PEACE HANDBOOKS VOL.1 AUSTRIA- HUNGARY PART 1 I920 THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES PEACE HANDBOOKS Issued by the Historical Section of tlie Foreign Office • VOL. I AUSTKIA-HUNGAEY Part I 1. HISTORY OP AUSTRIA HISTORY OF HUNGARY FOREIGN POLICY OF AUSTRIA- HUNGARY 2. BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA 3. SLOVAKIA 4. AUSTRIAN SILESIA 5. BUKOVINA 6. TRANSYLVANIA AND THE BANAT 7. HUNGARIAN RUTHENIA f LONDON : H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE 1920 D G 1 1p Editorial Note. / / In the spring of 11)17 the I'uicign Ollicc, in comiection with the i)repai'ation which they were making for the work of the Peace Conference, estahlished a special section whose duty it should be to provide the British Delegates to the Peace Conference with information in the most convenient form — geographical, economic, historical, social, religious and political — respecting the difierent countries, districts, islands, &c., with which they might liave to deal. In addition, volumes were prepared on certain general subjects, mostly of an historical nature, concerning which it appeared that a special study would be useful. The historical information was compiled by trained writers on historical subjects, who (in most cases) gave their services without any remuneration. For the geographical sections valuable assistance was given by the Intelligence Division (N^val Staff) of the Admiralty ; and for the economic sections, by the War Trade Intelligence Depart- ment, which had been established by the Foreign Office. Of the maps accompanying the series, some were prepared by the above-mentioned department of the Admiralty, but the bulk of them were the work of the Cireographical Section of the General Staff (Military Intelligence Division) of the War Office. Now that the Conference has nearly completed its task, the Foreign Office, in response to numerous enquiries and S'cquests, has decided to issue the books for public use, Relieving that they will be useful to students of history, g;)olitics, economics and foreign affairs, to publicists generally ^■Jind to business men and travellers. It is hardly necessary -lo say that some of the subjects dealt with in the series have ^lot in fact come under discussion at the Peace Conference ; but, as the books treating of them contain valuable information, it has been . thought advisable to include them. Wt. 36998/251 PS. 727 60^ Vay^^fcVft-j ta8a7f^ It nnist be understood that, although the series of vohimes was prepared under the authority, and is now- issued with the sanction, of the Foreign Office, that Office is not to be regarded as guaranteeing the accuracy of every statement which they contain or as identifying itself with all the opinions expressed in the several volumes ; the books were not prepared in tlie Foreign OHice itself, but are in the nature of information provided for the Foreign Office and the British Delegation. Tlie books are now published, with a few exceptions, substantially as they were issued for tlie use of the Delegates. No attempt has l»een made to bring them up to date, for, in the first place, such a process would have entailed a great loss of time and a prohibitive expense ; and, in the second, the political and other conditions of a great part of Europe anil of the Nearer and MidiUe East are still unsettled and in su(;h a slate of flux th^t any attemJDt to describe them would have been incorrect or misleading. The books are therefore to be taken as describing, in general ante-belhim, conditions, thougli in a few cases, where it seemed specially desirable, the account has l)een brought down to a later date. G. W. PEOTHERO, General Editor and formerly Jail vary 1 920. Director of the Historical Section. HANDBOOKS PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE HISTORICAL SECTION OF THE FOREIGN OFFICE.~No. 1 AUSTRIA HUNGARY FOREIGN POLICY OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY LONDON : PUBLISHED BY H. M. STATIONERY OFFICE. 1920 Wo. l] TABLE OF CONTENTS AUSTRIA I. POLITICAL HISTORY Chronological Summary Prime Ministers from 1867 PAGE 1 2 Austrian Domestic History General Sketch, {a) BEFORE 1867 (1) The Pragmatic Sanction. (2) Josephism (3) Francis II . . . (4) The Bach Period and after (5) The Ausgleich (6) The Austrian Constitution (6) Austrian Domestic History since 1867 (7) The Potocki and Hohenwart Ministries (8) The Auersperg Liberal Ministry (1871-9) (9) The Universal Suffrage Movement . (10) Later Administrations (1906-16) 10 10 11 12 II. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS (1) Religious ....... (2) Political (a) Form, Character, and Methods. of Govern- ment The Executive The Legislature (6) PoUtical Parties The Social Democratic Party . The Christian Sociahsts . The Deutschnationalverband . (3) Educational ..... General Observations (a) PubUc Opinion (6) The Language Question . AUTHORITIES and MAPS . . . 14 16 16 17 19 21 22 23 24 25 28 Wt. 36998/25L 1,000. 2/20. O.U.P. TABLE OF CONTENTS [No. HUNGARY I. POLITICAL HISTORY Chronological Summary . PAGE 30 General Sketch of Domestic History (1) Domestic History to 1867 (2) Origins ..... 30 The Golden BuU .... 31 The German Plantation 32 The Mediaeval Kings . 32 The Tm-kish Conquest . 34 The Struggles for Emancipation and Toleration 34 The Serbs and Germans of Southern Hungary 35 The Reign of Joseph II . . . 36 The National Movement 37 The Revolution and Laws of 1848 . . 38 The Ausgleichof 1867 . 40 Domestic History since 1 867 The Law of NationaUties 41 Forcible Magyarisation 42 The Crisis of 1904-5 . 44 The Wekerle Ministry . . 44 The Tisza Administrations . 46 II. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS (11 ReHgious The CathoUc Church . The Orthodox Church . The Protestant Churches (2) PoHtical ; Form, Character, (government Legislature . Executive . (3) Educational . and Methods of 48 48 49 49 49 60 60 AUTHORITIES and MAPS 63 ITo. 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREIGN POLICY OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY PAGE Chronological Summary . ..... 59 Austrian Foreign Ministers from 1792 . . . . 60 (1) Leading Motives in the Foreign PoHcy of the Habsburgs ...... 60 (2) The Basis of Austrian Foreign Policy . . 61 (a) In the East 61 (b) In the West 63 (3) The Napoleonic Interlude and the Holy Alliance 63 (4) The Revolution of 1848 and its Consequences in regard to Foreign Policy .... 64 (5) The Conflict with Prussia in Germany . . 66 (6) The Drang imch Osten ..... 68 (a) The Black Sea Project .... 68 (&) The Salonika Project ; the Occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina .... 72 (7) Andrassy's Administration ; the Triple Alliance 75 (8) Austro-Russian Relations, 1881-1906; theMuerz- steg Programme . . . . .77 (9) Aehrenthal's Administration ; the Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina . . . . .81 (10) Berchtold's Administration .... 86 AUTHORITIES 90 APPENDIX I. Austrian Fundamental Laws . . . .91 II. The Hungarian Law of Nationahties, 1868 . .115 III. The Austro-GermanAlhance, 1879 . . . 120 IV. Partial Text of the Triple Alliance, 1882 . . 122 V. Partial Text of Reinsurance Treaty, 1887 , ,123 AUSTRIA I. POLITICAL HISTORY Chronological Summary SHOWING THE HISTORICAL GROWTH OF AuSTRIA- HUNGARY 768-814. The ' Ostmark ' of Charlemagne : a defence against the Barbarians, c. 950. The Mark reconstituted by Otto I as barrier against Magyars. 1156. Under Frederick Barbarossa it becomes a Duchy ; extends from Passau to River Leitha, and includes the region between Inn and Enns. 1192. The Austrian Duke inherits Stjrria and Upper Austria. 1229. Carniola acquired from Bishop of Freising. 1246. On extinction of Babenberg line of Dukes, Austria reverts to Emperor Frederick II. 1253. Ottokar, King of Bohemia, succeeds to the Duchy and acquires Carinthia. 1278. On death of Ottokar, Duchies of Austria and Styria pass to Rudolph of Habsburg. 1363. Tirol incorporated with Austria by family arrangement. 1382. Trieste included at its own request. c. 1450. The elective Imperial Crown virtually becomes heredi- tary in the House of Habsburg. 1440-93. Emperor Frederick III. Invasions of Ottoman Turks. 1438. Albert II. Hungary and Bohemia temporarily united with Austria. 1453. Austria becomes an Archduchy. 1493-1519. Maximilian I consolidates liis western dominions — Austria, Styria, Carniola, Carinthia, Tirol, Fiume, and Trieste — and by inheritance acquires Gorizia and Gradisca. 1526. The Archduke Ferdinand claims the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary in right of his wife, on death of King Louis. The Estates of Hungary and Bohemia acknowledge the claim, but reserve their independence. 1556. Ferdinand succeeds Charles V. Union of Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia with the Imperial Crown. 1619. Accession of Ferdinand II, leader of the Catholic Re- action. Revolt of Bohemia. 2 HISTORY [Ko. 1 162C. Bohemia acknowledges legislative and administrative authority of Austria and becomes part of the here- ditary dominions. 1657-1705. Attempt of Leopold I to centralize all administra- tion successfully resisted by Hungary, which secures religious freedom (Diet of Edensberg). 1699. Peace of Carlowitz : Austria regains the lost lands of Croatia, Slavonia, Hungary, and Transylvania. 1711-40. Charles VI. Prince Eugene completes work of re- conquest from the Turk and recovers the Banat of Temesvar with Belgrade and north of Serbia. 1718. Treaty of Passarowitz. 1724. Pragmatic Sanction proclaimed at Vienna. 1772. At partition of Poland, Austria obtains Galicia, which becomes a Crown land under title of Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. 1777. Under pressure Turkey cedes Bukovina to Austria. 1805. The Emperor Francis II takes the title of Emperor of Austria, and resigns that of Holy Roman Emperor (1806) 1815. At Treaty of Vienna, Austria surrenders the Netherlands and obtains territories of the Venetian Republic. 1846. By arrangement with Russia and Prussia, Cracow (held by Austria 1795-1809) is recovered. 1860. (Oct. 20) The October Charter or Diploma granted. 1861. (Feb.) The 'Patent' re-establishes centralized adminis- tration . 1866. Austria loses Venice, but retains Istria and Dalmatia, together with Ragusa. 1867. The Ausgleich or Compromise. 1878. Treaty of Berlin makes Austria administrator of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 1908. Austria annexes these territories without reference to the Signatory Powers. Prime Ministers from 1867 1867. Count Taaffe. 1867 (December). Prince Carl Wilhelm Auersperg. 1868. Count Taaffe. 1870. Count Hasner. 1870 (April). Count Potocki. 1871. Count Hohenwart. 1871 (November). Prince Adolf Auersperg. 1879. Count Taaffe. 1893. Prince Alfred Windischgratz. 1895. Count Kielmansegg* Austria] PRIME MINISTERS FROM 1867 3 1895 (October). Count Badeni. 1897. Baron Gautsch. 1898. Count Thun. 1899. Count Clary. 1899 (December). Count von Wittek. 1900. Dr. Ernst von Korber. 1905. Baron Gautsch. 1906. Prince Hohenlohe. 1906 (May). Baron von Beck. 1908. Baron von Bienerth. 1911. Baron Gautsch . 1911. Count Stuergkh. 1916. Dr. Ernst von Korber. General Sketch, (a) Austrian Domestic History BEFORE 1867 (1) The Pragmatic Sanction The Pragmatic Sanction (firstpublished in 1712-13 and promulgated as law in 1724) may be taken as the start- ing-point of any sketch of Austrian domestic history. It was the outcome of the fact that the Emperor Charles VI had no son and of the belief that the Habs- burg territories could not be held together in the hands of a woman unless the dynastic link were strengthened by what may be reckoned in effect as a first step towards federalism. In its first article it affirmed that Austria was an indivisible unit ; and this was ultimately of more consequence than the two more famous articles of succession which, in default of male heirs, settled the Austrian inheritance upon the Emperor's daughter, Maria Theresa. Charles VI spent his best energies in getting the Pragmatic Sanction accepted by the different Estates of Austria and by the States of Europe. The acceptance proved of value in the first case, but not in the second. Maria Theresa was recognized by her subjects, but she had to fight with France and Prussia to keep them. With her reign, therefore, Austria came to self-consciousness, at any rate in a fuller sense than when it opposed the Turks as the champion of Christendom ; ^ and her domestic policy ^ The first use of the term ' Austrian Monarchy ' to designate the collection of Habsburg estates occurs in connexion with the B 2 4 HISTORY [No.i responded to the new conditions by increasing cen- tralization. The centripetal process began in 1749 with the absorption of the Austrian and Bohemian Chanceries into a directory of the Interior, or, as it was subsequently called, the United Chancery of the Imperial and Royal Court. A Council of State to supervise the general administrative policy of the Cis-Leithan provinces followed in 1760. Local ad- ministration, which had furnished examples both of mediaeval feudalism and advanced democracy, was co-ordinated by the establishment of a body of local magistrates. The substitution of the State for the clergy as the educational authority, the establishment of primary schools, the removal of feudal burdens, the introduction of conscription and of a uniform fiscal system, from which Hungary was excluded, were all steps in the same direction. (2) JOSEPHISM Joseph II (1780-90) followed his mother's policy, but in a doctrinaire spirit. He was, least of all men, fitted to govern the Habsburg territories, for his idol was symmetry, and symmetry was impossible in his dominions. 'Josephism', implying ubiquitous state control in j^l^ce of local autonomy and ecclesiastical privilege, was illustrated in the compulsory use of the German language for official i^urposes in Hungary and Bohemia and in a uniform system of taxation. Calculated to alienate many classes of his subjects, this policy of centralization was abandoned by his brother and successor, Leoj^old II, but not before it had sown the seed of the Czech and Magyar national movements. (3) Francis II The reign of Francis II (1792-1835) is notable for his adoption in 1805, when the Holy Roman Empire was finally disappearing, of the title of Emperor I^ragmatic Sanction. Eiscnmann, Louis, Le Compromis austro- hongrois, p. 21 ; H.l. Bidermann, Gesch.d. osterreichischen Gesammt- Slaais-Idec, ii. 257. Austria] FRANCI8 II 5. of Austria. Modern Austria, therefore, dates techni- cally from the Pragmatic Patent of this year. The Emperor held to his new title when Europe was reconstituted in 1815, and entered the Germanic Confederation as its President. The decision to main- tain his interest in Germany, and to perpetuate the Imperial traditions of his House, was momentous. In order to obtain a preponderant weight in the counsels of the Confederation, it became important that he should increase by every means the German element in his dominions. The effect of this was to lead the Austrian Government to try to Germanize the Austrian Slavs, and to divert it from the pursuit of a purely Austrian policy. The Emperor, both from experience and education, was a kindly but uncompromising despot ; and Metter- nich, the Imperial Chancellor, stood in his day for the j^ersonification of an absolutist minister. The Austrian Constitution consisted in an omnipotent State Confer- ence, which contained two archdukes, and the two Chancellors, Metternich and Kolowrat, the one respon- sible for foreign and the other for domestic affairs. Beneath them there lay a bureaucracy and Provincial Estates, which the Emperor dismissed like naught}^ children if they disclosed a will of their own. Against this S3^stem, and the suppression of civil and religious liberty which it involved, the Revolution of 1848 was a fierce protest. Metternich fell almost without a struggle, and the Emperor then granted the liberties he dared not refuse. A Diet from the non-Hungarian territories of the Empire was eventually assembled at Vienna to decide upon a Constitution. There were three possible solutions of the constitutional problem in Austria — centralization, federalism, and dualism. The Diet worked out a scheme on the federal principle. The Government had its reasons for preferring a cen- tralized system. The German Constitution haj)pened to be at the moment in the melting-pot, for the Frank- fort Parliament had begun to sit. Federalism in Austria would logically have led to the exclusion of the Austrian provinces from the Germanic Confederation. While 6 HISTORY [No.i the Diet debated, the Imperial Generals retrieved the situation for their master. Felix Schwarzenberg, a minister of cool calculation and iron resolve, was placed in power. The Emperor Ferdinand resigned in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph. The Assembly was dissolved. A new Constitution, granted by Imperial decree on March 4, 1849, proclaimed the Austrian Empire indivisible, established the theoretical equality of the various j)rovinces, and reduced their Diets to the level of local councils. The grant of freedom of the press and of religious belief thinly veiled the resumption of autocratic power by the Emperor. On January 1, 1852, the emasculated Constitution was withdrawn without further pretence. The simultaneous revolutionary movement in Hun- gary, which is associated with the name of Kossuth, met with a similar rebuff, the Jugo-Slavs and R-ussia lending their aid to suppress it. Hungary was deprived of its Constitution as well as of its independence, and fell for a time under direct Austrian control. (4) The Bach Period and after The decade (1849-59) which followed has received the descriptive title of Bach's period. Bach had seceded from Liberalism to Autocracy ; and his policy, as Minister of the Interior, consisted in centralizing and ' Germanizing ' the Austrian dominions. The defeat of Austria at the hands of France and Italy in 1859 brought this regime to a close. Attacked on all sides, Bach fell, and his system with him. Once more the Austrian Government stood at tlie crossways, and had to decide between a federal and a centralized Constitution. Tlje ' Octolx'f Cliarter', or Diploma, which apj^eared on October 20, 1860, was conceived on federal lines; but it was the federalism of 1847 — a triumph rather for tlic ()](] Aristocracy tlian for the new spirit of Nationality. It jcstored the local institutions preva- lent before 1848, but ignored the constitutional con- cessions of that yeai'. This Avas fatal to its success in Hungary, whci-e the laws of 1848 were I'cgarded as Austria] THE BACH PERIOD 7 a charter of liberties. Discontent and passive resistance produced administrative anarchy. The Emperor veered round and 2:)ut himself in the hands of the centralizers. The result was the Patent of 1861. The chief features of this Constitution were an Imj)erial Diet, empowered to raise taxes and 2)ass legislation, and Provincial Diets charged with the election of members to the Imperial Diet. It was claimed for the new Constitution that it secured the representation of all the interests of the Empire in j^i'oportion to their importance. The representation was not, however, based on numbers, and was so regulated as to secure a constant majority for the German element in the population. Under the apf)earance of constitutional reform the bureaucracy was reinstated ; the representative body was not a Parliament but an Imperial Council, the organ of an absolute administration which was secured by the alliance of the Government with the Austro- German upper and middle classes. Foreign policy and the control of military affairs were outside the range of the Reichsrat and reserved for the Ministers and the Court. The scheme, which was universally accepted in Austria, outraged Hungarian national pride, and produced determined resistance in that country. The disastrous defeat of Austria at the battle of Sadowa (1866) gave Hungary a fresh opportunity to assert its independence ; and Deak, the Hungarian leader, pressed his case with great moderation. The Emperor gave way ; and the principle of Dualism — the third possible solution of the Austrian problem — was adopted in the Ausgleich, or Compromise, of 1867. This scheme was negotiated by Beust, Deak, and Julius Andrassy, the first being resi^onsible for Austrian, the two latter for Hungarian interests. The fall from power of Belcredi, the opj)onent of Dualism and the champion of the Slavs, was significant of the fact that the German and Mag}- ar races of the Empire had come to terms at the expense of the Slavs. The Germans were to dominate Austria, the Magyars Hungary ; and injustice to the other nationalities became almost a i^rinciple of government. 8 HISTORY [N0.1 (5) The Ausgleich ' Dualism ' was precisely a compromise. The King- dom of Hungar}'^, unlike that of Bohemia or Croatia, was placed on a par with the Cis-Leithan dominions of the Empire of Austria, which now received recognition as a separate State. ^ Hungary was in other words admitted to federal, or more than federal, privileges which were denied to the other and more loyal Habsburg territories. In this anomalous fashion arose the Dual Monarchy, between whose members the River Leitha is assumed to form a boundary line. At the basis of the Ausgleich is the recognition of three common services — foreign policy, finance, and war. A minister common to both countries is appointed to control each of these three departments, and is made responsible to the Delegations, or Im23erial Representative Assembly elected annually by the two Parliaments of Austria and Hungary. Other matters of common interest are arranged either between the Austrian and Hungarian Cabinets or by special deputations ; and the legislation necessary to give effect to their decisions is passed by each Parliament separately. The Delegations have worked tolerably well, though it seems certain that the policy of the Triple Alliance would not have been endorsed by the Austrian people, as it was only sustained in the Delegations by the aid of the delegates from the Upper House. The Austrian Constitution has worked ill. (6) The Austrian Constitution The Patent of 1861 which, with some modifications, formed the basis of the Constitution of 1867, had set up in Austria a Parliament (Keichsrat) consisting of two Chambers, the members of the Upper determined by heredity, merit, or office, those of the Lower selected by the Provincial Diets (Landtage). These local assemblies were elected on a register which, under the curial arrange- ment, gave unequal representation to different nation- alities and U) different class interests. The curiae ^ Eisenmann, Louis, Le Compromis ausiro-hongrois, p. 494. Austria] THE AUSTRIAN CONSTTTUTTON 9 represented four elements — the cities, rural districts, chambers of commerce, and great landowners. This system of indirect election lasted until 1873, when the prmciple of direct election was introduced, though the curial basis remained ; further changes in 1882 and 1896 prepared the way for universal suffrage, which was carried in 1907. A lasting source of friction was the effective supersession at the Emperor's will of the Reichsrat's legislative powers, by the provisions of Article 13 of the Patent (or, as it subsequently became. Article 14 of the Ausgleich), which enabled the Cabinet in cases of urgency, when Parliament was not sitting, to legislate by imperial decree. Legislation passed under this rule might not, however, impose a permanent charge on State revenues, alienate national property, or alter constitutional law, and must, to retain its force, be submitted to Parliament within four weeks of its next meeting and be approved by one of the two Chambers. Thus the Emperor, empowered to dissolve or adjourn Parliament and to nominate and direct the executive, retained a large measure of sovereign power, with but slight limitations, of which the chief was, perhaps, the obligation to summon Parliament annually. It was also his duty to take an oath, on his accession, to maintain the Constitution, but should he omit this guarantee there was no provision for enforcing it. In fact, as will be seen, the unscrupulous application of the law produced m practice something like absolutism. (b) Austrian Domestic History since 1867 The domestic history of Austria and of Hungary between 1867 and 1914 is a commentary on the issues which have been indicated in the preceding pages — the rivalry between the two monarchies ; the legislative authority to be enjoyed by the Government in the absence of Parliament ; above all, the question of the subject races ; and, intimately connected with this, the questions of suffrage extension and federalism. Minis- tries were almost always challenged to deal with one 10 HISTORY [N0.1 or other of these matters in some form or shape, and were constantly wrecked upon their attempts to do so. The German element in Austria, unduly powerful at the polls, could rely, not only upon the moral support of the Magyars, but upon that of the newly-created German Empire. This influence was a permanent factor with which all Premiers, however equitably minded, had to reckon. It would be oub of place to trace in detail the fortunes of the various administra- tions; only the principal men and measures can be indicated. (7) The Potocki and Hohenwart Ministries Potocki in 1870 was the first to define a conciliatory nationalist and federalist policy. He wanted a Reichs- rat chosen by direct election, an Upper Chamber chosen by the provincial diets, and a measure of local autonomy. He pleased neither side in the controversy. The Slavs criticized what was centralist, the Germans what was federalist in his project ; and he fell almost directly. The Emperor, alarmed at the growth of Pan-German sentiment, decided in 1871 to throw him- self upon a Nationalist, Clerical, and Conservative combination under the leadership of Hohenwart, who proposed a lower franchise, increased autonomy, and equal treatment for the different nationalities. He was defeated rather by the national pride of the Czechs, who would be content to obtain nothing less for Bohemia than the Magyars had obtained for Hungary, than by the opposition of the German Liberals. (8) The Auersperg Liberal Ministry (1871-9) Tlie Emperor then tried a Liberal Administration under Prince Adolf Auersi:>erg, in which the Minister of the Inteiior, i^assor, was the central figure. Various internal reforms were successfully carried out, but once more the question of nationalities brought the ministry to an end. Tlie passage of the Law of 1873 introducing Austria] AUERSPERG LIBERAL MTNLSTRY 11 direct election to the Reichsrat was, however, a check for the Federalists. Under this arrangement the Reichs- rat representatives were elected indej^endently of the diets, and the policy of passive resistance in the diets was, therefore, precluded, whilst a disproportionate increase of representation granted to the municipal and commercial curiae (which were doubled, the rural curia being only augmented by two-thirds) gave a further advantage to the German middle-class element. (9) The Universal Suffrage Movement The balance at the next general election swung the other way. Taaff e's long administration ( 1 879-93) , which owed much to the Premier's perfect acquaintance with parliamentary artifice, rested increasingly on the sup- port of the Catholic centre, the Poles, the Czechs, the Socialists, and the Christian Socialists — in fact all the elements antipathetic to the German Liberals. Although he included at different times Liberal, Conservative, and Nationalist elements in his Cabinets, his main policy was to strengthen the authority of the Emperor and to be above all the ' Minister of the Crown '. His proposal of October 1893 to extend the suffrage to all who could read and write, had a sufficient knowledge of one of the national languages, and could prove a residence of six months in the place where they were employed, showed a larger and more sympathetic vision, and was probably inspired by the Emperor, who, after the disaster of 1866, desired to curtail the Pan-German influences in Austria-Hungary by the elevation of the subject races. Taaff e's jjolicy was, however, unacceptable to the Conservatives of the Right and to the Polish Nationalists as well as to the German Liberals. His administration fell ; and his successor, Badeni (1895-7), carried universal suffrage in an attenuated form by the addition of a fifth curia to the other four (1896). Out of 425 seats, 72 fell to 5,500,000 voters, while the 1,700,000 voters in the privileged curiae held the other 353. This scheme 12 HISTORY [Ho. X naturally afforded no permanent basis of settlement ; and ten years of unrest followed its passage into law. It was during this period that use was first made of Article 14 (legislation by imperial decree) of the Ausgleich. But the attempt of Korber (Prime Minister 1900-4) to govern on non-contentious lines failed entirely. The racial issue, of which the suffrage question was the immediate expression, could not be shelved. Korber fell ; and, a year later, Beck carried universal suffrage. The Electoral Law of 1907 abolished the curiae and gave the right of voting to all Austrians over 24 years of age who were not subject to obvious disqualifica- tions — bankruptcy, criminal conviction, restraint, &c. The rival nationalities problem was met by the creation of racial registers and constituencies, so that election contests lay, not between candidates of rival nationality, but between candidates of the same nationality and rival opinion. The Germans were still the gainers under this system. They were estimated to have 45 per cent, of seats with just over 35 per cent, of population. The Czechs, on the other hand, received 20 per cent, of seats with a population of over 23 per cent. ; the Ruthenians were represented to the amount of just over 6 "per cent, with a population of just over 13 per cent. The effect of the Electoral Law was to mitigate the spirit of nationalism, and to this extent to weld Austria into a more homogeneous State than it had been before. This was shown in the new Reichsrat by the prepon- derance of the economic over the racial parties. The Social Democrats (85) and the Christian Socialists (67) had the largest following ; and it will be necessary later to say a few words about these two imj^ortant factors in Austrian politics. (10) Later Administrations (1906-16) Beck's Ministry of olTicials, which was responsible for the Universal Suffrage Act, was responsible also for the negotiation of tlie decennial commercial Ausgleich with Hungary, wliich is treated of in the economic section. It Austria] LATER ADMINISTRATIONS 13 has been said that Austria bought economic advantages — ^free trade within the Empire, a commercial court of arbitration, &c. — at the price of political concessions in the form of a fuller recognition of Hungarian inde- j)endence ; and the commercial Ausgleich was therefore nicknamed the Compromise of Sej^aration. The other notable feature of Beck's administration was the skilful management of Parliament by backstairs intrigue, as to the ultimate effect of which procedure the Premier showed himself cynically indifferent. The racial conflict in Bohemia proved fatal to his administration ; and in November 1908 he was succeeded by Baron von Bienerth (1908-11), whose Ministry, formed almost entirely from permanent officials, was regarded at first as provisional, though subsequently the inclusion of some members of Parliament gave it a more perma- nent character. Racial feeling did not subside, and parliamentary history consisted mainly in the obstruc- tive tactics of the Slav Nationalists. Finally, on November 26, 1909, a motion to appoint a committee to deal with racial questions and bills involving racial questions was carried with good results. Another bill empowering the President of the Chamber to suppress obstructive motions completed the work, and the session closed in a businesslikefashion. Obstructive tactics were little resorted to during 1910, until in December the Poles suddenly caused a crisis on the canals question, and the Ministry resigned. A reconstructed admmistra- tion and a new Parliament, however, gave no better i^rospects ; and Bienerth finally retired in June 1911. Baron Gautsch's Ministry was not long-lived. Before the end of the year Count Stuergkh had established himself in office with a working majority. He was in power when the war began, and was assassinated (21 Oct. 1916) during its continuance. His administra- tion was characterized by the usual racial agitations, culminating in the crime of Sarajevo ; but these are more conveniently treated in the books dealing separately with the Austro- Hungarian states. FNo, 1 II. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS (1) Religious Austria is predominantiy Catholic. In 1910 the Roman Catholics numbered 22,530,169, the Greek Catholics 3,417,223 ; and there were also 2,235 Armenian Catholics, so that the Papacy had about 26,000,000 adherents out of the total i^o^julation of 28,571,934. Though no new religious orders or societies can even now be established without State sanction, religious toleration in Austria is commonly dated from the Toleration Edict of Josej^h II in 1781 : it was not, however, completely established until the Protestanten- patent of 1861 gave full civil rights to the Protestants. The members of the Orthodox Church in Austria, excluding Bosnia-Herzegovina, numbered some 666,000 in 1910. They are mostty to be found in the Bukovina and Dalmatia and belong partly to the Slav and l)artly to the Vlach race. The Metro]3olitan See is at C^zernowitz. The Orthodox community in Bosnia- Herzegovina in 1910 numbered 825,418. The Lutherans in 1910 numbered 444,307 and the Calvinists 144,379. The Evangelical Church (that is, the Augsburg and Geneva^ Confessions) is under the control of an Imjjcrial Royal Evangelical or Church Council in Vienna. There are 1,313,687 Jews in Austria. The Lippo- A\'aner, a sect of Rumanians and Ruthenes, number 3,270, and are to be found mostly in the Bukovina. Josej)!! li did his best to make the Catholic Church no more tiian a de2)artment of the State ; and it was not until 1849 that it recovered the right to manage its owji affairs and to maintain free intercourse with the Vatican. Its fortunes rose in 1855, when a Concordat Austria] RELIGIOUS 15 gave it largo autliorit}' in educational and matrimonial matters, but fell again after 1867, when education was placed under State control, civil marriage was legalized, and religious bodies placed uj)on an equality. Church property, however, which in Austria is officially estimated to amount at the present day to approxi- mately £34,000,000, remained and remains practically unaffected ; that is to say, the Church continues to j)ossess administrative freedom on condition that an abstract of Church accounts is presented annually to the Government by the ecclesiastical authorities. The proclamation in 1870 of the dogma of Papal Infallibility was, however, made the occasion of a Rescript invalidating the Concordat on the ground that under the dogma its provisions had been rendered violable at the arbitrary will of the Pope ; and in 1874 the Concordat was formally annulled and the respective provinces of Church and State defined. Under this new arrangement the Emperor, in almost every case, appointed to vacant bishojorics. The position of the Catholic Church in Austria was not seriously affected by the Los von Rom Movement, which was started by Sch5nerer in the last decade of the nine- teenth century as an auxiliary to the Pan-German Movement. Schonerer's programme was to ' break the chains which bind us to a Church hostile to Germanism ' ; and Protestant societies countenanced and aided it. It is estimated to have attracted in the first ten years of its existence some seventy thousand converts. Opposition took effective shape in the Societies of St. Boniface and St. Raphael, and in the Christian Socialist party, which was strongly suj^ported by the Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Both these organizations aim at combining sentiments of German nationality with Catholic principles ; but, broadly speaking, the Catholic clergy of Austria tend to sympathize with the Slav national movements and show themselves antipathetic to Germanism, which is distasteful to them on account of its Liberal and Socialist tendencies. The regular clergy — i. e. the 2 16 PRESENT CONDITIONS [no.i religious Orders — in Austria have a bad name. They are very wealthy and their partial subjection to the State, which was one of the achievements of Joseph II, has done them no good. The vigorous efforts of the Vatican have been unsuccessful, at any rate until recently, in procuring any reformation of the pre- vailing laxity in religious houses. An exception to the general condemnation must be made in favour of the Jesuits and the Redemptorists, who are largely responsible for what genuine religious feeling exists. The members of these Orders are, however, mostly drawn from the Catholic parts of Germany. The secular clergy and the Episcopate include a considerable number of j^ersons of good f amity, whose personal characters are above reproach and who discharge their duties conscientiously. But the fact remains that the moral standard in Austria, if measured by the statistics of illegitimate births, is low, these being actually estimated in the case of Carinthia at the figure of 41 per cent. The political influence of the Catholic Church is exercised principally through three organizations : (1) the Christian Socialist Party ; (2) the Catholic School Association, which is designed to oppose secular- ism in the schools ; and (3) the Piusverein, a society formed to subsidize the clerical and Catholic press (c. g. the Beichspost, the Vaterland, the Deutsches Volkshlatt, and the Kronenzeitung) as a counterblast to the active Jewish and anti-clerical organs. (2) Political — {a) Form, Character, and Methods or Government The ExeciUive. — Under the Constitution of 1867 the Dual Monaichy is united by the j^erson of the Emperor- King. His prerogative includes the right to make war and peace, and to exercise the administrative functions of government through ministers, who, though appoint- ed by him, are so far responsible to Parliament that his right of pardon is limited in the case of ministerial Austria] FORM OF GOVERNMENT 17 impeachments. Control of the ministers entrusted with the common services of the Dual Monarchy — War, Foreign Affairs, and Finance — is secured through the Delegations. These two bodies, consisting of sixty members each, chosen by the Austrian and Hungarian Parliaments, two-thirds of them from the Lower and one-third from the Upper House, are summoned by the Emperor alternately to Vienna and Budapest, to vote the common Budget, which they discuss and approve separately, or, in the case of disagreement, vote upon in common but without discussion. The Parliaments can only consider the Budgets from the point of view of the imposition of taxes. The Legislature. — The Austrian Parliament (Reichs- rat) is concerned with all legislative matters relating to the provinces of Austria. The Emperor, at his accession, takes the oath before it to observe the Constitution, which obliges him to summon it annually. He has the power to convoke, adjourn, and dissolve it ; but, in case of dissolution, a general election must be held within six months. The natural life of a Parliament is six years. The Upper House contains, besides members of the Imperial Family : (i) hereditary nobles possessed of large landed estates ; (ii) nine archbishops and eight ]3rince-bisliops ; (iii) life members, not less than 150 or more than 170 in number, nomi- nated by the Emperor for distinguished service and including representatives of art and science. The Lower House is elected by universal male suffrage on the part of Austrian subjects twenty-four years of age, and resident for at least a year in the electoral district concerned, who are not disqualified by bank- ruptcy, crime, tutelage, or the receipt of public relief. Registers are compiled on a nationality basis — Czech, German, or Polish, as the case may be. Candidates, who must be thirty years of age, are by this arrange- ment opposed to one another, not on the score of nationality, but on the score of political opinion. The representation of the different parts of the Empire is thus arranged : 18 PRESENT CONDITIONS [Wo. Bohemia . 130 Dalmatia . 11 Galicia 106 Lower Austria . 64 Upper Austria . 22 Salzburg . 7 Styria 30 Carinthia (Karnten) 10 Carniola (Krain) 12 Bukovina . 14 Moravia , 49 Upper and Lower Sik sia, 15 Tyrol 25 Vorarlberg 4 Istria 6 Gorz and Gradisca 6 Trieste and district 5 516 It is perhaps worth noting that of these deputies less than half are of German nationality. The members of the Lower House in Austria are paid ten florins (I65. Sd.) a day during the session. Money and Recruiting Bills must originate in the Lower House : other Bills can originate in either House. In the event of disagreement between the Houses a conference between delegates from each is held. In spite of the attempt to check racial hostihfcies by grouping the electorate in racial registers as above described, the quarrels between different nationalities in the Lower Chamber have so impeded public business that Paragraph 14 of the Constitution, authorizing legislation by Imperial decree where the matter is urgent and where no change in constitutional law, alienation of State property, or new permanent financial charge is involved, has been freely used to meet tlie situation. There are eight Ministries — the Interior, Justice, Public Instruction, Commerce, Agriculture, Finance, Public Defence, Railways, and, in addition, two ministers without portfolio for Galicia and Bohemia. Provincial administration is carried on through Austria] POLTTTOAL PARTIES 19' a Governor. Beneatli the province is the circle (Bezirk) with its captain {Bezirkshauptmann), and beneath the circle is the commune, an autonomous body. {h) Political Parties It is difficult to overestimate the parliamentary arts required in the leader of a government in the Austrian Chamber. It was estimated that the first universaj suffrage Parliament contained thirty-five groups, repre- senting complex combinations of race and oi:)inion such as no other State in the world has to face and before which genuine attempts at equitable legislation are almost bound to succumb. Two of the most important of these groups require a word of comment, viz. the Social Democratic and the Christian Socialist parties. The Social Democratic Party. — Labour first came to self-consciousness in Austria about the time of the Ausgleich (1867), when a Liberal Government had authorized to a limited degree the right of public meeting and combination. It was then that the ideas of Marx's manifesto began to affect the minds of the more educated members of the Austrian proletariate. These were found principally among the German section of the population who had maintained their intellectual intercourse with Germany in spite of the political sever- ance of 1866. Hence the Labour Movement in Austria had its source in the ideas of a German- Jewish writer, filtered through the minds of Austrian Germans, and was exploited by Austrian Jews. The Jewish control is visible in the fact that all the principal Social Demo- cratic leaders — Adler, Ingwer, Ellenbogen — were Jews. The Labour Movement, which began on the basis of a mutual improvement society, rapidly developed political tendencies, and as early as 1869 direct and universa suffrage was demanded in a petition presented by mass meeting of workmen in Vienna. The presence of Schaffle, one of the so-called Katheder-Sozialisten, in the Hohenwart Ministr}'- (1871) raised expectations not destined at that time to be realized. 20 PRESENT CONDITIONS [no.i In 1878 there occurred a party split, one-half of the party, under the title of the Arbeitervolkspartei, associating themselves with the Federalists and the Clericals against the German Liberals ; but in 1886 the party breach was healed. At the important Hainfeld Conference in 1889, which was attended by Slav as well as German representatives of the labour party, a Socialist programme was framed which denounced the existing structure of society, particularly the slavery of the working classes involved in private ownership of the instruments of labour, national and class privilege, and the maintenance of a standing army as distinct from a militia ; it declared also for universal suffrage, freedom of opinion, labour legislation, and for free and secular education with the consequent separation of Church and State. At this stage the party declared itself international and in favour of parliamentary action. A strong Socialist organization was subsequently evolved, of which the effects were made visible in Count Taaffe's proj^osal in 1893 to extend the suffrage, and also in the addition of the fifth Curia in 1896. In 1897 the Socialist organization was decentralized and recast on racial lines. This marked a breaking away from the German influences which had hitherto controlled the movement. At the same time a strong element of anti-clericalism began to appear in the counsels of the party. This was no doubt the result of the rise of the Christian Socialists. At the first election after the introduction of universal suffrage the Social Democrats were the largest single party and held 85 seats. In 1911 they won only 81 seats, but some of these were of great importance. One of the ablest leaders of this party. Dr. Victor Adler, threw all his weight on the side of constitutional as against revolutionary methods : he even discouraged ])o]itical agitation outside the Reichsrat, whicli l)ody he believed offered the best means of carrying out the revolution desired by the workers. He was the chief supporter of the Arbeiter- zeitung, which was the organ of the party. The im- possibility, liowever, of reconciling racial differences has Austria] POLITICAL PARTIES 21 obstructed the parliamentary programme of both the Socialist parties. The Christian Socialists. — The foundation of the CJiristian Socialist Party originated in an attempt to oppose the Semitic influences, which directed Austrian Socialism, by a programme not less attractive to the working classes, but grounded on Christian j^rinciples. The first association was founded in 1887. The per- sonality of Dr. Lueger, the then Burgomaster of Vienna, whose truculent and overbearing manners did not pre- vent him from enjoying immense popularity among the masses, early dominated the movement. He disliked Jews and Magyars ; and his great talents of political organization gave him a power in Vienna and Lower Austria somewhat similar to that exer- cised by Chamberlain in and around Birmingham. The Christian Socialist Party grew by leaps and bounds. In 1907 it commanded 67 seats in the Reichsrat which was elected on universal suffrage ; and a subsequent amalgamation with the German Clericals raised its numbers to 96 and gave it a majority over the Social Democrats. Though the party did not bear a clerical stamp, and has in fact been viewed with anxiety and even hostility by Catholic ecclesiastics, the suspicion of clerical influences in its counsels produced in 1896 a secession led by Schoenerer and Wolf, who formed a Pan-German nationalist movement with ' Los von Rom ' as its motto. Dr. Lueger's famous resolution proposed at the Catholic Congress in 1907, to the effect that the conquest of the Univer- sities was the object to which the Christian Socialists would devote all their energies, was commonly, though perhaps hastily, regarded as conclusive ]Droof of the triumph of clerical influence. The aims of the Christian Socialists, however, extend far beyond education. Without attempting minute definition, one may affirm generally that the Christian Socialist Party stands for an Austria in which the Germans would be dominant. In the early years of the movement a more sympathetic treatment of the Slavs was contemplated ; but latterly 22 PRESENT C0NDTTT0N8 [no.i the German Nationalist spirit came to predominate, largely owing to the growth of the Czech element in Vienna, the head-quarters of the party. Another of the Christian Socialist aims was the establishment of guilds (Gewerbegenossenschaften), which by encourag- ing small industries with the aid of protection would tend to undermine the capitalist and co-operative systems. The Christian Socialists are in theory not a religious but a political party, though of Christian affinities, and cannot properly be described as Catholic in the sense in which this title is applied to the Centre Party in Germany, though in practice the difference is not great. A leading Christian Socialist in the person of Dr. Gessman entered the Cabinet as Minister of Public Works in 1907. As the new Ministry was entrusted with social legislation relating to mines and factories, the appointment had more than ordinary significance. In 1911 the Christian Socialists lost ground heavily, especially in Vienna. Dr. Lueger had died the previous year ; and this circumstance, taken in conjunction with charges of corruption and the unpopularity of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, whose patronage the party had enjoyed, may account for their downfall. The Reichspost is the organ of the Christian Socialists. In regard to foreign affairs, their leader in 1906 supported the Austro-German alliance as the basis of policy. The Deutschnationalverband. — Next in importance was the Deutschnationalverband, a fusion of the three German Liberal groups (Progressives, Radicals, and Nationalists), which was effected in 1910. All these groups were drawn from the German districts of Austria. They commanded seventy-seven votes in the first universal suffrage Parliament, and in 1911 increased their numbers to ninety-nine. The Agrarians form yet another parliamentary group, of whom twenty-one were German and twenty-seven Czech. Austria] EDUCATTONAL 23 (3) Educational There are two classes of elementary schools — the Volks- and Burger schulen, of which the former teach the first principles of religion, reading, writing, arith- metic, natural science, history, geography, and draw- ing, and the latter carry the instruction in these subjects farther and add to them such subjects as book- keeping, geometry, and, in certain cases, music and modern languages. Attendance is obligatory on all from the ages of six to fourteen, or in some provmces from six to twelve. As regards religious teaching, which occupies the chief place in the curriculum, the ecclesiastical authorities of the various recognized denominations have access to the schools, and the clergy are bound to give a certain modicum of religious instruction in the Volksschulen without payment ; but, if remuneration becomes due, it is drawn from public funds. As regards the language question, the rule is that the provincial school council, which is presided over by the Governor of the province and mcludes educational experts, clergy, and representatives of the local diet, should determine what language or languages are to be taught in any school. An opportunity is always afforded to learn German. The immediate local educational authority is the District School Council, a body representative of the ratepayers and the parish. Between this and the Provincial School Council is another body, the County School Council, which, besides determining questions respectmg the building and staffing of schools, regulates the affairs of private elementary schools and kinder- gartens. Secondary education is carried on by the Gymnasia and the Realschulen, which may be public or private. The former furnish a classical, the latter a modern education. There are also 4,000 technical institutes in which the knowledge of different trades and pro- fessions can be pursued. Technical high schools for instruction in agriculture, architecture, chemistry, and 24 PRESENT CONDTTTONS [no.i engineering are also open to those who have obtained certificates for proficiency in secondary education. At the summit of the educational structures are the eight universities of Vienna, Graz, Innsbruck, Prague (2), Czernowitz, Lemberg, and Cracow. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS (a) Public Opinion Public opinion, in the sense in which it can be spoken of m other countries, can hardly be said to exist in Austria. Austrian Germans speak of their ' nation ', and include in this term the Germans' of Bohemia, Tirol, Upper and Lower Austria, Moravia, Styria, and Carinthia ; and there appears to be«6ome realization of intellectual and moral solidarity among them which draws them together. The Austrian Germans have, of course, certain other obvious sources of strength. They have kept their pre- dominance in the admmistration, and have maintained their language as the leading though not the exclusive language of the State^; they still form a strong group in Parliament, though since the Law of Universal Suf- frage (1907) they are no longer numerically the strongest, and their influence as a national party has been further weakened in connexion with the ' Los von Rom ' and Pan-German movements. In Parliament they have been chiefly occupied in keepmg m check the separatist tendencies of other national groups, and, except in so far as their views are expressed by the Socialists, they have not shown any constructive policy. As an instance of the inconsistencies and cross-currents which are found in Austrian politics, it may be noted that the Neue Freie Presse claims to be the organ of Austrian-G(5rman opinion. This paper is probably the most hifluojitial though not the most respectable representative of the press, and it has been said that most of what passes for public opinion in Austria is Austria] GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 25 maiiufactured by it ; it is, however, owned, edited, and written by Jews, though the Austrian Germans, whose mouthpiece it claims to be, are violently anti- Semitic. The educated middle classes, from whom are drawn the civil servants, the officers of the army, and the professors, are the chief supporters of the German party; and it remains to be seen whether the race dominance for which it stands will prove stronger than the Socialist movement of the industrial workers, which is anti-bourgeois, anti-capitalist, and anti- militarist. [b) The Language Question The Germans in Austria have urged that the pre- dominance of their race is necessary for the preserva- tion of the State — for them a higher conceptio'n than that of nationality — and that this justifies the policy of Germanizing the other peoples of the Empire to the extent of making the knowledge of German a necessity for the full exercise of citizenship. By the Constitution of 1867 the rights of the subordinate languages were formally safeguarded. Clause 19 of the Ausgleich runs as follows : ' All the peoples of the State are placed upon an equality, and each people in particular has the right to a guarantee of the inviolability of its nationality and of its language. The equality of all the languages used m the Empire, in schools, adminis- tration, and public life is recognized by the State. In the countries where different nationalities exist, public educational institutions ought to be organized in such a way that, without being comjDelled to learn a second language, every citizen may acquire all the necessary means of instruction.' The application of the law has, however, presented many difficulties and contradictions. In a country of so many nationalities as Austria, a language may be ' usual ' {landesublich) in a district, and yet not be the language of the people {Landessprache). It was possible, for example, for the Germans to claim that, since their 26 . PRESENT CONDITIONS [no.i language was that of the central administration, it was ' usual ' everywhere, and for the Czechs, on the other hand, to maintain that their vernacular was 'usual', even in those parts of Bohemia most thickly populated by Germans; and similar difficulties presented them- selves among other subordinate nationalities. An attempt to find a compromise between the ' maternal ' language and the ' official ' language has resulted in the adoption, for statistical purposes, of the language most commonly spoken {Unigangssprache) — a method which facilitates the collection of information as regards the population, but does not pretend to secure its accuracy from the point of view of the nationalities in the district. For the purpose of business or employ- ment German is often used, even by people whose mother tongue may be Ruthenian or Slovene, and who, for the sake of convenience, may range themselves as German-speakmg. Hence, statistics made by the administration in regard to population on the Umgangssprache basis must not be too hastily accepted as giving an actual census of nationalities. The rapid development of national sentiment in recent years has forced this question of language into the first place in Austrian Cis-Leithan politics. Although German is no longer the exclusive official language, except in the Italian-speaking districts and in certain parts of Galicia, it is used in all the mternal public services, including the administration of the railways since they became State property, and is the language of command, though not necessarily of instruc- tion, in the Army and Navy ; in this latter service, however, the officers must also have a knowledge of Serbo-Croatian. It was inevitable that the last paragraph of the 19th Clause of the Ausgleich, referrhig to language of instruction in 'public educational institutions', should have given rise to the greatest difference of opinion. The Germans could argue that, if carried out literally in bilingual districts, it would tend to liamper rather than )reign Minister, stated that, when cither Germany or Austria was attacked on two sides, the intervention of the other party was promised, but that no exact definition of the meaning of an attack on two sides ' .See, however, Appendix IV, ]). 122. ffT^il^rfa^^?^] TRIPLE ALLIANCE 77 could be given. He also said that the operation of the treaty was not limited to Europe, though Austrian papers under his influence took the line during the Morocco crisis of 1905 that the Alliance did not bind Austria in transmarine affairs. His critics made the point that, whilst the liabilities of Germany and Austria were nominally equal, the fact, that Germany pursued a world-policy and that Austria did not, involved a grave difference in the treaty obligations of the two Powers. (8) AusTRO-RussiAN Relations, 1881-1906 ; the MuERZSTEG Programme The Austro-German Alliance did not at its inception destroy the conception of the Dreikaiserhund. The Emperor William I, who was strongly attached to the Russophil traditions of his house, communicated the contents of the secret agreement with Austria to his nephew, the Emperor (Alexander II) of Russia.^ In March 1884 Bismarck concluded the first 'Reinsurance' Treaty with Russia. Whether Austria was also a party to this is doubtful. The treaty in any case seems to have pledged the other signatory, or signatories, to a benevolent neutrality in the event of one being attacked." In the autumn the three Emperors met at Skiernevice, where a verbal endorsement, intended especially to eliminate the danger of Russian intrigue on the Balkan frontier of Austria, appears to have been given to the treaty. Meanwhile events in Serbia and Bulgaria were affording diplomatic opportunities for the repression of the Jugo-Slav and ' big ' Bulgarian ideals, which threatened the conservative policy of Austria. In Serbia King Milan, of theObrenovic family, was frankly Austro- phil, and, in exchange for the title of king and promises of expansion in Macedonia and Bulgaria, was content in 1882, by a secret six years' Convention, to renounce ^ Oncken, in the Cambridge Modem History, xii, p. 144. * C. Grant Robertson's Bismo.rck, Appendix B. 78 AUSTRO-RUSSTAN RELATIONS [no.i Pan-Serb propaganda in the Austrian Empire and the right to conclude treaties without authority from the Austrian Government, and to engage, in the event of war in the Near East, to give the Austrian armies free passage through Serbia and to place Belgrade and Nish in Austrian hands. When, in 1885, the nationalist pressure at home led Prince Alexander of Bulgaria, without the leave of the Russian Emperor, to annex Eastern RumeUa, Austria effectively exploited the anger of the Tsar against his nephew and the jealousy of the Serbs at Bulgarian aggrandizement. The declara- tion of war by Serbia against Bulgaria was prompted by Austria ; and it was Austria which, in the interest of the Obrenovic dynasty in Serbia, prevented Prince Alexander from gathering the fruit of his victory over the Serbs at Slivnitsa and Tsaribrod. Then, when the Prince abdicated in face of his uncle's continued displeasure, the Austrian Government changed its tactics and countenanced the Bulgarian Nationalists under the leadership of Stambuloff ; and it was as a compliment to Austria that the Bulgarian crown was conferred on Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,. an officer in the Austrian army. The Prince was clever enough not to let the fall of Stambuloff, which was partly a result of his own desire to improve his relations with Russia, impair the good relations between Bul- garia and Austria which had brought him to a throne and were later to make him a king. So long as Bismarck remained in power, the uneasy relations between Austria and Russia were prevented by German diplomacy from developing. In 1887 the Reinsurance Treaty between Germany and Russia was renewed (see App. V. ]). 123), but without the knowledge of Austria. Three years later, when the treaty is believed to have come up afresh for renewal, the determination of Bismarck to continue to hold the balance between Austria and Russia, Avhereas the Emperor William TI and the Drang nach Osten school of German thought favoured a whole-hearted support of Austrian policy in the Balkans, contri- ofTuffrfa^n!'^] AUSTR0-RU8STAN RELATIONS 79 buted largely to the German Chancellor's downfall. The treaty was not revived ; and two consequences followed. The guarantee for peace between Austria and Russia, which had been furnished by Bismarck's secret diplomacy, disappeared ; and Russia, finding herself isolated in Europe, concluded in 1891 a defensive alliance with France. The tradition of the Austro- Russian accord, however, persisted, mainly owing to the fact that Russian statesmen had turned their attention from the Near to the Far East, but partly because the growing strength of Liberalism still con- tinued to draw the autocracies together for self-pro- tection. Austrian pique at the revelation to the public in 1896 of the Russo-German ' Reinsurance ' Treaty of 1887 must also be taken into account. In the spring of 1897 the Russian and Austrian Emperors met ; and their common interest was formally recognized by an agreement in April of that year. The circumstance that Count Goluchowski, a Pole, was then Austro- Hungarian Foreign Minister and the Slav element generally potent in Austrian counsels was not un- important. The effect of the agreement was to define the spheres of influence of the two Powers in the Balkans. Austria was to exercise complete control over Serbia, Russia over Bulgaria. A more restricted influence was allowed to the former over Macedonia, Salonika, and Albania, and to the latter over the remainder of Turkey. Within their spheres of influence the contracting Powers might suppress agitation, even by the use of arms. Count Goluchowski, speaking in 1902, repudiated the notion that Austria desired to pursue a selfish policy, still less to make annexations in the Near East, and expressed a hope that the distrust entertained by the two Empires for one another would presently disappear. A current of mutual goodwill, countenanced especially by the Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Austria and the Grand Duke Michael in Russia, ran through both countries. The Muerzsteg Programme. — In 1903, when the dis- orders in Macedonia had compelled the interference 80 AUSTRO-RUSSIAN RELATIONS [no.i of the European Powers, the Russian and Austrian Emperors met at Muerzsteg (October 22) and forced upon the Porte the scheme of reform for the vilayets of Kosovo, Monastir, and Salonika, which goes by the name of the Muerzsteg Programme. The underlying principle of the scheme was the introduction of reforms in conjunction with, not over the head of the Sultan ; but the plan involved, besides the formation of an inter- national financial commission, the creation of an inter- national police with national spheres of administration, and Austria took the opportunity to demand control over the Sanjak of tJskiib (in the Kosovo vilayet), which lay in the direct line between the Sanjak of Novi Bazar and Salonika. The encirclement of Serbia, which this arrangement involved, was not the less acceptable tD Austria that the substitution of the Karageorgevic for the Obrenovic dynasty, which followed the murder of King Alexander of Serbia in June 1903, had de- stroyed Austrian influence in that country. The new King represented the nationalist movement, which had its eyes fixed upon Skoplje (tJskiib), the old capital of the race. The issue of the tariff war, better known as the ' pig- war ', inaugurated in 1905, proved that the economic coercion of Serbia was no longer possible. The events of 1904-5 contributed further to produce a new orientation in the Balkans, for the Russo- Japanese War had the double effect of reducing Russian prestige in that region, and at the same time forcing Russia back upon a Near Eastern policy, in view of the defeat of her plans in the Far East. It was in these circumstances that Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria began to lean again towards Austria, who appeared to have become a more powerful protector than Russia. ffTSfa?^!'^] AEHRENTHAL 81 (9) Aehrenthal's Administration ; the Annexa- tion OF Bosnia-Herzegovina In the autumn of 1906 Baron Aehrenthal suc- ceeded Count Goluchowski as Foreign Minister and embarked upon an ambitious policy in the Balkans, the progress of which largely contributed to produce the Triple Entente. Aehrenthal's first idea-seems to have been to develop the Muerzsteg agreement into a quad- ruple understanding between Austria, Germany, France, and Russia, so as to undermine the incipient entente be- tween England, France, and Russia, and at the same time enable the four Powers interested to afford one another mutual support in regard to their respective ambitions in the Balkans, Mesopotamia, Morocco, and the Dardanelles. Some such project was actually sug- gested by Aehrenthal and rejected by Isvolsky, the Russian Foreign Minister, in May 1907. ^ Upon its failure Aehrenthal entered upon a negotiation with the Turkish Government, the issue of which gravely affected the good relations between Austria and Russia, where Isvolsky was felt to have suffered a diplomatic defeat. In return (as is alleged by his enemies but as he denied) ^ for the abandonment by Austria of the Muerzsteg reforming policy, what Aehrenthal described as the inauguration of a new route from Central Europe to Egypt and India was agreed to by Turkey. On June 27, 1908, the announcement was made that Austria had obtained permission from the Turkish Government to make a preliminary survey with a view to the construction of a railway line between Uvatz and Mitrovitsa through the Sanjak of Novi Bazar. This concession, if carried into effect, would have resulted in linking Sarajevo and Salonika, and consequently would have thwarted both the Serbian push westwards and the Italian push eastwards through Albania. In point of fact, however, the pro- ject appeared on closer inspection to be valueless from ^ Steed, The Hapsburg Monarchy, p. 230. 2 Fortnightly Review, Nov. 1909, p. 782. 82 AEHRENTHAL'8 [no.i a military, prohibitive from a financial, and exacting to the last degree from an engineering standpoint. The Austro-Hungarian General Staff are said to have reported that the proper line of advance upon Salonika was by the valley of the Morava, while the route to Egypt and India via Novi Bazar would be at once longer than that through Belgrade and Nish and would involve a vast expenditure of money and of technical skill if the connecting line through Sarajevo to Uvatz were to be given a normal gauge. The Turkish political situation had not, howev^er, been fully exploited. With the Government of Abdul Hamid tottering to its fall, the moment seemed pro- pitious for the formal annexation of Bosnia and Herze- govina to the Austrian Empire. An aide-memoire on June 19 from the Russian Foreign Minister suggesting, so far as is known, that Austria-Hungary and Russia should make a bargain for the annexation to the former of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the settlement in favour of the latter of the Dardanelles question, fell into line with Austrian policy. Before, however, it could be put into effect the Young Turks, whose head- quarters were at Salonika, and with whom Aehrenthal had, it is thought, incautiously attempted to come to terms, had brought about the fall of Abdul Hamid in the hope of saving the integrity of the Turkish Empire. Aehrenthal, meanwhile, continued to negotiate with Isvolsky ; and his policy had now the justification that, in the expected event of constitutional reform in Turkey, the constitutional question in Bosnia- Herzegovina would inevitably be raised and could not be conveniently resolved while the status of the pro- vinces remained as indefinite as it had been since 1878. In the middle of Se])tember, 1908, the two Foreign Ministers met at Count Berchtold's country house (Buchlau) and discussed a programme of mutual com- ]icnsati()ns. Tsvolsky, in return (so the apologist of Aehrenthal alleges)^ for ' a clear waterway for Russia through the Dardanelles into the Mediterranean ', ' ForlnigJilly Review, Nov. 190!), p. 788. ofiu^ri^T''] ADMINISTRATION 83 appears to have agreed, at least in effect, to the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but to have stipulated that he should receive notice of the date at which this was intended to take place, and that a European Conference should be summoned to approve the transaction. Aehrenthal, however, gave no warning. On October 6, just after Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria, as he then was, had visited Vienna, Bulgaria declared herself independent of Turkey ; and on the following day, October 7, a proclamation was issued by the Austro-Hungarian Government announcing the annexa- tion of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Austro-Hun- garian Empire, in contravention of Article XXV of the Treaty of Berlin, which provided against the alteration of that settlement by one Power without the concur- rence of the other signatories. The procedure or neglect of procedure was, perhaps, more objection- able than the deed itself, for the Berlin Congress had created a situation in the provinces which had eventually to be cleared up at the Turkish expense ; but a diplomacy far beyond Aehrenthal' s range would have attempted to use the occasion to make the Jugo-Slavs look towards Austria for the realization of their still limited expectations and still unconsolidated ideals. One or two points in the actual transactions deserve attention. In the first place, there is reason to believe that Aehrenthal had conceived his policy, not under German inspiration, but rather in the hope of reversing the German Emperor's description of Austria at the Algeciras Conference of 1906 as a ' brilliant second ', and, perhaps, also with the idea that he might play such a part in Europe as Metternich had played. Italy was probably earlier acquainted with what was in contem- plation than Germany ; and Itahan assent to the annexation is alleged to have been bought at the cheaj) price of the abandonment of the Sanjak of Novi Bazar by Austria.! A closer understanding between Vienna and Rome to the prejudice of Berlin was in fact one of ! Steed, The Hapsburg Monarchy, p. 276. 84 AEHRENTHAL'8 ' [no.i the cardinal features of Aehrenthal's diplomacy. Thus Germany, in order to save the solidarity of the Central Powers, supported but did not apparently anticipate the Austrian move. The Austro-Bulgarian under- standing was essentially anti-Turkish and out of line with the pro-Turkish policy of Germany in the Near East. The Salonika project, which involved Turkish enmity, cut across the Berlin-Bagdad project, which required Turkish co-operation. In the second place, the annexation of the two pro- vinces with their Jugo-Slav population was calculated to rouse feeling in Serbia to fever pitch ; and the possi- bility of war breaking out between Austria and Serbia became the preoccupation of Europe in the early months of 1909. The practical question, however, was whether Russia would take up arms to protect the Serbs against the violation of the Berlin Treaty. The German Government, on their own initiative, forced this issue upon the Russian Government in its most acute form. Russia was not prepared to face war with both the Central Powers ; and, once this was clear, British mediation became effective and the crisis passed away. Aehrenthal, however, was not in a position to main- tain a hostile attitude against both Serbia and Turkey ; and it was no doubt to German satisfaction, if not upon German initiative, that an Austro-Turkish Con- vention was concluded on February 20, 1909. By this instrument Austria-Hungary renounced all the rights acquired in respect of the Sanjak of Novi Bazar through the Berlin Treaty ; guaranteed the free exercise of the Moslem religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the mention of the Sultan's name in the public prayers of the Moslems, and the payment to the Ottoman Govern- ment of an indemnity of £T2,500,000 as an equi- valent for vakuf^ held by Turkey in Bosnia and Herzegovina ; promised to approve a treaty of com- merce involving an addition to Turkish custom-duties and monopolies ; and finally undertook to support a Turkish demand for the replacement of the capitu- ^ Moslem religious property. ffiuffrfa^H^^] ADMINLSTRATION 85 lations by international law. Tn the following year Austria, in conj unction with Germany, financed a Turk- ish loan. In the main, however, Aehrenthal's policy remained detached and independent. This course was in accordance with the feelings of the Emperor Francis Joseph, who desired the preservation of peace, and was ]:)robably accentuated by Aehrenthal's resentment at the recent high-handed action of Germany at Petersburg, which had at once put Austria under an unwelcome obligation and deprived him of the credit of his diplo- matic skill. Neither in regard to the Morocco question, which Germany stirred afresh by sending the Panther to Agadir in July 1911, nor in regard to the Berlin- Bagdad and Persian railway projects, did Austria afford her ally effective support ; and in 1911 Aerenthal declined to follow the German lead in condoning Turkish atrocities in Albania, where the Catholicism of part of the population aroused Austrian sympathies. Friction between Berlin and Vienna on this account, as well as on that of the Agadir incident, was in fact so considerable in 1911 as to induce Aehrenthal on two occasions to address the French Ambassador in the following terms : ' Apres tout, nous sommes pour le moment les allies de I'Allemagne ; peut-etre malheu- reusement nous ne sommes pas les votres.' (10) Berchtold's Administration After frustrating the wish of General Conrad von Hotzendorf and the high military command to attack Italy during her struggle with Turkey, Aelnrenthal died on February 17, 1912, and was succeeded by Count Berchtold, who had been naturalized as a Hungarian on account of his wife's property in Hungary. The new Foreign Minister's policy was based, like that of his pre- decessor, upon a desire to maintain the status quo in the Balkans and the Mediterranean — a principle of foreign policy increasingly imposed by the growth of domestic differences in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was, however, sensible of the growing urgency of the problem 86 BERCHTOLD'S [no.i of the subject races of Turkey, particularly in Mace- donia and Albania. In the hope of averting war, and, after having vindicated at Berhn earlier in the year the principle of the superior claim of Austrian over German policy in the Near East where any difference appeared, he proposed in August 1912 that the Porte should deal with the subject races of Turkey on the Austrian, |as opposed to the Hungarian model, that is by the grant of linguistic freedom in the schools, law courts, and deliberative assemblies and by the appointment of officials in each locality belonging to the nationahty interested. The proposal does not seem to have amounted to a suggestion of local autonomy in Albania and Macedonia, and met with httle support among the Powers. On October 18, 1912, Ithe 'Balkan League (Bulgaria, Serbia, and Greece) declared war on Turkey. During the First Balkan War Count Berchtold, besides desiring to restore peace and avert the disruption of the Turkish Empire, was particularly concerned to defend Austrian interests in the Adriatic and Cathohc interests in northern Albania. The two other Powers affected by events in this region were Italy and Serbia. Austria could not afford to be at issue with both ; and Count Berchtold, like Aehrenthal before him, preferred a good understanding with Italy. The Itahan declaration of war against Turkey on September 29, 1911, which was followed by the fall of General Coiu-ad von Hotzendorf, the leader of the militant anti-Italian party at Vienna, precipitated the rapprochement. Austria showed a friendly disposition towards her unsympathetic ally during the war for Tripoli. Her calculation appears to have been that the acquisition of a North African colony would bring Italy into collision with France over Tunis ; that territorial differences on the Austro- Italian frontier would fall into the background, as Italy developed her ambitions in the Mediterranean ; and that the substitution of Austrian for German influences at Rome might gradually follow. Count Berchtold consequently used such influence as he had at Constan- ffAuft'ifa"^^] ADMINISTRATION 87 tinople to induce Turkey to conclude the Peace of Lausanne with Italy on October 18, 1912, and, three days later at San Rossore, discussed the future of Albania with San Giuliano, the pro-Austrian Itahan Foreign Minister. Tlie conversations at San Rossore are understood to have resulted in a scheme for the introduction of reforms into Albania under Austrian supervision in the north and Italian in the south, and in a common agreement for the maintenance of the integrity of Albania against occupation by any other Power. This decision was directed against the politi- cal aspirations of Serbia and Montenegro in Albania. Austria feared the effect upon her maritime interests of the possession by Serbia of a port on the Adriatic, and not the less because Russian influence was domi- nant at Belgrade. She was also concerned to safeguard the religious interests of the Catholics of northern Albania from the Slav propagandists of the Orthodox Church, whose subsequent activities at Djakovo in 1913 did something to justify anxiety on this score. Austria professed herreadiness to give Serbia commercialfacilities on the Adriatic and, as Serbian ambitions developed during the successes of the First Balkan War, suggested in November 1912 the adoption of one of the following compromises : (i) the construction of a trunk line with unrestricted facilities for Serbian transport from the Serbian frontier to a Dalmatian free port ; (ii) the construction of a Serbian railway through Montenegro to Antivari ; (iii) the construction of a Danube-Adri- atic railway to a neutralized port through Albania ; (iv) an outlet for Serbia on the Aegean. The refusal of these offers and an intimation that Serbia desired to divide Albania with Greece led Austria to declare in favour of an autonomous Albania. Count Berchtold, who, to avoid complications with Italy which might have resulted in the Italian occupation of Albania, had tolerated the presence of Serbian troops in the Sanjak of Novi Bazar and in Albania while warlike operations against Turkey were in progress, made it clear that Austria would go to war rather than permit a permanent 88 BERCHTOLD'S [no.i Serbian occupation of Albania. At the Ambassadors' Conferences, which opened in London in Decen^ber 1912, the Austrian delegate was instructed to renew the November offers to Serbia. The Albanian negotia- tions proved extremely difficult, Austria standing out against Russia for an autonomous Albania and for the inclusion in it of Djakovo and Dibra. She gained the first point, but surrendered the second. The capture of Scutari by the Montenegrins produced another complication; but eventually, under the pressure of the Powers, they agreed to its inclusion in Albania. Serbia with equal reluctance was compelled, by an ultimatum from Austria, to withdraw her troops from Albanian territory. An International Commission, in which Austria and Italy were the active and the Triple Entente the sleeping partners, was set up to preside over the formation of the new State, which was ultimately constituted under Prince William of Wied. Meanwhile Count Berchtold's opportunist policy had not been sufficiently forcible to avert the Second Balkan War. Rumania, which had drawn away from the Triple Alliance and made approaches to the Entente group in March 1913, dominated the Balkan situation in the summer and placed Bulgaria, which had fallen out with Serbia over the Turkish spoils, at a mihtary disadvantage. It subsequently transpired that Austria- Hungary made proposals to Italy for a joint attack on Serbia ; but Italy refused to recognize a casus foederis, and on the eve of the Conference of Bucarest Count Berchtold instructed Prince Fiirstenberg to work for a frontier settlement on ethnographical lines, and for the retention by Bulgaria of at any rate part of central Macedonia, as well as Kavalla and a coast-line on the Aegean. This project was not realized in the actual settlement. Both Austria and Russia desired that the Great Powers should exercise their claim to a revision of the treaty, })ut failed to overcome the opposition of France and Italy. Count Berchtold, in a telegram to St. Petersburg, foretold that Bulgaria would not accept ^.T,j|f.f.?ii*'^ I ADMINISTRATION 89 of Austria-H permanently . the conditions which had been forced upon her. Austrian diplomacy was equally active to assist Bulgaria in her peace settlement with Turkey, but with equal ill success. Serbia was hardly less dissatisfied than Bulgaria. While she had gained in power and prestige, and not less in self-confidence, she had been thwarted in her main ambition, and her hostility to Austria had been iiltensified. Hence the situation at the opening of 1914 contained grave elements of instability, and it was improbable that a catastrophe could be long averted. 90 [Wo. 1 AUTHORITIES Beer, Adolf. Die orientalische Politik Oesterreichs seit 1774. Prague, 1883. Beust, Count F. F. von. Memoirs. 2 vols. London, 1887. Charmatz, R. Deutsch-oaterreichische Politik, part iii. Leipzig, 1907. Drage, G, Austria- Hungary. London, 1909. FouRNiER, A. Wie wir zu Bosnien kamen. Vienna, 1909. Friedjung, H. Der Kampf um die Vorherrschaft in Deutsch- land, 1859-66. Stuttgart, 1901-2. — - — Der Krimkrieg und die osterreichische Politik. Stuttgart, 1911. Henry, Rene. Questions d' Autriche-Hongrie et Question d' Orient. Paris, 1903. Larmeroux, Jean. La Politique exterieure de VAutriche- Hongrie. 2 vols. Paris, 1918. Metternich, Prince Clement. Memoires. 1880-84. Robertson, C.Grant. Bismarck. London, 1918. Appendix B. (See also for the Russo-German Reinsurance Treaties Dawson, W. H., The Gertnan Empire, 1867-1914, London, 1919, Appendix B; and the Hamburger Nachrichten of October 24, 31, and November 12, 1896.) Seton-Watson, R. W. The Future of A t( stria -Hungary. London, 1915. SosNOSKY, Theodor VON. GescMchte der Balkanpolitik Oesterreichs seit 1866. Stuttgart, 1914. (Also his article in the Contetnporary Review for August 1914.) Steed, H. Wickham. The Hapshurg Monarchy, c. iv. London, 1914. Ward, Sir Adolphus. Germany. Cambridge, 1916-18. Weil, G. Le Pangermanisme en Autriche. Paris, 1904. WertheiMer, Edxtard von. Graf Julius Andrdssy. Stuttgart, 1913. The Cambridge Modern History, vol. xii. Foreign Office Confidential Rejjorts. The Fortnightly Review, September and November 1909. These articles, 'Baron Aehrenthal and M. Isvolsky ' and ' M. Isvolsky and Count von Aehrenthal ', are understood to have been inspired by the Russian and Austrian Foreign M in iste rs respectively. (Collected Diplomatic Documents relating to the outbreak of the European War. ( \\ . 7 860 (1915).' roreign Policy i t) 1 of Austria-H. 1 ^ ^ APPENDIX I.— AUSTRIAN FUNDAMENTAL LAWS^ LAW OF DECEMBER 21, 1867, No. 141, IMPERIAL STATUTE BOOK, WHEREBY THE FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF THE REPRESENTATION OF THE EM- PIRE, OF FEBRUARY 26, 1861, IS AMENDED. {As amended by the Laivs of April 2, 1873, and November 12, 1886) With the consent of both Houses of the Reichsrath, I decide to amend the Fundamental Law of February 26, 1861, on the Imperial Representation, and the same is to run as follows : 1. The Reichsrath is convened for the common representa- tion of the Kingdoms of Bohemia, Dalmatia, Galicia, and Lodomeria, with the Grand-Duchy of Cracow, of the Archduchy of Austria, below and above Enns, of the Duchies of Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and Bukowina, of the Margravate of Moravia, of the Duchy of UjDper and Lower Silesia, of the County Palatine of the Tirol, and of the territory of Vorarlberg, of the Margravate of Istria, of the County Palatine of Goritz and Gradisca, and of the town of Trieste with its district. The Reichsrath consists of the House of Lords and the House of Deputies. No one can be a member of both Houses simultaneously. 2. The Princes of the Imperial House who have attained their majority are members of the House of Lords by birth. 3. Having attained their majority, the heads of those indi- genous noble families who by reason of extensive landed property are prominent in the kingdoms and territories repre- sented in the Reichsrath, and on whom the Emperor confers the hereditary dignity of membership of the Reichsrath, are hereditary members of the House of Lords. 4. AU Archbishops and those Bishops to whom princely rank belongs by virtue of their high ecclesiastical dignity in the realms and territories represented in the Reichsrath, are members of the House of Lords. 5. It remains reserved to the Emperor to appoint as hfe- members of the House of Lords distinguished men — from the 1 Repruited from Drage, G., Austria-Hungary, London, 1909. H 2 92 APPENDIX [^ realms and territories represented in the Reichsrath — who have rendered service in State or Church, Science or Art. 6. Three hundred and fifty- three members are elected to the House of Deputies, and the number is fixed in the following way for the separate Idngdoms and territories, to wit : For the Kingdom of Bohemia . For the Kingdom of Dalmatia . For the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, with the Grand-Duchy of Cracow . For the Archduchy of Austria below the Enns For the Duchy of Austria above the Enns For the Duchy of Salzburg For the Duchy of Styria . For the Duchy of Carinthia For the Duchy of Carniola For the Duchy of Bukowina For the Margravate of Moravia For the Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia For the County Palatine of Tirol For the territory of Vorarlberg For the Margravate of Istria For the County Palatine of Goritz and Gradisca For the town of Trieste with its district 92 9 63 37 17 5 23 9 10 9 36 10 18 3 4 4 4 Note. — Sections 6, 7, 15, and 18, were amended by Law of April 2, 1873, No. 40, Imperial Statute Book. To the above section Article 1 of the Law of June 14, 1896, No. 168, Imperial Statute Book, adds the following provision : To the 353 members who are to be chosen for the House of Deputies from the electoral classes contained in the Orders of the Country, on the basis of Sections 6 and 7 of the Fundamental Law on the Representation of the Empire (Laws of April 2, 1873, No. 40, Imperial Statute Book, or November 12, 1886, No. 162, Imperial Statute Book), are added 72 members who are elected from a general electoral class to be designated by the letter E. The fixed number of members for this electoral class is dis- tributed among the several kingdoms and lands, and from this electoral class are to be chosen : In the Kingdom of Bohemia .... In the Kingdom of Dahnatia . . . . In the Kingdom of (JaUcia and Lodomeria, with the Graiid-Duchy of Cracow In the Arcliduchy of Austria below the Enns In the Aicluluchy of Austria above the Enns In the Duchy of Salzburg . , . . 1! 15 9 3 I Toreign Policy] of Axistria-H. J FUNDAMENTAL LAWS 93 In the Duchy of Styria . In the Duchy of Carinthia In the Duchy of Cainiola In the Duchy of Bukowina In the Margravate of Moravia In the Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia In the County Palatine of the Tirol . In the territory of Vorarlberg . In the Margravate of Istria In the County Palatine of Goritz and Gradisca In the town of Trieste with its district The distribution of the members of the House of Deputies — to be elected according to this — among the single electoral districts is fixed by a special law. Note. — See below, Section 7 (A), the Reichsrath's Election Ordinance. 7. (A) The number of members fixed for each country is divided among the electoral classes contained in the regulations for the country : (a) Of the great landed proprietors (registered in the land or feudal court), of those most highly taxed in Dal- matia, of the great proprietors among the nobles, together with the persons in Tirol indicated in Section 3 (1) of the Regulation of the Country ; (6) of the towns (towns, market towns, manu- facturing places, localities) ; (c) of the chambers of trade and manufacture ; {d) of the country communes ; and there are to be chosen — In the Kingdom of Bohemia : 23 members from the electoral class a. 32 members from the electoral class 6. 7 members from the electoral class c. 30 members from the electoral class d. In the Kingdom of Dalmatia : 1 member from the electoral class a. 2 members from the electoral classes b and c. 6 members from the electoral class d. hi the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, with the Grand-Duchy of Cracow : 20 members from the electoral class a. 13 members from the electoral class 6. 3 members from the electoral class c. 27 members from the electoral class d. 94 APPENDIX [no. In the Archduchy of Austria below the Enns : 8 members from the electoral class a. 19 members from the electoral class b. 2 members from the electoral class c. 8 members from the electoral class d. In the Archduchy of Austria above the Enns : 3 members from the electoral class a. 6 members from the electoral class 6. 1 member from the electoral class c. 7 members from the electoral class d. In the Duchy of Salzburg : 1 member from the electoral class a. 2 members from the electoral classes b and c. 2 members from the electoral class d. In the Duchy of Styria : 4 members from the electoral class a. 8 members from the electoral class b. 2 members from the electoral class c. 9 members from the electoral class d. In the Duchy of Garinthia : 1 member from the electoral class a. 3 members from the electoral class b. 1 member from the electoral class c. 4 members from the electoral class d. In the Duchy of Carniola : 2 members from the electoral class a. 3 members from the electoral classes b and c. 5 members from the electoral class d. In the Duchy of Buhowina : 3 members from the electoral class a. 2 members from the electoral class b. 1 member from the electoral class c. 3 members fi'om the electoral class d. In the Margravate of Moravia : 9 members from the electoral class a. 13 mombeis from tlie electoral class b. 3 moml)ei's fiom tlie electoral class c. 11 members from the electoral class d. Of Aulufa^H!'^] Fl'NDAMENTAL LAWS 95 In the Duchy of Uj^per and Lower Silesia : 3 members from the electoral class a. 4 members from the electoral classes h and c. 3 members from the electoral class d. In the County Palatine of the Tirol : 5 members from the electoral class a. 5 members from the electoral classes b and c. 8 members from the electoral class d. In the Territory of Vorarlberg : 1 member from the electoral classes 6 and c. 2 members from the electoral class d. In the Margravate of I stria : 1 member from the electoral class a. 1 member from the electoral classes b and c. 2 members from the electoral class d. In the County Palatine of Goritz and Gradisca : 1 member from the electoral class a. 1 member from the electoral classes b and c. 2 members from the electoral class d. In the Town of Trieste with its District : 3 members from the electoral class /;. 1 member from the electoral class c. (B) The appointment of the members of the House of Deputies to be chosen in each electoral class in the single electoral divisions and electoral bodies is fixed by the Reichs- rath's Election Ordinance. (C) In the electoral class of the country communes, and in the electoral districts of the general electoral class formed ex- clusively from the judicial circuits, the deputies are chosen by electors chosen by those who are entitled to vote ; but in the other electoral classes and in the remaining electoral districts of the general electoral class, they are chosen directly by those entitled to vote. However, in territories in which the direct election of the deputies of the Provisional Diet is fixed by statutory decrees of the county in the electoral class of the country communes, the members of the House of Deputies are also to be elected directly by those entitled to vote in the electoral class of tlie countiy 96 APPENDIX [No 1 communes, as also in all the electoral districts of the general electoral class. The cjioice of the electors and of the deputies has to be arrived at bj^ means of an absolute majority of votes. If this majority of. votes is not attained at one, or even, inas- much as several deputies are still to be chosen, at a continued second ballot, if the votes are equally divided, it is decided by lot. (D) Every Austrian citizen who has passed his twenty-fourth year, is his own master, and fulfils the other requirements laid down by the Reichsrath's Election Ordinance, or by the Law of June 14, 1896, No. 169, Imperial Statute Book, is entitled to vote. Note. — This version of Subsections C and D was enacted by the law of June 14, 1896, No. 168, Imperial Statute Book. (E) All persons of the male sex in each of the territories specified in Section 6, who have possessed Austrian civil rights for at least three years, and have passed their thirtieth year, are eligible and are entitled to vote in one of these territories, according to the directions of Subsection D, or are ehgible in the Provincial Diet. Note. — This wording of Section 7, Subsections A, B, and E, was enacted by the Law of April 2, 1873, No. 40, Imperial Statute Book, and of November 12, 1886, No. 162, Imperial Statute Book. 8. The public officials and functionaries elected in the House of Deputies need no leave of absence for the exercise of their mandate. 9. The Emperor appoints the President and Vice-President of the House of Lords from its members for the duration of the session. The House of Deputies elects the President and the Vice- Presidents from its midst. Each House has to elect the re- maining functionaries itself. 10. The Reichsrath is convened annually by the Emperor, in the winter months if possible. 1 1 . The province of the Reichsrath embraces all affairs which relate to rights, duties, and interests, which are common to all the realms and territories represented in the Reichsrath, in so far as the same will not, in consequence of the Agreement with the Lands of the Hungarian Crown, be treated as common between these and the remaining territories of the monarchy. Therefoi'c there belong to the province of the Reichsrath — (a) The examination and ratification of the commercial tr(!aties and of those treaties which burden the empire or part of the same, or la}^ obligations on individual citizens, or involve ofTultei^^"''] FUNDAMENTAL LAWS 97 a territorial change of the realms and territories represented in the Reichsrath. (6) All affairs which relate to the method and manner, as well as to the order and duration, of military service, and in par- ticular the annual granting of the number of the men to be levied, and the general directions relative to furnishing of relays, the maintenance and quartering of the army. (c) The fixing of the estimates of the Budget, and in par- ticular the annual granting of the taxes, imposts, and duties, to be raised ; the examination of the settlement of the State accounts, and the results of the financial policy and the issue of the absolutorium. The contracting of new loans ; the conversion of existing State debts ; the alienation, conversion, and burdening, of immovable public property ; the legislation on monopolies and royalties ; and, generally, all financial affairs which are common to the realms and territories represented in the Reichsrath. (d) The settlement of the monetary, mint, and bank note .system, of the Customs and commercial affairs, as also of the telegraphic, postal, railway, navigation, and other imperial systems of communication. (e) The Credit, Bank, privileges and industrial legislation, exclusive of the legislation on licensing [Propinationsrechte) ; further, the legislation on weights and measures, on patents and trade mark protection. (/) Public Health (medicinal) legislation, as also legislation for protection against epidemics and cattle plagues. (g) The legislation on civic rights and naturalization, on police regulation of foreigners and the passport system, as also on the taking of the census. (h) On the relations of religious denominations, on the right of association and meeting, on the press, and the protection of intellectual property. (i) The fixing of the principles of public instruction with regard to the elementary schools and grammar schools {Gym- nasien) ; further, the legislation as to the Universities. {k) Legislation concerning criminal law and police-court laAV, as also civil law, exclusive of legislation on the internal organiza- tion of the public registers and on such subjects as belong to the province of the Provincial Diets, on the basis of the provincial ordinances and of this fundamental law ; and, further, the legislation on commercial law and the law as to bills of exchange, maritime law, mining law, and feudal tenure. {I) The legislation on the chief features of the organization of the office of the Court of Justice and of the administration. (m) The laws to be enacted, and there cited for the execution 98 . APPENDIX [No.i of the fundamental laws of the State, on the general rights of the citizens, on the Supreme Court of the Empire, on the judiciary power, the governmental power, and the executive power. (n) The legislation on those subjects which concern the duties and relations between the single territories. (o) The legislation relative to the form of the treatment of the affairs designated as common through the agreement with the territories belonging to the Hungarian Crown. 12. All other subjects of legislation which are not expressly reserved to the Reichsrath in this law belong to the province of the Provincial Diets of the kingdoms and lands represented in the Reichsrath, and are settled constitutionally in and with these Provincial Diets. Should any Provincial Diet resolve, however, that one or another subject of legislation given over to it should be treated and settled in the Reichsrath, then such a subject passes over in this case, and with regard to the Diet in question, to the province of the Reichsrath. 13. Bills come to the Reichsrath as Government proposals. The right to propose laws on subjects within its province belongs to this body also. The agreement of both Houses and the sanction of the Emperor is necessary for every law. If, in spite of repeated deliberation, no agreement can be arrived at between the two Houses in a financial law as to single items of the same, or in the law regarding recruits as to the numbers (hohe) of the contingent to be levied, then the smaller figure is taken as granted. 14. If the pressing necessity of ordinances, for which consti- tutionally the assent of the Reichsrath is necessary, arises at a time when it is not assembled, the same can be enacted, under the i-esponsibiHty of the whole Ministry, by means of an imperial ordinance, in so far as these have in view no alteration of the fundamental law of the State, relate to no lasting burden- JTig of the State Treasury and no alienation of public property. Such ordinances have provisionally the force of law, if they are signed by the whole of the Ministers and are promulgated Avith express reference to this provision of the fundamental law of the State. . The legal force of these ordinances lapses {eriisc/d) if the Government has failed to submit the same for approval to the next Reichsrath, meeting after the proclamation thereof, and moreover, in the first place to the House of Deputies within four w(;eks aftei- this meeting, or if the sam(^ do not i-eceive the ratification of one of the two Houses of the Reichsrath. of Afex^a^H^] FUNDAMENTAL LAWS 99 The whole Ministry is responsible for this, that such ordi- nances, as soon as they have lost their provisional legal force, be immediately annulled. 15. For a valid decision of the Reichsrath, the presence of 100 members in the House of Deputies and of forty in the House of Lords, and in both an absolute majority of the votes of those present, is necessary. Alterations in this fundamental law, as also in the funda- mental laws of the State with regard to the general rights of the citizens for the kingdoms and territories represented in the Reichsrath, with regard to the institution of a Supreme Court of the Empire, with regard to the judicial power as well as with regard to the exercise of the governmental and executive power, can only be decreed in a valid manner with a majority of at least two-thirds of the votes of those present, and only in the House of Deputies if at least half of the members are present. Note. — This wording of Section 15 was enacted by the Law of April 2, 1873, No. 40, Imperial Statute Book. 16. The members of the House of Deputies must take no instructions from their constituents. The members of the Reichsrath can never be brought to account for the votes given in the exercise of their calling, and for the expressions used in that calling only by the House to which they belong. No member of the Reichsrath can, without the assent of the House, be arrested, or have legal proceedings taken against him, during the duration of the session, on account of a criminal action, except in the case of being taken in the very act. Even in the case of being taken in the very act, the Court of Justice has immediately to notify the arrest which has taken place to the President of the House. Tf the House demand it, the arrest must be quashed, or the prosecution must be postponed for the entire period of the session. The House has the same right with regard to an arrest or an examination which has been adjudged concerning a member of the same, after the period of the session. 17. All members of the Reichsrath must exercise their right of voting personally. 18. The members of the House of Deputies are chosen for the period of six years. After the expiry of this period of election, as well as in the event of the dissolution of the House of Deputies, new General Elections follow. Those who have been deputies can be chosen again. During the continuance of the period of election, by-elections are to be held, if a member is.no longer eligible for election' 100 APPENDIX [No.i dies, resigns his mandate, or ceases to be a member of the Reichsrath on any other legal ground. Note. — This wording of Section 18 was enacted by the Law of April 2, 1873, No. 40, Imperial Statute Book. 19. The prorogation of the Reichsrath, as well as the disso- lution of the House of Deputies, takes place at the decree of the Emperor. In the event of dissolution, there is to be a new election within the meaning of Section 7. 20. The Ministers and heads of the central offices are entitled to take part in all dehberations, and to bring forward their proposals personally or by means of a deputy. Each House can demand the presence of the Ministers. They must always be heard at their request. They have the right to take part in the voting in so far as they are members of one House. 21. Each of the two Houses of the Reichsrath is entitled to question the Ministers in all that its province requires, to subject the administrative actions of the Government to examination, to demand information from the same about petitions which come in, to appoint Commissions to which the necessary information is to be given on the part of the Ministry, and to give expression to its opinions in the form of addresses or resolutions. 22. The exercise of the control of the national debt by means of the representative bodies is fixed by a special law. 23. The sittings of both Houses of the Reichsrath are public. To each House pertains the right to exclude the pubhc in exceptional cases, if it is demanded by the President or at least ten members, and is resolved upon by the House after the., dismissal of the audience. 24. The law concerning the standing orders of the Reichsrath contains the more precise instructions as to the communication of both Houses with each other and with the outside world. FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF THE STATE OF DECEM- BER 21, 1807, No. 142 OF THE IMPERIAL STATUTE BOOK : ON THE GENERAL RIGHTS OF THE CITIZENS FOR THE KINGDOMS AND TERRITORIES REPRESENTED IN THE REICHSRATH. With the consent of botii Houses of the Reichsrath, I enact and orduin the following fundamental law of the State on the general rights of the citizens as follows : 1 . A general Austrian citizenship exists for all who belong to the kingd(jms and territories represented in the Reichsrath. ^;iSrfa°^!^n ^TVTC RIGHTS 101 The law determines under what conditions Austrian citizen- ship is acquired, exercised, and lost. 2. All citizens are equal before the law. 3. Public posts are equally accessible for all citizens. Admission into the same for foreigners is made dependent upon the acquisition of Austrian citizenship. 4. Freedom of settlement [lit. migration] of person and property within the territory of the State is subject to no limitation. The right to be elected and the right to vote for the communal (Gemeinde) representation belongs to all citizens who live in the commune and pay taxes there — from their real property, their earnings, or their income — -under the same conditions as to those who belong to the commune. Freedom to emigrate is only limited by the State through the obligation to military service. Taxes on emigrants {Abfahrtsg elder) can only be levied on practice of reciprocity. 5. Property is inviolable. An expropriation against the will of the proprietor can only take place in the cases and in the manner which the law determines. 6. Every citizen is entitled to take up his abode and residence at any place in the territory of the State, acquire real estate of every kind, and dispose of the same freely, and can also exercise every industry, under legal conditions. Limitations of the right of corporations (holders in mort- main) to acquire real estates and to dispose of them are ad- missible by law on the ground of the public welfare. 7. Every tie of serfdom and bondage is aboHshed for ever. Every indebtedness or service attached to real estate by reason of the division of property may be redeemed, and in future no real estate may be encumbered with such an irredeemable burden. 8. The freedom of the individual is gijaranteed. The exist- ing Law of October 27, 1862, No. 87 of the Imperial Statute Book, for the protection of personal freedom, is hereby declared as an essential part of this fundamental law of the State. Every illegally decreed or prolonged arrest lays the State under the obligation to compensate the injured person. 9. Domiciliary right (Hausrecht) is inviolable. The existing "Law of October 27, 1862, No. 88, Imperial Statute Book, for the protection of domiciliary right, is herewith declared as an essential part of this fundamental law of the State. 10. The privacy of letters may not be violated, and con- fiscations of letters, except in case of a legal arrest or domicihary 102 APPENDIX [wo. I visit, are only undertaken in cases of war or on the ground of a judicial order in conformity with the existing laws. Note.—Cf. the Law of April 6, 1870. 11. Every one has a right to petition. Petitions under a collective name may only proceed from legally recognized corporations or associations. 12. The Austrian citizens have the right to assemble and to form associations. The exercise of these rights is regulated by means of special laws". Note.—Cf. the Law of November 15, 1867, Nos. 134 and 135, Imperial Statute Book, on the right of association and assembly. 13. Every one has the right to express his opinion freely within legal bounds, by word, in writing, in print, or by pictorial representation . The press may neither be subjected to censorship nor be re- stricted by the system of concessions. Administrative postal prohibitions do not apply to home printed matter {inldndische Druckschriften) . 14. Full Uberty of belief and of conscience is guaranteed to every one. The enjoyment of civic and poUtical rights is inde- pendent of religious creed ; yet civic duties may not be pre- judiced through religious creed. No one can be forced to an ecclesiastical act or to take part in an ecclesiastical ceremony, in so far as he is not subject to the power of another, hereto entitled according to the law. 15. Every legally recognized Church and rehgious society has the right of exercising common public worship ; orders and controls its internal affairs independently ; remains in posses- sion and enjoyment of its institutions, foundations, funds, designed for purposes of worship, instruction, and benevolence ; but is, like every ♦society, subject to the general laws of the State. 16. Domestic religious worship is permitted to the adherents of a religious creed not legally recognized, in so far as the same is neither illegal nor morally injurious. 17. Learning and teaching are free from restriction. Every citizen who has shown his capacity thereto, as the law directs, is entitled to found institutions for instruction and education and to impart instruction thereat. Domestic instruction is subject to no such limitation. Religious instruction in the schools is to be cared for by the Ohuiches or religious societies concerned. Tlie right of the supieme direction and supervision of the whole system of instruction and education belongs to the State. 18. Every one is at liberty to choose his profession, and to train himself for the same, how and where he will. ofTulfrfa^H'^] SUPREME COURT 103 19. All the races of the State have equal rights, and each race has an inviolable right to preserve and foster its nationality and language. The equal rights of all languages customary in the country, in school, official, and public life, are recognized by the State. In the lands in which several races dwell, the institutions for pubUc instruction must be arranged in such a way that each of these races obtains the necessary means for education in its own language, without being compelled to learn a second local language. 20. A special law will decide as to the admissibility of the temporary and local suspension of the rights contained in Articles 8, 9, 10, 12, and 13, through the responsible Govern- ment authority. FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF THE STATE OF DE- CEMBER 21, 1867, No. 143 OF THE IMPERIAL STATUTE BOOK : ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A SUPREME COURT OF THE EMPIRE. With the consent of both Houses of the Reichsrath, I enact and ordain the following fundamental law of the State as follows : 1. A Supreme Court of the Empire is instituted for the kingdoms and lands represented in the Reichsrath, for decision upon disputes as to competence and in controversial matters of public law. 2. The Supreme Court of the Empire has to decide finally upon disputes as to competence — {a) Between judicial and ad- ministrative officials on the question whether an affair is to be dealt with by course of law or administratively, in the cases fixed by the law ; (6) between a Local Diet {Landesvertretung) and the supreme administrative officials, if each of the same claim the right to order or decide in a matter of administration ; (c) between the autonomous local organs of different territories in the affairs assigned to their management and administration. 3. The final decision pertains to the Supreme Court of the Empire, further — («) As to the claims of individual territories of the kingdoms and lands represented in the Reichsrath against the whole of the same, and conversely ; then as to the claims of one of these kingdoms and lands against another of the same ; finally, as to claims which are put forth by com- munes {Gemeinden) , corporations, or single persons, against one of the said kingdoms and lands, or the whole of the same, if such claims are not such as can be decided in the ordinary course of law. 104 APPENDIX [No.i A'^o^e.— The Minister of Justice decides as to the claim raised' for damages for a sentence illegally passed, and fixes the amount of the compensation. A respite of sixty days from the deUvery of the decision of the Minister of Justice till the raising of his claim before the Supreme Court of Justice is open to the plaintiff. The term cannot be prolonged, and the claim cannot be raised a second time on the ground of the lapse of the term. (Law of March 16, 1892, No. 64, Imperial Statute Book, Sections 7, 8.) (6) As to the complaints of the citizens on account of infrac- tion of the political rights guaranteed to them by the con- stitution, after the affair has been decided in the administrative way prescribed by law. 4. As to the question whether the decision of a case pertains to the Supreme Court of the Empire, the Supreme Court of the Empire itself decides solely and alone. Its decisions exclude every further appeal, as also the initiation of legal proceedings. If a case is referred by the Supreme Court of the Empire to the regular Judge or to an administrative official, the same cannot decline to give a decision on the ground of incompetence. 5. The Supreme Court of the Empire has its seat in Vienna, and consists of the President and his Deputy, who are appointed by the Emperor for life ; then of twelve members and four sub- stitutes, whom the Emperor appoints also for life on the pro- posal of the Reichsrath— to wit, six members and two sub- stitutes from the persons proposed by the House of Deputies ; and six members and two substitutes from those proposed by the House of Lords. The proposal is made in such a manner that three experts are designated for each of the places to be filled. 6. A special law will fix the more precise instructions as to the organization of the Supreme Court of the Empire, as to the procedure before the same, and as to the execution of its decisions and orders. Note. — The special law here held in prospect was enacted on April 18, 1869, No. 44, Imperial Statute Book. FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF THE STATE OF DECEM- BER 21, 1867, No. 144 OF THE IMPERIAL STATUTE BOOK : ON THE JUDICIAL POWER. With the consent of both Houses of the Reichsrath, I enact and decree the following fundamental law of the State on the judicial power as follows : 1. All jurisdiction in llie State is exercised in tlie name of tlu; Einpeior. ofXI?rx^a:?^:=^] -irDK'iAL POWER 105 The judgements and sentences are executed in the name of the Emperor. 2. The organization and competence of the courts is deter- mined by laws. Exceptional courts are only admissible in the cases fixed beforehand by the laws. 3. The sphere of activity of the courts -martial is fixed by special laws. 4. The jurisdiction relative to the minor offences of police law and the laws with regard to rates and taxes is regulated by laws. 5. The Judges are appointed by the Emperor or in his name, finally and for life. 6. The Judges are inde23endent and free from control in the exercise of their judicial office. They can only l^e removed from their office in the cases pre- scribed by the laws, and only in virtue of a formal judicial sentence. The temporary suspension from office of the same can only be effected by order of the Judicial Committee or the Upper Court, subject to simultaneous reference of the afiair to the proper court. Removal to another position or in- voluntary retirement on a pension can only be effected by means of a judicial decision in the cases and forms fixed by the law. Note.—Cf. the Law of May 21, 1868, No. 46, Imperial Statute Book, on the disciplinary treatment of judicial officials, and the enforced removal to another position or enforced retirement of the same. These decisions, however, do not apply to the removals (from office) and retirements on a pension which are necessitated by changes in the organization of the courts. 7. The examination of the validity of laws properly published does not pertain to the courts. (3n the othci' hand, the courts have to decide on the validity of ordinances in legal succession of appeals. 8. All judicial officials have to swear in their oath of office to keep inviolable the fundamental laws of the State also. 9. The State or its judicial officials can be sued on account of the legal injuries occasioned by the latter in the exercise of their official activity by plaint, besides the legal remedies indi- cated in the judicial procedure. This right of plaint is regulated by a special law, ^o^e.— This special law is the Law of July 12, 1872, No. 112, Imperial Statute Book. 10. The proceedings before the awarding {Erkennende) Judge are verbal and public in affairs of civil and criminal law. 106 APPENDIX [wo.i TJie law determines the exceptions. In criminal matters the procedure is by bill of indictment (Anklageprocess). 11. A jury decides as to the guilt of the accused in felonies threatened with severe punishments which the law has to in- dicate, as also in all felonies and misdemeanours, whether poUtical, or perpetrated by the contents of a publication. Note. — Cf. the Introductory Law to the Code of Criminal Procedure. See also the Law of June 25, 1886, No. 98, Imperial Statute Book, and the Law of May 23, 1873, No. 120, Imperial Statute Book. 12. The Supreme Court of Justice and Court of Cassation in Vienna is for the kingdoms and territories represented in the Reichsrath. 13. The Emjjeror has the right to grant a general pardon, and to remit or mitigate the punishments which were pro- nounced by the courts, as also to revise the legal consequences of the sentences, wdth reservation of the h'mitations contained in the law with regard to the responsibility of the Minister. The regulation of the right to decree that criminal proceed- ings on account of a punishable action should not be instituted, or that the criminal proceedings instituted should be stayed, is reserved to the rules of the Code of Criminal Procedure. 14. The Administration of Justice {Rechtspflege) is separate from the Administrative Government {Verwaltung) in every instance. 15. In all cases in Avhich an administrative authority has to decide according to existing laws, or laws to be enacted in the future, upon conflicting claims between private individuals, the party whose private rights have been injured by this decision is at liberty to seek redress against the other party in due course of law. If, besides this, any one maintains that his rights have been violated by a decision or order of an administrative authority, he is at liberty to- assert his claims against a representative of the administrative authority before the Court for the Adminis- tration of Justice, by public verbal proceedings. The cases in which the (burt for the Administration of Justice has to decide, the composition of tliat court, and also the pro- cedure before the same, are determined by a special law. A'o/r. — See, further, the Law of October 22, 1875, No. 3(5, Imperial Statute J3ook for 1876, relative to the establishment of a Judicial Court of Administration. ofAui?rfa°H'^] EXECUTTV^E POWER 107 FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF THE STATE OF DECEM- BER 21, 1867, No. 145 OF THE IMPERIAL STATUTE BOOK : ON THE GOVERNMENTAL AND EXECU- TIVE POWER. With the consent of both Houses of the Reichsrath, I enact and decree the following fundamental law of the State on the exercise of the governmental and executive power as follows : 1. The Emperor is sacred, inviolable, and irresponsible. 2. The Emperor exercises the governmental power through responsible Ministers and the subordinate officials and ap- pointees of the same. 3. The Emperor nominates and dismisses the Ministers, and appoints to all offices in all branches of the service of the State, on the proposal of the Ministers in question, unless the law otherwise directs. 4. The Emperor confers titles, orders, and other State dis- tinctions. 5. The Emperor has the supreme command over the armed forces, declares war, and concludes peace. 6. The Emperor concludes the State treaties. The consent of the Reichsrath is necessary to the validity of commercial treaties and of those State treaties which burden the Empire or part of the same, or lay single citizens under obligations. 7. The right of coinage is exercised in the name of the Emperor. 8. The Emj)eror, on accession to the throne, takes the solemn oath in the presence of both Houses of the Reichsrath : ' To keej) the fundamental laws of the kingdoms and lands represented in the Reichsrath inviolable, and to rule in harmony with the same and the general laws.' 9. The Ministers are responsible for the constitutionaUty and legality of the acts of the Government falling within the sphere of their taking official province {Amtsivirksamkeit). The responsibility, the composition of the Court of Justice to give judgement on the impeachment of a Minister, and the proceedings before the same, are regulated by a special law. 10. The publication of the laws is effected in the name of the Emperor, with a mention of the consent of the constitutionally representative bodies, and subject to the co-operation of a re- sponsible Minister. IL The Government authorities are entitled to enact ordinances and give orders— within their official province — on the basis of the ia^^•s, and to enforce the observance of these I 2 108 APPENDIX [No. 1 latter, as well as the statutory ordinances even against those under obligation thereto. Special laws regulate the executive right of the adminis- trative authorities, as also the powers of the armed forces which are permanently organized for the public security, tran- quilhty, and order, or are called out in special cases. 12. All the State servants are responsible within their official province for the observance of the fondamental laws of the State, as also for the direction of business in keeping with the imperial and local laws. Those organs of the executive power to whose disciplinary power the State servants in question are subject are in duty bound to enforce this responsibility. The liability at civil law of the same for the legal injuries arising through orders contrary to duty is regulated by a law. 13. All organs of the State administration have also to swear to. the inviolable observance of the fundamental laws of the State in their oath of service. LAW No. 140 OF DECEMBER 21, 1867 : REGARDING AFFAIRS COMMON TO ALL THE LANDS OF THE AUSTRIAN MONARCHY, AND THE MANNER OF THEIR TREATMENT. With consent of both Houses of the Reichsrath, I enact the following law to supplement the fundamental law mth regard to the representation of the Empire : 1 . The following affairs are declared as common to the realms and lands represented in the Reichsrath, and to the territories of the Hungarian Crown : {a) Foreign affairs, including diplomatic and commercial re- presentation in relation to foreign countries, as well as the dispositions that may be necessary with regard to international treaties, whereby, however, the ratification of the international ti'caties in so far as such ratification is constitutionally necessary remains i-eserved to the re]:)resentative bodies of both halves of the Enij)ire (to the Reichsrath and to the Hungarian Parlia- ment). (6) Military affairs, including the navy, with the exception, however, of the granting of I'ccruits, and of the legislation as to the method and manner of the fulfilment of the obhgation to serve in the army ; of the ordei's relative to the moving and maintenance of the army ; further, of the regulation of the civic relations, and of the I'ights and duties not connected wdth military service, of the members of the army. (c) Finance M'ith legard to the expenses to be defrayed in ofAul?rfa^H'-M COMMON AFFAIRS 109 common, particularly the fixing of the budget relating thereto and the examination of the accounts referring to the same. 2. Furthermore, the following affairs should not, indeed, be administered in common, yet they are dealt with according to similar principles to be agreed upon from time to time. (1) Commercial affairs, especially the Customs legislation. (2) The legislation about the indirect taxes, closely connected with industrial production. (3) The fixing of the coinage system and the money standard. Note. — By Law of August 2, 1892, No. 127, Imperial Statute Book, the Ministry of the kingdoms and lands represented in the Reichsrath was empowered to conclude a coinage and standard agreement with the Ministry of the lands of the Hun- garian Crown. This agreement was concluded by Proclamation of the Minister President of August 11, 1892, No. 132, Imperial Statute Book, in the version fixed by the Law of August 2, 1892, No. 127, Imperial Statute Book, and August 11, 1892, was agreed upon as the day of the promulgation and of the com- mencement of the legal force thereof. (4) Orders relative to those fines of railways which affect the interests of both halves of the Empire. (5) The fixing of the system of defence. 3. The costs of the common affairs (Section 1) are to be borne by both parts of the Empire according to a proportion which will be fixed from time to time by a mutual agreement of the representative bodies (the Reichsrath and the Hungarian Par- liament) to be sanctioned by the Emperor. Should no agree ment be arrived at between the two representative bodies, then the Emperor determines this proportion — only, however, for the duration of one year. The defrajdng of the expense of the services faffing on each of the two parts of the Empire according to this provision is, how- ever, exclusively the affair of each side. A common loan can also, however, be incurred for the defray- ing of the expenses of the common affairs, in which case also all that relates to the contracting of the loan, and the means of its appfication and repayment, is to be treated in common. The decision on the question whether a common loan is to be incurred remains reserved, however, to the legislature of each of the two halves of the Empire. 4. The contribution of the quota to the burdens of the present State debt is regulated by means of an agreement to be arrived at between both halves of the Empire. 5. The administration of the common affairs is provided through a common responsible Ministry, which is not allowed, 110 APPENDIX [No. however, to conduct the special governmental business of one of the two parts of the Empire also along with the common affairs. The orders relative to the management, command, and internal organization of the joint army pertain to the Emperor exclusively. 6. The right of legislation belonging to the representative bodies of both halves of the Empire (to the Reichsrath and to the Hungarian Parliament) is to be exercised by the same — in so far as the common affairs are concerned— by means of delegations which are to be despatched. 7. The delegation of the Reichsrath numbers sixty members, of whom one-third are taken from the House of Lords and two- thirds from the House of Deputies. 8. It devolves upon the House of Lords to choose the twenty members of the delegation from their midst by means of an absolute majority of votes. The forty members devolving upon the House of Deputies are chosen in such a manner that the deputies of the separate Diets despatch the delegates according to the following mode of distribution, whereby thej'^ are at liberty to choose the same either from their midst or from the full session of the House. The deputies have to choose by means of an absolute majority of votes. From the Kingdom of Bohemia From the Kingdom of Dalmatia From the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria with the Grand-Duchy of Cracow . From the Archduchy of Austria below the Enns From tlie Archduchy of Austria above the Enns From the Duchy of Salzburg From the Duchy of Styria From the Duchy of Carinthia From tlie Duchy of Carniola From the Ducliy of BukoAvina h\om the Margravate of Moravia From the Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia From the County Palatine of the Tirol From the territory of Vorarlberg From the Margravate of 1 stria From the County Palatine of Goritz and Gradisca From the town of Trieste with its district , 10 1 7 8 2 1 2 1 1 1 4 1 2 J 1 1 1 i 40 Note.- '^I'lic immltcr of delegates and substitutes falling to ofTulufa^H?^] COMMON AFFAIRS 111 each land, according to Subsections 2 and 3 of this section, and according to the following Section 9, is to be elected at present by the elected members of the House of Deputies in the lands concerned (concluding sentence of Article II. of the Law of April 2, 1873, No. 40, Imperial Statute Book). 9. In like manner, each of the two Houses of the Reichsrath has to choose substitutes for the delegates, the number of whom amounts to ten for the House of Lords, and twenty for the House of Deputies. The number of the substitutes to be chosen from the House of Deputies is distributed in proportion to the delegates to be despatched from the same, so that there is one substitute for one to three delegates, two substitutes for four and more dele- gates. The choice of each substitute is to be considered separately. Note. — See the note to the preceding section (8). 10. The choice of the delegates and their substitutes is renewed annually from both Houses of the Reichsrath. LTntil then the delegates and substitutes remain in their function. The retired members of the delegation can be re-elected in the same. 11. The delegations are convened annually by the Emperor. The meeting-place is fixed by the Emperor. 12. The delegation of the Reichsrath chooses from its members the President and Vice-President, as also the Secretary and remaining functionaries. 13. The province of the delegations comprehends all subjects which concern the common affairs. Other subjects are excluded from the competence of the delegations. 14. Government proposals reach each of the two delegations separatelj'^ by means of the common Ministry. The right to make proposals on subjects within their province pertains also to each delegation. 15. For all laws concerning the affairs Mdthin the province of the delegations, an accord between both delegations is requisite, or, failing an accord, a resolution framed and agreed to in a common full session of both delegations and in every case the sanction of the Emperor. 16. The right to call the common Ministry to account is exercised by the delegations. On the violation of a constitutional law existing for the common affairs, each delegation can move the impeachment (which is to be communicated to the other delegation) of the common Ministry or of a single member. 112 APPENDIX [No.i The impeachment is legally valid if it is resolved upon by each delegation sejjarately or in a common full session of both delegations. 17. Each delegation proposes twenty-four Judges from the independent citizens learned in the law of those lands which it represents — not, however, from its own midst — of whom the other delegation can reject twelve. The accused also, or if there are several, all the accused have in common the right to decline twelve of those proposed — only, however, in such manner that an equal number of those proposed in this way by means of either delegation are declined. The remaining Judges left after this foi'm the court of justice for the lawsuit under discussion. 18. A special law on the responsibility of the common Ministry will fix the more precise instructions as to the impeachment, the procedure, and the sentence. 19. Each of the two delegations negotiates, deliberates, and resolves for itself, in separate sittings. Section 81 contains the exceptional case. 20. The presence of at least thirty members besides the Chairman is requisite to enal^le the delegation of the Reichs- rath to come to a decision, and the absolute majority of votes of those present is necessary for the validity of the resolution. 21. The delegates and substitutes of the Reichsrath must accept no instructions from their electors. 22 The delegates of the Reichsrath must exercise their right of voting personally. Section 25 fixes when a substitute has to enter office. 23. The delegates of the Reichsrath enjoy in this capacity the same inviolabihty and irresponsibility which belong to them as members of the Reichsrath, by virtue of Section 10 of the Fundamental Law on the Imperial Representation. "^Fhe rights relating to the delegates, granted to the House in question of this paragraph, appertain to the delegation in so far as the Reichsrath is not assembled at the same time. 24. Withdrawal from the Reichsrath involves withdrawal from the delegation also. 25. If a member of the delegation or a substitute resign, then a new election is to be proposed. If the Reichsiath is not assem})]ed, then his substitute has to take the place of the retiring delegate. 20. If the House of Deputies is dissolved, then the compe- tence of the delegation of the ReichsratJi also expires. The newly convened Reichsrath elects a new delegation. ^fTSfa^ii?^] COMMON AKbWlKS 113 27. The session of the delegation is closed by the President of the same, after the termination of the business, with the approval or on the mandate of the Emperor. 28. The members of the common Ministry are entitled to take part at all councils of the delegation, and to advocate their proposals personally or through a deputy. They must be heard every time on demand. The delegation has the right to address questions to the common Ministry or to a single member thereof, and to demand answer and ex- planation therefrom ; further, to appoint Commissions to which the information required is to be given on the part of the Ministry. 29. The .sitting-^ of the delegation are public as a rule. By way of exception, the jDublic can be excluded if it is demanded by the President or by at least five members, and resolved upon by the Assembly after the departure of the audience. A resolution can only be taken, however, in a public sitting. 80. Both delegations communicate tlieir resolutions to each other, as well as the reasons thereof, when necessary. This communication is carried on in writing, in German on the side of the delegation of the Reich srath, in the Hungarian language on the side of the delegation of the Hungarian Parha- ment, and on both sides with the enclosure of an authoritative translation in the language of the other delegation. 3 1 . Each delegation is entitled to move that the question be decided by means of common voting, and this motion cannot be refused by the other delegation as soon as a threefold exchange of letters has remained unsuccessful. The Presidents of both sides agree upon the place and time for a full session of both delegations for the purpose of common voting. 32. The Presidents of the delegations preside alternately in the full session. It is decided by lot which of the two Presidents has to preside the first time. In all following sessions the President of that delegation whose President has not presided at the session immediately preceding presides at the first full assembly. 33. The presence of at least two-thirds of the members of each delegation is requisite in order that the full assembly may be competent to make resolutions. The resolution is made by an absolute majority of votes. If more members are present on the side of one delegation than on the side of the other, then on the side of the delegation in a majority as many members have to refrain from voting as must fall out to restore the equality of nuiuber of those voting 114 APPENDIX [No.i on both sides. It is decided by lot who has to refrain from voting. 34. The full sessions of both delegations are public. The minutes are kept in both languages by the Secretaries of both sides, and attested in common. 35. The more precise instructions as to the course of business are regulated by means of the standing orders, the settlement of which is to be effected through the delegation. 36. The agreement in relation to those subjects which are not indeed treated as common, but are, however, to be regulated according to common principles, is effected either in this way — that the responsible Ministry elaborate a Bill in common under- standing, and lay it before the representative bodies concerned or both sides for their decision, and the decisions agreed upon by both representations are laid before the Emperor for his sanction ; of that the two representative bodies choose, each from its midst, equally large deputations which elaborate a proposal under the influence of the Ministry concerned, which proposal is then communicated by the Ministry to each representative body, and treated regularly by the same, and the corresponding resolutions of both representations are laid before the Emperor for his sanction. The second precedent is to be observed specially at the agreement as to the proportion of the contributions to the costs of the common affairs. Note. — (1) A deputation of fifteen members is to be de- spatched from the Reichsrath for the negotiation by deputation which takes place in conformity with Section 36 of the Law of December 21, 1867, No. 146, Imperial Statute Book, with a view to agreement as to the relative proportion of the contribu- tions to the costs of the common affairs of the monarchy. (2) In this deputation five members are to be elected from the House of Lords, ten members from the House of Deputies (Law of March 28, 1877, No. 23, Imperial Statute Book). 37. This law comes into operation together with the law relating to the alteration of the Fundamental Law of February 20, 1861, as to the imperial representation, and with the fundamental laws of the State on the general rights of citizens, on the administrative and executive powers, on the power of Judges, and on the installation of a Supreme Court of the Empire. ofiulTru?^?^] t-A\V OF NATIONALITIES 11; II STATUTE 44 OF THE YEAR 1868: THE HUNGARIAN LAW OF NATIONALITIES! Since all citizens of Hungary, according to the principles of the constitution, form from a political point of view also one nation, the indivisible unitary Hungarian nation, of wliich every citizen of the fatherland is a member, no matter to what nationality he belongs ; Since, moreover, the equality of right can only exist with reference to the official use of the various languages employed in the country, and can only fall under special rules so far as is rendered necessary by the unity of the countrj^ and the practical possibility of government and administration : The following rules will serve as a standard with regard to the official use of the various languages, while in all other respects the complete equality of the citizen remains untouched : 1. Since by reason of the political unity of the iiation the State language of Hungary is Magyar, the language of delibera- tion and business in the Hungarian Parliament is also in future Magyar. The laws will be promulgated in the Magyar lan- guage, but are also to be published in an authentic translation in the languages of all other nationalities inhabiting the country. The official language of the Government in all branches of the administration is in future also Magyar. 2. The minutes of the county assemblies (Jurisdictionen) are to be kept in the official language of the State, but they can also be kept at the same time in that language which at least one-fifth of the members of the body or commission representing the jurisdiction desires to be the language of the minutes. If divergencies occur between the different texts, the Magyar text is authoritative. 3. In the assemblies of the jurisdictions, every one who possesses the right to speak in them can speak either in Magyar or in his mother tongue, if that tongue is not Magyar. 4. The jurisdictions, in their communications with the Government, employ the official language of the State, but they can also employ in a parallel column one of those lan- guages which they use in their minutes. In communicating with each other, however, they can employ either the language of the State or one of those languages whfch has been adopted under Section 2 for the conduct of the minutes bj'' that jurisdic- tion to which the communication is directed. ^ Reprinted from Drage, G., Austria-Hungary, London, 1909. 116 APPENDIX [No.i 5. In the conduct of internal business the officials of the jurisdictions employ the language of the State. But in so far as this involves practical difficulties with regard to one or other jurisdiction or official, the officials in question can in excep- tional cases employ one of the languages used for the minutes in their jurisdiction. Whenever, however, considerations of State supervision or administration demand it, their reports and official documents are to be submitted in the official language of the State also. 6. The officials of the jurisdictions, within the limits of their jurisdiction, in their official intercourse with the communes, assemblies, associations, institutions, and private individuals, employ, so far as possible, the language of the latter, 7. Every inhabitant of the country, in those cases in which, without the intervention of an advocate, he personally or through an attorney claims, or can claim, as plaintiff, defendant, or petitioner, the protection of the law and the help of the Judge, can employ — (a) Before his own communal court, his mother tongue. (6) Before any other communal court, the language of business or of the minutes of the commune in question. (c) Before his own district court, the language of business or of the minutes of his own commune. (d) Before any other courts, whether they belong to his own or to another jurisdiction, the language of the mimites em- ployed by that jurisdiction to wliich the court in question belongs. 8. In cases to which Section 7 applies, the Judge deals with the charge or the petition in the language of the charge or the petition. He conducts in the language of the parties at law or the parties cited both the hearing of parties and witnesses, the examination in court and other legal functions of the Judge, both in civil cases, whether contested or not, and in criminal proceedings ; but he conducts the reports of the trial in the language which the parties at law choose by mutual under- standing from among the languages in which the minutes are conducted in the jurisdiction. Should an understanding not ho reached in tliis connection, then the Judge can conduct the 7-eport of th(> trial in one of tJie languages used for the minutes in the jurisdiction, but is bound to declare its contents to the parties, if necessary, even by the help of an interpreter. Jn the same; way, the Judge is boinid to declare or to get inteipreted to the parties the most impoitant docunu^nts of the trial, if these shoiild be wiitten in a language which one or other of the parties does not understand. The writ (jf summons is, in the int-erests of t)i<' puity to be ofTXra^H?'^] LAW OF NATIONALITIES 117 summoned, to be drawn up in his mother tongue, if this can at once be ascertained ; but otherwise in the language used for the minutes in the commune in which the party to be summoned dwells, or else in the official language of the State. Tlie decision of the Judge is to be pronounced in the language in which the reports of the trial were drawn up ; but the Judge is bound to announce or publish it to each individual party in the language which the latter desires, in so far as the language is one of the languages used for the minutes by the local body {Municijiium) to which the Judge belongs. 9. In all those civil and criminal actions which are to be conducted subject to the intervention of an advocate, the hitherto prevailing practice both as to the language in which the trial is to be conducted and as to the language in which the verdict is to be pronounced will be everywhere maintained in courts of first instance so long as the legislature does not come to any decision regarding the final organization of the courts of first instance and the introduction of oral proceedings. 10. The Church courts themselves prescribe their language of business. 11. In the land registration offices, the business language of the particular court is to be used for the conduct of their business ; but, if the parties demand it, both the decision and the abstract {Auszug) are to be given in the official language of the St^e or in one of the languages used for the minutes of the local ho^A^^—^Municipium) in whose territory the registration office is situated. 12. In appealed cases which were not conducted in the Magyar language, or in which certain of the documents are not Magyar, the Court of Appeal gets the records of the trial and the documents, so far as is necessary, translated into Magyar by those accredited translators who are to be appointed at the expense of the State at the Courts of Appeal, and brings up the action for trial in this attested translation. The Court of Appeal mil always draw up its decrees, resolutions, and judg- ments, in the official language of the State. When the case has gone down (herabgelangt) to the competent court of first instance, the latter will be bound to announce or publish the decree, resolution, or judgment, to each party in the language in which the latter demands it, proAdded that this language is the business language of the court or a language of the minutes in the local body {Municipium). 13. The official language of all courts which are appointed by the Government is exclusively Magyar. 14. The Church congregation can, without infringement of the legal rights of their ecclesiastical superiors, prescribe, 118 APPENDIX [No.i according to their pleasure, the language in which the registers are to be drawn up and in which the Church affairs are to be conducted, and, further, within the limits of the Education Act, the language of instruction in their schools. 15. The higher Church corporations and authorities them- selves determine the language of deliberation, of the minutes, of the conduct of business, and of intercourse with their parishes, If this should not happen to be the official language of the State, then, from consideration of State supervision, the minutes are to be submitted in an authentic translation in the language of the State also. When the different Churches or higher ecclesiastical authori- ties communicate with one another, they employ either the official language of the State or the language of the Church with wliich they are communicating. 16. The upper and supreme Church authorities, in their memorials to the Government, can make use either of their business language or their language of minutes, adding in parallel columns the official language of the State. In their memorials to the local bodies (Municipien) and their organs they can use the language of the State, or, when the minutes are in several languages, one of these ; but the Church congre- gation, in their official intercourse with the Government and with their own jurisdictions, can use the official language of the State or their own business language, wMle in their intercourse -with other jurisdictions they can employ one of the languages used for its minutes. 17. So far as the law does not make provision, the right of deciding the language of instruction in those schools wliich have already been erected by the State or the Government, or which may be in future erected as need arises, forms part of the duties of the Minister of Education. But since from the standpoint of general culture and the commonweal the success of public instruction is one of the highest objects of the State also, the State is bound to insure that citizens, of whatever nationality, living together in considerable numbers, shall be able to obtain instruction in their mother tongue in the neighbourhood of the district where they live , up to the point where higher academic education begins. 18. In the secondary and higher educational institutions belonging to the State which at present exist, or may in future be (erected in distri(;ts where more than one language is in general use, chairs of languages and literature are to be estab- lished for each of these languages. 19. In the National Univ<'rsity the language of the lectures is Magyar. At the same time, chaii's are to be established for ffAulm^a^H?''] LAW OF NATIONALITIES 119 the languages employed, in the country and for their literatures, in so far as such chairs have not already been established. 20. The communal assemblies themselves choose the lan- guage of their business and minutes. The minutes are also to be kept in that language which one-fifth of the voting members regards as necessary. 21. The communal officials are bound in their intercourse with persons belonging to the commune to use the language of the latter. 22. In its memorials to its local body {Municipium) and the latter 's organs, and to the Government, the commune can employ the official language of the State or its own business language ; in its memorials to other local assemblies and their organs, either the official language of the State or one of the languages in which the local body in question keeps its minutes. 23. Every citizen of the country can submit his memorials to his own commune, to his ecclesiastical authorities, to his local body {M'unici'pmm) and its organs, and to the Government, in his mother tongue. In liis m^iorials to other communes or local bodies (Muni- cipien) andthsinjytig^is, he can employ either the official lan- guage of the State or the language of the minutes, or one of the languages used for its minutes by the commune or local body in question. The use of languages in the administration of justice is regulated by Sections 7 to 13. 24. In communal and Church assemblies, those who have the right to speak can freely use their mother tongue. 25. When private persons, Churches, private societies, or educational institutions and communes lacking autonomy, do not, in their memorials to the Government, employ the official language of the State, the Magyar original text of the document dealing with such memorials is to be supplemented by an authentic translation in the language of the memorial. 26. As hitherto so in the future, both individual citizens, communes. Churches, and congregations, of whatever nation- ality, shall have the right to erect by their own exertions, and in the way of association, both elementary, secondary, and higher educational institutions. With tliis object, and for the erection of other institutions which advance the cause of language, art, science, agriculture, industry, and commerce, the individual citizens can, subject to the legal control of the. State, join together in societies and leagues, can draw up statutes, and, after the Government has sanctioned these statutes, can act in accordance with them ; they can also collect money funds, and can, subject to Government control, 120 APPENDIX [No.i administer these funds in conformity with their lawful national claims. Educational and other institutions which have been founded in this manner enjoy equal rights wdth State institutions of a similar character, but the schools only in the event of the provisions of the Law of Public Instruction being observed. The language of private institutions and societies is pre- scribed by the founders. The societies and the institutions founded by them com- municate with one another in their own language ; in their intercourse with others, the provisions of Section 23 are decisive A\dth regard to the use of language. 27. Since in future, also, personal capacity will be the decisive factor in the filling of offices, a person's nationality cannot be regarded as an obstacle to his appointment to an office or dignity in the country. On the contrary, the Government will take care that, in the judicial and administrative offices of the country, especially in the office of Lord Lieutenant, persons of the various nationalities shall, so far as possible, be employed who possess the necessary linguistic laiowledge to a full degree, and who are also otherwise qualified. 28. The provision of the older laws wliich conffict with the above regulations are hereby annulled. 29. The provisions of this law do not extend to Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia, which possess a special territory and form politically a special nation ; for these (countries) the decision in matters of language y\n.\l depend upon the agreement which has been reached between the Hungarian Parliament on the one hand, and the Croato-Slavonian Parliament on the other hand, by right of which the deputies of these countries may, in the joint Hungaro -Croatian Parliament, speak in their mother tongue also. Ill THE AUSTRO-GERMAN ALLIANCE, 1879 1 [This Treaty was published officially by Bismarck in 1888.] Whei'cas their Majesties the German Emperor, King of Prussia, and the Emperor of Austria, King of Himgary, must regard it as their unavoidable duty as monarchs to take care, under all circumstances, of the safety of their realms and the quietude of their peoples ; whereas, further, the two monarchs will be al)Ie, as in their foimer I'elation as members of the German Confederation, to peifoi'm tliis duty more easily and effectively by the firm co-operation of the two Empires ; and J l-vcpiintcd from the Avniuil Rcgifilrr, 1888, p. 284. ofAuf?rS°i"^] AUSTRO-GERMAN ALLIANCE 121 whereas, finally, a cordial co-operation of Germany and Austria- Hungary can menace no one, but is calculated on the contrary, to fortify the European peace created by the Treaty of Berlin, their Majesties the German Emperor and the Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary, solemnly promise one another that they will never give to their purely defensive agreement an aggressive tendency in any direction, and have resolved to conclude an alliance of peace and mutual defence. To this end . . . their Plenipotentiaries . . . have agreed as follows : Art. I. — Should, contrary to the hope and the sincere wish of the two illustrious contracting parties, one of the two Empires be attacked by Russia, the illustrious contracting parties are bound to assist one another with the whole mihtary power of their Empires, and, as a consequence of this, to conclude peace only in common, and in agreement. Art. II. Should one of the illustrious contracting parties be attacked by another Power, the other august party hereby binds himself not only iiot to assist the aggressor against his august ally, but to observe at least an attitude of friendly neutrality towards the latter.- If, however, in such a case the aggressor should be supported by Russia either in the form of active co-operation or by mihtary measures threatening the party attacked, the obligation stipulated in Art. I of this Treaty, to assist one another with full military strength, at once becomes binding, and the conduct of the war by the two august contracting parties then becomes common till a common conclusion of peace. Art. Ill, This Treaty shall, in accordance with its peaceful character, and in order to exclude every misinterpretation, be kept secret by both august contracting parties, and com- municated to a third Power only by consent of both. The two august contracting parties, in view of the sentiments expressed by the Emperor Alexander, at the meeting in Alexan- drovo, cherish the hope that the Russian military prepara- tions will not really prove threatening to them, and have, therefore, no occasion at present to make any communication on the subject ; but should this hope, contrary to expectation, prove erroneous, the two august contracting parties would regard it as a duty of honour to inform the Emperor Alexander, at least confidentially, that they must regard an attack on one of them as an attack on both. As witness whereof, the Plenipotentiaries have signed this Treaty with their own hands, and attached their seals. Done at Vienna, 7th of October, 1879. HENRY VII, REUSS. ANDRASSY. K 122 APPENDIX [wo.i IV PARTIAL TEXT OF THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE, 1882 [Austrian White Paper, published in Vossische Zeitung, May 27, 1915.] Clause III. — In case one or two of the high contracting parties, without direct provocation on their part, should be attacked by one or more Great Powers not signatory of the ]i resent Treaty and should become involved in a war with them, the casus foederis would arise simultaneously for all the high contracting parties. Clause IV. — In case a Great Power not signatory of the present Treaty should threaten the State security of one of the high contracting parties, and in case the threatened party should thereby be compelled to declare war against that Great Power, the two other contracting parties engage themselves to maintain benevolent neutrality towards their Ally. Each of them reserves its right, in this case, to take part in the war if it thinks fit in order to make common cause with its Ally. Clause VII. — Austria-Hungary and Italy, who have solely in view the maintenance, as far as possible, of the territorial status quo in the East, engage themselves to use their influence to prevent all territorial changes which might be disadvan- tageous to the one or the other of the Powers signatory of the ]) resent Treaty. To this end they will give reciprocally all information calculated to enlighten each other concerning tlieir own intentions and those of other Powers. Should, how- over, the case arise that, in the course of events, the main- tenance of the status quo in the territory of the Balkans or of the Ottoman coasts and islands in the Adriatic or the Aegean Seas, becomes impossible, and that, either in consequence of the action of a third Power or for any other reason, Austria- Hungary or Italy should be obliged to change the status quo for their part by a temporary or permanent occupation, such occupation would only take place after previous agreement })etween the two Powers, which would have to be based upon the principle of a reciprocal compensation for all territorial or other advantages that either of them might acquire over and above the existing status quo, and would have to satisfy the interests and rightful claims of both parties. !?A&i^-H?^] 'REINSURANCE' TREATY 123 V PARTIAL TEXT OF THE ' REINSURANCE ' TREATY, 1887 Published in Allgemeine Zeihmg, Sept. 12, 1919. The following is a translation of the passage in the A. Z. as given in The Times, Sept. 13, 1919.] The Treaty is dated June 18, 1887 ; and, as an inseparable part of this Treaty, there was created on the same day a quite secret supplementary protocol which was also signed in Berlin . The Treaty was signed on the Russian side by Count Paul SchuvalofE (then Russian Ambassador in Berlin), and on the German side by the son of the State Chancellor, Count Herbert Bismarck, who at that time was State Secretary for Foreign Affairs. The treaty^as concluded for three years. The most important stipulations say : Article 1. — In case one of the high contracting parties should find itself in a state of war with a third Great Power, the other will observe a benevolent neutrality and make every effort to localize the struggle. This stipulation shall not apply to a war against France or Austria in case such a war is brought about by an attack of one of the high contracting parties upon one of these two Powers. Article 2. — Germany recognizes the historically-acquired rights of Russia to the Balkan peninsula, and especially the legitimac}^ of her predominant and decided influence in Bul- garia and Eastern Roumelia. Both Courts pledge themselves not to permit any alteration in the territorial status quo of the peninsula mentioned without previous agreement, and in case of necessity to oppose every attempt to prejudice this status quo or to alter" it without their consent. Article 3.— The two Courts recognize the European and mutually binding character of the principle of the closing of the Straits of the Bosphorus and of the Dardanelles, which is founded on international law, confii'med by treaties, and com- prised in the declaration made by the second plenipotentiary of Russia at the sitting of the Berlin Congress of July 12 (protocol 19). They will together take care that Turkey shall not make any exceptions to this rule in favour of any Govern- ment whatever, or abandon that part of her Empire which is formed by the Straits for the military operations of a Power at war. In case of violation, or in order to prevent a threatened violation, the two Courts will declare to Turkey that, if such a case should arise, they would consider her as being at war with. 124 APPENDIX [w o. 1 the violated parts and look upon the guarantee of safety to her territorial status quo in the Berlin Treaty as having become valid. The secret supplementary treaty states further that Germany, as heretofore, will assist Russia in order to re-establish in Bul- garia an orderly and regular Government, and promises not under any circumstances to give her approval to the reinstate- ment of the Prince of Battenberg. Germany furthermore promises benevolent neutrality and moral and diplomatic support to the measures which Russia might consider necessary in order to retain the key to its Empire in its own hands, in case Russia should be brought by necessity, for the sake of upholding her rights, to undertake the task of defending the entrance to the Black Sea. HANDBOOKS PBEPABEJD UNDEB THE DIRECTION OF THE HISTORICAL SECTION OF THE FOBEIGN OFFICE— No. 2 BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA LONDON : PUBLISHED BY H. M. STATIONERY OFFICE. 1920 Boliemia audi Moravia J TABLE OF CONTENTS IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS (A) Means of Communication (a) Roads .... (ft) Rivers and Canals . (c) Railways and Tramways . (d) Posts .... (B) Industry (1) Labour (a) Labour Conditions . (6) Emigration (2) Agriculttire (a) Products of Commercial Value Agriculture in Bohemia Agriculture in Moravia Hops . Fruit . Wine . (6) Forestry . (c) Land Tenure (3) Minerals Coal and Lignite Iron . Graphite . Copper, Tin, Gold, Silver, &c Mineral Waters (4) Manufactures Sugar Beer and Spirits Paper Porcelain and Glass Cement Textile Industries Chemical Industry Machinery . (5) Trade Combinations and Cartels Wood Industry . Iron Industry Graphite Industry Sugar Industry . PAGE 42 42 47 51 51 53 54 55 58 59 60 60 61 61 62 6"b 66 67 67 69 69 71 72 73 75 76 79 80 82 82 82 83 83 TABLE OF CONTENTS [^0.2 PAGE Brewing and Distilling .... 83 Cotton Industry . . . . . .84 Woollen Industry ..... 84 Glass, China, and Enamelled Ware Industries . 84 Chemical Industry ..... 85 Nitrate Combine ...... 85 Machine Factories ..... 85 (C) Commerce (a) Organizations for promoting Trade . . 86 (6) Exports and Imports .... 86 Hops and Fruit 88 Coal and Lignite .... 88 Iron 89 Graphite, Sugar, Beer, Gloves, &c. . 90 Machinery . . . . . .91 (D) Finance (1) Public Finance . . . . . .92 (2) Banks and Financial Institutions ... 96 (3) Influence of Foreign Capital .... 98 (E) General Remarks ...... 100 APPENDIX Table I. Staple Crops . . . . . .103 „ II. Beet and Sugar ..... 104 „ III. Banks 105 AUTHORITIES Historical and Economic . . . . . .108 Maps . . . . . . . . .109 Bohemia andl Moravia J TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE I. GEOGRAPHY PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL Bohemia (1) Position and Frontiers ..... 1 (2) Surface and River System Surface ....... 2 River System ...... 4 Moravia (1) Position and Frontiers ..... 5 (2) Surface and River System Surface ....... 6 River System . . . . . .7 Bohemia and Moravia (3) Climate 7 (4) Sanitary Conditions ..... 9 (5) Race and Language ..... 9 (6) Population Distribution . . . . . .10 Towns II Movement ....... 12 II. POLITICAL HISTORY Chronological Summary .... Origins ....... The German Immigration The Czech Reaction ..... The Hussite Wars and their Consequences . Toleration under the Habsburgs The Battle of the White Mountain and the Catholic Reaction ...... Power of the Jesuits .... Wt. 36998/251. 1,000. 2/20. O.U.P. 13 14 14 15 15 16 17 17 TABLE OF CONTENTS [»o, 2 Effects of the Change Constitutional Changes The Eighteenth Century . Reforms of Joseph II . Revival of the Czech Language Early Nineteenth Century Repression under Metternich The Linguistic and Literary Revival Foundation of the Matice Ceska Kollar and Pan-Slavism The Pohtical Awakening . Havlicek .... The Revolution of 1848 . Palacky and the Congress of Frankfurt The Congress of Prague Restoration of Absolutism Triumph of Dualism Industrial Revolution Attempts at Conciliation . Hohenwart Taaffe .... Masaryk founds the Realist Party The Compromise of 1890 . Czech Opposition Taaffe's Fall Badem's Proposals . National and International Socialism The Korber Ministry. Universal Suffrage Failure of Last Attempts at a Settlement Dissolution of the Diet Appointment of an Imperial Administrative Commission ...... PAGE 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 20 20 20 21 21 21 22 23 23 24 25 25 25 26 27 27 27 28 28 28 29 29 30 30 III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS (1) Rehgious ..... (2) Pohtical (3) Educational .... General Observations The Racial Struggle .... 31 32 34 37 Boliemla and Moravia, GEOGRAPHY PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL BOHEMIA (1) Position and Frontiers Bohemia, which is the most important province of Austria, is shaped lil^e an irregular diamond, its four points squaring ahnost exactly with those of the compass. It has an area of 20,058 square miles, and lies between 48° 33' and 51° 3' north latitude and 12° 5' and 16° 51' east longitude, being bounded on the north-west by Saxony, on the north-east by Prussian Silesia, on the east and south-east by Moravia and lower Austria, on the south by upper Austria, and on the south-west by Bavaria. It is entirely surrounded by mountains which form steep ranges, except on the east. Starting from its most westerly point on the Bavarian border, the northern boundary runs north-east along the Erzgebirge to the Elbe, which it crosses just above Herrenskretchen. A little farther on the frontier makes a sharp bend to its most northerly point, Buch- berg, which is also the most northerly point in the Austrian Empire. The eastern boundary runs along the range of the Sudetes, then, leaving these in the neighbourhood of the Schneeberg, it runs in a southerly direction to the Zwittawa, and then south-west along the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands, continuing through mountainous country till it turns north-west along the Bohmerwald. It continues to follow these mountains and the Fichtelgebirge until it reaches its most westerly point in the Asch region, the little B 2 GEOGRAPHY— BOHEMIA * [no. 2 wedge of Bohemia that runs in between Bavaria and Saxony. The one important outlet to the north is the Elbe valley, while the Bohmerwald is cut in two by the Neepomuk, Neugedein, or Neumark Pass (1,473 ft., 448 m.) near Taus (Bomazlice), which has always been the main highway to the kingdom from the south-west. Thus Bohemia is naturally cut off from the rest of Europe, except where its frontier marches with that of Moravia on the east. (2) Surface and River System Surface Bohemia may be regarded as the basin of the upper Elbe and its tributaries. The land slopes from south to north, Herrenskretschen, where the Elbe enters Saxony, being the lowest point, 367 ft. (Ill m.). The Erzgebirge (Rudo Hori) in the north-west, with their rounded tops, rise steeply above the Eger, but slope gently on the Saxon side. Their average height is about 2,600 ft. (800 m.), and they have a length of some 87 miles. The Keilberg (4,P80 ft., 1,243 m.) is the highest point, rising above Gottesgab (3,375 ft., 1,028 m.), which is said to be the highest town in Europe. To the east of the Erzgebirge are the Elbsandstein- gebirge, through the extreme left portion of which flows the Elbe, and beyond these the Sudetes run south-east. They are divided into the Lausitzergebirge, the Iser- gebirge, the Jeschkengebirge, running south-east, the Riesengebirgc, whose highest point is the Schneekoppe (5,260 ft., 1,603 m.), the highest mountain in Bohemia, and the Bohmischer Kamm (Adlergebirge), which runs south-east to the Moravian frontier. The average height of these chains ranges from 2,500 ft, to about 3,500 ft. (750-1,050 m.). Mo^rlv/a""M SURFACE 3 The Bolinierwald' is divided into two parts by the Neepomuk Pass. The northern Bohmerwald (Ceskyles) extends for 25 miles to the neighbour- hood of Klentsch. It consists of a mass of ridges and rounded tops, Cerkow (3,300 ft., 1,006 m.), its highest point, rising above fclie pass. The southern Bohmer- wald (Sumava), with a length of 78 miles to the Kusch- warda Pass (2,640 ft., 804 m.), forms a great wall of some 4,000 ft. (1,200m.). The Eisenstein Pass (3,123ft., 951 m.) divides it into two parts. North-west of Wald- sassen are the Fichtelgebirge. There are several mountain areas in the interior. In the north-west lies the extensive plateau, of which the Kaiserwald and the Teplergebirge are the most notable divisions. The Mittelgebirge, pierced by the Elbe, lies to the north, while between Pilsen and Prague is the Brdywald, the highest of the internal ranges, where the climate is consequently severe. With the exception of the Kaiserwald, these mountains are rarely over 3,000 ft. (900 m.) high. In the south-east lies the Wittingau plain with its many lakes. A line drawn through Hohenmauth, Prague, and Komotau roughly divides the southern highlands from the northern lowlands and the great plain north of Prague. Of the land west of the Moldau and south of Konigsaal three-quarters is more or less mountainous. Only the Pilsen and Budweis plains are not mountain plateaux, and they are both hilly. In spite of the extent of its mountains, Bohemia is among the most fertile parts of the Austrian Empire. Every inch of the great plain of the north is cultivated ; only a few trees appear upon it here and there east of Prague. The Saaz hop district, the Leitmeritz and Tepl districts, and the Goldene Rute round Koniggratz are famous. Hardly less fertile are the valleys of the more important rivers, notably of the Eger and the B2 4 'GEOGRAPHY— BOHEMIA • [no. a Beraun. The Pilsen plain, watered by its four rivers, and the Budweis plain are less rich. The slopes of the mountains are also cultivated to the highest possible limit. The water-supply is nearly everywhere ample throughout the year. It is not plentiful in the Dauba region, with its important hop-fields, but the difficulty has been largely overcome by the construction of wells and other means. River System All the rivers of Bohemia have their sources within its boundaries. The centre of the main drainage system is the Elbe (Labe), which carries virtually all the waters of the country into Germany. The Elbe is navigable for 68 miles above, its confluence with the Moldau, but rafts can be floated down from a much greater distance. It rises in the Riesengebirge and, after receiving the Adler on its left bank, flows roughly north-west through the great northern plain and then through the Mittelgebirge. The Iser and the Polzen are large tributaries on the right, but far more important are the Eger, which enters the Elbe at Leitmeritz, with its confluent the Tepl, and the Biela, which drain the north-western area of Bohemia. The Moldau (Vltava) is undoubtedly the most impor- tant of Bohemian rivers. It has a greater volume of water than the Elbe at their confluence, and is 270 miles long, 47 miles longer than the upper Elbe, while its basin is twice as large. It rises in the Bohmer- wald, flowing south-east between the two main ridges to the neighbourhood of Hohenfurth, where it turns in a northerly direction, flowing through a deep narrow valley to Prague. Below Prague the valley opens out and there are numerous islands. The Moldau enters the Elbe at Melnik. It is navigable for boats from M^rivl^^'^'^j GEOGRAPHY— MORAVIA 5 Bndweis and for steamers from Prague, below which town it is canalized and has a depth of 7 ft. The chief tributaries of the Moldau on the right are the Luznice (Luschnitz) and the Sazawa, which is navigable for. 88 miles; on the left the Wattawa (Wottawa) and the Beraun. The Beraiin, which is the third largest river in Bohemia, and is navigable for 25 miles, is forrned at Pilsen by the junction of four rivers — the Mies from the west, the Radbusa, the Angel, and the Uslowa from the south. It enters the Moldau below Konigsaal. The Langenbrlicker Teich, near Oberplan, is the largest lake in Bohemia, but small lakes are numerous, especially in the Wittingau region, and in the Binnen- land, in the north-east. MORAVIA (1) Position and Frontiers Moravia lies between 48° 40' and 50° 14' north latitude and 15° 5' and 18° 45' east longitude. It is bounded on the west by Bohemia, on the north and north-east by Prussian and Austrian Silesia, on the east by Galicia, on the east and south-east by Hungary, and on the south by lower Austria. On leaving the Bohemian frontier by the Schneeberg, the Moravian boundary runs north-east to its most northerly point in the neighbourhood of Weisswasser. From here it runs south-east along the Altvater range and the Gesenke (branches of the Sudetes) to the neighbourhood of Weisskirchen. It next swings round north-east, making two important dips to the north, and then follows the Oder till it doubles back along its tributary, the Ostrawitza, up to the White Car- pathians. These it follows in a south-westerly direction, but ultimately sweeps round to the north- west to enter tlie valley of the March. Here the () GEOGRAPHY— MORAVIA [no. 2 bouiidar}^ first follows the March, then trends north- west along its tributary, the Thaya. The Thaya valley forms in general the southern boundary of Bohemia, though the line does not always follow it closely, as far as Fratting. Here the boundary crosses the Thaya, continuing in a north-westerly direction as far as the Hoherstein in the Bohemians-Moravian Highlands. With these it holds a generally nortli and north- easterly direction till it runs up the valley of the upper March to the Schneeberg. (2) Surface and River System Surface Like Bohemia, Moravia is virtually surrounded by mountains, but, unlike Bohemia, it slopes from north to south. Its area is about 8,580 square miles. Moravia ma}^ be regarded as the basin of the March, into which virtually all the other rivers of the country drain. The range of the Sudetes, which forms the north- eastern boundary of Moravia, reaches its highest point in the Altvater (4,887 ft., 1,489 m.) and Schnee- berg (4,664 ft., 1,421 m.), falling gradually away through the Holies Gesenke and Niederes Gesenke to the Oder. The north-western limit of the Hohes Gesenke is the Spornhau Pass (3,030 ft., 923 m.), over which runs the railway. With the exception of one or two peaks, the Gesenke is never much over 3,000 ft. (900 m.) in height. ,0n the southern border are heights of over 3,000 ft. (900 m.), which shut out the warm breezes of the south. The Bohemian-Moravian Higli lands in the west have an average height of 1,500- 2,000 ft. (450-600 m.), and throw out a number of spurs into Moravia. In the south-east are the Mars Gebirge (1,915 ft., 584 m.), aiid the Stehiitzterwald (1,450 fl.. 440 111.), which run parallel to the White Mo^rlvir^^l SQRFACE; RIVERS 7 Carpathians. The centre of Moravia consists of the March plain, extending from the western mountains to the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands. River System Moravia is drained almost entirely by the March (Morava), for the Vistula and the Oder do little more than rise within its borders. The March rises on the Spieglitzer Schneeberg and flows right through, the country from north to south, finally carrying its waters down the Austro- Hungarian boundary to the Danube. Its chief tributaries are, on the right bank, the Thaya and the Hanna, and on the left bank the Beczwa, the Iglawa, the Zwittawa, and the Schwarzawa. The last two rivers cut deep valleys through the region known as Moravian Switzerland. Most of the tributaries of the March are rapid, as is the March itself in its upper course. In its lower course it becomes sluggish, dividing round islands and possessing all the characteristics of a river of the plain. It has not yet been regulated for purposes of naviga- tion, but may be regarded as navigable — the only river in Moravia of which this can be said. The Moravian rivers are easily bridged. Even at Olmiitz the March is only about 100 yds. broad. BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA (3) Climate Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and western Galicia form a climatic whole, characterized by evenly-dis- tributed humidity of the atmosphere, an adequate rainfall, and severe winter storms. The continental character of the climate increases from west to east. The climate of Bohemia and Moravia differs in different regions. In Bohemia the most marked pecu- 8 GEOGRAPHY [no. 2 liarity is that, owing to the slope of the ground, the climate of the north is much milder than that of the south. The reverse is the case in Moravia. The central basin of Bohemia, with the March and Thaya valleys, contains the warmest and dryest regions. The vine flourishes here in latitude 50° north. In the moun- tains which feel the full force of the north and north-east winds the winters are snowy, the summers wet. The following are average temperatures in the coldest and hottest months of the year, namely : (a) in the plain region — Prague, January, 29-5° F. ( — 1-5° C), July, 67° F. (19-4° C.) ; Lobositz, 28° F. ( -2-2° C), 66-2° F. (19° C.) ; Bodenbach, 30°F. ( - 1- 1°C.), 18°F. ( -7-7° C); Brunn, 27-5° F. ( -2-5° C), 66-2° F. (19° C.) : (6) in the mountain regions— Eger, 26-6° F. (-3° C), 63-5° F. (17-5° C.) ; Tepl, 26-5° F. (-3° C), 59° F. (15° C.) ; Hohenfurt, 24-8° F. (-4° C), 62-6° F. (17° C.) ; Deutsch-Brod, 26° F. (-3-3° C), 63-5° F. (17-5° C). The number of days when the thermometer falls below freezing-point varies from 58 at Leitmeritz and 84 in the north-west to over 95 in the south-west and over 100 in the north-east. The rainfall varies greatly in different years in different regions, but drought never causes serious harm, partly because the hottest months are the wettest, partly because the average humidity of the air is high and even and there is no extreme summer heat. The average precipitation in Bohemia and Moravia is 25 in. (635 mm.). It varies from 18 in. (457 mm.) in Prague and the central regions to 40 in. (1,016 mm.) in the Riesengebirge and 60 or 70 in. (1,500-1,800 mm.) in the Bohmerwald. At Budweis it is 26 in. (660 mm.), at Brunn 19 in. ^483 mm.), at Eisenstein 63 in. (1,600 mm.). In the Bohmerwald the snow is often 12 ft. deep. West winds are the commonest, and to their preva- MJ'/a'J^a^^M CLIMATE; HEALTH; RACE 9 lence the climate owes much of its humidity. The north-west wind is especially common in summer, and generally brings rain. (4) Sanitary Conditions The climate of Bohemia and Moravia is healthy, but the housing conditions of the poor in the towns are often bad. Consumption is the great scourge, accounting in Bohemia for 148-4 per 1,000 of the deaths, while 71-4 are due to pneumonia. The corresponding figures for Moravia are even higher. The rate of infantile mortality among the Germans in the German districts is 25 per cent., in the mixed districts 24 per cent. ; among the Czechs 21 per cent, everjnvhere. (5) Race and Language The division between German and Czech is, on the whole, clearly marked in Bohemia. Roughly speaking, north of a line drawn from Taus (south-west of Pilsen) to Laun (north-west of Prague), and from Laun to Gablonz, is a solid mass of Germans (over 95 per cent.). A very narrow belt of mixed population separates this German zone from the solid Czech area to the south. Further, a narrow belt of mixed population extends along the south-western frontier of Bohemia and through southern Moravia with an extension north- wards, which embraces Briinn (an almost purely German town). The same blending appears along the north-eastern frontier of Bohemia and through the north of Moravia, where it extends far enough south to include Zwittau and Olmlitz. Elsewhere, through- out the central portions of both provinces, the Czechs form over 95 x^er cent, of the population, except in 10 GEOGRAPHY . [^o.a the German island, including Deutsch-Brod and Iglau, which lies just on the boundary of the two.^ The 1910 census gives for Bohemia about 4,242,000 Czechs to 2,468,000 Germans, or 63 per cent. Czechs to 37 per cent. Germans. In Moravia the figures were approxi- mately 1,869,000 Czechs to 719,000 Germans, or 72 per cent. Czechs to 28 per cent. Germans. Czech is a western Slav dialect, akin to Polish. The Czechs who settled round Prague were the leading Slav tribe in Bohemia from the first, and the central dialect is the foundation of Czech to this day. With slight variations, it is spoken throughout Bohemia. The western Moravian dialect is closely allied to Czech. The dialects more to the east present greater diver- gences. Czech is the literary language in both countries. The opening of the Czech university at Prague has been of great assistance in unifying the language and breaking down the barriers of dialect. At present all the Slavs in the two countries understand and speak Czech, even the Croatians in the three Croatian villages near Lundenburg, in the extreme south of Moravia. Bohemia is the centre of a flourishing literary move- ment, which has been closely linked with the national movement from the first. Both racially and linguistically the Czechs are intimately related to the Slovachs who lie imme- diately to the east over the Hungarian border. (6) Population Distribution Bohemia and Moravia form part of the densely populated bolt that stretches through central Europe 1 Referen('e should be made to the Ethnologifal Map of Austria- Hungary aecoinpajiying this Hories. It should also be noted that the German claims in north-western Bohemia, as shown on the map, are to somo extfnt disputed. Mo'^rlT/a""^] RACE; POPULATION; TOWNS 11 from Hanover to Kieff. The total population of Bohemia in 1910 was 6,769,548, or 337 to the square mile; of Moravia, 2,622,271, or 305 to the square mile. In Bohemia the population is most dense in the indus- trial regions of the north-west, north-east, and east, as well as round Prague and Pilsen ; it is scantiest in the agricultural west and south. In Moravia the greatest density lies round Olmiitz and to the west and south of that town, and also round Briinn, Goding, and Ungarisch-Hradisch. The region round Romerstadt and Barn is most thinly inhabited. In Bohemia 35 per cent, of the population are employed in agriculture, in Moravia and Silesia 50 per cent. Towns In Bohemia there are thirteen towns of over 20,000 inhabitants, and thirty towns with a population of between 10,000 and 20,000. Prague (Praha) is by far the largest city and the industrial as well as the political capital. With its suburbs it contains nearly 600,000 inhabitants, of whom 6 per cent, are Germans. Next in point of size are Pilsen (80,343) and Budweis (44,538). Reichenberg (36,350, and with suburbs 70,000) on the Neisse, a cloth and spinning centre, is the German capital. Moravia contains six towns with over 20,000, nine with between 10,000 and 20,000 inhabitants. The capital, Brtinn (Brno, 125,737), is the largest town in the country. It lies between the Schwarzawa and the Zwittawa, in a fertile valley, and is now the chief cloth-manufacturing town in the empire. The coal- mining and manufacturing town of Mahrisch-Ostrau in the east has a population of 59,905. Olmiitz (22,245) and Iglau (25,914) are the other most im- portant to"\^'ns. 12 GEOGRAPHY [»o. Movetnent Between 1880 and 1910 the population of Bohemia rose from 5f millions to 6f millions, an increase of only 23 per cent. Between 1900 and 1910 the mean annual birth-rate among the Czechs was 30-5 per 1,000, the death-rate 20-8. In the mixed regions, which contain about 1,500,000 inhabitants, the natural increase of the poj)ulation is higher than elsewhere. In these regions the Czechs are steadily gaining grormd. In Moravia among the Czechs the birth-rate was 37-0 per 1,000, the death-rate 22-4, the natural increase 14-6. Among the Germans in both Bohemia and Moravia the birth-rate was 31-4 per 1,000, the death- rate 22-1, the natural increase 9-3 per 1,000. Bohemia and Moravia II. POLITICAL HISTORY Chronological Summary 450, Slav tribes settle in Bohemia. 627. Reign of Samo. 864. Conversion to Christianity of Moravia and Bohemia. 11th century. Moravia incorporated with Bohemia. 1253-78. Reign of Ottokar II. 1346-78. Reign of Charles IV. 1415. Burning of Hus. 1420. Papal Crusade against Bohemia. 1436, Council of Basel grants Compactata. 1481. Serfdom introduced. 1526. Battle of Mohacs. Accession of Ferdinand of Habsburg. 1564. Death of Ferdinand of Habsburg. 1609. 'Letter of Majesty.' Confessio Bohemica aj)proved by Rudolf of Habsburg. Truce between Catholics and other rehgious bodies. 1620. Battle of the White Mountain. Absolutism established. Protestants expelled. 1627. Abrogation of the Constitution. 1781. Joseph II's decree of Toleration and other reforms. 1804. Francis II becomes Emperor Francis I of Austria. 1831. Foundation of the Matice Ceska. 1848. Revolution in Bohemia. 1860. Diet restored. Reichsrat established. 1867. Establishment of Dual System. 1869. Hus Quingenary. 1871-8. Attempts at conciliation. 1880. Taaffe's concessions. 1883. Czech majority in Diet. 1890. Proposed compromise between Czechs and Germans rejected. 1893. State of siege in Prague. 1897. Badeni's Unguistic proposals. 1900. Von Korber's Ministry. 1907. Universal Suffrage. 1911. Thun becomes Viceroy. 1913. Diet suspended. 14 HISTORY [no. a Origins. — The Boii, who gave their name to Bohemia, are the firat known inhabitants of Bohemia and Moravia. Neither the Teutonic Marcomanni in Bohemia, nor the Lombards in Moravia, who succeeded them, were able to withstand the great Slav invasion from the east. The Czechs were the chief Slav tribe to settle in Bo- hemia, where they seem to have appeared about A. D. 450. Under a mysterious alien — Samo (a. d. 627) — their kingdom attained large dimensions. Again during the ninth century the Moravians under Svatop- luk temporarily built up a powerful empire, which in- cluded much of the duchy of Austria and some of the Slovak districts in Hungary. The alliance of the Mora- vians with the Bulgars resulted in the conversion both of Moravia and Bohemia to Christianity by the Greek monks Cyril and Methodius ( 864) . Early in the eleventh century Moravia was incorporated with Bohemia, where the Pfemysl dynasty was already established, and therefore became part of the Empire. The German Immigration. — During the eleventh and twelfth centuries German influence increased rapidlj^ thanks largely to Bohemia's connexion with the Empire. The priesthood was almost entirely German, for the Bishop of Prague was subordinate to the Arch- bishop of Mainz. The nobles frequently married German wives. Their children learnt German, which was the language of culture and ultimately became the Court language. The nobility had grown very power- ful, owing to the large grants of land received from the successful candidates to the throne whom they supported. Hence, in the thirteenth century, the kings, and notably Ottokar II (1253-78), determined to counter- act them by creating a strong German burgher class in the towns. The result was the gradual growth of a ring of German towns, especially in the north and the west, which administered the law for themselves. The Mo^il^a^'^^J GERMANS AND ('ZECHS 15 monasteries, being largely German, also encouraged Germans to settle on their vast undeveloi^ed estates. The monks were the pioneers of the mining industry. From this time Bohemia became bilingual. Even the most ardent Czech nationalists admit the debt owed by the country to these settlers, whose influence was not due to their numbers, but to their superior culture. A similar process was leavening Moravia with Germans. The Czech Reaction. — The growth of German influence created a reaction, which found its fullest expression in the Emperor Charles IV (1346-78). Though he be- longed to the House of Luxemburg, he was a Czech at heart. In his reign Moravia and Silesia, as well as Upper Lusatia, Brandenburg, and Glatz. were, with the consent of their Diets, declared integral and inalien- able parts of Bohemia. Charles IV founded the Uni- versity of Prague, the first not merely in the Slav but in the German world, and also beautified the city, which he made the seat of an archbishopric. He placed the Czech and German languages on a footing of abso- lute equality, but used Czech at Court. Moreover, he was an advocate of Church reform. In fact, in his reign the Czech movement first took definite shape in both its aspects, religious and political. The Hussite Wars and their Consequences. — These movements came to a head in the next reign under John Hus. The Hussite wars were racial wars. Hatred of German priests and nobles, even of German townsmen, was as strong as the desire for reform. To this day Hus's portrait hangs in the houses of patriotic priests. Hus did for Czech what Luther was to do for German. He began the reform of Slav spelling and wrote as much in Czech as in Latin. The cardinal point in the Hussite creed was the right of the laity to communicate in both kinds — the utraquist doctrine, as it is called. The burning of Hus as a heretic by the 16 HISTORY [no. 2 Council of Constance in 1415 was the prelude to the inevitable struggle ; and in 1420 the Pope proclaimed a crusade against Bohemia. But the heroic resistance of the nation convinced its enemies of the impossibility of subduing it by force at that time ; and in 1436 the Council of Basel granted the chief demands of the Utra- quists in the Compactata. There had been consider- able dissension among the Bohemians themselves during the struggle ; for the movement had developed democratic features. But the complete victory in a pitched battle of the Moderates over the Extremists or Taborites, who were the democratic party, did much to promote a settlement. That racial feeling ran as high as ever is proved by the fact that in 1436 the re- stored King, Sigismund, undertook to employ neither Germans nor Catholics in his councils. But the settle- ment was little more than a truce. George of Pode- brad (1458-71), the only Hussite King of Bohemia, failed to induce the Popes to recognize the Compactata and was even excommunicated. Meanwhile the power of the nobles was increasing. In 1481 serfdom was introduced, and the privileges of the towns were much curtailed. Toleration under the Hahshurgs. — After the Turkish victory at Mohacs in 1526, when Louis of Hungary and Bohemia was killed, Bohemia jjassed under the rule of the Habsburgs. Ferdinand was duly elected King, but he induced the Estates to grant him a charter, stating that he inherited the kingdom through his wife Anna, who was descended from the Premysl dynasty. He was tolerant of the Utraquists, who were drawing closer to the Lutherans, and, just before his death in 1564, obtained permission from the Pope for the use of the Cup in Bohemia. But he persecuted the Bohemian Brethren ; and this polic3^ was continued by his son, Maximilian. After endless vacillation, Maximilian's Morav^*''^! TOLERATTON AXP REACTION 17 successor, Rudolf, recognized the Confessio Boliemica, a revised version of the Augsburg Confession. The * Letter of Majesty' of 1609 gave freedom of con- science to all Bohemians, but freedom of \Yorship only to members of the Assembly of Estates. In a separate treaty Catholics and Utraquists agreed to accord mutual respect to their divergent opinions. The Battle of the White Mountain and the Catholic Reaction. — Ferdinand, Rudolf's successor; was known to be a fanatical Papist ; and the Utraquists decided not to put off the struggle till he had secured the throne. But the days of the Hussite wars were gone with the disappearance of the sturdy, independent townsmen and ])easants. On November 8, 1620, the Bohemians under the ' Winter King ', Frederick the Elector Palatine, were utterly defeated at the White Mountain ; and for two centuries Bohemia ceased to exist as a nation. The leaders were executed; and three-quarters of the land changed hands. The new nobilit}^ was almost entirely foreign. Ferdi- nand was determined to allow none but Catholics to exist in the country. He was ably seconded by his German agents, to whose religious fanaticism was united their hereditary hatred of the Slavs. The un- fortunate serfs could not even leave the country, but were tortured into an outward conformity by their new masters. The Power of the Jesuits. — Meanwhile the Jesuits carried on a ruthless war upon Bohemian literature, which was mainly religious in character. Konias rivalled the Khalif Omar by burning 60,000 volumes with his own hand. In no modern literature are so many books known to have disappeared. The entire education of the country, including the University of Prague, was put under Jesuit control. German and Latin alone were the languages of the schools. It is no 18 HISTORY [NO. a mere coincidence that the Czech revival began with the suppression of the Society of Jesus. Effects of the Change. — By the end of the Tliirty Years' War the population of Bohemia had fallen from 3,000,000 to 800,000. The leading merchants, many of them Germans, were in exile to a man. Large colonies of Bavarians and Austrian Germans were brought in to fill the ga2:)s, and Bohemia became officially a bilingual country where the German landowners, who were a majority of their class, were estranged by religion and race from the peasantr3^ on their estates. Constitutional Changes. — In 1627 Ferdinand abrogated the Constitution and made the crown hereditary in the House of Habsburg. An estate of the clergy was added to the Diet and given the foremost rank. The Diet lost all legislative power, its discussions being confined to matters laid before it by the King. The Estates voted the taxes, but they might not attach any conditions to their grants. In order still further to weaken their power, Ferdinand forbade all joint sessions of the Diets of Bohemia, Moravia,^ and Silesia. The Eighteenth Century. — During the eighteenth cen- tur}^ there is little to say of Bohemia, if we exclude prosecutions for heresy and an occasional revolt of the joeasants against the brutal oppression of the overseers. The ' benevolent despotism ' of Joseph II introduced fresh activity. With his contempt for historical tradition the Emperor not only refused to be crowned in Bohemia, but made German the language of the schools and the law-courts. On the other hand, he abolished the corvee and otherwise improved the lot of the peasants, and he granted religious toleration to both Lutherans and Calvinists. The result was that 70,000 inhabitants of Bohemia declared themselves ^ Moravia is stiU an integral part of the kingdom of Bohemia, but the administration of tlio two countries is altogether independent. S^'J^/«^?-*"^l HABSBURG RULE 19 Moravia.; Protestants, many families having secretly retained their faith since 1620, and that a number of German Pro- testants entered the country. Joseph also allowed the publication of Czech books and a Czech newspaper, while Czech professorships were endowed at Vienna and after- wards at Prague. In fact, his ordinances awakened an active linguistic patriotism among a few scholars. In 1790 a proposal was even made in the Diet that Czech should be restored in some of the higher schools. As the existence of Bohemia stands or falls with the use of Czech, the national revival may be said to have origi- nated in Joseph's reign, though no one would have regarded it with less favour than he. But few of his reforms survived him ; even the corvee was restored. The Early Nineteenth Century. — In 1804, when, the Holy Roman Empire having disappeared, Francis II became Emperor of Austria, he declared that this new title in no way prejudiced the rights of Bohemia, and that his successors would continue to be crowned there. After 1815 Bohemia felt the full weight of Metter- nich's system of espionage, while the way to intellectual progress was barred by a double censorship, both political and ecclesiastical. Before the reforms of Joseph members of the better classes often spoke Czech. But it had now become the dialect of the lower classes only, and was excluded from every school, law-court, and Government office. The Government indeed in- sisted on its being retained as a subject in the high schools, since it was necessary to procure a suppl}" of officials able to converse with the peasantry in their own language. But German was without exception the language of all educated people. Dobrovsky, the pioneer of modern Czech scholarship, believed that Czech was doomed to disappear as a living speech. Even in 1831 the poet Jungmann could tell two friends 2 20 HISTORY [ No. a that, if the ceiling of the room they were in were to fall, there would be an end of Bohemian literature. The Linguistic and Literary Revival. — But the ro- mantic movement produced an atmosphere favourable to the revival. People in high places in Vienna began to take a patronizing interest in Czech and even to learn it. The Bohemian Museum was founded in 1818 amid universal approval ; and in 1831 the Matice Ceska, the Czech Literary Society, which was to encourage the printing of Czech books, was established. The move- ment was at first purely linguistic and literary. The task before the Bohemians was similar to that before the Finns and the other races which had ceased to have a history of their own. The}^ were determined that Czech should be something more than a subject of exotic curiosity, like a new native dialect. It was to be restored to its position as a literary language by be- coming the medium of intercourse among the middle and upper classes of the country. The work was of necessity one for scholars. Jungmann with his dic- tionary and grammar, ^Palacky the historian, and Safarik the scholar, though they often wrote in German, were the pioneers. Before 1815 they drew their in- spiration from the French rationalists, and were Czechs rather than Slavs. After 1815 the jDrevailing note is an idealized Pan-Slavism, which is best embodied in the poet Kollar, a Slovak by birth. His Pan-Slav community is to be purely spiritual and intellectual. The branches of the Slav race are to be united by literary interests and a consciousness of their common origin. His regret at the submerging of the smaller Slav nations is altogether literary. He never dreamt of opposition to the authorities, and yet he wrote in continual fear of the censor, for the very use of the word Slav was becoming suspect. Kollar walked with his hoafl in tlic cloiuls, but his work was invaluable in Moilvl"''^*] THE LITERARY REVIVAL 21 rousing the Boliemians to a national consciousness and giving them confidence in their cause. The Political Awakening. — Only after 1840 did the national movement begin to leaven the upper ranks of the middle and professional classes. Till then the national party was largely recruited among University students from the country districts. It was still bad form for a person belonging to the cultivated classes to address an equal in Czech or to speak it in the streets. But by 1840 the literary movement had done its work and given Czech an assured position. Nationalism now began to become a political doctrine. The Germans took alarm and their patronizing interest was converted into active hostility. Even the Estates, whose meetings had become proverbial for dullness, began to show signs of life. In 1845 they protested against the Governor's disposing of a house which belonged to them without going through the formality of consulting them. He was recalled in conse- quence. A committee was appointed to inquire into their rights, and in 1847 it pronounced them to be still of considerable extent. They might elect their king, if the Habsburg dynasty became extinct ; and they alone could levy taxes in Bohemia. The declaration embodying the report was carried by a large majority. The Diet then decided to petition for an increase of town representatives, a more com- plete control of the finances, and the use of Czech in the higher schools. Meanwhile a brilliant young journalist, Charles Havlicek, cleverl}^ attacked the Government in the form of reports on the condition of Ireland. So popular did the comparison become that a patriotic society called ' Repeal ' was founded : and the comparison of Bohemia with Ireland has since become a commonplace. The Revolution of 1S4S. — The year 1848 put an end 22 HISTORY [ No. 2 to Pan-Slav dreaming. The aims of the Bohemians became definitely Czech. The leader of the national party was the practical, statesman-like Palacky, who came to the front during the revolution. His gift for epigram enabled him to crystallize the aims of his party in a number of phrases which have since become proverbial. He refused to attend the Congress at Frankfurt in 1848, to which all nations belonging to the Germanic Confederation were invited to send deputies, on the ground that he was not a German but ' a Bohemian, belonging to the Slav race '. He was the life and soul of the Slav Congress at Prague, but he declared that ' if we must one day cease to be Czechs, it makes no difference to us whether we become Germans, Italians, Magyars, or Russians'. His proud belief in the destiny of his country is shown by his boast, ' Before Austria was, we were ; and when Austria no longer is, we still shall be '. He was a Moravian by birth, and when Moravia, afraid of falling under the dominion of her powerful neighbour, had thoughts of following the example of the Slovaks and adopting her dialect as a separate language, he successfully opposed the project. Palacky's ideal was the restoration of the Constitution of 1627 with the introduction of a system of federation for Austria. On March 11a great public meeting in Prague voted a petition to the Government at Vienna, comprising fourteen articles. Their chief demands were that Czech should be placed on a footing of absolute equality with German ; that a general Diet representing Moravia and Silesia, as well as Bohemia, should be convoked ; and that the Bohemian land-laws should be drastically reformed. The first deputation produced no result, but on April 8 the Emperor promised a second deputation that the two nationalities should be placed on a footing of equality, that a general meeting of representatives S'clit^vt^"'^''! THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 23 SKoravia of all parts of Austiia should decide the fate of Moravia and Silesia, and that a meeting of the Estates of Bohemia, including representatives from the towns and country districts, should soon be summoned and given full legislative power. The corvee was abolished, the landlords being duly compensated. This last was the one permanent reform resulting from the revolution of 1848. The meeting of the Estates never took place, though the' elections were held. Meanwhile the Czech leaders summoned to Prague a Slav congress which included representatives from all parts of Austria-Hungary, as well as some foreign Slavs as guests. Unfortunately the delegates were obliged to speak in German in order to be intelligible to each other. Prince Windischgratz, a bigoted reactionary, was in command of the troops in Bohemia. Petty encounters between the citizens and the soldiers were of frequent occurrence. They cul- minated on June 12, 1848, in serious riots, wrongly supposed to have been planned and organized, which were only put down after considerable fighting and bloodshed. Prince Windischgratz used them as a pretext for bombarding Prague, which was obliged to surrender unconditionally. Bohemian deputies con- tinued to take part in the Constituent Assembly which met at Vienna and then at Kromeric (Kremsier). But the defeat of the Hungarians in 1849 enabled the Emperor to get rid of it without difficulty. The Restoration of Ahsolutis^n. — Absolute rule was now re-established. The censorship became stricter than ever, and severe measures were taken to repress the least signs of nationalist activity. German, of course, became the official language, and no other was officially recognized, except in the lowest classes of the schools. But the loss of Lombardy in 1859 necessitated some change of system. Diets not unlike that of Bohemia, with strictly limited powers, w^ ere granted to the various 24 HISTOKY No. 2 provinces of Austria in 1860. In the following year a parliament was instituted in Vienna. Its members were to be chosen by the Diets, but the representation was so manipulated as largely to favour the Ger- mans. In Bohemia a German deputy might repre- sent 2,500 votes, a Czech 25,000. Naturally the Diet contained a large German majority. At first the Nationalists took part in the Reichsrat, thus adopting a policy for which they have been frequently blamed. But, when in 1863 it began to encroach upon the rights of the Diet, they withdrew. The Triumph of Dualism. — The Czechs remained loyal to Austria in the war with Prussia in 1866, though not a few of the Bohemian Germans welcomed the invaders. The Treaty of Prague excluded all Austrian territories from the Germanic Confederation. The dual system was established in 1867, Hungary thus receiving as a punish- ment for her notorious disloyalty more than the other nationalities received as a reward for their fidelity. Bohemia's leaders failed to grasp the oj^portunity or to show the statesmanlike qualities of their Magyar rivals, Deak and Andrassy. Unfortunately, though the Czechs appear to possess more political ability than other Slavs, Bohemia did not afford them a training in practical affairs such as was to be had in the freer atmosphere of Hungary. Hitherto there had been little disloj^alty to Austria. ' If there were no Austria, it would be neces- sary to create one,' said Palacky. But Francis Joseph's refusal to be crowned in Bohemia caused widespread disapjjointment and indignation. The Czechs not only again declined to send deputies to the Reichsrat, but in the declaration of August 1868 referred to the discriminatioji between Hungary and Bohemia, and claimed that Bohemia was only united to the rest of the monarchy by a personal tie, and that any consti- tiitioiiJil clian^c in tlie reJatioiis between Bohemia and ^T^^^'^^l DUALlSiM AND NATIONALISM 25 the Emperor must be based on a fresh contract between these two parties. Finally, the Czech deputies left the Diet. The laying of the foundation- stone of the national theatre in Prague in 1868 and the Hus quingonary of 1869 were made the occasions of great nationalist demonstrations in spite of the repressive measures of the Government. The Industrial Revolution. — The industrial revolution, which had begun to transform Bohemia about 1860, was a distinct asset to the national cause. The Czech work- men stood opposed to their German masters. Instead of wishing to learn the German speech, the sense of solidarity produced by working in a factory, so different from the solitariness of the old peasant life, made them desire to obtain recognition for their own tongue and their own rights. They hated the nobles, the capitalists, and the German State which ignored them ; and they began to talk Czech aggressively in public and to study its past. They were joined by the tradesmen and others whom luck or energy enabled to make money at this time. The elementary schoolmasters and the lower clergy were their natural leaders, since their callings brought them into closer touch with the pro- letariat than was the case with other members of the middle classes. Attempts at Conciliation. — In 1871 Count Hohenwart, the new premier, endeavoured to come to terms with Bohemia, and prolonged negotiations were begun with that object. The Emperor's message to the Diet fully admitted the rights of the country, stating that ' in consideration of the former constitutional position of Bohemia, and remembering the glory and the power which her crown had given to his ancestors, remem- bering also the constant loyalty of her jieople, he gladly recognized the rights of the kingdom and was willing to confirm the assurance by taking the coro- 26 HISTORY [no. 2 nation oath '. But the Czechs bhndly threw away a great opportunity by refusing any terms except the recognition of Bohemia as a separate kingdom like Hungary. In the following year German in- fluences triumphed. Nothing came of the proposed reforms. Then in 1873 the election of members of the Reichsrat was transferred from the Diet to the four classes of its constituents, the Diet thus being robbed of an effective means of opposition. The Slavs in the Reichsrat were bitterly hostile to the change, which they might have prevented by concerted action, since the Germans alone lacked the necessary two-thirds majority. But the Czech deputies again threw away their opportunity by refusing to sit in the Reichsrat, on the ground that it was illegally constituted. These events brought about the rise of the Young Czech party, which began to come into prominence by denouncing Francis Joseph's refusal to be crowned in Bohemia and by demanding a policy of action. In 1874 the Moravian deputies resumed their places in the Reichsrat. The Young Czechs followed their example by returning to the Diet, though they were in a hopeless minority. The death of Palacky, the leader of the passive resisters, resulted in the Old and the Young Czechs coming to an under- standing and returning to the Diet in 1878. In 1879 Count Taaife came to power, and in the follow- ing year he induced the Czech deputies to attend the Reichsrat, though they were careful to state that they did so without prejudice to their rights. In return he gave them control of a number of schools, authorized the establishment of a Czech university in Prague, and allowed pleaders to use their own language in the lower courts. He also removed some of the worst abuses whereby German majorities were secured at elections. The consequence was that in 1883 the Czechs obtained a majority in the Diet, though not the two-thirds Morlvi^^^""^] (COMPROMISE OF 1890 27 majority which would have enabled them to control it. But these concessions did not satisfy the Young Czechs, who were disgusted at this policy of compromise and at the alliance with the nobles and the clericals which alone had enabled them to obtain these concessions. By 1887 Bohemian opinion was denouncing the Triple Alliance and becoming rapidly Francophil. Masaryk founded the Realist party, wliich helped the democratic Young Czechs to defeat the Old Czechs decisively and obtain control of the Diet in 1889. The Compromise of J 890. — In 1890 the Government, alarmed at the democratic principles of the Young Czechs, endeavoured to checkmate them by reconciling the Germans and the Old Czechs. Tlie Emperor himself intervened. The compromise, which was accepted by both parties, virtually proposed the division of Bohemia into two administrative and judicial spheres. The Young Czechs, who had not been consulted, would have nothing to do with the compromise. As federalists, they refused to hear of any division of the kingdom, and they were indignant that greater linguistic con- cessions had not been secured. Joined by a number of Old Czechs they obstructed the compromise in the Diet, and in 1891 swept the Old Czechs out of existence as a party in the Reichsrat, where they were joined by a strong body of Young Czechs from Moravia. Their radicalism and anti-clericalism still further alarmed the Government, which utterly failed to force the compromise upon the country. Strong measures were taken against the Young Czechs at home. A number of them were imprisoned on a flimsy charge of conspiracy ; and in 1893 Prague was placed in a state of siege. The failure of Taaffe's policy of compromise resulted in his fail. It is unjust of the Czechs to regard his ministry as a period of stagnation. The crumbs that fell from Taaffe's table, 28 HISTORY L^o.2 which even Rieger, the great advocate of moderation, at times resented having to pick up, at least gave them the control of education and other reforms which were necessary preliminaries to the political movement that brought about his fall. Before the war Germanization had ceased to be a danger, and the Czechs had acquired a kind of negative autonomy by the obstruction of public business. Badeni's Proposals. — In 1897 the minister Badeni revived the attempt at conciliation by concessions which he knew to be the only possible basis of a settle- ment. His decree provided that, after a certain date, aU officials in Bohemia must be acquainted with both languages. In 1898 he further proposed to divide the country into districts. Where the minority formed at least a quarter of the inhabitants, both languages were to be used ; otherwise, only the language of the majority. As since 1867 the Bohemian German has refused on principle to let his children learn Czech, Badeni's ordinances would have favoured Czech even more than they appear to do at first sight. However, German opposition in the Reichsrat was so violent that Badeni resigned, and the decrees were repealed. National and International Socialism,. — Austria offered a unique field for testing the prospects of international socialistic and national feeling ; and, at first, inter- nationalism made considerable progress in Bohemia, as elsewhere. But early in the present centur}^ the great majority of Czech Socialists, disgusted at their treatment by their German brethren, adopted a nationalist programme. Spiritual values have triumphed over economic values ; and, like the Hussites, they believe tliat deliverance from the German is a necessary preliminary to an improve- ment of their own condition. So strong is this feeling that a National Sotualist will vote for a Czech Mo^rlv/a*''*] BADENI AND KOERBEFx 29 bourgeois candidate rather tlian for an International Socialist. The Korher Ministry. Universal Suffrage. — In 1901 von Korber managed to quiet both Czechs and Germans for a time by bribing them with an elaborate scheme of canals and railwaj^s ; but his efforts to bring about a permanent understanding by dividing Bohemia into German, Czech, and mixed districts failed as completely as those of his predecessors. The Czechs insisted that their language should be put on an absolute equality with German throughout the country ; and to this the Germans would not consent. In 1907 universal suffrage superseded the old Austrian timo- cratic system in the elections to the Reichsrat. Every man over twenty-four received the vote. Though the Germans were unduly favoured in the redistribution of seats, the nationality basis upon which it was effected was a welcome reform. Failure of Last Attewpts at a Settlement. — The racial issue in Bohemia became acute in 1909, when unemployment combined with heavy deficits in the Bohemian Budgets to produce a grave economic situa- tion. Measures providing for the free use of Czech and for the division of the country into twenty admini- strative and judicial districts {kreisregierungeri), of which ten were to be Czech, six German, and four mixed, were submitted to the Diet. Feeling rose so high between the Czech and German parties that all the efforts at conciliation on the part of the Prime Minister, the party leaders, and the higher officials failed to produce a settlement. The language ques- tion involved the momentous decision which language was to be emplo3^ed officially in the municipalities w^here there was a mixed population. In January 1911 Count Francis Thun took office as Governor at the Emperor's request, with the express object of resolving 30 HISTORY [no. a this problem. C!ount (afterwards Prince) Thuii had formerly been Prime Minister of Bohemia, but was not acceptable to the German part of the community, who credited him with Slav sympathies. Under his auspices conferences were held and commissions appointed to deal with the desired rise in salaries for Government teachers and with the financial position generally. Whilst the great landowners, who are Con- servative in opinion, showed themselves well disposed to come to an understanding, the Radical parties in each camp proved unconciliatory. In spite of this, however, there seemed to be some prospect of a com- promise being arranged, when unfortunately the Czechs made demands respecting the use of the Czech language in the city of Prague, which the Germans regarded as excessive. A postponement of negotiations for a settlement became inevitable, and this gave the opportunity for fresh disputes. The negotiations ultimately broke down. The school teachers' salaries question and the more important financial question had become more than ever acute by the beginning of 1913. All attempts to induce the Czech and German groups to co-ojjerate failed ; and ultimately, on July 26, the Government appointed an Imperial Administrative Commission and dissolved the Diet. The Commission contained three Germans and five Czechs ; and this fact, combined with the selection of Count Adalbert Schonborn as President, produced intense indignation in German Bohemia, which was not modified by the knowledge that Prince Thun thought of suppressing political agitation by the use of the police. The Germans, therefore, adopted an attitude of uncompromising hostility towards the Viceroy. They thought the Commission as ill-consti- tuted as the Czechs thought it unconstitutional ; and by the close of 1913 the political situation in Bohemia appeared more confused than ever. Bohemia and] Moravia J III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS (1) Religious The religious question has long ceased to be of political importance either in Bohemia or Moravia, except in so far as the Pan-Germans, under the guid- ance of Schonerer, have associated themselves with the ' Los von Rom ' movement ^ on the ground that the Catholic Church is destructive of German sentiment. The Pan-German attitude tends to throw the Czechs and the Clericals into alliance, though the Church has not shown much sympathy with the revival of the Czech language. Nominalty 96 per cent, of the inhabi- tants are Catholics, but there is said to be more free thought and religious indifference among the Bohemians than among any other emigrants to America. About 23 in every 1,000 Bohemians are Protestants, Lutherans and Calvinists being fairly equal in numbers. The Lutherans are almost entirely German, and are therefore hated by the Czechs. Only in Asch, a district in the extreme north-west, are the Protestants in a ^ This movement, political rather than religious, was organized by the Pan-Germans and Liberal Germans of Austria as a protest against Badeni's ordinances placing the Czech and German languages on an equal footing in Bohemia. Its object, as avowed by at least the more extreme of its political supporters, was to facilitate the incorporation of Austria in the German Empire by remo\ing the objections of Germany to an increase of the Catholic element within her borders. Ineffective politically, the movement was to gome extent exploited by the Protestant ' Evangelischer Bund ', to which it owes such success as it has attained ; but the total number of conversions to Protestantism and Old Catholicism in a period of ten years is reckoned at less than 70,000. 32 PRESENT r'ONT)[TTONS [wo.a majority. The Calvinists are altogether Czech. There was an increase in the conversions from Catholicism at the time of the ' Los von Rom ' movement, but these have since declined. The balance of conversions is, however, still in favour of the Protestants. The Protestant services are usually conducted in the language of the inhabitants of the different centres. There are about 14 professing Jews in every 1,000 inhabitants of Bohemia. (2) Political Constitution. — The Emperor is represented both in Bohemia and Moravia by viceroys. The Bohemian Diet consists of the Archbishop of Prague, the three Catholic bishops, the rectors of the two Universities, and 242 members representing respectively the great land- owners, the towns, the Boards of Commerce, and the rural communes. The Moravian Diet, with 151 members, including the Archbishop of Olmiitz and the Bishop of Briinn, has an additional class representing males over 24. Proportional representation has been intro- duced for the classes of the landowners and the Chambers of Commerce. The constituencies for the other classes are divided according to nationalities. The Diets can deal with all matters not expressly reserved for the Reichsrat, but their powers are largely local. They have, however, almost complete control of education. All acts of the Diets must be confirmed by the sovereign, who can always suspend them. The Bohemian Diet at least may make suggestions on matters reserved for the Reichsrat. Bohemia now sends 130 deputies to Vienna, or one for every 52,074 inliabitants ; Moravia 49, or one for every 53,516 inhabitants. A Moravian elector is fined if he fails to vote. State of Pidties. — To the Reichsrat of 1907 Bohemia Morl^a'"'] POLITICAL 33 sent 28 Agrarians and 17 Young Czechs ; but, except that they represent a class, the Agrarians differ Uttle from the Young Czechs. The National Socialists, who numbered 9, are in favour of a system of territorial autonomy on nationalist lines. The racial struggle would thus be relegated to the mixed districts, and a settlement might gradually be reached. The Clericals held 17 seats, the Realists only one. Yet the Realist party, founded by Dr. Masaryk, ca-rries great moral and intellectual weight in the country. It aims at dealing with the national question on practical lines, having due regard to existing circumstances, and bases Bohemia's claim to independence on natural rather than on historical rights. It is in favour of a federal reorganization of Austria, and complete independence of the various nationalities, so far as feasible, even in the mixed districts, with elaborate safeguards for pro- tecting minorities. But these party divisions mean little more than a difference of tactics. All parties are united in their determination to secure national independence either by federation or by establishing a separate kingdom, which is to include Moravia and also the Slovaks of Hungary. It is worth remembering that the right of each nation to determine its own government was one of the heresies for which Hus was condemned. The aristocracy has lost virtually all political power. Bohemia is a progressive democracy, where the working- man has already wrested supremacy from the middle class. Wages, however, are still exceedingly low ; and the condition of the workers, especially in the towns, leaves much to be desired. Once the national question is solved, the relations between capital and labour are bound to become- acute. Recent Developments. — The main question, that of the erection of a completely independent State, has 34 PRESENT CONDITIONS [ho.2 been decided by the march of events. The national Council of the Czecho-Slovak State has formed itself into a Government, and received the recognition of America and of the Allied Governments. ' Slovakia ' is to be reunited to Bohemia, and the new State is to be a republic. This is the outcome of a steady con- solidation of the Czech political parties which has been in progress during the war. It found public expres- sion on May 30, 1917, in the Czech deputies' declara- tion in the Reichsrat of their intention to work for the union of all Czechs and Slovaks in a single democratic State, and was finally reafiftrmed in the Declaration of Independence of January 1918. (3) Educational The Bohemians, both Czech and German, are ex- ceedingly well educated. The race rivalry, which has given Prague two universities, two commercial schools, and two technical colleges, has reacted favourably upon the whole educational system. They are by far the best educated people in the Austrian Empire. American census returns give the Czechs only 3 per cent, illiterates, as compared with 5-8 from German}^ while the Austrian statistics show a percentage of l^ to 4 among the Czechs, 7 among the Austrians, and 56 among the Magyars. Both nationalities make it a j)oint of honour to see that their children are well provided with schools. The excellence of the technical education in Bohemia is well known. The Government goes on the system that every town which possesses a special trade shall have its own school of industry and museum, instead of being obliged to send its sons away from home to study at a great centre. Appren- tices are legally bound to attend the school and their masters to s(!U(l tliem. Poor students are helped with Mort^a^'^^l EDUrATTONAL 35 scholarships. In a small pottery centre like Rican (population 2,114) there is a pottery school, attended by fifty-six students for six days a week; and a trade museum. Annual excursions are made to Pilsen and Budweis to see other pottery work. Prague is admir- ably equipped for technical training, as is Reichenberg, the German capital and the centre of the textile trade. But while the German technical schools are State sup- ported, the Czechs are obliged to maintain most of their own themselves. The schools form the great battle-ground of the races, since the language question is at the root of the quarrel. The German Schulverein was first in the field, and has all the wealth of the Germans behind it. In 1880 the Czechs founded the Matice Skolskd (Mother of Schools), which provides schools as soon as there are enough Czech children to need them. It also forces the Govern- ment to take over its schools w^hen the number of children entitles them to be supported by the State. In the German area of north Bohemia there are now 108 schools educating 10,000 Czech children. Down to 1912 the Matice had spent some £600,000 on schools in the mixed districts. Much of the money is raised by the sale of postcards, stamps, &c., or hy heller collections. The Matice is said to have founded 56 primary schools in Bohemia and 14 in Moravia, in addition to 61 creches. In the year 1912-13 these schools were giving instruction to some 15,000 children. In the Czech quarter of Vienna an educational society, the 'Union Komensky', is making a great effort to main- tain Czech classes and private schools, and this is the more important because in Austria proper, even in the districts where there are large Czech minorities, all the public schools are German. Both German and Bohemian employers are said to bring pressure to bear on their workpeople to induce them D2 36 PRESENT rONDITIONS [no. 2 to send their children to the schools of the employer's nationality. Bnt the pressure is much stronger among the Germans/ who are encouraged by the Government, which is alleged to make higher financial grants to the German than to the Czech schools. In the mixed schools the Czech pupils are at a great disadvantage. They cannot understand the German language in which they are taught ; and as they are in many cases children of the poor employees of German masters, their interests are sacrificed. The Germans have hitherto dominated industry. Twice as many Germans attend the higher trade schools as Czechs — 1 in 5,000 as compared with 1 in 10,000. The Czech peasant who wishes his son to rise in the world generally sends him to the university. The Czech University at Prague has twice as many students as the German, and is so overcrowded that a second university at Briinn, the Moravian capital, has become a crying necessity. Hence there is a surplus of educated Czechs in the country. Almost all the priests and the majority of the civil servants are Czech, while many find posts in Russia and Bulgaria. Educated Czechs almost invari- ably speak German, whereas educated Germans refuse to learn Czech. Consequently all posts where both tongues are required are held by Czechs. The fight, however, is still an uphill one. Though, according to statistics compiled at the end of 1914, there were in that year 3,359 Czech elementary schools in Bohemia as against 2,334 German schools of the same class, this meant a comparatively small propor- tion of Czech schools in relation to population, for while the Czechs form about 63 per cent, of the popula- tion of Bohemia, they have only about 59 per cent, of the schools. Their schools also have a larger average of ])upils, witli the result that a percentage of about 59 of the total number of elementary schools has to Mo^rt^a^''*] EDUCATIONAL 37 meet the educational needs of 62 per cent, of the total number of pupils, while the German percentage of schools, about 41, is responsible for only 38 per cent, of the pupils. In Moravia, on the contrar}^, in 1911, the percentage of Czech elementary schools was about 71 per cent, and there were 1,896 Czech elementary schools to 741 German schools. It may also be noted that in 1911 there were five elementary schools in Moravia in which instruction was given in both Czech and German, and in the same year Czech was returned as the sole language of instruc- tion in 375 out of 612 municipal schools {Bilrgerschulen) in Bohemia, and in 137 out of 230 similar schools in Moravia. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS The Racial Struggle Bismarck declared that the master of Bohemia would be the master of Europe. Here the age-long struggle between Teuton and Slav first broke out, and here, as many Germans assure us, it will be decided. In the Czechs the Germans have met their match. Physically, the two races are said to be almost indistinguishable in Bohemia. The Czechs are, in fact, admirably fitted to form the vanguard of their race. Like the Poles, they have an essentially western outlook. Circumstances and geographical position have weaned them from the mystical, oriental tendencies of Russia. Prospects in the Struggle. — The rivalry between the two races has reacted as favourably upon the Bohemian Germans as upon the Czechs. The German cause, how- ever, seems doomed in Bohemia. Owing to a greater 38 PRESENT CONDITIONS [no. 2 increase of population and a lower standard of living among the Czechs, the Germans, always in a minority, are losing ground more and more rapidly. They have been on the defensive from the first. The atti- tude of the Jews clearly indicates in which direction the tide is setting. As they share with the Germans the control of almost all the great capitalist and industrial undertakings, they have long been in the closest alliance with them. Now, however, they are said to be rapidly becoming Czechized, even to their names. German has been the mother tongue of the Austrian Jew from time immemorial, yet at the last census more than half the Jews in Bohemia entered themselves as speaking Czech. Phases of the Struggle. — The modern phase of the struggle dates only from about 1848. In 1854 Viollet- le-Duc spent several days in Prague, which is now over- whelmingly Czech, without realizing that he was not in a German town. Czech did not altogether lose its artificiality as a language and become a thoroughly satis- factory medium for all purposes till towards 1860. There Avas little noteworthy change before the industrial revo- lution of the last half of the nineteenth century. But, when it was found impossible to procure enough German hands in the manufacturing districts of the north, the Czech invasion of the German regions began. The Czech portions of Bohemia are largely agricultural ; or, if industrial, the wages and standards of living are com- paratively low. Hence the Czech readily migrates to the German districts, where his appearance has often been the prelude to the gradual elimination of his German rival, whose standard of living is higher, and whose racial hatred is thus reinforced by economic causes. The Germau element, which forms the over- whelming majority in the middle classes, tends to remain stationaiy. 'I'lic ( '/.ccli labourer is soon fol- SJ^/.^^*^^^1 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 39 Moravia lowed by his school and by Czech members of the pro- fessional classes. Then, when he feels himself to be strong enough, he sets about the political conquest of the town. Thus in Budweis, which was German for three centuries, there are now 28,000 Czechs to 17,000 Germans. The intensity of the struggle can hardly be exagger- ated. Every village in the mixed districts is contested. A supply of orphans has been sent from Prague to prevent a newly-opened elementary school from being obliged to close from lack of the required number of pupils. The changing of the street names from German to Czech, as in the case of Prague itself, is among the first signs of a Czech victory. The Sokols. — The oldest Czech nationalist organiza- tion, and one of the most important, is that of the Sokols, imitated from the German Turnverei7ie. These societies for gymnastic training date from 1862. Tlie members wear the feather of a falcon {sokol) in their caps. After 1866 they were frowned upon by the authorities, but by 1871 they had revived and were rapidly increasing. Gymnastic training is only one side of their activity. Thej^ are now organized on a great national system, which has spread across the Atlantic, and arranges lectures, foinids libraries, and plays an active part in encouraging civic and ethical teaching. At their jubilee in Prague in 1912, 12,000 youths and 8,000 girls assembled, including contingents from America, to take part in the gymnastic displays. The Sokols have been entirely suppressed during the war. Czechs and Germans m the Industrial Field. — The only superiority of the German over the Czech has hitherto lain in his wealth ; and this is likely to continue, as he occupies the rich districts of the north and north- west, of which Reichenberg is the capital. Generally speaking, the Czech is to be found in the fields, the 40 PRESENT CONDITIONS [no. 2 workshops, the factories, or domestic service. Bat the Czechs are rising, even in the industrial field. There is a steady progress upwards from the lower to the middle and the middle to the upper classes. The pro- cess has been especially noticeable since the decline of emigration to Austria, which dates from about 1900. Hitherto the Czechs have lacked capital ; but the enterprise of their bankers is endeavouring to remedy this defect, and the Jews are daily becoming more ready to finance Czech enterprises. As the urban populations acquire money, they invest it in industrial concerns. Already a sixth of the great Bohemian textile industry is owned by Czechs. In the same way the prosperous peasant buys land. The banks and the national societies help and encourage him to do so in every way, especially in the German districts. In a few years a single Czech society in the Bohmerwald bought land worth £200,000 ; and now nearly 1,000,000 Czechs are settled on the land in the Austrian provinces. The Germans find that a line of Czech farms already extends from Freistadt, through Linz, St. Florian, and Stjrr, to the border of Stj^ria. German resistance to the Czech was at one time more successful in Moravia and Silesia, Avhere the Czechs were less well organized, while the towns are largely German. But the Matice is fully alive to the situation and puts up a stiff fight. In doubtful regions of Bohemia or Moravia Czechs will only sell their property to Czechs. Lists are even kept of marriageable Czech girls and their dowries, in order to ensure their not being captured by the enemy. Czechs in A ustria. — Lastly may be mentioned the sys- tematic Czech invasion of Austria, which, however, tends to decline. In Vienna alone there are 300,000 Czechs, mostly porters, errand-boys, small clerks, and above all maid-s(.Tvants. The Viennese liate tliem and refuse to allow tlieni to o])on a Czech school, yet every shop- i^°^.t':S*>^^^l GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 41 Moravia keeper is bound to know the Czech- Viennese dialect which they have introduced, so numerous have they become. Many of them are settled on the land, notably in lower Austria. As for the Civil Service, there are 6,890 Czechs to 161 Germans in the railways alone ; and in most of the lower branches the Czechs are in an overwhelming majority. ZTo. 2 IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS (A) MEANS OF COMMUNICATION (a) Roads Of the total mileage of roads in Austria 38-3 per cent, is in Bohemia and Moravia ; and, while Austria has on the average only 404 km. of road to 100 square km., Bohemia and Moravia have 63-7 and 60-2 respectively. These roads are of three classes — imperial, provincial, and parish roads, of which the first two are metalled but the third may be little more than tracks. In 1911 the sum expended on imperial roads in Bohemia was 5,219,524 kn. or 1,215 kn. per km. of road, and in Moravia 1,148,393 kn. or 1,383 kn. per km. The Bohemian roads are not so good as those of France or Germany, but otherwise they call for no comment. (6) Rivers and Canals When it is remembered that, poor as they are in comparison with those of some other European countries, the natural waterways of Austria include the upper Elbe and a large part of the Danube, it is clear from the accompanying table that she has not developed her resources to the best advantage : 8q. km. containiiuj . 1 km. Artijicial Natural ivaterivai/. uxiterways. waierwni/s. Total. Km. Km. Km. NetherlaiulH . . 7 :?.-)()] 910. 4,480 Belgium . 14 I,(U2 454 2,066 (jlcrinany . 35 6,602 8.607 15,269 Austria . 46 73 6,456 6,529 Mo^rlvS^''*] RIVERS AND C^ANALS 43 Of this limited water system, Bohemia and Moravia, the industrial core of Austria, possess but a small share, as the following table (for the year 1912) indicates: Per- Km. of Rivers centage water- fit for Hi vers Total of total way to Length State rafts fit for No. of for all 100 fit for expenditure only, boats. Canals, km. Austria, sq. km. steamers. in 1912. Km. Km. Km. Km. Kronen. Bohemia . 805-8 354-9 10 1.170-7 17-93 2-25 192-9 1.311,139 Moravia . 200-1 33-1 — 233-2 3-57 1-05 — 15,444 All Austria 3,880 2,576 73 G,529 100 2-17 1,330-6 10,672,243 As 47-3 per cent, of the area of Austria-Hungary is over 400 km. from the sea, the importance of cheap freight by inland i^aterwaj^s is very great. A glance at the map will show how valuable it would be for Bohemia and Moravia, if the middle Elbe were fully canalized and if the rivers of the two provinces were connected by canal with the Danube, the Oder, and the Vistula. It is true that efforts have been made to create an outlet for Bohemia by improving the railway communication with Trieste, but, although in 1911 that town asked the Minister of Railways to arrange railway rates so as to promote export via Trieste, the Reichen- berg merchants in the same year asked him to promote trade by the Elbe route to Hamburg. Indeed, in spite of the large sums that have been spent on the Trieste railways, the United States Consul in Bohemia warned American manufacturers in 1911 to send their goods to Bohemia via Hamburg rather than by Trieste, since the latter route takes three to four weeks longer, goods by slow freight by the northern route arriving more quickly than parcels post via Trieste. In 1896 proposals were made by a firm of engineers in Prague for canalizing the Moldau from Prague to Melnik and the Elbe from Melnik to Schandau (the German customs boundar}^). This scheme was adopted, the Imperial Government agreeing to pay two-thirds of 44 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [wo.a the expenses and the provmce of Bohemia the re- mainder, but in 1902, before it was quite completed, new plans Avere put forward. In this year engineering firms in Prague worked out an elaborate scheme for connecting the rivers Moldau and Elbe with the Danube ; it included a ship railway, on which barges fully laden were to be carried. Bohemia would then be traversed by a waterway reaching from the German Ocean to the Black Sea. By the imperial decree of 1901 Herr von Korber, in his Waterways Act, had foreshadowed the construction of canals on a large scale, and in 1903 it was decided to carry out within 20 j^ears a scheme under which there would be constructed : (1) a navigable canal from the Danube to the Oder, (2) one from the Moldau to the Danube, (3) one from the Danube-Oder canal to the middle Elbe, and (4) one from the Danube- Oder canal to the Vistula. The estimated cost was as follows : Kronen. Danube-Oder canal . . 340,000,000 Eectification of the course of the Elbe .... 220,000,000 Canalizing the middle Elbe . 20,000,000 Connexion with the Vistula . 120,000,000 Branch canal to Brtinn . . 57,000,000 The scheme also included the improvement of navi- gation on the Moldau through Prague. A canal from Vienna to Trieste (presumably via the Danube and the Save) was also seriously considered. Owing to the retirement of Herr von Korber, however, the carrying out of these plans was deferred. So far only the canalization of the Moldau has been completed, and the Elbe-Vistula canal to Cracow begun. In the first instance these canals were proposed in Mo^rlv'a^''*] RIVERS AND CANALS 45 the interests of Austria, but it is evident that they would be equally advantageous to German interests, in so far as these are concerned with ' (^entral Europe '. In March 1917 Herr Budeney, the well-known Ham- burg Conservancy official, strongly urged the claims of a 1,000 ton ship-canal from Pardubitz (Pardubic) on the Elbe to Prerau on the proposed Danube-Oder canal, and pointed out that this, as well as the Elbe-Danube connexion, would increase the trade of Hamburg. In December 1917, at the conference at Budapest of the Central Euro23ean Economic Societies of Germany, Austria, and Hunga,ry, Dr. Russ advocated, largely in the interests of North Germany, what is practically the Korber scheme. He said : ' In Austria the Danube-Oder- Vistula canal is ripe for construction, as is the canalization of the Austrian middle Elbe, which has been begun. ' The canalization of the Elbe near Aussig, where the river has alwaj's been navigable, is nearing completion. For a canal connecting the middle Elbe with the Danube-Oder canal near Prerau only preliminary surveys have so far been made. To draw up a detailed plan of the Pardubitz section four years are required. ' As regards the canals to be built in order to link up the Austrian crown-lands of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Galicia, and lower Austria with the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula, the estimated cost of the 282 km. of the Danube project is 260,000,000 kn. ; of the 128 km. of the Oder- Vistula canal,100, 000,000 kn. ; of the 185 km. con- nexion between Prerau and Pardubitz, 170,000,000 kn. ; and of the canalization of the Austrian middle Elbe for a length of 180 km., 165,000,000 kn. If the Danube-Moldau canal is omitted from this estimate, it is because Bohemian interests prefer to it a con- nexion between Pardubitz on the middle Elbe, which is being canalized, and the Danube-Oder canal — 46 ECONOMIC* CONDITIONS [ No. 8 without, however, givmg up the idea of a Ime via Budweis either by canal direct to Koriieuburg or via Linz.' On the Danube-Moldau question, Dr. Russ was evidently speaking from the North German standpoint, for easy communication with the Danube is much needed. Thus, it was always customary for rod-iron from Bohemia and Moravia intended for Galatz to be sent, not down the Danube, but either by rail under the Levant tariff, or to Hamburg by way of the Elbe navi- gation, whence it was shipped to Galatz via Gibraltar at a very great savmg of freight.^ It is probable that, with the exception of the pro- posed Moldau-Danube canal, the whole network of projected waterways would tend to dii'ect more and more goods from Moravia, and also from the districts on the Oder and Vistula, into the Elbe route to Hamburg. Certainly the Elbe is the cheapest and best route to the sea from Bohemia for certain classes of goods, and the tonnage carried is very considerable. In 1912, 2,275,417 tons of goods were carried down-stream to the Bohemian-Saxon frontier. Of these 1,689,000 tons were lignite, 262,150 tons sugar, 95,000 tons mineral oil, and there were considerable quantities of barley, stone and stoneware, soft goods, glass, and fresh and preserved fruits. There were also floated down the river 1,558 rafts of timber. The passenger traffic is also large. In 1914, 156,958 passengers reached Aussig by river, and 148,970 left. On the Moldau also, between Stechowitz and Melnik, a distance of 84 km., the tonnage carried is considerable. In 1911, 115,000 tons were carried up-stream and 796,000 tons down- stream. 1 Berliner Tagehlatt, April 2, 1917. Bohemia Moravia •^"^j RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS 47 (r) Raihvays and Tramways In 1911, of the 22,642 km. of main and local railway lines in Austria, 8,848, or 39 per cent., were in Bohemia and Moravia, 29-8 per cent, being in Bohemia alone. Bohemia has indeed a denser network of railways than any other province of Austria, viz. 1 km. of line to 7-7 square kilometres, as compared with 1 km. to 13-25 in the whole of Austria, and 1 to 8 07 in lower Austria.^ Of the 696 km. of tramways in Austria 162, or 23-26 per cent., are in Bohemia, and 31, or 4-4 per cent., in Moravia. Lower Austria, including Vienna and its suburbs, has 253 km., or 36-38 per cent, of the total. The subjoined table illustrates the growth of the Austrian railways in the 35 years preceding 1910 : Length of Stale Railways {m km.) Passengers Goods Lines with percentage of carried. carried {in k)u.). total length. {toHs). 1876. 10,775 562 or 5-2 per cent. 32,560,000 38,470,000 1910. 22,7.50 10.120 or 85 per cent. 254,620,000 137,600,000 It will be seen that, while the increase in the length of Austrian railways (not including tramways) is more than 100 per cent., the increase of State ownership is 80 per cent. For a fuller understanding of these figures and of the difficulties and defects of the Austrian railway system, as it affects Bohemia and Moravia, a brief sketch of the development of the Austrian railways is necessary. Up to 1873 the Austrian Government encouraged the investment of private capital in railways ; but the shortness of money owing to the financial crisis of that year brought private railway construction almost to a standstill. Consequently, the Govern- 1 The tigure.s given for 1912 are : All Austria, 22,879 km. ; Bohemia, 6,769 km. ; Moravia, 2,119 km. 48 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. a ment guarantees had to be raised, and the State found it necessary to begin to acquire the railways and to construct new Hnes itself. But while State aid and the direct construction of railways by the State improved matters in the industrial districts in the north and west of Bohemia, which are largely German, and where railways were a remunerative mvestment (the Aussig-Teplitz Railway paid 12 per cent, as early as 1870-2), this did not hold good of the central and southern portions of the country and of the agricultural districts, which are mainly Czech. New railways, although of the greatest benefit to these districts, could not themselves be remunerative, and, in spite of further concessions and remissions of taxes by the State, only 444 km. of additional lines were constructed between 1880 and 1890. Evidently an additional stimulus was needed, and in 1892 the Bohemian Chamber provided substantial assistance hy guaranteeing interest and the redemption of all debt involved in construction up to 70 per cent, of the cost. The result of this policy was very marked. Between 1892 and 1906 1,967-4 km. of new lines were laid in Bohemia, of which 1,208-8 km. were in Czech districts, and 758-6 in German districts. Thus, after the new constructions, the Czech portion of the country was better supplied with railways than the rest, having 1 km. of track to 7-8 square kilometres, as compared with 1 km. to 81 square kilometres in the German portion. Apart from the electric tramway systems of the larger towns and their suburbs, Austrian railways are of three kmds : (1) Those worked by companies for private profit ; (2) Private railways worked by the State ; (3) Railways belonging to and worked by the State. Mo^rlv^^^''"'] RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS 49 (1) Only two considerable railway systems are still in private hands : (a) The Aiissig-Teplitz Railway, (Offices at Teplitz. Share capital, 38,095,000 kn.) This serves the Aiissig, Teplitz, Komotau, and Reichenberg districts, and has a length of 331 km. Its financial status is peculiar : there are no guarantees either for payment of mterest or redemption of capital, but there are certahi con- cessions, e. g. some portions of the line are free from taxation for periods varying from 20 to 25 years. The State has the right to purchase under certain conditions. Concessions on the different portions of the line hold good till 1950, 1964, and 1986. In 1889 a second harbour was built on the Elbe at Aussig, and for the period of the concession the railway company receives the dues of this harbour, which, at the close of the period, revert to the State without compensation. In 1912 the ordinary shares paid 11| per cent. (6) The Buschtehrad Railway. (Offices at Prague. Share capital, 57,280,000 kn.) This line serves Prague, Kralup, Rakonitz, Komotau, and Eger, and has a length of 479 km. Concessions have been made by the State on various portions of the line up to 1963 and 1972. After 1940 the State has the right of purchase under certain conditions. In 1912 the A shares paid 10|^ per cent, and the B shares 1 1^ per cent. (2) Of the railways worked by the State for private companies, which receive dividends, there were in 1913 5,889 km. in Austria. The exact figures for Bohemia and Moravia are not procurable. (3) Of the State railways there were in Austria in 1913 12,990 km. Again the precise figures for Bohemia and Moravia are not available. The State railways are under the Imperial Railway 50 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. a Department in Vienna, of which there are branches at Pilsen, Prague, and Olmlitz. The staff of these offices is Czech, except in the case of the North- West Bohemia Railway (a State line) at Prague, of which the staff is chiefly German. The names of the various lines remain in common use as they were before the State took them over. The Austrian, and in particular the Bohemian, railway system has been the subject of much complaint. It grew up by degrees without design as a whole, as individual companies undertook the development of the natural resources of the country. This was unfor- tunate, because the problem of railway extension was a threefold one, viz. : (1) to serve the iron, coal, and textile industries in north-west and north Bohemia and in Moravia, as is done by the Aussig-Teplitz and Buschtehrad lines ; (2) to connect the Bohemian and Moravian lines with the through European lines ; and (3) to do this without leaving a large part of Bohemia and Moravia remote from the main lines. The attempts to solve these problems have met with only partial success. The industrial railways of the north-west of Bohemia link ujd with Bavaria and Saxony more easily than with the rest of Austria. Only 32-2 per cent, of the railway lines of Austria have a double track, and in Bohemia and Moravia the proportion is certainly not greater. It is impossible to journey from Vienna to Dresden without travelling on a single track for a portion of the way (either from Lundenburg to Briinn, or from Iglau to Kolin, or from Gmtind to Beneschau, or between Budweis and Pribram), and it is partly due to this i^rei^onderancc of single tracks that the railways prove insufficient for industrial needs ; indeed, factories have at times to lessen their output because neither raw material nor finished goods can })v carried in sufficient quantities. StrvVa*''^] RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS 51 Again, Prague itself is oif tiie route of the tlirougli lines. The journey from Vienna to Dresden via Iglau, Deutsch-Brod, Nimburg, and Aussig, is 322 miles, while that through Prague is 366 miles. A glance at the railway map of Austria shows that the outlying portions of Bohemia and Moravia have closer rail-communications with other countries and provinces than with the interior of the Czech provinces of which they form part. It is partly to counteract this centrifugal tendency, which is found in the whole of Austria, that the zone tariff system, by which the freight is lower as the distance increases, has been introduced. (d) Posts The number of letters sent per head of j)opulation is on the average considerably greater in Bohemia than in the other parts of Austria. In 1912 there were in Bohemia 2,084 post offices, and in Moravia 1,054, or in the two provinces together nearly one-third of the total number for the whole of Austria (9,656). This corresponds with the population in the same year, which was : Austria, 28,748,850 ; Bohemia, 6,787,842 ; Moravia, 2,636,634. (B) INDUSTRY (1) Labour {a) Labour Conditions In Austria the conditions of agricultural labour are bad, and Bohemia and Moravia are no exceptions to the rule. In both these j^rovinces the money wages for a grown man are about 60 heller {5^d.) a day. This is worse than in lower Austria, where, nevertheless, labourers do not earn as much as 1 krone, but better than in Galicia and Bukovina, where they earn only E 2 52 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. 2 50 heller (4Jc?.) a day. In Poland the average wage is about 6d. a day ; in the Ukraine rather more. In all cases there is some additional payment in kind, the value of which is difficult to estimate. In many instances the labourer receives board and lodging, though of poor quality. In the lignite mines of Bohemia the yearly wages are higher than in the coal mines of Austrian Silesia, hewers receiving 141-22 kn. more and labourers 194 kn. more than similar workers in the coal mines. Judging from the membership of sick clubs, to the Austrian total of which in 1911 Bohemia supplied 28-7 per cent., Moravia 9-9, and Silesia 3-1, labourers in Moravia are rather less provident than those in Bohemia or in Silesia, which has little more than one-ninth of the population of Bohemia. It is stated, on the other hand, that, though wages may be low in Bohemia, the country labourer is not worth more than his hire. As the education in the country is not so good as that in the towns, he is un- doubtedly placed at a disadvantage in comparison with the town-bred labourer. In Moravia hours are very long, varying from 13 in winter to 17 in summer at Iglau, and from 7 in winter to 13 in summer at Coding. In Galicia the hours are shorter. It is worth noting tliat in the Ukraine farm hands may have to work as many as 18 hours at certain seasons of the year. In spite of a law passed in 1902 to enforce the building of sanitary dwellings, housing is still bad, and many of the agricultural labourers who live on the farms sleep in the stables with the beasts. The Czech labourers in Bohemia and Moravia are hardworking and intelligent, and the Bohemian farmers are the best in Austria-Hungary. The German labourer does J lot iiokl iiis own with the Czech, but the majority I Mo^rt'I^a*''*] LABOUR; EMIGRATION 53 of the big businesses are still the property of Germans, whose industrial capacity is rated higher than that of any of their compatriots in other parts of Austria- Hungary. It is only of recent years that the Czech has begun to appear in the higher walks of business, but he is rapidly making his mark there. (6) Emigration As a result of the unsatisfactory conditions of labour, which are closely connected with the dearth of small holdings and the mismanagement of large estates, there is a considerable emigration from Austria of the very poor, who tramp over the frontier to the nearest labour markets in Germany, Russia, and Rumania. A large number also flock from the rural districts to the towns, and this is especially the case in Moravia and Silesia. Many again go overseas, though in decreasing numbers. In 1911, 90,134 emigrants from Austria (rather more than 50 per cent, of the number in 1907) sailed from various European ports, the greater part going to North America ; and it is fair to assume that about 25 per cent, of these came from Bohemia and Moravia. Often these emigrants come home in a few years' time with their savings : as many as 1,135 Bohemians returned from the United States in 1911. Most of the emigrants come from the least fertile agricultural districts round Pilsen, Budweis, Tabor, Pisek, and Kuttenberg. There are said to be some 80,000 Czechs in Russia, of whom some 40,000 to 50,000 are in Volhynia, and it is calculated that by 1900 some 157,000 Bohemians were in America. Between 1900 and 1910 the total loss by emigration, or by migration to other provinces, among the Czechs in Bohemia was 5-1 per 1,000; among the Slavs in Moravia, 6-6 per 1,000 ; among the Germans in the two countries, 4-0 per 1,000. 54 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [ho.2 (2) Agriculture (a) Products of Commercial Value . The soil of Bohemia and Moravia is fertile and the rainfall (seldom less than 20 inches) is adequate ; there is more rain in summer than in winter. More than half the surface is under tillage and the forests are valuable. The superficial area of Bohemia and Moravia together is 24-7 per cent, of that of Austria, while that of Bohemia alone is 17 per cent., but the agricultural importance of the two provinces to the Empire is much larger than these figures might imply. In practically all important crops Bohemia and Moravia together in 1913 supplied from 40 j^er cent, to 50 per cent, of the total production of Austria ; of barley they supplied 63 per cent., of poppy 83 per cent., of flax fibres 59 per cent., of sugar-beet (an especially valuable crop) 90-6 per cent, (see Ajoi^endix, Table I). A comparison with the United Kingdom affords an additional index of value. The area of Bohemia and Moravia is roughly one quarter of that of these islands, yet for some typical crops the output of Bohemia and Moravia together represents the following percentage of that of the United Kingdom : wheat, 43 ; barley, 37-1 ; potatoes, 92. The area of cultivated fields in Bohemia in 1897 was 2,621,890 and in I9I3 2,679,971 hectares ; ^ in Moravia, 1,216,644 in 1897 and 1,254,798 in 1913. The fertility of Bohemia and Moravia, as shown by the average yield per hectare in practically all the staple products, is considerably greater than that of Austria as a whole. Bohemia is markedly more fertile ' One hectare = 2-47 acres. In 1909-13 the average annual totals of the five principal crops (wheat, rye, barley, oats, and potatoes) were : 1,877,301 hectares in Bohemia and 876,545 hectares in Moravia. Mo''rlv^^^''''J AGRICULTURE 55 than Moravia, and its productivity as compared with Austria is marked in every crop. In respect of live stock, the accompanying table shows that the position of these provinces, if not so pre- eminent, is yet very imjiortant. With the exception of horses and pigs, they produce far more than their share, and are responsible for 32-8 per cent, of the cows and oxen, 48 per cent, of the goats, and 59 per cent, of the geese in Austria. It may be noted, however, that there is in Bohemia such a demand for cultivable land that much pasture land has been ploughed up, and conse- quently, in the absence of free imports, the jmce of meat has risen considerably. Of game, the proportion of the total Austrian yield supplied by Bohemia and Moravia is very high, being 73 per cent, of the partridges and rabbits and 66 per cent, of black game. A great portion of this important article of food finds its way to Vienna. It is thus clear that Bohemia and Moravia are by far the most important parts of Austria in the production of food-stuffs, and that of the two provinces Bohemia is the more productive. Numbers of Live Stock in 1910 Hens, Oeese, Horses. Coios. Oxen. Goats. Pigs. and Ducks. Bohemia . . 250,428 1,122,152 2.290,587 406,362 1,012,798 8,885,093 Per cent, of Austria 13-2 22-8 25 32-3 15-7 27-4 Moravia . . . 140,970 450,562 801,178 208,181 633,538 3,731,292 Per cent, of Austria 7-8 9-1 8-7 16-5 9-8 10-2 All Austria . . 1,802,848 4,901,886 9.160,009 1.256,778 6,432,080 34,380,274 Agriculture iii Bohemia. ~~¥ov statistical purposes Bohemia is divided into the eleven regions named in the following table. As might be expected, the inner regions are more fertile than the regions on, or bordering on, the rim of mountainous country which surrounds Bohemia, and, as shown by the statistics of relative fertility, regions I, III, V, and VI give the highest yield per hectare of wheat, rye, barley, and 56 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. oats. Region I, the Bohemian Lowland, comprising as it does the riverine basins of the lower Moldau and the middle Elbe, easily heads the list, while the average fertility of the most productive portion of it, the Leit- meritz district, is for the four crops mentioned above 50-5 hectolitres per hectare, as contrasted with an average of 30 for the whole of Bohemia. Relative Fertility of Regions : Average Yield of Mar- ketable Produce in Hectolitres per Hectare. hectolitre =22 gallons =2-75 bushels.) (One Order of Relative 1913. Wheat. Rye. Barley. Oats. Average. Fertility. I. Bohemian Lowland 26-7 25-7 33-5 44-3 32-5 I Leitmeritz District 39-8 40-5 52-5 69-2 50-5 II. Foot-hills of Sudetes . 27-9 2M 27 4M 29-2 V III. Lower Egerland with the Mittelgebirge . 27-8 24-3 32 42-5 31-5 II IV. Upper Egerland with Teplergebirge . 23 21-7 26-9 38-4 27-2 VII V. Beraun Region . 26 24 3M 42-4 30-8 IV VI. Pilsen Region 26-1 24-3 30-9 47-4 31-2 III VII. Budweis Region . 21-6 22 26-3 37-9 28-2 VI VIII. Bohemian-Moravian Plateau . 20-7 20-6 27-7 38-9 26-9 VIII IX. Sudetes Mtn. Region . 19 19-5 25-6 34-4 24-6 X X. Erzgebirge. 16-3 15-6 21-6 24-8 20-5 XI XL Bohemian Forest 21 21-4 26-2 38-8 26-8 IX Average for Bohemia . 23 21-4 30-4 39-2 30 Average Yield of the same Crops in Quintals (100 kg.) PER Hectare i Order of Relative Wheat. Eye. Barley Oats. Average. Fertility, 1913 Average for Bohemia . 19-(5 15 20-8 19-2 18-6 1 909-1 3 Average for Bohemia ^ 19-1 17-5 20-5 16-7 18-4 I 19()9-13 Avenigc for Moravia ^ 1.5-5 14-3 17-1 12-8 14-9 II 1909-13 Average for all Austria^ .... 12-8 13 14-2 121 13 III ^ In Bohemia the average weights of 1 hectolitre of marketable grain were : in 1909-13, wheat, 78-9 kg. ; rye, ()7-5 kg. ; barley, 68-9 kg. ; oats, 48-7 kg. ; in 1913, wheat, 78-3 kg. ; rye, 70 kg. ; barley, 08-4 kg. ; oats, 48-9 kg. ^ Figun^s in Maps 35, 37, 39 and 41 of F. Lange's Landwirt- sduiftlich-statistischer Atlas (1917), 'i'eil 1. Bohemia andn Moravia I AGRICULTURE 57 It is noteworthy that the Bohemian Lowland pro- duces the following percentage of valuable crops out of the total output for Bohemia : wheat, 36-6 ; barley, 36-1; chicory, 90-7; sugar-beet, 7M ; poj^py, 34-3. It is also significant that, as the development of the sugar industry stands in close relation with the general industrial development of Bohemia, the bulk of the raw material is produced within easy reach of the coal fields and the industrial centres. The areas devoted to the principal crops in 1913, and the proportions that they bear to the total surface of Bohemia, are given in the following table : Description of Crop. Wheat Rye Barley Oata Peas Potatoes Sugar-beet Fodder- beet Clover and lucerne Other green fodder Various minor crops Total Area (in hectares). 227,697 530,898 318,513 499,563 14,424 300,371 142,014 32,664 395,321 68,982 118,652 2,649,0991 Percentage of total area harvested. 8-5 20-1 12 18-9 •6 11-3 5-4 1-2 14-9 2-6 4-5 100 The large proportion of the surface which is devoted to agriculture is illustrated by a comparison with Austria as a whole, and with other countries : Percentage of Total Surface under Plough Cultivation Bohemia . . .- .51-00 Austria-Hungary Austria. France . German Empire United Kingdom 3800 35 00 44-00 2 47-00 2 23-00 ^ The total area cultivated, including vineyards and house gardens, was 2,679,971 hectares. 2 In F. Lange's Atlas (i. 17) the figures for France are 505 per cent., and for Germany 485 per cent. 58 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [wo.a Agriculture in Moravia. — More than 56 per cent, of Moravia is cultivated/ and the variety of climate ensures a corresponding variety of products. In the south are found maize, vegetables (such as cucumbers), valuable fruit, and vines j^roducing heavy wine. From the centre, especially from the Hanna region, come barley, wheat, and sugar-beet. In the north and in the more mountainous districts the principal products are rye, oats, flax, and potatoes. Mountains provide pasture for numerous cattle, but in the Car^^athians there is summer pasture only above 4,600 ft. In the south the harvest is often as early as the end of June, while snow falls in the Carpathians in September. Nearly 60 per cent, of the agricultural land is under cereals. Rye and barley come first (223,219 and 201,324 hectares respectively), but a good deal of oats and wheat is grown (196,989 and 105,212 hectares respectively). The barley of the Hanna Plain is of especially good quality. Maize, millet, and buck- wheat are also grown, but the maize is a small crop and comes to full maturity only in the warmer regions of the south. There is a wide area under potatoes. Sugar-beet is greatly on the increase and does well. The crops of flax and rape-seed are not large. Hops do well in jDlaces, notably round Olmlitz. Leguminous plants and popj)ies cover a consider- able area. Fennel, anise, and other plants of the kind are grown. The vine is extensively cultivated in the south. Vegetables are produced in large quanti- ties. Fruit of all kinds is a,lso widely grown. Meadows take up nearly 7 per cent., pasture 5-4 per cent., of ' Total area, 2,222,2 lO ; cultivated area, 1,254,798 hectares. Bohemia and I Moravia J AGRICULTURE 59 Moravia. The following table shows the distribution of the crops in Moravia in 1913 : ^ ' Approximate Percentage of Area total area Principal Crops. {in hectares). cultivated. Wheat 105,212 8-5 Rye 223,219 18-2 Barley . 201,324 17-3 Oats 196,989 16-1 Potatoes 149,302 12-2 Sugar-beet 82,390 6-7 Fodder plants 147,444 12-1 Other root crojjs 29,368 2-3 Maize 10,362 •8 Various minor cropf- 71,039 5-8 Total area cultivated (omitting vine yards and garden ^) 1,216,644 100 A word may be added about some croj^s of special interest in the two provinces. Hops of first-rate quality are grown in Bohemia. Saaz, Rakonitz, Podersam, and Laun are the chief centres of production. These and the other hop districts of importance (see table below) are in the fertile lower Egerland and the Bohemian Lowland. The absolute figures for the yield between 1903 and - 1913 show what a very uncertain crop hops can be ; with an average yearly production of 9,204 metric tons, the yield varied from 3,787 tons in 1906 to 16,480 in 1912. Out of 20,146 metric tons of hops produced by Austria in 1912, 16,480 were of Bohemian growth. These hops are so highly esteemed that attempts have been made to cultivate them elsewhere. In 1901 the Government of Victoria sent to Saaz for lioj^ sets for introduction into the colony. 1 The following comparative figures for 1913 are of interest : Austria (all) : total area, 30,000,000 hectares ; wheat harvest, 16,227,000 metric cwt. ; Bohemia : total area, 5,194,000 hectares ; wheat harvest, 4,836,000 metric cwt. ; Moravia : total area, 2,222,000 hectares ; wheat harvest, 1,883,000 metric cwt. 60 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [Wo. Figures for the Nine Chief Hop-producing Areas in Bohemia in 1913 . (N.B. — There are sixteen such area in all.) Percentage of whole hop Prodiiction Total area of in quintals ^ production Hectares. Bohemia. per hect. in quintals. Saaz. 2,955 19-22 2-03 5,999 Rakonitz . 2,077 13-50 4-83 10,032 Podersam . 2,062 13-41 2-99 6,165 Laun 1,955 12-71 5-05 9,872 Jechnitz . 1,335 8-68 4-12 5,500 Auscha 887 5-77 9-90 8,781 Postelberg 810 . 5-27 2-98 2,414 Leitmeritz 704 4-58 5-30 3,731 Raudnitz . 517 3-36 9-40 4,860 For whole of Bo lemia 15.378 4-11 63,230 Fruit. — The principal fruit-growing districts of Austria are Bohemia, Moravia, and Styria. The principal varieties grown are plums, cherries, apples, and pears. In Bohemia fruit is grown chiefly on trees scattered througli and along the borders of fields where other crops are cultivated ; orchards devoted entirely to fruit trees are rare. In 1913 the Bohemian produc- tion (exclusive of grapes) was 206,132 metric tons. In this production the Bohemian Lowland easily took the lead, yielding 94,689 metric tons, or 45-9 per cent, of the total. The apples and pears include the best-known English varieties. In normal times the agricultural schools tried to make the growers plant the kinds of fruit that were marketable in Germany and London. Companies have been formed at Aussig for the drying and preserving of fruit, and care has been taken to adopt modern methods. Wine. — The wine production of Bohemia and Moravia is unimportant and the productivity of the vineyards per hectare is much less than in Austria as a whole. The wines are light, pleasant table wines, and are consumed chiefly in the country ; but the wines from 1 1 quintal = 100 kg. = 220-46 lb. Mo^ravl^^"^] AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY 61 Melnik were to be had in London. It may be noted that the only vineyards of any importance are in the Bohemian Lowland in the neighbourhood of Prague. The productive area in Bohemia, which in 1897 had been 802 hectares, had fallen to 532 hectares in 1913. The total areas of vineyards and house-gardens in the year 1913 were : in Bohemia 69,858, and in Moravia 38,154 hectares ; but these figures include olive, chest- nut, mulberry, and other crops. (6) Forestry Although Bohemia and Moravia are less wooded than most of the other provinces of Austria, 22 per cent, of the forests are in these two provinces, which produce 30 per cent, of the output of timber. They also supply 25 per cent, of the output of firewood — an important commodity, since 20,964 metric tons of wood were used as fuel by the Austrian railways in 1908. The forest areas stood in 1913 at the following figures : Austria (all), 9,768,000 hectares ; Bohemia, 1,538,000 hectares ; Moravia, 623,000 hectares. The only timber industry that is characteristic and highly developed is that of bent-wood furniture. In 1907 the Oesterreichische Kreditanstalt formed a number of factories of these articles into a joint-stock company. (c) Land Tenure Since freedom of land transfer was introduced in 1869, two tendencies have been at work in Austria. On the one hand, small holdings have been subdivided, and on the other, large estates have increased in size, so that the comfortable farmstead is disappearing, and is either being replaced by allotments or merged in the estate of the large capitalist landlord. The tendency is most marked in Bohemia, where in 1908 as few as 62 ECONOMIC (CONDITIONS [no. 2 776 proprietors owned 35-6 per cent, of the area of the kingdom. These large owners represented only 0-1 per cent, of the proprietors, for the minute subdivision of small holdings is a marked feature of Bohemian land tenure. In Moravia and Silesia also the same features are to be found. This subdivision is due chiefly to the inefficiency and indebtedness of the small proprietor, and not to the equal subdivision of estates among children. It is therefore not surprising to find that the large estates are better farmed ; for the large proprietors in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia can obtain the capital to make improvements in agricultural method, and it is in these provinces that the most intensive farming is found. Yet the disappearance of the small proprietor is viewed with alarm, and in 1903 an agricultural law was passed to stop the process and to hinder the transfer of agricultural properties of middle size. In Moravia, by 1911 small portions of land, amounting in the aggregate to 40,776 hectares, had been joined together to make larger holdings. The whole system of land registration has recently been reorganized. The particulars of private propert}^ are now registered so that the limits of property and conditions of ownership are seen at a glance, and the transfer of land is thus made easier and cheaper. (3) Minerals Coal and Lignite. — Of the total coal production of Austria in 1911, 37-5 per cent, was bituminous coal and 62-5 per cent, was lignite. Bohemia and Moravia together sui:>2olied 43 i^er cent, of the coal and 83 per cent, of the lignite. Natural^, the coal is the more valuable article for manufacturing purposes, and of this Austria, not having enough for her own needs. ^f^^t^""^] MINERAl.S ((^OAL) 63 imported a considerable quantity from the United Kingdom and from Germany. The lignite, on the other hand, was not only sufficient for the home demands, but also formed a valuable article of export for the provinces of Bohemia and Moravia, which supplied such a large i^art of the Austrian output. It is true that in comparison with the great coal- producing countries, such as Great Britain and Ger- many, the output of Bohemia and Moravia is small. In 1912 the two provinces produced only 2-4 per cent, of the coal output of Great Britain, and 3-7 per cent, of that of Germany. Yet, in relation to the needs of the home manufacturer, the output of lignite is considerable, and, compared with that of neighbouring countries such as Hungary, is of great importance. It is significant that in 1912 the two provinces produced five times as much coal and nine and a half times as much lignite as Hungary. The great increase in the output of coal and lignite during the twenty years preceding 1911 affords a valuable index to the growth of prosperity during these years. In Bohemia and Moravia respectively the production of coal increased by 13-2 per cent, and 79 per cent., and in Bohemia that of lignite by 70 per cent. Further, the increase of 47 per cent, in the price of lignite throws light on the increased cost of living in Bohemia, and shows that, in spite of special tariffs, it has been impossible for German lignite to compete Avitli Bohemian. Coal. — In 1912 the production of coal in Bohemia and Moravia was 43 per cent, of the total Austrian output. The approximate totals for pit-coal in 1913 w^ere : Austria, 16,460,000 metric tons ; Bohemia, 4,400,000 ; Moravia, 2,300,000 ; Silesia, 7,600,000. In Bohemia there are four coal districts : (1) Kladno ; (2) Pilsen ; (3) Schatzlar-Schwadowitz ; (4) Budweis. 64 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [wo.2 Only the first three are of importance, producing in 1907 61-4 per cent., 29 per cent., and 8-8 per cent, respectively of the Bohemian output. (1) Kladno (near Prague) is the most important bituminous coal district of Bohemia. It measures 9 by A^ km., and the best quality coal is found in the imme- diate neighbourhood of the town of Kladno. It is estimated that the quantity of coal in the Kladno basin is 104,000,000 tons,^ which with a yearly output of 3,000,000 tons would last for about 35 years. (The actual quantity mined in 1907 was 2,986,891 tons.) (2) Pilsen, including pits at Radnitz {Eadnic), Miroschau, Merklin, and Wranow. In 1907, 1,408,154 tons were mined, chiefly from the main field at Pilsen. (3) Schatzlar-Schwadowitz. This is a continuation of the Lower Silesian or Waldenburg basin. It is 40 by 35 km. in extent, but produces in all only 290,000 tons annually. Almost all of this is consumed in the neighbourhood. The coal produced in Moravia is about 34 per cent, of the joint production of the two provinces. It is obtained at Mahrisch-Ostrau and at Rossitz. The Mahrisch-Ostrau coal is of very high quality, but as the district forms part of the Ostrau-Karwin basin in Austrian Silesia, it is difficult to state the exact production in Moravia. A calculation based on the number of hands working in the Moravian and Silesian pits respectively places the output of the Moravian pits in this district at about 1,500,000 tons, or more than two-thirds of the whole output of Moravia. Anthracite. — There are anthracite mines in Brandau. The output rose from 13,637 tons in 1900 to 38,457 tons in 1907. In the latter year, 99 per cent, of the output was exported. Coke. — The whole Austrian output of coke, 2,057,900 ^ The reference throughout jh to metric tons of 2,204-62 lb. Morav^^^^^^'l MINERALS (r^OAL) 65 tons in 1911, is small compared with that of Germany, 21,000,000 tons in 1908. Of this, Moravia supplied 50-2 per cent, and Bohemia only 1-8 per cent. Lignite. — ^The lignite in Bohemia is mainly produced in two districts : (1) Teplitz-Briix-Komotau, and (2) Elbogen-Falkenau. Lignite is also found in the neighbourhood of Friedland and Reichenberg in north and of Budweis in south Bohemia, but in negligible quantities. (1) Teplitz-Briix-Komotau. The lignite district of north-west Bohemia is a narrow strip, 160 km. long, with its greatest breadth 25-30 km. between Komotau and Saaz. This is the largest, richest, and oldest lignite basin in Bohemia, and the most valuable portion of it is between Aussig and Komotau. In 1911 this district produced 17,090,500 tons. (2) Elbogen-Falkenau. The output of this district was in 1911 only 3,694,000 tons. In 1907, 23 per cent, and 44 per cent, respectively were consumed near the pit mouths in these two basins. These large amounts are accounted for by the large number of factories, especially porcelain factories, in the neighbourhood of Elbogen and Falkenau. The prices ranged from 4-06 to 463 kn. per ton, and in 1911 65 per cent, of the production of these two basins was used in Bohemia and 35 per cent, was exported. Lignite is found in south Moravia, in the Gaya- Goding-Lundenburg district ; it is of very inferior quality, but the production has increased of late. The following figures show the total lignite output in 1913 in metric tons : Austria (all), 27,378,300 ; Bohemia, 22,761,300 ; Moravia, 254,400. Bohemia's share was thus over 83 per cent, of the total for Austria. Iron. — The iron ore production of Austria in 1911 was 2,927,000 tons, of which Bohemia and Moravia together produced 35 per cent. In comparison with 60 EC^ONOMK^ CONDITTONS [wo.9 the 28,000,000 tons jjioduced by Germany, this output is small. It is, indeed, insufficient to supply the amount of pig iron needed for home consumption. Of the 1,757,800 tons of pig iron produced in the provinces of Austria in 1913, Bohemia accounted for 351,600 tons, and Moravia, although its output of iron ore is insignificant in comparison with that of Bohemia, for 520,900. The reason for the larger Moravian output is that the Moravian ironworks are nearer the coke supply, while the Bohemian works have to fetch their coal from Silesia at a heavy cost in freight. The Moravian works, however, have to import their iron ore from Sweden, Spain, and Hungary, to an even greater extent than the other ironworks of Austria, and this may account for the cost of produc- tion being 70 kn. per ton at Witkowitz, as against 66 kn. at Kladno. In Bohemia the greatest production of iron ore is at Nucitz, and it is calculated that the deposits there will last for twenty years at the present rate of consumption. This ore is mined by the Prague Iron Industry Company, who take it to their steel and rolling works at Kladno. The chief iron and steel companies in Bohemia and Moravia are : The Prague Iron Industry Company (Vienna and Prague). Capital, 36,000,000 kn. Directorate chiefly German. Works at Kladno, Nucitz, and Teplitz. It has coke and coal in Silesia. The Poldihiitte Company at Kladno. Directorate chiefly German. Capital, 11,000,000 kn. Libsic Ironworks Company, Prague. Chiefly Ger- man. Capital, 1,000,000 kn. Zoptau and Stefanau Mining and Smelting Company (Moravia). Capital, 3,000,000 kn. German. OrajjJiite. — The graphite industry is an important one. In 1912 Austria produced graphite to the value MJ'rlv^*^"^] MINERALS (IRON, ETO.) 67 of 1,869,998 kn., and of thi.s 59 per cent, came from Bohemia and Moravia. The mines are at Krumau (south of Budweis) in Bohemia and at Schwarzbach and Zoptau in Moravia. Co'p'pzr. — Most of the Austrian copper is produced at Salzburg, the Bohemian contribution being only 1-2 per cent, of the total. The Bohemian copper is extracted chiefly by the Copper Extraction Institute and Electrolytic Agency of the Witkowitz Ironworks. Tin. — Of tin Bohemia in 1912 produced the whole of the Austrian output of 605 tons, a negligible quantity in comparison with the world's production of 116,000 tons, but a useful proportion of the 4,000 tons (chiefly supplied by Germany) which are used in Austria, largely in making tinware. Precious and, Rare Metals. — Of these Bohemia has a monopoly, producing all the Austrian gold, silver, wolfram, uranium, and radium. Gold. — Gold is found in the districts of Prague and Kuttenberg, and also in the otherwise unimportant antimony mines in the Joachimsthal district. In 1910, the only gold mine working in Austria was at Roudny, near Prague. This produces, on the average, 30,000 tons of ore, valued at about 604,000 kn. Silver. — Practically the whole output comes from the Imperial Silver Mines at Pribram. In 1912 they produced 21,793 tons of ore, valued at 4,076,705 kn. Wolfram. — This metal is found at Schonfeld, south- west of Karlsbad. The output in 1912 was 65-9 metric tons, valued at 172,667 kn. Uranium. — This is obtained from the pitchblende deposits at Joachimsthal, north of Karlsbad. In 1912 the output was 10-89 metric tons of ore, valued at 155,466 kn. Mineral Waters. — Bohemia and Moravia have a large number of watering-places, the alkaline-saline waters of 68 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. Karlsbad and Marienbad and the iron waters of Marienbad being especially famous. As the subjoined figures show, Bohemia and Moravia between them account for more than a quarter of the Austrian ' cure ' industry. No. of Watering- No. of Visitors, places. 1912. Bohemia .... 37 154,967 Moravia .... 11 8,934 All Austria .... 188 579,150 In 1912 the number of visitors to the leading watering- places was as follows : Karlsbad, 68,269 ; Marienbad, 34,509 ; Franzensbad, 15,376 ; Teplitz-Schonau, 7,776 ; Luhatschowitz (near Briinn), 6,626. As can be seen, Karlsbad easily takes the first place. In this town there are two hotel companies with capitals of 4,000,000 and 3,000,000 marks respectively, one of which paid a dividend of 15 per cent, in 1911. Kaolin, cement, &c., are dealt with below under the heading 'Manufacture'. The following table illustrates the importance of the chief mineral products of Bohemia and Moravia in 1912: Percentage of the Value in Value in Value in Austrian output kronen kronen kronen {as estimated in of the of the of the kronen) prodiiced Description production production production in Bohemia and of Mineral. of Av stria. of Bohemia. of Moravia. Moravia. Coal . 162,600,453 45,991,563 24,207,536 43 Lignite 141,045,962 103,189,999 944,899 73-8 Iron 27,364,903 12,280,102 31,334 45 Gold . 603,840 603,840 — 100 Silver . 4,076,705 4,076,705 — 100 Quicksilver . 2,882,630 — — — Copper 1,668,525 19,800 — 1-2 Lead . 6,567.943 61,336 — 0-9 Uranium 1.55,466 155,466 — 100 Zinc 2,887.256 93,333 — 3-2 Tin . 1 10,309 110,309 — 100 Antimony 23,.50O 1,000 — 4-2 Wolfram 172,667 172,667 — 100 Sulphur 213,OU» 33,458 — 15 Manganesf . 157,191 — — — Graphitf 1,869,998 .527,553 .587.078 59 AHphalt 145.143 — — — Mo'ilv^^''*'! MANUFACTURES (SUGAR) 69 (4) Manufactures In this section the industries for which the raw materials are provided by Bohemia and Moravia, viz. sugar, beer, spirits, paper, porcelain, glass, and cement, are placed first. After these are given the industries that depend largely on imported raw or semi-manufactured materials, viz. textiles, clothing, gloves, chemicals, and machines. The cultivation of sugar-beet and the production of raw kaolin, though not manufactures, have been treated here in close connexion with the sugar and porcelain industries, for which they supply the raw materials. The total number of factories in Austria in 1913 was 17,034 ; of these, 6,512 were in Bohemia and 1,729 in Moravia. Sugar In 1911 Bohemia and Moravia produced respectively 60 per cent, and 30 per cent, of the total Austrian output of sugar, and in 1912 52-3 per cent, and 33-2 per cent. In 1912, of the total number of hands employed in Austria on sugar-making, 55-5 per cent, were in Bohemia and 33-2 per cent, in Moravia. The absolute figures of international production show that in 1912 Moravia produced approximately the same amount of sugar as Hungary, while Bohemia and Moravia together produced 2-8 times as much as Hungary, or about the same amount as France and 33 per cent, of the output of Germany. These pro- portions vary considerably from year to year. The deep ploughing on the large sugar estates is mostly done by cable ploughs with 5 to 8 shares apiece. It was suggested in 1911 that petrol-driven tractors 70 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [wo.2 would be more serviceable, as they are light, and would not pack the ground as they pass over it. The greatest care is taken to obtain the best stock of beet for planting. At establishments at Rostok and Uholicky the sugar-beet is cleaned and dried for export, and beet-seeds are tested. More than 30,000 bags of this seed are sold annually, about two-thirds of which are exported.^ The laboratories at Uholicky are on a fine farm of 800 acres. At the Wohanka farms two varieties of beet are produced : (I) that which yields the, greatest possible percentage of sugar per unit of weight, and (2) that which yields the largest percentage of sugar per hectare. In a two years' test Bohemia was found to produce per hectare 796-4 lb. more sugar than Germany, 1,302 lb. more than Belgium, 1,826 more than the remainder of Austria, 1,986 more than Holland, 2,776 more than France, and 6,173 more than Russia. The by-products are of great value. Of the 149,500 tons of molasses produced in Austria in 1911, 106,500 were used in Austrian distilleries, while 23,700 tons were used as fodder in Bohemia and 11,000 in Moravia. The shredded residue of the sugar-beets is returned from the sugar-mills to the farmers, who generally pack it in long trenches, cover it with earth, and later use it for feeding. But some of the refuse is used as manure. The following table gives the number of sugar factories in Bohemia in 1913 and their distribution. It may be noted that the Prague district takes the lead, and that the other centres arc all in the ^ It may be noted that all Austria sent to Germany annually on the average in the years 1909-13 more than 11,000 quintals of HUgar-beet seeds, but imported annually from Germany nearly nine limeK this amount. Mo^/avia*''''! SUGAB; BEER ANT) SPTFITTS 71 northern half of Bohemia and all within some 70 km. of Prague. Fvmiibcial Dixtrid- Caslau Chrudini . Jicin Komotau Koniggrat/. Leitmeritz Prague . Total Metric tons of svgar produced No. of Beet - {refined and raw) sugar fnd-ories. in terms of raiv sugar 16 95,300 11 63.400 25 190,700 7 58,600 9 46,200 3 22,600 39 315,100 110 791,900 The actual amount of refined sugar produced in Bohemia in 1913 was 432,919 metric tons, and the average annual production of raw and refined sugar for the period 1903-12 (expressed as above in terms of raw sugar) was 566,420-5 metric tons. The financial interests of the sugar industry are naturally very great. There are in Bohemia and Moravia 67 joint-stock companies for the production and refining of sugar, with a combined capital of 100,417,700 kn. Of these, seven large companies (whose interests and factories are not confined to Bohemia and Moravia), with a capital of 38,600,000 kn., have a German (i.e. German-Austrian) directorate and their head-quarters at Vienna ; nine, with a capital of 14,600,000 kn., have a German or chiefly German directorate; the remaining 51, with a capital of 47,217,700 kn., are conducted by Czechs. Beer and Spirits Beer. — Although Austria-Hungary produces only one-eleventh of the German and one-quarter of the British yearly outj)ut of beer, the quality of Austrian beer is so good, and such considerable quantities are exported even to Germany, that for Austria, and in par- ticular for Bohemia, the industr}^ is an important one. 72 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [wo.-a In ] 911 the Austrian output of beer was 22,729,000 ill. Of tills Boliemia supplied 47-22 per cent, and Moravia 8-82 per cent. The total production of beer in 1913 was : in Austria 21,081,000 hectolitres (1 hi. =22 gall.) ; in Bohemia 9,994,000 hi. ; and in Moravia 1,559,000 hi. The total production of Pilsen in 1915 was 1,452,555 hi., and of Prague, 1,055,100 hi. ' Pilsener ' beer is, how- ever, a generic term ; and the light beers for which Austria is famous are brewed in many other towns. Of the four Austrian breweries with a yearly output of more than 500,000 hi., two are in Bohemia — the Btirgerliche Brauerei at Pilsen with a yearly output of 970,000 hi., and the brewery at Smichow (Prague) with one of 617,000 hi. In addition to these there are 19 large breweries in Bohemia and 11 in Moravia. The great majority, large and small, appear to have Czech directorates and staffs. Spirits. — In Bohemia every large estate has a distillery upon it, and in 1910 there were 425 distilleries of some importance. In that year the Austrian pro- duction of spirits was 1,551,159 hi., of which Bohemia and Moravia supplied 35 per cent. Bohemia, with 377,077 hi., produced more spirit than any other pro- vince except Galicia, with 729,991 hi. In 1913 the hgures for spirits were : Austria (all), 1,619,000 hi. ; Bohemia, 465,000 hi. ; and Moravia, 194,000 hi. The largest distilleries in Bohemia and Moravia use molasses, though potatoes are used in Bohemia in the Tabor and Deutsch-Brod districts, and in Moravia in the Iglau district. It is from potatoes that the large output of Galicia is produced. Paper Notwithstanding Hertz's strictures (see below, p. 90), tJic })roduction of pa2)ei' in Austria-Hungary is con- S^o^rlvia^^*] PAPER ; PORCELATN AND GLASS 73 siderable, as shown by the following figures for the world outj)ut in 1910: Metric Tons United States of America 2,903,700 Germany . 1.350,700 United Kingdom 866,100 France 604,900 Austria-Hungary 361,900 Of the Austro-Hungarian output of pajjer Bohemia and Moravia produced 29 per cent., of paper-board 42-2 per cent., and of pulp and cellulose 20 per cent., or 30 per cent, of all paper and paper material. Of the two provinces Bohemia has a far greater output than Moravia, the proportion being about eight to one. Paper and pulp mills have been established in the vicinity of the forests in the more mountainous regions of Bohemia, but they are also distributed throughout the countr}^ There are paper and wood-pulp factories at Arnau and Gutsmuth in the Riesengebirge, at Briinn, Prague, Kienberg, and Ollerschau. The Neu- siedl Joint Stock Company for paper manufacture has a large paper-mill at Pilsen, and the cellulose for its mill at Neusiedl, near Vienna, is supplied by the Austrian Association for Cellulose Manufacture from its factory at Rattimau near Mahrisch-Ostrau. Porcelain and Glass The porcelain and glass industries are among the most important of north and west Bohemia. In 1913 the capital of the large firms engaged in these industries and in the production and refining of kaolin was 28,150,000 kn. The directorate of these companies was almost entirely German. Kaolin. — The porcelain industry owes its existence to the deposits of kaolin in the Zettlitz-Karlsbad 74 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [No.a district and in the neighbourliood of Kaaden, Pomeisl, and Wildstein. This is considered one of the best china clays in the world. In 1910 the Zettlitz-Karlsbad district alone produced 170,000 tons of raw kaolin. Of the refined resultant 43,000 tons were used by the china industry and 8,000 tons by the paper manufacturers. Thirty-eight thousand tons of raw kaolin were exported yearly to Germany, Russia, Italy, and the United States. The market is largely controlled by the Zettlitz Kaolin Works Company, with a capital of 7,500,000 kn. The price of refined kaolin remains fairly constant at 64 kn. per ton. There is also a Kaolin Convention of the Podersam and Pomeisl firms engaged in the industry, and a Sales Bureau at Dresden controlled by the Middle Europe Kaolin Works. Porcelain. — The manufacture of porcelain is located in the smaller towns and villages of west Bohemia, and especially in the Eger valley, between Elbogen and Teplitz. These factories are near deposits of kaolin and coal. Local bituminous coal is used for power, and the kilns are fired with lignite from Briix. In the Karlsbad district there were, in 1910, 47 factories employing 1,500 hands. Glass. — The position of Boliemia and Moravia in the glass production of the world may to some extent be judged from such a typical branch of the industry as the manufacture of bottles. The annual production of the world before the war was some 1,430,000,000. Of this total Germany produced 430,000,000, England 305,000,000, and Austria 160,000,000. The output of Austria was thus 11-2 per cent, of the whole ; and, as Bohemia and Moravia together accounted for 79-7 per cent, of the Austrian glass production, these two pro- vinces were y)robnbly responsible^ for about 9 per cent, of the bottles of the world. Mo^rlvi^''''*lPORCELATN AND GLASS; CEMENT 75 The differtmt branches of glass manufacture are to some extent confined to definite localities : Sheet Glass is made at Teplitz, Prague, Bilin, and Neusattl. Its manufacture is controlled by a syndicate, which acts in combination with the Bohemian Union Bank. Mirror Glass is made at Pilsen, Hartmanitz, and Josefsthal. Bottles are produced at Prague, Teplitz, Aussig, and Neusattl. The manufacture is regulated by a combine of nine large firms in Bohemia, lower Austria, Styria, and Hungary, the Bohemian firms being located in the above-mentioned towns. The combine produced the whole Austrian yearly output, valued at 24,000,000 kronen. Glass Beads, Buttons, and Imitation Jewellery are made at and near Gablonz : in this town at least 1,976 hands are emj)loyed in the industry. Decorated and Coloured Glass is produced in the Haida and Steinschonau district, where 130 small firms have combined to regulate output and prices. The following table illustrates the large part played by Bohemia in the glass-making industry : Austria . Lower Austria Salzburg . Bohemia Moravia . >Styria Trieste . Galicia No. of No. oflmndH Facforiefi employed. in 1910. 933 40,489 66 3.264 9 989 800 28,273 26 5,371 11 1,656 4 301 17 625 Cement In 1911 Bohemia's output of Portland cement, 230,000 tons, \\as larger than that of s,ny other 76 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. 2 individual province, and represented 17-3 per cent, of the 1,330,000 tons produced by Austria. The most important works are in the neighbourhood of Prague, where some 800 hands are engaged in the industry. The export of this Portland cement is con- siderable, and is growmg. Textile Industries Cotton. — In 1902, 57 per cent, of the Austrian cotton spindles were in Bohemia, and, in 1913, 84 per cent, of the Austrian cotton mills were in Bohemia and Moravia. In 191 3 the number of cotton spindles in Austria was one-eighth of those in the United Kingdom and nearly half of those in Germany. Bohemia and Moravia represent about 60 per cent, of the Austrian production ; but taking the consumption of raw cotton as a standard, the pre-war output (I9II-I2-I3) of the two provinces was one-eighth of that of the United Kingdom, rather more than a quarter of that of Germany and half that of France. On the other hand, it was twice that of Belgium, five times that of Switzerland, and ten times that of Hungary. In Bohemia cotton is manufactured in the north from Asch in the west to Koniginhof in the east. The great centre of the industry is the Warnsdorf district, not far from Zittau and near the boundary of North Bohemia and Prussian Silesia. Of the 1,119 mills in Bohemia 62 are in Warnsdorf alone, eleven of which employ 3,250 hands. The largest works, however, are in Prague, where II out of the 45 mills employ 12,800 hands. Among the other large mills are one at Neustadt with 4,500 hands, one at Braunau with 2,800, and one at Bohmii^ch-Triibau with 2,400 hands. The three largest concerns are at Hoi'itz, Turmitz, and Prague, with sli.uc capitals of 500,000 kii., 500,000 kn., and mtl^la'"''^] TEXTILE INDUSTRIES 77 3,000,000 kn. respectively, the last being the most highly capitalized cotton concern in Austria. Of the 231 mills in Moravia 40 are at Zwittau, where five firms employ 1,900 hands, 33 are at Mahrisch- Rothenau and 21 at Sternberg. Mahrisch-Schonberg has two large miUs with 3,100 hands. Woollens. — In the woollen industry, in 1902, 58 per cent, of the Austrian looms were in Bohemia and Moravia, and in 1913 59 per cent, of the Austrian woollen mills were in these two provinces. The mills of Austria-Hungary use yearly only one quarter of the amount of wool consumed in Germany and one-sixth of that consumed in the United Kingdom, but their business is large relatively to those of Switzerland, Rumania, Greece, and Asia Minor. The mills of Bohemia and Moravia account for at least 50 per cent. of the Austro- Hungarian consumption. Of the 676 woollen mills in Austria, 246 are in Bohemia and 154 in Moravia. The manufacture of woollen goods is carried on in the Reichenberg-Kratzau district on the Saxon frontier of Bohemia, but its chief seat is at Briinn in Moravia, where there are 59 mills, of which 14 employ 14,700 hands. In Bohemia, Reichenberg has 39 mills (4 with 520 hands each), Hunpoletz 14 (3 with 720 hands each), and Asch 12 (2 with 700 hands each). In Eger there are two factories each with 1,000 hands. Niemes, Bohmisch-Aicha, and Neudek have each one mill, employing 4,500, 4,500, and 2,000 hands respectively. Some branches of the industry are located as follows : Woollen yarn is spun at Husinetz ; flannel is made at Leipnik and Jungbunzlau ; fine cloth is made at Prossnitz ; and weaving and yarn spinning are carried on extensively at Briinn. Fezes, which have a large sale in the East, are made at Strakonitz, Husinetz, and Pisek. 78 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. 2 Carpets are made in Reichenberg and the Eger district, and were exported largely to Great Britain, France, Germany, and Russia. A special industry is that of oriental prayer-carpets, which are made from chenille thread in the villages as a home industry. On account of their bright colouring and low price they are in great demand in Cairo, Alexandria, Smyrna, and other places in the Levant. Linen. — The manufacture of Bohemian linens has reached a perfection which makes them world renowned. There are large weaving-mills, some employing as many as 1,000 hands, at Eipel, Hohenelbe, Mahrisch-Schon- berg, Starkenbach, and Zwittau. Flax-spinning is also a flourishing industry and is largely dependent on the home production of flax. (In 1913 Bohemia and Moravia produced 59-6 per cent, of the flax fibre grown in Austria.) At Trautenau, 5,000 out of a population of 14,000 are engaged in flax- spinning ; at Grottau there is a spinning-mill with 1,000 hands. Lace. — Bohemian lace is in considerable request, and is made both by machine and by hand. Machine embroidery and lace is made by automatic shuttle machines in Graslitz, Neudek, Weipert, and Asch. Hand embroidery, including old-fashioned crochet embroidery, is made in the villages near these towns. Much machine-made lace is sent from the Erzgebirge factories to be finished by hand in the Bohemian Forest (on the borders of Bavaria), where cheaper labour is to be found. Before the war the number of hand lace-workers in the villages of the Bohemian Forest and other districts was estimated to be 30,000. Much lace was exported to the United States and else- where. It is frequently sold as Belgian, French, or Italian. Heady-inade Clothing.- It is computed that Prossnitz S;°^.t".\'„"*"'*l nUEMICAL INDUSTRY 79 Moravia in Moravia produces one-half of the output of ready- made clothes in Austria. It has 44 factories with at least 2,700 hands employed (one factory with 1,000 hands). Gloves.— This industr}^ has existed in Bohemia for many years ; even in 1800 as many as 16,000 dozen pairs of gloves were produced in Prague. Latterly the manufacture has increased greatly. In 1908 the Bohemian glove-makers made 1,500,000 dozen pairs, valued at 30,000,000 kn. Prague is the chief centre of the industry, supplying two-thirds of the total output of Bohemia. In 1900 there were in that city, engaged in the glove trade, 733 tanners, 2,500 sewers, and 572 dyers. The remainder of the Bohemian gloves are made in the Erzegebirge near Joachimsthal, Glove-making in Bohemia (particularly in the Erzge- birge district) is largely a home industry, and the miserable wage paid to home workers in that country has facilitated competition with goods produced in Great Britain and the United States. Chemical Industry In 1911 Austria imported chemicals to the extent of 226,662 tons net. It is not possible to give exact figures for the consumption or production of raw chemical material or of chemical manufactured pro- ducts in Bohemia and Moravia, but it may be taken that at least half of the consumption of raw material and the production of manufactured chemicals should be assigned to these two provinces. For the raw materials themselves Bohemia and Moravia depend largely on other provinces or other countries. Austria is fortunate in having at Kalusz in Galicia some deposits of kainit, a natural salt containing 80 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. 2 23 per cent, of sulphate of potash (equal to 12|^ per cent, of pure potash) and 30 per cent, of common salt. Though small, these deposits have a special value for Bohemia and Moravia. It must be remembered that it is for roots in particular that potash is desirable as a manure, and that both sugar-beet and fodder-beet are among the most valuable crops in these two provinces, which possess no deposits of their own of either kainit or salt. Of salt, Austria imported in 1910 210,095 tons, of which 96,276 tons came from Germany. Bohemia and Moravia are thus dependent on the other provinces of Austria or upon Germany for an article which they greatly need. Particular chemical industries are located in Bohemia and Moravia as follows : Sulphuric Acid and other chemicals at Aussig, where there is a large factory employing 6,000 hands. Artificial Manures are made by firms at Kolin, Pecek (near Podebrad), Budweis, and Neu-Erlaa. These firms are controlled by Czechs. Matches are made at Briinn and Budweis, and this industry also is controlled by Czechs. Potash is treated on a large scale at Kolin. The Austrian Union for Chemical Production has factories in Aussig, Kralup, Nestowitz, and Hruschau (Austrian Silesia). It is controlled by German- Austrians, but does business chiefly in Bohemia. The Chemical Industry Company has factories in Bohemia at Klein Tessowitz, Vysocan, and Aussig, Machinery The machine industry of Bohemia and Moravia is an important one. It supplies the greater part of the Austrian demand, and exports considerable quantities to other countries. The industry is established i;in many M?rlv/a"'"^l MACHTNERY 81 of the leading towns, but more particularly in Prague and its suburbs and in the Brlinn district. These two centres supply most of the railway, sugar, and textile plant used in Austria. The manufacture of motor-cars has improved steadily, and good cars are made by firms at Prague, Reichenberg, and Jungbunzlau, the Itoer town supplying cars to Montenegro. Many factories in Bohemia and Moravia are making motors for industrial purposes. While some of the larger works (including the Skoda, Ordnance Works at Pilsen) are under German- Austrian control, machine-making is on the whole a Czech in- dustry. The following figures give the approximate number of hands emplo3^ed in the machine and metal industry in various towns : Prague, 28,400 ; Pilsen, 13,000, of which 10,000 are in the Skoda Ordnance Works ; Briinn, 6,500; Gablonzr, 2,500; Budweis, 2,200; Mahrisch- Ostrau, 2,050. The various branches of the industry are distributed as follows : Locomotives and Railway Plant. Prague, Aussig, Standing (Mahrisch-Ostrau), Pilsen, Kolin. Electrical Plant. Prague. Sugar Machinery. Prague, Briinn (and district), Blansko, Schlan, Aussig, Karolinenthal. Breiving Machinery. Prague. Textile Machinery. Briinn and district, Prague. Enamelled Iron and Iron-ware. Prague, Briinn, Naschwitz, Budweis, Friedland (north of Reichenberg), Olmlitz. High-class Shot Ouns and Cartridges. Prague. Serving Machines. Prague. Machines and Motors. Prerau, Prossnitz, Jun.gbunz- lau, Reichenberg, Blansko. 82 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [»o.a Wire Avails and Screws. JSaaz. Ordnance. Piisen. Machinery for making Cheap Jewellery. Gablonz. (5) Trade Combinations and Cartels In Austria the development of trade combinations has been very marked, though for various reasons, among which are the hostility of the courts to the movement and the heav}^ tax on corporations, which has tended to discourage the amalgamation of private firms, their number has always been much smaller than in Germany. The most successful as well as the earliest combine was the iron (Cartel, while up to the date of the Brussels Convention the sugar cartel was ver}^ powerful. Individual industries are organized as follows : Wood Industry. — In 1908 the wood-merchants and saw-mill owners of the Reichenberg district established a control bureau of their industry at the Reichenberg branch of the Oesterreichische Kredit-Anstalt. Iron Industry. — The Austrian iron industry is regu- lated by a cartel. This originated in 1886, in a combine of the Teplitz Rolling Mills and Bessemer Furnaces, the Bohemian Mining Company, and the Witkowitz Mining and Iron Furnace Compan}^ In I90I the chief Austrian works, and, in particular, the Prague Iron Industr}^ Company, the Bohemian Mining Com- pany, the Witkowitz Mining Company, and the works of the Erzherzog Friedrich syndicated themselves on the basis of a new cartel. This has an executive committee (German- Austrian) in Vienna. Its total out- put of iron, railway material, rails, sheet-metal, &c., supi)lied in Austria, was, ixi 1911, 750,800,000 metric tons. As llie manufacture of iron is j)rotected artificially Mo^rlv^*^''*] TRADE COMBINATIONS 83 by an import duty, and naturally by the cost of land or river carriage to the interior, the trade is very profitable to the manufacturers. On the whole, however, Austria will remain a bu3^er of iron rather than a seller. Graphite Industry. — In 1907, the Prague branch of the Credit Bank arranged a combine for the sale of Austrian graphite, and came to an understanding with the talc and graphite companies of Val Chisone in Pinerolo (Province of Turin) to protect their common interests. Two-thirds of the Austrian output is under the control of this trust. Sugar Industry. — Since 1891 a series of cartels have controlled the price and the sale of sugar. In Austria a cartel of the sugar refineries was formed in 1891. This proved insufficient, and during the years 1898- 1903 a cartel of the combined refiners and sugar producers was in existence, and thoroughly organized the conditions of j)roduction. In 1903 the new condi- tions imposed by the Brussels Convention brought the existing Austrian cartel to an end, and a new cartel came into being in 1906. Included in it were 22 refineries divided into three groups: (1) the Bohe- mian ; (2) the Moravian, Silesian, and Lower Austrian ; and (3) the Przeworsk (Galicia) factories. Now that bounties are practically abolished and the operations of the cartels limited, the value of beet- sugar as a profit-winning product depends mainly on the cost of production. In this respect it has to com- pete not only with cane sugar, but with cereals as well. Thus, though it can hold its own with cane sugar, the area devoted to it in Bohemia has not increased owing to the good prices obtainable for cereals. Brewing and Distilling. — ^An Imperial Defence Or- ganization of the Austrian Brewing Industries was founded in 1910. ' There is also a Defence League of 84 ECONOMIC CJONDITIONS [no. a the Bohemian Breweries (embracing 350 breweries) and a Union of Brlinn Breweries. There is a Union of Agricultural Distilleries at Prague. This controls the sale of the agricultural distilleries in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lower Austria. It is financed by the Landerbank and the Zivnostenska Banka. In 1911 a Spirit Cartel was organized by the Kredit- Anstalt in conjunction with the Zivnostenska Bank to regulate the production of spirits in Austria (not including Galicia and the Bukovina). Its head- quarters are at Prague. Cotton Industry. — This industry is well organized and is controlled by the Combine of Austro-Hungarian Cotton Spinners, the Export and Sale Union of Austrian and Hungarian Cotton Spinners, the Union of Cotton Ribbon Makers of Austria-Hungary, represented in Bohemia by factories at Schonau, Nixdorf, and Hainspach, and the Union of the Makers of Warnsdorf Goods, a combine of cotton goods makers in Warnsdorf, Rumburg, Schonlinde, Bohmisch-Kamnitz, Kreibitz, and Niedergrund. Woollen Industry. — There is a Union of Woven Goods Manufacturers of Asch, Haslau, Fleissen, Schon- linde, and Iglau, financed by the Landerbank of Prague, and also a Combine of Moravian Knitted Goods and Stocking Makers which includes firms at Iglau, Deutsch- Brod, Asch, Pilgram, and Jagerndorf (Austrian Silesia). Glass, China, and Enamelled Ware Industries. — There is a Cartel of Bohemian Sheet-Glass Manufacturers, controlled by the Union Bank of Bohemia. It was reorganized in 1911, when some firms in other provinces of Austria were admitted. There is also a Cartel of Looking-Glass Manufacturers, with head-quarters at Pi 1 sen ; a Union of the North-Bohemian Glass Manu- facturers of Haida and Steinschonau, with head- (jiiarters at Haida; a Union of the Austio-Hungarian ^°''Tr'r''^\ TRADE COMBTNATTONS 85 Moravia Bottle Manufacturers (to which the large firms in Aussig, Prague, Teplitz, and Neusattl belong), con- trolled by the Union Bank of Bohemia ; a Convention of the Austrian Porcelain Manufacturers, with head- quarters at Karlsbad, to which 28 of the largest firms belong ; and a Household Crockery Cartel, which in 1908 entered into an agreement with the German China Manufacturers to regulate the export to the United States and Canada. There is also an Austrian Cartel of Enamelled Ware Makers, which includes the Bohemian makers and is affiliated to a large Union of European Enamelled Wares Works with an export bureau at Berlin. Chemical Industry. — The two chief cartels for the regulation of chemical industry have their head- quarters in Bohemia. The Cartel for Artificial Manure has offices at Prague and at Budapest ; while the Sulphuric Acid Cartel has branches at Aussig, Hruschau, and Kolin, and is controlled by the Union Bank of Bohemia. Nitrate Combine. — The large Austrian and Hungarian nitrate concerns, viz., the contemplated joint-stock com- pany (to be financed by the Kredit-Gesellschaft) for ex- ploiting the water-power of Dalmatia, the nitrate works established in Falkenau by the Aussig Chemical Associa- tion and the Buschtehrad Railway, the Austrian works established in Styria by the Prague Iron Industry, the Escomptegesellschaft, the Deposit Bank, the Dynamit Nobel, and the Hungarian Nitrate Fertilizers Industry Company (closely connected with the Hungarian Natural Gas Company), were to be combined (1918) under the auspices of the Government in a ' sale and price' organization for the sale of artificial fertilizers. Machine Factories. — The Union of the Austrian Machine Factories, with head-quarters at Prague, includes the chief Bohemian and Moravian firms. 86 ECONOMIC' Ct:>NDlT10N8 [no. 2 (C) COMMERCE (a) Organizations for promoting Trade In Bohemia there are Chambers of Commerce at Prague, Pilsen, Budweis, Reichenberg, and Eger ; in Moravia at Brlinn and Olmiitz. (6) Exports and Imports Only in the case of certain articles is it possible to give figures for the exports and imports from and to Bohemia and Moravia, for the official statistics deal with Austria or Austria-Hungary as a whole. The two provinces are, however, of such importance both as regards manufactures and raw materials, that it is worth while to notice the figures for some of those commodities for which no special figures of Bohemia and Moravia are available. Probabl}'' no provinces of the Dual Monarch}^ have been more affected, for instance, by such facts as the depression of the cotton industry (which up to 1912 had been fairly prosperous) ^ owing to the Balkan War and the extended credit demanded by Serbia, Bulgaria, and Rumania ; or the loss by Austrian distillers since 1900 of their leading place in the world's markets owing to the prohibitive import duties applied by Spain and Japan, to the competition of Russia and Rumania for the Levantine trade, and to German competition in Austria itself. In at least one particular Bohemia has suffered through the ease of exportation. It has been com- ' Bohemia and Moravia supply about half the textiles exported from Austria- Hungary. The net export of cotton goods in 1911 from Austria-Hungary was of the value of 108,835,000 kn., though cotton goods to the value of 10,605,000 kn. were imported from Germany, and to about a third of that amount from France and the United Kingdcjiu together. The best customers of Austria-Hungary were iSwitzerland, Kuro])eHii Turkey, and Rumania, whose purchases respectively cost 52,891,000, 15,742,000, and 14,281,000 kn. Mo^ra^a^'"''! EXPOKTIS AND IMPORTS 87 plained ^ that the export of wood down the Elbe and Moldau and along the chief railways, where it is favoured by cheap rates, has been excessive, and that it was worked up by Germany and Italy, whereas Austria ought to use more of her raw and semi-raw material in her own paper factories. Indeed in 1913 Austria exported 22,000,000 kn. value of wood-pulp and cellulose, which were afterwards reimported into the country, largely from Saxony and in spite of heavy protective duties, in the form of paper and other manufactured goods. The freightage on the Elbe is so cheap that Bohemian lignite can com])ete with German fuel at a considerable distance from the frontier. Thus in 1907, 2,026,196 tons, or 22-97 per cent, of the total lignite exports of Bohemia, were transported down the Elbe. Again, of the total Austrian production of sugar in 1911, 229,629 tons were conveyed dowai the Elbe to the Bohemian frontier (see under Sugar below). The other main channel for the exports of these two provinces, particularly those of Moravia, is the route by rail to Trieste. Whereas only a small portion of the Bohemian output of coal was exported via Trieste, for Moravia the rail route to Trieste came more naturall}^ into competition with the water route to Hamburg. Thus, in 1911, Moravia exported 28 per cent, of its sugar production by Trieste, Bohemia only 11-8 per cent. When the canal scheme mentioned above (p. 46) makes it possible to use the Danube as an arter}^ of their commerce, it may be safely antici- pated that the trade of these two provinces with south-eastern Euroj^e will be very greatly stimulated. The figures given for the exports and imports of the following articles refer " to Bohemia only, or to ^ See Friedrich Hertz, Die Produktionsgrundlagen der oesterreichi- schen Industrie vor und nach dern Kriege. 1st Ed. Vienna, 1917. 88 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. 2 Bohemia and Moravia jointly, except in the cases of porcelain and glass, of which nevertheless the export from provinces other than Bohemia and Moravia was very small, of sugar and beer, which similaily came almost entirely from these two provinces, and of graphite, of which 65 per cent, of the Austrian produc- tion came from Bohemia and Moravia. Hops and Fruit. — Bohemian hops were in great demand for export to all the principal countries. Germany, in spite of a high import duty, was the chief customer, taking hops to the value of 13,941 kn. in 1911, the United States coming next with an import of 4,537 kn. in value. The chief export of fruit was to Germany. Plums and other stone fruit were sent by rail and river to Berlin, Hamburg, Dresden, and other large towns. Dessert fruits, packed in baskets, were exported in large quantities to Russia (expecially to Moscow and Petrograd), and also to Norway and Sweden ; dried plums were sent to the United Kingdom. The centre of the export trade was Lobositz on the Elbe, in the district of greatest fertility. In 1912 (a remarkably good year) 26,374 metric tons of fresh and preserved fruits were sent down the Elbe to the Bohemian frontier for export. Coal and Lignite.— The industries of Bohemia have not used the native lignite as much as they might have done, but have preferred to use coal, chiefly im- ported from uj^pei' and lower Silesia. Prom Prussian Silesia in 1913 Bohemia took 833,000 tons ; Moravia also took large quantities, 338,081 tons going to Brtinn, Oliniitz, Prcj-au, and Mahrisch-Ostrau. The north Boiicmian lignite, in comparison with the German, is more compact, contains less water, and has a higher caloric value. It has, therefore, been largely exported to i\vvn\ii\iy. Lattcsrly, however, tlieie has been a MJrlvYa"°M EXPORTS AM) IM]>OiiTS Si) tendency to use more of it at home. In 1880, 3,163,640 tons, or 51 per cent, of the total production, were exported ; in 1907 the figure was 8,820,897 tons, but this was only 40 per cent, of the total production, and by 1911 only some 35 per cent, of the output of the two main fields was being sent abroad. The decline in the export of lignite is largely due to the following reasons : (1) the depth of the workings in Bohemia is on the average much greater than in Germany, with the result that the Bohemian lignite is dearer to produce than, and therefore cannot compete with, the German ; (2) new railway lines have been constructed, which make it easier to convey Bohemian lignite to central and northern Bohemia for home consumption ; (3) the tariffs on the German railways are lower than in Bohemia. The demand for coal, whether imported or not, is bound to be very large in these two provinces. It is to be noted that considerably more fuel is used in sugar factories than in blast furnaces ; and while an increased demand for fuel in the sugar factories might be satisfied by an increased sujjply of home lignite, a similar demand by blast furnaces would have to be met by an increased import of coke. As it is, Bohemia has to import a considerable quantity of coke for her own use, both from Moravia and from Germany. Of the small quantity of lignite briquettes produced in Bohemia, the greater part is exported to Germany ; but it will be difficult for this to compete with German briquettes, sinc^e German lignite is easy to use in its raw condition and needs no binding material, whereas Bohemian lignite will not bind well unless some binding material is added, and this process substan- tially increases the expense of making briquettes. Iron. — For use in Bohemian and Moravian iron- works large quantities of iron ore were imported from Sweden, Spain, and Hungary before the war. 90 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. 2 Graphite. — The export went to Germany, Switzerland, England, Russia, France, Belgium, and America. Sugar. — In 191 1 Bohemia and Moravia produced 90 per cent, of the Austrian output of sugar,^ and 63 per cent, of the total output from Austria-Hungary. In the year named Austria-Hungary exported 674,800 tons of sugar out of a total production of 1,523,000 tons. Her largest individual customers were the United Kingdom, Turkey (European and Asiatic), and Switzer- land. The Balkan States, Egypt, and Italy also took considerable quantities. Beer. — In 1910 there was an export from Austria- Hungary of 10,686,800 hectolitres or 17,298,690 barrels of beer. The chief countries importing from Austria- Hungary were : Belgium Egypt German}' . Italy Netherlands Switzerland United States Value in kronen. . 297,000 . 540,000 . 7.506.000 . 1,114,000 . 265,000 . 474,000 . 1.744,000 It may be assumed that a very large proportion of this was ' Pilsener ' beer from Bohemia and Moravia. Gloves. — There was a large exjiort of gloves from Bohemia, chiefly to Great Britain, Germany, and the United States. In 1900 gloves to the value of 23,013,500 kn. were exported from Bohemia to German}' and Great Britain, Germany taking more than half. In 1910 ladies' gloves to the value of 900,420 kn. were exported to the United States. China and Glass. — In Austria the manufacture of china is almcjst entirely confined to Bohemia, and therefore the Austrian exports of porcelain given in the table below may be taken as statistics of the Bohemian trade. It will be seen from the table ' And in 1913 nearly 92 per cent. Bohemia and Moravia EXPORTS AND IMPORTS 91 that the export of decorated porcelain was much laiger than that of white porcelain, and that the largest customer in 1910 was Great Britain, which imported 82 per cent, of the total taken by Germany and the United States together. Asiatic Turkey Australia Dutch Indies Germany Great Britain Italy . Rumania United Statss Other countries Hamburg (for export) Total . White Decorated Porcelain. Porcelain. Tons. Tons. 219 — — 582 604 — 772 2,355 224 4,245 278 — 273 633 174 2,134 988 2,416 205 1,081 3,737 13,446 The Bohemian glass industry often suffers from depression, owing to severe competition with Germany and Belgium, in which countries manufacturers have the advantages of cheaper inland freights and raw materials, while taxes and other expenses are lower. Japan also is trying to oust the Gablonz manufacturers of glass jewellery from the Indian market. Yet in 1913 the sale of glass goods, as shown by the figures below, was not unsatisfactory. These goods were exported from Austria as follows : Value in kronen. To Balkan States To British India To Germany . To Turkey To United Kingdom To United States To Hamburg (for ex()ort) Total 2,030,000 8,627,500 6,090,000 2,030,000 8,112,000 2,500,000 12,180,000 41.569,500 Machinery.- — The United Kingdom supplied Bohemia with a considerable amount of textile machinery, while certain kinds of agricultural machiner}^ were supplied in the j^ast by the United States and Canada ; in 1911 practically all the harvesting machines came from the 92 ECONOMIC (CONDITIONS [no. 2 United States. By 1913 the local manufacturers were imitating American mowing and reaping machines and making keen competition. On the other hand, Canada gave orders to Bohemia for beet-sugar machinery ; sugar-making plant was supplied to Italy and Rumania ; dynamos were supplied from Prague to the United Kingdom (London, Middlesbrough, Newport, Dublin) and Tasmania ; and trucks, tramcars, and locomotives were exported to Italy, Germany, Kumania, Serbia, and Turkey. (D) FINANCE (1) Public Finance The Imperial Revenue and Expenditure for 1912 was as follows : — Revenue. Expenditure. Kronen. Kronen. Total Ordinary Total Ordinary Expen- Revenue' . 3,006,085,000 diture 2,778,203,000 Extraordinary Extraordinary Expen- Revenue . 167,224,000 diture ' 406,158,000 Total Revenue . 3 173,309,000 Total Expenditure 3,184,361,000 Of the total revenue, direct taxes amounted to 408,083,000 kn., and indirect taxes (customs, excise, &c.) to 1,435,561,000 kn. While education, commerce, and national defence are markedly heavy items of expenditure, by far the heaviest is the railways. On these the expenditure rose from 266,370,000 kn. in 1906 to 649,810,000 kn. in 1912 ; while during the same years the expenditure on agriculture only rose from 50,654,000 kn. to 5 1,1 38,000 kn. The large expenditure on railways is due to the fact that political rather than economic considerations guided their construction ; indeed, in 1908 there was a deficit of 78,000,000 kn. on their working, which had to be met by a large increase in tariffs. In the ten years 1902-11 the exjicnditure of the empire rose from about 1*5 milliards of kronen to more than double that sum. Bohem^aand| PUBLKJ FINANCE 93 This rise involved a serious increase in taxation. As the revenue return for 1912 shows, the direct and indirect taxes had become very heavy, and the rise is illustrated by the following figures for some important taxes in 1906 and 1912 : 1906. 1912. Kr 071671. Kronen. Tax on securities Tax on personal income Excise duties 9,139,000 . 60,081,000 . 366,872,000 13,153,000 101,717,000 420,216,000 Taxation in Austria operates with a distinct bias against industry and the professional classes and there- fore is fraught with danger for centres of industry. Thus in Austria all joint-stock companies are taxed 10 per cent, on their profits, and these profits are estimated by the State so as to include much that is not properly net profit. Further, an additional tax may be imposed by the province and by the commune, so that as much as 20-30 per cent, in all often has to be paid. There is a heavy house tax, a tax on the income from securities, a tax on personal income, and a further tax on salaries exceeding £266 per annum. This heavy taxation inevitably falls with especial pressure on industrial provinces such as Bohemia and Moravia. In strong contrast to the heavy taxes on the industrial middle classes, the tax on landed property, which brought in 75,000,000 kn. in 1896, fell to 51,000,000 kn. in 1912, and is, in fact, the only Austrian tax which has shown a decrease of recent years. In the payment of taxes on revenue also the agriculturist is favoured ; so that it is not surprising that the agrarian party and the lower middle class (as opposed to the capitalists) had a large majority in the Austrian Parliament. The following table shows the amount paid in direct taxes and in excise b}^ Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia respectively in the year 1909 : 94 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [wo.a Excise Tux Per Per Per in kn. per cent, of Personal cent, of cent, of head of RealTaxes. Total. Taxes. Total. Excise. Total, -poptdation. 1,000 kn. 1,000 kn. 1,000 kn. Bohemia . 39,1311 .„ 87,762\ .,, 141,779\ .„ „„ 20-9 Moravia . 14,055/ '^^ 29,720/ "^^ 88,888/ '^""''^ 33-8 Silesia . 2,911 1-7 5,234 2-5 24,398 6-01 33-4 All Austria 164,805 100 370,141 100 406,191 100 14-2 It will be noted that Bohemia and Moravia pay a very large percentage of the Austrian excise, and that relatively to its size Silesia pays a far higher amount than either.^ Furthermore, of the direct and indirect taxes together Bohemia and Moravia pay such a large share as to make the fiscal policy of the empire a matter of vital importance to them. A surve}^ for the year 1912, published in the Neue Freie Presse on October 29, 1918, shows that of the 28 million inhabi- tants of Austria, more than one-third (10-1 millions) inhabited Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia ; and that these provinces then yielded 33 per cent, of the total Austrian revenue from real property, 34 per cent, of the personal taxes, and nearly 60 per cent, of the excise taxes."^ ' Silesia is somewhat more clenselj' populated : its area is about one-tenth of that of Bohemia, and its population rather more than one-ninth. 2 The following figures summarize the chief heads of the survey for 1912 ; statistics for the war period have not been published. All Austria. Bohemia. Moravia. Taxation n 1912. 1.000 kn. 1,000 kn. 1,000 kn Real property taxes : Land tax . 51,224 15,407 7,267 House tax . 10,556 2,442 1,006 Tax on rents 90,702 20,184 5,060 Totals of taxes on real property 171,774 39,963 13,906 Personal taxes : Tax on earnings 36,51 1 10,094 3,478 Tax on shares 75,704 18,892 6,668 Tax on interest . 13,152 3,468 941 Income-tax . 101,717 22,.347 6,014 Salaries tax 4,990 762 294 Personal tax(is (totals) 232.2()(» 5.-i.631 17,409 ll^xc-iso. taxes (totalM) 420.216 143,103 86,192 Total frroHR poraonal inoonif" taxable 5.960,596 1.326.121 428,325 Bohemia audi Moravia J PUBLIC FINANCE 9.^ The situation was complicated and the burden of taxation increased by the power possessed, and often abused, by the provinces and the communes of levying provincial and local taxes. This they could do by making additions to the State taxes. Such additions, however, might not exceed 10 per cent, of these taxes without the authorization of the Emperor. Apart from this limit the Imperial Government had ver}^ little control over the taxing power of the pro- vinces, which might impose even their own excise duties. It could, however, bargain with them ; thus, for example, in 1901, when the tax on alcohol was raised, part of the additional revenue was apportioned by the Imperial Government to the provinces on the condition that they imposed no local excise duties. In 1909 the provincial revenue and expenditure of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia were as follows : Revenue (in 1,000 kn.) Bohemia. Moravia. Silesia Taxes ...... 68,054 24,592 7,264 Fines 29 6 3 State and Church Funds . 146 169 347 Surphis of Cumulative Orphanage Funds 615 448 70 Administration Fees, Indemnities 3,268 2,019 972 Income from Property and Undertakings 2,109 2.118 606 Sundry- Receipts .... 14 55 8 Capital and Cash Receipts 21,195 95,430 15,995 5,048 45,402 14,318 Expenditure (in 1,000 kn.) Boht)n ia. Moravia. Silesia. General Management of Province 2.829 2.312 419 Provisions and Pensions . 77(t 807 65 Public Safety .... 2,200 1.169 196 Military Purposes .... 664 158 122 Public Health .... 13,622 6,567 2,406 Provident Institutions 3,255 2,145 354 Religion, Instruction, &c. 52,504 21,762 5,155 Agriculture ..... 2,791 2.011 164 Industrj', Trade, iMining . 290 204 18 Commimications and Public Works . 10,325 3,788 2,133 Service of Debt .... 5,586 3,007 595 Landed Property .... 178 180 19 Various Outgoings .... — 321 — Capital and Cash Dues 389 969 45,400 2,667 Totals 9.-1.403 14,313 96 EGONOMK* CONDITIONS [no. a It may be noted that Bohemia's expenditure was larger than that of any other province, lower Austria^ coming next with 72,589,185 kn. ; and that Silesia's expenditure was, relatively to its size, far greater than that of Bohemia.^ The amount of supplementary local taxation has risen enormously of recent years, and in many cases is a heavy 'burden. (2) Banks and Financial Institutions Till 1848, Czechs did not take much part in Austrian finance and commerce ; but after the liberation of the peasants in that year, there was a renascence of Czech industry. In the national movement which followed, efforts were made to free the peasant from the clutch of moneylenders, and to provide caj^ital for small industries ; and thus the savings banks and credit institutions on the Schulze-Delitzsch or Raiffeisen model came into existence. The movement, however, was not helped by the National Bank (afterwards called the Austro- Hungarian Bank), which refused to have any dealings with the savings banks. Accordingly, in 1868, these institu- tions founded their own bank for Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, the Zivnostenska Banka (Industrial Bank), now the most im])07^tant of tlie Czecli banks. From this date began the rise of the sugar and the agricultural machinery industries and the economic struggle of the Czechs and Germans. Banks of evc>ry kind have liad marked success in ' In ]{)!() the State accounts were balanced at the following amounts: Bohemia, 81,172,881 kn. ; Moravia, 48,257,400 kn. ; Silesia, 1.5,678,650 kn. According to the Neue Freie Presse for October 20, 1018, the States taxes had risen in 1012 to the following sums: Bohciriin. 05, .")()().(»()() kn. ; Moravia, 31 ,800,000 kn. ; Silesia (excluding excibc taxes), 8,000,000 kn. Mo^/a'?^a^''^J FINANCE; BANKS, &c. 97 Bohemia and Moravia during the last 20 years. The deposits of savings banks and credit institutions have been trebled, and the shareholders' capital of the large banks has increased thirtyfold. Many of the Bohemian banks have established branches in other provinces of Austria and have financed enterprises outside Austria. Yet, in spite of this large increase in Czech banking institutions, lower Austria (through Vienna) is still the financial centre of Austria.^ A list of the leading Bohemian and Moravian banks and of the Austrian banks with interests in Bohemia and Moravia will be found in the Appendix (Table III). Savings Banks. — The following figures show that 49 per cent, of the Austrian savings banks and 39-3 per cent, of Austrian accounts are in Bohemia and Moravia, but that, judged by the number of separate accounts, the whole of Austria ranks after Germany and France in respect of thrift : 1909. No. of Savings Banks. No. of Accounts. Austria ... . . 669 4,262,108 Lower Austria , Bohemia . Moravia . German Empire France Of the number of accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank, Bohemia and Moravia supply 33 per cent. ; but Bohemia does not here take the lead as in the case of the savings banks. Post Office Savings Bank No. of investors. Austria . . . .2,261,658 Lower Austria . . . 763,091 Bohemia .... 480,767 Moravia .... 240,094 ^ The present tense is used here and later without regard to changes which may have taken place since 1914. H 83 965,827 240 1,420,641 88 265,440 — 19,845,329 — 13,206,564 98 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. a Credit Societies. — These are of two kinds : (1) Schulze- Delitzscli societies for both rural and urban borrowers ; (2) Raiffeisen societies for small landowners. The former admit as members workmen in all industries, granting credit for a period which, except in rare cases, does not exceed three months. The latter are intended only for agriculturists, and require some guarantee of good character, as well as of financial solvency. These societies differ in respect of the length of credit given, the limitation of liability, and other conditions, but agree in the fact that the members are acquainted with one another in a small area and guarantee each other's borrowings. The importance of such facilities to the ' small ' man who, although short of capital, is of good reputation, cannot be overestimated. The following figures give the numbers of such societies existing in Austria in 1910, and include those with limited as well as with unlimited liability. It will be seen that 38 per cent, of them are in Bohemia and Moravia. They are chiefly Czech societies. No. oj Credit Societies. All Austria . . . 10,905 Bohemia . . . 2,899\, .„ Moravia . . . 1,268/*'^^' Galicia . . . . 2,683 Lower Austria (without Vienna) 642 (3) Influence of Foreign Capital Industrial undertakings in Bohemia and Moravia arc in many cases controlled by great joint-stock comi)anics or combines in Vienna, and these in turn are frequently connected with German firms whose business is international. For instance, the Mannes- Bohemutandj FINANCE ; FOREIGN CAPITAL 99 mann Tube Co. of Vienna, with works at Komotau in Bohemia, is an offshoot of the great Mannesmann Tube Works at Dtisseldorf (cap. 61,000,000 mks., chief office in Berlin), to which its share capital of 20,000,000 mks. belongs. In other cases the influence of German capital and industrial control is direct. The General Electricity Co. of Berlin, for example (cap. 155,000,000 mks.), has branches in Bohemia and Moravia at Briinn, Eger, Karlsbad, Mahrisch-Ostrau, Mahrisch-Schonberg, 01- mtitz, Prague, Reichenberg, Teplitz, Trautenau, and Warnsdorf, as well as at Troppau and Teschen in Austrian Silesia. The following companies either have works in Bohemia which are controlled and financed from Germany, or have works in both Bohemia and Saxony : The German-Austrian Mining Co. (cap. 18,000,000 mks.) has its directorate in Dresden and mines in Bohemia and Saxony. The Dux Coal Co. (cap. 5,000,000 mks.) has a director at Aachen and mines at Dux and Leipzig. The Triptis Co. (cap. 6,000,000 mks.) has directors at Vienna, Leipzig, Berlin, and Dresden, and porcelain works at Teplitz. The Dux Porcelain Works (cap. 1,500,000 mks.) has its head-quarters at Berlin, and factories at Dux and near Weimar. The Saxon-Bohemian Portland Cement Manufac- turing Co. (cap. 3,500,000 mks.) has its head-quarters and sales office at Dresden, and its factories at Tschisch- kowitz, near Lobositz, in Bohemia. The shares of all the above-mentioned companies are quoted on the Berlin Stock Exchange, as also are the following Bohemian and Moravian railway shares : preference shares in the Bohemian Northern Rail- way, the Bohemian Western Railway, and the Moravian H2 100 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [wo.a Boundary Railway (all now taken over by the Austrian State Railways) ; shares in the Aussig-Teplitz Railway, which has directors at Leipzig as well as in Bohemia, the Buschtehrad Railway, the Prague-Dux Railway, and the Briinn Railway. (E) GENERAL REMARKS During the years 1902-12 there was a marked in- crease in the productivity of all industrial countries, and Austria was no exception to the rule. In both Austria and Germany this increase is put at about 50 per cent., and it must be remembered that Bohemia and Moravia are the industrial core of Austria. Yet the increase of wealth is estimated to be far less in Austria than in Germany, and this is not sufficiently accounted for by the fact that in 1902 Austria started from a lower level. Among causes that may be assigned are the excessive taxation of joint-stock companies and inadequate means of transport, as a result of which the prices of building and other materials have been raised and competition with other countries has been made difficult. Bricks, for example, cost nearly 100 per cent, more at Reichenberg than at Berlin, and the price of cement is 26 j^er cent, higher in Bohemia than in Germany. Coal also is generally more expensive in Austria than in Germany. The taxation of net profits is four times as great in Austria as in Switzerland, and this is one reason why the industrialists of Bohemia have been unwilling to put down the expensive plant required to produce electricity from water-power, while those of Switzerland do so without hesitation. For Bohemia with its ring-fence of mountains and its many mountain streams this is a serious matter. To some industries the shortage of railways and waterways is especially detrimental. The complaint is made that ^'"'IV^t^''^] GENERAL REMARKS 101 Moravia there are large tracts of forest wliich remain useless owing to the absence of facilities for transporting timber. Doubtless there are other factors which contribute to the profit-earning inferiority of these two provinces. It is stated that the Bohemian mechanic gets less work out of expensive machines than the mechanic in Germany. In Germany, for instance, a worker will produce 100 to 110 dozen jjairs of boots weekly, while in Austria with the same appliances the outj)ut is 75 to 95 dozen only. Improved technical education, however, should be able to remedy this, and there is little doubt that the Czechs show marked ability as engineers a,nd are in a fair way wholly to supply the demand for machines in the Czech provinces, and that in the iron foundries the Bohemian hand-moulders are exception- ally good at their work. Bohemia and Moravia are to a remarkable extent independent of the produce and raw materials of other countries. Apart from tropical produce, iron, salt, and wool are the only articles of which a large supply from outside is necessary, and the organizing ability of the Czech industrialist has improved greatly of recent years. There is no reason, therefore, why an improved finan- cial system, better facilities for transport, and freedom from the political strife which has been so injurious, should not greatly increase the productivity of these two provinces. The external demand for their products, however, will depend on factors wliich at present it is impossible to forecast. Certainly the restoration of peace in the Balkan States, and an increase of their pro- sperity, will increase their already considerable demand for Bohemian and Moravian goods ; but it should be pointed out that Bohemia and Moravia cannot carry their goods to the sea either by rail or water without 102 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. 2 passing through other countries. The Elbe route and the northerly routes of the proposed canal systems may be controlled by foreign and possibly hostile Powers ; the Danube route to which the new canal will give access lies similarly outside the control of Bohemia, and the nearest sea-port, Trieste, cannot be reached without passing through German Austria. Bohemia and~| lAQ Moravia lUo APPENDIX TABLE I. STAPLE CROPS Total Production in 1913 (in Hundreds of Metric Tons) OF Bohemia, Moravia, and all Austria Wheat. Rye. Barley. Oats. Pota- Sugar Fodder Meadow toes. Beet. Beet. Hay. Bohemia . 4,837 9,35U 6.628 9,573 33,399 40,703 9,906 17,630 Moravia . 1,884 3,688 3,960 3,490 18,633 22.446 6,679 4,863 All Austria 16,228 27,045 17,502 26,774 115,529 69,630 38,615 91,530 g§ Ig^s si I 1 I I US^ 11 I I a Tt< O r-^^ '^ ^ O TiT lo" (m' O O O C O fO 5rHr-l l^>005t^ ;-; TlT I t-'V^o" cc I I 1 I 1 I *^ ■>* >* -h' r-T '— i CD >*_ (M fO ^„ "^^ "^ O 00 '^ '^ C>-^ "^^ '"' ^ t> oi "S'S <^' oo" I o" I I I ^' '^ »^ "^ csTn" ' ' ,ii CO Xh'^^ o'cvi'aj'^ li > Oioo'^c-i'-fio oo— (Oo' ' 00 '^i'-lCOt-Ofl -j^ C I— it-CO— llOCOl— I- IQ C^r^^ jS CO r-t w • rt OJ tf W •; -^^ 'Mill "W5 2 1 S 2 1 .2 .2 ir o ^D^ w>^ 4:) g. 2 S g g -g § o W o ^ o =0 3 y SPt; oCgS^'ga^ -- "^ .~ " ■- y ^ ■" o. n u o t- rr_ s? bt &u '-' - '-Ht: ' O '^< o, i? 2 2 ^ W ^ toOM 0) «? ^ ^ £ 1 ,o 3; ,0 O O ° O K^^ X ^ o ^ .■= fe S o '^ o ^ OOTt<^COTtc> ..^a^flti- '*-' p t- • • -.5.5 •■! b • -i-s • • • • ^ Bohemia and J INDUSTRY; BANKS 105 TABLE III.— BANKS (a) Leading Austrian Banks with Interests in Bohemia AND Moravia Austro-Hungarian Bank. — This is the principal bank of the Empire, with a share capital of 210,000,000 kn., and head offices at Vienna. Of its 54 branches, 22 are in Bohemia and Moravia ; and of the 82 agencies attached to these branches, 54 are in these two provinces. Anglo- Austrian Bank. — Vienna. Share capital, 100,000,000 kn. Of its 29 branches, 16 are in Bohemia and Moravia. Vienna Banking Company. — Share capital, 130,000,000 kn. Has 12 out of 34 branches in Bohemia and Moravia. Imperial Chartered Bank of the Austrian Kingdoms. — Has 11 branches in Bohemia. Imperial Chartered Austrian Credit Institution for Trade and Industry (Kredit Anstalt). — Vienna. Share capital, 150,000,000 kn. Finances ironworks, sugar factories, and distilleries in Bohemia ; breweries in Moravia. Imperial Chartered Bank and Exchange Company ' Merkur'. — Vienna. Share capital, 5,000,000 kn. Has 13 out of 21 branches in Bohemia and Moravia. Imperial Chartered General Commercial Bank.— Vienna,. Share capital, 42,000,000 kn. Branches at six towns in Bohemia and Moravia. Central Bank of German Savings Banks. — Vienna. Share capital, 25,000,000 kn. Founded in 1901 by the German Credit Association ; of its numerous branches, 90 are in Bohemia and Moravia. The directorate of these Viennese banks is exclusively German- Austrian. (6) The Leading Banks in Bohemia and Moravia. (These banks are guaranteed by the province whose needs they serve.) Bank of the Kingdom of Bohemia. — Founded by the Bohemian authorities in 1890, and empowered by statute, in addition to the ordinary business of a bank, to organize credit societies and to make loans to communes or to individuals for improvements. Reserve funds, 20,795,000 kn. Mortgage Bank of the Kingdom of Bohemia. — Founded by the Bohemian authorities to lend money on real estate. Reserve funds, 9,241,000 kn. 106 APPENDIX [no. a Mortgage Institution of the Bohemian Savings Bank. — Founded by the Bohemian Savings Bank in 1906. Does not aim at profit. Advances money on estates up to two-thirds of their value, on houses up to half, and on entailed estates up to one-third of their value. Mortgage Institution of the Prague Savings Bank. — Founded by the Prague Savings Bank in 1906. Not for profit. Conditions much the same as the last-mentioned bank. Mortgage Bank of the Margravate of Moravia.— Brunn. Founded by the Moravian authorities in 1906, to lend money on Moravian real estate. Reserve funds, 3,621,694 kn. Agricultural Bank of the Margravate of Moravia. — Briinn. Founded by the Moravian authorities in 1897 to make loans to communes and railway enterprises for improvements. Reserve fund, 21 1,643 kn. Mortgage Institution of the First Moravian Savings Bank in Briinn. —Founded in 1892. Not for profit. Reserve fund, 4,400,000 kn. (c) Joint-stock Banks with Head- quarters in Bohemia. (Conducted by Czechs, unless otherwise specified.) Central Bank of Bohemian Savings Banks. — Prague, with branches atjBriinn and Vienna. Share capital, 25,000,000 kn. Founded in 1903. Bohemian Industrial Bank. — Prague and Vienna. Founded in 1898. Share capital, 40,000,000 kn. Has 17 branches in Bohemia. Imperial Chartered Bohemian Union Bank. — Prague. Founded in 1872. Share capital, 65,000,000 kn. Conducted by German-Aus- trians. Has branches in Bohepiia and Moravia as well as in Troppau, Salzburg, Villach, Linz, and Graz. Finances railways, breweries, distilleries, automobile factories, copper- works, and steel foundries. Agricultural Credit Bank for Bohemia. — Czech and German- Austrian. Share capital, 10,500,000 kn. Industrial Bank. — Prague. Share capital, 80,000,000 kn. Has 15 branches in Bohemia and Moravia as well as branches at Vienna, Trieste, Lemberg, and Cracow. Credit Bank. — Prague. Share capital, 25,000,000 kn. Finances sugar, coal, and petroleum industries in Galicia. North Austrian Bank for Industry, Trade, and Agriculture. — Share capital, 4,000,000 kn. German- Austrian. Offices at Briinn and Witkowitz. Credit Bank for Trade and Industry. — Briinn. Share capital, 100,000 kn. Agrarian Bank. — Prague. Share capital, 4,000,000 kn. Brewing Industry Bank. — Prague. German-Austrian. Share capital, 2,000,000 kn. Mo^rl^V"*"*] BANKS 107 Bohemian Joint Stock Bank. — Prague. Share capital, 3,000,000 kn. Has a sister institution in the United States. Branches in Briinn, Cernowitz, Cracow, Lemberg, Trieste, and Vienna. Moravian Agrarian and Industrial Bank. — Briinn. Share capital, 12,000,000 kn. Has five branches. Imperial Chartered Moravian Discount Bank. — Briinn. German- Austrian and Czech. Share capital, 8,000,000 kn. Credit Loan Bank of Koniggratz. — Share capital, 15,000,000 kn. Branches in Prague, Pilsen, and four other towns. Mdhrisch-Ostrau Trade and Industry Bank. — Share capital, 1,600,000 kn. German. Finances cement, potato, tile, and coal undertakings. Land Bank. — Prague. Share capital, 9,000,000 kn. Has four branches. Bohemian Discount Bank. — Prague. German-Austrian and Czech. Share capital, 72,000,000 kn. Has 13 branches. 108 [no. 2 AUTHORITIES Historical Baker, J. Report on Technical Education in East Prussia, Poland . . .and, Bohemia. 1900. Cd, 419. Bauer, Otto. Die N azionalitdtenfrage und die Sozialdemokratie. Vienna, 1907. Passim, and especially pp. 188-239. BouRLiER, J. Les Tcheques et la Boheme contemporaine. Paris, 1897. Capek, Thos. Bohemia under Austrian misrule. New York, 1915. Denis, Ernest, La Boheme depuis la Montague- Blanxihe. 2 vols. Paris, 1903. Eisenmann, L. Austria-Hungary in the Cambridge Modern History. Vol. xii. Cambridge, 1910. Gayda, ViRGiNio. Modern Austria. London, 1915. pp. 68-83. LtJTzow, Count. Bohemia, an historical Sketch. London. 1909. Seton- Watson, R. W. German, Slav, and Magyar. London, 1916. Chap. VII. Economic Osterreichisches statistisches Handbuch : Jalirgang 1912. Vienna, 1913. Anbau und Erntestatistik . . . der landwirtschajtlichen Industrie im Konigreiche Bohmen, 1912-13. Prague, 1914. British l)i])h)inatic and Consular Reports : Bohemia. Nos. 2688, 2857, 3075, 4092, 4992. British Diplomatic and Consular Reports : Trieste. Nos. 3233, 3328, 3350, 5079. United States of America Consular Reports, 1910-15. Jahrhuch der osterreichischen Industrie, 1915. Vienna, 1915, fSaling's lior sen- Jahrhuch, 1912-13. Berlin, 1914. Statistical Survey in the Neue Freie Presse (October 29, 1918). Sorlvir'^^J AUTHORITIES 109 Compass. Finanzielles Jahrbuch fur Osterreich-U ngarn, 1913. Vienna. Drage, G. Austria- Hungary. London, 1909. Hertz, F. Die Produhtionsgrundlagen der 6sterreichische7i In- dustrie vor und nach dem Kriege. 1st Ed. Vienna, 1917. Lange, F. Landwirtschaftlich-statistischer Atlas. Berlin, 1917. Machalicky, J. Statistik der Erzeugung und des Verbrauches der Kohle im Konigreiche Bohrnen, 1880-1907. Prague, 1909. Martineau, G. Sv^ar. London, 1910. Schwackhofer, F. Die Kohlen Osterreich-Ungarns und Preus- sisch-Schlesiens. Vienna, 1901. Maps Bohemia and Moravia are covered by two sheets (M. 33 Wien, M. 34 Krakau ; G.S.G.S. 2758) of the ' International ' map published by the War Office on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000. The Austrian Staff maps are on the scales of 1 : 75,000 and 1 : 200,000. Bohemia and Moravia are covered by 96 sheets of the former and by 1 8 of the latter. For Ethnography, see note on maps in Austria, &c. (No. 1 of this series), p. 28. I HANDBOOKS rilEPAUEJ) rNJ)ER TllK JJlHKCTION OF THE HISTOBICAL SECTION OF THE FOREIGN OFFICE.— No. S SLOVAKIA LONDON : PUBLISHED BY H. M. STATIONERY OFFICE. 1 92( Slovakia*] TABLE OF CONTENTS I. GEOGRAPHY PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL PAGE (1) Position and Frontiers , . . . 1 (2) Surface, River System., and Lakes Surface ...... 2 Rivers and Lakes . . . . 4 (3) Climate 5 (4) Sanitary Conditions . . . . e- (5) Race and Language Race ....... 6 Language ...... 7 (6) Population • Distribution . . . . . 7 Towns and Villages . . . . 8 Movement ...... 8 II. POLITICAL HISTORY Chronological Summary . . . . 10 (1) Origins ....... 10 (2) Early Settlements . . . . " . 11 (3) The Hussite Influence . . . , 12 (4) The National Movement . . . . 13 III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS (1) ReUgious ...... (2) Political Administration . . . . . Social Conditions, Trade, and Industry . (3) Educational ...... General Observations Popular Opinion and National Sentiment IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS (A) Means of Communication (a) Roads ...... (6) Railways . . . . . (c) Waterways . . . . . Wt. 36998/251. 1000. 2/20. O.U.P. 17 17 19 20 21 23 24 26 TABLE OF CONTENTS [No. 3 PAGE (B) Industry (1) Labour ....... . 27 (2) Agriculture (a) Methods of Cultivation . 29 (6) Products of Commercial Value . . 29 Grain and Root Crops . . 29 Wine and Fruit .... . 30 Honey ..... 30 Tobacco ..... . 30 Live Stock ..... . 31 (c) Forestry . . 31 (d) Land Tenure ..... . 31 (3) Minerals and Metallurgy (a) General Remarks . . . , . 32 (b) Particulars of Chief E^iterprises . . 34 (i) Beszterczebanya District Iron, Steel, and Lignite 34 Non-ferrous Metals 36 (ii Iglo District Iron, Steel, &c. . . 38 Non-ferrous Metals and Minerals . . 40 (iii) Budapest District .... . 41 (4) Manufacture . . 44 (C) General Remarks . . ... 46 AUTHORITIES , Historical and Economic .... . 50 Maps . 51 Slovakia] I. GEOGRAPHY PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL (1) Position and Frontiers Slovakia is the name given to that portion of north-western Hiuigary which is inamly inhabited by the Slovaks, a branch of the Slav race, and indicates a racial rather than a political division. The region lies roughly between 47|^° and 49|^° north latitude and 17° and 23° east longitude. On the north-west and north Slovakia stretches to the boundary between Hungary and Austria and is divided hj the River March, the WTiite Carpathians, and the East Beskid range of the Great Carpathians, from Moravia, Silesia, and Galicia. The southern and eastern limits are less deter- minate : for convenience a Ime has been taken along certam county boundaries; Starting from Pozsony (Pressburg) in the west, this follows, in a generally eastern direction, the southern limits of the following counties : Pozsony, Nyitra (Neutra), Bars, Esztergom, Hont,N6grad, Gomor, Abauj-Torna, Zemplen, and Ung. Thus on the east the boundary follows m general the course of the Tisza (Theiss) to its most northerly point, and then the western edge of the valley of the Latorcza. The region thus delimited mcludes seventeen Hungarian counties, with an area of ap23roximately 22,000 square miles, which is equivalent to about two-thirds of Ireland. The following table gives the details : GEOGRAPHY ri Area in sq. km Arva ....... 2,019 Bars 2,724 Esztergom (Gran) . 1,077 Hont 2,633 Lipto (Liptau) . 2,246 Nograd (Neograd) 4,128 Njatra (Neutra) 5,510 Pozsony (Pressbiirg) . 4,370 Trencsen (Trentschin) 4,456 Turocz 1,123 Zolyom (Sohl) . 2,634 Abauj-Torna (Zips) . 3,317 Gomor and Kis-Hont 4,279 8aros 3,652 Szepes (Zips) 3,654 Ung ... 3,230 Zemplen . 6,282 Total 57,343 [No. 3 or 22,055 sq. miles (2) Surface, River System, and Lakes Surface Of the mountains of the Slovak territory, nearty all belong to the Carpathian system, the only exception being the Pilis group m Esztergom, south of the Danube, which belongs to the Alpine system. The chain of the West Carpathians begins at Pozsony with the Little Carpathians (Kis-karpatok), which connect the Alps with the Carpathians and run north-east, forming the watershed between the March and the Vag (Waag). Beyond the Miava, the chief tributary of the March, the White Carpathians (3,350 ft.), so called from their white dolomite formation, continue in the Bame direction as far as the Jablunka Pass, which is on the main route to Silesia. From this point the West Beskids run eastwards in a great curve to the Riv(ir Poprad, tlie valley of which divides the Carpa- thians into two parts. Between the Poprad and the Slovakia] SURFACE 3 Latorcza, a tributary of the Tisza, lie tiie Ea«t Beskids, and the chain is continued in the Carpathian Forest Mountains. To the south of the East Beskids lie the Vikorlat Mountains. The area between this outer ring and the central plain knowai as the Alfold is occupied by a complicated system of mountains, often known as the Hungarian Highlands. They form the culminating pomt of the Carpathian system, lying between the Vag (Waag) and the Arva, the Poprad and the Dunajec. These moun- tain chains lie roughly parallel to each other, and consist, from north to south, of : (1) The High Tatra (Magas Tatra), of which the highest pomt, Gerlachfalvi-Csucs (Gerlsdorfer Spitze), reaches 8,700 ft. The western end of the High Tatra slopes down to the Liptoi Magura range, which extends to the confluence of the Vag and the Arva. (2) The Low Tatra ( Alacsony or Nizna Tatra) , between the Vag and the Garam (Gran), culminating in the peak of Djumbir (6,700 ft.). To the west of the Low Tatra are the Fatra Mountains, merging into the Nyitra Galgocz range, while to the south-east are the Gomor- Szepes Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge), between the Hernad and the Bodva. (3) The Hiuigarian Ore Mountams, which are divided into several groups, among them being the Ostrovski and Vepor Mountains. The Branyiszko Mountains connect this chain with the range of the East Beskids. (4) The Matra Hills, which rise abruptly from the plam of the Alfold in the extreme south, mergmg at their eastern end into the Biikk Mountains. At right angles more or less to all these ranges, and along the left bank of the Hernad, runs the chain of the Epefjes-Tokai mountains, includmg to the south the famous Hegalya vine district. The south-western part of the Slovak provinces consists of the Little Alfold or Pozsony basm, which lies in the curve of the Danube between Pozsony and the Garam, and is connected with the Great Alfold, the fertile alluvial plain of Hungary. 4 GEOGRAPHY [no. 3 Rivers and Lakes The rivers of Slovakia belong almost entirely to the Danube system, all except the Dunajec and the Poprad (Popper) draining into the Danube either directly or through one of its tributaries. The main watershed is that part of the Carpathian chain known as the High and Low Tatra Mountains. In western Slovakia the most important rivers are the March, which, with its tributary the Miava, forms for a certain distance the western frontier of the country, and the Vag. The latter river receives as its tributaries the important Arva on its right and the Turocz on its left. Following an almost parallel course is the Nyitra (Neutra), which joins the Vag (Waag) shortty before the junction of the latter river with the Danube at Komorn (Komarom). The floods caused by these two rivers cause serious damage in the plain which they enclose. An almost exactly similar course is pursued by the Garam (Gran), while the much shorter Ipoly (Eipel) flows into the Danube rather farther to the east. In eastern Slovakia, the Tisza (Theiss), one of the largest tributaries of the Danube, forms for some distance the south-eastern boundary of the district. Its chief tributaries are the Hernad and the Latorcza, of which the former in its turn receives the Sajo, with its affluents the Turocz and the Bodva. All these rivers have their sources on the southern slopes of the Tatra Mountains. The Dunajec, on the other hand, rises on the northern side of the Tatra range, flows eastwards until joined by its tributary the Poprad, and then in a northerly direction to join the main stream of the Vistula. As already said, these rivers are the only ones of the Slovakian system which do not drain into the Danube. The Danube and the Tisza alone are navigable among the rivers of Slovakia. The larger of the other streams are, indeed, much used for floating timber, &c., but in general tliey are only mountain torrents until they BiovawaJ RIVERS AND LAKES ; CLIMATE 5 reach the Alfold, when they flow more slowly and often cause severe floods. These are aggravated by the very slight slope of the plain towards the streams and the equally slight fall in the river beds. In very rainy years the water in the rivers soaks through the banks and forms swamps some way from the stream. The only lakes of importance are those in the High Tatra. There are 80 on the north side, and 39 on the south, of which Lake Csorba is the largest. It lies on the watershed between the Vag and the Poprad at an altitude of 4,430 ft., with an area of 5 acres and a depth of 67 ft. (3) Climate The mountainous character of northern Slovakia naturally means a correspondmg degree of cold, and the mean annual temperatures vary from 50° F. (10° C.) on the lowlands near the Danube, to 35° F. (1J° C.) among the mountains. The hottest month is July, with temperatures 20° F. (11° C.) above the annual mean, while in January the temperatures are 20° F. (11° C.) below. During three months the mean temperature remains below freezing-point. The Danube in consequence usually has ice upon it in January and February, and during severe winters the ice may appear first in mid-November, and last until the middle of March. The total annual precipitation amounts to between 24 and 28 inches (600-700 mm.) along the south of Slovakia, and reaches 40 inches (1,000 mm.) in the northern and most elevated regions. Much falls as snow during the winter months. January and Feb- ruary are the driest months. On the southern lowlands the wettest month is June, while October is almost as wet. East of the Tatra there is no secondary maximum in October ; north-west of the Tatra, towards the main Carpathian chain, July is the wettest month, while among the lower western mountams May takes this place, with a secondarj^ maximum in October. 6 GEOGRAPHY [no.3 (4) Sanitary Conditions As might be expected in a country which contains such a large proportion of marsh land, malarial diseases are verj^ frequent. Malaria, intermittent fever, and diphtheria are responsible for a great many deaths, while tuberculosis, due to insanitary conditions and bad housing, is also prevalent. With more knowledge of modern conditions, and drainage of the large areas of marsh, these diseases may be expected to decrease considerabty. Medical attendance is in a very backward, state, as may be seen from the fact that in the country districts of Slovakia 60 per cent, of the deaths have not been certified by a doctor. In spite of this deficiency, however, the rate of infantile mortality is not abnor- mally high, being 20 per cent, of living births. It is as well to remember that in view of the defects in the medical service too much reliance cannot be placed upon the official enumeration of causes of death. (5) Race and Language Race The poj^ulation of Slovakia is some 3J millions, of whom about half are Slovaks, about 36 per cent. Magyars, and 6 per cent. Germans. The proportion of Slovaks in the rural districts rises to 53 per cent., while the Magyars form exactly half of the town dw(41ers. Tlie distribution of the races is clearly shown by the sharjj linguistic boundary^ which separates Slovaks from Mag3^ars. This runs eastwards from Pozsony, passing nortli of Vacz and soutli of Kassa, to the borders of Rutlienia. South of this line is Magyaria, extending to the Drave and the Maros as far east as Arad ; within Magyaria, except for one district round Budapest, a second slightly to the west, and a third far to the south, in Bacs-Bodrog, the people are entirely Magyar. Thcic is a Gei-man enclave east of the Tatra, Slovakia] RACE AND LANGUAGE 7 which ahiiost divides the Slovak area into two, and along the eastern mountain border the people are Ruthenes (Little Russians). If we divide Slovakia into two parts, Slovakia proper and Ruthene Slovakia, the latter of which comprises the north-eastern counties, the variations in the relative numbers of the different races during the last thirty years are roughl}^ as follows. In Slo- vakia proper the Slovaks have increased by 13 per cent, and the Magyars by 50 per cent., while the Germans show a decrease of 4 per cent., and the Jews, who number 107,000, of 2 per cent. In Ruthene Slovakia the Slovaks have declined by 8 per cent., whereas the Ruthenes have increased by 24 per cent., the Magyars by 70 per cent., and the Jews, who are 70,000 in number, by 6 per cent. The increase among the Magyars, which is remarkably uniform, exceeds the increase of the poj^ulation. A process of ' Magyarization ' has-been -going on in the case of all the subject races in Hungary, and the Slovaks are no exception to this rule, although in spite of great discouragement they have succeeded to a large extent in maintaining their national feeling. Language Slovak is a recognized Slav dialect, very much resembling Czech, with a literature of its own. Many varying dialects are spoken, which have been much influenced in the west by Moravian and in the east by Polish. (6) Population Distribution The population of Slovakia, numbering about 3,420,000 in 1910, is now presumably over 3|^ millions. The overwhelming majorit}^ of the inhabitants are settled in the rural districts. In the mountainous areas the density of the population is below 128 per square mile (50 per sq. km.), except where the peoj^le 8 GEOGRAPHY [no. 3 are crowded along the valle}^^ of the Nyitia, the Vag, and other rivers. In the neighbourhood of Pozsony, and on the Little Alfold to the east of Pozsony, the rural population attains its maximum density of 256 per sq. mile (100 per sq. km.). Towns and Villages The three largest towns of Slovakia are Pozsony (Pressburg), with 78,223 inhabitants, Kassa (Kaschau), an iron centre, with 44,211, and Vacz (Waitzen), a cathedral town of considerable importance, with 19,000. Other towns are : Esztergom (Gran, 18,000),2Eper- jes (16,323), and Selmecz(Schemnitz)-es-Belabanya (15,185). A noticeable feature of the Slovak provinces is the great number of small towns, particularly in the centre and west of the country, where they are more numerous than anywhere else in Hungary. Movement The enormous emigration which goes on from the Slovak provinces, chiefly to the United States, takes some thousands of people away j^early. There is also a certain amount of internal migration, as man}^ of the Slovaks go to Germany and Denmark as labourers during the summer. The following table shows the increase in the total population of the two divisions of Slovakia'^: Slovakia Proper 1900. 1910. Increase. Excess of birthi over deaths. 2,420,000 2,566,000 136,000 5-4 per cent. 297,000 11-8 per cent. RuTHENE Slovakia 828,000 863,000 25,000 3 per cent. 112,000 13-3 per cent. Slovakia] POPULA^rroN 9 Tlie next table showy the average vital statistics per 10,000 inhabitants per annum during the decade 1900-10. Slov. ^KiA Proper Slovaks Magya)-s . Births. 389 353 Deaths. Natural increase. 271 118 245 108 Infantile mortality. 20 per cent 20 „ RuTHENE Slovakia Slovaks Ruthenes . Magyars . 255 413 378 209 146 249 164 245 130 1 8 per cent 18 „ 21 „ No. 3 II. POLITICAL HISTORY Chronological Summary A.D. 830-906. The Moravian Empire, in which Slovaks were in- cluded . 906. The Magyars conquer Moravia and southern Slovak districts. 1001. St. Stephen of Hungary extends his kingdom to the north. 1141-61. King Geza II of Hungary establishes colonies of Germans in northern Hungary. 1241. The Mongol invasion of eastern Europe. Slovak districts devastated. Hungarian kings encourage further German colonization. 1412. King Sigismund pledges thirteen royal towns in northern" Hungary to the Kingdom of Poland. 1415. Beginning qf Hussite wars. Hussite doctrines extend to North Hungary and are largely adopted by Slovaks. 1526. Battle of Mohacs. The Turks overrun most of Hungary, including many Slovak districts. 1610. Lutheranism prevails in Slovak districts. Lutheran Church organized. 1616. The Counter-Reformation begins to become effective under leadership of Peter Pazmany, Primate of Hungary 1616-37. 1767. Maria Theresa improves position of peasants. 1771. Maria Theresa claims possession of north Hungarian towns pledged to Poland. 1848-9. Hungarian War of Independence. Serfdom abolished. (I) Origins The Slovaks are a people belonging to the Western Slav group wJiich includes the Poles, the Wends or Sorbs, and the Czechs ; with these last they are racially so closely connected that by some authorities they have been identified with them. A closer examina- Slovakia] ORIGINS 11 tion of their language, however, which is said to be the nearest to Old Slavonic of all the modern Slav tongues,^ suggests that they were a separate and perhaps older branch of the Slav family than the Czechs. They are to be found to-day in two compact groups in the north and north-west of Hungary, where they are bounded on the north b}^ Galician Poland ; on the east by Hungarian counties, whei-e the population is Ruthenian and Magyar ; on the south by Magyar districts of Hungar}' ; and on the north-west by Moravia and parts of Silesia, where the i:)Oi)ulation is Czech, For a short distance on the west the Slovaks touch Lower Austria. Geographically, therefore, the Slovak settlements broaden the narrow bridge of Slav districts which connects Bohemia Avith the bulk of the eastern and northern Slavs. (2) Early Settlements The Slovaks probably reached Moravia at the same time as the Czechs in the fifth or sixth century a.d., and at once came into contact with German tribes, to whom they were for a time subject. Later they appear under a native prince in the Empire of Great Moravia. After being conquered by the Magyars in the tenth century, the Slovaks of the south apjjear to have been displaced or absorbed ; the rest became, and, except for a short period of connexion with Poland, have since remained, subjects of the King of Hungary. Their history, therefore, in its main lines is contained in that of Hungary. As regards the mass of the people, the Slovaks have retained their national characteristics, their language, customs, and usages, and within their ancient limits have remained distinct from the Mag3^ars. Tlie}^ have been able to absorb largely the German colonies which from the twelfth century onwards were encouraged by the Magyar kings. These German ^ Seton-Watson {Racial Problems in Hungary, p. 332) quotes the Slovak writer Dobrowskv (Geschichte der bohmischen Sprache, 1818, p. 32) to this effect. 12 HISTORY [wo. 3 settlers established a number of towns extending across the north-west of Hungary to Transylvania ; and during the Middle Ages they formed compact and separate communities consisting of traders, artisans, and miners, their chief centre being the mining villages round Kormoczbanya (Kremnitz). They lived in walled towns from which they excluded non-German peoples, and they were superior in education and had reached a higher level of efficiency in trade than their neigh- bours. In spite of these advantages, when the special privileges which they had enjoyed were rescinded in the fifteenth century, they became largely absorbed by the surrounding population, as has so often happened in the case of German colonies. A considerable German element is, however, still to be found. (3) The Hussite Influence During the fifteenth century the Hussite doctrines spread from Bohemia through Moravia to northern Hungary, bringing with them the Czech language, which since this time has had an established place among the Slovaks. Their own language was still at this period an unwritten tongue ; and Czech, used at first for the new religious teaching, became, and for long continued to be, the only written language among the Slovaks. It is still the language of the Slovak Lutheran Church, which established itself in northern Hungary as a successor to the Hussite movement, and at one time included nearly the whole Slovak popula- tion. The fall of Bohemia affected the Lutheran Slovaks unfavourably ; and during the Counter-Reformation, which began to be effective in Hungary about 1620, the bulk of the Slovaks again became Catholic, largely owing to the untiring efforts of the greatest Hungarian ecclesiastic, Peter Pazmany. In 1631, when the Slovak territories were detached from Bohemia and Moravia, the earlier Czech literary influences became weaker and the Slovaks began to develop 'their own vcrnaciilai'. Slovakia] NATIONAL MOVEMENT V.\ The Kelorination liad none of the character of a national movement among the Slovaks that it had among the Czechs. In the religious wars the Slovaks even for a time supported the Magyars in their struggle against the Habsburgs ; and Rakoczy, the Magyar hero, recruited some of his best soldiers among the Slovaks. The bulk of the peasantry were still serfs ; their nobles had by the seventeenth century become com- pletety Magyarized ; and there was so fai* no conscious feeling of nationalism among the Slovaks. (4) The National Movement During the first half of the eighteenth century, Hungary, freed at last from Turkish rule by the Treaty of Passarowitz (1718), was recovering from a long period of internal and external strife. The reign of Maria Theresa brought measures of relief for the peasant populations which benefited the Slovaks — in particular the regulation of 1767, by which liberty of migration was restored to the peasants — and there was nothing in her government likely to arouse- strong political feeling among the subject nationalities. It was the well-meant but tactless efforts of Joseph II to Germanize Hungary that aroused the sj)irit of opposition. The Magyars, among whom it produced an extremely rapid growth of national sentiment, adopted in their turn a policy of suppressing, or at least discouraging, the non-Magyar nationalities. A reaction on the part of those who felt the existence of their separate grouj^s endangered was the natural result, and was strengthened by the wave of national feeling which began to sweep over the whole of Europe after the Treaty of Vienna. Before the middle of the nineteenth century the Slovaks had felt its influence ; and when, in 1848-9, the Magyars attempted to throw off the iVustrian yoke, the Slovaks took the ojDportunity of rising against them. The revolt in both cases failed ; the Slovaks were brought once more into subjection, but the 14 HISTORY [No. 3 feeling of hostility between the two races was increased. The Compromise of 1867 sacrificed the interests of the Slovaks as it did those of other subordinate nationalities, and they were left more completely at the mercy of the Hungarian Government. It has been urged that Deak and those who acted with him in the interests of Hungary, being far-seeing and moderate statesmen, intended to j^rocure favour- able treatment for the non-Mag3''ar peoples. The Law of Nationalities of 1868 was in fact conceived in a most conciliator}^ sj^irit ; and, if the same spirit liad been shown in its administration, the subject peoples might have been reconciled. Events proved, however, that the Magyars were determined to assert their own nationalism at the expense of the Slovak minority ; and unfortunately they were able to carry out their policy under the forms of a Parliamentary Government in which they could always secure a majority. After 1867 the German elements in Austria and the Magyars in Hungary gradually drifted into a policy of mutual support against the rising Slav nationalities — an alliance not founded on mutual symj^athy, but on the common danger. The new Hungarian Constitution provided no safe- guards for the Slovaks, who since 1868 have had a hard and bitter struggle to maintain their national existence. As among other peoples, the sjjread of education among the Slovaks has helped *to increase the sense of nation- ality, which has also expressed itself in a linguistic and literary revival. Before the middle of the nineteenth century there had been a great increase of books and periodicals in the vernacular ; literary societies were founded and a definite attempt made to organize the schools. The study of Slovak, as distinct from the Czech language, began to attract students of dialects both among the Slovaks and other Slav peoples. Over the question of orthography violent disputes took place, and the memory of the old connexion of Czech with Protestantism was revived ; the Catholic party endeavoured to eliminate Czech influence, while the Slovakia] NATIONAL MOVEMENT 15 Lutheran strove to maintain it. Finally a com- promise was reached, and Slovak spelling may be said to have become more or less ' stabilized '. The national idiom received recognition at the Linguistic Conference at Pressburg in 1851 ; and the Slovak scholars Safafik and Kollar have made notable contributions to its scientific study. The prevalence of the language may be judged to some extent by the fact that in 1910 the sermon was preached in Slovak in 742 Roman Catholic, in 52 Greek Catholic, and in 234 Lutheran churches ; it was used for the sermon alternatively with Hungarian in 39 Catholic and 23 Protestant churches, and appears as an accessory language m 15 Catholic and 11 Protes- tant churches where Hungarian was the usual language of the sermon.^ Slovak literature does not exist in any great quantity, as is natural where the educated population is small ; yet there is undoubtedly at the present day a living vernacular literature which is considerable in propor- tion to the number of the people. If, however, the Slovaks were united to their Czech brethren, it is doubt- ful if they could continue to mamtam a separate literary language. The evidences of national feeling were regarded by the Magyars with aj^prehension. They had hitherto considered the Slovaks an inferior race, whose destiny it was to be gradually absorbed, and they saw that the movement to promote education and national literature would tend to internal unrest and might possibly encourage the still more dreaded external danger of the Pan-Slav movement. In 1848-9 the Slavs of Croatia had shown themselves the bitterest and most effective opponents of Magj^ar aspirations, while the Russian interference of the same period gave the cause of Hungarian independence a blow from which it did not recover for many years. Hence, after 1849, everythmg Slav became, perhaps not unjustly, suspect. How far a more conciliatory policy would at tliis ^ Annuaire Statistique Hongrois, xix, 1911, pp. 434-8. 16 HISTORY [no. 3 stage have succeeded in making the Slovaks loyal supporters of the Hungarian Government it is impos- sible to say, but it is unlikely in any case that the Slovaks would have held aloof from the ceaseless agitation of the other Slav races of Austria and Hungary. In defence of their own political predominance the Magyars felt compelled to check Slovak nationalism at almost every point at which it showed itself, for the success of the movement meant at best the failure of the Magyar ideal, at the worst the destruction of the Magyar State. The Hungarian counties in which Slovaks are found in greater or less numbers have of late, for the sake of convenience, been called Slovakia. It should, however, be remembered that there has never at any time been a separate Slovak State, or a group of counties officially known under the name of Slovakia. The 17 counties to which the name of Slovakia is applied contain within their boundaries considerable areas where there are few or no Slovaks, and many districts with mixed population containing German, Polish, or Magyar communities which have existed for many centuries. These non- Slovak elements are important beyond their mere numbers, owing to their culture and efficiency. Slovakia I III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS (1) Religious The majority of the Slovaks are Roman Catholics, but there is a considerable Protestant minority com- posed almost entirely of Lutherans. Religious freedom exists botli in law and in fact. In 1910 the Roman Catholic Church constituted about 70 per cent, of the population ; the Greek Catholics 5 per cent. ; the Lutherans — who are well organized both in regard to their schools and churches- — 23 per cent., and there are also soniQ members of the Reformed Church (Calvinists). The 81oval-cs and the Wends are almost the only western Slavs among whom Protes- tants are found. The Roman Catholic Churcli, being the one with the greatest number of adherents, is naturally in a strong position. (2) Political Administration.— IlYvq existing political conditions in the districts inhabited by the Slovaks have for some time past been increasingly disturbed. Hungary has for the last twenty years been passmg through a political crisis, caused partly by the increasmg bitterness of feeling between the various nationali- ties within its borders, and partly by the attempt of the more extreme Magyar politicians to insist upon the exclusive use of Magyar as the official language hi Hungary, and its recognition as the language of com- mand in the johit Austro-Hungarian army. As to the policy of making the language as far as possible under- stood by all Hungarian citizens, nearly all Magyar politicians have been in agreement. But on the 18 PRESENT CONDITIONS |no.3 question of the use of Magyar in the joint army, political parties have been deeply divided. This division became so marked that it led for a time to the complete break- down of the Hungarian constitutional machinery, and the so-called ' Ex-Lex ' situation arose, during which Parliament refused both supplies and the right to raise troops, and no one could be compelled to do his military service or to pay his taxes. The Government, however, continued to administer the laws and to carry on its work both central and local, and on the whole there was little practical inconvenience or disorder anywhere. It is creditable both to the official classes and to the citizens, of what- ever nationality, that the crisis passed off with so little trouble, but these internal struggles have probably served to encourage Nationalist movements. The Slovaks have no special political privileges such as those enjoyed by the Croatians, and they have often hoped that Austria might be induced to interfere on their behalf. Theoretically the Constitution secures to the Slovaks the same rights of self-government as those enjoyed by smy other section of Hungarian citizens, and these are very considerable. The franchise is a somewhat restricted and complicated one, but having regard to the character and backward condition of the population in 1867, the Constitution then drawn up was probably as suitable as could have been devised. The great bulk of the peasantry were not — indeed, many of them are not now — suflficiently advanced to make intelligent use of wider powers than they possess under the present Constitution. The Slovak Nationalist party would probably point to the fact that as a result of the interference in elections by the Central Govern- ment, the exorcise of their political rights is restricted and the election of Slovak deputies discouraged. The number of these has certauily remained small and has varied between 4 in 1901, l in 1905, 7 in 1906, and 3 in 1910. These numbers bear no relation to the proportion of Slovaks in the constituencies, though it need uol be assumed that Slovak Nationalist candidates Slovakia] POLITICAL 19 would always be returned, even if the Government did not discourage'^their^election. The administration, in so far|as it is in the hands of the central authorities, has not been unfair ; the system of local government, which is carried out by the county assemblies and a certain number of perma- nent officials, is perhaps more open to criticism, and from the Slovak Nationalist point of view a consider- able grievance may be said to exist. Social Conditions, Trade, and Industry.— The moun- tainous nature of the country and the denseness of its numerous forests have kept the rural population rather isolated. The German towns and the minmg popula- tion were more or less m touch with the outside world, but the Slovak peasants remamed very backward until recent times. They are stUl chiefly cultivators, herdsmen, and woodmen ; and, although many of them are also miners and artisans, they usually work for employers of other races. Obliged by poverty to leave their mountains to earn a livelihood abroad, many of them used to tramp through Central Europe, working as pedlars, wire-workers, window-menders, tinkers, and the like. Others emigrated to the more fertile districts of Moravia, Bohemia, or Austria, or to the larger towns. Since the middle of the nineteenth century the Slovak itinerant traders have gradually diminished in numbers, but there has been a considerable and increasing emigration to the large towns and also to America in search of work. Many who have thus left their country return to it ; and the mfluence of the returning emigrant has made itself increasingly felt in both political and social matters. The Slovak peasant is a very hard worker, thrifty, and full of peasant cunning ; he is also accused of a liking for strong drink. Those who are settled m the towns, or have become well-to-do, have shown a tendency to become denationalized and to identify themselves with the ruling race, at any rate in language. The Slovaks have produced, it is claimed, some of the 02 20 PRESENT CONDITIONS [no. 3 leading men in the Magyar movement in Hungary, notably Kossuth and Petofi, the greatest Magyar orator and poet respectively. This tendency of the more educated and rich to abandon their nationality may be one of the causes of the diminution m the numbers of the Slovak population — if such is the case — which, according to the official statistics, has taken place since the middle of the nineteenth century,^ The causes contributmg to this fall in the Slovak population include emigration, but the fact that the Gorals, or mountain Poles, who were formerly counted as Slovaks in the official statistics, and number some 20,000, are now no longer included among them must also be borne in mind. (3) Edijcational The general scheme of public education in Hungary is dealt with more fully else\^diere (see Hungary, No. 1 of this series, p. 50). In Slovak districts, as in almost all the other districts where there is a non-Magyar population, the question of the ' language of instruction ' m the schools is acute. Before the Hungarian State education had been developed to its present point, the local schools of various denominations provided an educa- tion almost as a matter of course in the language prevalent in the particular district or used by the community concerned. There were formerty, there- fore, many more schools in which the language of instruction was Slovak than tliere are now, although the total number of schools in the country has mcreased considerably. Thus the number of Slovak primary schools is alleged to have fallen from 1,921 in the year 1869 to 440 ill the year 1911, and this total to have been still further reduced to 240 in 1912. These 240 schools, it is calculated, educate only some 8 per cent, of the Slovak-speaking school-children." As regards higher education the situation is even ' Niederlo, La Race Slave, 1911, p. 120. Cf. above, p. 8. - An)ivain Slatialique Hongrols, xix, 1013. siovakiai EDT'CATTONAL 21 more unfavourable. Three secondary schools, in which the teaching was in Slovak, were opened in the sixties, but all three, together with the ' Matica ' or Slovak Academy, were closed in 1875 at the mstance of the Government, on the ground that they spread Pan- Slav ideas. There is no university in which Slovak is the language of instruction. The Slovaks have, therefore, the grievance felt by all small nationalities in a composite State, where the State language is insisted upon as the medium of instruction ; the fact, however, that the extreme Nationalists in some parts of Austria and Hungary have used the schools as a means of encouraging separatist and disloyal feeling must be taken into account in deciding whether the policy of hostility shown in closing the Slovak secondary schools was or was not justified. The position of the Slovaks in educational matters compares unfavourably with that of other nationalities in the Dual Monarchy, especially that of the Poles and the Czechs, and there seem to be grounds for advocating some compromise which would lead to the Slovak children learning both the State language and their own vernacular in the schools ; but in recent years such a compromise has commended itself to very few in the Austro-Hungarian Empire except the Czechs, and even these are very unwilling. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS Popular Opinion and National Sentiment This subject has already to some extent been dealt with in connexion with the political and educational aspects of the Slovak question. It is not easy to judge of popular opinion in Hungary, where its expression among subject races is not en- couraged. But it is probable that much dissatisfaction exists among the peasantry, who have a strong national consciousness and a strong desire to avoid denationaliza- tion, althouo;h thev have not so far taken much active 22 PRESENT f^ONDTTIONS Tncs part in politics. There is naturally more expression of nationalist aspirations among the educated Slovaks, including the lawyers and priests, e. g. such men as Dr. Hodza and Father Hlinka. In the extreme section of the Nationalists the pro- posal has been put forward for the establishment of a separate Slovak State which would include the whole north-west of Hungary, and would comprise some two to two and a half million inhabitants ; and it is this party also which insists upon the differences between the Slovak and Czech languages. The alternative proposal for the fusion of the Slovak and Czech populations into one political State has, however, rapidly gained ground during the war. The action of the Czecho-Slovak forces alil^e in Siberia and on the allied front, the recognition by the Allies of the separate existence of this belligerent force, and the British Declaration recognizing the Czecho-Slovaks as an allied nation, all point to the solution of the nationa- list problem on the lines of a combined State, in which the north-west of Hungary will be united with Moravia and Bohemia. The Separatist feeling which formerly existed has undoubtedly been greatly modified by the events of the war, if it has not entirely disappeared ; and with goodwill on both sides it should now be possible to arrange for a large measure of local autonomy for the Slovaks in the new Czecho-Slovak State. The incor- poration of the Slovaks in another State- would deprive Hungary of a region wliich is rich in timber and minerals and contains some of its best coal-mines. SiovaHial IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS (A) MEANS OF COMMUNICATION (a) Roads Neither roads nor railways anywhere in Hungary have kept adequate pace with tlie rapid industrial development of recent years, and Slovakia is conse- quently more affected by this state of things than other areas where the industrial progress has been slower. The administrative district of the left bank of the Danube {Duna hat partja) is entirely Slovak, and the administrative district of the right bank of the Tisza {Tisza jobh ijartja) is also largely Slovak, the two non- Slovak counties being Bereg and Borsod, including the municipal area of Miskolcz. Botli these administrative districts are among the most highly developed in Hungary from a commercial and manufacturing point of view ; and their road communications have received some attention from the authorities. Communications by road, divided into the usual four classes, viz. State roads, municipal roads, communal public roads (the three most important classes),^ and communal paths and tracks, were as follows in 1912 in Slovakia and Hungary : State roads ..... Municipal roads .... Communal roads .... Roads in connection witli railway stations Paths and tracks Total Slovakia. Kingdom of Hungary. Km. Km. 2,407 11,775 6,787 ■ 37,256 7,513 46.067 126 526 (omitting Croatia- Slavonia) 12,558 75,242 (omitting Croatia- Slavonia) 29,391 170,866 ^ Municipal roads include both town and country roads, where these are maintained by the mmiicipalities : ' communal ' roads are usually kept up by unions of communes (rural districts). 24 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS no. 3 In 1912 there were 29-4 km. of high road per 100 square km. in the whole kingdom, and 29- 1 km. per 100 square km. in Slovakia, where the road tax for State and municipal roads produced 3,494,700 kr. out of a total for the kingdom of 23,184,200 kr. (b) Railways Railway communications have not been proportion- ately developed, though great importance attaches to the Kassa (Kaschau )-Oderberg Railwa;^, which traverses northern Slovakia from east to west and terminates in the eastern corner of Austrian Silesia. By this railway Slovakia is brought into direct communication with Germany. Though the railways have not been so widely extended in Slovakia as in the west and south-west of Hungary, there is nevertheless an important network of lines. The framework of the system may be described as a rough circle with its centre somewhere between Losoncz and Zolyom (Altsohl) and a considerable but insufficient number of irregular radii, the whole resembling a very incomplete wheel. On the outer circle lie, from west to north and thence east, Pozsony (Pressburg), — connect- ing with Vienna, — Trencsen (Trentschin), Zsolna (Sil- lein), Poprad, Abos ; from Abos the curve turns south through Kassa to Miskolcz, outside Slovakia, and thence west and south to Budapest. At Hatvan, a little east of the Hungarian capital, the circle is joined by the twisted ' diameter ' line from the north, which leaves the Kassa-Oderberg route at Ruttka and runs south to Zolyom and on with an easterly curve through Fiilek and Salgo-Tarjan to Hatvan. The main circle is com- pleted on the south-west by the line joining Budapest to Pozsony, wliich is also the route to Zsolna as far as Galanta. While some parts of the routes mentioned do not fall within the limits of Slovakia it is clear that they are all essential to its economic well-being. The total Icngtli of the railway lines in Slovakia in 1912 was 3,604 km., a somewhat lower figure, in proportion to area and population, than those for Slovakia] RAILWAYS 25 other industrial districts, such as that in the Tisza^ Maros angle or those on the right bank of the Danube. Of these lines 1,700 belonged to the State, and the remainder were for the most part worked by the State on behalf of the owners. The most important railway, the Kassa-Oderherg line, which now links up Kassa, Abos, Iglo, Poprad, Rozsahegy (Rosenberg), Ruttka, Zsolna, and Csacza with Breslau and Cracow, is in the hands of a private company, and down to 1914 was making steady pro- gress in spite of financial difficulties, which were being gradually overcome. It was, of course, dependent on the goodwill of both Austria and Hungary, which it recently induced to permit an increase in its tariff for the local transport of goods. The other main sections formed part of the Hungarian State Railways system, and many of the local and communal (or ' vicinal ') railways were also directed b}'^ the State railways, which encouraged the build- ing of such lines only when they seemed likely to pay interest on the capital invested. The ' vicinal ' rail- ways have been built to meet the needs of particular towns or districts, and are considered as second-class railways. According to the law of 1880 they must at the expiry of not more than ninety years from the date of their original concession become the property of the State. Some of the main sections have short titles of their own. Thus the Vdg Valley RaiUvay is that which runs north from Galanta through Lipotvar and Trencsen to Zsolna. This route forms a direct connexion between Budapest and Berlin, but is considerably longer than the more easterly route through Ruttka. The Ruttka-Hatvan section forms by far the longer portion of the Riittka-Budapest line, which traverses the heart of Slovakia, and is of the utmost value to the mining centres at Zolyom, Selmeczbanya (Schemnitz), and Beszterczebanya, the last-named lying only a few miles north of this route. A few kilometres south of Ruttka the line passes Turocz-Szentmarton, the 26 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. 3 county town of Turocz and the original seat of the Slovak national movement. At Janoshegy, just north of Kormoczbanya (Kremnitz), the line crosses, at a height of 756 metres, the watershed separating the River Garam from the Turocz and the Vag. At Kes- terenye it reaches the important Salgo-Tarjan coal- basin and also connects with the Matra local railway to Kal-Kapolna and south-east Hungary. Rather less than half-way between Kis-Terenye and Zolyom it passes through Losoncz (the junction for Banreve and Miskolcz), a town which, with 10,000 inhabitants and numerous factories, is the most important place in the Ugnite county of Nograd. Of the branch hne Zolyom- Tiszolzc, the eastern quarter, from Erdokoz to Tiszolzc, is a rack railway. The short branch from Garamber- zencze to Selmeczbanya is only narrow gauge, although this place of 16,000 inhabitants is the principal mining town in Upper Hungary. The Hatvan - Miskolcz - Satoralja-Ujhely section, which serves the famous Tokay (Tokaj) wine-growing district and connects Kassa with the south, forms part of the Budapest-Lmvoczne (Lemberg) line (435 km. long), which, as a connection with the rest of Europe, rivals the Kassa-Oderberg route in its importance for Slovakia. The line from Miskolcz to Fiilek is known as the Gomor line, and that via Sajo-Ecseg to Torna is called the Boldva Valley line. The branch from Pelsocz (Plei- schnitz) to Muranyalja, which serves numerous iron- works, is known as the Murdny line, and the Losoncz Local Railway is that which runs from Losoncz to Katalinhuta. The Bodrogkoz Railway (30 km.), which serves the district of that name in the southern part of county Zemplen, was opened in 1913. The total amount of capital invested in the railways of Slovakia must considerably exceed £3,000,000. (c) Waterways In respect of water transport Slovakia is not very well provided for. The attention and resources of Slovakia] WATERWAYS; T.ABOITR z/ the authorities were hitherto directed rather to the Danube and to the Ferencz and Bega Canals, and only insignificant sums were spent from time to time in deepening the northern rivers. The chief rivers in Slovakia are the Bodrog, which joins the Tisza near Tokaj ; the Vag (Waag) in the north-west, which enters the Danube above Komorn (Komarom) ; the Nyitra, which flows from north to south almost parallel with the Vag and joins the Danube not far below it ; the Garam, parallel with the Vag, which enters the Danube close to Esztergom, and the Arva, Kiszucza (Kisuca), and Turocz, which flow into the Vag. Particulars relating to these rivers (in 1912) are tabulated below : River. Navigable from Navigable length. For barges For river and rafts, steamers. Km. Km. Bodrog . Zempl6n to the Tisz;^ 65-9 65-9 Vag . . Liptoujvar (Hradek) to the Danube 350-6 — Vag . . Guta to Komarom — 29*5 Xyitra . Xaszvad to the Danube 15-1 — Oaram . Beszterczebanya(Neusohl) to the Danube \11-1 — Arv'a . . Turdossin to the Vag 52-6 — Kiszucza . Trencs6nn)ak6 to tlie Vag 51-4 — Turocz . Prekopa Bridge to the Vag 2-0 — Total 715-3 954 Thus, only 715*3 km. of the Slovak rivers are navigable, and of this total only 95*4 km. are navigable by steamers. The merchandise and passenger traffic is so relatively unimportant that detailed figures are not given in the official returns. (B) INDUSTRY (1) Labour The position of labour in Slovakia is much the same as in other parts of Hungary. The agricultural labourer is badly paid, and it is customary at harvest time for bands of Slovaks to seek agricultural work in the plains, where arrangements are regularly made by the farmers to hire them in small parties. Latterly, however, their interest in agrarian Socialism appears 28 EC^ONOMir^ CONDITIONS [wo.3 to have caused the authorities some anxiety, and given rise to a desire to restrict their incursions into other districts of Hungary. In the years preceding the wsi^r large numbers of Slovaks had begun to emigrate to the United States. From 1903 to 1912 inclusive the total number of Slovak emigrants (most of whom vv^ent to America) was returned as 249,122, or about 7 per thousand of the Slovak population per annum ; but some of these emigrants were from other parts of Hungary. Observers have particularly commented upon the poverty of the rural population in the purely Slovak districts of Hungary and upon the superstition and generally backward state of the peasants, who are troubled by a bitter, if vague, feeling of unrest. The wages paid to the agricultural labourer in Slovakia before the war were somewhat lower than those paid in the AKold and other districts of Hungary. The industrial workers were not so well paid as those in the Budapest area ; but their condition seems to have been better than that of the workmen in Transylvania and the Banat, where industrialism has been less scientifically carried out. The following table shows the range of daily wages paid in 1912 in the two chief Slovak mining districts and in those of Budapest and Nagy-Banya: Men. Women. Children. District. Highest. Lowest. Highest. Lowest. Highest. Lowest. I Ddily y Wages in Kronen-. In the districts of Oraviczabanya, Zalatna, and Zagreb the highest wages for men were 4-55, 4-87, and 485 kr., and the lowest were 2-29, 100, and 1 60 kr. respectively. Beszterczebanya 5-14 1-86 1-81 1-00 1-40 0-02 Iglo . 5-04 1-40 1-84 0-60 2-20 0-74 Budapest 8-00 2-10 2-00 0-96 1-84 0-80 Xagj^-Banya . 8-00 1-20 2-00 0-80 1-20 0-60 Slovakia AGR [CULTURAL PRODUCTS 29 (2) Agriculture (a) Methods of Cultivation As in Hungary proper^ the methods of cultiva- tion vary. .The Slovak rural population is poor and illiterate and is not easily induced to take up modern improvements, such as the use of farming machinery and fertilizers. Primitive conditions also prevail among the large farmers in the mountainous districts or in areas not well served by the railways. On the other hand, the more enlightened estate owners have sought to introduce machinery in order to make up as far as possible for the periodical lack of labour. (b) Products of Commercial Value Slovakia includes a fair proportion of small holdings, and, despite the predominance of industrial interests in the province, the agricultural output is considerable. In an average year the yield per hectare is lower than that of most of the other provinces, and as a rule lower than the general average for Hungary proper. Grain and Root Crops. — In 1913 (a normal year) the chief crop figures for Slovakia and for Hungary proper were as follows : Slomk ia. Hungary proper. Total Yield per Totiil Yield per Yield. hectare. Yield. hectare. Qinntfils. Qiiintah. Quintals. Quintals. Wheat .... 4,585,033 12-3 41,190,583 13-2 Rye . 2,762,406 12-2 13.273.594 12-3 Barley . 6,188.153 14-5 17,380.254 14-9 Oats ' . 2,767,085 10-9 14,487,030 12-4 Maize . 1,577,477 15-9 46,248,082 18-7 Potatoes 18.446,941 71-8 48,752,560 79-6 Beetroot 18,243,715 237-0 47.758,377 269-1 The best grain-growing country lies south of latitude 48|^° N., but barley does well in some of the mountainous districts and oats in Saros. Szepes (Zips), and Gomor. There is a large potato crop in Bars, Saros, and Szepes 30 ECONOMIC^ rONDTTTONS [wo.3 as well as in the south, and beet comes chiefly from Bars, Nyitra, Pozsony, Trencsen, and Zemj^len. Wine and Fruit. — The vineyards are situated for the most part m the county of Zemplen, which includes the famous Hegyalya and Tokaj wine area ; but vines are also cultivated to a considerable extent in Abauj- Torna and Ung ; and on the left bank of the Danube there are many wine districts, particularly in Esztergom, Nograd, Nyitra, and Pozsony. The vineyard area in 1913 (an average year) was 22,297 hectares, yielding 146,886 hectolitres of wine, or an average of 6-6 hectolitres per hectare. This production was valued at 7,322,000 kr. Though the Tokay (Tokaj) wines are very valuable, the general yield of the Slovak crop is usually inferior to that of Hungary as a whole : the average yield per hectare for the whole country in 1913 was 11-9 hectolitres, as comj)ared with 6-6 hectolitres in the case of Slovakia. The vineyard area of Slovakia represents not quite 6 per cent, of that of the whole of Hungary. In many places, owing to the ravages of the phylloxera, vine- yards have been replaced by orchards, in which fruit is cultivated with success. A large amount of fruit is grown in the neighbourhood of Pozsony. Honey. — The honey produced in Slovakia in 1912 amounted to 5,056 metric quintals. The value of this, together with some 300 metric quintals of wax, was 565,400 kr. This sum represented nearly 19 per cent, of the total production in Hungary proper. Tobacco. — There is a fair amount of tobacco cultiva- tion, Zemplen producing about one-third of the whole cro]). The amount fluctuates ; that of 1913 was rather below the average. The number of growers had shown a tendency to decline for a few years previously, and the tobacco-growing area in Hungary generally was gradually diminishing. The following table shows the position of this branch of agriculture in two recent years : Slovakia] FORESTRY; LAND TENURE 31 Mumber of Tobacco urea Product Value oj raw growers. ' (hectares). (metric quintals). tobacco (kr.). 1909. 1913. 1909. 1913. 1909. 1913. 1909. 1913. Slovakia . . 188 182 2,42(i 2,20.S 34,579 23,813 1,577,065 1,113,002 Hungary (including Croatia Slavonia) 12,429 9,93(i 52,095 47,600 654,123 478.982 27,025,578 20,882,260 Slovakia, percent- age of totals 1-5 1-8 4-6 4-(i 5-3 4-9 5-8 5-3 Live Stock. — According to the last census of animals (1911) the animals in Slovakia were as follows : Horned cattle . 1,268.152 Sheep . . 1,242,457 Horses . . 281,106 Goats . . 42,430 Donkeys . . 3,088 Pigs . . 829,468 Mules . . 135 (c) Forestry The forest area of Slovakia in 1913 was 2,001,531 hectares, representing 22-4 per cent, of the total forest area of Hungary (including Croatia-Slavonia). The timber is found chiefly in the north, along the Carpathians ; and more than half of the wooded districts are under State management (1,174,371 hectares). Of the land devoted to forest cultivation, 491,231 hectares are occupied by oak, 856,726 hectares bj^ the less profitable beech, and 653,574 hectares by the valuable resinous trees. The resinous trees in Slovakia represent 33-6 per cent."^ of those in the whole of Hungary. Some authorities consider that the forest area of the less fruitful counties could be increased with great advantage. (d) Land Tenure In the Slovak counties land tenure is arranged upon the same basis as m the other jDarts of Hungary. Less than one per cent, of the holdings exceed 500 joch (about 700 acres) in extent, and about 20 per cent, are of less than 20 joch each. In 1911 there were nearly 15,000 holdings of less than 1 joch (= -57 hectare), the o-wners of which kept live stock ; but on a much larger number of these ' dwarf holdings ', 32 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. 3 which includes urban allotments, no live stock seems to be kept. (3) MniTERALS AND METALLURGY (a) General Remarks Slovakia is rich m minerals, especially iron ore and coal. Unfortunately, a precise calculation of the production of the last few years is rendered difficult by the division of Hungary into mining districts, some of which include both Slovak and non-Slovak county areas. Thus the district of Budapest includes not only the production of several non-Slovak counties situated on the right bank of the Danube (e. g. Komorn and Fejer), but also the whole county of Esztergom on the left bank. On the other hand, the returns sometimes include places in different districts under one set of figures. This makes the Hungarian official returns rather misleading. For instance, Slovakia is particularly^ rich in lignite, and there are also seams of pit-coal, but the official statistics do not include any Slovak county in the pit-coal returns, the entire Slovak production being included in the figures for the mining centre of Budapest. This point should be borne in mind in considering the table of mineral output on p. 43 below. Apart from coal and iron, Slovakia has large supplies of copper, zinc, and antimony ores, to which must be added over 70 per cent, of the manganese ore mined in Hungary. With the exception of the count}^ of Esztergom, the Slovak mining centres are included in the Beszterczebanya district on the left bank of the Danube and the Iglo district on the right bank of the Tisza. Tlio following figures, summarized from tlie details tabulated at the end of this section, show the production and value of the more important minerals as returned ' from these two districts in ' i.e. in tlH> ff>iv(/ari(in Shilislica/ Yrar-lxx)!:. \ol. xxi. Slovakia] MINERALS (GENERAL) 33 1913, and the ])roportion which the Slovak output then bore to that of Hungary as a whole : Production, Percentage. Value 1 'ercenti {Metric tons). {Kronen). Pig-iron (finery) 177,890 29-2 15,425,000 30-1 Pig-iron (foundry) 9,001 64-3 1,859,000 65-4 Iron ore 1,187.828 57-7 11,869,000 65-9 Iron j>yrites . 61,667 67-2 616,000 55-1 Copper ore 903 63-0 42,000 37-8 Zinc ore 140 34-4 7,000 33-3 Antimony ore 6,217 56-4 159,000 29-9 Manganese ore 13,563 71-3 145,000 54-3 In addition, Slovakia produced 138 kg. of gold, valued at 452,000 kr., representing 4-7 per cent, of the quantity and value of the gold produced in Hungary ; and 2,874 kg. of silver valued at 274,000 kr. (33 per cent, of the quantity and 33-4 per cent, of the value respectively). Although iron foundmg has been increasing during the last few years, up to 1913 the Hungarian founders used only about one-haK of the iron ore produced in Hungary, the remainder being exported, chiefly to Witkowitz. Measures have been under consideration for making the export of ore more difficult in order to encourage the production of iron goods m Hungary. Of the ore actually dealt with in Hungary, 98 per cent, was used by the larger iron-works — 25 per cent, by the State iron- works, 17 per cent, by the Austro- Hungarian Railway, and 56 per cent, by the Rima- murany-Salgotarjan Works (see below). In connexion with the mining industry it should be mentioned that the Czecho-Slovak propagandists are wrong when they allege that Hungary's coal is found exclusively or almost exclusively in Slovakia. In 1913 the total quantity of pit-coal mined in Hungary was 1,319,918 metric tons, valued at 18,387,000 kr. Of this amount more than one-third (445,192 tons, valued at 7,580,000 kr.) came from Transylvania and the Banat. The balance was returned as from the Budapest area, i. e. Budapest and certain portions of Slovakia as well, but comparatively little pit-coal 34 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no.3 appears to be won in Slovakia/ Again, the lignite pro- duced in Hungary in 1913 amounted to 8,954,133 tons (worth 89,999,000 kr.). Of this, 1,738,320 tons (worth 15,696,000 kr.) came from the Slovak mining district of Beszterczebanya ; 4,539,311 tons (44,400,000 kr.) from Transylvania, the Banat, and Croatia-Slavonia. (6) Particulars of Chief Enterprises Some details of the more important Slovakian mining enterprises may be given here. It will be convenient to group them under the three mining divisions chiefly concerned : (i) Beszterczebanya District (left bank of the Danube). — Iron, Steel and Lignite. The principal undertaking is that of {a) the Rimamurany-Salgotarjan Iron Works Com- pany, which is registered at Budapest with a capital of 40,000,000 kr., and has mines and works in this and several other mining divisions. In this district it includes the vSalgo lignite mine (county Nograd) with an output in 1913 of 117,000 metric tons, and the Salgotarjan Steel Works (county Nograd). At the latter works the rolling mills can produce 50,000 metric tons of finished goods a year, the axle and instrument factory 3,000 tons, the iron foundry 2,600 tons, the steel foundry 2,000 tons, the wire and nails factory 25,000 tons, the cold rolling plant 3,000 tons, the gal- vanized iron works 1,000 tons ; 2,600 tons of ploughs, shovels, &c. , are also produced. The coal and iron mines of this company lie mainly in the Iglo district. Under the same general direction is (b) the ' Union ' Royal and Imperial Iron and Sheet Metal Manu- facturing ('Ompany, which is registered at Vienna, but directed from Budapest. It has a lignite mine at Erdobadony in county Zolyom, producing 10,000 tons per annum, and, in the town of Zolyom, a rolling mill ^ One authority stated (in 1900) that the 8alg6tarjan Coal Mining Company was at that time producing a million tons of pit-cool annually, but this appears to be a slip for brown coal (lignite) ; the Avriter may have been misled by the company's name. Slovakia] MINERALS (COAL AND IRON) 35 employing 8L5 workmen and turning out 280,000 sheets of metal a year. Zolyom-Brezo, in the county of Zolyom, is the head- quarters of (c) the highly important Royal Hungarian Iron and Steel Works, which have the advantage of being close to the River Garam and working largely with Avater-power, as well as with steam and electricity. These works have a very complete installation of machinery, twenty-one generators using pit-coal, forty- three furnaces of various types, and fifteen plants for rolling plates and making tubes. The output in 1913 amounted to 15,360 truckloads of ingots, castings, billets, tubes, &c. There were 2,664 employees in 1913 ; and this colony of work-people had a special Roman Catholic Church, a State elementary school, and a continuation school for the young people of fourteen to eighteen years of age.^ At Henrik-telep, 2-5 km. from Zolyom- Brezo, there is a separate welding works, with 67 machines, 3 furnaces, and 355 employees. Its output in 1913 was 10,000 tons of metal tubes, &c., welded by water-gas. Lignite is obtained chiefly in county Nograd, which includes mines at the following places among others : O Hip III, [mptrlc ions) Valuf Place. in 1913. {Kronen). Fiilekpilis (Romhany) 4.356 43,560 Kozsd 3.800 38,000 Baglyasalja. Karancsalja, Etes (N. Hungarian United Coal Mining Company) . . . 190.873 — Matraszele. &c.(N. Hungarian United Coal Mining Company) ....... 1D2.I7() — Salgo-Tarjan (Salgo-Tarjan Pit Coal Company). &c. 1 , 149,695 9,771 ,408 Salgo-Tarjau (Salgo Lignite Mine) . . " . 117,000 — Total? (so far as ascertainable) . . 1,657,894 16,000.000 ^ Mention may here be made of the Bruderladen, a special form of sick benefit or insurance clubs, which grew up among the miners of North Hungary as far back as the beginning of the sixteenth century, and in the nineteenth were not only recognized, but en- joined by State law. In the Sehnecz district each workman pays 6 per cent, of his wages to the club and his employer contributes a like amount for him. The Bruderlade for the Rimamurany- Halgo-Tarjan Company's people had 11,119 members in 1912 ; its capital at the end of 1913 was 3,048,907 kr.. its expenses in 1012 were 630,050 kr., and its credit balance 156,162 kr. D 2 36 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. 3 Of the other Ugnite minesjin Bezsterczebanya the following deserve mention : those at Garam-Kovesd (county Hont) and elsewhere, belonging to the domains of the Archduke Josef in Kisjeno and over 10,800,000 square metres in extent ; and those at Nyitrabanya (county Nyitra), which have 11,100 km. of rail below ground, produced in 1913 96,000 metric tons, and em- ployed more than 1,000 hands. The latter mines were worked by a Budapest firm, but formed part of the estate of the late Count Janos Palffy of Pozsony. A number of lignite mines of considerable extent were either not worked or made no returns in 1913. The deposit of lignite in the upper Nyitra basin is said to be of inferior quality, but the amount of reserves is estimated at some 42,000,000 tons. Non-ferrous Metals. — Gold and silver ore mines are worked in the county of Bars, where the 1913 output of {a) the Royal Hungarian Mines was valued at 132,152 kr. for the Vihnye-Peszereny properties, while those at Kormoczbanya and Janoshegy produced 108,473 kr. worth of precious metals (31T kg. of refined gold, 130-8 kg. free gold ore, and 67-574 kg. of refined silver) Of considerable importance are {h) the Royal Hun- garian Metal Extracting Works of Selmeczbanya, which produced in 1913 the following quantities of metals: ^ Value in Gold . • . Silver .... Tin solder (^oppei- Soft lead Litharge Selmeczbanya lias been for centuries the centre of royal Hungarian mining cnter})rise, and still formed in 1914 (c) a special Royal Hungarian Mining Directorate which included the Royal Hungarian Mine Offices ^ The ligurcH are taken from the Hungarion Mines Hcfudbook for 1914 ; it would appear that these works deal with ore from both tSlovak and non-Slovak districts. Kronen. 222 kg. 729,126 4,267 kg. 383,935 889 kg. 2,960 287 qtls. 43,000 8,812 qtls. 447,000 1,553 qtls. 79,000 i Slovakia] MINERALS (NON-FERROUS) 37 of Hodrusbanya, Selmeczbanya, Kormoczbanya, Ara- nyidka, Opalbanya, and Magurka, the Royal Foundry Offices at Selmeczbanya, the Royal Copper Works at Beszterczebanya, and the Royal Hungarian Mining School at Selmeczbanya. The following figures were published in 1900 for the outjnit of this whole region (i) in the 100 years from 1790 to 1889, and (ii) in the year 1896 : (i) 1790-1889 : Gulden. 14,110 kg. gold, worth . . . 23,150,000 656,508 kg. -silver, worth 55,607 tons lead, worth 315 tons copper, worth Total value . (ii) in 1896: 200-7 kg. gold, worth 4,578-9 kg. silver, wortli 716-42 tons lead, worth 24-01 tons copper, wortli Total value ^ 59,080,000 8,620,000 150,000 91,-000,000 Gulden. 329,148 332,166 107,464 11,284 780,062 The Selmeczbanya Directorate also has charge of the Royal Hungarian Mines at the royal free town of Selmecz-es-Belabanya, about 5 km. to the north-east, which are also of some importance and employ over 1,000 workpeople. Their output in 1913 was approxi- mately as follows : Gold . . . . . 81-06 kg. Silver Copper Lead . AgalmatoKte Total value 1,682-09 kg. 19-25 kg. 154- 12 kg. 107-30 metric tons 546,646 kronen 1 It appears from these figures that the average yearly output for the whole period 1790-1889 was considerably less than that of 1896, except in the case of silver, but that the monetary value of the total yearly oiitput had fallen off in a marked degree. This decline was itself due to the decrease in the price and consequently in the output of silver : the kilogram, wliich in the seventies of last century was still worth 90 gulden, brought less than 50 as long ago as the year 1 900. 38 ECONOMIC C!ONDITIONS [no. 3 Gold and antimony ore are mined together with iron in several parts of the counties of Zolyom and Lipto, and antimony ore alone in the counties of Pozsony and Lipto ; some silver is mined in the latter county. There is an antimony works at Fejerko, with a capital (in 1913) of 32,219 kr. Parts of the counties of Pozsony and Zolyom also produce some copper, (d) The Royal Hungarian Copper Works of Beszterczebanya (county Zolyom) produced in 1913 58-3 tons of electrolytic copper, 10-6 tons of hammered copper wares, and 10 tons of copper sulphate, the total value being 129,337 kr. (e) The Royal Mint at the ancient 'free and chief mining town ' of Kormoczbanya, a little north-west of Zolyom, is also within the Beszterczebanya district. In the year 1913 this mint, which is the only one in Hungary, stamped gold, silver, nickel, and bronze coins worth, in all, 13,800,944 kr., including 320,435 gold pieces of 20 kr. and 137,443 gold pieces of 10 kr. It also minted large quantities of Serbian and Bulgarian silver and bronze coins. The output of metals, &c., at the Kormoczbanya mint was in 1913 returned as 32-9 quintals of gold, worth 10,811,536 kr., 146-5 quintals of silver, worth 1,319,337 kr., and 196 quintals of copper sulphate, worth 14,308 kr. The mint was directly under the control of the Royal Hungarian Ministry of Finance. (ii) Iglo District (right bank of the Tisza). — Iron, Steel, dsc. — This, the chief mining district of Slovakia, is noted for its output of iron ores. There is a large number of small undertakings for which no returns are printed ; a considerable proportion have either ceased working in recent years or were only beginning w^ork in 1913, the year to which the following returns generally refer. It should be noted that in a few cases the possible, not the actual output, is given in the returns ; this ap]ilies particularly to the furnaces, foundries, and mills. The chief properties are noted in the following list : [a) Property of the Rimamurany-Salgo-Tarjan Iron Slovakia 1 MTNP:RAJ.S (IRON) H9 Works Company, or property leased to this com- pany : Iron ore and ironstone mines at Luczia (county Abauj- Torna) and at tlie following places in county Gomor : Vashegy, Rakos, Rozsnyo, Sebespatak, Alsosajo, Olah- patak-Felsosajo, Krasza-Horka, Andrassy, Derno, &c. The total output in 1913 amounted to some 456,150 tons of iron ore of various types. Furnaces and foundries at Derno, Liker, and Nyustya, with an output of about 48,000 tons of pig-iron and cast iron. The Derno works belong to the Andrassy estate. Limestone quarries at Gombaszog and Tiszolzc, with a total output of 192,000 tons in 1913. Magnesite pits at Ratko ; output of roasted magnesite in 1913. 3,500 tons. (b) Mines, furnaces, foundries, &c., owned by the Hernad Valley Hungarian Iron Industry Company (under the general directorate of the Rimamurany- Salgo-Tarjan Company) : Output in Metric Tons, 1913. Szalank Mines (county Szepes) ; iron ore . 90,000 Korompa-Khppberg Iron Ore Mine (county Szepes) ; iron ore ..... 7,200 Katharina Gallery Mine, Pracfalu (county Szepes) ; ironstone and 80 tons copper ore 7,300 Nagysolymar Mine (county Szepes) ; iron ore 2,300 And numerous other pits and rights in Arva, Szepes, Zolyom, &c. .... — Total (iron ores) .... 106,800 Furnaces, Foundries, and Mills. Szalank Separating Plant (county Szepes) ; 130 tons roasted ore and 1-2 tons cement copper in 12 hours ..... — Korompa Furnaces and Mills (county Szepes) ; production : Martin pig iron . . • . . . 82,000 100 tons leached or 120 tons agglomerated ore per diem ..... — Black copper, 5 tons, refined copper, 4 tons per diem .... 40 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. 3 Korompa Refining and Rolling Mills, produc- tion : Martin steel 150,000 Rolled steel about 140 tons, intermediate and fine elongated steel about 150 tons, in 12 hours ..... — The Korompa Works employ over 2,000 workers, for whom there are 462 dwelling-houses, a special post office, school, &c. The Bruderlade (see above, p. 35, foot-note) had assets in 1913 to the value of 1,556,600 kr. In all there are more than 3,000 persons in the employ of the Hernad Valley Company, which had a capital in 1900 of about 20,000,000 kr. and has, since that date, increased its yearly output of ore by over 100 per cent, and of worked iron and steel by over 400 per cent. Its steam-engines had an aggregate of 12,000 horse-power twenty years ago, and in 1913 it had nearly 100 km. of railway of various types above and below ground. (c) Property of Upper Silesian and Viennese com- panies, and Royal Hungarian Mines: The more im- portant mines are at Golniczbanya, Markusfalu, Iglo, Mereny, and Rozsnyo (Rosenau) ; the combined output is over 280,000 tons of iron ore. There are several smaller companies, one of which works the estate of Duke Philipp of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Non-ferrous Metals and Minerals. — The principal other minerals mined in the Iglo district are indicated in the list of the mineral products of Slovakia given below (p. 43). The chief mines at work in 1913 were at Rozsnyo {antimony, 1,546-9 tons output; owned by A. Odendall, Vienna) ; Aranyidka, county Abauj-Torna (Royal Hungarian Mines ; silver output worth 21,565 kr.) ; Szepesjanosfalu and Landzsasotfalu, county Szepes {manganese ore, output 6,504 and 7,060 tons re- spectively) ; Pelsocz(Pleischnitz)-Ard6, county Gomor {lead and zinc ore, 320 tons, worth 16,000 kr. ; owned by a Brcslau firm) ; Dobsina (Dol)schau), where a copper pyrites mine was preparing to begin work on a considorablo scale ; and Szomolnok (Sclimollnitz) and Szonioliiokliiita, county Szepes, where the Ober- Slovakia] MINERALS (NON-FERROUS) 41 ungarische Berg- und Hiittenwerke A/G of Budapest produced (in 1912) 61,666 tons of pyrites and 53-65 tons of cement copper — both valued at 10 kr. a ton — and employed 367 workpeople. The Royal Hungarian Salt-boiKng Works at Sovar (county Saros) were of distinct local importance, but the salt obtained in this way is not as valuable as rock- salt, and is not exported ; the output in 1913 of 5,913-5 tons was, however, worth 1,180,939 kr. There is no recent return for the Dubnicz (Vorosvagas) opals, which in the past made the hill country of county Saros famous ; and most of the copper mines, including the Phonix-Hutta, seem to have shut down, probably mainly in consequence of American competition. The county of Saros is particularly rich in mineral waters and possesses over 100 springs, of which those at Bartfa and the Salvator water of Szinyelipocz are well known. This county also produces good millstones and building material. Mining and prospecting for mineral oils seems hitherto to have met with little success, but it may be recorded that there was already one English company at work in county Zemplen in 1913, under the title of the Hungarian (Zemplen) Oil Company, Ltd. (Pannonia- telep, Izbugyaradvany, and London), This company employed seventeen people, but does not seem to have got beyond the prospecting stage. Four fairly large firms are engaged in magnesite mining in the Iglo district, viz. {a) the Magnesite In- dustry Company, Ltd., which has a branch at Jolsva, and is registered at Budapest with a capital of 3,200,000 kr.; (6) the General Magnesite Company, Ltd., offices in Buda- pest, share capital 1,400,000 kr., works at Hisnyoviz (Gomor) ; (c) the German-Hungarian Magnesite Com- pany, Kassa and Budapest, share capital 1,500,000 kr. ; and [d) the Gomor Amalgamated Magnesite Company, Budapest, share capital 2,000,000 kr. No returns for the output of these companies appear in the Hungarian Mines Handbook for 1914. (iii) Budapest District. — The only part of this district 42 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. 3 which falls within the boundaries of Slovakia is the county of Esztergom, which produces a red marble that is in great demand in Hungary. The lignite mines of the hilly region south of the Danube and south- west of the town of Esztergom are of some value, and the principal undertakings are the following : (a) At Dorog, Csolnok, and Sarisap is a mine owned by the Esztergom-Szasvar Lignite Company, which in 1913 employed 1,726 workpeople and produced 411,600 tons of lignite. This company is registered at Budapest. (6) Another mine at Dorog, owned by the Esztergom Cathedral Chapter, employed 266 workpeople and produced 27,390 tons in 1913. (c) A mine at Tokod, owned by the Esztergom Seminary, employed 362 persons and produced 72,703 tons in 1913. {d) Another mine at Tokod, owned by the Esztergom videki Koszenbanya Joint Stock Company of Budapest, which was not working in 1913, has an extent of 1,447,941 square metres. Its buildings include 48 workmen's dwellings and a school. The following table shows the mineral output of the Beszterczebanya and Iglo districts compared with that of Hungary as a whole : Slovakia] MINERAL OUTPUT 43 i 'Si ■^ §^8 e e o « v "S &- S i -* S; 2 i fi li ■ ■ "■" ■ '■ ■ 113'^ fJ M ';d iC' o ^ tf ^J o f* ^ o p W "e C/1 « ^ s <5 K -ij §. 1— 1 s s -« QO (N p-H fo OS 1— 1 (^ "* S >C 00 r-^ 00 Oi i-<^ o t^S 05 1— 1 (m' i> p— T >o =;^ S lO .-( *- ^^ e g' o cc (fl CO CD CC IC 05 00 ^•Is CO 00 I^ CJ -+ ex Ci O CO o •^ d OO' cc" C:' CO ot ^ ° O 1— 4 ic o CD O — l> O vc c: 00 CO f— I (N vo CD ^^ ■* 00 00 CO O O ,-H 00 t> >y< s <^ C:' O' IC CD ^ ^ *S §• I ^.0.0 CO GO S o r <» • fZ _ "O CD h o3 S^tT O III o O »o CO 00 ff^ c -^ o W ^. Tfi o^ o c^ :^' _c ■* a> T3 x -u (M (N t- IC lO CO c (M -* lO Tt< CO O »C 4^ s c« o OQ -p* 25 o 05 CO £ C O TJH OOCO o Cq 05 r-l „ >C ^ CD cd'co 03 ""I ?6 W5 1 J3 IC -^t , CO ■4^ r-H 1 1 o OJ •ell 1 CD t; uf 2 bc C-c T*< ^ 2 ^ o •■^ 1 1 1 00 -q o ' CO o ■^ 00 s I> a a32 ■ t =« cS eS bC-TH ao tH TO •- — ' "^ OJ i— < _^ ^^ ^- . J ^ r- ^ f^ ^ jj C 44 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [ho. (4) Manufactures Slovakia, like the adjacent districts of Moravia and Bohemia, which are mainly inhabited by the same race, is an important manufacturing district. The manu- facturing industries include textiles, electro-technical goods, sugar, machinery and metals, cabinet-making and timber products, leather, chemicals, and mineral oils. Statistics for individual Slovak industries are not generally available, but the extent of the progress achieved may be judged from the capital amounts in- vested in the chief industries, and from the growth of the towns, as shown in the lists below. In addition, there are firms engaged in distilling and brewing, salt-boiling, cement-making, the manufacture of bricks and tiles, asbestos, glass, and paper, and in flour-milling. The flour-mill at Nagy-Saros (near Eperjes) had attained something like a European reputation by the year 1900, when it was dealing with about 28,000 tons of grain a year, and sending flour to Bohemia, Moravia, Galicia, and even to North Germany. It should be remarked that the State, through the banks, ^ is interested indirectly in most of these in- dustries by reason of the somewhat elastic credit system with which Hungarian industry has been built up ; and in practically every case the bank directorates include men whose names are unmistakably German or German- Austrian. ^ The chief banking centres are Pozsony, Kassa, Beszterczebanya, Losonez, and Esztergom ; and there are Chambers of Commerce at the first tliree places ; that at Pozsony inchides Nyitra, Trencsen, and Turocz. Slovakia I MANUFACTURES ; TOWNS 45 Principal Manufactures, Chief Centres, and Total Capital invested Kronen. Textiles. — At Rozsaliegy, Pozsony, Besztercze- banya, Czacza, Gacs, Kesmark, Kassa, Kiszucza- Ujhely, Rajecz, Selmeczbanya, Vacz, and Zsolna 41,133,000 Electro-technical Industries. — At Pozsony, Eperjes, Iglo, Losoncz, Salgo-Tarjan, Satoralja-Ujhely, vSzerencz, Ungvar, and Zsolna. . . . 5,902,600 Machinery and Metals. — At Salgo-Tarjan, Losoncz, Pozsony, and Trencsen. (See also the section on Minerals and Metallurgy, p. 32 above) . . 4,325,000 Wood and Timber. — At C4yetva, Kassa, Pelsocz, Trencsen, Turocz-St. Maiton, and Ung . . 2,005,000 Leather. — At Lipto-St. Miklos, Nagy-Bossany, and Pozsony 2,400,000 Chemicals. — At Lipto-St. Miklos, Zsolna, Beszter- czebanya, Trencsen, Privigye (Priwitz), and Tokaj 12,800,000 Mineral Oils, &c. — Pozson}^, Bodrog-Keresztur, Kesmark, Satoralja-Ujhely, and Zsolna . . 1,400,000 Sugar. — At Dioszeg, Holak, Oroszka, and Selyp . 10,800 The following statistics showing the growth of the town population may be considered as a roughly accurate test of commercial and industrial progress : Table showing THE Population of l(i Slov AK TowNJ IN 1890, 1900 AND 1910 Percentage Natnes of Towns. Pojxilat) on in Ike 1 'ear of increase or decrease 1800. 1900. 1910. over 1890. Large towns : Kassa . 32.165 40,102 44.211 37-5 Pozsony . . 56,048 65,867 78.223 39-6 Smaller tow ns : Beszterczebanya 7,958 9,264 10.776 35-4 Eperjes 11,330 14,447 16,323 44-1 Esztergoni . . — — 18,000 — Golniczbanva . 3,917 4,093 3.833 2-1 Iglo. . •. . 7,733 9,301 10,525 36-1 Losoncz . 8.221 9,530 12,939 57-4 Nyitra . . . 13.784 15,169 16.419 19-1 Rozanyo 4.816 5,198 6,565 36-3 Selmecz 15,280 16,375 15.185 0-6 Trencsen . . 6,075 7,011 7,805 28-5 Ungvar 13,344 14.723 16,919 26-8 Vacz — — 19,000 — Zolyom . 5,129 7,173 8,799 72-3 Zsolna . . . 4,124 5,633 9,179 122-6 Slovakia (16 towns) 189,924 223,886 257,701 35-6 46 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS ['no. (C) GENERAL REMARKS In considering the present condition and the future possibihties of Slovakia it must be borne in mind that the modern development of Hungary as a whole onlj^ began some fifty years ago, and the whole country is still in an early stage of its economic growth. Nor can one overlook the fact that the Slovak people have been in the position of aliens, living and working under a Government to which they have long been passively, and of late actively, hostile. Thus, on the one hand, the data for forecasting the future from the past are somewhat meagre in Hungary as a whole ; and, on the other, there may easily be latent economic forces in Slovakia which remain to be developed in happier political conditions. It is even somewhat difficult as yet to form an accurate judgement of the character of the Slovaks themselves. One authority writes of the cleanly and well-to-do air of their villages, in which there is little of any sign of misery or want, but admits that the peasant proprietors have fewer possessions than the iVIagj^ars of the same class, and that there is too large a proportion who have no share, or only an infinitesimal share, in the land. Another, apparently not ill-disposed, declares that ' the imprint of poverty lies heavily upon them ', and is impressed with the slowness, want of initiative, passivity, and intemperance of the people, and the poorness of their soil. But this tendency to fatalism is redeemed by a certain mysticism of tempera- ment and outlook ; and it is recognized that ' slow j)ooplo, such as these, when once set moving, are most difficult to restrain ', and that with a love of colour and beauty, and perhaps of pleasure in general, they combine great physical strength and marked tenacity of purpose. The readiness of the men to (5 migrate in search of wealth does not seem to argue lack of enterprise in the individual ; while the women liave gained a high ro])utation alike for their skill in Slovakia] GENERAL REMARKS 47 fine and exacting work sucli a.s embroidery and lace- making, and for the steadfastness with which they maintain the old life at home, while the men are seeking fortune in new lands. It seems reasonable to expect that the future pro- gress of the country will be satisfactory, if not remark- ably rapid. As it is, the urban centres, though for the most part small, have more than kept pace with the rest of Hungary ; and some successful experiments in agriculture, notably in the growing of potatoes, have been made in the more suitable counties, such as Bars, Nyitra, and Szepes, while the fertility of Pozsony and Zemplen is well above the average. Railway com- munications are already tolerable and freights not too high : but it is clear that a number of railheads could still be joined up at comparatively small expense, either by extending the system of light railways or, in the hillier country, by the use of automobiles. The two most important towns, Pozsony and Kassa, have hitherto been dominated by Germans, Jews, and Magyars. But in both the Slovak population has been a considerable element ; and it is only too certain that the loss of either of these places, and particularly of Pozsony, the only port on the Danube and the chief gateway to the south-west, would very seriously cripple the economic life of Slovalda. It seems equally clear that the country stands in great need of foreign capital and of a continuance of such enlightened guidance in technical and agricultural affairs as it appears to have received of late j^ears from the Hungarian Government. The wealth of the country lies mainly in its minerals and notably in its iron deposits, which, it is claimed, are not likely to be exhausted for centuries. Yet the output of iron ore and of pig-iron compares very unfavourably with that of the British Isles. It is again difficult to believe that mineral oil, in workable quantities, wdll not soon be found in the mining districts. As the American Consul-General at Budapest recently pointed out, the geological surveys hitherto made in Hungary have 48 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [wo.3 probably failed to reveal all the ore-bearing districts ; and, on the other hand, the iron and steel industry has been hindered by lack of transport facilities, and by the fact that iron ore, coal, and limestone are not found together in any one centre. Closely connected with the question of the mines is that of the fuller development of water-power, parti- cularly for the production of electricity. A Magyar authority some years ago wrote with regret of the ' immeasurable driving-power with which the streams and mountain brooks of the county of Lipto could supply industry ', and added that, in spite of this, the factories were few and small, ' because of the absence of enterprise and capital '. These statements apply to more than one Slovak county, and the Magyar Government has, it appears, at length become aware of the possibilities which have been so long neglected. A writer in the Magyarorszdg has been recently quoted as pointing to the Slovak highlands as the future seat of Hungarian industry, ' as there are to be found water-power, coal and iron fields ; it is there that factories are going to be built ; that is going to be the field of industry ; that is going to be a New America '. It seems certain that here in Slovakia, in spite of obvious difficulties, there is a great field for the en- lightened use of capital ; and if it does not come from one country it will be supplied by another. Not only the mines, but the forests and the stock-raising industry of the country, afford opportunities for investment or loan ; and these are matters which the Government of the country will almost of necessity take up in the near future. The same may perhajjs be foretold of the textile industry, while in the magnificent scenery of the Tatra there is clearly a splendid field for the development of the liotel business, for the Western tourist and sport-lover will not remain much longer content to leave the Carpathians on one side. It may perhaps not be out of place to recall the fact that it was at Pozsony, immediately after an expcflition to the Carpathians, that a member of the Slovakia] OENERAL REMARKS 49 Eighty Club deputation to Hungary in 1906 publicly declared that ' during the visit the deputation had been much impressed with the fresh fields of enter- prise which presented themselves to British capitalists in the exploitation of the mineral treasures and natural wealth of the country '. 50 [no. AUTHORITIES Historical Atjerbach, Bertrand . Les Races et les Nationalites en Autriche- Hongrie. 2nd ed. Paris, 1917. Capek, T. The Slovaks of Hungary. New York, 1906. CzAMBEL, S. Slovenskd Rec a jej miesto v rodine slovansk'^ch jazykov. [The Slovak Language and its Place in the Family of Languages.^ Turciansky Saint-Martin, 1906. •Denis, E. La Question d'Autriche. Les Slovaques. Paris, 1917. NiEDERLE, L. La Race Slave (translated from the Czech by Louis Leger). Paris, 1911. Carte des Slovaques de Hongrie. 2nd ed. Prague, 1906. Seton-Watson, R. W. Racial Problems in Hungary. London, 1908. German, Slav, and Magyar. London, 1916. Die osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchic in Wort und Bild. Vol. V, Sections 1 and 2. Vienna, 1886-1902. Les Pays Tcheques, Boheme, Moravie, Silesie, Slovaquie... par un groupe de Frang.ais. Paris, 1917. Unterdriickung der Slovaken durch die Magyar en. Prague. 1903. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., 1911. Article 'Slovaks'. Publications Statistiques Hongroises. Nouvelle Serie. Vol. 42, Budapest, 1913. [Census of 1910. Vol. i.] Anmiaire Statistique Hongrois. Nouveau Cours, xix. 1911. Budapest, 1913. [Official statistics for 1911.] Economic Magyar Bdnya-Kalauz [Hungarian Mines Handbook^, founded by Karoly Dery and edited by the Secretary of the Hungarian Kingdom Association for Mining and Metal- lurgy ; eighth annual volume. Budapest, 1914. Magyar Statiszfikai Evkonyv [Hungarian Statistical Year-book]. New series. Vols.xix,xx,andxxi(for 191 1, 1912, and 1913), published in Magyar, French, and German by the Royal Hungarian Central Statistical Office. Budapest, 1913-15. A Magyar Vdrosok Slaliszfikai fjvkonyve : I. h'vfolyam,. [Statis- tical Year Book of the Hungarian Toivns : First annual volume.] Edited by Dr. Gusztav ThuTing. Budapest, 1912. Slovakia] AUTHORITIES 51 Ungarn, a series of essays edited by Dr. Albert Kain, and published for the Hungarian Ministry of Commerce by the Royal Hungarian State Railways. Budapest, 1909. Die dsterreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild. Vols, i, V, and vi. Vienna, 1886-1902. Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular Reports on Austria- Hungary, 1901-14. DoAly Consular and Trade Reports, issued by the Department of Commerce, Washington, U.S.A., 1914. BoviLL, W. B. FoRSTER. Hungary and the Hungarians, London, 1908. Denis, Ernest. La Question d'Autriche. Les Slovaques. Paris, 1917. Drage, Geoffrey. Austria- Hungary . London, 1909. GoNNARD, Rene. La Hongrie au xx'' siecle : etude economique et sociale. Paris, 1908. Hungary : its Peoples, Places, and Politics, by members of the Eighty Club Deputation to Hungar}^ 1906. London, 1907. Katona, Bela, Die Volkswirthschaft Ungarns in 1913. Berhn, 1914. Kellner, L., p. Arnold, and A. L. Delisle. Austria of the Austriansand Hungary of the Hungarians. London, 1914, Lange, Dr. F. Landwirtschaftlich-Statistischer Atlas. Berlin, 1917. Matlekovits, Dr. Alexander von. Das Konigreich Ungarn, volkswirtscJwftlich und statistisch dargestellt. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1900. Vautier, Guillaume. La Hongrie economique. Paris, 1893. Articles in The Times of January 9, 1919; The Observer of January 5, 1919 ; the Ungarische Rundschau, vol. i (Munich, Leipzig, 1912) ; and the Ungarische Revue, vol. xv (Buda- pest, 1895). See also Authorities in Bohemia and Moravia, No. 2 in this series . Maps Slovakia is covered by four sheets (M. 33 Wien, M. 34 Kra- kau, L. 33 Triest, L. 34 Buda-Pest ; G.S.G.S. 2758) of the ' International ' Map, published by the War Office on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000. See also special map ' Hungary and Croatia- Slavonia : internal divisions,' issued by the War Office (G.S.G.S. 2917) in connexion with this series. For Ethnography, see note on maps in Austria (No. 1 of this series), p. 28. HANDBOOKS FBEPARED UNDEli THE DIRECTION OF THE HISTORICAL SECTION OF THE FOREIGN OFFICE.— No. 4 AUSTRIAN SILESIA LONDON : PUBLISHED BY H. M. STATIONERY OFFICE. 1920 Austrian Silesia TABLE OF CONTENTS I. GEOGRAPHY PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL (1) Position and Frontiers .... (2) Surface and River System Surface ...... River System - . (3) Climate ...... (4) Race and Language .... (5) Population Distribution ..... Towns ...... Movement . . . . II. POLITICAL HISTORY Chronological Summary . (1) Early History (2) Growth of German Influence (3) Hussite Wars (4) Czech Revival (5) Silesia in the Reformation (6) Bohemian Revolt . (7) Hohenzollern Claims (8) Silesian Wars (9) Austrian Silesia after 1742 III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS (1) Political (2) Religious and Educational IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS Introductory Note (A) Means of Communication (a) Roads and Canals (b) Railways .... Wt. 36998/251, 1000. 2/20. O.U.P. PAGE 2 3 4 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 12 12 14 15 16 20 21 23 23 24 24 25 TABLE OF CONTENTS [no. 4 ' PAGE (B) Industry (1) Labour ...... 26 (2) Agriculture ..... . 26 (3) Minerals Coal . 27 Iron . . . ... . 28 Coal and Iron Companies . 29 Other Products .... . 30 (4) Manufacture . . ... . 30 (a) Textiles . . . 30 (b) Other Manufactures . 31 (C) Commerce ..... 32 (D) Finance (1) Public Finance . . 32 (2) Banking 33 (E) General Remarks .... 34 AUTHORITIES Historical and Economic . 36 Maps 36 Austrian Silesia I. GEOGRAPHY PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL (1) Position and Frontiers The Duchy of Austrian Silesia comprises the two Silesian districts of Troppaii (Opawa) and Teschen (Cieszyn), which remained under Austrian sovereignty after the conquest of Silesia by Frederick the Great of Prussia in 1742. The two districts are separated by a wedge-shaped northward projection of Moravia, which lies between the Oder and the Ostrawitza. The Troppau district is known as Upper or Western Silesia, the Teschen district as Lower or Eastern Silesia. The two together, with an area of 2,026 square miles, form the smallest of the Crownlands of the Austrian Empire, and lie between 49° 25' and 50° 30' north latitude, and between 16° 50' and 19° 5' east longitude. Both districts march on their northern side with Prussian Silesia. The boundary, from a point 7J miles due west of Freiwaldau, runs first north-west along the Reichenstein ridge of the Sudetes, and then in a south- easterly direction as far as the Oder, makmg on the way a pronounced salient of some twelve miles south of Neustadt (representing the former Moravian enclave of Hotzenplotz), and from Jagerndorf onwards follow- ing the course of the Oppa, except where it includes an enlarged bridge-head opposite Troppau. East of the Oder and the Moravian wedge, the boundary follows for the most part the line of the Olsa and the Vistula (Weichsel). On the southern side the Troppau district is bounded by Moravia, the frontier being very irregular and largely artificial, though it follows in parts the Altvater range, the upper Molira, and the Oder. The Teschen 2 GEOGRAPHY [no. 4 district is bounded on the west by Moravia, the division being the Ostrawitza ; on the south by Hungary (Slovakia), where the boundary follows the Jablunka ridge of the West Beskid range ; and on the east by Galicia, the division being the course of the Biata in the north, and farther south the Barania spur of the Beskids. (2) Surface and River System Surface In both districts of the Duchy the surface slopes downwards from the southern or south-western moun- tain-ridges towards the north or north-east, and the ridges send out spurs at right angles to the Ime of their main direction. Communications between east and west are consequently easy only for routes close to the northern edge of the Duchy, where they follow the river-courses of the Oppa, Olsa, or Vistula. Routes running north and south follow the river valleys and end in passes, which are at a high level in the north- western parts of the Troppau district, where they have to cross the High Gesenke ; and also in the Teschen district, where the only considerable pass is the Jablunka. In the eastern half of the Troppau district the surface takes the form of a plateau, and presents fewer hindrances to communications. In general, communications with Prussian Silesia are easy, while contact with the rest of Austria-Hungary is rendered difficult by the mountain ranges, except in the central part of the Duchy. In the Troppau district the north- western area and the High Gesenke are purely mountain regions, and consist of rugged peaks and forest-covered valleys. The main mountain ridge follows the western frojitier, the chief peaks, from west to east, being the Fichtloch (3,637 ft.), the Hirschbadkamm (3,253 ft.), and the Altvater (4,887 ft.). A strip of country running north and south on the line Zuckmantel-Wurbenthal-Engelsberg separates the High G(!sonko from the Bennisch and Hrabin-Wigstadtl plateaux. 'J'hcse plateaux consist of gently undulating sue*ia""l SURFACE; RIVERS 3 country of moderate fertility, intersected by river valleys of considerable depth, and their northern and eastern edges drop steeply for some 150 ft. to the level of the Oppa and Oder valleys. The Oppa valley is the district most favourable to agriculture, and sugar-beet is extensively grown there. The Kuhlandchen, i.e. the country stretching along the left bank of the Oder, is famed for the breed of cattle which bears its name. The Teschen district is more uniform in character. South of a line running east and west through Friedek, Teschen, and Bielitz (Bielsko), the country consists of the northern slopes of the West Beskids, which are known in this section as the Jablunka Mountains. The soil is mostly poor. Forest alternates with moun- tain pastures, known locally as the Salasch, and with the deep valleys of torrential streams. The chief mountain peaks are those of the Lyssa Hora (4,346 ft.), in the west, and, in succession from west to east, the Jaworowy (3,385 ft.), the Great and Little Pohlom (3,470 and 3,497 ft.), the Czantory (3,264 ft.), and the Barania group in the east (3,982 ft.). North of the Friedek-Teschen-Bielitz line the country is an undulating plain sloping downwards towards the Prussian frontier. The soil here is mostly a heavy non-porous clay, which adds to the difficulties of agriculture in a damp and cold climate. River System The rivers of the Duchy, which are mamly tributaries of the Oder or Vistula, rise as mountain torrents on its southern and south-western borders, and flow north or north-east. The Oder rises in Moravia, flows through the south- eastern corner of the Troppau district, and along its eastern border to the Prussian frontier. It is here joined by the Oppa, whose chief tributaries are the Gold Oppa, which flows from the north-west to join it at Jagerndorf, and the Mohra, which flows from the south to join it just below Troppau, B 2 4 GEOGRAPHY [wo.4 In the Teschen district the chief rivers are the Ostrawitza and the Olsa, which join the Oder at Ostrau and at Oderberg respectively ; the Vistula, which rises in the Barania range, flows north to the Prussian frontier at Schwarzwasser, and then eastwards to the Galician border ; and the Biata, which joins the Vistula ten miles north of Bielitz. None of the rivers of the Duchy are navigable except for small local boats. (3) Climate The position of the Duchy on the northern flanks of the Sudetes and Beskids gives it a cold wet climate which is more favourable to forest than to agriculture. The mean annual rainfall varies between 23 and 27 inches (600 and 700 mm.) in the districts of Troppau and Wagstadt, between 27 and 31 inches (700 and 800 mm.) in the northern part of Eastern Silesia, and between 31 and 47 inches (800-1,200 mm.) in the mountain districts, being over 47 inches (1,200 mm.) on the Altvater. The mean annual temperature is between 46° and 48° F. (8° and 9° C), except in the central district on either side of the Moravian wedge, where it is above 48° F. (9° C). The mean annual range of temperature in Eastern Silesia is 36° F. (20° C). The prevalent winds are west, and especially north- west. Violent changes of temperature are frequent, as a consequence of change of wind, especially in spring. Harvest takes place a month later than in Moravia. (4) Race and Language Racially the Duchy is made up of three distinct areas, comprising a section of German territory in the west, one of Czeclio-Slovak territory in the centre, and one of Polish territory in the east. The German territory comprises the three western political districts {jjolitische Bezirke) of Freiwaldau, Freudenthal, and sul^T] iRACE AND LANGUAGE 5 Jagerndorf , with the town of Troppau and the southern part of the rural district of Troppau. In this area, which forms the greater part of Western Silesia, the Germans, who speak the Silesian dialect, number everywhere over 89 per cent, of the population. The Czecho-Slovak territory includes in Western Silesia the northern part of the rural district of Troppau, the district of Wagstadt, and in Eastern Silesia the rural district of Friedek. Here the inhabitants are of the same race, and speak approximately the same dialect, as the Slovaks of Hungary and the Czechs of Bohemia and Moravia. According to the census of 1910 they then formed 64 per cent, of the population in the district of Wagstadt, 75 per cent, in the northern part of the rural district of Troppau, and 78 per cent, in the rural district of Friedek. The minority in Wagstadt and Troppau was almost wholly German, and in Friedek consisted of Poles (15 per cent.) and Germans (7 per cent.). The Polesoccupy the rural district of Bielitz and the districts of Teschen and Freistadt, forming 77, 76, and 63 per cent, of the population respectively. The mmorities consist of Germans (21, 17, and 13 per cent.) and Czecho-Slovaks (1,6, and 23 per cent.). The town and suburbs of Bielitz, with the adjoming town of Biafa in Galicia, are a German colony in Polish territory, the Germans forming 84 per cent, of the inhabitants of Bielitz, the Poles 14 per cent. The Poles do not differ in race or language from those of the adjoinmg districts of Galicia and Prussian Silesia. The distribution of the different nationalities of the Duchy is thus unusualty simple. The west is solidly German, with virtually no admixture of other races. The centre, i.e. the area on either side of the Moravian tongue, roughly bounded by Imes drawn north-north- west and south-south-east through Troppau and Oder- berg, has a Czecho-Slovak majority of some 70 per cent., while the east is predominantly Polish. Mixed populations only exist in the mining district and in a few towns. 6 GEOGRAPHY [no. 4 (5) Population Distribution According to the census composed as follows : of 1910 the population was Gernuin. Numbers . . . 325,523 Percent. . . . 43-90 Czeclio- Slovak. Polish. Others. Total. 180,348 235,224 361 741,456 24-33 31-72 05 100 Eastern Silesia, which covers rather less than half the area of the Duchy, contains over 57 per cent, of the population, the density of population (in 1910) being, in Eastern Silesia 493 per square mile, and in Western Silesia 290 per square mile. The densest areas are the districts of Freistadt, with 995 per square mile, and Friedek, with 554. The parts of these districts in which the coal-field is situated have a still greater density. On the whole the German parts of the Duchy are the most thinly populated, with under 300 per square mile ; the Czecho-Slovak area has from 330 to 550 per square mile ; and the Polish from 280 to 995. The Duchy as a whole, with 380 to the square mile, is the second in density of the lands of the Austrian Monarchy, being exceeded in this respect by Lower Austria alone. The population increases in density from south to north with the fall in the altitude of the country. Toivns There were six towns with over 10,000 inhabitants in 1910, namely ; Troppau, the administrative capital of the Duchy (30,762), Polnish-Ostrau (22,892), Teschen (22,489), Bielitz (18,568), Jagerndorf (16,121), and Karwin (15,761). Sixteen other towns have more than 5,000 inhabitants. Only three of these twenty-two towns arc indo|)oiident administrative districts, viz. Troppau, Bielitz, and I^Yicdek, The absence of large towns makes the great density of population the more remarkable. ^;j^^yr" 1 POPULATJ ON Silesia 3Iovement The population of the Duchy has mcreased at a slightly more rapid rate in the past few decades than that of the whole Monarchy. The greater rate of increase has not been due to immigration, but to the higher rate for the excess of births over deaths among the Polish and Czecho-Slovak popidations. The in- crease in the period 1900-10 was 76,527 persons, a rate of 11 2 per thousand per annum (17-7 for Eastern and 3-5 for Western Silesia). The annual birth-rate during the period was 37-6 per thousand, the death-rate 24-5 per thousand. Thus the excess of births over deaths was 131 per thousand per annum. It was highest (26) in the industrial district, and m general three times as high in the Polish and Czecho-Slovak districts (19) as in the German districts, where it was only 6. On the whole, the Duchy lost by migration in the decade to the extent of 17,003 persons. There was thus considerably more emigration than in the previous decade, when the loss only amounted to 548 persons. [wo. II. POLITICAL HISTORY Chronological Summary 1025. Bohemian conquest of Silesia from Poland. 1058-79. Polish revival under Boleslav II. Reconquest of Silesia. 1138. Partition of Polish Crown territories. 1146. Deposition of Wladislav. 1163. Intervention of Ba,rbarossa. Restoration of Silesia to Wladislav's sons. 1241. Mongol invasion ; battle of Liegnitz. 1290-1331. Growth of Bohemian suzerainty. 1424. Hussite raids on Silesia begin. 1448. George of Podebrad assumes the regency of Bohemia. 1458. George of Podebrad elected King of Bohemia. 1466. Excommunication of George of Podebrad. 1469. Matthias Corvinus proclaimed King of Bohemia. 1471. Death of George of Podebrad. 1479. Treaty of Briinn. Silesia ceded to Matthias. 1490. Death of Matthias Corvinus. Silesia reverts to Wladislav of Bohemia. Constitutional concessions render Silesia autonomous. 1526. Ferdinand of Austria elected King of Bohemia. 1537. Covenant of Succession between Liegnitz and Branden- burg. 1546. Estates of Silesia declare Covenant invalid. 1550. Silesia brought directly under Habsburg dominion. 1618-20. Bohemian revolution. 1621. Terms granted to Silesia by Accord of Dresden. 1648. Treaty of Westphalia. 1675. Death of Diike of Liegnitz. Claim of Elector of Branden- burg under Covenant of Succession. 1686. Brandenburg commutes Silesian claims for cession of Schwiebus. 1694. Restoration of Schwiebus. Silesian claims raised but not pressed . 1740. Death of Emperor Charles VI. Frederick II invades Silesia. 1742. Treaty of Berlin. Cession of Prussian Silesia. 1745. Treaty of Dresden, confirming terms of 1742. sSi""J EARLY HISTORY 9 1763. Treaty of Hubertsbiirg, confirming terms of 1742. 1781. Abolition of serfdom in Austrian Silesia. 1848-68. Bohemians claim reconstitution of ancient kingdom, including Austrian Silesia. (1) Early History The history of Silesia, before its occupation by a Slav race, is purely conjectural. In the latter half of the ninth century the people of Silesia recognized the rule of Svatoplak of Moravia, who established a temporary authority over the large district extending from the Theiss in Hungary to Bohemia and Bavaria. After the fall of the Moravian Empire, Silesia, ui the course of the tenth century, came partly under Poland and partly under Bohemia. In the last years of the tenth century, when the power of Bohemia decreased, the whole of Silesia fell under the dominion of Boleslav the Great of Poland. The tenth century was a crucial period in the history of Silesia, for it decided that its future was not to be linked with that of the Eastern Slavs. The influence of Polish and Bohemian con- querors tended to force Silesia into the general current of Western European history by bringmg it mto contact alike with the organization of the Roman Church and with the feudal constitution of the Western kingdoms. The story of Silesia m the eleventh century is connected with the continuous struggles between Poland and Bohemia and with the first German inter- vention. Boleslav the Great of Poland died in 1025, and the Bohemians, under Bretislav, reconquered Silesia, but the Emperor Henry III, after an expedition to Prague, compelled Bretislav to do homage for Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. In the middle and end of the century there was a Polish revival under Boleslav II (1058-79), m the course of which Silesia was agam recovered. It was held by the Poles against a German invasion under the Emperor Henry V in 1109. The separate history of Silesia begins with the death of Boleslav III of Poland hi 1139. He had made, in 10 HISTORY [No. 4 the preceding year, a partition of the PoHsh territories among his four sons, and this partition soon led to the independence of Silesia and to the Germanization of the greater part of it. The eldest of the four, Wladislav, who, by his father's settlement, retained a superiority over the possessions of his brothers, was deposed by his brother Boleslav in 1146, and took refuge in Germany, where he died in 1159. By the intervention, in 1163, of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, Boleslav IV of Poland was compelled to restore Silesia to the three sons of Wladislav. One of them died soon afterwards and his share passed to his eldest brother, and Silesia became divided into the two dukedoms of Lower and Upper Silesia, with Breslau and Ratibor as their respective capitals. (2) Growth of German Influence Both the brothers set themselves to encourage the German influence to which they owed their possessions, invited German colonists to settle in Silesia, and intro- duced German methods of administration. Breslau, the capital of Lower Silesia, was made a German city. German immigration continued on a large scale through- out the succeeding century, and Silesia owed to German settlers the reclamation of much waste land and the beginnings of its mining and weaving mdustries ; but a considerable proportion of the country remained Polish in nationality and in sympathy. Industrial and agricultural development was checked in the middle of the thirteenth century by the Mongol invasion under Batu, who attacked Poland in 1241. Marching into Silesia, he defeated at Liegnitz (April 9) a large army of Poles and Germans imder Henry II, Duke of Lower Silesia, and forced his way into Hungary. The opposi- tion offered by the Silesians is regarded as having broken the force of the mvasion, and as having made Silesia a rampart of the Empire ; but the immediate results of the battle were disastrous, for the Mongols burned the towns and ravaged the country. silSii^'J GERMAN INFLUENCE * 11 By the end of the thirteenth century, the greater part of Silesia was becoming definitely German. The ruling houses were either German in origin or had accepted the German language and customs, and Duke Henry IV of Breslau (1266-90) is remembered as one of the Minnesinger. The characteristic features of its history in the fourteenth century are the constant subdivisions of territory on the death of a duke, and the establishment of intimate relations with the Luxem- burg kings of Bohemia. In the course of the century, Lower Silesia came to be divided into nine principalities — Brieg, Breslau, Liegnitz, Schweidnitz, Jauer, Miin- sterberg, Glogau, Steinau, and 01s ; and Upper Silesia into eight principalities — Kosel, Teschen, Beuthen, Falkenberg, Oppeln, Strehlitz, Ratibor, and Troppau. The last named was origmally a Bohemian fief, united to Upper Silesia about 1340 ; the district of Jagerndorf was detached from it about twenty-five years later. To these lay principalities has to be added the episcopal principality of Neisse ; and m 1428 an additional principality — Sagan— was created in Lower Silesia. These subdivisions brought about internal conflicts and disorder, and they explain, to some extent, the growing dependence of Silesia upon the German rulers of Bohemia ; another part of the explanation is to be found in the differences between the German and the Polish populations of the province, and in the desire of the Germanized Dukes of Silesia to obtain German protection against the reviving power of Poland. In 1327 the princes of Upper Silesia and the Duke of Breslau took oaths of fealty to John of Bohemia : and within four years the large majority of the princes of Lower Silesia followed their example. From 1331 to 1742 Silesia was almost contmuously a province of Bohemia, in feudal subjection to the Bohemian Crown. Under King John and the Emperor Charles IV, the Bohemian connexion was strengthened by the marriage of Charles IV to the heiress of Schweidnitz and Jauer, and by the transference or lapse of some of the small Silesian principalities to the Bohemian Crown. By the 12 * HISTORY L No. 4 end of the fourteen th century, Silesia, with Moravia and Lusatia, had become, constitutionally. Crown lands. Until the outbreak of the Hussite wars, the dependence of Silesia upon Bohemia was of great advantage to the country, both in the establishment of an ordered government and in the development of trade and industry. (3) Hussite Wars At the outbreak of the Hussite wars, German Silesia was faithful to the German Sigismund, and supplied him with troops ; and, when the Hussite leader, Procopius, began, about 1424, his series of offensive operations, Silesia was frequently invaded and ravaged. After the death of Procopius in the course of the civil war which developed among the Hussites, the Bohemians in 1436 acknowledged Sigis- mund's authority ; but the Emperor's death m 1437 again created a situation m which the interests of the ruling classes in Silesia were antagonistic to a national movement in Bohemia. Sigismund' s son-in-law, Albert of Austria, was elected King by the Bohemian Estates, but he died within two years, leavmg a posthumous son Ladislas. (4) Czech Revival The mfant was, in turn, elected to the throne, but a strong national leader, George of Podebrad, began to revive the national spirit of the Czechs. In 1448, George of Podebrad led an army to Prague and assumed the regency, and, after the death of Ladis- las, he was elected King in 1458. The province of Silesia was, therefore, under the rule of a Czech monarch. The position was not resented by the Silesian Poles ; and, as the Papacy ix^cognized the election and the Moravians offered no resistance, the German Silesians were unable to do more than make ineffectual jjiotests, although Breslau obstinately de- clined to acknowledge the authority of George of Podebiad. VVIiile George of Podebrad succeeded in snesii^"! CZECH REVIVAL 13 maintaining peaceful relations with the Papacy and with Matthias Corvinus, the King of Hungary, the permanent submission of Silesia to Czech rule remained a possibility of the situation. But in 1466 George was excommunicated by Pope Paul II ; and Matthias Corvinus gave his support to the party in Bohemia which wished to bring about a complete reunion with the Papacy. In the war which followed, the German tSilesians rebelled against King George, who was sujDported by the non-German poj^ulation. When Matthias invaded Moravia and was proclaimed King of Bohemia and Moravia at Olmiitz in 1469, the Ger- man Silesians welcomed an opportunity of escaping from Czech rule and acknowledged the authority of Matthias. George died in 1471, and the national party in Bohemia elected Wladislav (Ladislaus), son of Casimir IV of Poland, The struggle which ensued lasted for some seven years, during which there was civil war between the Germans and the Poles in Silesia. The German party temporarily triumphed, for, in accordance with a compromise made at Olmiitz in 1478 and confirmed by the Treaty of Briinn (1479), the provinces of Silesia, Moravia, and Lusatia were ceded for his lifetime to Matthias, who, in turn, recog- nized the authority of Wladislav in Bohemia. The administration of Matthias Corvinus marks an era in the constitutional history of Silesia. He estab- lished a Diet of princes and instituted an efficient central government, confiscating, as Charles IV had done, the lands of rebellious feudatories. These measures, and the financial exactions which accom- panied therfl, were productive of much discontent ; and when, on the death of Matthias in 1490, Silesia passed again to the Bohemian Crown, the nobles obtained from Wladislav a number of concessions which made Silesia practically autonomous. The Estates received the right of Tegular session ; and among the privileges con- ceded were exemption from compulsory military * service outside Silesia and freedom from arbitrary taxation. These privileges were retained under Wladi- 14 HISTORY [No. 4 Slav's son and successor, Louis, King of Bohemia and Hungary (1516-26). The death of Louis, in a Turkish war in 1526, brought Silesia again under German rule, for the Bohemians elected as their sovereign the Arch- duke Ferdinand of Austria (afterwards the Emperor Ferdinand I), a brother-in-law of Louis. Silesia thus became part of the Habsburg dominions ; but the events of the whole period from the outbreak of the Hussite wars had accentuated the differences between Poles, Czechs, and Germans in Silesia, and had given confi- dence and some unity to the non-German elements. (5) Silesia in the Reformation At the date of the accession of Ferdinand to the Bohemian throne, the Reformation struggle had already begun. During the Hussite wars German Silesians had been the devoted upholders of the Papal cause and of the unity of the Church ; but, when the reformed doctrmes came to them from German sources and ceased to be associated with Czech nationalism, these doctrines made many converts, and, before the death of Louis II in 1526, the Reformed Church had obtained a strong hold m Silesia. Difficulties in Hungary and the Turkish menace prevented Ferdinand from taking any strong measures of repression at the time of his accession ; and the growth of Protestantism contmued undisturbed. At the outbreak of the Schmalkaldic War m 1546, the Silesians, who had borne their share of the struggle against the Turks, declined Ferdinand's request to supply troops for the Imperialist army, and, in common with their Bohemian fellow Protestants, showed symp- toms of insurrection. After the Imperial victory at Miihlberg, Ferdinand levied heavy fines on the Silesian duchies. Protestantism was protected by the general settlement made at Augsburg ; but the Counter-Reforma- tion began to influence Silesia, and Jesuit missions were encouraged by Ferdinand. Important constitutional changes were made after the war. Tlie ancient eccle- siastical dependence upon the recently secularized siS^""] THE I^KFORMATTON 15 Archbishopric of Magdeburg, which from the fourteenth century had encouraged German influences in Silesia, was abolished and replaced by an appeal court at Prague. The privileges granted by Wladislav to the Silesian Estates were so greatly restricted as practically to disa])pear ; and the right of refusing to serve beyond the Silesian borders, which involved a claim to decide on questions of foreign policy, was withdrawn. A new financial organization brought the countr}^ directly under the Bohemian Crown, and from 1550 Silesia was actually governed by the Habsburgs. Under the mild rule of Maximilian II, Protestantism suffered more from internal dissensions than from persecution ; but, with the accession of Rudolf II in 1576, a policy of repression began and led to considerable trouble in Silesia, m the course of which Troppau was placed under the ban of the Empire. The revolt of Rudolf's brother, Matthias, made it necessary for the Emperor to obtain the support of the Bohemians ; and in 1609 he issued Majestlltshriefe for Bohemia and Silesia, permitting freedom of con- science. The common danger to Protestantism had united Boliemians and Silesians and removed the recollection of ancient jealousies ; and in the final crisis of Rudolf's reign they acted together in deposing Rudolf and electing Matthias (1612). (6) Bohemian Revolt In the troubles of the short reign of Matthias, Silesia followed the fortunes of Bohemia ; and the failure of the Bohemian Protestants in 1617 to resist the acknow- ledgement of the bigoted Ferdmand of Styria as the heir to the Bohemian Crown was followed by his recognition b}'- the Estates of Silesia. In the following year the Bohemian Protestants rebelled, and the Sile- sian Estates threw in their lot with the revolutionaries. The attitude of Silesia was largety determmed by John George, Duke of Jagerndorf, whose claim to the duchy, based on the will of George Frederick, son of Margrave George the Pious of Anspach (cf. infra, p. 17), was dis- 16 HISTORY [NO. 4 puted by the Emperor. The Bohemian revolution collapsed in 1620 ; and the Silesians appealed for terms to the Elector of Saxony, who had been entrusted with the reduction of the province. The conditions granted, which were by no means oppressive, were embodied in the Accord of Dresden (February 1621), an agreement to which, on account of its mildness, the consent of the Emperor was somewhat reluctantly given. John George was, however, excepted from the general amnesty, and his duchy was confiscated. In spite of the agreement arrived at by the Accord of Dresden, Silesia was not destined to enjoy peace. The district remained a cockpit of contendmg forces till near the end of the Thirty Years' War. The suffer- ings of Silesia in the years 1618-48 can easily be under- stood from the descriptions given by German historians of the atrocities committed by the armies ; and its industry, especially the mines, did not recover from the effects of the war for a very long period. By the Treaty of Westphalia, Silesia passed, with Bohemia, under the rule of the Imperial House. The Emperor Ferdinand III granted, by the treaty, to the Duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg, and 01s, and to the city of Breslau, the religious liberties enjoyed before the war, and he also promised some measure of toleration to Protestantism throughout the province. The promises made at the time of the Treaty of Westphalia were not generously interpreted, or even honourably observed ; and Silesian Protestants suffered from repressive measures until 1707, when Charles XII of Sweden, in making the Treaty of Altranstadt with the Emperor Joseph I, intervened on their behalf. (7) HOHENZOLLERN CLAIMS But the only political importance of Silesian history during the years from 1648-1740 lies in the develop- ment of the Brandenburg claims upon portions of the p}'ovinc(^ At the date of tlio Treaty of Westplialia, the House of Brandenburg had a shadowy claim upon the ^^^f.?^''! HOHENZOLLERN CLAIMS 17 Silesia Duchies of Ratibor and Oppeln. To understand this it is necessary to go back to the reigns of Wladislav and Louis in the sixteentli century. George the Pious, Margrave of Anspach, was a favourite nephew of Wladislav, and acted as tutor to tiie future King Louis. Having certain pecuniary claims over some of his uncle's Hungarian possessions, he commuted these for a promise of the succession to the childless Dukes of Ratibor and Opj^eln, whose goodwill he succeeded in obtaining to the arrangement, though Wladislav had no right to make 'it. Though Ferdinand, on his succession to Louis in 1526, seems to have given some sort of confirmation to the scheme, the Margrave's right to the duchies had never been fully admitted ; and in 1546, after the Silesian disaffection at the outbreak of the Schmalkaldic War, George Frederick, the successor of George the Pious, was deprived by Ferdi- nand of all authorit}^ over the duchies, which were held to have escheated to the Crown. In the course of the Thirt}^ Years' War. the}^ had more than once been used as inducements to obtain assistance for the Imperial cause. The claim to these duchies by the House of Brandenburg, being based on the title of George Frederick, was accordingly very doubtful. George Frederick had, however, purj)orted to leave these duchies, together with that of Jagerndorf, to the Elector of Brandenburg by will. The claim to Jagerndorf, though certainly open to question, was more substantial. This duchy was j^ur- chased by George the Pious in 1524, but it was doubtful whether his enfeoffment could include persons who were not direct descendants ; and on this ground the will of George Frederick, in so far as it dealt with Jagerndorf, had been disputed by the Emperor. The duchy was, however, actually held in conformity with the terms of the will until Duke John George was placed under the ban of the Empire for his share in the Bohemian Revolution (1622) and his duchy confiscated. Efforts to secure Jagerndorf for Brandenburg at Westphalia were fruitless ; but the Great Elector had asserted his c 18 HISTORY [no. 4 right of succession on the death of Ernest, the only son of John George, in 1642, and he continued to maintain, his claim to the duchy. The death, in 1675, of George William, Duke of Liegnitz, Wohlau, and Brieg, furnished the Great Elector with new claims in Silesia. In 1537 Frederick II, Duke of Liegnitz, who had married one of the daughters of George the Pious, made with the House of Branden- burg a Covenant of Succession, by which, if the heirs of Frederick should fail, the Silesian Duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg, and Wohlau should ]>ass to the House of Brandenburg, and similarly the Bohemian territories of Brandenburg on failure of heirs should pass to the House of Liegnitz. Such an agreement was obviously incompatible with the state of Liegnitz as a fief of the Bohemian Crown ; and the arrangement was repudiated by the Emperor Charles V and King Ferdinand. In 1546 the Estates of Silesia examined the deed ; it was declared invalid, and Ferdinand ordered the destruction of both the Liegnitz and Brandenburg copies. The Liegnitz copy was destroyed, but the Brandenburg copy was preserved, in defiance of Imperial orders ; and, on the death of George William, the Great Elector 23ut forward his claim, again defying the Emperor Leopold, who asked him to give up the document. The Great Elector offered to commute the new claims for Jagerndorf, but failed to obtain this concession, and, in revenge, he entered into close relations with France. In 1682, when Vienna was threatened by the Turks, the Great Elector offered to send a force ; and, on the Emperor's declining the offer, the troops were sent to occupj^ the Silesian duchies claimed by Brandenburg. Four years afterwards, a reconciliation with the Emperor still further complicated the question of the Brandenburg claims in Silesia. The Great Elector agreed to abandon all his Silesian claims for the cession of the Circle of Schwiebus, part of the Duchy of Glogau, which Iiad been escheated to the Bohemian Crown in the end of the fifteenth century. He was placed in tufsii^''] HOHENZOLLEFvN CLAIMS 19 possession of the territory, which, from 1686 to 1694, was included in the Brandenburg possessions. But his son, the Electoral Prince Frederick, was on bad terms with the Elector, and he entered into a secret agreement to return the territory to Austria, on his own accession to Brandenburg, either in the hope of conferment of the royal dignity upon Brandenburg- Prussia or as part of an arrangement for the repudiation of the will which the Great Elector was believed to have made. The Great Elector died in 1688 ; and, after some years of negotiation, the Circle of Schwiebus was restored. The Elector Frederick III took the opportunity of insisting that the restoration ipso facto revived the original claims to Liegnitz, Brieg, Wohlau, and Jagerndorf ; but the justice of this assertion was not admitted by the Emperor, who, indeed, insisted that every HohenzoUern claim in Silesia was invalidated by the circumstance that neither Margrave George the Pious nor Duke Frederick II of Liegnitz possessed any power of conferring the succession on any one not descended from themselves. Jagerndorf, Liegnitz, Brieg, Wohlau, Oppeln, and Ratibor had all, in the view of the Emperor, escheated to the Bohemian Crown, as many other Silesian principalities had done. The circumstance that HohenzoUern tenacity had insisted on a repeated assertion of the claims could not give any validity to them. From the restoration of Schwiebus in 1694 to the death of the Emperor Charles VI in October 1740, the HohenzoUern pretensions were in abeyance ; and King Frederick William I of Prussia paid, in 1732, a visit to Charles VI, in the course of which he was entertained, as the Emperor's guest, in Liegnitz and Jagerndorf. Frederick William I had died six months before the Emperor ; and his successor, Frederick II, immediately on receiving the news of the death of Charles VI, deter- mined on an invasion of Silesia. Prussia, like the rest of the Empire, had accepted the Pragmatic Sanction ; and Frederick II had, in point of fact, much stronger claims upon the Duchies of Berg and Jlilich than on C2 20 HISTORY [No. 4 Silesia. But he had no intention of observing the pledge given by his father to acknowledge the succes- sion of Maria Theresa ; and an attack upon the Rhine duchies was certain to lead to difficulties with France and Holland, -while Silesia lay at his mercy. (8) SiLESiAN Wars It is unnecessary to give more than a very brief outline of the Silesian wars. Wlien Frederick demanded his ' rights ', Maria Theresa refused ; but, without waiting for a reply, he proceeded to invade Silesia, asserting pretexts about dangers from Saxony and Bavaria, which he afterwards disavowed in his Memoirs, Frederick marched up the Oder to Breslau, which capitulated (January 2, 1741) ; and except for resistance from the hastily defended fortresses of Brieg, Glogau, and Neisse, little or no opposition was made to the invaders. Glogau was captured on March 9, but an Austrian army relieved Neisse early in April and was marching on Brieg when Frederick defeated it at Mollwitz (April 10). Brieg fell in May ; and Maria Theresa, threatened by a new enemy, had to withdraw her troops from Silesia in October. The new enemy was France, with which Frederick had made an offensive alliance by the Treaty of Breslau (June 1741). The rest of the fighting of the campaign was in Bohemia ; and Frederick was left to seize the Silesian strongholds. By the Peace of Breslau in June 1742 (confirmed at Berlin in July), Maria Theresa ceded to Frederick Upper and Lower Silesia, exclusive of Troppau and Teschen, and, in addition, the district of Glatz ; and the King of Prussia, in return, deserted his French, Bavarian, and Saxon allies. The acquiescence of Maria Theresa in the loss of Silesia was understood to be only temporary ; and in 1744 Frederick again made an alliance with France and with Bavaria and other German States. In the second Silesian War, Frederick invaded Bohemia and captured Prague (August 1744), but had to retire into Silesia, followed ^>l!l:r^"l SILESTAN WARS 21 Silesia by an Austrian army, wliich, however, was soon driven back into Bohemia by the difficulties of a winter campaign. In the summer of 1745 a second Austrian invasion of Silesia was repelled by Frederick's victory at Hohenfriedberg (May) ; and the Prussians again entered Bohemia. They defeated the Austrians at Sohr in September, and Frederick gained a third victory at Hennersdorf in November. At Christmas 1745, in return for the recognition of his Silesian possessions, Frederick acknowledged Francis I, the husband of Maria Theresa, as Emperor. The recovery of Silesia was one of the objects of Maria Theresa in making the alliance with France which is known as the Diplomatic Revolution ; and Frederick had to defend his booty in the Seven Years' War. When, however, hostilities ceased, the Austrians held Glatz, but no other part of Silesia. The Treaty of Hubertusburg (February 15, 1763) restored the provisions of the Treaty of Berlin of 1745; and the Prussians were left in possession of the whole of Silesia, except the districts of Troppau and Teschen, which included the larger part of Jagerndorf . Austria, while maintaining uj? to the present time the use of the old term, Uj)i3er and Lower Silesia, to describe the mutilated fragment left to her, has never made any military effort to recover the province. Suggestions for the restoration of the whole of Silesia were, however, made during the Napoleonic Wars; and so recently as 1866, in the negotiations between Austria and France which preceded the Austro-Prussian War, the Emperor Francis Joseph made the recover}^ of Silesia one of the objects of a proposed alliance with Napoleon III. (9) Austrian Silesia after 1742 The territory ceded by Maria Theresa to Frederick II was ' all Silesia, except Teschen and the district beyond the River Oppa and the high mountains '. The formula was not without ambiguity, but the 22 HISTORY [no. 4 boundary commissions appointed by Frederick II were not disturbed by any Austrian opposition. The small Silesian province has been regarded, since 1742, as an Austrian, not as a Bohemian, province ; and in the administrative reorganization carried out by the Emperor Joseph II soon after his accession, it was united with Moravia to form one of the thirteen Departments of the Empire. During his mother's lifetime, Joseph, who shared the responsibilities of government with Maria Theresa, had obtained her con- sent, in 1773, to the adoption of measures designed to improve the condition of the peasants ; and the steps then taken had been th'e occasion of serious peasant risings in Silesia and the neighbouring districts. But in 1781, when he was sole ruler, he abolished serfdom in Silesia, Moravia, and Bohemia. Since that date, the history of the province presents no special features, except in 1848 and 1868. In the former year the Bohemians included among the revolu- tionary demands sent to Vienna the reconstitution of the ancient Bohemian kingdom, including Silesia and Moravia. The claim met the fate of most of the other national and democratic attemj^ts of that year, but it was revived twenty years afterwards. In the interval the constitutions of 1861 and 1867 had given Silesia representatives in the Austrian Reichsrat, but this entii'ely failed to satisfy Bohemian aspirations ; and in October 1868 the national party, during a visit of the Emperor Francis Joseph to Prague, again asked for the revival of the old kingdom. Silesia had in the rearrangements after 1848 become a separate province ; and German influence was sufficiently strong in the pro- vincial Diet to obtain a majority against the Bohemian national programme. The Moravian Diet adopted the same attitude. After the suppression of the Bohemian revolt in 1868-9, the question of the relations of Austrian Silesia to Bohemia did not again arise as a matter of practical politics. Austrian-] Silesia J III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS (1) Political Political conditions in Austrian Silesia are compli- cated by racial distribution and by the Czech claim that the province is part of tlie old Bohemian kingdoru. The census of 1910 showed that there are three large racial groups. Comparison with the census of 1900 shows that wliile German and Czecho-Slovak elements are increasing the numbers of the Poles have diminished. Other nationalities (Ruthenian, Slovenian, Serbian, Croatian, and Italian) number only 361 individuals in all. The Poles have maintained, through the many centuries of their separation from the Polish kingdom, a strong sense of nationalit}^ and of their community of interest with the Poles elsewhere, and the Czechs have a similar feeling towards the Bohemians. These racial differences are marked both in the provincial Diet and in the selection of the twelve Silesian members of the Reichsrat. For administrative purposes, Silesia is divided into nine government districts, with three autonomous towns — Bielitz, Friedek, and the capital, Troppau. (2) Religious and Educational An overwhelming proportion (nearly 85 per cent.) of the inhabitants of Austrian Silesia are Roman Catholics. The Protestants number only about 14 per cent., nearly all Poles, and 1 per cent, are Jews. There is an adequate suppl}^ of educational facilities, pro- vided bj^ 21 Blirgerschulen (primary schools), 7 Ober- gymnasia, 4 Oberrealschulen, 10 Handelsschulen, and Agricultural and Technical Colleges. Of the higher grade schools the Germans have the greatest number in proportion to their population, and the Poles the smallest. No. 4 IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS Introductory Note. — Austrian Silesia is 1,987 square miles in extent — almost the size of Northumberland. Its area is 1-7 per cent, of that of all Austria (115,851 square miles), and 9-9 per cent, of that of Bohemia (20,058 square miles). This latter ratio affords a simple index of value when a comparison is made between the absolute figures of production in Austrian Silesia and Bohemia respectively. The 2)opulation of Austrian Silesia is 2-6 per cent, of the jDopulation of all Austria, and is relatively dense, viz. 148 to the square kilometre, as compared with the corresponding figures for Bohemia (130) and for all Austria (105); while the last census showed, for the previous ten years, a greater increase (10-9 per cent.) than that of Austria as a whole (8-6 per cent.) or of Bohemia (7-5 per cent.). (A) MEANS OF COMMUNICATION (a) Roads and, Canals Austrian Silesia has more roads to the 100 square kilometres than any other province of Austria, viz. 76-7 kilometres, as comj^ared with 63-7 in Bohemia and 40-4 in all Austria. In waterways, however, it is remarkably poor, and compares unfavourably with Bohemia. It has to the 100 square kilometres only 27 kilometres of waterway fit for boats and none fit for steamers. The construction of the Elbe, Oder, Danube, and Vistula canals will of course alter this, as the Oder will then be linked up with the canal fi'om Pardubitz to Prerau. Indeed, ahliough the Oder is not an easy river to canalize, since at certain places, e. g. Oderberg, it is liable to flood, a beginning has already been made. i"fsii""l HOADS; CANALS; RAILWAYS 25 Silesia In 1911 ^le authorities in Prussian Silesia, tired of waiting for the great canal system which had been promised so long, were making the river navigable for vessels of 150 tons as far as Ratibor, some 25 kilometres from the Austrian Silesian frontier. When the canal schemes are carried out, Austrian Silesia will be in the centre of the system, and the industries of the province will certainly be benefited. It will then be possible, for instance, for the coal of Austrian Silesia to be sold to Hungary at a lower price, owing to the facilities for cheap transport afforded by the Danube -Oder Canal. (6) Raihvays As part of the Austrian State Railway S3^stem (there are no private lines) the railways of Austrian Silesia call for little comment. The network is less dense (1 km. to 8-18 sq. km.) than in Bohemia (1 km. to 7-7 sq. km.), but denser than in Moravia (1 km. to 10-57 sq. km.), and sometimes it is insufficient for the carrying needs of the community ; in 1907, to take one instance, the output of the Austrian Alpine Mining Company's coal-mine at Orlau was restricted by con- gestion on the Ferdinands Norclbahn. The system possesses one striking feature. Oderberg, just within the Austrian frontier, is the junction at which several long stretches of double lines (the only ' through ' double lines in this section of Europe) intersect, viz. the lines from Berlin to Vienna via Breslau, from Berlin to Hungary, from Vieima to Warsaw and Petrograd, and from Vienna to Cracow and Lemberg. This cannot fail to influence the com- mercial and industrial future of Austrian Silesia. Even now the province is visited by a relatively larger num- ber of travellers than Bohemia and Moravia, and this in spite of the fashionable ' cure ' resorts of Bohemia, which are responsible for a large influx of visitors thither. 26 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS |no.4 (B) INDUSTRY (1) Labour In this part of Austria, as in Bohemia, the number of persons engaged in agriculture has shown a dechne of recent years, while the number of those engaged in industrial pursuits has increased. In 1910, 6 per cent, of the total number of persons employed were members of trade unions, the same percentage as in Bohemia and Moravia. Strikes, how- ever, were even less frequent in Austrian Silesia than in these tv/o other provinces. In the coal-mines a relatively much larger number of women and children are employed than in the lignite mines of Bohemia, and the yearly wage of the coal miners in Austrian Silesia, though higher than that of coal miners in other parts of Austria, is considerably lower than that of the lignite miners in the Teplitz and Falkenau districts of Bohemia. (2) Agriculture Austrian Silesia is less fertile than Bohemia, producing less per hecta^re (2-47 acres) of all the important crops, and very nmch less in the case of wheat and sugar-beet. Of valuable crops like sugar-beet and flax, its absolute production is very small. About half the area of the province consists of arable land and gardens, and about 12 iper cent, is devoted to hay or pasture. The chief crops are oats, rye, clover, potatoes, barley, and wheat. Fruit, including the vine, is grown principally in the north-west. Domestic animals are comparatively few, but the numbei' of goats kept is above the average for Austria. Dairy-farming is prosperous, notably in the western districts. Deer, fish, and small game are plentiful. The following table shows the production of the princiy)al crops in all Austria, Bohemia, and Austrian Silcsin in 191 1 in hundreds of metric tons : Austrian 1 Silesia J AGRICULTURE; MINERALS 27 Flax All Austria Bohemia Austrian Silesia Wheat. Rye. Barley. Oats. Straw. Potatoes. Sugar- and beet, fibre). 16026 26446 16201 22700 167495 116049 42497 388 3670 8270 5499 6490 36450 16930 21180 108 123 596 298 680 2840 2270 340 In 1913 the figures for the ' corn ' (? wheat) ^ harvest were (in hundreds of metric tons) : All Austria, 16,228 ; Bohemia, 4,837 ; Austrian Silesia, 140. It is thus not to its fertility that Austrian Silesia is indebted for its relatively large j^opulation. Neither do its forest industries account for this, although in Silesia a rather larger proportion (34 per cent.) of the total area of the province is under forest than is the case in Bohemia, while the production of timber is relatively twice as great. In 1913 the forest areas were as follows : All Austria, 9,768,000 hectares ; Bo- hemia, 1,538,000 hectares ; Austrian Silesia, 179,000 hectares. Some 60 per cent, of the trees are coniferous (chiefly spruce) ; the remainder is, for the most part, mixed timber. (3) Minerals Coal. — As the following figures show, it is to its coal-mines that Austrian Silesia owes its industrial prosperity : Number of Hands (including Women and Children) ^ employed in various kinds of mining, 1910 Other Coal. Lignite. Iron. metals. Total. Bohemia 22676 35899 1862 3925 64362 Moravia 12167 645 32 350 13194 Austrian Silesia 32315 3 13 5 32336 Galicia . 6421 441 107 695 7644 All Austria 74112 56954 5607 10594 147267 ^ These figures agree approximately wdth the wheat harvest of other vears. They are from the Neue Freie Presse of October 29, 1918. "^ 2 Cf. the figures for the population (1910) in millions : Bohemia, 6-7 : Moravia, 2-6 ; Austrian Silesia, 0-7 ; all Austria, 28-7. 28 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [wo. x^LUstrian Silesia, with an area of one-tenth of Bo- hemia, has half as many hands employed in all kinds of mining, and a much larger number employed in bituminous coal-mining. The coal-field of Austrian Silesia is part of the great Silesian field which extends in the south over the Austrian frontier to Mahrisch-Ostrau and Karwin, in the east to Tenczjmek in Galicia, and to Dombrova in Poland. The amount of coal in the Ostrau-Karwin basin, of which about one-third may be a23portioned to Austrian Silesia (the rest being in Moravia), is estimated at 3,700,000,000 tons. The Austrian coal has to be got at a lower depth, and is therefore more expensive to mine than the Prussian coal ; it is also of lower calorific value and is not so good for house use as the Prussian coal, much of which is sent to Vienna. On the other hand, the Austrian coal is better for coking. This is important, as the Polish coal is non-coking, and Poland has to im- port considerable quantities of coke from Prussia and Austria for smelting iron ore ; this import of coke into Poland has increased largety of recent years, although, owing to the development of the Dombrova field, the import of coal has largely decreased. The following figures give the production of coke in 1910 in Austrian Silesia, compared with that in Bohemia and Moravia (in metric tons) : Austrian Silesia, 1,325,913 ; Bohemia, 44,519; Moravia, 1,492,731. The production of pit-coal in 1913 was approximately as follows (in millions of metric tons) : All Austria, 164 ; Bohemia, 4-4 ; Moravia, 2-3 ; Austrian Silesia, 7-6. Of lignite Austrian Silesia produced only 1,200 tons. Austrian Silesia has not sufficient coal for its own needs, and imports largely from Prussian Silesia. In 1917 Dzicditz, the chief receiving station, took 400,000 tons ; Oderbcrg, Bielitz, Jagerndorf, and other towns also took large quantities. Iron. — The production of iron ore in Austrian Silesia is smal], and the Trzynietz smelting and lolling works tnT^i^""] MINERALS (COAL AND IRON) 29 use Swedish, Hungarian, Bukovinian, Spanisli, and other ores. In 1913 Austrian Silesia j^roduced 169,900 tons of pig-iron, or nearly one-tenth of the whole out- put for all Austria. Coal and Iron Conipanies. — The Austrian Mining and Smelting Company (capital (German), 35,000,000 kn.) has smelting works, steel works, and rolling mills at Trzynietz in Austrian Silesia, and mines iron ore in Hungar3\ It also has coal-mines and coking furnaces at Karwin, Peterswald, and Oderfurt. It acquired shares in a coal-mining company at Mahrisch-Ostrau (Moravia) in 1910, and in 1912 in a Swedish iron-ore company. The Trzynietz mills employed 2,800 hands and produced 169,060 tons ^ of pig-iron in 1913. The company's output (in metric tons) was in 1911 as follows: Coal. Coke. Pig-iron. Ingots. Rolled Steel. 1524900 441700 117400 136900 101400 The Ostrau Mining Company (capital (German), 6,000,000 kn.) has offices at Briinn, and a coal-mine at Polnisch-Ostrau. It employed 1,680 hands, and pro- duced 481,565 tons of coal and 60,000 tons of coke in 1913. It exports to Germany, Russia, and Hungary. The Freistadt Steel and Iron Works (capital (German- Czech), 3,000,000 kn.) have greatly enlarged their works since 1914. The Austrian Alpine Mining Company (of Vienna) is a large concern, with mines, smelting furnaces, and machine factories in many places ; among them, coal- mines at Orlau and Polnisch-Ostrau. Its production in Austrian Silesia in 1907 was 78,900 tons ^ of coal and iron ore. The Wicczek-Ostrau Coal and Coke Company em- ployed 3,161 hands in 1913; its production was : coal 673,100 tons, coke 72,540 tons, and sulphate of ammonia 955 tons. ^ This amount only falls short of the whole output for Austrian Silesia in 1913 by 840 tons. 2 The total output of this company in 1913 (a year of depression) was 3 million tons of coal and iron ore. 30 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [wo.4 Other mineral products include some marble (near Friedeberg and Freiwaldau), an abundance of limestone and building stone, and numerous mineral springs. (4) Manufactures The industries of the province of Silesia account for 6-37 per cent, of the total boiler-heating surface used in all the industrial establishments of Austria (as com- pared with 44-83 per cent, used in Bohemia and 15-98 per cent, in Moravia). This is a large percentage for its area, and points to a relatively intense industrial activity. Apart from coal production this activity is to be found chiefly in the textile industries of the province. The total number of factories in 1913 was 677, more than one-third of the number in Moravia, a province of four times the area. {a) Textiles ^ The wooUe7i industry is centred at Jagerndorf and Bielitz. Jagerndorf has 24 mills emplo3ang an aggre- gate of 4,540 hands ; Bielitz, 18 mills employing 3,400 hands. Troppau has one cloth mill with head-quarters in Vienna. As regards the cotton industry, Freudenthal has 3 mills employing 2,100 hands; Friedek, 8 mills, 2,700 hands. For linens and flax-spinning Freudenthal has 5 mills employing 1,920 hands ; Freiwaldau employs 3,000 liands. For jute-spinning and rope-making Bielitz has 2 mills employing 862 hands ; Troppau, 1 mill (800 hands) be- longing to the United Jute Mills of Vienna, Budapest, and Prague. Jagerndorf has one rope mill employing 120 hands. The following table gives the approximate number of hands employed in textile production in Austrian Silesia : ^ Tho figures and data reefer to tho period immediately preceding the war. PoptdatioH. Cottons. Woolleiis. Linens 18568 — 3400 — 16120 — 4540 — under 10000 2100 — 1920 ?? 15 — — 3000 2700 — — i^^>''^ MANUFACTURES 31 Tmvn. Bielitz Jagerndorf Freudenthal Freiwaldau Friedek It is clear that though the aggregate production of textiles in Austrian Silesia is small, it is intensive relatively to the population of its towns : thus, small places like Freudenthal and Friedek have a larger number of cotton operatives than the larger towns of Reichenberg and Koniginhof in Bohemia. Bielitz and Jagerndorf again have a relatively larger number of woollen operatives than Briinn and Neutitschein in Moravia or Asch in Bohemia. (6) Other Manufactures Machinery. — Troppau has eight factories employing 930 hands ; Jagerndorf, four factories with 550 hands, producing weaving, washing, and drying machines. In Freiwaldau there is one factory which produces agricultural machinery. Chemical Works, Oil Refineries, Sc. — The PetroAvitz Chemical Works, with 380 hands, makes sulphuric acid and artificial manures. At Oderberg the Mineral Oil Refinery, with 380 hands, produced in 1913 53,310 tons of refined petroleum, paraffin, and asphalt. Two dye- works at Bielitz employ 450 hands. Beet Sugar. — The production of this is insignificant — about 3 per cent, of the output of all Austria, as com- pared with the 33 per cent, of Moravia and the 52 per cent, of Bohemia. In 1913 all Austria produced 1,107,000 metric tons, of which Silesia's share was 34,000 tons. Breiving and Distilling. — In comparison with the production of Bohemia (47-22 per cent, of the Austrian beer output),- that of Austrian Silesia (2-7 per cent.) is almost neghgible, but the distilling industry which is made possible by the large potato croj) is relatively 32 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS |no.4 considerable. The following figures (in millions of hectolitres) refer to the year 1913 : Beer: All Austria, 210; Bohemia, 9-9; Moravia, 1-5; Silesia, 0-57. Spirits : All Austria, 1-6 ; Bohemia, 0-46 ; Moravia, 0-19 ; Silesia, 009. (C) COMMERCE The chief towns and the principal branches of trade have aheady been indicated in the foregoing sections, particularly in that which deals with manufactures. There is a Chamber of Commerce at Troppau, which, as the capital of the province, with a population of 30,000, is the head-quarters of a considerable number of grain and machinery firms and general merchants. Timber and wool are sold at Bielitz ; cloth and raw produce (including coal) are the chief articles of merchandise at Jagerndorf , grain and yarn at Freuden- thal, steel tools and raw produce at Friedek, and wooden wares at Freiwaldau. Teschen, a town of 22,000 inhabitants, has a considerable trade in leather, wool, iron, and wines. Mineral springs have turned Grafenberg, Karlsbrunn, Lindewiese, and Ustron into thriving watering-places. (D) FINANCE (1) Public Finance The following table shows the share of Austrian taxation borne by the province of Silesia in 1912 : ^ All Austria. Silesia. Millions of Kronen. Taxes on Real Property .... 171,774 3,139 Taxes on Personal Proiierty 232.260 5,815 Total gross income subject to personal taxes. 5,960,596 143,930 Yield of Excise Taxes : Spirits ....... 100,633 4,583 Beer ....... 85,496 2,218 Sugar 164.622 6,113 Total yield f)f all excise taxes 420,216 18,466 ' III lli(i same year tho totaJH for Moravia wore : Real property tax, i;i-!t ; I'crsonal taxes, 17-4 ; Excise, 8()-l iiiillion kn. snVAT] COMMERC^E; BANKS 33 (2) Bayiking Austrian Silesia has 0-27 per cent, of the share capital of Austrian banks, as contrasted with the 1-7 per cent, of the Moravian, and the 23-35 per cent, of the Bohemian banks ; and 61,000 depositors in the Post Office Savings Bank as contrasted with Bohemia's 480,767. The Austro- Hungarian Bank has branches at Teschen, Friedek, Jagerndorf, Troppau, and Bielitz. The Central Bank of the German Savings Banks has branches at Bielitz, Freudenthal, Freistadt, Frei- waldau, Friedek, Friedeberg, Friedland, Jagerndorf, Teschen, and Troppau. The Austrian Silesian Land Credit Institution at Troppau — founded 1869 — does not carry on business for profit. The Communal Credit Institution of the Kingdom of Silesia at Troppau is under the control of the Land Credit Institution. The Vienna Banking Company {Wiener Bankverein) has branches at Bielitz, Friedek, Jagerndorf, and Teschen. The Imperial Credit Institution for Trade and Industry has a branch at Troppau, as also have the Bohmische Union Bank, the Austrian Industry and Trade Bank, and the Bohmische Industrial Bank. The Bielitz-Biafa Trade and Industry Bank is a branch of the Bohmische Unio7i Bank. Austrian Silesia has 24 Savings Banks, one in each considerable town. The number of savings-bank depositors per 1,000 inhabitants (140 in 1910) is a little below the average for all Austria (149), and about half of the average of the districts in which Germans are the predominant race. Distributive co-operative societies are more numerous than is usual in other parts of Austria ; they numbered 110 in 1910, a figure only exceeded by those for Bohemia and Moravia. 34 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS f^o.* (E) GENERAL REMARKS The three races (Germans, Poles, and Czecho-Slovaks) which mhabit the province of Silesia occupy distinct regions, only mixing at all considerably in the mining district and in the towns of Eastern Silesia. The administrative offices, large estates, and commer- cial undertakings generally are in the hands of Germans or of the Germanized nobility, who especially dominate the social and economic life of the eastern part of the province, as is the case in the eastern part of Prussian Upper Silesia. In the Polish area large landownership and large industrial undertakings are the rule ; and in 1911 the large owners and capitalists were all Germans, with apparently only a single exception. The clergy and the officials are said to be all Germans. German is the administrative language ; and German represen- tatives have an overwhelming preponderance in the provincial and local councils. The Poles of the pro- vince are almost exclusively labourers and small farmers. The standard of living in the mountainous parts of the province is relatively low. But the population in general has a reputation for industry, the Poles and Slovaks of the hill districts being a race little if at all less thrifty than the Germans, and independent both socially and economically. In industry the Poles are usually under German management, but have a reputa- tion for aptitude in industrial work and wilhngness to learn. Except in the case of the miners, the general standard of wages was formerly (1880-90) among the lowest in Austria. In agriculture and forestry the large landowners, especially in Eastern Silesia, have taken the lead in the introduction of modern methods, and appear to have remained in advance of the small farmers, though these are now following their example. Co-operative organizations are well developed in the province, tnfsii*''] GENERAL REMARKS 35 co-operative credit banks having arisen at a fairly early date out of a system of co-operative grain-stores. There were 93 Raiffeisen societies in the province in 1911. Trade unions had been little developed until recent years, only 6 per cent, of the workers being in unions in 1897. But in 1914 the figure had risen to 22 per cent., about 14 per cent, of the miners being then members of unions, and about half the textile workers. 36 I No. 4 AUTHOEITIES Historical Besides ordinary works on German mediaeval and modern history, the f ollomng books deal specially with Silesia : Grotefend, H. Starnmtafeln der schlesischen Fiirsten bis 1740. Breslau, 1889. Grdnhagen, C. Geschichte Schlesiens. 2 vols. Gotha, 1884-6. ,, Schlesien unter Friedrich der Grosse. 2 vols. Gotha, 1890-2. Knotel, p. Geschichte Ober schlesiens. Kattorwitz, 1906. MoRGENBESSER, M. GcschicMe von Schlesien. Berlin. 1892. Oberschlesische Heimat, Zeitschrift des ober schlesischen Geschicht- vereins. Oppeln, 1905. Zeitschrift des Vereins filr Geschichte und Altertum Schlesiens. Berlin, 1855, &c. The following deal specially with Austrian Silesia : Peter, A. Das Herzogthum Schlesien. Vienna, 1884. Slama, F. Oesterreichisch Schlesien. Prague, 1887. Economic Drage, G. Austria- Hungary. London, 1909. Hertz, F. Die Produktionsgrundlagen der Oesterreichischen Industrie vor und nach dem Kriege. Vienna and Berlin, 1917. Jahrbuch der Oesterreichischen Industrie, 1915. Vienna, 1915. Oesterreichisches Statistisches Handbuch. Vienna, 1911. Peter, J. v. Das Herzogthum Schlesien. Vienna, 1884. Sohvvackhofer, F. Die Kohlen Oesterreich-Ungarns, &c. Vienna, 1901. MAPS Austrian Silesia is covered by two sheets (M. 33 Wien, M.34 Krakaii ; G.S.G.S. 2758) of the 'International' Map, published by the War Office on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000. For Ethnography, see note on Maps in Austria, cfcc. (No. 1 of this series), p. 28. HANDBOOKS PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE HISTORICAL SECTION OF THE FOREIGN OFFICE.— No. 5 BUKOVINA LONDON : PUBLISHED BY H. M. STATIONERY OFFICE. 1920 Bukovina TABLE OF CONTENTS GEOGRAPHY PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL (1) Position and Frontiers . . . . (2) Surface and River System I'AGE Surface ...... 2 River System ..... 3 (3) Climate 5 (4) Sanitary Conditions .... 6 (5) Race and Language .... 6 (6) Population Distribution ..... 9 Towns and Villages .... 9 Movement ...... 10 II. POLITICAL HISTORY Chronological Summary . 11 (1) Origins ....... 11 (2) Annexation by Austria .... 12 (3) Decline of Rumanian Nationality 13 Administration under Austria 13 Reorganization of the Church 14 Changes in the Population 14 (4) Revival of Rumanian Nationahty 15 Influence of Rumania .... 15 The Revolutionary Movement of 1848 . 15 The Church Question .... 16 (5) Reaction in the Bukovina 17 Repressive Measures .... 17 Evidence of National Feeling 17 III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS (1) Rehgious ...... 19 (2) PoUtical ...... 20 (3) Educational ...... . 20 General Observations 21 Wt. 36998/251. 1,000. 2/20. O.U.P. TABLE or CONTENTS [mTo. PAGE IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS (A) Means op Communication {a) Roads .23 (6) Rivers and Canals ..... 23 (c) Railways ....... 24 (d) Posts and Telegraphs .... 25 (B) Industry (1) Labour .25 (2) Agriculture (a) Products of Commercial Value ... 26 (6) Methods of Cultivation .... 27 (c) Foi-estry . 28 (d) Land Tenure 29 (3) Fisheries 29 (4) Minerals 29 (5) Manufacture . . . . . . .31 (6) Water-power 31 (C) Commerce (a) Principal Branches of Trade . . .31 (6) Towns and Markets . . . . ,31 (c) Organizations to promote Trade and Com- merce ...... 32 (d) Imports and Exports .... 32 (D) Finance (1) Public Finance 32 (2) Banks .33 AUTHORITIES Historical and Economic ..... 35 Maps 36 Bukovina I I. GEOGRAPHY PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL (1) Position and Frontiers The Bukovina is in the extreme east of the Austrian Empire. It hes south-east of GaUcia, between 47° 12' and 48° 40' north latitude and 24° 55' and 26° 31' east longitude, and has an area of 10,441 sq. km. (about 4,030 sq. miles), or roughly two-thirds that of York- shire. On the north and north-west the Bukovina marches with Galicia. Elsewhere its boundaries are those of Austria, touching on the south-west on Hungary, on the south-east on Rumania, on the east on Rumania and Bessarabia. The Gahcian boundary is for the most part well defined ; it ascends the Dniester for some 35 miles, thence strikes south along an arbitrary line to the junction of the Czeremosz with the Pruth, ascends the former river to the source of the Bialy Czeremosz on the north-western slopes of the Carpathians, and so gains the Hungarian frontier. The boundary between the Bukovina and Hungary is much broken, but follows in parts the courses of the Cibo, the Golden Bistritz, and the Tesna, and in part the watershed of the Dorna. The same applies to that which in the south divides the Bukovina from Rumania, which follows for some distance the courses of the Neagra and the Golden Bistritz, in part the watershed of the Sucha, crosses the Moldova at Kornoluncze, and reaches the Suczawa just above its junction with the Sereth. The Suczawa, the Sereth, and the Pruth all play a 2 GEOGRAPHY [no. 5 part in determining the eastern boundary, which between these rivers follows minor topographical features. Between the Pruth and the Dniester the Bukovina-Bessarabia boundary is marked partly by the Rakitna, partly by a smaller stream and some inter- vening hills. (2) Surface and River System Surface The Bukovina is a highland, rising in terraces from the north-east to the south-west. It falls naturally into two parts, a mountain region and a hill region, the division being clearly marked by a line running roughly from Wiznitz on the Czeremosz to Gurahumora on the Moldova. To the south-west of this line is a compli- cated system of densely-wooded mountains of sand- stone formation, the ridges running from north-west to south-east. The valleys are steep and narrow, some- times opening out into alluvial flats where cultivation is possible. In the south-west, in the neighbourhood of the Dorna and the Golden Bistritz, the mountains reach an average height of over 1,500 ft., Giumalaul (6,100 ft., 1 ,859 m. ) being the highest point in the Bukovina. These mountains form part of the mass of the Wooded Car- pathians, and fill all the space between the Golden Bistritz and the Suczawa, the central point of the space being formed by the Luczyna Mountains. This group contains the sources of the Czeremosz, the Suczawa, the Moldova, and the Golden Bistritz, and is thus the main watershed of the country. The mountains in the extreme south-west of the Bukovina are spurs of the Kelemen group. The hill region of the Bukovina consists of gentle, rolling ridges of limestone and clay rising to some 1,650 ft. It is watered by the Pruth, the Sereth, the Suczawa, and the Moldova, which flow at "an approxi- mate he ght of 650 ft., and here make great curves to the south-east. The Suczawa, the largest of these rivers, divides the Bukovina into two almost equal parts. The Bukovina] SURFACE ; RIVERS 3 valley bottoms are flat and open, while the higher regions have to a great extent been cleared of their woods, except on the steepest slopes, and the land has been ploughed. The mountain region of the Bukovina is of little value for cultivation, but, in addition to its extensive forests, provides good summer pasture for numbers of cattle. The soil of the hill region consists largely of loess or of alluvial deposits ; it is therefore fertile and well suited for cultivation, which is being rapidly developed. The most fertile region, containing some two-thirds of the agricultural land of the Bukovina, lies between the Pruth and the Dniester. Fertility decreases between the Pruth and the Sereth, and the hill region on both sides of the Suczawa is the poorest part of the province, wheat being grown only in very small quantities. On the other hand, the region south and east of Suczawa is very rich. Floods are a hin- drance to agriculture in many valleys. The Bukovina is plentifully supplied with water, except in the district to the south of Suczawa and south-west of Bossancze, where rain-water cisterns are necessary both for man and beast. River System With the exception of a few small streams in the north, which are tributaries of the Dniester, all the rivers of the Bukovina belong to the Danube system, and flow to the Moldavian-Bessarabian plain. The southern rivers — the Czeremosz (an affluent of the Pruth) and the Sereth, with its tributaries the SuczaAva, the Moldova, and the Golden Bistritz — run in roughly parallel courses, and take their rise within the Bukovina in the neighbourhood of the Luczyna Mountains On-y the Dniester and the Golden Bistritz have well-defined rocky beds ; the other rivers divide into arms round islands in broad alluvial valleys as soon as they emerge from the mountains, often changing their courses, and causing serious damage by floods. As has been said above, the Dniester forms the B 2 4 GEOGRAPHY [no. 5 northern boundary of the Bukovina as far as Onut, where it is some 270 yds. wide. Its depth varies from 2 to 6 J ft., and its banks are sometimes nearly 500 ft. high. Its bed is rocky, but contains in places a number of difficult sandbanks. Hence, though navigable by small boats, it is chiefly used by rafts. The Pruth, one of the largest tributaries of the Danube, flows right across the country at its narrowest part, parallel with the Dniester, through a valley which is wide and open to the north, but on the south merges into a mountainous district. The Czeremosz, formed by the junction of the Bialy Czeremosz (which, like the main stream itself, is a boundary-river of the Bukovina) and the Czarny Czeremosz, is its most im- portant tributary, and has the Perkalab as its affluent on the left bank. The Sereth, another left-bank tributary of the Danube, rises in the western mountains near the Szurdyn Pass, on the opposite side of the watershed to the Suczawa, and flows in a course which curves from north-east to south-east right through the Bukovina, whose borders it leaves not far below the town of Sereth. The three remaining important rivers of the Buko- vina — the Suczawa, the Moldova, and the Golden Bistritz — are all right-bank tributaries of the Sereth, though they join that stream outside the borders of the province. Of these tributaries, the Suczawa rises near the Iswor Pass and opens out below Straza to water the largest piece of open ground in the country ; the Moldova, whose course lies through deep valleys, receives two important affluents, the Sucha on the right bank and the Moldawitza on the left ; and the Golden Bistritz rises in Transylvania, entering the Bukovina at an altitude of 3,172 ft., and receives the Dorna on the right bank and the Cibo on the left. The Dniester is the only river in the Bukovina which is navigable otherwise than by rafts. The water in the Sereth, the Suczawa, and the Moldova is always suffi- cient for rafts, but their streams are not regulated and sandbanks are numerous. Bukovina] RIVER8 ; CLIMATE 5 (3) Climate The climate of the Biikovina is severe and thoroughly continental. The eastern regions are characterized by violent windstorms, which cause sudden variations in the temperature amounting to as much as 64° F. ( 18° C. ). The rate of humidity is comparatively low and the climate in general approximates to that of Russia. In the mountain region the frost continues on an average from Sei^tember 1 to June 10 ; in the hill district from October 1 to May 20. July is the hottest month, January the coldest. The following table shows the difference in average temperature between the moun- tain region and the hill region : Winter. Spring. Summer. Autuvm. Hill Region 23= F. (-5= C.) 48° F. (9° C.) 66° F. (19° C.) 46° F. (8° 0.) Mountain Region 21° F. (-6° C.) 45°F. (7°C.) 61°F. (16°C.) 43°F. (6°a) Czernowitz in the north and Suczawa in the south both have the same average summer temperature of 66° F. (19° C.) ; but in winter Czernowitz averages 25° F. (- 4° C), and Suczawa 28° F. (- 2° C). The annual rainfall in the mountains often exceeds 33-5 in. (850 mm.) ; in the hills it is often under 21 -7 in. (550 mm.). The valleys of the Pruth and the Dniester have the lowest rainfall. June and July are the wettest months, and January is the dry est. Snow lies every- where between November and April ; it falls most heavily in the latter month and is deepest in the neigh- bourhood of the sources of the Suczawa. There is con- siderable cloud throughout the year. The west wind is the commonest, both in summer and •winter, whilst in the spring westerly and northerly winds prevail. Southerly and westerly wmds bring a high temperature, heavy cloud and rain, and low pressure, whereas northerly and easterly winds bring low temperatures, clearer weather, less rainfall, and higher pressure. 6 GEOGRAPHY [no.s (4) Sanitary Conditions The climate of the Bukovina, though severe, is healthy and hardening. The people still rely to a great extent upon herbs and spells, which are generally administered by old women, in cases of illness. Only in the last extremity do they call in doctors, of whom there are few in the country. Too much reliance cannot therefore be placed upon the official statistics of the causes of death. In 1910, 13 per 1,000 of the deaths were ascribed to congenital weakness, 70 per 1,000 to tuberculosis, and 90 per 1,000 to other lung troubles. Diarrhoea accounts for another 20-40 per 1,000, and scarlet fever and measles are also important causes of mortahty. The Lipovans, whose religion binds them to rely on prayer alone in time of sickness, are a serious danger diu-ing an epidemic. The rate of infant mortaUty in the last decade was 240-3 per 1,000 births. The very high death-rate among the gipsies is accompanied by an equally high birth-rate. (5) Race and Language The Bukovina lies on the great highway of migration from east to west, and is consequently inhabited by a strange mixture of races, even at the present day. Among them it is possible to find traces of earlier peoples who have disappeared, passed on, or been absorbed. The Rumanians, who numbered 273,254, or 34 per cent, of the population, at the last census, have a majority in the south, south-west, the centre, and part of the east of the Bukovina.' They are most numerous on the middle Sereth and in the Suczawa valley, where, ^ excluding a few isolated islands, over 75 per cent, of the population is Rumanian. On the Moldova the position of the Rumanians is hardly less strong. North of the Sereth they rapidly diminish in numbers, and still farther north arc only found in a few villages ; but they are found scattered throughout the country, and the greater part of the nobihty and of the well-to-do Bni^ovina] RACE AND LANGUAGE 7 classes in the towns are Rumanian. How or whence they entered the Bukovina is uncertain, but they are true members of the Rumanian people, speaking the Limba romdna, which is of Latin origin. The majority belong to the Orthodox Church, and there are a very few Uniats among them. The Ruthenians or Little Russians in 1910 numbered 305,100, or 38 per cent, of the population. With them are included the Hutsulians, who speak their language, though there are grounds for believing that they are of different, possibly of Scythian, origin. The Ruthe- nians form a solid mass in the north and west, but they are also found almost everywhere among the Rumanians, notably along the lower Sereth. The country round the sources of the Czeremosz, the Suc- zawa, the Moldova, and the Moldawitza, as well as the whole north-western mountain region, is inhabited by the Hutsulians. The Ruthenians, who speak Little Russian (or rather the dialect of it known as Red Russian), have dwelt in the Bukovina from a very early date, and a number of them have probably been assimilated by the Rumanians. The Ruthenian element predominates among the lower classes ; they are mostly members of the Orthodox Church. The Germans in the Bukovina in 1910 numbered 168,851, or 21 per cent, of the population, if we include the 102,919 Jews, who are all Germans. They have an influence out of proportion to their numbers, as it was they who colonized and civilized the country. German is still the language of culture and the official tongue. The Austrian occupation has resulted in a large influx of soldiers and officials, with the result that there is now hardly a village which does not contain a German. They are most numerous along the middle Suczawa and in the towns and mining regions of the south-west, but there are also a number of German agricultural colonies in the hill regions. Most of them are Roman Catholics, but at Alt Fratautz, near the Sereth, and Badautz, near Radautz, over 75 per cent, of the popu- lation is Lutheran. In the country districts the Germans 8 GEOGRAPHY | wo. 5 preserve an attitude of racial superiority, holding aloof from the Rumanians ; but in the towns they tend to drift with the tide, using Ruthenian or Rumanian for business purposes. The Jews are found in compact masses only in Wiznitz, on the Czeremosz, where they form three- quarters of the population, and Sadagora, which lies to the north of the Pruth, but there are also many in Czernowitz and Suczawa. Elsewhere they constitute some 5 to 10 per cent, of the inhabitants. The Magyars in the Bukovina number about 10,000, but their numbers are diminishing. There are a few Magyar colonies near Badautz, and one at Josseffalva in the south, but elsewhere they are not numerous. They are all Roman Catholics, and work as farmers or market-gardeners. There are 36,000 Poles, chiefly living in the towns. The district of the Plesch is entirely Polish, and in Neusolonetz the Poles number 78 per cent. They are all Roman CathoUcs, and generally retain their sense of nationality. Most of the 3,000 Lipovans live in Fontina-alba and Klimoutz outside Sereth, but there are a few near the town of Suczawa and at Lukowica, near Czernowitz. They are Great Russians, belonging to the old Russian Church, and speak Great Russian. They keep their traditional costume, and their diet is largely vege- tarian, while they do not touch alcohol or tobacco. They are market-gardeners, bee-masters, and fruit-growers. Physically, they are a fine people, and as their religion forbids them to have intercourse with strangers they preserve their race absolutely pure. Gipsies are found all over the Bukovina, especially among the Rumanians. The early regulations against vagabonds were so severe that they are now virtually all settled, forming considerable colonies in many villages, many of them working as smiths. They are nominally members of the Orthodox Church, but their religion is said not to go much beyond making the sign of the cross. Tlicy speak their own language Bukovina] RACE; POPULATION 9 among themselves, though in a very corrupt form ; but otherwise they use Rumanian or Little Russian. The 657 Armenians, 311 of whom live in Czernowitz and 200 in Suczawa, are an interesting ethnological feature of the Bukovina. Those in Suczawa are Uniats, the others mostly Orthodox. They speak Armenian among themselves, but also use Rumanian or German. They nearly all belong to the upper ranks of society, and are traders, officials, or landowners. Their honesty, hospitality, and courtesy make them very popular. (6) Population Distribution The population, according to the census of 1910, was 801,364, and was estimated at 818,328 in 1913. It is naturally most dense in the fertile valleys of the rivers flowing through the hill region, notably those of the Pruth, the Sereth, and the lower Suczawa, where it often exceeds 300 to the square mile. There are also comparatively well-populated centres in the north and north-west. Kimpolung is the largest settlement within the mountain district, where the inhabitants are very scanty. The number of inhabitants per square mile in the Bukovina was 198 in 1910. Towns and Villages Czernowitz, with a population, including suburbs, of over 87,000, one-third of whom are Jews, is much the most important town in the Bukovina, of which it is the capital. It lies on the right bank of the Pruth, over which at this point there are two bridges. The town, which is modern, is the seat of the Orthodox Metropolitan of the Bukovina and of the German University. Other towns are Radautz (16,535), an important agricultural centre on the Suczawa plain and the most German town in the Bukovina; Suczawa (11,401), a neatlv laid-out toA^ni on the same river ; Sereth (7,948), 10 GEOGRAPHY [no. « the oldest settlement in the land, on the right bank of the Sereth ; and Kimpolung (8,748), on the upper Moldova, which owes its importance to the traffic over the Mesticanesti Pass. Wii^nitz (5,052), with a largely Jewish population, on the Czeremosz, and Berhometh (7,309), on the Sereth, are the chief centres in the north- west. Storozynetz (10,242), on the Sereth, and Bojan (7,468), on the Pruth, may also be mentioned. Moveynent The birth-rate in the Bukovina is 42-3 per 1,000 inhabitants. The illegitimate births number 107 per 1,000 births. Between 1900 and 1910 the excess of births over deaths was 14-39 per cent., the loss by emigration being 4-82 per cent. The net increase of population was thus 9-57 per cent., as compared with 12-93 and 13-1 respectively in the previous decades. The emigration of Germans in considerable numbers to America did not begin till the present century. BukovlnaJ 11. POLITICAL HISTORY Chronological Summary 1769-74. Russo-Turkish War. 1772. First Partition of Poland. 1774. Austria claims northern Moldavia. 1775-6. Boundaries settled by Conventions. 1786-90. The Bukovina incorporated for administrative pur- poses with Galicia. 1790. The Bukovina declared an autonomous province. 1817. Once more included in Galicia. 1849. The Bukovma created an autonomous duchy as an Austrian Crown-land. 1864. Rumanian Metro politanate proclaimed at Synod of Karlowitz : the Bukovma excluded. 1873. Churches of the Bukovina and Dalmatia united under one Metropolitan. (1) Origins The Bukovina has been described as a ' rendezvous ' of peoples, so man}^ races have in turn occupied the forest lands of this district, which lie about the head-waters of the Sereth, the Pruth, and the Moldova. In the early part of the fourteenth century the Bukovina formed part of the Voivodate of Moldavia, established by the Vlachs or Rumans who migrated from the Maramaros district of Hungar}^ Compact bodies of Rumanians appear to have settled along the eastern slopes of the Carpathians, where Little Russians or Ruthenes were alread}'- established, while the plains were still held by various Tatar tribes who were not expelled until the second half of the fourteenth century. In 1372 the Emperor recognized Louis of Hungary as overlord of Moldavia; but the King of Poland disputed his claims, and in the first half of the fifteenth century the Voivodes did homage to him. Under Stephen the Great (1457-1504) Moldavia regained its independence, 12 HISTORY [no. a and he inflicted severe defeats on both Poles and Turks ; under his successors, however, Moldavia became tributary to the Turks, who began to plant fortresses in the country. The Rumanian principalities, hard pressed by Poles and Turks, invoked in turn the protection of the Emperor and the Tsar of Russia ; and the eighteenth century found the Bukovina a bone of contention between these Powers and the Turks. (2) Annexation by Austria Two events in the latter half of the eighteenth century, the Russo-Turkish War (1769-74) and the First Partition of Poland (1772), helped to decide the fate of the Bukovina. After the conclusion of peace between Russia and Turkey (at Kuchuk Kainarji), when it became evi- dent that Turkey could no longer retain the Rumanian Principalities, Austria put forward its claim to the northern part of Moldavia. This was based on (1) the need for settlement of the old disputes concerning the frontier, (2) the desire for a ' cordon sanitaire ' against the plague, and (3) the assertion that the territory had been originally usurped by Turkey. Simulta- neously with the diplomatic introduction of the claim the Imperial troops occupied various points in northern Moldavia. Originally the frontier proj^osed by Austria followed a line running from Chotin to Czernowitz across the Bukovina forest ; but in March 1775 the order was given to leave an ' undetermined frontier '. The protests of the ruling prince and of the Moldavian boyars were passed over, with the intimation that the question was one to be settled by Austria with the Porte alone ; the latter, however, was less amenable than had been expected, because it feared internal disturbances and hoped for external support from Fiance and Prussia. Eventually, however, Austria secured the Conven- tion of May 7, 1775, by which the lands contained by ' tlie Dnjcstr, the bordoi-s of Pokuta, Hungary, and Bukovina] ANNEXATION BY AUSTRIA 13 Transylvania ■ , were surrendered to it, in order to facilitate communication between Transylvania and Galicia. This district was one of the most richly wooded of the Moldavian provinces, and contained the ancient capital Suczawa and the town of Czernowitz. The exact limits were to be determined according to a fabricated Austrian map which the Porte had been induced to adopt, and which represented the territory in question — to quote an Austrian statement — as a strip of land with ' three or four market towns and eleven villages, the rest consisting of forest and rugged land '. The final Convention of May 12, 1776, ceded to Austria a territory of 4,035 square miles, with a popu- lation of 70,000 inhabitants. Maria Theresa did not fail to shed a tear over these ' Moldavian affairs . . . with regard to which we are totally in the wrong. . . . I must confess I do not know how we shall come out of it, but hardly with honour; and that grieves me beyond expression.' (3) Decline of Rumanian Nationality Administration under Austria. — The territory thus acquired was constituted an autonomous province, under the name ' Bukovina ', and placed for the time being under a military administration which, however, retained Rumanian as the official language. When this administration came to an end, the Bukovina was from 1786 to 1790 incorporated with Galicia; its autonomy was, however, restored by an Imperial patent dated September 19, 1790, which decreed that ' Bukovina shall, under this name, be always con- sidered and treated as an autonomous province with special estates '. At the close of the Napoleonic wars, Austria reverted to the plan of uniting the Bukovina for purposes of administration with Galicia. When Austria entered into possession in 1777, the country was almost denuded of population (this having sunk to about 70,000) ; and immigration from the adjacent territories was encouraged. This brought numbers of Ruthenes from Galicia and Rumanians from 14 HISTORY [no. 5 Hungary and Transylvania, together with a smaller infusion of Magyars, Poles, and Germans, to reinforce the mixed population of Rumanians and Ruthenes already in possession. Reorganization of the Church. — There had not, so far, been any separate organization for the province ; and the only organized ecclesiastical body was the national, i. e. Orthodox Church, which had been established since the fifteenth century under a national Metropolitan at Suczawa, with a suffragan bishop at Radautz. The new Government proceeded at once to the reorganization of this body, with the view (as the Rumanian nationalists maintain) of destroying the connexion between the Bukovina and Moldavia. Without consultation with the Patriarch, the Austrian authorities created the new diocese of the Bukovina ; and a new Constitution was elaborated for its govern- ment without reference to the ecclesiastical authorities, while at the same time the estates held by the Church in Moldavia were renounced. The large number of monas- teries of the Order of St. Basil in the Bukovina were reduced to three, and their property passed (May 1785) into the hands of the civil administration. An Im- perial decree (1786) regularized the status of the Church, and about half of the existing parishes were suppressed. The bishop was provided with a Consistory, of which half the members were laymen ; and the Emperor be- came patron of the whole Church. Changes in the Population. — Rumanian nationality also suffered under the new regime in regard to the composition of its population. Many of its leaders, the boyars, abandoned the province and withdrew to Jassy ; and tliese were followed later by many members of the teaching profession. Those boyars who remained were won over to the administration by a lavish distribution of titles, while their children wore educated in the Gorman schools and b(5came willing functionaries of the new Govern- ment. Commerce and farming passed into the hands of foreigners, chiefly Jews from Galicia ; and, as has been Bukovina] NATIONALIST REVIVAL 15 pointed out, the immigration of Poles, Germans, and Rutlienes was encouraged. Although the Ruthenes submitted to the Orthodox Church, and thus thwarted the aims of Catholic propa- ganda, their continued influx gradually reduced the numerical superiority originally possessed by the Rumanians. A document of 1843 recognized Ruthenian as being with Rumanian ' the language of the people and of the Church in Bukovina '. (4) Revival of Rumanian Nationality Influence of Rumania. — The Bukovina shared to some extent in the national movement of the nineteenth century which was developing in the Rumanian as in other countries. A certain measure of intercourse had persisted between the boyars who had emigrated and those who had remained in the annexed territory ; and this facilitated the penetration into the Bukovina of the cultural renascence which flourished in Rumania after the Peace of Adrianople (1829). A certain number of young nobles, especially those of the Hurmuzaki family, although educated at Lem- berg and at Vienna, took up the old Rumanian tradi- tions with enthusiasm, and asserted the rights of the Rumanian population to supremacy in an autonomous Bukovina. Like other national movements among the Rumanians, this also aimed, as an ideal, at the complete reunion of their race, and emphasized the bonds which united them to the Rumanians in the Principalities and in Hungary. The loyalty which the Rumanian upper class felt towards the Habsburgs, together no doubt with their distrust of the Slav peoples by whom they were surrounded, made them, however, look rather to union within the frontiers of the Austrian Monarchy. The Revolutionary Movement of 1848. — The move- ment took a more positive aspect in 1848, when there were revolutionary outbreaks in Moldavia and Wallachia. In that year the leaders of an abortive rising at Jassy, including men who subsequently shaped 16 HISTORY [no. 5 Rumania, like Cogalniceanu, the poet Alexandri, and the future ruler of the United Principalities, Cuza, were exiled, and they found a welcome refuge at the seat of the Hurmuzaki family in the Bukovina. The Church Question. — Under their influence, the head of the Hurmuzald family called together in Czernowitz a meeting of the Rumanian clerics, and induced them to demand the autonomous administra- tion of the Orthodox Church, a yearly assembly of all the estates, the Rumanization of the schools and of the administration — in short, complete adminis- trative, political, and judicial autonomy, such as had been guaranteed at the time of the annexation. But beyond these local demands there was expressed a further desire more significantly national, namely, that all members of the Rumanian Orthodox Church of Austria and Hungary should be placed under one ecclesiastical authority. This programme was submitted to the Emperor in June 1848. Under the pressure of circumstances the Imperial Government recognized the Rumanian nationality, admitted the introduction of Rumanian in the schools, transferred to the Consistory of Czerno- witz the educational control hitherto exercised by that of Lemberg, and, finally, by a new Constitution, created in March 1849 the autonomous duchy of the Bukovina as an Austrian Crown-land. In a memorandum presented to the Congress at Olmiitz in February, the Rumanian leaders, having failed to secure the creation of a duchy embracing all the Rumanians of the Monarchy, restricted their demand to the ecclesiastical union ; but they per- sisted in this through the period of reaction — during which there was for a time (1859-60) again a question of incorporation with Galicia. On tlic deatl) of the head of the Orthodox Serbian Church, wlio had opposed Rumanian ecclesiastical inde])endence, tlie Emperor approved (June 15, 1863), tlio principle of a Rumanian Metropolitanate. In 1864 a synod met at Ko.rlowitz to proclaim separation from the Serbian Church ; but the new Metropolitanate Bnkovina] REPRESvSlON AND REACTION 17 at Czernowitz included only the Rumanians of Tran- sylvania and Hungary. The national party in the Buko- vina ascribed this result to the intrigues of the authorities and the jealousy of the higher clerics ; after the accession of Prince Carol to the throne of Rumania (1866), and. in view of the imminent incorporation of Transylvania with Hungary, the idea of an ecclesiastical union which should include all orthodox Rumanians was finally rejected by the Government. (5) Reaction in the Bnkovina Repressive Measures. — Henceforward the efforts of the Rumanians of the Bukovina were directed towards furthering the cultural progress of their people, in order to maintain at least their provincial solidarity. The Imperial authority, however, showed little sym- pathy for these endeavours. Publications inspired by Nationalist principles were suppressed ; lectures on Rumanian history were forbidden on the pretext that the society which organized them had not the status of an educational institution ; permission for the holding of a national congress was refused, and in December 1869 the Emperor formally reaffirmed his privilege as patron of the Rumanian Church. The National Party, composed of forty to fifty landowners and as many officials and members of the libera] professions, had no power of resistance, being without contact with the rural proletariate, and without the support of a national middle class. The younger and more spirited intellectuals risen from below often preferred to emigrate to Rumania. Evidence of National Feeling. — There were sporadic assertions of the national spirit, as for instance the assembly of about 2,000 persons, including, for the first time, members of the peasantry, which met in Czernowitz (June 1870) to proclaim the national character and legal rights of the Church of the Buko- vina ; or the festivities which took place in August 1871, on the initiative of a group of students and with the concurrence of many notable personages from 18 HISTORY [no. a Rumania, on the occasion of the tercentenary of the foundation of the monastery at Putna by the Moldavian hero, Stephen the Great. But such incidents only stimulated reaction. In January 1873, in order to accentuate the distinction between the Church of the Bukovina and that of Rumania, the Imperial Govern- ment, without any reference to the respective popula- tions, and without heeding the protests of public opinion and of the Churches, decided upon the fantastic measure of uniting the Churches of the Bukovina and Dalmatia under one Metropolitan. Two years later, on the occasion of the anniversary of the annexation of the Bukovina, Czernowitz received the gift of a German University, which further promoted the policy of denationalizing the Rumanian youth. That policy was largely successful, at any rate in so far as the upper class was concerned. But the strenuous political agitation organized by the Rumanians of Hungary called forth an echo in the Bukovina among circles more democratic in origin, action, and purpose. In 1891 a political journal made its appearance ; and early in 1892 the constitution of a compact national party, which adopted the name * Concordia ', was announced, to represent 'the soli- darity of all the Rumanians of Bukovina in political, national, and ecclesiastical matters '. While insisting, on the one hand, upon the autonomy and historical individuality of the Bukovina, and upon the right to a national cultural development, the new leaders reiterated their loyalty to the Habsburg monarchy. This movement, however, never realized the aspira- tions of Rumanian nationality ; and the field was left open for the policy of the authorities which was directed rather to the encouragement of other elements in the population. Biikovlnal III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS (1) Religious While the Rumanians, who number some 273,000, arc certamly the predominant race in the Bukovina, they are not as numerous as the Ruthenes, who with a population of 305,000 form 38 per cent, of the whole population. They occupy the northern and eastern parts of the province and have pushed up the valley of the Sereth as far as the head of the Moldova, where they form a wedge between the Rumanians and the north-eastern wing of the Hungarians. Their nobles have adopted German culture and have ceased in any sense to be leaders of the mass of the Ruthene people. The teachers and priests are generally educated in the excellent German seminaries and training-schools, and, not knowing where they ma}^ be called upon to work, make themselves proficient in both the Rumanian and Ruthenian languages. Although there is some race hostility between the two leading peoples of the Bukovina, this feeling is not embittered by religious differences. Both belong to the Orthodox Church, only a small number of the Ruthenes (26,000) being members of the Uniat Church of Galicia. The Metropolitans have generally been chosen from among the Rumanian ecclesiastics, but tliej^ govern with a Consistory of Rumanian and Ruthenian clerics ; all their decisions have to be sanctioned by the Imperial authorities and they have no share whatsoever in the administration of the extensive properties of the Church. The clergy receive their stipends from the ' Fund for the Religious ' founded in 1782. According to the census of 1910,^ out of a total ^ Oesterreichisches sfaiisfisches Handbuch, 1912. C 2 20 PRESENT CONDITIONS [no. • population of 801,364 the Orthodox Church claimed 68-4 of the population, 15-67 are assigned to the Catholic Church, 2-56 to the Evangelical, and 12-86 are registered as Jews. The Roman Catholic Church, which owing to its active missionary efforts has made considerable progress in recent years, is chiefly supported by the Polish population together with the non-Jewish elements among the Germans. These last are found in greatest numbers in the towns, where much of the trade and industry is under their direction ; in Czernowitz there are 41,000 Germans, 28,000 of whom are Jews. Many of the Jews have, however, also settled on the land as farmers. (2) Political Since 1849 the Bukovina has been an autonomous duchy divided into nine districts and one autonomous municipality, Czernowitz, which is also the seat of the provincial Government. The Diet, created by the Constitution of 1861,^ is composed of 31 members ; the Metropolitan and the rector of the University— the latter since 1875 — sitting ex officio. The great landowners elect 10 members, the towns 3, the Chamber of Trade and Commerce 2, and the rural districts 12. The Bukovina sends 14 members to the Reichsrat. The judiciary is under the authority of the Provincial High Court at Lemberg, and there are in the Bukovina one Provincial and 17 District Courts. The language of administration is German, but Rumanian and Ruthenian are recognized as in use {landesiiblich) in the country. (3) Educational With the exception of Dalmatia, the Bukovina shows the lowest percentage of literates in the Dual Monarchy, 24-55 per cent, for men and 16-9 per cent, for women. In 1911 there were in existence 531 elementary schools, in 216 of which instruction was given in Ruthenian, ^ The Patent, see Austria, No. 1 of this series, p. 8. BukovinaJ POLTTK^AL AND EDUCATIONAL 21 ill 179 ill Rumanian, in 82 in German, and in the others in two or more of the languages of the district. The low standard of education prevailing among the people is due perhaps not so much to an inadequate supply of vernacular instruction as to the fact that the population is often very scattered and, except among the German communities, is not always anxious to avail itself of educational facilities. In the middle schools, which have 5,600 pupils on the roll, 2,946 are German, 1,194 Ruthenian, and 1,193 Rumanian; and out of 700 pupils in Realsclmlen only 86 are entered as Rumanian, and no Ruthenians appear on the roll, which is completed by Germans. There is a Universitj^ at Czernowitz, largely in German hands, but the Theological (Orthodox) Faculty is fre- quented by Rumanians and Ruthenians. There are also three Gymnasia at Czernowitz,* Radautz,| and Suczawa respectively. In addition Czernowitz possesses an Episcopal Seminary, an Industrial College, an Agricultural College, five Arts and Crafts Schools, a Commercial School, and a Training College for Teachers. The language of instruction in the higher schools is German. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS The division of interests between the two pre- dominant races in the Bukovina, together with the Austrian sympathies of the upper classes, have served to check the national movement. Rumanian leaders, who have tried to sow the seeds of an awakening, have been forced by indifference or by persecution to abandon their activity and migrate to Rumania. Dr. Awiel Onciul, a publicist and formerly director of a bank, has recently come forward with proposals which have made Rumanian politics still more stormy. He has abandoned the national for a purely social programme, and has joined with the Ruthenes in a scheme for comprehensive rural and 22 PRESENT CONDrTIONS [no. 6 electoral reform. In return for promises of improve- ment of their status, he secured the support of many priests and teachers, and acquired a large following among the peasantry, with the result that his party obtained a majority in the assembly and was able to carry through the electoral reform. The outbreak of war did not allow its effects to mature, and it also put an end for the time being to a new national movement which cultural influences from Rumania were initiating among the younger generation. la 1 IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS (A) MEANS OF COMMUNICATION (a) Roads There were in the Bukovina in 1912 only 429 kilo- metres of first-class roads maintained by the State {Ararialstrassen), a low total as compared with that in other provinces of the Austrian Empire. Dalmatia, with a slightly larger area, has considerably more than double the length of main roads ; while Carniola, whose area is almost exactly equal to that of the Bukovina, has 603 kilometres. On the other hand, the mileage of second-class roads or local roads is proportionately high. As the Bukovina is a poorly developed province, the roads are probably adequate to its needs. Roads run north and north-w^est via Tarnopol and via Kolomea to Lemberg, south-west over the Car- pathians into Hungary by two routes, one of which follows the line of the railway, and south-east into Rumania to the valleys of the Pruth and the Sereth. It may be assumed, however, that many com- munications were destroyed during the first two years of the war, when the province was the scene of constant fighting, while many new roads and even canals and railways, as to which we have no definite information, may have been constructed. Any estimate of the existing facilities for communication can therefore be only approximate. {h) Rivers and Canals Before the war, the province possessed no navigable waterways. A proposal for making the River Pruth available for shipping from theGalician to the Rumanian frontier had been adopted by the Imperial Government, but, so far as is known, has not yet been carried 24 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. s out. The Pruth is navigable throughout its course in Rumania (about 400 miles) ; and ships and lighters of 600 tons can ascend the river as far as a point opposite Jassy, 150 miles from its junction with the Danube. The cost of the work proposed in the Bukovina was estimated at 3,000,000 kronen, of which the province was to contribute I2| per cent. By this means timber, stone, tiles, minerals, cement, gypsum, and other local products could be cheaply conveyed to Rumania, Bessarabia, and the Black Sea. The canaliza- tion of that part of the Pruth which flows through the Bukovina will be very important for the future of the province if the proposals for the construction of waterways in Galicia to connect the Vistula and the Dniester are ever carried out. If that part of the German Levant trade which now goes via Lemberg, Czernowitz, and Jassy were diverted to waterways north of the Bukovina, the province, which has com- munication with the west by rail only, would stand in danger of complete isolation. Most of the main streams, though not navigable for ships, can be used for rafts, and in this way are valuable for the transport of timber to Galatz and the Black Sea. (c) Railways The Bukovina is tolerably well served by railways. There are 592 kilometres of line, and the proportion of railway lines to area and population (viz. 1 km. per 17-6 sq. km. and per 1,351 inhabitants) compares favourably with other less developed portions of the Austrian Empire. The most important line is that connecting Czernowitz northwards with Galicia and Germany via |Kolomea, Lemberg, Cracow, Breslau, &c., and southwards through Rumania with Galatz and the Black Sea. Of the total imports into Rumania about 9 per cent. (91,782 tons) go by this route, and of Ithe exports some 2| per cent. (146,271 itons). Of the remaining lines, one leads north to Tarnopol and the other branches off in a'i westerly direction to the Carpathians. There is a narrow-gauge line which BukovinaJ RAILWAYS; PORTS; LABOUR 25 branches off in a westerly direction from Hadikfalva, a station on the main line between Czernowitz and Suczawa, and which eventually makes a sharp turn to the south, terminating at the foot of the Kirlibaba Pass. A broad-gauge line, farther east, left the main Czernowitz line at Hatna and ran to Dorna Watra, a growing watering-place. During the war, this local line appears to have been carried over the Carpathians and joined up to the Hungarian system. There is also* ground for thinking that a line has been carried over the Kirlibaba Pass, either northwards from the Dorna Watra line or southwards from Seletyn. This exten- sion would be of narrow gauge. It is very possible that other lines have been constructed during the war. Before the outbreak of war all the lines were single tracks, but there is a report that the main Czernowitz line and | the line to Dorna Watra have since been doubled. All the lines are the property of the Austro- Hungarian Government. The destruction of railways in this region during the earlier part of the war was enormous. No estimate is available for losses in the Bukovina alone, but a recent Austrian authority estimated that the damage caused by the war to the tracks and rolling stock in Galicia and Bukovina together amounted to nearly 500,000,000 kronen. (d) Posts and Telegraphs Before the war there were in the Bukovina 231 post offices, or one for every 3,469 inhabitants, and 105 telegraph offices. (B) INDUSTRY (1) Labour The Bukovina is fairly well populated for its size, having a much higher rate of population to the square kilometre than Dalmatia, Carniola, or any of the mountainous provinces of the Empire. The main occupation of the inhabitants is agriculture, and there 26 ECONOMIC C^ONDITIONS [no. » is no deficiency of labour for this purpose. There is some permanent emigration. No recent statistics are available, but at the beginning of the present century the total number of emigrants was about 3,000 yearly. A large proportion of these go to Germany and Hungary. A number of harvesters go into Germany to work for a short time every year. The agricultural labourers of the Bukovina are of a very primitive type, and most of them are illiterate. Their pay, about 40 to 50 heller for a day of ten hours, is probably the lowest in the Empire. They are usually in the hands of Jew money-lenders, and spend their lives in unsuccessfully trjdng to work off their debts. They cannot, therefore, afford to be anything but industrious, but until the general level of living is raised, they cannot be expected to appreciate or adopt any improvements in their very primitive agricultural methods. In comparison with the other less-developed pro- vinces of the Empire, the Bukovina has a fair number of agricultural associations, credit societies, Raiffeisen banks, &c., for there is much enlightened and pro- gressive activity in Czernowitz, the capital. It does not appear, however, that these organizations have as yet succeeded in raising the standard of living. (2) Agriculture (a) Products of Commercial Value About a quarter of the total area of the Bukovina is under cultivation. The chief crop is maize, and next in order come oats, rye, barley, and wheat, while potatoes are also grown in considerable quantities. | Maize is grown chiefly in the low-lying easterly parts of the country ; oats and potatoes are mainly cultivated in the higher valleys of the west. There are practically no products of commercial importance, though there is some exportation of agri- cultural and dairy produce. A beginning has been made with sugar beet ■; 2,842 hectares were under cultivation Bukovina] AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 27 in 1912, and the yield was 379,510 quintals. This represents a low rate of production per hectare, and the whole output is trifling as compared with that of Bohemia and Moravia, which reaches tens of millions of quintals. The cultivation of tobacco, never con- siderable, .seems to have entirely disappeared. Many parts of the south-east are suitable for vineyards, and the cultivation of the vine is steadily increasing. The areas occupied by the chief crops in 1912 were as follows : Hectares. Hectares. Barley 33.593 Oats 46.400 Buckwheat 2,752 Potatoes . 37,750 Clover hay 38,425 Pulse 14,023 Flax 2.172 Rye . 31,267 Fodder (mixed) . 4,699 Sugar-beet 2,842 Hemp 5,453 Swedes, &c. 6,580 Maize 62.964 Wheat 22,204 There were also 128,463 hectares of meadow land. The fruit harvest in tliat year amounted to 131,150 quintals. The peasants, especially the Ruthenians, who amount to about half the population, undertake cattle-raising, but they show no great care or intelligence, and the accommodation for the cattle is very primitive. Their breeds of cattle are not good, though of late years attempts have been made to improve them by the introduction of fine draught animals from the Alpine regions. Pigs are kept everywhere. There are some rough-fleeced sheep in the mountains, on the Dniester plateau, and on the lower Suczawa. The native horses are sound and strong, and in the mountain districts there is a small, sure-footed breed of eastern origin. Fowls, ducks, and geese are plentiful. (6) MetJiods of Cultivation The soil is fertile, so that, althougli little manure is used and winter crops are seldom grown, the yield of the staple crops is not much belo^v the average. The German colonists and the model farms of the 28 * ECONOfflC CONDITIONS [no. 5 Orthodox Church have brought about some improve- ment in the primitive methods of cultivation, and of late years the Landeskulturverein, which in its origin was mainly a political body representing the landed interests, has taken up practical agriculture and has been responsible for the foundation of Raiff eisen banks, the publication of literature and statistics, and other helpful measures. The Bukovina is well watered by its rivers, and there is now a certain amount of artificial irrigation. At the request of the local authorities, an extensive scheme for the drainage and irrigation of the country by the regularization of the rivers was devised at the beginning of the present century. In the years before the war, good progress had been made with the regularization of the Pruth and the Moldova, and a good deal of land had been reclaimed from the annual inundations. The cost of the complete scheme was estimated at over 60,000,000 kronen. (c) Forestry Over 40 per cent, of the area of the Bukovina is covered with forest, and the timber industry is the most important asset of the province. Of the total afforested area, over half is the property of religious foundations, mainly of the Orthodox Church, and is under State control. Most of the rest forms part of private estates. The timber industry may be said to have begun in the last century, about 1840, when timber was first floated down to Galatz and Constantinople for ship- building: The Pruth, Sereth, and Bistritz are all used for floating timber. The industry shows every sign of increasing prosperity. There are now a number of important saw-mills established in the country ; and the Bukovina Timber jManufacturing Company, which is backed by two important Austrian banks, recently increased its capital from three to five million kronen. Bukovina] FORESTRY; FISHERIES; MINERALS 29 (d) Land Tenure The land is chiefly held either in large estates belong- ing to the religious foundations and the aristocracy, or to the Jews who have ousted the latter, or else in small holdings by the peasants. Properties of moderate size have almost entirely disappeared. No figures are available, but it would be safe to assume that nearly one-half of the land is held in the form of large estates. The dying- out of the yeoman class aroused anxiety in the Empire ; and in 1903 a law was passed forbidding the transfer of agricultural properties of moderate size, provided with a dwelling-house, belonging to one person or to a married couple, in so far as such properties were not feudal or entailed estates. The land and property are largely mortgaged, but in most cases apparently not above their value. (3) Fisheries Between the upper valleys of the Dniester and the Pruth there are a number of natural lakes and ponds, which have long been stocked with fish. The Orliiodox Church has been active in organizing the fishing industr}^ and at the beginning of the century had some 100 to 200 hectares under water, yielding fish to the annual value of some 30,000 kronen. Trout and other species are found. If the irrigation scheme already referred to were fully carried out, it would involve the construction of large reservoirs, which could be stocked with quantities of fish. (4) Minerals The mining industry was very flourishing in the first decade of Austrian control, but of late years has greatly diminished. The extraction of gold from the sands of the Golden Bistritz has been given up as unprofitable. The ironstone industry has been closed 30 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. down. The deposits of silver and lead at Kirlibaba and the copper deposits of Luisenthal Pozoritta did not justify further exploitation. The production of brown coal is now negligible. Almost the only mineral which is now being profit- ably mined is manganese. Deposits of an average thickness of 2 metres begin in Hungary, enter the Bukovina near Kirlibaba, and thence run into Rumania near Dorna Watra. The chief mine is the Arsita (5 km. south-west of Jakobeny), which was started by local boyars in 1784, but is now the property of the Orthodox Church. There are also scattered surface workings, of which the most important is that called Theresia. The production of manganese in 1912 was 10,944 metric tons, of a value of 135,823 kronen. This output, not in itself considerable, represents almost the whole production of manganese in the Austrian Empire. There is a small production of sulphur (in 1912, 8,011 metric tons, value 124,167 kronen), which is also im- portant as representing a very large proportion of the total sulphur production of the Empu e. The old sulphur pyrites workings at Luisenthal were reopened by order of the military authorities, but no information is available as to the amount of the output. There is no gap in the continuity of the Galician and Rumanian oil-fields; and from 1885 to 1890 petroleum was worked at Russisch-Moldawitza. It ap- pears, however, that the deposits in the Bukovina are too deep for profitable exploitation. There are considerable deposits of salt at Kaczyka. The production in 1912 amounted to 5,190 metric tons of salt for human consumption and 670 metric tons of salt for industrial purposes, the total value being 959,865 kronen. This represents an infinitesimal proportion of the total salt production of the Empire. Deposits of hausmannite, hematite, &c., and lime are found in many localities. It does not appear that the mineral resources of the Bukovina have as yet been systematically investigated. Bukovina] MANUFACTURES: OOMMERCE 31 (5) Manufacture There are no manufactures for export on any scale Worthy of mention. (6) Water-power In the present undeveloped state of industry in the province, very little water-power is used, but a con- siderable quantity will become available if and when the drainage scheme, already referred to, is carried through. (C) COMMERCE (a) Principal Branches of Trade The industries of the province, such as they are, supply domestic needs almost entirely. Besides the saw- mills, already mentioned, there are several breweries and brandy distilleries, and the usual minor industries to meet local requirements. Certain branches of industry for export have, un- fortunately, disappeared. There were paper factories at Radautz and Waszkoutz, and a match factory and mechanical construction workshops at Czernowitz ; a glass industry was flourishing in the latter part of the last century. Home industries, which until comparatively recent times supplied nearly all the needs of the peasants, are still common. The chief of these is weaving. The peasants grow their own flax and provide themselves largely with their own house-linen. The weaving of woollen cloth is also not uncommon. {b) Towns and Markets The only city of considerable size in the piovince is Czernowitz (population, 87,113 in 1910), \\ hich is a well- built and attractive modern town. It has many elaborate public buildings in the highly decorated modern Viennese style ; and the prevailing high level 32 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. s of civilization is in striking contrast to the primitive and even squalid character of the life in the surrounding country. There is a famous weekly market, which is still an important feature of the economic life of the province. The business community is mainly engaged in the transit trade from Germany and Austria to the Levant, and a large number of banks and forwarding agents have branches in the city. There are several breweries and saw-mills, and some export of agricul- tural produce is carried on. Of less importance are Radautz (population, 16,535), an agricultural centre, and Suczawa (population, 11,401), which has one private bank and one or two breweries and saw-mills. For other towns, see above, pp. 9, 10. (c) Organizations to promote Trade and Commerce There is a Chamber of Commerce in Czernowitz. {d) Imports and Exports No figures are available for the province as a whole. The exports are negligible, with the exception of timber and a certain amount of agricultural and dairy produce. The export of timber is very considerable. The total export of timber from Austria to Rumania was valued in 1913 at over 18,000,000 kronen, and a large proportion of this must have come from the Bukovina. It is unlikely that any timber is sent from the rest of Austria, as it would have to go by rail, whereas from the Bukovina it can be floated down the rivers. If the canalization of the Pruth were undertaken, a further export to Rumania of gypsum, cement, &c., would very likely develop. (D) FINANCE (1) Public Finance The total amount produced by direct taxation in 1911 was 4,186,950 kronen. The fact that this total is about the same as for Carniola, and is larger than Bukovina] PUBLTO FINANCE ; BANKS 33 that obtained in most of the less developed provinces of the Empire, is an indication of the value of land and .properties in the Bukovina. Indirect taxes on consumption produced 9,382,845 kronen, more than half of which came from the tax on brandy. The local budget of 1910 balanced at 33,470,144 kronen. (2) JBa7iks In general the Bukovina is dependent upon credit facilities from outside, but it has two native banks which work on a fair scale. The Bukovina Bank, Czernowitz, had in 1911 a capital of 4,000,000 kr. and a turnover of 55,000,000 kr. Its operations included loans to communes, loans for railway construction, mortgages, and loans on build- ings, as well as general banking business. The bulk of the Ibusiness was done in mortgages and commercial bills. The Mortgage Institution of the Bukovina Savings Banks was opened in 1875 to secure the sound invest- ment of savings bank funds. It lends on agricultural property situated in the Bukovina only. Its turnover in 1911 was 4,933,000 kr. The Austro-Hungarian Bank, Vienna, the Galician Land Credit Bank, Lemberg, the Central Bank of Austrian-German Savings Banks, Vienna, the Anglo- Austrian Bank, Vienna, and the Vienna Bank Union, Vienna, have branches in Czernowitz. Several of these are powerful institutions, and it is reasonable to sup- pose that the credit facilities required are sufficiently supplied by them. As elsewhere in Austria, local savings banks are far more popular than the Post Office Savings Bank. The latter had 31,800 depositors in 1911, but the total of their deposits is not recorded. The Bukovina Savings Bank had in 1911 deposits amounting to 21,114,000 kr., and the Suczawa Town Savings Bank deposits amounting to 2,600,000 kr. Mutual credit associations are numerous. In Czer- 34 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. s nowitz there are 27 and in Suczawa 6, but very few of them pubhsh figures. They are conducted largely on national lines by Poles, Ruthenians, Germans, or Jews respectively, and are mainly for commercial and industrial credit. There is little apparent foreign interest or field for foreign investment in the Bukovina, which can offer no attraction outside of agriculture and industry on a small scale. Biikovinal 35 AUTHORITIES Historical AuERBACH, Bertrand, Les races et les nationalites en Autriche- Hongrie. 1898. BiDERMANN . Die Bukowiiia unter der osterreichischen Verwaltung^ 1775-1875. Lemberg, 1896. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Articles ' Bukovina ', ' Rumania ', ' Vlachs '. Oesterreichisches statistisches Handbvch, 1912. Vienna, 1913. Economic (i) Official Oesterreichisches statistisches Handbuch, 1912. Vienna, 1913. Statistik des Auswdrtigen Handels des Vertragszollgebietes der heiden Staaten der Oest.-Ungar. Monarchie im Jahre 1913. Vienna, 1915. Statistische Mitteilungen. No. 12. June, 1916. (ii) General Baker, J. Austria. London, 1913. Berg- und Hiittemnannisches Jahrbuch. Vol. 65, Part 1. Vienna, 1917. Der Buchenwald. Beitrdge zur Geschichfe der Bukowina. Czer- nowitz, 1888. Bukowiner Landes- Museum Jahrbuch. Czernowitz, 1903, Deutsche Rundschau fiir Geographic. Vol. 34. Vienna, 1912. Drage, G. Austria- Hungary. London, 1909. Friedrich, a. Die Bodenmeliorationen im Herzogtume Buko- wina. Vienna, 1903. Gayda, V. Modern Austria. London, 1915. Oeographische Zeitschrift. Vol. 7. Leipzig, 1912. Jandaurek, J. Das Konigreich Galizien und Lodomerien und das Herzogthum Bukowina. Vienna, 1884. Kaindl, R. F. Geschichte der Bukowina. Czernowitz, 1904. Launay, L. de. Traite de Metallogenie. Paris and Liege, 1913. Teubert, 0. Die Binnenschijffahrt, Leipzig, 1912, 36 AUTHORITIES [wo.s Maps Bukovina is covered by two sheets (M. 35 Jitomir, L. 35 Bucuresti ; G.S.G.S. 2758) of the ' Internation.al ' IVl^ap pubHshed by the War Office on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000. For ethnography, see note on maps in Austria, &c. (No. 1 of this series), p. 28. HANDBOOKS PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE HISTORICAL SECTION OF THE FOREIGN OFFICE.— No. 6 TRANSYLVANIA AND THE B A N A T LONDON : PUBLISHED BY H. M. STATIONERY OFFICE. 1920 Transylvania"] and the BanatJ TABLE OF CONTENTS T. GEOGRAPHY PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL ( 1 ) Position and Frontiers .... (2) Surface and River Systems Transylvania The Banat . (3) Climate (4) Sanitary Conditions (5) Race and Language (6) Population Distribution Towns and Villages Movement . 11. POLITICAL HISTORY TRANSYLVANIA Chronological Summary ..... (1) The Four Nations (2) The Government of Transylvania till 1526. (3) The Division of Hungary after the Battle of Mohacs, 1526 (4) The Eighteenth Century and the Uniat Church . (5) The Magyar Movement ..... (6) The Condition of Transylvania since 1867 . (7) The Position of the Transylvanian Saxons since 1867 (8) The History of the Szekels and their Position since 1867 ...... (9) Tlie Transylvanian Magyars since 1 867 (10) The Vlachs since 1867 THE BANAT Chronological Summary ..... ( 1 ) Domestic History . . (2) Note on the Serbs of South Hungary Wt. 36998/2.51. 1,000. 2/20. O.U.P. PAGE 10 11 12 14 16 17 18 20 22 22 23 23 24 26 TABLE OF CONTENTS No. e 30 31 32 PAGE III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS TRANSYLVANIA (1) Religious ...... (2) Political (3) Educational ...... General Observations {a) Popular Opinion and National Sentiment . 35 (6) Proposals for Expansion and Development . 35 THE BANAT (1) Religious ....... 36 (2) Political 38 (3) Educational 38 General Observations (a) Popular Opinion and National Sentiment . 39 (6) Questions specially interesting Other Coun- tries ....... 40 IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS TRANSYLVANIA (A) Means of Communication [a) Roads, Paths, and Tracks (6) Rivers and Canals . (c) Railways .... {d) Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones (B) Industry (1) Labour Labour Conditions Emigration and Immigration (2) Agriculture {a) Products of Commercial Value (6) Forestry . . . . (3) Minerals Gold and Silver . Copper, Lead, Manganese, &c. Iron and Coal Salt and Oil Natural Gas (4) Manufactures Metallurgical Industry . Textile Industry . Miscellaneous Industries 41 41 42 45 45 46 46 49 50 51 51 52 53 53 54 54 Sfd"?S^'^^Sa TABLE OF CONTENTS page (C) Commerce (a) Principal Branches of Trade . • 55 (6) Towns 65 (D) Finance Banking ...... 56 (E) General Remarks ..... . 56 THE BAN AT (A) Means of Communication (a) Roads, Paths, and Tracks . 57 (6) Rivers and Canals .... 57 (c) Railways ..... 58 {d) Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones 60 (B) Industry (1) Labour Labour Conditions .... 60 Emigration ..... 61 (2) Agriculture (a) Products of Commercial Value . 62 Chief Crops .... . 62 Wine, Tobacco, Silk, Honey, &c. . 64 Live Stock ..... 64 (6) Forestry ...... 65 (3) Minerals 66 Iron and Coal . . 66 Lignite ...... 67 (4) Manufacture Iron and Steel Industry 67 Timber Industry ..... 70 Miscellaneous Industries 70 (6) Power ....... 71 (C) Finance Banking ...... 71 APPENDIX Table I. Distribution of Races in Transylvania i md the Banat ..... 72 Table II. Transylvania : Crop Returns (1913) 73 AUTHORITIES Historical ....... 74 Economics ....... 75 Maps ........ . 75 Transylvanlan and the Banat J I. GEOGRAPHY PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL (1) Position and Frontiers Transylvania (Erdely, Siebenbiirgen) includes the fifteen Hungarian counties, known officially as Kiraly- hagontiil, which form the south-eastern corner of the kingdom. The area is 57,243 square kilometres (22,017 square miles). The Banat (Bansag) of Temesvar consists of the three Hungarian counties, Torontal, Temes, Krasso-Szoreny, which lie immediately south- west of Transylvania, and are called officially Tisza- Marosszoge.^ These have an area of 28,040 square kilometres (10,785 square miles). The Banat is roughly half the size of Transylvania, and the two areas together are approximately equal in size to Ireland. The frontiers are almost entirely natural. The Banat is separated from Serbia b}^ the Danube, and from Rumania by that portion of the Car- pathian range known as the Transylvanlan Alps ; Transylvania marches with Rumania on the south and east along the Carpathians. The limits of these areas within the Hungarian kingdom are also marked by prominent physical features. The Banat is separated from Bacs-Bodrog by the Tisza (Theiss), and from Mag- yaria — the Magyar heart of Hungary — by the Maros. The mountains which separate Transylvania from Magyaria and Ruthenia are only broken by the defile where the Maros emerges from the uplands on to the Alfold and the lowland gap which connects the valleys of the Szamos and the Maros. The political frontier of Hungary in eastern Tran ^ This means ' the angle between the Maros and the Tisza ', but north of the Maros are two coiuities (Ai-ad and Csanad) \\'hich in the official statistics are included in the Banat^ B 2 GEOGRAPHY [no. e sylvania lies beyond the water-parting which separates the Hungarian drainage area from that of Rumania ; consequently, the head- waters and upper valleys of the Rumanian streams are in Hungarian territory. Farther south, in addition to small mountain valleys of this character, the valley of the Upper Olt (Oltu) is Tran- sylvanian, although the lower river is the main stream of western Rumania. Nowhere do the frontiers coincide with linguistic boundaries, for Serbian is spoken on both sides of the Danube, Rumanian on both flanks of the Carpathians and even beyond the northern and western limits of Transylvania. (2) Surface and River Systems TRANSYLVANIA Transylvania may be considered as composed of three types of country : the encircling mountain chains, the central plateau, and the level basins in the river valleys. Mountain Chains. — The encircling ranges comprise on the east and south that section of the Carpathians known as the Transylvanian Alps, and elsewhere a number of lesser ranges, such as the Rodna Moun- tains in the north-east, and the Bihar Mountains in the south-west. Between the latter and the north- western buttress of the Transylvanian Alps the Maros river has cut a defile or water-gate from the central plateau down to the Alfold, the great plain of central Hungary. Parallel to the outer wall of the Carpathians on the east, the Kelemen, Gorgeny, and Hargitta massifs make a belt of mountainous country which is a|)|)roximately fifty miles wide. The Bihar and the Car})athians are folded mountains of Alpine character with a highly complicated geological struc- ture. The inner ring is largely volcanic, and ancient lava flows have obtruded westward to form the water- parting between tlie head- waters of the Maros on the Sdth^BaSlt] SURFACE AND RTVRR SYSTEMS 3 north and tlie Olt on the south. The Bihar massif includes limestone and sandstone with considerable volcanic intrusions. The Transylvanian Alps occasionally reach an alti- tude of over 8,000 ft. ; the Rodna heights almost attain this elevation, but the remaining peaks vary from 5,000 to 6,500 ft. Central Plateau. — The upland called the Mezoszeg in the north-west, and named as a whole the Tran- sylvanian Basin, presents a much eroded surface, with a general slope downwards from east to west. The whole area varies in elevation from 1,300 to 2,000 ft., and is trenched by numerous valleys where the water- l«vel is usually over 3,000 ft. below the level of the adjacent uplands. There are three outlets for the drainage of Transyl- vania, the Maros, the Szamos, and the Olt, of which the first is the most important. Basins. — The third type of country depends upon the age of the mountain formations. In four areas the alluvial river flats are of considerable width, namely, the basin of Gyergyo on the Maros, and the basins of Csik, Haromszek, and Fogaras on the Olt. THE BAN AT The Banat consists of two sharply-contrasted tj'^pes of country, the western plains and the eastern moun- tains. The Eastern Mountains. — The Szemenik and Orsova mountains are a continuation of the Transylvanian Alps, of similar character and origin, and sometimes reach 4,600 feet (1,400 metres). The Western Plains.— T\\e western half of the Banat is a southern continuation of the Alfold, where the level of the land rarely exceeds 330 ft. (100 metres). Farther east the land rises slowly at first and then steeply to the mountains. The main river of the Banat is the Temes. In the north-west the Aranka and farther south the Bega are tributaries of the Tisza B2 4 GEOGRAPHY [ko. e (Theiss), and are entirely rivers of the plain. In the south-east the Karas and the Nera flow from the moun- tains to the Danube. (3) Climate By comparison with England, winter conditions in the Banat, and to a greater degree in Transylvania, are considerably harsher, since the three coldest months are colder than January in England ; on the other hand, the heat of summer is more intense and the hours of summer sunshine are more numerous than in England. The rainfall of the lowlands is like that of the English eastern counties, but the rainfall in the mountains does not reach the intense precipitation which occurs in Wales or western Scotland : it is com- parable in quantity with that of the moorlands of Devon and Cornwall. The climatic conditions produce a broad distinction between the farming of Transylvania and that of the western Banat. The Transylvanian rears animals, especially sheep, while the farmer of the Alfold grows cereals. The early summer rains and the high summer temperatures provide a suitable climate for the growth on the plains of maize and hard wheat, which have a short growing period, and are responsible in a large measure for the excellence of Hungarian flour. The driest areas are the north-western Banat, the Mezoszeg, and the basins of Gj^ergyo and Csik, where the rainfall is less than 24 in. (660 mm.). The rainfall of the Transylvanian Basin and the western Banat in general is about 26 in. (664 mm.). The rainfall in- creases generally with the elevation of the land, and exceeds 39 in. (1,000 mm.) at the western end of the Transylvanian Alps, and 47 in. (1,200 mm.) on the top of the Bihar massif, of which the western slopes are the wetter. (4) Sanitary Conditions Conditions of hh) in the Banat, and even more in Transylvania, com[)are unfavourably with those to be found in Magyaria. and^KsS] CLIMATE; RACE AND LANGUAGE 5 (5) Race and Language The test of nationality in Hungary is taken to be the mother tongue. According to the official returns for 1910 the distribution of races (as shown by language) in Transylvania and the Banat was as follows (for further details see Appendix I) : Nationality. KirdlyMgontul Tisza-Maros (Transylvania). {Ban/it).^ Magyars (including ISzekels in Transylvania) . . . 918,217 474,988 Germans . Slovaks . Rumanians (Vlachs) Ruthenians Croatians Serbs Others . 234,085 427,253 2,404 44,715 1,472,021 845,850 1,759 3,188 523 4,950 421 290,434 48,937 50,391 2,678,367 2,141,769 In both regions one-sixth of the non-Magyars know the Magyar speech. In both areas also the Magyars and Germans are relatively more numerous in the towns. Among the eastern mountains there are villages inhabited by Krassovans, who are variously claimed to be Bulgars or Serbs. In general Magyars inhabit the far east of the country ; Rumanians (Vlachs) the south, west, and north ; while between is a strip of mixed nationality. The Magyar boundary, i.e. the line east of which the population is mainly Magyar, runs from Maros- Vasarhely, about the centre of the country, eastward to Gyergyo-Szent-Miklos and the frontier, and again from Maros-Vasarhely south-east to Sepsi-Szent- Gyorgy, and thence north-east (passing south of Kezdi- Vasarhely) to the frontier. The Rumanian (Vlach) boundary, i.e. the line west of which the population is mainly Rumanian, runs from ^ Including the Arad and Csanad ; see note on p. 1. But of. a numeration drawn from another source, below, p. 39. 6 GEOGRAPHY [ No. 6 just west of Brasso (Kronstadt) through Fogaras to Vizakna, thence northward through Nagyenyed to Kolozsvar (Klausenburg), north-east to Besztercze, and then sUghtly south-east to meet the Magyar boundary north-east of Maros-Vasarhely. In the heart of Transylvania on the Central Plateau and in the southern portion of the basin of Haromszek, Magyars, Rumanians, and the Germans are mixed, although the villages are, as a rule, inhabited almost entirel}^ by people of one race. Rumanians extend far to the west of Transylvania, and their linguistic boundary lies to the north-east of Arad, across the Alfold. In the Banat, the eastern mountains are Rumanian, the linguistic boundary following an irregular line just to the east of Versecz and Temesvar. It is not possible to draw a linguistic boundary for any other race, since the plain resembles the central plateau of Transylvania in the confusion of Magyar, German, Serb, Slovak, and Rumanian areas. Linguistically, no race has a clear title to the western Banat, i.e. the two counties of Torontal and Temes. (6) Population Distribution Transylvania contained at the time of the last census 2,678,367 inhabitants, about one-eighth of the popula- tion of Hungary. The three counties of the Banat contained 1,582,133 inhabitants,^ the density of popula- tion being slightly greater. In Transylvania one-eighth of the people live in the towns, and in the Banat one- sixth. In general, the density of the j)opulation is com- parable with that of Ireland, about 46 per square kilo- metre (118 per square mile). In Transylvania the ])eople live mainly in the valleys of the central plateau between the Nagy-Kiikiillo in the south, and Nagy-Szamos and Kis-Szamos in the north. ' The population of Arad and Csanad was 551), 030. a\^d*?Ka^Sit] POPULATION; TOWNS 7 Outside this roughly rectangular area there are dense populations in the Haromszek and Fogaras basins, near Vizakna, and along the Maros and its short tributary, the Sztrigi, in the neighbourhood of the water gate. The mountain regions carry a scanty population. The area of densest population usually coincides with the area where the races are mixed. In the Banat, the areas of dense population are on the plains, and along the main streams. These, also, are regions of mixed nationalities. In general, therefore, the areas of pure nationality are areas of scanty population, and coincide with the parts of the country where life is rendered harder either by mountains, floods, or poverty of soil. Towns and Villages The majority of the people of Transylvania and the Banat live in villages of which the population is usually under 1,000, although in the largest the number may reach 3,000. In Transylvania, Kolozsvar (Klausenburg), the capital and university town, contains 60,808 inhabitants ; the only other municipality is Maros- Vasarhely, with 25,517 inhabitants. In the Banat are three munici- palities : Temesvar, 60,000 ; Versecz, 25,370 ; and Pancsova, 20,808. Intermediate in size between the municipalities and the villages there are townships, frequently the administrative centres of counties : for example, Segesvar (Schassburg), 11,517, Erzsebetvaros, 4,408, and Medgyes, 8,626, lie on a strip of the Nagy-Kiikiillo, twenty-five miles in length, and in this stretch of the valley there are also seven villages with a total popula- tion of 10,000 people. The strip is typical of the central upland, for the settlements are on the edge of the scarped valley-sides, and are long and narrow. In the hill country the villages stretch for consider- able lengths along the banks of the torrents. The settlements of the Banat Alfold are of an entirely 8 GEOGRAPHY [ No. 6 different character. They are usually square or rect- angular in outline, with a plan suggestive of a ' garden city ' type of town. All these communities are villages of farmers who have founded their settlement at a convenient centre in order to facilitate defence against an enemy. The settlement centre is extensive enough for the holding of a fair or market. The streets are but sections of the ill-made country roads, dusty in summer and muddy in the rainy season. The houses are separate groups of farmhouses, out- buildings, &c., each in its own plot, which frequently contains its own well. Since 1850, there has been a distinct movement of the people into the municipalities and townships. Temesvar had quadrupled its population by 1909, Kolozsvar attained a threefold increase by 1901, and Maros-Vasarhely had almost trebled its population by 1910. Lugos doubled the number of its inhabitants in the period 1850-1903, and Nagy-Szeben (Hermann- stadt) in the period 1850-1900. Most of the other towns increased in similar fashion. Movement The birth-rates differ considerably under rural con- ditions and in the small towns. In Transylvania the urban rates lie between 26 and 31 per thousand ; in the Banat the limits are 24 and 33 per thousand. The rural rates in Transylvania fall between 32 and 37 ])er thousand, and in the Banat between 28 and 42 per thousand. Birth-rates vary also according to nation- ality. In the country villages the Magyars are most prolific ; then follow the Rumanians (Vlachs) and Germans in Transylvania ; and the Serbs, Germans, Rumanians, in the Banat, in the order specified. The rates in the towns vary similarly, except that in the Banat the Serbs arc more ])rolific than the Magyars. Urban death-rates lie between 22 and 25 per thousand in Transylvania, and between 23 and 30 per thousand in the Banat. Rural rates lie between 22 ^n'd^TSf'^S] POPULATION 9 and 28, and 20 and 33 in the two districts. The highest death-rates occur in Serb communities, next among the Magyars, both in town and country. In the towns the German rate exceeds that of the Rumanians ; in the country this condition is reversed. The rates of natural increase, i.e. the excess of births over deaths, vary from I to 4 per thousand in the towns in the Banat, from 3 to 6 per thousand in the towns of Transylvania, from 8 to 9 per thousand in rural Transylvania, and from 3 to 15 per thousand in the villages of the Banat. These are noteworthy differences, and the order of the races in fertility as measured by this criterion is : Magyar, German, Serb, and Rumanian in the rural districts where the differ- ences are most marked. The population increases very slowly. In Transyl- vania the total rate is but 8 per cent, per decade, while in the Banat the increase is less than half this amount. In both alike the increase is so small that the popula- tion would not be doubled even after the lapse of a century. No. 6 II. POLITICAL HISTORY TRANSYLVANIA Chronological Summary 106 Conquest by the Romans under Trajan. 274 Abandonment by the Romans under Aurelian. 274-975 Period of Barbarian invasions (Goths, Gepidae, Huns, Avars, Kumans, and Petchenegs). 850 (c.) Szekels migrate to Transylvania from Atelqusu and settle. 1009-1100 Transylvania occupied by the Magyars. 1141-61 ' Flandrenses ' or 'Saxons' invited by King Geza II of Hungary to colonize Transylvania. 1175-1200 Vlachs driven across the Danube from Moesia (Bulgaria) by Byzantines. 1211 King Andrew II invites the Teutonic Knights to colonize Eastern Transylvania (Burzenland). 1224 Hermann von Salza, Grand Master of Teutonic Knights, makes over their territory to the Papacy. 1225 Andrew II, in consequence, expels the Knights, who then conquer and convert Prussia. 1241 Invasion of the Mongols. Union of the ' three nations ', Magyars, Szekels, and Saxons. 1526 Battle of Mohacs. End of the Jagellon line of kings. The Habsburg dynasty begins under Ferdinand. Two-thirds of Hungary conquered by the Turks. 1526-1699 Ti-atisylvania under Turkish suzerainty : ruled by j)riiices of the houses of Zapolya, Bathory, Bethlen, Rakoczy, Bocskay, and Apaffi, and a Diet of the ' three nations ' (Magyars, Szekels, and Saxons). 1526 John Zapolya elected King of Hungary by Magyar nobles. 1564 llehgious toleration ()l)taine(l by I'Uitarians, as well as Calviiiists and Lutlierans in Transylvania. lO.s:} Turks fail to take Vienna. DecHne of Turkish power in Transylvania begins. Tran and tlie hfa^it] CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 11 1691 Leopold 1 of Austria grants the ' Leopoldine Diploma ', guaranteeing the ancient rights and laws of Transylvania, and reuniting it with Hungary. 1699 Peace of Carlowitz. Turks agree to cede Transyl- vania to Hungary, but retain Banat of Temesvar. 1703 Transylvanians join in electing Francis Rakoczy II King of Hungary. 1703 The Kurucz war begins. Rising of nobles and peasants in support of Rakoczy. 1711 Peace of Szatmar. Transylvanians submit to Austrian Emperor. 1713 Transylvania completely incorporated with Hungary. 1765 The Empress Maria Theresa constitutes Transyl- vania a Grossfurstentum (grand principality). 1848 Rising of the Magyars throughout Hungary. Transylvanian Vlachs oppose the Magyars. 1849 Failure of the Magyar rising under Kossuth. Tran- sylvania separated from Hungary by Imperial decree, and declared an Austrian Crown land. 1860 Transylvania becomes an autonomous province of Austria, with a separate Diet. 1863 The Diet at Nagy-Szeben declares Transylvania completely separated from Hungary and united with Austria. The Vlachs recognized as a fourth nation. 1865 The Diet at Kolozsvar declares Transylvania united to Hungary. 1867 The Compromise between Austria and the Hun- garians, giving independence to Hungary and granting Transylvania to Hungary. (1) The Four Nations The vital factor in Transylvanian history is tlic existence side by side, almost from the earliest times, of four nations, the Szekcls, the Magyars, the Saxons, and the Vlachs. The Szekels speak Magyar, but all the four nations have maintained their identity, even in districts where the pojiulation is mixed. The dates at which they entered the country are obscure and the subject of disjjute. The Szekels, who inhabit the north-eastern corner of the countr}^ and have defended its marches with gallantry, probably pre- ceded the Magyars, to whom they are closely related. Until the middle of the nineteenth centur^' the^' formed 12 HISTORY [wo. e a nation with separate rights of self-government and a separate representation in the Transylvanian Diet. The Magyars claim to have conquered the country towards the end of the ninth century. They assert that the previous Daco-Roman inhabitants withdrew to the south of the Danube at the time of the Roman retirement, or else were exterminated by the barbarian tribes advancing from the east and north, and, there- fore, that the Vlachs, who are now found north of the Danube, are the descendants of the fugitives who were driven across the Danube from Moesia between 1175 and 1200 by the Byzantine armies and have only entered Transylvania by the permission of the Magyars. The Vlachs themselves, however, maintain that they are the descendants of the Daco-Roman population ; they are in fact a Romance-speaking people, identical in race with the Rumanians and frequently called by their name. All that can be said with confidence is that at the time of the Magyar conquest in the ninth century, no Vlach states or independent Vlach tribes or com- munities were in existence. The first mention of the Vlachs by a Hungarian writer is in 1222, in the charter granted by King Andrew II of Hungary to the Teutonic Knights in connexion with territories on the extreme eastern border of Transylvania.^ About the circumstances of the coming of the Saxons there is no serious dispute. They were invited by the Hungarian kings Geza II and Andrew II between the years 1141-1222 to migrate from Flanders and the lower Rhine ; and royal charters were issued to them giving tliem the right to occupy lands and manage their own affairs. (2) The Government of Transylvania till 1526 Thus from the time of its foundation Transylvania form(;d part of the Magyar kingdom of Hungary, but equal privileges were enjoyed by the Saxons and the ^ .See Teutsch, Oeschichle der Siebenburgener Sachsen, vol. i, p. 136. The Jiussian N(!.stor, however, writing about 1100, speaks of them an resisting tiie Magyar invaders in the Carpathians. a'n^d^^S^B^Sit] GOVERNMENT TILL 1526 13 Szekels ; and these peoples, together with the Magyars, were styled ' ruling nations ' and were represented in the Transylvanian Diet. The Vlachs had no share in the government ; and it was only in 1867 that the special privileges of the three ruling nations were abolished. The Diet dealt with the matters which affected the common interests of the three ruling nations, and the affairs of Transylvania as a whole, in relation to the King of Hungary. But each of the three ruling nations managed its own special affairs in its own particular districts. The Magyar nation governed in the ' county ground ' {Co7nitatsboden). The Szekels had a com- plicated system of tribal or clan government in their corner of the country, while the Saxons governed in the Konigshoden or Fund^is Regius, and other terri- tories where Saxons had settled, through their so-called ' Universitas ', an autonomous representative body. The Vlachs, though gradually increasing in numbers, were not allowed any share in local government. Their position was, more or less, that of serfs. The three ruling nations, though by no means always on good terms with each other, were always united as against the Vlachs. The Saxons, Magyars, and Szekels reclaimed the better land from the forests, and cultivated it, some- times with, and sometimes without, the help of Vlach labourers. The economic progress of the country during the first hundred years of colonization by the Flandrenses, as the Saxons were then called, was very rapid. Towns were built by them which became centres of trade and industry. Hermannstadt (Nagy-Szeben) was the chief of these, but Kronstadt (Brasso), Bistritz (Besztercze), and many other towns also flourished. The Saxons, however, feared to admit Magyars, and especially Magyar nobles, to live in their towns or districts — partly because the Magyar nobles claimed exemption from taxation, and partly because the Saxons feared their towns might lose their distinctive German character, as in fact happened at Klausenburg (Kolozsvar), where Magyars had been admitted. he 14 HISTORY [no. 6 trade guilds refused admittance to any but Saxons, and jealously prevented the exercise of trades by any but members of the guilds. The Mongol invasion of 1241 gave the growth of the Saxon settlements a check, from which they never entirely recovered. The whole of Transylvania was devastated during this period, but the more highly civilized and prosperous Saxons suffered to a greater extent than their more backward, rural neighbours! (3) The Division of Hungary after the Battle op MoHACs, 1526 In 1526 the battle of Mohacs decided the fate of the kingdom of Hungary for the next hundred and fifty years. Hungary, except for the narrow strip known as Royal Hungary on the western border adjoining Austria, became part of the Turkish Empire. But, while the plains of Austria-Hungary lost all their liberty and were directly ruled by the Pasha of Buda, Transylvania, partly because of the mountainous nature of the country, and still more by reason of the independent character of the three ruling nations, secured from the Sultan a continuance of her autonomy, under native princes elected from among the great Magyar families of Zapolya, Bathory, Bethlen, Rakoczy, Bocskay, and Apaffi. This was the great period of Transylvanian history. ' Turkish ' Hungary was being ruined by the misgovernment of the Pasha of Buda. Royal Hungary tended to become more and more Germanized under the rule of the Habsburgs, who had succeeded to the crown of Hungary on the death, at the battle of Moliacs, of Louis, the last of the Kings of Hungary of tlie Jagcllon line. Transylvania alone remained practically free to manage her own internal affairs, almost uninfluenced b^^ foreign rule. Transylvania, as an autonomous princi])ality under Turkish suzerainty, gradually became, not only the refuge of Magyar jiatioriality, but also the local champion of the Reformation, whose doctrines spread throughout S^^e'^t^i^t] DIVLSTON OF HUNGARY 15 Hungar}^, but most rapidly among the three nations of Transylvania. The Vlachs, who all belonged to the Orthodox Church, remained unaffected by the new movement. Calvinism made most progress among the Magyars : Lutheranism and to some extent Uni- tarianism among tlie Saxons. The Szekels joined, for a time, a sect known as ' Sabbatarians '. In Turkish Hungary all Christian confessions were immediately allowed equal liberty of worship by the Sultan, but it was not until 1564 that religious tolera- tion prevailed in Transylvania and Royal Hungary. By the Peace of Vienna (June 23, 1606), Stephen Bocskay, who had been elected Prince by the Transylvanians, was recognized by the Emperor Rudolf II as an inde- pendent sovereign Prince of Transylvania, which was enlarged by the addition to it of the three counties of Szatmar, Ugocsa, and Bereg. It was a condition of this treaty that all Hungarians should enjoy religious freedom. Among the able princes who were elected to rule Transylvania at this time, none was more remarkable than the Calvinist Gabriel Bethlen (Bethlen Gabor), who ruled from 1613 till 1629, and forced the Emperor Matthias to recognize him officially in 1615. His whole reign was a continuous and successful struggle, not only for the freedom of his principality, but also for the welfa,re and religious freedom of those Magyars who still remained under the rule of the Emperor. B}^ the Treaty of Nikolsburg in 1621 the Emperor was forced to confirm the Peace of Vienna and to cede to Bethlen Gabor the seven counties of the upper Tlieiss. Bethlen Gabor and subsequently Rakoczy became the great national heroes, not merely of Transvlvania, but of the whole of Hunoarv. From 1690, when the Habsburgs began to. obtain effective control of Transylvania, the country was, for a time, mainly ruled from Vienna, and the religious troubles began afresh. Religious liberty, which, together with the Constitution and rights of Transylvania, had been guaranteed by the Emperor Leopold in the famous Leopoldine Dij)loma, was not 16 HISTORY [ Vo. 6 respected in practice. In 1703 the rising of the Hun- garians under Francis Rakoczy II, who, for a time, held the whole of Transylvania, improved the position of the Protestants ; and by the Peace of Szatmar in 1711, when the Transylvanians finally submitted to the Habsburgs, religious liberty was once more granted, and has prevailed since then in Transylvania and the rest of Hungary. (4) The Eighteenth Century and the Uniat Church The eighteenth century was a period of comparative calm, so far as the internal politics of Transylvania were concerned. Vienna became the centre of influence in all Hungarian affairs, as well as those of Austria. The Habsburg rulers followed a steady policy of Germanization. In 1765 Transylvania was declared an Austrian Crown land by the Empress Maria Theresa. In 1784 the Emperor Joseph II declared German to be thenceforward the official language in Hungary and Transylvania. The material prosperity of the country began to increase, and a fairly rapid recovery of wealth and prosperity set in with the cessation of the domestic wars. Although Transylvania contributed in men and money to the wars carried on by Austria, the burden was a comparatively light one. The eighteenth century is marked by an important ecclesiastical movement in Transylvania, in consequence of which a great number of the V^lachs, members for the most part up to that time of the Orthodox Church, joined the Church of Rome. This event was the origin of the United Greek or Uniat Church in Transylvania. The union was brought about chiefly by the energy and diplomacy of a Jesuit priest, (hegor Baranyi, who induced the Orthodox Bislioj) Tlieodosius to join the Roman Catholic Churcli in the year 1700. Some 200,000 Vlaclis went with their bishoj). The Uniat movement had begun as early as the sixteenth century among SKS] UNIAT CHURCH ; MAGYARS 17 the Ruthenes and other Slavs in Poland during the papacy of Clement VII. The union was renewed or confirmed by Pope Paul V, but till the eighteenth century did not affect Transylvania. The Uniat Church of Transylvania recognizes the Papal supremacy and accepts the doctrines of the Catholic Church, but follows the Orthodox Church in using a Greek liturgy, giving communion in both kinds, and allowing a married . clergy.^ (5) The Magyar Movement The Germanizing policy in Hungary of the Habsburgs, which was acceptable to the Transylvanian Saxons, came at the beginning of the nineteenth century into conflict with Magyar national sentiment. The Magyar move- ment, which began in the thirties of the nineteenth century, included a demand for the restoration of the kingdom of Hungary, and the reunion of Transylvania with it. In 1848 the Hungarian Diet, which met at Pozsony (Pressburg), passed a resolution incorporating Transylvania with Hungary.^ In the subsequent war of independence, the Vlachs of Transylvania, like the Saxons, sided with Austria ; and the Vlach peasants rose in many parts of the country, and drove out and sometimes massacred their Magyar neighbours. When the Hungarian national movement had been crushed by the military intervention of Russia, and Austrian rule had been restored, Transylvania was again for a time separated from the rest of Hungary, and by imperial decree created an Austrian Crown land, with a Diet in which the three ruling nations alone were represented. The Vlachs obtained nothing in return for their support of the Austrian cause during the war of independence. It was not until 1863 that, by the Diet held in that year at Nagy-Szeben (Her- mannstadt), they were recognized as a fourth nation, entitled to take their place beside the Magyars, Szekels, ^ Geschichte der Hrchlichen Trenming zwischen Orient und Occident, by A. Pichler (Miinchen, 1868). 2 The reunion was one of the ' ten points ' of the Constitutionalists in 1847. 18 HISTORY [ No. 6 and Saxons. By the same Diet, Trans3dvania was declared completely separated from Hungary, and united with Austria. The Hungarians did not recog- nize the validity of the acts of this Diet. The subse- quent Diet of Kolozsvar in 1865 reversed this policy, and declared Transylvania reunited with Hungary. In the following year the result of the Austro- Prussian War made the restoration of the kingdom of Hungary inevitable; and in 1867 the Compromise between Austria, or rather, the Habsburg dynasty and the Magyar people, was arrived at. This has regula^ted the relations between them to the present moment. Hungary was granted its ' historic limits ', and Transylvania was accordingly included in it. Under the new Hungarian Constitution, the old autonomy of Transylvania ended. The Transylvanian Magyars, Saxons, and Szekels alike, lost their privileged position as ruling nations in the administration of the country, though the ' Universitas ' of the Saxons con- tinued to exist for certain purposes. Political equality was established under the new Constitution ; and no race was, as such, to suffer under any disadvantage or disability in future. The Vlachs, in theory at any rate, were placed on an equality with all other inhabitants of Hungary. (6) The Condition of Transylvania since 1867 Under the settlement of 1867 Transylvania was not given any special rights, such , for instance, as those given to Croatia. The Transylvanian Diet ceased to exist ; and instead, members for Transylvanian constituencies attend the Hungarian Parliament at Budapest. ^ Local affairs of the counties are in the hands of county assemblies, and those of the towns are managed by municipal councils. The new order vastly reduced the j)olitical ])owcr of the Saxons, whose numbers were so small — under a quarter of a million — that they counted • l)(dailH of the Hungarian Constitution will Jje found in Hungary, No. I of lliis Horics. LTtS^eBt^iTt] TRANSYLVANIA SINCE 1867 19 relatively little in comparison with the other races. And, although the franchise provisions favoured them, and although they could, to some extent, influence those Vlachs who had votes, yet, with the growth of Vlach nationalism, even this advantage tended to disappear. The grant to the Vlachs of the right to take part in the government of the country was, indeed, a definite gain. But they had hoped for a more favourable position than they obtained, and many would probably have preferred to have been attached to the Austrian half of the Dual Monarchy rather than to the Hun- garian, for the civil wars of 1848 and 1849 had left behind much bitterness. Social and agrarian causes also contributed to make the Vlach j^opulation dis- contented as time went on. Vlachs and Saxons alike complain that a policy of excessive Magyarization has been pursued b}^ the central authorities in Budapest, at the instigation of the Government placed in power by the Magyar majority in Parliament. The Magyar view is that the Magyar language has rightly been declared the State language of Hungary ; and they maintain that a knowledge of the State language may properly be demanded of all citizens, more especialty as it has alwa3^s been the language of the most numerous and, except during periods of foreign occupation, the domi- nant race in the kingdom. Until nearty the middle of the nineteenth century the official language in Hungary for many purposes was Latin, Avhich was understood, and often spoken, by nearly all the more cultivated classes. But the lower and middle classes spoke the language of the race to which they belonged, and the bulk of the population was illiterate. With the rise of the feeling of nationalism among the non-Magyar peoples, and the institution of a State system of educa- tion, the language question became one of the chief political questions in Transylvania. The Magyars contend that the use of the- Vlach language encourages separatist feeling ; and there can c 2 20 HISTORY [no. 6 be no doubt that the language question and the education question, with which it is necessarily con- nected, have, in fact, been used as a means to encourage disloyal agitation. To extreme nationalists the con- current use, on equal terms, of another language than their own is always unsatisfactory. The incon- veniences of carrying on government and business in a bilingual or trilingual state are obvious ; but a policy which aimed at the suppression of all but one language would, in Transylvania, with its three races, be unjust and impracticable, and there has been no attempt to suppress the use of any of the three languages. The Hungarian law on the subject seems to embody a reasonable principle of compromise. The ' Law of Equal Rights of Nationalities ', XLIV of 1868, in terms provides for the protection of the rights of the non- Magyar speaking races ; and this measure of protection is recognized, even by many Nationalists, as fairly adequate. What is complained of is that these pro- visions are often ignored or evaded in practice. Under them, Magyar is declared to be the State language, and is to be used in Parliament, in the administration of the State, in the law-courts, the county assemblies, and the universities. But, on the other hand, in local affairs, e. g. in the county assemblies, other languages than Magyar may be used ; and this is also the case in com- mercial and other local public business. It is further declared that the fact that a citizen belongs to one of the non-Magyar nationalities sliall not be an obstacle to the holding of any office or dignity. (7) The Position of the Trans ylvanian Saxons SINCE 1867 The Act of Union with Hungary in 1868 began the process of destroying the autonomy rights of the Saxons. Matters were at first left in a state of suspense (Law XLllI, 1868). Section 1 1 of that law purported to guarantee the rights and privileges of the Saxon ' Uni- versitas ' (except the judicial powers) ; but, though a law Tn^d^^Sr^^SM SAXONS SINCE 1867 21 confirming the riglits of the Saxon ' Stiihle ' (Sedes) ^ was promised, it was never enacted. After various measures which greatly diminished the Saxon rights, the worst blow was struck at them by Law XII of 1876, when the counties were redistributed in a manner unfavourable to the Saxons, and all distinctions of administration were abolished. The Saxon ' Universitas ' continues to exist, but its powers are restricted to a limited control connected with the administration of its property.^ If the Saxons of Transylvania (who number some 234,000 only) were more numerous, there would have been a serious Saxon question, for their special rights have nearly all been taken from them. The destruc- tion of their autonomy, though a mediaeval anachro- nism, was probably dictated by the desire among the more extreme Magyar nationalists for a state possess- ing uniform institutions and, if possible, one language. Saxon autonomy stood in the way of both these aims. The fact that the Saxons, better educated and commer- cially more efficient than the Magyars, cling obstinately to what they assert to be a superior culture and language, only serves to make their claim to autonomy the more obnoxious to their Magyar and Vlach neighbours. The Saxons, both in the towns and in the country, are hard- working and thrifty, and succeed, as a rule, in their endeavours to keep up a fairly high level of comfort. They are, industrially and agriculturally, a valuable element in the country. Although to some extent affected by the Pan-German propaganda, they are not really anxious to be swept into wide Pan-German schemes, or to be treated merely as important outposts of Germany in the east of Europe. They would probably be quite satisfied if they could be left to themselves to live their own national life, which, as they form a fairly compact block, they can defend ^ The Stiihle were the administrative units under the Saxon Constitution. 2 For further details, see the laws above mentioned, and Racial Problems in Hungary, by Scotus Viator (R. W. Seton-Watson). pp. 143-5. 22 HISTORY [ No. 6 effectively. They have ahnost all remained Protes- tants. (8) The History of the Szekels and their Position SINCE 1867 The Szekels, numbering some 500,000, are more than twice as numerous as the Saxons. They are chiefly Roman Catholics. Like the Saxons, they are hard-working and thrifty, but stand on a rather lower educational level. They remain a sturdy and inde- pendent race of freemen, as they were when their forefathers settled in the eastern districts of Tran- sylvania. They are to be found chiefly in parts of the counties of Maros-Torda, Csik, Udvarhely, and Haromszek. In early times the Szekels were all freemen, but with the lapse of time a class of chiefs or ' Primores ' appears, and later on a serf class. The existence of this serf class was the subject of constant protest in the National Assembly of the Szekels as being contrary to the Constitution. The Szekels have strong political instincts, but the fact that they use the same language as the Magyars makes the loss of a distinct national position more tolerable than in the case of the Saxons. (9) The Transylvanian Magyars since 1867 The Magyar population of Transylvania is to be found in the largest numbers in the counties of Kolozs, Maros- Torda, Nagy-Klikullo, and Kis-Kiikiillo, also in Szolnok- Doboka and scattered through man}^ of the other counties. They number nearly 400,000, and amongst them are to be found most of the county gentry and the nobles. In some places they have occupied what were once Saxon - settlements, as in the case of Kolozsvar, the Saxon Klausenburg. The im])ortance of the Magyars of Transylvania is, like that of the Saxons, not to be measured by mere numbers. Much of the land (both agricultural and forest) belongs to them, and they have played an I Tran and the S^B^ltl SZEKELS, MAGYARS, AND VLACHS 23 important part in the economic development of the country. They take part in the management of all county affairs, and their full share in the national and political life of Hungary. Besides this they give to the Austro-Hungarian army and navy some of the best oflficers to be found in them.^ (10) The Vlachs since 1867 The Vlachs have gained considerably in every way since 1867. They have at last obtained definite political rights, which are, in theory at any rate, equal with those of all other citizens. They have progressed consider- ably in education, and, wherever the soil is rich, they are fairly prosperous. In the more mountainous dis- tricts they remain backward and poor. A section of the Vlach population, which formerly consisted almost entirely of peasants, woodmen, and herdsmen, is gradually entering the professions of the law and edu- cation. Others, as heretofore, become priests ; but these, both in the Orthodox and the Uniat Churches, are drawn in most cases from among the sons of the clergy, whose families tend to become almost a caste by themselves. In 1910 the Vlach population was 1,472,021, a larger number than that of the other three races taken together. THE BANAT Chronological Summary Nintli and tenth centuries. Invasion of the Magyars. Eleventh and twelfth centuries. Colonization of Magyars. Thirteenth century. The Tatar invasions. Fourteenth century. Immigration of Serbian refugees after battle of Kossovo. 1404, 1428, 1455, 1464. Charters granted to Serb immigrants by Kings of Hungary. 1463. Unsuccessful attack on Banat by the Turks. 1 See Kaindl, Gesch. der Deutschen in den Karpathenldndern, vol. ii, p. 43 ; Teutsch, Gesch. der Siebenburgener Sachsen, vol. ii, p. 189, 24 HISTORY [no. e 1476. Second unsuccessful attack by the Turks. 1552. The Turks conquer the Banat. 1690. Invitation of Leopold I to the Serbs to settle in South Hungary, under promise of religious autonomy and certain national privileges. 1699. Peace of Karlowitz. Banat retained by Turkey, 1718. Peace of Passarowitz. Banat, ceded to Austria, becomes an Austrian Crown land. XVIII century. The era of State colonization. 1718. Military administration set up. 1718-34. Governorship of Count Claudius Mercy. Great advance in development of the country. 1722-6. First Swabian colonization. 1737-45. Organized immigration from the upper Rhine, Hesse, the Archbishoprics of Treves, Mainz, and Cologne, the Rhenish Palatinate, and Bavaria. 1740. Accession of the Empress Maria Theresa. 1751. The Empress Maria Theresa replaces military by civil administration. 1752-72. The three colonizations by French-speaking immi- grants from Lorraine. 1752. Further colonization by Serbs in Nagy-Kikinda district. 1779. The Banat again incorporated with Hungary. 1848. The Hungarian Revolution. The Banat separated from Hungary and created an Austrian Crown land together with Bacs-Bodrog. 1849. Part of the Banat included in the Crown land of the ' military frontier '. 1860. The Banat and Bacs-Bodrog definitely reincorporated with Hungary. 1867. The new Hungarian Constitution created by compromise. 1872-3. The military frontier districts of the Banat abolished. (1) Domestic History The Banat of Temesvar, usually called the Banat, has never been an independent political unit, or even enjoyed such autonomy as e. g. Croatia and Transyl- vania. It formed part of the kingdom of Hungary from the date of tlie foundation of that State by the invading Magyars in the tenth century ; and for the next five centuries it appears to have been inhabited mainly by Magyars and to have been fairly well populated and ])rosyierous. Tlie Kings of Hungary often took up their jcsidcjice within its borders. With an^d'^^^B^Si^] THE BANAT 25 the advance of the Turks into Europe came the first of the immigrations which have played so large a part in its history. After the battle of Kossovo in 1389 successive bodies of Serbian fugitives sought a refuge here, and obtained charters assuring their position at various dates between 1404 and 1464. Meanwhile the Banat itself became the object of Turkish attacks, the earlier of which (1463 and 1476) were repelled ; but after nearly a century of continuous warfare the whole region passed into Turkish hands in 1552. The Peace of Karlowitz in 1699 left the Banat — or Temeskoz, as it was then called — a part of the Turkish EmjMre, but by the Peace of Passarowitz in 1718 it became jiart of the Habsburg dominions. It was included in the military frontier province which, designed to form a barrier against Turkish inroads, extended from Croatia to Moldavia, and was occupied by colonists who lived under military discij^line and held their land on con- dition of rendering military service, a system of which relics survived so late as the last quarter of the nine- teenth century. The newly-acquired territory now received the title of Banat, incorrectly enough, since neither then nor at any other time was it under the government of a Ban. In 1751, by decree of Maria Theresa, civil administration was introduced in all but the border districts, which continued to form part of the military frontier province. Immediately on the acquisition of the Banat it was placed, together with a part of the Austrian conquests in Serbia, under a highly competent administrator, Count Claudius Mercy, whose governorship lasted from 1718 till his death in 1734. A century and a half of Turkish rule had left the country seriously depopulated; very little land was under cultivation, some of the best was liable to recurring floods, and means of communica- tion were entirely lacking. Mercy initiated a compre- hensive scheme of improvement by the construction of dykes, canals, roads, and bridges, and, to provide the requisite labour and also to develop the mining mdustry, introduced colonists from Tyrol, Styria, Bohemia, 26 HISTORY [ No. 6 Saxony, and even from Italy and Spain. Only the Germans, however, succeeded in maintaining them- selves as a distinct element in addition to the original Serbian, Vlach, and Magyar populations. This period of colonization with a purely economic object lasted only a few years, but the process was resumed in 1737, and vigorously carried on by the State, partly at least in pursuance of a definitely Germanizing policy. Settlers were now brought chiefly from the upper Rhine, Hesse, the Archbishoprics of Treves, Mainz, and Cologne, the Rhenish Palatinate, and Bavaria. Almost all were Catholics, a fact which doubtless reflects the deliberate policy of the Court of Vienna. To this period also be- longs the settlement of a considerable French-speaking colony from Alsace and Lorrame, which, though ulti- mately merged m its German neighbours, retained some traditional knowledge of French till late in the nine- teenth century. After the death of Joseph II immigra- tion from Germany and Austria diminished ; and, so far as colonization continued, it was carried out with a view to extending Magyar influence, and chiefly in the counties of Torontal and Temes. This was a natural result of the fact that in 1779 the Banat, hitherto governed at least nominally from Vienna, had — with the exception of the military frontier districts — been incorporated with the kingdom of Hungary, with which it rem.ained united until 1849. After the defeat of the Revolutionary Government in that year the Banat, together with the county of Bacs-Bodrog (Bacska), which adjoins it on the western side, and with a couple of districts hi Syrmia, was separated from the kingdom named the Voivodina, and treated as a province of Austria until 1860, when both the Banat and Bacska were finally re-mcorporated with Hungary. (2) Note on the Serbs of South Hungary The original Serb element in the population of the Banat was formed, as lias been said, by successive bands of refugees who withdrew from Serbia after the ^^d^^S^B^Si^t] SERBS OF SOUTH HUNGARY 27 defeat of Kossovo in 1389.^ After 1718 it was largely reinforced by fresh Serbian immigrants who came, not directly from Serbia, but from tlic adjoinhig district of Bacs-Bodrog (Bacska), where they had been recently settled by the action of the Emperor, Leopold 1 (1690). Involved in his final struggle with the Turk and in his war with France, he was desirous of increasing his military forces,^ and with this aim he issued an mvita- tion to the Serbians to settle in his dominions, under promise of full religious autonomy, of the right to elect their own Voivode, and of certain other national privileges. To this invitation the Patriarch Arsen III of Ipek responded by migrating with some 30,000 or 40,000 Serbian families to Bacska. The terms of his agreement with Leopold are undoubtedly obscure ; it may, however, be taken as certain that the Emperor had no mtention of allowing the Serbs (as national historians claim) complete self-government. He wished to employ Serbian troops under a general of their own race, and with this object undertook to allow them to elect their Voivode as civil governor, to judge them according to their own customs. The Serbian contmgent fought bravely, and in particular distin- guished itself in 1697 at the battle of Zenta, the first of Prince Eugene's great victories ; and after the Peace of Passarowitz the Serbs of Bacska were encouraged to take part in repopulating the devastated Banat. During Austria's brief tenure (1718-39) of her Serbian conquests, the newly acquired region was grouped with certain districts south of the Danube ; and in 1731 the Patriarchates of Belgrade and Karlowitz were united. The national consciousness of the Hungarian Serbs was heightened by this temporary union with their kindred, while at the same time it was exasperated by the Emperor's evasion of his promises and by the un- 1 It is possible that a Serb element was already present, but adequate proof is lacking. - He was strongly anti-Hungarian in policy, and probably also aimed at creating a counterpoise to the Mag^-ars. The in\itation was apparently issued merely in virtue of his personal authority. 28 HISTORY [no. e welcome control which was exercised over them by the Hungarian county authorities, in spite of the fact that at Vienna they were regarded as direct vassals of the Emperor; for the Hungarians denied his right to exercise such authority in the kingdom of Hungary. These circumstances led in 1735 to a general rising, which was repressed with extreme severity. Of all the imperial promises, that respecting religious auto- nomy was alone fulfilled ; and, though exposed to the proselytizing activity of the Magyar clergy, which resulted in the conversion of large numbers to Catho- licism, the Serbs succeeded in maintaining their own religion. Great efforts were made by the Serbian ecclesiastics to promote education, with the result that even after the liberation of Serbia the centre of Serbian culture still lay north of the Danube, and that the young Principality drew from the Banat not only the best of her clergy but most of her officials, and the founder of her educational system, Dositije Obradovic. Hungarian Serbs, moreover, supported the Serbian War of Liberation with money and with arms. In the first half of the nineteenth century the Serbs of the Banat and Bac'ska were decidedly prosperous, for a large part of the trade of southern Hungary was in their hands, and their middle class was relatively large. The growth of national feeling was as marked among them during this period as among the other Slav nationalities of the monarchy ; and the efforts of the Magyars to force upon them the official use of the Magyar language were keenly resented. In 1848 the intolerant attitude of Kossuth and his hostile recep- tion at Pressburg of a Hungarian Serb deputation to the Diet drove the Hungarian Serbs, like the Croats, into the arms of Austria. There were risings in Bacska, and large contingents joined Jellaci6 on his advance through southern Hungary. Vienna acknowledged their assistance by separating Bacska and the Banat from Hungary, and erecting them, together with part of Syrmia (tlio eastern angle of the country between the Save and the Drave), into a nommally autonomous SK^Siy SERBS OF SOUTH HUNGARY 29 Serbian Voivodina ; but, as racial boundaries were deliberately ignored, and large German, Vlach, and Magyar elements were included in the new province, and as the Constitution, moreover, was extremely reactionary, the arrangement resulted merely in general discontent. On the collapse of the Bach regime in 1860 the Voivodina was reincorporated with Hungary. Since that date the Serbs have steadily lost ground in South Hungary. Some have succumbed to pressure and become Magyarized ; thek numbers have declined, and with their numbers they have lost their importance. Formerly inclined to consider the Serbs of Serbia as their inferiors in culture, since the accession of King Peter in 1903 they have looked more and more to Belgrade ; and the Serbian successes m the Balkan Wars evoked among them an enthusiasm at least equal to that of the other Jugo-Slavs. It is obvious that the position of this fragment of the Serbian race presents a problem of peculiar com- plexity, connected as it is with that of the northern frontier of the kingdom of Serbia. [wo. III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS TRANSYLVANIA (1) Religious Transylvania is at the present day very free from religious strife and intolerance. Racial and religious divisions tend to correspond. The Vlachs almost all belong either to the Orthodox or to the Uniat Churches, and the Saxons to one or other of the Protestant Churches. The Magyars also are for the most part Protestants, though some are Unitarians and some Roman Catholics, while some belong to the Orthodox and Uniat Churches. The Szekels are mostly Roman Catholics. The religious census of 1910 shows the following results : Orthodox .... Uniats .... Calvinists (Reformed Church) Roman Catholics . Lutherans (Augsburg Confession) Unitarians .... Jews . . ... Unenumerated The clergy of the Orthodox Church are usually not very intellectual ; and the Uniat clergy, although rather superior to them and to the Orthodox clergy of Russia, are not highly educated. This state of things may perhaps be accounted for by their being nearly all drawn from tlie Vlach population, which stands on a rather low level of culture. The head of the Uniat Church in Transylvania is a metropolitan, whose seat is at Balaszfalva. There are three Uniat bishoprics in Hungary : Nagyvarad founded in 1776, Lugos founded in 1850, and Szamos Ujvar founded in 1873. Per cent 792,864 29-6 749,404 28 399,312 14-9 375,325 14 229,028 8-6 67.749 2-5 64,074 2-4 611 LTtre'^a^i^t] RELIGIOUS; POLITICAL 31 The Roman Catholic clergy are abler and more active than the Uniat clergy, and better educated. But their educational policy, as elsewhere, is strictly denominational, and is often attacked on the ground of an alleged tendency to narrowness. The Lutheran and Calvinist clergy are drawn entirely from among the Saxons and Magyars. They naturally show to a considerable extent the characteristics of these peoples. They are well educated, and, like the Unitarian minis- ters, have often attended universities. (2) Political Political questions in Transylvania are mainly racial, though, in common with the rest of Hungary, Tran- sylvania has experienced an ineffective movement towards agrarian socialism. More important has been an attempt to form a Vlach or Rumanian nationalist political party. In Transylvania the franchise, which differs to some extent from that of the rest of Hungary, has in the past worked out in such a way that the Vlach population has not had much voting power. There is now a new franchise and redistribution law in Hungary, the effects of which are not fully known as yet, but it is not likely to transfer power from the Magyars. In the past, Transylvania re- turned 74 members to the Hungarian Parliament. Of the 74 members, 35 sat for towns and for counties where there is a considerable Magyar and non- Vlach electorate.^ In the districts inhabited mainly b}^ Vlachs the number of dejDuties returned is, in propor- tion to the population, much smaller. The Vlachs are prejudiced by the combined effect of the fran- chise qualification and of the distribution of seats, so that they return fewer inembers in proportion to their number. This result is welcome to the Magyar majority in Hungary, who fear that electoral laws which gave the power to a very backward peasantry of different nationality might constitute a danger to ^ See Seton-Watson, Racial Problems in HuTigary, p. 252. 32 PRESENT CONDITIONS [no. e the Hungarian State. Though the Government and county authorities have discouraged the formation of the Rumanian or Vlach national party so far as possible, the Rumanian nationalist agitation has continued with fluctuating strength, deriving a good deal of support from sympathizers in Rumania, and especially from the propaganda emanating from the students of the Rumanian University at Bucarest. Criminal proceedings have been taken from time to time in the courts against those connected with the movement to prevent infractions of the law con- sidered to .be likely to instigate sedition or hostile feeling against Magyar or other nationalities. It is alleged that elections have often taken place under conditions which prevented a really free exercise of the right to vote ; there are, however, few countries in central or eastern Europe where Governments abstain from exercising influence in favour of candidates or parties supporting the Government policy. On the whole, in spite of defects in the machinery and the personnel, the Government administration, both central and local, can well bear comparison with the administration in the adjoining countries of Rumania, Russia, or of the Balkan States. Raflways have been built and roads have been improved. Law and order are maintained ; the country is efflciently policed, and a traveller may pass through the remotest parts without molestation. Life and property are efficiently pro- tected. Justice is not corrupt, nor does it seem that the judges can fairly be accused of administering it on partisan lines, although, where nationalist agitation pre- vails and racial feeling runs high, the accusation of partisanship is nearly certain to be brought. (3) Educational All the nationalities in Transylvania have used the schools as a means of maintaining, and, so far as possibk% extending, their position and power. The Magyar majority in the Hungarian Parliament has, with tlie same object in view, passed laws to secure ^nl^S^^^^Si^l EDUCATIONAL 33 that every Hungarian citizen shall know Magyar, the State language. This policy has jDroduced a long struggle between the State and the Saxons and Vlachs. The Saxons have, for many generations, been a people well educated in schools of their own, with German as the language of instruction. The Vlachs, though far behind the Saxons in educational matters, have started schools in which the teachers and the teaching are Vlach. The State has, however, a great power over schools of all kinds, because it can make or withhold grants in aid, and this power has greatly assisted the State policy. The more important laws dealing with education in Hungary are those of 4868, 1879, 1893, and 1907.i The Law of 1868 provided for the compulsory education of all children between the ages of 6 and 12, and for the obligatory building of schools in. districts where educational needs were not already provided for by existing denominational schools. At the date of this enactment some 60 per cent, of the population of Hungary were illiterate ; and the burden thus thrown on the poorer districts was a heavy one. Great pro- gress was, nevertheless, made in providing schools, especially having regard to the fact that many districts were sparsely populated, and ill provided with roads ; it is partly for this reason that educational facilities are not always such as could be desired. The Law of 1868 further provided, at least in theory, for instruction of children in their mother tongue in schools below those in which academic education begins." By 1879 the policy of giving a knowledge of Magyar, as the State language, to all citizens had begun to be adopted ; and the Education Law of that year, with a view to securing competent teaching of the Magyar language, makes it a necessary qualification for the appointment of a school teacher that he should be certified by a State inspector to know Magyar. The same law also gives the Minister of Education ^ See Ungarische Landesgesetzsammlung. Aemtliche Ausgabe, ■^ See Hungary, No. 2 of this series, Appendix. P 34 PRESENT CONDITIONS [no. c power to determine how man}^ hours shall be devoted m each week to the study of the Magyar language. There were before 1868, and still are, many schools not provided by the State. These were usually pro- vided by the various religious bodies, and were managed by them. In those cases in which the religious denomi- nation consisted chiefl}^ of people of one nationality, as in the case of the Orthodox and Uniat Churches (which are usually entirely Vlach) and the Lutheran Church (which is Saxon) there was an obvious proba- bility^ that the schools under such control would be used as a means of preserving the language and national feeling of the nationality concerned. Nor was there anj^hing in the Education Law of 1868 to make this illegal, for b}^ that law the authorities providing these schools were entitled to choose the language of instruc- tion themselves. Law XXVI of 1893 gave these de- nominational schools the right to receive State grants of money ; but, in return for this, the schools accepting the grants were required to accept State control in certain ways, e. g. by submitting the ap2:)ointments of teachers for approval by the State Education Authority. This constituted a great temptation to the jjoorer schools, which were usually Vlach, to give up some of their independence. The Education Law of 1907 extended the provisions of the Law of 1893, raised the salaries of teachers and the general standard of efficiency demanded of schools, besides specifically requiring better instruction in the State language. This educational legislation has been bitterly opposed by the more extreme Nationalists, who say that its aims are political rather than educational. The Saxons especially com])lain that the new education causes too much time to be spent over learning Magyar at the expense of what they consider to be more important educational aims. The Magyars have doubtless been anxious to secure the control of education by the central authorities, so that the schools might not be used for jjolitical pu]])oses by the more extreme Nationalists among the Vlachs. The attitude of the ^n^d*?K^Si^] 1^^ D rCATIOX AT. 35 Rumanian Government lias been a fairly correct one, particularly when the j)olitical relations between Rumania and Austria-Hungary have been friendly. But there has always been an active party in Rumania, recruited from among refugees from Hungary and from among Rumanian students and politicians, whose avowed aim has been to secure the union of Transyl- vania, and other parts of Hungary where there is any Vlach population, with Rumania. This j)arty has used not only the school question to assist their Pan- Vlach propaganda, but, in addition to the press, a number of less direct means, such as folk-song societies. Prosecutions of Vlaclis for political or quasi-political offences have been frequent during the last twentj^ years in Hungary. Among those prosecuted there have been teachers, priests, and political leaders. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS (a) Popular Opinion and National Sentiment Questions of sentiment are unusually important in Transylvania. National sentiment of the strongest type is to be found amongst the four nationalities living in the country ; and in the case of the Magyars, the Szekels, and the Germans, this is strengthened by the privileges they formerly enjoyed. These three nations, no less than the Vlachs, feel that Transylvania is their homeland. The Magyars and the Szekels add to this a devotion to the wider ideal of the Hungarian State It is not easy to estimate, from present information, whether the Vlach population have any strong sentimental feeling for the idea of a great Rumania, or would prefer, if their language and nationality were secure, to re- main separate from the Rumanian kingdom. (6) Proposals for Expansion and Development. The possibilities of expansion and development in a political sense appear to be limited to the union of Transylvania and Rumania, and the creation of a new D 2 36 PRESENT CONDITIONS [no. e autonomous Vlacli state, consisting of Transylvania and the counties to the west and south/ in which there is a considerable Vlach element, with perhaps that part of the Bukovina where there is a Vlach population. The Vlachs are genuinely desirous of improving them- selves by education ; they also naturally resent the superior attitude often adopted by both Magyars and Germans ; but, on the other hand, the tone adopted by some Vlach nationalists, especially those in Rumania, is very aggressive. THE BAN AT (I) Religious The same religious conditions exist in the Banat as elsewhere in Hungary, that is to say, there is complete religious toleration. More than half the population belongs to the Ortho- 1 The Vlachs in the Hungarian counties outside Transylvania slightly outnumber those within Transylvania itself. The counties in which there is a large Vlach element are Vlach Population. 1. On the North Maramaros . . . . 84,510 Szatmar . . . . 118,774 2. On the North-West Szilagy . . . . , 136,087 3. On the West Bihar . . . . . , 261,494 Arad, town and district . . 239,755 4. On the South- West \ Temes, including Tem- esvar and Versecz . . 169,030 5. On the South ^The Banat Torontal, including Pancsova , , 86,937 Krass6-Sz5r6ny . . 336,082 Elsewhere . . 43,496 Total outside Transylvania . . 1,476,165 Total in Transylvania . . 1,472,021 Total Vlachs in Hungary . . 2,94^,186 Full details can be found in the Hungarian official statistics, Magi/ar Sfnfisztikai J^Jr/.dnyv. vol. xix (Budapest, 1913) SS^e^^t^i^tl l^HE BANAT 37 dox Churcli (855,852), and practically all of the Orthodox are either Vlachs ^ or Serbs by race. There are besides some 36,000 Uniats, most of whom are Vlachs. The Roman Catholics number about 581,000, and are chiefly German-speaking ' Swabians ', but include some Magyars and also some Slavs. The Lutherans number about 41,000 and the Calvinists about 34,000. The clergy of the various denominations on the whole may be said to reflect to some extent the social conditions and general education of the races to which the bulk of their respective adherents belong, and from which they themselves are chiefly drawn. The Roman Catholic clergy are, therefore, largely German- speaking ; and, as the Germans are better educated than the Vlachs or Serbs, they are better educated than the Orthodox clergy. The Protestant clergy are also usually very well educated. There is not much religious animosity displayed by the various denominations. DISTRIBUTION OF RELIGIONS IN THE BANAT, 1910 n zi. T Uniat. Orthodox. Calvinist. Catholic. ran. Temes . . . 211,175 12,381 2.32,057 11,135 13,611 Torontal . . . 279,793 3,828 286,642 12,549 24,905 Krasso-Szor^ny . 90,479 20,006 337,153 10,400 2,875 Totals . . 581,447 36,215 855,852 34,084 41,391 Prevailing Religions of Nationalities in Southern Hungary In southern Hungary the Magyars are mainly either Roman Catholics or Calvinists, in the ratio of 4 to 1. Germans are mainly Roman Catholics or Lutherans, in the ratio of 4 to I. Serbs are practically all Orthodox. There are a few small groups of Serb-speaking people, such as the Schokatzes, Bunyevatzes, and Krassovans, who are Roman Catholics. Vlachs are practicallj^ all Orthodox. ^ The Vlachs are a Romance-speaking people, identical in race with the Rumanians, by whose name they are sometimes called. See above., p. 12. 38 PRESENT CONDITIONS [no. e (2) Political From the time when the compromise of 1867 estab- lished the kingdom of Hungary, the Banat has been subject to the same laws as the other parts of Hungary which have no special rights.^ This applies to both central and local government and to education. The character and methods of the government are much the same as in other parts of Hungar^^ ; and the diffi- culties which exist arise from the same causes, and are chiefl}^ national or racial in character. They are, however, less acute than in Transjdvania, although both Transylvania and the Banat have the common feature of an important German-speaking minority. They have also the common feature of a large Vlach popula- tion ; and for this reason, perhaps, the Banat is often spoken of in connexion with Transylvania. But there has never been any political connexion between the two districts other than the fact that both were part of the kingdom of Hungary. (3) Educational This subject in its general aspect will be found fully treated above (p. 32), but the educational arrangements of the German-speaking population de- serve notice. Even the poorest German schools have four classes. The better ones have six classes. The teachers are well paid. Mistresses teach needlework thoroughly in the girls' schools, and there are continua- tion schools for boys and for girls, which are attended by the children till they are fifteen years of age. The well-to-do Germans send their sons to Beal- schulen, or, if jjossible, to a Gymnasium, for a still fuller education, at Temesvar or some other town of southern Hungary where German schools of these types exist. 1 The last remnants of t\\v. military frontier system were finally abolished in 1872-.'^ ?n^d^?h?^^^Si^] THE BANAl^ 39 GENERAL OBSEKVATTONH (a) Popular Opinion and Natioiial Sentiment In a district with so mixed a population as the Banat it can hardly be said that there is such a thing as a general popular opinion, as distinct from the national sentiments of the various races. The Vlachs, numbering nearh^ 600,000, live chiefly in the eastern part of the Banat, in the counties of Krasso-Szoren}^ and Temes. They have a strong wish to retain their nationalit}" and language, and passively resist the polic}^ of the Hungarian Government in so far as that policy seeks to make the Magyar language universall}^ used in Hungary. The same may be said of the 387,000 Germans, who form the second largest racial section, and the 284,000 Serbs, who slightly out- number the Magyars (242,000).' It is by no means clear that the Vlachs of the Banat have wished to be united to the kingdom of Rumania. They have probably been, economically at any rate, better off than the peasantry who live in Rumania. The Serbs, who are chiefly to be found in the western part of the Banat, have a stronger national feeling than the Vlachs ; the Greater Serbia movement has made more progress amongst them than the Greater Ru- mania movement has among their neighbours. This is due to historical causes, of which some account has been given in the note on the Serbs of South Hungary (p. 26). The question in the western Banat is one between Germans and Serbs, rather than between Germans and Magyars or Vlachs. The Serbs have hitherto shown themselves more progressive than the Vlachs in education and as business men. The German-speaking colonists, who are now gener- ally known as Swabians, have remained perfectly distinct from their neighbours, and have a vigorous national life. This is probably not onty because the German-speaking colonists came in much larger num- ^ For another numeration, from official sources, see p. 5. 40 PRESENT CONDITIONS \^o. e bers than many of the colonists of other nationaUties, and because they were encouraged and protected by the Government, but also because they were better educated and stood on an altogether higher level of efficiency than the Slav, Vlach, or Magyar settlers. They have no strong political views, but their national sentiment is very strong. They are for the most part a highly prosj)erous yeoman class, owning their own land, and are excellent farmers and most successful horse-breeders. They form a valuable asset in the economic life of the country, and contribute to its development and stability. Probably the Vlachs and Germans of the Banat would be satisfied with any political arrangement which secured to them the right to maintain their nationalit}^ and language and elimi- nated the struggle against Magyarization. The Magyars, who number nearly a quarter of a million in the Banat, appear content with the existing political conditions. {h) Questions specially interesting Other Countries The Vlach population and the Serb population are obviously important to Serbia and Rumania respec- tively, if those countries should ever succeed in their aims of uniting the bulk of the Serb and Vlach races with the kingdoms of Serbia and Rumania. More- over, there is still some room for colonization. If the plans for a Greater Serbia and a Greater Rumania were to be alike realized, a division of the Banat would be necessary. The eastern part would become Rumanian and the western Serb, while part of the north-west might be incorporated in a new Magyar state. Now, however, that the dismemberment of the Hapsburg Empire appears certain, the question of the Banat has assumed a new form, for the whole territory has been claimed by Rumania. But what- ever the result of the negotiations on the subject may be, the rights of the German nationality in the new divisions would require some special guarantees if future unrest among so important a section of the communities is to be avoided. Transylvanlan and the Banat J IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS TBANSYLVANIA (A) MEANS OF COMMUNICATION (a) Roads, Paths, and Tracks Transylvania is one of the more flourishing divisions of Hungary, and its system of communications has received corresponding attention. In 1912 there were 2,835 km. of State roads, 4,343 km. of municipal roads, 6,777 km. of communal public roads, and 83-9 km. of roads in connexion with railway stations. There were thus, on an average, 241 km. of road per 100 square km. and 50-9 km. per 10,000 inhabitants, the figures for Hungary, as a whole, being 29-4 km. and 45 km. respectively. Communal paths and tracks extended to 12,569 km. In 1913 the total length of the State roads had increased to 2,880 km. ; the other figures showed practically no change. As is usual in Hungary, however, the roads are badly kept. The main roads, like the railways, generally follow the river valleys, those of the Olt, the two Kiikiillos, the Maros, and the Szamos, with interconnecting branches over the watersheds. (6) Rivers and Canals The Maros, one of the three principal rivers of Hungary, rises in the Carpathians and flows through Transylvania from east to south-west, ultimately join- ing the Tisza near Szeged. It is navigable for barges from Szeged to Szaszregen, about 35 km. north-east of Maros- Vasarhely, a distance of 615 km. ; but steamers cannot ascend farther than Arad, on the northern border of the Banat, which lies nearly 100 km. west of the Transylvanian border. The Aranyos, 42 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. e a tributary of the Maros, is navigable up to Torda, which is 22 km. from the confluence of the two streams. Another affluent of the Tisza, the Szamos, formed by the union of the Great and the Little Szamos, runs through northern Transylvania. It is navigable for barges from the Tisza to Bethlen, in the county of Szolnok-Doboka, a distance of 337 km., and for river steamers to Szatmar-Nemeti, which, though not in Transylvania, is not far from its north-western border. It will thus be seen that Transylvania is not ill-provided with waterways, but comparatively little attention has been given to their development. No separate returns are published showing the extent of the river- borne traffic. A project for making a ship canal from the Szamos to the Berettyo, a tributar}^ of the Tisza, has been worked out, but so far nothing more has been done. (c) Railways In 1912 there were 2,373-5 km. of railway in Tran- sylvania — that is to say, an average of 41 km. to every 100 square km. and 8-67 km. to every 10,000 inhabitants, the corresponding figures for Hungary as a whole being 6-6 km. and 10- 1 km. ; 1,063-7 km. were owned by the State, 992-9 km. were worked by the State on behalf of private companies, and the rest were both owned and worked by private companies. As was the case in Hungary generally before the war, the railways in Transylvania were barely adequate for the traffic. The trunk line of Transylvania is that from Budapest to Predeal, on the Rumanian frontier, via Nagyvarad (Grosswardein) and Kolozsvar. Entering Transylvania at Csucsa, it runs in a south-easterly direction to Kolozsvar (Klausenburg). At Apahida, a few kilometres farther east, it turns sharply to the south, and crossing the watershed between the Szamos and the Aranyos, reaches the latter river, and soon afterwards the Maros, the valley of which it follows as far as To vis. Here it is joined by another important line from Budapest, particulars Sh^'^^Si^J RIVERS; RAFLWAYS 43 of which are given below. From Tovis the main line, turning east, goes up the valley of the Nagy-Kiiklillo river, passing through Medgyes, the centre of a great wine-producing district, and Segesvar. At Hejasfalva, it leaves the Nagy-Kiikiillo, and runs over hilly country to the valley of the Olt, the devious course of which determines its route as far as the neighbourhood of Brasso (Kronstadt). Predeal, where the line meets the Rumanian railway system, is only a few kilometres farther south. Branches leave the main line at various places. Their starting-points and the districts they serve are enumerated in the following notes. 1 . From Kolozsvar-Apahida a line runs' northward, affording connexion with the railways of north-east Hungary, and at Des throwing out a branch which beyond Bethlen bifurcates into the two lines serving the county of Besztercze-Naszod. 2. At Aranvosgyeres a branch leaves the main line for Torda, a salt-mining centre, 9 km. distant, whence it is continued in a narrow-gauge line to Abrudbanya. 3. A few kilometres farther south is the junction of Szekelykocsard, the starting-point of an important line which provides a wide area of eastern Transylvania with its sole means of rapid communication. This line follows the wide curve of the Maros valley, passing through Maros- Vasarhely and Szaszregen ; then, crossing the narrow divide between the Maros and the Olt, it runs close to the latter river, through wooded and mountainous country, and finally reaches Brasso from the north-east. As for a long distance it runs near the Rumanian frontier, it is of much strategic value. It has the following branches : (a) From a point near Marosludas, through the counties of Torda-Aranyos and Kolozs, to the Des- Besztercze line, which it meets at Sa j omagyaros ; a cress- line from Mezomehes makes another connexion with the main line at Maros-Vasarhely, and from this cross-line a branch at Mezo-Toliat goes north to Kolozsnagyida ; {b) from Madefalva through the Gyimes Pass into 44 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. e Moldavia ; (c) from Sepsiszentgyorgy to Terret and Bereczk, a town near the eastern frontier, the centre of a valuable oil-field. 4. From near Felvincz a short branch leaves the main line for Maros-Ujvar, 4 km. away, the centre of the salt-mining industry. 5. From Klikiilloszog up the valley of the Kis-Kiil- liillo to the great salt districts of Sovarad and Parajd. A cross-line from Maros-Vasarhely to near Parajd has been completed. 6. From Kiskapus to Nagy-Szeben (Hermannstadt) and through the Verestorony (Roterturm) Pass into Rumania, with a short branch at Sellenberk to Nagy- Disznod, where are many wool factories. 7. From Segesvar a narrow-gauge line goes in a south- westerly direction to Szent Agota, and is continued to the Nagy-Szeben-Roterturm line. 8. From Hejasfalva to Szekelyudvarhely, a distance of 49 km. 9. From Brasso a line runs westward, via Fogaras and the Olt valley, and joins the line from Nagy-Szeben to the Verestorony (Roterturm) Pass a short distance north of the frontier. 10. From Brasso to Zernest, 28 km. to the south- west. 11. From Brasso to Hosszufalu, a few kilometres to the south-east. The important railway from Budapest and Arad which, as was stated above, joins the main line at Tovis, enters Transylvania near Zam and keeps close to the Maros river all the way to the junction. It has the following branches : (i) From Piski, in the mining county of Hunyad, to Vajda Hunyad, and thence, as a narrow-gauge line, to Govasdia and Retyisora, all in the great iron district. (ii) From Piski to the coal region around Petrozseny and Lupony. From a point some 30 km. south of Piski a line runs to Karansebes in the Banat, thus affording connexion with the route into Rumania through the Iron Gates. ^^l^tSr^aSiri RAILWAYS; LABOUR 45 (iii) From Alkenyei- a short line, about 12 km. long, to the iron and steel works at Kuclzsir. (iv) From Alvincz to Nagy-Szeben, which, it will be seen, has become one of the most notable railway centres in Transylvania. (v) From Gjulafehervar to the gold-mines at Zalatna, a narrow-gange line, 38 km, in length. {(/) Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones In 1912 Transylvania contained 455 post offices, 544 telegraph offices, and 5,993 telephone stations. These figures represent for every 100,000 inhabitants 16-6 post offices, 19-9 telegraph offices, and 218-9 telephone stations, as compared with 21-8 post offices, 23-5 tele- graph offices, and 356-7 telephone stations for Hungary as a whole. (B) INDUSTRY (1) Labour Labour Conditions. — Hungary is a country of low wages and generally unsatisfactory conditions of labour ; and Transylvania is among the worst districts in these respects. The mining and metal industries are, on the whole, the best paid ; but the legal nine hours' shift for miners and the eleven hours' day for factories are usually exceeded, while the provisions of the various factory Acts are not rigidly observed. In 1912 the wages in the mines and metal industries of Tran- sylvania ranged, for men, from 100 to 487 fillers, or \0d. to about 45. per day; for women, from 89 to 160 fillers, or nearly 9c?. to \s. M. ; and for children, from 57 to 150 fillers, or about ^\d. to Is. 3c?. These rates, especially the men's minimum, compare very unfavourabty with those paid in the same industry in the rest of Hungary. Agricultural wages vary accord- ing to the season and the districts, but as a rule are lower than in most parts of the kingdom. In 1904 they were generally less than a crown (100 fillers) a da}^ •46 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. e without board, for men, falling to 85 fillers or S^d. in the counties of Kis-Kiiktillo and Szolnok-Doboka, while women, on the same terms, got, in some counties, as little as 69 fillers or a trifle less than Id. Wages have risen since 1904, but so have prices ; and it is doubtful whether there has been any net gain for the workers. The poorer classes, in both town and country, suffer from overcrowding, bad sanitation, and insuffi- cient nourishment, conditions which in great measure account for the prevalent intemperance in spirit- drinking. Emigration and Immigration. — Emigration is natur- ally in popular favour, and has long caused serious concern in Hungary. In 1913 the emigrants from Transylvania numbered 18,972, or 6-9 per 1,000 of the population, over 10,000 being men ; the largest quotas came from the counties of Nagy-Kukiillo (3,209), Kis- Kiiklillo (2,848), and Also-Feher (2,226). According to race, as fixed by language, 13,609 of the emigrants were Rumanians (Vlachs), 2,677 were Magyars, and 2,663 Germans, figures which account for the gross total less 23. But, in contrast with the rest of Hungary, only 9,927, or rather more than half, went" to America, while 8,097 simply crossed the frontier into Rumania. In any case, the Hungarian emigrants, as a class, do not go to colonize, but to make money and return home. Thus, in 1913, 2,019 emigrants, or 0-7 per 1,000 of the popula- tion, returned to Transylvania. Of these 1,561 were men, and 1,249 came from America. The rest were chiefly returns from Rumania. Of actual immigrants there were in the same year 1,067, a little over a half being from Austria, mostly Germans and Poles, while 294 were Italians. (2) Agriculture (a) Products of Commercial Value The mountainous character of Transylvania prevents it from being a great agricultural area ; and only 29-3 per cent, of the surface is under cultivation. Less ^^d^?Sr^^Sa AGRICXTLTURAL PRODUCTS 47 than 4 per cent., however, is unproductive, 38 per cent, being wooded and the rest consisting of meadow and pasture. Maize is the principal grain crop, as it is throughout Hungary, where it is in rising demand for the fattening of animals and the production of spirits. In each of the Transylvanian counties of Szolnok-Doboka and Kis-Kiikiillo, 47 per cent, of the surface is devoted to maize — a proportion exceeded by only one other county in Hungary. In the quantity of maize produced, how- ever, Hunyad holds the lead among the Transylvanian counties. The total production of Transylvania in 1913 was 330,000 metric tons. In the same year Hungary, as a whole, raised over 5,360,000 metric tons, an average yield of 18-4 quintals per hectare. The best averages in Transylvania were 12-6 and 12-5 quintals per hectare, in Szeben and Brasso respec- tively, while the general average was only 8-6. Of wheat and rye the jdeld is likewise comparatively poor ; in fact, oats and barley are the only cereals with an average yield equal to that of Hungary as a whole. The amounts of wheat and oats grown in 1913 were nearly equal, 256,000 metric tons of the former and 235,800 metric tons of the latter. The chief wheal producing counties are in the west, while Haromszek, in the extreme south-eastern corner, takes first place in respect of the amount of oats raised, and Csik, which fringes the eastern frontier, has the largest proportion of surface, 28-28 per cent., under this crop. Transylvania's contribution to the total Hungarian crop is relatively larger in the case of oats than in that of any other cereal. The chief barley-growing counties are Brasso, Ha- romszek, and Csik in the south-east, and Kolozs and Torda-Aranyos in the west. These five counties raise two-thirds of the Transylvanian crop. Rye has lost favour in Hungary during the past twenty years ; and the area devoted to it and the total production have alike diminished. The Transylvanian county of Csik, in proportion to its size, has more land 48 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. e under rye than any other county of Hungary, and stands first among the counties of Transylvania in respect of the quantity raised. Rye is also largely grown in Fogaras, Kolozs, and Hunyad. Statistics of the production per hectare of all cereal crops reveal the little county of Brasso, in the upper basin of the Olt, as taking the first place, followed by the group of counties between the Olt and the Maros- Szeben, Also-Feher and the two Kiikiillos. Potatoes are not in Hungary a crop of much impor- tance. In 1913 Transylvania contributed rather over 280,000 metric tons to the 5,400,000 produced in the whole kingdom. In Transylvania more than six- sevenths of the crop comes from Csik and the line of counties on the southern frontier. More than half the beetroot produced in Transylvania for the sugar factories comes from the county of Brasso. Most of the remainder is grown in Haromszek and Torda-Aranyos. The cultivation of beetroot is much encouraged by the State. Statistics for 1913 of the crops mentioned above are given in the following table ; more detailed figures will be found in Table II of the Appendix : Total Average yidd per Transylvanian Percentage hectare ir \. quintals. ■prodiwtio7i in metric tons. of Hungarian production. 1 Transylvania. Hungary. Maize 330,000 5-8 8-6 18-4 Wheat . 256,098 5-5 9-6 13-2 Oats 235,802 15-2 12-4 12-1 Barley 127,978 7-1 14-1 14-7 Rye 37,512 2-6 9-4 12-2 Potatoes . 280,702 5-1 70-7 78-9 Beetroot . 121,560 2-5 230-9 267^2 The cultivation of tobacco has declined in recent years, the amount produced decreasing from 1,492 quintals in 1910 to 885 quintals in 1913. The pecuniary value of the crop increased, however, in the same period, owing to the higher price paid by the State for the raw leaf. The vine crop is comparatively insignificant, though wines of good quality are obtained from the vines on LTtn^aSiy AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY 49 the banks of the Maros. Vines are not grown in the counties of Brasso, Csik, and Haromszek. The area of the vineyards amounts to only 12,121 hectares, or 3-2 per cent, of the total for Hungary ; the average yield is ^much below that of the kingdom as a whole, and the value of the crop in 1913 was 3,603,000 kr., or only 2-3 per cent, of the value of the total Hungarian production. Bee-keeping is highly developed in Transylvania ; and the output of honey and wax is considerable, accounting for 13T per cent, of the total amount of honey produced in Hungary, for 25-7 per cent, of the wax, and 14-4 per cent, of the value of the two pro- ducts. The latest census of live stock, which, as in other parts of Hungary, was taken in 1911, gave the follow- ing figures : Sheep .... 2,104,43) Goats .... 124,799 Pigs .... 601,876 The horned cattle are equal to the best Hungarian breeds. Buffaloes are bred and used as draught animals, and the milk of the cow-buffalo is highly esteemed. There is a considerable amount of horse- breeding, the great centre for which is Des in Szolnok- Doboka; and the export of horses from Transylvania is fairly large. Sheep-rearing is an important industry, especially in the southern part of the country. (6) Forestry The forests of Transylvania cover 2,239,776 hectares, or a quarter of the forest area of Hungary. Of the Transylvanian forest land, 1,581,249 hectares are under State direction. Hunyad is the county with the greatest extent of forest, but Haromszek, 61 per cent, of which is wooded, has a larger forest area in proportion to its size. On the whole the most thickly forested counties are those on the Rumanian border. Transylvania and the Carpathians general]}^ furnish Homed cattle . 1,178,170 Horses 185,891 Donkeys 2,645 Miiles . 193 50 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. almost all the resinous trees grown in Hungary, and of the total Transylvania alone accounts for 30 per cent. The most plentiful tree, however, is the beech, but in the forest statistics several species are classified under this head. The oak stands third, after the coniferous group. (3) Minerals The prime metal region of Transylvania is contained in the north-east portion of the county of Hunyad and the south-west of Also-Feher ; the most important coal district is that in the south-east of Hunyad. The following table gives a general view of the weights and values of the output of minerals in Transylvania, with the proportions which they bear to those for Hungary as a whole. With the exception of salt (1912) the figures are for 1913. The weights of gold and silver are given in kilogrammes, of the other products in metric tons. Transylvania. Hungary. Transylvania Percentage oj ' Weight in Valtie in Weight in Value in Total. kilogrammes. 1,000 kr. kilogrammes. 1,000 kr. Weight. Value. Gold 2,004 6,566 2,924 9,586 68-5 68-5 Silver 1,513 In metric tons. 133 8,696 In metric tons. 820 17-4 16-2 Iron ore . 325,228-5 1,975 2,059,075-9 17,991 15-7 10-9 Iron pyrites 41,279-5 483 106,629-2 1,118 38-7 43-2 Mixed ores, high grade 62,707-3 2,855 73,648-3 5,001 85-1 57-1 Mixed ores, inferior grade . 253,676-1 2,983 443,380-2 6,746 57-2 44-0 Manganese ore . 1,800 36 19,005-6 267 9-4 13-5 Pit -coal . 7,876-2 155 1,319,918 18,387 0-6 0-8 Brown coal (lignite) . 2,325,039 27,509 8,954,133-1 89,999 25-9 30-5 Salt (1912) 159,917-6 17,696 270,929-4 37,997 59-0 46-5 Gold and Silver. — After Russia, Transylvania is believed to ])Ossess the greatest store of gold in Europe ; and its output of silver is also considerable. The most important mines from which the precious metals are obtained are at Zalatna (the head-quarters of the mining district of Transylvania), Verespatak and Bucsum in Also-Feher, and at Nagyag, Borad, and Boicza in Hunyad. There are smaller mines in the counties of Torda-Aranyos, Szolnok-Doboka, Besz- a^^d^^^^B^Siy MINERALS (VARIOUS) 51 tercze-Naszod, Kolozs, and Csik. In three districts of Szeben, and on many streams and rivers, such as the Maros and the Aranyos, washing for gold is carried on. About half the gold output, but only a quarter of the silver, is from the State mines. Copper, Lead, Manganese, dhc. — The production of copper and lead is associated with that of gold and silver ; and, although the copper industry of Hungary has steadily declined during the past half-century, there are still workings in the Transylvanian counties of Hunyad (at Almasel, Veczel, &c. ) and Csik (at Balden- banya). Lead is worked at Kisalmas in Hunyad and manganese at Podale in the same county, while man- ganese is associated with iron ore at several places in Hunyad, as Batrina, Roskany, &c., at Kosna in Besztercze-Naszod, at Also- and Felso-Szolcsva, Brezest, &c., in Torda-Aranyos, and at Erdofiile, Vargyas, and Szaldobos in Udvarhely. Sulphur pyrites is worked at Csungany, Kazanesd,Nyavalyasfalva,and, in conjunction with gold and silver mines, at Tekero, all in Hunyad, while there is also an output from Godemesterhaza in Maros-Torda and Kenesd in Also- Feher. Quicksilver occurs at Nagyompoly in Also-Feher. Iron. — The rich iron deposits of the counties of Hunyad and Nagy-Kiikiillo are a continuation of those of the eastern part of the Banat. In Hunyad they lie around Govasdia, Vajda-Hunyad, and Vika, in Nagy- Kiikiillo in the neighbourhood ot Also-Rakas, and in Udvarhely in the district of Lovete. There are small workings in the county of Torda-Aranyos, and, of iron pyrites, in Besztercze-Naszod at Oradna. By far the greater part of the production of ore, nearly 250,000 metric tons out of a total of rather more than 300,000 tons, comes from the State mines. Coal. — Very little pit-coal is produced in Tran- sylvania, and that mainly at Petrozseny in Hunyad, though the beds there, as well as at Schyltal, are said to be almost unused. Transylvania, however, supplies nearly a fourth of the total production of brown coal in Hungary, and takes second place among the E 2 52 ECONOMIC (JONDITIONS [no. e mining districts. The richest coal-mines are in the south of the county of Hunyad, round Petrozseny, Petrilla, Livazeny, Vulkan, Urikany, and Lupeny. Vaj da-Hun}^ ad is another important centre in the same county. The other notable coal counties are the group in the south-east, Udvarliely, Brasso, Haromszek, and Csik, with the northern group, Szolnok-Doboka, Kolozs, and T or da- Ar any OS. Salt. — Hungary is exceedingly rich in salt and Transylvania is the richest salt district, the beds form- ing part of the vast deposits that stretch from Rumania to Galicia. Salt is a Government monopoly, and the mines are exclusively worked by the State, but the actual output bears no proper relation to the vast store available. Of a total output from Hungary in 1912 of over 270,000 metric tons, valued at about 38,000,000 kr., the Transylvanian deposits gave almost 160,000 metric tons, valued at nearly 17,700,000 ki. The following table shows the position of the salt- mines and the amounts and values of different kinds produced during the year 1912. The whole district is officially known as that of Maros-Ujvar, which is the seat of the largest salt production in Hungary. Output in metric tons. Industrial Value in No. of Cowihlij. Centre. Rock-salt. salt. \. 000 kr. workers. Also-Feher . Maros-Ujvar 54,081-4 25.172-2 IMS 847 A^izakiia 1,894-6 — 260 74 Szolnok-Doboka . Desakna 53,277-4 1,123 7,302 322 Udvarhely . Parajd 9,940 12,278-8 2,29] 168 Torda-Aranyo."^ Torda 2,150-2 — 295 96 Totals . . 121,343-6 38,574 17,696 1,507 Oil. — Of recent years a good deal of attention has been paid to the oil-fields of Hungary, and the rate of pro- duction has risen rapidly, though the results obtained are not yet of much importance. The chief oil-field is that at Bereczk in the county of Haromszek, while north and south of this place, at Sosmezo and Zabola, are shallow wells which have been worked since the eighteenth cen- tury. Oil has also been found at Nagy-Szeben. There aro pctrolcnm n^finories at Brasso and Maros-Vasarhely. andth^B^it] MINERALS; MANUFACTURES 53 Natural Gas. — Possibly the great escapes of natural gas in certain places are due to the presence of petroleum. At Kissarmas, between Kolozsvar and Szaszregen, an escape of this kind has been brought under control and conducted by a pipe line to Maros-Ujvar, 20 miles to the south. There is said to be a yield of 1,000,000 cubic ft. per hour, giving a daily output worth £4,000. Analysis shows the gas to be a very clear methene or ' marsh gas '. At Torja and Malnas, both in Haromszek, as well as at some other places, such gases are being put to practical use in lighting. All natural gas is the property of the State. (4) Manufactures Metallurgical Industry. — The great metallurgical dis- trict of Transylvania is the county of Hunyad. Here at Vajda-Hunyad are the important State ironworks. Three furnaces using charcoal produce about 50,000 metric tons of pig-iron yearly. An additional coke furnace, which is the largest furnace in Hungary, gives a daily output of 100 metric tons of white Bessemer pig. At Kis-Kalan two furnaces were erected near the Piski-Petrozseny railway in order to use the pit-coal of the latter place, but the results were not successful. Finally, only one furnace was retained in service with a fuel of mixed coke and charcoal to produce yearly 10,000 metric tons ; about 2,560 metric tons of cast metal for constructional purposes, machines, and trade purposes are turned out yearly. At Szent-Kereszt- banya in the county of Udvarhely is an installation which treats the broAvn iron ore found on the borders of Homorod-Lovete. Its production in 1913 was : Cast-iron stoves . Commercial castings . Pig-iron Hammer-forged wares Iron ore . Amount in Value in quintals. kr. . 5,124 143,49400 . 32,420 77,808-00 156 1,951-88 659 32.297-06 . 28,507 45,041-06 54 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. e Two hundred and twelve workmen were employed in the shops and sixty in the mines. In Hunyad again, at Kudzsir, about 15 km. south of the station on the main line at Alkenyer, with which it is connected by a branch, are the Royal Hungarian Iron and Steel Works, from which the production in 1913 was 65,126 quintals of commercial iron, 6,551 of cast steel, 49 of cast iron, 1,498 of crucible tool-steel, and 1,459 of coarse, Brescian, spring and ' pinewood ' steel. The number of workers in January 1913 was 642. There is an iron- works also at Olahlapos in the county of Szolnok-Doboka. Copper is smelted at Orlat in Szeben, and copper wares are made at Nagy-Szeben, but the copper industry as a whole is not in a forward condition. Textile Industry. — The only important textile in- dustry is in wool, and that is mainly developed in the Saxon districts, especially at Brasso, in the county of Szeben at Nagy-Szeben, Orlar, Guraro, and Czod, and in that of Nagy-KiikuUo at Segesvar and Nagy- Disznod. These are just the districts in which, as noted already, sheep are most numerous. The Brasso cloth is in great demand among the Rumanian peasants. House linen and canvas are made in every village, generally, however, for personal use. Neckerchiefs ■ and gaily coloured embroideries are produced in Nagy- Szeben, Brasso, the old-fashioned district of Kalotaszeg in Kolozs, and at Nagy-Disznod in Szeben. Miscellaneous Industries. — Other industries include the making of leather at Besztercze in the county of Besztercze-Naszod and at Szent Agota in Nagy- Kukiillo ; of paper at Peterfalva in Szeben and Borgo- prund in Besztercze-Naszod ; and of earthenware, including the finer wares, principally at Kolozsvar, at Gorgeny-Szent-Imre in Maros-Torda, and at several places in the county of Brasso, including Kereszteny- falva and the town of Brasso. The earliest of the -sttr/ar factories in Transylvania dates from the period, some thirty years ago, when the industry in Hungary began to develop out of its torpid andth^Banit] MANUFACTURED; COMMERCE i:)0 condition. The factories are at Botfalu in Brasso, Maros-Vasarhely in Maros-Torda, and, since 1911, at Nagybocskerek in Torontal. These three emplo3^ed, in 1913, 2,456 workers and produced 281,708 quintals of raw sugar, a sHght total increase in both cases over the figures for the previous year. The greatest chemical undertakings are those at Valal-Balvanyos in Haromszek and at Maros-Ujvar (Ammoniak-Soda-Fabriks A/G), the great salt district in Also-Feher. The /o6acco factory at Kolozsvar employs over 1,100 workers and that at Sepsiszentgyorgy nearly 800. (C) COMMERCE {a) Principal Branches of Trade The domestic trade of the country is fairly active, food products and timber being the principal com- modities marketed. Trading in butter, cheese, &c., is mainly in the hands of Rumanians (Vlachs) from the mountain districts. Timber for building and in boards comes chiefly from the Szeklers in the counties of Csik and Haromszek. (&) Towns The largest town in Transylvania is Kolozsvar (Klausenburg), in the county of Kolozs, with a popula- tion of over 60,000, where there is a Chamber of Commerce and Industry. It has many corn and flour mills, chemical and soap factories, saw- mills and dis- tilleries. Brasso (Kronstadt) from its position naturally does a great trade with Rumania and Bulgaria, and has a wide range of industries in wool, wood, paper, flour, sugar, alcohol, &c. ; here, too, is a Chamber of Commerce. In the county of Maros-Torda are the great centres of the timber industry, Szasz-Regen (population, 7,310 in 1910) and Magyar-Regen, and Maros-Vasarhely (population, 25,517 m 1910). The last of these towns has a Chamber of Commerce and 56 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. e possesses many saw-mills and factories for the making of doors and windows and musical instruments of wood. Des in Szolnok-Doboka is the greatest horse-breeding place in Transylvania, but Szatmar-Nemeti, with a popu- lation of nearly 35,000, is the commercial centre of the Szamos region. Tovis is the centre of the vine-growing district. An important and ancient seat of woollen manufactures is Nagy-Disznod (Heltau) in Szeben ; its industries are almost exclusively in the spinning of wool and hair and the weaving of cloth of a coarse quality, which has a great sale both in Hungary and Austria. (D) FINANCE Banking. — There were in Transylvania in 1912 al- together 861 institutions doing business in loans. Of these, 275 were banks proper, savings-banks, and land- banks, while 586 were mutual loan associations. The latter were most numerous in Nagy-Kiikiillo, Szeben, and Kolozs; the first category is more prominent in Hunyad and Szolnok-Doboka. The Austro-Hungarian Bank has branches at Brasso, Maros-Vasarhely, and Nagy-Szeben, each having three sub-offices, and one at Kolozsvar with five sub-offices. (E) GENERAL REMARKS British goods in Hungary are generally high-priced, being retailed mainly by high-class firms, while British trade methods are too indirect and regardless of con- veniences to the importer, such as longer credit and the inclusion of freight and duty in the prices. Neces- sarily these considerations apply to Transylvania. Thus, while genuine British goods are much appre- ciated in Hungary, the amount imported shows little real increase. The British Vice-Consul at Kolozsvar has re])orted that goods of the following classes find a sale in Transylvania : all sorts of woollen, linen, cotton and drapery goods, particularly British worsted r.^,??S?^^-^?i?l THE BANAT (ROADS. ET(J. and the Banat J i) I goods, ready-made clothing and articles of dress with their accessories, S])orting and athletic goods, hunting and fishing outfits, photographic articles, grocei'ies and liquors, agricultural machinery, engineering specialities, motor-cars, bicycles, typewriting and sewing machines, tools and instruments generally, writing articles and high-class paper and stationery, sanitary and phar- maceutical goods, &c. Trade in these articles would be greatly stimulated and developed by the employment of agencies in Transylvania in direct contact with British firms and independent of Austrian middlemen. THE \BANAT (A) MEANS OF COMMUNICATION {a) Roads ^ Paths, and Tracks The network of roads in the Banat is in extent not far below the proportion for Hungarj^ proper. In 1912 there were 816- 1 km. of State roads, 2,474-8 of municipal roads, and 3,405-5 km. of communal public roads. In addition, there were 58 km. of roads in connexion with railways — a total of 6,754-4 km. This represented 24 km. of road per 100 square km. and 43 km. for every 10,000 inhabitants, as compared with 29-4 km. and 45 km. respectively for Hungary as a whole. There are, further, 6,294 km. of communal paths and tracks. The 1913 figures showed a slight decrease in the totals, due no doubt to changes in the classifica- tion. (6) Rivers and Canals As the Banat is bounded on its northern frontier by the River Maros, on its western by the Tisza, and on its southern by the Danube, it may be said to be miusually well served in the important matter of navigable water- ways. The Maros becomes navigable for rafts and barges in Transylvania, and for river steamers at Arad, on the northern bank, just across the river from the 58 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [»o. e Banat frontier, and it remains navigable for steamers until it joins the Tisza at Szeged. The Tisza is navigable for steamers for its entire distance along the western boundary of the Banat as far as the Danube ; and the Danube is in turn navigable for steamers for its entire distance along the southern frontier. Further, the Banat contains the important Bega Canal, which starts north of Nagybecskerek and extends past Temesvar to a point near Facset. The southern end of the canal is connected with the River Bega, which flows into the Tisza near Titel. The Bega Canal thus serves to connect the entire Temesvar area with the Tisza, and the river and canal are navigable for steamers from Temesvar to the River Tisza, a distance of 115 km., or 71-5 miles. The canal is the great avenue for the transport of cereals in the Banat. Simi- larly the Berzava Canal, 14 km. long, on the Berzava river, serves for the transport of timber to the Tisza. The Temes is navigable for barges from Botos to the Danube (88 km.) and for steamers from Pancsova to the Danube (3 km.). (c) Railways In 1913 the railways in the Banat amounted to 1,962-4 km., of which 639- 1 km. were directly owned by the State and 1,301 km. were worked by the State on behalf of private companies. The small remaining mileage was owned and worked by private companies. This total represented 6-9 km. of railway per 100 square km. and 12-4 km. per 10,000 inhabitants, as compared with 6-6 km. and 10- 1 km. respectively for Hungary as a whole. The Banat is thus well supplied with railways, with the exception, as might be expected, of the mountainous Krasso country. The great main lines are the two originating from Buda-Pest. That to Orsova and the ' Iron Gate ' on the Danube crosses the Tisza at Szeged in the north-west corner, whence a branch goes down the left bank of the Tisza to Nagybecskerek, the seat a^n^^SlSa BAN AT: RAILWAYS 59 of the Torontal local government and, crossing the Bega river, continues to Versecz in one direction and in the other to Pancsova at the junction of the Temes and the Danube nearly op])()site Belgrade. The main line from Szeged has another connexion with this Nagybecskerek branch at Nagykikinda, and itself passes on to Temesvar, the principal city of the Banat, and eastwards to Lugos, the administrative centre of the county of Krasso-Szoreny. It then follows the line of the Temes river southward through Karansebes into the mountainous district, crosses the watershed between the Temes and the Bega into the valley of the Cerna, and so proceeds to Orsova, the Danube, and Rumania. One branch from Lugos and another from Karansebes link up this main line with the Transylvanian railway system. The other line from Buda-Pest enters from the north over the Maros at Arad and traverses the Banat about midway from north to south, passing through Temesvar and Versecz to Bazias on the Danube, which is its terminus. At Vojtek a branch goes off to the south- east and follows the Berzava river to the great iron district of Resiczabanya. Half-way between Versecz and Bazias another branch winds in many curves up to Anina, the other great metal and mineral region. A line has been projected to make a direct connexion between Anina and Resiczabanya. Up to the limits of the mountain area the main lines are interconnected by many branches, and thus Pancsova is linked up also with Lugos through Versecz and with Temesvar, while from the Pancsova- Versecz line a branch to Temeskubin gives another connexion with the Danube, nearly opposite the line starting from Semendria in Serbia. In the middle and west there is thus a network of railways with Temesvar as a centre of radiating lines, Versecz and Nagybecskerek being the other important junctions. For narrow-gauge railways in the mining districts, see the section on minerals, pjp. 66, 67. 60 ECONOMIC^ CONDITIONS [no. e {d) Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones In 1912 the Banat contained 351 post offices, 566 telegraph offices, and 5,774 telephone stations. These figures represent for every 100,000 inhabitants 15-3 post offices, 31-7 telegraph offices, and 825 telephone stations, as compared with 21-8, 23-5, and 356-7 re- spectively for Hungary as a whole. (B) INDUSTRY (1) Labour Labour Conditions. — Labour conditions in Hungary are not good and earnings are low. This is particularly the case in agriculture and home industries. Factory laws are not administered rigidly. The maximum working day for factories has been fixed at eleven hours, but the general practice exceeds this limit. Miners are supposed to have a nine-hours shift. Workers in metals are among the best paid, yet the rate varies considerably, and neither in this nor any other in- dustry are the wages regulated by the profits ; e. g. the tobacco industry yields high profits to the State, yet it is among the worst paid. The wages paid in the metal district of the Banat are fairly good as a whole for that class of labour in Hungary, though the maximum rate is the lowest. Men earned in 1912 at most 455 fillers, or about 3s. 9d. a day, at the lowest 229 fillers, or about half the maximum rate. Women had from l6'. 86^. a day (200 fillers) to about 9d., and children from 160 fillers to 90 fillers, or Is. 4:d. to 9d. Wages in textile industries fall much below these rates. Agricultural male workers were obtaining in Hungary in 1904 on an average 125 fillers, or Is. O^d., per day with board, or 162 fillers, about Is. 4d., with- out board, while women were paid from 81 to 115 fillers, according as they were boarded or not, the rates varying with the season. In the neighbourhood of a town like Pancsova rates were relatively higher, women getting 145 fillers, or Is. 2^d., per day without anSBaSit] BANAT I LABOl R, RMIGRATTON Hi board, and at Versecz about Qd. more. But in other districts sums between 70 and 77 fillers, or Id. to l^d., were more usual for female labourers. As a wli£)le, indeed, labour conditions in the Banat are bad even in comparison with the rest of Hungary except Transyl- vania, where they are equally unsatisfactory (see above, pp. 45, 46). Meat is a luxury with the agricultural class ; and in some districts these have to content themselves with potatoes and maize, with the addition of milk and butter in the spring and summer. As do the workers in general, they indulge largely in spirits when they are procurable. Emigration. — As a result of the conditions described, emigration has long been a serious problem in Hungary, affecting mainly, however, the agricultural districts, and due in general to the bad conditions there, — loss of land, uncertain employment, miserable wages, &c. These general factors are clearly illustrated in the case of the Banat, where the proportion of emigrants for 1913, 5-5 per 1,000 of the population, is fairly high, and would be very much higher but for the inclusion of the great mining county of Krasso-Szoreny. The total of emigrants for the three counties in 1913 was 8,801 ; but of this number 7,779 were from the counties of Torontal and Temes, over 3,000 coming from the wholly agricultural county of Torontal alone. Krasso-Szoreny, well provided with steady employment in its mines and iron and steel works, sent 1,022 or 2-2 per 1,000 of its population. Of the different races, accordmg to language, 4,315 were classified as Germans, 2,512 as Rumanians (Vlachs), 1,138 as Serbs, and 667 as Magyars, the small remainder being allotted to the other local peoples. America was the destination of the bulk of the emigrants, namely 8,198 persons, while less than 290 went to Rumania. These figures show, however, a considerable decrease, nearly a fourth on the sum total, from those of the previous year. The Hun- garians generally go abroad to make a fortune and then return home. There is thus a steady inflow of returning emigrants, amounting in 1913 to 2,453, in 62 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS No. 6 proportions roughly similar to those for emigration, but this inflow does not seem to affect the labour market as a whole. Of immigrants proper there were in the same year 345, of whom 253 were from countries other than Austria (92), and 225 were neither Germans, Poles, Czechs, nor Italians. (2) Agriculture {a) Products of Commercial Value The surface of the Banat as a whole is almost equally divided between cultivated land or land under wood and natural meadow or waste. The latter conditions are mostly to be found in the mountainous country of the south-east. Cultivated ground, including gardens and vineyards, occupies 55-3 per cent, of the total extent. Chief Crops. — The principal crops are maize and wheat, the former predominating, and the two together constitute about two-thirds of the total grain crop. The western Banat, especially Torontal, is indeed one of the most prolific districts of Hungary for both wheat and maize, and its wheat is much favoured on the European corn exchanges. Near Temesvar there is an average return of 1-65 metric tons of wheat per hectare, a return very near the highest rate for Hungary as a whole, which is rather over 1-7 metric tons per hectare. The other grains are grown in relatively small quantities. Oats and fodder amount to 12-6 per cent. ; rye is the smallest of all the crops. There is no great amount of beetroot. The figures of production of these crops for 1913 are as follows : Hungary. ±5 AN AT. Crop. Production in metric tons. Average per hectare in metric tons. Percentage of total Hungarian crop. Wheat . Rye . Barley . Oats Maize PotatocK lieetroot 650,441-6 17,1420 58,400-2 162,7S()-8 1,180,1 li)-f) i31,()3(»-:{ 280,318-1 1-04 0-9 1-28 1-14 1-80 5-37 18-52 14-3 1-2 3-03 10-5 22-1 2-4 5-7 Average per hectare in metric tons. 1-32 1-22 1-47 1-21 1-84 7-89 26-76 Transylvania 1 and the Banat J BANAT: AGRICULTURE 63 The returns of production (in metric tons) for the separate districts in 1913 are as follows : 8 1 "^ Oi eg *"* «r -<' CO Cl 9 CO F^ so CD 6 ■^ o CO 1— t s 00 00 (M o CO o lO H ^ b "3 43 cS & c3 60 o c3 P 3 M w ,— cS Ph 64 EOONOMir rONDITTONS [no. e Wine. — The Banat is not one of the three great wine-growmg districts of Hungary, but comes close after these. In 1913 the 29,825 hectares under vines, which is equivalent to 8 02 per cent, of the Hungarian vineyard area, produced 672,063 hectolitres of wine, or an average of 22-5 hectolitres per hectare, which was almost double the average yield (11-9 hectolitres) of Hungary as a whole and 15-2 per cent, of the total Hungarian yield. But viticulture is not now a pro- sperous industry in Hungary. Tobacco. — Though the Banat is well suited to the raising of tobacco, the cultivation of that plant, as in other parts of Hungary, has declined in recent years. Between 1909 and 1913 the number of growers decreased considerably, the hectares under cultivation fell from 2,714 to 1,883, and the production by 700 metric tons. In 1913 the area planted was 3-9 per cent, of the whole tobacco area of Hungary, and the yield 4-6 per cent, of the total for the whole country, (See also below, p. 73.) \Silk. — The climate of Hungary is well suited to the silk- worm, but the industry is of comparatively recent origin. At all stages the silk- worm and its product are watched over and encouraged by the Government, and the result has been an enormous increase in the pro- duction of cocoons during the past forty years. In the Banat, silk- worms are raised in several districts, but chiefly in Torontal and Temes. There are 24,543 families engaged in the business, and the 441,859 kg. of cocoons produced in 1912 represented about one- third of the quantity and value of the total amounts for Hungary. Depots for the collection and treatment of the cocoons are found at Pancsova, Versecz, and Temesvar. (See also below, p. 73.) Honey and Wax. — The Government has also encou- raged bee-keeping, and in 1912 the Banat contributed 17-8 per cent, of the total value of the Hungarian products, being 489 metric tons of the honey and 19 metric tons of the wax, a share valued at 536,400 kr. Live Stock. — The animal population of the Banat ^xfd^^SI'^^Sia BANAT : FORESTRY 65 was shown by the last census in 1911 to be as follows : Horned cattle . . 483,256 Goats . . . 49,164 Horses .... 318,059 Pigs .... 646,698 Donkeys . . . 1,712 Sheep . . . 1,185,796 Mules .... 63 These figures show a slight increase on the previous census return (1895). (b) Forestry The Banat is one of the forest regions of Hungary, but the forest is in the main confined to the eastern half, particularly the mountainous south-eastern dis- trict. It must be remembered, too, that forest statistics include all timber grown whatsoever, whether mere cojjpice or brushwood or forest proper. The total area in the Banat under forest in this sense is 589,441 hectares, or 6-6 per cent, of the total forest area of Hungary. But of this extent 512,074 hectares are in the county of Krasso-Szoreny and 67,601 hectares in that of Temes, and these counties thus account for the great bulk, if not almost the whole, of the really valuable timber in the country. Of the total area, by far the greater part, 494,686 hectares, is under State direction. As in Hungary generally, the beech, the least valuable tree, outnumbers all others, oak coming next, while the proportion of pines and firs is small. Round Resiczabanya in the south of Krasso- Szoreny the mountain-sides and plains on the west are clothed with thick forests of oak, the mountain slopes on the east with beech interspersed with areas of pine and other coniferous trees. This is the heart of the mineral district of the Banat, where the State railway owns 330,000 acres of land, two-thirds of which are covered with forest. The company conserves its forests carefully and makes provision for new growth. Access to its forests has been provided on all sides by means of timber roads, aerial roads, and dry chutes, while the Berzava river and canal serve for the trans- port of such timber as is not used on the spot. 66 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [wo. e (3) Minerals The mineral wealth of the Banat, which is very great, is concentrated in the mountain region of the south-east, the southern part of the country of Krasso- Szoreny. Tin, lead, and zinc are found in small quantities ; there are argentiferous copper- mines at Oraviczabanya and Uj -Moldova; and scattered nodules of copper peroxide in the Csiklova district are rich enough to be worked and disposed of to forges and shops elsewhere. But the real wealth of the region is in iron ore and coal, of which there is normally a yearly output of about 200,000 tons of ore and 420,000 tons of coal. The bulk of this is from the property of the State railways, which here purchased from the Treasury m 1885 an area of 330,000 acres rich in coal and iron ore. Iron. — The main uon-tield is that of the Vasko- Dognacska district, extending for about 9 kilometres between the Elizabeth and Vasopega Mountains. The important mining sites are at Vasko, Resiczabanya, Nemet-Bogsan, Moravicza, and Dognacska, the last two being connected by a narrow-gauge railway. The ore occurs both in nodules and continuous bands, and includes iron oxide, red oligist, and limonite. Iron pyrites, too, is mined farther south. The ore workings are both open and in pits, the method being decided by the lie and depth of the ferriferous strata and the configuration of the surface. The ore is removed by inclined galleries and the inter-working of empty and full wagons. Other iron workings of an important character lie around Nadrag and Istvanhegy, in the neighbourhood of Gavosdia, and, in the basin of the Cerna, at Jablanicza and Ruskicza. The amount of iron ore about Resiczabanya alone seems inexhaustible. Coal. — The coal-fields are in the immediate neigh- bourhood of the ore deposits, which is of course an enormous advantage in working the ore. Owing to the local supplies of coal and wood, the works in this district arc self-supporting in the matter of fuel, which can be said of no other metal concerns in Hungary. Advan- ^n^d^^^^'^^Siy BAN AT: MINERALS 67 tageous, too, are the neighbouring deposits of Ume and clay at Resiczabanya, the latter bemg probably un- surpassed for the making of bricks. Further, the coal is of excellent quality, in contrast with the supply else- where in Hungary, which is usually in the form of lignite. Thus the Banat coal-field contributes about one-third of the amount of pit-coal for the whole kingdom and 40-3 per cent, of the total value. Anina is a great coal centre, its Liassic coal, which is very cohesive, being particularly valuable for the production of coke ; but there are important collieries also at Resiczabanya. At Anina there are six pits varying in depth between 400 and 500 metres (1,650 ft.), which send up about 300,000 tons annually. In the Szekul valley and at Domany the Carboniferous measures are worked in shafts 500 metres deep, and analysis of the Domany coal shows it closely comparable to that of Merth3rr : it contains 66-76 per cent, of solid carbon. The deepest seams occur at Kolnik, Klokodics, and Nermeth, where, however, the coal is less rich in carbon than that of Szekul or Domany. The coal-fields of Szekul, Domany, and Vasko are connected with the important steel- works at Resiczabanya by means of a narrow-gauge line — 950 mm. — about 100 km. long. The great bulk of the coal deposits belong to the State railways, but there are also some twelve other companies working coal in the districts of Bozovics, Bania, Berzaszka, Klokodics, Kuptore, Osopot, Szvi- nicza, Uj-Banya, Dubova, and Ogradena. Lignite. — Krasso-Szoreny is the only district in southern Hungary in which lignite is found. The amount raised is not great. It is worked by the State Railway Co. at Mehadia, and there are other workings of no great importance at Bozovics, Voiszlova, Jabla- nicza, Golecz, Kazansebes, Illova, and Laposnicel. (4) Manufactures Iron and Steel Industry . — Iron and steel manufactures are concentrated upon the sites of the principal deposits of iron ore and coal, at Resicza- Anina, Nadrag-Gavosdia, F 2 68 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [»o. e and Ruskicza. The steel-works at Resiczabanya and the iron- works at Anina, 14 miles south of Resiczabanya, with their associated w orkshops, are the property of the Privileged Aiistro-Hungarian State Railway Co. In addition to the excellent supplies of good coal the company also possess extensive forests in the neigh- bourhood, from which are produced annually 4,125,000 bushels of charcoal for use in the blast-furnaces of Resiczabanya and Anina. For the preparation of coke there are 60 ovens at Resiczabanya and 84 at Anina, with a yearly output together of 110,000 tons, of which Anina is credited with 80,000 tons. Anina, however, is occupied in the production of cast and puddled iron and such articles as are proper to this stage of manufacture. Of blast-furnaces there are two, one for coke with a capacit}^ of 60 tons, and one for charcoal of 40 tons. Their yearly output is 35,000 tons of raw iron, grey pig, and refined white for puddling. The puddling furnaces, numbering seven double and one single, are direct heated ; but it was proposed (1907) to transfer them to Resiczabanya. Besides the heavy engineering work, the foundry turns out castings for general purposes, such as builders' iron ware, stoves, &c., the amount varjring from 12,000 to 15,000 tons yearly ; as well as a considerable amount of enamelled cast-iron goods. There is also a nail and screw factory which produces annually about 2,500 tons of finished articles. Resiczabanya is characterized by its steel-making plant, which for pig-iron even draws upon the resources of Anina, though its own yearly output of iron runs to 110,000 tons, produced from two charcoal furnaces with a capacity of 65 tons each and two coke furnaces, each of 120 tons. The steel plant comprises three Bessemer converters, each of 10 tons capacity, ])ro- ducing annually, about 25,000 tons, three Martin- Siemens open hearths wliich ])r()(kice the bulk of the metal, and crucible shops; and the annual output of steel is 100,000 tons, a proportion of which is exported to Italy and Russia and even to England. Sl^tS^e'^aSly BANAT: MANUFACTURES 69 Most of the steel, however, goes to various forms of local production. Resiczabanya is, indeed, the southern- most of the great steel- works of Europe and the last available place for the manufacture of heavy guns and armour forgings. Its ordnance factory also provides field-guns, projectiles, and transport wagons. Much railway material is made there, and also all the high- speed equipment used on Hungarian railways. The output of acid steel from the Bessemer converters is almost entirely absorbed in the local manufacture of steel rails ; while much of the crucible steel goes to the special tire-mill, where the work turned out is probably the finest in Europe. Resiczabanya is, indeed, the only source in Hungary for steel tires for railroad wheels. The workshops produce sets of wheels and axles for locomotives and rolling stock, bolts, screws, and nails, structural work for bridges and roofs, gas-engines and other kinds of mechanical material, the annual output varying from 15,000 to 20,000 tons, of which bridge and boiler work account for 3,000 to 5,000 tons. The number of workmen employed in 1913 in the forges and workshops of the company was 5,122, and ui the mines and other workings 3,982. A further enterprise of the State Railway Co. is the manufacture of agricultural implements at Roman- Bogsan, which provides every year 12,000 finished ploughs, 5,000 plough frames, and 200 to 300 tons of other agricultural machines. In addition to the great plant of the State railways there are in Krasso-Szoreny several important iron- works. At Ruszkicza is a foundry with a yearly pro- duction of 2,345 metric tons of castings. Nandorhegy possesses a steel-works and rolling-mills which turn out yearly 15,000 metric tons of rolled metal. At Nadrag-Gavosdia are blast-furnaces, foundries, roUing- and plate-mills, galvanizing equipment, nickel-plating and tin-plate works, nail shops, &c. They produce 4,000 metric tons of foundry pig, 5,000 metric tons of castings and stoves, and 8,000 metric tons of sheet- metal, part of which is galvanized. A railway of 76 cm. 70 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. e gauge, 26 km. long, connects Nadrag with Gavosdia on the mam Hne. Agricultural implements also are made at Ruszka- banya, Bodza, and Oraviczabanya. Timber Industry. — Closely connected with the mineral and metal industries is the treatment of the great local resources in timber (cf. p. 67). The State railways draw upon these to the extent of 500,000 cubic metres annually, of which 50 per cent, is carbonized for use in the furnaces and 30 per cent, is used in heating. At Resiczabanya, too, there are retorts for recovery of the by-products developed in the process of carbonizing. Of the rest of the worked timber 10 per cent, goes in frame timbers and pit-props, and 10 per cent, is absorbed in constructional work. This constructional timber is worked up in the timber- mills at Ferenczf alva, Roman-Bogsan, Anina, Oraviczabanya, Szaszka, and Moldova. Wood is further used at Temesvar, Lugos, and Karansebes in the making of such articles as casks, lasts and trees for boots, &c. Miscellaneous Industries. — The other great industries of the Banat are based upon its agricultural riches. The flour-mills at Oraviczabanya and Bogsan belong to the State Railway Co. and produce about 10,000 tons of flour each year ; there are similar mills at Temesvar, Lugos, Detta, Versecz, and Pancsova. As a whole the county of Torontal possesses 113 steam mills and that of Temes 82. The State Railway Co. also possess cement works at Oraviczabanya, which turn out yearly 2,500 tons of cement. Their brick-kilns in Resiczabanya have an annual output of 1,800 tons of tiles and nearly 1,000 tons of firebricks. Bricks are also made from the granulated blast-furnace slag to the number of 4,000,000 annually. In Kolcza and Cravicza the com- ])any have lime-kilns which give, respectively, 6,000 and 8,000 tons of burnt lime each year. At Resiczabanya tlie charcoal |:>lant is used for the ])reparation of wood- alcohol, to the extent of 84.5 quarts daily, which is dis- posed of mainly to German dye-works. Spirits are dis- tilled also at Temesvar, Lugos, Versecz, and Karansebes, and^h^Banit] BAN AT I MANUFACTURES, ETC. 71 while Versecz is the most notable centre for wine, and further turns out machinery for distilling and mill machinery generally. The manufacture of tobacco, which is a State monopoly, occupies over 1,500 workers at Temesvar. Of the four State-established silk-spinning factories, one of the earliest was set up at Pancsova. These factories are intended to attract foreign capital and technical skill, and to this end are given special privileges as to prices, taxes, and tariffs. They are all leased to foreigners ; that at Pancsova to a Frenchman. Temesvar is the leading industrial city, and in addition to the occupations already mentioned, possesses factories for textiles, tiles, and mosaics, and such wood wares as furniture and matches. Its matches are exported as far as Asia. (5) Power On the River Berzava are electric turbines driven by water-power at Resicza-Nuta, which develop 300 horse-power for operating 25 drills at the Resiczabanya workings and aiding in the work of haulage. At Anina the 2,500 steam horse-power generated in the boilers is transmitted to the collieries and iron-works by electric current. (C) FINANCE Banking. — Of various forms of banking institutions there were in 1912 in the Banat, including the towns, 642. Of these 248 were banks, savings-banks, and ]and-banks and 394 mutual credit associations, the predominance of the latter being more marked in the purely agricultural county of Torontal. Tlie Austro-Hungarian Bank has a branch at Pancsova, one at Temesvar with two sub-offices, and another at Versecz with three sub- offices. 72 I— I -*1 o o I— I H P I— I H 0~ iu 5S lO O 05 -^ O CO CO C>) CO O lO 10 CD' t-- rH •»ti lO C0"C0~ iO^iOtJ^' ■*' I--' (M" to CO OppopOOOO-TiO-HO^OOO loooooooooooooodoo <1 >^ ^1^ iPppopooopoor-Hooooo ■060600 do odddddddd ^ ipC^p-HOFT^'MpPpr-lOO'-HrHOO 6 6666ddddd666666d I>CO(M(MOlC-*00 t- O 10 ■«tOI:^-^t;-i0050ip-*'r')l>C0S0(M^CC ooo^i>dbTtodi:--cos^i6cbd'4<>o0'HO-^Tt(C»5-^t;-t7CO-rt< c'^i--Gb'OcDcbcood«bcbt^d5cd»oib . — < COOO 'X^CO'MOOOOO'-^ o -^ CO o 't* c: -^ O 00 C»S; OTOI~OOCD-H(MOCOOI^Cil^'OQOCOiO C ^ r-< I- fO 00 -^ 10 1^ CI' I- 1^ CO I- 1< r-l ^ CO -+ r^ 5 ci o' ''^ 'O CO fo' oi . _ O' -H c-f 00 o 01 y: CO I': -H c-i — I — ' '^ :0 .^'S « f< a^ >^ ^ F^ ' ' ■ <^ K»-^ X H t-' 50 -tt^-tO>.';(M'+rt(MI:^t^(MC0'f0 0_ 0^1^ CO --; o^ t^^ CO 1^ CO ~\ ddd'iHoi'^'^'fid lc< (^^LO^cooooc50■>*^ ,«- ooo-^-^-H-^cDO-H .a O CO CO -H o 00 Ol 00 — < ; ct co" o" ^" co" I c cs I— I -H \>r. d 1^1 <>1 CO -t 't -^ 'T) -^ «c .—I CO CO 't ■— (MCOt-'*T^C^(NCO'<*t Cvj^COt^'MOOOCO-H CO 00 CJ co^ 00 -I* CO t-- -4' co" ■^'' r-' co' X -< go" -7^ p oi -H t- CD «^ d ddddddddd 6- CO (M 00(MOOC5-#OOCOGOO coco -HCO'tcococo co^ ^ 0-1 0. (M O -7^ »0 p p p p p I "T*- ddddddddd lo: 01>Ci'^l>''* lo: >2dc5(NddcO'o 00 -^ r^ I 00 C5 o" 't cD^ o" r-' co~ ! ic (M I— I ^H CO CO 00 -^ (M CO ^ ' X o-^xcocoiOiOr-fN Iph '-f 'O t-T (m' (m" oposr-O'-HCDpcoc; j05 c^cbd(^^dcoC5cblO ' o> ^ CO -^ '^ cr CO 10 (M CO ^^ >0 o-ipopcop-'^'Npcvq jaji '>jco-4ii"--'-id'*'^cb i(N 01 I- 1^ _ -O — I ovj -^ (X, &i < oWh I '^ a" M CO H K K O > w s (^ ft; ^ w -« <1 6 H n: O -' -.^'op 1| CO o ;±; CO IC CD do CO eo OS ■* ■* l:~ CC CC ® IC 35 Tj( lO O -^ S'l lO «^1 2 21 05l00iC0O50t-0p osssicibdbi^oscibt^ Tj4 -< CO ^1 4< ri CO 6 -^ (Ti oi '^l o -^ CO X r^ cj oi 'O CO IC -^ 05 l^ 05 CO '^'*ooccdboc5 CO o ^H o U5 tC O 1!^ CO CC OOtMO^OOX O in co^io O t-^oo L'5 O TjT cT x" -H rt" ifj" of 1— ICO'— lOio-H.^,^ '-* CO -H CO «0 CD 9 ^ 10 CO CO 9 9 '7 M 03 2'=' o o r- o iM CO (M T*- 'M X o CC rt* COcDXcOOiSt^^ '^., ■*"*., '®, t^ CO *^ t-, O go' "+ 'IH t-- CD oq x' ■* lO CO O LO X CO lO t^ (N CO •* rt Tt( -^ CD -H CO X X O CO (M CD lO X CO X CD + ■^(MiOr- iCDt^iOOl XrtOi-^-^-rtifMI-- r-M s-i-HTt^t-co— it^co «qco CDXlO-*005Tt*l.O '-''O 05 CD CO '* 'O t- CD CO .^ C-) (N O — CD t^ OJ M 05 O o CO CO ^ I;- © X ■* «-! sian, and sometimes, especiall3^ recently, the Ukrainian people.-^ Indeed, the name Ruthenes is often used to describe all the Little Russians, whether settled in Russia, Hungary, the Bukovina, or Austrian Poland. The term Ruthenes will, however, in these pages be used in the narrower sense of Little Russians who are citizens of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.^ The bulk of the Galician Ruthenes extend eastward from the San river until they join their Little Russian brethren at the Russian border. In that area they form the majority of the population, but there are considerable Polish minorities in certain districts, and the city of Lemberg constitutes a Polish island in an otherwise Ruthenian district. In the Bukovina the Ru- thenian districts are interwoven to a great extent with those inhabited by Vlachs (Rumanians). Czernowitz, their capital, has a large German element. The Hungarian Ruthenes are settled on the southern slopes of the Carpathians in the counties of Saros, Zemplen, Ung, Bereg, Ugocsa, and Maramaros ; and in their westerly settlements they adjoin the Slovaks, by whom the}^ have been partly absorbed. The Ruthenes have never at any time been united under a single government, either of a foreign or a native Power. The Ruthenes are essentialh^ a Russian people, and speak a language which does not differ greatly from the various dialects spoken by the other Little Russians, numbering some thirty millions, who consti- tute the bulk of the population of southern Russia. Their origin is, like that of most of the Slav races, somewhat obscure; but by the tenth century the Ruthenian tribes are found both north and south of the Carpathian Range, in a country which came to be known as Red Russia, where they were ruled by a number of independent princes. The most important ^ The application of the word Ukrainian to the whole Little Russian people is quite modern. The word ' Ukraina ' means a border district ; thus there were several Ukraines, e. g. Vitebsk, White Russia, Smolensk, &c. 2 The Ruthenes are sometimes called Russniaks. 8 HISTORY [no. 7 of these States were the kingdoms of Halicz and of Lodomeria or Vladimir. These principalities soon became a battle-ground between the Hungarians and the Poles. In the eleventh century Bela of Hungary, who had taken possession of the kingdom of Halicz, was expelled by the Ruthenes with the help of the Poles ; and Halicz and Lodomeria were united under a native prince, Roman, until his death in 1205. His son Daniel succeeded to Lodomeria, but Halicz was seized by Koloman of Hungary, who was later recognized as overlord by Daniel. To this period also belongs the beginning of the long struggle between the Eastern and Western Churches for the Ruthenian people, which continues to the present time. (2) The Rival Churches When the Ruthenian tribes were originally converted to Christianity they became adherents of the Orthodox Church, but when, about 1240, the Mongol invasion was threatening to overwhelm the Ruthenian principalities. King Daniel appealed to Pope Innocent IV for help. This was promised in return for submission to the Papacy, and Daniel accordingly accepted the crown of Halicz at the hands of the Papal Legate ; but, finding that his interests were not assisted by papal influence to the extent which he had expected, he subsequently reverted to the Orthodox Church, of which his people had remained adherents. In 1340 the line of native princes died out, and Casimir III, King of Poland, incorporated Halicz and Lemberg (Lwov) in his dominions. In 1370 these passed to Louis the Great of Hungary, who became King of Poland in accordance with treaties previously made. In 1382 Halicz, which had been treated as definitely belonging to the crown of Hungary, was, on the marriage of the daughter of Louis the Great to Ladislas II of Poland, assigned once more to that State. Henceforward only those Ruthenes who lived on the grhS'^J THE RIVAL CHURCHES 9 south-western side of tlie Carpathian range remained under the Hungarian crown. The Poles had always been adherents of the Western Church; and great efforts were made to promote a union betAveen the Greek and Roman Churches in the Polish dominions. This union was at length brought about by the Synod of Brest - Litovsk in 1596; and a Ruthenian Uniat Church was created, though the union was not quite complete till the dioceses of Lemberg and Lutzk, after a long and bitter struggle, submitted in 1700 and 1702. The union was largely the work of the Jesuit Order, and was especially due to Skarza, one of its most able members. The Uniat Church thus created recognizes the papal supremacy, though the Greek rite is retained. Old Slavonic remains the liturgical language, and the secular clergy are required to marry. This union affected the Ruthenes and the Little Russians under the Polish crown; and accordingly its influence extended for a time into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which by the Union of Lublin (1569) had been joined to Poland, but which subsequently became part of the Russian Empire. At the present day, however, this Uniat Church only survives among the Ruthenes of Austria- Hungary ; in Russia it suffered severe persecution, especially under Catherine II and Nicholas I, and finally, in 1875, the Polish diocese of Chotm (Chetm), the last stronghold of the Uniats, was incorporated in the Russian Orthodox Church. The compromise which created the Uniat Church has always been disapproved by many Roman Catho- lics. Constant efforts have been made to whittle down at any rate the outward differences between the Greek and the Latin rituals. The Orthodox Church, on the other hand, never ceased to oppose the union ; and one of the first acts of the victorious Russians during their temporary occupation of Galicia in the war, was the establishment there of Orthodox Churches wherever possible.^ ^ See the interesting judgement of Lord Macnaghten in the case of Zacklynski v. Polustrie. Law Reports, 1908 : Appeal Cases, p. 65. 10 HISTORY [no. 7 (3) Austrian Rule By the First Partition of Poland (1772) the ancient kingdoms of Halicz and Lodomeria fell to the share of Austria; and in 1776 the Bukovina, which adjoins Halicz, was ceded to Austria by Turkey, and with it a large poi3ulation of Ruthenes, who inhabited one corner of that province, and were adherents of the Orthodox Church. Thus, by 1776, all the Ruthenes of Halicz, Lodomeria, the Bukovina, and northern Hungary were under the Habsburg rule. For the Ruthenes the change of rulers was a great gain. Joseph II showed no hostility to them ; on the contrary, he encouraged their language. A Ruthenian Institute was created by him at Lemberg in 1787 for training the Ruthenian Uniat clergy, and continued to exist till 1804. The transfer from Poland to Austria not onl}^ saved the Ruthenian Uniat Church from extinction, but enabled the people to develop its national consciousness under very favourable condi- tions. It became the settled policy of Austrian states- men to encourage the Ruthenian movement, partly as a means of checking the Galician Poles, and later with the further object of creating a national nucleus to which they hoped in time to attract the Little Russian subjects of the Russian Empire. The history of the Ruthenes of the Bukovina and Galicia in the nineteenth century will be found in the Handbooks (Nos. 5 and 53 of this series) which deal with those regions. The Hungarian Ruthenes can hardly be said in this period to have had a history. Hiiugcarianl Butlienia J III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS (1) [Religious Practically all the Ruthenes of Hungary belong to the Uniat Church. National feeling, however, is possibly stronger than sectarian ; an instance is quoted in which a secession to the Orthodox Church was brought about by the Magyarizing tendencies of a Uniat parish priest.^ (2) Political The Ruthenes did not form a separate element in the Hungarian State. The eight counties which they inhabit were assigned to two of the seven administrative areas into which Hungary, including Transylvania, was divided. Owing to the restricted franchise, they were, in common with the rest of the Hungarian proletariate, excluded from representation in the Hungarian Parlia- ment and in local government. (3) Educational The Ruthenes are backward educationally, and the percentage of illiteracy is high. According to the statistics of the year 1911-12, there were in all 61,742 Ruthene children receiving elemen- tary instruction — 45,189 in the ordinary day-schools, and 16,553 in continuation and ' wirtschaftlich ' schools. Of this total 4,133 attended schools (61 in number) in which Ruthenian was the language of instruction. Of these schools 57 had only one teacher. Tliere were no secondary schools in which Ruthenian was the language of instruction. ^ R. W. Seton- Watson, Racial Problems in Hungary, p. 322. 12 PRESENT CONDITIONS [no.7 The number of Ruthene pupils in the higher elemen- tary schools was only 96, and in the commercial and technical schools there were none. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS Popular Opinion and National Sentiment As regards the Ruthenes of Galicia, it has been noted in dealing with their political history that the inter- action of racial and religious influences, the develop- ment of the Ukraine movement, and the encourage- ment given to that movement by both Austria and Russia from different motives, have all had their effect in shaping Ruthenian national sentiment. The position of the Ruthenes in the Bukovina has been treated elsewhere (Handbook, No. 5). The Hun- garian Ruthenes are perhaps the most backward ; they are for the most part very poor, living in log cabins with- out chimneys, and are inclined, it is said, to drink to ex- cess. Changes of land tenure introduced on the liberation of the serfs in 1848, by which cash payment was substi- tuted for payment in kind, and common pastures and forest lands became the private property of the land- lords, partly account for their impoverishment. Their geographical position makes it difficult to suggest any way in which they could be politically united with the Ruthenes of Galicia, since the Carpathians form a very serious natural obstacle to such a combination. Hung'arian'i Suthenia J IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS (A) MEANS OF COMMUNICATION (a) Roads As 90 per cent, of the population of Ruthenia depends on agriculture for a livelihood, and other industries are accordingly little developed, the demands on road and rail transport are not great. The main road system is simple, being constituted by the highway from Kassa (Kascliau),in thecountyof Abauj-Torna,to Maramaros- Sziget, the chief town in Ruthenia, with its branches east and west. This road, which is scheduled as first- class, passes through Ungvar in the county of Ung to Munkacs in the Ruthenian county of Bereg, where it turns south to Beregszasz and follows the valley of the Tisza through Nagy-Szollos, the chief place in Ugocsa, and Huszt in Maramaros, to Maramaros-Sziget. From Munkacs a road leads north-eastwards by the valley of the Latorcza and the Vereczke Pass into Galicia, while a second-class road goes westwards through Csap. From Huszt a second-class road follows the valley of the Nagy-Ag through Okormezo and crosses into Galicia. There is a more direct route from Munkacs to Maramaros- Sziget, which crosses the higher land on the eastern fringe of the Ugocsa plain and joins the main road above Huszt. About half-way there is a connexion with Beregszasz, which continues westwards from that tow^l to the bank of the Tisza. From Maramaros-Sziget a good road, continuing the highway from Kassa, runs by the Tisza, through Nagy-Bocsko and Korosmezo, to enter Galicia through the Delatyn or Jablonica Pass. The total length of this State road, from Kassa to Jablonica in Galicia, is 373-90 km., of which there are in Bereg 62-72 km., in Ugocsa 35-07 km., and in Mara- 14 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no.7 maros 151-83 km. The Bukovina is reached by the road from Maramaros-Sziget to Kirhbaba, 107-70 km. long, which passes through Felso-Viso and Borsa. Another road, 62 km. in length, goes south-west from Maramaros-Sziget to Nagy-Banya. There are in all 4,714 km. of roads ; of these 640 km. are State roads, 875 km. municipal, 997 km. communal, and 14 km. in connection with railways. The re- maining 2,188 km. are simply the ordinary communal paths and tracks. There are, on an average, 17 km. of road (State, municipal, or communal) to 100 sq. km., and 36-6 km. to 10,000 inhabitants. The correspond- ing figures for Hungary as a whole are 29-4 km. and 45 km., and for Transylvania 24-1 km. and 50-9 km. (b) Rivers The Tisza flows through or skirts Ruthenian territory for 253 km. (about 150 miles) and is navigable by barges and rafts for 193 km., by river steamers for 70 km. It becomes navigable for barges and rafts at Nagy-Bocsko, about 20 miles west of the Galician frontier, and for river steamers at Tisza-Ujlak, remain- ing navigable for the heavier craft until it joins the Danube. The distance to the Danube from Nagy- Bocsko is officially returned as 884 km., and from Tisza- Ujlak as 760-9 km. There are various small tributaries of no particular value as waterways. (c) Bail ways In 1913 the total length of the railways in Ruthenia was 588-8 km., an average of 4 km. of line to 100 sq. km. and 8-6 km. to 10,000 inhabitants. The pro- portions for Hungary as a whole were 6-6 km. and 10-1 km. respectively. In 1912, when the railways in Ruthenia totalled 529 km., the State owned 355-2 km., and worked 24-4 km., j)art of the Maramaros-Sziget lines to salt-works, on behalf of private companies ; the remainder, including the narrow-gauge salt-works lines, were owned and o])erated by private companies. Tlie lines are all normall}^ of single track. 2u?hST RIVERS ; RAILWAYS ; POSTS 15 Two railway lines enter Ruthenia from the west, joining at Kiralyhaza, and two cross the Carpathians from Ruthenia into Galicia, ascending respectively the valleys of the Latorcza and the Tisza. The northern line from the west leaves the Budajjest- Lemberg railway at Satoralja-Ujhely and enters Ru- thenia about 10 km. east of the junction at Csap. At Batyii it divides. One branch goes to Munkacs (26 km. ) , thereafter continuing, by the Latorcza valley, through Szolyva and Volocz, and across the Carpathians to Lawoczne and Stryj in Galicia. The other branch from Batyii crosses the marshy levels of the river Szernye, a tributary of the Latorcza, to Beregszasz and to Tisza-Ujlak on the Tisza, whence it runs through Nagy- SzoUos to Kiralyhaza, to join the other line from the west. At Beregszasz a narrow-gauge line goes by the River Borsava to Dolha and Kovacsret, having a branch from Komloskitero to Nagy-Szollos. The second line from the west affords communication between Budapest and Ruthenia via Szolnok and Debreczen. After the junction at Kiralyhaza, the main line runs near the Tisza, through Huszt and Taraczkoz, to Maramaros-Sziget. From Taraczkoz a narrow-gauge line goes to Kobilaerdo. From Maramaros-Sziget a short branch runs northward to Aknaszlatina (7 km.), and narrow-gauge lines go southward to the salt districts at Aknasugatag (23 km.) and Ronaszek (22 km.). The main line continues from Maramaros- Sziget up the valley of the Tisza to Visovolgy and Korosmezo, where it meets a Galician line. From Nagy-Bocsko a branch runs to Kis-Bocsko and the chalybeate baths of Kabolapolyana ; and at Visovolgy there is a branch southwards to Borsa, which is on the high road to Kirlibaba in the Bukovina. (d) [Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones There were in 1912, 108 post-offices, 85 telegraph offices, and 672 telejDhone stations. These figures rej)resent about 17 post-offices, 14 telegraph offices, and 16 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no.v 100 telephone stations to 100,000 inhabitants, as com- pared with 21, 23, and 356 respectively for Hungary as a whole. As the pojDulation of Ruthenia is almost wholly agricultural, its needs are probably well served. (B) INDUSTRY (1) Labour : Emigration and Immigration Economically the Ruthene is hampered by genera- tions of want and illiteracy. He is conservative in his customs and poverty-stricken, while three persons out of four above the age of six are illiterate. Nevertheless, when removed to such a country as Canada, the Ruthene becomes a successful farmer. Males and females are almost equal in number in the Ruthenian rural communities; and there is a high proportion, namely 53 per cent., of adults of the working ages between 15 and 60. The Germans in the country, as in other parts of Hungary, are characterized by care- ful husbandry and great economic capacity. The rate of emigration is high, as it generally is in the eastern districts of Hungary. In the decade before the war it averaged 3,000 a year; in 1913 the num- ber of emigrants was 4,295, almost equally divided between men and women, and equivalent to more than 6 per 1,000 of the whole population. This rate, however, was greatly exceeded in the county of Ugocsa, which contributed 1,527 emigrants, or 16-1 per thousand of its inhabitants. Bereg, a larger county, supplied 1,847, but this figure represented only 7-6 per thousand of its population. The emigrants from Maramaros, the largest and most prosperous county, numbered only 921, or 2-5 per thousand. Of the races represented among the emigrants, the Magyars, of whom there were 2,231, were the most numerous, while the Ruthenes came next with 1,364. There were 391 Germans, 286 Rumanians, and a few of other stocks. About 96 per cent, of the emigrants went to America. The returning emigrants in the same year iSfh^nJa'^] LABOUR; AGRICULTURE 17 numbered only 449, 185 going to Bereg, 170 to Mara- maros, and 94 to Ugocsa ; all came from America. Of immigrants proper there were 101, almost entirely from Austrian territories and including 52 Poles. (2) Agriculture (a) Products of Comjnercial Value Eastern Ruthenia rises to the Carpathians, where, in narrow valleys with torrential streams and steep heavily-wooded sides, the native wrings a scanty sub- sistence from tiny patches of ground. On the level uplands are Alpine meadows with a scanty soil. Western Bereg and Ugocsa fringe the Alfold, whose typical loess and alluvial soil characterize these dis- tricts. On the whole, the productiveness of Ruthenian land is poor, the average yield of cereals per hectare being only from one-half to two- thirds of the correspond- ing average for Hungary as a whole. Of the three Ruthenian counties, Maramaros has the largest j^ro- duction of cereals per hectare, a distinction partly due to the fact that it has shown the most favour to modern appliances and methods of cultivation, the Ruthenian peasant being in general very conservative in his methods of agriculture. In Ruthenia, as usually in Hungary, particularly in the eastern portion, maize is the leading crop. Ugocsa, however, produces a slight excess of both wheat and oats, the yield of that small county in 1913 being 53,057 quintals of maize to 55,088 of wheat and 53,681 of oats. Maramaros in the same year raised 242,056 quintals of maize, only 14,133 of wheat, and 180,046 of oats, little more than 5 per cent, of the cultivated surface of that county being under wheat, as compared with 45 per cent, under maize. Bereg produced 124,328 quintals of maize, 104,513 of wheat, and 123,780 of oats. These are the chief cereal crops, rye and barley coming next in order ; the Hungarian peasant generally has no affection for rye, and the 18 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [wo. 7 relative production of Ruthenia is less than that of the neighbouring district of Transylvania. The figures of 1913 for all these crops in the three counties, with the production per hectare, and similar details for Hungary as a whole, are given in the following tables : Table I. — Production of Cereals (in Quintals) County. Maize. Wheat. Oats. Rye. Barley. Bereg . . . 124,328 104,513 Maramaroe . . 242,056 14,133 Ugocsa . . . 53,057 55,088 123,780 180,046 53,681 50,444 18,140 23,292 20,851 14,289 4,937 Total for Ruthenia 419,441 173,734 357,507 91,876 40,077 Total for Hungary . 53,603,084 45,545,384 15,440,041 14,222,487 18,059,678 Table II. — Production in Quintals per Hectare County. Maize. Wheat. Bereg .... 7-5 8-1 Maramaros ... 9-1 8-4 Ugocsa . . . 6-0 7-1 Oats. 1-4: 9-5 7-8 Rye. 8-4 10-0 8-1 Barley. 8-8 9-6 8-4 Average for Ruthenia . 7-2 7-8 8-2 8-8 8-9 Average for Hungary . 18-4 13-2 12-1 12-2 14-7 Of potatoes and beetroot the production is in no way remarkable. Maramaros, indeed, grows no beet- root, and Ugocsa but little. The 1913 figures are as follows : Table III Total production in quintals. Production in quintals per hectare. County. Potatoes. Beetroot. Potatoes. Beetroot Bereg . Maramaros Ugocsa . . 546,505 566,640 49,760 13,250 1,260 50-0 125-1 36-7 — 31-3 121-6 Total and average for Ruthenia 1,162,905 14,510 39-3 123-3 Total and average for Hungary . 54,506,086 48,650,428 78-9 267-2 There is a small production of wine, of which the quality is exceptionally high. The Ruthenian vine- yards cover 3,217 hectares, and in 1913 yielded 26,428 hectolitres of wine, valued at 9,445,000 kr. This represented 0-59 per cent, of the total production of Hungary, and 61 per cent, of its total value. SuK^^^J AGRICULTURE ; FORESTRY 19 As in other parts of Hungary, the production of tobacco has dechned. While the number of cultivators, 107, remained the same in 1913 as in 1909, and the area planted increased from 1,375 hectares to 1,412, the quantity produced fell from 15,473 quintals to 5,728 quintals, and its value from 642,150 kr. to 267,044 kr. In 1909 the Ruthenian crop represented 2-4 per cent, of the quantity of the Hun- garian crop and 2-3 per cent, of the value. The per- centages for 1913 were respectively 2-4 and 1-3 per cent. There is a tobacco factory at Munkacs, which in 1912 employed 837 workers, 722 of whom were women. The honey produced in 1912 amounted to 1,249 quintals, and the wax to 142 quintals, the value of these products being 153,300 kr. According to the last census, the following aniynals belonged to Ruthenia in 1911 : Horned cattle . 256,044 8heep . 241,169 Horses 42.793 Goats . 26,621 Donkeys 150 Pigs . 88,706 Mules . 14 These figures show Uttle variation from those given in the previous return (1895). (6) Forestry As Ruthenia contains part of the Carpathians, there is a fair amount of land under forest, viz. 698,740 hectares, or 7-6 per cent, of the forest land of all Hungary, Of this, 520,123 hectares are under scientific State control. Oaks cover 65,039 hectares and resinous trees 219,078 hectares, other trees being all grouped under the head of ' beech ' in the official statistics. The contributions of Ruthenia to the total Hungarian production of oak and resinous timber are respectively 2-8 per cent, and 11-2 per cent. Maramaros, as might be expected from its position on the slopes of the Carpathians, is the most heavily-wooded county, 54 per cent, of its surface being under forest, while it C 2 20 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [wo.7 comes second among the counties of Hungary in respect of the area under resinous trees. In Bereg the forests consist mostly of oak and ' beech '. (3) Minerals The mineral output of Ruthenia is not great, and comes mainly from Maramaros. There are gold and silver mines of minor importance in that county at Budfalu, Totos-Zseramp, and Borsbanya, and with the gold and silver are associated ores of copper, lead, antimony, and zinc. The Maramaros Metal-Mining Co. (Ildramarosi Fembdnyatdrsulat) in Totosbanya had in 1913 the following output from their workings at Budfalu : Ore in Value in quintals, kronen. Lead . . . 195-20 2972-16 Zinc . . . 468-78 2133-22 Copper . . 130-50 723-36 Or amines. Silver . . . 4255-00 404-23 Gold . . . 48-00 157-48 Iron ore occurs in the western part of Ruthenia in adjoining portions of the three counties. At Bilke and Szajkofatu in Bereg, and at Kisrakocz in Ugocsa, are the mines of the Dolha-Rokamezo Co., which has iron- works at Dolha, and a forge at R6kamez5, where it treats 25,000 quintals of iron ore yearly. The same company leases the iron mines at Tokes, Iloncza, j Nagyabranka, and Szalkofalva, and has iron-works at ' Hatmeg. The furnace at Hatmeg, with charcoal fuel, used to provide 8,000 quintals of pig-iron yearly. There is an iron and manganese mine at Felso-Viso in Maramaros, with an annual production of 210 quintals of manganese and iron ore. Aluminium is worked at Beregszasz. Pit-coal of excellent quality occurs at many places in Maramaros, but nowhere, apparently, in seams thick enough to repay working. Lignite is mined on a small scale at Iloncza in Bereg. Good lignite is also found in the hilly part of Ugocsa. i^KL^"] MINERALS 21 There is a trivial output of petroleum at Korosmezo, in Maramaros. Oil and bitumen deposits also occur in the samecounty at Izaszacsal, Szelistye, andDragomerfalva, and are worked by the Magyar Karpati Petroleum Joint-Stock Co. At many places in the hill district of Ugocsa china-clay is found, as well as grey and red clay excellently suited for earthenware. By far the most important mineral of Ruthenia is salt. The beds form part of the enormous deposits that stretch from Transylvania into Galicia. Almost all the salt produced in Hungary comes from either Transylvania or Ruthenia. In 1912, for example, the output of Transylvania was 1,599,176 quintals, valued at 17,696,000 kr., that of Ruthenia 1,050,716 quintals, valued at 19,121,000 kr., and that of the rest of Hungary only 59,402 quintals, valued at 1,180,000 kr. In proportion to its size, Ruthenia is thus the greatest salt-producing district in Hungary, supplying nearly 39 per cent, of the total output and more than half its value. The salt-mines are all in the neighbourhood of Maramaros-Sziget, with which they are connected by rail (see p. 14). Aknaszlatina is the official head- quarters of the industry. The number of persons employed at the salt-works in 1912 was 1,261, of whom 966 were men and 295 boys. The salt-workers in Hungary, as a whole, numbered 2,850. The output of the different Ruthenian centres in 1912, with the value, is shown in the following table : Output in quintals. Value in Rock- Industrial salt. Salt. Total. Aknaszlatina . . 385,067 155,744 540,811 10,427,000 Aknasugatag . . 215,152 42,138 257,290 4,246,000 R6nasz6k . . 218,816 33,799 252,615 4,448,000 Totals . . . 819,035 231,681 1,050,716 19,121,000 In Hungary, salt-mining is exclusively conducted by the State, and the sale of salt is a State monopoly. The richness of the deposits is enormous, and for many years there has been a steady increase in output. 22 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. 7 (4) Manufacture As a manufacturing district, Ruthenia is of no par- ticular importance. Dolha is the seat of the management of the Dolha- Rokamezo Ironworks and Spade and Hoe Joint-Stock Co., which employs 236 workmen. There are some works which manufacture pottery and glass in the towns of Maramaros-Sziget, Beregszasz, and Munkacs. (C) COMMERCE Towns The principal towns are Maramaros-Sziget (popula- tion, 21,370) and Munkacs (population, 17,275), the latter being in the county of Bereg. Maramaros-Sziget among its industries possesses two big saw-mills, a factory for bent wood, and a straw-hat factory. The chief articles of trade are salt, wood, and leather, while the trade in cattle is considerable. (D) FINANCE Banking In the three counties there are altogether 231 banks and credit institutions of various kinds, 79 being banks proper, savmgs-banks, and land banks, while 152 are mutual credit associations. The Austro-Hungarian Bank has branches at Munkacs and Maramaros-Sziget, with one sub-office to each. Hung'arlani Ruthenla J AUTHORITIES Historical BiDERMANN, H. I. Die Ungarischen Ruthenen. Innsbruck, 1862. Charmatz, R. (Jsterreichs innere GescMchte von 1848-95. Bd. I. Leipzig, 1917. Die osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild (vol. V, pt. 2). Vienna, 1886-1902. Globus, vol. iv, p. 369, Die Ungarischen Ruthenen. Hronchevskyi, M. Die ukrainische Frage in ihrer histori- schen Entwickelung . Vienna, 1915. KupczANKO, Gregor. Die Schicksale der Ruthenen. Leipzig, 1887. Maximilian, Prince of Saxony. Vorlesungen uber die orientalischen Kirchenfragen. Freiburg, 1907. Smolka, Stanislas. Les Ruthenes et les Problemes religieux du Monde russe. Berne, 1917. Economic Magyar Bdnya-Kalaz {Hungarian Mines Handbook), founded by Karoly Dery and edited by the Secretary of the Hungarian Kingdom Association for Mining and Metal- hirgy ; eighth annual volume. Budapest, 1914. Magyar Staiisztikai ^vkonyv. New Series. Vols, xix, xx, and xxi (for 1911, 1912, and 1913), published in Magyar, French, and German by the Royal Hungarian Central Statistical Office. Budapest, 1913-15. Drage, Geoffrey. An stria- Hungary. London, 1909. GoNNARD, Rene. La Hongrie an XX'' Siecle : Etude economique et sociale. Paris, 1908. Katona, Bela. Die Volkswirthschaft Ungarns in 1913. Berlin, 1914. 24 AUTHORITIES [»o.7 Kellner, Arnold and Delisle. Austria of the Austriaris and Hungary of the Hungarians. London, 1914. Lange, Dr. F. LandwirtscJiaftlich-Statistischer Atlas. Berlin, 1917. Matlekovits, Dr. Alexander von. Das Konigreich Ungarn, volksivirthschaftlich und statistisch dargestellt. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1900. Maps Hungarian Ruthenia is covered by four sheets (M. 34 Krakau, M. 35 Jitomir, L. 34 Buda-Pest, L. 35 Bucures i ; G.S.G.S. 2758) of the ' International ' Map published by, the War Office on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000. See also special map, ' Hungary and Croatia -Slavonia : internal divisions,' issued by the War Office (G.S.G.S. 2917) in connexion with this series. For Ethnography, see note on maps in Austria, dsc. (No. 1 of this series), p. 28. INDEX TO VOL. I. [^The ficfurex in heavij type give the number of the hook referred to, those in lighten- tt/pe the page.] Aachen, 2, 99. Abauj-Torna (Zips), county, area, 3, 2 ; viticulture, 3, 30. Abdul Haniid, Sultan, 1, 82. Abos, railways, 3, 24, 25. Abrudbanya, railway, 6, 43. Adler, Dr. Victor, Social Democratic loader, 1, 19, 20. Adler, river, 2, 4. Adlergebirge, see Bohniischer Kaniin. Administration, Ausgleich of 1867, see that title. Austria, administrations, 1906-16, 1,12, 13; centralisation under Em- press Maria Theresa and Joseph II, 1, 3-4; centralisation, federalism or dualism, 1848, 1, 5; Constitution, 1861-1907, 1, 7, 8-9, 40; Constitu- tion of 1867, 1, 16-7 ; form, character and methods of govei-nment, 1, 16-8; fundamental laws, 1867, 1, 91-114; " October Charter" or Diploma, 1860, 1, 6; political parties, 1, 19-22; Reichsrat, Czech refusal to send deputies to, 2, 24, 25, 26, return of, 2, 26, constitution, &c., 1,17-18,91- 9, delegates from Bukoviua, 5, 20, election of members, transfer from Diet to four classes of constituents, 1873, 2, 26, Emperor's relations with, 1, 9, Silesian representation, 4, 22, 23, Slav Nationalists' obstruc- tive tactics, 1, 13; after revolution of 1848, 1, 5-6 ; system under Francis II, 1 5. Tlie Banat, decree of 1751, 6, 25 ; governorship of Count Claudius Mercy, 1718-1734, 6, 25-6. Bohemia and Moravia, absolutism, 2, 23-4 ; constitutional changes, 1627, 2, 18 ; recent developments, 2, 33-4 ; state of parties, 2, 32-3. Bukovina, Constitution of 1849, 5, 16, Diet, 5, 20; Cis-Leithan pro- vinces. Council of State formed, 1760, 1, 4; dualism, triumph of, 2, 24-5. Wt. 36998/251 PS/727 500 P.O. P. 7/20 Aduiinistration {continued). Hungary, Constitution, 1790-1, 1, 37 ; Constitution, 1819, 1, 39; form, character and methods of govern- ment, 1, 49-50; Golden Bull of 1222, 1, 31-2, 35 ; Jks Tripartitum, 1, 33 ; Law of 1504, 1, 33 ; Law of 1848, 1, 38-9 ; Law of Nationalities, 1868, 1, 41, 51, 115-20, 3, 14. Silesia, Diet of Princes and efficient central Government established by Matthias Corvinus, 4, 13 ; practical autonomy under Wladislav, 4, 13 ; symmetrical system of Joseph II, 1, 4, 36. Transylvania, Diet, 6, 13 ; under settlement of 1867, 6, 18-9; Slovakia, 3, 17-9. Adrianople, Treaty of, 1829, 1, 68, 5, 15. ■ Adriatic provinces, 1, 38. Aehrenthal, Baron, 1,72; administra- tion of, 1906-12, 1, 81-5; and foreign politics, 1, 61. Agadir incident, 1911, 1, 85. Agaliuatolite, 3, 37. Agram, see Zagrab. Agrarian Bank, 2, 106. Agrarians, Austrian parliamentary group, 1, 22. Agricultural Bank of the Margravate of Moravia, 2, 106. Agricultural Credit Bank for Bohemia, 2, 106. Agricultural implement making, 6, 69, 70, Agriculture, the Banat, 6, 62-65 ; Bohemia, 2, 54 t)2, 103, percen- tages employed in, 2, 11 ; Bukovina, 5, 26 29 ; Moravia, 2, 11 ; Ruthenia, 7, 17-20 : Silesia, 4, 26-27, 34, per- centages employed in, 2, 11 ; Slo- vakia, 3, 2'.i-32, 47 ; Transylvania, 6, 46-50. Aknasugatag, railway, 7, 15 ; salt in- dustry, 7, 21. Aknaszlatina, railway, 7, 15 ; salt industry, 7, 21. Alacsoiiy Range, see Low Tatra. (3377) 11 INDEX Albania, Aixsfro-Eussian agreement, re, 1897, 1, 79 ; Count Berclitold's policy, 1, 85-8; constitution of autonomous state, 1 , 88 ; Turkish atrocities in, 1, 85. Albert of. Austria, King of Hungary, 1437-9, 1, 32-8, 4, 12. Alcohol, trade in, 6, 55. Alexander II, Emperor, 1,74, 77, 121. Alexander, King of Serbia, 1, 82. Alexander, Prince, of Bulgaria, annexa- tion of Eastern Runielia, 1885, and subsequent war, 1, 78. Alexandri, poet, exiled, 1848, 5, 16. Alexandria, exports to, 2, 78. Alfcild, the, 3, 3, 5, 6, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 1, 17 ; climate, 6, 2 ; Magyar occupa- tion, 10th century, 1, 30 ; settle- ments of, 6, 7-8. " Alf old, Little, 3, 3; population, den- sity, 3, 8. Algeciras Conference, lOOfi, 1, 83. Aikenyer, railway, 6, 45. Almasel, copper workings, 6, 51. Alsace, colonists from, in the Banat. early 18th century, 6, 26. Also-Feher coiuity, agriculture, 6, 73 ; emigration, 6, 46 ; minerals, 6, 50, 51, 52 ; races in, 6, 72. Also-Rakas, iron deposits near, 6, 51. Also-Szolcsva, minerals, 6, 51. Alt Fratautz, popidation, 5, 7. Allranstadt, Treaty of, 1707, 4, 16. Altvater peak, 4, 2. Altvater range, 2, 5, ; 4, 1 ; rain- fall, 4, 4. Aluminium, 7, 20. Alvincz, railway, 6, 45. Andrtissy, Count Julius, Hungarian Minister of the Interior, 1, 7, 44, 121, 2, 21; administration of, 1,41, 75 7 ; foreign policy, 1, 61, 73, 74; Nati(jnal ConstitutioTial Party founded by, 1, 47. Andrew 1 1 , King of Hungary, 1 205-35, 1, 31, 6, 12; Saxons invited to colonise 'IVansylvania, 6, 12. Aiigcl river, 2, 5. Anglo- Austi'iiui Bank, 2, 105, 5, 33. Aniria, coalfield, 6, 67 ; coke industry, 6, 68; induslrics, 6, (i8, 70; |>o\ver, 6, 71 ; railw.iy, 6, 59. Anna, wife of King J<\'i'dinand of lioliinnin, 2, 16. Anthrai'itc mines, 2, 64. Antimony, 2, 6S, 3, 32, 33, 3H, U), 43, 7, 20. " Ajialll, Magyar family of, 6, 14. Ai)aiiida, railways, 6, 42, 43. Apiculture (bee-keeping and honey production), 3, 30, 6, 49, 64, 7, 19. " Apostolic Kingdom," origin of ex- pression, 1, 31. Apponyi, Coimt Albert, Hungarian Party of Independence, 1, 44; In- dependence, 1848, Kossuth Party, 1, 45. A' ad, 6, 6, 41, 58; railways, 6, 44, 59. Arad county, 6, 1 note ; population, 6, ' 8 note, 72. Arad town and district, Vlach popula- tion, 6, 36. Aranyidka, mines, 3, 37. Aranyos river, gold washing, 6, 51 ; navigation, 6, 41-2. Aranyosgyeres, railway, 6, 43. Aranka river, 6, 3. Arbeitervolkspartei, Aiistria, 1, 20. Armenian Catholics, Austria, 1910, 1, 14. Armenian language, 5, 9. Armenians, Bukovina, 5, 9. Army, Austrian, compulsory service, exemption of Silesia ns from, out- side country, 15th century, 4, 13, withdrawal of privilege, 4, 15 ; con- scription introduced under Maria Theresa, 1, 4; Austro-Hungarian, right of King to call out reserves, &c., question of, 1, 45-6. Army Bill, 1914, Count Tisza's tactics, 1, 46. Arnau, industries, 2, 73. Arpad, IMagyar loader, c. 890, 1, 30. Artillcial manures industry, 2, 80. Arsen III, Patriarch of Ipek, 6, 27. Arsita, manganese mine, 5, 30. Arva, county, area, 3, 2. Arva river, 3, 3, 4, 27. Asbestos, 3, 44. Asch, 4, 31 ; industries, 2, 76, 77, 78, 84; religion, 2, 31-2. Asia, match export to, 6,-?l. Asphalt, 2, 68. Auersperg, Adolf, Prince, ministry of, 1871 9, 1, 10-11. .Augsburg, Magyars defeated at, 955, 1, 30; settlciiicnt,, 4, 14. Ausidia, hop-growing, 2, 60. Augustcidnirg, Duke of, 1, 67. Ausglcii'b, commci'ciiil, 1, 12-13, 4,5. Ausglcich of 1S(;7, 1, 7, it, 25, 2(i, 3, 11., 6, 18 ; position of Hungary, 1, 8, tO; |)rovi^*ions of, 1, 8. Aussig, industries, 2, 60, 75, 80, 81, S5 ; railway, 2, 18, 49, 50, 51, 100 ; river tralllc, 2, 46. Auasig Chemical Associiation, 2, 85. Australia, trade wit.ii, 2, 91. INDEX 111 Austria, nee also 1, Contents ; annexa- tion of Nortliern Moldavia (Hiiko- vina), 5, 12-13 ; Czech invasion, 2, 40-1 ; glass industry, 2, 75 ; immi- ^ration from, into Transylvania, 6, •K) ; war with Prussia, 1860, 2, 24, 6, 18. AnstriaTi Alpine Mining Company, 4, 25, 29. Austrian Germans, colonies in Bo- hemia after Thirty Years' War, 2, 18. Austrian Induslry and Trade Bank, 4, 33. Austrian Mining and Smelting Com- pany, 4, 29. Austrian Sil('si;in Land Credit Institu- tion, 4, 33. Austrian Union for Chemical Produc- tion, 2, 80. Austro-German Alliance, 1879, 1, 75, 120-1. Anstro-Hungaiian Bank (National Bank), 1, 45, 2, 96, 105, 4, 33, 5, 33, 6, 50, 71, 7, 22. B. Bach, — , Minister of the Interior, 1849- 59, 1, 6, 6, 29. Bacs-Bodrog (Bacska) county, 6. 1, 26, 27 ; population, 3, 6 ; Serb immigrations and lustory, 6, 27-8. Bacska county, see Bacs-Bodrog. Badantz, population, 5, 7, 8. Badeni, Austrian Prime Minister, 1, 11-12, 2, 31 note; Czech policy of, 2, 28. Bagdad, Berlin railway project to, 1,85. Baglyasalja, lignite mine, 3, 35. Balaszfalva, metropolitan, 6, 30. Baldenbanya, copper workings, 6, 51. Balkan wars, 1, 86, 88. Balkans, Baron Aehrenthal's policy, 1, 81 ; Austro-Russian Agreement re, 1897, 1, 73-4,79; "Reinsurance Treaty," 1887, re, 1, 123 ; trade with, 2, 91. Bauffy, Hungarian Minister-Presi- dent, 1895-9, 1, 43, 44. Bania district, coal, 6, 67. Bank of the Kingdom of Bohemia, 2, 105. Banks and financial institutions, 2, 96-8, 105-7, 3, 44, 4, 33, 5, 33-4, 6, 56, 71, 7, 22 ; question of separate State Bank for Hungary, 1, 45. [3377] Barania mountains, 4, 2, 3. Baranyi, Gregor, Jesuit jiriest, 6, 16. Barley, cultivation, 2, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 103, 3, 29, 4, 20, 27, 5, 26, 27, 6, 47, 48, 62, 63, 73, 7, 17, 18. Bairere, M., proposal re Danube Mixed Conunission, 1, 71. Bars county, agricultural industry, 3, 29, 30, 47 ; area, 3, 2 ; gold and silver mines, 3, 36. Biirtfa, 7, 4. Basel, Council of, 1436, 2, 16. Basil, St., monasteries of tlie Order of, 5, 14. Biithory, Magyar family of, 6, 14. Batrina, minerals, 6, 51. Battenberg, Prince of, reinstatement, provision in " Reinsurance Treaty," 1887, against, 1, 124. Batthyany, Coimt, Ministry of, 1848, 1, 38-9. Batu, invasion of Silesia, 1241, 4, 10. Batyii, railways, 7, 15. Bavaria, alliance with Frederick II of Prussia, 1744, 4, 20 ; colonists from, in the Banat, early 18th century, 6, 26, in Bohemia after Thii-ty Years' War, 2, 18 ; and River Danube, 1, 69. Baziiis, railways, 6, 59. Bock, Baron von, ministry of, 1906-8, 1, 12-13. Bcczwa river, 2, 7. Bee-keeping (honey and wax pro- duction), see Apicultiu-e. Beer industry, 2, 71-2, 83-4, 88, 90, 3, 44, 4, 31-2, 5, 31, 32; export, 2, 88, 90. Beet and sugar industry, 2, 104. Beetroot cultivation, 3, 29, 6, 48, 62, 63, 73, 7, 18. Bega canal, 3, 27, 6, 58. Bega river, 6, 3. Bela of Hungary, expulsion from Halicz, 11th century, 7, 8. Bela IV, King of Hungary (1235-70), 1, 32. Belcredi, 1, 7. Belgrade, patriarchate united with Karlowitz, 1731, 6, 27 ; to be placed in Austrian hands imder certain circumstances by secret convention of King Milan, 1, 77-8. Belgium, competition in glass industry, 2, 91 ; trade with, 2, 90. Beneschau, railway, 2, 50. Benuisch plateau, 4, 2-3. Beraun region, agricultural industry, 2, 56. Beraim river, system, 2, 5. a2 IV INDEX Beraun valley, fertility of, 2, 3-4. BerchtoW, Count, Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister, 1, 82, 85-9. Bereczk, oilfield, 6, 52; railway, 6, 44. Bereg county, 7, 1, 2, 7 ; added to Transylvania, 160(3, 6, 15 ; agricul- tvire, 7, 17, 18; emigration, 7, 16, 17 ; forests, 7, 20; minerals, 7, 20; non-Slovak, 3, 23 ; population and races, 7, 3, 4. Bereg, Western, 7, 17. Beregszasz, aluminium, 7, 20 ; indus- tries, 7, 22; population, 7, 4; rail- way, 7, 15 ; roads, 7, 13. Berettyo river, 6, 42. Berg, Duchy of, 4, 19. Berhometli, population, 5, 10. Berlin, 2, 85, 99; Congress, 1878, 1, 75 ; railway connections with, 3, 25, 4, 25 ; Treaty of, 1745, 4, 21 ; Treaty of, 1878, 1, 70, Austrian vio- lation" of, 1, 83, 84. Berziiszka distnct, coal, 6, 67. Berzava canal, 6, 58, 65. Berzava river, 6, 71. Berzava valley, railway, 6, 59. Beskids, East, 3, ], 3." Beskids, West. (Jablunka mountains), 3, 2, 4, 3. Bessarabia, cession of strip to Moldavia, 1, 69 : southern, acqiiisition by Russia, 1, 75. Besztercze (Bistritz), 6, 6 ; built by the Saxons, 6, 13; industries, 6, 54. Besztercze-Naszod country, agricul- ture, 6, 73; minerals, 6, 50-1,51; races in, 6, 72; railways, 6, 43. Beszterczeban^'a, banking centre and Cliatnber of (_'(nninerce, 3, 44 note ; industries, 3, 45 ; popvdation, 3, 45 ; railway, 3, 25. Bcsztcrczcb;inya district, mines, 3, 32, 34-8, 4X ; wages, 3, 28. Bothlen, 6, 42 ; railw.ay, 6, 43. I'x'tlilen, Magyar laiiiily of, 6, 14. I'ethlen, (iahrici ( Bethlen Gabor), I'riiice of 'J'raiisylvania (1613-29), 6, 15. licusl, Coiiiit von, Austrian Foreign Minister, 1, 7, 65, 67 N ; policy of, 1,4<). I'.cutheii priiK^ipality, 4, 1 1. r.iala, popidatioii, 4, 5. I'iala river, 4, 2, l. Iiialv (JerciiioHZ river, 5, 1, 4. lUela river, 2, !•. IJielitz, banks, 4,33; coal iniitort, 4, 28; an independent administrative district, 4, 6; industries, 4, 30, 31, 32 ; population, 4, 5, H. Bielitz district, population, 4, 5. Bielitz-Biala Trade and Industry Bank, 4, 33. Bienerth, Baron von, ministry of, 1908-11, 1, 13. Bihar, Vlach pojjulation, 6, 36 note. Biluir mountains, 6, 2, 3 ; climate, 6, 4. Bilin, industries, 2, 75. Bilke, iron mines, 7, 20. Binnenland, bikes, 2, 5. Birth and death rates, the Banat, 6, 8-9; Bukovina, 5, 6, 10 ; Ruthenia, 7, 2-3, 4-5 ; Silesia, 4, 7 ; Slovakia, 3, 9 ; Transylvania, 6, 8-9. Bismarck, Count Herbert, German State Secretary for Foreign Affairs . (1887), 1, 123. Bismarck, Prince, 1. 70 note, 76, 2, 37 ; foreign policy of, 1, 65, 66. 67, 68, 74 75, 77, 78-9. Bistritz, .tee Besztercze. Bistritz river, timber floating, 5, 28. Black Sea, 5, 24 ; Austro-British ligreeraent, 1838, 1,68; project, 1, 68-72. Blausko, industries, 2, 81. Bocskay, Magyar family of, 6, 14. Bocskay. Stephen, Prince of Tran- sylvania, 6, 15. Bodcnbach, climate, 2, 8. Bodrog river, 3, 27. Bodrog-Keresztiir, industries, 3, 45. Bodva river, 3, 3, 4 Bodza, industries, 6, 70. Boijsan, flour mills, 6, 70. Mohemia, 1, 38 ; -lee also Contents, 2 ; Jiretislav compelled to do homage to Kmperor Henry III for, 4, 9; colonists from, in the Banat, early 18th century, 6, 25-6 ; exports to, 3, 14 ; German language, compul- sory use for official purposes under ■ Joseph II, 1, 4, 2, 18 ; invasion by Frederick 11 of Prussia, 1744-5, 4, 20 ; representation in Reiidisrat, 1, IS, '.>2, 93, 2, 32, ill delegations, 1, 110; revolt, 4, 15 6; Silesia partly under, JOth century, 4, 9; Silesia r(!con(juered by, 1025, 4, 9 ; suzo- riiinty over Silesia, &c., 4, 11-12. Bohemian l)is(H)unt Bank, 2, 107. Bohemian forest, agrieulturiil industry, 2, 5(>. HoluMnian Industrial Hank, 2, 105, 4, 33. IJohemian Joint Stock Uank, 2, 107. INDEX Bolieniian lowland, agricultural in- dustry, 2, 5H, 59, 60-1 ; fruit- j^rowiiiff, 2, (iO. IJoliomiau Mining Company, 2, 82. Hohoniian-Moravinn ))lateau, agricul- tural iiulustry, 2, 50. Oolicnniin nuiscuui, founded 1818, 2, 20. Bohemian norfcliern railway, 2, 99. Bohemian Union Bank, 2, 75, 84, 85, 4, 3;i Bohemian western railway, 2, 99. Bohmerwald range, 2, 1, 2, 3, 40; climate, 2, 8; northern (Ceskyles), 2, 3; southern (Suniava), 2, 3. Bohniisc'h-Aiclia, industries, 2, 77. B()hmiscli-KaMuiit/,, industries, 2, 84. Bohmisch-Ti'iibau, industries, 2, 7G. Bolnnischer Ivanun (Adlergebirge), 2, 2. Boicza, gold and silver miims, 6, 50. Boii, first known inhabitants of Bohemia and Moravia, 2, 14. Bojan, poi)ulation, 5, 10. Boleslav the Great of Poland, Silesia under, 4, It; doatli, 1025, 4, 9. Boleslav II, Polish revival under, 1058-79, 4, 9. Boleslav III of Poland, partition of Polish Crown territories, 1139, 4, 9-10. Boleslav IV of Poland, brother Wladislav deposed by, 1146, 4, 10; restoration of Silesia to eons of Wladislav, 4, 10. Bologna, 1, 61. Boniface, St., Society of, 1, 15. Bootmaking, 2, 101. Borad, gold and silver mines, 6, 50. Boraa, railway, 7, 15 ; road, 7, 14, 15. Borsbsinya, gold and silver mines, 7, 20. Borsod, non-Slovak county, 3, 23. Borsova valley, railway, 7, 15. Bosnia and Herzegovina, annexation by Austria. 1, 82-5 ; Austrian occu- pation, 1, 74-5 ; Austro-Eussian agreement, re, 1772, 1, 62 ; religion, 1, 14. Bosphorus, straits, " Reinsurance Treaty," 1887, re 1, 123-4. Bossancze, 5, 3. Botfalu, sugar factories, 6, 65. Botos, 6, 58. Boyars of the Bukovina, 5, 14, 15. Bozovics district, coal and lignite, 6,67. Braila, 1, 72. Brandau, anthracite mines, 2, 64. Brandenburg, made part of Bohemia by Charles IV, 2, 15. Brandenburg, house of, claims to SiU'.sian duchies, 4, 16-9 ; Covenant of Succession, 1537, 4, 18. Branyiszko mountains, 3, 3. Bra8S() (Kronstadt),6, 6; bank, 6,56; built by the Saxons, 6,13; chandler of commerce, 6, 55; induftries, 6, 54 ; petroleum refineries, 6, 52 ; railways, 6, 43, 44. Brassd county, agriculture, 6, 47, 48, 73 ; industries and tradt^ 6, 54, 55 ; minerals, 6, 52; races in, 6, 72. Braunau, industries, 2, 76. Brdywald, 2, 3. Breslau, capital of lower Silesia, 4, 10 ; capitidation to Frederick II oC Prussia, 1741, 4, 20; derma nisation of, 4, 10; peace of, 1742, 4, 20; railways, 5, 24, 25 ; religious liberties granted, 1648, 4, 16 ; treaty of, 1741, 4, 20 ; principality 4, 11 ; refusal to acknowledge George of Podebrad, 4, 12 ; Duke of, oath of fealty to John of Bohemia, 1327, 4, 11. Brest-Litovsk, Synod of, 1596, 7, 9. Bretislav, Silesia conquered, 1025, 4, 9 ; homage to Emperor Henry III, 4,9. Browing Industry Bank, 2, 106. Brezest, minerals, 6, 51. Brick-making, 6, 70, 3, 441. Bring, resistance to Frederick II of Prussia, and capitulation, 1741, 4, 20. Brieg, Duchy of, Brandenburg claims to, 4, 19 ; Covenant of Succession, 1537, 4, 18 ; religious liberties granted, 1648, 4, 16. Brieg principality, 4, 11. Brno, see Briinn. Bruderladen ; sick benefit or insurance clubs, 3, 35 -note, 40. Briinn (Brno), 2, 44, 4, 81 ; banks. 2, 106, 107; Bishop of, 2, 32; Chamber of Commerce, 2, 86; climate, 2, 8 ; coal imports, 2, 88 ; Czech University needed, 2, 36; industries, 2, 11, 73, 77, 80, 81, 84, 99, 4, 29 ; population, 2, 9, 11 ; railway, 2, 50, 100; Treaty of, 1479, 4, 13. Brussels Convention, 2, 82, 83. Brux, 2, 74. Bucareat, Conference of, 1. 88; Rumanian University, 6, 32. Buchberg, 2,1. Buchlau, 1, 82. Buckwheat cultivation, 2, 5, 8, 5, 27. Bucsum, gold and silver mines, 6, 50. VI INDEX Buda, Magyar occupation, 9th century, 1, 30 ; Pasha of, 6, 1-4. Budapest, 2, 85 ; Conference of the Central European Economic So- cieties of Germany, Austria and Hungary, 1917, 2, 45 ; Polytechnic school, 1, 52; railway communica- tion with, 3, 24, 25, 6, 42, 44, 58, 59, 7, 15; University, 1, 52. Budapest district mining enterprises and output, 3, 2, 41-2 ; wages, 3, 28. Budeney, Herr, Hamburg Conservancy official, 2, 45. Budfalu, gold and silver mines, 7, 20. Budweis, agricultural industry in district, 2, 56 ; Chamber of Com- merce, 2, 86 ; emigration from district, 2, 53 ; industries, 2, 80, 81 ; lignite near, 2, 65 ; population and races in, 2, 11, 39; pottery centre, 2, 35 ; railway, 2, 50 ; rainfall, 2, 8. Budweis plain, 2, 3, 4. Buffalo breeding, 6, 49. Building material, 3, 41, 4, 30. Biikk mountains, 3, 3. Bukovina, see also Contents, 5 ; agricultural wages, 2, 51-2 ; ceded to Austria, 1776, 7, 10; Lippowaner sect in, 1, 14; representation in Eeichsrat, 1, 18, 92, 93, 94, in delegations, 1, 110; trade with, 4, 29. Bukovina Timber Manufacturing Com- pany, 5, 28. Bulgaria, 1, 77 ; Austrian policy, 1 88-9 ; Auetro-Russian agreement, re, 1, 62, 79, 84 ; and river Danube, 1, 71 ; independence of Turkey declared, 1908, 1, 83; " Reinsurance Treaty," 1887, re, 1, 123, 124; Russian Dolicy, 1, 74 ; war with Serbia, 1885, 1, 78. Bulgars, alliance with Moravians, 2,i 14. Bunyevatzes, the, 6, 37. Buol, — , Austrian Minister, 1, 65, 69. Biirgerliclie Brauerei, Pilsen, 2, 72. Buschtehrad railway, 2, 49, 50, 85, 99. Butter, trade in, 6, 55. Cairo, exports to, 2, 7H. CalviiiistB (Jieformed Church), the Banat, 6, 37; Bohemia, 2, 31, 32; Hungary, 1, 34, 49, schools 1905, 1, 51 ; Slovakia, 3, 17 ; Transyl- vania, 6, 30, 3]. Canada, trade with, 2, 85, 91, 92. Canals, the Banat, 6, 58 ; Bohemia and Moravia, 2, 42-0 ; Bukovina, 5, 24 ; Silesia, 4, 24-5 ; Transylvania, 6, 41. Carinthia (Karnten), 1.. 38; illegiti- macy, 1, 16 ; representation in Eeichsrat, 1, 18, 92, 93, 1'4, in delegations, 1, 110. Carlowitz, see Karlowicz. Camiola (Krain), 1, 38 ; representa- tion in Eeichsrat, 1, 18, 92, 93, 94, in delegations, 1, 110. Carol, King of Roumania, 1866, 5, 17. Carpathians, 3, 3, 6, 2 ; forests, 3, 31, 6, 49-50 ; railway over, 7, 15. Carpathians, Little (Kis-Karpatok), 3, 2. Carpathians, West, 3, 2. Carpet industry, 2, 78. Casimir III, King of Poland, Halici and Lemberg incorporated by; 1 340, 7,8. Casimir IV, King of Poland, 4, 13. Caslau district, sugar industry, 2, 71. Catherine II, persecution of Uniat Church, 1, 9. Catholic movement, Hungary, 1, 35. Catholic School Association, Austria, 1, 16. Catholics, see also Eoman Catholics, Bohemia, 2, 31 ; Bukovina, 5, 20. Cattle, 2, 55, 3, 31, 4, 3, 5, 27, 6, 49, 65, 7, 19. Cattle, trade in, 7, 22. Cellulose, export, 2, 87. Cement copper, 3, 41. Cement industry, 2, 75-6, 3, 44, 6, 70. Central Bank of Austrian - German Savings Banks, 5, 33. Central Bank of Bohemian Savings Banks, 2, 106. Central Bank of German Savings Banks, 2, 105, 4, 33. Cerkow peak, 2, 3. Cerna basin, iron workings, 6, 66. Ceskyles (Northern Bohmerwald range), 2, 3. Chambers of Commerce, 2, 86, 3, 44 note. Charles IV of Bohemia, see Sigismund, Emperor. Charles IV, Emperor (1346-78), 2, 15, 4, 11, 13. Charles V, Emperor, Brandenburg and Liegnitz, Covenant of Succession, 1537, repudiated by, 4, 18. Charles VI, Emperor, 1, 3, 4, 19; Germanization of Southern Hungary, 1, 35. Charles X of France, 1, 61. INDEX Vll Charles XII of Sweden, 4, 16. CliarlcB Kohert of Naples, King of Hungary', 1308 12, 1, 32. Cliet'80, tnute in, 6, 5o. Cheliii, see Chotm. Cheinical iiidustrj, 2, 79-80, 85, 3, 44, •45, 4, 31, 6, 55. Chemical Industry Company, 2, 80. Chomicals, im])ortsi, 2, 70. Chicory cultiviifcioii, 2, 57. China, export of, 2, 90. China-clay, 7, 21. Chisone, Val, graphite combine, 2, 83. Cholm (Clielni), Polish diocese in- corporated in Russian Ox'thodox Church, 1875, 7, 9. Christian Sociahst Party, Austria, 1, 15, 16, 21-2. Christianity, conversion of Eolicuiia and Moravia, 864., 2, 14. Chrudini district, sugar industry, 2, 71. Cibo river, 5, 1, 4. Cieszyn, see Tcschen. Cis-Leithan provinces, administration under Maria Tlieresa, 1,4; recog- nised as separate State, 1867, 1, §. Civic rights, Austrian fundamental law, 1867, 1, lOU-3. Clement VII, Pope, 6, 17. Clericals, in power in Hungary, 1, 43. Climate, the Eanat, 6, 4; Bohemia and Moravia, 2, 7-9; Bukovina, 4, 5 ; Rutheuia, 7, 2 ; Silesia, 4, 4 ; Slovakia, 3, 5 ; Transyhania, 6, 4. Clothing industry, 2, 78-9. Clover, cultivation, 2, 57 ; 4, 26, 5, 27. Coal, Z, 62-4, 68, 3, 32, 48, 4, 27, 28, 29, 5, 50, 6, 51-2, 66-7, 7, 20; export, 2, 87, 88 ; import, 2, 88, 4, 28 ; trade in, 2, 89. Coal mines, labour, 4, 26. 27-8. Cogalniceanu, exiled, 1848, 5, 16. Coke, 2, 64-5, 4, 28, 29; import, 2, 89, 6, 68. Cologne, Archbishopric, colonists from, in the Banat, early 18th centui'y, 6, 26. Commerce, Bohemia, schools of indus- try, 2, 34j-5 ; Bohenaia and Moravia, 2, 86-92 ; Bukovina, 5, 31 ; Ru- thenia, 7, 22 ; Silesia, 4, 32 ; Tran- sylvania, 6, 55-6. Commerce, Ausgleich (" Compromise of Separation ") 1, 12-13, 45. Communal Credit Institution of the Kingdom of Silesia, 4, 33.' Concert of Europe, 1, 64. " Concordia," National Party in the Bukovina, 5, 18. Constance, (Council of, 1415, 2, 16. Constantinople, 5, 28 ; Austro-Russian Conventions, 1, 74; Conference, 1876, 1, 74. Consumption, Bohemia and Moravia, Co-operative societies, 4, 33, 34r-5. Copper, 2, 67, 68, 3, 32, 33, 36-7, 38, 43, 5, 30, 6, 51, 66, 7, 20. Copper pyrites, 3, 40-1. Corvee, abolished by Joseph II, but restored subsequently, 2, 18, 19 ; abolition, 1848, 2, 23. Cotton, exports and imports, 1911, 2, 86 note ; industry, 2, 76-7, 84, 86, 4, 30, 31, Cracow, 2, 44; banks, 2, 106, 107; railway communication with, 3, 25, 4, 25, 5. 24; university, 1, 24. Cravicza, lime kilns, 6, 70. Credit Bank, 2, 85, 106. Credit Bank for trade and industry, 2, 106. Credit Loan Bank of Koniggriitz, 2, 107. Credit societies, 2, 98, 5, 33-4. Crimean war, 1, 66, 69. Croatia, conllict with Magyars, 1848-9, 1, 39. Croatia-Slavonia, military control, 1, 35 ; representation in Hungarian Chamber of Deputies, 1, 50. Croats, the Banat, 6, 5, 72; demands for fuller national autonomy op- posed by Magyars, 1,39,40 ; Ruthe- nia, 7, 3 ; Silesia, 4, 23; Transyl- vania 6, 5, 72. Csak, Matthew, of Treucsen, claims of Charles Robert of Naples to King- dom of Hungary opposed by, 1, 32. Csanad country, 6, 1 note : popula- tion, 6, 6 7iote, 72. Csap railway, 7, 15 ; road, 7, 13. Csik, basin of, 6, 3 ; climate, 6, 4. Csik county, agriculture, 6, 47, 47-8, 48, 73 ; minerals, 6, 51, 52 ; popula- tion and races, 6, 22, 72 ; timber, 6, 55. Csiklova district, copper peroxide, 6, 66. Csorba, lake, 3, 5. Csucsa, railway, 6, 42. Csungany, sidphur pyrites, 6, 51. Cultivation, methods, Bukovina, 5, 27-8 ; Slovakia, 3, 29. Cuza, Prince, exiled, 1848, 5, 16. Cyril, Greek monk (864), 2, 14. Vlll INDEX Czacza, industries, 3, 45; railway, 3, 25. Czantory peak, 4, 3. Czaruy Czcreniosz rirer, 5, 4. Czech language, Bohemia, 2, 10, de- creased use of, early 19th century, 2, 19-20; question, 2, 26, 28,29, 30 ; written language of the Slovaks, 3, 12. Czech linguistic and literary move- ment in Bohemia, 2, 10, 20-1. Czech national movement, 1,4,2,15, 18, 19, 4, 12-14. Ozecho-Slav State, National Council, 2, 34. Czecho-Slovaks, question of combined State, 3, 22 ; in Silesia, 4, 5, 6. Czechs, 1, 40, 3, 10, 11 ; in Bohemia, and Moravia, 2, 9-10, birth and death rates, 2, 12, infantile mor- tality, 2, 9 ; declaration of independ- ence, January 1918, 2, 35 : educa- tional movement, 2, 35 ; illiteracy, 2, 34; invasion of Austria, 2, 40-1 ; racial struggle witli Germans, 2, 37- 40; Reichsrat declaration. May 1917, 2, 34 ; in Russia, 2, 53 ; settlers in Bohemia about A.D. 450, 2, 14, Czeremosz river, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4. Czeremosz valley, population, 5, 7. Czeruowitz, 5, 9, 20, 24, 26; annexa- tion by Austria, 1775, 5, 13 ; As- sembly, June 1870, 5, 17; banks, Ac, 2, 107, 5, 33, 33-4; Chamber of Conunei'ce, 5, 32; climate, 5, 5 ; colleges, &c., 5, 21 ; consistory, edu- cational control transferred to, 1848, 5, 16 ; description, &c., 5, 31-2 ; German university, 1875, 5, 18 ; gyuniasiiun, 5, 21 ; industries, 5,31, 32; Metropolitan See, 1, 14; popu- lation, 5, 8, 9, 20, 31, 7, 7 ; railways, 5, 24, 25 ; university, 1, 24, 5, 21. Czdd, woollen industry, 6, 54. D. Daco-Romans, in Transylvania, 6, 12. Dairy farming, 4, 26, 6, 26. Dalmatia, Hungarian rights, 1, 37; occupation of Louis the Great of Hungary, 1, 32; representation in Roicbsrat, 1, 18, 92, 93, in dele- gations, 1, 110. Dani»)l, King of Jjodomoria, 7, 8; Bub- miesion to Papacy and subsequent rovoraion, 7, 8. Danube river, 2, 43, 44, 102, 3, 4, 5, 27, 6, 4, 57, 58, 7, 14; Austrian and Russian rights on, history of, 1, 68-72 ; canaUsation, 4, 2, 24-5, '14, 45, 46, 87 ; European Comnussion, 1, 69, 72 ; Mixed Commission, 1, 71, 72; Riverain Comnussion, 1, 69-7u. Dauubian provinces protectorate, 1, 69. Dardanelles, 1, 81 ; " Reinsurance Treaty," 1887, re, 1, 123-4. Dauba district, water supply, 2, 4. Deak, Francis, 2, 24, 3, 14; leader of national movement, 1, 7, 37, 38, 39-40; Minister of Justice, 1848, 1, 38. Death rates, see Birth and Death rates. Debreczeu, centre of Reformed Cal- vinist Cliurch, 1, 49; railway, 7, 15; university, 1, 52. Delatjn or Jablonica pass, 7, 13. Denmark, seasonal emigration to, 3, 8. Deposit Bank, 2, 85. Des, horse-breeding, 6, 49, 56 ; rail- way, 6, 48. Desakna, salt production, 6, 52. Pesy libel case, 1, 47. Detta, ilour mills, 6, 76. Deutsch-Brod and district, climale, 2, 8 ; industries, 2, 72, 84 ; population, 2, 10 ; railway, 2, 51. Deutschnationalverband party, Aus- tria, 1, 22. Diarrho'a, 5, 6. Dibra, 1, 88. Didszeg, industries, 3, 45. Diphtheria, 3, 6. Diplomatic Revolution, the, 4, 21. Distilling, 2, 12, 83-4, 86, 3, 44, 4, 31-2, 5, 31,6,70, 71. Djakovo, 1, 87, 88. Djumbir peak, 3, 3. Dniester plateau, sheep, 5, 27. Dniester river, 5, 1, 3 ; system and navigation, 5, 3-4. Dniester valley, rainfall, 5, 5. Dobrovsky, Joseph, 2, 19. Dognacska, iron mines, 6, 66. Dolka, industries, 7, 22; railway, 7, 15. Dolka-Rukamezo Company, 7, 20. Dolka-Rdkamezo Ironworks and Spade and Hoe Joint Stock Company, 7, 22. Do many, coal, 6, 67. Domazli^e, see Taus. Dombrova, coalfield, 4, 28. Donkeys, 3,31, 6,65, 7, 19. Dorna river, 5, 1,2, 4. Dorna Watra, railway, 5, 25. INDEX IX Drafiomerfalvfv, oil and bitumen de- posits, 7, 21. Drainage, irrigation, &c., Eiikovina, 5, 28. Drang nach Osten, 1, 68, 75, 78. Dresden, 2, ill); Aiconl of, 1G21, 4, 1(5; railway' (.■ominunication with, 2, 51. Diibova district, coal, 6, 67. Dtina hal partja, administrative dis- trict, roads, 3, 23. Dunajac river, 3, 3, 4. Dutcii Indies, trade with, 2, 91. Dux, coal company, 2, 99 ; mines, 2, 99 ; porcelain works, 2, 99 ; railway, 2, 100. Dyeing, 4, 31. Dt/Hivnit Nobel, 2, 85. Dynamos, export of, 2, 92. Dzieditz, coal imports, 4, 28. ' E. Earthenware industry, 6, 54. Education, Austria, 1, 23-4 ; tlie Banat, 6, 38; Bohemia, 2, 3^1-7, Czech control of certain schools, 2, 26, Jesuit control, 2, 17-18 ; race rivalry, 1, 35-7, Bukovina, 5, 16, centralisation under Maria Theresa, 1, 4 ; Hungary, 1, 50-2, language, 1,43, La wot A atioualities, 1868, 1, 42, 51, 118, 119-20, laws, 6, 33-4, Magyar language as com- pulsory subject, 1879, 1883, 1, 42-3 ; language question, 3, 20-1 ; Kuthenia, 7, 11-2; Silesia, 4, 23; Slovakia, 3, 20-1 ; Transylvania, 6, 32-5. Eger, Chamber of Commerce, 2, 86 ; climate, 2, 8 ; industries of, and of district, 2, 77, 78, 99 ; railway, 2, 49. Eger river, 2, 4. Eger valley, fertility of, 2, 3 ; porce- lain industry, 2, 74. Egerland, Lower, with the Mittel- gebirge, agriciiltural industry, 2, 56, 59. Egerland, Upper, with Teplergebirge, agricultural industry, 2, 56. Egypt, trade with, 2, 78, 90. Eipel, industries, 2, 78. Eipel river, see Ipoly. Eisenstein, i-ainfall, 2, 8. Eisenstein pass, 2, 3. Elbe (Labe) river, 2, 102 ; canaliza- tion, 2, 43, 43-4, 45, 4, 24-5 ; system and navigation, 2, 4 ; traffic, 2, 46, 87. Elbe valley, 2, 2. Elbogen district, porcelain factories, 2, 65. Elbogen-Falkcnau, lignite district, 2, 65. Elbsandsteingebirge, 2, 2. Electro-technical industries, 3, 44, 45. Elizabeth, daughter of Emperor Sigismund, 1, 32. Ellenbogen, — Social Democratic leader, 1,9. Embroideries, 6, 54. Emigration, the Banat, 6, 61 ; Bohe- mia and Moravia, 2, 53 ; Bukovina, 5, 10, 26; Euthenia, 7, 5, 16-17; Silesia, 4, 7 ; Slovakia, 3, 8, 19, 28, 46 ; Transylvania, 6, 46. Enamel led- ware industry combines, 2, 85. Eiitvos, Baron Jozsef, Minister of Public Instruction, 1848, 1, 38; Minister of Education and Keligiou, 1867, 1, 41. Eperjes, industries, 3, 45 ; population, 3, 8, 45. Eperjes-Tokai mountains, 3, 3. Erdobadony, lignite mine, 3, 34. Erdiifiile, minerals, 6, 51. Ernest of Ji'igerndort, 4, 18. Erzgebirge (Rudo Hori) (Gomor Szepes), 2, 1, 2, 3, 3 ; agricidtural industry, 2, 56 ; industries, 2, 78, 79. Erzherzog Friedricli works, 2, 82. Erzisebetvaros, population, 6, 7. Eseomptegesellschaft, 2, 85. Esztergom (Gran), Arclibishop of, 1, 48 ; banking centre, 3, 44 note ; mines in tlistrict, 3, 32 ; population, 3, 8, 45 ; viticulture, 3, 30. Esztergom (Gran) county, area, 3, 2 ; minerals, 3, 32, 42. Etes, lignite mine, 3, 35. Eugene, Prince, 1, 35, 6, 27. Evangelical Church, Austria, 1, 14; Bukovina, 5, 20. Facset, 6, 58. Falkenau district, industries. 2, 65, 85. Falkenberg principality, 4, 11. Fatra mountains, 3, 3. Fejerko, antimony works, 3, 38. Fejervary, Baron, ministry of, 1905, 1, 44. Feko-Szolcsva, minerals, 6, 51. INDEX ,Fels6-Vis6, iron and manganese mine, 7, 28; road, 7, 13. Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria (Em- peror Ferdinand I), King of Hun- gary and Bohemia, 1526-(j4', 1, 34, 2, 'S-i, 4, 14, 17 ; Urandenberg and Liegnitz Covenant of Succession, 1537, repudiated by, 4, 18. Ferdinand, Emperor, resignation, 1, 6. Ferdinand (2), King of Bohemia, 2, 17. Ferdinand, Prince, of Bulgaria, 1, 80, 83. Ferdinand, Prince, of Saxe-Coburg- Gotha, as King of Bulgaria, 1, 78. Ferdinand III, Emperor, 4, 16. Ferdinand V, Emperor King, 1, 38. Ferdinands Nordbahn, 4, 25. Ferencz Canal, 3, 27. Ferenezfalva, industries, 6, 70. Ferrara, 1, 61. Fever, intcrnuttent, 3, 6. Fezes, manufacture, 2, 77. Fichtelgebirge, 2, 1. Fichtloch, peak, 4, 2. Finance, Bohemia and Moravia, 2, 112, 100; the Bukovina, 5, 32-4 ; Silesia, 4, 32-3. Fiscal system uniform, introduced under Maria Tlieresa, 1, 4. Fisheries, the Bukovina, 5, 29. Finnic, gynniasium, language, 1,42. Flandreuses, see Saxons. Flax cidtivation, 2, 54, 58, 4, 26, 27, 5, 27. Fleissen, industries, 2, 84. Flour-milling, 3, 4-1, 6, 70. Flour, trade in, 6, 55. Fodder, cidtivation, 2, 57, 103, 5, 27, 6, 62. Fodder-beet, cidtivation, 2, 57, 103. Fogaras, 6, 6 ; railwaj', 6, 44. Fogaras basin, 6, 3 ; i)Oindation, 6, 7. Fogaras county, agriculture, 6, 48, 73 ; races in, 6, 72. Fontina-alba, poj)ulatioii, 5, 8. Food-])rodu(;e, ti'ade in, 6, 55. F(jrestry, the 15anat, 6, ()5 ; Bohemia and Moravia, 2, (il ; tlu^ Bukovina, 5,28; Kuthcnia, 7, I'J 20; Silesia, 4, 27, 3I. ; Slovakia, 3, 31 ; Transyl- vania, 6, 4'.>-50, France, alliances with Frcdei-ick II of Prussia, 1741,1744,4,20; alliance with Maria Theresa, 4, 21 ; and River Danube, 1, 09; defeat of Austria, 1K59, I, 6; defensive alli- ance with Bu«si;i, 1891, 1, 79; negotiations with Austria, before Crimean war, 1, 06; trade with, 2, 78, 86 note ; war with Prussia, 1, 6(). Franchise, Hungary, 1, 50, Electoral Reform Bill, 1912, 1, 46-7; Tran- sylvania, 6, 31 ; universal suffrage movement, 1, 11-12, 44-5, 2, 29. Francis I, Emperor, 4, 21. Francis II, Emperor (1792-1835), 1, 4-5, 37; assumption of title of Em- peror of Austria, 1, 4-5, 2, 19. Francis Joseph, Emperor, 1, 6, 85, 4, 21, 22; refusal to be crowned in Bohemia, 2, 24, 26; visit to Berlin, 1872, 1, 73. Frankfurt, Congress of, 1848, 2, 22; revolutionary assembly, 1848, 1, 64. Franz F'erdinand, Archduke, 1, 22, ■Ki, 79; Christian Socialist Party supported by, 1, 15. J-rederick I (Barbarossa), Emperor, 4, 10. Frederick II, King of Prussia, 4, 1, alliances with France, 1741, 174 1-, 4, 20 ; boundary commissions ap- jiointed by, 4, 22 ; Silesian wars, 4, 19-21. F'rederick III, Elector (F'rederick 1, King of Prussia), 4, 19. Frederick V, Elector Palatine, defeat at the battle of the White Moun- tain, 162(), 2, 17. Frederick Wdliani I, King of Prus>.ia, visit to Emperor Charles VI, 1732, 4, 19. F'rederiek William IV, King of Prussia, 1, 05. F'rederiek William, the Great Elector, claims to Silesian duchies, 4, 17-18. FreistadI, bank, 4, 33. F>eistadt dist I'ict, popidation, 4, 5, 6. F>cist;idi Steel and Iron >.orks, 4, i:9. Freiwaldau, baTik, 4, 33 ; industries, 4, 30, 31, 32; marble near, 4, 30. Freiwaldau distri(^t, German district, 4, 1 5. FVeudenthal, bank, 4, 33 ; industries, 4, 30, 31, 32. F>cu(ienthal di^triet, German district, 4, 15. Friedeberg, bank, 4, 3;'> ; marble near, 4, 30. Friedek, banks, 4, 33 ; an independent administrative district, 4, 6 ; indus- tries, 4, 30, 31, 32. F'riedek district, population, 4, 5, 6. F'riedjuug, 1, 69. F'riediand, hank, 4, 33 ; industries, 2, 81 ; lignite near, 2, 65. Fruit, export, 2, 88. INDEX XI Fruit-growing, 2., 58, 60, 3, 30, 4, 20, 5, 27. FiiU'k, railwisjs, 3, 24, 26. Fiilckpilis (Koiiihany), lignite mine, 3, ;{5. Furniture industry, 2, (>1, 6, 71. Fiirstonberg, Count, 1, 88. a. Gablunz, industries, 2, 75, 81, 82, 91. Giles, industries. 3, 45. G;il;inta, railways, 3, 2)', 25. Galatz, 1, 70, 71, 2, 4(5, 5, 24, 28. Galicia, 1, 38 ; agriculture, hours, 2, 52, wages, 2, 51-2 ; Bukovina in- corporated with, 176690, 5, 13 ; credit societies, 2, 9S ; distilling, 2, 72 ; glass industry, 2, 76 ; Orthodox Churehes established b}' Russia during temjmrary occupation, 7, 9 ; representation in Reichsrat, 1, 18, 92,93, in delegations, 1, 110; trade with, 3 44. Galician Land Credit Bank, 5, 33. Game, 2, 55, 4, 26. Garam (Gran) river, 3, 3, 4, 27. Garam-Kovesd, lignite mine, 3, 3(i. Gasteiu, Convention of, 1865, 1, 67. Gautsch, Baron, ministry of, 1911, 1, 13. Gavosdia, iron and steel industry, 6, 67, 69 ; iron workings near, 6, 60 ; railway, 6, 70. Gaya-Goding-Lundenburg, lignite dis- trict, 2, 65. General Electricity Company of Berlin, 2, 99. George the Pious, Margrave of Aus- pach, 4, 15, 17, 18, 19 ; Jiigerudorf purchased by, 1524, 4, 17. George of Podebrad, Hussite King of Bohemia (1458-71), 2, 10; Czech revival under, 4, 12 ; as Regent of Bohemia, 1448, 4, 12; King of Bohemia, 1458, 4, 12-13 ; excom- municated 1466, 4, 13 ; death, 1471, 4, 13. George Frederick, will of, 4, 15, 17. Gei'lachfalvi - Csiics (Gerlsdorfer 8pitze), 3, 3. Gerlsdorfer-Spitze, see Gerlaclifalvi- Csucs. German Austrian Mining Company, 2, 99. German capital, influence of, 2, 98- 100. German colonies, 12th-15th centuries, 8, 11-12 ; Southern Hungary, 1, 35. German influence in Silesia, 4, 34 ; growth of 4, 10-12. German interests, Slovakia banks, 3, 14. German invasion of Silesia, 1109, 4, 9, German language, 4, 34, 5, 7, 9, 20. 21, 6, 16; hi Austria, 1, 25-7; Bohemia and Moravia, 1 1th and 12th centuries, 2, 14-15 ; Hungarian oflicers required to pass examination in, by Law of National Defence, 1, 43 ; as otlieial language, compulsory use of, under Joseph II, 1, 4, 36, 2, 18 ; as official language in Bohemia, 2, 23. German party in Austria, 1, 24r-5. Germanic Confederation, relations of Francis II with, 1, 5. Germanisation of the Banat, 6, 20; of Transylvania, 6, 16. Germans, the Banat, 6, 5, 6, 8, 9, 39, 72, emigration, 6, 61 ; schools, 6, 38; Bohemia and Moravia, 2,9-10, birth and death rates, 2, 9, 12, im- migration, lltli and 12th centuries, 2, 14-15 ; Bukovina, 5, 7, 7-8, im- migration, 5, 14, 15; Hungarian Law of Nationalities, 1868, 1, 41-2, 115-20 ; Hungary, colonies, 13th century, 1, 32 ; illiteracy, 1, 52, racial struggle with Czechs, 2, 37- 40; Ruthcnia, 7, 3, 16, emigration, 7, 5, 16 ; Silesia, 4, 4-5, 6 ; Slovakia, 3, 6-7; Transylvania, 6, 5, 6, 8, 9,. 72, emigration, 6, 46, national sentiment in Transylvania and the Banat, 6, 35, 39. Germany, see also Prussia ; Austrian relations with, 1, 84-5 ; competition in industry, 2, 86, 91 ; defensive alliance with Austria against Russia, 1879, 1, 75, 120-1 ; emignition to, 2, 53, 3, 8 ; Reinsurance Treaty with Russia, 1884, 1, 77, 79 ; 1887, 1, 78, 79, 123-4; trade with, 2, 74, 78, 80, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92 ; 3, 44 ; 4, 29 ; 6, 70 ; Triple Alliance, 1, 76-7, 122. Gesenke range, 2, 5, 6. Gessman, Dr., Austrian Minister of Public Works, 1907, 1, 22. Geza II, King of Hungary, Saxons in- vited to colonise Transylvania, 6, 12. Gibraltar, 2, 46. Gipsies, Bukovina, 5, 6, 8-9. Giumalaul peak, 5, 2. Gjulafehervar, railway, 6, 45. Glass industry, 2, 73^ 74-5, 84-5, 88, 90-1, 3, 44, 5, 31, 7, 22. Xll INDEX Glatz district, ceded to Frederick II of Prussia, 1742, 4, 20; held by Austrians after Seven Years' War, 4, 21 ; iiiude part of Boliemia by Charles IV, 2, 15. Glogau, capture by Frederick II of Prussia, 1741, 4, 20. Glogau principality, 4, 11. Glove industry, 2, 79, 90. Gmiind, railway, 2, 50. Goats, 2, 55, 3, 31, 4, 2(3, 6, 4,9, 65, 7, 19. Godemesterhaza. sulphur pyrites, 6, 51. Goding, hours of labour, 2, 52. Gold, 2, 67, 68, 3, 36-7, 38, 43, 6, 50-1, 7, 20. Gold Oppa river, 4, 3. Golden Eistritz river, 5, 1, 2, 3, 1.'9 ; system, 5, 4. Golden Bull, 1222, 1, 31-2, 35. Goldene Rute district, fertility of, 2, 3. Golecz, lignite 6, 7. Goluiczbanya, population, 3, 45. Goluchowski, Count, Austrian Foreign Minister, 1, 79, 81 ; on Triple Alli- ance, 1, 76. Gomor, agricultural industry, 3, 29. Gomor and Kis-Hont County, area, 3, 2. Gdmor-Szepes mountains, see Erzge- birge. Gorals (mountain Poles), 3, 20. Gorchakof, , foreign policy, 1, 73. Gorgeny mountains, 6, 2. Gorgeny-Szent-Inire, industries, 6, 54. Gorger, capitulation, 1849, 1, 39. Gijrz (Goritz) and Gradesca, repre- scntiition in Keichsrat, 1, 18, 92, 93, 95, in delegations, 1, 110. Gottesgab, 2, 2. Govasdia, iron deposits near, 6, 51 : railway, 6, 44. Griifenbcrg, mineral springs, 4, 32. Grain, trade in, 4, 32. Gran, .vee Esztcrgom. Gran river, .ire Garaiii. Granville, jjord, 1, 71. Graphite and industry, 2, 66-7, 68, 83, 88, 90. Graslitz, indiiHtries, 2, 78. ^ Graz, bank, 2, 106; iinivi^rsity, 1, 24. Great i'ritaiii, see United Kingdom. Great Carpathians, 3, 1. Great Moravia, Empire of, 3, 11. Great Russian dialect;, B, 8. Grc(!k projects of 1772 and 1781, 1, 62. Greek Catholics, sec Uniats. Grosswardein, see Nagyvarad. Grottau, industries, 2, 78. Gurakiimora, 5, 2. Gurar('), woollen industry, 6, 54. Gulsnuitli, industries, 2, 73. Gyergyo, basin of, 6, 3 ; climate, 6, 4. Gyergyo-Szent-Mikl()8, 6, 5. Gyctva, industries, 3, 45. G.) imes pass, railway. 6, 43. H. Haan, Baron de, Austri.iu representa- tive on Danube Commission, 1, 71. Habsburgs, control ol' Transylvania from 1690, 6, 15-16; Crown of Bohemia made hereditary in House of, 1627, 2, 18 ; foreign policy of, leading motives in, 1, 60-1 ; mon- arcliy of Hungary made hereditary in male line of, 1687, 1, 35; Silesia governed by, from 1550, 4, 15; title to throne of Bohemia, 2, 16 ; title to throne of Hungary, 1, 34. Hadikfalva, railway, 5, 25. Haida, industries, 2, 75, 84. Hainfeld Confcreucc, 1889, 1, 20. Halicz, kingdom of, 7, 8 ; under Habsburg rule from 1772, 7, 10 ; as part of Poland, 7, 8. Hamburg, 2, 43, 46, 87. Hanna river, 2, 7. Hargitta mountains, 6, 2. Haromszek, basin of, 6, 3; poitulation, 6, 6, 7. Haromszek county, agricidture, 6, 47, 48, 73 ; (brests, 6, 49 ; minerals, 6, 52, 53 ; population and races, 6, 22, 72 ; timber, 6, 65. Hartmanitz, industries, 2, 75. Haslau, indu-tries, 2, 84. Hiitmeg, iron works, 7, 20. Hatna, railway, 5, 25. II at van, railway, 3, 24. Ilausmannite d(^}K)sits, 5, 30. Havlicck, Charles, journalist, 2, 21. Hegalya vine district, 3, 3, 30. Ilcjasfalva, railways, 6, 43, 44. Ifeltau, see Nagy-I)iszn6d. Hematite dejjosits, 5, 30. Hemp, 5, 27. H.nmer.sdorf, battle of, 1745, 4, 21. Henrik-telep, welding works, 3, 35. Hi nry II, Duke of Lower Silesia, defeat at Liegnilz, 1241, 4, 10. H(!iiry III, Mniperor, 4, 9. HenrvIV, Duke of P.reslau (1266-90), 4, 11. INDEX Xlll Henry V, Emperor, invasion of Silesia, 1109, 4, 9 Henry VII, Reuss., 1, 12. Hernianiistadt, see Nagy-Szoben. Hernacl rivor, 3, \\, 4. Hernad valley, Hungarian Iron Indus- try Company, 3, 39 •«_). HerrenskretsclitMi, 2, 1,2. Hertz. 2, 72. Hesse, colonists from, in the Banat, early 18th ei'iitury, 6, 26. Hesse-Cassel, 1, 66. • High Oesenke, 4, 2. Hitrh Tatra (Magus Tatra) mountains, 3, 3, 4, 6. Hirschbadkamm peak, 4, 2. Hiinka, Father, 3, 22. Hodrusbanva,' mines, 3, 37. Hodza, Dr.", 3, 22. Hohenelbe, industries, 2, 78. Holienfriedborg, battk^ of, 174,5, 4, 21. Hohenfurt, elimate, 2, 8. Hohenwart, Count, ministry of, 1871, 1, 16, 19; negotiations with Bolie- mia, 2, 25. Hiilak, industries, 3, 45. Holy Alliance. 1815, 1, 62, 64, 65. Homerod-Lovete, iron ow near, 6, 53. Honey, see Apiculture. Hont county, area, 3, 2. Hop growiiij-;, 2, 58, 59-60. Hops, export, 2, 88. Horitz. iudu^;eori;ovic dynasty, 1, 80. Karancsalja lij:;nite mine, 3, 'Ar>. Kaninsehes, industries, 6, 70; railway, 6, U, 59. Karas river. 6, 4. Karlowicz, Patriarch of, 1,4S; ]>atri- an^liate united with liel^rade, 1731, 6, 27; Peace of KWD, 1, Ho, 6, 25; Synod, 186-i, 5, 1C>. Karlsbad, industries, 2, 85, 99; mineral waters, 2, 67-8. Karlsbad district, porcelain industry, 2, 7 k Karlsbnmn, mineral springs, 4, 32. Kiirnteu, .sec Carinlhia. Karolinenthal, industries, 2, 81. Kiirolyi, Count Miclniel, 1, 47. Karwin, industries, 4, 29; population, 4 (i. Kassa (Kaachau), banking centre and Chamber of Commerre, 3, -14 note; industries, 3, 41, 45 ; population, 3, 8, 45 ; races, 3, 47; railways, 3, 24, 25, 2G ; road, 7, 13. Kaunifcz, Prince von, foreign policy of, 1, 63. Kavalla, 1, 88. Kazan, 1, 72. Kazanesd, sulphur pyrites, 6, 51. Kaz:insebes, lignite, 6, (57. Keilberg, 2, 2. Kelemen mountains, 5, 2, 6, 2. Kenesd, sulphur pyrites, 6, 51. Kereszteny-falva, industries, 6, 54. Kesniark, industries, 3, 45. Kezdi-Vasarhely, 6, 5. Khuen-llederyary, Coiint, Hungarian Minister-President, 1910-12, 1, 45. Kienberg, industries, 2, 73. Kilia, mouth of River Danube, 1, 68, 09, 72. Kimpolung, population, 5, 9, 10. Kiralyh;Lg(')ntul, 6, 1. Kiralyhaza. railways, 7, 1'). Ku'libaba, manganese deposits near, 5, 30; road, 7, 14; silver and lead deposits, 5, 30. Kirlibaba pass, railway, 5, 25. Kis-Bocskd, railway, 7, 15. Kis-Kalan, industries, 6, 53. Kis-Karpat(ik, see Little Carpathians. Kis-Kukiillr» county, agriculture, 6, 47, 73; emigration, 6, 4G; poj>ulation and races, 6, 22, 72 ; wage8,6, 46. Kis-Kiikullo valley, railway, 6, 44. Kis-Szamos, 6, 6. Kisalmas, lead workings, 6, 51. Kisjciio, lignite mine, 3, 36. Kiskapus, I'ailway, 6, 44. Kisrakdcz, iron mines, 7, 20. Kissarmas, natural gas, 6, 53. Ki.szucza (Kisuoa) riyer, 3, 27. Kiszucza-Ujhely, indii.sfcries, 3, 4.5. Kladno, coal district, 2, 63, (it; iron and steel industry, 2, (J6. Klausenburg, xcp Kolozsv;ir. Klein Tessowitz, indu!*tries, 2, SO. Klimoutz, ])opulation, 5, 8. Klokodics, coal, 6, 67. Kobilaerdci, railway, 7, 15. Kolcza, lime kilns, 6, 70. Kolin, industries, 2, 80, 85 ; railway, 2, 50. Kollar, Slovak scholar and ywet, 2, 20-1, 3, 15. Kolnik, coal, 6, 67. Koloinan of Ilungary, Ilalicz seized by, 1205, 7, 8. Kolomea, railway, 5, 24; road, 5, 23. Kolowrat, — , Austrian Imperial Chan- cellor, 1, 5. Kolozs county, agriculture, 6, 47, 48, 73 ; banks, 6, 56 ; minerals, 6, 51, 52 ; ]iopulation and races, 6, 22, 72 ; railways, 6, 43. Kolozsnagyida, railway, 6, 43. Kolozsviir (Klausenburg), 6, 6, 13 ; agriculture, 6, 73 ; banks, 6, 56 ; Chamber of Commerce and Indus- try, 6, 55 ; Diet of 1865 at, 6, 18 ; industries, 6, 54, 55 ; population, 6, 7, 8, 22, 55, 72; railways, 6, 42, 43; university, 1,52. Komaron, see Konioru. Komldskitero, railway, 7, 15. Komorn (Komaron), 3, 4. Komotau, industries, 2, 99 ; railways, 2, 49. Komotau district, sugar industry, 2, 71. Ki>nias, Jesuit, war on Bohemian literature, 2, 17. Koniggiatz, battle of, 1, 67. Koniggratz district, sugar industry, 2, 71. Koniginhof, 4, 31 ; industries, 2, 76. Kiii-ber, Dr. Ernst von, ministry of, 1900-4, 1, 12; Czech policy of, 2, 29 ; Waterways Act of, 2, 44. Kormoczb.'uiya (Krenuiitz), German colonies roinid, in Middle Ages, 3, 12; niin(\s, 3, 3(5, 37; railway, 3, 26 ; Koyal mint, 3, 38. Kornoluncze, 5, 1. XVI INDEX Korosmezo, petroleum, 7, 21 ; rail- way, 7, 15 ; road, 7, 13. Kosel principality, 4, 11. Kosna, minerals, 6, 51. Kossovo, battle of, 1389, 6, 25, 27. Kosovo vilayet, Muerzsteg programme, 1903, 1, 79-80. Kossiitli, Ferencz, 1, 6, 47, 3,'20, 6, 28 ; Governor-President, 1, 39 ; Hungarian Party of Independence, 1, 44 ; Independence, 1848, Kos- suth Party founded, 1, 45 ; leader of National movement, 1, 38-9 ; Minister of Finance, 1, 38. Kovacsret, railway, 7, 15. Kozsd, lignite mine, 3, 35. Krain, see Carniola. Kralup, industries, 2, 80 ; railway, 2, 49. Krasso countv, 6,58; reincorporated in Hungary, 1750, 1, 36. Krasso-Szoreny county, 6, 1 ; agricul- ture, 6, 63 ; emigration, 6, 61 ; forests, 6, 65 ; iron and steel indus- try, 6, 69 ; minerals, 6, 66 ; popula- tion and races, 6, 36 note, 72. Krasso-Szoreny district, lignite, 6, 67 Krassovans, 6, 37 ; in the Banat and Transylvania, 6, 5. Kreibitz, industries, 2, 84. Kremnitz, xee Kiirmiiczbanya. Kristcifly, Josef, Hungarian Minister of the Interior, 1, 44. Kronstadt, see Brassu. Kruinau, grapliite mines, 2, 67. Kuchuk Kainarji, peace of, 1774, 5, 12. Kudzsir, iron and steel industry, 6, 54 ; railway, 6, 45. Kuhlandclien, cattle-breeding, 4, 3. Kiikiilhis valleys, roads, 6, 41. Kiikiill().sz(ig, railway, 6, 4t. Kuptore district, coal, 6, 67. Kuscliwania ])ass, 2, 3. Kuttenher^ district, emigration, 2,53 ; gokl, 2, (;7. Lal)c, river, nee Klbc. Labour coiidil ions, the I'auat, 6, 60-1 ; Bohemia and Moravia, 2, 51 3 ; Bukovina, 5, 25-6; Uiitlu-nia, 7, 16-7; SilcHJa, 4, 27; Slovakia, 3, 27-8 ; I'raiiHylvania, 6, 45 (». Lace induHli'y, 2, 7H. LadiHlauH, are WladiHla w. liaibaoli, 1, 61i. Lakes, Slovakia, 3, 5. Land Bank (Prague), 2, 84, 107. Land tenure, Bohemia and Moravia, 2, 61-2, registration, 2, 62, sub- division of small holdings, 2, 61-2 ; the Bukovina, 5. 29 ; Ruthenia, 7, 12 ; Slovakia, 3, 31-2. Landeskulturverein, the Bukovina, 5, 28. Langenbriicker Teieh, 2, 5. Languages, Bohemia and Moravia, 2, 10, 14-15, schools, 2, 35-7 ; Law of Nationalities, 1868. 1, 41-2, 51, 115-20; question in Austria, 1, 25-7 ; Transylvania, 6, IM -20. Laposnicel, lignite, 6, 67. Lassor, — , Minister of the Interior. 1871-9, 1, 10. Latin, 6, 19. Latorcza river, 1, 1, 3, 4, 7, 1. Latorcza vallev, railway, 7, 15; road, 7, 13. Laun, hop growing, 2, 59, 60. Lausanne, Peace of, 1912, 1, 86-7. Laiisitzergebirgc, 2, 2. Lawoczne, railwav, 7, 15. Lead, 2, 68, 3, 36, 37, 40, 43, 5, 30, 6, 51, 66, 7, 20. League of the Three Emperors, 1, 62, 73. Leatlier indi^stry, 3, 44, 45, 4, 32, 6, 54, 7, 22. Leguminous plants, 2, 58. Leibicz, 7, 4. Leipnik, industries, 2, 77. Leipzig, 2, 99 ; mines, 2, 99. Leitmeritz district, agricultural indus- try, 2, 56, 60 ; climate, 2, 8 ; fer- tility, 2, 3; sugar industry, 2, 71. Leinberg (Iavow), 5, 15, 16, 24, 33; batiks, 2, 106, 107 ; as part of Poland, 7, 8; pojmlatiMD, 7, 7; Provincial High Court, 5, 20 ; rail- way, 4, 25, 5, 24 : road, 5, 23 ; Buthenian Institute for training Uniat Clergy, 1787-1804, 7, 10; submission to Uniat Church, 1700, 7, 9 ; University, 1, 24. Leopold I, lOmperor, King of Hungary (1657 1703), 1,35,6,15,27; Bran- denburg and Liegnitz Covenant of Su(!cessi(>n, 1537, repudiated ]>y, 4, 18; Serb immigration to Btiis- Bodrog under, 6, 27. Leopold II (1790-2), policy of, 1, 4, 36-7. Levant, trade with, 2, 78, 86. IjibAie Ironworks Comjiaii}', 2, 66. Ijiognitz, Hatth- of, 1241,4, 10; prin- cipality, 4, I J. INDEX XVll Liegiiitz, Duchy of, Brandenberg claims to, 4, 19 ; Covonanfc of Suc- cession, 1537, 4, 18 ; religious liber- ties granted. 1648, 4, 16. Liegiiitz, Wohlau and Erieg, George VV^illiain, Duke of, death, 1675, 4, 18. Liegiiitz, Frederick TI, Duke of, 4, 19 ; Covenant of Succession with House of Brandenburg, 1537, 4, 18. Lignite, 2, 52, 62-3, 65, 68, 88-90, 3, 32, St, 35-6, 42, 43, 4, 27, 28, 5, 30, 6, 50, 51-2, 67, 7, 20. Lignite and briquettes, export of, 2, 88, 89. Limba roniana, 5, 7. Lime depoi-its, 5, 30. Lime kilns, 6, 70. Limestone, 3, 39, 48. Lindewiese, mineral springs, 4, 32. Linen industry, 2, 78, 4,30,31. Linz, bank, 2, 106; Czech farms in, 2, 40. Lipovans, in Bukovina, 5, 6. 8. Lipotvar, railway, 3, 25. Lippowaner sect, in Austria, 1910, 1, 14. Lipto (Liptau) county, area, 3, 2 ; mines, 3, 38 ; water power, 3, 48. Lipto-St. Miklos, industries, 3, 45. Liptoi Magura range, 3, 3. Litharge, 3, 36. Lithuania, Grand Duchy of, Uniat Cl.ureh in, 7, 9. Little Russian dialect, 5, 9. Little Russians, see Ruthenians. Livazeiiy, coal mines near, 6, 52. Livestock industry, 2, 53, 3, 31, 5, 27, 6, 49, 64-5, 7, 19. Lubosilz, climate, 2, 8; fruit export centre, 2, 88. Locomotives, export of, 2, 92. Lodoineria, or Vladimir, kingdom of, 7, 8 ; under Habsburg rule from 1772, 7, 10. Lombards, early settlers in Moravia, 2, 14. Lombardv, 1, 66; loss of, 1859, 2, 23. London, Ambassadors' Conference, 1912, 1, 88; Conference, 1883, 1, 71-2. Lorraine, colonists from, in the Banat, early 18th century, 6, 26. Los von Rom movement, 1, 15, 21, 24, 2, 31-2. Losoncz, banking centre, 3, 44 note ; industries, 3, 45 ; population, 3, 26, 45 ; railway, 3, 26. Louis of Baden, 1, 35. [3377] Louis the Great, King of Hungary (1342-82), 1, 32; King of Poland, 1370, 7, 8; recognised as overlord of Moldavia, 1372, 5, 11. Louis II, King of Bohemia and Hungary (1516-26), 1, 34, 2, 16, 4, 14, 17, 6, 14. Lovete district, iron deposits, 6, 51. Low I'atra (Alacsony or Nizna T;itra) Range, 3, 3, 4. Lower Austria, agricultural wages, 2, 51; representation in Reic^hsrat, 1, 18, 92, 94, in delegations, 1, 110. Lublin, Union of, 1569, 7, 9. Luczyna mountains, 5, 2, 3. Lueger, Dr., and Cliristian Socialist movement, 1, 21, 22. Lugos, industries, 6, 70; papulation, 6, 8 ; railways, 6, 59 ; L'niat bishopric, 6, 30. Luisenthal, sulpluir pyrites workings, 5, 30. Luisenthal Pozoritta, copper deposits, 5, 30. Lukilcs, — .Hungarian Finance Minis- ter, 1910, 1, 45 ; Minister- President, 1912, 1, 46, 47. Lukowica, population, 5, 8. Lundenbiirg, railway, 2, 50. Liqieny, coal mines near, 6, 52 ; rail- way, 6, 44. Liisatia, as Boliemian Crown land. 4, 11-12 ; ceded to Matthias Corvinus for lifetime, 1479, 4, 13 ; Upper, made part of Bohemia by Charles IV, 2, 15. Lucerne cultivation, 2, 57. Luschnitz river, see Luznice. Lutherans, Austria, 1910, 1, 14 ; the Banat, 6, 37 ; Bohemia, 2, 31 ; Bukovina, 5, 7 ; Hungary, 1910, 1, 49 ; schools, 1905, 1, 51 ; Slovakia, 3, 17 ; Transylvania, 6, 30. Liitzk, submission to Uniat Church, 1702, 7, 9. Luxemburg kings of Bohemia, 4, 11. Luznice (Lusclinitz) ri\er, 2, 5. Lvvow, see Lemberg. Lyssa Hora, peak, 4, 3. M. Macedonia, 1. 77, 88 ; Austro-Russian agreement re, 1897, 1, 79; Count Berchtold's policy. 1, 85-6 ; Muerz- steg programme, 1903, 1, 79-80. Machinery, impoi-ts, 2, 91 ; industry, 2. 80-2, 85, 91, 92, 3, 44, 45, 4, 31, 6,71. XVlll INDEX Madefalva, railway, 6, 43. Magas Tatra, see High Tatra. Magdeburg Archbishopric, 4, 14-5. Masrnesitf, 3, 39. 41. Magurka, mines, 3, 37. Magyar Kiirpati Petroleum Joint Stock Company, 7, 21. Magyar language, 1, 37, 3, 17-8, 6. 19, 2M, 33, ;-iO, recognition a'^ official language, 186S, 1, 41,115, 117, US ; in Hungarian army, use of, as condi- tion of taking office, 1, 44; in schools, 1, 51, 52. Magyar (National) movement, 1, 37- 40, 4, 3(5, 6, 17-18. Magyar-Regen, population, 6, 55. Magyaria, 3,6, 6, 1, 4. " Magyarization," 1, -12-4, 3, 7. MagyJrs, the Banat, 6, 6, 8, 9, 39, 72; emigration, 6, 61, invasion by, lOlh century, 6, 24, national sentiment, 6, 35, 89, 40; Bukovina, 5, 8; immigration into, 5, 14; coming of, in 9tli century, 1, 30-1 ; conquest of Transylvania and liistory of, 6, 12, 1 3, 18, 22-3 ; Hungary recovered for, 1699, 1, 35; illiter.icy. 1, 52, 2, 34; relations Avith Slovaks, 3, 13-6; religion, 6, 37 : revolt in Northern Hungary. l';81, 1, 35; Buthenia, 7, 3, 4, emigration, 7, 5, 16, immi- gration, 7, 5 ; in Slovakia 3, 6, 7 9 ; Slovaks conquered by, 10th century, 3, U; Tr.insylvania, 6, 5, 6, 8, 9, 30, 31, 72, emigration, 6, 46, national sentiment, 6, 35, 39, 40. Millirisch-Ostrau coal, 2, 64, 4, 29; import 2, 88; industries, 2, 81, 99; popidation, 2, 11; Trade and In- dustrial Bank, 2, 107. Mahrisch - Rothenau, industries, 2, 77. Miihrisch-Sehonberg, industries. 2, 78, 99. Mainz, Archbishop of, 2, II; Arch- bi.sh()|)ric, colonists from, in the Banat, early 18th century, 6, 26. Maize cultivation. 2, 58, 59, 3, 29, 5, 26 27, 6, 47, 48.()2, 63, 73, 7, 17, 18. Malaria, 3, (!. Malii:is, natural gas, 6 53. Maiif,'aiioso, 2, 68, 3, 32, 33, 10, 43, 5 30, 6, 50, 51, 7, 20. ManiicHinann Tube Coiiijmny, of Vienna, 2, 98 99. Maiitcuff(!l, l''rciherr von, conference of Oliiiiitz, 18 (I, 1,65. Manufactures, tbe Uanat, 6, 67, 71 ; Uolieniia and Moravia, 2, 6y 82 ; Ruthenia, 7, 22 ; Silesia, 4, 30-2 ; Slovakia, 3, 44; Transylvania, 6, 53-5. Mciramaros county, 7, 1, 7 ; agri- culture, 7. 17, 18 ; emigration, 7. 16, 17; forests, 7, 19-20; minerals, 7, 20, 21 ; population and races, 6, 36 note, 7, 3, 4. Maramaros Metal-Mining Company (Miiramarosi Fensbanyatarsulat), 7, 20. M;iramaros-Sziget, banks, 7, 22 ; cli- mate, 7, 2; industries and trade, 7, 22 ; population, 7, 3, 4, 22 ; rail- ways, 7, 14, 15; roads, 7, 13, 14; salt mines 7, 21. Marble, 3. 42, 4, 30. Mareli plain, 2, 7. March (Morava) river, 2, 5-6, 7, 3, 1, •>, 4. Mai'ch valley, climate, 2, 8. Maria Theresa, Empress, 1, 3, 36, 3, 13, 4, 20, 23 6, 16, 25 ; alliance with France, 4, 21 ; on annexation of Moldavian provinces, 5, 13; Germanization of Southern Hungary, 1,35; i)olicy of, 1, 3, 4; Silesian wars, 4. 20 1. Marienbad, mineral waters, 2, 67-8. Maros river, 6, 1, 2, 3 57 ; district between Tiza and, reincorporated in Hungary, 1750, 1,36; gold washing, 6, 51 ; Serb immigrants on banks of. 1 35-6 ; system and navigation, 6, 41, 57-8. Mai'os valley, population, 6, 7 ; rail- way, 6, 42, 43, 44 ; roads, 6, 41. Maros-Torda coimty, agriitulture, 6, 73; nnnerals, 6, 51 ; population and races, 6, 22,72. Maros-Ujvas chemical industry, 6, 55 ; gas, 6, 53; railway 6, 41- ; salt pro- duction, 6, 52. Maros-Vasariiely, 6, 5, 6 ; agriculture, 6, 73; bank", 6, 56; Chamber of Commerce, 6 55 ; industries, 6, 52, 55, 56 ; pojndiition and races, 6, 7, 8, 55, 73 ; railways, 6, 43, 41. Mars Gobirge, 2, 6. Marx, Karl, 1, 19. Masaryk, Dr., founder of the Realist rartv. 2, 27, 33. Match'industry, 2, hO, 5, 31, 6, 71. ' Matica" Slovak academy, 3, 21. Matico Ceska, ostablislied n31. 2, 20, 10. ^ Matico Skol.skii (Mother of Schools), Mobcmia, 2, 35. Matra liills, 3, 3. Matras Zele lignite mine, 3, 35. INDEX XIX Matthias Corvinup, King of Hungary 14.54-90, 1, 33, 4, 13; administra- tion of Silesia, 4, 13 ; invasion of Moravia and proclamation as King of IJoheniia and Moravia, 14()9, 4, 13 ; cession of Silesia, Moravia and Liisatia, to, for lifetinu^, 1479,4, 13 ; death, 1490, 4, 13. Matthias, P^niperor, 1, 31, 4, 15, 6, 15. Maximilian, King of Bohemia, 2, If). Maximilian II, 4, 15. Measles, 5, (>. Mechanical construction workshops, 5, 31. Medgyes population, 6, 7 ; railway, 6, 43. Medical service, Bukovina, 5, 6 ; Euthenia, inadequacy, 7,2; Slovakia, inadequacy, 3, 6. Mehadia, lignite, 6, G7. Melnik, river trallic, 2, 4G; wine in- dustry, 2, GO 1. Mensdortf, Count, Austrian Foreign Muiister, 18t;4, 1, 67. Mercy, Count Claudius, governi>rshi[) of the Banat and part of Serbia, 1718 34, 6, 25-6. Merklin, coal-pits, 2, 64. Me.-opotaniia, 1, 81. Mesticanesti pass, 5, 10. Metallurgical induslry, 3, 32, 44, 6, 53-4. Methodius, Greek monk (864), 2, 14. Metternich, Prince von, Austrian Imperial Chancellor, 1, 5, 2, 19 ; foreign policy of, 1, 61, 63. Mezo-Tohat, railway, 6, 43. Mezomehcs, railway, 6, 43. Mezoszcg, upland, 6, 8 ; climate 6, 4. Miava river, 3, 2, 4. Michael, Grand Duke, 1, 79. Mies river, 2, 5. Milan, King of Serbia, Austrophil policy of, 1, 77-8. Military frontier province, 1, 36. Military service, see Army. Millet cultivation, 2, 58. Millstones and building materials, 3, 41. Mineral oils, 3, 41, 44, 45, 47. Mine-^al springs, 4, 30, 32. Mineral waters, 2, 67-8, 3, 41. Minerals, the Banat, 6, 66-7 ; Bohemia and Moravia, 2, 62 ; laikovina, 5, 29-30; Euthenia, 7, 20-1; Silesia, 4, 27-30; Slovakia, 32-4 ; Transylvania, 6, 50-3. Mines, Silesia, effect of Thirty Years' War, 4, 16. [3377] Mining, 4, 10, 6, 25 ; Bohemia and Moravia, monks as pioneers. 2, 15. Minnesinger, the, 4, II. Mint, K(irni(iczb.uiya, 3,38. Miroschau, coal pits, 2, 64. Miskolcz, raUvvays, 3, 24, 26. .Mitrovitsa, Austrian railway project, 1908, 1, 81. Mittelgebirge, 2, 3. Moesia, 6, 12. Mohacs, battle of, 1526, 1, 34, 2, 16, 6, 14. Mohra river, 4, 1, 3. Molasses, production, 2, 70. Moldau (Vltava) river, canalization, 2, 43-4, 45, 46 ; system and navigation, 2, 4-5 ; traffic, 2, 46. Moldavia, Austro-Russian agreement re, 1772, 1, 62; and River Danube, 1. 69 ; revolution of, 1848, 5, 15. Moldawitza river, 5, 4. Moldawitza valley, population, 5, 7. Moldova river, 5, 1, 2; administration of region between Turnu-Severin and, 1, 72; regularization of, 5, 28; Rumani.ins on, 5, 6 ; system, 5, 4 ; timber mills, 6, 70. Moldova valley, ])opulation, 5, 6, 7- Mollwitz, battle of, 1741, 4, 20. Monastries, Bukovina, reduction, 1785, 5, 14. Monastir vilayet, Musrzsleg pro- gramme, 1903, 1, 82. Mongol invasion, cf Hungary, 1241, 1, 32; of Ruthen-a, about 1210,7,8; of Silesia, 1241, 4, 10; of Transyl- vania, 6, 14. Montenegrins, capture of Scutari, 1, 8S. Montenegro, exports to, 2,81. Morava river, see Marcli. Moi avia, see also Contents, 4 ; 1 , 38 ; as Bohemian Crown laiul, 2, 15, 4 11-12 ; Brestilov compelled 1o do homage to Emperor Henry III for, 4, 9 ; ceded to Matthias Corvinus for lifetime, 1479, 4, 13 ; exports to, 3, 44 ; invasion by Matthias Cor- vinus and proclamation as King 1469, 4, 13 ; representation in Rei(di- srat, 1, 18, 92, 93, 94, 2, 32, in delegations, 1, 110. Moravian Agrarian and Industrial Bank, 2, 107. Moravian Boundary Railway, 2, 99- 100. Moravian dialect, 2, 10. Moravicza, iron mines, 6, 66. Morocco, 1, 81; crisis of 1905, 1, 77. 52 XX INDEX Mortgage banks and institutions, 2, 105, 106, 5, 33. Motors, nianulacture, 2, 81. Muerzsteg programme, 1903, 1, 79-80. Miihlberg. battle of, 4. 14-. Munka, or " National Work '' party, Hungary, 1910, 1, -45. Munkacs, ounks, 7, 22; industries, 7, 22; pojmlation, 7, 22, 3-i ; railway, 7, 15 ; roads. 7, 13 ; tobaceo fac- tory, 7, 19. Miinsterberg principality, 4, 11. Mules 3, 31, 6, Ho, 7, 19. N. Nadrag, iron workings and industry round, 6, ()(», (17, 69 ; railway, 6, 70. Nagy, Paul, 1, 37. Nagy-Ag valley, road, 7, 13. Nagy-B;inya, road, 7, U. Nagy-Banya district, wages, 3, 28. Nagy-Bocsko, 7, H; railway, 7, 15; road, 7, 13. NagA'-Bossauy, industries. 3, 45. Nagy-Diszmid (Heltau), industries, 6, 54, 56 ; railway, 6, 44. Nagy-Kiikiill(') county. 6, 7 ; agricul- ture, 6, 73; emigration, 6, 16; iron deposits, 6, 51 ; population and races, 6, 7, 22, 72. Nagy-Kiikull('> valley, banks, 6, 56 ; railway, 6, 43. Nagy-Saros, flour mill, 3 44. Nagy-Szamos, 6, 6. Nagy-Szeben (Ilermannstadt), Arch- bishop of, 1, 48; bank, 6, 56 ; built by the Saxons, 6, 13 ; Diet of 1863 at, 6, 17 S; industries, 6, 54; oil, 6, 52; population, 6, S; railways, 6,41,45. Nagv-Sz()llr)S, railway, 7, 15 ; road, 7." 13. Nagy;ibr;iiika, iron mines, 7, 2'<. Nagyiig, gold and silver mini's, 6, 50. i\agyl)e(;sker(^k, 6, 58; railways, 6,58, 59; sugar facrtories, 6, 55. Nagyciiyed, 6, 6. Na;;ykikinda, railway, 6, 59. Nagyornjjoly, ()ui(!ksilver, 6, 51. Nagyviirad (Orossvvardt'in), railway, 6, 42 ; Uiiiat bishopric-, 6, 30. Nandorkegy, iron and steel industry, 6, 69. Naples, 1, 64. Napoleon 1,1, 37, 63. Napoleon III, 1, 66, (!7, 4, 21. Napoleonic wars, 4, 21, 5, 13. Naschwitz, industries, 2, 81. National Bank, see Austro-Hungariau Bank. National Constitutional Party, Hun- gary, 1, 47. National movement, Bohemia, 2, 21. National sentiment, Slovakia, 3, 22. National Soeialist Party, Bohemia, 2, 33. Njitural gas, 6, 53. Neagra river, 5, 1. Neepomuk, Neiigedein, or Neumark pass, 2, 2, 3. Neisse, episcopal principality of, 4, 11 ; resistance to Frederick II of Prussia, 1741, 4, 20. Nemet-Bogsiin, iron mines, 6, 66. Neograd, xee Nognid. Nera river, 6, 4. Nermcth, coal, 6, 67. Nestowitz, industries, 2, 80. Netherlands, trade with, 2, 90. Neu-Erlaa, industries, 2, 80. Neudek, indu-stries, 2, 77, 78. A>He Freie Presse, 1, 24-5. Neugedein pass, xee Neepomuk. Neuuirirk pass, xee Neepomuk. Neiisattle, industries, 2. 75, 85. Neusiedl joint stock company, 2, 73. Neusolonetz, population, 5, 8. Neusitadt, indu.-^tries, 2, 76. Neutitschein, 4, 31. Neutra, see Nyitra. Newspapers and journals, Hungarv, 1, 52. Nicholas I, persecution of Uniat Church, 7, 9 Niedergrund, industries, 2, 84. Niemes, industries, 2, 77 Nikolsburg, 'I'reaty of, 1621, 6, 15. ti Nimburg, railway, 2, 51. ■ Nisli, to be placed in Austrian hands ^ under certain circumstances, by secret convention of King Milan, 1, 77-8. Nitrate cond)ine, 2, 85. Nixdoi f, industries, 2, 84. Ni/.na. Tatr.i range, see Low Tiitra. N(')gr.id (Neognid) county, area, 3, 2; viliculture, 3, 30. North Anu^rica, emigration to, 2, 53. North Austrian Bank for Industry, Trade and Agriculture, 2, 10(). North Hungarian United Coal Mining (!om])aiiy, 3, 35. North-VVest Hohetnia, railway, 2, 50. Norway, trade with, 2, 88. Novi iJazar, Sanjak of, abandonment by Austria, 1909, 1,83,84; Austrian INDEX XXI railway project, 1908, 1, 81 2 ; Austrian right to garrison, and construct roads, 1, 75. Nucitz, iron-ore deposits, 2, 66. Nyavalyasfalva, sulpluir pyrites, 6,51. Nyitra (Neutra), banking centre, 3, 41 note; ])opulation, 3, 45. Nyitr:i (Neutra) county, agriculture, 3, »), ;J1, 47; area, 3", 2. Nyitra tralgoez range, 3, 3. Nyitra (Neutra) river, 3, 4, 27. Nyilra valley, population, 3, 8. Nyitra, U])pcr, hasin, lignite deposits, 3, 36. Nyitrabanya, lignite mines, 3, 36. Oats, cultivation, 2, 56, 57. 58, 55), 103, 3, 2 of, 2, 15, 32 ; banks, 2, 106, 107 ; Hisliop of, 2, 14 ; capture by Frederick II of Prussia, 174-1', 4, 20; Chamber of Commerce, 2, 8G; climate, 2, 8; expedition of Em- peror Henry III to, 4, 9 ; industries, 2, 73, 75, 76, 79, 81, 84, 85, 92, 99 ; language question, 2,30 ; nationalist demonstrations, 1868-9, 2, 25 ; petition to Government at Vienna, Marcli 1848, 2, 22; population, 2, 11 ; railways, 2, 50, 51, 100; Slav Congress, 1848, 2, 22, 23 ; Sokol jubilee, 1912, 2, 39; state of siege, 1893, 2, 27 ; surrender to Prince Windiscbgratz, June 1848, 2, 23; technical training, 2, 35 ; Treaty of, 1, 67, 2, 24 ; universities, 1, 24, 2, 10, 15, 17, 19, 26, 34, 36. Prague district, gold, 2, 67 ; industries, 2, 71, 72; viticulture, 2, 61. Prague Iron Industry Company, 2,66, 82. Predeal, railways, 6, 42, 43. Pfemysl dynasty, Bohemia, 2, 14-6. Prerau, canal, 2, 45, 4, 24 ; coal im- port, 2, 88 ; industries, 2, 81. Press, freedom ol, Austrian law of 1867, 1, 102; freedom of, granted, 1849, 1, 6. Pressburg, see Pozsony. Priboy, Austrian troops stationed in, 1,75. Pribram, Imperial silver mines, 2, 67 ; railway, 2, 50. Priepolye, Austrian troops stationed in, 1, 75. Privigye (Priwitz), industries, 3, 45. Privileged Austro-Hungarian State Railway Company, 6, 68, 69, 70. Priwitz, see Privigye. Procopius, Hussite leader, 4, 12. Prossnitz, industries, 2, 77, 78-9, 81. Protestant " Evanglisdier Bund," 2, 31 note. Protestants, Bohemia, 2, 31 ; Silesia, 4, 23. Prussia, see also Germany ; Austrian alliance with, 1,62 ; Austrian rivalry with, 1,64; and River Danube, 1, 69 ; dt^fensive alliance with, 1854, 1, 6y; Holy Alliance, 1815, 1,26, 64, 65 ; Quadruple Alliance, 1815, 1, 64; seizuj-e of Silesia, 1, 63; war with Austria, 1866, 1, 4(J, 66-8, 2, 24, 6, 18 ; war with France, 1, 66. Pruth river, 5, 1, 2, 3 ; canalisation question, 5, 24; regulation of, 5, 28; system and nnvigatioii, 5, 4, 23-4; timber floating, 5, 28. Pruth vallev, i)opulation, 5, 9 ; rain- fall, 5, 5 ;" roads, 5, 23. Przeworsk, sugar industry, 2, 83. Pulse cultivation, 5, 27. Putna, monastery, 5, 18. a. Quadruple Alliance, 1815, 1, 64. Quicksilver, 2, 68, 6, 51. Radautz. g\mnasium, 5, 21; indus- tries, 5, 31, 32 ; population, 6, 9, 32. Radbusa river, 2, 5. Radnitz (Raduic), coal pits, 2, 64. Raphael, St., Society of, 15. Raiffeisen banks, 2, 96, 98, 4, 35, 5, 26, 28. Railways, the Banat, 6, 58-9, 66-7; Bohemia and Morovia, 2, 47 51, 92, 99-100; Bukovina, 5, 24-5, destruction during war, 5, 25 ; Ruthcnia, 7, 14-15; Silesia, 4,25; Slovakia, 3, 24-6, 17; Transylvania, 6, 42-5. Rajecz, industries, 3, 15. Rakitna river, 5, 2. Riikuczy, Francis, II, rising 1703, 1, 35, 6, 16. Rakoczy, Rfagyar family of, 6, 14. Rakoczy, Magyar hero, 3, 13, 6, 15, Rakonitz, hop growing, 2, 59, 60 ; railwaj', 2, 49. Rape-seed, 2, 58. Ratibor, 4, 25; capital of Upper Silesia, 12th century, 4, 10. XXIV INDEX Eafcibor. Duchy of, claim of House of Brandenburg to, 4, 16-7. Rafcibor principality, 4, 11. Riittimau, industries, 2, 73. Raudnitz, hop growing, 2, 60. Ravenna, 1, 61. Realist party, 2, 27, 33. Rechberg, 1, 66-7. Red Russia, 7, 7. Red Russian dialect, 5, 7. Redemptionists, 1, 15. Reformation, in Hungary, and counter- reformation, 1, 34<-5 ; Silesia, 4, 14-5 ; among Slovaks, and counter- reformation, 3, 12, 13 ; in Transyl- vania, 6, 14-15. Reich enberg, 2, 39, 43, 4, 31 ; Cham- ber of Commerce, 2, 86; industries, 2, 77, 78. 81, 82, 99 ; lignite near, 2, 65 ; population, 2, 11 ; railway, 2. 49 ; textile trade, 2, 35. Eeichenberg-Kratzau district, indus- tries, 2, 77. Reichenstein ridge, 4, 1. Religious conditions, Austria, 1, 14-15 ; freedom granted, 1849, 1, 6 ; law of 1867, 1, 102, teaching in schools, 1, 23, Toleration Edict, 1781, 1, l-J, 49 ; the Banat, 6, 36-7 ; Bohemia, Catliolic reaction under Ferdinand, 2, 17, fi'eedom of conscience per- mitted, 1609, 4, 15, policy of the Habsburgs, 2, 16-17, toleration to I/utherans and Calvinists granted by Joseph II in, 2, 18-19; Bukovina, 5, 19-20, church question, 1848-66, 5, 16-17, reorganisation of the church in, 5, 14, Rumanian Metro politanate, 1863, 5, 16-17; churchc.t of Bukovina and Dalmatia, union under one Metropolitan, 1873, 5,18; free lom of conscience to all Bohemians, and freedom of worship to nKuiibers of Assembly of Estates, 1609, 2, 17 ; Hungary," 1, 48, 6, 37, 1 rccdoni of choice granted, 1608, 1657, 1, 34-5, liberty, 6, 16, persecution under l^oopold 1, 1, 35, Protestant churches, 1, -19; Protcslanlenpa- lent.s, 1861, 1, 14; rivalry between Greek and Roman churches, 7, 8-9 ; Rutheniu, 7, 11 ; Silesia, 4, 23, frciHlom of conscience permitted, 1609, 4, 15 ; toleration by Treaty of WcHt))li!ilia, 16J'8, 4, 16; Slovakia, 3, J7; Transylvania, 6, 30-1, (■(•(■!cHiasti<^al iiKivcmciit, IHth cen- tury, 6, J6 7, liljcrty, 6, 16, tolera- tion allowed, 1564, 6, 15. Religious orders, Austria, laxity, ex- cept among Jesuits and Redcmp- torists, 1, 15. " Repeal," Bohemian Patriotic Society, 2, 21. Resicza-Anina, iron and steel industry, 6,67. Resicza-Nuta, water power, 6, 71. Resiczabanya and district, coke indus- try, 6, 68 ; forests round, 6, 65 ; industries, 6, 68, 69,70; minerals, 8, 66, 67 ; railway, 6, 59 ; water power, 6, 71. Retyisora, railway, 6, 44. Revenue and expenditure, Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, 1909, 2, 95-6. Revolution of 1848, 1. 5, 38-9, 64-5, 2, 21-3, 5, 15-16. Rhenish Palatinate, colonists from, in the Banat, early 18th century, 6, 26. Rican, popidation, 2, 35, potto y school, 2, 35. Rieger, 2, 28. Riesengebirge, 2, 2 ; rainfall, 2, 8. Riinamur:iny-Salgotarjan, works, 3, 33, 34, 35 note, 38-9. Rivers, the Banat, 6, 57-8 ; Bohemia and Moravia, 2, 42-6 ; Bukovina, 5, 23-4; Ruthenia, 7, 14; Slovakia, 3, 4-5 ; Transylvania, 6, 41-2. Roads, the Banat, 6, 57 ; Bohemia and Moravia, 2, 42 ; Bukovina, 5, 23; Ruthenia, 7, 13-14; Silesia, 4, 24; Slovakia, 3, 23-4; Transyl- vania, 6, 41. Rodna mountains, 6, 2, 3. Rokamezo, forge, 7, 20. Roman Catholics, Austria, 1910, 1, 14 ; the Banat, 6, 37 : Bukovina, 5, 7, 8, 20; Hungary, 1910, 1,48, schools, 1905, 1,51; 'Silesia, 4.23; Slovakia, 3, 17 ; Transylvania 6, 30, 31. Roman, Prince, Halicz and Lodomcria under, till death in 120.5, 7, 8. Roinan-Bogsan, industries, 6, 69, 70. ^ Romhany, see Fiilekpilis. Rcuiaszok, railway, 7, 15; salt indus- try, 7, 20, 21. Rosenberg, scf R()zsahegy. Roskfiuy, minerals, 6, 51. Rossitz, coal, 2, 64. Rostok, sugar-beet industry, 2, 70. Roterturm ])a8s, see Verestorony. Roudny, gold mine, 2, 67. Roumclia, Eastern, " Reinsurance Treaf.y," 1887, re, 1, 123. Roy 111 llung.'iriiin (;opper works, 3, 38. Royal Hungarian iron and steelworks, 3, 36, 6, 64. INDEX XXV Rojal Hungarian metal extracting works. 3, ;{(). Ro^al Ilungariftu mine;*, 3, 36, 37, 40. Royal Hungarian salt-boiling works, 3, 41. R('>zsahegy (Rosenberg), industries, 3, 45 ; railway. 3, 25. Rozsnyo. population, 3, 45. Rudo Hori, see Erzebirge. Rudolf II, Eni|)eror (1576-1612), 2, 16-17, 4, 15, 6, 15. Rumania, claim to the Banat, 6, 40 ; eoni))etition in distilling industry, 2, 86; and River Danube, 1, 70-1, 71 ; emigration to, 2, 53, 6, 46, 61, 7, 5 ; Russian policy, 1, 74-75 ; trade with, 2, 86 note, 91, 92, 6, 55. Rumanian (Vlaeli) language, 5, 8, 9, 20, 6, 2, 19, 20. Rumanians (Vlachs). 6, 37 lote ; the Eanat, 6. 5, 6, 8, 9, 39, 72, emigra- tion, 6, 61, national sentiment, 6, 39; Bukovina, 5, 6, 19, evidence of national feeling, 5, 17-18, immigra- tion. 5, 1314; repressive measures, 5, 17 ; demands for national re- cognition opposed by Magyars 1, 39, 40; Hungarian Law of Nation- alities, 1S68, 1, 41-2, 115-20; in Hungarian counties outside Tran- sylvania, 6, 36 note ; Hungiiry, illi- teracy, 1, 52 ; programme of ilefence. 1, 43-1 ; prosecutions for political or quasi-political offences, 6, 35 ; Rutbenia, 6, 3, emigration, 7, 5, 16; Transylvania, 6, 5, 6,8,9,30, 36, 72, emigration. 6, 46, history, 6, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17-18, 19. 23, Nationalist Party, 6, 31-2; popular opinion, 6, 35, schools, 6, 33, 34-; Voivodate of Moldavia established by, early 14th century, 5, 11 ; and war of independence, 6, 17. Rumanian nationality in Bukovina, decline, 5, 14—15 ; revival, 5, 15-17. Rumburg, industries, 2, 84. Rumelia, Austro-Russian agreement, re, 1772, 1,62; Eastern, annexation by Prince Alexander of Bulgaria, 1885, 1, 78. Ruskiczn, iron and steel industry, 6, 68 ; iron workmgs, 6, 66. Russ, Dr., 2, 45, 46. Russia, Austrian agreements, &c., with, 1, 62, 73-4 79, 84 ; army in Hun- gary, 1849, 1, 64; and Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1, 82 ; Austrian relations, 1881- 1906, 1, 77-80; Austro-German de- fensive alliance against, 1879, 1, 75, 120-1 ; competition in distilling in- dustry, 2, 86 ; conflict with Magyars, 1, 39 ; defensive alliance with France, 1891, 1,79; emigration to, 2, 53; Holy AlUancc, 1815, 1, 62, 64; policy re Bulgaria, 1,74; Quad- ruple Alliance, 1815, 1, 64; Rein- surance Treaty with Germany, 1884, 1, 77; 1887, i, 78,79, 123-4"; ridits on River Danid)e, liistory of, 1, 68- 72 ; Serb migration to, from Hun- gary 1, 36 ; trade with, 2, 74, 78, 8S.*4, 29, 6, 68; war with Japan, 1, 74, 80 ; war with Turkey, 1769- 74, 5. 12. Russisch-Moldawitza, petroleum, 5, 30. Ruszkabanya, industries, 6, 70. Ruthenians, or Little Russians, the Bunat, 6, 5, 72 ; Bukovina, 5, 7, 19, immigration, 5, 13-14, 15 ; on Car- pathians, 14t]i century, 5, 11 ; Hun- garian Law of Nationalities 1868, 1, 41-2, 115-20; illiteracy, 1, 52; Rutbenia, 7, 3, 4, 5, emigration, 7, 6, 16; Silesia, 4, 23; Slovakia, 3,7, 9 ; Transylvania, 6, 5, 72. Ruttka, railways, 1, 24, 25. Rve cultivation, 2, 56, 57, 58, 59, 103, '3, 29 4, 26, 27, 5, 26, 27, 6, 47, 48, 62, 63, 73, 7, 17, 18. S. Saaz, hop growing, 2, 5, 3, 9, 60 ; in- dustries, 2, 82. Sabbatarians, sect of, 6, 1 5. Sadowa, battle of, 1866, 1, 7. Safafik, — , pioneer of Czech literary revival, 2, 20, 3, 1 5. Sagan principality, 4, 11. St. Florian, Czech farms in, 2, 40. St. George mouth of River Danube, 1, 68, 69. Sajo river, 3, 4. Sajomagyaros, railway, 6, 43. Salasch, the, 4, 3. Salgc^, lignite mine, 3, 34, 35. Salg<')-Tarjan, industries, 3,45 ; lignite mines, 3, 35 ; railway, 3, 34. Salgotarjan Coal Mining Co., 3, 34 note. Salgotarjan Steel Works, 3, 34. Salonika, Austro-Riissian agreement re, 18t»7, 1, 79 ; project, 1, 72-5, 84. Salonika vilayet; Muerzsteg Pro- gramme, 1903, 1, 82. XXVI INDEX Salt boiling, 3, 41, 44. Salt deposits. 5, 80, 50, 52, 7, 21. Salt imports. 2, 80. Salt, trade in, 7, 22. Salzburg, bank, 2, 10(J; glass industry, 2, 75; representation in Reiehsrat, 1, 18, 92, 94, ill delegatioiip, 1, 110. Sanio, Czecl) rider in Uohenia, a.d. 627, 2, 14. San Giuliano, Signor, Italian Foreign Minister, 1, 87. San, river, 7, 7. San Rossore, nieeling between Austrian and Italian Foreign Mi)iisteva at, 1912, 1,87. San Stefano, Treaty of, 1, 74. Sanitary conditions, tlie Banat, 6, 4 ; Bohemia and MoraTia, 2, V); Bnko- vina, 5, 6 ; Ruthenia, 7, 2-3 ; Slovakia, 3, ; Transylvania, 6, 4. Sardiniri, 1, 66 ; and Kiver Danube, 1, 69 Saros county, 7, 7 ; agricultural in- dustry, 8,'29 ; are:i, 3, 2. Satoralja-l'jliely, indu-tries, 3, 45 ; railway, 7, 15. Saxon-Bolicmian Portland Cement Manufacturing Co., 2, 99. Saxons, 'I'ransylvania, 6, 30, 31, migra- tion from Flanders nnd the Lower Rhine to, 1141-1222, 6, 12; ad- ministr.ition and history, 6, 13-14, 15, 18-22, schools, 6, ;53, 34. Saxony, 1, fi3 ; colonists from, in the Banat, early ISth century, 6, 25-6; Elector of, 4, 16. Sazawa river, 2, 5. Scarlet fever, 5, 6. Schiiflle, — , Katheder SozialLsten, 1, 19. Schassburg, see Segesvar. Schatzlar-Schwadowitz coal district, 2, 64. Scbemnitz, see Selmccz. Scblan, industries, 2, 81. Sclileswig-llolstein, 1, (if), ()7. Schmalkaldic War, 1516, 4, It, 17. Scbmerling, - , 1, 40, (16. Scbneebcrg, 2, 6. S(;hneekopi)e, 2, 2. Scliokatzes, the, 6, 37. Hchonau, indii:-! ries, 2, 84. Schonbi)rn, Count, Adalb-rl, President of Imperial Adrninistriitivo Com- miB.tion, 1913, 2,30. Schdnbrunn " Arrangement," 1873, 1, 73. Schiinorer, fjos von Itoni movement started by, 1, 15, 21, 2,31. Schiinfeld, wolfram, 2, 67. Schiinlindc, industries, 2, 84. Sell III rcrciti, Bohemia, 2, 35. Scbulzo-lMitzseh Societies, 2, 96, 98. Sciiiivaloff, Count Paid, Russian Am- ba-sad(ir in Berlin (1887), 1, 123. Scliwarzavva river, 2, 7. Selnvarzbach, graphite mines, 2, 67. Schwarzenberg, Felix, Austrian Minis- ter, 1, 6, 65. Schweidnifz principMlity, 4, 11 ; lieiress of, marriage to Emperor Charl.s IV^ 4, 11. Schwiebns, Silesian claims co'nmuted by Elector of Brandenburg for, 16s6, 4, IS 9; restored, 1C.94, 4, 19. Scb.\ltal, coal, 6, 51. Scutari, capture by Montenegrins, 1, 88 ; inclusion in Albania, 1, 88. Secularism, Huiifjary, 1, 43. Segesvar (Schassburg), population, 6, 7; railways, 6, 43, 4t ; woollen industrv, 6, 54. Seletyn, 5, 25. Sellenberk, railway, 6, 44. Seimecz (Schemnitz), population, 3, 45. Seimecz (Schemnitz) district, miners' dubs, 3, 35 note. Seimecz (Schemnitz) - es - Belabanya, industries, 3,45; metal works and mines, 3, 36 7 ; population, 3, 8; railways, 3, 25. Selyp, industries, 3, 45. Semi-ndriii, railway, 6, 59. Seosiszcnigyiirgy, 6, 6 ; railway, 6, 44 ; tobacco factory, 6, 55. Serbia, and Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1, 84; Austrian policy, 1912-3, 1, 86-9; Auslro- Kussian agreements re, 1, 62, 79 ; and River Danube, 1,69, 71 ; Kara- georgevic dynasty, 1, 80; Russian policy, 1, 74; trade with, 2, 92; war witli Bulgarin, 1885, 1, 78. Serbiiin language, 6, 2. Sci'bo-Croatian language required in Austrian navy, 1, 20. Serbs, the Banat, 6, 5, 8, 9, 39, 72, emigration, 6, (il, immigration after Battle of Kossovo, 1389, 6,25, 26 7, national sentinumt, 6, 39, religion, 6, 37; eonilict with Magyars, 1849, 1, 39 ; Hungarian Law of iNatioi;ali- tios, 1868, 1, 41-2, 115-20; immi- gration into Himgary from Turkey, 1,35 () ; migration to Russia from Hungary, 1, 36; programme of defence, 1, 43-4; Ruthenia, 7, 3; Silesia, 4, 28 ; of South Hungary, INDEX XXV 11 history, 6, 26-0 ; TransylTania, 6, 72. Serctli, popiiliition, 5, U. Sorcth river, 5, 1-2, li, 3 ; system, 5, 4; timber lloatiiif;, 5, 28. Sereth valley, poimlation and races, 5, (), 9, 19; roadH, 5, 23. Sericulture, 6, 61.. Seton -Watson, Dr., 1, 12, 52. Seven Years' War, 4, 21. Slu'ep rearing, 3, 31, 5, 27, 6, 4, 49, 65, 7, 19. ^iek clubs, 2, 52. Sigisuiund, Emperor (Charles IV of Bohemia), King of llinigary, 1382- 14:17, 1, 32, 2, 16, 4, 12. Silesia, see also 4. Contents ; Diet, joint sessions with Diets of Bohemia and Moravia forbidden, 1627, 2, 18 ; made part of Bohemia by Cliarles IV, 2, 15 ; representation in Keichsrat, 1, 18, 92, 93, 95. jn delegations, 1, 110; revenue and ( xpenditure 19U9, 2,95-6; seizure by Prussia, 1, 63; taxation, 2, 91-5 ; trade with, 2,88. Silk spinning, 6, 71. Sillein, see Zsolna. Silver, 2, 67, 68, 3, 36-7, 38 40,43, 5, 30. 6, 50, 51, 7, 20. Skarza, Jesuit, 7, 9. Skiernevii-e, meeting ot three Emperors at, 1884, 1, 77. Skoda Ordnance Works, 2, 81. Slavonia, conflict with Magyars, 184S- 9, 1, 39; Serb immigration, 1,35 6. Slavs. Austrian, Germanizatiou policy under Fiancis II, 1, 5. Slivnitsa, battle, 1, 78. Slovak language, 3, 7, 12 20-1. Slovak literary revivnl, 3, 14-15. Slovaks, tlie Banat, 6, 5, 72; demands of, opposed by Magyars, 1, 40 ; Hungarian Law of Nationalities, 1868, 1 41-2, 115-20 ; maltreatment by Magyars, 1848-9, 1, 39; pro- gramme of defence, 1 43-4; rela- tions with Magyars, 3, 13-16 ; revo- lution, 1848-9, 3. 13-4; Kuthenia, 7, 3 ; settlements, 3, 10 11 ; Slo- vakia, 3, 6, 7,9; Tiansylvania, 6, 5, 6, 72. Slovenians, Silesia, 4, 23. Small-holdings, Slovakia, 3, 29, 31. Smichow, brewery, 2, 72. Smyrna, exports to, 2, 78. Social conditions, 3, 19, 20, 46, 5, 26- 7, 7, 12. Social Democratic Party, Austria, 1, 19-21. Socialism, international and national, 2, 28-9. Sohl, see Zolyoni. Sohr, battle of, 1745, 4, 21. Sokols, Czech Nationalist organization, 2, 39. Sorbs, or Wends, 3, 10, 17. Sosniezi), oil wells, 6, 52. Sovar, salt-boiling works, 3, 41. Sovarad salt district, railway, 6, 44. Spain, 1, 64; colonists from, in the Banat, earlv 18th century, 6, 26; trade witli, 2, (16, H6, 89, 4, 29. Spirits industry, see Distilling. Spornhau pass, 2, 6. Stambuloft'. Steplian Nikolof, 1, 7, 8. Starkenbacli, industries, 2, 7, 8. Standing, industries, 2, 81. Stechowilz, river trailie, 2, 46. Steinau principality. 4, 11. Steinitzterwald, 2. (5. Steinsclicmau and district, industries, 2, 75, 84. Stephen the Groat, King of Moldavia, 1457-1504, 5, U-12, 18. Stephen, St., Magyar King, 1, 30-1, 36. Sternberg, industries, 2, 77. Storozynetz, population, 5, 10. Strakonitz, industries, 2, 77. Straw, 4, 27. Straw-hat making, 7, 22. Straza, 5, 4. Streklitz principality, 4, 11. Str\ j, railway, 7, 15. Stuergkh, Count, ministry of, 1911-6, 1, 13. Stuhlweissenburg, see Szckes Tejervar. Styr, Czech farms in, 2, 10. Styria, colonists from, in the Banat, early 18th century, 6, 25-6 ; glass industry, 2, 75 ; representation in Reiciisrat, 1, 18, 92, 93, 94, in delegations, 1, 110. Sncha river, 5, 1 , 4. Suczawa, annexation by Austria, 1775, 5,113; banks, &c., 5, 33, 33-4; climate, 5, 5; gymnasium, 5, 21; industries, 5, 32 ; national Metro- politan at, 5, 14 ; popxdation, 5, 6, 9, 32. Suczawa river, 5, 1-2, 2, 3 ; system, 5, 4. Suczawa valley, popu ation, 5, 6, 7, 9 ; sheep breeding, 5, 27. Sudetea range, 2, 1, 2, 6 ; agricultural industry, 2, 56. Sugar, export, 2, 87, 88, 90 ; industry, 2, 69-71, 83, 87, 3, 44, 45, 4, 31, 6, 54-5. XXVlll INDEX Sugar-beet cultivation, 2, 54, 57, 58, 59, 103, 3, 30, 4, 3, 26, li7, 5, 26, 27. Sulina mouth of Hirer Danube, 1, 72. Sulphate of ammonia, 4, 29. Sul|.lnn-, 2, ti8, 5, 30, 6, 51. Sulphuric ac-iil industry, 2, 80. Sumava ^lSolltllel•n Bolimerwald range), 2, 3. Supreme Court of the Empire, Austrian Fundamental Law, 1867, 1, 103-4. Sraioplak of Moravia, 9ih century, 2, 14, 4, 9. Swabia, Germans from, colonisation in Southern Hungary, 1, 35. Swabians, Grerman-speaking colonists in the Banat, 6, 37, 39 40. Sweden, trade with, 2, 66, 88, 89, 4, 29. Swedes, &c., cultivation, 5, 27. SAvitzerland, trade with, 2, 86 note, 90. Syrmia, Serb immigrants, 1, 35-6. Szajkoi'atu, iron mines, 7, 20. Szaldobos, niiuerals, 6, 51. Szalkol'alva, iron mines, 7, 20. Szanios river, 6, 1,3; system and navigation, 6, 42. Szamos ITjvar, Uniat bishojiric, 6, M. Szamos valley, roads, 6, 41. Szaszka, timber mills, 6, 70. Szaszregen, 6, 41 ; population, 6, 55 ; railway, 6, 43. Szatnuir,' Treaty of, 1711, 1, 35, 6, 16. Szatmiir county, added to Tran8>l- vania, 1606, "6, 15; Vlach popu'la- tion, 6, 36 note. Szatmar-Nemeti. 6, 42, 56; popula- tion, 6, 56. Szeben county, agriculture, 6, 47, 73 ; banks, 6, 56 ; mineials, 6, 51 ; races in, 6, 72. Szechenu, Count Steplicii, 1, 37, Szeged, 6, 41, 58; railways', 6, 58, 59. Szekclf, in TraiiHylvania, 6, 30, historv of, 6, 11 12, 13, 15, 18,22, national senlimejit, 6, 35. Szekclykocr-iird, railway, 6, 43. Szekelyudvarheiy, railway, 6, 44. SzekcH Fcjcrvjir (Stuhlwci' 6. Tisza (Theiss) river, 3, 1, 3, 4, 6, 1, 3-4, 41, 57, 58, 7, 1,2; district be- tween the Maros and, reincorporated in Hungary, 1750, 1, 36; system and navigation, 6, 58, 7, 14 ; ii[)per, seven counties of, ceded to Hethlen Gabor, 1621, 6, 15. Tisza (Theiss) valley, railway, 7, 15; road, 7, 13. Tisza johb parfj'a, administrative dis- trict, roads, 3, 23. Tisza- vlarosszogc, 6, 1. Tiaza-Ujlak, 7, 14 ; railway, 7, 15. Titel, 6," 58. Tobacco cultivation, 3, 30-1, 6, 4S, 64, 7, 19. Tobacco manufacture, 6, 55, 71. Tohat, railway, 6, 43. Tokaj, industries, 3, 45 ; wine area, 3, 30.' Tokes, iron mines, 7. 20. Tokoli, Emerich, leader of Magyar revolt, 1681, 1, 35. Torda, railway, 6, 43 ; salt production, 6, 52. Torda -Aranyos county, agriculture, 6, 47, 48, 73 ; mineral's, 6, 50, 51, 52 ; ra<.-es, 6, 72 ; railways. 6, 43. Torja, natural gas, 6, 53. 'Torontal county, 6, 1, fi; emigration, 6,61; Hour mills, 6, 70; immigra- tion, 6, 26 ; mutual credit associa- tions, 6, 71 : population and races, 6, 36, 72. Torontal district, agriculture, 6, tj2, 63 ; reincorporated in Hungary, 1750, 1, 36 ; sericulture, 6, ()4. Tovis, 6, 5() ; railways, 6, 42, 43, 44. Totoshaiiya, minerals, 7, 20. Tijtos-Zseramp, gold and silver mines, 7, 20. Trade, Slovak itinerant traders, 3, 19. Trade combinations and cartels, 2, 82-5. Trade guilds, 6, 11. 'Trade unions, 4, 26, 35. Tramcars, export of, 2, 92. Tramwaxs, Bohemia and Moravia, 2, 47, 48. Transport, inadeqiiate facilitiea, 2, 100. Transylvania, see also Contents, 6 ; in- dependent princi)mlity, 1,34; i-evoit, 1703-11, 1, 35; Rumanians of, con- flict with Magyars, 1848-9, 1, 39. Transylvanian Alps, 6, 1, 2, 3, 4; climate, 6, 4. Tranteiiau, industries, 2, 78, 99. Treocsen (Treiitschin), batiking centre, 3, 44 note ; iiulustries, 3, 45 ; popu- lation, 3, 45 ; railway, 3, 24, 25. Trencsen (Trentschin) county, agri- cultural industry, 3, 30; area, 3, 2. Treves, .Archbishopric, colonists from, in the Banat, early 18th century, 6, 26. Trentschin, see Trencsen. Trieste, 2, 87 ; banks, 2, 106, 107 ; glass industry, 2, 75 ; railway com- munication, 2, 43. Trieste and district, representation in Reichsrat, 1, 18, 92, 93, 95, in dele- gations, 1, 110. Triple Alliance, 1, 76-7, 122. Triptis Com))anv, 2, 99. Troppau (Opa\Ca), banks, 2, 106, 4, 33 ; Bohemian fief, 4, 1 1 ; Chamber of Commerce, 4, 32 ; an independent administrative district, 4, 23 ; in- dustries, 2, 99, 4, 30, 31 ; placed under ban of the Empire, 4, 15; population, 4, 5, 6. Troppau (Opawa) district, 4, 1, 20,21 ; popidation, 4, 5 ; rainfall, 4, 4. XXX INDEX Troppau principality, 4, 11. Trucks, export of, 2, 92. Trzynieta, smelting and rolling works, 4, 28-9, 29. Tsaribrod, battle, 1, 78. Tscliisohkowitz, industries, 2, 99. Tuberc-ulosis, 3, 6, Sf, B. Tunis, French occupation, 1, 7G. Turkey, 1, 68, 69 ; Austro-Russi:m agreements, &c., re, 1, 7iJ— i, 79 ; Bukovina ceded to Austria, 1776, 7, 10; Bulitarian independence declared, 1908, 1,83; capitulations, 1, 8-4-5; convention with Austria, 1909, 1, 84; and River Danube, 1, 68-71; loan financed by Austria and Ger- many, 1910, 1, 85 ; railwiiy con- cession to Austria, 1908, 1, 81-2; Serbs from, immigration into Hun- gary, 1, 35-6; tr.ide with, 2, 8'> note, 91, 92 ; war with Italy, 1911-2, 1, 86-7 ; war with Russia, 1769-74, 5, 12. Turkey in Asia, trade with, 2, 91. Turks, airocities iu Albania, 1, 85; attacks on the Eanat anil conquest of, 1552, 6, 25 ; Austrian policy re, 1, 62; invasion of Ilung-'ry, 1, 34; Moldavia as tributary to, 5, 12. Turmitz, industries, 2, 76. Turnu-Severin, administration of region between Moldova and, 1, 72. Turocz, banking centre, 3, 41 note. TunH'z county, ai'ea, 3, 2. Turocz river, 3, 4, 27. Turocz-Sr.. Marton (Turooz-Szentni.'ir- ton), industries, 3, 45; railway, 3, 25. Tyro!, colonists from, iu the Banat, early 18th century, 6, 25-6 ; repre- sentation in Reichsrat, 1, 18, 92, 93, 95, iu delegations, 1, 110. U. Udvarliely county, .igrieulture, 6, 73 ; minerals, 6, 51, 52; pojjulatioii ami races, 6, 22, 72. Ugo<:sa county, 7, 1,7; added to TransylvaiLia, 160(), 6,15; agricul- ture, 7, 17, 18; emigration, 7, 16, 17; minerals, 7,20, 21 ; jjopulation and races, 7, 3, 4. Illiolieky, siii^ar-be(!t industry, 2, 7S, 92,93, 95; in deleg.itions, 1, 110. Vulkan, coal uniu-s near, 6, 52. Vysqcan, inihistrios, 2, 80. W. Waag river, see Viig. Wages, agricultural, 2, 51-2, 3, 28, 5, 26, 6, 4"), 60; industriid, 2, 52, 3, 28, 4, 26, 34, 6, 45, 60, 60-1. Wagstadt district, population, 4, 5 ; raiufall, 4, 4. Waitzen, see Viicz. Wallachia, Austro-Ru.*sian agreement re, 1772, 1, 62; and Rivei- Danube, 1, 69 ; revolution ui 1848, 5, 15. Wain.-'dorf and ilistiict, industries, 2, 7(), 84, 99. Warsaw, railway communication with, 4, 25. Waszkontz, paper factories formerly, 5, 3J. Water-power, 3, 48, 5, 31. Water supply, Bohemia, 2, 4; Buko- viua, good, 5, 3. Waterways, Slovakia, 3, 26-7. Wattawa (VV Ottawa) river, 2, 5. Wax production, 3, 30. Weaving, 4, 10 : 5, 31. Weiclisel river, see V'istida. Weimar, 2, 99. Wei pert, indu.-itries, 2, 78. Wekerle, Dr., Hungarian Minister- President, 1892-5, 1, 43; ministry of, 1, 4^5. Wends or Sorbr-, 3, 10, 17. Wesselenyi, — policy of, 1, 38. Westphalia, Tieaty of, 1(348, 4, 16, 17. Wheat cultivation, 2, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 10:?, 3, 29, 4, 2(), 27, 5, 26, 27, 6, 4?' 48, 62, 63, 73, 7, 17, In. White Carpathians, 3, 1, 2. White Mountain, battle of the, 1620 2, 17. XXXll INDEX Wicczek-Ostrau Coal and Coke Coui- panv, 4, 29. Wildstein, kaolin deposits near, 2, 74. William I, Emijeror, contents of secret agreement with Austria communi- cated to Russia, 1, 77 ; visit to Sals- hurg, 1871, 1, 73. William II, Emperor, 1, 78. William, Prince, of Wied, 1, 88. WindischgrJitz, Prince, commanding troops in Bohemia, 1848, 2, 23. "Wine, see Viticulture. Witkowitz, iron industry, 2, fi'I ; iron ore export to, 3, 33. Witkowitz Mining and Iron Furnace Company, 2, .S2. Witlingau district, lakes, 2, 5. Wittiugau plain, 2, 3. Wiznitz, 5, 2 ; population, 5, 8, 10. Wladislav, deposition, 1140, 4, 10; restoration of Silesia to sons of, 4, 10. Wladislav II of Poland (married 1382), 7, 8. Wladislaw Jagelion, King of Poland and Hungary (died 144-4), 1, 33. Wladislaw(Ladislaus),Postumu.a, King of Hungary (died 1457), 1, 33,4, 12. Wladislaw II (Ladishuis) King of Hunaarv, Poland and Bohemia, 1471-1516, 1, 33, 4, 13, 17. Wohanka, sugar-beet industry, 2, 70. Wohlau, Duchy of, Brandenburg claim to, 4, 19; Covenant of Succession, 1537, 4, 18. Wolf, — , and Lo.t von Rom movement, 1, 21. Wolfriim, 2, 67, 68. Wood alcoliol distillation, 6, 70. Wood, export and trade. 2, 87, 6, 55, 7,22. Wood industry, 2, 82, 3, 44, 45. Wooded Carpathians, 5, 2. Wooden furniture, trade in, 6, 56. Wooden wares, trade in, 4, 32. Wood-pulp, exi)ort ol', 2, 87. Woollen industry, 2, 77, 84, 4, 30, 31, 32, 6, 54, 55, 56. Wottawa river, ice Wattavva. Wranow, coal pits, 2, (!4 Wiirtteniborg and River Danube, 1, 69. Yarn, trade in, 4, 32. Young Czech Party, 2, 26- Zabola, oil wells, 6, 52. Zacklynski v. Polustrie, 7, 9 note. Zagrab (Agram), Croatian university, 1, 52. Zagreb district, wages, 3, 28. Zalatna, gold and silver mines, 5, 50 ; railway, 6, 45. Zalatna district, wages, 8, 28. Zapolya, John, Voivode of Tran- sylvania, 1, 34. Zap )lya, John Sigismund, 1, 34. Zapolya. Magyar fmnily of, 6, 14. Zemplen, agricultural industry, 3, 30, 47 ; area, 3, 2 ; tobaeco cultivation, 3, 30. Zemi)len county, 7, 7. Zenta, battle of, 1697, 6, 27. Zernest, railway, 6, 44. Zettlitz Kaolin Works Company, 2, 74. Zettlitz-Karlsbad district, kaolin de- posits, 2, 73-4. Zichy, Count Aladar, Hungarian Catholic Peop'e's Party, 1, 44. Zinc, 2, 68, 3, 33, 40, 43, 6, 66, 7, 20. Zi]>s county, see Abauj-Torna and , Szepes. ZivnostenSka Banka, see Industrial Bank. ZiUyom (Sohl), population, 3, 45 ; railways, 3, 21, 25, 26 ; rolling mill, 3, 34-5. Z(>lyom (Sohl) county, 3, 2 ; mines, 3, 3S. Z<)lyom-Brez6, iron and steel works, 3, 35. Zoptau, graphite mine, 2, 67. Ziiptau and Stefanau Mining and Smelting Company, 2, 66. Zsolna (Sillfin), industries, 3, 45 ; jiopulatioii, 3, 45; railways, 3, 24, 25, 26. Zwittau, industries, 2, 77,78; popula- tion, 2, 9. Zwittawa river, 2, 1, 7. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. ^^^^~W^ im MAY251998 Form LO-Series 444 UNIVERSITY OF C ALIFORNI ALOS ANQELES L 007 766 575 ^'C SOUTHERN REGIJ^^ AA 000 871 756 3