BS 
 
 525 
 
 S3 
 
 1904 
 
 MAIN 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 OP' THE 
 
 University of California. 
 
 GIKT OF 
 
 ..w4/VVW^... f] QJU^Ca^Q,, 
 
 
 
 Class 
 
 ^- C-. C 
 
2r^e SEni&erssito of Chicago, 
 
 FOUNDED BY JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER. 
 
 THE 
 
 USE OF nn IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 
 
 AND OF 
 
 DNEYMA IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 A DISSERTATION 
 
 SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE DIVINITY SCHOOL, IN 
 CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY. • 
 
 (DEPARTMENT OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY.) 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM ROSS SCHOEMAKER. 
 
 V \9 R A ft p 
 ^ OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 Menominee, Michigan. 
 1904 
 

 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 THE USE OF ni"! IN THE OLD TESTAMENT . . 13-35 
 
 I. Its use in the oldest documents of the Old Testament 13 
 
 1. To denote wind 13 
 
 2. To denote spirit 15 
 
 a) Spirit of God 15 
 
 (1) The non-prophetic function of the spirit 15 
 
 (2) The prophetic function of the spirit 15 
 
 F) For physical strength, courage, etc 18 
 
 II. Its icse in the Dcuteronomic period (700-550 B.C.) 20 
 
 1. To denote wind 20 
 
 2. To denote spirit 20 
 
 a) Spirit of God 20 
 
 (i) The non-prophetic function of the spirit 20 
 
 (2) The prophetic function of the spirit 21 
 
 h') For physical strength and courage 22 
 
 III. Its use in the Babylonian (^Exilic) and early Persian periods (550- 
 
 400 B.C.) 23 
 
 1. To denote wind and breath 23 
 
 a) To denote wind 23 
 
 <^) To denote breath 24 
 
 2. To denote spirit 25 
 
 a) Spirit of God 25 
 
 (i) The energizing and transporting power of God ... 25 
 
 (2) The enlightening and directing power of God .... 26 
 
 (3) God's protecting presence with Israel 27 
 
 U) The spirit of man 28 
 
 (i) For anger, wrath, etc., and their seat in man .... 28 
 
 (2) As the seat of humility 29 
 
 (3) As the energizing and directing power in man .... 29 
 
 IV. Its use in the later Persian and Greek periods (400 B.C. on) ... 30 
 
 I. To denote wind and breath '30 
 
 a) To denote wind 30 
 
 ^) To denote breath 31 
 
 iii 
 
 144069 
 
IV TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 2. To denote spirit 32 
 
 a') Spirit of God 32 
 
 (i) The proplietic function of the spirit 33 
 
 (2) Spirit as God's presence with Israel ....... t^'^ 
 
 d) Used to denote human spirit 34 
 
 (1) For anger, wrath, and their seat 34 
 
 (2) The seat of humility 34 
 
 (3) The directing power in conduct 34 
 
 Part II. 
 
 THE USE OF TTvevixa IN THE CLASSICAL WRITINGS, THE SEP- 
 TUAGINT, THE APOCRYPHA, PHILO, JOSEPHUS, AND THE 
 NEW TESTAMENT 35-67 
 
 I. 7/5 tise in the Classical writings {of wind and breath ojtly') ... 35 
 
 II. Its use in the Septuagint 36 
 
 1. To denote wind and breath 36 
 
 a) To denote wind 36 
 
 U) To denote breath 37 
 
 2. To denote spirit 37 
 
 a) Spirit of God 37 
 
 h) Non-embodied personal spirits 37 
 
 c) Spirit denoting physical strength and courage 38 
 
 III. Its use in the Apocrypha and Pseiidepigrapha 38 
 
 1. To denote wind and breath 39 
 
 «) To denote wind . 39 
 
 3) To denote breath 39 
 
 2. To denote spirit 39 
 
 a~) Spirit of God 39 
 
 b) Unembodied or disembodied personal spirits 40 
 
 (i) Good spirits, angelic beings 40 
 
 (2) Evil spirits capable of tormenting living persons ... 40 
 
 (3) Disembodied human spirits 41 
 
 <:) For strength, courage, anger, etc., and their seal in man . . 41 
 
 IV. Its use by Philo . 42 
 
 1. To denote wind and breath 42 
 
 a') To denote wind 42 
 
 b') To denote breath 43 
 
 2. To denote spirit 43 
 
 «) Spirit of God 43 
 
 b') The spirit or mind of man 44 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. V 
 
 PAGE 
 
 V. Its use by Josephus 45 
 
 1. To denote wind and breath 45 
 
 a) To denote wind 45 
 
 b) To denote breath or life 45 
 
 2. To denote spirit 46 
 
 a) Spirit of God 46 
 
 b) Disembodied personal spirits 46 
 
 (i) For good spirits 46 
 
 (2) For evil spirits possessing and tormenting men ... 46 
 
 <r) Strength and courage 46 
 
 VI. Its use in the New Testament 47 
 
 1. To denote wind and breath 47 
 
 a) To denote wind 47 
 
 ^) To denote breath 47 
 
 2. To denote spirit 49 
 
 a) Spirit of God 49 
 
 (1) The teaching of Jesus concerning the Holy Spirit . . . 49 
 
 (rt) In the synoptic gospels 49 
 
 (/;) In the gospel of John 50 
 
 (2) The teachings of the four evangelists 52 
 
 (3) The teachings of Acts, the catholic epistles^ and the 
 
 Apocalypse 53 
 
 (rt) The spirit as author of prophecy 54 
 
 (U) As the helper and director of believers 56 
 
 (f) As a witnessing and revealing power in the believer 56 
 
 (4) The teaching of the Pauline epistles 57 
 
 («) The gift of speaking with tongues 58 
 
 (J)) The gift of prophecy 59 
 
 (r) The gift of the spirit to work miracles 60 
 
 ((/) The spirit as the bearer of wisdom and knowledge 
 
 to the believer 60 
 
 (d") The spirit as a regenerating and sanctifying power . 61 
 
 b^ The human spirit {i.e. the spirit of the living man) .... 63 
 
 (i) The seat or source of strong excitement 63 
 
 (2) The seat of humility 64 
 
 (3) The seat or source of thoughts and purposes .... 64 
 
 c) Unembodied or disembodied spirits 66 
 
 (i) Divine and angelic beings capable of existence without 
 
 a physical body 66 
 
 (2) Demons, or evil spirits, non-embodied 66 
 
 (3) Disembodied human spirits 67 
 
The Use of n^"l in the Old Testament, and 
 of TTvevjxa in the New Testament. 
 
 A LEXICOGRAPHICAL STUDY 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM ROSS SCHOEMAKER, PH.D. 
 
 MENOMINEE, MICH. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 THE USE OF nn IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 
 
 THE following investigation is an attempt to trace the growth in 
 meaning, as well as to classify every occurrence in the Old 
 Testament, of the Hebrew term llTn. For this purpose, it becomes 
 necessary to arrange the literature of the Old Testament, whose writ- 
 ing covered a period of several hundred years, as nearly as possible 
 in chronological order. Since the dating of most of it has been done 
 quite thoroughly, we shall in the study before us assume the com- 
 monly accepted dates. In the course of the investigation it was 
 found that the development in the conceptions and meanings con- 
 nected with the term would best be displayed by arranging the 
 biblical material in four chronological groups. 
 
 I. The Use of HH z« the Oldest D oaiments of the Old 
 Testament Literature, dating approximately from 900 
 to 700 B.C} 
 
 In this period the word has but two general meanings, wind and 
 spirit. The idea of breath does not seem to have become attached 
 to it until exilic and post-exilic times. At least there are no clear 
 examples of this use before that time. 
 
 I. rn*l used to denote tvind. 
 
 Of the two uses of the term, " wind " and " spirit," wind seems to 
 
 ^J and E of the Hexateuch; the oldest portions of the Books of Judges, 
 Samuel, and Kings; and the writings of the eighth-century prophets, Amos, 
 Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah (omitting the later additions to their prophecies). 
 
14 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 be the more clearly defined. It is the customary meaning of the 
 Hebrew word when unaccompanied by any explanatory modifier. No 
 other term is used to denote wind in this early literature. It is used 
 of both a zephyr and a storm. The conception of wind as air in 
 motion is, of course, entirely absent from the thought of the early 
 Hebrews. Nor did they seem to know that in breathing a man 
 inhaled air or wind. Such conceptions were not reached by the 
 Hebrews until much later in their history. When tlT^ came to be 
 employed of breath as well as of wind, it was not through any idea 
 of the physical identity of the two, but rather through the recog- 
 nition of a similarity between the phenomena. Breath was nothing 
 more than a miniature wind. For the early Hebrews the two lead- 
 ing characteristics of the wind were energy and invisibility. At first 
 it was the energy and power of the wind which attracted the most 
 attention ; later, as in Job and Ecclesiastes, it was its invisibility and 
 emptiness. The power of the wind is very well illustrated in the 
 Elijah and Elisha narratives. It is a great and strong wind that 
 rends the mountains (i K. 19") ; and a storm wind that brings the 
 rain (2 K. 3^^^ ; cf. i K. iS"*^). Isaiah pictures the trees of the wood 
 swayed to and fro by it (Isa. 7-), and the chaff driven before it (Isa. 
 17^^). The idea of the invisibility and emptiness of the wind is set 
 forth by Hosea when he afiirms that Ephraim feeds upon wind, and 
 says that the wind hath wrapped her up in its wings (Hos. 12^'^-^ 
 and 41^ ; cf. 8')- 
 
 This powerful and invisible force is under the direct control of 
 God. It goes forth from him to do his bidding. Thus, by an east 
 wind the Lord brings the locusts upon the land of Egypt (Exod. 
 lo^'^ [J]) ') arid again by a strong west wind he drives them into the 
 sea (Exod. 10^^ [!])• By the east wind he causes the waters of the 
 Red Sea to go back all the night in order that his people may cross 
 on dry land (Exod. 14^^ [J])- By a wind which goes forth from him, 
 he brings the quails in order that Israel may be fed in the wilderness 
 (Num. 11'^^ [J])- The hot wind which comes up from the desert is 
 called the wind of the Lord (Hos. 13^^). 
 
 With the conception of the wind as an invisible power of God, it 
 seems probable that the early Hebrews easily carried over the term 
 ni"! to designate the unseen but powerful influences which appeared 
 to operate within the physical and psychical life of man. God, 
 by his unseen but powerful lin (spirit), acted upon man in much 
 the same way as, through his tlTl (wind), he acted upon natural 
 objects. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF 111") AND OF Trvevfjua. 1 5 
 
 2. ftl*! t/sed to denote spirit, 
 a) Spirit of God. 
 
 There were two leading conceptions (at bottom one) of the 
 function of the spirit of God. 
 
 ( 1 ) 77/1? non-prophetic function in which the spirit of the Lord fell 
 suddenly upon some leader or hero, arousing him to action and 
 imparting to him the physical strength and courage to perform some 
 extraordinary deed of valor. This is well illustrated by the stories of 
 Gideon and Samson in the Book of Judges. Thus, when the spirit 
 came upon Samson, he tore the lion in pieces with perfect ease 
 (Judg. \A^-^ [J])> and at another time he rent asunder the cord with 
 which his hands were bound (Judg. 15" [J]). It was when the spirit 
 clothed Gideon that he blew the trumpet and gathered the armies of 
 Israel together (Judg. 6'^"'" [J] ; cf. Judg. 13^ with 14^ [J]). Like- 
 wise Saul, under a similar impulse, summoned the warriors to the 
 defence of Jabesh (i Sam. 11" [J]). In this case the spirit of the 
 Lord not only stirred up Saul's courage but his anger (indignation) 
 as well. In fact, in this early period, anger seems to have been 
 regarded as one of the legitimate and necessary means of self- 
 defence, hence not essentially evil. Strength, courage, and anger 
 were so closely linked together that it is probable that they were dis- 
 tinguished only in a vague and general way. A similar view of the 
 power and courage imparted by the spirit of God is set forth by 
 Isaiah when he says of the Egyptians that they are men and not God, 
 and that their horses are flesh (weak and powerless) and not spirit 
 (the power imparted by God. Isa. 31^). Micah asserts that he is 
 full of power by the spirit (Mic. 3^ Wellhausen, Nowack, and 
 Briggs regard " by the spirit " in this passage as a gloss of some later 
 scribe), and asks whether the spirit of the I>ord is shortened (Mic. 
 2'^). " Shortened " Cni^i^) can mean impotent, powerless, as in 
 Isa. 50-; or impatient, angry, as in Job 21* Prov. 14-"^ Exod. 6" [P]. 
 G translates the present passage in the latter way, and most inter- 
 preters follow this version. A still more striking example of the 
 power of the spirit is presented in the stories connected with Elijah. 
 An early writer represents Elijah as transported from place to place 
 by the spirit of God (i K. 18'- 2 K. 2^^; cf. Ezek. 83-^"=- Acts ^^). 
 
 (2) The prophetic function, in which the spirit of the Lord came 
 upon the prophets and stirred them up to a state of ecstasy, or reli- 
 gious frenzy, in which state they were able to receive and communi- 
 cate the divine message imparted to them. This function of the 
 spirit is well illustrated in i Sam. 10^'". The band of inspired 
 
1 6 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 prophets, who roam about carrying their musical instruments with 
 them, are clearly in a state of ecstasy. When Saul met them, the 
 spirit fell suddenly upon him, and he, too, prophesied with the rest 
 (i Sam. lo'"; cf. i Sam. 19^"-^'^). Because of his frenzy and ecstasy, 
 he is said to be changed into another man (i Sam. 10"). Men so 
 enthused by the spirit of God regarded themselves as entirely under 
 the spirit's control. Hence what they said and did was looked upon 
 as coming directly from God (Num. 24- [J] ; cf. 24^- ^^•^''). The pri- 
 mary function of the spirit, however, was not that of message-bearing. 
 God more often conveyed his messages to men by means of direct 
 discourse (Gen. 21^- 22^ Exod. 3"; cf. 4-^ [all E]), or by an angel 
 (Gen. 22" 21^^ 31" 32I [all E], Gen. 24^ 16'"" Exod. 3- [all J]), or 
 in a dream (Gen. 20''''' 31" 31-^ 37^"™ [all E]). In this early period, 
 the primary function of the spirit of God was that of arousing in the 
 prophet the state of ecstasy. God by his spirit enthused the prophet 
 — stirred him up. Thus we see that at bottom the prophetic func- 
 tion of the spirit was identical with the non-prophetic. In both 
 cases the spirit stirred up and energized men. In the case of 
 Gideon, the spirit aroused to action ; in the case of the prophet, to 
 a state of ecstasy. It is evident that until this factor of ecstasy could 
 be eliminated, or reduced to a minimum, the message of the prophet 
 would be discredited. This ehmination of the ecstatic occurred 
 during the following, the Deuteronomic, period. There are many 
 indications that, at the time of our earliest literature, these ecstatic 
 prophets were already under the ban. Hosea calls the prophet a 
 fool, and says that the man of the spirit is mad (Hos. 9^'^; cf. 2 K. 9^^ 
 and Jer. 29-*^) ; and Micah affirms that they speak lies and prophesy 
 of wine and strong drink (Micah 2"). None of the writing prophets, 
 Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, or Micah, state explicitly that they prophesied 
 by means of the spirit of God, though in the case of some of them 
 this may be implied. 
 
 The spirit was regarded as operative only while the prophet was 
 in the state of ecstasy. When Saul had finished prophesying he 
 returned to his ordinary vocation (i Sam. 10^^). However, the man 
 in whom the spirit repeatedly manifested itself came to be desig- 
 nated as " the man of the spirit" (Hos. 9'^). So it was with Elijah 
 and Elisha, Elisha prayed that a double portion (the portion that 
 falls by right to the eldest son) of the spirit possessed by his master 
 might rest upon him (2 K. 2^). In this latter case the possession 
 of the spirit meant also the power to work miracles. The prophets 
 who stood at a distance perceived that the spirit of Elijah rested 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF ril"! AND OF TTj'Cv/ia. I ^ 
 
 upon Elisha when they saw the latter perform the same miracle 
 which the former had just accomplished (2 K. 2"-^^; cf. 2^*). In 
 the case of Joseph the possession of the spirit gave him the ability 
 to interpret dreams (Gen. 4i^*-' [E]). 
 
 In all of these cases the work of the spirit was beneficent to 
 all concerned, but there were some ecstatic phenomena where the 
 results were harmful. When, as in the case of Saul, the frenzy took 
 the form of a dangerous insanity, the cause was said to be the spirit 
 of God (for) evil (i Sam. i6i^i«-^ [J])? or the spirit of evil from the 
 Lord (i Sam. i6"-^ [J])- The spirit itself is not said to be evil or 
 to have an evil disposition. It is only the effect upon the man that 
 is said to be evil. The spirit terrorizes him and causes him to be 
 injurious to others. The spirit is not viewed as a separate person- 
 ality existing alongside of God (as Satan in the Book of Job), but 
 rather as an influence or power proceeding from him. The work 
 done is conceived to be from God as much as in the case of the 
 " spirit for good " (cf. i K. 22-^"-"' and see Briggs, Jour, of Bib. Lit., 
 Vol. XIX. p. 141). A kindred conception is presented by Isaiah 
 when he tells erring Israel to stupefy and Wind themselves, to be 
 drunken and stagger but not with drink, for the Lord has poured out 
 upon them " spirit of deep sleep " (Isa. 29^°). Here the effect pro- 
 duced by the spirit is clearly an ecstatic one. The people stagger 
 and reel as if drunken (cf. Mic. 2"). The spirit, instead of enabling 
 the prophets and seers to speak forth the will of God, silences them. 
 The function of the spirit described in this Isaiah passage is thus the 
 opposite of its true function. As a warning to erring Israel, Isaiah 
 could not well have chosen a more striking figure. Israel had 
 neglected to follow the guidance of the spirit, hence God used it as a 
 means of leading her astray. Hosea used a similar figure, but in his 
 case the metonymy is still more apparent. He says that Israel seeks 
 counsel of her idols, implying that she will not be guided by God. 
 She prefers to be directed by the spirit of whoredom and thus to 
 wander away from him (Hos. 4^^ 5^). She follows her own lustful 
 impulses rather than the dictates of the spirit of God. The prophet 
 is not to be understood as affirming that he believes there is a 
 demoniac spirit possessing the people and leading them astray. A 
 clear case of the use of 111"! to denote a demon does not seem to 
 occur in the Old Testament. Nor does his language imply that he 
 conceived the lust to proceed from their own spirits. This again 
 would be a use of HI"! entirely without parallel, since lust is never 
 attributed to the human spirit. Hence it seems probable that we 
 
1 8 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 have here simply an analogic metonymy, in which HI") stands for 
 guiding and impelling power without designating its source." 
 
 Thus, for the early Hebrews, the idea of spirit seems to have been 
 almost as general as the idea of wind. Both were energies or powers 
 proceeding from God. The quantitative notion attached to the one 
 as much as to the other. That they did not ascribe to the spirit a 
 personality separate from God is made more certain from the fact 
 that in no Old Testament writing is there a clear case of the use of 
 nn to denote separate, individual, disembodied, personal spirits, 
 either good or bad. The plural form of the term is never used in 
 this sense. To all intents and purposes there was but one spirit of 
 God. 
 
 b) ni"l used to dejiote physical strength, courage, and anger, and 
 viewed sometimes as the seat or source of these and especially of 
 violent agitation. 
 
 These phenomena are so strikingly a reflection of the phenomena 
 connected with the spirit of God that one is immediately driven to 
 the conclusion that there must be some genetic relation between the 
 two. What that relation is can best be stated when we have exam- 
 ined the passages of Scripture in which this meaning occurs. To 
 illustrate the use of H^l to denote physical strength and courage, 
 there are three examples. Samson's spirit (llTl) returned and 
 he revived as soon as his thirst was quenched (Judg. 15^^ [!])• 
 Likewise the spirit of an Egyptian returned after he had eaten 
 (i Sam. 30'- [J])- Jacob's spirit revived when he saw the wagons 
 which Joseph had sent to carry him to Egypt (Gen. 45^ [E]). 
 Under the head of anger or the seat of stubbornness and violent agi- 
 tation there are also three passages. The spirit (anger) of the men 
 of Ephraim was abated toward Gideon when he had explained to 
 them why they were not called out to battle (Judg. 8'^ [E]). Ahab's 
 spirit was sullen when he could not get the vineyard of Naboth (i K. 
 21^). And Pharaoh's spirit was agitated (stirred up □"£) when 
 he awoke from his dream (Gen. 41^ [E]). These examples are the 
 only ones found in this period. The preexilic prophets do not use 
 the term in this sense unless Micah 2'' is a case in point. 
 
 On the basis of these examples, the conclusion seems certain that 
 the concept of the spirit of man (denoting thereby strength, courage, 
 
 2 Cf. the use of i'6/ios, law, in a similar way in Rom. 7^3, where " a different 
 law," not a law at all in the strict sense, but a force tending, as law serves, to 
 control action, is by " analogic metonymy " called law, in contrast to the [real] 
 law which acts in the opposite direction. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF nn AND OF TTvevfUt. 1 9 
 
 and anger) is an outgrowth from the concept of the spirit of God. 
 Since God imparts his spirit of strength and courage to man, 
 strength and courage are themselves in time called spirit. Or again, 
 since the spirit of God stirs up men to warlike actions, what more 
 natural than to call that in man which is stirred up his spirit (cf. 
 Judg. 1 3-' [J] with Gen. 41* [E] where the same verb [DVS] is 
 used. Also cf. i Sam. ii*^ with Judg. 8^ [E], both of which involve 
 anger) ? Or, viewed from another standpoint, such kindred phe- 
 nomena as strength, courage, and anger, which in their most striking 
 manifestations, at least, were at one time attributed to the divine 
 power, were later, owing perhaps to their frequency, designated the 
 spirit of man. Judges 9-^ is a passage which bears the marks of such 
 a transition. It is there said that God sent a spirit for evil between 
 Abimelech and the men of Shechem. On the one hand, this 
 reminds us of the language used concerning the spirit of evil from 
 the Lord (i Sam. 16^^^) ; on the other, of the phenomenon of 
 anger called the spirit of man. In a later period, the thought of the 
 passage would have been expressed b}' saying that God stii-red up 
 the spirit of Abimelech and of the men of Shechem (cf i Chron. 
 5-'« 2 Chron. 2\^^). 
 
 If now we have discovered the true genetic relationship between 
 the spirit of God and the spirit of man, it seems clear that the latter 
 was not, in its earhest stages at least, regarded as a faculty of the 
 soul or mind. It was simply the name of certain striking physical 
 and mental phenomena related to the active side of life, such as 
 strength, courage, and anger. It was in no way regarded as the seat 
 of life or the bearer of the man's personality. It was not used as a 
 synonym of either soul (t^B3) or heart (D7), the leading psycho- 
 logical terms of the period. The spirit was not locahzed in any part 
 of the body. From its very nature this was impossible. The man's 
 spirit (strength, courage, and anger) departed and returned, but no 
 one thought of asking where it had been. Even in the popular 
 language of to-day, courage and anger are not localized. We speak 
 of their coming and going in the same vague and general way that 
 the people of old spoke of the spirit. 
 
20 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 II. The Use of HH in the Deiiteronomic Period dating from 
 about 700 to about 550 B.C? 
 
 In general the term is used in the same senses as in the previous 
 period. The one striking exception occurs in the case of the spirit 
 of God. There is an entire absence of that term from the main 
 body of the Uterature of this period. 
 
 1. The use of HTl for wind. 
 
 Jeremiah very often refers to the destructive power of the wind 
 (Jer. 4"-^- 13-'* 18^''). He also speaks of the wind as a shepherd of 
 the pastors of Israel, who have caused the people to go astray (Jer. 
 22-^). Habakkuk, in describing the pride and haughtiness of the 
 Chaldean, says that he sweeps by as a wind and passes on (Hab. i"). 
 Jeremiah, on the other hand, also uses the wind as a symbol of 
 emptiness. The prophets, he says, shall become wind since the 
 word is not in them (Jer. 5^"). Israel, in her inordinate desire after 
 strange gods, is like a wild ass with open mouth catching at the wind 
 (Jer. 2-* 14®). In Jer. ^^^-■'^ XVr\ is used by metonymy for the points 
 of the compass — the directions from which the wind blows. 
 
 2. The use of 111*1 for spirit. 
 a) Spirit of God. 
 
 As stated above, the phrase " spirit of God " does not occur in the 
 main body of the literature of this period. It is not found in D of 
 the Hexateuch (only once in the Book of Deuteronomy and that in a 
 late passage), nor in the Deuteronomic portions of the books of 
 Kings, nor even in the prophecies of Jeremiah, Zephaniah, Nahum, 
 and Habakkuk. This abandonment of the term spirit of God was 
 probably due to the disrepute into which the ecstatic prophets had 
 fallen.* The period had at its heart the religio-ethical revival of 
 Josiah, and ethics and ecstasy have little in common. However, 
 there are certain fragments of literature belonging to this period in 
 which the phrase spirit of God is used, and some of these are quite 
 instructive for our purpose. 
 
 (i) The non-prophetic function of the spirit. — The spirit of the 
 Lord stirs up and empowers certain persons to do acts requiring 
 great physical strength and courage. Thus when the spirit of God 
 
 3 The literature of the period incluHes D of the Hexateuch; the Deuteronomic 
 portions of the Books of Judges and Kings; and, with the exception of later 
 additions, the prophecies of Jeremiah, Zephaniah, Nahum, and Habakkuk. 
 
 * See Briggs, Jour, of Bib. Lit., Vol. XIX. p. 140; also Jer. 5^3; zg^^-Sf; 
 Isa. 3o9- 1»; I Sam. io"-i3; Hos. 9^- «; Micah 2I1. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF nil AND OF wedfJLa. 2 1 
 
 was upon Othniel, he went out to war and vindicated Israel (Judg. 
 S^'^). So, too, the spirit of the Lord stirred up Jephthah and he went 
 forth to conquer Amnion (Judg. ii-"^). Likewise, when the spirit of 
 the Lord fell upon Samson he went down to Ashkelon and killed 
 thirty men (Judg. 14^^). 
 
 (2) T/i€ prophetic function of the spirit. — The spirit of the Lord 
 arouses certain men — the prophets — to a state of ecstasy and thus 
 enables them to prophesy for God. There are but two passages 
 which can properly be classed here. Li Num. 11^'"^, the Lord tells 
 Moses that he will take of the spirit which is upon him and will put 
 it upon the seventy elders. After the Lord had transferred a portion 
 of the spirit from Moses to each of the elders, they, including the 
 two who had remained in the camp, began to prophesy. When 
 Joshua remonstrated with Moses against the two latter prophesying 
 in the camp, Moses replied, " Would God that all the Lord's people 
 were prophets, that the Lord would put his spirit upon them " (Num. 
 11^). We have here one of the first instances in which the spirit of 
 the Lord is designated simply as " the spirit." This passage, like 
 those of 2 K. 2^ and Isa. 29", presents a general or quantitative con- 
 ception of the spirit. Each elder participated in the one spirit of 
 God. A view like this seems to preclude any thought of the sepa- 
 rate personality of the spirit. The second passage is i K. 22^^^^ 
 Micaiah, in narrating his vision to the king of Israel, says that he saw 
 the Lord sitting upon his throne and all the host of heaven standing 
 on his right hand and on his left. When the Lord had inquired of 
 them who would go and deceive Ahab, and no one of them volun- 
 teered, the spit-it came forward and said, " I will entice him by 
 becoming a spirit of deceit in the mouth of his prophets." That the 
 writer of this passage has personified the spirit is quite evident. He 
 represents the spirit as speaking and acting just as a person would 
 do under similar circumstances. That, however, he did not intend 
 to go be3'ond personification is also quite evident. In the first place, 
 we must remember that the writer is narrating, in vivid language, a 
 vision which he had had. He is not speaking in plain prose and 
 with theological accuracy. In the second place, we must note that 
 when he is describing the real work of the spirit he falls back upon 
 the ordinary view of its nature. The spirit is not said to have gone 
 to Ahab or to one of his prophets simply as an angel would, but on 
 the contrary becomes a lying spirit in the mouth of all the four 
 hundred prophets. All of these prophets participate in and are 
 stimulated by the one spirit. The use of the article in v.-^ does not 
 
22 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 indicate that the spirit was one among other spirits standing about 
 the throne. Neither in the singular nor in the plural is 1111 ever 
 used of the heavenly hosts. It was only after the host (the angels) 
 had given their opinions that the one divine spirit came forward to 
 proffer its aid. Nor does its task of deception make it an evil spirit. 
 The writer does not even call it the spirit of God for evil as is done 
 in I Sam. i6^^"-^ In spite of the function which it performed it is 
 simply the spirit of the Lord (i K. 22-''). A similar function of the 
 spirit appears in 2 K. 19^ (= Isa. 37''). God by his spirit arouses in 
 the king of Assyria a feeling of fear and quickens in him the impulse 
 to withdraw his army from Jewish territory. Hll is here used with- 
 out the article, and is viewed simply as a power of God — that power 
 by which he enters into and influences men. 
 
 ^) ni*l used to denote physical strength, courage, anger, stubborn- 
 ness, etc., or their seat or source. 
 
 This usage is not found in the writings of any prophet of this 
 period (nor indeed of any preexilic prophet) and but once in the 
 Book of Deuteronomy (Deut. 2'^'^. In those fragments of literature 
 in which it does occur, it is used in precisely the same way as in 
 the previous period. As examples of HH used to denote physical 
 strength and courage, we have at least two passages. It is said of 
 the queen of Sheba, that after she had seen the wisdom 'of Solomon 
 and the house that he had built, there was no more spirit in her 
 (i K. 10^ [= 2 Chron. g'*]). There was no more spirit in the kings 
 of the Amorites and Canaanites whqn they heard that the Lord had 
 dried up the waters of the Red Sea and the Jordan River (Josh. 2" 
 5^). Of its use to denote anger or the seat of stubbornness and obsti- 
 nacy, we have three examples. It is said that the Lord hardened 
 (made obstinate or angry) the spirit of Sihon, king of Heshbon, so 
 that he would not permit Israel to pass by (Deut. 2^°). Hannah said 
 that she was a woman of a hard (or rebellious) spirit and so had 
 come to pour out her soul before the Lord (i Sam. i^^). Caleb was 
 permitted to enter the promised land because he had shown another 
 spirit, i.e. had not provoked the Lord by his obstinacy and rebellious- 
 ness as the others had done (Num. 14"^). 
 
 It thus seems clear that the Deuteronomic period added nothing 
 to the concept or use of the term ni"l. This is all the more remark- 
 able when we remember that it was during this very period that the 
 most rapid development occurred in the meanings of such psycho- 
 logical terms as soul (U^S?) and heart (3?). The word "spirit" 
 found no place in the fundamental ethical precept of the time. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF mi AND OF Trvevfxa. 23 
 
 "Thou shalt love the Lord with all thy heart, with all thy soul, and 
 with all thy might " (Deut. 6^). 
 
 III. T/ie Use of 1111 in the Babylonian {Exilic) and Early 
 Persian Periods, dating from about 550 to about 
 400 B.C.^ 
 
 If, on the one hand, the Deuteronomic period was characterized 
 by the least possible (or even a negative) development in the use of 
 ni*l ; on the other hand, the Babylonian and early Persian periods 
 were characterized by the most rapid development in all the mean- 
 ings of the term. In connection with the meaning wind, we have 
 the term used to denote breath, and also (since breathing is neces- 
 sary to life) by metonymy for life itself; the phrase spirit of God is 
 rescued from its former reproach and has a larger and more religio- 
 ethical content put into it ; and, finally, the concept of the spirit of 
 man is extended to include a portion of the realm of conduct and 
 character. 
 
 I. ni'n 1/sed to denote wind and breath. 
 
 a) To denote wind. 
 
 The wind is still viewed as one of the most powerful forces of 
 nature. It transports objects from place to place (Ezek. 5- Isa. 41^'' 
 5 y^"* 64'"-f'^ Zech. 5^ Ps. i^ iS^-™ 35'). It tears down walls (Ezek. 
 j^iii-^ . ^j^(j dashes into pieces the ships at sea (Ezek. 27-'^ Ps. 48'). 
 Man stands in awe of it at all times (Ps. SS'"'-^-'). When the east wind 
 comes with scorching heat from the desert it withers all vegetation 
 (Ezek. 17^° i9^")> This powerful wind is still spoken of as under the 
 direct control of God. When he manifests himself to Ezekiel it is 
 through a storm wind coming out of the north (Ezek. i''). God is 
 also pictured as riding upon the wings of the wind (2 Sam. 22" 
 [= Ps. 18^'^"^]) ; and it goes forth to do his bidding (Zech. 6' Gen. S^ 
 [P]). Because of its invisibility, it is used as the symbol of empti- 
 ness and nothingness. The molten images are characterized as vi^ind 
 and confusion (Isa. 41-'^) ; and the psalmist says that God had com- 
 passion upon Israel because he remembered that they were flesh, a 
 wind that passed and came not again (Ps. 78^. By metonymy, 1711 
 is used for the points of the compass — the directions from which 
 the wind blows (Ezek. s^^^^ 1721 42i6i7.i8.i9.2o^)_ 
 
 ^Literature: Ezekiel; Babylonian Isaiah; Zechariah, ch. 1-8; Haggai; 
 Malachi; H and P of the Hexateuch; Memoirs of Ezra and Nehemiah; and 
 many of the Psalms. 
 
24 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 ii) To denote breath. 
 
 The first certain and definite instances of the use of 1111 for breath 
 occur in the literature of this period. The breath is viewed as a 
 wind from the mouth similar in manifestation to the wind outside. 
 Ezekiel is the first writer, whose writings can be dated with any 
 degree of certainty, who uses the word in this sense. In his vision 
 of the valley of dry bones (Ezek. 37^"^°), the breath of life which 
 reanimated the dead came not from God directly but from the four 
 quarters (four winds, Ezek. 37'-'). There is no clear evidence, how- 
 ever, that he identified breath with wind,^ much less that he knew 
 that a man in breathing inhaled and exhaled air (or wind). Breath 
 was rather the permanent possession of the living man. Since the 
 breath is warm, several writers of this period speak of the hot desert 
 wind as the destructive breath of God. The grass withers because 
 the breath of the Lord breathes or blows upon it (Isa. 40^. With the 
 breath of his lips he will slay the wicked and purge Jerusalem by 
 the breath of judgment and the breath of burning (Isa. ii'' 4''). The 
 breath of the Lord is an overflowing stream to sift the nations (Isa. 
 30-^.^ By the breath of his nostrils the waters were gathered 
 together (Exod. 15* 2 Sam. 22'" [= Ps. iS^^*^*'']). The enemy comes 
 as a rushing stream which the breath of the Lord driveth on (Isa. 
 
 The breath was put within man by God (Ezek. 37^'' Num. 16^^ 
 27^® Mai. 2^^), and during life it is under his immediate protection 
 (Ps. 31^'^''^; cf. 143'). It was one of the most precious possessions 
 belonging to man (Lam. 4^). It was not, however, viewed as the 
 bearer of his personality. This was the function of the soul (trS3). 
 Neither during life nor after death was the man himself in any way 
 identified with his spirit or breath. The spirit, in the sense of 
 breath or life, was rather the possession of the man which belonged 
 to him while he was alive. Death occurred because it was with- 
 drawn from him (Gen. 6^.^ HTH is often used as a synonym for 
 
 6 On the correct translation of ffl"! in the passage, see Toy : Ezekiel (English 
 Polychrome Bible). 
 
 ■^ As to the date of these passages, see Cheyne : Isaiah (English Polychrome 
 Bible). 
 
 8 This difficult passage is but loosely connected with its context, and since the 
 last clause of the verse, which clearly governs the meaning to be applied to nil, 
 is most probably post-exilic, we have classified the passage in this period. The 
 present Hebrew text is so corrupt that it is hard to determine what the original 
 meaning was. (On the text and interpretation see Dillmann: Genesis, and 
 Mitchell: The World before Abraham, ^1^. \<j2-\^i,?) 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF nn AND OF Trvcvfjua. 25 
 
 nX2tt^3, the older and more common word for breath. Thus in Gen. 
 7~ (J), a passage in one of the oldest documents of the Hexateuch, a 
 post-exilic redactor has inserted the former term alongside of the 
 latter.^ In Isaiah we read that God gives breath (nX2'C3) to the 
 people upon the earth, and life (Hi"!) to them that walk therein 
 (Isa.42^; cf. 57^V 
 
 Since breath is necessary to life, by metonymy 111*1 easily comes 
 to stand for life itself. The beginning of this process is seen in such 
 passages as Gen, 6^' 7^^ and Num. i6~ 27^*^; the culmination, in such 
 passages as Mai. 2^^'- ■^'' and Ps. 31^''^'. Though the term is ordinarily 
 used with reference to man alone, yet occasionally it is used also of 
 animals, or rather of man and animals classified as a single group 
 (Gen. 6^' [P] 7^' [PJ ; cf. Isa. za"'^. 
 
 2. The use of Pin for spirit in this period. 
 
 a) Spirit of God. 
 
 This meaning occurs very often in the prophetic writings of the 
 period, but very seldom in the priestly writings. In fact, this usage 
 of the term might be called a prophetic one. Not, however, in the 
 sense that the prophets considered themselves the sole bearers of the 
 spirit. On the contrary they seldom if ever make any exphcit claim 
 to having received their prophecies through the mediation of the 
 spirit. Not only their messages, but their visions as well were 
 viewed as coming directly from God. The most striking feature in 
 the use of the phrase " spirit of God " during this time was the 
 almost complete absence of the ecstatic from its realm. According 
 to the dominant conception of the period, the spirit is the energizing, 
 directing, guiding, and enlightening power of God. The realm of its 
 operation is still man, but no longer confined to the individual. 
 The spirit is now conceived of as guiding the nation as well. 
 
 (i) The spirit is first of all the energizing, directing, and transport- 
 ing poiuer of God. — This is the common usage in the prophecies of 
 Ezekiel. That prophet speaks of being transported from place to 
 place by the spirit. The spirit sets him upon his feet (Ezek. 2- 3-^), 
 hfts him up (Ezek. 3^-), bears him away (Ezek. 3") to the temple at 
 Jerusalem (Ezek. 8^ 11^43^) or to the captivity in Chaldea (Ezek. 
 11-^). It is true that this is all done in vision, but that does not 
 affect the underlying conception of the function of the spirit. The 
 vision itself is not attributed to the spirit but to the hand of God 
 
 ^ See Carpenter and Harford-Battersby : The Hexateuch, Vol. II, p. 12. 
 G omits rrn in translating. 
 
2 6 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 resting upon the propliet (Ezek. i'' 3-- S^ 11-^). The messages 
 which the prophet receives come directly from God (Ezek. i-* 2'-^ 
 3*---; etc.). Even the passages which seem to imply that the spirit 
 spoke to the prophet (Ezek. 3-'* 11^) are more consistently rendered 
 by making God the speaker.'" In the employment of the term to 
 denote the physical strength imparted by God to man, Ezekiel is in 
 complete harmony with the older usage. The only point in which 
 he departs from that terminology is in employing the term without 
 the limiting phrase " of God." This shows that the meaning of 
 strength and power had become so closely bound up with the term 
 that it was no longer necessary to say " spirit of God." Spirit alone 
 meant that. (cf. Ezek. ir'-'' 37' with Ezek. 2- f^-^-^^ 8=^ ii^ 43^). 
 But the spirit was not only the power of God that energized and 
 transported the prophet. It was likewise the energizing and direct- 
 ing power of the theophany (Ezek. ii^-^o.ai ^^ly ^\^^ ?>^\x\x. impelled 
 the symbolic creatures and the wheels to go whither it would. It 
 coordinated and directed the whole complex phenomenon. 
 
 (2) The spirit is the efilightening and directing power of God in 
 such men as are called of him to perfonn some great task. — There 
 are three passages- in the priestly writings in which the usage of HI"! 
 lies on the border line between the last and the present one. In 
 these instances, the spirit is no longer viewed as imparting to men 
 physical strength and courage, but rather technical skill and knowl- 
 edge. Thus those whom the Lord has filled with the spirit of 
 wisdom are to make Aaron's priestly garments (Exod. 28'^ [P]). The 
 Lord filled Bezaleel with the spirit of God, in wisdom, and in under- 
 standing, and in knowledge, and in all manner of workmanship in 
 order that he might construct the tabernacle and its furnishings 
 (Exod. 31^ 35^^ [P])' This usage of spirit seems to be confined to 
 the skill and knowledge required by men to construct the sacred 
 articles belonging to God's worship, and does not seem to have been 
 extended beyond this. 
 
 In such a passage" as Isa. 11-, in which the ideal king is pictured 
 as possessing the spirit of the Lord, we reach a stage still higher. 
 The spirit imparts to him wisdom and understanding, counsel and 
 might, knowledge and the fear of the Lord, so that he will not judge 
 after the sight of his eyes, neither reprove after the hearing of his 
 ears (Isa. 11-''). Similarly, the Lord will be for a spirit of judgment 
 
 1° See Toy: Ezekiel (English Polychrome Bible), on these passages. 
 11 Probably post-exilic — See Cheyne : Introduction to the Book of Isaiah, 
 pp. 62-64; and Cheyne: Isaiah (English Polychrome Bible), p. 24. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF nil AND OF TTVevfia. 2 7 
 
 to those who sit in judgment and for strength to those who turn the 
 battle at the gate (Isa. 28^. The Lord will put his spirit upon his 
 servant, and then he will bring forth judgment to the Gentiles (Isa. 
 42'). The spirit of the Lord God is upon him in order that he may 
 preach good tidings to the meek and proclaim liberty to the cap- 
 tives (Isa. 61^). The spirit accompanied him in his work (Isa. 48'").^- 
 According to a priestly writer, it is because Joshua was filled with 
 the spirit of wisdom that he became the leader of the children of 
 Israel (Num. 27'* [F] ; Deut. 34'^ [P]). Zerubbabel is to accom- 
 plish his task of rebuilding the temple, not by the aid of an army, 
 but by the help of the spirit of the Lord (Zech. 4^) ; and the Psalm- 
 ist cries out, " Let thy good spirit lead me " (Ps. 143^"). 
 
 (3) T//e spirit represents God's directing and protecting pirsence 
 with the people of Israel — not as individuals but as a nation. 
 
 The writers of this period, in looking back upon Israel's wilderness 
 journey, never tire of telling how God through his spirit was present 
 With his people, hovering over, guiding, and prospering them. Such 
 a conception of the function of the spirit could hardly have arisen 
 before the idea of the transcendence of God had become somewhat 
 strongly developed. The spirit is thus the medium by which a trans- 
 cendent and holy God comes into contact with a wayward and sinful 
 people. Under such circumstances it is not strange that the spirit 
 itself is soon looked upon as holy and called a "spirit of holiness" 
 (Ps. 51"^^''^ Isa. 63'"-^^). It cannot abide where there is impurity or 
 rebelliousness. Examples of this new and general function of the 
 spirit are quite numerous. Ezekiel, speaking in the name of the 
 Lord to captive Israel, says, " I will no longer leave any of them 
 there, nor hide my face from them, when I shall have poured out my 
 spirit on the house of Israel " (Ezek. 39'''). This is the reviving 
 spoken of in Ezek. 37", when the Lord promises to put his spirit in 
 their midst (cf. 36-^^ ■*). According to Isaiah the Lord promises to 
 pour out his spirit in added blessings upon Israel and its posterity 
 down to its latest descendants (Isa. 44'^ 59-^ 63"). And this, too, 
 in spite of the fact that they had resisted the guidance of his spirit of 
 holiness when they came out of Egypt (Isa. 63^""; cf. Ps. 106'^^. 
 According to the covenant which the Lord made with Israel when 
 the people came out of Egypt, his spirit has remained among them 
 (Hag. 2^). It corrected and instructed them in their wilderness 
 journey (Neh. 9^'; cf. 9*). The Psalmist has in mind this all-em- 
 
 12 The word " spirit " in this passage is possibly a gloss — See Cheyne : Isaiah 
 (English Polychrome Bible). 
 
28 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 bracing presence of God when he cries out, "Whither can I go from 
 thy spirit and whither can I flee from thy presence"? (Ps. 139'). 
 And, if the 51st Psahn is a community psahn, we have the same 
 thought expressed in the prayer, " Cast me not away from thy pres- 
 ence and take not thy spirit of hohness from me " (Ps. 51"'^^-^^). 
 
 These examples seem to make it perfectly clear that the spirit was 
 one of the concepts through which: the omnipresence and imma- 
 nence of God were maintained in spite of the growing belief in his 
 transcendence. By the spirit, God could be present everywhere 
 operating for good in the midst of his people. In fact, the sphere 
 of his operation through the spirit extended even farther than this, 
 for at the time of the creation his creative presence was manifested 
 in the spirit which brooded over the waters (Gen. i- [P] ; cf. Isa. 
 40^'^). In none of these examples is there any clear evidence of a 
 belief in the separate personality of the spirit. The spirit is rather a 
 function or power of God, — the means or medium of God's opera- 
 tion upon man and nation. 
 
 b) n'1'1 used f 01- the spirit of itian. 
 
 {i) As in the former periods, PTH is used of anger, lorath, courage, 
 etc., or of their seat or source in man. 
 
 Ezekiel took up the Lord's work in the fury (rUpil hot anger) of 
 his spirit .(Ezek. 3"). The spirit (wrath) of Egypt is to be emptied 
 out in the midst of her (Isa. 19''), for the Lord has mingled a spirit 
 of perversities within her (Isa. 19"). The anger (spirit) of the ene- 
 mies of Israel will be turned against themselves and burn them up as 
 a fire (Isa. 33"). The Lord will cut short the spirit (anger) of 
 princes (Ps. 76'-'^''^^). For shortness of spirit, the children of Israel in 
 bondage hearkened not to Moses (Ex. 6'-' [P]). It caused Isaac and 
 Rebekah bitterness of spirit (made them angry) that Esau married a 
 Canaanitish woman (Gen. 26^ [P] ; cf. 28^ [P]). Even of the Lord 
 it can be said that his spirit (anger) is quieted (assuaged, Zech. 6*). 
 Anger in itself was not regarded as blameworthy. Its legitimacy 
 depended entirely upon the object toward which it was directed. A 
 spirit of jealousy (envy, indignation) was sanctioned by the Levitical 
 law in such extreme cases as the violation of the marriage vow (Num. 
 
 5'*-^[P])- 
 
 Of the use of HI"! as the seat of courage or of its lack we have 
 
 several examples. The tidings of the destruction of Jerusalem 
 
 would make every spirit of the land faint (feeble, Ezek. 21''^'-^). 
 
 Downcast Israel is to be given a garment of praise for her spirit of 
 
 heaviness (Isa. 61'' 54*^) ; but the unfaithful shall wail for breaking of 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF HI"! AND OF irvcvfia. 29 
 
 spirit (Isa. 65"). Tlie psalmists in the midst of tlieir afflictions cry 
 out that their spirit is overwhehned (Ps. jf'^*^ 142''^'^^ ^43^)- 
 
 (2) T/ie spirit as the seat of humility. 
 
 This usage of nil grows naturally out of the preceding. Already, 
 from the earliest period down, the spirit was viewed as the seat of 
 pride and opposition to God as well as the seat of depression and 
 sadness, but it was left for this period to erect humility the suppres- 
 sion of pride and stubbornness into a religious and moral virtue and 
 to attach it to the spirit. Since pride and stubbornness were also 
 attributed to the heart, it was only natural that humility should be 
 referred to the one as well as to the other. The sacrifices of God 
 are a broken spirit ; a broken and a crushed heart the Lord will not 
 despise (Ps. 51^''^'"^). He is nigh unto them that are of a broken 
 heart and saves such as are of a contrite spirit (Ps. 34^^). He dwells 
 with those of a contrite and a humble spirit, in order to revive the 
 spirit of the humble and the heart of the contrite (Isa. 57^' 66"). 
 
 (3) The hiatian spirit as the energizing and directing power or 
 faculty in man. 
 
 This meaning is so clearly a correlate of the similar function of the 
 spirit of God that we have not far to seek for the origin of the usage. 
 As the spirit of God is the directing and energizing power of God 
 imparted to certain men in their divinely appointed tasks, so the 
 spirit of man guides and impels him in his conduct toward God. 
 The two usages seem to have grown up side by side. The modern 
 term which most nearly expresses this new meaning for the human 
 spirit is iviil. However, since the latter term carries with it so many 
 meanings and associations not contained in the former, it will be bet- 
 ter not to adopt it. To translate HTH by mind (Ezek. 20'^- A.V. and 
 R.V.) would be still farther afield. The Hebrew term " heart " comes 
 nearer to our term " mind " (in the broad sense of feelings, intellect, 
 and will), since the former covers mental phenomena of fully as wide 
 a range as the latter. The Hebrew words "heart" (3*]?) and "spirit" 
 (nn in this new sense) bear much the same relation to each other 
 as our words " mind " and " will." In fact the two are often used in 
 parallel lines or in synonymous phrases (Ezek. 11^^ 18'' 36'-" Isa. 57'^ 
 
 Ps. 34l8 5il0C12].17[19] ^g8)_ 
 
 That the use of Hl'l to denote the energizing and directing power 
 or faculty in man grew out of the corresponding function of the spirit 
 of God is confirmed by certain passages in Ezekiel. In Ezek. 13'', it 
 is said that the false prophets walk after their own spirit and have 
 seen nothing, implying that they follow their own purposes and incli- 
 
3C JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 nations rather than those of the spirit of God. In Ezek. 36-"-^, after 
 speaking of the new spirit of obedience which Israel is to receive 
 and which clearly refers to the human spirit (cf. Ezek. ii^'* 18^^), the 
 prophet glides over very easily to the corresponding function of the 
 divine spirit, and tells them that God will put his spirit within them 
 and thus cause them to walk in his statutes. With Ezekiel the 
 human spirit is also the seat and source of plans and purposes. 
 When Israel purposed in their spirit to worship idols as the heathen 
 did (Ezek. 20^^^), God knew all about it and frustrated their plans. 
 Likewise he knew the plans of the war party in Jerusalem (Ezek, 
 1 1^) and threatened to bring forth their leaders to be slain outside 
 the cityj This planning and purposing function of the human spirit 
 is the highest point of the development in the Old Testament usage 
 of the term. No other writer seems to go beyond Ezekiel in this 
 line. It is with his spirit that a man keeps his attention fixed upon 
 God and remains steadfast and faithful in his service. One psalmist 
 warns Israel not to become as their fathers, who were not faithful in 
 their spirit to God (Ps. 78^) ; and another prays that he may have a 
 steadfast spirit renewed within him (Ps. 5ii''ti2]. (,f_ 78"'). He asks 
 that a willing (ready) spirit to do His will may be given to him (Ps. 
 ^ji2[i4]. ^^^ Exod. 35^^ [P])- Haggai says that the Lord stirred up 
 (made willing) the spirit of Zerubbabel and of Joshua and of all the 
 people to go on with the construction of the temple (Haggai i"). 
 To wander away from God in one's spirit (Isa. 29-^) is considered 
 one of the greatest follies ; and a psalmist says, " Blessed is the man 
 in whose spirit there is no deceit" (Ps. 32-; cf. Hos. 7^^ on the word 
 " deceit "), i.e. the man upon whom God can depend. 
 
 IV. T/ie Use of HII hi the Later Persian and the Greek 
 Periods, datijig from about 400 B.C. to Maccabean 
 Times }^ 
 
 I. rt'n used to denote wind and breathe 
 
 a) For wind. 
 
 As in the three former periods this powerful agency is still viewed 
 as under the direct control of God. He created it (Amos 4'^), and 
 brings it forth out of his treasures (Jer. lo^'' 51^® Ps. 135^). It is his 
 messenger and he rides upon its wings (Ps. i04''-*). He raises the 
 storm wind (Ps. 107^ 147^* Jonah 1*4^ Jer. 51'), and it fulfils his 
 
 ^^ Literature : Joel, Jonah, Job, Proverbs, Chronicles, Ecclesiastes, Daniel 
 certain Psahns, and the later additions to the prophets. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF ri)"^ AND OF Trvivfxa. 3 1 
 
 will (Ps. 148* Isa. ii''' 27"). It is even more mysterious than before 
 (Eccles. 1" 11''^). It can penetrate the smallest crevice (Job 41^'''^*'). 
 No one can retain it (Eccles. 8** Prov. 27'*'), except God who holds it 
 in his fists (Prov. 30^). It is his wind (Job 26'^) ; " and he gave it 
 its force (Job 28-'). It transports the stubble (Job 21'* Ps. 83'"'^"i) 
 and the chaff (Job 30'^ Dan. 2''^) and brings the clouds and the rain 
 (Job 37-^ Prov. 25"-'^). It overturns houses (Job 1'") and destroys 
 life (Job 30" Jer. 51^ Isa. 32- Ps. 58'''^'"^). It lashes the sea into 
 waves (Dan. 7-), and causes the fruit tree to cast her fruit before its 
 season (Job 15"''**, see emended text by Budde and Duhm). The hot 
 wind from the desert dries up the grass of the field (Ps. 103'®), and 
 is a fit symbol of the torments which befall the wicked (Ps. 1 1"). 
 
 As in the former periods, HH is also used by metonymy for the 
 points of the compass, the directions from which the wind blows 
 (i Chron. 9^* Dan. 8® 11* Jer. 52^). But in this period more than in 
 any other, the wind, because of its invisibility and intangibility, is 
 used as a symbol of nothingness, emptiness, folly, and vanity. This 
 usage is especially marked in such wisdom books as Job and Ecclesi- 
 astes. Job bewails his fate and cries out that his life is wind (Job 
 7'). The words of his friends are wind to him, and his in turn are 
 wind to them (Job 6"*^ 8- 15- 16'' 20'^). The writer of Ecclesiastes, 
 in his pessimism, characterizes everything as "striving for wind" 
 (Eccles. i"-^' 2"- ^"- 2*^ 4"'- "^^ ^*'), and asks sneeringly what profit a man 
 has who labors for the wind (Eccles. 5'"'-^'^). One of the proverbs 
 affirms that he who troubles his own house shall possess the wind 
 (Prov. 11^. See Toy : Proverbs) ; and the writer of Isa. 26^^ com- 
 plains that Israel has brought forth nothing but wind. 
 
 b) For breath. 
 
 In Job 4", it is said that the wicked perish by the breath (.1X2^3) 
 of God, and are consumed by the breath (ni"!) of his nostrils. The 
 common interpretation of this passage makes the warm breath a 
 symbol of God's anger. The writer, however, may have had in mind 
 the destructive east wind from the desert which, as we have seen, 
 was sometimes referred to as God's breath. In a Maccabean psalm, 
 breath seems to be used by metonymy for the word spoken by 
 means of the breath or mouth (Ps. 33*^).'^ 
 
 Breath is looked upon as necessary to life, and more often than in 
 the former period stands for life itself. The breath of man and beast 
 alike came from God (Ps. 104*^ Job 27^ 32* 33^ Eccles. 3'^ Zech. 
 
 ^* See Commentaries of Davidson, Duhm, and Budde on this passage. 
 ^^ Cf. Prov. i-'^ where G translates HI"! by -kvot). 
 
32 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 12'), not simply at the time of the original creation but in the case 
 of each new individual. At death the breath returns to God who 
 gave it (Ps. 104*'' 146'' Job 34" Eccles. 3-' 12')^". Idols do not live 
 and move because there is no breath in them (Hab. 2^* Jer. 10" 51^'' 
 Ps. 135^', all late passages). Men live as long as they retain their 
 breath (Job 10^- 27'^), and die when it departs from them (Job 17^). 
 Even during life it is under God's protecting care (Job 10^- 12^** 
 Isa. 38^'', Song of Hezekiah). The first clear reference to respiration 
 is found in the Book of Job. Job complains that the Lord will not 
 permit him to take his breath (Job 9^^ ; cf. Job 32^^, see Duhm), and 
 that his breath is' loathsome to his wife (Job 19^^). 
 
 There seems to be little evidence in any of these passages that the 
 spirit (breath) of man was regarded as the bearer of his personality. 
 It was rather looked upon as a gift from God to be possessed by the 
 man during his lifetime. At death the Lord withdrew it and the 
 man departed to Sheol.^' 
 
 2. nil used to denote spirit. 
 
 a) Spirit of God. 
 
 The literature of this period has no new contribution to make to 
 the conception and use of the phrase " spirit of God." In fact the 
 high-water mark attained in the last period is no longer maintained 
 in this. To all intents and purposes prophecy has disappeared 
 (Zech. 13"^), and along with it the peculiar concepts and terms in 
 which it had expressed itself. The phrase, " spirit of God," is not 
 found in any of the wisdom books, Job, Proverbs, Canticles, or 
 Ecclesiastes, and in those writings where it is still employed it is 
 often connected with persons long since dead, or is made the hope 
 of the glorious future. The priest and the sage found little need for 
 personal revelations through the spirit of God. For the former, the 
 written law was a sufficient guide of conduct and worship ; and for 
 the latter, the human understanding was adequate to cope with the 
 practical precepts and problems of life. Hence once more the con- 
 cept of the spirit of God falls into the background, but for another 
 reason than that which produced the same result in the Deutero- 
 nomic period. However, as in that case so also now the surviving 
 usage is well worth study, for it is the link which binds a glorious 
 past to a more glorious future. 
 
 ^^ On the latter passage see Schwally, Das Lebe7t iiach dem Tode, p. 87 ff. In 
 Eccles. 3"^i, the writer raises the question as to whether the breath of man really 
 does ascend, i e. return to God. 
 
 1' See Schwally, I.e., p. 87 ff. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF nil AND OF Trvevfjua. 33 
 
 ( I ) 77/ (f prophetic function of the spirit of God. 
 
 One of the most interesting passages, if it really dates from this 
 period, is found in the Book of Joel (Joel 2-*--' [3'"]). The prophet 
 in picturing the glorious future says God will pour out His spirit upon 
 all Israel : their sons and daughters shall prophesy ; their old men 
 shall dream dreams, and their young men see visions \ and even 
 upon the servants and the handmaids will He pour out His spirit. 
 The function assigned to the spirit in this passage reminds us some- 
 what of the old ecstatic view of prophecy. However, that is not the 
 point of greatest interest for our present purpose. This lies rather 
 in the universality of the bestowal of the spirit. The spirit is to 
 become the personal possession of every true Israelite. This passage 
 shows that even though the spirit hovered over and directed the 
 people of Israel as a nation, that did not imply that the individuals 
 as such participated in it in a personal way. That still remained the 
 privilege of the chosen few. The extension of the privilege to the 
 many was not expected to occur until the Messianic age. In general, 
 the conception of the function of the spirit grew more definite and 
 stereotyped during this period. The spirit no longer simply brought 
 the prophet into a state in which he was capable of receiving 
 messages from God ; rather, the spirit was now regarded as the 
 medium through which tlie message was brought. Thus a late poetic 
 writer makes David say that the spirit spoke to him (2 Sam. 23-) ; 
 and the chronicler affirms that he (David) learned the dimensions 
 of the temple through the spirit (i Chron. 28'-). The chronicler 
 repeatedly sets forth the message-bearing function of the spirit 
 (i Chron. 12^^ 2 Chron. 15^ 20" 24^), though in so doing he is biased 
 by the mode of expression of the older writers (cf. his use of t^5^ 
 with Judg. e^) . 
 
 Another usage which is also reflected in the older literature is found 
 in the Aramaic portion of Daniel. Here the spirit bestows upon the 
 man who possesses it the ability to interpret dreams (Dan. 4*'^^^- 
 
 9[ti]. 1S[13]; c" 12. H-, 5-l[4] \ 
 
 (2) The spirit as the helpful presence of God with his people 
 Israel. 
 
 This usage, which was rather common in the last period, occurs 
 but rarely in this period. In Zechariah (12^") we read that God will 
 pour out upon Israel the spirit of grace and supplication ; and in 
 Isaiah (32^^) that the wilderness will become a land of gardens for 
 them when the spirit is poured out from on high. 
 
34 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 d) The human spirit. 
 
 (i) ni"1 for anger, wrath, courage, stubbornness, pride, etc., or 
 for their seat or source. 
 
 Job's friends accuse him of turning his spirit (anger, fury) 
 against God (Job 15^^) ; but he justifies himself by asking why 
 his spirit should not be impatient (shortened "l^p Job 21*; cf. 
 Prov. 14-^). It drinks up the poison (H^n inflaming, wrath- 
 producing) of the arrows of the Almighty (Job 6'*). In the Book 
 of Proverbs this usage occurs several times. He that rules his spirit 
 is better than he that takes a city (Prov. 16'^'; cf 25-*). A fool 
 utters all his spirit (Prov. 29^^) ; but one of a cool spirit is a man of 
 understanding (Prov. ly"')- The Lord stirs up the spirit (anger) 
 of the kings of the Medes (Jer. 51") and of Pul and Tilgath-pilneser 
 (i Chron. 5^). It is even said that he stirred up the spirit of the 
 Philistines and of the Arabians against Jehoram (2 Chron. 21^''). 
 Akin to anger is stubbornness, haughtiness, and pride especially 
 when directed toward God. Nebuchadnezzar was deposed from his 
 kingly throne because his heart was lifted up and his spirit was strong 
 to deal proudly (Dan. 5^ Aramaic). And one of the proverbs says 
 that pride goes before destruction and a haughty spirit before a fall 
 (Prov. 16^^). 
 
 As the seat of courage or of depression, anguish, and distress, there 
 are several examples. Job complains of the anguish (1^) of his 
 spirit (Job 7"). The spirit is often said to be crushed ("12^ Prov. 
 15*; cf. Isa. 65") and smitten down (S?5 Prov. i^^^ if- 18"). 
 Nebuchadnezzar's spirit was troubled (D>S) when he could not 
 discover the meaning of his dream (Dan. 2^-'') ; and Daniel was 
 troubled (K*13) in spirit when he could not understand the visions 
 that were given to him (Dan. 7^ Aramaic). 
 
 (2) The seat of humility. 
 
 When the man who is poor and crushed down in spirit preserves 
 his faith and hope in God, this state of mind is acceptable to the 
 Lord. It is better to be of an humble (T'StT) spirit with the lowly, 
 than to divide the spoil with the proud (Prov. 16'^). A man's pride 
 shall bring him low ; but honor shall uphold the humble in spirit 
 (Prov. 29^). 
 
 (3) The directing power in conduct {especially conduct toward 
 God) or the seat of steadfastness, purpose, and motive. — All tlie ways 
 of a man are pure in his own eyes, but the Lord is the weigher of 
 spirits (purposes and motives. Prov. 16- ; cf. 21- 24^- where heart is 
 used). A talebearer reveals secrets, but he that is faithful (steadfast 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF HI"! AND OF TTVEVfia. 35 
 
 fpSt) in spirit conceals a matter (Prov. ii^'^. The Lord stirred up 
 the spirit of Cyrus (2 Chron. 36" [ = Ezra 1^]), and of all those whom 
 He desired to build the temple (Ezra i'). 
 
 Part II. 
 
 THE USE OF nceO^ais IN THE CLASSICAL WRITINGS, THE SEPTU- 
 AGINT, THE APOCRYPHA, PHILO, JOSEPHUS, AND THE NEW 
 TESTAMENT. 
 
 In order to define the Greek term Tlvev/xa as it is used in the New 
 Testament, it is necessary, first of all, to determine from a careful 
 study of its use in other writings the range of possible meanings 
 which may be applied to it. As material for such a study we have 
 the classical authors, the Septuagint translation of the Canonical Old 
 Testament Scriptures, the Apocrypha, Pseud epigrapha, and the 
 writings of Philo and Josephus. 
 
 I. T/^e Use of nyei)/x.a in the Classical Writings. 
 
 TivivjjM. in the classical authors has but two meanings — wind and 
 breath. The term is not found in Homer, nor in any writer prior 
 to Aeschylus. In later writers the word is quite common. It is im- 
 possible to determine from the usage which of the two meanings is 
 the older. Aeschylus employs the word about as often for wind as 
 for breath, though in succeeding writers the preponderance is often 
 strongly in favor of wind.^^ In none of these writers does the term 
 seem to be used in any other sense than the two named.'-'^ When 
 used for wind it denotes either a zephyr (Aesch. : Sept. 708 ; Soph. : 
 Ajax 674 and 558) or a storm (Aesch.: Prom. 1047; Pers. no; 
 
 18 The Greek word which corresponds to the Hebrew term nn. 
 
 1^ An examination of the instances given in concordances and indexes yields 
 the following figures for wind and breath, respectively: Aeschylus 6 and 5; 
 Herodotus i and o; Sophocles 9 and o; Euripides 12 and 12; Thucydides 8 
 and I ; Aristophanes 4 and o ; Xenophon 6 and i ; Plato 22 and 5 ; Aristotle 
 183 and 124. 
 
 -0 Plato, Axiochus 37 C (quoted in lexicons) is only an apparent exception. 
 In the first place, the book in which it is found belongs among the spurious 
 writings of Plato, and in the second place 7r;'eC^a iu the passage probably means 
 divine breath. 
 
36 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 Sitppl. 165 and 175 ; Soph. : Philoc. 1093 ; Eurip. : Her. F 216 ; /<?«. 
 1507; Helena 413; Herodotus 7, 16, i). Plato defines irvev/xa as 
 air in motion {Crafy/us 410 B). When Trvevfxa refers to breath it 
 often denotes simply the breath of respiration without any reference 
 to life (Aesch. : SepA 464 ; Eurip.: Orest. 277; Fhoen. d>'^S ; Med. 
 1 119; Thucyd. : II. 49 [23]; Xen. : Cyneget. f" ; Plato: Tim. gi C ; 
 Phileb. 47 A). Many times, however, emphasis is placed on its 
 necessity to life (Aesch. : Pers. 507 ; Sept. 981 ; Eurip. : Hecuba 571 ; 
 Orest. 864 ; Troad. 751 ; Plato : Leg. IX. 865 B). When the breath 
 leaves the body death ensues. In no case do these Greek writers 
 make of irvevfia a psychological term. With them it was a purely 
 physical term. That wind and breath continued to be the only 
 meanings of Trvevjxa in common use among Greek-speaking Gentiles 
 up to the first century a.d., is evident on at least two grounds : 
 (i) The lack of examples of any other usage in the surviving litera- 
 ture from that period. Even in the case of the Stoics who maintained 
 that God was spirit (TrvevfMa), spirit was identified with the all-pervad- 
 ing air or at least was conceived as airlike. -^ (2) Philo and 
 Josephus (Jewish authors who wrote for Gentile readers) customarily 
 use the term only in these two senses. When biblical usage compels 
 them to depart from these ordinary meanings, they are usually careful 
 to explain the new meaning attached to the term. 
 
 II. T/te Use of Uvevfia in the ^' Septitagint'' Translation of 
 the Canonical Scriptures. 
 
 The translators show a strong tendency to render ffll by Trvei'/xa, 
 and this in spite of the fact that the former term had a much wider 
 range of meanings than the latter. The term Trvtvjxa covered only 
 the meanings wind and breath ; but since there was no Greek word to 
 correspond to the Hebrew concept "spirit of God," it seemed 
 natural to widen the use of the term to include this also. 
 
 I. The use of ir-vevfjua. for wind and breath. 
 
 a) For wind. 
 
 When it was perfectly clear to the translator that, in any particular 
 case HTH denoted wind, there was a strong tendency to translate it 
 by ave/Aos rather than by Trvei'/xa. This occurs about forty times, or 
 more than one-third the total number of times that ffl"! is used for 
 wind. There seems, however, to be no real distinction in the meaning 
 
 21 For a discussion of this usage, together with examples, see Drummond, 
 Philo Judaeus, Vol. I. pp. 85-87. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF Itn AND OF irv€v/xa. 37 
 
 of ave/xos and Trvevjxa when applied to wind. If the terms are not 
 identical, they are at least closely synonymous. There are a few cases 
 in which the translators so change the sense of the expression as to 
 obviate the use of either term (Isa. 41^'* Jar. lo^'^ 49^^ 51^*^)' 
 
 ^) For breath. 
 
 When nn denotes breath it is almost always translated by TrveS/xa. 
 There are a it^^ cases in which it is translated by ttvoi/ (Isa. 38^*^ 
 Ezek. 13^'^ Prov. i^), but outside these there is scarcely a variation. 
 Sometimes nX2tI^3 the other Hebrew word for breath, is also trans- 
 lated by TTvevfm (i Kings 17^^ Dan. 5-^ [Theod. uses irvorj]). This 
 shows how fixed was the meaning breath for Trvevfj.a. In one instance 
 (Job 7^"^) the soul (i/'i'X'/) is said by the translators to reside in the 
 
 breath (7rve?/xa) . 
 
 2. 27ie use of -nvevfia for spirit. 
 
 a) Spirit of God. 
 
 Since the Greeks had nothing that corresponded to this Hebrew 
 concept, it is not strange that they lacked a terminology to express it. 
 Hence it was only natural that the translators should extend the term 
 used for wind and breath (7rveV|ita) to cover this meaning also. And 
 this they did quite uniformly. There seems to be the same general 
 conception of the nature and function of the spirit that the Hebrew 
 writers had. Separate personality was not ascribed to it. It was 
 simply an attribute or power of God. 
 
 F) For non-embodied personal spirits, good and bad. 
 
 This usage seems to have grown up, in part at least, out of a mis- 
 interpretation of the old Hebrew conception of the function of the 
 spirit of God. To the translators, the spirit of God was so holy that 
 nothing which savored of evil could be attributed to it. Hence when 
 they came to such a passage as i Sam. 16^'''-'', there was no way but 
 to render " the spirit of God (for) evil " by the phrase " evil spirit " 
 (i Sam. \Q^'^^^. Likewise the spirit which deceived Ahab through 
 his prophets is called simply a spirit (i Kings 22-^ note the omission 
 of the article in G), as if it were one among many spirits surround- 
 ing the throne of God. As a further evidence that the host of angels 
 which surround the throne of God were called spirits iirvvoitjaro) 
 by the translators, we have their rendering of Num. 16" and 27^". 
 For the Hebrew " God of the spirits (breath) of all flesh," the LXX. 
 have "God of the spirits and of all flesh." ^- Hll in the former 
 referred to the breath or lives of men ; Trvevyoara in the latter most 
 
 22 Philo quotes this passage in the same form: Post. Caini. 19; Agri. N^oe, ID. 
 
38 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 likely to the unembodied spirits who act as God's messengers. In 
 Ethiopia Enoch, the phrase " Lord of spirits " is used instead of 
 " Lord of hosts " more than a hundred times.-^ The translators do 
 not seem to use nvevfia to denote a disembodied human spirit. 
 
 c) For spirit, when it denotes physical strength, coin-age, atiger, or 
 the seat of pride, depression, humility, etc. 
 
 There is more variation in the translation of ll'i"! in this usage than 
 in any other. Only about half of the passages in which this sense of 
 nil occurs are translated by irvevfxa. This might have been expected 
 since we saw above that, among Greek-speaking Gentiles, such a use 
 of TTvev/xa does not occur. They did not use the term in a psycho- 
 logical sense. To obviate its use in this sense, the translators resorted 
 to several expedients. They sometimes used i/'v^v, or some form of 
 this word (Gen. 41* Ex. 6^ 35-' Prov. 14-'^ Isa. 54") ; or more often, 
 where the word denoted anger, some form of the word Ov/xoi 
 (Prov. i6^3-2- I^^ 18" 29" Eccles. f-" Zech. 6' Isa. 57^^ Ezek. 39"-'). 
 More frequently, however, they substituted a different expression for 
 the Hebrew phrase and thus avoided a direct translation of the 
 word.-^ So uniformly did the translator of the Book of Proverbs use 
 these and other expedients that only once (Prov. 15'*) out of twenty 
 times, and then in consequence of a misconception of the meaning 
 of the passage, does he render ni"l by irvevixa. 
 
 III. T/ie use of ITyeO/Lta {71 the Apocrypha and the Greek 
 portions of the Pscudepigrapha. 
 
 In general the usage of vrvevfjia in these writings is the same as that 
 in the Greek translation of the canonical books already considered. 
 There is some difference, however, between its use in those books 
 which are merely translations of some Hebrew original,-^ and in those 
 which were composed originally in the Greek in non-Palestinian 
 countries."'"' Of course for the determination of the ordinary usage 
 of a Greek term, the latter class of literature is far more important 
 than the former. A translator is sometimes impelled to use a certain 
 
 2^ Cf. Enoch 39I- ^o^-^^ 46^"^ etc. Charles, Boo/c of Enoch, p. no note, enu- 
 merates 104 instances of this usage. 
 
 2* Gen. 26^5 Josh. 5I i Sam. i^^ I Kings 10"' [=2 Chron. 9*] 2 Chron. 211° 
 JoIt 6* 7II Ps. 31 [32]^ Prov. 15I3 i6--i8 Prov. 17^2 25-^ 29-^ Isa. 66- Ezek. 13^. 
 
 25 Wisdom of Sirach, Judith, Tobit, I Maccabees, i Esdras, Baruch, Psalms of 
 Solomon, Enoch, etc. 
 
 26 Wisdom of Solomon, Epistle of Jeremiah, Second, Third, and Fourth 
 Maccabees. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF Pin AND OF Trvev/Aa. 39 
 
 term, when an author would express the thought in some other way 
 or by the use of some other term. 
 
 1. Ilvi-vixa used of wind and breath. 
 
 a) Of 7uind. 
 
 There are several passages in which this meaning of the word occurs, 
 both in the translated books (Sir. 39-^ 43^^ Song of the Three 
 Children 27, 43 [= Dan. 3^"'""]) and in those composed in Greek 
 (Wisdom 5"- -3 7-" 11-" 13- 17'* Epistle of Jer. 61 [60]). These 
 writers still emphasize the power of the wind, especially its destructive 
 power (Sir. 39-* Wisdom 5^ 7-" 11^'), and affirm that it is under the 
 control of the Lord (Sir. 43^'^) . 
 
 b) Of breath. 
 
 There are illustrations of this usage in almost every book of the 
 Apocrypha, both in the translated books (Sir. 38-'' Judith 10'^ 14" 
 16'^ Esther 8"^ [Greek additions] Enoch 13" Tobit 3" Baruch 2'') and 
 in those composed in Greek (Wisdom 2^ 12^ j^u. le jgi* Epistle of 
 Jer. 25 [24] 2 Mace, f--'^ \^^'^ 3 Mace. 6"^ 4 Mace. 11"). When 
 the breath departs, the man dies (Sir. 38"'^ Judith 14^ Wisdom 16"). 
 He borrows it from God during life (Judith 16^* Wisdom 12^ 15"'^''), 
 and God can order it taken away at any time (Tobit 3^ Baruch 2" of. 
 Apoc. of Baruch 3^. Even after death God can cause it to be 
 returned to the man and he will live again (2 Mace. 7-^ i4^*')- For 
 this reason a living man may be fitly called a breath of life (Judith 
 lo'^). In none of these passages, however, is there any clear evi- 
 dence that the personality of man himself was in any way identified 
 with his spirit or breath.^^ At death the spirit was taken away from 
 the man. In one or two passages breath is used by metonymy for 
 word spoken by means of the breath (Enoch 14- cf. Judith 16"), 
 and in one instance, by metonymy for the living person (Song of the 
 Three Children 64 [=Dan. 3««]). 
 
 2. Ilveu/xa used for spirit, 
 a) Spirit of God. 
 
 The concept spirit of God, or divine spirit, is not often employed 
 in the Apocryphal writings.-^ Most of the books make no use of it. 
 This is not strange since very little of this literature is permeated with 
 the old prophetic ideas. Prophecy in its nobler form had disap- 
 peared, and along with it had gone the prophetic terminology. The 
 
 2" The term which covered the personality of the man was soul (y^^xhi corre- 
 sponding to the Hebrew ^23) Wisdom 3^ 4^^ S^" gi^ i6i't 4 Mace. 10* 18"^. 
 
 -8 Only in Sir. 39^ 4812-21 Wisdom i^-^ f-- 9" ^ Mace. 7" Susanna 42 (45) 
 64 (62) Ps. Sol. 17*2 188. 
 
40 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 term spirit of God is now seldom seen outside the wisdom books. 
 In almost all cases in which it occurs the spirit is conceived as the 
 mediator of God's wisdom to men. So closely are wisdom and spirit 
 bound up together that the terms become almost identical in mean- 
 ing."'' For this reason one can speak of the wisdom of spirit (Ps. 
 Sol. 18*') just as properly as of the spirit of wisdom (Wisdom f). 
 Both phrases emphasize the wisdom embodied in and conveyed by 
 the divine spirit. Wisdom and spirit are both conceived of as ema- 
 nations from the great divine fountain and capable of penetrating all 
 things (Wisdom 7^^*^). The holy spirit of instruction will come and 
 impart its wisdom to those only who are pure in thought and deed 
 (Wisdom i^-^; cf. Susanna 42, 64 [see footnote 28]). Without 
 possessing this spirit one cannot know the things pertaining to the 
 counsels of God (Wisdom 9^'' Sir. 39^). The Messiah was to possess 
 this spirit in its fulness (Ps. Sol. ly'*^ 18^). We have thus reached the 
 sage's conception of the function of the spirit of God. It brings 
 intellectual enlightenment concerning divine things to those who are 
 worthy and capable of receiving it. The older prophetic view of the 
 spirit is reflected in two passages in the Wisdom of Sirach (48^" ^*), 
 but these are scarcely more than Old Testament references. 
 
 b) For unembodied or disembodied personal spirits. 
 
 This use of 7rv£V)u,a is almost confined to the Book of Enoch. 
 
 (i) Spirits originally good, angelic beings, whose home is in heaven 
 with God. 
 
 The angelic beings who had their home in heaven and left it to 
 defile themselves with women are called spirits (Enoch 15''"*). These 
 spirits are capable of assuming many different forms (Enoch 19^). 
 Some of them are said to have sinned in spirit (Enoch 20^ ; see 
 Charles, Book of Enoch, p. 356 note). In the Ethiopic portions of 
 Enoch the phrase " Lord of spirits " seems to take the place of the 
 older " Lord of hosts." 
 
 (2) Evil spirits capable of tonnenting living persons. 
 
 The spirits which went forth from the giants at their death are 
 called evil spirits (Enoch 15*''^ 16^). These spirits are demons, not 
 confined to any place of torment, but allowed to roam at large and 
 vex living persons. This is probably why they are called spirits 
 rather than souls. In the Book of Tobit a demon inhabiting a 
 human being is called an evil spirit (Tobit 6''^^'^). 
 
 29 On the identification of the two in Wisdom of Solomon, see Drummond, 
 Philo Jtidceus, Vol. I. pp. 2 1 5-2 18. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF 111"! AND OF irvevfrn.. 4 1 
 
 (3) Disetnbodicd human spirits. 
 
 This new meaning for 7ri/eB|U,a is found only in the Book of Enoch 
 (p'"^" [see Charles, Enoch, p. 70, critical note] ici^ 22^"^^). The 
 term, in this sense, seems to be used by the writer as a synonym 
 of soul (^^ux'?). In the twenty-second chapter of Enoch the two 
 terms are used interchangeably. The writer was probably led to 
 this use of Trvevfia by his application of it to the evil spirits which 
 proceeded from the bodies of the giants. The spirits of men, 
 however, are not free to roam about as the spirits of the giants. 
 They are confined to underground places to await the final judg- 
 ment. The abode of the spirits (or souls) of the righteous has 
 light and water in it, but the abode of sinners is made for torment 
 and pain. While it is thus clear that in the Book of Enoch irvevixa 
 is used as a synonym of soul to designate the disembodied person- 
 ality of the man after death, yet it does not seem that the innovation 
 was followed by any other writer of the period. In both Hebrew 
 and Greek thought the term for soul in this sense was too common 
 and too well fixed to be easily displaced by any similar term. 
 
 c) Uvcv/xa /or strength, courage, anger, or as the seat and source 
 of excitement, distress, and humility. 
 
 This use of Trvtv/xa is not found in any book of the Apocrypha 
 which was composed in the Greek. This is another evidence that 
 among Greek-speaking people there was no such meaning in vogue. 
 There are, however, several instances of the use of the term in the 
 translated portions of the Apocrypha. Thus the spirit (courage) of 
 the people revived when they chose Simeon for their leader (i Mace. 
 13^; of. Sir. 3 1 [34]'^'^-'). God changed the spirit (fierce anger) 
 of King Ahasuerus into mildness toward Esther (Esther 5^ Greek 
 addition). The Lord stirred up the spirit of Cyrus to make a proc- 
 lamation (i Esdras 2- ; cf. 2 Chron. 36"'), and the spirit of the priests 
 and Levites to build the temple at Jerusalem (i Esdras 2^. The 
 spirit is the seat of excitement and impulse (Sir. 9^). It is also 
 the seat of cowardice (Judith 7^^), anguish (Baruch 3^), and humility 
 (Song of the Three Children 16 [ = Dan. 3""]). These examples, 
 which comprise the full Hst, show that irvevfji.a in the Apocrypha does 
 not go beyond the usage of HI"! in the Old Testament. In fact they 
 show that the latter term forces this particular meaning upon the 
 former. 
 
42 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 IV. Use of rii^eOyLta by Philo. 
 
 Philo, an Alexandrian Jew, was not familiar with the Aramaic 
 language and only meagrely with the Old Testament Hebrew. His 
 biblical ideas, therefore, and to a certain extent his religious terms, 
 came to him through the medium of the Septuagint, though in general 
 he wrote the literary Greek of the period but httle affected by Hebrew 
 or Septuagint usage. He composed his voluminous works during 
 the first half of the first century a.d., hence ought to be a valuable 
 witness to the ordinary usage of Greek terms among non-Palestinian 
 Jews during New Testament times. Unfortunately there is no con- 
 cordance or index to his writings, and in a cursory reading one can- 
 not be sure of securing all the instances of the use of any particular 
 word. In the more than eighteen hundred pages of the Greek text 
 of Philo, however, the word 7rv£?/xa occurs only about one hundred 
 and sixteen times, while the term " soul " i^vyj]) is used nearly eighteen 
 hundred times, or on an average of once to every page. This shows 
 that the leading term with Philo was soul, not spirit 
 
 Philo, following to this extent the Greek O.T., uses the term irvev/xa 
 in the four traditional senses, — wind, breath, spirit of God, and spirit 
 of man, though in the case of the two latter he deviates considerably 
 from the ordinary Jewish conceptions. 
 
 I. Ilvevfjia used for wind and breath. 
 
 a) For wind. 
 
 There are about forty-five cases of this usage in Philo.'''" With 
 Plato he defines wind as air in motion (Quod Det. Pot. Ins. 33). 
 IIver/Aa is used both of a violent wind and a zephyr, but more often 
 of the former than of the latter. The wind is said to hold the earth 
 together (Mund. Op. 45), and to be necessary for the nourishment 
 and growth of plants as well as of animals (Mund. Op. 8 ; Gigant. 2 ; 
 Abr. 19; Great. Prin. 12; and two of the fragments). The old 
 Jewish idea of the wind as under the immediate control of God 
 seems to be almost entirely abandoned, in consequence of the fact 
 that Philo had adopted Greek conceptions of physical nature. 
 
 30 Mund. Op. 8, 19,45; Leg. Alleg. III. 17; Cherub. 11 (twice), 31; Post. 
 Caini. 7; Gigant. 2 (twice); Quod Deus Immut. 13; Agri. Noe. 40; Ebrieti 
 27; Migrat. Abr. 27, 39; Quis Rer. Div. Her. 43; Congr. Erud. Gr. 24; Somn. 
 II. 2, 9, 13 (twice), 24; Abr. 8, 19, 31 ; Josepho, 7; Vita Mos. I. 8, 32; IIL 10; 
 Monarch. I. 2; H. 5; Vict. Offer. 8; Sept. 8; Special. Leg. (VIII.-X.) 6; Great. 
 Prin. 12; Praem. et Poen. 7; Incor. Mund. 3,26; Lib. in Flacc. 19; Leg. ad 
 Cai. 27; Mund. 20; Fragments (four times). 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF HI"! AND OF 7rve5)/LMX. 
 
 b) For breath. 
 
 In this sense, Philo uses nvevfia about eleven times.^^ Breath is 
 considered as necessary to life. It is akin to the air outside, being, 
 in fact, a part of it. It is inhaled through the nostrils and mouth 
 and travels in the arteries (Quod Deus Immut. iS ; Exsecrat. 5 ; Leg. 
 ad Cai. 9, 18). In this meaning of irvevfxu, Philo follows the classical 
 authors more closely than he does the biblical writers. He scarcely 
 ever, if at all, speaks of the physical breath as coming from God, and 
 never of its return to God. According to Philo, what God really 
 breathed into man was his rational nature, not his physical breath. 
 
 2. Ilvevfjia for spirit. 
 
 a) Spirit of God. 
 
 Philo uses TrveS/xa in this sense about forty-seven times.'- The 
 phrase " spirit of God " he scarcely ever uses unless called upon to do 
 so in order to explain some passage of Scripture. But in the mean- 
 ing which he assigns to it he almost always departs from biblical 
 usage. He usually gives the phrase such a definition as will harmo- 
 nize with his system of philosophy. He says the term has two 
 senses: (i) the air blowing upon the earth and borne aloft by the 
 water (Gen. i^) ; and (2) the pure knowledge in which every wise 
 man participates (Ex. 31^; Gigant. 5). The latter definition Philo 
 adopts as the true one. The spirit is universal wisdom, and as such 
 belongs to the very nature of God. God can, however, impart it to 
 man. In fact at the time of the creation he breathed his spirit (the 
 divine power of reasoning) into the mind of man, thus enabling him 
 to understand divine things (Leg. Alleg. 13; Mund. Op. 46, 50; 
 Concup. 11). Hence the spirit of God is also the very essence of 
 the mind of man (Quis Rer. Div. Her. 11 ; cf Concup. 11). It was 
 this all-wise spirit in which Moses so fully participated ; a portion of 
 which God imparted to the seventy elders (Num. 11''); and this, 
 too, though the divine spirit is indivisible, continuous {i.e. without 
 separation), and undiminished by communication (Gigant. 6). 
 Because Moses was the most perfect among the prophets, God was 
 
 ^1 Leg. Alleg. I. 29; Quod Deus Immut. iS; Somn. 1,6; Vita Mos. I. 16; 
 Exsecrat. 5; Incor. Mund. 24; Leg. ad Cai. 9, 18, 29, 33; Fragments (once). 
 
 32 Mund. Op. 46, 50; Leg. Alleg. \. 13 (eight limes); Gigant. 5 (six times), 
 6 (four times), 7 (twice), 11, 12 (twice); Quod Deus Immut. i (twice); 
 Plantat. Noe. 5, 6, 11 ; Quis Rer. Div. Her. 11, 12, 53; Fuga et Invent. 33; 
 Somn. II. 38; Josepho, 21; Vita Mos. I. 31; II. 7; III. 36; Decalog. 33; 
 Special. Leg. (VIII.-X.), 8; Concup. 11 (three times) ; Caritate, 18; Nobil. 5; 
 Fragments (once). 
 
44 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 enabled through His spirit to promulgate His laws through him 
 (Decalog. $2)- So sensitive were the prophets to this spirit that the 
 mind (vovs) which was in them departed at the arrival of the divine 
 spirit (Quis Rer. Div. Her. 53), When the spirit took up its abode 
 in such a prophet, it operated upon all the organization of his voice 
 and made it utter forth the prophecies which he was delivering 
 (Spec. Leg. [VHI., IX., X.]8). The divine spirit which Abraham 
 possessed changed everything in him for the better, — his eyes, his 
 complexion, his size, his motions, and his voice. It even clothed his 
 body with extraordinary beauty, and invested his words with per- 
 suasiveness, while at the same time it endowed his hearers with 
 understanding (Nobil. 5). Philo thus carries to completion the in- 
 tellectual conception of the nature and function of the spirit of 
 God, which had been emphasized by the writer of the Wisdom of 
 Solomon and in other books of the Apocrypha. In this case, how- 
 ever, the spirit is more than the bearer of wisdom — it is wisdom 
 itself.'^^ 
 
 ^) For the spirit or tnind of man. 
 
 Philo uses irvtvfxa with this meaning about thirteen times.^ Here 
 again it is the influence of the Greek O.T. which causes him to 
 employ the term, though as before he almost wholly abandons the 
 meanings there given and supplies one of his own more consonant 
 with his philosophy, and with his view of the divine spirit. With 
 him the human spirit is simply a portion of the divine spirit. When 
 God breathed into man, he did not communicate to him literal breath, 
 but a ray from his blessed and thrice-happy nature (De Concup. 1 1). 
 He stimulated the mind (voSs) of man in such a way as to impart to 
 him the ability to reason and to understand divine things (Leg. 
 Alleg. 13). This mind or rational part of the soul, Philo calls the 
 spirit (Fuga et Invent. 24; Mutat. Nom. 21; Victimis, 3; Vict. 
 Offer. 4). It is an image or representation of the divine rational 
 nature (Quod Det. Pot. Ins. 22, 23), a part of its very essence (Quis 
 Rer. Div. Her. 11), In only one passage does Philo use the term 
 in the sense of strength and courage, the common Old Testament 
 meaning (Quod Omn. Prob. Lib. 5). 
 
 We thus see that Philo not only makes the concept and function of 
 the spirit of God harmonize with his conception of universal reason, 
 
 ^3 Cf. Drummond, Philo Judaus, Vol. II. pp. 214-21 7. 
 
 ^ Quod Det. Pot. Ins. 22 (twice), 23 (twice); Post. Caini. 19; Gigant. 6; 
 Agr. Noe. 10; Fuga et Invent. 24, 32; Mutat. Nom. 21; Victimis. 3; Vict. 
 Offer. 4; Quod Omn. Prob. Lib. 5. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF HIT AND OF TTVtVfxa. 45 
 
 but he does the same with the spirit of man. Man's spirit is his 
 reasoning faculty — his mind — that part of him by which he is made 
 superior to the animals. 
 
 V. T/ie Use of Yivev^a by Josephiis. 
 
 Flavius Josephus, being a Palestinian Jew, was thoroughly ac- 
 quainted with the x\ramaic language, in which, indeed, he says he 
 first composed his Wars of the fews?^ His voluminous works, in 
 the Greek, were produced while residing in Rome during the latter 
 half of the first century a.d. This is precisely the period in which 
 the larger portion of the New Testament books were composed. 
 For this reason his use of Greek words ought to be a valuable aux- 
 iliary in determining the meaning of New Testament terms. A 
 cursory reading of the more than two thousand pages (Ed. Niese) 
 of the Greek text of Josephus's works discovers the word TrveC/ia only 
 about twenty-eight times, while the word " soul " (i/'ux'?) occurs more 
 than two hundred times. Josephus seldom, if ever, employs the 
 term TrveS/ia with any other meaning than wind or breath, unless com- 
 pelled to do so by biblical or other Jewish usage. Since Josephus, 
 as well as Philo, wrote for Greek-speaking Gentiles, this shows that 
 wind and breath were the only meanings in common use. 
 
 I. IIveC/Lia used for wind and breath. 
 
 a) For wind. 
 
 This usage occurs about eleven times.'^^ It is used more often of 
 a storm wind than of a light breeze. The spirit of God which moved 
 upon the waters (Gen. i") is understood by Josephus, as well as Philo 
 (Gigant. 5), to refer to the wind {Antiq. i, i, i). 
 
 b') For breath or life. 
 
 There are only about four cases of this usage, — two of simple 
 breath {Antiq. 3, 12, 6 ; i 7, 6, 5), and two involving the idea of life 
 (Antiq. i, i, 2 ; 3, 11, 2). The two latter are based upon Gen. 2'^-. 
 From the second of these it is clear that irvevfxa refers to breath or 
 life, since spirit in any other sense was not attributed to animals.^^ 
 
 ^5 See the preface to his Wars. 
 
 ^'^ Antiq. I, i, I; 2, 16, 3; 2, 16, 6; 8, 13, 6; 9, lO, 2; lO, li, 7; 12, 2, 9; 
 14, 2, 2; 16, 2, 2; 16, 2, 5; Wars., 4, 8, 4. 
 
 *^ Philo maintained that breath was mingled with the blood in the veins and 
 arteries. Fragments in a Monkish MS. See Ed. Richter, Vol. VI. p. 230 
 (translated by Yonge, Vol. IV. p. 268). 
 
46 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 2. ITvev/Aa used for spirit. 
 
 a) For the spirit of God. 
 
 Josephus employs the term in this sense only about eight times.^ 
 Like Philo, he never uses it except when he is explaining some Old 
 Testament reference. He does not seem to attribute personality to 
 the spirit. He views it rather as a power or attribute of God. The 
 quantitative conception seems to be uppermost in his mind, for he 
 says that Solomon prayed that some portion of the divine spirit 
 might dwell in the temple, though the heavens were too small a 
 habitation for God himself {Antiq. 8, 4, 3). Like Philo, he con- 
 ceives the prophets to be passive agents of the divine spirit. The 
 spirit put the exact words of the prophecy into the mouth of Balaam 
 so that the prophet could speak no other even if he desired to do 
 so.^^ In commenting upon i Sam. 16^^-^ Josephus says that the 
 divine spirit in departing from Saul removed to David, and in its 
 place there came demons (Sat/xoVta) upon Saul {Antiq. 6, 8, 2). 
 
 i>) For disembodied personal spirits. 
 
 ( 1 ) For good spirits. 
 
 There is but one example. Josephus calls the angel who met 
 Balaam in the way a spirit {Antiq. 4, 6, 3). 
 
 (2) For evil spirits possessing and tormenting men. 
 
 The demon which came upon Saul and which only David could 
 cast out is called an evil spirit {Antiq. 6, 11, 2 ; of. 6, 8, 2). In 
 another passage {Wars, 7, 6, 3) he says that the demons are the 
 spirits of the wicked which enter into living men. There is here 
 probably a reflection of the same idea of evil spirits as proceeding 
 from giants which is found in the Book of Enoch. 
 
 c) For strength and courage. 
 
 There are but two examples of this meaning, and these are in 
 agreement with Septuagint and Apocryphal usage. He says that 
 when Esther came into the presence of the king, her spirit departed 
 from her and she fainted {Antiq. 11, 6, 9 ; cf. Esther 5^ LXX. addi- 
 tion). Also that the Roman soldiers, filled with a certain warlike 
 spirit {i.e. the spirit viewed as the seat of animation and courage), 
 when asked if they are ready to go to war, throw up their hands and 
 reply, "We are ready" {Wars, 3, 5, 4). 
 
 ^^ Antiq. 4, 6, 5 (twice); 6, 8, 2; 6, II, 5 (twice); 8, 4, 3; 8, 15, 4; 10, 11, 3. 
 3^ Antiq. 4, 6, 5 ; cf. Num. 23^^ where it is said that the Lord put the words 
 in Balaam's mouth. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF hi"! AND OF vvev/xa. 4 7 
 
 VI. T/ie Use of IlwO/ia in the New Testament. 
 
 Fortunately the composition of tlie New Testament writings took 
 place within so short a period that it will be unnecessary for our 
 present purpose to treat them chronologically. Since, however, the 
 authors, in consequence of difference of nationality, environment, and 
 education, differ somewhat widely in thought and terminology, it will 
 be convenient to arrange their writings in groups. Thus, for example, 
 in certain uses of the term irvcviLa it will be found that the sayings of 
 Jesus form one group ; the evangelists, a second ; the Book of Acts, 
 the catholic epistles, and the Apocalypse, a third ; and the Pauline 
 writings, a fourth. 
 
 In general, the meanings of 7rv;v/A2 in the New Testament corre- 
 spond with those in the Greek O.T. and Apocrypha. There are, 
 however, marked deviations from that usage. In spite of the fact 
 that, among Greek-speaking Gentiles, Trvev/xa was still a physical 
 term, among Christians it was tending rapidly to become an ex- 
 clusively religious and psychological term. This tendency is shown 
 not alone by New Testament authors, but to the same extent by the 
 apostolic fathers. In all of this Christian literature, the word is 
 seldom employed to denote wind or breath, but is used much more 
 frequently in the sense of spirit of God and (especially in the Pauline 
 writings) of the spirit of man. 
 
 I . The use of Trvf.vjxa for wind and breath. 
 
 a) For wind. 
 
 , Numerous as are the examples of this use in the Greek literature 
 of this period, there is but one clear instance in the New Testament. 
 In the Gospel of John it is said that the wind blows where it wills 
 (John 3*). A possible second instance is found in the Epistle to 
 the Hebrews where the writer, in speaking of the angels, quotes 
 Psalm 104: "He makes the winds his messengers (angels); his 
 ministers a flame of fire " (Heb. i'). Though it is clear that the 
 psalmist refers to winds, it is possible that the writer of Hebrews 
 understood him to mean spirits, since in the same connection he 
 speaks of the angels as ministering spirits (Heb. i"). 
 
 b) For breath. 
 
 To illustrate this meaning of 7rvev/xa there are but six clear examples 
 in the New Testament. In nearly all of these cases it is implied 
 that breath is necessary to life. It seemed a truism to say that the 
 
48 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 body without breath was dead (James 2-").*° The image of the beast 
 did not live until breath was given to it (Rev. 13^^). This breath of 
 Ufe comes from God (Rev. 11"; cf. Acts 17^ where ttvot; is used), 
 and at death is dehvered up again to him (John ip'*). Matthew 
 says that when Jesus died he sent forth (d(j)rJKev) his breath.''^ It is 
 possible that TrveS/ta is used in the sense of breath in three similar 
 passages in the writings of Luke (Luke 2^^ 8^^ Acts 7^^). The con- 
 text of these passages, however, as well as the mode in which they are 
 expressed, together with the fact that Luke is a Gentile writer under 
 the influence of Pauline conceptions, make it more probable that he 
 has given the term another meaning (see below). 
 
 It is uncertain whether Paul ever used the term Trvevfxa in the sense 
 of breath, since the only example which can be appealed to occurs in 
 a book whose Pauhne authorship is questioned. The writer, adopting 
 the language of those Old Testament passages in which by a metonymy 
 the hot destructive desert wind is spoken of as the breath of God (cf. 
 Isa. 11"*; Job 4^), says that the Lord (Jesus) will slay (or consume) 
 with the breath*- of his mouth the lawless one (2 Thess. 2*). 
 
 It is quite possible, if not probable, that TrveS/xa in Heb. 4^- denotes 
 breath of life. In this case the writer would mean that the living 
 and active word of God {i.e. God's judgments against evil-doers) can 
 destroy those who harden their hearts against him, just as surely as 
 he destroyed the disobedient Israelites (Heb. 3""^* 4'^). The word 
 of God is thus, as the context requires, punitive as well as discern- 
 ing. Like a two-edged sword it penetrates the body until soul (life) 
 and spirit (breath) are released.*^ Nor does it stop until it has gone 
 to the utmost recesses of the physical organism, penetrating even to 
 the joints and marrow,'" and discerning the thoughts and intents of 
 
 *" Note the use of the article before body (nw/xa), but its omission before 
 irvevna (cf. Rev. ii^^ IS^^)- This tends to show that wvevfjia is used of the general 
 concept breath, and not of the spirit (of man) as the seat of thought, or as the 
 bearer of his personality (cf. footnotes 50 and 51). 
 
 *i Matt. 27^0 (cf. Mark 15^" where the verb iKirviw is used). In this passage, 
 as well as in John 19^', the article employed with Trvevfia is used with the force 
 of the personal pronoun " his." 
 
 ''2 It is possible that breath here is used by metonymy for word spoken by 
 means of the breath. See the 17th Psalm of Solomon, "He shall destroy 
 the ungodly nations with the word of his mouth." 
 
 *^ The dividing {fxepicrixov) or separating would thus be either of soul from the 
 breath (cf. Job 71^ in the LXX.) or, more probably, of soul and breath (both used 
 as synonyms of life) from the body. 
 
 ** In this case "joints and marrow" would be coordinate with yaepto-/i,oO, not 
 governed by it. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF Pin AND OF Trvevfia. 49 
 
 the heart. Most interpreters, however, take irvevfj-a in this passage 
 to denote mind, the higher faculty of the soul.''^ If this is the mean- 
 ing the usage must be classed along with certain Pauline examples. 
 
 2. T//e use of irvev/xa for spirit. 
 
 a) For the spirit of God, or Holy Spirit. 
 
 As was intimated above, the New Testament literature shows a 
 rapid advance in the conception of the function of the spirit of God. 
 Not only was the term used in almost every sense known in the 
 earlier Jewish writings, but new meanings were coined for it. Early 
 Christianity was, to a great extent, a revival of prophetic conceptions 
 and ideals as over against the priestly ideals then in vogue. And as 
 the prophetic conceptions again came to the front, the old prophetic 
 terms took on new life and meaning. This, then, was preeminently 
 the age of the spirit. 
 
 (i) T/ie use of the term " Holy Spirit,''^ or " spirit of God'' in the 
 teachings of fesics. 
 
 (a) In the synoptic gospels. It is remarkable how rarely Jesus 
 makes any reference to the Holy Spirit in the sayings recorded of 
 him in these gospels, and how limited are the functions which he 
 there assigns to it. This fact is all the more significant when it is 
 remembered that these sayings were handed down and committed 
 to writing during a period when the church was most actively en- 
 gaged in elaborating the doctrine of the spirit. 
 
 In silencing the Pharisees, Jesus prefaces his quotation of a 
 prophecy commonly regarded as messianic with the words, " How 
 then doth David in spirit call him Lord" (Matt. 22''^ Mark 12^). 
 In another quotation recorded only in the gospel of Luke (4^* ; cf. 
 Matt. 12^*), he implies that he accomplishes his messianic mission 
 through the possession of the spirit of God. In a saying recorded in 
 the gospel of Matthew (12-^) he afifirms that it is by the spirit of 
 God^" that he casts out demons. The unpardonable sin, the sin 
 against the Holy Spirit (Matt. i_2'^^- ^ Mark 3^ Luke 1 2^"), seems to 
 
 ^5 This as we have seen is one of the meanings which Philo gives to irvevfia, 
 hence is not impossible, especially if the book was written in Alexandria. Never- 
 theless, as will be shown, this usage was not common or widespread. Further- 
 more, under this interpretation yap seems to be deprived largely of its force, and 
 the words "joints and marrow " are compelled to assume strained and unnatural 
 meanings. 
 
 '"'In the Lucan parallel (n-') we have "by the finger of God." This vari- 
 ation seems to be due to Luke's conception of the fundamental nature of the 
 spirit, viz. as the pmver of God (cf. Luke i^^ Acts 10^*), the phrase " finger of 
 God " being equivalent to the latter (cf. Ex. 8^^). 
 
50 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 consist in ascribing to Satan (Matt. 12-"*-'^) or to an unclean spirit 
 (Mark 3^) the deeds performed by him through the power of the 
 spirit of God. 
 
 As to the function of the spirit with reference to his disciples 
 Jesus has almost as little to say. In a saying recorded by the three 
 synoptists, Jesus tells the disciples that when they are brought before 
 kings and magistrates, the Holy Spirit will teach them what they 
 ought to speak, or rather the spirit will speak in or through them 
 (Matt. 10^' Mark 13^^ Luke 12^-) ; and in another saying recorded by 
 Luke (ii^'') he says that their heavenly Father is more ready to give • 
 the Holy Spirit to those who ask Him, than an earthly father is to 
 give good gifts to his children.'*'' If the baptismal formula^* recorded 
 in Matt. 28^^ is a genuine saying of Jesus, we find him after his 
 resurrection commanding his disciples to baptize all believers into 
 the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. 
 These few passages constitute the sum of Jesus' teaching in the 
 synoptic gospels concerning the function of the Holy Spirit in its 
 relation to himself and to his disciples. The work which he assigns 
 to the spirit pertains almost wholly to the extraordinary and miracu- 
 lous. That, however, which seems to be lacking in these gospels is 
 supplied in the teaching of.Jesus as set forth 
 
 (^) In the gospel of John. 
 
 In this gospel, moral transformation and spiritual enlightenment 
 are the functions which Jesus assigns to the spirit. The spirit is the 
 transforming power in the operation called the new birth. Jesus 
 says (John 3^) that except a man be born of water ^ and spirit he 
 cannot enter into the kingdom of God. By this operation of the in- 
 dwelling spirit the man becomes a spiritual man (3").^ The how of 
 the process remains a mystery (3**), but the fact is perfectly clear. 
 It is the spirit that gives life (6*^'). But the work of the spirit does 
 
 *'^ The original form of this saying may be that found in the gospel of Matthew 
 (7II), where there is no specific mention made of the spirit. 
 
 *^ On the date of this passage see McGiffert, Apostolic Age, p. 61 ; and on the 
 use of the trinitarian formula in the early church see Harnaclc, History of Dogma 
 (Eng. trans.), Vol. I. p. 157. 
 
 *^ By a metonymy, growing out of the baptism into repentance instituted by 
 John, water probably stands in this passage for repentance. See Burton and 
 Mathews, Constt-uctive Studies in the Life of Christ, on this passage. 
 
 ^° Observe that the second irveOfjia is without the article, i.e. used qualitatively. 
 It does not, with any probability, refer to the quickened spirit of the man (since 
 in the gospel of John irvevixa is not used with reference to the mind of man) but 
 rather to the man quickened by the spirit of God — the spiritual man. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF 111"! AND OF Trveu/xa. 5 I 
 
 not end with regeneration. Without the aid of the spirit true worship 
 is impossible. Jesus tells the woman of Samaria that the time is 
 coming and now is when the true worshipper will worship the Father 
 in spirit and in truth, i.e. through the possession of His spirit and 
 the truth which it conveys (John 4-'^-^; cf. i6''^). That this is the 
 meaning of the passage seems to be quite clear from the fact that 
 the phrase "in spirit" (ev Trveu/xan — the preposition Iv and the noun 
 usually without the article) is used by Jewish writers of the spirit of 
 God only.''^ To be " in spirit " (eV Trveu/iart) meant to possess the 
 spirit of God or to be possessed by that spirit. When in the same 
 passage it is said that God is spirit, the writer probably means nothing 
 more than that God in His dealings with men operates through the 
 spirit (cf. 2 Cor. 3^'). Most interpreters, however, make spirit refer 
 to God's non-embodied existence, and this meaning is not without 
 basis in current usage or wholly out of harmony with the context. 
 
 Spiritual enlightenment is still the function ascribed to the spirit, 
 when the spirit is spoken of by Jesus as helper or advocate (irapa- 
 kAt/tos, John 14^'-" 15-'' 16^''). Jesus tells his disciples that when 
 he goes away he will pray the Father to send the spirit of truth, who 
 shall lead them into all truth. The spirit is here presented as the 
 great enlightener — the bearer of truth to those who believe in Jesus. 
 This view of the work of the spirit is similar to that presented in the 
 Apocrypha, and in Philo, where the spirit is regarded as the bearer 
 of wisdom to men. Jesus implies (John 20^' ^•^) that the possession 
 of the spirit will enable the disciples to gain such insight into the 
 lives and motives of men that they will have the right to exercise the 
 divine prerogative of pardoning sins. 
 
 We thus see, on comparing the teaching of Jesus as recorded in 
 the gospel of John with that in the synoptic gospels, how great is the 
 advance in the doctrine of the spirit. In the gospel of John there is 
 a wholly new order of functions ascribed to the spirit ; and, it may 
 
 51 See Matt. 22*3 Luke i" 2^7 4I Rom. 2^9 (cf. 2 Cor. f) 8^ Eph. 222 
 35 5I8 6^^ Rev. ii" 42 173 2ii°. See also the following passages in which the 
 phrase has a defining modifier attached: Matt. 3I1 122^ Mark 12^^ Luke 3I8 
 John i33 Acts i5 11I6 Rom. 9I 14" 15I6 i Cor. i23-9-i3 14I6 2 Cor. 6^ Eph. 2I8 
 Phil. i2T Col. i^ I Thess. i^ Jude 20. To the above maybe added many examples 
 from the LXX. and the apostolic fathers. There are but two clear exceptions 
 to this usage of the phrase in the New Testament, one (Acts ig-^) found in Luke's 
 (a Gentile's) writings, and the other (Gal. 6^) in Paul's; cf., however, i Tim. 3^^ 
 which may be another instance. Had the writer of John 4-3- -'-i meant the human 
 spirit he would have omitted the iv and used the article, see John ii^^ 132I; 
 cf. Matt. 53 Mark S^- Acts iS-^^ Rom. 12II i Cor. 53 2 Cor. 2^^ Eph. 4-3 
 
52 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITER.ATURE. 
 
 be added, that this new order is found only in the teaching of 
 Jesus.'^- 
 
 (2) The usage of the four evangelists in respect to the Holy Spirit. 
 
 The gospel writers (omitting for the present certain portions of the 
 infancy narratives in the gospel of Luke, which reflect a conception 
 not elsewhere expressed in the gospels) have very Httle to say of the 
 function of the spirit with reference to believers. The disciples are 
 not thought of as permanently endowed with the spirit before the 
 death of Jesus, hence these writers deal almost wholly with the rela- 
 tion of the spirit to Jesus himself. The gospels of Matthew and 
 Luke concur in ascribing to the Holy Spirit a share in the physical 
 generation of Jesus (Matt, i^^-'^' Luke 1''^). This particular function 
 of the Holy Spirit is entirely unique. Nothing like it is found else- 
 where either in the Old or New Testaments. The conception of the 
 nature of the spirit, however, seems to be the same as before. Luke 
 uses the phrase " Holy Spirit " synonymously with the phrase " power 
 of the Most High " (Luke i'^). Hence according to his conception 
 the real cause in the generation of Jesus was God. The spirit was 
 simply God's means of accomplishing it. Thus in a unique way 
 Jesus was the Son of God. The holiness of his life and character 
 could be explained in no other way. Nothing is said of his relation 
 to the spirit during his youth and early manhood, but when he comes 
 to maturity and enters upon his life work, the gospel writers all main- 
 tain that he received a special outpouring of the spirit. In fact the 
 synoptic gospels as well as the gospel of John picture Jesus as the 
 only person who, in the Christian dispensation prior to the ascension, 
 was permanently endowed with the Holy Spirit. The spirit de- 
 scended upon him at the time of his baptism (Matt. 3^® Mark i^" 
 Luke 3" John i^-). It seems to have been because he was already 
 pure and holy, God's beloved Son, that the spirit was bestowed upon 
 him. 
 
 There is no clear evidence in these passages that the writers 
 intended to ascribe to the spirit a personality separate from God. As 
 a matter of fact, the quantitative conception of it is so strongly marked 
 that the other is practically ruled out. The heavens were opened, 
 rent asunder, and the spirit descended as a dove upon Jesus. Luke 
 says that God anointed Jesus with the Holy Spirit (Acts 10^) and 
 John says that God did not bestow the spirit by measure (John 3'^). 
 As in the Old Testament, so also here, the spirit is viewed as an attri- 
 
 ^2 If these ideas emanate from the evangelist rather than from Jesus himself, 
 the former has always been careful to express them in words ascribed to the latter. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF ffll AND OF Trvevfjia. 5 3 
 
 bute or power of God. Through it he guides and empowers Jesus. 
 The spirit (or God through the spirit) impels Jesus to enter the wil- 
 derness to be tempted of Satan (Matt. 4^ Mark i^- Luke 4^). Through 
 the spirit God imparts to Jesus the power to do the work assigned to 
 him as the founder of the kingdom (Luke 4'** John 3** Matt. 12'**), 
 especially the power to work miracles (Luke 4" ; cf. Acts lo"'^). 
 
 But Jesus is set forth by the gospel writers not only as the bearer 
 of the spirit, he is also viewed as the communicator of it to his fol- 
 lowers. The evangelists regard it as the mission of Jesus to bestow 
 the Holy Spirit upon those who are members of his kingdom. They 
 all report the announcement of John the Baptist that his greater 
 successor will baptize with Holy Spirit.^^ John and Luke alone 
 record the fulfilment of this prediction, and both of these writers place 
 it after the resurrection of Jesus. Indeed John says explicitly that 
 the spirit was not yet given because Jesus was not yet glorified 
 (John 7^^). As to the precise time when the spirit was communicated 
 to the disciples, John and Luke differ. John places it before the 
 ascension (John 20--), Luke places it after (Acts 2^"*). As to the way 
 in which he communicated the spirit, they differ also. John says 
 that he breathed it upon them, Luke that he poured it forth from 
 heaven. Both writers, however, agree that the Father is the ultimate 
 source of the spirit (i John y* 4'^ Acts i'*-^ 2*' 15*; cf. John 14^^-^^ 
 1526 Luke 11^^). 
 
 (3) T/ie usage of the Book of Acts {together with the infancy narra- 
 tives in the gospel of Luke), the catholic epistles, and the Apocalypse in 
 respect to the Holy Spirit. 
 
 In these writings little is said of Jesus' relation to the spirit. Luke, 
 in his preface to Acts, says that at the time of the ascension Jesus 
 
 53 Matt. 3II Mark !» Luke 3I3 John i^S; cf. Acts i^ \\^>. The Matthew and 
 Luke accounts add the word " fire," but since it is probable that the Mark and 
 John accounts are the older, the former must be regarded as elaborations of the 
 latter. According to the longer narratives the Pharisees came to John to be bap- 
 tized. He accuses them of hypocrisy and says that when Jesus comes he will 
 baptize with Holy Spirit and fire. He will gather the wheat into his garner, but 
 the chaff he will burn with unquenchable fire (Matt. '^-^ Luke 3'^'^''). In the light 
 of this latter expression we must understand that it is only bis followers whom he 
 will baptize with Holy Spirit. Those who reject him and persist in evil he will 
 baptize with fire. This interpretation of the added word " fire " is further borne 
 out by the fact that Luke, when referring in Acts i^ and ii^^ to this passage, 
 quotes it in the Mark form and applies it to the descent of the spirit on the day 
 of Pentecost. Furthermore, it would be contrary to the biblical usage and con- 
 ception of the spirit of God to assign to it a punitive or destructive function. 
 
54 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 gave commandment to the apostles through the Holy Spirit (Acts i^). 
 According to the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews, it was because 
 Jesus possessed the eternal spirit that the one act in which he gave up 
 his life, obtained for his followers an eternal redemption (Heb. 9" ; 
 cf. pi-'^s-ss jqI, 12. 14^^ ^Yhe author of i Peter calls it the spirit of 
 Christ, and says that it testified beforehand, through the prophets, of 
 the sufferings of Christ and the glories which should follow them 
 (i Pet. i^^; cf. Acts 16'^). But with the exception of a few such 
 passages these writers deal only with the relation of the spirit to believ- 
 ers. As we noted above, the gospels do not represent the disciples 
 as permanently endowed with the spirit before the death of Jesus. 
 Prior to that time the spirit came to them only on certain occasions 
 and for particular purposes. After the ascension of Jesus, however, 
 according to the Book of Acts, as well as according to the epistles, a// 
 believeis possess the spirit of God as a permanent endotvinent. On 
 the original group of Jesus' followers the spirit was poured forth from 
 heaven on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2^-^). Other believers received 
 it at the time when (or soon after) they signified their allegiance to 
 Jesus as the Christ (Acts 2'^ 532gi5.i6.17 ^17 jo43-43 nie.i?. ^f. Gal. s'^-" 
 5^). Often, according to the Book of Acts, the method by which the 
 spirit is conveyed to them is through the laying on of hands, either 
 of the apostles or of some disciple, as though it were communicated 
 from one believer to another (Acts 8^^"^'' 9" 19""^; cf. Heb. 6^-^). 
 
 As to the function of the Holy Spirit, the ideas of the primitive 
 church (with the exception of certain Pauhne conceptions) were to 
 a great extent derived from the Old Testament. Jesus is seldom 
 appealed to on this subject. Almost every Old Testament usage can 
 be duplicated in the New Testament, though often in a modified 
 form. There is not only a return to the view of the spirit as the 
 author of the ecstatic, but, even to a greater degree, as the author of 
 the extraordinary and miraculous. The functions of the spirit as set 
 forth in Acts (together with the infancy narratives in Luke) and the 
 catholic epistles, may be arranged under three general heads : 
 
 id) The spirit as the author of prophecy. 
 
 The larger part of the numerous examples which come under this 
 head may be classed as predictive prophecies. In the proof that 
 Jesus was the expected Messiah, it was natural to employ the predic- 
 tive prophecies of the Old Testament (i Pet. i" Rev. 19'"), and such 
 employment carried with it the feeling that prediction was one of the 
 highest functions of the spirit. The Holy Spirit was viewed as 
 the active agent in the prophecy. The inspired man was simply the 
 
schoemaker: the use of nn and of ttvcv/jm. 55 
 
 mouthpiece of the spirit (Acts i^^ 4-^ 2^-^ Heb. 3" 10'^ 2 Pet. i^; cf. 
 Matt. 2 2''-' Mark 1 2'*). Of the spirit as the author of predictions in the 
 Christian dispensation, there are several instances, mostly found in 
 the writings of Luke. Thus in the infancy narratives, EHzabeth, 
 Zacharias, and Simeon, filled with the Holy Spirit, all make predictive 
 prophecies (Luke i''**'" 2^-'"). Agabus, through the spirit, prophesies 
 a great famine (Acts n^), and also foretells Paul's arrest in Jerusalem 
 (Acts 21"). Many times Paul was told by the prophets that he 
 would be imprisoned if he ventured into the Holy City (Acts 20-* 
 21*). The great Christian predictive prophecy, however, is the Apoc- 
 alypse of John. In this case the message is conveyed to the writer 
 by the spirit through a vision (Rev. i^** 4- 1 7'^ 21^"). This reminds one 
 of the function of the spirit in the visions of Ezekiel (Ezek. i^ 3- 8^ 
 II-*), only in the present case the spirit speaks through the prophet 
 (Rev. 2^ 14^^; cf. 22^^), as well as transports him in vision from place 
 to place. 
 
 Akin to prophecy, if not actually a part of it, is the speaking with 
 tongues mentioned in the second chapter of Acts. Li fact the author 
 interprets the phenomenon as a fulfilment of the prediction of Joel 
 ^228 f. [3I*']) that in the last days God would pour forth of His spirit 
 upon all flesh and their sons and daughters should prophesy (Acts 
 2^'--'^). Under the symbols of a rushing wind and tongues like fire, the 
 writer pictures the descent of the spirit on the day of Pentecost, and 
 adds that those upon whom the Holy Spirit came began to speak 
 with other tongues, as the spirit gave them utterance (Acts 2^^). This 
 speaking with tongues is, later in the chapter (2") explained as the 
 ability to set forth in different languages the "mighty works of God." 
 According to this explanation there is nothing ecstatic or unintelli- 
 gible in the phenomenon, such as Paul describes in i Cor. 14. It 
 consists simply in the miraculous power to speak in one or more 
 languages previously unknown to the speaker. It is possible, 
 indeed, that the author of the second chapter of Acts was mistaken 
 or misinformed in this interpretation of the phenomenon, and 
 that it should be explained in the light of the Pauline usage,^* 
 There are still marks in the passage itself which may indicate this. 
 Those who were under the influence of the spirit were thought to be 
 drunk (Acts 2'^^^), hence must have been in a state akin to ecstasy. 
 Then, too, the other references in the Book of Acts (lo'""'" 19*^) con- 
 cerning the speaking with tongues seem to favor the Pauline meaning 
 
 °^ See McGiffert, Apostolic Age, pp. 50-53 ; Weinel : Wirkwigen des Geistes, 
 pp. 72 ff. 
 
56 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 rather than the other. There is no implication in these passages that 
 It meant speaking in different languages. Yet the passage as it stands 
 reflects the author's conceptions of the function of the Spirit. 
 
 {b) The spirit as the helper and director of the believer, especially 
 in the work of establishing the kingdoju of God on earth. 
 
 Luke is constantly speaking of this helping function of the spirit. 
 It was in the spirit and power of Elijah that John the Baptist did his 
 work. The Holy Spirit gave to the apostles power to become wit- 
 nesses of Jesus both in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria 
 (Acts I*; cf. I Pet. i^). It was when the apostles were filled with 
 the Holy Spirit that they were enabled to speak the word of God with 
 boldness (Acts 4^'^^). The seven deacons were filled with the spirit 
 in order to accomplish their particular work (Acts 6^-^). Under the 
 inspiration of the same spirit, Barnabas exhorted the Christians of 
 Antioch to cleave unto the Lord (Acts 11^) ; and Paul was enabled to 
 withstand the sorcerer Elymas (Acts 13^). Paul tells the elders of 
 Ephesus that the Holy Spirit has made them overseers of the church 
 of God (Acts 2o2«). 
 
 But the spirit is also a helper in more specific ways than these. It 
 guides and directs believers in cases of difficulty or unexpected 
 crises. Thus, the spirit impels Simeon to go to the temple to see the 
 infant Jesus (Luke 2^''). It tells Philip to join the chariot of the eunuch 
 (Acts 8-"'), and miraculously catches him away when his work is accom- 
 plished (Acts 8^^; cf. I Kings 18^^ 2 Kings 2^*'). It commands Peter 
 to go with the men sent from Cornelius (Acts 10^^ 11^-). It directs 
 Paul and Barnabas to go on a missionary journey (Acts 13"'*), and 
 guides them in the proper direction (Acts i6''-^). It aids the church 
 of Jerusalem in setthng the difficult question which arose in the An- 
 tioch church (Acts 15^^). It impels Paul to go to Jerusalem in spite 
 of the fact that it testifies in every city that bonds and afflictions await 
 him (Acts 20~-^). In times of persecution and distress, it causes the 
 believer to rejoice even in the midst of his adversity (Acts 13^^ i Pet. 
 4";cf. Luke lo^i I Thess. i«). 
 
 (c) The spirit as a witnessing and revealing power in the believer. 
 
 This function of the spirit seems to be similar to that set forth by 
 Jesus in the gospel of John, when he tells the disciples that the spirit 
 of truth wiU lead them into all truth. The first Epistle of John repre- 
 sents the spirit as the great witnessing power in the behever that he 
 has eternal life through Christ (i John 5*^; cf. 5"). Through the 
 possession of the spirit he knows that he abides in God and God in 
 him (i John 3^^ 4^^). According to the Book of Acts the Holy Spirit 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF Pn AND OF irvevfXM. 5 7 
 
 is a witness, to the believer, of the resurrection of Jesus (Acts 5''-). 
 The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, in referring to the fact that 
 the high priest alone entered into the holy of holies, says that the 
 Holy Spirit thus signified that the way into the holy place had not 
 yet been made manifest (Heb. g^). Through the spirit, in a vision, 
 heaven itself was revealed to Stephen (Acts j^), and by the spirit the 
 sin of Ananias was made known to Peter (Acts 5^).^ The Jews were 
 not able to withstand the wisdom and the spirit by which Stephen 
 spake (Acts 6''' ; cf. 6^). To resist his words was to resist the Holy 
 Spirit (Acts 7^^). 
 
 (4) T/ie usage of the Pauline writings in respect to the Holy Spirit. 
 
 Paul gives us a deeper and broader view of the work of the spirit 
 than any other New Testament writer. If we compare his teachings 
 with those of Jesus as set forth in the gospel of John, we see that he 
 is the only writer who develops the distinctly Christian conception of 
 the spirit. He even goes beyond the teaching of Jesus in the em- 
 phasis which he lays on the transforming power of the spirit in the 
 life of the believer. Paul at the same time sets forth in a more vital 
 way than any other writer the relation existing between Jesus and the 
 spirit. He tells the Galatians that God sent forth the spirit of his 
 Son into their hearts crying Abba, Father (Gal. 4" ; cf. Rom. 8^^), and 
 in writing to the Philippians, he mentions his desire for a fresh sup- 
 ply of the spirit of Jesus Christ (Phil. i^'). In Rom. 8^, he makes 
 the phrase " spirit of Christ " synonymous with " spirit of God." He 
 goes even one step beyond this and affirms that Christ, through the 
 spirit, dwells in the believer (Rom. 8^-^"). This is probably what he 
 means when in speaking of Christ, he says in 2 Cor. 3^'' that the 
 " Lord is the spirit." ^ In the second clause of the same verse, he 
 defines this as " spirit of (the) Lord." '"'' 
 
 It will be noticed that all the passages which refer to the spirit as 
 the spirit of Christ or the spirit of Jesus are found in the writings of 
 Paul, or of those writers, Luke (Acts 16") and the author of i Peter 
 (i"), who are under the immediate influence of Paul. Paul thus 
 
 ^5 Observe that the attempt on the part of Ananias to deceive the spirit is in 
 Acts 5'* defined as an attempt to deceive God. 
 
 ^ This identification is further borne out in 2 Cor. 3^*, if, as seems to be the 
 case Ki5ptos and Trvevfia are in apposition. If, as is less probable, the latter term 
 limits the former, then we have Paul referring to Christ as the Lord of the spirit 
 (see Meyer's "Commentary "). 
 
 °'^ Hvevfia Kvplov is a common phrase in the Septuagint, though it is seldom 
 employed in the New Testament (Luke 4^^ Acts 5^ 8'^^). It occurs in Paul's 
 writings only in this passage. 
 
58 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 seems responsible in the main for this usage. The explanation of this 
 can be found only in his conception of the exalted Christ, and in his 
 view of the personality of the spirit as indistinguishable in experience 
 from that of God or Christ. Of the exalted and powerful place which 
 Christ, since his resurrection, has occupied, Paul is continually speak- 
 ing. Christ is in the place of power at the right hand of God (Rom. 
 8'^ Eph. I-" Col. 3^). God has iiighly exalted him and given him a 
 name which is above every name (Phil. 2'"'). By the resurrection, 
 he has been constituted son of God with power (Rom. i''). 
 
 The main evidence for Paul's conception of the spirit as having its 
 personality in that of God will have to be given a little later on. It 
 will be sufficient at this point to call attention to his view of the spirit 
 as the great bond which binds together all Christians into a spiritual 
 unity with Christ. Believers were all made to drink of the one spirit, 
 and the participation in this one spirit binds them together into a 
 single organism (i Cor. 12^''; cf. Eph. 4^). Of this organism Christ 
 is the head (i Cor. 11" Eph. 4'''-^'^ Col. i^®). So closely is Christ 
 bound to the believer through the spirit, that they can be called one 
 spirit (i Cor. 6^^^). It is Paul's earnest plea that this unity of believers 
 through the spirit be preserved (Phil, i-'' Eph. 4"), for it is through 
 Christ that all believers have access by one spirit unto the Father 
 (Eph. 2'^). With this view of the exalted Christ, seated at the right 
 hand of God, the head of the great Christian organism which is com- 
 posed of his followers ; and with this view of the penetrating, life- 
 imparting spirit which binds all together into a spiritual unity with 
 Christ, it is not strange that he could refer to the spirit as the spirit 
 of Christ. But with Paul, as with the other New Testament writers, 
 God was always regarded as the ultimate source of the spirit. It 
 was his spirit and he bestowed it as a free gift (Rom. 5*^ 2 Cor. i^ 
 5^ Gal. 3^ 4" Eph. i^' 2 Tim. i'). 
 
 As to the functions of the spirit Paul is much "more explicit than 
 other writers. In the twelfth and fourteenth chapters of i Corin- 
 thians, in writing to Gentile converts who had probably never heard 
 of the spirit until they were converted to Christianity, he enumerates 
 with some care the gifts of the spirit. Chief among these are speak- 
 ing with tongues, prophesying, working miracles, and speaking the 
 word of wisdom. For the edification of the church these gifts were 
 not all on a par. In fact Paul mentions them in order to commend 
 some above others. 
 
 {a) The gift of speaking zvith tongues. This was the most coveted 
 and showy of the gifts of the spirit. The phenomena connected 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF PlTl AND OF Trvevfxa. 59 
 
 with it are quite fully described in the twelfth and fourteenth 
 chapters of i Corinthians. It is perfectly clear from these chapters 
 that the person who exercised this gift was, while doing so, in a state 
 of ecstasy ; and that what he said while in this state was unintelli- 
 gible to the ordinary hearer, and usually to the speaker himself. 
 This speaking with tongues seemed to consist largely, if not wholly, 
 of prayers, thanksgivings, and songs, i.e. it was directed toward God, 
 rather than, as prophecy was, toward men (i Cor. 14-'* ""^''). In 
 these prayers and songs the intellect of the man took no active part 
 (i Cor, 14^^^'^). It needed some one, either the man himself or 
 some other person, with a special gift of the spirit, to interpret what 
 had been said (i Cor. 12^"; cf. 14-'-). 
 
 In this ecstatic phenomenon, which was regarded by the primitive 
 church as the leading function of the spirit, we have a return in a 
 somewhat modified form of one of the earliest views of the spirit and 
 its work (i Sam. 10'"*'; cf. i Sam. 19^' -"). As at that time it took 
 prolonged and vigorous effort to disengage the ecstatic from the con- 
 ception of the function of the spirit, so now again the same fight had 
 to be made, and it was Paul who first began the conflict. It was 
 only thus that the conception of the spirit in its higher functions 
 could be retained. 
 
 Ill r Cor. 14" ^^, by a natural metonymy, we have the spirit of 
 God which the man possesses spoken of as the man's spirit.^ This 
 is not an uncommon procedure, since in this same chapter Paul 
 speaks of the ''spirits of the prophets," meaning thereby the spirits 
 (or spirit) possessed by the prophets (i Cor. i4'^-). So, too, the 
 writer of the Apocalypse, in the same sense, speaks of the " spirits of 
 the prophets" (Rev. 22"; cf Luke i''^"^^, where John, who was said 
 to be filled with the Holy Spirit from the time of his birth, is in the 
 immediate context spoken of as going forth in the spirit and power 
 of Elijah, viz., the spirit of God given to Elijah). 
 
 (d) The gift of prophecy. Unlike other New Testament writers, 
 Paul seldom Hmited this gift of the spirit to prediction (cf i Tim. 
 4^). With him it meant the larger prophetic function connected 
 
 ^^ That the writer does not here refer to the human spirit is clear from the 
 context. For in 14^ it is said that the man who speaks with a tongue speaks to 
 God, for by the spirit {i.e. God's spirit) he speaks mysteries, which no man can 
 understand; again, in 14^'', that the unlearned cannot say amen if one gives 
 thanks in or by the spirit (God's spirit). Furthermore, it would be contrary to 
 any known meaning of TrveOfj.a when used of the human spirit to give it a mean- 
 ing diametrically opposed to that of mind (vovs), as on this view the author has 
 done in these verses. 
 
6o JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 with the dehvery of any message of God to men. He regarded the 
 gift of prophecy as more to be desired than the gift of tongues, since 
 it ministered to the edification of others (i Cor. i^"*''). They were, 
 however, gifts of the same spirit (i Cor. 12" "), hence were both to 
 be encouraged (r Cor. 14'"'). He tells the Thessalonians not to 
 quench the spirit or to despise prophesying (i Thess. 5^^^). He finds 
 it necessary, however, to warn the Corinthians against excesses, 
 hence he lays down the principle that the spirits of the prophets are 
 subject to the prophets (i Cor. 14"'). The writer of 2 Thessalonians 
 warns believers not to be too easily disturbed by what a prophet says 
 (2 Thess. 2"). Since, however, there are false as well as true 
 prophets, and since only the latter are under the direction of the 
 spirit of God (cf. i John 4^"''''), it is necessary to discriminate 
 between them. This power to discriminate between the spirits of 
 the true and false prophets Paul makes also a distinct function or gift 
 of the spirit (i Cor. 12^"). 
 
 (c) The gift of the spirit to wofk miracles. This characteristic 
 power of Jesus (Luke 4" ; cf. Acts lo'^) was also possessed, to a lim- 
 ited extent, by his followers. Paul distinctly names the ability to 
 work miracles among the functions of the spirit (i Cor. 12^-^"), and 
 refers to it in connection with the spirit several times (Gal. 3^ Rom. 
 15^^ I Thess. i^). Other writers, though mentioning the power to 
 work miracles, do not connect it immediately with the spirit. 
 
 (c/) The spirit as the bearer of luisdom and kiwiuledge to the believer 
 — especially knowledge concerning God and the 7vay of salvation. 
 This is one of the functions of the spirit set forth by Jesus in the 
 gospel of John. Paul is the only New Testament writer who elabo- 
 rates it to any extent. In this he also carries to completion the 
 views of the Apocrypha and Philo. Paul enumerates among the 
 gifts of the spirit the word of wisdom and the word of knowledge 
 (i Cor. 12*). He tells the Corinthians that he did not come to 
 them with the wisdom of this world, but in demonstration of the 
 spirit and of power (i Cor. 2^; cf. 2^-"). He compares the spirit of 
 God to the spirit of man, and says that as none but the spirit of man 
 knows the things of man so the spirit of God alone knows the things 
 pertaining to God (i Cor. 2"-^-). This knowledge of the things of 
 God the spirit freely communicates to those, and those alone, who 
 possess the spirit and have been renewed by it (i Cor. 2^''-^'^"). 
 This passage has often been used as evidence of Paul's belief in the 
 separate personality of the spirit. However, the very comparison 
 with the mind of man seems entirely to preclude such a concep- 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF Hn AND OF Trv€vfjux. 6 1 
 
 tion/^" Moreover, this is exactly the function ascribed to the spirit in 
 the Apocrypha and Philo, and a personality separate from God is not 
 ascribed to the spirit by those writers. In particular, the spirit bears 
 witness to the believer that he is a son of God (Rom. 8^^-^^ Gal. 4^ 
 2 Tim. i'^). Through the spirit the love of God for him is shed 
 abroad in his heart (Rom. 5'). The very possession of the spirit is a 
 guarantee of present reconciliation with God, and a pledge of com- 
 plete salvation in the future (2 Cor. i" 5' Eph. i" 4"" Rom. S'-* Gal. 
 5' ; cf. I John y* 4^')- 
 
 (e) The spirit as the regenerating and sanctifying power in the char- 
 acter and conduct of the believer. Here again the teaching of Paul 
 accords with and completes that of Jesus in the gospel of John ; and 
 since no other writer, either in the Old or New Testament, elabo- 
 rates this function of the spirit, it may be called the unique Christian 
 contribution to the conception of the spirit. In this case, the spirit 
 is viewed as an ethical dynamic, a transforming power within the 
 man. In all other cases it is regarded as a power operating upon 
 the man from without, the man being a sort of instrument or agent 
 of the spirit. If the older functions of the spirit are called gifts 
 (i Cor. 12''), this newer one may be appropriately designated d^ fruit 
 (Gal. 5--). Paul did not attempt to discredit the older views. He 
 simply showed that there was a more ethical way of viewing the 
 spirit (i Cor. 12^^). As early as the time of the Babylonian captivity 
 the spirit was viewed as partaking of God's holiness (Ps. 51"!^^'^^ Isa. 
 63^"'") ; and Paul, as well as other New Testament writers, but more 
 thoroughly than they, was imbued with the same conception. In 
 accordance with this view the spirit cannot dwell in a corrupt man 
 (i Cor. 3^*^ 6^'"; cf. Eph. 4^^" Heb. lo-"^), nor can it participate in 
 any corrupt conduct (cf. Jas. 4^ Jude ^''). 
 
 Paul, as well as Jesus, uses the figure of birth for the vital trans- 
 formation brought about by the spirit (Gal. 4^), but more often he 
 simply speaks of the life-imparting power of the spirit, or of the life 
 imparted by the spirit (Rom. S"*'" 2 Cor. i^-^-^ Gal. 5-'). The- 
 spirit, however, not only performs the first act of regeneration in the 
 believer ; it continues to be in him a sanctifying power throughout 
 life (Rom. 15^" i Cor. 6" 3^" i Thess. 4* 2 Thess. 2^^ Titus 3' i Pet. 
 I-), and at the end transforms his mortal body into one fitted for his 
 eternal abode (Rom. 8"-''). It helps him to pray (Eph. 6^^ Jude ^) ; 
 in fact, intercedes for him when he does not know what he ought to 
 
 ^^ See Drummond, Commentaries on Thessalonians, Corinthians, Galatians, 
 etc. (International Handbook series). 
 
62 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 ask (Rom. 8-^-^). Thus, the fellowship of the spirit is necessary at 
 all times (2 Cor. 13^""-*^ Phil. 2^ 2 Tim. i" Eph. 6''^). True worship 
 is impossible without it (Phil. 3^ Eph. 5^*). The condition upon 
 which this quickening spirit is bestowed upon man is faith in Christ 
 (Gal. 3"^"5^); but, on the other hand, the spirit produces more 
 faith in the believer (i Cor. 12^ 2 Cor. 4^'^ Gal. 5--). Other fruits 
 produced by the spirit are righteousness, hope, love, joy, peace, long- 
 suffering, kindness, goodness, meekness, and selfcontrol (Rom. 14^^ 
 J ^13. 30 g6 2 Cor. 6^ Gal. 5--^- Col. i« 2 Tim. i'). Since the believer 
 has been renewed by the spirit, his conduct in all things ought to be 
 governed by this same indwelling spirit (Gal. 5-^ Rom. 8^-^-"; cf. 
 I Cor. 7*). And if a man so walk he will not be led astray by his 
 fleshly appetites and impulses (Gal. 5^^--^^ Rom. g***-^-'^). Neither 
 will he be under the bondage of law (Gal. 5'^ 3^). He serves God in 
 a new way made possible by the spirit, not in the old way of legalism 
 (Rom. 7®). His circumcision has been that of the heart by the spirit, 
 not that according to the Mosaic law (Rom. 2-^; cf. 2 Cor. 3'^*'). 
 Thus by continually sowing to the spirit the believer will finally of 
 the spirit reap eternal life (Gal. 6^). We have already considered 
 Paul's view of the spirit as the vital bond which unites Christ and his 
 followers into a single organism. The examples there brought for- 
 ward also illustrate the present usage of irvevixi. It is thus seen that 
 in the great majority of cases in which Paul uses TrvsC/Aa for the spirit 
 of God he gives it this ethical significance. So predominant is the 
 use of the term in this sense that, especially in the Epistle to the 
 Galatians, the term takes on a qualitative sense, which renders un- 
 necessary a qualifying noun or even the article to distinguish its 
 reference. When his Gentile converts in Corijith, possibly in con- 
 sequence of their heathen conception of demons (cf. i Cor. 12-), 
 seemed to be under the impression that they each possessed a sepa- 
 rate spirit of God, Paul devoted a section of his letter (i Cor. 12^") 
 to pointing out to them that they all partook of the o7ie spirit,*** 
 which distributed to each believer the gifts which he possessed. 
 The quantitative conception of the spirit is still held by Paul, as it 
 had been by older Jewish writers."^ And his Gentile pupil, Luke, is 
 
 ^'> It would seem prol^able that sooner or later the Gentile Christians, who had 
 not been educated, as the Jews had, into a conception of the general, non-per- 
 sonal nature of the spirit of God, would come to conceive it as having a person- 
 ality separate from God. 
 
 ^^ Even in the benediction 2 Cor. i3i"[i'*l there is little indication of a recog- 
 nition by Paul of the separate personality of the spirit. For in the first place. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF Pll"! AND OF Ttvevfxa. 6t, 
 
 constantly using the phrase " filled with the spirit." There is but 
 one passage in the New Testament which seems with any degree of 
 probability to indicate a tendency toward the conception of the sep- 
 arate personality of the spirit. This is the baptismal formula in the 
 closing chapter of Matthew (28''-'). As we saw above, the date of 
 this passage is uncertain ; and, furthermore, Deissmann "'- has shown 
 quite conclusively, from Greek papyri, that the phrase " into the 
 name" (eis to ovofxa) means "belonging to." The baptism of the 
 believer into the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit would 
 thus mean into the possession of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit ; 
 and since the believer was always thought of as possessed by the 
 Holy Spirit, this would not yet be clear evidence of a belief in the 
 separate personality (apart from God) of the spirit. 
 
 b) For the human spirit (i.e. the spirit of the living man). 
 
 (i) The seat or soiiixe of strong excitement, aroused activity {or 
 corresponding depression), and in a very few cases of anger or impa- 
 tience. This, one of the oldest meanings of 1111, was transferred 
 directly to irvevfxa by the Greek-speaking Jews. The characteristic 
 note anger, however, has almost wholly disappeared (cf. John 11^ 
 Acts I y^''). Jesus tells his disciples that the spirit is willing (eager, 
 ready) but the flesh is weak (Matt. 26^^ Mark 14"*). According to 
 the gospel of Mark, it is said that he sighed deeply in his spirit ^ 
 (8^-) ; and according to John, that he groaned (literally was moved 
 with indignation) in spirit and was troubled (John 11^ 13"^)- Paul 
 sometimes speaks of his spirit (or that of Titus) being refreshed 
 (rested or relaxed) upon receiving some good news from or concern- 
 ing his churches (i Cor. 16'* 2 Cor. 2" 7'^^; cf. 7^ and Philem.'*'). 
 His spirit was irritated (aroused to anger) when he beheld the city 
 full of idols (Acts 1 7^*^). It is said of Apollos that he was fervent 
 (^eW, boiling) in the spirit (Acts 18-^) ; and Paul exhorts the church 
 at Rome to be fervent in spirit in their service of the Lord (Rom. 
 12^'). It is probably in this sense that Paul uses the word in the 
 
 though naming the three in succession, he does not give them in the order, nor 
 does he use the customary terms (" Father, Son, and Spirit ") of the trinitarian 
 formula; and in the second place, the function which he ascribes to each is that 
 which is characteristic with him, viz., the "grace of the Lord Jesus, the love of 
 God, and the fellozuship of the Holy Spirit " (on the latter cf. Phil. 2I). 
 
 6- Bible Studies (Eng. trans.), pp. 146-148, 196-198; see also Bernard in the 
 Expositor, January, 1902, p. 43. 
 
 ^'^ Observe the use of the article, but not the preposition iv, as in the case of 
 the spirit of God (see footnote 51). This seems to be the customary form when 
 the human spirit is referred to. See the other passages under this head. 
 
64 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 phrase " whom I serve in my spirit," when he calls God to witness 
 how unceasingly he has prayed for them (Rom. i^ ; cf. Acts 26^ 
 Rom. 7^ 2 Tim. i''). 
 
 (2) The seat of humility. This meaning has also been transferred 
 from nil to irvevfj-a, though the former term was not used in this 
 sense before the Babylonian exile. There are but few examples in 
 the New Testament. Paul asks the Corinthian church whether he 
 should come to them in love and a spirit of meekness (i Cor. 4-'). 
 He tells the Galatians to restore an erring brother in a spirit of 
 meekness (Gal. 6^). The author of i Peter exhorts believers to 
 have a meek and quiet spirit (i Pet. 3''); and Jesus in one of 
 the beatitudes says, " Blessed are the poor in the (their) spirit " 
 (Matt. 5=^)." 
 
 (3) As the seat and source of thoughts a?id purposes, sometimes 
 used of mind in the broad sense in which that ter-m is used to-day, viz., 
 of the total psychic life. Paul is almost the sole New Testament 
 writer who employs the word in this sense, and the others who do so 
 were probably under his influence. Since Philo is the only writer 
 prior to Paul who uses irvevixa with this meaning, it is possible that 
 the latter was under the direct influence of the former. There is, 
 however, no clear evidence of this ; hence it is more probable that 
 the influence came through a school of writers of whom Philo and 
 the author of the Wisdom of Solomon were only two leading repre- 
 sentatives. We have already seen that Paul, like these writers, views 
 the spirit of God as the bearer of wisdom and knowledge to man. 
 Hence it is not strange that he should develop the meanings of 
 TTvtvfia on the human side in the same direction, especially since he 
 could not (as Philo could) use the term ipvx^j (soul) in the full clas- 
 sical sense of mind. The Jewish usage of this term was much too 
 narrow for that. 
 
 In comparing the divine spirit with the human spirit, Paul defines 
 the latter as the seat of self-consciousness or self-knowledge (i Cor. 
 2^^). That it is in some sense synonymous with the Greek term vov<; 
 is clear from the way in which he relates the terms " spirit of the 
 Lord " and "mind of the Lord" (cf. i Cor. 2'"* with 2^'^ and Rom. ii-^). 
 A similar conception of the human spirit is expressed in Rom. S^*', 
 where it is said that the spirit of God bears witness with our spirit 
 that we are children of God. In several passages man is referred to 
 
 ^* Observe that the article is used with irvevfia, and cf. footnote 51. That this 
 is the correct interpretation of the passage is also clear from a comparison with 
 Matt. 1 83-^. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF W"! AND OF TTvevfj-a. 65 
 
 as spirit and body. Paul tells his followers he is with them in spirit 
 (thoughts, purposes, affections), though absent from them in body 
 (i Cor. 5^-^ Col. 2^). A believer is to be pure in body and spirit 
 (i Cor. 7^^ 2 Cor. 7^). He is to put off the old man and be renewed 
 in the spirit (thoughts and purposes) of his mind [vo?s] (Eph. 4^''; cf. 
 Rom. 12-2 Cor. 4"^ Col. 3^"). Because of sin the body is dead {i.e. 
 cannot expect to enter heaven), but the spirit is alive because of the 
 righteousness which it possesses (Rom. 8^"). Paul advises that the 
 Corinthian fornicator be delivered over to Satan for the destruction 
 of the flesh,*"^ in order that the spirit may be ready for salvation (i.e. 
 may be righteous) when Jesus comes. His prayer for the Thessa- 
 lonian church is that the God of peace might sanctify them wholly, 
 and that their spirit and soul and body might be preserved entire 
 and without blame until the cdming of the Lord Jesus Christ. In 
 I Tim. 3^® Jesus is said to have been declared righteous in spirit.^ 
 So anxious is Paul concerning the welfare of the spirit of those to 
 whom he writes that he closes several of his letters with the bene- 
 diction, " The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with your spirit, 
 brethren " (Gal. 6'* Phil. 4-^ 2 Tim. 4-- Philem. 25). Paul seems to 
 have been led to this enlarged usage of -n-vevfia for the human spirit 
 by a feeling of need for a wider term than any in vogue to express 
 the whole psychic life of man, especially of such a man as had been 
 renewed by the spirit of God.*^^ An evidence of this is seen in his 
 use of such phrases as " the inner man " (Rom. 7" 2 Cor. 4^*^ Eph. 
 3^«), and " the new man " (Eph. 4-* Col. 3^'^). 
 
 In this use of irvtvixa Paul is followed by very {q\v writers. There 
 are two or three examples in Luke's writings and one in Mark's. 
 The child Jesus is said to have grown and waxed strong in spirit 
 (Luke I*"; cf. 2^"). Mary rejoiced in spirit (Luke i*^), and Paul 
 purposed in the spirit (Acts 19-^; cf. Luke 1^). In the gospel of 
 Mark, Jesus is said to have perceived in his spirit what the scribes 
 were reasoning about (Mark 2^ ; cf. 5'^ Luke 5-^ John C'^'). These 
 constitute the remaining New Testament examples. The only one 
 of the Apostolic Fathers to adopt this usage of Paul is Ignatius, and 
 the latter is far from employing it with the same clear-cut meaning 
 as the former. 
 
 6S (Tap^, since it is conceived by Paul to be the seat of the baser animal pas- 
 sions, is often used by metonymy for those passions. 
 
 ®® Since iv irveunaTi is the form, this may mean " by the spirit," referring to 
 the divine spirit. Cf. footnote 51. 
 
 ^' Such terms as vous, ^vxVi and Kapdla expressed it only in separate phases. 
 
66 JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 c) For unembodied or disembodied spirits. 
 
 (i) Divine and afigelic beings capable of existence without a 
 physical body. The writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews speaks 
 of the angels as ministering spirits (Heb. i"; cf. i'^),'^ and the author 
 of the Apocalypse, as spirits who stand before the throne (Rev. i* 
 3^ 4^ 5^). Paul calls Jesus in his risen state a spirit, though in this 
 case he clearly implies that Christ has a glorified body (i Cor. 15'''). 
 In the description of Jesus which he gives in the first chapter of 
 Romans (i^' ■*), Paul characterizes him as born son of David accord- 
 ing to the flesh {i.e. according to human kinship or relationship), but 
 constituted son of God with power by the resurrection from the dead 
 according to spirit of holiness {i.e. according to his spiritual relation- 
 ship). Thus in this passage, 7n/eS/xa seems to be a general desig- 
 nation for the divine heavenly or holy beings among whom Jesus is 
 now the highest personage. When, in John 4-'', God is said to be 
 spirit, irvtvixa may denote nothing more than that God is not physi- 
 cally embodied. See, however, under " spirit of God " for another 
 interpretation. 
 
 (2) Demons., or evil spirits, non-embodied, i.e. having no proper 
 bodies of their own, but often conceived as inhabiting the bodies of living 
 persons. The demons described in the synoptic gospels and the 
 Book of Acts are usually regarded as the cause of physical disease or 
 of mental derangement."^ Paul does not use the term -n-vevfxa in this 
 sense. The evil spirits of which he speaks have an influence upon 
 the morals of the people over whom they gain control. Thus, he 
 says, the Gentiles walked according to the course of this world, 
 according to the prince of the power of the air, of the spirit that now 
 worketh in the children of disobedience (Eph. 2'). Evidently re- 
 ferring to the same spirit he tells his converts that they have not 
 received the spirit of the world (i Cor. 2^-), nor the spirit of bondage 
 (Rom. 8^^; cf. 11*), nor the spirit of fearfulness (2 Tim. i').™ 
 The false prophets are regarded as being possessed by evil spirits 
 (i John 4^-^''; cf. i Cor. 12'"). In a couple of passages, Luke uses 
 Trvevfm of disembodied beings without saying anything about their 
 character (Luke 24^""^^; Acts 23*-^). 
 
 ^8 The spirits mentioned in 12^ are probably angels. See footnote 23. 
 eniatt. 816 loi i2«.45 Mark 123.20.27 3II.30 52.8.1.3 (,7 725 9I-.20.23 Lu^g 488.36 
 
 618 721 82. 29 g39. 42 io20ii24.26 l3nActS5lC 8'^ 16I6I8 19I2. L5. 16 Rgy. l613- » I S". 
 
 ™ Since the spirit mentioned in these passages is in every case contrasted with 
 the Holy Spirit, and since it is also implied that it comes upon men from with- 
 out, it is quite evident that the word wvevfj.a cannot here refer to the human 
 spirit. 
 
SCHOEMAKER : THE USE OF HI"! AND OF irvCVfJiCL. 67 
 
 (3) Fo>- disctnbodicd human spirits. This usage occurs but seldom. 
 The common word for this in the New Testament, as well as else- 
 where, is ^v)(rj (soul). When Trvei'/u-a is used in this sense it is clearly 
 a synonym of i/'ux*?. Thus the author of i Peter, under the direct 
 influence of the Book of Enoch, speaks of the spirits in prison unto 
 whom Jesus went in spirit {i.e. in a disembodied state) to preach 
 the gospel (i Pet. 3^*-^''* 4"). The spirits of just ones made perfect, 
 spoken of in the Book of Hebrews, are probably human spirits (12-^). 
 Luke also seems to use Trvev/Aa in this sense, but apparently for 
 another reason than that of the former writers. They called the 
 souls of dead persons spirits because they possessed no physical 
 bodies ; he, under the influence of Paul, conceived of the spirit as 
 departing from the body (Luke 8^ 23*^ Acts 7^^). Paul himself 
 does not use the term of dead persons (except of Jesus), but from 
 the way in which he uses it of living persons there can be Uttle doubt 
 as to his willingness to do so on occasion (cf. i Cor. 5^ Rom. 8'"). 
 There is but one clear case of this use in the Apostolic Fathers 
 (Shepherd of Hermas, Visions i, 2, 4). This usage does not seem to 
 have become popular until much later. The word ^v)(y] (soul) was 
 too commonly used to be easily displaced. 
 
VITA. 
 
 I, William Ross Schoemaker, was born on the fourth day of Sep- 
 tember, 1863, in Muscatine County, State of Iowa. My common 
 school education was received in the public schools of that county, 
 and in the spring of 1886 I entered the Iowa State College (Ames, 
 la,). From that college, in the autumn of 1889, I received the 
 degree of Bachelor of Science, and during the next year was engaged 
 as Assistant in Mathematics at the same institution. In the fall of 
 1890, I matriculated as a graduate student in mathematics and 
 physics in Cornell University (Ithaca, N.Y.). In January, 1892, 
 I received the appointment of Instructor in Mathematics at Cornell 
 University, which position I retained until 1894. In October of 
 that year I matriculated as a student in the Divinity School of the 
 University of Chicago, where I continued my studies until the 
 autumn of 1902. My work while there consisted of the regular 
 three years' course in the Graduate Divinity School (for which I 
 was granted the degree of Bachelor of Divinity), and special work 
 in the departments of Systematic and Biblical Theology. In this 
 latter work I am especially indebted to Professors George B. Foster 
 and Ernest D. Burton for their direction and oversight. 
 
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