected by dissipation than urban, show this common tendency supports this idea. Quite likely Iowa conditions parallel those found in Michi- gan and elsewhere as to contrast in character between rural and urban insanity. VII THE INFLUENCE OF CERTAIN FACTORS UPON SOCIAL INFECTION A. SIGNIFICANCE OF RACIAL COMPOSITION OF POPULATION In a consideration of the factors accounting for the varia- tion in criminality and dependence between communities, one of the most common hypothetical explanations is that of dif- ference in racial composition. Accordingly some attempt has been made to investigate the merits of this explanation. The figures given in the United States Census of 1910 as to the per cent of foreign born, and of those of foreign parentage in the various counties and large cities were utilized, and an attempt made to discover the presence or absence of correlation between these and the rates of criminality and dependency in the various counties. The results of this study are in part sum- marized in Table XXXV. TABLE XXXV" Foreign Population and Social Infection: A study of the Twenty Iowa Counties with the Highest Percentage of Population of Foreign Birth or Parentage Counties in order of .2 g .9 .^ -3 "g 'C .+S '= "^ -3 "i § +. <» '3 ST ra 1 per cent of foreign S g .S > | | ^ p. | ^ o | | | | « ^ | §, birth or parentage 5^ 5S ^§^Sig£^gK?gc3.3*^« 1. Sioux 94 99 89 33 83 51 65 84 2. Winnebago 46 43 81 91 73 71 73 96 3. Worth 51 93 74 82 84 87 64 26 4. Lyon 84 97 76 53 87 88 71 98 5. Crawford 50 72 31 67 74 85 90 19 6. Winneshiek 11 58 48 3 46 57 83 54 7. Plymouth 36 30 29 29 94 69 8. Buena Vista 81 89 66 84 82 23 16 61 (110) DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 111 9. Hancock 70 74 93 74 97 75 84 37 10. Scott 6 25 9 35 19 3 7 11 11. Grundy 98 77 98 72 90 59 85 69 12. Osceola 72 87 20 59 81 82 81 60 13. Dubuque 19 57 37 77 36 8 11 14 14. Audubon 80 62 82 57 34 83 59 97 15. Clinton 4 49 33 75 4 14 24 4 16. Humboldt 91 63 75 23 67 25 12 92 17. Ida 78 96 80 30 93 44 18. Kossuth 97 55 84 37 51 48 14 66 19. Shelby 89 95 96 94 96 90 20. Allamakee 63 98 97 51 66 77 79 46 TABLE XXXV Contd. Eecords of Counties in Tables on Tuberculosis, Feeble-Minded and Insane Tubercular Feeble-minded Insane admissions inmates inmates 1. Sioux 93 82 98 2. Winnebago 34 81 59 3.' Worth 4 92 14 4. Lyon 75 97 95 5. Crawford 74 5 65 6. Winneshiek 39 88 9 7. Plymouth 83 91 61 8. Buena Vista 71 78 25 9. Hancock 42 62 30 10. Scott 2 43 2 11. Grundy 68 54 91 12. Osceola 80 77 82 13. Dubuque 40 46 24 14. Audubon 63 93 71 15. Clinton 22 65 8 16. Humboldt 10 34 48 17. Ida 38 55 29 18. Kossuth 27 44 97 19. Shelby 97 87 40 20. Allamakee 81 38 17 In this table the twenty counties with the highest percent- age of population of foreign birth or parentage are considered, and their rank in the various tables of criminality, juvenile delinquency, dependence and defectives is given foi- compari- son. In the twenty counties, with no correlation, we would expect to find one-fifth of twenty or four counties from any given twenty from any other table. The total sum of ranks also, with no correlation, ought normally to be 1000. How 112 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES nearly this is the situation is shown in the table below, which gives the number included in the twenty from the first twenty and also the last twenty of each of the other tables, and the sum of ranks of the twenty in eacli of the other tables. TABLE XXXVI Analysis of Table Showing Effect of Foreign Population Upon Seriousness of Social Infection No. of first 20 No. of last 20 Sum of ranks in first 20 in in first 20 in first 20 for- foreign popu- foreign popu- eign popula- Series compared lation lation tion Normal distribution 4 4 1000 Criminal prosecutions 4 8 1210 Criminal convictions 8 1419 Penal commitments 2 9 1298 Inebriate commitments 1 4 1126 Industrial school commitments 2 10 1357 Juvenile court cases 3 8 1303 Juvenile delinquency 4 8 1200 Total dependency ' 4 6 1137 Tubercular hospital admissions 3 5 1043 Inmates institution feeble-minded 1 8 1312 Inmates, hospitals insane 5 5 965 From this analysis it is perfectly clear that in every case but one if any correlation exists, it is an inverse correlation. In the exceptional case, that of the inmates of hospitals for in- sane, the record is not entirely consistent. While the number in the first twenty and the sum of ranks points to a slightly abnormal rate of insanity, the record for number in the last twenty points the other way. The evidence is inconclusive. The counties with larger foreign element furnish less than a normal per cent of the criminality, delinquency, inebriate commitments, dependence, and of the tuberculous and feeble- minded admissions. Records for the latter two are so largely a measure of intelligent effort toward dealing with the problems, rather than of the seriousness of the problem, that they merit separate consideration. It is to be noted, however, that for the remaining tables the distribution, of ranks for inebriate commitments more nearly approaches the normal. These counties seem to offend most in the direction of inebriety. This DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 113 may be either a direct or an indirect result of a different standard as to the use of alcoholic liquors. The ranks of de- pendence are second in their proximity to normal distribution. In admissions to tubercular hospitals the record of the twenty counties is perhaps as nearly normal as chance varia- tion would permit. There is divergence in both directions, but comparatively slight in either. In reference to the record in feeble-mindedness, it must be noted that only two of the twenty counties considered are located in the southwest quar- ter of the State which, owing to proximity to the State Insti- tution has made comparatively large use of the facilities for care of the feeble-minded. The two counties coming within that section are on its border. There is therefore much rea- son for doubting if this record offers any evidence of true cor- relation between the presence of foreign population elements and neglect in caring for the feeble-minded. The twenty counties considered above are largely rural, only three large cities being included within their borders. The following table shows the situation for the cities of over 25,000 population in 1910, TABLE XXXVII" Comparative Table, Correlation Between Per Cent of Population of Foreign Birth or Parentage and Rate of Commitments or Admissions to State institutions in Iowa Cities above 25,000 in 1910 Inebriate Cities in rank Per cent of Penal commit- Ind. School conmiit- of foreign pop. for( sign ments per commitments ments population birth or prge. 1000 pop. per 1000 per 1000 1. Dubuque 59.5 1.01 .747 .64 2. Davenport 57.5 1.37 1.650 1.35 3. Clinton 53.9 1.21 .860 .86 4. Sioux City 52.5 1.92 1.505 2.11 5. Cedar Rapids 46.2 2.22 2.286 4.36 6. Council Bluffs 40.8 1.97 1.271 2.14 7. Des Moines 34.3 3.47 2.420 4.92 8. Waterloo 34.0 1.05 .936 2.43 114 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES Admissions insti- Admissions Tubercular hos- tutions for hospital pital admissions feeble-minded for insane 1. Dubuque .60 .55 2.21 2. Davenport 1.67 .82 3.79 3. Clinton 1.17 .74 3.95 4. Sioux City .71 1.34 5.14 5. Cedar Eapids 4.63 .61 6.52 6. Council Bluffs .38 .99 3.35 7. Des Moines 2.50 1.62 5.07 8. Waterloo .82 .97 5.02 This table indicates no positive correlation between foreign population and criminality, but rather the opposite. Notable also is the failure of this table to show the tendency toward a higher rate in. inebriate commitments noted in the preceding table. The failure of the cities to show this tendency may pos- sibly be explained by a greater uniformity in the use of liquor characteristic of the foreign element than of the native element in the population. In cities where liquor has been more easily obtained, the native population may tend to use considerably more than where the temptation is absent. The foreign element may be less affected by this presence or absence of temptation. It has been suggested that the inebriates from these particular counties might come from the native element in the population, less able to use liquor in moderation, but this offers no explana- tion, for the relatively low rate from the cities where temptation would be greatest. The foreign element would seem to furnish some little proportion of those committed to the hospitals for inebriates. The attitude of the local authorities toward in- ebriates and their commitment to institutions may, however, be a big factor in explaining the absence of any tendency toward correlation. The record of the cities in admission of defectives roughly parallels the record for criminality, showing a like absence of correlation with per cent of foreign population. In considering this notable absence of excessive criminality or proportion of defectives in Iowa's foreign population, it must be noted that this population is very largely made up of northern Europeans of the old immigration, people who in many cases came to the State years ago and entered primarily into DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 115 agriculture. In 1910 Iowa's foreign born population was 273,765, of which number 252,664, or 92.3 per cent, were fiom Canada or northern Europe.'^- Consequently, comparisons with States receiving a large share of the new immigi-ation from southern Europe, which tends to center in the cities, are hardly possible. As will be noted later, mining counties con- tain a considerable element of the newer immigration and have a different record. B. INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 1. Manufacturing. Another possible factor in the explana- tion of social evils is foimd in the industrial situation. An at- tempt has been made in this study to ascertain, whether indus- trial influences explain anything as to conditions discovered in this State. Data as to the number of people employed in manu- facturing pursuits in all the cities of the State with a popula- tion of 10,000 or more is given in the Federal Census. From this data has been calculated the per cent which the total num- ber of factory employees form of each city's population, and likewise the per cent of children under sixteen working in fac- tories. The results obtained as to total number of employees are given in the follo\\ing table and the rank of each city in jDcnal, inebriate hospital, and industrial school commitments given in comparison, TABLE XXXVIII«^ Comparative Table, Correlation between Per Cent of Population Engaged in Manufacturing and Rates of Commitment to State Institutions, Iowa Cities Above 10,000 in 1910 c r— ■ *: c c •"^ c Q-* rr g 5r -^ (= r; K c f~ *- -1 > o Cities, rank in =*H ■'" "E O c ^ E- O O K <^ or. E- •r g E C cr C ^ ■^ c per cen of pop- lation in manu- facturing Per cer populat manufa P^ E c- a a ^ ■ Ec 'T- *- C H^E^ 1. Muscatine 21.61 1.73 9 .93 14 2.411 2 2. Burlington 17.23 1.44 10 .41 17 .452 17 116 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 3. Dubiujue 13.40 1.01 17 .64 16 .747 16 4. Ottumwa 12.04 2.50 2 4.29 3 1.908 5 5. Waterloo 11.70 1.05 16 2.43 8 .936 14 6. Keokuk 11.00 1.93 6 2.64 6 1.499 10 7. Cedar Eapids 10.87 2.22 3 4.36 2 2.286 3 8. Marshalltown 10.21 1.42 11 2.-54 7 1.944 4 9. Davenport 9.83 1.37 12 1.35 13 1.650 6 10. Clinton 9.44 1.21 14 .86 15 .860 15 11. Sioux City 7.84 1.92 7 2.11 11 1.505 9 12. Mason City 7.18 2.05 4 1.42 12 1.603 7 13. Ft. Dodge 7.17 1.29 13 3.99 4 1.499 11 14. Des Moines 6.23 3.47 1 4.92 1 2.420 1 15. Council Bluffs 4.80 1.97 5 2.14 10 1.271 12 16. Boone 3.19 1.84 8 2.90 5 1.548 8 17. Iowa City 2.79 1.19 15 2.28 9 1.090 13 TABLE XXXVIII ■^. s rt (h O 'S Si rrt '« O ^23 la '^ "^ O a: 3 S c « .2 .2 2 Cities rank in per cent of population S; ■" o -^ e o ^ 6 .° ^ ^ M in manufacturing di .-H C o" c ^ o « 1. Muscatine .87 13 .62 14 3.89 14 2. Burlington 1.69 8 .99 7 4.48 12 3. Dubuque .60 16 .55 17 2.21 17 4. Ottumwa 1.86 6 1.41 2 4.54 11 5. Waterloo .82 14 .97 8 5.02 8 6. Keokuk 2.78 4 .93 9 7.71 1 7. Cedar Eapids 4.63 2 .61 15 6.52 2 8. Marshalltown 1.72 7 .82 11 6.36 3 9. Davenport 1.67 9 .86 10 3.79 15 10. Clinton 1.17 12 .74 13 3.95 13 11. Sioux City .71 15 1.34 3 5.14 7 12. Mason City 1.20 11 1.07 5 5.16 6 13. Ft. Dodge 1.48 10 .77 12 5.47 5 14. Des Moines 2.50 5 1.62 1 5.67 4 15. Council Bluffs .38 17 .99 6 3.35 16 16. Boone 3.96 3 1.26 4 4.83 10 17. Iowa City 5.95 1 .59 16 4.86 9 Muscatine, the city with the largest proportion of its popula- tion engaged in manufacturing pursuits, has the second high- est per cent of industrial commitments. Beyond this no points of special significance appear. Superficial observation of the DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 117 table reveals no correlation between per cent of population employed in factories and rank in commitments or admissions to State institutions and the use of Spearman's formula gives no proof of such a connection. If an}' exists at all it is an inverse correlation. As has already been shown, cities and towns have far higher rates than does the open country, but there is no statistical proof that industrial cities have higher rates than non-industrial cities. The statistics as to the per cent of children under sixteen employed in factories are summarized in Table XXXIX, and the rank of the cities in rate of industrial school commitments is given for comparison. TABLE XXXIX"* Comparative Table, Correlation, Child Labor and Industrial School Commitments in Iowa Cities above 10,000 in 1910 Ind. school Per cent pop. commitments Rank cities Cities in order per child laborers per 1000 industrial cent child laborers . under 16 population commitments 1. Muscatine .786 2.411 2 2. Ottumwa .359 1.908 5 3. Cedar Rapids .293 2.286 3 4. Dubuque .255 .747 16 5. Burlington .243 .452 17 6. Marshalltown .194 1.944 4 7. Fort Dodge .187 1.287 11 8. Keokuk .186 1.499 10 9. Davenport .167 1.650 6 10. Clinton .160 .860 15 11. Des Moines .125 2.420 1 12. Sioux City .094 1.505 9 13. Boone .019 1.548 8 14. Council Bluffs .017 1.271 12 15. Waterloo .011 .936 14 16. Iowa City .000 1.090 13 17. Mason City .000 1.603 7 The rank of Muscatine, Ottumwa, and Cedar liapids would suggest the existence of correlation. The high rank of Des Moines in industrial school commitments despite its low rank in per cent of child laborers need in no way disprove this, since 118 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES in a city of that size other factors would enter. Dubuque and Burlington, however, pretty clearly oifer exceptions to any rule as to correlation, their record being quite in contrast to the facts indicated by the rest of the table. Use of Spearman's formula gave a direct correlation of .1875, with a probable error of .104. This would indicate the existence of correlation, though not to a high degree. With Dubuque and Burlington, eliminated from tlie table, the coefficient of correlation given is .41 with a probable error of .11. It can be assumed that tliere is a considerable degree of correla- tion ordinarily between child labor and juvenile delinquency. The record of Dubuque and Burlington is anomalous. There must be some unusual factors in tlie local situation which are responsible for their low rates of industrial school commit- ments. Dubuque County showed a rank of eighth in rate of juvenile court cases and of eleventh in cases of juvenile delin- quency. Serious delinquency must exist though few are actual- ly committed to the industrial schools. Continuous charity or- ganization work, the efficient work of a police matron employed since 1907, and the reputed conservativeness of the judges, may partially explain the Burlington situation. Anotlier explana- tion of the low degree of correlation which could be shown in actual figures lies in the fact that not all child laborers are in- cluded in this study, but merely tliose employed in factories. The large number engaged as boot-blacks, and in various street trades are not taken into account. Various investigations as to the relation between delinquency and employment have shown that this relation is much closer in the case of the street trades than any other common form of child labor.^^ Un- doubtedly this is a factor in the Des Moines situation. Attention has already been repeatedly called to the evident seriousness of the juvenile delinquency problem at Muscatine. One source of explanation is that this medium sized city has more child industrial laborers in absolute numbers than any other city in the State, and more than twice as many in propor- tion to its size as the nearest city, Ottumwa. 2. Mining. The foregoing tables did not cover the indus- trial field as a whole, but only the conditions in manufacturing cities. Iowa is an important coal mining State, and the coal DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 119 mining communities furnish conditions different from those of the other urban centers. Special attention has accordingly been given to conditions in. the coal mining counties. The material upon which this study is based was obtained from the biennial report of the State Mine Inspectors. Figures for 1914 were available, but it was thought more advisable to use the 1910 statistics since the 1910 census has been used al- most exclusively as the basis both for population and for manu- factures. ]\Ioreover, conditions at a time nearer the middle of the period covered are more liable to be typical of conditions throughout the period than are conditions at the close. There were coal mines in operation in 1910 in twenty-three different counties in Iowa. It was decided, however, not to consider in this study the counties in which less than one per cent of the population was employed in mining. Webster County, though having less than one per cent engaged in coal mining, was included because of the presence of gypsum mines in that county. Neither the 1910 Federal Census nor the State Mine Inspectors' reports give any figures as to the number of men employed in the gypsum mines. Twelve counties in all were considered. Table XL gives the rank of the counties and per cent of population employed in the coal mining industry. In parallel columns is given the rank of each county in each of the chief lines of investigation already taken up. TABLE XL«« Eank of Coal Mining Counties in Certain Representative Tables „ O S 2 s aj C cc x s « »: > 3 ^ a Oj B -« B "o "^ .^ K E « o c o C (U .5.1 § * ■t c « :, t. c S P B •'' c c 1 Miniii rank populi 11 t- B c C '. B si tr. ~ O B n ■is .2 o £ ■2 c Eh re 1. Appanoose 9 5 34 32 49 18 57 19 33 2. Monroe 10 4 11 58 16 58 72 30 57 .3. Mahaska 5 6 7 16 5 9 34 26 18 4. Polk 1 1 1 1 1 1 21 52 31 5. Boone 30 30 41 24 23 33 12 15 3 120 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 6. Wayne 60 41 42 7 12 53 51 48 52 1 7. Jasper 31 38 49 56 28 35 31 55 37 8. Marion 54 16 45 26 76 41 35 34 24 9. Dallas 95 73 58 41 30 32 33 93 72 10. Wapello 13 10 5 2 2 63 6 14 1 11. Adams 57 8 22 94 38 20 92 81 94 12. Webster 93 50 25 5 26 21 61 6 20 Inmates ^ Mining counties ic Tubercular institution Inmates rank per cent of hospital for feeble- hospitals population mining admissions minded for insane 1. Appanoose 91 69 96 2. Monroe 82 90 88 3. Mahaska 55 32 36 4. Polk 6 37 45 5. Boone 7 53 17 6. Wayne 64 51 81 7. Jasper 73 25 67 8. Marion 77 56 28 9. Dallas 78 35 35 10. Wapello 25 19 15 11. Adams 94 26 55 12. Webster 47 76 14 TABLE XLI Analysis of Table Showing Correlation of Mining Population Per Cent and Social Infection No. of 1st 12 No of last 12 Sum of ranks in 1st 12 in in 1st 12 in of 1st 12 in mining popu- mining popu- mining popu Series compared lation lation lation Normal distribution 1 or 2 1 or 2 600 Criminal prosecutions 4 2 458 Criminal convictions 6 282 Penal commitments 4 390 Inebriate hosp. com. 4 1 362 Industrial school com. 4 306 Juvenile Ct. cases 2 384 County home inmates 2 1 505 Outdoor relief 1 1 473 Total dependency 2 1 442 Tubercular hosp. admis 2 2 699 Feeble-minded inmates 1 569 Insane inmates 2 577 From this table it is clear that the twelve counties rank higher in every one of the rates for criminality and dependence than DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 121 should normally be the case. There is evidently some correla- tion. It is, however, much more apparent in the rate as to total number of criminal convictions than in anything else, and much less apparent in the field of dependence than in any phase of crime or delinquency. There is, however, no clear evidence of correlation with number of defectives admitted to institu- tions. Records here are not entirely consistent and chance may account for much of the divergence from normal. Distance of many of the counties from Oakdale and Glenwood may account in part for the absence of high records in admissions to those in- stitutions. In many of these twelve counties, however, but a veiy small proportion of the population is engaged in mining. It is advisable then to give special attention to those in whieli the mining population is clearly an important factor. In three counties in the State, Appanoose, Monroe, and Mahaska, over five per cent of the population is engaged in mining, more than fourteen per cent in Appanoose and Monroe. There is no city in any one of the three which was above 10,000 in 1910, so the factor of mining conditions is fairly well isolated. The high rank of the three counties in rate of criminal convictions and in cost of criminal prosecution is at once seen to be unusual. In other matters the high rank is not so apparent. To set forth the facts clearly, the ranks for the three counties in all the mat- ters considered in the last table are summed up and compared with the normal total in Table XLII. TABLE XLII Comparison of Total Ranks of Three Counties with Highest Per Cent of Miners Series eon)pared Total rank Normal distribution 150 Criminal jirosecutions 24 Criminal convictions 15 Penal commitments 52 Inebriate hosjjital commitments 106 Industrial school commitments 70 Juvenile court cases 85 County home inmates 163 Outdoor relief 75 122 UNIVERSITY OF lOAA^A STUDIES Total dependency 108 Tuberculosis hospital admissions 228 Inmates, institution, feeble-minded 191 Inmates, hospital, insane 220 From this table it is apparent that the three counties have a rank lower than normal in rate of count}' home inmates, but a higher rank in every other table dealing with criminality or dependence. In every phase of criminality .and in outdoor relief the three counties clearly have rates considerably above the normal, but it is far more apparent in the cost of criminal prosecution, and in the total number of criminal convictions, than in anything else. This would indicate that a more than normal proportion of criminal offenses are of a minor character. Yet the rate for penal offenses is far above the normal. Rank in admissions to all t^'pes of institutions for defectives are, on the other hand, abnormally low. Despite the high rank of Monroe County in so many partic- ulars, such conditions would seem in no way characteristic of the purely agricultural portion of that county. In a social and economic survey, made by the author, of a purely rural and agricultural township in this county in 1913, it was discovered that the township had neither constable nor justices of the peace and had had neither for years, without serious inconvenience/'' The only case of outdoor relief at the time was that of a miner living on the border of the township, not far from the coal mine in the next township. The steward of the county home re- ported that there had never been any one in the county home from this township except three transients who had drifted in from another state and who could not properly be considered residents of the township. Since mining and agriculture are the chief occupations in the county, this strengthens the evi- dence already given as to the correlation between a high per cent of mining population and adverse social conditions. In- teresting in this connection is the statement made in 1916 by the steward of the county home of Boone County that the in- mates of the home were "mainly out of the mining camps in and about Boone." Our Iowa mining camps evidenly offer serious social problems. Whether due to actual industrial eon- DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 123 ditions or to the character of population attracted to the mines racially and otherwise, the figures considered do not show. There is present in the mining camps a considerable foreign element of the new South European immigration as contrasted with the old. North European immigration, which has given the State most of its foreign population. Of the three counties just considered, 28.6 per cent of the foreign born population of Appanoose County in 1910 was from southern and eastern Europe, 19.3 per cent of that of Monroe County, and 8.6 per cent of that of Mahaska County, as contrasted with 7.6 per cent for the State as a whole. In 1905 the per cent for Mahaska County was 14.87 as contrasted with 7.0 per cent for the State.''^ This difference in racial make-up may be a partial explanation of conditions. The comparatively slight tendency to criminality and dependence already shown to be characteristic of the for- eign element may not be equally true of these new strains. So far as our evidence goes, the records for defectives do not parallel records for criminality and dependence. Mining coun- ties with records in the latter two lines, quite noticeably unfav- orable, show no similar record in number of defectives admitted into institutions. In case of both the tuberculous and the feeble- minded, this might be explained as due to the lack of proper appreciation of the importance of institutional care. This will hardly account, however, for the low record of admittances to hospitals for the insane, since there is reason to believe the necessity for care of the insane, paralleled by a proper distribu- tion of institutions throughout the State, eliminates largely the influence of this element. Yet the record for the insane cor- responds closely with that for the tuberculous and the feeble- minded. C. CONSTRUCTIVE SOCIAL WORK AND SOCIAL INFECTION The relation between constructive social work and social infection is much more difficult to measure than tlie influence of the factors hitherto considered, as the amount of constructive social work can not be easily reduced to a statistical basis, and moreover no complete and recent data is at hand. An attempt, however, has been made to show what work has been done in the 124 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES larger cities of the State and with what conditions of social in- fection it has been associated. In 1902, there were in Iowa sixteen cities having permanent charity organization societies. By 1906 the number had increased to thirty-nine. Of this number only eight, Des Moines, Keokuk, Burlington, Council Bluffs, Davenport, Marshalltown, Grinuell, and Clinton, had a paid worker for either full or part time. In the Directory of Charity Organization Societies for January, 1916, only seven Iowa cities are included, Des Moines, Fort Dodge, Grinnell, Oskaloosa, Ottumwa, Sioux City and Water- loo. This list, however, is not complete; Ames, Burlington, Clarinda, Clinton, Davenport, Vinton, Estherville, Keokuk and Muscatine should be included, bringing the number up to six- teen. In addition, six have paid probation officers. Council Bluffs, Sioux City, Davenport, Dubuque, Des Moines and Cedar Rapids.*''' Of the places mentioned above, Estherville and Vinton had a population of less than 4000 in 1910. No data in regard to social conditions in these places is available, and the cities are so small that data as to the counties in which they are located would be of little value. Ames, for which information is available only since 1911 has a very low record in penal and industrial school commitments, but a very high one for inebriate hospital com- mitments. The latter may be evidence not of abnormally bad conditions, but of a vigorous social policy. Story County, in which Ames is situated, ranks forty-eighth in total dependency, though the rank in outdoor relief is high. No facts as to Clar- inda are available for the j^eriod since 1910, but of the forty- one loAva cities it ranks eighth in penal commitments, thirty- second in inebriate commitments, and twentieth in industrial school commitments. Page County ranks sixty-third in total dependency. Grinnell has had charity organization work for quite a long period. Within recent years a tliorough reorganization has been effected and a close cooperation with public relief agencies ar- ranged. Grinnell shows no noticeably high rates of commit- ments to institutions for criminals or delinquents. Poweshiek County, however, ranks tenth in total dependency, this high rank being due to the very high rank of the county in outdoor DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 125 relief. It must be noted, however, that the figures as to outdoor relief cover only the five years 1909-1913, and so are not suffi- ciently recent to allow the new plan of organization to have clearly demonstrated itself. Poweshiek County spent .^510,058.67 for outdoor relief in 1911 and $10,246.98 in 1912. In 1913, the first year in which the secretary of the charity organization so- ciety was overseer of the poor in Grinnell, this figure dropped to $8,855.97; in 1914 it dropped to $6,650.77. In 1913 there was, however, no decline in total cost of poor relief, but in 1914 this also showed a decline of over two thousand dollars. Grin- nell and Poweshiek county, alike, show very high rates for ad- misions of patients to the State Tuberculosis Sanatorium. This situation may quite likely be due to the influence of strong social work in the direction of general appreciation of proper care of the tuberculous. Poweshiek county and Grinnell show no es- pecially high records in feeble-mindedness or insanity. Muscatine, with her peculiar industrial conditions and bad record in juvenile delinquency, has no paid probation officer and her charit}^ organization is of very recent date. Muscatine County however ranks only fifty-sixth in total dependence. Neither Muscatine nor Muscatine County rank high in any table for defectives. Keokuk has had organized charities since 1897, but there is no paid probation officer. The city ranks twenty- second, twelfth, and seventeenth in penal, inebriate hospital, and industrial school commitments, while Lee County ranks fifty-sixth in total dependence. Rates for defectives are high. Keokuk ranks seventh, eighteenth, and second in admissions to State institutions for the tuberculous, feeble-minded, and insane respectively. Lee County ranks fourteenth, sixth, and first in tubercular hospital admissions, feeble-minded institution in- mates, and insane hospital inmates respectively. Clinton has had charity organization for some time, but lit- tle evidence is available as to its character. Dubuque has not had organized charity for some years. Both Clinton and Du- buque show bad records in total dependence, Clinton ranking fourth and Dubuque fourteenth. Clinton County has fairly high rank in tuberculous admissions, and quite high in insane hospital inmates. Dubuque has a fairly high rate for juvenile 126 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES court cases but a low rate of industrial school commitments. A truant officer was employed in 1911 and paid probation officer first in 1912, hardly long enough ago to have affected the figures upon which this study is based. All Dubuque County rates for defectives are relatively low, that for insanity being highest, due probably to the presence in Dubuque of a large private hos- pital for the insane. Though Davenport has had organized charities for a considerable period and paid probation officers, Scott County ranks twelfth in total dependence and Davenport tenth in industrial school commitments. Scott County ranks second in admissions to tuberculosis hospitals and second in inmates of hospitals for the insane. Evidently considerable interest is taken in measures for the prevention and cure of tuberculosis, since a large county tuberculosis sanatorium has been established. Davenport contains also an important private hospital for the insane. Ottumwa, Oskaloosa, and Fort Dodge have charity organiza- tions, but have not had them long enough for the figures of this study to be influenced by them. No one of these cities has a paid probation officer. Both Ottumwa and Oskaloosa have bad records in penal and industrial school commitments. Wap- ello county, which contains Ottumwa, has the worst record in the State in total dependence. Both county and city have high rates in admissions to and inmates of institutions for the tuber- culous and feeble minded. A relatively high per cent of the insane seem to be kept in the county home, a factor in explain- ing the dependence rate. Mahaska and Webster counties, con- taining Oskaloosa and Fort Dodge respectively, both come with- in the first twenty counties in total dependence. Oskaloosa has a fairly high rank in tuberculous and insanity tables. Webster county has an abnormally low record for inmates of institutions for the feeble-minded. Though Burlington's present cliarity organization is quite young, it was preceded by similar work dating back to 1891. The police matron does much of the work of a probation officer. The city and county have good records in nearly all phases of criminality and dependence. The county ranks twenty-sixth in total dependence, due partly to a very high rate for county DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 127 home inmates; the city ranks very low in mebriate hospital and industrial school commitments. The conservativeness of the judges is said to be a factor. The county ranks high in all tables dealing with defectives, being sixth in inmates of hospi- tals for the insane. The large number of insane, a relatively high proportion of whom are kept in the county home, accounts in part for the high rank in county home inmates. Council Bluffs has a society doing work approaching that of true organized charities, and also a paid probation officer. The dependence rank of the county, thirty-seventh is fairly low. Ranks in all tables for defectives for both Council Bluffs and Pottawattamie county are low. The rank in admissions to in- stitutions for the feeble-minded is highest, due no doubt to proximity to the state institution at Glenwood. Waterloo has had a Social Welfare League since 1907, which has sought to do not merely relief work but constructive social work along all lines. Waterloo and Black Hawk county have shown good records in most respects. The city has a low rank in industrial school commitments and the county has a fairly low one, thirty-sixth in total dependence. Cedar Rapids has had a paid probation officer since 1909 but has only recently organized its charities. The city shows a bad record for commitments of all kinds and for juvenile court eases. It has been suggested by one in touch with the situation that boys are sometimes committed to the industrial school upon too slight provocation. The county, Linn, ranks sixteenth in to- tal dependence. Rate of tubercular hospital admissions is very high, owing to close proximity to the State Sanatorium. Other rates for defectives are low except that of insane from Cedar Rapids itself. Sioux City has had a Charity Bureau and paid probation offi- cers since 1910. Constructive social work is well organized, centering around the Charity Bureau and tlie juvenile court. For the last five years a progressive educational policy has been followed by tlie public schools. Though second in size, the city is sixteenth in rate of industrial school commitments. Tlie county, Woodbury, ranks sixty-sixtli in total dependence. Rank in all tables for tlie tuberculous and f<'e]>l('-iuiiide(l ar»' fairly high, in those for the insane fairly low. 128 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES Des Moines has had efficient charity organization since 1891 and had paid probation officers and a juvenile home since 1910. The city, however is so much larger than any other in the State as to stand almost in a class by itself. The city shows a very bad record in all phases of delinquency studied. Its record is better for dependency. The county, Polk, ranks thirty-first in total dependence. The city and county show relatively high rank for admissions of defectives to State institutions, but not especially high rank in total number of feeble-minded and in sane in all institutions. There would seem to be a real correlation between the lack of proper social work and records in criminality and dependence. Des Moines, because of its size, offers exceptional conditions, but its one low record is along the line most directly covered by its leading social organization. The cities, which have the worst average conditions next to Des Moines, Cedar Rapids, Ottumwa, Oskaloosa, and Marshalltown — either have no adequate organi- zations or very recent ones. A number of the larger cities, notably Waterloo and Burlington and to a lesser degree Sioux City, with eifective social organizations show better records than smaller cities without them. While its influence can not be ac- curately measured, constructive social work is assuredly an im- portant factor in checking and eliminating criminality and de- pendence.'''' With regard to defectives the case is not so clear. So far as the tuberculous are concerned, and perhaps to a less degree the feeble-minded, there seems to be a correlation between efficient social work and admissions to institutions. Records of Grinnell and Des Moines, possibly of Davenport, Sioux City, and Burl- ington, uphold this conclusion. There is no evidence that social work has as yet been able to reduce the per cent of defectives in the population. Rates of the large cities are in general compar- atively lower for defectives, than for delinquents and depend- ents. As noted in the stud}' of mining town conditions, records for defectives do not parallel at all closely those for dependents and delinquents. The social causes producing defectives prob- ably lie deeper than those producing delinquents and depend- ents and results from changes in conditions do not show them- selves so soon. VIII THE RESULTS AND THEIR SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE A. SmniARY OF RESULTS In the foregoing chapters statistical tables have been pre- sented, showing the criminality, inebriety, juvenile delinquency, dependence, tuberculosis, feeble-mindedness, and insanity, ex- isting in the various counties and cities of the State so far as these conditions can be shown from available data. Some at- tempt has been made to analyze these tables and to show the correlation between these figures and certain circumstances which may have an important influence upon social health. An attempt will be made in tliis cliapter to summarize briefly the phenomena noted. SIGNIFICANCE OF CONCENTRATION OF POPULATION Considerable attention has been given in this study to the evidence as to the correlation or lack of correlation existing be- tween the concentration of population in towns and cities and the amount of social infection. Different lines of approach were followed, which gave evidence of the existence of some cor- relation, which, however, varied considerably in degree accord- ing to the phase of social infection under consideration. The method whereby the degree of correlation for the various social problems studied can be most conciseh^ stated is that of the use of coefficients of correlation, which liave been calculated aeco7*d- ing to Spearman's so-called "foot-rule" measure of correlation. The degree of correlation in the various tables already given is shov.'n in this v.'av in the following table. (129) 130 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES TABLE XLIII Counties — Degree of Correlation with Per Cent of Urban Population Coefficient of Rate correlated correlation Probable error Cost criminal prosecution .207 .043 Rate criminal convictions .233 .043 Penal commitments .390 .043 Inebriate commitments .153 .043 Industrial school commitments .314 .043 Juvenile court cases .301 .043 Juvenile delinquency .228 .043 County home population .042 .043 Outdoor relief .248 .043 Total dependence .169 .043 Tubercular hospital admissions .185 .043 Inmates, institutions feeble-minded .076 .043 Inmates, hospital insane, total .132 .043 Inmates, hospital insane, males .074 .043 Inmates, hospital insane, female.'- .17o .043 Cities over 4000 — Correlation of Rank With Size of Population Coefficient of Rate compared Correlation Probable error Penal .118 .067 Inebriates .168 .067 Industrial .207 .067 Tuberculosis .193 .067 Feeble-minded, state institution .007 .067 Insane, state institutions None None The fact of correlation between delinquency and dependence and the degree of concentration of the population in towns and cities seems clearly established. Only in two instances is the co- efficient so low as to warrant any doubt of the reality of the correlation, in the case of county home population and in the case of penal rate for cities above 4000. In this connection it must be remembered that the rate of county home population is de- pendent quite as much upon the local policy of outdoor relief as upon the degree of dependency. In regard to the statistics of criminality, the evidence wotdd indicate that criminal offenses tend to be of a more serious character in urban than in rural districts, the coefficient of correlation being markedly higher for the penal rate than for total criminal convictions. For cities above 4000, however, the penal rate is but slightly corre- lated with the size of the city. DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 181 Inebriate commitments seem to be less closely correlated -> ith the per cent of urban population than any of the other phenom- ena of delinquency studied. The exact significance of this fact is difficult to state. The open country certainly does not pre- sent tlie temptation to drink that the town presents. While not quite so high as that for penal commitments, the coefficients for juvenile court cases indicate a distinct corre- lation. The rates in cities would indicate also a greater tendency for the rate to increase with the size of the city than is true either of penal commitments or of inebriate commitments. The low degree of correlation between the county home popula- tion and the per cent of urban population has alread}^ been noted. The coefficient is much higher for outdoor relief, though still not very high. The third coefficient as to dependence, that for the table formed by combining the ranks of the two primary tables on dependence, shows clearly the existence of correlation, though not to a much greater degree than in the case of inebriate com- mitments. Greater provision in towns and cities for voluntary charity may be an explanation. Of the various social phenomena studied, juvenile delinquency seems most closely correlated to concentration in population, criminality next, especially in its more serious forms, while dependence and inebriety are much less closely correlated. As noted already, records for defectives do not parallel those for delinquents and dependents very close- ly. There is, however, a quite parallel correlation between ad- missions to the tubercular hospitals and concentration of popula- tion, both for counties and cities. This may indicate more intelligence in cities in regard to the importance of care for the tuberculous, rather than larger proportionate numbers of tuber- culous. Correlation between the number of feeble-minded in institutions and concentration of population in urban communi- ties is low for the counties. Correlation with size of cities is really non-existent. For the insane, results are parallel except for the higher rate of correlation with urban per cent of popula- tion. Females show this much more markedly than males. Table XLIV summarizes the evidence given in earlier tables in regard to social infection and its relation to distribution of population. 132 UNIVERSITY OP IOWA STUDIES TABLE XLIV7' Rural and Urban Comparison So ural or urban division No. ])enal ments per population Country Villages and towns .22 1.31 Towns 2000-4000 2.13 Towns 4000-8000 1.32 Cities 8000-25,000 1.58 Cities 25,000 over 1.79 pj • o ,, 0^ ^ O) g O ;: o c .268 .852 1.977 1.858 2.330 2.100 -« S o <^ +3 a, oa .-. '— ' C _• " O 'T c O Ceo .0072 .606 .041 1.002 1.360 1.420 a.9s .92 1.72 2.61 .48 1.74 2 «j .1-* O4 a 0) i §, 5 .2 X.2 =« 2 "S to J2 a 'e §. '^ a 2 •■'- .•§ -^ 3 S 'S< 5 q S H 11 S 03 £ .0 2 EC 0- ■^2 2 •S .a CI, 01 2 '^ 3 § "So c3 cc t.. ■+3 »-, CJ "S '- IT3 H c; cc 3 -M OJ CO -c &I S ■ S -g^ County ^-g g^-g E^ocg ^o^ --o* Maximum possible 7 3 12 1 1. Mahaska 7 3 12 1 2. Linn 7 3 12 1 3. Polk 6 3 12 4. Wapello 6 3 111 5. Lee 5 2 12 6. Woodbury 5 2 12 7. Scott 5 2 2 1 8. Lucas 4 3 1 9. Marshall 4 2 2 10. Monroe 4 3 1 11. Cerro Gordo 4 3 1 12. Pottawattamie 4 2 2 13. Clinton 4 1 2 1 14. Jones 4 3 1 15. Clarke 3 1 2 16. Appanoose 3 2 1 17. Dubuque 3 1 11 18. Winneshiek 2 1 1 19. Madison 2 2 20. Des Moines 2 2 138 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 21. Clayton 22. Adams 23. Montgomery 24. Chickasaw 25. Union 26. Wayne 27. Black Hawk 28. Muscatine 29. Harrison 30. Webster 31. Johnson 32. Poweshiek 33. Page 34. Benton 35. Marion 36. Cass 37. Taylor 38. Emmet 39. Mills 40. Fremont 41. Osceola 42. Hardin 43. Cherokee 44. Palo Alto 45. CarroU 46. Sac 47. Fayette 48. Hamilton 49. Story 50. Jefferson 51. Dickinson 52. Decatur 53. Ringgold 54. Buchanan 55. Cedar 56. Boone 57. Van Buren 58. Henry 59. Jackson 60. Tama 61. Delaware 62. Washington 63. Davis 64. Crawford 2 11 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 11 2 1 1 2 11 2 11 2 2 2 2 2 11 2 11 2 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Two counties, Mahaska and Linn, will be at once seen to have the maximum record, two others appear in the first twenty in six tables, three in five tables, seven in four tables, three in three DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 139 tables, fifteen in two ta])les and thirty-two or half the number in but one table. Further consideration will be given to the seventeen ranking in the first twenty in three or more tables. Since sixty-four out of a possible ninety-nine counties occur at least once among the first twenty counties, the occurence of a county within the first twenty once, or posibly even twice, may not indicate a serious social condition, unless the rank of the county within the twenty is high, as in the case of Mills County, which ranks second in rate of penal commitments. Its close proximity to the large cities of Council Bluffs and Omaha, has been suggested as a possible explanation. Pottawattamie County adjoining, and containing Council Bluffs, ranks third in the same table. Emmet County has a very high cost of criminal prosecution. Poweshiek County ties for tenth place in dependence. Jack- son and Tama tie for eighth in the same table. Cedar, Boone, Van Buren, and Henry counties come within the first six counties in dependence, though not occuring within the first twenty in any other table. Johnson County, though not sho\\'- ing a bad record in any other respect, ranks seventh in depend- ence and fourteenth in inebriate commitments. In this connec- tion it should be noted that Johnson County had saloons till December, 1910, and the county seat, Iowa City, until Decem- ber, 1915. The policy followed by the local judge was also a factor in the situation. Webster County shows a bad record only in inebriate commitments in winch it ranks fifth. Its county seat, Ft. Dodge, is an industrial city of importance, and there are both coal and gypsum mines in the vicinity. AVaync County, ranking seventh in inebriate commitments, is a border county of the coal mining area. More difficult to explain is the record of Winneshiek County, which ranks third, and of Palo Alto, Carroll, Chickasaw, Sac, and Fayette, ranking sixth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth respectively, as these contain no city of importance. Remark- able is the record of Black Hawk County which, despite the presen<;e of the large city of Waterloo, ranks noticeably high in no table except that as to total number of juvenile court cases in which it is fifth. In inebriate commitments it is fifteenth. 140 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES Harrison County has a poor record in regard to juvenile offenses, being eleventh both in industrial school commitments and in total number of cases before the juvenile court. A similar situ- ation exists in Muscatine County, save that the latter ranks con- siderably higher, third in industrial school commitments and sixth in number of cases before the juvenile court. Ringgold County ranks tenth in number of juvenile court cases. Cherokee, Madison, Adams, Page, and Benton rank third, seventh, eighth, ninth, and eleventh respectively in number of criminal convic- tions in proportion to population. Their record, however, is not accompanied by a high record in penal commitments. There must be an unusually large proportion of minor offenses com- mitted in these counties. Chickasaw and Union rank eighth and tenth respectively. The low record of Des Moines County though containing the city of Burlington, is worthy of note. Twelfth in rate of penal commitments and fifteenth in per cap- ita cost of criminal convictions are its worst records. The last table did not show the rank of individual counties within the first twenty. The following table attempts to show the actual rank in all phases for the seventeen counties falling within the first twenty in three or more of the tables considered. TABLE XLVII^^ Comparative Table, Seventeen Counties in First Twenty Counties in Three or More Tables; Bank in Eepresentative Tables «t) So T3 IM 13 o (-< *-> a IS -2 E ^ s o Si a mty a 1 1 5§ -(J a p t-H ^ c O M o 'a > o Mahaska 7 5 6 7 16 5 9 18 Linn 7 14 12 4 4 6 2 16 Polk 6 12 1 1 1 1 1 31 Wapello 6 13 10 5 2 2 63 1 Lee 5 3 48 15 8 8 17 56 Woodbury 5 59 17 6 13 9 4 66 Scott 5 6 25 9 35 19 3 12 Lucas 4 7 2 17 28 17 29 24 Marshall 4 8 39 19 22 7 12 48 Monroe 4 9 4 11 58 16 58 57 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 141 Cerro Gordo 4 16 14 16 42 27 15 21 Pottawattamie 4 32 13 3 25 10 7 37 Clinton 4 4 49 33 75 4 14 4 Jones 4 20 15 13 73 42 26 10 Clarke 3 61 26 14 76 15 16 86 Appanoose 3 10 5 34 32 49 18 33 Dubnque 3 19 57 37 77 36 8 14 Of the seventeen counties in this table, eight contain cities above twenty thousand, i. e., Linn, Polk, Wapello, Woodbury, Scott, Pottawattamie, Clinton and Dubuque count ios. Four others contain cities above nine thousand, Mahaska, Lee, Mar- shall and Cerro Gordo. Two of the remainder, Monroe and Ap- panoose, contain large mining towns, and one other, Lucas, bor- ders upon the mining section and contains some mines. Only two, Jones and Clarke, contain no cities of importance and no mines. Of the counties containing cities, Mahaska, Polk, and Wapello also contain important mines, Mahaska and Polk in particular, but only in Mahaska is a really important per cent of the population engaged in mining. Of the individual counties Polk, though ranking within the first twenty in but six tables instead of seven, as do Mahaska and Linn, -undoubtedly has the worst record. It ranks first by a wide margin in all tables but two, second in one, expense of criminal prosecution, and low in but one, that on dependence, in which it is thirty-first. In practically all phases of criminal- ity and delinquency, Polk County stands in a class by itself. This is in part due to the fact that Des Moines forms such a large part of its population. Des Moines itself as compared with other cities has a uniformly high rate in everything. Mus- catine has almost an equal rate in industrial commitments, Oskaloosa a penal rate somewhat above, Perry and Ames even higher rates in inebriate commitments, but Des Moines is uni- formly high in everything save dependence. Wapello, Linn and Alahaska, have somewhat similar records. The low rank of Wapello in juvenile court cases would seem to be due to an error in reporting since it is entirely different from the record in industrial school commitments. Of the three, Linn has a city of considerable size. Cedar Rapids. Ottumwa in Wapello County is above twenty thousand in population, 142 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES and Oskaloosa in Mahaska County between nine thousand and ten thousand. Both Wapello and Mahaska counties contain coal mines. Lee County, which includes Keokuk and Fort Madison offends worst in inebriate hospital and industrial school com- mitments, aside from the high per capita expense for criminal prosecution. Woodbury and Scott counties, containing the ur- ban centers of Sioux City and Davenport respectively, show their worst record in juvenile court cases and in penal commit- ments. Woodbury County has a bad record in inebriate com- mitments, Scott in dependence and in cost of criminal prosecu- tion. The poor record of Lucas County is somewhat difficult to explain. The presence of a coal mining population may be a factor, but this is hardly large enough to offer an adequate explanation. Marhsall County has its most unsatisfactory rec- ord in industrial school commitments and juvenile offenses. An unusually high per cent of the industrial school commit- ments from this county has been composed of girls. Of the remaining counties only a few points need to be noted. As already mentioned, Monroe and Appanoose counties, great mining centers, are notable for their rate of total criminal convictions, and Pottawattamie County, containing the city of Council Bluffs, shows quite a bad record in penal commitments. The size of this city, and the close proximity of Omaha, are no doubt factors in explaining this record of the county and of its neighbor Mills. Both Pottawattamie and Clinton counties have bad records in industrial school commitments and juvenile offenses. Jones County has a poor record especially in depend- ence. Both it and Clarke have a fairly high rank in penal com- mitments. No adequate reason for these records has been found. Dubuque County, though containing the city of Du- buque has on the whole quite low ranks, the chief exceptions being in juvenile offenses and in dependence. Attention should perhaps be called to the absence of Black Hawk and Des Moines counties from this table of seventeen counties with the poorest records. This is rather remarkable since their respect- ive cities, Waterloo and Burlington, are of considerable size and importance. Efficient and long continued social ^^o^k probably is an important factor in the explanation. DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 143 RECORDS OF CITIES, DELINQUENTS AND DEPENDENTS The findings in regard to the comparative standing of all cities of the State of four thousand or above are summarized in Table XLVIII, in which the forty-one cities are placed in the order of the sum of their ranks in the tables showing penal com- mitments, inebriate hospital commitments and industrial school commitments by cities. TABLE XLVIII'^ Comparative Eank, Iowa Cities above 4,000, in Penal, Inebriate Hospital, and Industrial School Commitments a K re S **^ o a ?3 o •— City 05 & 11 M '^ §■«' ^ s County in whic located 1. Des Moines 1 2 4 1 7 Polk 2. Cedar Rapids 5 13 5 3 21 Linn 2. Ottumwa 10 9 6 6 21 Wapello 4. Oskaloosa 18 1 23 4 28 Mahaska 5. Marshalltown 14 15 13 5 33 Marshall 6. Red Oak 31 7 22 7 36 Montgomery 7. Boone 16 16 11 14 41 Boone 7. Centerville 20 5 10 26 41 Ai:)panoose 9. Perry 32 36 1 9 46 Dallas 10. Sioux City 2 11 21 16 47 Woodbury 11. Davenport 3 19 30 10 49 Scott 11. Fort Dodge 12 23 8 18 49 Webster 13. Keokuk 13 22 12 17 51 Lee 1.3. Chariton 41 4 39 8 51 Lucas 15. Mason City 15 12 28 12 52 Cerro Gordo 16. Council Bluffs 6 14 20 19 53 Pottawattamie 17. Muscatine 11 18 34 2 54 Muscatine 18. Shenandoah 27 17 27 11 55 Page 18. Newton 33 21 19 15 55 Jasper 20. Creston 21 10 24 22 56 Tallinn 21. Le Mars 38 20 3 36 59 Plymouth 22. Clarinda 40 8 32 20 60 Page 2:\. Iowa City 17 24 17 23 64 Johnson 24. Marion 35 6 29 30 65 Linn 24. Webster City 24 30 7 28 65 Hn mi 'ton 144 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 26. Gniinell 25 32 18 21 71 Poweshiek 27. Waterloo 7 29 14 29 72 Black Hawk 28. Ft. Madison 19 26 16 31 73 Lee 29. Washington 36 31 31 13 75 Washington 30. Fairfield 28 34 15 27 76 Jefferson 31. Oelwein 22 38 9 34 81 Fayette 31. Atlantic 34 3 40 38 81 Cass 33. Ames 37 40 2 40 82 Story 34. Albia 29 33 25 25 83 Monroe 35. Clinton 8 27 35 32 94 Clinton 36. Dubuque 4 28 38 35 101 Dubuque 36. Cherokee 30 41 36 24 101 Cherokee 38. Burlington 9 25 41 37 103 Des Moines 39. Charles City 23 35 37 33 105 Floyd 40. C'edar Falls 26 39 26 41 106 Black Hawk 41. Glenwood 39 37 33 39 109 Mills Little comment upon this table is necessary after that which has been made upon the various counties. The four cities of highest rank in this table are located in the first four counties in Table XL VI I. Beyond this point the correspondence is not so close owing in part at least to the fact that Table XLVIII cov- ers but three lines of investigation instead of the seven repre- sented in Table XLVII. As a result, though Dubuque County is one of the upper seventeen counties considered in Table XLVII, the city of Dubuque comes far down the list in Table XLVIII, the poor record of the city, so far as shown by avail- able statistics, being in cost of criminal prosecution, juvenile court cases, items upon which no information by cities was available. At this point it is perhaps well to repeat a word of caution already made elsewhere in regard to the interpretation of these statistics, especially in comparing individual communities. Ab- normally low rates may mean very ineffective law enforcement instead of good social conditions. Tables such as these are of value as pointing out the places where abnormal conditions ex- ist, but must be checked up by a definite knowledge of the com- munity under consideration before one can be absolutely cer- tain whether the local social conditions or the character of law- enforcement is responsible. This must be borne in mind in the interpretation of the records of Waterloo, Clinton, Dubuque, and Burlington. DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 145 Table XLIII summarized the data available at that point up- on the question of correlation of commitment rates and city population. For Table XLVIII the correlation coefficient se- cured by the use of Spearman's formula is .243, somewhat high- er than the coefficient obtained from any previous city table. In other v»ords, the average of the record of the cities in the three lines studied is more closely correlated with population than is the record of any single line, due perhaps to a more complete elimination of chance variations. The study, also, reveals one point of interest as to the corre- lation between the presence of cities and of undesirable social conditions. Thirty-five, or over one-third of the counties, do not come within the first twenty in any of tlie seven main tables. Yet of the forty-one cities above four thousand in population, only, four, less than one in ten, are in these counties. Another noticeable feature is the same correlation in the counties center- ing around Monroe County, and corresponding roughly to the chief mining section of the State. RECORDS OF INDIVIDUAL COUNTIES, DEFECTIVES In Table XLIX the records of the counties showing highest rates for tuberculosis, feeble-minded and insane are summar- ized. All counties occurring within the first twenty in any one of three principal tables are included. In the first column are given the number of times each county came within the first twenty, three being the maximum possible. In later columns are given the rank of the county in each table and finally tlie sum of ranks for each county. 146 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES TABLE XLIX^" Comparative Table of Iowa Counties Comiug within the First Twenty in Principal Tables for Defectives 15 «« -«1 n -tJ rH S ^ S « ei c3 S a County ^.S 1.2 3 § 1. Lee 3 14 6 1 21 2. Lucas 3 15 13 19 47 3. Benton 2 9 33 20 62 4. Boone 2 7 53 16 76 5. Davis 2 19 3 33 55 6. Des Moines 2 29 20 5 54 7. Iowa 2 16 39 18 73 8. Jefferson 2 28 15 3 46 9. Johnson 2 3 59 12 74 10. Jones 2 37 2 7 46 11. Keokuk 2 11 18 70 99 12. Marshall 2 17 7 22 46 13. Scott 2 2 43 2 47 14. Van Buren 2 20 23 6 49 15. Wapello 2 25 19 15 59 16. Worth 2 4 92 14 110 17. Allamakee 81 38 17 136 18. Bremer 8 48 39 95 19. Cass 90 4 63 157 20. Cedar 17 36 56 109 21. Clayton 45 49 11 105 22. Clinton 22 65 8 95 23. Crawford 74 5 65 144 24. Decatur 12 21 34 67 25. Fremont 95 17 58 170 26. Harrison 84 16 62 162 27. Henry 48 70 4 122 28. Humiioldt 10 34 48 92 29. Jackson 54 9 46 109 30. Linn 5 47 50 102 31. Louisa 57 14 41 112 32. Madison 89 12 27 128 33. Mills 96 1 54 151 34. Mitchell 61 61 13 135 35. Montgomery 98 24 10 132 36. Page 76 10 26 112 37. Polk 6 37 45 88 43 86 83 125 32 92 9 136 79 122 DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 14; 38. Poweshiek 1 1 42 39. Ringgold 1 58 11 40. Union 1 52 8 41. Winneshiek 1 39 88 42. Woodbury 1 13 30 Of the total number of counties considered only two occur within the first twenty in all three tables. Fourteen occur with- in the first twenty in two tables, and twenty-six only in one. Of the two counties within the first twenty the maximum num- ber of times, one, Lee, has a high urban per cent and contains tw^o cities, one of over fourteen thousand, one of nearly nine thousand. The other contains one city of about four thousand and a few coal mines, but there seems to be no adequate explan- ation for its high record. Its highest rank is in feeble-minded- ness. The fact that it is directly east of Glenwood on a througli line of railway might account for this in a measure. Of the fourteen counties ranking within the first twenty in only two tables, three are within the first twenty in tuberculosis and feeble-mindedness, seven in tuberculosis and insanity, and four in feeble-mindedness and insanity. Effect of location of institutions would seem to be partially responsible for the small number within the first twenty in both tuberculosis and feeble- mindedness. The counties in the eastern portion of the State near the State sanatorium normally rank highest in tuberculous admissions, those in the southAvestern part of the State high- est in feeble-mindedness. Of the four counties ranking within the first twenty in feeble-mindedness and insanity none are in the southwestern portion of the State, but three of them are in the tier of counties directly east of Mills, in which Glenwood is located, and traversed by a through line of railway to Glen- wood. The relatively small proportion of the counties ranking high in two tables — in feeble-mindedness, seven as compared with ten in tu])erculosis, and eleven in insanity — may bo par- tially explained by the comparatively rural cliaraeter of the southwest portion of the State. Of the fourteen counties just considered two, Des Moines and Scott, contain cities of considerable size. Wapello a city of about twenty-two thousand, Johnson and Marshall eacli one of about ten thousand, and Jefferson one of a little over four thou- 148 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES sand. Five counties contain no cities of importance. Of the counties containing the eight largest cities in the State only one appears among those ranking among the first twenty in more than one table, less than the nonnal proportion. Of the twenty-six counties ranking among the first twenty in only one table, eight so rank in the table for tuberculous admis- sions, eleven in the table for inmates of the institution for the feeble-minded, and seven in the table for inmates of insane hos- pitals. The higher proportion from the table dealing with feeble-mindedness is probably due in part to the high admission rates to Glenwood of counties located near the institution, and not offering really serious social conditions. Of the eleven, nine are located in the western half of the State, eight of the nine in the southwest quarter. Of the eight ranking in the first twenty in the table for tuberculous, six are located in the eastern half of the State. RECORDS OF INDIVIDUAL CITIES, DEFECTIVES The facts discovered in regard to individual cities are sum- marized in Table L, in which the cities are ranked in order of average rank in the three tables giving records of cities. Rank in population, and in each of the three tables is given in parallel columns. TABLE L." Comparative Rank, Iowa Cities above 4000 in State Tuberculosis Sana- torium, Institution for Feeble-Miuded Children and Insane Hospital Admission .2 O T^ 3 o •X, % -5 32 a a< a3 S 42 O M o r3 .—4 ® O d *i «+-( o P^ -S S '^^■^ •S g o-^ o CD 5: 02 City ^ d a 2 fl r: 3 o MH » GO Rank mind admii ^5 is 32 rt County in which located 1. Keokuk 13 7 18 2 27 Lee 2. Des Moines 1 8 4 16 28 Polk 3. Boone 16 4 9 25 38 Boone 4. Oskaloosa 18 11 17 12 40 Mahaska 4. Shenandoah 27 25 12 3 40 Page DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES. DELINQUENTS 14!» r^ Cedar Rapids 3 31 7 41 Linn 7 Chariton 41 20 5 18 43 Lucas 7 Atlantic 34 39 3 1 43 Cass p, Ames 37 6 28 10 44 Story 9 Mar.shalltowu 14 13 22 9 44 >Lirshall 11. Cedar Falls 16 5 20 21 46 Black Hawk n. Creston 21 31 1 14 46 Union 11. Glenwood 39 35 6 5 46 Mills 14. Ottumwa 10 12 7 28 47 Wapello 15. Mason City 15 18 11 19 48 Cerro Gordo 16. Clarinda 40 21 24 6 51 Page Woodbury 17. Sioux City- 2 26 8 20 54 18. Marion 35 9 10 37 56 Linn 19. Iowa City 17 1 32 24 57 Johnson 19. Burlington 9 14 14 29 57 Des Moines 21. Grinrell 25 2 23 34 59 Poweshiek 21. Ft. Dodge 12 17 25 17 59 Webster 2.3. Waterloo 7 24 15 22 61 Black Hawk 24. Ft. Madison 19 22 37 4 63 Lee 25. Davenport 3 15 21 33 69 Scott 25. Xewton 33 40 2 27 69 Jasper 27. Fairfield 28 10 36 26 72 Jefferson 27. Albia 29 38 19 15 72 Monroe 29. Clinton 8 19 27 31 77 Clinton 30. Perry 32 32 39 8 79 Dallas 31. Council Bulflfs 6 33 13 36 82 Pottawattamie 31. Le Mars 38 36 16 30 82 Plymouth State of Iowa 21-22 29-30 32-33 82-85 33. Muscatine 11 23 30 32 85 Muscatine 33. Charles City 23 34 40 11 85 Floyd 35. Centerville 20 29 34 23 86 Appanoose 36. Red Oak 31 41 35 13 89 Montgomery 37. Washington 36 27 29 35 91 Washington 38. Oelwein 22 16 41 40 97 Fayette 39. Dubuque 4 28 33 39 100 Dubuque 40. Webster City 24 37 26 38 101 Hamilton 41. Cherokee 30 30 38 41 109 Cherokee This table is defective because it covers only State institu- tions and not those under county or pi-ivate conti'ol. For cer- tain cities making large use of private institutions tlie record is especially unsatisfactory. Moreover, the tables for cities deal with admissions, while those for counties deal witli number of inmates. Yet a comparison of this table with Table XLIX. giv- ing comparative results for counties, is of some value. Note- worthy at once is the fact that the city of highest average rank, Keokuk, is located in Lee County, ranking first in Table XLIX; 150 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES Boone ranks third and Boone County fourth; Chariton ranks seventh and Lucas County second; yet the parallelism is not close. Des Moines ranks second but Polk County only thirty- seventh ; Oskaloosa ties for fourth place with Shenandoah, but Mahaska County does not come within the first twenty in any table, and Page County ranks only thirty-sixth in Table XLIX. Notable, too, in Table L is the comparatively low rank of Sioux City, Burlington, and Waterloo, though these cities send few defectives to private institutions. It seems evident that the presence of large cities has comparatively slight influence upon the records of the counties. In Table L, also, there is little if any correlation between size of city and rank. Use of Spear- man's formula gives a coefficient of .054 with a probable error of .067. COMPARISON, RECORDS IN DELINQUENTS AND DEPENDENTS, AND IN DEFECTIVES Of interest in a comparison of Tables XLIX and L with the corresponding tables for defendents and delinquents, Tables XLVII and XLVIII, comparing first the tables summarizing the records for counties, we find in Table XLVII seventeen counties ranking among the first twenty in three or more of seven primary tables, dealing with delinquents and dependents, and in Table XLIX sixteen counties within the first twenty in two or more of three primary tables for defectives. In the two lists we find a total of twenty-seven counties. Of these Lee has much the highest average record, with Lucas second. The cor- relation between record for delinquents and dependents on the one hand, and defectives on the other, does not seem close. Of the seventeen coimties in the list of highest records for the former, only six, Lee, Lucas, Jones, Marshall, Scott and Wap- ello, a little more than one-third, occur in the list for the latter. There is correlation, seemingly, since the normal number in common would be three, but it is not of very high degree. A comparison of the parallel summary tables for cities, Tables XLVIII and L shows a similar result. Des Moines ranks fifth in one table and second in the other, Cedar Rapids second in one and sixth in the other, and Oskaloosa fourth in both. DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 151 showing that these cities have serious records in all phases of social infection, but beyond this the correlation is not marked. Use of Spearman's formula gives .229 as the coefficient of cor- relation with a probable error of .067. There is no doubt of the existence of real correlation but not of high degree. B. SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESULTS A very natural and reasonable inquiry in regard to a study such as this is as to the social significance of the results. An ac- curate valuation is impossible until the results are compared with other studies in the same general field. Nevertheless cer- tain deductions may be drawn which are of real social sig- nificance RURAL VERSUS URBAN One point which stands out most clearly is the vivid contrast between rural and urban conditions. In the three lines along which direct comparison was possible, i. e., penal, inebriate hos- pital, and industrial school commitments, as summarized in Table XXVIII, the contrast is quite marked. The penal com- mitment rate for villages and towns is six times as great as that for the open country, the inebriate hospital commitment rate over three times as great, and the industrial school commit- ment rate more than eighty times as great. In the rural dis- tricts where every one is known crime can not go undetected as it does in cities. What a neighbor does in the country is a topic of interest and of conversation, as it can not be in a city where many of the residents of the same block are strangers. Minor offences might go unpunished in the country but serious of fences would not be palliated, and so the low penal rate can not be caused by lack of law enforcement. It may be asserted that rural districts furnish a far less than normal per cent of ser- ious offences. This means one or the other of two things; — the city is attractive to the criminally inclined and they are drained to the city from the rural districts, or else the more strenuous life of the city subjects the weak individual to strains which he can not endure, and, though in the country he might remain law-abiding, in the city he becomes a criminal. Butli are 152 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES probably factors in the situation; the city both attracts and manufactures criminals in a far greater measure than does the country. There is also another element in the explanation of the con- trast between the city and the country, at least so far as ju^'en- ile delinquency is concerned, perhaps also in inebriate hospital commitments. Individuals may do things in the country with- out in any way conflicting with the recognized rights of others Avhich they can not find opportuntiy to do in the city. A vast majority of juvenile court cases are not truly criminal and the offenses would pass unnoticed in the country. This is especially true of many things all boys naturally do in their search for play and recreation. Travis in his book, "The Young Male- factor," makes the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of home in- fluences the crucial factor. In the city there are unquestion- ably far more distributing elements tending to render these in- fluences ineffective than in the case in the country. There is some correlation between the total dependence and concentration of population in towns and cities. This would naturally be expected. People in a country neighborliood know one another well and there is interchange of help and service in time of need which naturally lessen public dependence. Wage earners are most apt to become dependent and these are a smaller element of the rural population than of the urban. Nevertheless the correlation between dependence and urban population is lower than that between urban population and any other of the phases of social infection studied, with the ex- ception of inebriate hospital commitments. There is one factor which may explain this situation. In a considerable per cent of the larger towns and cities, there is some effort made to follow intelligent methods in the distribution of private charity and the securing of permanent rehabilitation of families. This con- structive social work would seem to have an important influence. An illustration is the fairly low rank of Polk County in depend- ence as contrasted with very high ranks in all other lines. In no other line is constructive work carried on to so large an extent. The records for defectives in institutions show similarly low rates for the open country. On the other hand villages and DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 153 towns under two thousand have high rates, especially in feeble- mindedness and insanity. For insane admitted to state institu- tions they show the maximum record. The open country shows the minimum rate, but there is little tendency for city rates to rise with the increase in size of the cities considered. Lack of appreciation of the importance of institutional care and ignor- ance of the facilities available at State institutions may account in part for the low rates for the open country. Care of defect- ives in the homes is also easier there. Yet, if these were large factors the records for villages would more closely parallel those for the open country, for the village population and the open countr}' population have much in common in matters of general education, and, to a less degree, in opportunity for home care of defectives. A larger proportion of the rural feeble- minded and insane than of urban feeble-minded and insane are kept in county institutions. This may be due in part to ig- norance of the superiority of the care given in State institu- tions. So far as the insane are concerned, it is no doubt due in part also to differences in character between rural and ui-ban insanity. The less violent and also the less hopeful cases are much more apt to be sent to county homes for detention. The suggestion has been made in various quarters that large numbers proportionately of country women go insane. This is not true for Iowa, so far as records show. Tlie open country rates of insanity are lowest and a smaller proportion of women, as compared with men, become insane in the country than in the urban centers of any size. The data summarized in Table XXVIII throws some light upon the question of what should be our definition of rural as contrasted with urban. Frequently, as in the Federal Census, small towns and villages as well as the open country are in- cluded under the term rural. So far as Iowa is concerned this would seem not to be in accord with actual conditions. The con- trast between the open country and the villages and towns under two thousand is far greater than between these villages and even the largest divisions considered. If a strict distinction be- tween rural and urban is to be drawn they belong under the head of urban, not of rural connnunities. In many ways sm-h communities represent a transition stage and sliow l)otli r\iral 154 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES and urban characteristics, but they more nearly approximate the urban. The lumping together of data for the open country and for villages and small towns is peculiarly unfortunate in reference to any study of insanity, since for Iowa State institu- tions the one shows minimum, the other maximum rates. CONDITIONS IN SMALL TOWNS One marked feature of Table XXVIII is the lack of any close correlation between the size of urban communities and the rate of commitments of delinquents, save in the one line of industrial school commitments. This exception would indicate that the juvenile problem grows constantly more serious and complex as population becomes more concentrated in urban centers. The unexpectedly high rates for the smaller urban communities, especially in penal commitments, require some explanation. Cities between two thousand and four thousand have the maxi- mum penal rate ; the same cities have an inebriate commitment rate above that of cities between four tliousand and eight thousand. No doubt more effective law enforcement is a fac- tor. It is unquestionably less difficult to secure efficient law enforcement in such communities than in larger centers where there is less close acquaintance among all elements in the com- munity. It is questionable, however, if this is all. May it not be due to the failure to recognize and meet the social problems of the community? The larger cities recognize their problems and are making more or less effective efforts to solve them. The same problems exist in the small community on a smaller scale but unrecognized and neglected. Owing to the smaU size of the community the evil influence may not bring a boy into conflict with the law until he has passed the juvenile delinquency age, but the evil tendencies may develop unchecked until they reach their natural outcome in more mature years. Most marked, however, are the high rates for the small towns in admittances to State institutions for the feeble-minded and the insane. This record is not easy to explain satisfactorily. The only line of explanation which suggests itself is that al- ready mentioned in the consideration of delinquents, serious evils exist but unrecognized and no effort is made to combat them. DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 155 THE LARGE CITY Des Moines, the capital of the State, stands out as the one large city. Despite the presence of organizations for social work similar to those in other cities of the State, the figures obtained in this study give Des Moines much the worst average record of any city in all phases of criminality and delinquency, worse even than that of cities with little effective social work. It ranks second also in the average record for admissions of defect- ives to institutions. From this it is obvious that the social prob- lems of the city of approximately one hundred thousand are not the same as those of the city of twenty-five thousand or even fifty thousand. The larger size and greater concentration of population bring new conditions which demand a different sort of treatment. The social agencies adapted to meet the needs of a city, one-third or one-half the size, are inadequate to cope successfully with the problems here presented. Forms of or- ganization for social work which have proved effective in smaller cities can not be taken over in entirety, but must be ad- justed to meet the needs of a more complex situation. In Des Moines the agencies for dealing directly with dependence seem fairly well adjusted to the existing conditions. The same can not be said of agencies for the prevention of crime and juvenile delinquency. INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS There would seem to be a close relation between unsatisfac- tory industrial conditions and social infection, particularly in the field of juvenile delinquency. One city, Muscatine, the center of the pearl button industry, has more industrial child laborers in absolute numbers than any other city. Correspond- ing to this has been the worst record in juvenile delinquency of any city save the one large city discussed in the previous sec- tion. There would seem to be no connection between industry per se and social infection, but the sort of industrial conditions which bring .serious industrial unrest and include child labor as an important element, produce serious social problems. The mining communities are serious centers of social infec- tion. This is not surprising to anyone who is at all familiar 156 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES with the conditions in the mining camps of south eastern Iowa. In many cases almost the entire population is engaged in the one occupation. The elements in society which have the education, the financial independence, and the leisure to actively promote projects for civic betterment are almost entirely unrepresented. Many of the communities are but temporary in character, eight years being the average lifetime; they spring up almost over night with the opening of a new mine, flourish for a time, and then disappear as suddenly as they appeared.'^ Under such con- ditions a true civic spirit and interest in the permanent well being of the community are hardly to be expected. Effective religious and social agencies are not easily developed from with- in the community itself. The State Board of Mine Inspectors has recognized these conditions and in its latest report has ad- vocated the abolition of all mining camps in the State. '^^ In general it may be said that there is no positive correlation between the presence of foreign population and social infection. Foreign customs in the matter of the use of liquor and in the attitude towards its use present a factor to be considered. These general characteristics are due to the national elements making up most of Iowa's immigration, i. e., the northern European. In the mining communities, however, a different problem is pre- sented by a large element of southern Europeans, another factor in the complex social situation there found. SOCIAL WORK The effect of constructive social work upon social infection is difficult to determine. The t vidence available, however, goes to show tliat it is of positive benefit. The cities presenting the most serious conditions, excepting the one large city, Des Moines, are ones in which there was no effective organization or work along this line during the period covered. A number of cities with such work well organized show much less serious problems. In admissions of defectives to institutions, some com- munities with well organized social work show high rates along one or more lines. A notable instance is that of the record of Grinnell and Poweshiek County in admissions to tuberculosis sanatoria. Thorough education as to the need of institutional DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 157 care and a constructive public policy rather than peculiarly serious evils seem responsible. Keokuk's high record may be in part due to the same causes. INFLUENCE OF INSTITUTIONS Quite a disproportionate share of the inmates of each state in- stitution come from the counties and cities located in close prox- imity to it. This is least apparent in the case of the State hos- pitals for the insane which are well distributed, but even here the influence of proximity is evident. This phenomenon seems to be due to a greater familiarity with the facilities offered by the State, and a greater appreciation of the importance of prop- er care of the type of defectives concerned. The physicians at the State tuberculosis sanatorium, for instance, have become acquainted with many of the physicians in the portion of the State nearest at hand, and are frequently called into consulta- tion. Under such conditions persons needing institutional care are far more likely to receive it. CONSTRUCTIVE PROGRAM The significance of the results obtained as to individual counties and communities can not be accurately determined without a knowledge of certain factors in the different local communities, notably in regard to the enforcement of law. In- dividuals in the several communities in the State familiar with the local conditions needed for sucli interpretation could learn much as to the degree of social infection in their several com- munities. It is they who must outline the program for the indi- vidual communities. Certain general needs, however, may be pointed out. One of the most obvious is that the smaller urban communities should awake to the fact that social infection is not a matter of the large city alone. It exists though no doubt in a less virulent form in the smaller community, and if given no attention works itself out in crime, pauperism, and dogon- eraey. The situation is parallel to that in the donuiin of physi- cal infection. Large cities offer far more difficult problems of sanitation and prevention of the spread of disease than do smaller urban communities, but disease and death follow neglect 158 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES even in the latter. Better provision should be made for the so- cial life of the young people. The counties whicli are largely rural and the small towns offer serious problems in the way of dependence. The distribu- tion of public relief and the care of paupers in county homes need thorough reorganization. Arrangements such as those in Poweshiek and Wapello counties should be carefully watched and copied if proven satisfactory. In some way the trained charity worker must be made a factor in public relief. The very high rate of villages and small towns in defectives and especially insane, is somewhat surprising, and further study is needed to determine its exact significance. Conditions in these communities have been relatively static for a long period and it should be possible to see the normal outworking of con- ditions. Community welfare demands that care be taken that justice is given in industry and that industrial unrest and child labor be prevented. If this is not done, conditions now largely iso- lated in individual communities will become prevalent as the State becomes less agricultural and more industrial. Special study should be made of mining communities and constructive efforts made to meet their peculiar problems. life in the larger urban centers and in industrial communities has, so far as evi- dence goes, not produced as yet serious rates in defectives. Such communities, however, offer conditions of relatively recent de- velopment, and the normal results in the increase of defective classes, may not yet have had time to appear. Further inves- tigation on this point will be necessary as the communities be- come older. In all urban centers, especially the larger ones, increased at- tention should be given to the provision of opportunity for rec- reation, and to an increased utilization of the school plant. Legislation making possible the payment of probation oflficers in each county of the State is much needed. Several of the cities with the worst conditions in juvenile delinquency can not have a probation officer paid from public funds. Until this is done, private organizations should undertake to meet the need. A distribution of institutions for the care of defectives DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 159 throughout the State woukl seein very desirable in view of tlie educative value of such institutions. The evidence would seem to favor the establishment of a number of institutions in differ- ent districts rather than concentration of efforts upon a single large institution. A much larger proportion of the feeble- minded and of the tuberculous needing institutional care would be reached if such a policy were adopted. An investigation of the effectiveness of law enforcement and of public interest and policy in regard to defectives in the several cities of the State would be of great value in the inter- pretation of this study. An investigation as to exactly what is being done in constructive social work would also be of value. Moreover, if the work of census bureaus and other agencies for investigation in this field, is to be of highest value, distinc- tion must be made between the open country population and that living in small towns. Conditions are so different that differentiation in treatment is positively demanded. NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. The exceptions are as follows. a. For Black Hawk county — rates as to cost of criminal prosecution, number of criminal convictions, number of penal commitments, number of industrial school commitments, and number of cases before the juven- ile court. These are based upon the average between the pojjulation in 1905 and 1910. b. For Polk County — rates as to cost of criminal prosecution, number of criminal convictions, number of penal commitments, and number of industrial school commitments. These are based upon the population in 1905. c. For Mason City — rates as to tuberculous admitted to state institu- tions based upon the 1915 State Census. d. For Cedar Falls — rates as to tuberculous, feeble-minded, and in sane admitted to State institution based on the 1915 State Census. 2. For a description of this formula, its merits and short-comings, see Brown, Wm., — "Essentials of Mental Measurements," pp. 71-76 and Spearma, C. — ' ' Foot-rule for Measuring Correlation, ' ' British Journal of Psychology, Vol. II, Pt. I, July, 1906. 3. Owing to the change in the end of the twelve month period consid- ered, from September 30 to June 30, the period covered is sixteen years and nine months instead of seventeen and the rate given is one-seventeenth the rate for that period. 4. Based upon recapitulation tables in biennial reports as to criminal convictions made by the Secretary of State until 1908, and since that time included in the reports of the State Board of Parole. Statistics for Emmet County as to cost of criminal prosecution are lacking for the three fiscal years, 1909, 1910, 1911, for Floyd and John- son counties for 1909, and for Fremont, Pocahontas, Keokuk, and Monroe counties for 1910. This, in combination with the situation described in Note 3, results in slight errors, but insufficient to materially affect the validity of any comparisons. For items of expense included in the report, see Section 475, Iowa Code of 1897, Chapter III, and also changes given in Supplement of 1913. See also Section 293 to which the latter refers. 5. See Note 3 and the first part of Note 4 as to the period covered and the sources. The sources give no State totals as to the number of convictions for 1909 and 1910. Emmet County has no reports for 1909, 1910, and 1911, Floyd County for 1909, and Fremont, Pocahontas, and Keokuk counties for 1910. Slight sources of error are thus introduced. Moreover, in a num- ber of instances where no figures were given, it was impossible to be ab- solutely certain whether this was due to failure to report or to the absence of any criminal convictions during the year. (160) DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 161 6. Based upon data in the biennial reports of the State Board of Con- trol. In the reports published in 1899, 1901, 1903, this data is found in the copies of the reports of the wardens of the penal institutions printed in the closing section of the book. From 1905 to date the corresponding figures are found in the statistical tables as to penal institutions contained in Part II, Division I of the State Board reports. 7. Based upon data contained in statistical tables as to the population of penal institutions in Part II, Division I, of State Board of Control reports for 1910, 1912, 1914. 8. Based for 1900-1906 upon Table 295, page 408, of the report of the State Board of Control for 1906; for 1909-1914 upon data contained in the statistical tables as to the population of penal institutions, in Part II, Division I, of State Board of Control reports for 1910, 1912, 1914. Statistics for Clarinda and Chariton are available only for 1900-1906, 1909 and 1910; for Albia, Ames, Cherokee and Glenwood only for 1911- 1914. 9. Vogt, Paul L., ' ' Introduction to Rural Sociology ' ', pp. 204, 205. 10. United States Census, Prisoners and Juvenile Delinquents in In- stitutions, 1904, pp. 204, 207. 11. United States Census, 1910, Vol IV, Population and Occupation Statistics, pp. ,30, 40. 12. Cosson Committee Report, p. 86. 13. Ensign, F. C, ' ' County and City Jails in Iowa, ' ' Report of Tenth Annual Iowa Conference of Charities and Correction, 1909, p. 40. Iowa State Report for 1908 as to criminal convictions, p. 157. 14. Based upon data contained in statistical tables as to population of State hospitals for inebriates in Part II, Division T, of the State Board of Control reports for 1905, 1908, 1910, 1912, and 1914. 15. Based upon data contained in statistical tables as to population of State hospital for inebriates, in Part II, Division I, of State Board of Control, reports for 1910, 1912, 1914. 16. Based for 1904-1905 upon Table 263, pp. 370-71 of the State Board of Control report for 1906, for 1909-1914 upon data contained in the statistical tables as to the population of the State hospitals for inebriates, in Part II, Division I, of the State Boarrl of Control reports for 1910, 1912, 1914. 17. Based upon data in the biennial reports of the State Board of Control. In the reports published in 1899, 1901, 1903, this data is found in the copies of the reports of the superintendents of the industrial schools printed in the closing section of the book. From 1905 to date the corresponding figures are found in the statistical tables as to industrial schools contained in Part IT, Division 1, of the State Board reports. 18. Spearman's formula gives .314 as the coefficient of correlation be- tween the commitment rate and urban per cent, with a probable error of about .043. 19. Based upon data contained in the statistical tables aa to industrial 162 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES school population in Part II, Division I, of the State Board of Control reports for 1910, 1912, 1914. 20. Based upon data contained in the statistical tables as to industrial school population in Part II, Division I, of the State Board of Control reports for 1906, 1910, 1912, and 1914. 21. Based upon Tables 1 and 2 (children summoned before juvenile courts by counties) in Part II, Division I, Chapter IV of State Board of Control reports, 1908-1914. 22. Based upon Tables 1 and 2 in Part II, Division I, Chapter IV of State Board of Control reports, 1908, 1914. 2.3. Spearman 's formula gives a correlation of .228 between rank in urban per cent and in rate of juvenile delinquency with a probable error of .043. Definite correlation is proven but the inadequacy of the formula for a table of this character has already been noted. 24. Based upon State Board of Control reports, 1912, 1914. See Note 21 for exact references. 25. Based upon State Board of Control reports, 1912, 1914. 26. Vogt, Paul L., "Introduction to Eural Sociology," pp. 205, 206. 27. Based upon State Board of Control report ,1914, p. 478, corrected by reference to financial reports of certain counties and by correspondence with County officials. See also McClenahan, Bessie A., "The Iowa Plan for the Combination of Public and Private Relief," p. 29. 28. Based upon tables as to character of population. State Board of Control reports, 1910, 1912, 1914, Part II, Division I, Chapter II, Table 4. 29. Based upon returns from a questionnaire sent to each county home steward. 30. Based upon tables as to expenditures for poor relief by counties iu the biennial reports of State auditor, 1910, 1912, 1914. 31. Based upon ranks given in Tables XVI and XVIII. 82. The use of Spearman's formula gives a coefficient of .169 with a probable error of only .043. This indicates real correlation though not of a high degree. 33. None of the statistical tables in the reports of the State Board of Control classify epileptics separately from the insane and feeble-minded. During the period covered about the same number of epileptics have been cared for in the state institution for the feeble-minded and in the hos- pitals for the insane. To secure uniformity in statistical treatment, the epileptics have been counted as half insane and half feeble-minded. 34. Sixth Biennial Report, State Board of Control, pp. 34, 212. 35. Based primarily upon data contained in statistical tables as to population of the State Tuberculosis Sanatorium in Part II, Division I, of State Board of Control reports for 1908, 1910, 1912, 1914, 1916. Sup- plementary data was secured by correspondence with heads of county in- stitutions, and from Woodbury County Financial Reports. 36. Based upon data contained in statistical tables as to poplation of State Tuberculosis Sanatorium in Part II, Division I, of State Board of Control reports for 1910, 1912, 1914, 1916. DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 163 37. Based upon data contained in statistical tables as to population of State Sanatorium in Part TI, Division I, of State Board of Control re ports for 1910, 1912, 1914, 1916. Statistics for Clarinda and Chariton are available for only years 1909 and 1910, those for Albia, Ames, Chero- kee, and Glenwood for only 1911-1916. The rates given for these cities are estimated for the whole period calculated directly from the rates in years for which information is available. 38. Based upon data contained in statistical tables as to population of Institution for Feeble-Minded Children, in Part II, Division I, Chapter I of State Board of Control reports for 1901, 1903, 1905, 1906, 1910, 1912, 1914, 1916, and upon tables as to character of population of county homes in Part II, Division I, Chapter II of the same reports. The 1908 report contained no properly classified data on county home population other than the insane. Supplementary data was secured by correspondence with private institutions and county officers. 39. Based upon data contained in statistical tables as to population of Institution for Feeble-Minded Children, in Part II, Division I, Chap- ter I, of State Board of Control reports for 1901, 1903, 1905, 1906, 1910, 1912, 1914, 1916. 40. Based upon data contained in statistical tables as to population of Institution for Feeble-Minded Children, in Part II, Division I, Chap- ter I of the State Board of Control reports for 1910, 1912, 1914, 1916. 41. Based upon returns from a questionnaire sent to each county home steward. 42. Johnson, Alexander, ' * The Case of the Nation Against the Feeble- Minded," Survey, Vol. XXXIV (1915), pp. 136-137. 43. Based upon data contained in statistical tables as to population of the Institution for Feeble-Minded Children, in Part II, Division I, Chapter I of the State Board of Control reports for 1906, 1910, 1912, 1914, 1916. Statistics as to Chariton and Clarinda are available for only the three years, 1906, 1909, 1910; those at Albia, Ames, Cherokee, and Glenwood for only the years 1911-1916. Estimated totals for the entire period are given in the table, as calculated directly from rates in the years for which statistics are available. 44. Rogers, A. C, " Tlie Problem of the Feeble-Minded," Bulletin of Iowa Institutions, Vol. XIV (1912), p. 19. 45. Johnson, Alexander, "The Case of the Nation vs. the Feeble- Minded," Survey, Vol. XXXIV (1915), pp. 136-137. 46. Ensign, Forest C. "The Care of the Insane in Iowa," Bulletin flowa Institutions, Vol. II (1900), 1-31, a report based upon personal in- vestigation of conditions. See also Report of State Board of Control, 1899, pp. 113, 122-126. 47. Reports of State Board of Control, 1901, p. 53, aud 1903, p. 28. 48. Report of State Board of Control, 1916, p. 38. 49. Based for state institutions upon data contained in statistical 164 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES tables as to population of state hospitals for the insane in Part II, Divis- ion I, Chapter I of the State Board of Control reports, 1901-1906, 1910- 1916 ; for county institutions, for 1901-1906, 1910-1912, in Part II, Division I, Chapter II of State Board of Control reports for 1914 and 1916; for private institutions, and also in part for Clayton County hospital for in- sane, upon data secured by correspondence with those institutions and with County auditors, and from county financial reports. 50. Based upon data contained in statistical tables as to population of State hospitals for the insane in Part II, Division I, Chapter I of State Board of Control Eeports, 1901-1906. 51. Report of Commission to Investigate the Extent of Feeble-Minded- ness, Epilepsy, and Insanity and Other Conditions of Mental Defective- ness in Michigan, 1915, pp. 17-18. 52. Vogt, Paul L., "Introduction to Rural Sociology," pp. 179-180. Smith, S. G., ' ' Social Pathology, ' ' p. 205. 53. For sources of statistical data see note 49. For certain counties data as to the ratio between the sexes in number of patients sent to private hospitals is not available. Instead estimates were used based on ratio between sexes in total number of patients in private hospitals. Only a small proportion of the counties are affected in this way and the num- ber of patients involved makes but a very small fraction of the total, 54. Based upon data contained in statistical tables as to population of State hospitals for insane in Part II, Division I, Chapter I of State Board of Control reports for 1910, 1912, 1914, 1916. 55. Based upon returns from a questionnaire sent to county home stewards. 56. Based upon data in the statistical tables as to population of State hospitals for insane, in Part II, Division I, Chapter I, of State Board of Control reports for 1906, 1910, 1912, 1914, 1916. Statistics for Chariton and Clarinda are available for only the three years, 1906, 1909, 1910; those for Albia, Ames, Cherokee, and Glenwood for only the years 1911-1916. Estimated rates for the entire period are given in the table, as calculated directly from the rates for the years for which the statistics are available. 57. Bureau of Census, Bulletin 119, Insane and Feeble-Minded in In- stitutions, 1910, General Table 14, p. 36. 58. Report of Commission on Feeble-Mindedness, Epilepsy, and Insan- ity in Michigan, p. 20. Used and discussed also by Vogt, Paul L., ' * Intro- duction to Rural Sociology," pp. 178-179. 59. Based on data in Bulletin 119 of Bureau of Census, Insane and Feeble-Minded in Institutions 1910, General Tables, 35 and 38, pp. 73, 76. Vogt, Paul L., "Introduction to Rural Sociology," pp. 177-178. 60. Based as to per cent of population of foreign birth or parentage upon Federal Census for 1910, Abstract with Supplement for Iowa, Popu- lation, Table I, pp. 606 ff. ; for ranks in various lines of social infection upon Tables I, II, III, VI, IX, XII, XIII, XIX, XX, XXIII, XXVIII. DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELINQUENTS 165 61. Based as to per cent of population of foreign birth or pareatage upon Federal Census for 1910, Abstract with Supplement for Iowa, Population, Table II, pp. 624 ff.; for commitment rates upon Tables V, VIII, XI, XXII, XXVII, XXXIV. 62. Federal Census for 1910, Abstract with Supplement for Iowa, Population; Table I, pp. 606 ff. 63. Based as to per cent of population engaged in manufacturing up- on Federal Census for 1910, Abstract with Supplement for Iowa, Manu- factures, Table III, pp. 708-709; as to rates and ranks in commitments upon Tables V, VIII, XI, XXII, XXVII, XXXIV. 64. Based as to per cent of population consisting of child laborers up- on Federal Census for 1910, Abstract with Supplement for Iowa, Manu- factures, Table III, pp. 708-709, as to industrial school commitments up- on Table XI. 65. Clopper, ' ' Child Labor in City Streets, ' ' Chapter VII, ' ' Eelation of Street Work to Delinquency," especially p. 176; Mangold, "Child Prob- lems," p. 232; Haynes, "Child Labor Legisation in Iowa," in "Applied History, ' ' Vol. II, pp. 569 ff. 66. Based as to population engaged in mining upon biennial report of State Mine Inspectors, 1910, page 95, table for year ending June 30, 1910, as to ranks in social infection upon Tables I,II, III, VI, IX, XII, XVI, XVIII, XIX, XX, XXIII, XXVIII. 67. Mounts, "A Survey of Social and Economic Conditions in a Rural Township," p. 95. 68. Based upon Federal Census for 1910, Abstract with Supplement for Iowa, Population, Table I, pp. 606-ff. and upon report of State Census, 1905, General Tables, no. 13, pp. 17-ff. 69. Stevenson, S. K., "Associated Charities in Iowa: a General Sur vey, " in proceedings of third, fourth, fifth, and sixth Iowa State Con- ference of Charities and Correction, pp. 131-134. Wassam, C. W., "Or- ganized Charity in Iowa," in Iowa Journal of History and Politics, Jan- uary 1906, especially pp. 90-91. Directory of Charity Oranization Societies, January, 1916, pp. 6-7. Strictly speaking these probation officers are county and not city officials. Their chief field for activity, however, lies in the cities named. 70. See Table XLVIII. 71. A summary of Tables IV, VII, X, XVIT, XXI, XXV, XXVT, XXXII, and XXXIII. There is no city of 8,000-25,000 in population covered. 72. Based upon data in the statistical tables as to population of State hospitals for insane, in Part II, Division I, Chapter I, of State Board of Control reports for 1910, 1912, 1914, 1916. 73. Based upon Tables I, II, III, VI, IX, XII, XIX. 74. See preceding note for tables used as basis. 75. Based upon Tables V. VIII, XI. 76. Based upon Tables XX, XXIII, XXVIIl. 166 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES 77. Based upon Tables XXII, XXVII, XXXIV. 78. Statement by R. J. Rhys, State mine inspector, quoted in Register and Leader for June 3, 1916, p. 2. 79. ' ' The abolition of mining camps in Iowa is recommended by the State mine inspectors in the annual report of the State mine department, which was issued Thursday. The inspectors recommend that the miners live in established cities and go to their work in work trains. This system will do away with the dirty, unimproved, unsightly, and temporary camps where the miners cannot have comforts and their children can not be properly educated, the mine inspectors assert. ' ' In discussing the abolition of the coal camp, R. J. Rhys, inspector, of Ottumwa, said: ' As the average life of an Iowa coal mine is 8 years, the operators can not afford to put up modern dwellings for the miner. Therefore the average coal camp is a bunch of small frame houses, lacking modern conveniences and without improvements of any kind. It makes a depress- ing place to live, not to mention the unhealthy conditions and the lack of educational facilities for the children. ' The miners are a fine lot of men and they are entitled to live under proper conditions. As long as they live in the dirty camps, they will not be given the consideration due them. These camps degrade the miner physically, mentally and morally. ' Why not allow the miners to live in established towns and cities where transportation to and from the mines is possible and practical. It would be better than to build impoverished camps. If more homes for workmen are needed could they not be built as a part or an addition to these es- tablished communities? The miner's children then will have educational advantages equal to other children and will have an equal chance with other youngsters to grow up and make good in the world. ' — Quoted from Register and Leader for June 3, 1916, 2. Price $ .85 ^^^ '""califov^^^ ^ ^.S'9??!?A^^. S^ ^. 0031(7 A>, *>> -s"- C'MVb^^- IvKS/T'i- VLIFO^^' 2; 4, :^.^' ,.;o.'r 1^ /^^. 0031(7 \ -^^ -3 '3 ?^®.;%%