I LIBRARY") UNIVERSITY Of I CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO ! ASSETS OF THE IDEAL CITY BY THE SAME AUTHOR HANDBOOK OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT A compact but complete statement of the various forms of city government and the best methods of administration. THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY PUBLISHERS NEW YORK THE IDEAL CITY BY CHARLES M. FASSETT SPECIALIST IN MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT AT THE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS FORMER MAYOR OF SPOKANE NEW YORK THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY PUBLISHERS Copyright, 1922, BY THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY Printed in the United States of America To MY WIFE EDITH M. FASSETT TO WHOSE VISION, INSIGHT AND KINDLY COUNSEL I OWE SO MUCH THIS BOOK IS LOVINGLY DEDICATED FOREWORD BY HAROLD S. BUTTENHEIM, EDITOR OF The Ameri- can City This book attempts to sketch no impractical Utopia. It is inspired, rather, by the author's knowledge of, and participation in, municipal progress already accom- plished in America, and by his faith in the dictum of Dr. Edward Alsworth Ross, that mankind has "only to do everywhere what is now being done with success somewhere," that the world may be re-made. In a larger measure than we yet realize, the future of America and of the world will be determined by the vision and ability of our local community leaders. There are at least three reasons why this is so: In the first place, in times of peace the governmental activities which most directly affect our prosperity and happiness are those of the community in which we live. What would life or property in any city be worth without the police and fire protection, the public schools, the street paving and lighting, the water-supply, sewer- age system and other community activities? Secondly, the city offers an experimental ground for civic progress which can be watched and controlled much more readily than the larger governmental units. A factor of prime importance in American progress vii viii FOREWORD has been the initiative of local leaders by which im- proved forms of city government and better methods of promoting the public welfare have been developed here and there throughout the United States, and through the contagion of a good example have spread to other communities. If the adoption of new ideas had to wait until public sentiment throughout the nation rose to the level of the more progressive com- munities, we should render impossible our present rapid progress. In the third place, the psychology of competition between cities is totally different from that which exists between nations. What I mean is this : Perhaps the greatest obstacle to permanent world peace is the too-prevalent idea that the welfare of one nation is necessarily enhanced by the poverty or weakness of other nations. But within any nation there are few who believe that the welfare of their city would be enhanced by the poverty of some other city. On the contrary, we have learned that no city can attain its maximum of prosperity and health and happiness until every other city is prosperous and healthy and happy. Some day we shall learn that the same thing is true in international relations. And it is more than prob- able that the most potent influence in bringing about that understanding will be, not our national diplomats, but our municipal officials, our educational institutions and the leaders in our local commercial and civic or- ganizations. In striving to make our cities more nearly ideal, we FOREWORD ix in America have much to learn from other cities throughout the world. A more frank and frequent interchange of ideas would benefit cities of every na- tion, and would help to establish among municipal officials and the commercial and civic organizations at home and abroad a mutual understanding and good will which in times of world crisis might save civiliza- tion from an overwhelming catastrophe. No community is too small to afford to the citi- zens trained for leadership an opportunity to render service of local and perhaps even of national and inter- national significance. So, in cataloguing the assets of the ideal city, Mr. Fassett has included not merely the physical requirements of modern community life, but also governmental, educational, religious, cultural and civic attributes, and the forces of organized leader- ship by which community ideals are being transformed into actual accomplishments in cities large and small throughout the nation. As a successful engineer who became president of the Chamber of Commerce in a large city and subse- quently its mayor, Mr. Fassett has had an exceptional training and experience for the task which he under- took in the compilation of this book. I am sure his hope is well founded that each chapter may prove to be both an inspiration and a practical aid to students of civic affairs, and to municipal leaders in their efforts to make our American cities as nearly ideal as possible and that the book may stimulate in some measure that kind of inter-city emulation which shall help to x FOREWORD make of our world one great friendly community whose local units shall vie for superiority in the arts of peace and in service to mankind. HAROLD S. BUTTENHEIM. Editorial Rooms The American City January, 1922. PREFACE This book is not a treatise. Every chapter title in it might easily have been expanded into a volume. Indeed, there are books and periodicals extant which cover in fuller detail and wider application all of the subjects treated, and these I commend to the interested student who desires to pursue the subjects further. In compiling this book, my aim has been to collect in one small volume a brief statement regarding each of the more important institutions, activities and un- dertakings which have come to be generally under- stood as appertaining to modern life in cities, in the hope of encouraging a better citizenship by the develop- ment of a greater interest in the public welfare. My constant effort has been to condense and simplify, in order to keep the size of the book so small that the municipal official, the college student, the busy man or woman might not be discouraged from its perusal by its bulk. The instances of specific cities mentioned are usually those with which I am personally acquainted. It may be that there are other cities whose activities in these various lines are more deserving of praise, and to them I can only apologize for the oversight. Particular credit is gratefully acknowledged to Professor Zueblin's adi PREFACE "American Municipal Progress," the Research Division of the American City Bureau, and to the files of The American City magazine. CHARLES M. FASSETT. January, 1922. CONTENTS CRAFTKB PAGE I GOVERNMENT i Relation of State to City Charter Form of Government City Plan Zoning Police and Fire Protection Centralized Purchasing Testing Laboratory Civil Service Service Pensions Accounting Budget Publicity. II STREETS 17 Pavements ' Cleaning Lights Signs Trees Piles and Wires Bridges Safety Islands Fountains Comfort Stations Grade Separation Traffic Rules Sidewalks Alleys Street Widening. III UTILITIES 33 Water Supply Gas Sewers Garbage Disposal Electric Light and Power Tele- phones Street Railways The Motor Bus Steam Heat Coal, Ice, Food Rates. IV TRANSPORTATION 46 Railways Passenger Depots Freight Ter- minals Waterways Port Facilities Avia- tion Fields. V INDUSTRIAL 54 Sites Switching Tracks Power Market Labor Tax Exemption Democratization, xiii xiv CONTENTS VI EDUCATIONAL 63 Kindergartens Grade Schools High Schools Junior High Schools Technical Schools Night Schools Colleges School Lunchrooms Delinquents Forums Boy Scouts and Camp Fire Girls Americaniza- tion. VII STRUCTURES 78 City Hall Library Auditorium Museum Art Gallery Public Markets Armories Building Code. VIII HEALTH 86 Housing Food Inspection School Clinics Communicable Disease Clinics Visiting Nurses Hospitals Health Centers Health Thought Cemeteries. IX SOCIAL 97 Social Centers Clubs Women's Clubs Dancing Pageants and Celebrations. X CORRECTIONAL 104 Police Court Juvenile Courts Court of Domestic Relations Probation System Pub- lic Defender Municipal Farm Jail. XI INSTITUTIONS 113 Chamber of Commerce Young Men's Christian Associations Young Women's Christian Association Hotels Red Cross Humane Society Associated Charities Woman's Hotel. CONTENTS xv CHAPTEK PAGE XII RECREATION 122 Parks Boulevards Play Grounds Gym- nasiums Athletic Fields Camp Grounds Public Baths Municipal Game Fields. XIII Music AND ART 131 Band Concerts Municipal Orchestras Community Singing Organ Recitals Paint- ing and Sculpture Architecture The Drama Landscape Gardening. XIV ENVIRONS 141 Agriculture Forestry Farm Bureaus Suburban Homes Suburban Parks Roads and Transportation. XV RELIGION 149 Churches Sunday Schools Religious So- cieties The Salvation Army. XVI CITIZENSHIP 154 Honesty Humanitarianism Public Spirit Co-operation Leadership. SELECTED LIST OF BOOKS 161 INDEX 171 ASSETS OF THE IDEAL CITY CHAPTER I GOVERNMENT Relation of State to City. A city cannot be a city without a legalized corporate existence, derived from the next higher political unit, the state. In the exercise of its paramount power, the state either grants the right of organization to the growing urban com- munity, or gives to it the choice of, or imposes upon it, certain ready-made plans of city government which have been approved by the legislature. But when the city is organized, only two states, Oregon and Colo- rado, allow it to work out its own salvation. In all states the city government is bound by certain funda- mental principles of democracy, and a direct relation to the general government, and this is quite proper and essential ; but most states go much farther, and hold the city subservient to a continuing tutelage of the state legislature, which hampers and discourages constructive development. This condition has brought about a reaction in the growing demand for home rule for cities. There is no logical reason why a city should submit its internal 2 GOVERNMENT problems to a legislative body whose members come largely from rural surroundings, whose sessions are infrequent and short, and whose processes are not con- ducive to careful study or deliberate action upon the vital problems of municipal life. Some functions of government, such as deal with health, education and the public peace may be handled better through the broader authority of the state, but there is every reason for allowing cities the greatest freedom for self-ex- pression consistent with the basic structure of our gov- ernment. Every state constitution not now granting this freedom should be amended or modified to con- form to the provisions now in effect in Oregon and Colorado, which are practically identical to the proposed "home rule" constitutional amendment promulgated by the National Municipal League in connection with its Model City Charter: "Such proposed charter . . . shall become the organic law of such city . . . and shall supersede ... all laws affecting the organization and government of such city which are in conflict therewith." Charter. A city charter and the ordinances based upon it are the tools which, in the hands of the city officials, will make or mar the civic structure. We need not expect good workmanship, even from the best of public servants, unless we provide the best possible tools obtainable. The old notion that all we need to produce good government is good men in office, is a proven fallacy ; we know now that there are three prin- cipal factors in good government, viz., good laws, good GOVERNMENT 3 men, and a continuing interest on the part of the citi- zens. Given the proper home rule clause in the state con- stitution, the city charter and its adequate administra- tion determine the democracy, the efficiency, the econ- omy, the responsiveness of the municipal government. Experience has taught us that some charters tend to discourage and hamper constructive action by city offi- cials, disappoint forward-looking citizenship, and en- courage graft and bossism, while others, even with government in the hands of mediocre men, tend to give us better results. We have learned better than to at- tempt legislation in a city charter, understanding now that the public conscience and the public will are in constant flux, and that as soon as a man or a human document becomes stationary, decay begins. There are enough well-governed cities in America today for our investigation as to form of city govern- mental structure, so that a charter commission com- posed of earnest and intelligent citizens properly ad- vised by experienced experts need not go wrong in the selection of a type of government and in the prepara- tion of a charter, which, in the hands of competent and honest officials, will give any city a modern, responsive and democratic government, conducive to efficient ad- ministration, suited to local conditions, and satisfactory to the best citizenship. Form of Government. The selection of a form of municipal government is a matter of prime impor- tance, and many cities and towns now seek to improve 4 GOVERNMENT civic conditions by a change. Forms now used in our cities may be classified as follows : town meeting, fed- eral, responsible executive, commission, and city man- ager. In spite of its claim for pure democracy, the town meeting is, in practice, the least democratic. Taking the Census Bureau's estimate, that fifty-five per cent of total population consists of adults over twenty-one years of age, a town of 10,000 population has 5,500 persons capable of citizenship. Few town halls seat more than 1,000. The clerk of the town of Greenfield, Mass., with 15,000 population, reports that measures in the warrant are usually decided by a total vote of 200 or less. This can only mean that 101 persons deter- mine the action of over 8,000 voters, and it may easily give rise to evil practices by means of a "packed" town meeting. The federal form, with a mayor and two branches of the legislative body, occasionally numbering 200 or more, is cumbersome, unresponsive, slow in action, and divides authority. Checks and balances may re- strain but they cannot vitalize government. The responsible executive form, as it prevails in many cities, and as it has been adapted to state govern- ment in Illinois, Idaho, Nebraska and other states, depends too much upon a single elected official, and involves too great an upheaval in administrative or- ganization after each election. The commission form is a considerable improvement over the older types. It curtails national partizan politics in city business, GOVERNMENT 5 fixes responsibility, and minimizes the practice of "passing the buck." Its chief weakness is that it pro- duces a five-headed executive which also constitutes its legislative body, a body too small as a representa- tive assembly and too large for efficient administration. The city manager form, involving a city council with only policy-forming functions and a hired expert to do the work, is the latest approved form of city govern- ment. It is democratic, responsive, efficient and econom- ical. It involves little change in administrative organi- zation following elections ; it tends to make city execu- tives experts instead of amateurs ; it allows representa- tive men to sit in city councils without detriment to their private business, and it provides for carrying on the city's business with economy and dispatch. It is therefore not acceptable to those elements which are restrained by good government, nor to politicians who live upon office or upon political spoils. City Plan. Most American cities have not been built, they have grown without plan. A railroad sta- tion, a cross-roads, a river junction, or a waterfall has determined the first location, and from this point the development has proceeded in haphazard fashion, en- couraged here by an existing country road, hampered there by some trivial natural obstacle or obstructive land ownership. It is difficult for the pioneer to visualize the city of the future, to realize that the hamlet of today is the city of tomorrow, to understand that the narrow road which is sufficient for the occasional farm- er's cart is entirely inadequate for the heavy traffic of 6 GOVERNMENT a city, to forecast the need of an urban population for parks, playgrounds and open spaces. And even if the vision appears, the means of carrying it out are lacking. The city planning movement, now very much in evi- dence in American cities, is a realization of our lack of foresight and an attempt to direct growth and develop- ment along sane and useful channels. Its aims are threefold: to correct as far as may be possible the mis- takes made by reason of the absence of a plan in the past, to meet with good judgment the needs of the present, and to prepare for such growth as may be reasonably predicted for the future. In its more recent aspects the city plan is not primarily a "City Beautiful" movement; it is an attempt to build a city useful, effi- cient and livable, a city in which men may work with comfort and convenience and may make their homes amid healthy and wholesome surroundings, homes that are capable of producing the highest type of American citizenship. Such planning no city can afford to neg- lect or postpone. Zoning. The right of a citizen to do what he will with his own is gradually yielding to the larger right of the community. Private property in city land is not so sacred as it used to be. We have long recog- nized the right of the city to condemn privately owned land for public use; some states go further and allow the condemnation of more land than is required for the public improvement, and the re-sale by the city of the unused portion. Now we are ready to go another step, in saying that the use made of land shall be so regulated GOVERNMENT 7 that it shall not infringe a neighbor's right of usage, or the common interests of the community. This is zon- ing, and it is usually made the first step in city plan- ning, after an expert diagnosis of the local conditions and requirements. Zoning sets aside certain areas for every reasonable use to which land in cities may be put; arranges for facilities to accommodate specific uses, and prevents infringement or trespass of one use upon another. It determines the character of pavements and the height of buildings, it locates manufacturing plants and ware- houses in districts easy of access by railroad sidings and heavily-paved streets, it prevents the location of a stable, a garage, or an undertaker in a purely residential neighborhood, and provides locations for all sorts of business where it can thrive without damage to adjoin- ing property. It stabilizes realty values and gives greater permanence to investments in city property. Zoning is the latest expression of the desire to make a city more livable for all its inhabitants by the reason- able application of a wholesome law. Police and Fire Protection. The protection of life and property is one of the first obligations of gov- ernment. A bill of rights or a paper grant of freedom is of little avail, unless the citizen may confidently rely upon his local government for his personal safety and for adequate protection of his property. To this end the organization and conduct of the police and fire de- partments is of great importance. Equipment, person- nel, organization and location of stations are the princi- 8 GOVERNMENT pal factors. Motorized equipment is essential to prompt action and is economical for many reasons. Fewer stations furnish better service where the motor has replaced the horses, and, particularly in a district where calls are infrequent, the economy of a traction which consumes no fuel when inactive, is very marked. With good equipment, personnel and organization largely de- termine efficiency. It is pitiful to see such vital depart- ments subject to disruption and overthrow with every change of political administration, as is so commonly the case in American cities. Fire departments are frequently sources of trouble by reason of their men being idle so much of the time that they get to hating themselves and each other. It has been proposed* that the city establish shops in con- nection with every fire station, where the city's equip- ment for all departments may be renewed and repaired ; that firemen be chosen for their mechanical ability as well as their physical fitness for fire-fighting ; that they be better paid, and expected to be at work excepting when out on fire alarms. Spokane, Wash., maintains a shop in connection with one fire station, at which automobile apparatus is assembled and repaired, and the products of this shop, as well as the influence of productive labor on the men, have been of remarkable interest and advantage. Men are just as good firemen, and perhaps better, when, on an alarm, they drop useful tools, as when they lay down a deck of cards. Centralized Purchasing. No city, large or small, can afford to allow each department or foreman GOVERNMENT 9 to buy supplies independently. If the volume of pur- chases does not justify a purchasing agent on full time, an official with other work should be designated for this duty. It will follow that the city will buy at lower prices, goods bought will be accounted for, and time will be saved, not only that of city officials and em- ployees, but of the merchants from whom purchases are made. The purchasing agent should be responsible for goods bought, until they are in the hands of the de- partment or the crew which uses them ; arid all check- ing of goods received and authorization of payment for them should come through him. Most modern charters require bids to be submitted and considered in open session of the city council or other official body when the amount of the purchase is of considerable size, making provision for emergencies when the time required for advertising would cause ex- pensive or dangerous delay. This emergency clause is frequently overworked, but if the city is fortunate in having a real purchasing agent he will usually get as good bids over the telephone as would have been sub- mitted in writing, and no damage is done. Emergency purchasing in the hands of all the officials often leads to dishonest practices and the practice is found always wasteful. Testing Laboratory. It has been said that no city of 10,000 inhabitants can afford to be without a testing laboratory ; it is certain that any city which buys in large quantities can get better goods at lower prices if it has available the means of determining qualities. 10 GOVERNMENT Most commodities which a city purchases have qualities which relate closely to their value and which cannot be determined by any casual inspection. The materials of engineering construction, the component parts of bridges, pavements, culverts and other civic improve- ments are peculiarly subject to substitution, adultera- tion and damage in manufacture and transport, and unless they are carefully tested before they are incor- porated into the city's structures great loss may result. Good labor and skill may be wasted upon worthless material, and resulting structures may not be able to stand the strains which they are confidently expected to bear. The testing laboratory in competent hands de- termines comparative quality and value with scientific precision. Coal, cement, asphalt, fire hose, lubricants, paints and like products can be bought on absolute merit by its means. But only a small part of its benefits can be estimated in money. Its work for the health department is vastly more important, although less showy. The chemical and bacteriological examination of milk and other foods, the analysis of the city's water supply, the in- spection of cultures and smears from suspected com- municable diseases, these and the scores of other ser- vices which the laboratory may render in the protection of public health and the increase in public sanitation, amply justify its cost, regardless of any money it may save the taxpayers in other matters. Civil Service. The ideal city cannot do without a proper merit system for determining the fitness of GOVERNMENT 11 its employees. The old method of appointment to of- fice as a reward for political or personal service has not only brought chaos in municipal business, but has also produced the common impression that no one but a suspicious character would accept public office. Under it service has deteriorated and public employment has become distasteful to honest and competent men. One of the greatest weaknesses of our system is found in the general turn-over in our administrative public ser- vice which occurs after every election. Civil service reform has sought to remedy this con- dition by appointment to public place for the sole reason of fitness for the work to be done; to fill the' public service with honest, intelligent and efficient employees. In order to get and to keep good men, the conditions of their employment as to salary, tenure of office and con- ditions of life in the employment were to be made satisfactory to the class of employees desired. A de- cided value in an adequate civil service law is the relief given to administrative officials from the importunities of office-seekers. Fitness is determined by competitive examinations which involve not only educational tests, but also inquiry into physical condition, temperament, personal habits and experience. A common error in civil service laws is the attempt to control dismissals from the service by giving a dis- charged employee the right of a trial before the civil service board, which may overrule the act of the em- ploying official. This inevitably leads to disorganiza- tion and inefficiency. The official head of the depart- 12 GOVERNMENT ment is held responsible for its success or failure as part of the city's working organization; he is limited in appointments to persons who have proved their fitness by competitive tests, and by assuming responsi- bility he is entitled to authority in dismissals, restrained only by the requirement that no one be discharged for political or religious affiliations, and that every dis- missed employee may have a statement of the cause of his discharge and a chance to state his case. Service Pensions. We safeguard appointments in the public service by adequate civil service laws, but we commonly fail in consideration of what becomes of a faithful employee after his active years of work are past. In this consideration, private industry is setting the pace in a movement in which our cities should be leaders. Cities as a rule pay less salaries than private employers pay for like services. In nearly every city department will be found men and women who have served the city long and faithfully, who have been unable, and reasonably so, to provide adequately for the time when they shall no longer be physically fit for the performance of the daily task, and whose only outlook for old age is humiliating dependence. Such a condi- tion is nothing short of shameful. A few cities have realized this failure and have corrected it by adopting a scheme for retirement of civil employees for old age or disability, with a pension sufficient to insure against actual want. Many cities have already established this practice in their police and fire departments, so that its extension to apply to the other workers in the civil GOVERNMENT 13 service will be only an enlargement of scope, and one which every enlightened community will support. Accounting. We keep books of record because we want to know the condition of our business. It follows, therefore, that the best system of accounting is that which will most readily and completely answer our questions regarding the state of our affairs from time to time. Not that we as citizens pay much atten- tion to our public business, but the books must show to the occasional inquirer the financial condition of the city in sufficient detail and segregation to enable him to form some judgment as to its general solvency, the present condition of its departments and municipal undertakings, its revenue and expenditures and its financial obligations, and to give him the basis for such comparisons as may illustrate its efficiency or its in- capacity, as the case may be. For such comparisons, cost accounting in public work is indispensable, and yet we find few cities which use it, and where it has been adopted it has usually come by means of outside pres- sure. The manager of every public utility which the city owns and operates should be able to show by its books its condition and the cost, scope and financial results of its operations, not only for his own guidance, but in order to inform its stockholders, the citizens, of its service and prospects. Most states have provided uniform methods of ac- counting for political subdivisions and exercise some sort of accounting supervision over them, but it is a civic duty to see that the accounting system is adequate, 14 GOVERNMENT without the compulsion of any superior authority. If the system used is so complicated as to be understand- able only by an expert, which is a common tendency, there should be a summary made of each balance sheet in simple terms, easily intelligible to any inquiring citizen. Budget. No prudent man decides upon an im- portant expenditure without first considering his income and his other uses for money. Like consideration is more imperative in public affairs, for the reason that city governments are not restricted to their earnings, but are endowed with the power to tax the earnings of every citizen. I may, if I choose, waste my money in profligacy, but the city's money must bring something of value for every dollar spent. To avoid public waste, and to determine tax levies, the city must know what its expenditures are to be, a year or more in advance. Its citizens who are to be taxed have a right to know what their officials propose to spend and for what purpose. Hence the necessity for a budget. In ample time before the close of the city's fiscal year, the estimates of the various department heads, made in considerable detail, are collected and incorpo- rated into a general statement which shows in separate columns, expenditures for the same purpose during the preceding year, appropriation for the present year, amount of the present year's appropriation expended to date, and the amount requested for the coming year. This statement enables the tax-levying authority and interested citizens to make those fruitful comparisons GOVERNMENT 15 by which civic policies may be intelligently determined. The budget system, while only a part of efficient gov- ernmental practice, is a very important part. Many cities now use it, and hopeful citizens visualize the time when it will be used in our state and national govern- ments. Publicity. Most city reports have little appeal to the reading public. The immediate family of Hon- orable John Jones may have a mild interest in the state- ment that he was alderman in 1903, but it does not count for much outside the family circle. Page after page of tabulated statistics interest but few citizens, and these will come to the city hall for the information. The number of deaths per thousand from autopsy cho- sis may give a thrill to some savant, but will not excite the average reader into further perusal of the pamphlet. All this information should be made easily available for those interested, but to attempt its general circula- tion is a waste of good white paper, printers' ink and postage. But a picture of the new municipal swimming pool in the height of the season possesses a human in- terest for the whole family, who will read with patience the few descriptive words printed beneath it and brief statistics of its cost and usage. There are many activities of a modern city, the ac- count of which may be put into attractive form on the printed page; there is much of interest in most of the city's affairs, but unless it is presented in interesting, readable shape, with a touch of the pictorial to add to its charm, few will trouble to read it. The modern pub- 16 GOVERNMENT licity expert has a fertile field in producing municipal reports which will be read by the people, and which carry the essential information of the cities' activities and progress. The Department of Public Works in Philadelphia, under its administration by Morris L. Cooke, has set us a good example of really fine munici- pal publicity. STREETS Pavements. In the transmission stage between the use of horse-drawn and motor vehicles, the question of proper pavements is one of considerable uncertainty. When the horse was the only source of traction power, a pavement was required which not only gave support and ease to the wheels of vehicles, but which would also furnish a safe foothold for horses. During the transi- tion stage both these requirements must be considered, but with the understanding that the horse is not likely to be a factor for many years longer, and that there- fore the pavements we now lay must at least be suitable for motor-driven vehicles. There is no place in the ideal city for the old type of cobble-stone roadway which is now so common in heavy traffic streets in our larger cities, nor for cut-stone blocks of softer ma- terial, which soon become rounded by the chipping of the square edges. Sheet asphalt probably covers more miles of streets than any other single type of pavement. When well laid upon a sound foundation, it answers well all the purposes of city traffic excepting that in wet or frosty weather it becomes slippery and dangerous. This de- fect is overcome in a measure by using coarser broken 17 18 STREETS rock instead of sand in the mixture. The resulting surface is not quite so easy for rubber-tired vehicles, but affords a much better foothold for horses. What- ever material is used, an acceptable pavement should possess a good foundation, a firm base and an even sur- face ; it should be easy to clean and to repair ; it should be substantial and enduring. The radius of curbing curves at street intersections should not be less than twelve feet. Its first cost is not always an index of its real value. Cleaning. Cleanliness is a civic asset; clean streets help in giving the visitor a good first impression of a city, and cities grow by impressing their desirable qualifications upon strangers. Of course, sanitation by cleanliness is more vital than appearance, but both are important. A western city once advertised civic clean- liness by obtaining several barrels of a well-known soap powder, applying it with water and scrubbing brushes to the pavement of its main street and photo- graphing the process. Street-cleaning methods must vary with the charac- ter of the pavements. A smooth surface may be cleaned best by flushing with water under pressure, but this method is not applicable to cobblestones nor to old, rough pavements so common in our cities. These must be swept. They cannot be thoroughly cleaned by any practicable process, but a little improvement in the sani- tary condition and a considerably better appearance can be had by sweeping. The old type of revolving street broom, horse-drawn, which picks up the street litter STREETS 19 and throws much of it into the air, is fast being dis- carded. Hand-sweeping, or the use of the newer types of pick-up motor sweepers, are giving good satis- faction in a number of cities. Lights. It is interesting to note that systematic lighting of city streets is less than one hundred years old, having had its inception in Berlin, where artificial gas was used. Its introduction was opposed on theo- logical grounds as a presumptuous thwarting of Provi- dence, which had appointed darkness for the hours of night; on moral grounds, for the drunkard would feel there was no hurry to go home, and late sweethearting would be encouraged ; on police grounds, as the lighting would make horses shy and thieves alert; and on the patriotic ground that national illuminations would lose their stimulating effect if the streets were illuminated every night in the year. No public improvement which involved a new vision of better living conditions has been introduced without strenuous opposition by "prac- tical" people, and doubtless none ever will be. Street-lighting has become a necessity of modern city life and its application has developed a new art. Light- ing adapted to the width and use of the street, the char- acter of the neighborhood and the local sources of available lighting energy, can now be arrived at with precision. Lighting engineers are studying reflection, refraction, glare, and silhouette as applied to street lighting. The type of lamp best suited for the varying city uses, the proper height from the street, the kind of glassware required, the means of getting the most light 20 STREETS for the least expenditure, spacing and arrangement of lights for good effect, have all been pretty well deter- mined. Signs. In our familiarity with the streets of our home city we frequently neglect the first requirement of a stranger street signs. No one but the stranger on his first visit realizes how helpless he is in finding his way about without street signs at the intersections. If he be one of those diffident people who hesitate to ask questions of strangers, his embarrassment is multiplied. Many old residents in every city become confused when they get into unfamiliar sections, so it is not entirely a matter of convenience to occasional visitors that the streets be well identified by means of signs. Street signs should show names of streets in each direction from the crossing, and it is a great conveni- ence if they show also the house number nearest to the sign. They should be plain in their lettering and the letter itself should be of strong contrast to the back- ground of the sign. It is well if they are of permanent construction, for the street will, in all likelihood, be there for generations. But the signs should be placed, even if inexpensive and temporary. Curb-lighting posts offer a good location for signs in cities where they are used. Even wooden telephone poles offer an opportunity, if located at or near inter- sections, for cheap and readable signs, by painting the names and numbers in black in plain block lettering on a white ground which may be painted on the pole itself, the name running vertically. STREETS 21 Trees. To a visitor from the older sections of the country, the newer cities of the West have a barren and uncouth appearance, largely owing to the absence of shade trees on the residence streets, or to their small size. To the visitor from the West, the older cities and towns of the East have a charm of their own on account of the splendid trees which line their roadways, often meeting in a Gothic arch over the center of the street. Good trees, besides giving pleasant shade, conceal to some extent the architectural monstrosities dating back to what has been called "the late U. S. Grant period," with which so many of our residential streets are dis- figured. The planting of trees along city streets has been left too freely to individual taste and initiative ; it should be done under public authority and supervision. And this is true of their care as well as their planting. When the construction crew of the electric light company prunes a tree, it is not likely that the result will add any beauty to the landscape. Every city should prize its trees, should see that they are pruned for beauty when they need it, and should be prepared to perform in a scientific manner such surgery, spraying, etc., as may be necessary to preserve this finest of civic assets from decay or destruction. Poles and Wires. Municipal utilities which use poles and wires placed in the streets are of compara- tively recent origin, but in the few years they have been in operation they have filled the streets of our cities with veritable forests, not of live, beautiful trees, but 22 STREETS of dead and decaying timber, making a blot upon the landscape. In some of the larger cities, and particu- larly in New York, this forest of dry bones was pro- hibited and prevented, and the result is quite apparent and satisfactory. Underground conduit is more ex- pensive than pole lines, at least in first cost. It costs more to build a street railway line having its electric conductor beneath the surface than it does to use a trolley line suspended in the air, but the added fraction of a cent in street-car fare or electric light or telephone rate, necessitated by underground construction, is a small burden that city dwellers will gladly pay to be rid of the nuisance of streets full of poles and wires. The present difficulty is that franchises have been granted, some of them for 999 years, which authorize the promiscuous planting of poles in the streets. These sacred contracts are difficult to break unless, indeed, a court can be persuaded that a franchise rate is too low. Enlightened owners of such a franchise, however, often assist the municipal authorities in correcting the pole evil by building underground conduits in business streets and by anchoring trolley guys in the walls of buildings. The city can always remedy, even if it can- not entirely cure, this evil. It should build and own its underground conduit system. Bridges. Most American cities are located on streams, and these natural barriers must be overcome with bridges which are a vital part of the general street system of the municipality. Bridges are important be- cause upon their location and character may depend the STREETS 23 direction and growth of a business or residence section, and, consequently, the increase or decline of realty values. If a bridge is wide, substantial and sightly, traffic is attracted; while the contrary conditions bring a contrary result. In addition to their utility, bridges may be made the means of expression of civic art and beauty, particu- larly where some attention is paid to the banks of the streams which they cross. In the larger cities of Europe the design and decoration of a bridge fre- quently make it the important monument of the munici- pality, and European bridges are visited by many tour- ists, not only for their historic associations, but on account of their beauty. Even in American cities bridges are becoming something more than the means of carrying traffic across a stream or a ravine. The arch is in itself a thing of beauty, and the possession of artistic and architectural lines of grace in a bridge in no way detracts from its stability and usefulness. The ideal city will build its bridges of permanent material, with strength calculated to stand the strains of the traffic of fifty years hence, and will not neglect to make the structure imposing and artistic or to see that no unsightly conditions mar the beauty of its surroundings. Safety Islands. There is always an argument between the automobile driver and the pedestrian as to whose rights on the street are paramount, and the toll of human life taken by vehicular traffic in American cities is tremendous. A life taken every day of the year is not unusual in several of our large cities, and 24 STREETS the average in New York City was over two a day in 1920. That no one can be blamed for an accident can- not compensate a mother for the loss of her child. So- ciety must be blamed if our public servants do not take every precaution possible to avoid accident, and society is just ourselves. It is fair to the driver of a vehicle in the congested traffic district of any city that the cross- ing of the street by pedestrians be limited to the street intersections, unless blocks are unusually long; it is fair to the pedestrian that the crossing be marked so as to indicate plainly the zone in which he has the right- of-way, and such regulations go a long way toward making the street safe for both. But this regulation does not care for the presence of pedestrians on the roadway in the loading and unload- ing of surface street railway cars. For them special protection is required, and this is furnished, to some extent at least, by the so-called "safety island." In some of the cities this island is a platform, raised eight to twelve inches above the surface, from or to which the car rider steps. In other cities the "island" is marked off on the pavement by a painted line; and in some others it is outlined by movable iron standards with broad bases and carries signs. The platform is the best, for the automobile cannot easily trespass upon it, and the pedestrian cannot mistake its boundaries. Fountains. The modern city will install drink- ing fountains in its streets, parks, and public places, not only for its citizens and its visitors, but also for its thirsty animals. The glare of the summer sun, reflected STREETS 25 from brick buildings and hot pavements makes the public drinking fountain a necessity of city life. Our cities are rapidly responding to this need. Most of them have placed fountains in their parks and on busi- ness streets, and some have installed them in residential districts. For human use the type usually adopted is the continuously flowing jet, and these frequently carry as many as four jets and sometimes have a cup near the base from which dogs may drink. A better type is the foot-lever fountain. It not only avoids the waste of much water, but as it draws from below the frost line, it can be operated in freezing weather as well as in the summer. Horse fountains which operate in like manner are now in use in some cities, and they are far superior to the watering trough, which is held responsible for the spread of much communicable disease among horses. The newer horse fountain operates with a lever, draws water from below the frost line into a bucket, and hence can be used at all seasons even in cold climates. A desirable type of this modern horse fountain is described and illustrated in The American City Magazine for August, 1915. A suggested modifi- cation is the addition of a third spigot carrying a short length of rubber hose, to be used for filling automobile radiators. Comfort Stations. The need of public comfort stations has been generally recognized, but it has been greatly accentuated by the abolishment of the saloon. Such stations are usually constructed under a street or 26 STREETS sidewalk, with only a railing or a canopy over a stair- way visible upon the surface. Their proper location will depend upon available space and facilities for water supply, drainage and ventilation. Personal at- tendance is very desirable until people generally learn cleanliness, decency and regard for the rights of others and to the attendants of comfort stations this time appears to be a long distance in the future. Their experiences are frequently disheartening and almost unbelievable. Good construction, good lights, sanitary plumbing and constant attendance are absolute requirements if fair conditions are to be maintained. The addition of a sufficient number of modern pay toilets is a great boon to cleanly people, and the revenue therefrom, per- haps augmented by the receipts from a shoe-shining stand, goes far to pay for the necessary attendance. When located above the ground, a newsstand and a cigar counter may help with the revenue. Grade Separation. Most of our cities have been built or have greatly increased in population subse- quently to the arrival of the railroads, and have been obliged to open, from time to time, additional streets across the tracks, usually at grade. The growth of population and of traffic, both upon the streets and the railroads, has brought a terrible harvest of accident and death from these grade crossings. Watchmen and gates have helped a little, but the only real remedy is the absolute separation of the two roadways. This is expensive, but its results are so beneficial, both for the STREETS 27 city and the railroad company, that almost any expense is justified, and in most American cities grade separa- tion is a pressing and immediate problem. Grade crossings seriously hinder the expansion and development of business districts, and constitute a bar- rier to healthy growth. If the benefits of grade separa- tion could be assessed to property benefited thereby, the cost might easily be taken care of without calling upon the railroad for more than its direct saving, nor upon the tax funds of the community. The chief obstacle to grade separation now is found in the impoverished financial condition of most of the railroads, due in some cases, it is true, to operations of frenzied finance in their past history. When a railroad is built into a city already well popu- lated it is usually required to provide grade separation in its original location. It should be so required in every case, and city officials as well as railway manage- ment should not rest satisfied until every grade crossing is abolished. The railway grade should be lowered below the street where possible, but if this be impos- sible an elevated grade with the streets spanned by bridges of neat design is not seriously objectionable. Traffic Rules. Previous to the advent of the automobile the common law of the public road was sufficient for the regulation of traffic on the streets in all but the larger cities. With the coming of the motor- driven vehicle and the rapid development of high power machines capable of a speed approximating that of the fastest railroad train, a new problem presented itself. 28 STREETS Here was a new vehicle weighing from one to two tons, developing a speed unheard of before on the public highway, piloted by the young and the old, the incom- petent and the inexperienced, and often by the intoxi- cated and the reckless. This brought a new menace, and a fearful harvest of accident and death. The horse owners felt that they owned the roads, and their in- fluence was used with legislatures and city councils to procure stringent and suppressive laws to regulate the automobile, or preferably, to drive it from the road. But the horse was doomed and is now fast disappear- ing from city use. There has gradually developed a system of traffic rules, state laws and city ordinances, which meet, with more or less sufficiency, the demand for greater safety for all who use the streets. The ideal city must not only regulate the movement of vehicles in order to facilitate traffic and avoid accident ; it must meet the problems of parking and gasoline pumps and stations. The merchant has a right of use, for his business and his patrons, to the street in front of his store, a right which is infringed by long parking. To adjust these conflicting rights is a matter of no light difficulty. Sidewalks. The original purpose of sidewalks is the convenience of pedestrians. This seems to have been forgotten in many American cities, for the side- walks have been allowed to fill up with various struc- tures foreign to any consideration of this fundamental use. The national postal service erects mailing boxes, large and small, the city places fire hydrants, drinking STREETS 29 fountains, signal boxes, and lamp posts, and allows its utilities to erect poles for all sorts of public and semi- public uses. Many cities allow gasoline pumps and compressed air services on the sidewalks. Property owners frequently trespass upon the public rights by building entrance steps, basement stairways, and awn- ings out beyond the property line, and tenants are often obliged, by the absence of suitable alleys, to use the sidewalks for loading and unloading all the merchandise they handle. In the market and wholesale districts of most of our large cities it is a common occurrence to find a truck loading or unloading by a skidway across the sidewalk, making the pedestrian take to the roadway or cross the street. These conflicting requirements are always a source of trouble to city officials. Some of them can be rem- edied, while others must be permitted, and a tolerance allowed, dividing the inconvenience as may be found expedient. It is a mistake to allow any permanent part of a building to be located beyond the property line, infringing on the sidewalk, or to permit any non-public use to trespass upon it which cannot be easily removed when the public good requires it. In a small city or upon a street where traffic is not heavy, uses may be permitted temporarily which, with the growth of the city or the expansion of the business district, can easily be curtailed or abolished. The sidewalks are a part of the public streets. They belong to all the people, and the time may come when their surface and the space 30 STREETS beneath them will be needed for public use or con- venience. Alleys. A woeful lack of alleys exists in most of the older cities. When ground is plotted for public use in cities, the plan of the lots is usually arranged not so much to meet the requirements of future use as to furnish to the owner the largest number of salable plots. If streets do not conform to those of adjoining prop- erty, so much the worse for the streets. If by crowding out alleys and reducing the size of the lots another row of salable lots can be obtained, so much the better for the land owner. A few cities have prepared, by their city planning activities, to prevent these practices for the future, but the errors of the past will remain to haunt us for generations to come. Alleys in the business district prevent obstructive business use of streets and sidewalks. In residence dis- tricts they furnish means of handling fuel, ashes, and garbage, afford easy access to garages properly located at the back of the lots, without taking from the front yard the area necessary for a driveway, and furnish a convenient avenue for domestic deliveries. Poles carry- ing overhead electrical service wires if located in alleys are much less objectionable than in the streets. Alleys should have the same care by the municipality as do the streets. Their proper grading and paving should not be neglected nor should they be allowed to become the dumping ground for disagreeable and of- fensive wastes. Show me your alleys and I will tell you whether or not your city administration is efficient. STREETS 31 Street Widening. The newer cities usually have streets of ample width ; the older ones have many which are totally inadequate in width to carry the traffic imposed upon them. It is difficult for the pioneer of the cross-roads, busy with his primitive struggle for exis- tence, to visualize the growth of a mighty city upon that spot or to provide for its coming, even if he may dream of its stately buildings and busy marts ; and it is just as difficult to foresee, even in our own marvellous time, the changes which may be demanded to meet the re- quirements of some possible vehicular invention of the future. We expect that the city-planning movement will prevent these mistakes in the future; that zoning will determine the location of business and industry, and thereby enable us to prepare our streets for the heaviest traffic. But some of the mistakes of the past must be cor- rected by widening existing streets or by driving new and adequate streets through old and closely built sec- tions of our cities. When tall buildings must be torn down or their fronts removed, this is an expensive and difficult undertaking. Relief is sometimes accomplished by making the roadway the full width of the street and using an arcade opened under the buildine- fronts as a sidewalk, or by establishing a new property line at the edge of the new and wider street, requiring any new structure to be set back to it and allowing older build- ings to stand for a term of years or until they have outlived their usefulness. Where the laws provide for excess condemnation 32 STREETS streets have been widened without any expense what- ever. Frontage on a new and wider thorofare has been found to be so much more valuable than that upon the old and narrow street, that the unused portions of par- cels of land condemned for the improvement have sold for more than enough to pay all the costs of the con- demned land and building the new street, and the result is a more useful and sightly street. CHAPTER III UTILITIES Water Supply. An adequate supply of pure water is the first necessity of city life, and with the growth of American cities it has become the utility to which we are ready to devote our best thought and greatest expenditures. We must have water for do- mestic use, for fire fighting, for the purposes of public and private cleanliness and for manufacturing and in- dustrial uses. American cities demand more than twice as much water per capita as the average European city, and this because we are the most cleanly and the most wasteful people on earth. While some of our cities get along on loo gallons per capita per day, many call for 200 gallons and a few for 300 gallons or even more. About three-fourths of the municipal water-works in this country are owned and operated by the public. Even opponents of general public ownership of utilities agree that our water supplies, so vital to the health and well-being of our people, should not be operated by pri- vate corporations whose chief incentive is profit. Our cities have not hesitated to go 200 miles or more for pure water, nor to spend millions of dollars in its acquisition and development. Many cities are forced to use water which has been polluted by human and animal 33 34 UTILITIES wastes and which is, in its raw state, unfit for human consumption. Such water is now subjected to scientific treatment which renders it harmless and wholesome, and in every city where this modern system of purifica- tion has been installed, the death rate from typhoid and other filth diseases has immediately fallen. Spokane, Washington, has a marvellous supply of water which is absolutely free from organic contamination, pumped from unfailing wells in the glacial gravel deposits, and having a constant temperature of forty-nine degrees Fahrenheit the year around. 50,000,000 gallons have been pumped from one well, twenty-five feet in di- ameter and sixty-five feet deep, in twenty- four hours, lowering the surface but thirty inches. A cool, re- freshing drink may be drawn from a street fountain in that favored city on the hottest day of summer. A municipally owned water-works should supply the purest possible water, and should aim to supply it at cost; it should receive pay for water furnished the municipality for public purposes, and, in order to pre- vent waste and to divide its costs fairly among its patrons, every service should be metered. Gas. Artificial gas was the next public utility, following water, to be introduced in city life. Its original purpose was to furnish light, but its use in heating, particularly in cooking, developed rapidly, and now that the most of our lighting is done by electricity, gas is used almost exclusively for heating, and the de- mand for it is even greater than when it was the chief source of light in cities. The invention of the incan- UTILITIES 35 descent mantle enabled the gas business to survive in competition with the high rates charged for electric cur- rent in its earlier history. Following closely after the discovery of petroleum came the introduction of natural gas, and in the districts where natural gas was avail- able, its cheapness and high heat efficiency drove arti- ficial gas out of use. Public authority usually fixes the standard calorific value of artificial gas at from 500 to 600 British ther- mal units per cubic foot. Natural gas is much higher in value, often giving 900 to 1,200 British thermal units. Gas works in American cities have been subjected to the evils of "high finance" more than any other utility, possibly excepting street railways. Many gas plants are now owned by nation-wide "holding corporations" and it is not uncommon to find them capitalized at three or even four times the actual investment. Tests made by municipal authority have shown poor gas being fur- nished, and immediate improvement has followed the knowledge that tests were being made. Every city should possess the means of testing the calorific power of the gas furnished to its citizens, and the accuracy of the meters used in its measurement. It should see that the price charged for such a necessity of life is not ex- cessive, and that the scheme of rates does not make the cost bear too heavily upon small consumers. Sewers. Next to water supply, the disposal of the city's wastes is always its major sanitary problem. Cities without sewers are the breeding places of deadly 36 UTILITIES epidemics, and the death rate of cities is frequently in pretty direct ratio to the thoroughness of its sewerage system. Fortunately for them most cities in the United States have learned this lesson, and yet there are many of them in which hundreds or even thousands of homes are still without connection to the city's sewers. Even where sewers are laid in the streets, many citizens rebel at being forced to connect their homes with them. Proper drainage is not a very difficult matter ex- cepting in cities located on low and level plains. New Orleans, located below the normal level of the Missis- sippi River, cannot be drained except by pumping, and has a real sewerage problem. The common practice in many cities has been to run the city's sewage into any stream or lake which happens to be handy, with little regard for the inhabitants of other cities who must use the same stream or lake as a source of water supply. This disregard for the rights of others demands the force of the state's authority to prevent the reckless pollution of surface waters. Many American cities, urged by the considerations of public decency or forced by a higher public authority, have installed plants for the purification of their sewage which are now in suc- cessful operation. The solids are taken out and made available for fertilization, and the liquids are disin- fected and rendered harmless. Decency and thrift are beginning to replace wastefulness and indifference. Garbage Disposal. Kitchen wastes, combustible rubbish and unburnable refuse and ashes constitute the city's offal which cannot be disposed of through the UTILITIES 37 sewers, and must be taken care of, preferably by a pub- lic authority concerned more with the health of the community than with the profits of the undertaking. Most cities charge the cost of waste removal to the citi- zens to whom the immediate service is rendered, either doing the work as a public function or letting it out to contractors under public regulation; a few cities per- form the individual service without charge, paying the cost from tax funds. Where service is charged for, there is always the temptation and often the practice of waste disposal in ways which are prejudicial to health. Vacant lots and secluded nooks become the dumping ground for disease-breeding filth as well as unsightly rubbish. The proper disposal of these wastes is of great consequence to the whole community; the public health depends greatly upon it, and it is improvi- dent to leave it to private initiative or to contractors whose only incentive is profit. In the more enlightened cities the wastes are not only cleared away and disposed of, but are made a source of revenue. Kitchen refuse is fed to hogs, combustible offal is a source of steam power, and incombustible refuse and ashes are used in filling in marsh or tide lands, adding new and useful areas to city uses. Electric Light and Power. The development of the use of electricity as a source of light has taken place within the last forty years, a crude arc lamp having been exhibited in public for the first time at the Centen- nial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876. The fact that electricity has almost entirely superseded gas in light- 38 UTILITIES ing has been due, however, to the invention and devel- opment of the incandescent lamp, ^which has revolution- ized private and public lighting everywhere. The arc lamp, applicable only where large units could be used, is now rapidly giving place to the modern incandescent, using a tungsten filament and filled with inert gas, which gives more and better light for the current used than any previous type, and is applicable to large as well as small units. One of the difficulties of adapting electric lighting to public or private use, is the rapid change continually taking place in the art by reason of new discoveries and inventions. Good lighting is requisite for the ideal city. We cannot afford to wait for the next invention, but must use present lighting equipment to the best pos- sible advantage. Rapid changes, necessitating the loss of equipment while still new, have kept electric light and power rates higher than they should be in some places, but the convenience, adaptability and safety of electric lighting, and the elasticity and ease of transmis- sion of electric power have made them indispensable even where costs were not lowered. The electric light and power industry is largely in the hands of utility corporations which by reason of owner- ship of water power or of transmission and distribution systems are able to control the situation. 1,929 cities and towns in the United States now own and operate electric plants, and more own distribution systems, buy- ing electric current at wholesale and selling it to their citizens. Any city which has clean and responsive UTILITIES 39 government may undertake such a function, when ex- pedient or necessary, without anticipating failure. Telephones. The introduction and use of the telephone have been controlled more closely by a single nation-wide corporation than any other business which we now classify as a public utility, and to the credit of this corporation be it said that this business of marvel- lous growth and universal application has served its patrons and developed its usefulness with great effi- ciency and freedom from the scandals which have dis- graced so many great utility undertakings. Although often classified as a municipal utility, the telephone is like the electric telegraph and the postal service in its nation-wide operation and usefulness. The city may regulate its usage of the streets for pole lines and conduits, but its general relationships to its patrons are ordinarily and quite properly taken over by the state or the national government ; and if public own- ership is accomplished, it must be under the control of the larger political unit. When an essential utility like the telephone fails to function in private ownership; when a citizen without special influence, desiring a tele- phone in his home or his office, must wait a year or more for its installation, as has occasionally happened, thoughtful people will demand public ownership, in or- der to get more consideration for their needs than a private utility corporation will give them. Street Railways. An adequate system of trans- portation within its borders is a paramount necessity of modern city life. To many it is a convenience, saving 40 UTILITIES time and facilitating business, but its value is not con- fined to those who use its service ; it affects the funda- mental conditions of city life in a way which makes it important to every resident. Slums, congestion and bad housing with all their attendant evils, may be the direct result of inadequate transportation. If the man who works in the business center can, by means of easy and cheap transport, have a home in the suburbs, with plenty of sunshine and fresh air; if he can have a lawn and some flowers and a little garden, he makes a better citizen, than if forced to live in a tenement in order to be near his work. His whole attitude toward life is improved; his interest in his city is enlarged, and his children are in the way of becoming a real contribution to good citizenship. Urban transportation as a business has suffered severely in the last decade by reason of the decline in the value of the nickel, which has been the almost uni- versal standard of street railway fare in this country, and by the competition of the automobile. The future of the business is uncertain, at least as a private enter- prise, and it is now difficult to get new money for the much needed extensions and betterments to keep pace with growing populations. But the service it renders is too important to be allowed to decay. A few cities are holding the fare down to five cents and paying losses from taxation; some have undertaken to guarantee reasonable return on the capital invested by raising fares, and a few have taken over their transportation for public ownership and operation. The situation is UTILITIES 41 serious. It concerns us all and it must be met on the basis of a far-reaching community interest rather than private gain. The Motor Bus. Some students of urban trans- portation believe that in cities of moderate size its traffic will ultimately be carried upon rubber-tired vehicles instead of rails. Whether or not this prophecy will come true, it is certain that the motor bus is fast becoming a factor to be reckoned with. Experience in cities where well established lines of busses have been operated for years does not seem to lead to the hope that they can ever be operated as cheaply as cars running upon rails. Electricity as a motive power, even where obtained from coal, is more elastic, more adaptable and cheaper than petroleum fuels, and unless we soon dis- cover some means of increasing the supply of gasoline or some cheaper fuel for the internal combustion en- gine, their price is likely to become prohibitory. The motor bus, however, is likely to prove a useful adjunct to electric lines. As a feeder to trolley service in sparsely settled suburbs it is now in general use, and giving good service. Motor busses seating twenty to thirty people now operate in several cities, a few on through routes but most of them bring their loads to a connection with trolley systems. A motor bus is useful in determining the necessity or the route of a proposed extension. A test can be made of the volume of traffic and the most feasible route, without permanent invest- ment in road-bed or trolley wires. The so-called "jitney bus," usually a gasoline touring car seating five to 42 UTILITIES seven people, running on routes already occupied by trolley lines, is an unmitigated nuisance and should not be tolerated in any city. It simply increases the ulti- mate problem of urban transportation; its only service is to hasten the end of existing uncertain conditions. Steam Heating. Public steam heating is one of the newer utilities which has demonstrated its worth hi some of the larger cities, where many business buildings and a few residences are now heated from central plants. Its service usually includes hot water supply and often steam for various industrial uses, and oc- casionally for power. Its economies are found in the bulk purchase and mechanical handling of fuel, and a great saving in labor over the superintendence and op- eration of many small plants. Offset against these savings is the interest on, and maintenance of, the plant and mains, and the loss of steam in transmission through the underground system. In some cities, where there are public steam plants which have demonstrated their capacity and reliability, commercial buildings have been erected without heating plants. Where this can be safely done, an additional saving of space and con- struction expense is made. The city of Boise, Idaho, has a public heating plant established by Mother Nature many centuries ago. It consists of a never-failing supply of hot water which comes to the surface from the inexhaustible internal heat of the earth, and is piped through the streets and into the buildings. Nor is this the only special blessing bestowed by Nature upon Idaho. A drilled well near UTILITIES 43 Twin Falls in that state did not strike water, but did open up a brisk current of air at close to the freezing temperature, which now furnishes refrigeration to the buildings of a ranch. Even the ideal city cannot hope for such unusual dispensations. Coal Ice Food. To classify the merchandis- ing of commodities as a public utility requires a rather broad definition of that business. If we limit our defi- nition to include only those undertakings requiring a special permit or franchise for the use of the streets, we must leave out this section; if we define a public utility as the means of supplying a common need by collective action, then the furnishing of coal, ice and food may be public utilities. We furnish gas, why not coal? We furnish water, why not furnish food or ice? Ordinarily the price of these commodities is so well regulated by supply and demand that there is no temptation to add the burden of their supply to the ordinary task of a government none too efficient in its normal and usual activities. Merchandising is not a natural monopoly, but the tendency toward private monopoly and price-fixing by producers and dealers' combinations in recent years, and gambling in essential foods, has become such a menace, particularly in the common necessities of life, that we may be obliged in self protection to arrange and maintain our own ave- nues of supply. Food, ice and coal have been supplied to the people of many cities in times of emergency by public officials either with or without governmental authority. When 44 UTILITIES common needs become the pawns of speculative games by financiers, when control of any necessity of life by gamblers produces artificial prices which involve dis- tress to considerable numbers of our citizens, when greed becomes insolent and forgets the common obliga- tions of human brotherhood, the modern city will not hesitate to make public utilities of undertakings which we now leave willingly in private hands. Rates. Rate-making for public utilities is an art which should not be lightly undertaken by inex- perienced public officials. Few activities of the city government call for more knowledge, experience and common sense, and when rate-making or rate changes are in contemplation, officials should not hesitate to obtain the best expert assistance available. This is essential in fixing rates for the service of publicly owned utilities, and is doubly so when dealing with those pri- vately owned. With the former there need be no con- siderations but those of justice, fairness and sufficiency ; with the latter we must not only meet these require- ments, but must see to it that rates are reasonable for the service rendered. In fixing utility rates the quality and character of the service must be considered. Good service is better than poor; it costs more and it is worth more. Gas of standard heating quality is better than gas mixed with air; pure water is better than impure; electric service which is continuous and stable is better than if subject to frequent interruptions, and keeping service standards up to a high mark is not an easy thing to do. Utility UTILITIES 45 rates should be fair to all classes of consumers, equitable between individuals in each class, and should yield enough revenue to keep the business solvent, whether it be publicly or privately owned. A nice balance between justice and expediency must be maintained, for absolute justice is unattainable in rate-making. The cost of pumping water depends largely upon the height to which it is elevated, yet it is not expedient to charge the householder on the hilltop more than the one in the valley. The cost of passenger transportation depends upon the distance traveled and the weight of the pas- senger, yet we find it expedient to carry the fat or the lean, two blocks or ten miles, for the same fare. Rate reductions may increase net profits by inducing larger use of the service and thus benefit the utility as well as the consumer. The introduction of 3,000 electric cooking ranges followed a rate reduction in one of our cities, contributing to the earnings of the utility by adding to the "off peak" load. A heating rate of one cent per kilowatt-hour has been found profitable where an excess of hydro-electric power had been developed. CHAPTER IV TRANSPORTATION FROM WITHOUT Railways. On a balcony overlooking the main concourse of the Grand Central Terminal in New York is exhibited the first railway train which ran in America. The small and crude locomotive and the thorobrace stage coaches exact replicas, except in wheels and trucks, of the horse-drawn coach of that day bring to mind one of the objections urged against the introduction of steam locomotion, that if God ever intended his children to ride at the terrific speed of fifteen miles an hour, He would have mentioned it in His holy word. A modern city without railroad service is inconceiv- able ; it couldn't be. The progress of railroad building is the progress of civilization as we know it. By means of the cheap transportation of the railroad, whereby a ton of merchandise is carried a mile for less than one cent, the standard of living of the common man has been raised in this country far above that of any other country or any other age, and this constitutes the real measure of human progress. Whether the railroad came to the city or the city was built on the railroad, their interests are identical ; neither can exist without the other, but together, and 46 TRANSPORTATION FROM WITHOUT 47 in the spirit of mutual dependence and understanding, all their problems of relationship can be worked out. Bear-baiting is a discarded sport. We need not go into the unsavory history of railroad finance or of the rail- road domination of state and city governments. Trans- portation is a vital function, and its control will come more and more under public authority if not public ownership. The enlightened among railroad managers have already shown a new spirit of public service and a real desire to meet the public demand for honest financial methods and efficient administration, and city officials must be ready to meet them upon this fair basis. Unlimited competition is bad for the railroads and the public they serve. A new competing line into a city already well served costs twice as much as an added track on a line already built, and handles only half as much additional traffic. It is an economic waste which can only be a burden upon a community, as it must eventually be paid for out of fares and freight charges. Passenger Depots. The unification of passen- ger terminals in American cities would be a great boon to those who use them and to the cities generally. Where a number of railroads come to a city and each has its own passenger station, there is much confusion of traffic, complicated street railway service and dis- comfort to travelers having to change routes. The city is badly cut up by the railroads and the growth of business and residence districts seriously impeded. 48 TRANSPORTATION FROM WITHOUT Enough cities have union passenger stations to have demonstrated their advantages to travelers and to the railroads, as well as to the city itself. The modern city which now has several passenger terminals will do well to seek the services of a city planning engineer, skilled and experienced in railroad location and traffic matters, and have prepared a plan of unification of terminals for the whole city, a plan contemplating not only the present situation but also looking ahead to future growth and the advent of new railroads. Changes in railroad location are difficult of accomplishment, and it often takes years to bring them about, but conditions are continually arising which demand changes in location and facilities, and a com- plicated and distressing situation is, for this reason, never hopeless. It may be that the city, in asking the railroads for unification, may be able to offer in ex- change some property or facility which will be of great value to them. It may be that the authority of a state railroad commission can be of use, or that unification may be accomplished as a part of a scheme for general grade separation. Let the railroad management know your desires, show them the advantages of your com- prehensive plan, your willingness to alter it in unim- portant details, and be ready to cooperate with them in bringing it to pass. Freight Terminals. Railroad freight traffic in this country has increased with incredible rapidity, much faster than the railroads could furnish increased motive power and rolling stock to handle it. But the TRANSPORTATION FROM WITHOUT 49 greatest impediment to this wonderful growth in traffic has been found in inadequate freight terminals in our cities. Carload minimums have been increased, demur- rage charges raised, better movement of loads and empties arranged, and locomotives repaired and built, but the terminals are not so easily or so readily en- larged. There is no reason to believe that the present transportation demands are abnormal; they represent normal growth in population, production and demand. The constantly increasing development of our natural resources, the settlement of new land reclaimed from the desert, the swamp and the forest, and above all, the continual rise in the standard of living generally, have brought about this increasing demand for transporta- tion, which promises to continue its growth for many years to come. The ideal city will help in the solution of the present problem and at the same time will prepare for the inevitable growth of the future. Some cities now own and operate, or lease for operation, belt lines of rail- road connecting with all incoming trunk lines, serving many industries and provided with switching, transfer and loading and unloading facilities. Main lines of railroad through cities are relieved of congestion by "cut-off" lines for carrying through- freight traffic around the city. Ample yards in connection with these belt lines and cut-offs, with plenty of additional ground for future expansion, provide facilities which will enable good rail service to be given at present and in the future. 50 TRANSPORTATION FROM WITHOUT Waterways. Location upon navigable water is a great asset to any city, and if ocean-going traffic can come to the city's docks the possibilities of world com- merce contribute to the city's future growth and impor- tance. So great is the benefit of such a situation, that many cities in this country and in foreign lands have spent millions of dollars in making artificial waterways to their docks, by deepening streams, by digging ship canals or by building jetties and breakwaters. No amount of money seems excessive to pay for such a project, so great are its advantages. The cheapest way to move freight is by water, and the ocean furnishes a most attractive means of passenger travel. Houston, Texas, has dredged a twenty-five-foot channel fifty miles to the sea; Seattle, already pos- sessed of a splendid harbor, has dug a ship canal from Puget Sound to Lake Washington, a large body of fresh water in which ships' bottoms are automatically cleansed of marine growths; Los Angeles, instead of digging a channel, extended the city limits twenty miles in a narrow strip of land, to reach an acquired harbor. Many cities located on the Great Lakes and on navi- gable rivers are investing heavily in harbor acquire- ment and improvement. In the past, internal water traffic has been throttled, and harbor development de- layed by the railroads, but with the ever-tightening tendency of public regulation of railroads, an end will soon be put to the suppression of water traffic for selfish reasons, and the cities which are located upon TRANSPORTATION FROM WITHOUT 51 navigable waters will reap the benefits therefrom to which they are entitled. Port Facilities. To take advantage of its loca- tion upon navigable water the modern city must provide ample room for dockage and adequate facilities for loading and unloading vessels, transferring bulk prod- ucts and merchandise, and storage for stable and perish- able goods. During the Great War the problem of ocean transport was not only to procure vessels to carry our men and munitions across the seas; it was largely to provide means of quickly loading and unloading vessels on both sides, transferring cargoes and taking care of goods in transit. The problems of peace-time com- merce are similar. Traffic moves along lines of least resistance, and that city will be most favored which has provided the best means for facilitating transfers. Cost is also important, but it is secondary to speed. A large ocean carrier cannot afford to lie an unnecessary day or hour in port. American seaports are meeting this demand with creditable speed and enthusiasm. Some are wisely in- sisting upon publicly-owned docks and terminals, others have allowed their water fronts to drift into private ownership, but all are awake to the imminent develop- ment of a trans-ocean trade which will strain all our harbor resources, public and private, within a few years. San Francisco and New Orleans are given the credit for the best dock service in America, and in both cities the docks are owned and administered by the public. Over twenty-five millions of dollars have been spent 62 TRANSPORTATION FROM WITHOUT on the harbor of San Francisco, mostly obtained from the income from docking charges. Both cities own terminal railways connecting their docks with the main railroads. The port district of Seattle has a number of fine docks, well provided with cold-storage and other warehouses and a capacious grain elevator. New York has 577 miles of water front, of which 350 miles are owned by the city. The city also owns nearly 250 of the total of over 600 wharves. Lake and river cities are active in the movement for better port facilities, the former stimulated by the prospect of a ship channel connecting Lake Ontario with the Atlantic via the St. Lawrence river. Aviation Fields. Commercial transportation through the air is now an accomplished fact. It promises to have a wonderful development within the next few years, and the city which does not prepare for its coming will fall behind the procession. In fact, many cities have already made some preparation for this means of transport in establishing aviation fields and landing places, but much yet remains to be done. By its requirement of level ground, large area and free- dom from poles, wires and other obstructions, the landing field is necessarily located at some distance from the city, and is often lacking in transportation to the city and in other accommodations for the traveler. The laws of air transport are still in embryo, practically no preparation having been made for policing or other regulation of air traffic. The national government has established aerial mail routes; and the introduction of TRANSPORTATION FROM WITHOUT 53 practical and systematic passenger service in this coun- try is imminent. The modern city will prepare in advance for this new and wonderful service. Air terminals will require large areas, and these should be secured at once, owned by the city, and supplied as the need may develop with such markings, hangars, repair shops, and other facilities as the new art may require. Choice of location may well be determined by proximity to established lines of urban or suburban railways. The city which prepares ahead of the demand may easily reap an advantage when new routes are being considered or established. Now is the time to get busy. CHAPTER V. INDUSTRIAL Sites. Industrial development has been the prime factor in bringing so great a percentage of our population into the cities, and in building so many cities so closely together in the eastern section of our country. Industry has brought us also many of our vexing city problems, not only relating directly to the manufacture of various articles of commerce, but also to the human side of city life. Cities seek new indus- tries, expecting by their advent to increase population, enhance realty values, stimulate business, put new money into circulation, and generally add to the impor- tance of the city. They advertise their facilities, and the rivalry between them has been keen. Some have offered free sites along with other inducements for new factories, but this practice is becoming discredited and rare. New industries which must be subsidized are seldom worth having. The location of factories is an important matter to any city. They should be placed where they will have every facility required for their operation, convenient 54 INDUSTRIAL 55 to transportation, where growth and expansion may be provided for and where they may be operated with- out damage or detriment to the other interests of the community. Location in the public interest can best be directed by a proper zoning law. It is one of the benefits of such a law that it provides suitable location for all sorts of industries where they may be freely operated without danger of trespass, and where they will not damage the other uses of land and activities of the neighborhood. Flint, Michigan, has handled the site problem in a very intelligent manner. A group of public-spirited citizens has purchased a large block of land adjacent to the city, with adequate railroad service, which is offered without profit to any approved industry desiring a location. Switching Tracks. Shipping facilities for both incoming and outgoing traffic are essential to most modern industries. Attleboro, Mass., where jewelry is made, does not need railroad sidings, either for raw material or finished product, as badly as some other cities, but the city which expects, and is preparing in advance for, industrial growth will see that any zone set aside for manufacturing purposes is one in which ample shipping facilities exist or can be provided. A railroad track on a business or residence street, or crossing it at grade, is not permissible in the ideal city, but does no serious harm in a zone set aside for exclusive manufacturing or warehouse purposes, and it is scarcely possible for such industries to do without it. Where the streets are used by considerable numbers 56 INDUSTRIAL of pedestrians during the day, where they are the only avenues whereby the factory employees can pass to and from their work, it may be desirable or necessary to restrict the switching of cars to the night hours. This can usually be done without serious detriment to the industries and has been done in many places. Switch- ing tracks crossing business streets are sometimes tol- erated when the railroad traffic can be carried on at night or in the early morning, but this condition should be allowed only while awaiting comprehensive grade separation. Each industry has its own problems of shipment and receipt of materials, but the loading and unloading of heavy goods can usually be taken care of inside the property of the industry. The city seeking industrial expansion must see that every possible con- venience for carrying on such enterprises is at hand or readily available. Power. Some industries cannot exist without cheap and abundant power, and most industries are fairly dependent upon it. All our available power, except in those rare cases where the tides have been harnessed, comes more or less directly from the sun, and the most direct source of power is furnished by falling water. Factories are drawn to waterfalls as flies to molasses. The early industrial development of New England grouped itself closely about the natural waterfalls, and as these became fully used, made arti- ficial waterfalls by damming the streams. When the power of the streams was pre-empted, steam power had been discovered ; and as both wood and coal were INDUSTRIAL 57 cheap and abundant, development was not seriously curtailed. Later the discovery of electrical transmis- sion made water power available hundreds of miles from its source. The modern city which has available water power for industry has a great advantage, yet many fine manu- facturing cities exist without it. Nearness to raw materials and markets, good transportation and labor conditions, exceptional managerial ability and civic enterprise may counterbalance the more expensive forms of power for many industries. The proposal to generate steam power at the coal mines and transmit it electrically to the place where it is used, instead of shipping coal, is a very interesting one, and if this is done, power for industries will not be such a problem in many cities. Even when steam power is generated at the point of use, it has been found economical to distribute it electrically within the works, driving ma- chines by individual electric motors. Loss of power in transmission over wires is usually much less than by the means of pulleys, shafting and belts. Steam tur- bines geared to electrical generators in large units are the favorite prime movers where hydro-electric power is not available. Market. Cheap power, efficient labor and near- ness to raw materials will not always obtain pre- eminence for a city as a factory site; there must be a local demand or other avaiable markets for the prod- uct. Markets are made by human wants, and the ability of the individual to pay for what he desires. Need 58 INDUSTRIAL does not always make commercial demand. Millions of Chinamen need shoes, America makes the best shoes, but the market for our shoes in China is inconsiderable. The Chinese coolie works for ten cents a day or even less, and he cannot buy any better foot covering than the sandals of braided straw which are made in his local village by a shoemaker who works for as little as the coolie gets. Only a wealthy Chinaman can afford American shoes ; in fact during the World War only a wealthy American could afford a new pair. The secret of the wonderful market in our own country is found in the rising standard of living of the bulk of its inhabitants. Cities located in far western states are in line for a great industrial development, owing to rapid growth of population and general prosperity. Most of our hides and wool, the raw material for clothing and shoes, come from the west, are shipped 3,000 miles for manufac- ture, and a considerable portion of the finished product shipped back 3,000 miles to the consumer. This is an economic waste which cannot long endure. Western cities have the raw material, a large market and most of the undeveloped water power of the country. Every advance in freight rates will be a potent factor in their industrial development. Labor. Has your city a supply of cheap and efficient labor for the new industry which is seeking a location? It cannot be too efficient but it can easily be too cheap. Unless the new industry can and will pay all its labor a fair wage you do not want it in your city, INDUSTRIAL 59 for its presence will be a liability, not an asset. By "fair wage" is meant a wage that will be sufficient, with only the bread-winner working, to maintain the family in true American style, permitting recreation and social life for the workers and education, good housing and clean living for all. Only by maintaining these standards can we hope to keep up and improve our citizenship; without these standards in other cities as well as our own we lose the market for the very merchandise we seek to produce. During the war the necessity for immediate and un- precedented production set the manufacturers to bid- ding against each other for labor, created an abnormal demand and opened the way in some instances for vicious labor leadership to exact conditions under which normal and stable industry cannot exist. Prices of food, clothing and other necessities of life were carried up to the point where the man who did not get a propor- tionate increase in wages or salary had a struggle to live, and individual production was held down in many industries to the capacity of the least efficient work- man. The profiteer took advantage of the general inflation and gave prices a still higher boost ; landlords pyramided the rents. The point of diminishing returns has been reached and in the readjustment now under way the modern city will see that it is made on a basis fair to all ; to industry, to labor and to the public. Most great industries have begun in a small way, building up their labor forces as they grew. Those which have had little or no troubles, and there are 60 INDUSTRIAL many of them, are the ones which have regard for their workmen and in which the workmen have had regard for their employers as human beings, members of the great human brotherhood; in which have been kept alive the kindly associations which were common when journeymen were few and when they lived in the employer's family or were socially intimate with them. Labor treated as a commodity as so much raw mate- rial which can be worked into a profit is likely to prove in the long run very expensive material for the manu- facturer and detrimental to the progress of any city. Workmen who regard their employer as a taskmaster to whom they will give as little labor as possible and from whom they will exact as much wages as possible, are not benefiting themselves or helping their home city to industrial prosperity. Better do with few indus- tries, than have in your city the disgraceful conditions which have been allowed to develop in so many indus- trial centers in this and other countries. Tax Exemption. Some American cities offer to manufacturers contemplating a change of location of their plant, exemption from taxation for a term of years. There are strong objections to this practice. It cannot be legally done in most states ; it is unjust to other tax-payers, particularly to like undertakings already established, and it falls under the general rule that subsidies should not be granted to obtain new in- dustries. All the governmental activities which are paid for by taxation are beneficial to the newcomer as well as the old resident. We incline to grumble at INDUSTRIAL 61 taxation and to regard it as an unmitigated burden, but a little consideration will convince us that what it produces is necessary to life, happiness, and business and personal safety, and that, with a fairly efficient government, we really get more for the money we pay in taxes than for any other money we spend. This is not saying that our system of taxation is just or intelligent, but it is the best that we have so far been able to put into being. We neglect the obvious method of taking for public use the values created by the public in the increase of site value of land in cities, giving such benefits to the citizen who happens to hold title, and for which benefits he has made no return to society. Most student?, of taxation believe that the tools of industry should not be taxed at all. This would benefit all industries; it would not enable us to coax manufacturers to locate in our city by a special subsidy. Democratization. The management and con- trol of industry is at present undergoing a considerable change, partly brought about by pressure from labor organizations, partly by the new industrial conditions following the Great War, partly by the new vision of better human relationships gradually arising in enlight- ened minds. In such changes as may come we shall do well to remember that capital is largely composed of the accu- mulated savings of thrift, that management has the burden of care and responsibility of launching the ship of industry and steering it clear of the many shoals in 62 INDUSTRIAL commercial waters, and that labor must be considered as citizenship as well as an ingredient of merchantable product. Mutual understanding, an effort to see the other's point of view, is the keynote of satisfactory human intercourse. To quote Irving T. Bush : "Labor needs a few headaches to understand capital, and capi- tal a few backaches to understand labor, while reform needs to get its hair cut to understand either." The extreme radical looks with hope to industrial and political government by soviet, but the experience in Russia is not heartening, and it is safe to predict that it will not permanently succeed in any country, least of all in a country having universal suffrage and free institutions. It is necessary, however, and has proved immediately profitable, to give larger influence and initiative in industry to the workers, to curb the greed and selfishness of both employer and employee, to foster and develop more kindliness and realization of brotherhood and mutual dependence in industrial partnership. Labor is concerned in the risks and losses, as well as the profits of industry, and a way must be worked out to divide these equitably between labor, management and capital. To this extent at least we can endorse and help to bring about democratization in industry. CHAPTER VI EDUCATIONAL Kindergartens. Education begins with con- sciousness ; every experience of life is educational. All we may hope to do with the effort and the money we devote to schools in America is so to direct education as to bring about a happier life and a more useful citi- zenship, to make the path to knowledge shorter and easier, and to teach us how to know or to do, when the desire to know or to do possesses us. A recent criticism of our educational methods by a great teacher is that they "do not develop public-mindedness, a sense of public service and responsibility." Our public school system begins, or should begin, with the kinder- garten, an institution for which we are indebted to Germany. It was brought to this country about the middle of the last century. It was fostered for many years by enthusiasts and voluntary organizations, until it was first introduced into our public schools in 1887 in the city of Philadelphia. In too many of our cities the kindergarten is still regarded as a fad or a day nursery. Boston had 125 kindergartens in her public schools as early as 1912, and in cities all over the United States it has become part of the regular school system. It is 63 64 EDUCATIONAL the inception of the laboratory method of instruction, teaching by doing, which we now approve throughout the whole school life of the child. It cultivates the social instinct and the spirit of co-operation, trains the observation, opens the young eyes to the beauties of nature, develops interest in the common things about us, and thereby stimulates the desire to know, and the impetus to do. It interests parents in the schools and opens a useful door of communication between the home life and the school life. In Pittsburgh, where it has had sympathetic reception by school authorities, it is one of the requirements that the kindergarten teacher visit the homes of the pupils, each teacher making at least 150 visits annually. Think of the social benefits which inevitably must come from several thousand visits a year by a trained kindergartner to homes, poor and rich, where child life is so little understood. Grade Schools. It has been well said that no fact or process of Nature is more wonderful than any other ; it may be said that no part of our school system is more important than any other part. And yet mil- lions of our children are touched by no other school training than that furnished by our grade schools, and this fact entitles them to our best consideration. The future of our civilization depends in large measure upon their product, and we do well to expend more money upon them than upon any other single govern- mental activity. But money is not enough; our sus- tained interest must go along with our money to this splendid purpose. We leave the administration of our EDUCATIONAL 65 schools too much to boards of education and to the teachers ; too often we allow those hindrances to good citizenship, indolence and indifference to dominate our public relationships. In a fine city of 80,000 popula- tion, in which the women voted on school matters, an important school election was determined a few years ago by a total vote of less than 500. The identity of that city shall not be disclosed. Citizens of the ideal city will restrain its govern- ment from too much so-called economy in providing for the schools, which makes them the first /to suffer when the treasury gets depleted. They will see that a competent and progressive teaching force is employed and that it is well paid. They will foster and keep alive the community interest in the schools by frequent visits, parent-teacher associations and like activities, and be ready to uphold their progressive educators in bringing the school system, and particularly the grade schools, up to the standard of modern administration. High Schools. The high school and its curricu- lum have always been subjects of controversy in this country. In its earlier years the high school had to fight for its life against those who contended that edu- cation at the public expense should stop at the eighth grade; that the "three R's" were sufficient equipment for the average American, and if any further training were desired it should be procured at the cost of the pupil or his parents. Later the introduction of any new course brought up argument upon the same basis. Now we are pretty well agreed as to the public value 66 EDUCATIONAL of the school itself, but are always disagreeing upon the course of study. Up to about 1870 the few high schools then existent made it their business to prepare for college. The chief course was "classical," involv- ing in the three-year course then generally adopted, three years of Latin and two of Greek, with sometimes a light touch upon modern language, some algebra and geometry and a very little science. Our present concern is for the large majority of high school students who will not enter college, whose school training is finished at the twelfth grade, but we still desire to train for college those who may want to go there. Large cities may have, and some already do have, separate high schools for these two classes of students, but the smaller cities and towns must combine the two functions in one school, and this, with limited means and small equipment, is a most difficult under- taking. The rapidity of the transformation in the public school system to meet the new requirements was well illustrated by a survey of the Cincinnati schools in I 9 I 5> which showed forty-three elements in the curricu- lum, thirty-two of which did not find place there in 1904. The modern city has no greater problem than to adapt its school system to the growing needs of its students, and to keep pace with the constant improve- ment in teaching methods. Junior High Schools. The realization by edu- cators that the transition from primary to secondary schools involved too sharp a break, and that pre- EDUCATIONAL 67 vocational training with some liberty of selection by or for the pupil should begin earlier than the ninth year of school, has resulted in the new movement for junior high schools. The tendency is to have these schools cover the seventh, eighth and ninth grades, with an organization distinct and complete in itself, but blending closely into the work of both primary and secondary schools, and beginning with the seventh grade to mold the school system to meet more closely the "individual differences in capacities, interests and needs of the boy and girl." Experience shows that this scheme encourages continued school attendance among those pupils who usually leave at the close of the eighth year, that it gives those who must leave early a better training for life, that it promotes an easier transition between primary and secondary schools, and that it is more easily adaptable to individual proficiency and ease of learning. The first junior high school was opened in Columbus, Ohio, in 1909 and these schools have now been estab- lished or are being organized in most of the progressive cities. Attention is focused upon the pupil rather than the curriculum; individual tendencies, tastes and apti- tude receive earlier attention, and as proclivities for specialization develop, the courses are organized into three principal lines, academic, manual arts and com- mercial, which fit into the tenth, eleventh and twelfth year courses in the regular high school. It is claimed that the re-arrangement of school years into three periods of "6 3 3" rather than two periods of 68 EDUCATIONAL "8 4" as formerly, conforms more closely to the marked stages of development of the growing child, and is productive of better discipline, more satisfac- tory school association, and better educational progress. The rapid growth of the junior high school is indi- cated in a recent report that the attendance at them has multiplied seven times in six years. Technical Schools. The first duty of the indi- vidual to society is to be self-supporting. Making a living first and making a fortune next are the ideals of success in most young minds, and are not to be quarrelled with too strenuously. Entering the compe- tition of business life, into which most of our young men and women go, they are seriously handicapped unless their eyes and their hands have had some train- ing in the details of the industry they have chosen. In some industries the men and the women who work with their hands hold better jobs and receive higher pay than the so-called "white collar" brigade, with the result that the demand for technical school training is increasing with great rapidity. This demand the city must adequately meet, or its assets are minus one essen- tial item. Technical training should begin in the grade schools, and its earlier and more general steps should not be elective. Every boy and girl should know how to drive a nail and to fit a shelf in the pantry. Every boy should be taught how to splice a rope and to tie a safe knot. Technical schools should follow the local industries of the community to a considerable extent, for we want to EDUCATIONAL 69 give the boys and girls the opportunity of useful, happy and successful life in our own home city, rather than to train them for an industry which they can follow only in some other town. Cultural studies cannot be neglected even in technical schools. Some of these boys and girls must be prepared for leadership and all of them for citizenship. The business man must be able to write a letter and to think on his feet. English, civics, and economics de- mand a place in every scheme of education in America. Educators of vision look forward to the day when every factory, workshop, and place of business will contain a training school, with teachers and equipment provided not only for producing manual dexterity and business knowledge, but also for developing power of mind, strength of character and a sense of civic respon- sibility. We learn best by doing, and by association with our fellow while doing. Night Schools. It is probable that night schools have a more immediate value to society, that is, to you and me, than any other branch of our public educa- tion. In them we reach not only the potential citizen of some years in the future, but large numbers of adults who are already citizens or about to become citizens. The demand for evening training has grown with wonderful rapidity. It is an inspiration to good citi- zenship to visit a night school in any of scores of our progressive cities, to see the character of the learners, their industry and application, and to realize the de- mand for education on the part of those who are of 70 EDUCATIONAL adult age and engaged in gainful occupation in the day- time, so that no other means of school training are open to them. New York had over 140,000 foreigners studying English in her night schools as far back as 1912. We cannot expect comprehension of our insti- tutions by immigrants who cannot use our language. It is not alone for the immigrant that the modern city must maintain night schools ; we have many native born who may not have realized the need of training in their early years, who have left school, voluntarily or on account of economic pressure, and who now desire and appreciate the instruction which the night school offers. We have many adult citizens who are glad to avail themselves of the special technical courses which most night schools give. And along with all its courses it must teach citizenship, voluntary obedience to law as representing the will of the majority, and responsi- bility as a voter. The evening schools of our cities of over 10,000 population have an enrollment of over 500,000 pupils, and the demand is steadily increasing. Colleges. What this old world needs most is men and women who can think and who will think. And as with the world, so with the ideal city. People who "didn't think" or who "can't think" or who only "think they think" are useful in their way, but that way is the path of the burden-bearers, not the leaders. Justification for schools of higher education which cost large sums, and which are available for only a very small proportion of our youth, must be found in the preparation of that small number for leadership. EDUCATIONAL 71 Knowledge as the result of a college education is en- tirely incidental; a college course is a very small part of the education of a human being. The time and cost of a college course, the appropriation to it of four or more years out of the productive period of life, can be profitable to society only by teaching us how to think straight and how to get knowledge when we need it, by the most direct route. A number of American cities maintain colleges as a part of their public school system, paying the cost by taxation. Many other cities have one or more colleges supported by religious societies or by private benefac- tion; other cities are located near the great state uni- versities or the famous endowed universities, so that they enjoy their use as a local institution. Thousands of students flock to these larger colleges, attracted by their size, their prestige or the reputation of the teach- ing staff, but after much debate it is still unsettled whether the large or the small college gives better op- portunity to the student. The city must foster its local college, large or small. School Lunchrooms. Physical examination of school children has shown a startling amount of under- nourishment, even in those coming from homes of com- fort and plenty. The science of dietetics is little under- stood, and few children receive food best adapted to nourish their growing bodies. Even where attention is paid to diet at home, thousands of children are obliged to carry lunches to school and to eat them cold. Sta- tistics for the counties and smaller towns of Illinois 72 EDUCATIONAL in 1918, exclusive of the larger cities, showed that over 250,000 school children in that state alone carried their lunches to school daily. In some of our cities the school authorities have established lunchrooms and cafeterias in which nourish- ing food can be had by the pupils at cost or less, either to make the whole noon meal, or to supplement the lunches brought by the children with a hot and whole- some dish. This work is sometimes done by the domes- tic science department of the school, thus accomplishing the double purpose of education and nourishment. The U. S. Department of Agriculture has prepared a number of menus for school lunches, and the subject has received much attention in the high schools of the larger cities. It is entitled to more consideration, and to extension into the grade and country schools. In a recent issue of The American City magazine, Her- bert Hoover is quoted as saying : "I believe that the defi- nite institution of supplementary child-feeding in pub- lic schools in certain places is a necessary part of muni- cipal endeavor." Delinquents. It has become a truism to say that there is no such thing as the normal child. Every child is an individual, and it is part of the great scheme of Nature that no one of us is exactly like any other. We try to classify, but the boundaries of any class are in- definite and elastic. There are large numbers of children, however, who are developing together in such an ap- proach to harmony that they fit fairly well into our classifications, and can be trained together in our EDUCATIONAL 73 schools. Many others do not fit, and any adequate scheme of school training must be organized so as to care for these so-called "abnormal" children. The word "delinquent" implies a lapse from duty, and yet many children so classed are in no way personally re- sponsible for their failings. Our city schools, to be efficient, must give special care to children who show the need of special treatment by exhibiting unusual traits, expressed in lapses all the way from backward- ness in their studies to tendencies toward crime. Bad environment and distressing home relationships are largely responsible for delinquency. Insufficient nourishment, and the lack of medical, surgical or dental care are contributing causes. Hence, while we give special attention to the child, we cannot neglect the fundamental causes of which his condition is only a symptom. And this knowledge of causes should prompt us to attack the problem in the child with loving sym- pathy. There is a direct relation between divorce and delinquency, as also between intemperance and delin- quency. The Presiding Justice of the Children's Court of New York City reports a decrease of fifteen percent in child delinquency in 1920, as compared to 1919, which he attributes to the weather, the probation sys- tem, the work of voluntary organizations and the in- tensive efforts of the court itself. May he not have overlooked the chief cause: the advent of prohibition, lax as its enforcement has been in some sections? De- linquency is frequently but misdirected energy. 74 EDUCATIONAL Forums. No scheme of education is complete without some means of reaching adults who do not or cannot make contact with the school system, and this purpose is served to some extent by the establishment of a public forum. That city will do well which will wisely direct the activities of a forum, and not leave its influence in the hands of the soap-box orator. Good citizens often complain that the propaganda of the streets is vicious and uncontradicted, but they are slow to take the obvious means of contradicting it where their arguments will reach the people who are likely to be misled by its sophistries. An eyewitness of the down- fall of monarchy in Russia reports that the most re- markable feature of the revolution to him was the numbers of men who were speaking on the streets and in public places wherever they could get an audience. Men seek self-expression and the good opinion of their contemporaries, and that vital impulse should be given opportunity where it will do the most good and the least harm, and that is, where their proposals can be analyzed and publicly approved or condemned. The forum is a public safety valve. Radical propa- ganda loses much of its danger where its fallacies can be openly met and refuted, and social and industrial abuses can be remedied when their existence and their causes are understood. The conduct of a public forum is a task for devoted citizenship. The machinery is well developed in several American cities, the most conspicuous example being in EDUCATIONAL 75 Boston, where it is known as the Ford Hall movement, developed by George W. Coleman and his associates. Boy Scouts and Camp-Fire Girls. General Ba- den-Powell has made a great contribution to society in the establishment of the Boy Scouts, an organization which has so appealed to good sense and public spirit that it has spread over the civilized world and has been followed by like organizations of girls. These organi- zations take the child at twelve years of age and give him a program which is wonderfully constructive as well as fascinating, directing into proper and sane chan- nels the enormous dynamic energy incident to healthy childhood, developing vigor of mind and body, educat- ing the senses as well as the brain and imparting knowl- edge without drudgery. Our citizenship in the coming years is bound to be greatly improved by this splendid movement. It is an inspiring sight to see a group of American boys stand erect, with right hand at salute, and hear them repeat in unison the Scout oath : "On my honor I will do my best to do my duty to God and my country, to obey the Scout laws, and to keep myself physically clean, mentally awake and morally straight." It is an obligation which adult citizens might repeat to advan- tage occasionally. The boy and girl are taught, by the Scout laws, to understand and observe twelve simple rules of attitude and conduct, and to "do a good turn daily." They learn to swim and skate, to handle a boat, and to take care of themselves in the open. Merit badges 76 EDUCATIONAL and promotion reward special effort, and the whole program is made so attractive that they learn while doing and almost unconsciously. The city without such organizations is neglecting the best means yet discov- ered to build up its future citizenship. Americanization. Civic and moral training must be a part of every branch of public education, from the kindergarten to the forum. We do not want slavish adhesion to our institutions or our government, but we do want our institutions understood and our government respected, and until this attitude can be established by reason it should be inculcated by train- ing. To the immigrant whose impulses have always been restrained by force, liberty is often misinterpreted into license ; the youth suddenly removed from parental restraint is likely to make the same mistake, and both are in danger until they learn that liberty is theirs only in so far as they do not trespass upon the rights of others. In organized society freedom is always rela- tive. Our enormous immigration constitutes our greatest problem in Americanization. A city to which immi- grants come in large numbers and where they go into colonies of their countrymen in which the speech and the newspapers are in their native tongue, must for self -protection take measures to teach respect for law and ideals of free government. Disregard for the rights of others is by no means confined to immigrants and foreigners ; a fruitful field for effort along this line EDUCATIONAL 77 exists in purely American communities. The defini- tion of true culture, propounded by the English essayist Chesterton, is : "The possession of that little mirror in the mind which reflects the point of view of the other fellow." CHAPTER VII STRUCTURES City Hall. A public building serves, or should serve, two useful purposes, the first utilitarian, the second aesthetic. A city hall must conveniently house the various departments of the government, and it should express a fine ideal of architectural art and beauty. The first function appeals to all, the second to those of cultivated taste and those who understand spiritual values. But how does taste become cultivated if not by observing beautiful things? And if we as citizens exert ourselves to build fine and stately homes then our common home, the center of our public activi- ties, may well express the highest art we are able to furnish to its design, so that every citizen, and particu- larly every child, may have taste cultivated by observing it. Many good and enduring architectural styles give us plenty of variety in choice. We admire the delicate marble of the Taj Mahal, the classic beauty of the Parthenon, the stern and stately lines of the Egyptian obelisk, and we put a task before the modern architect to adapt the beauty of ancient structures which were built to approach and surround, to the usefulness we ask from our modern public buildings in which we must live and work. 78 STRUCTURES 79 To house the city's administrative force is not enough ; to spend a large sum of money in construction may or may not accomplish our ends, for many cities have done these things without justifiable results. American cities are disfigured by the presence of ex- pensive public buildings which are architectural mon- strosities, marring instead of beautifying their neigh- borhood. There is no excuse for these expensive fail- ures. Many stately public buildings in our cities dem- onstrate the ability and taste of our architects and our people, and many of them have been built with integrity, both of construction and finance. Any city may well be proud of a city hall which expresses art and beauty in its architecture, and honest worth in its construction. Library. No argument is needed to prove the necessity of a public library in any city or town, or its place in our educational system. We must have the library, not only as an adjunct to our schools, but also to make accessible to students, young or old, the stored-up accumulations of the knowledge of the past. Many library buildings have been built by means of the benefactions of private citizens, and this method of giving to the public has perhaps as little danger of ill consequences as any method of bestowing large sums of money yet devised. But we cannot afford to wait for private philanthropy; a library is too vital a part of our community life. The library building should be located convenient to transportation, easy of access, and upon abundant ground to provide for future expansion. The use of 80 STRUCTURES the public library is growing at a wonderful pace all over the country. The building itself must be sub- stantial, its stacks for holding books capacious, and it should be as nearly fireproof as modern construction can make it. Its contents become more and more precious with the passage of the years. If it is one of a group of public buildings, its design should conform to its environment ; and whatever its location, it should be a building which, in its architectural style, will reflect its noble uses, and cause us pride and satisfaction in its possession. As the city grows and population spreads out, branches must be built convenient to the residential centers. Branches in schools, large factories and other places where books may be conveniently distributed are an essential part of modern library ad- ministration. Auditorium. Every city needs a community center where public meetings may find good housing. Nearly every New England town has a town hall, where its town meeting is held and which is used for all sorts of public and community gatherings. It is usually of inadequate size, often seating less than a tenth of the town's citizens, but it represents a spirit of neighborliness which does not find expression in the newer towns and cities of the West. But western cities are building public auditoriums which have de- veloped a larger usefulness on account of larger size. Several cities now have halls which will seat 10,000 or even more, and are finding them a valuable civic asset. Not that they are as a rule money-makers, or STRUCTURES 81 even self-supporting, but they pay well for their cost and their maintenance fy attracting large conventions to the city, and by opening up the opportunity for culture and entertainment to the people. Organ recitals, band concerts and fine vocal music, either furnished free by the municipality or given with a low admission charge, are made available to all. When a national character of prominence comes along he may have an audience worthy of his abilities instead of being heard by a few who can afford a high admis- sion charge. The educational value of a large audito- rium is very great. A modern civic auditorium should either be built so that the main hall can be expanded and reduced in size and seating capacity, or it should contain halls of vari- ous sizes, to accommodate the needs of the community. It may well be planned to house various civic organiza- tions and to afford meeting places for public or private bodies which are able to contribute to the cost of main- tenance. Museums. Museums help us in learning to read the book of Nature. To read of a beautiful bird gives us a dim idea of its form and beauty; to see it pictured increases the vividness of the impression, particularly when shown in natural color; but to see the bird itself, mounted in scientific accuracy and in its natural en- vironment, as shown in some of our better museums, makes an impression which we cannot soon forget. And if, as is now done in the museum extension work in a few cities, the student is taken on an excursion to 82 STRUCTURES a place where he can see the live bird in its natural habitat, the instruction is complete. We are getting more and more away from the printed page for our science and natural history instruction, and this is made possible by well-conducted museums. The public museum has become so valuable as an educator that in some cities the schools are served with collections of material bearing upon the subjects being studied. More than 1,200 schools are so served in Pennsylvania by the Philadelphia museums. In New York the American Museum of Natural History has five hundred cabinets of exhibits in circulation among the schools of New York City. 1,180.000 students used this museum in 1920; 88,000 pupils attended the lectures. 1,650 blind children inspected the material selected for their use. The Field Museum of Chicago has an endowment fund of $250,000 specially given for the purpose of carrying the exhibits of the museum to the schools. Brooklyn, New York, has built a children's museum at a cost of $175,000, and it is visited by more than 100,000 children every year. The museum is as valuable as the public library in educa- tion, and both are necessary in any modern city's edu- cational scheme. Art Galleries. Only a few of the larger American cities support public art galleries. But if good pictures and sculpture give joy and increase culture, we need them much more in a place where they are available to all than we do in the homes of the wealthy. A great invention is secured to the inventor for a term of years, STRUCTURES 83 after which it becomes the property of the public; why not apply the same principle to a great art creation ? We should reward the artist, but should forbid that his contribution to society be sequestered for generations, when it might be benefiting thousands of our citizens. A few public-spirited art-lovers have realized their stewardship and have bequeathed or presented their treasures to the public. These gifts have formed the nuclei of the principal art collections in this country, and have attracted other bequests and gifts until notable collections have resulted. While we are not yet edu- cated up to the expenditure of large sums of public money, for the purchase of works of art, the housing of such collections may well be considered a public duty. Local art societies all over the country, in cities of small as well as larger size, have done a most useful work with very moderate resources in making the pub- lic schools the community centers for loan exhibits of works of art, and in procuring good reproductions of famous paintings and statuary, and placing them where all may admire and study them. Until the modern city provides a gallery no better place can be found in which to make an art collection useful than the public schools, and when a central art gallery is provided an important part of its service will be in supplying the schools with collections. Public Markets. The modern city supplies, at the public cost, a place where producer and consumer may come together, or at least sets aside a plot in the 84 STRUCTURES streets or some convenient public place where the prod- ucts of near-by farms and market gardens may be offered for sale. Small producers find difficulty in dis- posing of their products to commission houses for the reason that small quantities of perishable produce can- not be handled to good advantage by jobbers, and the small producer seldom knows how to prepare his mer- chandise for proper storage and shipment. The com- mission man sometimes takes advantage of the igno- rance of the small producer as to the market conditions, and his shipments have frequently yielded him insuffi- cient return to pay for the containers. Not only the pro- ducer, but also the thrifty housewife, is benefited by the public market. She can get fresh produce at a reasonable price if she will take the trouble to go to the market. The city owes it to both these classes to provide a place where their exchanges may be facilitated, and a visit to the public markets of any of our enterprising cities will show the advantage of bringing them to- gether. Many so-called public markets pay little at- tention to local produce. They are only small stores, gathered under one roof, and the dealers supply prod- uce and merchandise from all sources, home and abroad. These have their function, but the city should offer the facilities of trade in some special market, ex- clusively used by the local producers, a place where accommodation is made for their horses and trucks, and where shelter is provided over suitable stalls, which are STRUCTURES 85 furnished free or at small daily rental. Such service is appreciated by both producer and consumer. Building Code. The city's own structures should be models of correct and enduring construction, not only because it pays to build well, but for the ex- ample which the city may set to its citizens. And it must go further, it must enact suitable laws governing the erection of all sorts of buildings, for all sorts of purposes, within its boundaries. The location of var- ious uses should be established by a zoning law, and the character of the buildings by an adequate building code. The earliest attempt at zoning has been in establishing districts in which only a certain type of structure would be allowed, usually considering only the matter of safety from collapse and fire. Every modern city has a "fire limit," inside of which the flimsy wooden con- struction so common to American cities is forbidden. City officials are subjected to much pressure by prop- erty owners within such zones, who desire, for the sake of cheaper construction, to secure a reduction of the safety requirements. Most cities are already too lax in these requirements, and even where the building code is itself sufficiently rigid, city councils frequently allow infractions by special permit, which nullify re- strictions and increase risks. The requirements of the building code should be of general application and should be rigidly enforced, for the good of all. CHAPTER VIII HEALTH Housing. The chief health requirements of city life are pure water and good drainage. In cities which possess these requisites the chief health deterrent is bad housing. Sunlight and pure air are potent factors of good health, and when they are not allowed to exert their beneficent influence, the body decays and fails to function perfectly. When a city begins to fill up with people, or when any territory in the city becomes con- gested, ground becomes valuable and there is always the temptation to build tenements in which there are overcrowding, inside rooms, dark hallways, unventi- lated basements, poor plumbing, and bad housing gen- erally. Landlords in many cities have yielded to this temptation, and the result of their ignorance or greed and the absence of governmental restrictions, have made our city slums. We are just beginning to know the value to the com- munity of healthful life for all; and to realize that bad living conditions for any of our citizens are detri- mental to all of us, no matter how well we live. The wealthy citizen upon the hilltop suffers with the dweller in the slums; the greedy landlord suffers with his unfortunate tenants. We commence to realize that 86 HEALTH 87 for purely selfish reasons, if none other, we are our brother's keeper. Herbert Spencer told us a generation ago that no one could be perfectly happy unless all are happy, and the same can be said of healthiness. There are now housing laws in many of our cities which attempt to reach this condition, some good and some indifferent, but all hopeful as a recognition of the evils of bad housing. Most of them are not retro- active and permit the continued existence of many of the unsanitary tenements which were built in the years before the law was enacted. New York has a tenement house law which is stronger than one would expect to find there. Under it nearly 2,000,000 people have been housed in apartments which have outside light and air in every room, sink, toilet, running water in every apartment, and private baths in more than half of them. Housing conditions are improving in all our cities with the growth of civic consciousness and the sense of public responsibility. Food Inspection. A stringent regulation of food supply and a constant and thorough inspection of the foods offered for sale are necessary in any city. Dealers in food products usually do not know how and frequently do not care to discriminate between those fit and those unfit for human consumption, nor how all foods should be protected from contamination while ex- posed for sale. Inspection should also go to the source of foods, to the dairies, the slaughter houses, the can- neries and the bottling works, and should include the physical examination of all who are engaged in any 88 HEALTH branch of food production, handling or sale. Without adequate laws and rigid enforcement of them bad con- ditions are bound to arise, and these conditions are at once reflected in the city's death rate. A decrease in infant mortality immediately follows an improved milk supply, and better conditions are not established by chance nor by voluntary action of milk producers. In order to bring about an improvement in the city's milk supply, dairy herds must be cleared of tubercular cows, barns must be cleaned, whitewashed and provided with sanitary floors, light and air freely admitted, cows cleaned before milking, and proper ar- rangements provided for caring for the milk. One of the most striking advertisements for a brand of con- densed milk is the statement that it is produced "from contented cows". May the time soon come when we shall insist that all the manufactured goods we purchase be made by contented workmen! Hood's "Song of the Shirt" still applies to many of the goods we find upon bargain counters. School Clinics. One of the shocking disclosures of the selective draft for war service was the large per- centage of our young men who were physically unfit for active service. Nearly one- fourth were found wanting, and a large proportion of these men who must enter productive life with a tremendous handicap were in that condition by reason of disability which might have been removed by proper attention in their earlier years. School clinics and school nurses can no longer be dispensed with. The clinic discovers and corrects or HEALTH 89 relieves those physical defects of which the parents may have been ignorant, or which they, for lack of money, have been unable to have corrected. The nurse follows the child to its home and corrects or re- ports to proper agencies such hindrances to healthful life as she very frequently finds. Bad teeth, adenoids, defective eyesight and hearing, bad nutrition, lack of sanitation and cleanliness, poor cooking, insufficient clothing, all interfere with normal development and all can be relieved or corrected. Ten or twelve years ago, six per cent of the children in the public schools of New York were treated by the clinics or nurses; today eighty-five per cent of them receive medical, surgical or dental help. All of the larger cities now employ school nurses. Chicago has over one hundred of them. Each school is visited fre- quently at stated periods and each child is given a thorough physical examination, and the results are re- corded, at least once a year. Parents are notified and if the trouble is not promptly attended to the school nurse visits the home. It is ordinarily found that from seventy to eighty-five per cent of the children need attention. The correction of bad health conditions means better attendance and therefore increased revenues for schools in those states where money is apportioned to school districts in proportion to attendance, besides giving in- calculable help to the individual and to society by con- serving health and human life. Communicable Disease Clinics. City health au- 90 HEALTH thorities have found that if they wait for family phy- sicians to report cases of infectious or contagious dis- eases the menace to the community is likely to be beyond their power to control. Delay in such matters is ter- rific in its consequences. And in many communicable diseases which are still considered unimportant the family physician or the city's doctors are not called in until serious conditions develop. School clinics and visiting school nurses are often the first agencies to dis- cover the outbreak of an epidemic among children, and these should be supplemented by public clinics provided for adults. These clinics should contain dispensaries where needed medicines can be promptly supplied to all, whether or not the patients can afford to pay. Since the discovery was made that tuberculosis was communicable, many cities have established special clinics and sanatoriums for its treatment, and good progress is being made, although in most places ac- commodations for patients are not equal to the urgent demand. In Massachusetts every city of 10,000 population or over is required by law to provide a dispensary for tu- berculosis patients, and these institutions are subjected to close surveillance by the state board of health. Buffalo has an endowed hospital for the treatment of incipient tuberculosis where the afflicted children are subjected to the "sun treatment," their naked bodies being exposed to the sun's direct rays for several hours every day. It looks like cruelty but under certain con- ditions it really is salvation to send children out to play HEALTH 91 in the snow with nothing on but shoes, a cap and a loin cloth. Visiting Nurses. Bad health conditions in their earlier stages do not come to light automatically or spontaneously; they must be sought if we expect to meet them effectively. For this purpose no agency has been so effective as the visiting nurse. The woman trained in social work gets into the homes of the people more easily than the doctor, and in many cases does the required service or furnishes the required help so promptly and efficiently that the doctor's aid is not re- quired. The nurse has a better approach to the wife and mother, has a more sympathetic understanding of family life, and ordinarily more tact in instituting nec- essary health measures. She instructs mothers in the care of children, living and unborn, gives demonstra- tions in cleanliness and feeding, ventilation, dress, care of the home, etc., and often renders service of inesti- mable value. It is an indictment of the heedlessness of most city governments that the visiting nurses of our cities have usually been first employed by means of voluntary or- ganizations or private charity. It is a credit to our cities that public recognition and public support have quickly followed the demonstration of the usefulness of the visiting nurses' work. Privately supported nurses still continue in service, and find plenty of useful work to do even with the co-operation of the city's nursing staff. Kansas City sends a card to the mother of each baby reported, telling her of the interest in her baby 92 HEALTH by the health department and thus securing her co-oper- ation. Nurses in many cities now call on thousands of expectant mothers, helping to make safe the path of the coming baby. Why not give as much attention to the new citizen arriving by birth as to the one coming across the Atlantic? Hospitals. Every modern city should have three hospitals under city authority or supervision; one for the ordinary medical and surgical treatment and care, one for the isolation of patients afflicted with infectious and contagious diseases, and one for the treatment of tuberculosis. For the benefit and the protection of all of us, our government must be pre- pared to give prompt aid in these lines, regardless of the ability of patients to pay for its health services. Cities which have all these facilities are invariably proud of them, and cities which do not have them should be ashamed of their lack. Some municipal hospitals are so complete in their appointments and efficient in their management that the popular prejudice against going to a city hospital for care has vanished. San Francisco has built a city and county hospital that is a model for American cities. Isolation hospitals now exist which are as well built and managed as the finest private sanatorium, and the old "pest house" is practically abolished. They should contain every convenience for efficient care and treat- ment, and they must be planned and operated so as to avoid the dangers of cross infection. Spokane has an isolation hospital of which she is justly proud. It is a HEALTH 93 fine building, beautifully located in a grove of pines on the river bank, containing ample rooms and wards for contagious diseases and also provisions for enforced isolation of venereal disease patients. Tuberculosis hospitals must be planned particularly to provide the open air treatments and the "sun cure" facilities which this dread scourge requires, and to separate the so-called hopeless cases from those of less progress and intensity. We now know that tubercu- losis can be cured, and we believe that it can eventually be exterminated. God gives us strength and persis- tence in the effort. Health Centers. A new feature of the city's health activities and one which promises great im- provement in both methods and results is the "Health Center" movement. Its aim is to bring together in each community all the various agencies and activities of the modern civic health movement under close co-opera- tion. Its essential services are educational and clinical, and by combining the community health activities under one roof the work is co-ordinated, and duplication of effort is avoided. In a building centrally located, large enough to house all the public clinics and visiting nurses' headquarters, preferably with a room for health lectures and wall space for educational charts, are brought together the various branches of modern city health work, whether carried on by the American Red Cross, by local or national voluntary organizations, or by the city or state government. A central board of control, made up of representatives of all the societies 94 HEALTH interested, determines general policies and, through a "service organizer" directs the activities. The good sense of the plan, its efficiency and econ- omy have appealed to our people, and its introduction has been rapid. On January I, 1920, seventy-two health centers were reported in active operation, and twenty-eight more about ready to begin work. The American Red Cross is making the establishment of health centers a definite and important step of its peace- time program. Health Thought. At this stage of its develop- ment it may be difficult for a city to organize and direct the health thought of its citizens, and yet it is a very vital civic as well as personal asset. Mental therapeu- tics is now a well recognized branch of medical train- ing, and its students and practitioners are numbered by the thousands, both in and out of the regular medical profession. The influence of the mind upon the body, the immediate and direct effect upon the physical state of mental and spiritual attitude and activity, are no longer questioned by intelligent people, and the direc- tion of these vital forces into channels of health, hap- piness and prosperity has become the paramount study of the age. We may question specific claims of healing, we may contend that the age of miracles is past, we may still insist upon dosing ourselves with drugs, but no one who gives the subject careful thought and study can longer deny the healing power of constructive thought. The affirmative evidence is too voluminous and too convincing. HEALTH 95 No experienced medical man will deny or belittle the aid he receives in the treatment of bodily ills by the faith which his patient has in his ability and in the efficacy of his remedial agents ; and if faith in a medical practitioner works wonders, why not faith in the heal- ing power from a higher source ? In nearly every Ameri- can city, and in cities all over the civilized world, there exist today centers of faith healing, where devoted men and women are making daily and hourly dem- onstration of the power of the spirit to heal diseases of the body, the mind and the estate. In churches, in theaters and in public halls, throngs are listening to these teachings, and are giving a new meaning to the old saying, "As a man thinketh, so is he." Cemeteries. The disposal of the dead has been allowed to become a source of private profit and, among the poor, a means of exploitation of the living, in many of our cities. There are few more appropriate public undertakings than municipal cemeteries and cre- matoriums. Private control of these agencies has be- come a public scandal in many places ; and the high cost of living is an innocent incident compared to the high cost of dying. The burden of this cost bears most heavily upon those least able to bear it. Death comes unexpectedly and leaves surviving relatives in a state of mind in which they are easily induced to authorize expenditures beyond their means, and to incur debts which become an arduous burden for years. A cemetery lot frequently sells for more than the plot cost per acre, and, in private ownership, the 96 HEALTH "perpetual care" which is often "guaranteed" is a delusion. A private owner may sell out his cemetery, spend his money and go bankrupt, leaving valueless assets in a property which by its use for burials, cannot be sold for other uses. Under public ownership the cost of graves can be kept reasonable and the guarantee of perpetual care is valid. Every municipal cemetery should contain a crema- torium and columbarium. The disposal of the dead body by incineration appeals to more and more of our citizens with the passing years, and these should have the opportunity to have this service performed in their own city, in an appropriate environment and at a rea- sonable cost. CHAPTER IX Social Centers. The spirit of democracy is fos- tered by neighborliness. It is often said that we hate people because we do not know them, and if this is true, any movement toward friendly acquaintance in a city is a step toward good citizenship. "Get together" is the watchword of civic progress and we may well practice getting together in our social life as a first step toward co-operation in our public business. The social center movement began to take serious form in Rochester in 1907. It was such a success from the beginning that it has spread over the whole country with great activity. The schoolhouses were the first meeting places. The tendency of school boards was to keep the schoolhouses closed except for schools, and much reluctance was encountered in getting them opened for social and community gatherings, but the new idea is that the large public investment in school buildings must be made useful in every way in which they can serve. As the social center developed, school boards allowed the use of the schoolhouses on payment of a small fee; later they were furnished free for educational work, lectures and the like; and now in many cities 97 98 SOCIAL they are not only given free for all social activities, but new schoolhouses are built with this end in view, having auditoriums, moving picture booths, kitchens and dining rooms, and in some cities, gymnasiums, swimming tanks, bowling alleys and billiard tables. The activities now encouraged include lectures, concerts, art exhibitions, physical culture classes, forums, debat- ing societies, men's, women's and children's clubs, and even social dinners and dances. Every schoolhouse now gives, or should give, a double service to its community. And the school- houses have been found inadequate for the new need. Public libraries, playground houses, and public audi- toriums are now planned to meet the demand for so- cial centers. Dover, N. H., a city of 13,000, has in its city hall a fine banquet room with complete kitchen equipment and good dancing floor, and a theater seating 1,200 with a complete stage equipment. The direction and encouragement of social activities has become a part of public duty. Clubs. Most cities have social clubs with rather exclusive tendencies, some have men's and women's clubs which admit most of those who desire to join, and a few actively organize and encourage clubs in connection with social centers : civic clubs for the dis- cussion of economic, social and political questions, athletic and debating clubs for the boys and girls, and even organizations of foreign-born citizens in which they may discuss any public question in their native tongue, self-governing clubs in which parliamentary SOCIAL 99 kw is observed and ability in public speaking de- veloped; clubs for the encouragement of local educa- tion in art and music, with concerts and exhibitions a part of their activity; women's clubs formed for the study of the new duties of citizenship. School boards are now employing thousands of men and women to direct this growing social center work. State laws recognize and encourage it, the public be- gins to understand its importance and its fruits, and is willing to pay the cost. Its benefits are seen in better social understanding, more neighborliness and a fine in- terest in government. Foreign-born citizens are be- ginning to realize their dreams of "free America" and Americanization makes real progress. The school- house, once hermetically sealed against everything but its day-time use for eight or nine months of the year, is now frequently in demand for useful purposes every night in the week and every month in the year. And we are becoming better friends, better neighbors and better citizens. Women's Clubs. Probably the most useful civic clubs are those organized and conducted by the women of America. They promote art and music, they take the lead in public charities, they study government and parliamentary law, they take a profound interest in social betterment, and they set a noble example of inter- ested, constructive and devoted citizenship. Any li- brarian will testify to the amount of inquiry coming from members of women's clubs in the preparation of 100 SOCIAL papers to be read in their meetings; any public official will ordinarily have twice as many requests from wo- men's clubs as from men's for the information he can furnish regarding his public activities in govern- ment. They take hold of their new duties of citizen- ship with devotion and intelligence and put new life into public affairs. We owe much to the women of America in addi- tion to motherhood and home management, and the debt is increasing with the years of their active partici- pation in our political life on equal footing. They are responsible for the American Red Cross, the kinder- garten, the day nursery, the travelers' aid, and most of the movements for improvement of the drama, the motion picture, and many other social, educational and recreational advances. Settlements led by noble women are responsible for the public playground movement in Chicago and elsewhere. Hull House and Jane Addams began the work in 1892 and procured the first public recognition and appropriation of public funds in that city. The Women's Municipal League in Boston es- tablished the first neighborhood center there. We agree with Joseph Choate, that the Pilgrim Mothers are en- titled to more veneration than the Pilgrim Fathers, and for more reasons than he gave. Dancing. Dancing has such a hold upon the young that opportunity must be given for indulging in this recreation under the supervision of public author- ity. Unregulated dance halls have been the chief re- SOCIAL 101 cruiting ground for the brothel, and there is no excuse for their existence in the modern city. Dancing is one of the oldest forms of recreation, and whether or not we regard it as an unmixed evil, so long as our youth are allowed to practice it, we must surround them with every safeguard we can devise. We began by detailing a policeman, as we usually begin every movement for moral uplift. Then we appointed police-women and made this one of their first duties. Then we began to provide places for public dancing where we might as- sume complete control; and now the public dance has advanced from the restraint stage to the service stage of city government. Regular municipal dances are now held in the larger American cities, often led by the public officials and always under careful supervision. City halls, municipal auditoriums and social centers are designed and built with this recreation in view. Private dance halls which have been allowed to continue are carefully su- pervised, with close regulation of ventilation, dress, and music as well as conduct. Streets are often cleaned and closed to traffic in the evening, where anybody may dance to the music of the municipal band. In San Fran- cisco the fine municipal auditorium is frequently used for public dances where a small fee is charged, but on certain evenings the city's band furnishes the music for free dances on well-paved streets. The public dance, properly supervised, is a contribution to the social life of any city. 102 SOCIAL Pageants and Celebrations. The pageant is one of the oldest forms of civic celebration, dating from prehistoric times. In its modern form its value is both social and educational, the former value attaching to any occasion for the happy foregathering of the peo- ple to a holiday show, the latter to such historical or illustrative exhibitions as give instruction through the eye. The cities of this country are behind those of the old world in this form of public celebration, but the Mardi Gras in New Orleans and the pageant of the Veiled Prophet in St. Louis keep up the reputation of America. In Europe most pageants have a religious origin and appeal ; in America they are usually recrea- tional and historical. Americans incline toward quiet behavior and sober dress when in public, but we are all children if one digs deeply enough, and we delight to don extravagant costumes and make a holiday show of ourselves when opportunity offers. The circus parade is the great American pageant, but the city fire department attracts crowds, when deco- rated for the Independence Day Parade. And when, as a people, we have occasion or excuse for walking up and down the streets wearing paper caps, blowing horns and throwing confetti, our joy is complete. The city must supply the occasion for what Charles Zeublin calls "spontaneous community combustion" so that it may be blown off without damage to the machinery. The community Christmas tree is now well established ID our cities. New York claims the honor of its dis- SOCIAL 103 covery, with Jacob Riis as discoverer. Riverside, Cal- ifornia, makes an Easter Pilgrimage to its Mount Rubi- dou, to see the sunrise and celebrate the resurrection of the Master who taught "Peace on earth, good will to men". CHAPTER X CORRECTIONAL Police Court. In no branch of civil government have there been such changes in the present generation as have taken place in our treatment of offenders against the law, and in few branches were changes so much needed. Government has two broad functions: to serve and to restrain; and as service grows and restraint lessens we know that civilization advances. Reform begins with the individual, not with legislatures, courts and jails. If we all under- stood that the first civic duties in a democracy are volun- tary obedience to law and respect for the rights of others, there would be little need for correctional in- stitutions. The first contact of the citizen with the machinery of justice comes in the police courts. He may have committed a heinous crime, or unconsciously violated some petty ordinance. Under the old system he was summoned or led into a court room filled with idle and curious spectators, sordid and ill-smelling, where he took his turn in a line of derelicts of all ages and both sexes. He lost respect for himself and the courts, and if found guilty, the penalty was a fine, a jail sen- tence, or he was held for trial by a higher court. In the modern city all is changed. The offender and 104 CORRECTIONAL 105 not the offense is the chief object of our interest, and we even look beyond the offender to his past history and his present environment, searching for fundamental causes of his delinquency. Creating a good citizen is our purpose rather than punishing a misdemeanor. We study characteristics, surroundings and mental and moral development, hoping and expecting to reinstate the offender in the ranks of the law-abiding and make of him a creditable citizen. Dr. William Healy, who organized the Psychopathic Institute for Chicago in 1909 says, "It practically always requires the effect of environmental influences to create a criminal out of even a mental defective." Police courts now have various subdivisions night courts, children's courts, courts of domestic relations, traffic courts where specific offences are handled by experienced and high-minded judges who realize human possibilities. The probation system is freely used and correctional institutions have a distinctly beneficent or- ganization and purpose. Juvenile Courts. Children have been tried sepa- rately in our police courts only since 1899, Chicago and Denver leading the way. Before that time they were indiscriminately mixed with hardened criminals and older offenders, and were subjected to the evil influ- ences of such contacts. The first exclusive children's court was established in Indianapolis in 1903, and this fine example has since been followed not only in most of the leading American cities but in many countries in Europe including England, France, Belgium, Hoi- 106 CORRECTIONAL land, Denmark, Switzerland, Germany, Russia, Aus- tria and Hungary. We have learned many lessons in municipal government from European cities, but in this fine movement we have led the way. New York now has five children's courts, presided over by judges of special fitness for this exacting duty, having long terms and salaries of $10,000 per year. In that city it has been found that the number of cases of child delinquency follows very closely the number of cases of improper guardianship, and that seventy per cent are directly traceable to that cause. The Den- ver juvenile court, presided over for many years by Judge Ben Lindsay, has been the model for many American cities. In it girls' cases are heard by a woman assistant and the whole atmosphere of the court is that of kindly helpfulness and confidence. Probation officers and detention homes have taken the place of jail con- finement, and the children are kept from debasing con- tact with criminals and given better training and care than they have had in their homes. Judge Lindsay established the practice of trusting the children to go alone to such correctional institutions as he designated, and in eight years, out of 507 so sent, only five have been lost. We realize now that it is better and more economical to open the door to a wholesome and pro- ductive life, than to jail a juvenile delinquent. Court of Domestic Relations. A special branch of police court work has developed in the large cities in the settlement of family and marital differences and abuses. Such courts invariably endeavor to re-establish CORRECTIONAL 107 satisfactory relations, and do so in more than half the cases brought before them. In the Chicago court of domestic relations only about twenty per cent of the complainants are represented by attorneys. The court gets the parties before him, gets the story of the diffi- culty as best he can by sympathetic inquiry, without too much attention to court rules of evidence, arid plays the part of family friend rather than legal arbitrator. Half or more of the cases he hears are the result of desertion, and punishment of deserting husbands is usually prompt and stern. The personnel of the court includes two secretaries, who hear and settle many of the quarrels, a physician and a visiting nurse. Many cases are discovered requiring the help of outside social agencies, and these are kept closely in- formed. The seamy side of life comes to light in these courts, and their disclosures are always pathetic, par- ticularly so when there are children involved. Some courts of domestic relations have jurisdiction over in- fractions of the laws regulating the employment of women and children in industry. The new court de- mands more than a knowledge of the law in its presid- ing officer; he must have tact, good sense, sympathy, and vision. Probation System. A probation officer is as es- sential as a mayor in the modern city, and he will probably accomplish more real service to the com- munity than most mayors. His career will not be so spectacular; he will not get into the newspapers so frequently, but he will have great influence upon the 108 CORRECTIONAL general well-being of the community, present and fu- ture. Before probation was established as part of our judicial system there were only three alternatives of court judgment for offenders : dismissal, fine, or im- prisonment. But we have discovered that human fail- ings have as many aspects as there are differences in human character, and that our stern and simple methods of treating delinquents do not fit in most cases. The indeterminate and the suspended sentence have opened the way for the probation system, whereby the court may exercise continuing care over delinquents while they are re-establishing themselves as useful members of society. In most cases this treatment is effective and thou- sands have been helped to self-respect and honest living by it. An ideal probation officer must possess rare qualities of mind and heart : firmness, kindliness, faith, sympathy, discretion. It is not the position into which a broken-down policeman or a political heeler will fit; the success or failure of the plan will depend in large measure upon the man selected. Boston appointed the first probation officer in 1878, and in several cities he appeared prior to the establishment of juvenile courts. The probation officer greatly relieves the police court by settling neighborhood quarrels and family differ- ences before they arrive at the police judge's door. Public Defender. It is an old axiom of the law that every accused person shall be considered innocent until he is proven guilty, but the public machinery of the law is geared to establish guilt, not to prove inno- CORRECTIONAL 109 cence. Police officers complain if those they arrest are discharged, and prosecutors endeavor to make a record of their number or percentage of convictions. Men with money employ sharp lawyers, wise to every trick and technicality, to procure their acquittal, but the poor man finds few friends in court. He is often the prey of the shyster and the professional bondsman, if money can be extracted from him or his friends. When New- ton D. Baker was city solicitor for Cleveland, Ohio, he took the position that "no merit is shown nor credit ob- tained by the mere fact of conviction, and that it is the duty of the prosecutor to see . . . fair opportunity given to the defendant to show both exculpatory and extenuating circumstances." A prosecutor -who takes this position will not go far wrong, but this attitude is very rare. The public defender, now a fact in several cities, has justified his existence by saving the innocent from pun- ishment, by procuring leniency when it is the best pub- lic policy, by obtaining suspended sentence when im- prisonment would bring starvation to a family, by mak- ing contact between charitable organizations and those needing their aid, and by saving much public expense in the confinement in jails of persons for whom liberty on probation is infinitely better for themselves and for society. The prisoner is interviewed and his state- ments investigated. If he has a worthy defense his case is prepared and tried in court; if not, his friends are notified and his personal business looked after in a sympathetic way. He is made to feel that justice is 110 CORRECTIONAL for the poor as well as for the rich. The public de- fender performs a useful function in caring for small civil matters as well as criminal cases. A report from Columbus, Ohio, for 1918 states that over 100 civil cases had been tried and approximately 400 adjusted outside of court. Municipal Farm. While most cities confine pris- oners awaiting trial and those convicted of minor of- fenses in city jails, a few American cities have pro- vided tracts of ground and living accommodations for their prisoners outside their limits where they can help themselves and the community by productive labor. Where the chief consideration for the delinquent is his return to freedom with hope and incentive to honest living, these municipal farms under proper manage- ment perform a great public service. The city of Cleveland has several farms, totaling 2,500 acres, upon which it has grouped many of its charitable and correctional activities and established its municipal cemetery. Each activity has its own terri- tory and its own buildings. The colony group houses its almshouse dependents, and consists of separate dor- mitories for men and women and a home for aged couples where they may live together as long as both shall live. Its motto is "To lose money is better than to lose love." The sanatorium group holds the tuber- culosis hospital and its administration building ; the cor- rection group is the municipal house of correction, and a separate farm of 500 acres is for truant and wayward boys. Wholesome living conditions are provided for CORRECTIONAL 111 all, and healthful and productive work in the open for all who are able to work. The evils of the jail system are entirely absent. There is no idleness, there is san- itation, decency, training and education, and the labor is useful and pleasant. The human side is never lost sight of. It is claimed that the land, which cost $170 per acre, has increased to more than twice this value since the city bought it. Other cities are following the example of Cleveland, and the adoption of the munic- ipal farm idea may well be made unanimous. Jails. There are cities of considerable size in the United States where the jail is seldom occupied, but we cannot yet dispense with this institution in most cities. We can, however, and must, give it more care and thought than it is now getting. We must see that our jails are places in which those suffering confinement may be safe, secure and clean, and that their treatment is decent and human. The theory of confinement is that those who have not yet learned to respect the rights of others must be confined where they cannot infringe those rights, at least until they have learned better, but the usual practice tends to make them hate the law and turns them out enemies of society, deadlier, more ef- ficient and more wary than when they entered. Most persons confined in jails are there awaiting trial. They may be innocent; in fact, the proportion of convictions is small. But in most jails they find an unclean, foul-smelling, ill-ventilated cell, no room for exercise, scant provision for personal cleanliness, and are often exposed to moral and physical infection. 112 CORRECTIONAL The usual jail is a breeding place for crime. The fee or contract system, still in existence in some cities, is an invitation to unscrupulous officials to arrest and confine the innocent, or trivial offenders, for profit. St. Louis has a model jail and an industrial farm of 359 acres, where its industrial school is housed. The jail is a handsome and stately structure, six stories high, of Bedford limestone, as well built and cleanly as a modern hospital. The inside walls are of white glazed brick, the wood-work and the steel cells are covered with white enamel, and the whole building is kept scru- pulously clean. Every convenience for cooking and serving food and maintaining sanitary conditions has been provided, as well as modern appliances for opening and closing cell doors and locking them in position. White and colored men and women prisoners are segre- gated. In most cities the jail may well be the point of first attack for constructive municipal reform. CHAPTER XI INSTITUTIONS Chamber of Commerce. No institution serves so efficiently in crystallizing public opinion in civic mat- ters as the modern, well-organized chamber of com- merce. Its program is based upon a consideration of public needs by a selective group of citizens who are voluntarily associated in the interest of civic progress. This group represents the best thought of the commu- nity, those who have ideas and ideals and are willing to give time and money to bring about their realization. If the local chamber of commerce has succeeded in getting the active co-operation of all the various groups of the community, the labor element, the churches, the women's organizations, as well as the business and pro- fessional men, there is no limit to what it may do for the benefit of its home city. The relation between the chamber of commerce and the city government must be close and friendly if good results are to be expected. The city officials are the le- gally constituted authority; the chamber is advisory. The city officials have the responsibility and must stand or fall as they exercise their authority for the good of all. If they believe that the chamber of commerce is a "high-brow" organization which does not represent "3 INSTITUTIONS nor seriously consider the common run of people, it will have little influence with them. But if they know that it fairly represents the average members of the principal groups, they will consider its recommenda- tions seriously and try to merit its confidence and sup- port. The faithful official is always glad of construc- tive advice and criticism: the chamber of commerce must be careful that its proposals are constructive and its attitude broad, intelligent and unselfish. No city can afford to be without a chamber of commerce, nor can any citizen who really desires civic progress afford to be outside its membership. Young Men's Christian Association. A re- ligious institution which unites all sects of believers in humanitarian and social efforts is a boon to any com- munity and is entitled to a liberal public support. If it is to achieve its full purpose, its management must be liberal and its membership requirements broad enough to include that considerable element of every community whose religious beliefs are undetermined, but who are essentially religious and ready to co-operate in any moral and helpful undertaking. The Y. M. C. A. or- ganization is no place for cant, bigotry or insistence upon niceties of theological distinctions; it is a place where the religious and moral impulse may be directed into channels of usefulness to the community. Its oc- casional failures have been largely caused by a local leadership which inclined to dogma rather than to service. Thousands of our young men are seeking new fields INSTITUTIONS 115 of work. They are leaving homes where they have been surrounded with the best influences, and are for the first time in their lives freed from parental guid- ance and restraint. It is a dangerous venture and they need just such an environment as the Y. M. C. A. is organized to furnish. If the local organization is planned and conducted so as to attract such young men and be of real service to them, it is worthy to be one of the institutions which may freely call upon the city for support. Its proper functions are as numerous as the needs of young men. It should have a commodious and attractive building for its home, and a management impregnated with that divine love which has learned the blessedness of human service and the universality of the religion of the Master whose name it bears. Young Woman's Christian Association. The demand for an institution which will do for women what the Y. M. C. A. does for men has become pressing in every city. There are probably twice as many young women in gainful occupations as there were five years ago, and in order to be economically independent and self-supporting, thousands of wohien must leave their homes and follow their work. In such circumstances they need, and are entitled to, even greater considera- tion than men. The path of a girl is beset by more serious dangers and she is less able to defend herself. The community has a greater responsibility for its women and girls, which must be met with vigor and completeness by every city which hopes to be con- sidered modern. 116 INSTITUTIONS The city which allows its Y. W. C. A. to exist in rented quarters is not fulfilling its civic obligations ; this specialized service requires a building particularly de- signed for its functions, of enduring construction, good architecture and attractive in interior as well as exterior aspect. Grounds should be ample for tennis courts and other outdoor activities, and its management and surroundings should invite, as well as permit, healthful exercise and wholesome recreation in the open. Hotels. Among the most desirable additions to our population are those who will get first impressions of our city through our hotels ; hence the city which has no good hotel is seriously handicapped. The stranger in our midst is always a potential citizen, and if his wel- come is hospitable and his surroundings are pleasant and comfortable on his first visit, he naturally thinks better of the city as a place of residence. In addition to furnishing acceptable housing for the visitor, the hotel has an important function in the civic and social life of the community and, under wise and competent management, is made to serve as a center for social activity and a meeting place for all sorts of com- mittees and organizations interested in public progress. Busy men and women transact the greater part of our community business at the hours of luncheon and din- ner, and the hotel which is prepared to serve such needs by having suitable rooms for meetings and con- sultations, where food may be furnished, makes busi- ness for itself and is of real benefit to its city. There is a large and growing class of tourists, who, INSTITUTIONS 117 induced by the pleasures of automobile travel or a new appreciation of the scenic and climatic advantages of our own country, are demanding better hotel accommo- dations everywhere, and their patronage is so profitable that new and better hotels are being built in our smaller cities on routes of tourist travel. Such routes are not fixed, and good hotels attract the traveler to new routes. Realizing these conditions, the building of new hotels has become a civic function. Chambers of com- merce and other public organizations are raising funds to promote good hotels in many American cities. Ash- tabula, Ohio, has recently completed a fine hotel which was financed through the effort of its local chamber. Red Cross. The whole world owes a debt of gratitude to Clara Barton and the noble men and women associated with her in the organization and development of the American Red Cross; and the city, large or small, which does not contain a local chapter, will be hard to find in this country. Its need is so well under- stood, its accomplishments are so well known, and it stands so high in the esteem of everyone that a prompt and generous response follows its every call for support. Floods, fires, earthquakes, epidemics, and other great catastrophes do not announce their coming. They sometimes overwhelm whole sections and their ruin and havoc paralyze local relief agencies. Immediate relief and succor are necessary to save from hunger, ex- posure, destitution and death the survivors of great disasters. The American people respond with liberal sympathy, and work through this great Red Cross or- 118 INSTITUTIONS ganization, which is manned and equipped to send aid even before its call for assistance is sent out to the pub- lic. Thousands of American lives have been saved by its prompt readiness. It is another of our great institutions for whose never-failing efficiency we are indebted largely to the noble women of America. In quiet times the Red Cross performs services which, though not so spectacular, are essential to our welfare. No modern city can afford to allow its local branch to grow weak through lack of public interest and liberal public support. Humane Society. The city government may well furnish ground space, buildings and equipment to the local humane society, and contribute to its sup- port through taxation or by means of allotment of dog license fees, pound charges, police court fines for cruelty to animals, etc. The city must either keep alive its voluntary society or take over the work as a proper gov- ernmental function. The former course is preferable, for it usually insures better administration, by keeping the responsibility in the hands of a continuing organiza- tion of men and women interested in its objects and un- affected by political changes. The service is essential to the public welfare. It usually covers the operation of the city pound for stray livestock, the collection and disposal of unlicensed dogs, the care of public horse and dog fountains, close co- operation with the police in preventing, discovering and punishing cases of cruelty to animals, and general at- tention to the needs of our four-footed friends. A less INSTITUTIONS 119 frequent but most desirable adjunct is a hospital where medical, surgical and dental aid can be administered to animals. One might suppose from a casual visit to our principal cities that the horse was rapidly growing extinct, and that humane societies would soon lose their usefulness; but the city of New York housed 47,000 horses in 7,500 stables in its five boroughs in 1919. They are decreasing in that city at the rate of about fifteen per cent, a year. Associated Charities. To avoid waste, duplica- tion of effort and imposition by the undeserving, the city's charities should be combined in a central clearing house. So much that we used to call "charity" is now included in what we call "social service" that we may well name our co-ordinated organization a "Social Service Bureau" or "Council of Social Agencies," not only as being more descriptive, but as avoiding the word "charity," which is sometimes a hindrance to the work. Such a name as "The Society for the Protection of the Poor" is a misnomer as well as a handicap. When we protect or help anyone we do as great a ser- vice to ourselves, and there is no good reason for in- sulting any proper recipient of needed assistance. The word "charity" is now defined as "the disposition to think well of others; universal love and good will." "Alms" is only a secondary definition. Every city should combine the efforts of its police force with those of its voluntary organizations in the suppression of professional begging, either by mendi- cants or societies. It must care for its unfortunates 120 INSTITUTIONS but there is no excuse for allowing them to beg on the streets, or for permitting unauthorized persons, usually unworthy, to solicit alms in public or in private. Au- thority to solicit should be granted only after careful investigation by some established agency or authority, and the people must be educated to demand such au- thorization before contributing. Much damage results from indiscriminate giving. Elmira, N. Y., has a federation of social agencies which may serve as a model for our smaller cities. It owns a fine building, in which are closely co-ordinated most of the social service and welfare work of the city. The combination has been brought about by the de- voted women of the city under the fine leadership of one of their own number. Woman's Hotel. Most large cities have hotels which cater exclusively to women, but the rates are usually high and they depend largely upon the transient trade. A considerable number of cities have Young Women's Christian Associations but they are usually in rented quarters, inadequately financed and able to accommodate but a small portion of the applicants for rooms. The private boarding house generally offers little that is attractive or satisfying. Not only does the working woman need a home which will furnish the bare necessities of existence, shelter and food, but she must have opportunity for culture, relaxation and pleas- ant companionship, or she and the community suffer. To meet this need the Woman's Hotel has arrived in some of our cities. Usually it has been planned, in- INSTITUTIONS 121 augurated, financed and operated by women who appre- ciate the need of their working sisters, the pitfalls which open to them, and who know the advantages of health- ful surroundings and a cheering atmosphere in molding useful and happy lives. Such a hotel should be self- supporting or very nearly so; it deals with a class of people who do not want alms. Its rates need not be high. Cleanliness, good food, and a clean social en- vironment are essentials to its success. CHAPTER XII RECREATION Parks. The artificiality of city life has always been recognized. Normal human life calls for close contact with Mother Earth. Up to the middle of the last century, cities were considered as places of physical and moral decay, which would have been obliterated were it not for the continuous influx of new blood from the country. When the day's work was limited only by the extent of daylight, and the man's time was taken up with working and sleeping, unless his work was in the open decay was inevitable. Now that the day's work is limited, leaving time in each day for rec- reation, we have begun to know the value of the whole- some disposition of this extra time, and of opportunity to spend it in closer touch with Nature. Central Park in New York and a few others in New England cities were planned in 1855, but the general recognition by the cities of America of the need and utility of city parks did not come until near the end of the nineteenth century. In fact, the greatest develop- ment in city parks has been made in the past twenty years. In this short period many thousands of acres of land have been acquired and many millions of dollars expended in purchase, development and beautification. 122 RECREATION 123 A lively sense of the desirability of city parks and their good influence upon city life has grown up, and money can now be obtained by popular vote for park purposes easier than for almost any other civic improvement. A city which does not now own an acre of park land for each one hundred inhabitants, or which does not have a park or other open space within easy walking distance of all its homes, is falling behind the proces- sion. High talent has been developed in landscape architecture applied to park and public square improve- ment, and lands so developed are now common in all our cities. There is a new demand for large park areas near the larger cities which may be left in a state of nature. "Keep off the grass" signs are now taboo. Boulevards. As driveways are essential in park development, so boulevards are necessary for ap- proaches to the city's parks and the connections between them. A beautiful park should not be allowed a mean and ugly approach. A boulevard is a parked street and must be designed to afford a pleasant passage for pedestrians as well as those who ride. If street car tracks are necessary their location should be sub- ordinate to the use of the street by carriages, automo- biles and pedestrians. They should not be permitted unless they are needed to bring to the parks those who have no automobiles those for whose particular use and benefit the parks were provided. Car tracks in boulevards are often planted and sodded to make them less objectionable. A bridle path for equestrians is a 124 RECREATION fine adjunct to a boulevard in these days of slippery asphalt pavements, and these dirt paths should always be provided in parks of considerable size. Chicago has a fine system of boulevards whose beauty depends almost entirely upon landscape garden- ing, as the city is located upon a vast level plain. Du- luth, Spokane, Seattle and Portland 'are hilly cities, and in laying out their park and boulevard systems ad- vantage has been taken of natural configuration to make nature an ally of art in the production of beautiful scenic drives and attractive vistas. In many cities boulevards have been built along rivers and water fronts to the great improvement of the locality and the city. The city that allows its water frontage to fall into private ownership neglects an asset of great value and importance. Playgrounds. In 1890 there was but one public playground in the United States, located in Brookline, Mass. Chicago opened its first playground in 1893, followed by New York in 1899. Organized and super- vised play is really a creation of the twentieth century, and is a result of the new realization of the utility and the necessity of play as part of sane and healthful life, for adults as well as children. Too long had we al- lowed the unregulated dance hall, the theater and the saloon to supply the human need for joy ; too long had we accepted excitement, frivolity and intoxication as its unwholesome substitutes ; too long had we created hood- lums and delinquents by failure to provide direction for the exuberant spirits of youth. The rapid growth of RECREATION 125 the playground movement is a credit to our generation in the speed by which action followed realization. Lin- coln's belief in the common people, of whom God made so many, is justified; they want to do right when they learn what is right. Now we have supervised play in nearly every city, tennis courts in almost every park, ball grounds, polo grounds, athletic fields and golf links furnished by public funds and directed by public authorities. Every- body now believes in play and wonders why it has been neglected so long. The story of Jacob Riis and his long and finally successful struggle for a playground in the slums of old New York is fascinating reading. He showed a congestion of population in Sanitary District A of the Eleventh Ward considerably greater than ex- isted in any other city in the world : "986.4 persons per acre for an area of thirty-two acres." New York now has over one hundred playgrounds, one of which, Seward Park, cost between $2,000,000 and $3,000,000. Adequate investment in playground equipment will reduce future investments in jail or hospital equipment. Gymnasiums. It has been the practice in most cities to leave to private initiative or to voluntary organ- izations the promotion of physical culture for the peo- ple. In fact, most of the new activities of govern- ment have had their inception through private organiza- tions ; which is to say that the official group has not been noted for progressive ideas, and takes the forward step only in the rear of the majority of its constituents. The examinations under the selective draft revealed 126 RECREATION a startling deficiency in the physical condition of our young men, and we are now beginning to realize that disabilities which unfit our boys for military service limit their capacity for civil pursuits and deny them a measure of their birthright happy and useful lives. If this condition is to be remedied we must not leave means and incentive for physical improvement to weak and desultory agencies. Careful physical examinations must be frequent throughout childhood and adoles- cence ; remedial measures must be prompt and thorough, and some sort of physical culture must be obligatory and universal. National legislation will be ultimately necessary, but the city can begin by establishing public gymnasia and inaugurating thorough physical care of pupils in the schools. Boston was the pioneer in this movement, the East Boston indoor gymnasium being the first public institution of this kind in America. Boston has since built others and has furnished the model for several other cities. Facilities are invari- ably overtaxed by heavy attendance as soon as these institutions are opened to public use. Physical exam- inations are made, individual records of progress kept, and exercises are adapted to personal requirements. Physical culture is no longer confined to the contestants in athletic contests, -who usually need it least. Athletic Fields. An athletic field or stadium should be a part of every comprehensive park and playground scheme. Interest in games and tourna- ments fills the hours of leisure of many of our people, and it is in the public interest that these sports should RECREATION 127 be encouraged and kept clean. In too many cities athletic grounds are owned and operated for profit by private agencies, and are not subject to proper public supervision ; their rental charges are beyond the means of many who might advantageously use them, and clean sport is held subordinate to profitable sport. A public athletic field should be a clearing house for all the city's recreational activities. It must be con- veniently located to the center of population or readily accessible through adequate transportation facilities. It may be a means of park revenue by rental for games and athletic events, but should be given free to the city's established athletic activities and to field days of schools, Boy Scouts, etc., where no admission is charged and general attendance is invited. Tacoma has a fine stadium on a natural site adjoining one of its high schools, and with a beautiful outlook across the Sound. It is made useful for many civic gatherings as well as for athletic events. Camp Grounds. Entertainment for the stranger within our gates is now incomplete unless there is a place for him to camp and park his automobile. Civic hospitality pays. 60,000 automobiles toured one of the transcontinental trails in 1921, and the num- ber is rapidly increasing. Many such tourists seek the shelter of hotels, but thousands prefer to camp, usually planning to reach some town or city for the night where supplies may be purchased or repairs obtained. Only those who have made such pilgrimages realise how much money is left with garages, hotels and merchants 128 RECREATION along the route, and hence how valuable the tourist traf- fic is to the city. A pleasant camp ground in one of the suburban parks or along the river, supplied with con- veniences for cooking, laundering, and cleaning cars, with comfort station, and perhaps an opportunity to fish or hunt, may induce the traveller to make a longer stay. It always gives him a favorable impression of a city and leaves with him a pleasant memory. No town, located on a trunk road, is too small to be benefited by an automobile camp, and no city is large enough to afford to neglect this means of tourist accommodation. Camp grounds in the suburbs, for use by walking clubs, Boy Scouts, Camp-fire Girls, and like organiza- tions for an over-night or week-end hike are indis- pensable for the modern city. Shelter houses with fire- places and a fuel supply make these camps available for use in winter as well as summer, and give a taste of out- door life to many who do not often get other opportuni- ties for it. Undeveloped park lands outside the city may usually be put to no more useful purpose. Los Angeles maintains a tent colony in the mountains, 75 miles from the city. Here men and boys are accommo- dated, for a small fee covering the cost, during the month of July, and women and girls during August. Public Baths. A large proportion of the inhab- itants of American cities are still unprovided with proper bathing facilities. The Tenement House Com- mittee of 1894 in New York reported that out of 255,000 inhabitants of the tenements which it inspected, only 306 had access to bath-tubs in the houses in which RECREATION 129 they lived, and the statistics of eighteen of the larger cities of this country in which no public baths existed in 1887 show that about five-sixths of their inhabitants still must use the family wash-tub or bucket. That people want to bathe when they have a reasonable chance has been abundantly proved by the way in which they flock to the temporary and inadequate bath- ing facilities which have been established in some cities. Public baths, operated on an all-the-year basis, with swimming tanks and showers, are now established in many cities and have become indispensable to civic health. Milwaukee, a city always favorable to water for bathing, built the first of these, in 1889, and a sec- ond in 1894. Brookline, Mass., followed in 1895. The legislature of New York has since passed a law making it obligatory in cities of the first and second class and permissive in smaller cities and towns, to "establish and maintain such number of public baths as the local board of health may determine to be neces- sary," requiring public baths to be open not less than fourteen hours each day and that hot and cold water be provided. As a result of this wholesome law the cities of New York state are now pretty generally pro- vided with public baths, and the movement has become nation-wide with great rapidity. Frequent renewal and disinfection of water are essential to healthful pub- lic baths. Municipal Game Fields. Baseball, football, golf, tennis and polo games have become part of American life and furnish the inducement for millions to open-air 130 RECREATION activities. Their first requirement is ground space, which is not always easy to get in our populous cities. Ball playing on the streets seems impossible to prevent and it has been the cause of many fatal accidents. So great is the demand for game fields that many cities have closed streets to traffic at certain hours in order to encourage play and prevent accident. Some have tried to prohibit play on the streets without providing game fields, but the effort is futile as well as unworthy. Va- cant lots abound in most of our cities, but with the bill- boards and accumulations of rubbish which so often befoul them they are a poor substitute for the real thing. Golf, tennis and polo have until recent years been possible only to those who could afford private grounds or membership in expensive clubs. Golf and polo were "rich men's games" but with the advent of public game fields they have lost their exclusiveness. A visit to any one of the hundreds of municipal golf links on a pleasant Saturday or Sunday will give ocular evidence of the democratization of this fine, healthful sport, and the need and utility of municipal provision for its indulgence. The golf course in Jackson Park, Chi- cago, is open at 4 130 A. M. in the summer, and at most public links people are often obliged to wait hours for a chance to play, particularly in the larger cities. When our people show this enthusiasm for healthful recrea- tion the ideal city will not be content until it has fur- nished adequate means for its expression. CHAPTER XIII MUSIC AND ART Band Concerts. Man does not live by bread alone. His first necessity may be physical well-being, but man is essentially spiritual, and recognition and nourishment of his spiritual nature is the only sure path of social advance. To this end music is a chief contributor. Heine says of music, "Like a twilight mediator, it hovers between spirit and matter, related to both yet differing from each. It is spirit, but spirit subject to the measurement of time; it is matter, but matter that can dispense with space." Community music is not mere recreation or a form of entertain- ment; it is something far deeper and more vital in human life. Good music in America was for many years the special privilege of the favored few who could afford expensive entertainment ; it is now regarded as an essen- tial to normal life and proper development, and hence its supply is fast becoming an acknowledged function of government. Band concerts afforded the first music which received general approval and the support of public funds, but, as usual, public recognition and sup- port came only after a few enthusiasts had demon- strated the demand for, and the value of, good music 131 132 MUSIC AND ART as a public undertaking. A large number of cities now support municipal bands, and many others employ bands for open-air concerts in the summer. The park con- cert has become an institution; the people demand it and are willing to be taxed for it. Every school has more or less instruction in music, and in many high schools good bands are organized and credits given for progress and proficiency in instrumental music. Boston supports a municipal band which gives a series of noon concerts for the workers during the sum- mer, and evening concerts every day except Monday in the fine Parkman Memorial Bandstand on Boston Com- mon. The Denver municipal band gives seven concerts a week during the summer ; and in hundreds of Ameri- can cities the people flock to parks and public squares to listen to good music furnished free by the municipality. Municipal Orchestras. After the band the next in municipal musical progress is the symphony orches- tra. Private orchestras supported by voluntary organ- izations and subscriptions have been common in many cities for many years, but their support from public funds is comparatively new. The prices necessarily charged for concert tickets by private promoters were too high to allow really popular patronage, and the civic benefit of good music for the people was largely lost. The movement for municipal music aims at furnishing it either free, or at so low a price that no one need deny himself. Ten cents is a common charge and if this small fee does not pay expenses the residue is borne by the city. MUSIC AND ART 133 The first municipally supported symphony orchestra in an American city was in Baltimore in 1916. It is composed of sixty musicians led by a competent con- ductor and gives monthly concerts usually assisted by soloists of national reputation. Boston, which has a privately supported symphony orchestra of great ability and reputation, also supports a municipal orchestra at whose concerts lectures are given explaining the compo- sitions to be played, biographical sketches of the com- posers and the uses of the various instruments. But the municipal support of orchestral music has by no means been confined to the large cities. Towns of 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants have achieved national reputation as musical centers. Lindsborg, Kansas, a city of about 3,000, the home of Bethany College, enjoys the unique distinction of being "the most musical town of its size in America." Its annual music festival includes a chorus of over 500 voices and a symphony orchestra of sixty-five pieces. The Messiah is rendered each year during Easter week, and thousands of persons travel to Lindsborg to hear it. Community Singing. The cultivation of the musical taste and the enjoyment of good music through the sense of hearing are not the most important of our musical ambitions. Humanity craves self-expression, and progress requires co-operation. People who sing together are better prepared to work together. If it be true, as Emerson says, that "facility of association is the measure of civilization," then we get more than har- mony of blended voices from community singing. 134 MUSIC AND ART And the production of harmony, while desirable, is not the only benefit. As in some other activities the effort is worth more than the accomplishment in the develop- ment of character. Community singing is by far the most popular of all the forms of community music, the easiest to inaugu- rate and the happiest in execution and results. Its full- est expression came to America during the Great War, when it was found that it lubricated patriotism and loosened purse-strings. Men and women sang who had not raised their voices since childhood, and as they sang they became better neighbors, better friends and better citizens. Musical leadership was developed, and community singing, long confined to religious meetings, came to be an indispensable part of the programs of chambers of commerce, rotary clubs and gatherings of all sorts. Audiences in moving picture theaters were invited to sing together, from words and music thrown upon the screen, and daily "sings" were held in workshops and stores. Community singing has become a part of the social and the business life of the country, and the movement must not be allowed to languish for want of persistent aid and encouragement. The cost of leadership and printed songs is trivial and the outlet of human emo- tions in song is desirable in every way. Organ Recitals. In all of our cities are thou- sands of persons who never hear good music; the best they hear is often of the cheap type which they g'et at jazz dances, at the moving picture theaters or on MUSIC AND ART 135 the street. Many children have no notion of good music. Commissioner Claxton of the U. S. Bureau of Education has suggested that every church should open its doors at least once a week at an hour con- venient to school children and factory workers, and have the organist render music for these people in his best style. He suggests that the people be allowed to come and go freely and says that if ushers were supplied there would be no commotion and no damage to the church. These informal organ recitals should cost but little and the return in good citizenship would be great. For several years, during the Lenten season, a church on Fifth Avenue in New York has given a free concert every Friday at the noon hour and is usually packed with listeners. The programs are invariably high in quality as well as attractive, and the artists of New York donate their services to this fine purpose. Most municipal auditoriums contain fine organs, and Sunday afternoon organ recitals are given in many cities, either free or with an admission charge of ten or fifteen cents to cover necessary expenses. No other musical instrument so successfully combines adaptabil- ity, dramatic power and grandeur as does the pipe organ. The municipal organ of Portland, Maine, is in the city hall, and Sunday afternoon organ recitals have become an institution in that fine city. Daily concerts are given during the summer. The first series of municipal organ recitals in America is said to have been inaugurated by the city of Alleghany, now a part 136 MUSIC AND ART of Pittsburgh, in 1890. Professor Zueblin says "Pitts- burgh sounds better than it looks." Painting and Sculpture. The so-called "fine arts" have an important function in spiritual, and there- fore civic, development. The appreciation of beauty lightens care, cultivates the observation, and lifts the spirit above the contemplation of sordid things. Many of us city dwellers are denied the privilege of frequent communion with the beauties of Nature and we may well seek their reproduction in the work of the artist. The true artist not only reproduces and portrays but also interprets. His landscape subtly leads the eye to its predominant feature and accentuates the beauty of the scene as he sees it; his portrait expresses character and vision as well as likeness ; his statue possesses more than fidelity and beauty of form in its portrayal of action, impulse and emotion. Our perceptions are en- larged and our taste cultivated by an exalted vision of the things of beauty seen, not necessarily as they are, but as they appear to the artist's eye and as they impress his spirit. The "practical" things of life have their utility, but the man whose whole existence is devoted to them walks blindfolded through a universe of surpassing loveliness, and misses the best part of normal life. Every child in the kindergarten has his gaze pointed outward and up- ward to the beauties of Nature. Every adult may have his vision enlarged and his life ennobled by aesthetic development. Every city should provide the means, by giving opportunity to contemplate and study art and MUSIC AND ART 137 beauty, of enlarging the capacity of its citizens for happy and productive life, and aiding spiritual develop- ment. A broad appreciation of the fine arts is one of the highest forms of human enjoyment, and their ex- pression is the most lasting record of civilization. The art which has come down to us from the past forms our best index of ancient civilizations. "Where there is no vision the people perish." Architecture. A building is often only a shelter from the elements, and this is true of many of the city's structures in most American municipalities. The city hall may be monumental, but the pumping plant of the city's water-works is likely to be a series of ugly sheds, and the jail a blot on the landscape. It is so easy and so inexpensive to give a touch of beauty and dignity to a building, that there is no excuse for neglecting the artistic qualities in any city structure, not even the garbage crematory. When we appreciate the influence of symmetry and beauty in architecture upon the spirit of the beholder, the uplift of fine design and the dignity of good lines, we shall be no more willing to neglect good architecture in our civic structures than in our homes. America is far behind Europe in the character of public structures. The European cities understand the commercial value as well as the spiritual influence of civic art and beauty. They know that fine buildings inspire citizens and attract tourists. Art is applied to all public structures, and a closer supervision of private buildings to make them conform to location, environ- 138 MUSIC AND ART ment, and a high ideal of architectural fitness. In this country the design of a public building is frequently left to an architect whose chief asset is a political pull, and his work is directed by a council committee whose mem- bers do not know the difference between a Gothic column and a flag-staff. We get really better than we are entitled to get. Advisory art commissions are coming into tieing in America and we may hope for better civic structures as the ideal grows. Washington, New York, Philadelphia and Boston have such commissions, and in recent years the city-planning movement has carried forward the idea of good architecture for public buildings with con- siderable new impetus. The Drama. Public support of the drama is not common in American cities, yet there are probably a score or more of municipal theaters, mostly in the smaller cities. Most of them are used for traveling companies, with moving pictures for interim dates, but occasionally there is one which has its own stock com- pany, which takes a vacation or plays in some near-by city when the theater is rented to a traveling: company. Many cities now own portable moving picture booths and outfits, which they use for both education and en- tertainment. Women's clubs in nearly every city study the drama and often promote dramatic recitals, lectures and performances by local talent. Dover, N. H., has a fully-equipped theater in its city hall. Hennessy, Oklahoma, has a municipal the- ater where the attractions are booked by a member of MUSIC AND ART 139 the city council. Red Wing, Minn., received a bequest of $80,000 with which to build a theater, with the stip- ulation that it was not to be used for public or private gain. It is used by outside attractions which are booked by a citizens' committee. The credit for the first municipal dramatic company is given to North- ampton, Mass. It was supported in part by endowment and in part by voluntary subscription. The control of American drama by New York syndicates, under which many of the smaller communities have suffered and dramatic art has decayed, will induce a larger interest in the drama by the modern city, which will elevate its tone and enlarge its influence. The incentive for profit must be tempered with consideration of the artistic and aesthetic influence of dramatic art, and if theatrical syn- dicates will not give this consideration the public will insist upon other guidance and control. The best in the drama, both substance and presentation, is none too good for American audiences. Landscape Gardening. Those American cities which are located on level or commonplace sites must depend for most of their beauty upon architecture and landscape gardening, and in every city there is good opportunity for the landscape architect, as he is now called. The most ugly and forbidding vistas have been made into scenes of beauty by his art. San Francisco has built one of the finest parks in America on the sand dunes of the Pacific ocean. Chicago, with little topo- graphical background, has made one of the finest boule- vard systems in the world upon her level plain, and her 140 MUSIC AND ART lake-front park is fast growing into a thing of beauty. Cities for which Nature has supplied a beautiful set- ting are made more beautiful by the application of the gardener's art, in nice conformity to natural features. Spokane has a handsome park made from the clay pit of a former brickyard, and has enhanced the civic at- traction of a fine natural environment by the planting developments about its city garbage crematory, water works, pumping plant, fire stations, reservoirs, stand pipes, etc. River banks and water fronts, once rescued from private ownership, take on new beauties and are changed from civic liabilities to assets by the gardener's art. The landscape architect has made millions of blades of grass and hundreds of thousands of trees grow where none grew before, and in locations where multitudes of Americans have been influenced for good by their beauty and fitness. CHAPTER XIV ENVIRONS Agriculture. A city cannot live unto itself. Whatever its cause and justification for existence, its relationships with its neighbors and with the surround- ing rural territory are vital, and no program for its well-being is complete without a consideration of its en- virons. Indeed, if it be an industrial city, its interests may be indissolubly interwoven with those of the state, the nation, and even with other countries of the world. Its first consideration must be for the food supply of its inhabitants. It may draw food staples from long dis- tances, but it is vitally concerned with agricultural production in its own neighborhood and must consider the condition of its nearby farms and farmers, and of these latter as producers, consumers and fellow-citizens. Most American cities are contained in a county of considerable area, to the tax revenues of which they contribute the major part, and whose government over- laps that of the city in many places. Hence the city dweller must interest himself in seeing that the interests and welfare of the neighboring farmers are not sub- merged by the selfishness of the city. The farmer can be aided in many ways. We must not only foster and encourage his industry and promote increased produc- 141 142 ENVIRONS tion ; we must also understand his needs and aspirations, aid him in mental and spiritual development, and in his endeavors for a larger life for himself and his family. Farms have been lonesome places for the women of the farmer's household, and farm life has afforded little attraction and encouragement to the younger members of the farmer's family to remain in its whole- some employment. But with the advent of the auto- mobile, good roads, the rural free postal service and the telephone, conditions have been much improved. We cannot expect Americans to remain in an occupation which does not offer opportunity for social, religious and recreational activity as well as economic indepen- dence. The modern city can and must take a real inter- est in the lives and fortunes of its rural neighbors. Forestry. Trees do more than beautify the land- scape, although this function alone would justify their existence and our care of them in our environs as well as in the city itself. Two or three generations ago the problem of the forest was how to get rid of it and make way for the plow; now it is how to retain what is left of our forests, how to defend the remnant, and how to promote new forests. We appreciate now the effect of our forests upon climate, agriculture and water supply, and are expending millions for reforestration where it would be unnecessary except for our reckless- ness in past years. Probably no other natural resource has been attacked with such a complete disregard for the welfare of future generations. ENVIRONS 143 The lumber industry is not so much to blame for this condition as ourselves; we demand material for build- ing, for railroad ties, for telegraph poles, and a thou- sand other uses, without a thought of its source or the penalties to us all through its rapid and careless har- vesting. Our cities have been built of lumber when other material would have been more substantial, more enduring, less inflammable and cheaper in the long run ; we have allowed the lumber interests to destroy and obliterate the younger growth in forests in their hurry to market the mature trees, and this devastation has been thorough even upon land which can have no value for agricultural purposes except that, when covered with trees, it w r ould conserve the summer supply of water by retaining the winter snows, as well as grow a new crop of lumber. The modern city will interest itself in state and national legislation in the interest of forest conservation, for reform must come in this mat- ter through the larger governmental units, and it will not come unless we all take an interest. Farm Bureaus. No movement of recent years has done so much to bring about fruitful co-operation between city and country as the establishment of farm bureaus, with their accompanying activities of county agricultural agents and home demonstration work. The city usually acts through its chamber of com- merce, and while the work is primarily for the benefit of the farmers, the business men of town and city reap a decided advantage from it, in a better relationship and understanding with their rural neighbors. The in June- 144. ENVIRONS tion to "love thy neighbor as thyself" is not curtailed by city limits, and its practice produces economic, social and political, as well as ethical and spiritual benefits. Farm bureaus are promoted by the national and state governments, which join with local agencies in financing and conducting them. Through paid agents they bring to the farmer in his fields and his home the most approved methods of agriculture and domestic science, teaching the prevention of blights, the destruc- tion of pests, proper selection and treatment of seed, care of livestock and poultry, conducting demonstra- tions in crop-growing, organizing the boys and girls in clubs for pig and poultry raising and, in general, im- proving farm conditions and inspiring farmers to better methods. A high ideal of service is contained in the conception of the U. S. Department of Agriculture of the province of the farm bureau : "To develop and in- spire local leadership and inculcate high community ideals, to stimulate co-operation, and help the rural people to make farming an attractive business and country life satisfying to man, woman and child." Suburban Homes. In the larger cities of this country there are thousands of citizens, active in busi- ness and professional life, who seek homes outside the city for the sake of better living conditions, less noise and more freedom. Thousands of toilers as well are induced to go into the suburbs for cheaper homes and land for gardens. Both of these classes contribute to our total of citizenship and their interests are important to us as city-dwellers. Our cities grow in area by ENVIRONS 145 extending the city limits out into surrounding territory from time to time, and for this reason the plotting of land and laying out of roads in contiguous territory are always important. The direction of the city's growth may be greatly influenced by the private and mercenary interest of real-estate speculators, who are more concerned in the profitable sale of lots in the suburbs than in the future welfare of the people who will inhabit them. Every city should have a measure of control over land-plotting for at least five miles outside its city boundaries, and should have authority to insist upon the dedication of proper connecting streets, thorough- fares and boulevards in conformity with those within its limits. School sites and lands for future parks, playgrounds and public squares may be properly and reasonably acquired, and convenient arrangements made for the extension of the city's utilities when the need for them arises. In the control of contiguous land which is likely to become a part of the city, three fac- tors are necessary : authority from the state legislature, a city-planning commission with intelligence and vision, and a city council wise enough to act sympathetically on the planning board's recommendations. Suburban Parks. No opportunity should be lost to acquire ample areas of suburban land for present or future use as parks, particularly forest land and water frontage. Some European cities buy land for residen- tial, business and industrial purposes, and are thus enabled not only to determine its use and control its 146 ENVIRONS development, but they also benefit from its increase in value, instead of allowing private owners to absorb the unearned increment created by civic growth. Our American legislatures are loath to allow such rights to our cities, but do ordinarily give us the right to buy land for suburban parks. If the city, desiring a park of forty acres in some thriving suburb, could buy eighty acres, and lay out half of it in residence lots around the proposed park previous to its improvement, our parks would cost us less than nothing. The right of excess condemnation comes slowly to American cities, but it will come eventually. Europe and our neighbor Canada have shown us the way. Astute realty owners are awake to the profit brought by dedicating part of their suburban tracts to the public as park lands. There is usually considerable land in suburban tracts which is not adapted for sale as resi- dence sites or industrial purposes on account of its condition or topography, but which will make fine parks. Swamps, gullies, rocky ground and steep hill- sides all have possibilities of beautification and scenic development, and such land may be cheaply acquired or donated to the public if proper and timely steps are taken. How long do you expect your city will be on the map? Isn't it worth while to get that piece of park land now, "while the getting is good," even though it may not be developed or used in the immediate future ? Is there not some wealthy citizen who can be induced to buy it and dedicate it to public use by the people of the next generation? Call it by his name if necessary ENVIRONS 147 it is a better memorial than a marble mausoleum. Roads and Transportation. Good roads and transportation to the surrounding country are proper subjects for the city's earnest attention, for upon them depends the extent of its trade territory. Not less im- portant to the city is the influence of easy transportation upon the living conditions of its rural neighbors. The very thought of forced confinement to the farm by rea- son of bad roads is depressing and discouraging to those whose social and recreational opportunities are never overabundant, or whose necessities require a trip to the city. Such conditions may easily determine to a considerable extent the character of the suburban and rural population. The city, through its government and its commercial organizations, can do much to influence transportation conditions in its environs. Its influence with county authorities and with the state legislature is more potent than that of a scattered rural population, and when its citizens come to realize how great is their dependence upon the surrounding country how intimately their economic life is interwoven with that of their rural neighbors self-preservation will dictate an active in- terest in their problems. Good roads invite to travel. They save time and reduce the expense of transporting the farm products to market, and supplies to the farm. Repair parts for farm machinery can be had without such expensive and vexatious delays, and musical and theatrical privileges are made possible. The city may often induce railroads and trolley lines 148 ENVIRONS to adopt more accommodating schedules, or it may aid in the establishment of truck lines for freight, and bus lines for passengers, where railway facilities are inade- quate. One of its first duties is to see that the city's streets which connect with arterial country highways are well paved, lighted, and kept in good condition, and that garages and stables furnish good service at rea- sonable cost. CHAPTER XV RELIGION Churches. In considering the church as a civic asset it is with the thought of the value to the com- munity of religion as a vital factor in human life, rather than the importance of the church, or any particular church as an institution. The church as a civic insti- tution has a dual function ; to help citizens to find their true relationship to the universe, and to furnish the practical means whereby religion may influence the life of the community by the expression of the religious purpose in the affairs of the city. That many churches are decaying is evidenced by the lack of attendance at their services and the weakness of their hold upon their members. That this does not evidence the decadence of religious thought and aspiration in the people is proved by the throngs which today fill theaters, public halls, and churches where the gospel of love and healing is preached, where hope and joy predominate, and where the works and sayings of the Master furnish the basis for a new concept of the more abundant life to which we all aspire. Any human institution which becomes fixed begins at once to decay. Truth is eternal, but our concept of truth progresses and our institutions must advance with 149 150 RELIGION that newer light. The church is no exception to this rule. If it would help men to better lives it must lead, not follow. If it would retain its hold upon the people, it must develop spirituality, not alone in church rela- tionships, but also in the social, industrial and political life of its community. Present day holiness is not the holiness of the convent cell, but is the holiness which produces the "life more abundant" in all the activities of the modern city. Sunday Schools. The Bible is properly regarded as the greatest book of all ages. Its historical and liter- ary pre-eminence is freely acknowledged even by those who may doubt its sacred authority in every word and teaching. Most masters of good language have had their chief inspiration from its pages. To know good English it is necessary to know this great book, and when we add to its appreciation as literature a knowl- edge of its value as a storehouse of scientific truth directly applicable to our lives, when we make it the anchor of our faith and the guide to our actions, its influence is profound and universal. Most of us look back to the time when enforced at- tendance at Sunday School was irksome, but no intelli- gent man, whatever his present religious belief or affilia- tion, regrets that he was made to study the Bible in his youth. Bribed by the approach of the annual picnic or Christmas tree, encouraged by the rewards for regular attendance or successful attempts to memorize the verses which had so little meaning to him then, he got material and training of the greatest worth and bearing RELIGION 151 upon after-life, and memories which are cherished as long as thought remains. And he may have absorbed an interest before which all others fade into insignifi- cance. Better comprehension of Bible truths, scientific development of Bible meaning and the new interpreta- tions of applied Christianity, all simplified for the youthful understanding, make the intelligent Bible teaching of today far more attractive to the young than was that of the last generation. Forward-looking citizens of every shade of religious belief will encourage and assist the Sunday Schools in their home cities in inculcating knowledge of the great- est book in any language. Religious Societies. Every church is, or should be, the center for various organizations which are formed for building up its membership or for carrying on the many phases of social and charitable work which it supports. Efficient co-operation in these activities requires acquaintance, mutual interest and understand- ing as well as devotion to a cause, and these societies and clubs are the valuable training ground for other so- cial activities which take in a wider circle of effort and eventually expand into the interests of the neighbor- hood, the city, the state, the nation and the world. These religious societies have then a wider function than may at first appear. They supply outlets for energy, fervor in good works and the craving for op- portunity for unselfish service which the Christian re- ligion inculcates. They cultivate the "get-together" spirit, and they usually produce results of importance 152 RELIGION outside the particular church to which they are attached. Many a movement for civic progress has originated in the men's club of some church; many a comprehensive social service got its start in the women's missionary sewing circle; many a boy and girl received their first lesson in co-operation for the common good in the church young people's society. Any influence or asso- ciation which produces and "develops public-minded- ness, a sense of public service and responsibility" is far from negligible as a civic asset. The Salvation Army. There is a large element in every city which cannot be, or at least is not, reached by the usual church agencies. It is an element which needs religious influence and help as much as any other, and any means whereby it may be brought into contact with the saving force of Christianity is a real addition to civic undertakings. If those who need the service which the church gives will not go to the church, it must 'go to them. Early Christian converts were sought in the highways and byways by direct command of the Master, and his own preaching was seldom within en- closing walls or under the auspices of so-called organ- ized religion. The Salvation Army has re-introduced the ancient evangelical method. It has grown to great size and wide influence without stately cathedrals, impressive ceremonies or rich endowments, but by sanctified ser- vice to humanity in humble circumstances. Looked upon in its early struggles with derision and contempt by its more aristocratic neighbors in the religious field, RELIGION 153 it has now won. their respect and the approval of the public by its consecrated service and its practical meth- ods of ministration to the physical, mental and spiritual wants of men. Taking as its motto "A man may be down but he is never out," it has brought physical and moral salvation to millions, changed despair to hope and confidence, brought self-respect out of degradation and put derelicts into the way of happy and productive life. The Salvation Army has earned its way into the confi- dence and respect of American communities and is well entitled to take its place as an asset of the ideal city. CHAPTER XVI CITIZENSHIP Honesty. It has become a truism to say that the modern city is not built of bricks and mortar, but of blood and brains. No matter what the physical condition of a city may be, or what its material assets include, unless it contains a high type of citizenship it cannot take and hold its place in the van of civic prog- ress. And the first qualification for good citizenship is honesty. That honesty which pays its debts and be- haves so as to keep out of jail is well enough in its way, but its way doesn't lead very far. Real honesty exhibits itself first in honest thinking and secondly in honest living. Honest thinking demands that our opinions and conclusions be formed only after earnest effort to collect and understand facts, to compare and test ex- perience, and to weigh arguments. It forbids our tak- ing our opinions ready-made from the editor, the preacher or the orator. It involves the intellectual courage which refuses to say it believes anything to which it has not given earnest thought, and the bravery which is not afraid to proclaim its conclusions when they are formed. Honest living acknowledges the debt which we all owe to society, and impels us to put back into life at 154 CITIZENSHIP 155 least a little more than we take out of life. We Ameri- cans are all greatly indebted to the past. We acknowl- edge benefits from a noble ancestry which was strong enough to brave the terrors and endure the hardships of pioneer life in a new world for the sake of liberty of conscience. We recognize service to us in the service to humanity of the great of all times and places, as well as our immediate personal debt to society for free government, protection of life and liberty and free and abundant educational opportunities. All this the honest citizen will strive to repay by passing on these good gifts to those who will come after him. Humanitarianism. If we would attain to the best in citizenship we must have regard for the needs, the rights and the opinions of our neighbors, and not particularly of our neighbors in the choice residence section in which we live, but our neighbors of the lowly suburb and the crowded tenement. Herbert Spencer said, "No one can be perfectly happy until all are happy"; Jesus said, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." These inspired ones gave us a rule of con- duct which cannot be disobeyed without serious conse- quences : one which our better natures should choose voluntarily, one which carries its own penalty for in- fraction. The lives and fortunes of our children's children may easily depend upon the way in which the boys and girls now growing up in humble homes sus- tain the obligations of citizenship. Humanitarianism is not satisfied with alms-giving; it involves real interest in the life problems of others 156 CITIZENSHIP and real effort to solve them in the community interest. It demands the exercise of that love which suffers long and is kind, of that faith which looks beyond what men are, to what they are capable of becoming. It regards employees not so much as "hands" from which a certain amount of labor can be obtained, but as men and citi- zens, upon whose condition and progress depend the future of the commonwealth. It recognizes the appli- cability to all human relationships on all occasions and under all circumstances of that universal rule of con- duct : "All things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them." Public Spirit. Lord Bryce in his "Hindrances to Good Citizenship" gives the leading places to "indo- lence" and "private self-interest," that is, in good American, laziness and selfishness. These are vices common to us all, and to them may be traced most of our failures to realize our ideals in municipal life, and in our personal affairs as well. That our public interest coincides with our private interest in its larger aspects and in the long run, there is no doubt, and when we realize this, we shall not be lacking in public spirit. The demands upon good citizenship are continually increasing by means of the newer tools of democracy which are being put into our hands. The direct pri- mary, the initiative, the referendum and the recall all involve more thinking and more action on the part of the voter, and there are many new civic activities, out- side of government, which demand increased public spirit from us all. He is a bad citizen who signs a peti- CITIZENSHIP 157 tion to his city council merely to oblige a neighbor, to get rid of a persistent solicitor, or for any other reason than that he indorses the object specified. This is the age of propaganda. The woods are full of selfish schemes which their sponsors try to make plausible by distorted facts, specious arguments and false conclusions in order to influence public opinion in their favor. Those citizens who recognize the fallacy of these proposals are often too busy or too indifferent to contradict them. The only remedy, the only safe- guard, is a thinking And public-spirited citizenship. An ideal in the abstract is fine but useless. Ideals of citi- zenship worked out in terms of human life and conduct will produce that public spirit which will make us all "soldiers of the common good." Co-operation. Co-operation is the main factor upon which all civic progress depends. Great move- ments which make for social and political advance may have their beginnings in the mind of one person, but they cannot come to their fruition without co-operative effort. In any catalog of the personal requisites for good citizenship, the ability to work harmoniously with others for a common purpose stands at or near the top of the list. The man who stubbornly stands for his ideals and ideas in all their detail usually stands alone. Life is a series of compromises, and while no one should sacrifice right to expediency in order to attain a selfish purpose, we may often gain a positive advance by yielding in some less important detail. Every human document of importance is the product 158 CITIZENSHIP of compromise. Our great Constitution, most lauded and revered of civic foundations, is a living example. In its completed form it was unsatisfactory to nearly every member of the convention which formulated it and a few refused to sign it. Its endorsement by the colonial legislatures was obtained only by the herculean efforts of the statesmen to whom it was personally not entirely satisfactory, and who showed their statesman- ship by their willingness to yield personal opinions to the common good as others saw it. Co-operation should come naturally in a democracy wherein the majority must rule. When we find our- selves in the minority on a final vote we may comfort ourselves with the thought that our ideas in the argu- ment may have influenced the action of the majority, and it is wholesome to acknowledge that, after all, we may not have been in the right. Lincoln said, "I am not bound to win, but I am bound to be true." If we live faithfully up to the best light we have, we will be able to co-operate for the common good. Leadership. Many American cities lag behind the procession by reason of lack of leadership among their citizens, or because potential leaders have not had the faculties of leadership developed. Leadership de- mands the possession of the qualities essential to good citizenship, plus vision, initiative, resourcefulness and persistence. True vision may be defined as spiritual perception. In every community there are "practical" people who abhor dreamers. They are content to live (in theory only) as their fathers lived, and innovation CITIZENSHIP 159 frightens them. They do not admit that the dreamers of the past have contributed much to the present, and are certain that no dreaming is essential for the future. But leadership always sees visions and dreams dreams. Initiative is the ability to start things. We can all call attention to things which need doing, but only a few of us can start them. Look about you, in your own city, and you will immediately commence a catalog of civic assets whkh your city does not possess. You want tEem, but how shall you go about getting them? De- velop your leadership. Resourcefulness is the ability to find a way. Re- sourceful men and women are not easily discouraged by obstacles. They proceed when others lag or stop, their eyes fixed upon the goal, their step firm, their purpose sure. They believe with Epictetus that diffi- culties contribute to the making of men, and proceed, in one way or another, to overcome those in their path. Persistence is the ability to stick. In spite of opposi- tion, in spite of discouragement, in spite of lukewarm support or determined antagonism, persistent leader- ship clings to its vision until its work is accomplished and the vision becomes a reality. Wise leadership is the greatest of all civic assets, for by its means all others may be materialized. "Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, As the swift seasons roll ! Leave thy low-vaulted past ! Let each new temple, nobler than the last, Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast, Till thou at length art free, Leaving thine outgrown shell by life's unresting sea!" BIBLIOGRAPHY A Selected List of Books prepared by the Research Division of the American City Bureau New York City Citizenship : 1. Americanization, Royal Dixon. The Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1916. 106 pp. 2. Problems of Americanization, Peter Roberts. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 254 pp. 3. Citizenship: An introduction to Social Ethics, Milton Bennion. World Book Co., Yonkers- on-Hudson, N. Y. 1917. 181 pp. 14. Community Civic, Field and Nearing. The Mac- millan Co., N. Y. 1916. 280 pp. 5. A Course in Citizenship, Cabot, Andrews, Coe, Hill and McSkimmon. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 1920. 386 pp. 6. Community Organization, Joseph K. Hart. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 230 pp. 7. American Democracy, S. E. Forman. The Cen- tury Co., N. Y. 1920. 474 pp. 8. Universal Training for Citizenship and Public Service, Wm. H. Allen. The Macmillan Co. N. Y. 1917. 290 pp. 161 162 BIBLIOGRAPHY 9. Woman's Work in Municipalities, Mary R. Beard. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y. 1915. 344 pp. City Planning: 1. The Planning of the Modern City, by Nelson P. Lewis. John Wiley Sons, New York. 423 pp. 2. City Planning Progress in the United States, 1917. The Octagon, Wash., D. C. 1917. 3. City Planning; with special reference to the planning of streets and lots, Chas. Mulford Robinson. G. P. Putnam Sons, N. Y. 360 pp. 4. Town Planning for Small Communities, Chas. S. Bird. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y. 492 pp. 5. City Planning, edited by John Nolen. D. Apple- ton & Co., N. Y. 447 pp. 6. New Ideals in the Planning of Cities, Towns and Villages, John Nolen, American City Bureau, N. Y. 1920. 139 pp. 7. Town Improvement, Fred'k N. Evans. D. Ap- pleton & Co., N. Y. 1919. 261 pp. 8. The Making of a Town, Frank L. McVey. Mc- Clurg & Co., Chicago, 111. 1919. 201 pp. 9. Carrying Out the City Plan, F. Shurtleff and F. L. Olmsted. Survey Associates, N. Y. 1913. 349 PP- 10. Municipal Landing Fields, Geo. S. Wheat. Put- nam Sons, N. Y. 1921. 96 pp. Fire Prevention and Protection: 1. Handbook of Fire Protection, by Crosby, Fiske and Forster. D. Van Nostrand Co., N. Y. 757 PP- 2. Fires and Fire-Fighters, John Kenlon. Geo. Doran & Co., N. Y. 1919. 310 pp. BIBLIOGRAPHY 163 3. Fire Prevention, Edward F. Croker. Dodd, Mead & Co., 4th Ave., N. Y. 1912. 354 pp. 4. Fire Prevention and Fire Protection as Applied to Building Construction, by J. K. Freitag. John Wiley & Sons, 432 Fourth Ave., N. Y. Foods and Markets: 1. City Milk Supply, by H. N. Parker. McGraw- Hill Co., loth Ave. at 36th St., N. Y. 1917. 494 PP.- 2. Lower Living Costs in Cities: A Constructive Program for Urban Efficiency, Clyde L. King. D. Appleton & Co., 29-35 W. 32d St., N. Y. 355 PP- 3. The Price of Milk, Clyde L. King. J. C. Winston, Phila., Pa. 1920. 307 pp. Health and Sanitation: 1. The Health Officer, by Overton and Denno. Saunders, Phila., Pa. 1919. 512 pp. 2. Handbook on Sanitation, by George M. Price. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 1913. 353 pp. 3. Public Health and Hygiene, By William H. Park, M.D. Lea & Febiger, Phila., Pa. 1920. 884 pp. 4. Vital Statistics, George C. Whipple. 517 pp. 5. Manual for Health Officers, by J. S. MacNutt. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 1915. 650 pp. 6. Health Education in Rural Schools, J. Mace Andress. Houghton Mifflin Co., 4 Park St., Boston, Mass. 1919. 321 pp. 7. Hygiene of the School Child, by Lewis M. Terman. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Mass. 1917. 417 pp. 8. Medical Inspection of Schools, Gulick and Ayres. Survey Associates, N. Y. 1913. 224 pp. 164 BIBLIOGRAPHY Highway Building and Maintenance: 1. American Civil Engineers' Handbook. Mansfield Merriman. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 1920. 1955 PP- 2. American Highway Engineers' Handbook, Arthur H. Blanchard. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 1550 PP- 3. The Civil Engineer's Pocket Book, John C. Traut- wine. D. Van Nostrand Co., 25 Park Place, N. Y. 1913. 1300 pp. 4. Dust Preventives and Road Binders, Prevost Hubbard. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 1920. 416 pp. 5. Elements of Highway Engineering, by Arthur H. Blanchard. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 514 pp. 6. Highway Engineers' Handbook, by Harger and Bonney. McGraw-Hill Book Co., N. Y. 1919. 986 pp. 7. Highway Inspectors' Handbook, by Prevost Hub- bard. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 372 pp. 8. The Modern Asphalt Pavement, Clifford Richard- son. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 1912. 629 pp. Housing: 1. Industrial Housing, Morris L. Knowles. McGraw- Hill Book Co., N. Y. 1920. 408 pp. 2. The Joke About Housing, by Charles H. Whit- taker. Marshall Jones Co., Boston, Mass. 1920. 233 pp. 3. The Housing Famine, J. J. Murphy, E. E. Wood and F. L. Ackerman. E. P. Button & Co., 68 1 Fifth Ave., N. Y. 1920. 246 pp. 4. Model Housing Law, Lawrence Veiller. Survey Assoc., 105 E. 22d St., N. Y. 1920. 430 pp. BIBLIOGRAPHY 165 5. Housing and Town Planning, American Academy of Political and Social Science, Phila., Pa. 296 pp. 6. Housing and Housing Problem, Carol Aronovici. A. C. McClurg & Co., 330-352 E. Ohio St., Chicago, 111. 163 pp. 7. Good Housing that Pays, Fullerton L. Waldo. The Harper Press, Phila., Pa. 126 pp. Municipal Finance: 1. The Budget and Responsible Government, by F. A. Cleveland and A. E. Buck. The Mac- millan Co., N. Y. 1920. 406 pp. 2. Budget Making in a Democracy, Edward A. Fitz- patrick. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 327 pp. 3. Municipal Accounting, DeWitt C. Eggleston. Ronald Press Co., N. Y. 1914. 456 pp. 4. Principles of Government Purchasing, A. G. Thomas. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y. 274 pp. Municipal Government: 1. American Municipal Progress, Charles Zueblin. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 1916. 537 pp. 2. City Government by Commission, Clinton Rogers Woodruff. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y. 1911. 381 pp. 3. City Manager in Dayton, Chester E. Rightor. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 286 pp. 4. Experts in City Government, Edward A. Fitz- patrick. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y. 1919. 363 PP- 5. History and Analysis of the Commission and City Manager Plans of Municipal Government in the United States, Tso-Shuen Chang. Univ. of Iowa. 290 pp. 166 BIBLIOGRAPHY 6. The Initiative, Referendum and Recall, W. B. Munro. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y. 1912. 365 PP- 7. Municipal Functions, H. G. James. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y. 1917. 369 pp. 8. Municipal Government, Goodnow and Bates. The Century Co., 353 Fourth Ave., N. Y. 1904. 453 pp. 9. A New Municipal Program, Clington Rogers Woodruff. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y. 1919. 392 pp. 10. Principles and Methods of Municipal Administra- tion, W. B. Munro. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 1916. 491 pp. n. The City Manager Plan: Selected Articles, com- piled by E. C. Mabie. The H. W. Wilson Co., N. Y. 245 pp. 12. Sixth Year Book of the City Managers' Associa- tion, City Bldg., Clarksburg, W. Va. 183 gp. Parks: 1. Parks and Park Engineering, W. T. Lyle. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 130 pp. 2. Parks, Their Design, Equipment and Use, George Burnap. J. B. Lippincott Co., Phila., Pa. 1916. 310 pp. 3. Shade Trees in Towns and Cities, by William Solotaroff. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 287 pp. Policing the City: 1. American Police Systems, R. B. Fosdick. The Century Co., N. Y. 1920. 408 pp. 2. Crime Prevention, Arthur Woods. Princeton University Press. Princeton, N. J. 1918. 136 pp. BIBLIOGRAPHY 167 3. Enforcement of Law in Cities, Brand Whitlock. Bobbs-Merrill Co., University Sq., Indianapolis, Ind. 1913. 95 pp. 4. European Police Systems, R. B. Fosdick. The Century Co., N. Y. 1915. 442 pp. 5. Policeman and Public, Arthur Woods. Yale University Press, 120 College St., New Haven, Conn. 1919. 178 pp. Public Utilities: 1. Proceedings, Public Ownership Conference, No- vember 1919. Public Ownership League of America. 290 pp. 2. Municipal Franchises, Delos F. Wilcox. Mc- Graw-Hill Book Co., N. Y. 1910. 2 vols., 710 and 885 pp. 3. Municipal Ownership, Carl D. Thompson, B. W. Ruebach Co., N. Y. 114 pp. 4. The Regulation of Municipal Utilities, edited by Clyde L. King. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y. 1912. 404 pp. 5. The Results of Municipal Electric Lighting in Massachusetts. E. E. Lincoln. Houghton Mifflin & Co., Boston, Mass. 484 pp. 6. Selected Articles on Municipal Ownership, com- piled by J. E. Johnson. The H. W. Wilson &Co.,N. Y. 334 PP- Recreation and Social Welfare: 1. Community Center Activities, C. A. Perry. The Russell Sage Foundation, 130 E. 22d St., N. Y. , 1917- 127 pp. 2. Education Through Play, Henry S. Curtis. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 1915. 380 pp. 168 BIBLIOGRAPHY 3. Community Recreation, by Playground Associa- tion of America, New York. 122 pp. 4. The Play Movement and Its Significance, H. S. Curtis. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 1917. 361 pp. 5. Popular Amusements, R. H. Edwards. Associa- tion Press, 347 Madison Ave., N. Y. 1915. 250 pp. 6. Play in Education, Joseph Lee. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 1915. 523 pp. 7. The Social Center, edited by E. J. Ward. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y. 1913. 359 pp. Schools: 1. Schools of Tomorrow, John and Evelyn Dewey. E. P. Button & Co., N. Y. 316 pp. 2. New Schools for Old, Evelyn Dewey. E. P. Button & Co., N. Y. 337 pp. 3. Learning to Earn, Lapp and Mote. Bobbs- Merrill, Indianapolis, Ind. 1915. 421 pp. 4. Establishing Industrial Schools, Harry B. Smith. Houghton MifBin Co., N. Y. 1916. 167 pp. 5. The Gary Schools, A. Flexner and E. P. Bach- man. Houghton Mifflin Co., N. Y. 1916. 265 pp. 6. Readings in Vocational Guidance, Meyer Bloom- field. Ginn & Co., N. Y. 1915. 723 pp. Taxation: 1. The Principles of Taxation, Hastings Lyon. Houghton Mifflin Co., N. Y. 133 pp. 2. Shifting and Incidents of Taxation, E. R. A. Seligman. Lemcke, Buechner, N. Y. 427 pp. BIBLIOGRAPHY 169 Waste Disposal: 1. American Sewerage Practice, Metcalf and Eddy. McGraw-Hill Book Co., N. Y. 3 vols. 747, 564 and 878 pp. 2. Sewage Disposal, George W. Fuller. McGraw- Hill Book Co., N. Y. 767 pp. 3. Sewage Disposal, Kinnicutt, Winslow and Pratt. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 436 pp. 4. Municipal House Cleaning, Capes and Carpenter. E. P. Dutton Co., N. Y. 231 pp. 5. Modern Destructor Practice, W. F. Goodrich. J. B. Lippincott Co., Phila., Pa. 278 pp. 6. Collection & Disposal of Municipal Refuse, by Adolph Hering and S. A. Greeley. McGraw- Hill Book Co. 1921. 653 pp. Water Supply and Purification: 1. Water Purification, Joseph W. Ellms. McGraw- Hill Book Co., N. Y. 485 pp. 2. Water Purification Plants and Their Operation, Milton F. Stein. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 265 pp. 3. Waterworks Handbook, Flinn, Weston and Bogert. McGraw-Hill Book Co., N. Y. 824 pp. 4. Waterworks Management and Maintenance, Hub- bard and Kiersted. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 429 pp. 5. Microscopy of Drinking Water, George C. Whip- pie. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 1914. 409 pp. 6. Meter Rates for Water Works, Allen Hazen. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 217 pp. 7. Elements of Hydrology, Adolph F. Meyer. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 1917. 487 pp. 8. Hydrology, by Daniel W. Mead. McGraw-Hill Co., N. Y. 1917. 650 pp. 170 BIBLIOGRAPHY 9. Examination of Water, W. P. Mason. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 1917. 186 pp. 10. Public Water Supplies, Turneaure and Russell. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 808 pp. 11. Water Supply, W. P. Mason. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 528 pp. 12. Chlorination of Water, Joseph Race. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 1919. 158 pp. INDEX Abnormal school children, care of, 72-73 Accounting, methods of, 13-14 Addams, Jane, work of, 100 Aerial transportation, 52-53 Agriculture, near cities, 141- 142; work of farm bureaus for, 143-144 Alleghany, Pa., municipal or- gan recitals in, 135-136 Alleys in cities, 30 Americanization, teaching of, 76-77; work of clubs in con- nection with, 99 American Museum of Natural History, New York, 82 Animals, drinking fountains for, 24-25 ; work of humane societies for, 118-119 Architecture, of public build- ings, 78-80, 137-138; use of landscape, in city improve- ment, 123, 139 Art, free public enjoyment of, 82-83, 136-137 Ashtabula, Ohio, hotel at, 117 Asphalt for pavements, 17-18 Associated charities, purpose of, 119-120 Athletic fields, public, 126-127 Attleboro, Mass., jewelry-man- ufacturing center, 55 Auditorium, the civic, 80-81 ; use of, as social center, 98 Automobile apparatus, repair of, at fire-station shops, 8 Automobiles, parking of, 127 Aviation fields, establishment of, 52-53 Baker, Newton D., quoted on right attitude of public prose- cutor, 109 Ball fields, municipal, 129-130 Band concerts, municipal, 131- 132 Baths, public, 128-129 Begging, professional, 119-120 Boise, Idaho, natural public heating and refrigerating plants in, 42-43 Bossism in cities, 3 Boston, Mass., kindergartens in, 63; public forum move- ment in, 75 ; Women's Mu- nicipal League in, 100; pro- bation system in, 108; public gymnasiums in, 126; munici- pal band in, 132; orchestras in, 133 ; advisory art commis- sion in, 138 Bottling-works inspection, 87 Boulevards, need for, and con- struction of, 123-124 Boy Scouts, value of, 75-76 Bridle paths in boulevards, 123- 124 Bridges, care in building, 22-23 Brookline, Mass., public play- ground in, 124; public baths in, 129 Brooklyn, N. Y., children's mu- seum in, 82 Bryce, James, "Hindrances to Good Citizenship," quoted, 156 Budget, preparation of, 14-15 Building code, need for an ade- quate, 85 171 172 INDEX Buildings, public, 78-85 Bush, Irving T., quoted, 62 Camp-Fire Girls, organization of, 75-76 Camp grounds, city provision for, 127-128 Canneries, inspection of, 87 Cemeteries, municipal, 95-96 Chamber of commerce, value of, 113-114 Charity organizations, 119-120 Charter of city, 2-3 Chemist, the city, 9-10 Chicago, public playground movement in, 100; Psycho- pathic Institute in, 105; ju- venile court in, 105; court of domestic relations in, 107; boulevard system in, 124; public playgrounds in, 124; public golf course in, 130; landscape gardening in, 139 Children, separate court for, 105-106 Christmas trees, community, 102 Churches, considered as among city assets, 149-150; as cen- ters for religious societies, 151-152 Cincinnati, curriculum changes in schools of, 66 Citizenship, aids and hindrances to good, 154-159 City, relation of state to, 1-2; forms of government for, 3-6 City hall, architecture and con- struction of, 78-79 City manager form of govern- ment, 4, 5 City planning, 5-6, 138 Civics, place needed for, in edu- cational scheme, 69 Civil service, reform of, 10-12; pension system in, 12-13 Cleanliness, civic, 18-19 Cleveland, Ohio, municipal farms in, no Clinics, school, 88-89; for com* municable diseases, 89-91 Clubs, social work in, 98-99; women's, 99-100; in church organizations, 152 Coal, supply of, as a public util- ity, 43-44 Cobble-stone roadways, 17 Coleman, G. W., Ford Hall movement developed by, 75 Colleges, education in, 70-71 Colorado, home rule for cities in, i Columbus, Ohio, junior high school in, 67 Comfort stations, public, 25-26 Commission form of govern- ment, 4 Commissions, charter, 3; rail- road, 48; art, 138 Community centers, need for, 80 Community singing, growth of, 133-134 Cooke, Morris L., publicity work of, in Philadelphia, 16 Co-operation, dependence of civic progress on, 157-158 Correctional institutions, 104- 112 Cost accounting in public work, 13 Courts, police, 104-105; juve- nile, 105-106; of domestic re- lations, 106-107 ; relief of, by probation system, 107-108; work of public defender in, 108-110 Crematoriums, municipal, 95, 96 Dairies, inspection of, 87 Dances, municipal, 100-101 Delinquents, school, 72-73 Democratization in industry, 61- 62 Denver, juvenile court in, 105, 106; municipal band in, 132 Docks, public ownership of, 51 INDEX 173 Domestic relations, court of, 106-107 Dover, N. H., social center in, 98; theater in city hall in, 138 Drainage, importance of good, 86 Drama, public support of, 138- 139 Duluth, Minn., park and boule- vard system in, 124 Economics, study of, 69 Education, work of city relative to, 63-77 Electric light and power, con- trol of, 37-39 Elmira, N. Y., federation of social agencies at, 120 Emergency purchasing, 9 Engineers, lighting, 19 English, desirability of study of, 69; taught in night schools, 70 Environment, relation of, to delinquency, 73; attention to that of cities, 141-148 ^ Europe, juvenile courts in cities of, 105-106; architecture of public structures in, 137 Evening schools, enrollment in, 70 Factories, location of, 54-55 ; switching tracks for, 55-56; supply of power for, 56-57; branches of public library in, 80 Faith healing, progress in, 94-95 Farm bureaus, work of, 143- 144 Farms, municipal, no-ill Farms and farm life, 141-142 Federal form of government, 4 Field Museum, Chicago, 82 Fire department, organization of, 7-8 ; pension system in, 12 Fire limits in cities, 85 Flint, Mich., industrial sites in, 55 Foods, testing of, 10; supply of, as a public utility, 43-44; in- spection of, 87-88 Ford Hall movement in Boston, 75 Forestry, practice of, 142-143 Forums, public, 74-75 Fountains, drinking, 24-25 ; kinds of, 25 Franchises, street-railway, 22 Freight terminals, railway, 48- 49 Game fields, municipal, 129-130 Garbage disposal, problem of, 36-37 Gas, public control of, 34-35 "Get together" movements, 97 Golf courses, municipal, 129- 130 Government, forms of, 3-5 Grades, separation of, 26-27 Grade schools, 64-65 Graft in cities, 3 Greenfield, Mass., town meeting form of government in, 4 , Gymnasiums, public, 125-126 Health, public attention to, 86- 96 Health centers, movement for, 93-94 Health department, work of testing laboratory for, 10 Healy, Dr. William, quoted, 105 Hennessy, Okla., municipal the- ater at, 138 High schools, value of, and course of study in, 65-66 Home rule for cities, growing demand for, 1-2 Honesty and good citizenship, 154-155 Hoover, H., quoted on child- feeding in public schools, 72 Horse drinking fountains, 25 Hospitals, municipal, 92-93 Hotels, functions of, 116-117; for women, 120-121 174 INDEX Hot- water supply, natural, at Boise, 42 Housing, laws affecting, 86-87 Houston, Texas, waterway at, 50 Hull House, Chicago, 100 Humane society, work of, 118- 119 Humanitananism, spirit of, 155- IS6 Ice, supply of, as a public util- ity, 43-44 Illinois, school lunch statistics in, 71-72 Indianapolis, children's court in, 105 Indolence, a hindrance to good citizenship, 156 Industries, sites for, 54-55 ; switching tracks for, 55-56; power for, 56-57; influence of market on sites of, 57-58; re- lation of labor supply to, 58- 60; exemption of new, from taxation, 60-6 1; democratiza- tion in, 61-62 Isolation hospitals, modern, 92 Jails, improvement of, 111-112 Jitney bus, a nuisance, 41- 42 Junior high schools, organiza- tion of, 66-68 Juvenile courts, 105-106 Kansas City, visiting nurses in, 9i Kindergartens, value of, 63-64 Kitchen refuse, disposal of, 36- 37 Labor, supply of, for new in- dustries, 58-60 Landscape gardening, city, 123, 139-140 Leadership, qualities of, 158- 159; the greatest of civic assets, 159 Libraries, public, 79-80; social centers in, 98 Lighting, of streets, 19-20; electric, 37-38 Lindsay, Ben, judge of Denver juvenile court, 106 Lindsborg, Kansas, music in, 133 Los Angeles, harbor of, 50 Lunchrooms, school, 71-72 Manufacturing. See Industries Market, relation between, and location of industry, 57-58 Markets, public, 83-85 Massachusetts, tuberculosis dis- pensaries in, 90 Mental healing, 94-95 Merit system in civil service, 10-12 Milk, examination of, 10, 87-88 Milwaukee, public baths in, 129 Model City Charter of National Municipal League, 2 Motor bus, use of, 41 Museums, public, 81-82 Music, facilities for enjoyment of, 131-136" New Orleans, sewerage prob- lem of, 36; dock service in, 51 ; Mardi Gras in, 102 New York City, ownership of water front of, 52; study of English in night schools in, 70; American Museum of Natural History in, 82; tene- ment-house law in, 87; com- munity Christmas tree in, 102-103; children's courts in, 106; horses in, 119; Central Park in, 122; public play- grounds in, 124, 125 ; advisory art commission in, 138 New York State, public bath- ing facilities in, 129 Nignt schools, value of, 69- 70 INDEX 175 Northampton, Mass., municipal dramatic company at, 139 Nurses, school, 89, 90; visiting, 90, 91-92 Orchestras, municipal, 132-133 Oregon, home rule for cities in, I Organ recitals, public, 134-136 Pageants, public, 102-103 Paintings, means of enjoying, 136-137 Parks, provision for, 122-123; athletic fields as part of sys- tem, 126-127; band concerts in, 132; acquiring land for, I45-H6 Passenger stations, railway, 47- 48 Pavements, street, 17-18; rela- tion of street-cleaning meth- ods to, 18 Philadelphia, municipal pub- licity in, 16; public museums in, 82; advisory art commis- sion in, 138 Physical culture in public gym- nasiums, 125-126 Pittsburgh, Pa., kindergartens in, 64; municipal organ re- citals in, 135-136 Plan of cities, 5-6, 145 Playgrounds, public, 124-125 ; reserving sites for, 145 Poles and wires, on streets, 21- 22; location of, in alleys, 30 Police courts, improvement of, 104-105. See Courts Police department, organization of, 7-8; pension system in, 12 Port facilities, provision for, 5i Portland, Me., municipal organ of, 135 Power for industries, 56-57 Probation system, use of, 105, 107-108 Publicity, securing of, for mu- nicipal reports, 15-16 Public defender, office of, 108- uq Public ownership, of water supplies, 33; of electric light and power, 38; of telephones, 39; of port facilities, 51; of cemeteries, 95-96 Public spirit, demand for, 156- 157 Purchasing, system of, 8-9; emergency, 9 Railroads, grade crossings of, 26-27; service rendered by, 46-47; passenger stations of, 47-48; freight terminals of, 48-49; establishment of avia- tion fields near urban or suburban, 53 ; switching tracks, 55-56; co-operation of cities and, 147-148. See Street railways Rate making for public utilities, 44-45 Real estate, value of, stabilized by zoning, 7 Recreation, facilities for, 122- 130 Red Cross, establishment of health centers by, 93, 94; re- sponsibility of women for, 100; importance of work of, 117-118; public support of local branches, 118 Red Wing, Minn., municipal theater in, 139 Religion, institutions relating to, 149-153 Reports, municipal, obtaining publicity for, 15-16 Responsible executive form of government, 4 Riis, Jacob, 103; work of, for playground in New York slums, 125 Riverside, Calif., Easter Pil- grimage at, 103 176 INDEX Roads, building and care of, 147-148 Rochester, N. Y., social center movement in, 97 Russia, soviet government in, 62; soap-box orators in, 74 Safety islands in streets, 23- 24 St. Lawrence canal project, 52 St. Louis, pageant in, 102; cor- rectional institutions in, 1 12 Salvation Army, place of, among city assets, 152-153 San Francisco, dock service in, 51 ; harbor improvements of, 52; city and county hospital in, 92; municipal dances in, 101 ; landscape gardening in, 139 Schoolhouses, use of, as social centers, 97-98 Schools, city, 63 ff . ; kindergar- tens, 63-64; grade, 64-65; high, 65-66; junior high, 66- 68; technical, 68-69; night, 69-70; of higher education, 70-71; lunchrooms in, 71-72; problem of delinquency, 72- 73; supplemented by public forums, 74-75 ; Americaniza- tion work in, 76-77; branches of public library in, 80; mu- seums valuable as adjuncts to, 81-82; art exhibits in, 83; clinics in, 88-89; reservation of sites for, 145 Sculpture, means of enjoying, 136-137 Seattle, Wash., ship canal at, 50 ; port facilities at, 52 ; park and boulevard system of, 124 Sewers, city, 35-36 Shops, establishment of, in con- nection with fire stations, 8 Sidewalks, use and abuses of, .28-30 Signs, street, 20 Singing, community, 133- 134 'Sites, industrial, 54-55; for schools, 145 Slaughter-house inspection, 87 Social centers, movement for, 97-08; clubs connected with, 98-9? Societies, religious, 151-152 Soviet, government by, 62 Spokane, Wash., shop estab- lished in connection with fire station in, 8 ; water supply of, 34; isolation hospital in, 92- 93; landscape gardening in, 140 State, relation of, to city, 1-2 Steam heating, public, 42-43 Street railways, as a public util- ity, 39-41 5 motor bus as ad- junct of, 41 Streets, pavements of, 17-18; cleaning of, 18-19; lighting of, 10-20, 37-38; signs for, 20; planting of trees along, 21 ; poles and wires on, 21- 22 ; bridge-building, 22-23 ; safety islands in, 23-24; drinking fountains in, 24-25 ; comfort stations, 25-26; sep- aration of grades, 26-27 ; traffic rules for, 27-28; side- walks of, 28-30; alleys and their care, 30; widening of, 31-32 Structures, public, 78-85 Suburbs, homes in, 144-145; park lands in, 145-146; roads to, and transportation condi- tions, 147-148 Sunday schools, as among city assets, 150-151 Switching tracks, 55-56 Tacoma, Wash., stadium in, 127 Taxation, exemption of new industries from, 60-61 ; for support of colleges, 71 Technical schools, training in, 68-69 INDEX 177 Telephone, as public utility, 39 Telephone poles, street signs on, 20 Tenement-house laws, 86-87 Testing laboratory, city, 9-10 Therapeutics, mental, 94-95 Toilets, public, 25-26 Town meeting government, 4 Traffic rules for streets, 27- 28 Transportation, on street rail- ways, 39-41 ; by motor bus, 41-42; railroad service, 46-47; by water, 50-51 ; aerial, 52- 53; control of conditions of, by cities, 147-148 Trees, on city streets, 21 ; con- servation of, 142-143 Tuberculosis, preventive meas- ures, 90; hospitals for treat- ment of, 93 Underground conduit for wires, 22 Urban transportation business, 40-41 Utilities, public, 33-45 Utility rates, fixing of, 44-45 Veiled Prophet, pageant of, in St. Louis, 102 Visiting nurses, 90, 91-92 Washington, D. C, advisory art commission in, 138 Wastes, disposal of, 36-37 Water power for industries, 57 Water supply, city, 33-34; im- portance of pure, 86 Waterways, transportation on, 50-51 Women, civic clubs conducted by, 99-100; widespread activ- ities of, loo ; hotel for, 120- 121 Young Men's Christian Asso- ciation, 114-115 Young Women's Christian As- sociation, 115-116 Zoning laws for cities, 6-7, 85; location of factories best di- rected by, 55 Zueblin, Charles, on provision of outlet for community ex- uberance, 102 ; on public or- gan recitals in Pittsburgh, 136 Return this material *n which ,-t -e8 ..VS.**. RGIONA >- LIBRARY FACILITY IBIII Hill Mill IIIH | HI) [| || || | A 001427836