A NEW SCHOOL METHOD (Complete), For Pupil Teachers and Students. JOS. H. COWHAM. WESTMINSTER SCHOOL BOOK DEPOT, tsa, RORBBFBRHY »0&D, %M,% Aleo from BIMFKIH, MARSHALL, HAKILTOK, KBMT ft CO., Ltd., STATIOKS^S* HALL COURT, H.C. E THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES t }' \ I FIFTH EDITION. A NEW SCHOOL METHOD {.COMPLETE). Containing in Onk Volume— Part l.-HOW TO TEACH READING, WRITING, SPELLING AND DRAWING. Part II.— HOW TO TEACH ARITHMETIC. Part III.— HOW TO TEACH GEOGRAPHY, GRAMMAR, HISTORY, AND ELEMENTARY SCIENCE. Bv JOSEPH H. COWHAM, Lecturer on Education, Westminstek Traimxg Coi.legr, S.W., Author of 'The Princhlrs oj- Oral Teaching •& Mental Thaining, 'School Organization,' 'Graihic Lessons in Physical Cieogratiiv,' "The .School Joiknev,' &c. LONnON: WESTMINSTER SCHOOL BOOK DEPOT, 128, Horseferrv Road, S.W. ; and al.so FROM SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMH.TON. KENT & CO. Lii.nTKD, and all Booksellers. i9«>5. [all rights rfsrkvkp. Cowham's New School Method. PUBLISHED IN PARTS. Part i. How to teach Reading, Spelling, Writing and Drawing ... Price 1/6 ,, ii. How to teach Arithmetic , 1/6 ,, iii. How to teach Geography, Grammar, History and Elementary Science ... ,, 1/6 OPINIONS OF EMINENT EDUCATIONALISTS AND OF THE PRESS. The Reu. T. W. Sharpe, M.A., C.B., writes: — 'Its lucid style, the great use made of simple illustrations, and tlic clearness of its pr.ictical suggestions, are admiiable features.' A Sub-Inspector of Schools writes : — 'I know of no manual cover- ing the same ground that is so thorough and practical. I am struck with its comprehensive scope and its great clearness of style. The book ought to be of the greatest service to all young teachers, and in fact, to teachers of any age.' The Schoolmaster Reviewer says: — 'The author's name is a sure guarantee of the efficiency of this new book on "school method." Publishing in three separate parts is a very convenient arr.ingement for pupil teai hers, in that Part I. supi)lies the needs of the first and second years; Part II. of the third year; and P.irt III. nf the fourth year. All whose training in the science ;ind .art of teaching h.is been neglected, should slmiy this hook preparatory to the Scholarship E.xaiiiinatio>i.' The. Journal of Education writes /—Mr. Cowh.im, Lecturer on p]dii(Mtion .at Westminster 1 raining College, sets forth his principles clearly and with sulVicient fulness, .and applies them carefully and with adequ.'ite t.xplan.ition to the subjects with which he has to deal, ll^e tertainly like the book.' PREFACE. I ^HE advance in educational science and the expansion of -^ the school curriculum have created a demand for corresponding expansion and advance in school methods. The ' new education ' asks for training as well as instruction, and it demands, in future, that training shall be the chief aim of all teaching. The object of 'A A'cw School Method'' is to show how the teacher may combine the highest training with the best instruction. The work is the result of nearly 20 years' experience jn the professional tuition of the student teachers of the Westminster Training College. It is now presented to the wider community of pupil teachers and students in the hope that its lessons may serve to enlighten school work, and may tend to make school methods more scientific and successful. The introduction of numerous illustrations throughout the various sections of the book will, it is hoped, help to elucidate the text, and at the same time serve to present a method of instruction which needs development. The work has been divided into three complete sections, each of which is published separately. This arrangement is intended to facilitate the use of each book as a class manual. A volume is also published embracing the entire work. JOSEPH H. COWHAM, Westminster Trainimu "8§4^49 CONTENTS OF PART I. PAGE READING 1-63 Aims and Difficulties of Reading i — 9 First Lessons in Reading ...9—28 The Alphabet The Alphabetical Method The Phonic Method The Phonetic Method 16 The Look and Say Method ... 17 The Combined Method at Word building 23 — 25 Good Reading— Junior Stage 28—36 Pronunci.ition ... ... ... 29 Fluency and Ease... .. ... 33 Simultaneous Re.iding ... ... 35 Draft and Silent Reading ... 36 Reading in the Upper Classes 37—48 Development of Intelligence ... 37 Emphasis and Pause ... ... 39 Expression and Feeling ... .. 42 Explan.-ition of New Words ... 45 Contrast between Lower and Higher Stage ; SPELLING 65-75 Objects of Teaching 65 Difficulties of Tc.iching 65 A .Memory Exercise .. ... 66 When should be MasterctI ... 67 Methods of Teaching Dictation Spelling Reform Rules of the Department WRITING V.alues of Teaching Method of Teaching (n) Locke (/') Mulhauser Criticism of Methods Capital Letters Class 7'. Individual Teach Writing Appliances Class Man.'igement Notes of Lesson ... DRAWING Aims at Teaching... Kensington Course Standards I. and II. Criticism and Suggestions Standard III Tlu- 1 >rawing of Curves .. Writing .mil Drawing Standards IV. and V. .. Lesson — Dr.iuing to .Seal Model Dr.iwing ... The Gl.ass Pl.ine ... Standards VI. and VII. .Solid (iionietry ... Notes of Lessons .. Opinion of Experts Modelling Questions Additional Notes !•.^^.K ... 68 ... 70 74 •• 75 76 — 96 76 77 77 78 83 86 87 90 9' 94 97- -124 97 98 99 99 lo.^ 104 105 109 109 1 10 1 12 '13 "•5 120 122 124 ii6 COiNTENTS OF PART II. Introductory- Code Requirements Practical Course ... Twofold Aim Notation and Numeration Place Values Notation Groups Simple Addition Simple Subtraction .. By Decomposition By Equal Additions Proving Sums Simple Multiplication Tables Stages in order Simple Division Place of Long Division ., Mental Arithmetic .. The ' Alternative Course ' Art versus Science ... 129 131 133 Numbers— Concrete & Abstract 135 137 139 140 141 146 147 149 153 154 155 156 159 165 166 i6v 171 Compound Rules — Addition ... .Subtraction Multiplication Division Reduction— Money Weiglitb and Measures ... Decimal and Metric Systems Practice I'AGK . 174 . 178 . 178 . 180 . 184 . 186 . 191 Rule of Three - Unitary Method ... 203 Proportion ... ... 20s Measures and Multiples ... ... 211 Vulgar Fractions ... 214 Decimal Fractions ... 226 Advanced Rules — 233 General Rules of Teaching ... 240 Class Management ... 242 Questions ... 245 Additional Notes •• 247 CONTENTS OF PART III. PAGE GEOGRAPHY 249—302 First Lessons — Home Geo- graphy 250—263 The Starting Point 250 Plans 251 Mariner's Compass 25" Relief Model and Sketch Map... 258 Suitable Occupations ... 257 & 260 Geography of Hills and Rivers 263—270 A Suitable Course 263 Method of Teaching 264 Case of Special Difficulty ... 267 Suggested Order of Teaching ... 268 Geographical Terms ... 270—273 Method of Teaching 27° Criticism of Method 271 Model and Map— Both Helpful 272 Geography of England and Wales 273—287 Text-book Order Faulty ... 273 The New Method of Teaching 276 Suggested Course of Lessons ... 277 General Build of Country ... 278 Raised Model 279 & 281 Drainage Areas 280 Natural Sections 282 Climate and Soil 283 Mining and Manufactures ... 283 Commercial Geography ... 284 Political Geography 285 Geography— Starting Point of History . ... 287 Geography and other School Studies 28S Shape, Size, and Motions of the Earth 29° Excursions and Museums ... 296 Mental Training 298 Notes of Lesson 301 THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 303—338 Language an Inheritance, &c. 303 Position of Grammar in a School Course 305—307 Nature of the Study 305 .Suited to Upper Classes 306 Should follow Geography ... 307 Speech — How Acquired and Developed ... . 308—312 Oral Composition 309 Statement to accompany Acquisition ... ... ... 3'° .More Advanced Exercises in Oral Statement 3" PAGE The Parts of Speech 312 Method of Teaching by Con- trast and Comparison ... 315 Inductive Teaching 317 Parsing 319—322 Method of Conducting Lesson... 320 The Deductive Method ... ... 321 Value of Lesson ... ... ... 322 Need of Careful Preparation ... 322 Analysis 322—326 Parsing and Analysis Related ... 323 Analysis Necessary in Parsing... 324 Scheme for Combinin^ and .\nalysis The Method of Contrast Parsinij 325 325 326 329 Notes of Lesson Composition and Paraphrasing THE TEACHING OF HISTORY History and Geography The Starting Point Aims of Teaching Simple Stories Lives of Remarkable Men Value of a Selected Period ... Learning of Dates Hints on the Higher Teaching OBJECT LESSONS & ELE- MENTARY SCIENCE 351-376 Lower Class Work needs Brightening 351 Aims of the Object Lesson 353— 360 Tr.iiTiing the Observation .Aw.ikening Interest The Scholar's .Activity ... Judgment 339—350 •■• 339 ... 340 ... 341 ••• 343 ••• 345 347 349 350 of and 353 354 355 Kxerci.se Reason Increase of Knowledge ... Increase in use of Language Moral Training ... Courses of Lessons Their Preparation How 10 begin the Lesson Selection and Arrangement of .Matter Kaulty .Arrangement Krom Known to Unknown Krom .Abstract to Concrete Nature Study 370—374 Instruction of Infants 375 355 357 358 359 360—369 362 363 363 365 .367 367 HOW TO TEACH READING. 1. Introductory. ' The value of good reading has never been recognised,' says Mr. Thring. ' Good reading is the first training of the beginner, the last crowning excellence of the finished master. All skill of heart, of head, of lips, is summed up in the charmed sound of noble utterance falling with thrilling melody on the souls of those over whom a great reader casts his spell.' These words, written by an experienced teacher, set forth the true nature of good reading ; they also reveal the complexity and difficulty of the eff"ort ; and to some extent they explain the reason why a really effective reading lesson is but rarely heard. It is assumed too readily that because any one can read fairly w^ell himself, he is therefore competent to teach reading to others, and to teach, moreover, with very little or no prepara- tion. The need, however, for the thorough preparation of a reading lesson, and for the development of considerable teaching skill on the part of the teacher, becomes evident immediately the complex nature of the reading efibrt is realized. It may be of service to any one who is beginning to teach if we state at the outset the chief objects of the reading lesson, together with a brief summary of the methods by which the skilled teacher strives to secure these objects. In this way we may best be able to set forth the difficulties which beset the reading lesson for the scholar, and the need of complete preparation of the lesson by the teacher. 2. Chief aims of the reading lesson. These aims may be summed up in the concise phrase ' Good reading.' Now good reading demands amongst other features the following, viz. : — (i) the immediate recognition of words as they occur in written language ; (2) the association of spoken B How to Teach Reading. sounds with the word-forms, and the correct and distinct utter- ance of these sounds by the organs of speech ; and (3) the abihty to take in at a glance the meaning uf a sentence, or a group of sentences, and, by skilful modulation of the voice, to interpret and to give expression to that meaning. The above features of good reading demand full consideration. Their complete discussion will be found upon subsequent pages. At present a brief review of each must suffice:— {a) The immediate recognition of words as they occur in written language. This recognition includes that of the accurate spelling as well as that of the general appearance of each word. In the higher branches of reading it involves furthermore the power both to see and to retain a considerable number ot words in advance of the voice utterance. This recognition is vastly aided by good eyesight, by sufficient though not powerful light, by the adjustment of the book as to distance from the eye and the angle at which it is held, by clear type, and above all by the concentrated attention of the reader. (/') The association of spoken sounds with the word forms, and the correct and distinct utterance of these sounds by the organs of speech. The use of the organs of speech in the full and accurate utterance of spoken words is only acquired after considerable practice. This practice, in order to be successful, must be made under the following conditions, viz.: — (i) The imitation of good patterns ; (2) The early exercise of the vocal organs in the imitation of these patterns ; and (3) The cultivation of a sense of hearing sufficiently acute to enable the learner to judge when the sounds are correct. The above conditions of good reading are exercises for the most part of a very simple form of memory. It is, however, most important that these memory exercises should be almost perfectly performed. For, if the reading effort is to be characterized by ease and fluency, there must be no hesitation either in the recognition of the words as they successively occur or in the connection of the proper sounds with the word-forms. (c) The ability to take in at a glance the meaning of a sentence or a group of sentences, and, by skilful modulation of the voice, to interpret and to give expression to that meaning. This third aim may be held to be successfully attained when the reader and those who listen are awakened to the thoughts and are stirred by the feelings which were originally in the mind of the author. Such a result as this cannot, however, be realised without considerable activity of mind on the part of both reader and listener. Brief Revietu of Methods. These considerations make it evident that the effort of reading with inteUigence and ease is one which is both com- plex and difficult. It involves a highly developed power of sight in order to secure a rapid survey of words and sentence ; it demands furthermore a fully developed power of hearing whereby the reader judges whether the proper modulation of voice for effective expression is made ; and, finally, it requires the possession of considerable knowledge, of intellectual bright- ness, and of a cultivated taste. 3. Brief review of the methods by which a skilful teacher secures the objects aimed at. If we watch a skilfully conducted reading lesson we shall recognise the following as being amongst the most important conditions of successful effort, viz. : — (a) A good pattern carefully prepared and well delivered by the teacher. This pattern will be the result of a thorough rehearsal of the matter of the lesson on the part of the teacher. Such a rehearsal is necessary if the teacher is to possess a complete familiarity with the words and the thought of the narrative, and if his pattern reading is to be characterised by ease of expression. Whilst the teacher's pattern should not be too highly declamatory, it will be well if it slightly exaggerate both emphasis and expression. There is but little danger of a pupil intensifying the teacher's expression ; he is far more likely to fall far short of it. The pattern reading of the teacher should not only fulfil the above conditions, it should also form a very prominent feature in every reading lesson. (^) The example of reading by the brighter members of the class. Whilst the teacher is careful to make his own pattern reading a very prominent feature in every lesson, and whilst he must depend mainly upon it for stimulus to improved effort on the pari, of his pupils, he must not be unmindful of the great advantage How to Teach Reading. which children derive from hearing good reading on the part of their schoolfellows. Children are great imitators of one another. Next to the teacher's pattern a few good readers in a class are the most eflective help in the reading lesson. Good and indifferent readers should be intermixed in such a way that the good reading of the brighter scholars becomes a direct stimulus to the duller pupils, care being taken that the latter are not discouraged and that the former are not unduly elated during the competitive exercise. (f) Imitatiue efiort by the scholars. This is secured by allowing a succession ot two or three scholars to read immediately upon the conclusion of the teacher's pattern. A reading lesson should provide abundance of actual practice in reading by the pupils themselves. Each scholar moreover should be animated by the desire to attain the high standard of his teacher's pattern. The teacher mean- while must, by means of a thorough preparation of his lesson, be able to follow the scholar's reading effort so that at its close he is immediately ready to present, for discussion and comment, the errors made by his pupil. A thorough preparation will frequently enable the teacher to anticipate the more probable errors. It will certainly give him freedom to look away from his book, and to follow more closely the reading of his pupils, and will, at the same time, leave him free to concentrate his attention upon the mistakes they make and upon the most effective methods of correcting them. (J) The correction of errors in reading. In no part of the reading lesson does the teacher need to be more active than in the ready detection of mistakes, and in the careful selection of those which will most profitably bear correction. The practice of allowing scholars to criticise one another generally results in the enumeration of trivial mistakes, and often diverts the attention both of the reader and of the class from more important errors. Immediately after each scholar has finished reading, the skilful teacher reproduces one or two of the most important mistakes ; he follows this exposure of error by a correct reading of his own, and then, after a little encouragement, prepares the reader for a fresh endeavour. If a lengthy criticism be given Reading Lessons must vary in Method. in which many faults are stated, the scholar is in danger ol becoming lost in his attempt to follow the teacher, and, as a consequence, he tries again under the consciousness of his own weakness and frequently produces a less satisfactory result than before. Should the reading by the scholar be satisfactory in all respects, another pupil known to be somewhat weak may be asked to try to read as well as his fellow pupil. {e) Additional conditions of successful teaching. Besides setting a good pattern of reading, and besides making use of the stimulus afforded by the reading of his brighter scholars, and, further, besides allowing no really impor- tant error to pass unnoticed, the teacher must be prepared to question his class upon the meaning of the difficult passages ; to call attention to words where spelling is likely to occasion difficulty, and throughout the entire effort to adopt devices which practice and skill in teaching suggest for securing and maintaining the complete attention of every pupil. /4. Reading lessons must vary in method with the class under instruction. Sufficient has now been stated to show the great importance of reading as a branch of school instruction, as well as to indicate the difficulties which accompany the attempt to give a really stimulating and successful lesson. It will be the purpose of succeeding pages to set out the best methods which experi- ence has devised for obtaining successful reading throughout the various stages of school life. The character of the teaching necessarily changes with the development of the pupil's know- ledge. At first, effort will be expended mainly upon mastering the letter- and the word-forms ; the ultimate aim, however, will be to develop the power of interpreting correctly and expressing clearly the thoughts and feelings of another. The transition from the early and almost purely mechanical stage to the later and highly intellectual effort is a gradual one. The change, however, must be recognised, and a corresponding change must be adopted in our methods of teaching. At the outset it may be well to repeat in a somewhat different form the truth that reading lessons must not be conducted on any rigid and fixed plan throughout the entire school course. The nature of tho How to Teach Reading. exercise will be found to vary with almost every class, e.g., in the infant classes the effort is mainly that of connecting verbal forms with the vocal sounds which have been already acquired, and any serious attempt at voluntary expression at first will be found entirely out of place, although the effort to read naturally after the teacher's pattern should be encouraged as much and as early as possible. In the upper classes, on the other hand, there ought to be nothing to learn so far as the sounds requ'red for the correct formation of each word are concerned. The entire thought and effort of the reader ought in consequence to be available for the expressive rendering of the author's meaning. Evidently, therefore, the nature of the exercise changes with the intellectual condition of the reader, and it is equally plain that our methods of teaching must be subject to a corresponding change. One change of method, out of many, may be noted as an example. Simultaneous reading will be found of great assistance during the earlier stages of reading, but will not be of much service in the later ones. This may be made clear by reference to the effort which children should be encouraged to make to develop an expressive style of reading. The interpretations of passages read (upon which the expression must mainly depend) will not be the same for the entire class. There will, therefore, be considerable variety of expres- sion. These differences of expression indicate self-effort on the part of individual readers, and should be encouraged as much as possible. Anything like simultaneous expression in the upper classes must tend to discourage the individual's own efforts towards expression, and must in consequence lead to the development of a niechanical and monotonous style of reading. The chief difficulties of reading— whence they arise. A knowledge of the sources whence the difficulties of teaching to read arise will prove of great service in any enquiry into the best methods of overcoming them. These difficulties are two in number, and may be stated and illustrated in the following manner : — I Jhe first difficulty arises from a deficiency of letters to represent the difi'erent sounds. in our spoken language there are not less than forty-three distinct sounds with only twenty-six letters to represent them. Nor is this all, for it will be found on examination that four of the existing letters are redundant, e.g. : — The Chief Difficulties of Reading. 1. The letter C may be represented by either K or S, as in Cat, City. 2. The letter Q, in (2uire, may be represented by KW. 3. The letter W, in ^Fire, may be represented by 00. 4. The letter X, in exile, Exeter, &c., may be represented by either GS or KS- There are left, therefore, only iwenty-two effective letters for the forty-three sounds, and as a result of this deficiency it becomes necessary to make some of the letters stand for more than one sound. Examples of letters standing for more sounds than one. r- I. The letter a has the four following sounds, viz. : Examples short as in fat, optit as in father. of s long as in fate, broad as in fall. Vowels ~ The letter e has the two following sounds, viz. : ^ short as in met, long as in mete. r I. The letter c has the two following sounds, viz. : ^ I soft as in cite, hard as in command. I 2. The letter s has the following three sounds, viz. : Consonants {a) as in sing, (/') as in sure, (r) as in raise. The above are only a few examples out of very many which the student should collect for himself or herself. 2. The second difficulty arises from the same sound being frequently represented by different letters. The difficulties arising from the second cause are more numerous and perplexing than are those which arise from the first named cause. It is not necessary to enumerate more than two typical examples of this second cause of difficulty, viz. : — ((?) Vowel example : — The long sound of a, used in the word fate, is represented by the following letters or letter combinations — ay in the word ray | ea in the word pear ey ,, ,, they I ai ,, ,, pair ei ,, ,, their 1 au ,, ,, gauge e ,, ,, there j eigh „ ,, neigh (/') Consonant examples : — The sound of s in ' .-^ing ' is represented by C in citizen, and the sound of j in the word ' rejoice ' is represented by g in the words regent and gaol. The reader may easily multiply examples of inconsistency in the manner in which both vowel and consonant sounds are represented. How to Teach Reading. How the irregularities between the alphabetic sym- bols and the spoken sounds affect the exercise of reading. If a symbol has more than one sound it is evident that as soon as the learner becomes aware of the fact he will be at a loss to know which of the various sounds he ought to give the symbol in any new letter combination. He has learned, for example, the sound of o in the word go and in the word on. How is he to pronounce the letter in the word to ? If he adopt either of the sounds of o previously learned, he will make a mistake. He must evidently master this new sound as he mastered the sounds of o in the words go and on, viz., as a new word-sound. In future he will not read the letter o as a separate and distinct sound in any of the words quoted above. The less he thinks about the letter o and its distinct sounds the better. He will read go, on, and to as distinct and entire word combinations, and will do his best neither to think about the letters composing the words nor the different sounds which these letters possess. In teaching words of irregular notation like those enumerated above, it will be best to help the learner in his endeavour to forget the different sounds of the separate letters and assist him to remember the sound of the word as a whole. This we shall do if we refrain from spelling all such words before they are read and if we merely sound the word as a whole. Several methods of teaching an English boy or girl to read have been devised. They are fairly distinct one from the other. Each method will now be briefly stated and illustrated. At this stage it will be sufficient simply to enumerate them. They are : — 1. The Alphabetic Method. 2. The Phonic and Phonetic Methods. / 3. The Look and Say Method. 4. The Combined Method. The Alphabet. FIRST LESSONS IN READING. (A.) The Alphabet Very little progress is made in any of the methods above mentioned without gaining at the same time a knowledge of the alphabet, more or less complete. In the alphabetic and phonic methods the letters (associated with the names in the former and the sound in the latter case) are the first consideration. Pro- gress in both systems is from letters to word combinations. For this reason both are termed ' Synthetic' The ' Look and Say ' method, on the other hand, deals first with words ; the letters become known through the practice of reading entire words. FoT this reason the 'Look and Say' is termed an ' Analytic ' method. Seeing that the alphabet must be learned no matter what system of teaching is adopted, it will be well at this stage to consider how it may best be taught. Formerly the letters were taught by wearisome repetition. In contrast with the old-fashioned method a much more interesting and effective mode of teaching may be observed in very many infant schools ot the present day. Instead of attempting at first to learn the complete alphabet, a few letters only are mastered. The letters are then combined to form simple words, and these again are made into easy sentences. The letters of the alphabet furthermore, are carefully arranged, and are learned by means of a variety of exercises which tend to render their acquisition easy and attractive. The following plan is frequently adopted in teaching the alphabet : — 1. The form of each letter is printed on the black-board. 2. The scholars make the same fonn by means of sticks or pieces of cardboard. 3. The letter is then drawn by the scholars on their slates. lo How to Teach Reading. 4. At each stage the scholar gives either the name or the sound of the letter. By these means the form of each letter becomes completely asso- ciated with either its name or its sound. There is no wearisome and listless repetition. The making of each letter by a variety of efforts impresses the shape on the memory. Children, furthermore, like to affix a name to anything they make, and in this way an interest is created in the purely arbitrary name of each letter. Lastly, the exercises of reading, writing, and drawing are so combined that whilst all are made more interesting, each exercise is more thoroughly mastered. The value of the black-board for impressing form, and of a distinct voice for impressing sound. The use of the black-board for the purpose of marking each letter in simple outline is advised at this stage for the following reasons. Young children watch with great interest anything that the teacher does. This interest is of the utmost value wherever very young childien have to be taught. They attempt to write letters or words made on the board in their presence much more readily than they attempt to copy letters from the printed page. Along with the form, it is equally important that the teacher impress the sound of each letter. The effort of distinct utterance may develop a slightly exaggerated style of enunciation on the part of the teacher, and this style may sometimes approach what is termed ' pedantry.' It should be remembered, however, that the teaching of most subjects (and in none more than the teaching of reading) demands special aptitudes. For the teacher, therefore, to be slightly pedantic in the eyes of those who have not to teach need occasion no misgivings. The old-fashioned associations of the letter A with a picture of an archer, of B with that of a butcher, &c., are helpful, inasmuch as they arouse interest. This method, furthermore, associates the form of the letter with its name, and also its power in a word, but neither the picture of an archer nor that of a butcher suggests the shape of the respective letters. The letter O, associated with the picture of an orange, is a much better combination, because the letter-shape and that of the object arc nearly the same. There are, however, no associations so helpful as those which accompany and arouse the self-activity of the scholars themselves. Hence the value of allowing children to make the letters with sticks and card- board, and to draw them on their slates, at the same time that they utter the sounds. The Alphabetic Method. Ji Classification of letters. The capital letters may be grouped according to their shape. This grouping is of service where children are encouraged to make the letters by means of straight and curved strips of cardboard. The following classifi- cation according to shape may be adopted. 1st class. I L T H F E = straight lines. 2nd ,, A N M W V = straight lines, some oblique. 3rd ,, O C G D Q = curved lines. 4th ,, P B R K = curved and straight lines. 5th ,, U Y S X Z = miscellaneous. The small letters do not lend themselves so readily to a classification based upon their form as do the capital letters. It is not at all necessary, however, that they should be thus taught. Similarity either in the sounds or in the organ producing them may be used as a basis of arrangement with good effect. Any form of classification will be better than none. The following may be adopted as a serviceable grouping : — 1st class, a e i o u. The vowel sounds. The lip sounds (labials). The teeth sounds (dentals). The palate sounds (palatals). The throat rounds (gutturals). The hissing sounds (sibilants).* 2nd ,, b p m V w 3rd „ d t n th. 4th ,, j ch y r sh. 5th „ g k q h ng-. 6th ,, c (soft) s z 1. ^ (B.) The Alphabetic Method. The chief characteristics of this method are : (i) the thorough mastery of the names of all the letters of the alphabet, and (2) the reading of syllables and of short words by first pronouncing in succession the letters composing them. This method has become almost utterly discredited, and is worthy of mention chiefly because of the historic interest which gathers round it. The following are the chief features in the method : — I. After the alphabet has been thoroughly mastered the vowel sounds are in turn associated with each consonant. Such combinations as the following are formed, viz., ab, eb, ib. 'Arrangement taken chiefly from Prof. Meik'.ejolin's Grammar. 12 How to Teach Reading. 2. The lessons are extended by affixing a consonant either before or after each of the above combinations, as, e.g., bad, bed, bid,&c. 3. The short vowel sounds are lengthened by the addition of e after the final consonant, as, e.g., bade, bide, &c. 4. By multiplying such combinations as the above, and by regularly repeating the letters forming each word before sounding it as a whole, it is expected that the scholar will in time learn ( •0 G C 3 01 0) (J 3 0) G !i a - . ^ « - - - - - - ■ •v4 01 J3 -4-> ■ - u =^ :>> X H- '0 buO •^> w5 01 N a. J3 u C 0) 'en G 15 G 4J 01 3 < o to V) u ti (/] J3 - - - J ^ = - ^ = = ^ ,„ ^ ^ o en ■ o (/I • N X . -_^ ,r; u " V > V ' / » V ' a a. c •0 'J V ^ — bfl H G (hfl " 0) s: o b 'o >> G 3 •a 3 ^ ^ 0) -s: ■+-1 c ^ #K ^ •<^ -^ •■ " •■ -c ^ ^ " •" ^ ^ ^ is * >» 3 ^ 3 & * 1 ^ o 1 V — \r i3 12 -4-> 6 15 s ■3 E 6 (U e -4^ ■(5 u 3 rt rt 01 rt e B 3 u soon first > & c - - ^ ^ ; * i; Z :; z Z t z o ~J a> • • , 1 3 (« \ rt rt irt ;nl .rt n) rt 10 <3 .- •a >, .b> -u ^ -i-> *y nS the only one which is changed. 4. Other words suggested by the class. 1. As snon as the class recognizes that words can be made by changing the first letter they should be encouraged to try to make other words. They will, perhaps, suggest h-at, b-at, &c. 2. Make these words interesting by a sketch drawing, and, if possible, work these up into sentences, as I have a bat and a hat. 5. Further use made of the words. Besides writing the words on the board and associating the words with pictures of the things for which they stand and the sound of each word both isolated and in a sentence, the children should be permitted to write each word a few times on a ruled slate. Black-board Writing AND Illustrations. Separate, at first, the portion -at from the letters m, c and s as shown in the text ; afterwards, write in the ordinary way. Fig. 3 Besides writing the words the scholars might attempt a drawing of the bat. The difficulties should be mastered early. 27 The difficulties of 'learning to read' should be overcome as early as possible. If we watch a class of young children learning to read we find that the effort is mainly one of observation and of memory. A quick sight sense to take in the word-forms, a ready ear to distinguish the appropriate word-sounds, and a retentive memory to keep firmly the association between the words and their correct sounds, these are the efforts required for success in first reading lessons. Happily for both teacher and scholar the power of memory is developed very early, and during the period when a child is ' learning to read ' the memory is at its best. It should be noticed that owing to the irregularities of English spelling it is necessary to learn a very large proportion of our words quite apart from their resemblances to other words. We teach the word ' city,' for example, but cannot make use of the knowledge thus acquired to teach the word ' cite.' Each group of letters must, for the most part, be learned as a word distinct from other words, hence the exercises of observation and of memory are the only forms of effort available at this stage. It will not be advisable to delay the exercise of reading to too late a period. The forms which familiar statements assume in books should be acquired as early as possible for the reasons already stated and here again briefly reviewed. Observation in the form of sight and hearing, together with the memory, are very active during infant and junior school life, and advantage should be taken of this activity for the purpose of overcoming the difficulties of the first reading lessons. The gradual change from the language exercises of the infant school to the expressive reading in the school for older scholars will be fully considered in future chapters. It will be sufficient for the present to indicate briefly the nature of the effort so far as the infant school is concerned. In the lower divisions of this school, language should be mainly associated with the observation of objects, with the change which these material substances may be made to assume, and with the various ' occupations ' introduced to engage and satisfy the child's instinctive love of activity. These exercises in simple statements may be used to develop the power of clear and correct utterance. They should be mainly conversational in their character, the children being encouraged to state what they observe whilst the teacher assists by 28 How to Teach Reading. shaping their imperfect statements into forms more perfect. The introduction of nursery rhymes and simple stories will be found helpful to correct speech at this stage. GOOD READING:-JUNIOR STAGE. WHAT IT IS, AND HOW TO TEACH IT. Introduction. In previous pages we have dealt with that part of our subject which may be termed ' learning to read,' so far as the phrase includes (i) a knowledge of the letters of the alphabet, and (2) a knowledge of the spelling and pronunciation of simple words. Our subject changes at this point, not only in the efforts it demands, but in the processes it requires, and the ends it secures. In this introductory statement it will be sufficient to mention the ends aimed at, leaving the efforts and the pro- cesses required to secure these ends to be gradually unfolded. The ends in view, in the reading of scholars in our upper classes, are (i) the full, clear, and accurate utterance of every word, (2) the interpretation of the meaning of the passage as a whole so that the thoughts of the author are conveyed by the voice of the reader, and (3) the fluent and expressive rendering of the passage read. The first of these features of good reading is generally summed up in the term ' pronunciation,' the second is marked out by the term ' reading with intelligence,' and the last feature properly belongs to the subject of ' rhetoric' A more detailed analysis of the chief features of good read- ing is shown in the following tabular statement : — (a) Pronunciation. 1. Articulation, i.e., the use of the vocal organs in the production of the required sounds. 2. Enunciation, i.e., the power of uttering clearly and distinctly the different parts of each word and syllable. 3. Accent, i.e., the differences of stress placed upon the syllables of a word. (/') Intelligence and Expression. 1. Fluency, i.e., the power to re- cognise words and to convey their correct pronunciation and meaning without either haste or hesitation. 2. Emphasis, i.e., the different stresses placed upon the words in a sentence in order to convey meaning. 3. Expression, i.e., the changes of tone and rate by which feeling is conveyed by the voice. Pronunciation. 29 The terms articulation and enunciation are frequently used in the same meaning. In the following chapters no distinction will be made between them. The above tabular statement brings out the fact that pronunciation is concerned with associating letters and words with their sounds, and is dependent mainly upon a good memory and a delicate observation by the senses of sight and hearing. Intelligent and expressive reading on the other hand deals with entire sentences and demands the exercise of well-developed powers of intelligence and feeling. The latter truth will be worked out more fully in future chapters. I. Pronunciation* The correctness of the pronunciation of words depends upon clear and accurate enunciation, upon the purity of the vowel sounds, the proper use of the aspirate, and upon the right placing of the accent. {a) Enunciation. A clear enunciation is a marked feature of good reading. Some children, owing to their early training and to an inherited ability, acquire very rapidly a good style of enunciation. There are, however, very many scholars who come to school remarkably defective in this power of clear, distinct, and accurate en^inciation. Many of them have formed habits of slovenly utterance, and considerable patience and repeated effort are required in order to correct these habits. Tlie teacher will best correct them by the frequent presentation of an excellent pattern, and by the correction of mistakes whenever they are made. It will not be necessary to dwell further upon the value of the teacher's pattern. A few of the common mistakes which children make, and which are charac- teristic of slovenly pronunciation, may prove of service. (a) The omission of certain letters and the substitution of others. and is sounded like an skating ,, ,, skatin amendments ,, ,, amenments Picture is sounded like pitcher insects ,, ,, insex finds ,, ,, fines When the same sound is found at the end and beginning respectively of adjacent words, the effect of omitting one of the sounds is at times very ridiculous, e.g., ' Take this start ' is sounded like ' Take this tart.' 3o How to Teach Rcadbur. (l>) The omission and insertion of syllables. Omission. separate = sep-rate generally = gen-rally regularly — reg-larly Insertion, aerated = arcated minster = minister mischievous = mischievzjus These mistakes are best corrected by the teacher writing the entire word in syllables on the blackboard, and by the children pronouncing each syllable distinctly after the teacher's pattern until the word is firmly asso- ciated with its correct sound. Indistinct utterance is a very common fault amongst country children. Such children should be encouraged to stand erect, to expand the chest, to open the mouth, to raise the voice, and, above all, to read and speak with confidence. Stammering and lisping are serious faults. The stammerer should always be treated with forbear- ance. If allowed to read simultaneously with another child, the stammer will sometimes entirely disappear. Two boys in the same class who stammered hopelessly when each read separately were recently allowed to read together. They then read with the utmost fluency. Lisping may be improved by the construction of a few sentences in which the ridiculous nature of the error is made to strike the reader. The boy who persists in saying ' thing ' for ' sing ' will try not to say ' thing a thong of thixthpenth.' In all these cases a little private help will prove more effective than frequent correction before an entire class. The pupil will appreciate the help thus afforded and will strive to overcome the defect. (^) Correct vowel sounds— prouincialisms. The complete and correct mastery of all the vowel sounds is not an easy task. It has been already shown that each of the five vowels in the alphabet stands for more than one sound. The letter a, for example, is dilTerently sounded in each of the words fate, fat, father, and UA\ ; and the letter o in the state- ment 'I go on to do my duty' represents several quite distinct vowel sounds. In this way the number of recognised vowel sounds may be shown to be largely in excess of the vowel symbols, and the task of learning all of them correctly is correspondingly increased. When it is furthermore considered that by far the larger number of provincialisms (such as, for example, dye in London, and da-ah in Lincolnshire, for the sound of the word day) are produced by the incorrect use of the vowels, the necessity for looking very carefully after the vowels becomes apparent. Pronunciation — Accent. 31 (<:) The right use of the aspirate. The chief difficulty in the use of the aspirate with children whose speech has been neglected is at first to get them to use it at all. When this initial difficulty has been overcome it is fol- lowed by that of preventing them from using it far too frequently. Th only effective remedy is to make every reading lesson a special training in the correct use of this much abused letter. When this practice is followed during a series of years, the children thus constantly exercised come (notwithstanding the influence of unfavourable surroundings) to use the aspirate with creditable correctness and effect. The few words in which the aspirate is not sounded should be placed in a prominent position in each class-room. The constant reference which the public display of this list secures will prove the most effective method of teaching. (d) Accent Every syllable in a word is not pronounced with the same amount of force. Some syllables are selected for special stress, whilst others are passed over with the slightest sound effort. Mr. Sweet, in his Handbook of Phonetics, says ' the variations of stress are infinite, and in a single sound-group (word or sentence)* every syllable may have a different degree of stress. Thus, such a word as " impenetrability " has, roughly speaking, two stresses, one strong one on the fifth, and a medium one on the second. But if we pronounce " bility " by itself we shall find that all three syllables have a different stress, the third being stronger than the second, and yet, of course, weaker than the first. In " penetra " there is the. same relation, but all the syllables are a shade weaker than the corresponding ones in "bility." The order of the syllables in stress is therefore as follows, I being the highest : — 327 5164' im - pe - ne - tra - bi - li - ty. If the several syllables making up the word be whispered it will at once be noticed that the syllables are not all taken at the same rate. Accent may thus be shown to be a variation in pitch, rate, and intensity of sound. When the complexity of the effort of accent * Mr. Sweet includes emphasis in ilie ' sentence ' stress. 32 Hmv to Teach Reading. becomes fully evident, the wonder is that children learn to read with fairly accurate accent as quickly as they do. The difficulty is increased when it is remembered that accent frequently changes, e.g., the word formid 'able is now read for'midable, obliga'tory is now read oblig'atory, and the word crys'talline is now frequently read crystal'line. These words are chosen to impress the fact that it is the fashion to change the accent of words. Some of the above words have but very recently changed, and others are still in dispute. \/alue of a well trained ear and voice for securing good accent. It has been shown that accent demands the use of a great variety of sounds. The child hears this variety in the accent of others. He then strives to reproduce the same variety himself. Now, whether the effort be that of listening or that of produc- ing, it is necessarily an effort demanding the activity of the hearing sense. An early training of the voice in the reproduction of the variations of accent is of the greatest value. It is quite as important that the vocal organs should be exercised in the production of the varied sounds as that the ear should be trained to distinguish them. The teacher of a class of young children must have been frequently struck with the differences of ability which his scholars manifest in this respect. Both the vocal organs and the ear are capable of improvement, and the aim of every class teacher should be to develop the powers which the children possess to the utmost. The following hints upon the best methods of cultivating a pleasing and correct accent should be followed : — Hints upon the cultivation of a proper accent. 1. Prepare every reading lesson carefully, so that the words likely to present difficulty in accent receive special attention in the pattern reading. 2. Provide a slightly exaggerated accent in the pattern reading wherever difficulty is anticipated. 3. Watch carefully the imitative reading of the scholar, and do not rest content with the mutual corrections of the children. 4. Require each scholar to listen to the faulty accent in his own reading, and then to comiiare it willi tlu' cdi rcct accent of the teacher's jmttern. Children often fail to notice their own slight faults of accent. The errors need to he exaggerated somewhat by the teacher and to be placed iu immediate contact with the correct sounds. Fluency and Ease in Readifig. 33 5. Write the words mis-pronounced on the board with accent marks placed so as to show both the error and its correction. For example, the error 'uncultiva'ted should be shown alongside the correction 'uncult'ivated.' 6. At the close of each lesson let a list of all words presenting difficulties appear with proper accent marks on the blackboard. These should be preserved by the teacher and at intervals be revised by the scholars. 2. Fluency and ease in reading. Fluency is the power to utter freely and correctly the sounds of a series of words following one another on either the printed or written page. Any hesitation arising either from failure to recognise readily a more or less familiar word, or from inability to apply the knowledge already in possession to the pronuncia- tion of a new word, is destructive of a fluent style. Fluency depends upon (a) clearly printed matter, good light and eyesight ; (/-') a good verbal memory ; {c) a logically arranged text ; (d) an ability to understand the matter read, and (e) upon a plentiful exercise of reading. Each of the above conditions for securing fluent reading demands more detailed consideration. {a) Clear print, good light, and eyesight. The value of new and clearly cut type cannot be over-estimated wherever the reading of young children is concerned. The effort of reading is so complex that it becomes necessary that the type should be such as to afford the utmost assistance. Large type is of less importance than perfectly haped letters and words correctly distanced. The meaning is often suffi- cient to suggest the succession of words to an adult, but children do not anticipate words from the context to the same extent as their elders, hence the need that the words should stand out clearly on the printed page. A good light is also of importance during the reading exercise. It is bettei that the light should not come from the front of the reader, for then the direct reflection of light from the page becomes wearisome to the eye. The page should be well illuminated by a side and rather high light. If the book be held near the eyes on account of insufficient light two evils arise, viz., (i) there is a strain upon the lenses of the eye in order to secure a proper focussing of the image of each word upon the retina, and (2) the eye cannot take in an entire line of the printed page at one and the same time. The above evils follow also from defective eye- sight on the part of the pupil. D 34 Ho7v to Teach Reading. A* {b) A good verbal memory. Tlie eye of a fluent reader travels considerably in advance of the voice. The words thus rapidly noticed by the visual sense are retained in the memory and reproduced in the order in which they occur. The memory for words (verbal memory) differs with each reader. Proficiency in any case can only be obtained by practice. With some, however, a fluent style is obtained much more readily than with others. The latter will, in most cases, be found to observe both by eye and ear less acutely, and to retain by memory less completely, than the former. The slower children should be provided with as much practice in reading as possible so that both Ihe observation and the mem Dry of words may be quickened. {c) The value of a logically arranged text The same thought may be expressed in a variety of ways. Some authors are very difficult to read because their thoughts are expressed either in awkwardly constructed or in long and involved sentences. Simplicity in the structure of the sentences will prove helpful to the fluency of th^ youthful reader. Great care should be exercised in the selection of a child's reading book, and wherever the literary style is defective the book should be avoided even when its other features are attractive. d) The ability to understand the matter read. Fluency cannot be expected when the reading is not ' with the under- standing.' This condition of fluent reading will be fully dealt with under the heading of 'expressive reading.' It will be sufficient here to state, that whenever an unfamiliar word looms in the distance the energy of the pupil becomes concentrated upon this unknown word. Effort which should be available for the fluent rendering of the passage becomes used up in the attempt to clear away the difficulty — as a result, hesitancy and a stumbling manner at once manifest themselves. If the reading book has been composed with sufficient thought there should be but few words on any given page beyond the knowledge ot the reader ; and if the lesson has been carefully prepared by the teacher all unfamiliar words will be presented to the scholar and all difficulty will be removed before he attempts to read the passage in which the unfamiliar words occur. (e) The plentiful exercise of reading. This is an all important condition for securing fluency. The practice of reading aloud so that the vocal organs and the hearing sense maybe conjointly exercised is the condition best fitted to produce ease and fluency in reading. How to secure the retjui^ite amount of exercise is a problem wlrich must be carefully considered. Class instruction, especially Shmiltaneoiis Reading. 05 where the groups are large, tends to prevent the frequent reading aloud by individuals. In order to aflbrd sufficient practice some teachers depend largely upon siimiltancoits reading ; others prefer draft reading, whilst others again adopt a mixture of individual, simultaneous, and draft reading. Added to the above modes is that of reading silently. Each of these methods will be now considered in fuller detail. Simultaneous reading. So long as the children are mainly imitators of the pattern reading of their teacher, simultaneous reading may with advan- tage be used ; but when there are ability and desire on the part of the learner to cultivate independent expression, the use of simultaneous reading must be considerably lessened and the exercise of individual reading correspondingly increased. The lower half of the school may with advantage often read simulta- neously. By this means the scholars obtain more practice in reading aloud than by any other method. Independent expressive reading cannot be developed to any considerable extent at this stage, because the knowledge and thought necessary for its exercise have not, as yet, been sufficiently developed. It is well, therefore, to take advantage of the imitative powers of children at this early period, and to afford ample oi)portunity for their exercise. This is best done by a plentiful supply of pattern reading by the teacher, and the simultaneous imitation of it by the scholars. The teacher's pattern reading may be imitated by a large class simultaneously as well as, or even better than by an individual scholar. Children who hesitate to read with expression when reading alone are encouraged to make the attempt when they are supported by the efforts of their fellow scholars and the pattern of their teacher. As soon, however, as children are clever enough to express in their own way and by themselves the meaning of an author the simultaneous reading exercise must largely give place to individual effort. Simul- taneous reading can never be so conducive to the individual scholar's expression as it is helpful to his imitation of the expression of the teacher. It follows, therefore, (i) that simultaneous reading should be plentiiully introduced into the reading of the junior classes, (2) that its use should be gradually lessened in the higher classes, and (3) that it should be rarely heard in the highest division. The best method of conducting the simultaneous reading ol a large class will be considered in the chapter on ' Methods of conducting a reading lesson.' 36 How to Teach Rcaditig. Draft reading. This is a device by which many children are exercised in reading at the same time. In the lower classes draft reading should follow the simultaneous reading. The children have had the advantage of the teacher's pattern; they have furthermore attempted, along with the entire class, to copy that pattern, and now they have the opportunity of reproducing the same independently of the teacher. The following are the weak features of the draft reading, viz., (i) the monitors who hear the reading are incapable of stimulating their fellow scholars to make the best of their opportunity, (2) the noise of many voices encourages a loud and loose style of reading, and (3) the mistakes which arise are, more frequently than not, allowed to pass uncorrected. Silent reading. In the upper classes of a school, where simultaneous and draft reading are not suitable, the exercise of individual reading may be extended by allowing the pupils to read silently. This form of reading calls forth all the intellectual exercises of vocal reading. The words are seen and therefore their spelling is strengthened; the thoughts and ideas of the author are realised in the same way as when the voice accompanies the thought ; the imagination of the scholar is therefore awakened and his knowledge is increased. Silent reading is thus seen to be a valuable school exercise and should be encouraged. It cannot alone produce fluency, and in this aspect it is not so valuable as reading aloud. As silent reading is entirely dependent upon the scholars' self-effort, it should be introduced into those parts of the school where self-effort is available. Evidently the upper classes are the most suitable for its exercise, and in these classes it will be further serviceable in developing a greater degree of self-effort. Finally, it should be remembered that silent reading is the form which reading must mainly assume when the scholar leaves school, and the practice of it in school will prepare for its continuance in future years. The Development of the Intelligence. 37 READING LESSONS IN THE UPPER CLASSES. INTELLIGENCE AND EXPRESSION, Introduction. The qualities of good reading hitherto mentioned are shared to a greater or less extent by both the junior and the senior classes. Clear enunciation, correct pronunciation, and a fair amount of fluency may be expected from young children. The highest qualities of good reading, however, must not be expected at a very early age. Reading with intelligence accompanies the general development of the child's mind. This highest style of reading demands (i) the development of the general intelligence in order that there may be the ability to understand the meaning of what is read ; (2) the possession of those feelings or emotions which the passage awakens, and (3) the power to give interpretation to that meaning (emphasis) and utterance to those feelings (expression) Dy means of the skilful modulation of the voice. I. The development of the intelligence. The first of the demands mentioned above is best satisfied by the general growth of knowledge and the association of language in harmony with the knowledge acquired. To this end object lessons, lessons in geography and elementary science, together with the observation of things and events as these occur in daily life, will prove of service. Reading lessons in geography, history, and elementary science will prove of especial value because the exercise of language is maintained in these lessons side by side with the acquisition of knowledge. The development of the intelligence is not only dependent upon this growth of knowledge, it is dependent also upon the gradual unfolding of the higher powers of the mind. In the early stages of reading it was shown that for the child to read with fluency it needed a well-trained eye to observe the words in rapid succession, and an immediate and almost automatic association of the form of the word with its sound, such asso- ciation affording for the most part an exercise of the memory. In the advanced stage of reading, now under consideration, a ^8 How to Teach Reading. higher kind of intellectual effort becomes needful. This will be evident if we take the example of a boy reading a passage from a book of adventure like Rob'mson Crusoe : — The shipwreck and the landing on the lonely strand are matters which do not come within the range of the reader's experience. Observation and memory therefore cannot directly and immediately supply these notions. We want, however, the scholar to 'read as though the shipwreck and landing of Crusoe were actual experiences. How does the reader advance to this required condition of intelligence? Evidently by making use of the knowledge which he already has. The words ' shipwreck,' ' landing,' 'lonely,' and 'shore' are all more or less familiar. The reader may have visited the sea-side; if so, the words 'shore' and 'landing' will call up images in accord with actual experiences. He knows in all probability what it is to be alone, and he may have seen a picture of a wreck. Out of these isolated items of observed knowledge the scholar elaborates a purely mental combination — a new idea, viz., that of the ship-wrecked Crusoe first stepping on the shore of his solitary abode. The formation of this new idea has called forth the exercise of something more than observation and memory. These intellectual powers have undoubtedly supplied the reader with the material out of which the new idea must be formed, but the power by which the material supplied by memory is re- arranged is that of imagination. Here, then, we have a simple example of the exercise of one of those higher intellectual powers which reading with intelligence both demands and exercises. Good reading cannot exist apart from a considerable development of the powers of imagination. To sum up this part of our subject, it should be plain that in order to read with intelligence there must first be a broad basis of observed and readily remembered knowledge ; there must also be the association of this know- ledge with appropriate language, and there must finally be the ability on the part of the reader to re-arrange the items of knowledge which the words suggest, by the exercise of an active imagination. It should now be evident that the wider the range of observed and remembered knowledge available for vivid and immediate reproduction, the more completely will the imagination be able to formulate the ideas which the effort of intelligent reading demands. A well informed and intelligfent condition of mind is therefore a necessary preparation for the effort of the higher style of reading. The reading lesson is thus seen not only to demand an effort of the intelligence but also to lend itself to the acquisition of new know- ledge. Knowledge accpiiied by reading will he found to constitute a very considerable proportiuii of the stock in the possession of a well informed pujiil. If we ask ourselves, whenever we are dealing with any branch of knowledge, how much of this knowledge has come first- hand and direct, and how much is the result of reading, we shall at Meanifig of * Emphasis ' a)id ' Pause.* 39 once see that we are very largely indebted to reading. In history, for example, dealing as the subject does with the facts and events of the past, or in geography, dealing as this subject does with the range of facts and events over a wide area of space, how very little is it possible for us to become acquainted with except through the medium ol reading and through the exercise of the imagination. In school work it will be found that the reading lesson supplies the material by which imagination assists us to acquiie the knowledge which in both history and geography is far beyond the range of actual experience. What is true of history and geography may similarly be shown to be true of other branches of knowledge. 2. Meaning conveyed by the use of * emphasis ' and * pause.' In dealing with the pronunciation of words it was seen that some of the syllables in a word were stibject to greater stress than the rest, and it was then stated that this variation in stress gives rise to what is termed ' accent.' There was also seen to be a considerable variation in the rate in which the different syllables followed one another. If attention be now directed from the word to the sentence, it will be found that the meaning of the latter depends largely upon the way in which stress (emphasis) is laid upon certain words in the sentence. Fur- thermore, the meanmg thus conveyed is frequently rendered more distinct by the use of the ' pause.' The relation in which emphasis and pause stand to good reading now claims attention. {a) Emphasis. When such words as 'to-day,' * I,' 'church,' 'in,' and 'sing are seen or heard alone, i.e., apart from any context, each word serves to recall a certain definite notion. When, however, these words are found in a sentence, such as ' I sing in the church to-day,' the full meaning given to the sentence as a whole depends not only on the meaning of each separate word but also upon the word or words which are selected for special stress or emphasis, e.g. : — ■ I sing in the church to-day. Is an intitiiatio)t also tJiat some one else does not, I sing in the church to-day. ~ Indicates also that sometimes I do other service. I sing in the church to-day. Conveys also the notion that sometimes I sing in other place) He looked upon his people, and a tear was in his eye ; {slower rate) 48 How to Teach Reading. ((■) He looked upon the traitor, and his glance was stern and high. {faster rate) ((/) Now by the lips of those ye love, fair gentlemen of France, Charge for the golden lilies— ui'ion them with the lance. A thousand spurs are striking deep, a thousand spears in rest, A thousand knights are pressing close behind the snow white crest ; And in they burst, and on they rushed, while like a guiding star Amidst the thickest carnage blazed the helmet of Navarre. {fast rate) (<■) Ho ! maidens of Venice ! Ho ; matrons of Lucerne, Weep, weep, and rend your hair for those who never shall return. {slow rate) Contrast between the reading lesson of the lower stage and that of the higher stage. LOWER STAGE. 1 . The matter of the reading lesson consists of words— their pro- nunciation, spelling and mean- ing. 2. The aim of the lesson is the correct and full enunciation of each letter sound, together with the pure pronunciation of each syllable and of every word- emphasis and expression being obtained mainly by imitation of the teacher's pattern. 3. The method of conducting the lesson is by simultaneous imita- tion of the pattern, together with plenty of indivilual and draft reading. 4. The explanations are those of the new words as these occur in their several sentences, com- bined with a general review of the passage read. 5. The mental efforts arc those ol observation in readily recog- ni.Mng the form and spelling of entire words, and memory in associating the re) The class — its arrangement (^) Arrange the class in symmetrical posi- and supply of material. ''°"' ^"^ see that every boy has a book. 2. Introduction. Refer to knowledge con- veyed through the telling of an Contrast the two methods of conveying interesting story. The matter knowledge. Ask class which method of the story is true, but the thevprefer,viz.(i) the teacher to state ,_ ti, 4„<-„Uf„;^; tl,„ r^^ffo- the facts, or(2) the coat to be supposed method of obtaining the matter j^ speak for itself. is imagined. * Nofcs of a lesson for the infant stage are printed on an earlier page. 58 How to Teach Reading. 3. Pattern reading of teacher and simultaneous imitation by the class. Read portions marked off by dots with clear pronunciation, and distinct emphasis. The children to listen in order to reproduce the teacher's pattern simultaneously. After the para- graph has been read in portions, it should be road through, for the simultaneous imitation by the class. 4. Expected difficulties in the scholar's imitation. (Sam- ples only.) {a) The fmal ng in reading ' growing,' &c. (/;) The final ts in 'beasts.' \c) The en in ' garden.' id) Keeping up the voice at the word.s ' beast,' ' things,"garden,' & ' table,' in the first paragraph. \^c) Reading in a slow, subdued tone ' a soft voice issued from the bosom of his coat,' chang- ing to a bright cheerful tone in the sentence beginning ' I recollect once,' ) Inanimate things ... things without life. (() An account of themselues... telling their own his- tory; how they be- came what they arc. ( 77ic akn'c are satnpL-s only taken from the first parai^raph. ) 6. Individual reading and its correction. (.;) I Jitlerent scholars to be called upon to read short portions. (/') FauUs of pronunciation, accent, emphasis, and expres- sion to be pointed out along with their correction. (a) When the portions .ire short each scholar might be required to point to the place. (/') Durin;; '.he second lime of reading;, it would be well to discourage point irig. ((■) If hesitation occur, or if indistinct utterance, or if false accent or emphasis be detected, require the .scholars to read a second time. (e attention of the scholars. If the class fail to sound these satisfiic- torilv, repeat until correct. Allow a scholar, upon whom dependence can be placed, to read these words. His cor- rect reading will be more stimulating than that of the teacher. (i) .'Xdopt a hif,'hly surprised tone of voice and expect the class to copy it. Method of explanation. (a) -Some tales are true, others .are not. In this story there arc both the true and the false. Question .as to what is true (ihc history of llu- coat) and what is not true. Ask children if they know the name given to imagin.ary beings who are made to tell stories. (/') Contrast teacups with beasts ; bring out, by reference to the schol.irs' know- ledge, th.at teacups .are made .and have I oleelinp, whilst beasts live .and grow. .\.I5. — Klowers arc wrongly classfd. (c) Ask schol.irs to use another word for '.account.' If imable to do so at once, .ask a boy to give an account of himself since he .arose in the morning=history Contrast with tradesman's account. 1. Mix stfiolars, go d with weak readers. 2. A strong contrast will generally enable the schol.ir to recognize a fault. Per- severe until correct, but do not repeat so often that the clxss becomes weary of waiting. Notes of a Portion of a Lesson to Standard VI. 59 {c) The same scholar generally to attempt to read correctly after faults have been pointed out. (Sometimes another may read.) {d) Mutual correction to be al- lowed, but kept within narrow limits. The teacher's own cor- rections to be considered of most value. . Conclusion. matter read. 4. Allow a scholar to suggest a correction Do not ask for show of hands until the scholar has finished reading. Be pre- pared to make a few corrections but not many. The lesson to be completed by a general review of the 2. Notes of a Portion of a Lesson to Standard VI. •.,A.^-^>V- SCENERY OF THE TROSACHS.— A> W. Scott. Subject matter (specimen) ;— ' The western waves of ebbing day Rolled o'er the glen their level way ; Each purple peak, each flinty spire, . Was bathed in floods of living fire. But not a setting beam could glow Within the dark ravines below, Where twined the path, in shadow hid, Round many a rocky pyramid, Shooting abruptly from the dell ; - - - Its thunder-splintered pinnacle.' Plan of teaching, with hints upon method. 1. Introduction. Show on the map of Scotland the position of Loch Katrine and exhibit (if possible) a picture of the lake with its mountainous surroundings. The class might also be told that the favourite route for tourists is through the Trosachs. Associate Scott, the Scotch poet, with Scotch lake and border scenery ; also Wordsworth with Enghsh lake scenery. 2. Pattern Reading-. (a) Read the first two lines with deliberation. (d) Emphasise equally the words ' peak and spire,' and contrast with 'the dark ravines below' by reading the latter in a lower and more subdued tone of voice. (c) The description of the twining path should be read slowly, and the last two lines, from 'shooting' to 'pinnacle,' should be re^d more xJ-«--" quickly. 6o How to Teach Reading. 3. Imitation of pattern and correction of faults. {a) Each reader should attempt the whole of the above passajre. (/') As there is no word of special difficulty, so far as pronunciation is concerned, the emphasis and expression must be watched carefully, (r) If the first boy read well, call on a weaker reader to try to read as well. ((/) Errors of expression (on the lines suggested under pattern reading) must be watched for. If made, each error should be reproduced along with its correction. {/) Mutual correction may be permitted to a limited extent. 4. Explanation. Phrase for explanation. Method of explanation. (a) Ebbing day. (") Refer to tide going down. The day clo>-ing. {Liitt^iinge /igurathe.) {/') Western waves of. <''') Light travels in w.Tives. Why called western? The setting sun. ((■) Rolled level way. C*^) Comr.ist with the direction of light at mid-day, .Thiiost vertical. ((/) Purple peak flinty spire. ( due to the flowering heather. (e) Bathed living fire. W Compare with clouds, gold-tipped by ° the setting sun. The hill-tops similarly immersed in a golden light, (y) The dark ravine below. (/) Kvening light could not enter the ravine. Why ? 5 Revision. (i) Allow two or three scholars to read the passage again, and expect more life and feeling. (2) Question afterwards upon meaning of phrases. 6. Continuation and end of Lesson. Continue the lesson in the same fashion throughout the following stanza. Remaining Hints upon the management of the lesson. 1. The teacher .should always lake up a commanding position in front of his cla.ss. He should stand sufficiently far from tlie front row of scholars to be able to sec distinctly the children at cither end of the row. 2. He should be sufficiently acquainted with the reading matter to be able frequently to look away from his book and to survey the entire class. 3. The class should always be symmetrically arranged before the com- nicnccnicnl of the lesson, and no ihiid should afterwards be allowed to remove from the place occuuicH nt the commencement. Sometimes Questions for Examination. 6i the teacher should require the entire class to stand, and should allow portions to sit whenever they give evidence of satisfactory effort. Individual readers should always stand during the reading exercise. Each scholar should be provided with his or her own book. * Looking over ' is a fruitful source of disorder. In order to secure and keep the attention of the entire class during either the simultaneous or the individual reading, the following methods may be adopted, viz. : — {a) Pointing, so long only as children read short portions and so long as they are expected only to imitate the teacher. As soon as children are able to attempt expression on their own account 'pointing' must be discouraged. Reading, with expression, requires the eye to travel some distance ahead of the voice and ' pointing ' would hinder a child in this respect. (/■') If a scholar be suspected of indifference, he should at once be called upon to read. During simultaneous reading the class should be suddenly stopped and the inattentive .scholar should be required to take up the reading at the point where the class has stopped. (r) Introduce emulation between two portions of the class, allowing one half to read whilst the other half listens ; and after a remark upon the reading of the first half encourage the second half to read the passage so as to avoid the mistakes of their fellows. QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. (these questions are reproduced in order to show the nature of the examination in school method.) a) Taken from Government Examination Papers for Pupil-Teachers. What is the best way ot arranging a class for a reading lesson so as to secure (a) distinctness of utterance, and {d) readiness on the part of the scholars to observe and correct mistakes ? ^"^ It is said that some children know their reading books almost by heart, and that when examined they are only reciting, not reading. How could you detect this fault, and by what means could you guard against it ? What is the use of 'pattern reading' in teaching a class to read? Mention any common faults which a good teacher should avoid in giving such lessons. X/t""^^ What is meant by 'simultaneous' rgading? How should it be con- " it ? \x^^ ducted, and what is the use of it 62 How to Teach Reading. What is meant by tone, accent, emphasis, and expression in reading ? Say why they rji^ed special attention, and how you can best deal with them. K^ What is meant by distinct articulation in reading ? Name any words that present special difficulty to learners, and mention any^ form of exercise that is most useful in correcting faulty articulation. V- ' Explain what is the best use to make of a box of movable letters in an infant class. Describe a plan followed in your school in beginning to teach the youngest children to read. S-""^^ Point out the silent letters in 'light,' 'height,' 'which,' 'colour,' and 'tremble.' v/^ (6) Taken from recent Scholarship papers. What are the commonest faults which you have fpund in the reading ot children ? How would you correct these faults ? t/ It is sometimes complained that children do not read well, because their reading lessons are constantly interrupted by the oral spelling of the more difficult words. Do you consider such interruption necessary, and if not, how may good spelling be attained without it ? V"^ In teaching reading to very young children, some teachers begin with the alphabet, and others teach little words first, and afterwards call attention to the names oL«eparate letters. Which of these methods do you prefer, and why ? V^ Give some rules which you intend to follow for spring (i) distinct articulation ; (2) intelligent expression in reading. V^ Detail some of the advantages and disadvantages ot teaching reading by the 'alphabet method.' Point out some of the advantages to be gained by ' simultaneous ' class reading, and deduce from those considerations for which classes of a. school this method is best adapted, and the dangers to be avoided ? ^x"^ In the following sentence explain the peculiar difficulties presented by the words printed in italics in the early stage of reading : He 7cioii/t/ take no />.iiiis to (t-(ic/i any h^ who could not at least utritc what boys of eight years old can wrXc.^r What especial care would you bestow upon the less advanced readers in your class before, during, or after the reding lesson? How can home lessons be utilised forTeaching reading ?V^ What should be the next ste])s in reading after a child has mastered the fi.rnis of letters and powers of the vowels? Give examples ot a few such lessons. |><^ _ Additio7ial Notes on Reading' d^^ 64 Additional Notes on Readitig. The Object aimed at. 65 HOW TO TEACH SPELLING. The object aimed at. Briefly stated, the result we strive to attain is the correct spelling of all words in the language likely to be required by the scholar in written exercises. In other words, it is the existence in the memory of a perfectly correct image of the succession of letters making up the words used in writing. The inability to spell is regarded as evidence ol a neglected educa- tion, and so long as this opinion prevails the teaching of spelling must have a prominent place in the school curriculum. In succeeding paragraphs the nature of the exercise will be explained. It will then be seen that the power to spell correctly is not necessarily evidence of either marked ability or superior training on the part of its possessor. There is scarcely any subject in the entire range of school study which presents so little material for orderly arrangement, for classification, and for the establishment and application of rules as the subject of spelling. When these facts become clearly recognized it will be evident that the subject cannot present much opportunity for the exercise and development of the higher mental powers. The difficulties of English spelling. A careful enquiry into the difficulties of both reading and spelling shows that they are the same in kind, and, furthermore, that they arise from the same causes. These causes may be summarized as follows, viz., (i) the deficiency in the letters of the alphabet ; (2) the use of the same letter for more than one sound, and (3) the representation of the same sound by different letters or different letter combinations. These three sources of difficulty are equally operative in both reading and spelling. In reading the exercise is one of associating the proper sound with the printed or written word. In spelling the exercise is one of associating the correct form of word with the sound. It is clearly evident, therefore, that the difficulties of both exercises are closely related. That this is so is further evidenced by the fact that most good readers can spell well, whereas a defective reader is frequently weak in spelling. F 66 Hmv to Teach Spelling. The pupil in relation to the above spelling difficulties. We have seen whence the difficulties of speUing mainly arise so far as the language is concerned. The next enquiry deals with the learner. What ability does he possess for overcoming the difficulties, and how may this ability be turned to best account ? It has been already stated that the reasoning powers of the child find very little opportunity for exercise on account of the absence from spelling of material for either classification or for the formation and application of rules. There is still less room for the exercise of the imagination. We do not want a child to imagine a word is spelled so and so. The child must know how each individual word he requires is spelled, and unless he has this knowledge no amount of imagination nor power of reasoning will yield it. Having thus briefly shown the intellectual efforts which are not available in spelling, there are left for consideration those which are of service. These are seeing, hearing, and remembering. I think it will be found that the intellectual effort of spelling may be resolved into one mainly of memory. A word is repeatedly seen, its form is then retained, and, when the word is again heard, the form is recalled. In all spelling exercises the memory should act automatically. Any hesitation over the spelling of a word is as likely to result in error as hesitation in the use of the multiplication table. The nature of the memory exercise in spelling. Memory exhibits different forms of activity. If we can dis- tinguish these, and then determine which form of activity is available for spelling, we shall approach the best position for solving the difficulties of spellmg so far as the pupil is con- cerned. The following illustrations will enable us to distinguish the different conditions of memory activity: — 1. Repetition. A scholar is asked what 5 times 5 are equal to. He immediately replies, 25. The answer appears to be ready without a moment's thought. If asked how he came by this ability the scholar would say, ' I have said the same thing so often before.' Memory in this case is due to repetition. 2. Concentration and interest. In strong contrast with the above example, suppose that during a scholar's first visit to the sea-side a gale springs up, and a ship is unfortunately dashed on the beach. Throughout the whole of life tlie slightest reference to a shipwreck will be sufficient to bring to the observer's memory the impression made ujjon that first visit to the sea. In this example, the memory acts as automatically as in the case above. But there has been no repetition spelling a Memory Exercise. 67 in the latter case, and it is natural to ask what has taken its place. Evidently a highly awakened 171 teres t and a concentrated state of mind. 3. Association, The remembrance of the wreck brings with it those of the place, the appearance of the sea, and the means taken to save the captain and crew of the ship. This train of events is recalled by association. Any one of the above events is sufficient to suggest all the others. This power of recalling by suggestion or association is the highest form of memory activity. We use it whenever we classify or group together facts or events, because of some relation found to exist between the members of each class or group. Which of the above conditions of memory may be used with best results in the spelling lesson ? We shall have no hesitation in stating, in reply, that in all exercises of spelling the child manifests but little interest. We cannot, therefore, make much use of this condition. The arrangement of words in groups, on account of a similar element recurring throughout the group — in other words, the classifica- tion of words of similar structure, and the formation of rules of spelling, cannot be profitably undertaken, because of the many exceptions to every rule. Hence, spelling by association (of the highest kind) cannot be adopted. Repetition remains, and this is the condition of memory activity, which, so far as spelling is concerned, is of chief service. The problem of spelling is thus reduced to one of extreme simplicity. The school exercises which repeatedly bring words under the notice of the scholar (especially under the eye) are of greatest service for securing good spelling. The period of school life best fitted for mastering the difficulties of spelling. The conclusions arrived at in the preceding paragraphs aiford an indication of the age when the spelhng of our most irregular, i.e.., our most common English words may be acquired with the least expenditure of effort. In the junior classes, up to the age say of ten years, the memory is wonderfully active, and vast stores of unorganised matter are readily accumulated with very little manifest effort. Up to this age there is very little attempt spontaneously to arrange and classify knowledge. Forms, tables, words — their sounds and spelling — are accepted and remembered without either hesitation or enquiry. This is evidently the period when the irrational spelling of our common words should be mastered. If we delay to do this until the time when reasons and rules are demanded (/.«., until the senior 68 Hmv to Teach Spelling. school age of from 12 to 15), a great amount of trouble and vexation, with but indiflerent success, will follow. It is not to be expected that a child of ten years of age should be able to spell all the words it uses. It is, however, very desirable that most of the common and irregular words should be mastered at that age. The learning of spelling must go on so long as new words are added to our list. But delay in mastering the spelling of common and irregular words appears to be dangerous, and so long as absolutely correct spelling is demanded of our scholars (whatever else may be neglected during the junior school period) correct spelling cannot with safety be either neglected or delayed. Methods of teaching spelling. I. The reading lesson. Tiiis lesson provides for the fre- quent repetition of words by sight. This repetition is secured without feelings of monotony or weariness on the part of the learner. The reader is thinking about the subject whilst his eyes fall upon the words. The recognition of the words of a narrative is a preliminary to the understanding of the matter. At the same time this frequent recognition of the words provides the most favourable condition for mastering their spelling. There is at times weakness in spelling even amongst good readers. Some children of bright intellect readily acquire the power of reading the meaning of the i)iece rather than the words of w^hich it is composed. They know what should come next, and a rapid glance at the word is sufficient for reading purposes. Such children need to have their attention specially directed to difficult words. This may be done by selecting some of the methods described below. Transcription is especially valuable in these cases. In infant classes words may be built up by means of reading or spelling frames. The exercise should be made to resemble the reading effort as much as possible. Short sentences like ' The boy reads ' should be taken rather than detached words like 'boy' or 'reads.' Any word which the teacher wishes to impress upon the class durin" an oral lesson might be taken separately on either the black-board or the spelling frame. In the upper classes the blackboard may be used to show the s])elling of new words in much the same way as the spelling frame is used for infant classes. 2. Transcription. Transcription is, after reading, the best form of spelling exercise, and should be suppletiientarv to reading. Transcription derives its value from the fart that the effort of writing a word secures a sustained attention upon its form as a whole and upon the several letters composing it. It Method of Teaching Spelling. 69 should, however, be remembered that transcription is a slow exercise, and does noi secure the repetition of words to the same extent that reading does. There is one serious danger associated with the transcription exer- cise. It arises when the lesson is not carefully examined. There is no excuse for error, and if the work is to have its desired effect there must be no errors. The fact that transcription fixes the attention upon the words more completely than any other spelling exercise is the strongest reason for the words being correctly written. Let a child copy words wrongly, and the error is very likely to be reproduced. Next to the folly of showing a word incorrectly spelled on the blackboard is that of carelessly passing over errors of transcription. Children should never, if possible, see a mistake in spelling, nor should probable mistakes be ever suggested to them. 3. Oral spelling may be used with advantage after a lesson has been carefully prepared. It affords a rapid means of testing a class. Its value as a teaching device is doubtful. This arises from the fact that nearly all words whose spelling needs to be taught are words not spelled according to the sound of the word as a whole, e.g., write, right, rite, and 7vright. The necessity of placing the word to be spelled in a sentence is also evident from the examples just quoted. The sound of the isolated word does not enable the scholar to determine which of the four words is meant. For two reasons, therefore, the exercise of oral spelling is faulty, viz., (i) because the sound of the word as a whole does not often suggest all the letter sounds in the word, and (2) because when a word with more than one form is sounded we are in doubt as to which form is required. Oral spelling may oliow, with best effect, a reading lesson, a home lesson in which the chapter from whence the spelling is taken has been prepared, and after the correction of words misspelled during a dictation lesson. 4. Rules of spelling. There are certain rules of spelling in use which may be briefly noticed. If, for example, we take the words ' rat,' ' mat,' ' pin,' (S:c., the short vowel becomes lengthened by the addition of final e. The exceptions are note- worthy as being amongst the commonest words, e.g., ' have,' 'give,' 'live,' 'bade,' 'were,'«S:c. Again, the rule 'that when final e silent is preceded by a double consonant the first vowel does not take the long sound,' as 'dance,' 'fence,' 'mince,' &.c. The exceptions to this rule include such 7© IIo70 to Teach Spelling. words as 'scarce,' 'force,' ' clothe,' &c. The difficulty of dealing with the diphthongs ei and ie is met by the rule ' that ei follows the c sound, whilst ie follows any other consonant sound,' and the examples ' receive,' ' believe,' • word.-i must lead to t he establishment of the r>ll<>wing rule, vi/., that the long vowel sound requires the letter e to follo^w the final consonant. This rule would be helpful so long as cases were supplied which fi)lk)wcd the rule. Suppo.sc a child, who has this rule in mint!, is asked to spell the following common words, done, giy the final e, or to spell the common words, /ai/, soap, coat, tear (clothes), &c., in which the vowel SDund is made long without the final e, how wouM it proceed ? ICvidently the rule would not assist in tlie.sc latter rases. They must be learned quite aj art from the rule. The safer plan would be to place all common an) Each scholar to be seated in writing places, the distance between each scholar to be sufficient to prevent anyone overlooking his neighbours' work. (B.) Stage I. — The Writing Exercise. (I) Style of Writing— (a) The teacher to write the heading on the black-board as a model of good style. (^) The children to be shown (i) where to begin, (2) the proper margin, (3) to be told to ])uncluate, and (4) to be questioned on the right use of capital letters. {2) Dictation of Piece — (a) The entire piece to be read through whilst the class listens. Some words cannot be spelled correctly until their connection in the sentence has been determined. (/') The paragraph to be dictated once only in suitable portions. (C.) Management of class during the writing exercise. (a) The teacher must take up a position well in liont ot the class, and must maintain this position. (Ji) Any movement of a scholar to the right or left should be seen and corrected. A teacher who moves amongst his pupils cannot see all of them when so doing. (<•) By means of this alertness on the teacher's part no copying ought to be possible. { ; so, s<'(jp ; iood, trwth. Aul uthcr s[)elingz ov long voutiz shud be redii'ist tu order. Rule 4. — Diflnongz ar riten b^i the tii (two) Icterz :— trtm, out, ni/i, di (yes), hoi. Recent Instructions on the Teaching of Spelling. 75 Rule 5 — When the deigrafs ' th, sh, zh, ng,' reprezent tu leterz, insert a heifen, thus, short-hand, mis-hap, hogz-hed, en-grave. When the tu leterz that reprezent a long vouel hav separate valiuz, puta heifen after a prefiks ; az, re-engaje, re-instate, ko-alesent, ko-inseid, ko-operate ; and a deieresis in uther kasez ; az, being, deifei, mozaik. Recent instructions from the Education Depart- ment on the teaching of spelling. * Correct spelling is, of course, an essential part of elementary instruction, and often demands considerable labour from the teachers. But this labour might be greatly abridged by the adoption of more skilful methods than are commonly in use. The practice of oral spelling is not only wearisome and uninteresting to children, but it often wholly fails to effect its intended purpose. No child ever learns to spell well merely by reciting aloud the names of the tetters which compose a word. It is by judicious exercises in word-building and in grouping together on the black-board words of similar structure ; and above all, by more frequent exercises in writing and transcription from books, that the difficulties of our anomalous spelling can be most effectually overcome in early childhood. It is to the eye rather than to the verbal memory that all spelling lessons should be addressed, and it is by written, not oral, tests that the results of such lessons should be measured. When words are sounded alike, but differently spelled, the best way of dealing with them is to require the scholars to put them into short sentences of their own writing ; and by this means to make the spellmg exercise helpful as elementary training in composition.' ' These general principles will serve as a guide to the best method of forming an equitable judgment on the success with which this difficult subject has been taught, whether the spellintj be tested by a dictation exercise, or by an examination in word-building according to a scheme prepared by the teacher. In the Second and Third Standards it will not be reasonable to expect more than the power to write correctly common words of comparatively regular notation, and some of the anomalous words which occur frequently in conversation, or in easy reading books. And even in the higher standards, when proper names, the technical terms of a science not studied in the class, foreign words, or words of rare or exceptional character, occur in the dictation lesson, it is right to omit such words from your estimate when you are reporting on the results of the instruction in spelling. The services of the teacher in giving out the passage for dictation may often be used with advantage.' 76 How to Teach Writ ins;. 6* HOW TO TEACH WRITING. I. Introductory. Writing is one of the three essential subjects of school instruction. Its value is twofold, viz., {(i) for practical pur- poses, and {U) for mental training. {a) Practical value. Writing is necessary in nearly all the affairs of life. In school work the value of writing is seen in the power of exact statement which it yields. Oral statements are often accepted which are mere approximations to full and exact knowledge. The written exercise, on the other hand, is a means of stating with definiteness the knowledge acquired. In business affairs the value of writing, both in correspondence and in the keeping of records, is so obvious that it needs only to be briefly mentioned. {b) Value of writing for mental discipline and training. The disciplinary \alues of writing are neither so great nor so evident as are those of reading and of arithmetic. To become a good writer requires, nevertheless, the exercise of consider- able mental j^ower. A copy must be closely observed before it can be successfully imitated. The sense of sight is especially awake during the writing effort, and the steady control of the hand in wielding the pen is a most valuable training in dexterity. The comparison of the scholars' writing with their copies, and tlie discovery of faults as a result of this comparison, are exercises of Judi:;ificnt. The retention of typical letter forms, with which the i)upil mentally compares his own (when no cojjy is present for imitation), is an exercise of the mciiiorx. No one who watches a young child in an early effort of writing can fail lo note how conccntrateil is its attention. I'inally, the scholar who produces a neat copybook Good Writing — Locke's Method. 77- with improvement manifest on every page, supplies proof of having acquired habits of perseverance, of neatness, and of careful njess. 2. Good writing invariably manifests the following charac- teristics, viz., {a) Legibility ; (/>) Symmetry, and hence beauty of style ; and (r) Ease and rapidity of production. {a) Legibility is obtained when the writing is sufficiently large to be easily read ; when it is free from irregular strokes and unmeaning flourishes ; and when the shape of each letter and the form of the entire word are distinctly and readily recognized. (d) Symmetry and beauty depend upon parallelism of strokes ; upon regularly formed and somewhat oval curves ; upon the evenness of height and of joinings ; and upon the uniform spacing of each letter and word. (r) Ease and rapidity of writing should not be attempted until (a) and (/') have been acquired. Rapid, and at the same time legible and beautiful writing is an accomplishment which can only be obtained after much practice. The way should be prepared for the acquisition of a rapid style by accustoming the scholars to the joining of all the letters com- posing each word, but on no account should this style be hastily enforced. 3. Methods in use for obtaining: good writing. There are three fairly distinguishable methods at present used for obtaining a good style of penmanship. These are (i) Locke's, or the analytic method; (2) Mulhauser's, or the synthetic method ; (3) the Mixed method, which, as its name indicates, combines some features of both the analytic and the synthetic methods ; and (4) Vertical Writing. Each of these methods will now be briefly described. (i) Locke's method. The method of teaching which Locke advises in his work entitled ' Some Thoughts on Education ' may be stated m the following way : — a) An engraved copy of letters and words to be prepared. (^) The copy to be in red ink and the pupil to write over the copy with black ink. ( Tracing. ) (r) The copy to be 'a pretty deal bigger than he (the pupil) should ordinarily write,' and gradually to become smaller. J 7 8 How to Teach Writing, {d) The teacher to direct the scholar as follows, viz. : — (i) where to begin, / (2) how to form each letter, (3) as to the mode of holding the pen, ^ and (4) how to place the paper. {e) WTien progress has been made on the traced paper the pupil to write on ' fair ' or untraced sheets, and thus ' be brought to write the hand you desire.' Many of the above features have been adopted in modern copy- books. Those issued by Darnell, and used in schools for the past thirty-five years, very nearly approach the system which Locke recommends. Recent issues of copybooks adopt the system so far as presenting copies for tracing in the early numbers and advancing from large to small hand. At the same time they generally follow the synthetic method of proceeding from the elements of which letters are composed to the construction of letters, words, and sentences. Criticism of the analytic method. This method possesses the following advantages. It is in- teresting from the first lesson onwards. The learner's ambition to be able to write words is satisfied. The method, further- more, proceeds on the plan by which much of our knowledge is acquired, as, for example, in learning to read, i.e., from the whole to its parts. Against the method it may be urged that the writing of letters and words, as entire forms, does not readily enable the learner to make use of the knowledge and power already acquired. Many forms are repeated in different letters {e.g., the hook in nine letters). When this fact is pointed out the new letters containing the hook are easily made. The analytic method ignores this help. Those who support the synthetic method hold that the bungling results which learners make at first in imitation of entire letters and words are either discouraging to the pupil, or, if not, that the incorrect forms tend to become set and habitual. The analytic method, furthermore, violates the principle in teaching which holds generally when anything has to be done, viz., that progress should be from the simple to the complex. (2) Mulhauser's system of writing. In the year 1829 M. Mulhauscr was appointed Inspector of Writing by the Primary Schools Commission of Geneva. He found writing taught in the schools under his supervision, Mulhauser's System oj Writing. 79 without any approach to method. Copies were distributed for imitation in haphazard fashion. Children with remarkable imitative powers made satisfactory progress ; but the majority made but slow advance. The art of correct writing was acquired only after a laborious and long-continued effort. Mulhauser at once determined to place the teaching of writing in the schools under his control upon a rational basis. His method of proce- dure was as follows : — I. Analysis of script letters into four elements. After careful analysis of all the small script characters, Mulhauser reduced them to the following four elementary forms : — i. The right line ^ / ii. The curve down f \ and up / / and up ^ ^ down and up iii. The lo- down and up iii. The loop yf J^ iy_ The crotchet W /^ iwn and up (^ ' ' 2. Classification of letters according to the elements composing them. The twenty-six small letters were next arranged in seven classes, each class having one or more of the above fundamental forms as its distinc- tive feature. i. i U t I ii. n 7n p 7l iii. C e iv. a d q V. w V r i ^'■- J 9 y f vii. To S X Z Exercise of writing in rhomboids. Besides classifying the letters according to similarity of form, Mulhauser devised rhomboids by which the parallelism of stroke, the oval curve, the regular height and distance of each letter, together with the position of the joining, could be determined with the strictest accuracy. These rhomboids with letters in them arranged in classes, with names to the different portions of each letter and with hints upon their use in writing lessons, will now be illustrated and considered. ' 8o How to Teach Writing. CLASS I. Letters ARKAN'GEl) IN RlIOMIiOIUS. Names of the Elements oe EACH Letter. right link. right line, h'nk ; right line, link. Remarks and Teaching Hints. Class L — The letters in this class consist of the right line with the addition of a curve at the bottom called a link. The link is a part of nineteen out o the twenty-six letters, and is exactly the same shape in all. When once it is thoroughly mastered the correct shape of the lower portion of each of the nineteen letters is secured. Notice the use of the terms height, ^ height, and tivo heights. right line, 2 link. heights right line, i\ heights ; link, bar. Teaching Hints — The above letters may be combined into words as it, ill, till, tilt. The following errors must be expected, viz., ((7) strokes made thickest in the middle, {i') pointed tops, (e) strokes with one edge ragged due to the pen being pressed unevenly upon its two points, (d) painted strokes, (e) faulty link, the curve beginning too soon and hence producing a pointed curve at the bottom, (/) the joining up-stroke entering the following stroke too abruptly as though it would cut through it. These errors will be general in a class beginning to write. They should be corrected by the teacher writinL' them in a somewhat exaggerated form on the black-board. The scholars should be asked to point out the error, and be required to avoid it in future attempts. CLASS IL Class IL introduces the /w^/", a curve in the opposite direction to that of the link. The hook is an upper part of nine letters. Teaching Hints — Do not begin the hook in the angle made by the middle hori- zontal and the oblique lines. Begin to the right of the above jioint by the thickness of the riglit line. The hook and link will then be exactly the same in shape. The double curve, forming the last portion of the letters n, m, p, and h, is a very difficult stroke. The hook is generally made larger than the link, and hook. right 1 line ; hook. right ; line ; link. hook, right 1 line ; hook, right 1 line ; hook. right 1 line ; link. right line, 2 hei ghts ; hook, right line. link. right line, 2 i heights, I height down ; hook. right line. link. Miilhatiser' s System of Writing. 8i the down stroke instead of being straight in the middle is made to curve throughout. The best method of detecting the error is to examine the writing upside down. The following words may now be introduced, viz., nut, mint, pint, pulp, &c. CLASS III. curve, link. double curve, half crotchet. loop, link. curve. Class III. — The new feature is the curve. The upper portion of the curve is the same shape in each letter, with the exception of the starting points. The lower curve of both c and e is an extended link occupying a space and a half; that of the letter £> is a link. Teaching Hints — The dot of the letter c requires especial care. Place it one-third the distance between the top and middle lines, and not quite as far forward as the oblique line in front. Complete the dot and then bring the pen with a sweep round the bottom and along the front of the dot. The lower portion of o is exactly like the link in the letter i. The following words may now be written : coin, ounce, clump, choice, &c. CLASS IV. double curve ; right line, link. double curve ; right line, 2 heights ; link. double curve ; right line, 2 heights down ; half crotchet. Class IV. — No new stroke is introduced in this set of letters. In the letter a, if the o portion be first correctly formed, and then the right line and link be written on the right-hand side of the oblique line, it will be in contact with the o only at and above the middle line. The letter ^ is correctly written in the engraving, the letter a is not. Teaching Hints — Children often make the right line either to cut through the o, or to touch it just at the middle line. Both errors must be corrected. The o in each of the three letters a, d and q should not be altered in shape by contact with the right line. Practise the following words : add, cloud, addition, queen, quoit, &c. G 82 How to Teach Writing. CLASS V. right line, 2 heights down loop ; \ link. double curve ; as for/. hook, right line, link ; as for/. Class V. — Consists of looped letters. The letter/ is the only new feature. Learn this shape thoroughly ; it is repeated in both g and y. There are three parts of the letter j which need careful watching, viz. : — 1. The lower end should extend exactly midway between the the lowest horizontal line and the one above it. 2. The intersection of the loop must be made in the place shown in the engraving. 3. The end of the loop must slope gradually into the angle. Teaching Hints — If the class can be induced to avoid the three errors against which they are warned above, there will be little need of further direction in making these looped letters. Write the following words : judge, juicy, gagging. CLASS VL right line, 2 heights ; link ; crotchet. Idop, I height above ; right line, 3 heights ; crotchet. hook, right line ; crotchet. hook, right line, link, crotchet. riL;lit litie, link ; right line, Imk ; irnt( hct. Class VL— These are ootchet letters. The crotchet is a curved stroke throughout ; it takes two shapes, that of the letter / being different from that in the other four letters of the group. The letter /■ is an ui)ward loop slightly longer than the letter y, but otherwise it is seen, when inverted, to resemble the latter letter. These crotchet letters are brought together into one class. Some authorities urge the intro- duction of the letters r, v, and •w at an earlier stage, because being short letters they are more easily made than the long letters j, 1, or d. Criticism of the Synthetic Method. 83 Teaching Hints — A child who has learned to make the letter 1 should recognize that b is the letter 1 with the crotchet added to it. Similarly each of the letters r, V and w should be associated with letters m, n and u respectively. In this way the teaching of former lessons is made to assist in the present. f is the longest letter ; it should be made by a single movement of the pen. Words for practice are brown, fibre, wharf, beautiful, &c. CLASS VII. right line, 2 heights ; hook, i- curve ; 5-curve, link. link, to the height ; 2 half- curves. hook, 2 opposite curves ; link. crotchet, right line, hook ; curve, I height down ; loop, i-link. Class VII. — Consists of the complex letters which do not fall readily into any of the preceding classes. The let- ters forming this group have very little in common, hence each must be practised un- til its particular shape is familiar. Teacning Hints — The letter k should be contrasted with the letter h. The letter s occupies a space and a half. When s follows either c or e the two together occupy two spaces. The upper portion of letter z is the only thin down stroke in the series. Words for practice are knapsack, zig-zag, exists, &c. Tracing is helpful when a child is first learning to write. Holding and guiding the pen are difficult exercises for a little hand. The tracing enables the learner to concentrate less attention upon these necessary preliminaries to writing. As soon as sufficient skill in the management of the pen has been gained, effort on the part of the child will be available for observing the shape of the letters, and as this eftbrt of observation increases there should be less tracing supplied. If tracing be continued beyond the first few books the child's self-effort of observation will not be sufficiently exercised. Criticism of the synthetic method. This method begins with simple forms well within the power of the child to construct. Hence the learner is free from the discouragement which failure to produce a more complex form might produce. Whilst the system provides for the mastery in 84 Hoiv to Teach Writing. turn of each form of stroke, it seeks to make full use of the knowledge already acquired. For example, in the first lessons the straight line / leads naturally to the straight line connected with the link, viz., the letter I ; and this second form repeated yields the letter ^ / a simple lengthening of the stroke already mastered makes the letter ^, and by a still further lengthenmg of the stroke the letter / is formed. An apparently valid objec- tion is raised against the system to the eflVct that it keeps the learner too long engaged in writing unmeaning strokes, hnks, hooks, &c. In reply it maybe pointed out that in the four exercises forming the introductory stage, viz., the exercises /, /, Vb, t, I, the first stroke only can be termed in any sense unmeaning. It is immediately followed by the letters i, u, t, 1, and these are afterwards combined into words like it, tilt, till, &c. The method is valuable in that it saves the teacher's time and the scholar's effort. For example, when once it is clearly seen that the link portion of the letter i is repeated in the lower portions of the letters u, t, 1, as well as in no less than fifteen other letters, it is a great gain to master this stroke once for all. We thus secure that the portion of the nineteen letters into which the link enters shall be correctly made. The rhomboids are objected to on the ground that they are confusing. This is, perhaps, the most serious and real difiiculty. The difficulty, however, is not so great as it appears, and with a little practice it is overcome. Some ridicule has been heai)ed on the method on account of the introduction of the special terms /loo/:, link, \ heig/it, ike. In reply it may be stated that at most these terms are only twelve in number, and that they are readily learned when used in connection with the forms for which they stand. (3) The Mixed method of teaching writing-. In most of the copybooks recently comj>ile(l the valuable features of the two methods already described have been adopted, and an attcm])t, more or less successful, has been made to avoid their defects. The following features which the copybooks of to-day display may readily be placed to the account of one or other of the above systems. I. The elementary forms arc attempted in the early lessons. {Sytifhetic system. ) 2 Tracing is introduced into these first copies. {Aitalvtic sysUm.) The Mixed Method oj Teaching Writing. 85 3. Letter and word forms are soon reached, {Synthetic and Analytic systems. ) 4. Half-text is taught first, leading gradually to large-hand and to small- hand. {Modification of both systems.) 5. Horizontal lines are adopted for guidance in fixing the joinings and relative heights of different letters. [Synthetic system.) Systematic instruction without the use of copybooks. Copybooks with printed head-lines became common with the employment of pupil teachers. Before that event plain ruled books were chiefly used, the copies being set by the teacher. It frequently happened that the teacher was a highly-skilled penman, and as a result the writing was excellent ; many schools, in fact, gained a high reputation for their penmanship. During the past few years there has been a tendency to return to the use of plainly ruled books, accompanied by a regular system of class teaching from blackboard or cardboard copies. Criticism of the method. Advantages. I. The simultaneous effort of an entire class upon the same copy, by which a considerable amount of emulation amongst the pupils is secured. ii. The arrangement of a series of lessons on a definite plan, and the careful preparation of each lesson in the series by the teacher, iii. The substitution of regular class instruction for somewhat desultory individual direction, iv. The imitation by the scholars of the teacher's copy. This copy, when well written, has a more stimulating effect upon the class than the engraved heading. Children regard the printed headline as something far beyond their power to imitate successfully, whereas all may fairly aim at imitating the teacher's copy. Disadvantages. i. That unless the same teacher continues to move upward in the school with the scholars, the changes in the style of writing in the different classes must tend, for a time, to confusion, ii. That teachers are not always excellent writers, iii. That children do not progress uniformly, and that to keep all the scholars constantly at the same class of exercise might weary the bright or discourage the slow. 86 Hoiu to Teach Writing. (4) Sloping and vertical hand-writing. The writing practised in schools is generally sloping in its character. The slope in Mulhauser's system amounts to 60" with the horizontal. In Civil Service hand-writing the slope is not so great. The vertical style which has recently been intro- duced, and for which copybooks with vertical head-lines have been constructed, is recommended by its supporters for the following reasons, viz, : — 4. Strokes being shorter the writing is more rapid. 5. Occupies less space. 6. Easy to learn and to teach. 7. Good for discipline, the writers being more easily kept in their proper places, and the tendency to talk more readily discovered and prevented. Prevents bodily distortion. The two arms being placed equally in front, the shoulders are both held at the same height. There is no twisting of the back. The eyes being equidistant from the writing, their adjustment for clear vision is rendered more easy and natural. The writing is in the same direction as ordinary type and therefore legible. It should be observed that with perfectly vertical downstrokcs and with upstrokes joining /lU W\) at the top and bottom (as in the examples given) the upstrokes must be sloping. Hence the term vertical only applies to one half of the strokes. Then again the remarkable uniformity which appears when a copy of a head-line is examined (the long letters making a perfectly straight and vertical line) is not so m.anifest when a paragraph of ordinarily printed matter is copied. There have always been persons who, by preference, have written vertical characters. The length of the fingers and the general shape of hand are ' personal factors ' to be taken into account. The strongest claim in favour of vertical writing is the hygienic one. The spread of type-writing is helpful to the growth of a more upright style, and fashion (which is ever ready to adopt a change) may give addi- tional stimulus. In one school where the system was recently adopted, it was reluctantly abandoned because of opposition from different firms to the introduction of the vertical style into their ledgers, &c. The Capital Letters. Mulhauser did not analyse and classify the capital letters. The following grouping of these letters is presented as one which has been found serviceable in teaching. The value of the classification becomes ajjparent when it is seen that the The Capital Letters. 87 same lines are repeated, with slight modifications, throughout every letter in each class. When letters are thus arranged in groups, the knowledge and skill acquired in learning one letter become of service in mastering the subsequent letters of the same group. Hence the classification of the capital letters results in each letter being more easily made, as well as more fully known. Along with the representation of each class of capital letter are a few hints for teaching it. CLASS I. Directions for teaching. — The first stroke is repeated in each of the letters of this class. It is also found in each of the letters of the succeeding group. It forms in fact an important part of no less than ten capital letters. When its shape has become thoroughly known, and when the scholars can produce it with ease and accuracy, the additions required to form the letters S, L, I, T and F respectively, should be introduced one by one. The scholars should be encouraged to distinguish the portion of the letter which is new from that which is old. It will be seen that a slight modification is sufficient to yield the shape of each letter in turn. New letters should not be introduced until power to make the previous letters has been acquired. The letters should furthermore be written in connection with a word. Some teachers prefer a more upright style. In that case the oblique lines (rhomboids) may approach more nearly the perpendicular. The figures I 2 3 on the diagram are intended to indicate equal spaces between the strokes. CLASS II. S8 How to Teach Writing. Directions for teaching. — The long down stroke is the same as that in Class I. Encourage the class to indicate tlie new feature in each letter. Practise the upper curved portion of the letter P until it is known. This knowledge will enable the scholar very readily to form the two following letters, viz., B and R. The letters H and K introduce considerable modifications and additions, and must, in consequence, be allowed more time for practice. CLASS III. Directions for teaching. — The chief new eature here is the first up-stroke of each of the letters A, M, and N. These letters should follow one another. The letters V and W have common forms and should be taught together. Draw attention to the equal distances between the strokes indicated by the figures, and to the similarity in the curve of the downstrokes of the last four letters. After each letter is mastered, it should be written as the initial letter of a word. The length of the letters which are not capitals should extend from the fourth to the sixth horizontal line, counting from the top of the diagram. CLASS IV. Directions for teaching. — The down curve of the letter C is repro- duced in each of the following letters. In the letter E it is modified near the middle, and in the letter X a reverse curve is added. The chief variations arc found in the terminations of each letter in the group. Encourage the class to indicate the new feature before attempting to write it. It is well sometimes to examine the letters upside down. The irregularities in shape are often best shown in this way. Children are in danger of becoming accustomed to a mis-shapen letter, and of accepting this for the correct form. Class Teaching. 89 CLASS V. Directions for teaching. — The upper curves •of each of the first five letters in this group are exactly alike in shape. The letters Q to Y are furthermore begun in exactly the same way. U and Y are nearly the same in shape throughout. These resemblances should be recognised by the class. The recognition will prove helpful in writing. The letters D and Z are peculiar forms and must receive more attention than the other letters of the group. Class teaching and individual instruction of writing. The conditions under which class teaching of writing becomes possible have already been discussed. When copybooks are used, an obstacle presents itself in the way of systematic class instruction, inasmuch as the children throughout the class can but rarely be kept at the same copy. When different copies are written by the several scholars, the class teaching must be very general, and can scarcely be termed systematic. When, however, ruled books without head-lines are used it becomes possible, in every lesson, to introduce class instruction of a systematic kind. The prime condition of success, whichever method may be selected, is the presence and active co-operation of a skilled teacher, capable of arranging a series of writing lessons according to one or other of the systems already de- scribed, and able, at the same time, to present to the class a good style of writing for their imitation. Under these conditions the production of uniformly good writing may be expected. A black-board, with ruled lines to correspond with the books, is a necessary appliance in class teaching. Such a board enables the teacher to exhibit the errors* made by the scholars. It also enables him to show models of correct writing for his pupils to copy. There * This is contrarj' to the advice given for the correction ot spelling. No errors in mis-spelling should ever be shown. Errors in writing, however, may not only be shown but they may be exaggerated with good effect. 9^ How to Teach Writing. will still be need for individual instruction ; but, where class teaching is conducted under the conditions just enumerated, there will be less need for individual direction than when the class is at work at a variety of copies. When children of one class are occupied upon a variety of copies the teaching must be mainly individual. Writing appliances. {a) Desks. The dual desk affords excellent means of access to each scholar. For individual correction and instruction, therefore, they are most serviceable. Whether dual or long desks are used, the front edge of the seat should be nearly in a straight line (vertically) with the front edge of the desk, and children should not be permitted, under any circumstances, to bend in awkward positions over their copybooks. The slope of the desk for writing purposes should be about 20° from the horizontal. A foot-rest placed at right angles to the direction of the leg is a source of great comfort. {b Ink. Good writing is impossible with inferior ink, or with inkwells in a dirty condition. The porcelain inkwell, having a hole for the insertion of the pen, appears to work well. It prevents the accumulation of dust and it delays evaporation. The difficulty of washing thoroughly clean is its only drawback. [c] Pen-wipers. If pens are collected without being dried they soon corrode. Children should learn to be tidy in their habits. The writing lessons afford a good opportunity for cultivating neatness, and the use of pen-wipers and blotting paper may be made conducive to this end. ((/) Cabinets for storing copybooks should be pro- vided for each writing division. The number of compartments in the cabinet depends upon the number of desks. If the class be seated in dual desks five rows in depth, then a cabinet with five compartments should be provided. The books of all the scholars in the front desk should be collected in the order in which the children sit. The writing monitor, at the close of the lesson, should place these copybooks in order in compartment No. i. The books in the second set of desks should be placed in compartment No. 2 ; and so on throughout the class. (<•) Copy-slips. These have almost passed out of use. They have the advantage of providing the copy best suited to each individual scholar; the copy can also be repeated as often as the teacher wishes. Disad- vantages arise (i) from their distribution, (2) from being no scholar's Class Management during the Writing Lesson. ■ 91 direct property they are not sufficiently cared for and hence are apt to become untidy, and (3) from the copy-slip being placed on one side as soon as the first line is written so that the scholar is left to imitate his own writing. A best boob is used in some schools with good effect. In this book a copy which has reached the standard of writing required by the teacher is written once by the scholar. When completed, this book exhibits the best efforts of the pupil, hence its name. Class management during the writing lesson. The writing lesson is one in which activity may be combined with almost complete quiet. There are some lessons in which a little noisy activity is a good feature. Draft reading, the mutual recitation class, mental arithmetic in the form of rapidly put question and answer, are examples. Restlessness or noise of any kind, however, during the writing lesson is fatal to steady effort. The state of the copybooks is a fair indication of the discipline which prevails in any class. If writing lessons are to be followed by the disciplinary effects mentioned on p. 76, the scholars must be under skilful control. The following details of class management may be of service. I. Arrangement of class. Place the children an equal number in each desk, and in regular rows from front to back. Keep them whilst writing in the same position throughout the lesson. This arrangement will help to prevent restlessness. In order, however, to carry out such a plan and not to weary the children there should be a comfortable desk provided, with foot-rest, &c., as already described. Children should on no account be forced to reach beyond their own position for an ink supply. During a lesson of 45 minutes it will be necessary to allow the children a little physical exercise. Pause, once or twice, for a cheerful song. 2. Distribution of material. The copybooks should be taken from the cabinets by a writing monitor, and placed at the end of each row of desks in the order in which the scholars are arranged. At the word ' books ' the first boy prepares to pass the books, and at the word ' passed ' they should be passed quietly along the desk, one at a time. Similarly with the pens and pen-wipers. Pens are usually passed in a vertical position with points directed upwards. The passing of pens provides an opportunity for a mischievous boy displaying himself, and the teacher should be on the alert to detect the first signs of irregularity. 92 Holu to Teach IVritifig. 3. Signals for starting to write. The complete control of the entire class is a most important condition of successful effort. Steady control is best secured at this stage of the lesson by a few simultaneous move- ments in obedience to well-known signals. These may be the numbers 'one,' 'two,' &c., taps on a bell, or the sounds of a whistle. With the signal ' one.' Copybooks to be opened and placed in position. ,, ,, 'two.' .Scholars to take writing positions. ,, ,, 'three.' Pens to be held forward. The method of holding the pen to be noted and any faults corrected. ,, ,, 'four.' Pens to be dipped and the scholars to commence writing either one, two, or three lines, accor- ding to their proficiency. The whole of the above signals need not be taken every time the scholars begin to write. It is best not to work any code of signals so frequently that they lose all stimulating effect. Children like to act with precision and with simultaneous movement. The novelty of the signal movements, however, is worn off when they are frequently introduced during the same lesson. At times, the signal ' four' will be sufficient to start the class ; at other times, it should be understood that the dying away of the last notes of a school song becomes the signal for quiet resumption of writing. A good effect is sometimes produced by the teacher taking his seat at his desk, and from that position performing the above operations in front of the scholars— the class meanwhile silently imitating each movement. Value of these drill mouements. The habit of obedience is perfect when there is no hesitation in following the command, i.e., when there is no manifestation of the smallest trace of opposition. The action thus becomes mechanical. As tending to accelerate the formation of the perfect habit of obedience, signals and drill movements are of great service. The following are some of the advantages following their use, viz. : — 1. Signals, such as the sound of a whistle, the tnp on a bell, the words 'one,' 'two,'&c., are short, and the association between the signal and the action may be made instantaneous and complete. 2. There is no room for hesitation in interpreting the command. When a mechanical association is sought to be formed, hesitation or delay arising from any cause tends both to weaken and postpone the association. 3. The tendency to imitate the action of others which all childien possess is fully utilised. 4. The f)ersonaI cltmcnt, so far as the teacher is concerned, is removed. The signal is obeyed ; the teacher's urd«r is not thought of. Sripervision of the Writing of the Class. 93 Supervision of the writing of the class. Whilst the scholars are quietly occupied with writing, the teacher should move quickly round the class, making general comments, at the same time, upon the quality of the writing. He should stimulate his pupils to make their present effort better than anything they have done before. He may also with advantage express satisfaction at the general improvement apparent in the writing. It will not be well to award frequent praise to the writing of any particular scholar ; at the same time an excellent copy, or a book, which exhibits marked improvement throughout may be placed in some position of honour as a stimulus to the entire class. There will be cases in which the writing of individuals will need correction. The best correction in all such cases is to point out the mistake and to write the letter or word again for the scholar's benefit. Any general error may be mentioned to the entire class, and this may be done without necessarily stopping the writing of the scholars. The exercise of writing is not so absorbing as to prevent the class noticing the teacher's remarks whilst they continue to write. A teacher must not be content with passing round his class and whis- pering mdividual corrections into the ears of his pupils. On the other hand, the teacher must avoid the objectionable practice of frequently stopping the entire class in the midst of either a line or a word in order to publicly correct the writing of one or two scholars. To prevent the pupil copying his own mistakes it will be necessary to provide more than one copy on each page. The teacher, during super- vision, must carefully correct every repetition of an error, and during class instruction he must frequently impress upon his scholars the necessity of imitating the copy. Only by these means can his demand ' to have each new line an improvement upon the last ' be obeyed. Holding the Pe/?.— Children at first grip the pen too tightly between the forefinger and thumb, and as a consequence both are bent far too much. The following directions are slightly modified from those issued under the sanction of the Committee of Council on Education, and published by J. W. Parker, West Strand. 1. The pen is held between the first two fingers above, and the thumb beneath. 2. The fingers should be slightly bent, but not too much doubled up. The thumb is most bent. 94 Hozv to Teach Writing. 3. The hand supports itself upon the fourth and fifth fingers, and upon these the hand glides along the paper from left to right. 4. The fingers holding the pen must not pass below the open portion of it. 5. In writing, the pen must point towards the shoulder. It ought to be pressed very lightly and make little or no noise. 9. Press both sides of the pen nib equally on the paper. 10. The fingers holding the pen should alone move, and the hand should not be sujiported by the wrist but by the arm a little below the elbow. Close of the lesson. AVhen the time for the writing lesson has expired copybooks should be shown. The rapid review of the teacher should be accompanied by a few words of criticism — comparing, here and there, a pupil's effort with that previously made by him, rather than comparing one scholar's work with that of his neighbour. If marks are given, the same principle should guide their allotment, otherwise the most painstaking effort of a dull scholar may fail to be recognised. The wiping of pens, blotting of the writing, the orderly arrangement of books, their disposal into the cabinets, and the collection of pens, should follow the directions already stated. fiotes of a Penmanship Lesson. SUBJECT: A BUSINESS LETTER. Standard VI. Time 30 minutes. (i) Preparation: (a) Specimen letter written as a model on the black-board. {i>) Specimen letters on paper — one a model of good, the other of bad style and writing for purposes of contrast. (c) Materials — pens, good ink supply, and a sheet of note paper. (it) The class arranged in writing places. N'o movement from these jilaces to be alluwed. (2) Introduction: («) Refer to the advantage in after life ol being able to write a good business letter. (i) Read over the letter of a supposed customer, asking for a supj)ly of goods. Notes of a Penmanship LessoJi. 95 (f) Nature of the reply. ' None of the required goods in stock ; will order immediately, and forward without delay.' [d) The above curt statements of the principal of the firm to be taken by a youth and turned into a proper business letter. (3) Features of the letter : Style of writing — {a) Legible, because useless without, and likely to irritate, to waste time, and to lose custom. (1^) Neat, thus manifesting thought and care. (c) Running and free, showing experience and training on the writer's part. Style of Composition — (a) Exact and unmistakable, in order to prevent error. (/') Concise, so as to save time. (c) Respectful, in order to receive attention. (4) Specimen letter. ''rospect House, Stockport. Aug. i8th, i8g . Dear Sir, Your esteemed order of the lyth inst. is to hand and is receiv- ing our prompt attention. We have not the goods you require in stock, but have comnunticated luith the i7iam4facturers, and will forward them to you ifnmediately jipon their arrival. Trusting this will suit your con- venience. We are. Sir, Vour obedient servants, WILLIAMS &- CO. per J. Wilson. To y. Richards, Esq. , Commercial House, Lincoln. Remarks and teaching hints. 1. Re-write the letter so that each part may be made a subject for question and discussion. 2. The arrangement of the address will perhaps be familiar. If not, special attention must be drawn to it. 3. Contrast uses of such terms as Sir, Dear Sir, Gentlemen, Madam, &c. 4. Notice the effect of a straight margin on appearance of let- ter. Show an irregular margin for purposes of contrast. 5. Explain the contraction inst., and contrast with ' ?///.' and 'prox: 6. Draw special attention to the arrangement of lines and names at the bottom of the letter. 96 Hmv to Teach Writing. (5) Exercise and conclusion. {a) After the board exercise, each scholar should be told to write a model letter on the paper provided. {b') The teacher, during this silent exercise, to pass quickly round the class, making observations to individual scholars in a voice sufficiently loud to be heard by the class, (c) At the close of the writing exercise, half a dozen copies should be taken from various parts of the class — some excellent, others faulty. These should be criticised without mentioning the names of their writers. The Aims of Teaching Drawing. 97 DRAWING AS A MEANS OF GENERAL EDUCATION. J The aims of teaching drawing. The drawing exercise is often looked upon as merely a device ■for enabling children to imitate with more or less success a drawing copy. One of the aims of teaching drawing is, no doubt, to develop skill in the imitation of outline drawings. This aim, however, is by no means either the only or the most important one. Skill in using the pencil may be considered one of the lower effects of the drawing exercise. A much higher one is that of the cultivation of the eye to observe accurately. Drawing is one of the most valuable means of directing and of concentrating the eifort of accurate observa- tion. Besides training the eye to accurate observation and the hand to skilful representation, the drawing of symmetrical figures and of natural objects results in a cultivation of the pupil's taste for what is beautiful in outline, shade, and colour. Lastly, but not least, drawing is a means of increasing and of presenting knowledge. Our knowledge of any object becomes much more full and real when we take pains to outline it in a drawing, and our power of presenting knowledge becomes much more effective when we accompany our statement with either an outline sketch or a more finished drawing. The four aims of drawing just stated should be constantly kept before us in teaching the subject. They furnish a guide both in the selection of the drawing exercises best suited to the class and to the methods most likely to yield success in teaching. This is not the place to enter upon a discussion of the various courses of instruction which different authorities have laid down. When the importance of training children to observe carefully and to know accurately, as well as to draw correctly, becomes more clearly recognized, certain modifi- cations of the drawing syllabus may be expected. It will be sufficient here to insist that our methods of instruction (no matter what the scheme of examination may be) should keep in vie'.7 not one only but H qS Draiving as a Means of General Education. all the aims of drawing already set forth. The ' drawing course ' which most completely enables us to secure the group of aims herein demanded is the one we should now follow, and the one which must ultimately prevail. Drawing course of the Science and Art Department The Science and Art Department has issued an illustrated syllabus of the samples of the work required of each standard in an elementary school. The syllabus indicates the nature and extent of the examination in drawing, but leaves the method of tuition to the teacher. Many of the following sketches arc taken (with permission of the Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Oiiice) from the illustrated syllabus mentioned above. Standards I. and II. Draxi-in^ fruhund ami unth ruler lives, ai^^^fs, parallels, and the simplest iight-lined formsy such as some of those in Dyees Drawui: Book. Slau- dard T. to dra-.o on slates. Standard II. on paper— drawing the figures frrchatui and aftcrn'ards with the ruler. Suggestions on the Teaching of Drmving. 99 The syllabus states, in a footnote, that ' in order to interest the children it is advisable to teach them to draw as early as possible from actual objects, such as the doors and windows, furniture and apparatus of the schoolroom. It will also be found quite possible and very desirable to go beyond the foregoing standards in teaching. Thus, drawing of bold curves may be introduced in Standards I. and II., and exercises may be advantageously given, in all standards, in drawing from memory. Children in the first three standards should draw their figures 6 or 7 inches in length. In higher standards enlarging and reducing their free- hand examples must be practised. They should generally draw on a larger scale than children in the lower standards.' Suggestions on the teaching of drawing in Stan- dards I. and II. When it is remembered that the boys of the infant school have been practising the drawing of Hnes — vertical, horizontal, and oblique — for two or three years, and that nearly the same course is continued for two more years, i.e., in Standards I. and II., it is evident that there is danger of the drawing exeicise at the outset becoming a somewhat dreary and monotonous task. These early lessons in drawing must be brightened in some way or other. The footnote jxiragraphs just quoted indicate the direction in which the monotony of the exercise may be relieved. Children take much more delight in attempting to draw a common object than in imitating a drawing copy. If, by submitting objects of simple outline for the drawing exer- cise, we are able to arouse the learner's interest, increase his knowledge, develop his powers of observation, and at the same time make him proficient in drawing the various lines and figures required by the Department, we shall have done much to solve the drawing problem, so far as Standards I. and II. are concerned. Having laid down the general principles which should guide us in teaching these standards, the following details of method may prove of service : — I. Straight lines— vertical, oblique, and parallel. Objects such as sticks and laths should be placed in these different positions. The parallel bars of the ball-frame, or of a gridiron, may be shown in hori- zontal, vertical, and inclined positions. An attempt to draw some of these may afterwards be made. At first the efforts will be very crude. The correction of errors ; the gradual recognition of these errors, under the guidance of the teacher ; and the efforts made by the children loo Drawing as a Means of General Education. themselves to improve their first attempts, are exercises which will prove of the highest educational value. By this method drawing may appear to make slow progress, but it should be remembered that observation, knowledge, and interest are being maintained and developed. 2. Straight lines conuerging so as to enclose angles of various kinds. Here again the method of proceeding from the observation of objects to their drawing may be followed. Sticks or laths may be arranged by the pupils in imitation of the teacher's model. A carpenter's foot- rule or an open book may be made to represent the angles at first made by means of the laths. A door may be opened at the same angles. Roman type capital letters cut out of card-board make very good drawing copies. If the scholars be allowed to cut out the letters before drawing their shapes, the exercise becomes still more interesting and valuable. The names n\i;-/i( angle, acute angle, &c., may be given, after each has been recognized in connection with a concrete presenta- tion of it. A drawing of the edge of the carpenter's foot-rule opened at these angles may be then attempted. 3. Simple right-lined forms. The method of treating these forms may be shown by a first lesson upon drawing a square. Sketch of a first lesson on drawing a square. {a) Show a cube, and ask the class which face they would like to draw. The t\ similarity existing between all the faces will at once be recognized. {!)) Place the face chosen by the scholars in front of the class. It will be best (if possible) to arrange two cubes of the same size in front of the scholars so as to prevent the sides of the cube coming too distinctly into view, liuth cubes should be placed at the same B height and about level with the eye. (c) Ask any scholar to draw on the board the direction of the edge marked A. The teacher should perfect the attempt of the scholar, and determine the length of the line. If the cube be one foot long in side, make the line one foot long. Allow a scholar to nvjasure, by means of the foot-rule, both the edge of the cube and the line repre- senting it on the black-board. Exercises on the Square. lOI {d) Take now the edge D, and ask any scholar (who thinks he can show the direction of this edge) to draw it on the black-board. The teacher to perfect the drawing as before. {e) A comparison and contrast should now be made in the following way : — Exercise the pupils in trying to settle the length of the line D. This exercise will practise the class in estimating lengths by the eye. Afterwards allow another scholar to measure the lengths of A and D. Then make the lines A and D the same in length, viz., i foot. Now point to the direction of the two lines. The contrast being estab- lished the names horizontal and vertical may be introduced. Other lines bearing the same relative direction should be indicated, as, e.g., the side and the top of the door, the side and sill of the window. The corner enclosed by the two lines should also be named. The term ' right angle ' is familiar, and may, therefore, be used in this connection. (/) Complete the figure by the same method of teaching. Introduce the term ' parallel' when A and C, or when D and B are compared. (g) After completing the figure on the black-board, allow the class to draw the face of the cube smaller in size on paper. At first the drawing on the board might remain alongside the object. When the class has drawn a few such figures the black-board drawing may be \vithdrawn, and the drawing made directly from the objeci. The name ' square ' may now be applied to the completed figure. [h) With increase of skill in drawing, the figures which have been taught, after the above method, may be drawn by the scholars without refer- ence either to the object or the blackboard drawing of it. Simply tell the class to draw from memory a square with sides 5 inches in length. Exercises on the square. r c \ D / Fig. I. Fig. Fig. J- Fig. 4. When a knowledge of the square has been gained, the chil- dren may be required to develop other figures from it. They might, for example, be asked to divide the square into two as nearly equal parts as possible, and by as many ways as they I02 Drawing as a Means of General Education. are able. A little time would be occupied in finding out the different figures. If a square made of paper or card-board be supplied, it might be folded by each child so as to be divided in several different ways. The exercise would partake of the nature of a puzzle and as such would interest the children Some would divide the square as in figure i ; others would divide it as in figure 3 ; others again as in figure 4 ; and a few might be found able to divide the square by all four methods. In each case the eye should be trained to divide carefully into equal parts or halves. The new figures A, B, C, and D introduce the form of the oblong. The face of a soHd oblong, a skeleton wire oblong, a picture frame, or a door frame, should then be shown, and a comparison and contrast L; instituted between the sides of the square and those of the oblong. A lesson on the oblong should be followed by exercises similar to those on the square. It will not be necessary here to work through the entire course of figures required in Standards I. and II. The plan suggested in the above outline should be followed throughout the course. The main features in the plan are the following : — 1. Show the outline you intend to teach by means of an object. 2. Draw on the black-board the outline representation of the object. In this exercise obtain, as far as possible, the active assistance of the scholars. 3. Allow the children to make an outline drawing for themselves, {a) from both object and black-board, [l>) from object alone, (<) from memory. 4. Supply names to lines and figures after the notion of each has become familiar through the examination and drawing of objects containing them. 5. Develop a scries of exercises in drawing common objects related to the square, the oblong, and their divisions ; and encourage the children to discover others. For example, a window pane, the black-board, or a picture frai are objects allied in form to cither the square or the oblong. 6. Frequently practise the class in judging the lengths of lines, and after each effort test its success by ruler measurements. 7. Bear in mind that drawing has only recently been introduced as a subject of universal school work, and that it will, therefore, be necessary to prepare for fresh developments. 8. Remember, finally, that the first aim throughout every drawing lesson is to develop and train the powers of the child through the exercise, rather than to make the scholar pass an examination in drawing. The Drawing of Curves, 103 Standard III. Freehand Drawing of regular forms and curved figures from the £at. The drawing- of curves. The drawing of curves may be approached from two direc- tions. We may begin by using guiding hnes as shown in Figs. I, 2, 3, and 4. # #' "tf' -0 c- -Jn Copy. Fi?. I. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. The figures on the drawings indicate the order in which each curve is to be dra'wn. I04 Drawing as a Means of General Education. Or, we may proceed by drawing some familiar thing, such as a kite, or a natural object, such as a leaf, without the aid of right- line figures. We must be guided, in our selection of methods, by the principles already set forth. 2 3 Simple objects for drawing copies. Remarks upon the two methods. The first method will undoubtedly enable the scholar, with least effort, to produce a pair of well-balanced and symmetrical curves ; it will, furthermore, result in an exercise of the eye in recognizing two equal and opposite curves in a more or less mechanical manner. The second method will result, at first, in a very imperfect drawing of the object. That imperfect attempt, however, is a reflex of the scholar's mind, and reveals the imperfect nature of its observations. This is most important knowledge for the teacher to gain respecting the mind of his pupil. It affords him the opportunity of directing the attention of his scholar to what is faulty, or, better still, by a hint, of leading him to detect what is faulty. This detection of fault, made by the pupil, and afterwards corrected by himself, is of far higher value for intellectual ends than the almost perfect drawing of the curves, by placing them in squares or measuring lines (method l). So far, therefore, as the development of i/ie prs. M.icinillan & C.-). Ii bases the effort of dc^iKning upon the acquired power of writing. ^ Curved Outline Object Copies. 107 outline drawn by a series of detached efforts, and thus the exercise of observing the figure as a whole must become consider- ably weakened. For the drawing of simple outline curves at this stage, therefore, we should recommend a very sparing use of lines for blocking out the drawing, and these should be of the child's own choice. At the same time, the utmost encouragement should be given to the learner to mentally compare the various parts of the object before attempting to make a drawing of it. Curved outline object copies and the method of using them. Before proceeding to draw the regular forms and curved figures from the flat copies shown in the syllabus, it has been advised, in previous paragraphs, to begin with the drawing cf the outlines of curved objects. These at first must be of the simplest shape. Most gardens will provide leaves of simple form, such as those of the rhododendron, bay-tree, laurel, apple, and pear. From these the learner should proceed to more difficult outline forms, such as the ivy-leaf, grasses with stems, and to branches with leaves.* Ornamental forms, like those of the syllabus, may be interspersed with these object forms whenever a natural figure approaches and suggests them. There are a few regular outline forms of common objects which the scholars will take pleasure in drawing, such as, e.g., a pair of eye-glasses, a gas pendant, a simple two branched chandelier, a horse-shoe, a cart-wheel, &c. How to use the object copies. 1. Whenever possible allow each scholar to have an example of the leaf or other natural object he is expected to draw. 2. Sometimes, as a special privilege and when a copy is well done, a scholar may be encouraged to colour the drawing. 3. Before beginning to draw, the object must be closely examined and its shape contrasted with that of any other object previously examined and drawn. 4. When examining the scholar's drawing, the teacher may place measuring lines upon it to enable the learner better to recognize his errors. *Leaves should be mounted on card-board so as to make their outlines very distinct. When a number of leaves are mounted on the same sheet they may easily be arranged so as to make an effective design. io8 Drawing as a Means of General Education. 5. Draw the copy in fine lines first ; afterwards in dark and steady outline. Encourage real free-hand, rather than drawing by means of a series of detached scratches. 6. When any form has been carefully studied and frequently drawn, practise the class in drawing the same form ' from memory.' Standard III. Simple outline figures to be drawn freehand and also with rulers. Hints upon the method of teaching these figures. 1. 'i he figures of regular form, such as the equilateral triangle, rhombus, hexagon, octagon, and pentagon, should be constructed by means of strips of thin brass wire, three or four inches in length. The bundles of thin rounded sticks of the kindergarten will do nearly as well for this purpose. 2. When constructed each figure should become the subject of a little lesson. The characteristics of the structure should be pointed out by the class, and when these arc known the name of the figure should be given. 3. .Accompanying each construction there should be a freehand drawng of it, the same in size. The two should be compared and tlie errors in the freehand drawing discovered and corrected. 4. Ruler drawing of most of the regular figures may be aided by the use of set squares. The pentagon is a difficult figure to draw with ruler and set square. Its angle is 108", i.e., 90°, and 18° (or i^ of a right angle). Scale Drawing. 109 Standard IV. The drawing of Standard IV. introduces simple scales and drawing to scale. A simple notion of a ' drawing to scale ' will have been acquired in the geography lessons of the earlier Standards. The subject is an interesting one for children, and the knowledge gained is of practical value. The following sketch of a lesson shows the character of the more advanced exercise, and the mode of treating it : — Suggestions for Teaching a LESSON IN SCALE DRAWING. 1. The exercise. It is proposed to draw the adjoining figure upon the scale of i" to i'. Place the complete copy, with its measurements, before the class, and allow one scholar to state the length of A B, another the length of C D, and a third the length of A E. This drawing might be shown full size on a blackboard. The necessity for a smaller drawing on paper would then be evident. 2. The scale. At first it would be well to allow the scholars to make the scale on their papers before using it. Afterwards, they may calcu- late the length of the various lines and draw them the lengths determined by these calcula- tions. The scale on this paper is less than the one required. It has been reduced by half. When teaching from a black- "^'^^ 9 e 3 board, it will be necessary to ' ' ' enlarge the scale, otherwise the class will scarcely be able to see the drawing. J. 2 FT. The Scale. no Drawing as a Means of General Education. Drawing the uerticai and horizontal lines, {a) The horizontal line is drawn first in order to secure the Jrawing a central position on the paper. {b) A few questions like the following should be worked mentally — What length on my paper repies ts 1 foot? Ans. i". What length on my \ aper represents 2 feet ? Ans. 2". What length represents 6 inches? Ans. i". What length represents 9 inches? Ans. f". {c) Now measure off {a) A B equal to 2' 9", viz., 2|" ; {b) A E equal to i ', viz., l". {tf) Place the ruler and set-square as shown in the diagram, gradually moving the set-square up to E, and draw E D equal to half i' 6", viz., 9", i.e., f" long. Complete E C in the same line and the same length as E D. , Drawing the oblique lines. {a) Place the pencil point on D, and the ruler against it, and gradually elevate the ruler to point A, as shown in the figure. Then draw the line DA. {!>) Draw similarly the three remaining oblique lines and the figure required is completed. Standard V. How to use set-square and ruler. How to draw a line be- tween two points. The nrawirif]; of this Standard introduces the scholar to the outlines of simple rectangular and circular models. The followi.ig are samples of the objects to be drawn : — Model Drmving. 1 1 1 Mr. Herbert Spencer, in his work on ' Education,' recom- mends a simple contrivance for giving the scholars the elemen- tary notions of perspective required for the correct drawing of such objects as the above. He says : — - ' A plate of glass so framed as to stand vertically on the table, being placed before the pupil, and a book or like simple object laid on the other s-ida of it, he is requested, while keeping the eye in one position, to make ink-dots on the glass, so that they may coincide with or hide the corners of this object. He is next told to join these dots by lines ; on doing which he perceives that the lines he makes hide or coincide with the outlines of the object. And then, by putting, a sheet of paper on the other side of the glass, it is made manifest to him that the lines he has thus drawn represent the object as he saw it. They not only look like it, but he perceives that they must be like it, because he made them agree with its outlines, and by removing the paper he can convince himself that they do agree with its outlines. The fact is new and striking, and serves him as an experimental demonstration that lines of certain lengths, placed in certain directions on a plane, can represent lines of other lengths and having other directions in space. By gradually changing the position of the object, he may be led to observe how some lines shorten and disappear, while others come into sight and lengthen. The con- vergence of parallel lines, and, indeed, all the leading facts ot perspective, may, from time to time, be similarly illustrated to him. If he has been duly accustomed to self-help, he will gladly, when it is suggested, attempt to draw one of these outlines on paper by the eyes only ; and it may soon be made an exciting aim to produce, unassisted, a representation as like as he can to one subsequently sketched on a glass. Thus, without the unintelligent, mechanical practice of copying others' drawings, but by a method at once simple and attractive — rational, yet not abstract — a familiarity with the hneal appearances of things, and a faculty of rendering them, may be, step by step, acquired. To which advantages add these :— That even thus early the pupil learns, almost unconsciously, the true theory of a picture (namely, that it is a delineation of objects as they appear when projected on a plane placed between them and the eye) ; and that when he reaches a fit age for commencing scientific perspective, he is already thoroughly acquainted with the facts which form its logical basis.' An illustration of this Glass Plane is supplied on the following page. 112 Dratcfing as a Means of General Education. :.'Y //lustration of the Glass-Plane. — The drawing of the cube on th glass-plane represents the appearance ot cube on that plane as seen from the jiosition of the eye. Horizontal curved surfaces are difficult to draw in outline. When, for example, a child attempts to outline a drinking glass resting on a table, it is in danger of drawing wliat it kno7vs rather than what it sees. The table is known to be a flat surface, hence the scholar represents the lower curve of the glass by a horizontal line. This line can be correct only when the bottom of the glass is level with the eye. When the glass is below the eye-level (and this is the position in which it is generally placed), the lower curve is more rounded than the upper one. In order to make this feature of curved outlines clear to the class, a simple contrivance, repre- sented by the adjoining figure, may be introduced. The scholars will readily see that the ring placed at eye-level looks like a straight edge, whilst those above and below are elliptical in appearance and gradually become more round as they are raised or lowered. Ring - Stand showing change in appearance of rings placed at different levels. Solid Geometrv. "3 Standards VI. and VII. The solid geometry required in Standards VI. and VII. is best taught by means of two blackboards arranged at right angles to each other, one for the representation of the horizontal plane, and the other for that of the vertica, plane. When the representation of each plane has been drawn, the horizontal portion of the board is lowered. The two portions of the blackboard then exhibit the ordinary method of drawing the two planes on a sheet of paper. The following sketch explains the use of the board for teaching the two planes, and shows the appearance of the drawing when made on a single sheet of paper : — Double-Plane Black-board for illustrating ' plan ' and ' elevation. Assistance in solid geometry from card-board models. The diflikulty of giving first notions ot 'plan' and 'elevation,' and also of 'sections' — vertical, horizontal, and oblique, may be met by allowing scholars to construct I I.I4 Drawing as a Means of General Education. card-board models of some of the simpler figures. The following drawings show the figures and the mode of their construction : — 01 2" M JM ,^^^ CJ 4" D /v\ Specimens of drawingf and cardboard exercises. A square is described on the line AB in the uppermost fipure. •^i'T>'''ir sqiLires .ire described on each of the sides AH, RD. CD, and AC : the square MLNP is described on ML. Cut the cardbo.ird along the unbroken lines and fold over along the dotted lines to form a cube similar to X . On AB and on DC, in the middle figure, hexagons are drawn by the rules of geometr>': the lines AB and CD ire xtended as shown in the figure, and two portions equal to All .ire marked off on the line aliove A. and three portions equal to AB on the line below M. Rectangular figures similar to those in thesketih arc then drawn. After the cardlward has been rit along the unbroken lines, and folded along rhc dotted lines, the hexagonal prism V. is formed. Similarly draw and fold the triangular prism G. A Lesson in Solid Geometry. "5 Specimen Lessons in Solid Geometry.* The teaching of soHd geometry presents special difficulties. For this reason it has received more attention here than either freehand or plane geometry. The following notes of lessons exhibit in detail the method of arranging, illustrating, and presenting the matter to be taught. Hints for Teaching a FIRST LESSON ON SECTIONS. (Solid Geometry.) STAGE I.— First notions of 'plan' and 'elevation' of a cube. 1. Place a cube in position on a double- plane blackboard, as shown in the above diagram. Allow a scholar to mark out both plan and eleva- tion on the boards. 2. Deal similarly with a cube on edge, making equal angles with the H P (hori- zontal plane). Appearance of ' plan ' and ' elevation ' on the board when opened out. The scholars should be questioned as to their ability to identify the edges on the model which each line drawn on the board represents. Representation of the drawing of both ' plan ' and ' elevation ' to be made by each scholar on paper. The drawing of ' pla n ' and ' elevation ' of other cubes of larger dimen- sions should be required as a test. * The subject of shading would take us beyond the purpose of this book. It is admirably treated in a work by Professor Cusack, of the City of London Day Training College. ii6 Drawing as a Means of General Education. STAGE II.— Plan and elevation of a cube resting on one edge {making equal angles with HP) and of section A B. Make a cardboard cube and cut a section along A B. A square of soap may be more quickly prepared iu the same manner. 1. The ' elevation ' is seen to differ from that of the cube in Stage I. Allow a scholar to look at the front of the cube, and to indicate how this difference may be shown (see the drawing on the board opened out, and di- rect attention to the position of A B). 2. The 'plan' should be determined by a scholar viewing the cube from above, and stating to the class where each line should l)e drawn on the horizontal i)lane. In this drawing are shown the lines indica- ting both ' elevation ' and * plan ' on the double-plane board opened out. The ' projectors ' (dotted lines) are in- serted so as to prepare for the drawing on the ' right.' Appearance of the drawing, on paper, of both ' plan ' and ' ele- vation,' together with projector lines. Each scholar should make the drawing on a sheet of paper after following the explana- tion already given. Make the drawing on paper on a much larger scale than this small diagram. Questions for the revision of Stage 11. 1. State what the line A B in the elevation represents. 2. What does the shaded portion of the plan represent ? 3. Point out the projector lines which fix the limits of the plan of the section A B. 4. Wlicrc must the eye be placed so as to view the plan of the cube ? Solid Geometry. 117 STAGE III. — Plan and eleuatlon of a cube resting on one end {with one side inclined 30° with the vertical plane), and section along A B. 1. Proceed again as above. A scholar should be encouraged to mark out the ' plan ' of the entire cube and also of the section along the line A B. 2. The ' elevation ' will need more careful examination. Allow a scholar to look straight in front of the cube, and then to indicate where the boundary lines of both cube and section would appear on the vertical board, also to show how the positions of these lines could be obtained from the ' plan ' by means of V a i 5 a y i C < \ M^ 'i This drawing indi- cates both ' plan ' and ' elevation ' on the board when opened out. It also exhibits the use of projector lines for determining the ' elevation ' from the ' plan.' Appearance of the drawing of both ' plan ' and ' elevation.' Each scholar to make this drawing on paper. In order to test the know- ledge gained, drawings of ' plan ' and ' eleva- tion ' of a cube, with side inclined 45° with the vertical plane, should be required. Questions for the revision of Stage III. 1. From A and B on the cube draw the two projector lines which fix the limits of the elevation of the section A B. 2. Point out the position of the two projector the dotted projector lines on the plan lines shown on the ,,„ , , , 1 , J , f C - 3- " here must the eye be placed so as to view _. P *• ' the position of the projector lines on the plan ? nex/ Fig.). Hints for a Lesson on the SOLID GEOMETRY OF THE SPHERE and Simple Sections. Introductory. The fact ' that the plan and elevation of a sphere in any position is a circle ' should be taught previously, and be sirnply revised as an introduction to this lesson. ii8 Drawing as a Afeans oj General Education. STAGE I. — To draw the plan and elevation of a sphere and to show the elevation of the vertical section A B. 1. Place the sphere in Posi- tion I, and point out the vertical section A B on the sphere. 2. By viewing the sphere in front, the scholars may be led to see and to state — Position I. Fig i. Drawing of elevation o section A B. Fig. 2. (a) That the elevation of the section A B is a circle. (i) That this circle is less than that representing the sphere. {c) That both the circles, representing- the elevation of the sphere and its section, have a common centre. 3. To draw the elevation of the sphere and the section A B. Fig. 2. After drawing the plan (a circle) of the entire sphere, a scholar should be asked to place his eye above the sphere (Fig. l), and by looking down upon it to indicate upon the horizontal plane the position of the line A B (Fig. 2). Then, in order to draw the elevation required, first lower the horizontal plane of the board, and draw a circle vertically above xy to represent the elevation of the entire sphere. Draw the lines CD and cd, diameters to both circles respectively. As A B represents the diameter of the circular section, if vertical lines (projectors) be drawn from A and B to a and d respectively on the elevation, then the line a d is the diameter of the circle representing the elevation of section A B. STAGE II. — To draw the plan and elevation of a sphere and to show the plan of the horizontal section A B. I. Direct the attention of the class to the horizontal section A B. If a scholar be allowed to look down upon the section he will observe — (a) That the plan of the section is a circle. {b) That it is less than the circle representing the plan of the sphere. {c) That the plans of both section and sphere are concentric circles. Solid Geometry. 119 2. Draw the plan and elevation of entire sphere as before Then from observing the section of the sphere on the double-plane board, a scholar should be led to fix the position of the line A B on the circle representing tlie elevation of the sphere. A B represents the diameter of the circular section whose plaa is to be drawn. Draw the diameters C D and c d, and drop perpendiculars (projectors) from AB to ab. Then ab xi, the diameter of the section. Construct the carcle on this diameter, and shade it by parallel lines to represent the required plan of section A B. STAGE It I.— To draw the plan and eleuatlon of a sphere and to show the plan of the oblique section A B. 1. The elevation. Direct ^ ^ the attention of the class to the oblique section A B, and after drawing a circle to represent the elevation of the complete sphere, allow a scholar to look, from the front of the sphere, along the oblique section. The line A B on the elevation will thus be determined. The following facts may now be shown, viz. : — {a) The section A B is bounded by a circle. Simple inspection of the section will show this. {b) The line A B is the diameter of this circle. (