I WEST AND EAST BY THE SAME AUTHOR AN OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN THOUGHT SINCE KANT STUDIES IN THEOLOGY SERIES WEST AND EAST THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTENDOM AND THE NATURALIZATION OF CHRISTIANITY IN THE ORIENT IN THE XlXxn CENTURY BEING THE DALE LECTURES, OXFORD, 1913 BY EDWARD CALDWELL MOORE PROFESSOR OF CHRISTIAN MORALS. HARVARD UNIVERSITY CHAIRMAN OF THE BOARD OF PREACHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS LONDON: DUCKWORTH AND COMPANY 3 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN First published 1920 All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain Turnbull &> Shears, Edinburgh ftti TO MY CHILDREN LE TBONCHET, CANTON VAUI> SWITZERLAND August 1st, 1914 Mansfield College, through its Principal, has honoured me with the invitation to deliver the Dale lectures. It is fitting that in these opening words I should pay tribute to the eminent preacher and publicist, friend and counsellor of this College, whose name the lectureship bears, the late Reverend Robert W. Dale, D.D. I desire also to express my veneration for the illustrious former Principal of this College, the Reverend Andrew M. Fairbairn, D.D. At his request I lectured at Mansfield twenty years ago. Through him I first learned to know Oxford more intimately. To him I owe an intellectual and spiritual debt which no words can measure and no acts repay. PREFACE THESE lectures were delivered in October and November 1913. Their preparation for the press was completed in the very days of the outbreak of the war, August 1914. The question was then raised whether the publication might not with advantage be deferred. The manuscript was how- ever sent to the publisher in November 1915. Only slightest changes had been made in the text in view of the changed circumstances. No changes have been made since that date. By consent of all concerned it was agreed to post- pone the issuing of the book until after the war. As I sat down this week to read the proofs I had at the first the gravest misgivings. As I read I had the sense that, in so far as the description given in these pages was correct, I had finished a chapter in world history. What I had not realized while writing it was that the stage of progress which I had sought to delineate was complete. The Europe we loved and to every nation of which we owe incalculable debt seemed to have disappeared. Many of the principles of action which we had discussed appeared for the time at least discredited. Maxims and practices which we had thought abandoned had again emerged. Asia and Africa had entered upon the ruinous conflict of Europeans among themselves. Yet no issue of the war is more evident than this. The movement of which these lectures treat will go on. It will go on far more swiftly than we had surmised, in a manner far different from that we had supposed and to conclusions which not the wisest of us can forecast. If that is true which we have written concerning the principles of our movement as these emerged in the stages which are past, this truth will have yet wider application when we have entered upon the new phases which the war has certainly prepared. The conditions of the new relations of West ix x WEST AND EAST and East will be determined not merely by the end of the war or by the terms of peace, but by the experience of all the nations under those terms in the years which are to come. The principles may perhaps best be studied against the background of a past which, although it was but five years ago our vivid present, has now forever passed away. The publisher has kindly permitted me to state in briefest fashion some of the principles to the elaboration of which this book is devoted in the introduction to a new work, " The Spread of Christianity in the Modern Era," the Chicago University Press, 1919. That book deals with the history of the movement of which this book has sought to set forth the ruling ideas. It is hoped that the two books may supplement the one the other. I may allow myself one remark touching the substance of this book. There had stood in Lecture VI certain ob- servations attempting forecast of the future of Western education in the East. These were appended to a para- graph devoted to the institutions in the former Ottoman Empire. In no country had such broad foundations been laid. In no country have all prophecies now been rendered so worthless. The best of those who had received this education, and who were relied upon to extend and per- petuate it, have been massacred. The naturalization of this education has almost to begin over again. In no country will reasoned forecast be so difficult, until, at least, the Powers shall have given some intimation as to the relation of the races one to another and thus created some assurance that the monstrous thing which happened early in the war shall not occur again. THE AUTHORS' CLUB, LONDON, June 18ih, 1919. CONTENTS PAUE PREFACE ix INTRODUCTION 1 LECTURE I THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTENDOM MEANING OF THE PHRASE MOTIVES OF THE MOVEMENT ... 9 LECTURE II THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTENDOM MOTIVES RELATION TO OTHER MOVEMENTS COMPARISON WITH EARLIER PERIODS . *'s representatives had any inner life to which he might make appeal. He knew better. To him these children of the jungle had opened their secret. Years after that morning when he was found dead, kneeling beside his bed in the hut at Bangweolo, he was still Father David to Tippoo Tib, who when driven from his slave raiding at Tanganyika and needing to recall any virtue that he had ever shown, pleaded that he had protected Livingstone. He remained Father David to the ferocious Arab slave dealers across the channel from Zanzibar, who knew that at every point in their nefarious business he opposed them and was ready to deliver them a man's battle in which they could expect no quarter. He was still Father David to the blacks who bore his wasted body on their shoulders for a year, that they might bring it to the coast. Stanley presents at many points strong contrasts to Livingstone. Yet the two had also many points in common. Stanley too was of humble origin and of deficient early education. In his youth he was neglected. He was an adventurer in the good sense of the word, a newspaper man who developed some of the qualities of a good soldier and had certain of the traits of the diplomatist. He appreciated the significance of the outward forces of civilization. Indeed by everything in his career he was inclined to assign to these paramount importance. Tried by many disappointments, rendered adaptable by various experiences, he was slow in finding his life work. He had kept himself pure and of a high mind. By the time he came to his task in Africa he was a man of the world in a sense in which Livingstone never became a man of the world. Never irreligious, Stanley yet brought to the meeting with Livingstone but slight sympathy with that which he had thus far known of Living- stone's character and aims as a missionary or with missionary characters and aims in general. There was nothing in the commission received from the New York Herald to find Livingstone which went beyond the wish to deal with facts which interested the world, to show enterprise comparable with the enterprise which Livingstone as explorer and STANLEY 193 adventurer had shown. Stanley has written of the profound impression which Livingstone's spirit made upon him and of the transformation which his intercourse with Livingstone wrought in his own spirit. Yet even while under the spell of Livingstone's devotion Stanley was impelled to say, in just reckoning with his own powers, and as well with the needs of Africa as he conceived these needs, that his way would not have been Livingstone's way. He repeats the observation again and again as if it were the thought upper- most in his mind whenever he reminded himself of Living- stone, and despite the reverence which he had no wish to withhold. He repeats the observation at the time of Living- stone's death when he himself was meantime far more advanced in the enthusiasms and activities of his career. His way was to the end that of a conqueror, of an organizer, a road-maker, a civilizer, a preparer of the way of empire. He believed in taking the good with the bad in the kind of empire for which, as he hoped, he was preparing the way. He was not a business man but he believed in trade as indispensable to the development of the magnificent continent which he had traversed. For himself, he scorned to run the risk of personal entanglements in that trade. He felt this long after he had capital to make investments in Africa to his advantage. His real interest was in the opening up of Africa, in the amelioration of the lot of the Africans. All other interests came to be subordinated to the humane motive, and we repeat that he was far from being without understanding of or sympathy with the religious motive. Livingstone was above all things else a man of religion. With all the high qualities which he possessed everything was subordinated to the missionary in him. He was absolutely true to himself when he decided to remain a missionary. His approach to life was from the inner side. He had thus believed for himself. He thus believed for his beloved Scotland and no less for the lowest of his Africans. He thus believed with an intensity which at times swayed all his other beliefs. Yet he was far from being without appreciation of the things for which Stanley stood. They were the things for which many other brave and resourceful men had stood, with some of whom he might have found it N 194 WEST AND EAST harder to establish personal sympathy than with Stanley. In a measure he himself stood for those same things before Stanley was heard of. Was not he too resourceful, ingenious, a dreamer of great dreams of civilization and enlightenment, a born leader of men, a man who understood himself and forced his way, a man who was deceived by few and revered or, if need be, feared by all ? He also was the opener of a continent to Europe, eager for the amelioration of every side of the life of Africa. Yet it is quite certain that as he read Stanley's articles in the Herald, if he read them, he would have gone within himself and said, without a shade of derogation, that his was not Stanley's way. They were both true men. Each had a way of his own. Each knew that there are other men and other ways. Now we have only to heighten this contrast to see how easily the representatives of these two approaches to our problem have misunderstood one another in time past and still misunderstand. Most hopeless of all are those who stay at home and have no real understanding of either side of the problem. You have only to think of missionaries, narrow- minded, absorbed in one aim, zealots for one institution, the church, and indifferent to all other matters. It is but fair to say that, in the attitude of the modern world toward missions and still more in the exigencies of the mission field itself, frank representatives of this type are now rare. They grow rarer. They exist mainly in the minds of those who have remained at home and never seen missions. Or again, they exist in the minds of those who have travelled everywhere and still have never seen missions. In so far as they exist, it is not difficult to see how the real man of the world, often a very good sort, may well ask to what end does all this missionary endeavour serve. Equally, it must be remembered that the foreigner in the world of which we speak is frequently not of a very good sort. At the extreme in this direction are men who followed the opening of trades in rubber or ivory, in liquor or opium, and gave free rein to their own cruelty and lusts when removed from the check of public sentiment. They debauch in unscrupulousness a helpless people for their gain. Those who give Americans a bad name in Shanghai are frequently men and women CONTRASTS 195 who could no longer stay in San Francisco or even in Manila. Then there is the far larger number of those who do evil because it is easy and still others who at all events do very little good. One can understand how a representative of the inner life and the spiritual motive, especially if he were a zealot, might hold up his hands and say : " What have these to contribute to the solution of the problem which we face ? " The one side sees only bigotry and the effort to force dogma and ritual upon alien peoples, who verily have, of the unrealities of religion and of the superstitions which belong to these, already more than enough. The other sees the spectacle of a civilization so- called, which is fain to deny all relation to religion or even morals. Of this civilization we have more than enough in our own lands. He cannot view with complacency the taking over of this civilization by those whom he is trying to save, especially if they are to take over only its worst elements. It is known that Stanley was profoundly disappointed that his own government could not assume the protectorate of the Congo Free State as he had planned it. He loyally esteemed that the assumption of that responsibility on the part of Great Britain would have been a guarantee of the fulfilment of the hopes he cherished on behalf of the peoples whose advancement he sought. He felt sure that that responsibility would mean an influx of capital upon which the development of industries must depend. He turned, not without reluctance, as his diary shows, to Belgium. He rebuked himself for his hesitation and mistrust after he had conversed with the King of Belgium and marked the king's interest in the scheme. We have no railing accusa- tion to bring in this place against the Belgians. The king's twofold relation as investor on a huge scale and yet also as sovereign, responsible for civil administration, was always unwise. It became grossly reprehensible. It was as fatal as were the investments of the clique of Russian grand dukes in the Yalu timber concessions, the mismanagement of which under Alexeff brought on, at the last moment, the Russian war with Japan. Belgian officers took worthy part with Germans and English in the war on the slave trade. Things 196 WEST AND EAST began well. Yet Stanley's last journey revealed to him the difficulties of an administration whose personnel was made up largely of favourites and incompetents and which proceeded upon a hasty and selfish plan which the govern- ment and company at Brussels had apparently decided to adopt. Stanley did not live to see the Leopoldine debauch and reign of terror nor to hear the testimony as to the catastrophe. That testimony was at first discredited. It was then diligently hushed up and garbled. Finally in open court were established crimes which made all Christen- dom ashamed and all decent men enraged. Atrocities had been committed upon a hapless people which scarcely had their parallel in the dealings of savages one with another. We are interested only in showing that the root of the diffi- culties and monstrous evils of the regime which the dis- reputable royal promoter had inaugurated and long brutally defended, lay in lack of character. Unfortunately, there is no racial monopoly of a lack of character. The revelations which have been made concerning British dealings in Puto- mayo, German dealings with the Herreros, and practically the whole history of the dealings of the United States with the Bed Indians prove that. There was lack even of in- telligence on the part of those who administered the Congo affairs. There was lack of appreciation that the natives were to be treated as persons and not simply as brute in- struments of gain. Stanley had character. He was right in saying that in the large the protectorates under the flag of his own nation had shown character. He had hoped that the Belgians too would show character. No doubt there were many in Belgium who deplored the issue and felt the degradation in which in a measure their whole people was involved, and approved the course and character of their degenerate monarch as little upon this point as upon certain others. Stanley's point of view however was lost sight of or, more accurately, it had never been shared by those upon whom the crisis in the Belgian Congo came. For a time the lot of the Congo negroes, as they bore rubber down to the sea at the west for their taskmasters, was not better than it had been when they bore ivory over the divide and down to Zanzibar in the Arab slave gangs under the CONTRASTS 197 regime to which Stanley and others had fought to put an end. It is not said that a company of mere zealots of faith, of mere enthusiasts for religious propaganda could themselves have opened up the country. At all events they could have opened it only very slowly. It is not said that single- handed they could ever have got rid of the slave trade. That was necessarily a matter of war. It is not said that, when the slave raiding power had been broken, there was any obvious way of preventing its recovery, or any way of putting an end to anarchy in the devastated territories, except the protectorates. This was a question for govern- ments. It is not said that amateurs with devout leanings would have made good governors, or that there is any sub- stitute for the qualities which a soldier or again a merchant and trader, an investor and promoter of ability and char- acter shows. States with even a tinge of the ecclesiastical in their character have generally been the worst conceivable states. By accident missionaries have sometimes shown themselves good soldiers, like Gamewell at Peking. One of Livingstone's colleagues withdrew from the service of the London Missionary Society because he felt that in the struggle with the slave raiders the time had come for fight- ing. He agreed with his board that on the whole it was not wise that missionaries should fight. An occasional missionary has been a good business man and administrator. So frequently however has the opposite been true that mission boards often forbid their representatives to have to do with unnecessary business transactions. This is no argument for an indiscriminate exchange of roles. It is the very point of our contention that the work to be done transcended the powers of the men of either of our types without the aid of men of the other type. We are citing this unhappy episode in the Congo, for which Stanley and for that matter the Belgian people were so little to blame, to show that Stanley's own solution was impossible without elements in the char- acter both of foreigners and natives, which elements in character Livingstone would have said that it was his whole aim in life by the propaganda of the gospel to create. We have dwelt thus far upon the contacts of West and 198 WEST AND EAST East, considering results in matters of medieine and hygiene, in industries and administration, in ideals of government and in certain closely related questions like that of slavery and the slave trade. In a general way we have sought to place first in order in the discussion those phases in which the value of the results of the intervention of one nation in the life of another is least open to question. It is obvious that the order of topics must in some cases be doubtful, but at least the principle of arrangement which we have attempted is clear. From many different points of view we have touched upon the question of trade, because it is one of the largest factors with which we have to do. The sinister experience in the Congo and minor experiences of the same sort in every land suggest a point which for our discussion is most important. It is the point of the connection of trade and government. The Congo experience is a belated example of a theory of the relation of trade and government which was once generally accepted and which seems to have been in general the German theory of that relation. It appears sometimes to be the Japanese theory. At one time the intimate relation of trade and government was accepted as normal. Most men are inclined now to view it as a vicious confusion of ideas and one largely fraught with evil con- sequences. It is one of the great achievements of the nine- teenth century that the true principle has been more and more brought to light. In the early stages of contact between East and West questions of trade and government were hopelessly confused. It is easy now to see that the confusion was to the detri- ment of both government and trade. The classic example is the government of India under the British East India Company. It is therefore one of the highest titles to honour of British rule in India that, without giving up its sovereignty in India, Great Britain has, in the generation before the Mutiny and in the two generations which have followed it, completely purged itself of this reproach. Whether we have to look for an indefinite continuance of British rule in India is a question upon which there has been division of opinion even in Great Britain itself. The participation of Indians in their own government has now assumed such proportions TRADE AND GOVERNMENT 199 that it lays near the thought that they might some day take over the government entirely. On the other hand, to sober minds among the Indians themselves, the same cause makes it less necessary that the government should be taken over by the Indians, until this can be done in the best manner and with assurance of the best results. It is safe to say that had the relations of trade and government in India continued as they were before 1829 the continuance of British rule in India to the present day would have been almost inconceivable. Conversely, with the reforms in those rela- tions which have gradually taken place, the real state of the case to-day is that not merely the trade of the British but equally that of foreigners of every nationality and that of the Indians themselves has an interest in nothing so much as in the maintenance of an essentially just govern- ment. So just and impartial, so intelligent and flexible is the government which the Indians already enjoy that they will be slow to change it until they are well assured that the change will be for the better. There are superficial indica- tions of unrest and occasional outbreaks of the spirit of sedition. It is more than suspected that seditions are some- times fomented by Europeans. It is, however, firmly believed that an overwhelming majority of the influential in India to-day believe that no change involving the severance of relations with England would be for the best. It has been for years firmly believed not merely that the Indians would resist the invasion of British India by another power. There has been confidence that they would stand by the side of the British in serious warfare which had to be carried on in other lands. That confidence has now been proved well grounded. The loyalty of India to Great Britain in the war is a most notable fact, and one of which Great Britain may well be proud. The facts of which we spoke above are not those which appeal to agitators and abstractionists. They are facts which before the war were very generally mis- understood upon the Continent. They are the facts, how- ever, which make for the stability of British rule in India probably for a long time to come. It cannot be said that England was driven to the change of its course in India by the Mutiny. The Mutiny, costly 200 WEST AND EAST and painful as the experience was, never really imperilled British rule in India. Furthermore Great Britain was already long before the Mutiny committed to the course which we are endeavouring to describe. The abolition of the Company's charter and the taking over of the sove- reignty directly by the state was a very natural ending of the period of the Sepoy Rebellion. In its inner logic how- ever it was the conclusion of a process which had been going on for more than a generation before that rebellion. In a way the uprising was so belated as to be illogical. It was the result of ancient grudges and of more or less accidental causes. It fell upon a time when much that was being asked for by the sober-minded among Indian patriots was being granted in any case. But for the poise and balance of temper which the British showed the effect of the rebellion might easily have been to revive ancient severities and to postpone benefits which the government had already been prepared to grant. Such was notoriously the result of the various outbreaks in Russia which ended in the un- fortunate assassination of the Czar Alexander II in 1881. The great changes in India to which we allude were due to the changed mind of the British people themselves, to their own apprehension of a state of things which for seventy years had been growing more and more obvious. The investing of a commercial company with certain of the practical powers of a state was dangerous policy and one likely to involve the British nation in serious complications. So long as that commercial company had actual military powers or, to put it the other way about, so long as the government was prepared to favour and protect, even to the point of the use of arms, specific financial interests and to maintain certain monopolies, so long subject peoples were sure to be treated with harshness and the honour of the state was bound to be involved in business transactions which had no legitimate political significance but might easily have disastrous moral consequences. Three great benefits Great Britain has voluntarily con- ferred upon India during the nineteenth century. She has steadily increased the share of the Indians in the adminis- tration of their own government. To-day only the smallest TRADE AND GOVERNMENT 201 number of the highest places are not open to Indians. She has steadily pursued the policy of the education of India by a great state system of education. This has been done in spite of the fact that education has certainly made the country more difficult to govern. The third change how- ever is of even greater importance than the other two. It is the change in pursuance of which the empire has come more and more to cease to regard itself as the guardian of special interests of British trade or even the patron exclu- sively of British capital invested in India. The empire has fully realized the value of such investments for India. It could not be oblivious to the value of such investments for England. Nevertheless it has realized that which every other good government has gradually been taught to realize, that which even the United States must some day learn, that the guardianship of commercial interests, except in the sense of the maintenance of even-handed justice for all parties concerned, is vicious policy. It is not possible that the course described should not end in the prostitution of government, in the artificial stimulation of some interests and the unjust neglect of others, in the hallucination that prosperity can be created by legislation. The adoption of the policy of free trade for Great Britain was of untold beneficial effect upon the administration of British India. In the same sense one could but rejoice in an early pronounce- ment by the President of the United States that he would be moved to intervene in the affairs of Mexico for the pro- tection of commercial interests neither of the citizens of the United States nor of any other state. Those who invested capital in Mexico did so at their own risk. They had no right to ask that their own government should guarantee the fulfilment of their hopes. Now as we were saying, it redounds to the credit of the British administration in India that although it was on its own territory or, at least, on ground which the conquests of a previous century had made its own, and although the tradition was all to the contrary, and despite the fact that the government was not under constraint, it has steadily laboured for fifty years for the clarifying of conditions in this regard. No interests what- ever in India are at present protected in special way. The 202 WEST AND EAST Company ceased to exist in 1858. It had ceased to exert any of the functions of government a generation before that. No favours were granted. India has long been a free field for the industries of every nationality, just as England itself has been a free field for industries of every nationality. No trade of foreigners has been tolerated which militated against the interests of the Indian citizens of the Empire. The government guarantees nothing except stability and even handed justice to all and puts the execution of that guarantee in the hands of Indian judges. Those sinister influences which have long made them- selves felt in China, commercial concessions, permits for mining and transportation, the grant of extra-territorial rights, stand in glaring contrast with that which we have just been saying concerning India. These things have played a great part in the history of China in the last two generations. They play an evil part in that country at the present moment. There is the more need that we should call attention to them and recur to the honourable change which Great Britain has forced herself to make in India. It turns out that the nominal freedom of China from the dominion of western powers exposes it to some evils and acts of violence on the part of those powers in the interests of trade, to which China would not be exposed were she under the responsible dominion at all events of one and possibly of others of those powers. Opium grown in India was forced upon China by the British government in incredible quantities and for decades after the effects of its consumption by the Chinese were so glaringly obvious that a similar use of it would never have been permitted by that same government on the part of its own subjects in India. The pressure of many powers upon her borders has thus been more injurious to China than would have been the far greater pretensions of one western power within her boundaries. For China is thus made the victim of the rivalries of the powers among themselves. These conditions are more unfortunate than ever at the present moment since the Chinese government is itself in process of radical transformation. It is in dire need of money. It is ready to grant in its need that which presently it is bound sorely to repent of having granted. TRADE AND GOVERNMENT 203 As one walks the Bund in Shanghai it is brought home to him with an intensity which his reading never conveyed that for miles on either side of the river, exactly in the centre of this emporium of the East, there is not a foot of ground which belongs to Chinese men. Flags of every greater nation on the earth fly over it, but no flag of China. In the pretty park which occasionally reaches to the water's edge no Chinese man, woman or child may set foot save indeed the nurse of some foreigners' children. The area is that of an extra-territorial concession, governed by a joint commission of the western residents. The jurisdiction of their own consuls over foreigners is absolute. Even for cases to which one party is Chinese the jurisdiction is that of a mixed court. More- over, far outside this area, all over China, Chinese citizens, converts of the Christian missions, have been in the past, under treaty proviso, able to appeal in certain cases to foreign consuls and so to escape jurisdiction of their own courts. It is true that the Chinese have resorted to torture to extract evidence. It is true that punishments were sometimes of inconceivable cruelty and processes of law touching property were such that no foreign trade could have been built up had the merchants been obliged to submit to those processes. It is true that Shanghai is very largely what Europeans have made it. It is true that the treaty concessions seem far more outrageous to-day than when they were granted. They seem outrageous exactly in the light of that position in the world which the Chinese man to-day wishes his country to take. Those wishes are largely the consequences of the presence of the foreigner and his trade. Yet when all is said, does anyone imagine that these concessions would have been granted by the Chinese even as they were at the end of the decade of the thirties, except under the muzzle of the guns ? Can anyone wonder that the present situation is to the Chinese infuriating ? We know how the Japanese felt about the last remnants of extra-territorial rights which had once been granted under constraint and which came to hang about them like the badge of an ancient disgrace. Full recognition was accorded Japan no longer ago than in the year 1899. One recalls the French war for Tonking and the bombardment of Foo 204 WEST AND EAST Chow in 1884. We are reminded of the German seizure of Kiaio Chow and of the English appropriation of Wei Hai Wai. Is it any wonder if, after the murder of the Baron von Ketteler, the German plenipotentiary, in the streets of Peking in June 1900, men posed themselves this pretty sum in ratio : If it cost one of the finest harbours on the coast of China to murder two Jesuit missionaries, how much would it cost to assassinate an ambassador ? Because of the Chinese attempt to assassinate the ambassadors of all the powers at once the problem did not work out in this striking simplicity. One looks at Hong Kong and realizes how absolutely it controls the commerce of the greatest of Chinese commercial cities. To be sure, Hong Kong was not that which it now is when the British took possession. It was a barren peak with a few fishermen's villages in the marsh at its base. The British made Hong Kong. They have made it however in large part out of trade with the Chinese people. How much have the British made of Aden which also they have long owned and fortified ? Is it any wonder that the Chinese man of to-day is gradually coming to think of Hong Kong and its relation to Canton somewhat as England would think of Southampton and the Roads if the Germans had fortified the Isle of Wight or as the Germans would think if the British still held Heligoland? In all honesty, one must say that the wonder is not that the Chinese now and then in the old days got out of hand and murdered a missionary or an engineer or a camphor- speculator here and there. One must remember how weak the central government of China has long been, especially in the interior and in the South. One must remember how difficult it has been for the Chinese government to put down piracy on the West River, a piracy whose aim was more often the robbery of Chinese citizens than of foreigners. The wonder is not that the Chinese have occasionally vented their passions in violence and atrocity. The wonder is that they have been half so docile and inoffensive as they have. The wonder is that the Chinese are half so amenable as they are to western influences and that they seek our help and friendship half so much as they do. As we were saying, even British policy has been as regards OPIUM 205 China in such marked contrast with that which we have observed in India in the nineteenth century, that one is forced to realize how great has been the effect upon the British mind of the undivided and obvious responsibility to which in India Great Britain held herself, and how sad are the consequences when a nation has great power and little responsibility. It has been the fate of China, in this transition period of its opening to the western world and of the early stages of its assimilation to western principles, that it has been neither like Japan without a foreign domination in its midst, nor yet like India, under a foreign domination which gradually learned to do its duty and understand its privilege. China has been in neither the one of these positions nor the other. It has been the prey of all the powers and the object of the protection of none. Exactly in China therefore occur the worst examples of diplomatic unscrupulousness and of the abuse of military and naval force for the political or commercial advantage of European states. The very worst of these examples as above intimated is that of the opium traffic and this traffic is to be laid almost exclusively to the charge of Great Britain. This traffic has inflicted an almost incalculable injury upon China. It is the deepest stain upon the character of Great Britain. It is a disgrace to the real nature of which the debates in parliament have shown, until very recent times, an astonishing obtuseness. The last reluctant legislative steps which make an end of the British introduction of opium into China have been taken within a few years. It is easy to say that if the other nations had had opium to sell they would have done as the British did. This may be only too true, but it is a very sorry answer. The virtue of the Americans in the Caleb Gushing treaty is spoken of as hypocritical. The Americans raised no opium. They were guilty of a trade in rum on the coast of Africa and among the islands of the South Seas which, if not equally injurious, was equally culpable. They are now guilty of similar trade. Not much is gained in mutual recrimination. Furthermore it must be said that this sale of liquor, un- scrupulous as it was, was never fostered by direct acts of government both in war and peace as was the trade in 206 WEST AND EAST opium with China. Precisely the point of censure is that of the relation of government to the trade. Other governments have failed to prevent their citizens from doing deeds which they did as individuals, defying decency in doing them. Great Britain made war upon China for attempting to execute on its own territory its own per- fectly rightful legislation by which it had made opium contraband. To be sure, the opium trade was not the only trade involved in the so-called Opium Wars. Opium was however by far the largest item of trade and the one over which the most serious friction arose. The opening of China to western trade in general was certainly good for the West and may ultimately prove to have been good even for China. It requires some cynicism however to set forth the Opium Wars as a missionary endeavour on behalf of the Chinese. The opium question was a legacy from the flourishing period of the British East India Company and of the protection of its interests by government to which we have above alluded. The Company raised opium in India and found by far the largest demand for its product in China. It was so anxious to open China for trade of every sort that it allowed itself to be led into making upon a helpless people a war which beyond question was provoked in overwhelming measure by the vicissitudes of this particular trade. It has been alleged that if no one had brought opium to the Chinese they would have raised it for themselves. This answer is quite as sorry as the previous one, and has not the merit of containing any appreciable element of truth. The Chinese have grown opium since its introduction by the foreigner to avoid the high price exacted by the foreigner, or rather to reap the profit for themselves. They have done this however in defiance of their own government, which has made spasmodic and partially successful efforts to restrain its own citizens in the prosecution of a business ruinous to large numbers of its people. The government was however far too weak to regulate that part of the same business which was under the protection of foreign powers. It discovered that that trifling measure of success which it had in restraining its own citizens resulted in no diminution of the evil, but merely in the enlargement of the profit of the OPIUM 207 foreigner in the continuance of that evil. Even at the present moment, the withdrawal of British Indian opium from Chinese markets is conditioned upon China's success in putting an end to the production and sale of opium among themselves. This is the only action which the British parliament has, even to this day, felt itself constrained to take. Yet this is nothing but the clinging to the last to an advantage granted in a treaty which was obtained by sheer force of arms. It is said that there is no ancient word in Chinese for opium. There is no word in the vernacular but only an imitation of a foreign word. There is no evidence that the consumption of opium, save in the smallest way, existed in China until the foreigner, with his commercial and naval superiority found it to his advantage that that consumption should be increased. The prodigious increase of the trade in the period from 1810 to 1850 shows the diligence with which this market was cultivated. Already before 1830 the interest of British subjects in opium, prepared for and introduced into China was such that it was certain that this interest would dominate the whole international relation. Then, as if this situation was not bad enough, the British government supervened upon it with force. The general question concerning trade with China was then fought out. Ports were forcibly opened to all trades. The world has how- ever not been wrong in the nickname which it stamped upon these disagreeable episodes. That in the issue the Chinese should have been obliged, besides all other injuries, to pay a high indemnity for the destruction of opium acknow- ledgedly contraband and for the expense of a war which was forced upon her and in which she met an inevitable defeat, is an affair so shameless that at this distance its effrontery almost touches our sense of humour. The Chinese however, in light of that which their country has suffered because of opium, may be pardoned for not seeing the humorous side of it. In simple truth, it was a crime of almost unrivalled blackness and of most disastrous conse- quences. Men whom otherwise the world has held in honour were involved in it. They did not perceive the enormity of that which they did. This is only another evidence how 208 WEST AND EAST the moral climate of the world changes. The service of Sir Robert Hart and the Chinese Maritime Customs, which has conferred incalculable benefits of every sort upon China for the last half century, came into being because of complica- tions in trade relations between China and the West. For these complications the embitterment touching the opium question was in some degree responsible. This shows only how good may come out of an evil which one must never- theless continue to describe as practically an unmitigated evil. After all has been said, we must concede that there has been no greater influence in the opening up of the Orient than the influence of trade. There have been no better men than some of the great traders, heads of the foreign banks and hongs, and these of every nationality. They have not merely brought capital to bear in a large way in the development of these countries. They have given the example of a certain type of mind and character, that of the great merchant, the leader in commerce and industry. Without this type the West would not be what it is. Perhaps still less would the East have attained the degree of pros- perity and promise in the large relations of the world to which it has already come. We have no disposition to ignore the dark side of the picture. We need not deny the low sense of honour which has sometimes obtained and the sinister aspect which some, especially of the smaller factors in trade, have worn. Trade however shows these qualities and wears those aspects also here at home. It is preposterous to deny the great influences which have been on the whole salutary. One who has known a treaty port in China, who has seen the army of men and women who, for all sorts of purposes, betake themselves to these places of contact with the opening Orient, knows what a motley company it is. Yet no one can read papers like the Shanghai Daily News or the Japan Mail, without realizing what a world this foreign world within the eastern world is, how well it manages its affairs and how many worthy affairs it has to manage. Merchants, bankers, lawyers, physicians, teachers, scholars, clergymen, of the best the world has to show, are there. They are the more surely to be counted upon for every TRADE 209 virtue and high-mindedness, because in the earlier days, at least, they and they alone made the laws of their own high mind. At the opposite end of the scale indeed are men and women who could no longer stay in their own country, not even in the worst places in those countries. The refuse and offscouring of the world enjoys for a brief space a freedom which it can hardly find elsewhere, to exert its evil influence and ply its nefarious trades. Men of the highest ideals are here along with men of no ideals and not even the con- ventions which sometimes take the place of ideals. It is not too much to say that the Orient sees something of the worst possible aspect of our civilization. It argues that if this is Christianity, then the less it has of Christianity the better it will be. They fortunately are in a position to know that these things are not the product of Christianity. They have seen the other side as well. We ourselves, when we reflect upon the state of things at the very heart of Christendom and admit how little influence the real spirit of Christianity has yet had upon society as a whole, are fain to wish at moments that our fathers had not entered so lightly upon a course which, beyond any forecast which they could have had, has issued in this process of world assimilation. The process is full of difficulties. The path- way is beset with snares. Even the well intentioned find it hard to see the way. They find it hard not to bring confusion and misery upon others and disgrace upon the cause with which they are identified. On the other hand, we have assuredly no cause to deny that much has been accomplished, even when it seems small in comparison with that which yet remains to do. The chapter which we have just written is a record or rather, it is a very small part of the record of a great achievement. It is a record taken only from certain outward aspects of that achievement. That achievement is the effect of certain other causes also, to which we have barely alluded, and to which it is now high time we turned. The movement has gone far beyond the forecast of any who participated in it. We have in the West the sense of awakening to find that the nations to which we belong have been and must still be actors in a drama far more wonderful than we realized. The war has 210 WEST AND EAST waked us to the realization that the East too, the nations which we have been patronizing with our civilization and to which we have been interpreting our gospel, will be actors in that drama. Now that we do begin to realize it, we have our days of being bitterly depressed. We have abundant cause for shame and humiliation at follies and wickedness in which most of us had indeed no personal share but of which we cannot altogether wash our hands. If in the mystery of the evolution of humanity a certain group of races has been granted a remarkable precedence, that prece- dence is one which they have also right lustily abused. It is one which has misled them indeed, but it has also led. There is only one way in which we can atone for the evil we have done and finish the work which we have more or less unconsciously begun. That way is to go on giving of our greatest and our best, knowing now that the other races also have their contribution to make to the common end. We eagerly expect to receive immeasurable benefits in exchange for any we bestow. This is the attitude of mature men among their fellows. No less is it the attitude of mature nations. Once for all, it would seem that the barriers which have separated men from time immemorial are now broken down. The good which any race has achieved in any department of life is for all men. The evils which beset any men are to be overcome by the joint endeavour of all. The races which have for manifold reasons thus far lagged behind have now really begun to move along the road which the most advanced have travelled. After all, these latter also have been travelling this road not yet for an indefinitely long period, and their achievements should have been much greater than they are. We say lagged behind. Yet have the eastern nations lagged behind us so markedly in all aspects of life, or is it mainly in outward things that we can make such comparison ? When we turn to other factors in life than those outward ones with which in the main we have thus far dealt we may find quite a different state of things. Life is all of one piece. There is something elevating in the sense that all races are now setting out together upon the later stages of a journey toward the perfecting of the life of mankind, of which journey EDUCATION 211 they traversed the earlier stages either in actual isolation or at least only in defined groups. The deposit of the period of isolation was the individuality, the complex of character- istic traits, of each particular race. It is on the basis of this and by the force of this, that each race has its own con- tribution to make to the work which is still before us. It would be the defeat of the process so far as a particular race is concerned, and furthermore it would be the impoverish- ment of the process as a whole, if the characteristics of any one race were to be submerged and lost in the assimilation which is going on. The evolution of humanity, whether in its division into races or in the marvellous community of life toward which mankind seems now irresistibly impelled, presents indeed no such plain and simple path as men of one idea think. It also presents in its delays and cross purposes, in its partial defeats and abortive tendencies, no such hopeless enigma as we, in the moment of the dashing of some particular enthusiasm, often feel. Alike the sources and the remedies and our ills lie deeper than any mere suggested changes of the outward life and lot of men. The areas of the life of mankind of which we have been speaking, those namely of the physical well-being and of the economic and civil and social existence, are but the areas or, more accurately speak- ing, they are some only of the areas, of the expression of the inner life and personality. The cultivation of the inner life, whether on its intellectual or again on its spiritual side, has claimed at times an exaggerated importance. The religious view especially has at times worked to retard all other aspects of civilization. Our errors lie in the opposite direction. Our age is fain to say that it will have none of either education or religion unless these can be made practical. The cultivating of the inner life seems sometimes a lost art. This makes it easier for some in our day to go to the opposite extreme. An abstract view of the value of education has worked at times and in some places to the same hindering effect. This was true of official education under the old regime in China. It was true also of the education of the schoolmen of the Middle Age in Europe. In both cases the zeal for education worked to retard the progress of other aspects of civilization. Yet when has there ever been an age of such enthusiasm for 212 WEST AND EAST education as lias been the nineteenth century and the begin- ning of the twentieth ? To say that it has been an enthusiasm for those aspects of education only which could be turned to material advantage would be unjust. The enthusiasm for education has moreover manifested itself in the relations of West and East at least as markedly as has any other. In the East it has awakened notable response. It has roused enthusiasm for education where this did not exist. It has transformed the methods and altered the area of education where that enthusiasm did exist. As for the enthusiasm for religion, is not this one major aspect of the movement with which we are concerned ? Have not the extent and power of this enthusiasm been evidenced in hitherto un- exampled ways ? With all of the depression which we may feel as to the state of religion among ourselves, with all that we allege as to the preoccupation of men's minds with material things, we must not forget this fact. The nine- teenth century has been also a century of religious enthusi- asms of a depth and effectiveness truly remarkable. This enthusiasm has shown itself both in the propaganda of religion here at home and in religious missions to the East and Africa. The intensity of the life of the age has manifested itself in both directions at once, in the spheres of the cultivation both of the outward and of the inner life of men. The cultivation of the inner life has indeed won a different aspect from that which prevailed in former years. Yet the evidences of great movements of religious and again of intellectual enthusiasm in the nineteenth century are on every hand. It is time therefore that we turn to these two areas, those of the cultivation of the life intellectual and of the life religious. It is time that we ask ourselves concerning the effects of the contacts of East and West in these regards as well. LECTURE V EDUCATION : AFRICA AND AMERICA, CHINA AND JAPAN THE nineteenth century made great outward achievements. Equally the appeal to the inner life was one of its characteristic traits. Of that appeal in its aspects of religion we shall later speak. For the moment we are concerned with education. The age of rationalism had prepared the way for this new educational movement. In education as in religion the rationalists had assailed the principle of authority. There had been a scholasticism in education as truly as in religion. The Kenaissance and the Reformation had broken with authority but only at certain points and in limited degree. In the eighteenth century men's minds began again to move freely. They pushed to the limit principles at the basis of the intellectual and moral and religious life which in the sixteenth century they had only begun to apply. The new humanism caused men to perceive how much larger is the area and how much more manifold are the principles of education than even the rationalists had supposed. A book like Rousseau's " iSmile " was epoch-making in this regard. Goethe's " Dichtung und Wahrheit " and his " Wilhelm Meister " were a revelation at this point. Not merely was education Goethe's greatest interest. Education meant to him an immeasurably greater thing than it had meant to the masters of his own youth. There were new methods and as well new fields. The later years of the eighteenth century with the first half of the nineteenth century made nature a field to be reckoned with in education in a degree before undreamed. Equally the new humanists and the romanticists urged afresh that the proper study of mankind is man. Historians of education know the end of the eighteenth century in Europe as a period almost as significant for them as was the same period for the history 213 214 WEST AND EAST of Christian faith and life. The era was a revolutionary one in more senses than that of the political convulsions often designated by that name. Outward distresses in some cases, as in France and Italy, checked educational progress. Italy is only now winning the basis of a great educational reform. In other cases, as for example in Germany and most notably in Prussia, the national catastrophe quickened educational enthusiasm. In proof we may cite the careers of Fichte and Hegel and the founding of the University of Berlin. In Great Britain institutions were little disturbed by the throes of the general revolution. This fact was not without its relation to the slowness of British educational reform. Emphasis upon education has been everywhere one of the striking characteristics of the nineteenth century. A cause which was until the middle of the eighteenth century essentially aristocratic has now become the object of un- bounded popular enthusiasm. Deism in England drew its followers almost exclusively from the upper classes. The Encyclopedists in France thought of themselves as responsible for a great intellectual propaganda. They popularized everything. A training which had aimed almost exclusively at the fitting of a chosen few for leadership now aims at the dissemination of all useful knowledge among the masses of mankind. It seeks to impart some form of fitness to the most needy and helpless classes. It aims to qualify literally all men for ever enlarging responsibilities. It would make them critics of their leaders and capable if need be of assuming leadership. It has contributed incalculably to the mobility of society. Funds which princes once gave grudgingly or again, arbitrarily, democratic governments now bestow in a manner which would beggar royalty. It is proposed that something of the wealth and power of nature and of the experience of humanity shall be put at the disposal of the poorest child. That the movement has not escaped its own whims and follies lies in the nature of the case. That it has fulfilled all the hopes concerning it need not be alleged. That this has been one of the most characteristic endeavours of the nineteenth century cannot be denied. Furthermore in some of the countries of which we are speaking government support of education has been EDUCATION 215 but the smallest part of tlie support which institutions of learning have received. Private beneficence has often far exceeded public generosity. Living donors vie with one another in patronage of a cause with which as they conceive the interests of posterity are bound up. Legacies fall to colleges and universities as in the Middle Age men left their property to churches and monasteries. In some communities for a rich man to die without testamentary remembrance of the cause of education excites wonder as to whether he had lived in an atmosphere of intelligence almost as, in the Middle Age, if such a man had made no gift to church or convent, it would have been questioned whether he had died in the odour of sanctity. College presidents take their places nowadays at the bedsides of promising decedents as naturally as did priests and heads of orders in the days of yore. Resources which five centuries ago were lavished upon institutions of religion have been for a hundred years poured out upon the instrumentalities of education and research. Judged by an absolute standard the wealth placed at the disposal of teaching throughout the world in the period named must have been far greater than that which in any equal period was ever devoted to the building of churches, the founding of cloisters, the extension of ecclesiastical foundations and the endowment of worship and beneficence. Relatively however to the total present wealth of Europe and America it may be doubted whether this is the case. At the end of the Middle Age the enthusiasm for the endowment of religious institutions visibly declined. Yet even in the era of the Reformation ecclesiastical possessions were still large enough to constitute a great temptation to the secular powers. Funds alienated from the church were often given by the state for the support of colleges. Wolsey is popularly supposed to have endowed Christ Church, Oxford, with funds taken from the monasteries which had been bestowed on him. In France on the eve of the Revolution ecclesiastical properties were still immense. Appreciable part of the money which the Assembly seized it resolved to devote to the maintenance of educational activities which the monasteries had been compelled to lay down. 216 WEST AND EAST Nor is merely the matter of money to be considered in this comparison. Men and women have now for two genera- tions given themselves to the career of teaching who would without doubt formerly have found place in the service of the church. The work of a professor has about it something of the glamour which once surrounded the life of an ecclesi- astic. Instructors represent an ideal of the time somewhat as priests and monks and nuns did the ideal of a former age. Men have given themselves to the life of learning with consecration. It is but fair to add that some have sought the life for other reasons than those of consecration. The results also have been similar to those occasionally remarked in the ministry in the days when the ministry was the popular career. The priesthood of learning is no more free from foibles than was that of religion. The humble mind is the same everywhere and the evidences of lack of that mind have a marked resemblance in very different fields. The securing of an education has been a real passion on the part of the youth and again of parents on behalf of their children. Education has been assumed to be the key for the opening of practically every door. Once men looked to the church and religion to secure to them an inheritance in the future world. Now they ask schools and universities to aid them to enter upon the inheritance of mankind in this world. Education has been preached as the hope and saving element in a democratic society. The future of civilization has been viewed as bound up with this cause. In a sense this is true. Yet the preaching of salvation by enlightenment is now somewhat less confident in its tone than formerly. It begins to be felt that education is very necessary but that other things are necessary as well. A measure of disillusionment has already come over this confidence of the power of the school as the sole agency of world redemption. Yet it remains that education has won a place in the modern world which it never had before. Evidence of these facts is on every hand. We are reminded of the founding of new universities in Great Britain. There has been enlargement of opportunity for professional and again of technical edu- cation which has much more than kept pace with the fostering of ancient seats of learning like Oxford and Cambridge. EDUCATION 217 Huge sums are expended upon public instruction. Germany presents perhaps an even more striking example. There was an intensity of the ideal and intellectual life in the Fatherland in the first half of the nineteenth century which made the nation the schoolmaster of us all. The reverence which that pure spirit inspired can never be forgotten. The period of the vast expansion of the material interests of Germany and of its commercial prosperity since 1870 has however seen educational changes which are over- whelming to one who knew the country thirty years ago. The direction of education is now much more than formerly determined by its relation to industry and by the hope of its issue in national power and individual wealth. If these tendencies obtain in the older countries they are even more obvious in newer lands. In the United States and Canada as also in Australia there were no inheritances from monasteries of the Middle Age upon which the new educational movements could enter. There was no tradition of state support which institutions could claim. Govern- ments were themselves as new and as meagrely supported as were the schools and colleges to which the settlers aspired. There are now in the American Union many state universities which receive large sums from the public treasury. They are however of recent origin. They were everywhere preceded by endowed institutions, private corporations founded and sustained by individual gifts. Upon the continent of Europe the situation is reversed. Endowed institutions resting upon private beneficence are the exception, not the rule. In some lands they hardly exist. The pioneers in the making of the great West in the United States did in most cases precisely that which the founders in the New England colonies had done. They set the free school beside the independent church. They established the college under the direction of the religious community. In the making of the West the various denominations founded colleges as part of their home missionary work. These institutions now find their way difficult since the great expansion of the scientific side of education, and especially since they have to meet the competition of the state univer- sities. The great modern funds in aid of general education 218 WEST AND EAST refuse assistance except as these colleges separate themselves from their churches. The service which these institutions rendered however in their own time and place in the develop- ment of the country can hardly be overestimated. No American doubts the validity of the principle of private responsibility and support. No German would think of giving money to the University of Berlin, whose support would be esteemed concern of the state alone. Just before the war a university was projected in Frankfurt to be founded by private gifts. The initiative had been taken by a German long resident in America. Nor do Englishmen show a sense of responsibility even for Oxford or Cambridge comparable to that shown by Americans for scores of colleges and univer- sities. It is erroneously assumed that their original ecclesi- astical endowments suffice, and furthermore, in the modern movement these ancient universities do not command universal sympathy. The sacrifices made for the cause of education in early days, and in some of the frontier states in the American Union nearly down to our own time, were as great as those ever made by the devotees of religion. Indeed they were frequently made by the same men and women who were giving like evidences of their loyalty to the institutions of religion. The movement has not failed to manifest something of the crudeness and waste which no great popular movement ever escapes. Yet in the large it has been truly magnificent achievement. One who does not know the middle West of the United States or portions of Australia has a revelation in store for him as to what the hunger and thirst after an education may mean. Many Europeans suppose that the great passion of these regions, as of America in general, is its passion for wealth. It would be more true to say that its obsession is education. It is an obsession which has aspects which are pathetic and issues which are sometimes ludicrous. At bottom however it is the striving of a whole people for a great ideal. The diffi- culties over which men and women have had to triumph have but added zest to the strife. It may fairly be questioned whether this nineteenth century educational movement will not some day be called to account by the sober sense of the world for all that has been lavished EDUCATION 219 upon it and in light of the unbounded hopes which have been cherished concerning it. Men have asked of the educational movement that which it can by no means perform. They have entertained hopes which cannot be fulfilled. In the so-called ages of faith ecclesiastical institutions had untold treasures lavished upon them. Men indulged expectations concerning them which they could not fulfil. The orders with their monasteries and convents, with their schools and churches, had their day of reckoning in the Kenaissance and the Reformation. Men looked upon them with a resentment proportionate to the trust they had before bestowed upon them, which trust they now esteemed had been in part betrayed. In some sense education has been the superstition of our age. Men have expected it also to work miracles. Through it also they have looked forward to the millennium. They are bound to be disappointed. Knowledge is not everything. It is exceedingly valuable as a factor in life. Disillusionment awaits those who look upon it as a panacea for all ills. It may contribute to character. It is no substitute for character. It is not the only nor even is it the greatest of the factors which make for character. The secularization of the whole apparatus of education is the aftermath of a period of more or less just resentment against the church and distrust of religion. In reality it is the means which will restore religion to its place. Education will in the future include more direct cultivation of the moral and spiritual nature of man than it now generally does. Or else, there will be something like a return of sound public feeling to the institutions which make of moral and spiritual cultivation their specific care. In their measure both of these issues may be expected but the last is more important even than the first. It has been a century thus animated by passion for educa- tion which has witnessed the expansion of the West into the East, the assimilation of the East to the West, the establish- ment of world-wide empires of trade and the achievement of a notable movement of religious propaganda. Education has been therefore one of the principal gifts which rulers and reformers, civilizers and traders, humanitarians and missionaries, have desired to bestow. At least they have 220 WEST AND EAST come thus to desire so soon as they awoke to the real nature of their task. Western education has been moreover one of the benefits of international contact which eastern men have generally been eager to receive, even when suspicious as to other alleged benefits of those contacts. Sometimes this readiness has had its ground in the eastern man's belief that this western education had close relation to the power and prosperity of the nations of the West. Such a relation exists. The pursuit of western education merely for the sake of gain has been a trying phase through which the movement has passed. It has been in this sordid stage also that dishonour has been shown to the traditional culture of these lands. This stage is however only a passing one. Presently there comes again in all these lands an enthusiasm for the recovery of their own racial inheritance. Such a revival of interest in Indian literature we witness to-day in India along with the interest in the characteristic elements of European culture. There is a zeal for carrying both to all classes of society such as India never knew before. Such a reawakening of enthusiasm for things which belong to old Japan marks the new schedules of instruction in Japan to-day. Such a resurrection of Confucianism is bound to come in China when the present extreme reaction against the traditional cultivation is once past. We have to re- member that among us also in the West the place in education of the sciences of nature, the guiding of education exclusively according to a man's vocation, has been exaggerated. What men have called practical education has commanded and now commands wide sympathy. The older and more abstract instruction has suffered in comparison. Many among us have decried the classics precisely as the Chinese to-day abuse Confucianism. They say that the traditional education bakes no bread, it does not make us rich, it does not enable us to defend ourselves against our enemies. Surely it is not surprising that in the opening of Japan, for example, the passion for western learning was at first directed toward those branches of instruction the mastery of which would contribute to wealth and make for national aggrandizement. Such a feeling meets us in less degree among the Hindus. Its presence in India however seems somehow much more INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 221 incongruous. No one can associate with the body of students whom the Chinese government is at present sending to America without realizing that in the large it is the same so-called practical advantage of western education which they seek. It is the vocational courses which they take. It is technical education which they feel that their country primarily needs. Within limits they are right. At the same time we realize how new is such a view of relative values in education to the minds of the Chinese. We reflect how different is such an education from that which colonial administrators and western missionaries at first offered in the lands of the East. Yet that which the foreign governments and missionaries offered was the beginning of the intellectual transformation of China and India of which we speak. The old fashioned education for leadership, as we have called it, was the first in the field in the educational efforts of western men in eastern lands. It was almost the only education which those first missionaries themselves had had or would have understood. Vocational training hardly yet existed in their own home lands. Now however it is this other, the practical training, which is in most places in the East overwhelmingly in evidence. This practical and vocational education may therefore serve as our point of departure in this portion of our discussion. It is this aspect of the subject which furnishes us natural transition from our previous chapter upon trade and government. On the other hand, the more abstract aspects of education will be dealt with later. They in their turn afford us the natural transition to the succeeding chapters in which we shall speak of the various phases of the religious movement. We think of the tribes in Africa at the present moment or of the negroes in the old slave-holding states of the American Union since the war, and we almost wonder that men could ever have esteemed that any form of training other than the industrial and vocational was appropriate in their case. It seems surprising that neither missionaries nor government ever addressed themselves to this problem in the earliest years of educational endeavour in India. It appears extraordinary that the men to whom the Ottoman Empire owes so much in the way of education did not from the first 222 WEST AND EAST feel this to be the supreme need of Turkey. Such a state of mind betrays however our own ignorance. We must recall that it is only of late that we have added industrial education and manual training in the public schools even in the favoured regions of the northern states of the American Union. Vocational training is not the oldest, on the contrary, it is the newest and by no means the most highly developed aspect of education in England and France. We come here upon a curious fact in the development of education in the nineteenth century. The remoter countries and less privilged peoples have had a chance almost to keep pace with the ancient lands of culture in this respect of the evolution of industrial training. Indeed it has sometimes happened that in these out-of-the-way places and among peoples for whom the first steps in western civilization were being taken, precedents have been set and examples given which have made themselves felt elsewhere. We have moments of wondering how we could all have gone on so long with such pride in our schools and colleges, blissfully unconscious that we were not even looking in the direction of one of the most pressing of educational problems. We now seem to ourselves to have begun at the top and built downwards, to have tried to solve the last problem first. This is certainly one of the suggestive phases of the history of education in the nine- teenth century. The new view has come not merely with the expansion of the sciences and their application to trade, although this has been one large factor. The new view has come with the more completely democratic ideal of education. The vocational is the education which the masses of men need. In our zeal we run some risk of sub- stituting altogether these new forms of training all men for their work, in place of the old aim of training a chosen few to lead. In reality what we need is to place these two ideals side by side, as of equal worth each in its own sphere. We have need to establish relation between them. We need not extenuate the aristocratic air which is involved in the last assertion. We need not assume that both kinds of education need always be carried on in the same schools. Much attention is now turned in the direction of Africa. This will certainly be even more true in the next generation. AFRICA 223 Victor Hugo said that Africa would be the continent of the twentieth century. Nevertheless most of the problems of the negro in Africa, especially the problem of his education, are in inchoate state. There is as yet little accumulation of experience there. It may not appear altogether para- doxical if we say that some of these problems may best be studied in the Africa which is in America. The education of these same peoples in America has already a considerable history and one which is eminently suggestive. We are disposed to think that to the educational experience of the Southern states in the American Union sufficient weight has never been attached by students of conditions in Africa. It is certain that we have here a mass of evidence concerning the religious and again the social, the economic and civil life of the coloured race in America, which has never been adequately used by those who are trying to understand conditions in Africa. The black man was forcibly intro- duced into the white man's civilization in America. The white man's civilization has been forcibly introduced into the black man's continent of Africa. The difference in these issues is not great. The so-called Black Belt in the southern part of the American Union with its margins in former Confederate states, presents many of the problems of a foreign land. Yet it is laid at the very door of those states in the Union which have been foremost in sending teachers and preachers into the work of foreign missions throughout the world. Central and Southern Africa at the present moment offer striking resemblances to the Black Belt in America. In Africa the inhabitants are now practi- cally all free. The tribes are mobile and wander in quest of work. Industries of various sorts seek the coloured labourer. The white man with his helpfulness and superior advantages, yet also with his exclusiveness, his prejudices and his vices, is everywhere at the elbow of the negro just as in America. The Africa which is in America, however, presents difficulties which are enormously enhanced by the fact that its denizens are, at least theoretically, citizens upon an equal footing with the whites. Geographically Africa in America is a fragment of the eastern hemisphere and that of the most retarded portion of that hemisphere, moved bodily into 224 WEST AND EAST the midst of a fairly progressive portion of that which is in some respects the most progressive nation of the West. Ethnologically the Africa which is in America presents a striking contrast to the experience of the retarded races generally where these have been brought into contact with the dominating Caucasian. Eskimos, Red Indians and South Sea Islanders are dying out. The Africans in America, without any immigration, have been multiplied by three and a half in the fifty years since the emancipation. Finally, in the language of our discussion, the Africa which is in America presents the problem of race assimilation in its acutest form. Actual commingling of blood between the two races probably takes place on a diminished scale since the extinction of slavery. Where such commingling does take place it is the black type which is being eliminated. Furthermore, the unhappy progeny of miscegenation is probably in an even more difficult position socially than it was before the war. It is said to be also in large part infertile. The lot of the Eurasians in India or China may or may not be more unhappy than that of the mulattoes and quadroons in our Southern States. It is however only a small part of the problem which the reconstruction of the civilization of the Orient in response to the impulse of the Occident entails. Our reference was of course not to physical assimilation. It was to the amalgamation of the races in the far larger sense which the whole discussion of this book implies. We mean the assimilation of two races which remain distinct and which yet come to constitute one civil and economic, one intellectual and moral whole, in which each race bears its necessary part. Such an assimila- tion is apparently the condition of the continuance of any civilization whatsoever in a considerable portion of the American Union. It is no wonder then if one turns to this example and asks its meaning, as he thinks of the Africa which is in Africa and which is now everywhere invaded by the white man. The antecedents of the problem of the Africa which is in America were the very worst conceivable. The slave trade was monstrous. Unpardonable iniquities perpetrated in the past by strong races against the weak have usually left their INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 225 victims to suffer in isolation in their own plundered lands. In this case the perpetrators, in an access of audacity and, as if blinded by the very greatness of their own crime, deliber- ately brought the consequences of their cupidity home to their own doors. They left slavery a legacy to their own children, a curse to the native land for the freedom of which they were probably ready at any moment to lay down their lives. Englishmen have held slaves, but never in England ; Spaniards held slaves, but rarely in Spain ; Dutchmen, but never in Holland. Englishmen sent slaves to their colonies but Americans continued the slave-trade long after America had become a free nation. Shipowners and planters alike profited by the enslavement of men for a whole genera- tion after they had engaged in a war of independence whose very declaration had alleged that all men are created equal. The ancient maxim has been verified afresh that the institu- tion of slavery is even more disastrous to masters than to slaves. The social and economic order which rested upon slavery has been annihilated. It almost carried the nation to ruin with it. The moral effects of slavery upon both races still have to be reckoned with. If the American people as a whole have anxious moments wondering how the problem of the negro at the South is ever to be solved, their distress is made only more poignant by the reflection that at all events the problem is one which they brought upon themselves. With the emancipation and still more with the enfranchise- ment of the coloured people a new duty was laid upon the conscience of the North. The former slave population at the South must be educated. Many slaves had indeed suffered cruelly, yet a kind of care had been extended by their owners, even if it were only of the kind extended to valuable beasts. The freedman was however thrown upon his own resources which were pitifully meagre, in the midst of a world which was desolated and had moreover muny reasons for being hostile to him. He had conferred upon him in a moment a freedom which he did not under- stand and a franchise for which he was not fit. The emancipation may have .been a military necessity. The enfranchisement was a cruel blunder of blind idealism. 226 WEST AND EAST It was perceived that only too easily the issue of it all might be disastrous both to the individual and ultimately to the state. We said that the sense of this duty to the blacks was laid upon the conscience of the North. The South was at first too prostrate to have great share in the work. It is only fair to add that the attitude of the mind of the South was at first not favourable to the work. There had been happier days, a generation before the war, when the children of slaves had sometimes been taught to read along with the masters' children by the women of the masters' households. The religious life of the slaves had been cared for through the masters' church and clergymen. The increase of the numbers of slaves, the fear of their rebellion, abolitionist agitation at the North, had changed all that. In the period just before the war the lot of the blacks was infinitely worse than it had been. Education of the negroes was neglected and even forbidden. Their religion was left to the care of an ignorant negro ministry. It easily degenerated into a new form of paganism barely disguised under Jewish and Christian names. Yet it was no great wonder if ruined southerners viewed askance the efforts of hated northerners to take up in the new conditions the intermitted work. There were honourable exceptions. There were those who regretted the last bitter stage before the war and who per- ceived the new emergency. But of some who went from the North to lay hand to this task at the South we may say that they would not have been more truly foreign mission- aries had they been on the Gold Coast or in the valley of the Congo. Some of them no doubt gave the offence of which zealots are frequently guilty. If they had not been zealots they would never have taken up this task. The type of institution founded was at first that familiar in the North, especially in New England. It was the little college with its traditional classical course, Latin and mathematics and a very little science were offered. History and moral philosophy and " Evidences of Christianity " were taught. We should be deeply unjust did we not pay tribute to the devotion which these efforts manifested, to the self- sacrifice with which they were carried forward and to the large results which they achieved. It was of incomparable AFRICANS IN AMERICA 227 value to fit some chosen youth of the newly emancipated race for leadership of their fellows, to prepare some of them for places at the bar and in the church which would surely be open to them. If there were going to be any schools for the coloured children those schools, particularly the more numerous lower-grade schools, must have coloured teachers. Teachers for these schools the colleges of which we speak have largely furnished and do now furnish. This is their title to praise. Atlanta University is perhaps the shining example. The record which the graduates of these colleges have made both for intelligence and high character is truly an extraordinary one. This was an adequate educa- tion or, at all events, this was the right direction of educa- tion for these coming leaders. It was the response to the prediction that unless there arose competent leaders among the negroes themselves they would fall a prey to the leader- ship of the worst elements among the whites. For that prediction the stupid and iniquitous policy of the so-called " Carpet-bag " regime of reconstruction gave abundant ground. In spite of all efforts the prediction was only too often fulfilled. Besides, this was the kind of education which the founders of these colleges had received in their own youth in New England and in the western denomina- tional colleges of their day. This was the kind of education which had made leaders out of them. It would be only the unusual man, the discoverer among them, who would per- ceive the need of something different and invent the in- strumentality for the meeting of that need. Having said so much in appreciation of this early type of education offered at the South, it will not now be esteemed harsh if we turn to the other side of the case. The kind of education offered, the classics, literature and mathematics, the old basis of abstract training as that had been inherited by the whites, did sometimes have injurious effect upon its recipients. It caused some to esteem themselves educated men when in truth they had received but the barest smatter- ing in subjects which were of little practical use. It did occasionally educate a man away from his fellows and out of the lot in life to which he was nevertheless compelled to return. It did raise questions about social equality in a 228 WEST AND EAST world which was not yet ready to discuss even in remotest way such equality. The very fact that it was the type of education which had reigned among the master class laid near at hand the assumption with some of those grown children just up from slavery, that they too were by educa- tion to be freed from the necessity of work. In India some recipients of education have been made eager for it by the belief that when they had become proficient in it they will be relieved from the necessity of work. We have to repeat that the praise of the old system was that it did produce some leaders without whom the annals of the negro race in America would be immeasurably poorer than they are. The justification of its continuance is that there will always be that need of leadership. The fact that the popular clamour is at the present moment all for the industrial, makes it the more desirable that some excellent institutions shall maintain the opposite point of view. The misfortune of the old system is that it produced some would-be leaders whom it could never fit with powers commensurate with that task. It can hardly be blamed for not producing artisans in the old days. It did not attempt to produce artisans. Yet agriculturists and artisans the vast mass of the people, those who were to be led by their leaders, must remain. The emancipation of all the negroes in North America at one stroke of the pen was justified at the time as a necessity of war. It has since been viewed as, at all events, a most unfortunate necessity. The equally summary enfranchise- ment of the whole freed population was then felt to be a necessary consequence. As we look back it seems, in the summariness of it, almost a crime and that a crime against both races at once. It was then felt that only with the franchise could the freed negro protect himself. He has not however protected himself even with the franchise. A gradual enfranchisement, conditioned on some progress of the individual toward fitness, would have been far better for all concerned. A more gradual process of naturalization of immigrants to our shores would, at least in more recent years, have been a far wiser policy than that which we have pursued. These errors have had at least one of their roots in BOOKER WASHINGTON 229 a proclivity for sentiment and abstraction and in a precipitate idealism which has often postponed the very issues which it sought. The fact that the British West Indies have escaped the American difficulties touching the negro is likely to have decisive influence upon British policy in South Africa. In the old Confederate States there could however be no retracing of steps. The freedman must be educated. The education at first offered had proved only partially successful. It was reserved for the son of a Hawaiian Island missionary, who had seen in the Islands the result of missionary edu- cation, to inaugurate a new era. Armstrong had been a soldier and then a government administrator in the South. He had learned to love the coloured race. He laid the foundation of the Hampton Institute in Virginia where agriculture and trades were primarily to be taught. Only upon the basis of an industrial training was any other educa- tion to be pursued. Booker Washington, a pupil of Armstrong, later founded Tuskeegee in Alabama, an in- stitution which has perhaps surpassed even Hampton in its usefulness. It is a more remarkable achievement since it is so largely an achievement of the coloured race itself. Washington writes simply concerning himself. He was the son of a negro slave woman. He knew nothing of his father except that he was a white man. He has sometimes been held to illustrate the contention, of the value of which it is difficult to be sure, that no great negro has ever been of pure negro blood. However that may be, he is credited with the bitter witticism that it is clear, at all events, that the negro blood is the stronger element of the two, since the possession of even a thirty-second part of it in America makes a man a negro. Certainly his loyal identification of himself with the race of his mother leaves nothing to be desired. Our generation in America has produced few men who surpass him in energy or lofty character. His school, the Tuskeegee Institute, has won the support even of irreconcilables at the South. It has won support also in highest measure at the North, where men feel that thus a true basis for the solution of the problem at the South has been found. There are not wanting those of Washington's own race who feel that the industrial education tends to fix the place of the negro in 230 WEST AND EAST society, and to inaugurate an industrial servitude not different in its effe'ct from the old bondage from which at such costs the war had set him free. Washington answers serenely that he has no quarrel with higher education for those who need that. He knows that there are those who need that which is offered at Tuskeegee. In the wake of slavery nothing has been more necessary than the ennobling of the conception of labour. Nothing has been more necessary than the laying of a foundation for the economic independence of the descendants of emancipated slaves, an independence which only the saved earnings of labour can effect. The Hampton experiment has been repeated on a smaller scale in a score of institutions at the South. Its results have been studied by commissions sent from various protectorates and colonial governments in Africa. It has greatly influenced the policy of the United States in Porto Bico and the Philippines. Its methods have been adopted in many schools in the northern states, and that not alone for the children of immigrants, but also for those of a part of the population long resident in the country. For many of these youths manual and industrial training is, at least, the point of departure for any education which it is worth while to try to confer. On occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the Proclama- tion of Emancipation, January 1st, 1913, Washington took occasion to publish in one of the best known of the reviews a resume of the progress of the coloured people in America. He dealt with the accumulation of capital, with the ad- mission of the black man to trades, with his place in in- dustries and in commerce, in the arts and in professional life, with his assumption of responsibility in civil and social affairs, with his participation in charities and philanthropy, his contribution to reform in education, his place in morals and religion. The showing is almost beyond belief even of those who have held a hopeful view of an extremely difficult situation. The disadvantages of the negro have been cruel. The discrimination against him has been and still is grossly unjust. The fraud and violence practised upon him have been outrageous. Of no people who come within the survey of these lectures is it more true than of the negro at the AFRICANS IN AMERICA 231 South that he started a half a century ago with absolutely nothing. More than that, he started with an inheritance from slavery which was much worse than nothing. It has been said with bitterness that until comparatively recent years the inhabitants of the antipodes had more share in the solicitude of American Christians than had these children of the dark continent whom the greed of our own ancestors laid helpless at our doors. No race has ever had a more honourable share in its own redemption. There is that which is most moving in Washington's recital. His statements are a great rebuke to the hostility to the negro which is still often shown. They must be remembered when one thinks of the poverty which the Southern States still show, of the illiteracy which still prevails, of the im- morality which is undeniable, of the paganism which is still now and then to be found. If there is a dark side of the history of the negro under freedom in America, there is a bright side as well. The main point is that now, at least, the problem which besets him is the same problem which besets us all. In those words one might phrase the ultimate justification of emancipation, enfranchisement and even some portion of the infinite evils following upon those steps which could perhaps have been avoided. The steps may have been premature. Even so, they had their place in making the task of the coloured people identical with our own. That is a great gain. The African in America has set his foot upon the rung of the ladder by which all the other peoples have climbed. He does not escape the diffi- culties and dangers of the ascent. But then no more do we. The road is open before him for a progress in which, in memory of their own sins, the whites are under sacred obligation to help him. That progress however, in the last analysis, he must make for himself. All the experience which humanity has accumulated is his. These things have been given to him in so far as they can ever be given to any man. No one except himself can make them his own. His being in the midst of the land of the whites has in it a certain pathos. It enhances his difficulties. Yet does anyone suppose that those same men whose progress Washington describes would have travelled so far as they 232 WEST AND EAST have toward the goal of human life had they been in the heart of Africa ? There is another and perhaps still better figure for the progress which the coloured race is making. It was used by one of Sir John Kirk's men, one of the heroes of the war against the slave trade at Zanzibar. He had remained as a government functionary in the basin of the Great Lakes after the war was over. Someone asked what he could show for all the lives and money poured into the education of the tribesmen whom he had helped to free. He replied that many of them had learned the alphabet. They had learned the alphabet of a great many different things. They had learned the alphabet of practically all of human life. It was hardly fair after so short a time to ask how far they had got beyond the alphabet. Life now in the Southern States sets the negro the universal human problem. That could not have been said before the war. Nor could it have been said since the war, were it not for the labours of devout men and women on behalf of the race, and for the heroic endeavours of the men and women of that race on their own behalf, labours in industry, in edu- cation, in the propaganda of pure religion. If now we turn immediately to speak of western education in China it is from one point of view because we thus draw the greatest possible contrast. China is the land which in higher measure than any to which the men of the West have gone had an ancient and widely disseminated cultiva- tion of its own. It had a high civilization. It assigned to learning the supreme place in that civilization. After the rulers, the most eminent man in Japan was the soldier. In India he was the priest. In China he was the scholar. China had an ancient and revered system of instruction. Kepresentatives of that system were to be found in every village in the land. Education was of the most democratic character. It was barred by rank and station to none. Great was the pride of all the village in the youth who promised to bring to it the honours of a learned man. The little money needed was forthcoming from his clan for the long years of industrious working and waiting for a high degree. A lad of humblest origin from the remotest pro- vince might enter upon the long road of examinations EDUCATION IN CHINA 233 which led to the most exalted post in the service of the country. There were gentry in China, but no nobility. The Manchus alone, as victors in war, were rewarded with high sounding titles. The honoured in China were those who held positions to which education led. In no land has promotion in the public service ever depended so simply upon examination with respect to intellectual attainments within that area of attainment which men had agreed to honour. In Mogul India and with the Saracens favourites are sometimes described as having been raised in a moment from the dust to the post of a vizier. Eomance in these countries often turns upon the elevation of the shrewd and virtuous, occasionally also of the shrewd who were not virtuous, from the lowest rank to the highest office, in the twinkling of an eye. Actual life in Bagdad, at Delhi, or at Constantinople seems, upon occasion, to have borne re- semblance to the tales in the Arabian Nights. The Dowager Empress of China however would never have dared to break with the theory of the civil service in her country. Even under her the offices from lowest to highest were filled just as they had been filled for fifteen hundred years, after examinations which subjected candidates to trials from which not one in a score successfully emerged. Even revolutions never broke down the system. They merely put the administration of it into new hands. The working of the system had indeed become doctrinaire in the last degree. The area of the cultivation required was one which we should have regarded as remote and futile. Men were chosen, for high positions in the provinces which were often inundated by the great rivers, not because they had knowledge of engineering or of scientific agriculture or experience in dealing with conditions of famine. They were chosen, as their predecessors had been chosen before them, because they had extraordinary knowledge of the moral system of Confucius and of the poetry of the Golden Age. When one puts it in this way there is something which is almost humorous in this misdirection of endeavour. Yet it is not as if there had been a knowledge of agriculture or of engineering available in China. The ancient system 234 WEST AND EAST had continued unchanged in a manner which is conceivable only in a land whose every instinct was conservative. Yet it had been at bottom an effort to secure men of intelligence and of a certain kind of character. Few men can have won its prizes without some sort of intelligence. It had been an effort to secure those who were at least conversant with the classical discussions concerning virtue. Familiar- ity with the discussion of character is not the same thing with having character. Yet a man could not have escaped the impression that there is such a thing as conduct. The system had aimed to secure men of conduct. With all the limitations of the Chinese education in time past, we must own that it maintained peace, it conserved order, it taught men loyalties, it held them to duty within certain set relations, in a way that it is not certain that the new education, boastfully utilitarian as it is, will do, if it is to stand in the isolation in which men are now seeking it. Such as it was, the system which we have described was a deference to the intellectual life. In that deference no race has ever surpassed the Chinese. In no nation has the scholar counted for so much. One of us who has carried an introduction to one of the learned men of the old school has probably brought away the impression that he had had, until that moment, no conception of the repose and dignity of the scholar's life. These facts give us pause when we consider that all that is necessary is a change of direction of all this vast intellectual energy. All that is necessary is that this same consuming intellectual diligence shall be preserved and given a new application to life. All that is necessary is that this notable mental power shall be applied to objects of knowledge and departments of action for which the Chinese have cared little in time past, but for which they now care quite as much as we. They as much as we have come to regard these new objects as essential to the welfare of modern men and states. It has been commonplace of late to say that when the world is open to the Chinese the western nations may look to themselves because of Chinese thrift and in- dustry. One who knows China would add that we shall have need to look to ourselves because of the extraordinary CHINA 235 intelligence of the Chinese. The Chinese scholar may have known little about machines, particularly about machines of destruction. He knew nothing about ships and guns and fortifications. As one of them has bitterly said, " When we do know these things you Christians will consent to call us civilized." He knew little about mining or manufactures, and less about international law or history or foreign tongues. Yet the stability of China for two millenniums, the happiness of much of the life of the country, the faithfulness of the people, their industry, honour and affection, give us food for thought as we ask what is practical in education. At all events, nothing is more clear than that the Chinese man is now determined to unlearn some things which have made for the happiness of his race in the past and become com- petitors with us in many things which have made chiefly for the misery of Christendom. It has not been, save indirectly, by the blows of the foreigners, least of all has it been by those of the missionaries, that this ancient system of education which seemed impreg- nable, has been battered down. Had it remained entrenched in the respect of the Chinese others would have assaulted it in vain. No foreigner would dare even now to speak of it with the disparagement with which the Chinese themselves speak. It is only remotely because of the strangers that the old examination sheds to which tens of thousands of anxious youth once resorted are empty and rotting away. It is because of that which the Chinese man himself believes as to the relation of the ancient system to the life of his land. He has turned upon the old system and is rending it. The fury which he has against it is proportionate to the veneration which he once accorded it. He asks : " What did it do for my country ? " The blue coated scholar of the old school is homeless, aimless, useless, a pitiable object in the land where a decade ago he was in his village like a little king. Men of breadth and horizon are now asking that the learning of the old school be accorded a larger place in the curriculum of the new universities which the government is diligently fostering. In the schedules of those schools there was at the first scarcely a sign that the traditional training would be remembered. Occasion has been taken of the revival of 236 WEST AND EAST Confucian worship under the republic to renew this request. Missionary colleges have made plain that they mean to keep the Chinese classics in the same place in their literary study which they had given them before. They know that the present excitement will pass. The old culture must reassert itself. It bore relation to that which was best in China. They know that the modern movement in its exclusiveness and intolerance contains grave dangers of the demoralization of the Chinese. Now against this background which we have endeavoured to draw, what have we to say of the education which was at first offered by the missionary schools and colleges ? For it was the missions which first offered western education in China. Interest in the education of the Chinese, as manifested by strangers others than missionaries, came late and has never attained great proportions. Interest of the Chinese in western education came most recently. The education at first offered in the missionary colleges was of precisely the sort which we observed in the case of the beginnings among the free negroes of the Southern States. It was the education given in the English and American colleges of the day. It was the kind of education which the missionaries themselves had had. It was what we called in our previous paragraph education for leadership. It was addressed to the raising up of leaders within the incipient Chinese Christian com- munities. We must never forget how important was the raising up of such leaders. These would be first of all ministers and teachers, then also physicians and men of affairs, representative persons in the general life of their communities. When one thinks of the elements of the population which were actually reached by the early missionary schools, the people of the lower middle class and of the very poor, it is easy to say that their real need was of industrial education. But, as before, we have to remember that in the era of the beginnings there was as yet no education, even in England or America, which could have been called by that name. Industrial education is that for which no small part of the converts in China are now crying. However with the government ready and eager to take up this task in far larger way, it is doubtful CHINA 287 if in China, at all events, this aspect of training will ever have considerable place in the missionary propaganda. Competition with the government schools is difficult and unnecessary. Industrial training is the most expensive of all forms of training. It issues moreover, in a country like China, almost inevitably in relation to trade, and in trade itself which missions cannot wisely assume. Furthermore, when these concessions have been made, it may still be said that perhaps the mission colleges with their old-fashioned education builded more wisely than they knew. In a manner which the missions can never have forecast, leaders in every walk in life, in the new democratic movement in China, have come from the ranks of the former pupils in the missionary schools and even from the children of the Christian communities. These communities are still almost microscopically small compared with the total population of China. Their representation however among the leaders of new China is out of all proportion to their numbers. In- deed it constitutes one of the most striking facts in the present liberal movement. The government schools of the western model are hardly yet old enough that a great debt of this sort should be due them, despite the fact that, as in all revolutions, men of extreme youth have often held high places. Youth trained in the missionary schools have thus in striking manner come to the front under the new regime. This result is moreover in striking contrast with the first effect which this western education had upon those who came under its influence. At that time] the effect appeared to be disadvantageous. The western knowledge which found lodgment in the mind of the convert or of his children, through the mission schools, had in the early days the same effect which followed also upon the western man's gospel. It separated the pupil from his fellows and cut him off from advancement in the usual careers. In the period prior to the edicts of 1902 one might well have asked, What could a youth bred in the Christian schools do in China with that which he has been at pains to learn at the mission ? The whole apparatus for advancement in life rested, as we have seen, upon homage to a culture altogether different from that which was offered in these schools. In those days it 238 WEST AND EAST was truly surprising that any youth except the children of converts ever came to these schools. That the children even of converts thus came was evidence that the Christian community had accepted its position as a kind of enclave in the midst of the Chinese world and cared, or at all events hoped, little for advancement in that world. After the inauguration of the reforms this situation was suddenly reversed. The curriculum for which the mission schools had long stood was in principle that which the government now adopted. The topics upon which it had insisted became the topics in the civil service examinations. The subjects which these schools had for decades taught in their small way were now the main items of instruction in the government universities. Not merely had the Chinese thus gone over to the ground of the missionary schools. They felt profound respect for those who had always occupied that ground. The missionary education, such as it was, had been understood by the Chinese as education. It had been a cultivation which fitted men for the intellectual life. It had had a different area of topics from the Chinese edu- cation, but it made the same kind of appeal. It had had in view not merely bread winning, but the life of the mind. It was the appeal of scholars to scholars. When the cataclysm came the missionary schools and colleges were found in the position of real leadership. They were in the van of the movement in which the government schools were now bringing up the rear. Practical consequences followed. For example, with the establishment of the rural postal service and of telephone and telegraphic communication in China, there came a sudden great demand for youth who possessed knowledge of electricity and of certain mechanical appliances, who had moreover a little acquaintance with foreign languages, especially with English. It may not have been much which the boys from the Christian schools knew of these subjects. The scientific equipment of these schools had generally been meagre enough. At all events they knew more than anyone else. There was an instant premium upon the learning which had been despised. There were countless openings for the young men who had once seemed to be cut off from preferment. In 1907 Sir Robert Hart said in Peking CHINA 289 that the Customs, to which department the establishment of the above-mentioned service had been entrusted, could take no cognizance whatever of a man's religion. It was however a fact that a very large portion of the staff were Christian men. In less degree the same cause has worked temporarily to the filling of other careers with a class of men who, from having been looked upon before 1900 as the enemies of their country, were now looked upon as its most valued servants. The newly established government schools were organized with a number of Christian teachers out of all proportion to the number of Christians in the land. This was true even for the schools for boys. It was still more true of those for girls and young women. Prior to the reform there had been almost no western education whatso- ever for women except that which had been given in the mission schools. Manifold were the effects of this artificial situation upon the mission schools as also upon the Chinese churches. The resort to these schools had earlier been largely of the poor and almost wholly from among those who already had some connection with the mission. Now the benches were crowded with the children of the gentry, of officials and even of the literati. These were willing to risk the contagion of Christi- anity if only their children might have the privilege of western education. A former ambassador of China to one of the great western nations who has spoken publicly in admirable English in defence of Confucianism, freely took this risk of infection on behalf of two nieces, his wards, if only they could come into contact with the women who were in charge of a Christian school in Canton. The government has established schools of western learning all over the land for both boys and girls, for young men and women. It is spending large sums of money upon them. On the whole however the institutions in the hands of foreigners are still held to be the best. The example of Japan gives us no reason to suppose that this will long be the case. Unless the mission schools and colleges are kept at a level of efficiency of which the usual rate of missionary expenditure gives small hope, they cannot long continue to deserve the favour which they now receive. For the 240 WEST AND EAST present however these schools have a very great oppor- tunity. Not merely were the youth in the mission schools in the old days mainly from the homes of converts but they were often being educated for the service of the Church. Now, as we have said, they are being drawn off into other activities, into civil administration and trade, before all into teaching. They are being paid more than they could ever have hoped to earn in the service of the little Christian communities. Some of them have loyally refused these rewards. Many have accepted them as was most natural that they should do. A lament goes up at the depletion of the force of re- ligious teachers, and particularly of recruits for the ministry. Yet these youth have become influential in the opening life of their country. With some of them, of course, what of Christian conviction they had has disappeared in this process, despite the fact that under the republic there is almost complete toleration. The church, and particularly the ministry, suffers a disadvantage. This is trying, par- ticubrly at the moment when the cry is, and rightly, that aristian movement must be passed over into the hands of Jhinese. In our own land also the opening of indefinite possibilities of ethical and social and even of religious useful- ness, without the adoption of the profession of the ministry, is truly one of the signs of the times. It is the evidence of the throwing down of the barrier between the so-called sacred and secular. It is one of the results of the Christianizing of modern life in the widest and most wholesome sense. It has furnished opportunities for work in lofty en- thusiasm for many who would never have been at home in the service of the church. It has also appropriated not a few who might otherwise have been at home in the service of the church. The presence of some of these in the ministry is needed to prevent the church from slipping into ecclesiasticism or going over into mere agitation. Exactly at the moment when society demands the acceptance on the part of the church of the function of the permeation of all life with the spirit of Christianity, the call of the ministry seems sometimes to be accepted mainly by those who have but little sympathy with this large task or only rudimentary CHINA 241 fitness for the task. If we meet this situation on a great scale in Christendom itself how can we be surprised that the little church in China, just emerging from its isolation, meets it also in its own smaller way ? The church in Japan passed through this crisis years ago. It has not yet fully emerged, although the situation has improved. For reasons connected with the social order of Japan Christianity has always had access to the highest classes in Japan in a degree which is only beginning to be true in China and has never been true in India. This fact has given standing to its ministry. The Chinese church on the whole has shown the courage of the situation. The question of the ministry will right itself in time. On no account however must the best of the youth be held back from the service of God and man in any avenue of life which is ever open to them. Because this is what the Christianization of life means. A word should be said as to the government system of education in China. Edicts of 1902-3 outlined a scheme by which each province was to have a university. There was to be a system of higher schools leading up to the uni- versities. Agricultural, mining and technical schools were projected. A part of this grand scheme has actually been put into operation. Education for women, both the higher education and, as well, the more elementary, is proposed. Foreigners have been employed as teachers under contract for a limited period, generally three years. Of these the greatest number have been Japanese. Naturally, the best Japanese teachers are not teaching in China. In many subjects instruction has been necessarily in a foreign tongue, generally in English. Of many subjects the nomenclature in Chinese must still be created. Efforts made a generation ago to establish a terminology of anatomy in Chinese, a translation of Gray's Anatomy in the dialect of Fuhkien by a Foochow missionary of the American Board, show how slow the process may be. Numbers of Chinese youth are moreover in process of education in foreign countries. Here again by far the largest numbers have studied in Japan. In 1910 their number was thought to be about 25,000. There is a feeling that their welcome in Japan has not been all that could be desired. Selected youth are studying, many of Q 242 WEST AND EAST them under government patronage, in almost every larger university or technical school in Europe and America. Indemnity money returned by the United States to China a few years ago furnished occasion for sending a large pro- portion of these youth to this country. The competition for these places has been so keen that as yet the standard of ability among the men appointed is very high. They offer a new illustration of the familiar experiences of individuals, classes and even races from whose path a barrier has been removed. Of a large course which he was giving an American instructor recently said, that there attended it three men of the first order of ability, one of them was Chinese, one was a Jew and one was a woman. The outbreak of the Revolution, the uncertainties of provisional government, the financial pressure which the new regime has had to meet have put all this grand educa- tional scheme in jeopardy. At least, these facts have held its execution in abeyance. How vast is the plan one realizes when he recalls that there are probably seventy million Chinese of school age, or more than the total popu- lation of the German Empire. As in the case of the educa- tional programme promulgated by the constitutionalists in Constantinople in 1908, the government has had meantime many other things to think about. Yet also schemes like that for the Hong Kong University have been viewed with favour by the Chinese themselves. Chinese contributions have been made to them in a manner which augurs well for the future. Private schools, by no means always good, have sprung up on every hand. Mission schools of every sort are in favour. Mission colleges have had official favour and wide popularity. Some of these are rapidly passing from the stage of being missionary institutions under ex- clusive foreign control to that of endowed institutions, partly at least under Chinese auspices. The success of one or more of these gives ground for hope that there may be a real university under Christian auspices in China, side by side with the government universities, even when these shall have fulfilled the hopes which are cherished concerning them. The experience of India seems to show that such an issue is desirable, despite the high character of the government CHINA 243 universities in India. In Peking there is a flourishing theological school representing the union of several Christian denominations. In this connection it is worth noting that there are only two such schools in America. There is no such school in Great Britain which includes the Anglican Church. The earnestness of the Chinese people in the whole endeavour cannot for a moment be questioned. Nothing is needed but a period of peace and stable government, of reasonable prosperity and opportunity for national develop- ment. The Chinese love of learning, the confidence in the life of the mind, will make itself felt in unexampled ways. The government effort on behalf of education meets with a more immediate popular response than the corresponding effort met at the beginning among the Japanese. There will be blundering and waste. These are the prerogatives of democratic countries. Even the mistakes may however be counted in evidence of the popular enthusiasm which we describe. It is not possible to be in China without feeling that western education is one of the great enthusiasms of the hour. It is the instrumentality to which the Chinese trust to deliver them out of the bondage to foreign powers and the threat of foreign invasion from which they have suffered so much. It is the instrumentality to which their best friends trust to deliver them out of the bondage of foreign debt and concessions which they do not seem to fear as they should. Much in the new movement is crude and superficial. This is true however of the political movement as well. It seems alternately humorous and pathetic that men should have such happy confidence in the representative principle and so little understanding of what the repre- sentative principle is, such devotion to abstractions, such facility in dividing and sub-dividing parties and so little conception of the give and take by which alone party govern- ment can subsist. There is something ironical in the fact that a man who is felt by many to be a dictator is yet the only bulwark between his country and anarchy. For all of these things the one remedy is education. It is experience and intelligent reasoning upon this experience. It is in the gradual raising of the whole vast population of the Chinese Empire to the level of the privileges and responsibilities 244 WEST AND EAST which they have assumed but which they are only too obviously unprepared to use. Some important aspects of the question touching western education in eastern lands have been brought out in the section concerning China. We shall need now, in turning to Japan, to deal only with those aspects which are peculiar to the case of that country. It is not the purpose of these paragraphs to set forth with completeness the educational situation in each country. The aim is to deal with general characteristics of the educational movement as a whole. We use each nation to illustrate the special phase of the work which it seems best fitted to show forth. We assume that in some degree the delineations will supplement one another. The period of conceded leadership of the missions and mission schools in the educational movement in Japan was extremely short. Missionaries had been in China for almost a hundred years before the general opposition to things foreign began to give way. In Japan many elements of foreign influence were making themselves felt while still the missionaries were barely tolerated. A well trained Hollander, Verbeck, sent out by the Reformed Dutch Church of America, exerted a salutary influence upon Japanese policy in educational matters in the first years of the awaken- ing. He had to do with the Japanese government's first resolve to send students to Europe and America. These students were to be prepared for leadership in the intellectual movement which was already inaugurated in their own land. A poor Japanese youth, Neesima, fled from his country at the time when under the law he was likely to forfeit his life should he ever undertake to return. He worked his way before the mast to Boston. He became the protege of a merchant there who sent him to Phillips Academy, Andover, and to Amherst College. Later he became secretary of the Japanese Legation in Washington and then for a time guardian and adviser of Japanese youth studying in America. He returned to his country to become, with the aid of the mission and of American friends, the founder, first of a theological school and then of a college which has now grown into a university, the Doshisha, at Kyoto. He incarnated EDUCATION IN JAPAN 245 the striving of the educational movement to break away from tutelage, a tutelage for which nevertheless he felt affectionate gratitude. He was animated by ardent desire to put an end to the denominationalism inherited from the missions and to the domination of foreigners in the growing Japanese church. He had the insight thus at the very beginning to perceive that neither the educational nor the religious movement could remain exotic. They must become truly native and national causes. Within half a generation from its founding the little mission college for which he had given his life passed through a struggle with the American Board which supported it. This struggle was the occasion of much heaviness of heart to both parties concerned. The differences were finally settled in a manner honourable to both and, as we now see it, to the advantage no less of the college and the Japanese church, on the one hand, than of the missionary cause on the other. The Doshisha became an institution administered exclusively by the Japanese but with such aid, temporary at all events, by missionaries, in the work of instruction, as the Japanese might desire the missions to render. The notable thing here is the early date at which this issue arose and the courage and withal the courtesy with which the decision was carried through. This institution had been the apple of the eye of one of the most enlightened and liberal of missions which the American Board has ever sent forth. After a brief period of pain natural to such situations it has continued in loyal and happy relations with the mission to which it had delivered its declaration of independence. Missionary professors have spent their lives as members of its staff, being paid, in view of the needs of education in Japan, by the Board in America. The original gifts and legacies of Neesima's early friends are legally held in Boston because the donors had specifically indicated that they should thus be held. The income of these funds is however expended according to the decisions of faculty and trustees in Kyoto. The episode is typical. The period of the minority of the Japanese churches and colleges was exceedingly brief. If the prayer of the mis- sionaries had been that their children in the faith and in western culture might grow up into maturity that prayer was 246 WEST AND EAST speedily fulfilled. The feeling of maturity and the desire for independence came to their proteges almost immediately. The actual fact of maturity and fitness for independence were not long delayed. The readiness to grant independence was surely one of the factors in this early naturalization of Japanese Christian institutions. Since that time mis- sionaries and teachers have occupied to their pupils relations which parents bear to their grown-up sons and daughters, a relation which is acknowledgedly delicate and difficult, and demands something of both sides, but which is after all the ideal of parentage. The fact of which this episode was typical is the key to the understanding of the Japanese situation as a whole. This experience of the Doshisha touched a small college, as it then was, and a little theological school, very dear to those to whom they were dear. About the institution clung the real romance of the career of its founder. Judged by any outward signs the contest might have been esteemed a petty affair. Only too easily might it have been settled in the wrong way had the mission and those responsible in America been disposed to be dogmatic or even only timid. Missionary educational work was begun in India a century ago. Indeed, if we went back to Ziegenbalg and Schwartz, we might say a century and three-quarters. Such a work was begun in the Ottoman Empire a hundred years ago. It was begun in China fully eighty years ago. Yet in none of these countries until the present day has there arisen an imperative demand on the part of the Christians of the race concerned for the taking over into their own hands of the instrumentalities of Christian education or evangelization. The causes of this fact are not simple. They are not the same in all cases. The fact is however significant. In China the appreciation of western education is very recent. In India the Christian body is very poor and little used to initiative or responsibility. It looks to government to sustain some of its privileges, to the missions to maintain others. In the Ottoman Empire the pattern was set in the case of Robert College at Constantinople and then of the Syrian Protestant College at Beirut, and in the Woman's College in Constantinople, of a corporate organization for EDUCATION IN JAPAN 247 these institutions free of missionary control. In the case of Robert College this step was rendered necessary by the unwisdom of the missionary board concerned. It was taken however by the foreigners themselves, Ottoman subjects being admitted on American initiative to participation in the control. The lack of homogeneity from the point of view of either race or faith in its constituency would have made any other course impossible. In Japan however the issue was almost immedi- ately drawn and the decision had influence upon missionary relations in Japan from their very earliest history. Few can really have had insight into the universal significance of the facts with which they dealt. The transaction made possible, as we now see, the expansion of the Doshisha into a real university acknowledged by the imperial government. The university is Japanese in its responsibility and Christian in its spirit. It is representative of the independent Japanese church which leads in the movement for the unification of all the churches. It bears relation to the life of learning in the land which it could hardly have acquired under foreign auspices. On the other hand it could certainly not have achieved this position without loyal foreign aid. As was intimated in the paragraph on China, there has been discussion of the idea of a Christian university in all these lands. The discussion has naturally been most acute in Japan where the government universities are of a high order. The project is mooted ever afresh of a union university on a grand scale under missionary auspices. The project has taken no definite form as yet. Perhaps the scale of the institution projected leads men, especially foreigners, to overlook the beginnings which have already been made in a case like that of the Doshisha, of a Christian university under Japanese control. It is debatable whether an in- stitution really under Japanese auspices, even if small, is not far preferable to a larger institution under foreign guidance and upon foreign responsibility, no matter how liberally minded those responsible may be. Or, to put it differently, it is debatable whether an institution of this latter sort, even if it should be called into being by foreigners, would not have to pass out of the hands of the foreigners before it really fulfilled its purposes. In other words, it may be 248 WEST AND EAST doubted whether such an institution would not have, in its maturity and with difficulty, to go through the same crisis through which the Doshisha went with relative ease in the suppleness of its youth. There is still a third possibility, which a university like the Waseda suggests. An endowed institution of Japanese origin and control, under a private corporation and without religious affiliation, may yet be able to do some things which the state universities cannot, and some others possibly which the mission colleges cannot. In the spirit of its illustrious founder, the Count Okuma, the Waseda has not indeed been committed to Christianity, but it has not been obliged to stand in the same negative attitude toward the whole question of religion which has appeared to be proper in the case of the national universities. At bottom there are two questions relating to a university under the Christian name. The one is the question of the desirability and the other is that of the feasibility of such a scheme. Where the state institutions, theoretically strictly neutral in the matter of religion, are of so high an order as are those in Japan, one ought not to embark upon such a project as that of the founding of a Christian university without a very clear idea. If the intention were that of even an indirect propaganda we should certainly jeopardize the very ideal of a university. The ideal of a Christian university is one difficult to establish with precision, even against the background of a tradition of education like that which has obtained in the eastern states of the American Union. Yet it appears to be demonstrated in the American experience that an endowed institution can do certain things in relation to religion which an institution supported from taxation cannot properly do. It can officially maintain the opportunity and privilege of Christian worship. It can also give Christianity a plan in the curriculum, a standing among the other subjects of learned and adequate discussion. It can thus give the life of the university community a religious expression. All attempts to teach religion without teaching any particular religion have thus far, both in Japan and in America, fallen short of any serious effect . An attempt to maintain a religious atmosphere which is not the atmosphere of any particular religion is of doubtful success. The ideal JAPAN 249 of a university free to acknowledge its Christian quality and at the same time vindicating in the treatment of these subjects its scientific character is the same in Japan that it is in America. It is an ideal which is fully within the rights of an endowed institution. It is practically beyond the proprieties of a state institution. It is a difficult ideal. It is hard for a university of the one type to avoid discriminating in favour of one religion. It is equally difficult for a university of the other type to avoid discriminating against all. It is however a clear ideal. There is no need to claim that it is the only ideal. We have no cause however to be in doubt as to the place of such an institution in the life and culture of a nation as a whole. The feasibility of the establishment of such an institution, say in Japan, is another question. The primary constituency in such an institution would certainly be the youth of the Christian communities. It would be of those who desired an education as good as that which the state offers and desired something besides, which the state is not able to offer. If youth from any other circles chose to attend such a university that would be their own affair. With the perplexity in which sober spirits in Japan are at this moment as to religious questions, with the anxiety which they feel about public and private morals, the number of non-Christians resorting to a Christian university might possibly be not small. That would depend however altogether upon its being a good university, as good as those which the state sustains. It must not offer its Christianity as an offset to the learning which it lacks and freedom which it denies. It must offer this in addition to all the other things which it possesses. This is the inviolable condition of success. We must disabuse our minds of the idea that because of its competition with the state such a university must needs at once be conspicuous or that the resort to it must be great. Not at all. The primary constituency of such an institution would naturally be small. It could be made great at once only by the university's attempting some unnatural thing. The possibilities of its support would grow as its constituency grew. The qualities of which we speak would carry the appeal of such an institution into circles which are perfectly 250 WEST AND EAST able to pay for it. It is conceivable that, in the anxiety concerning religion and morals to which we referred, an anxiety which is far more widespread in Japan just now than many persons believe, such a university might make rapid progress. What we are saying is that such a university must be a Japanese and not a foreign affair. At the same time it is clear that the little Japanese Christian communities, which are still largely among the poor, can hardly be expected to create such an institution without aid. If they must do this, progress will be slow. They should have help at this juncture of men of insight in the western world. The strain of the support of such an institution at the highest level of technical efficiency, as over against the lavish expenditure and perfect organization of the government institutions, would be a grave problem. Finally it must be acknowledged that the state has shown justifiable reserve as to recognition of any private institutions, and particularly of those of foreign and religious affiliations. It hesitates to put any of these upon a par with the state institutions. Recognition carries with it not merely access to all professions and to all forms of public service but also certain modifications of the compulsory military duty. It is natural that the govern- ment should withhold this recognition except in the cases where it really can no longer be denied. The attainment of this recognition by even a few Christian institutions, the Doshisha among them, constitutes therefore high praise. From the early days of the development of western educa- tion among them the Japanese were made aware of the strained relations which existed between education, especially in its natural-scientific aspects, and the current theology and religion of western lands. These were the early years of the decade of the seventies. The Syllabus of Errors and the Decree of Infallibility had fixed the position of the Roman Catholic Church in antagonism to many things modern. The position thus taken has made difficult the participation of the Roman Catholic missions in the higher education of any of the lands of which we speak. The case was not widely different in many of the Protestant bodies. Many scientific men and philosophers in England, on the continent and in America, saw no reason for compromise JAPAN 251 with any religion. Materialism appeared to many to be triumphant. Men were as sure as they had been at the end of the eighteenth century that the days of Christianity were numbered. Conversely in many devout circles it was felt that no quarter was to be given to the sciences. Two disparate views of the nature and origin and destiny of the universe, including man, faced one another. We read the laboured apologetic of those days, with its violent assault upon the doctrine of evolution, with a sense that it is as remote from us as are the arguments of Bishop Butler. They seem to us even more remote because on the whole the argument was so much less consistent and able than was that of Bishop Butler. Some of the men of learning drawn together from western countries for the purpose of the founding of the University of Tokyo told the Japanese that Christianity was hopelessly discredited in its own lands. Many shrewd and silent Japanese youth at Oxford or Harvard, in Paris or Berlin, witnessed what they took to be convincing proofs of that discrediting. Indeed had it stood by the objurgation of some of the loudest defenders of the faith in those days Christianity would have been discredited. On the moral side the case was not much better. These were the days in which a Japanese gentleman expressed to a friend his deep concern on behalf of his son who had fallen under the influence of missionaries. The father feared that he might become a Christian. " Send him to America," was the reply, " he will there see that which will cure him of all such desires." What wonder if leadership in education on the part of missions and the Christian community was never attained in any such measure as we have seen in the case of China. The little that had been gained was soon lost. A movement indifferent to religion and in part actually hostile to it began almost at once, and precisely among those who were deeply interested in foreign education. It was a movement against the western religion which had amongst its consequences an effort to revive Shintoism as the Japanese state religion. It was not immediately perceived that Shintoism was even more difficult of combination with the modern scientific view of the universe than was popular Christianity. There 252 WEST AND EAST had been a short time during which things foreign were in favour, even including the Christian religion. Things western, from the most important to the very details of dress, had been popular because they were foreign. Then came a period when many of the same things were rejected for the same reason , namely, that they were foreign . Everything Japanese was to be restored. Everything western was to be rejected, except that which was necessary to those phases of progress upon which the Japanese people had set their hearts. The oscillation was trying. This reassertion of a racial sentiment which had never been entirely in abeyance was however a fortunate thing for the Christian movement in Japan. It left in the Christian communities only those who had inner reason for remaining. It was an equally fortunate thing for Japan as a whole. It rendered certain that whatever was permanently to influence the Japanese would not lie on the surface of their life. It would have to pass through the Japanese mind. It would not merely be imitated by them, it would be assimilated. If it could not be assimilated it would be repudiated. Many things which the Chinese at the present moment think they have adopted they have merely grasped with their hands. They would still be the same Chinese if one were to wrest these things out of their hands. In Constantinople also much of that concerning which large words are made, is yet utterly superficial and seems likely to remain so. The parallel condition was only a momentary one with the Japanese. The assimilative powers of the race asserted themselves almost instantly. That which it took it made its own. That which it could not make its own it gave up again. The putting on and off again of European garments on the part of a considerable part of Japanese society was quite typical. Western garments may still be esteemed practical by certain Japanese for certain purposes. But those elements of western life which the Japanese have not put off like a rejected garment have gone into their flesh and blood. Western education remains indeed in some sense western. In origin it must always be that. That is a mere historic fact. Yet nothing is clearer than that it has become Japanese education in its inmost fibre and in its farthest ramification. Western JAPAN 253 administration in Japan bears the same trait. In the farthest island or in the fastnesses of the mountains, one has the impression of having seen these details of administration before and yet of now seeing them differently. You behold on every side familiar details of European fife but nothing quite as it was in Europe. The same sentiment is leading to-day to the nationalization and naturalization of Christian impulses and of the Christian faith in Japan in a degree to which no other nation holds a parallel. It is creating an indigenous church where otherwise we should have had for a long time only an exotic institution or rather, a series of more or less successful imitations of our sects. It is this sentiment which at one time made the name of missionary odious to the Japanese. If therewith were implied a national inferiority of the Japanese, the continuance of tutelage, the domination which the foreigner naturally exerted at the first, the missionary name would still be odious. Yet no people in the world is more grateful for the aid of foreigners, whether they call themselves missionaries or not, so only that these latter offer without patronage their aid in the religious and moral, in the social or intellectual, life of the nation and leave the manner and issue of the appropriation of that which is offered to the Japanese themselves. Once the missions have taken up the position, which for the most part they have taken, there will be no more talk of the sort which was rife some years ago that the Japanese wish no more missionaries. The Japanese Christians know too well their own small numbers, their poverty and the greatness of the problem, not to be glad of sympathetic foreign help. They are quite right in being unwilling to receive this help except upon their own terms. They are quite right in feeling that the phase of missionary work which shall be useful to them has changed. There are phases of the work for which they are far more competent than the foreigner. This is true in general of evangelization, which is yet the very phase of the work which a certain type of foreigner has always been most anxious to take upon himself. It is not in evangelization, it is in education of the preachers and teachers and evangelists that the foreigner is of most value. The educational work of missions will survive when 254 WEST AND EAST the rest has faded away into success. For this educational work smaller numbers of men and women from the West will suffice. The churches do not want foreign preachers. Their evangelists are better than ours. Teaching however remains. A grand function of guidance remains for those who know how in tact to guide and to avail themselves of the oppor- tunity. In these circumstances it is however folly to send any but the best to such a land as Japan. Turning for a moment to the topic of the public education in Japan, one almost feels that by the very success of the Japanese in this field their achievement is put beyond the compass of this discussion. In other portions of our subject we have had the sense of dealing with approaches to European standards, with degrees in a process af assimilation. In the educational system of Japan we acknowledge that we speak of a magnitude which has taken its place in the realm of models. From it Europe and America have to learn. In the Baron Kikuchi's lectures, delivered before the University of London a few years ago and, in more popular form even in the chapters on education in Count Okuma's " Fifty Years of New Japan," we have full proof of this. That which Japan has achieved in the educational field in fifty years may be looked upon with emulation by some nations whose methods Japan indeed included in its study but which are bound fast in a tradition from which the Japanese are fortunately free. In theoretical discussion and discovery Japanese students devoted to research have recently had their full share. In practical application of the last results of science we have but to recall the surgery and hygiene of the Japanese army during the Russian war. When one thinks how the technical side of education is made to support the development which Japanese trade is undergoing, with also its manufactures, its arts and its agriculture, when one sees how perfectly the compulsory system bears these benefits in a measure to the humblest in the land, one is fain to say that, among all the wonders with which new Japan confronts us, there is nothing more wonderful than the educational system which the Empire has evolved. The oldest university in the United States did itself the honour in 1913-15 to invite for two years' service on its staff and JAPAN 255 as a sort of parallel to its old exchanges of professors with Germany and France, the Professor of Philosophy of Religion in the University of Tokyo. Professor Anesaki has already given to the world interpretations of Buddhism from the point of view of one who is himself a Buddhist. Without similar personal faith on the part of the author of a discussion of Christianity we should hardly judge that an interpretation of Christianity was worthy of primary consideration. That the state educational system should be essentially secular is not surprising. It would be far more surprising were it not so. As we said above the Japanese government did for a short time establish a tenuous relation to Shintoism. That relation in the end appeared to the Japanese them- selves unwise. It was not intended in any case to be inimical to the principle of absolute toleration. An interesting evidence of concern for the moral life of the nation is given however in the fact that three years ago the minister of education in the imperial government invited Shintoists, Buddhists and Christians to send representatives to an official conference upon the religious interests of the land. The fact is interesting because the Christian community in Japan is still very small compared with the others. Men are still living who can recall the placards which, before the Meiji era, stood at the cross roads declaring Christianity inimical to the state. The invitation may fairly be taken to mean that the authorities recognize the Christian move- ment as a Japanese religious movement and frankly wish to avail themselves of all the resources of religious and moral education which are at the disposal of the country. In interesting way Buddhists are endeavouring to adjust their faith to the enlightened life of new Japan . Confucianism seems to have fallen into the background. Yet in this case a parallel effort should be no more difficult than in the case of Buddhism. Rather, it should be easier. In the minds of many even of its own adherents Confucianism is not a religion, but only a moral system. It should be capable of combination with other religious elements than those which it has gathered from Taoism in China or Shintoism in Japan. Shintoism, in so far as it is purely a nature religion, can hardly live with the view of nature which science imposes. Then 256 WEST AND EAST also there is the loyalty to the Emperor and there are the loyalties to clan and family, the loyalties to masters and teachers and friends, the loyalties by which Japanese life has been bounded and which have been diligently inculcated. These have all had root in religious views which have not been unimpaired in the changes which have taken place. These loyalties are not only of exalted beauty in themselves but they are of supreme importance to the social and political life of the nation. On every hand is the stirring of religious and moral reform. One effect at least of the educational movement and even of the Christian propaganda is evidently to be, for the present at least, the regeneration of the native faiths of Asiatic men. It is to be the infusion into these faiths of other elements than those which they themselves engendered but which they may be able to make their own. Or again, the effect of this intellectual and moral stimulation may be the recovery of valid elements inherent in these religions but which have been for ages overlaid and suppressed. It is to be expected that votaries of these faiths, some of whom have become men of highest cultivation in western subjects, should eagerly seek this readjustment and renewal of their ancestral beliefs. If Shintoism and Buddhism find this adjustment difficult, can we forget that only a few years ago Christians in Europe and America found the parallel adjustment of traditional Christianity to modern philosophy and natural science and Biblical criticism extremely difficult ? Is it too much to say that in all our western countries there are large groups of Christians for whom that adjustment is still very incomplete ? Can we deny that in the minds of many Christians in our own midst that assimilation of religion with the modern world-view, which a real education requires, leaves much to be desired? Whether Buddhism in Japan or Islam in Turkey and Egypt can really make this transition, whether they can really furnish light and power to men under the new conditions as they certainly did under the old, whether, in other words, they can live with the new culture and civilization as they did with the old, that is a question for Buddhists and Mohammedans to answer. It is a question which we neither need nor dare to prejudge. In the measure in which they can do this they JAPAN 257 may have long life and much usefulness before them. In the measure in which they cannot do this, men in the new age and changed culture must look elsewhere for the moral aid which they will not willingly be without. We are here applying to those other faiths no other law than that which most of us see to be inexorably true and just for Christianity itself. So true is this that we have verily small ground to with- hold sympathy from serious men who in Japan are making the same effort on behalf of Buddhism which many are making on behalf of Christianity in our own midst. The religious values are everywhere at stake. Keligious read- justments and reinterpret ations are everywhere necessary. Those ancient faiths can hardly be expected to die without making the effort of which we speak. They certainly cannot be expected to live without making this effort. No more can we with our own Christian faith. The conditions of culture and civilization in which a living faith must do its work perpetually change. Christianity seems to us by comparison with other faiths to be so much alive, exactly because it has already many times successfully met these changes and stands ready to meet them again. Buddhism and Islam seem to us less vital because on the whole they have made so few radical changes. They have had on their part something to do with the changelessness of the Orient. The changelessness of the Orient however and now the sudden and sweeping changes which have come upon it, have something to do with the difficulties in the midst of which convinced advocates of these ancient faiths find them- selves. Yet think again how radical have been the changes through which we ourselves have but recently passed. At the moment when missionaries and founders of western education went to Japan, was that view of nature and history which now seems to us axiomatic an ancient view, long held and perfectly adjusted to the Christian faith ? Quite the contrary, it was so little adjusted that to many Christians and probably many missionaries it seemed utterly incompatible with the Christian faith. To the educational experts themselves it was new. It was so rapidly changing that the foreign teachers newly arriving in Japan probably 258 WEST AND EAST looked into the scientific periodicals to see how much the world- view had changed while they were at sea. It is but a generation ago that such a crisis as this came upon Chris- tianity in Europe and in America. It seemed to divorce a racial faith and a general culture which had lived together for a thousand years. How much more acute must that crisis be as between European culture in its most mobile aspects and say, Buddhism, which is perhaps the least mobile of the faiths of man. When one states the case thus in exaggerated and paradoxical form, it is easy perhaps for a zealot to cry that the adjustment is wholly impossible. That however, let us remind ourselves anew, is a question which not we but only the sincere and devout adherents of the faiths in question can decide. In their own view it has become necessary for these men of Japan and India to share a certain fundamental culture and civilization with ourselves. It is quite as natural that they should wish to retain the faith of their ancestors. For, after all, most men realize that faith is a much more precious possession than culture. It is naive for us to presume that those who so eagerly take our civiliza- tion must ultimately take the faith which has so long gone hand in hand with that civilization. That is at all events not to be lightly assumed. Here in our own home lands many men accept the culture and civilization but yield no inner allegiance to the faith. This is only too likely to be the case in Japan as well. There are in Japan alter- natives to the Christian faith. There are two or three religions which he nearer at hand to the Japanese than does the Christian faith and toward which some or all of the loyalties of which we have spoken impel. When one puts it in this way, one wonders not so much that efforts are being made for the resuscitation of Buddhism and Shintoism in Japan. One wonders that these efforts are not of far greater scope and urgency and enthusiasm than they are. That there is a spiritual revival of Buddhism in Japan does not admit of question. This is altogether the natural course of events, and it is a movement out of which much good may be expected to come for Japan. The primary condition of the success of such efforts is of course that the votaries of these faiths purge themselves of moral REINTERPRETATION OF RELIGION 259 evil. Into moral evil Japanese Buddhists, as also, in the stagnant areas and periods of our own religion, even Christian priests, have fallen. They must be good who would wish to revive religion and they must add to the stock of the good in other peoples' lives. It is for the good they do that religions exist. All over the earth the time is rapidly going by when that is esteemed to be good which priests do. The time is coming, notably in Japan, when priests will be esteemed only if they do good and aid others to do it. This is the primary regeneration of religions. By it in the new age old faiths will stand or fall. Of this ethical aspect of the question we shall speak in another place. For the moment however we are dealing with its intellectual aspect only. The learned interpretation of religion is by no means a substitute for religion. Nor is it even certain that the most learned interpreters must necessarily be the largest possessors of the treasure of religion. Quite the contrary. Neverthe- less, the learned interpretation bears a relation to the life of religion which is not always accorded to it in the estimate of the devout. A religion which remains long without reinterpretation in the light of the changing phases of a peoples' life becomes an element isolated, walled off from the rest of life, shut up in interminable repetitions . and a meaningless round. It descends to the level of superstition and formalism. In the East life itself has been less mobile than in the West. The changes in civilization have been less constant. The fact that Christianity has never been able in like measure to stand apart from its swiftly changing world, that its periods of stagnation have been short, that ever and anon it has been caught in the whirl of progress and compelled to restate itself, has been a blessing incom- parable. It has been a blessing well disguised from some priests and theologians, but a blessing nevertheless. There has been acute intellectual activity among the highest of the votaries of Buddhism or again of Mohammedanism, here and there, through all the ages. Just so it cannot be denied that there has been much learning and intellectual activity at times among those who have contributed to the stagnation of Christianity. It was however a learning and 260 WEST AND EAST activity which took little cognizance of the world about it. It was content to multiply its definitions and repeat its own assumptions. It spent infinite pains in elaborating conclusions from premises which it had long since ceased to examine. Incidentally one may say that these scholastic processes were much facilitated in a state of society in which there were few learned men except priests and ministers. It is salutary for Christianity that it has now to live in a world in which there are many other kinds of learning and many other classes of learned men. This benediction has now arrived for Buddhists and Confucianists and Shinto votaries in Japan. They are making acknowledgment of it. It will in time arrive even for the mollahs in Cairo. When it does arrive education in religion will no longer mean that which to-day it does mean to the hordes of intense youth in the great mosque in Cairo. It will no longer mean the repetition of that which other mollahs and preferably the most ancient mollahs, who know least about our modern world, have said. It will mean a general education in which among other questions the great question will be asked, " What has religion to say to the world and what has the world to say to religion ? " This state of things is much nearer in Japan than in Egypt. When it has fully come the education of Buddhist priests will not mean merely the learned repetition of what other Buddhists have said. It will ask what the new world in Japan has to say to Buddhism and what Buddhism has to say to the new world. There has been a vast deal of learning among the Confucianists in China. It has made such demand of its votaries, especially upon their memories, as to have injured their other powers. Yet when the change of which we are speaking comes in its fullness in China men will not ask so much what the other Confucianists have said. They will ask what the new world in China has to say to Confucianism and what Con- fucianism has to say to the new world. In the West we have no cause to be supercilious at this point. We our- selves have learned the lesson only recently and perhaps have learned it none too well. When religious education in the synagogues and in devout Hebrew homes means more than mere repetition of what the rabbis have said, when it REINTERPRETATION 261 asks what the great world has to say to Judaism and what Judaism has to say to the great world, there will be no such fatal alternative as that which now often faces these homes and synagogues, the alternative of unchangeable orthodoxy or else of complete irreligion. How long has it been since, in the centres of Christendom, religious education meant the imparting, as if it were authoritative, of a view of the universe which was formed when men could by no possibility have asked questions which we can by no possibility escape asking ? Are there no places in Christendom to-day where the treasures of devout emotion and the just dread of an irreligious life are pathetically drawn to the support of such unsupportable instruction ? In theological schools do we all even yet ask with a whole heart not what the theo- logians have said, but what the world in the twentieth century has to say to Christianity and what Christianity has to say to the world ? At that other level what do we more than the Confucianists have been doing for two millen- niums ? We have appended these reflections to the paragraph upon Japan because Japan is the land in the East where in high degree the votaries of the ancient faiths have been awakened to their emergency. Japan is the land where it has become evident to many of the votaries of Buddhism that if Buddhism has nothing to say to its present world it must give place to a religion which has something to say to that world. The learned interpretation of religion is not equivalent to religion, we repeat, yet it bears a relation to the well-being of men and religion which has not always been conceded to it. In Europe and America to-day numbers of the unlearned, men in the street, are alienated from Christianity. They think that Christianity demands of them a view of life and of the world which has become im- possible to them. The learned know that such assent is not demanded by Christianity. Much popular presentation of Christianity uses a traditional language which increasing numbers of men do not understand. They do not know exactly why they do not understand it. The popular un- belief of to-day is the learned unbelief of thirty years ago. Meantime, the learned have come around to something very 262 WEST AND EAST much more like the possibility of a potent and glorifying faith. In a manner nothing less than pitiful, that portion of the world which in the hardness of its lot and the ferocity of its struggle has most need of the uplift of religion, to-day reads the outworn books and listens to the second-hand harangues of the materialism which was current with the thoughtful a whole generation ago. The thoughtful now know that all that is changed. The real questions are different. It will take years by the vague process of filtration of ideas through the body of society for the unlearned to see that which the learned, to whom religion means anything at all, now see perfectly clearly. Precisely that thing is happening in Japan and India to-day. Some of the high minded and enlightened, in touch with all the cultivation of the world, mean to save Buddhism and Hinduism if they can. Whether they can do so is a question which no man can answer for them. It is our own familiar crisis which has come upon them with the difference that to them it is not a familiar crisis. It has been so long since they were called upon to make such a metamorphosis of faith that the arrears are enormous and the strain is great. The callow youth in college with his modicum of western learning says that which the same youth says with us : "So it is all over with religion." It is for men who know all that this youth knows and a great deal more besides to show that it is not all over with religion. The mere bonzes, the fakirs and mollahs can never do that, any more than the curls of the rabbi or the gown of the cleric can work the same miracle with us. You may meet that youth on the street of any city on the whole face of the earth to-day. There is no longer any clime which is peculiar to him. Nor is it against one religion only that he revolts. What that youth knows to-day the labourer will know to-morrow. The large part of the awakened eastern world will be without religion unless men of the type we are speaking of in this paragraph can show to their fellows that this abandonment of religion is not necessary. The stress is bringing such men to the front in Japan and in India to-day. It will bring them to the front in China and Turkey to-morrow. If they can render this service to their respective races REINTERPRETATION 263 through the ancestral faiths which have been dear to these races, it will be for us Christians to rejoice in their success, to help them in their difficulties and to do our own work loyally beside them. If they cannot render this service, then first will it be time for us to say that we must try with our Christianity to render this service in their place. Bud- dhism did have something very real and very great to say to the world of its origin in India. It must also have had something to say to Japan when fifteen hundred years later so many Japanese adopted it. It is the creed of half Japan to-day though in India it has long since ceased to play an important part. Of the three great religions of Japan, two are foreign to Japan. They came as missionary religions. They must have undergone the process of nation- alization and naturalization in Japan, of assimilation of themselves to Japan and of Japan to them. Can they undergo that process once more ? It is not that they have again to travel to a world across the sea. The world from across the sea has travelled to them. The result is the same. They have not come again to the need of natural- ization. The need of naturalization has come to them. They have only to stand still and do nothing in order to become alien religions in the new Japan, precisely as the paganism which was indigenous to Italy became an alien religion in Italy when the dying old world and the rising new world had asked the questions which Christianity alone could answer. If that happens the strange religion from the far West will be the one which will be at home in the East. It will be naturalized and assimilated and bound by a thousand ties to all the rest of the life of new Japan. In a situation like that which has been produced in Japan, immobility is death. No religion can live there without meeting the profoundest needs of the man of the new time. No new religion will take the place of the old save alone by meeting those same needs better than the old religion meets them. If it cannot meet this demand it does not deserve to take the place of the others. If it does meet this demand, nothing can prevent its taking their place. The process however may be a long one. Each of the old faiths may meantime have its own place and duty to fulfill. 264 WEST AND EAST In one sense it is a stimulating situation The best is demanded of all. I am not aware that a contention of religions for the suffrages of the sincere among men has ever taken place upon so high a plane or so much in the open and in the clear light of day. It is exactly because we have love for and faith in our own Christianity that we say that it is a solemn and inspiring sight which Japan to-day presents. Western education and enlightenment have made an unchanged Buddhism, an unchanged Confucianism or Shintoism impossible. Enlightenment only, with new zeal and consecration can show to their own votaries by what changes they may continue to be possible. Enlighten- ment only with new zeal and consecration, freedom from pettiness, provincialism and bigotry, willingness to be naturalized and nationalized, these alone can make Christi- anity worthy of the place in Japan and of the part in the religious movement of Japan which we firmly believe that it is to take. LECTURE VI EDUCATION : INDIA : THE PRESS : WOMEN THE British system of state education for India is a theme which does not need to be set forth at length in a book whose primary aim is to deal with missionary relations. A de- scription of that system is no part of the plan of these lectures. Yet that education, with the results which have flowed from it, is one of the contributions made by the West to the develop- ment of the East within the nineteenth century. The missionary system of education stands moreover in such close relation to that of the state that these questions cannot be ignored. It was to the pioneers of government education a question of grave import whether the English language was to be made the vehicle of all higher education or whether, on the contrary, effort was to be made to develop a nomen- clature in the vernaculars for all the new ideas which were being set forth to the Indians. This question those who administered the public education had indeed inherited from the missions. Alexander Duff, himself a missionary first of the Established Church of Scotland and afterwards of the Free Church, when he became practically an adviser concerning education for India under the Company, took high ground upon this question. He threw all his weight upon the side of the decision for English. A good deal that was wide of the mark was said in the early years of the discussion. Hopes were cherished which have been in part only fulfilled. It was held that the mediating of western culture to the Indian races through the English tongue would bind them to the English people with something like the sense of a common nationality. It is not certain in what measure this expectation has at any time been justified. The population of India was indeed inoculated with western 266 WEST AND EAST ideas. Among those ideas however was that of the in- dependence of India. It is exactly among educated Indians, and not infrequently among those educated in England, that many of the opponents of the continuance of British rule in India are found. Our interest in the question is mainly in its bearing upon the naturalization of western culture and of western religion in India. We see more clearly perhaps than did our fathers that the real problem is that of the actual grafting of certain foreign elements into the race life. It is that of causing to become in a real although secondary sense indigenous that which was originally exotic. It is that of the assimi- lation of the whole basis of western civilization to an eastern people and of the people to it. We are less confident than was Macaulay, for example, of the exclusive value of our own culture. We are better aware than were the men of his generation of the greatness and worth of much of Indian thought in the past. We read with amazement his praise of English literature, as if it were axiomatic that the literary taste of the Indian was to be formed upon the models of English poetry and prose. It was equally axiomatic to others in Macaulay's time that the religious feeling of the Hindu was to be cultivated by the English literature of religious experience. The men of that age were oblivious of much that is quite obvious to us. Upon some of the points concerned our minds would probably work in a manner precisely opposite to that adopted by the men upon whom these important decisions fell. From our point of view, if the question of the language of instruction were to arise as a new question, the practice of conducting instruction in a foreign language would probably be accepted as a necessary evil, a mere expedient which for a time could not be avoided. It would be quite clear that it should be but a temporary expedient. Nothing is nearer to a people than language. A teacher who for a longer period is content not to learn the language of his pupils deprives himself of the possibility of understanding his pupils no matter how well he may understand his subject. It may be doubted whether masses of people ever learn profoundly anything except that which they learn in their own tongue. EDUCATION IN INDIA 267 There were however practical considerations affecting the decision on the side of the English language which was then taken. Some of them are still valid. Many of the dialects of India had not at that time been reduced to writing. Most of them have been reduced to writing in the interval, mainly by missionaries for the purpose of the translation of the Bible and of instruction in the rudiments of Christianity. The great literary language of India, the Sanskrit, is as remote from the masses of the people as Latin would be in our higher schools. To this day English is the one means of communication of large elements of the Indian population the one with the other. The experience of the Indian National Congress illustrates this fact. Its discussions are conducted in English, although the members of the Congress would have only too good reason for wishing to conduct their arguments in any other language were this possible. The English language is a unifying element in Indian culture. The relation of such education to the civil service and the wide participation of Indians in that service since the Mutiny make that the hold of English over a considerable portion of the population of India has grown greater rather than less with the lapse of years. The growth of Indian national feeling with the antagonism to Great Britain has not changed this in the least. If the government of India were to pass into the hands of the Indians, English would still be the language of communication between India and the outside world. It would probably be for a long time the basis of higher education in India. The practice of the courts and the administration of government would probably still retain decisive impress of the period of English rule. A practical adjustment was long since found and every- where prevails. It is that English shall constitute in all the later years of school and university training not merely a subject of study. It shall be, as well, the vehicle of in- struction in some other studies. On the other hand, in all the lower grades, in primary and intermediate schools, the vernaculars only are to be thus used. Nevertheless, even this relation of the English language to education in India has been to some extent the secret of the foreign cast which state and private and missionary educational institutions 268 WEST AND EAST still all wear. It is in part the cause of the tendency to denationalization which is bitterly complained of. This tendency some of the votaries of the higher education in the past have certainly showed. Contrast with other countries is suggestive at this point. The educated classes are not denationalized in Japan. English was for only a very limited period the language of instruction in Japan, even in the most difficult scientific subjects. Japanese national sentiment overcame this obstacle as it has overcome many others. The response in this connection is a ready one. India is no nation in the sense in which Japan is a nation. India is a congeries of peoples. It is broken and cleft in all directions by differences of language and culture, by ancient racial antipathies, by religious predilections and by the attractions and repulsions of caste. India is only the name of a place on the map. It has from time immemorial been bound together, in so far as it has been bound at all, by the external pressure of a conqueror. From an indefinite past Indians have looked up to a foreign ruler. No con- queror ever set foot upon Japanese soil. China fell under the sway of the Manchus at a period when the Mogul Empire in India was already declining. China has also many dialects and several languages. The provinces have been in their administration so nearly sufficient to themselves that the Chinese have been reproached with lack of national sentiment. Yet China is far more truly a racial and national unit than is India. It has often been said that in the East religion takes the place which is filled in the West by nation- ality. The observation is particularly true if one is thinking of the nations of Islam. The Moslem is a Moslem and has a fellow feeling for a brother Moslem everywhere. Questions of the colour of the skin practically disappear among those who are united by the bond of the faith of the Prophet. These antipathies disappear far more completely than they ever yet have done among Christians, despite the Christian preaching of the brotherhood of man. In India there are many Mohammedans. Yet the fact that Islam has no caste practically makes of it a new caste. The fact that Christianity cuts across all the castes makes of it a new caste. Religion has done very little and caste has done less in India EDUCATION IN INDIA 269 for that sentiment of humanity, that conception of the value of man as man, upon which depends that amelioration of many ills of the body social and politic to which cultivated Indians now aspire. It is difficult to see how democratic and representative government can exist without this sentiment for man as man. Meantime it would be true to say that a large part of the population of India knows little of these agitations and aspirations. It is quite ignorant of the changes which are taking place in the world at large or even in India. The disproportion between those who can read even in their own dialect and the whole population is still, after all the efforts which have been made, portentous. A large part of the people is hardly above the level of the direst poverty. It is preoccupied with its own miseries. It is certainly in some ways less miserable than it has been under any rule of India of which we know, but it is more conscious of its misery and that after all is the greatest misery. In these circumstances, it is not surprising if the attention of government, of missions and of private philanthropy has been drawn to industrial education in India on a scale never before known. We have said that industrial education is too expensive for missions to enter upon in a large way. It requires moreover for its successful issue relations to trade which it is probably wise that missions should shun. Such relations missions except those of the Moravians have usually shunned. Industrial education would seem to be peculiarly the province of government. Such education bears close relation to those aspects of the welfare of a people which a modern and civilized state, if it neglects in one way, is bound to care for in another. If it fails to deal with the causes of plague or of famine it is forced to deal with their consequences. The Mogul government cheerfully neglected the one as much as the other. Frequency of famine in India is held to bear relation not alone to the insufficient rain and its uncertainty, but also to the uniformity of occupation of the population throughout the whole vast area. Irrigation and the creation of facilities for transportation the government has under- taken. Even the state however stands baffled at the necessity of changing directions and proportions of employment in 270 WEST AND EAST so huge a country. A large proportion of the population lives upon the brink of starvation in any case. Any change in the economic equilibrium, even if ultimately beneficial, drives many over that brink. The missions have had from the beginning their own reasons for feeling the value of industrial education. They have cause to wish that they could participate in this form of education far more largely than they do. Their converts have often lost caste and therewith been deprived of means of livelihood. Or again, they have been outcasts and never had any worthy means of livelihood. The problems of the physical maintenance of the little Christian communities has often been a pressing one. The general philanthropic claim makes itself felt in the missions if anywhere. The missions have had their full share in the collection and distribution of funds for relief of famine. They have rendered great service in the matter of the care of orphans after periods of famine or of plague. Men and women without a dollar to their credit have assumed the care of thousands of children at such times. Some of these children, babes in arms when they were taken, were certain to be upon the hands of the missionaries for a decade. The initiative shown by individual missionaries and their skill in the solution of certain problems thus forced upon them has been remarkable. The government has readily recognized that service. Emergencies have brought govern- ment and missions close together. There has been an organic relation between them which, except for brief moments and in small way, has never existed in any other land. This was not wholly due to the fact that both govern- ment and missionaries were foreigners. Blood is thicker than water. In crises, as in long agony of the Mutiny, the Briton knew how to trust to the character of his fellow Briton or American. Yet the theoretical position of the government has always been that of strict religious neutrality. The actual position in the old days of the Company and under many high functionaries in more recent times has been that of hostility to the missions. The real reason of their modern approach the one to the other lay in the fact that when the state awoke to its duty the missions were already there doing both educational and philanthropic work. They had a plan INDIA 271 and the personnel before the government had either. It would have been stupid of the government not to avail itself of mission experience. Once they had launched themselves upon it, the task was so much too large for the strength of either that it would have been inexcusable had they not in some way joined hands. The result has been a system of government grants in aid of missionary schools, particularly of industrial schools, which has created a situation peculiar to the English dominions and largely in evidence only in India and South Africa. Government has come to the aid of the missions in problems for the common good. It has permitted the missions to come to its aid. It has done this, as we were saying, not alone in the matter of industrial training, although this was the phase of the work which lay nearest at hand. Do what it would, the government has felt the inadequacy of its own apparatus for meeting so vast an obligation. In return for its grants in aid the government stipulates nothing except that the schools shall be subject to official inspection. They shall maintain certain standards and conform to certain rules which government and the representatives of all aided education have agreed upon as advisable. The grants in aid have been extremely valuable to the missions. They amount sometimes to a large part of the cost of the main- tenance of certain mission schools. Government inspection also is a thing of highest value to the mission schools. It holds them to a standard imposed by those who have been appointed as experts in education. In the old days mis- sionaries had almost never been trained as educators. They had been trained as ministers. Under stress they had added the function of teaching after they reached their field. This is now far less true than in former years. Even now however very few commissioned missionaries have been directly appointed as educational experts. Government inspection incorporates what would otherwise be isolated schools of a peculiar character into a great endeavour in the midst of which they find themselves assigned an honourable place. Government inspection tends to prevent that injurious contrast between education in general and education con- ducted under religious auspices which has sometimes 272 WEST AND EAST appeared. On the side of the government benefits are hardly less obvious. The chief of these advantages is that there has thus been placed at the disposal of the government a body of instructors, both men and women, of an elevation of character and purity of purpose the worth of which the government has never failed gratefully to acknowledge. The government has thus won for its service men and women who knew the language and intended to remain in the country. It has brought to its aid those who knew the people by long residence among them and whom the people knew and looked to without suspicion or reproach. Aided schools are pro- tected against one temptation into which zealous men and women have not infrequently fallen. This is the temptation to offer an eagerly desired education as a bait to bring some who might otherwise be difficult to reach within the range of a religious propaganda. Where such motives obtain there may be no guarantee that the education offered is of superior sort. Even where this is not the case, there inheres in the transaction an indirection which is the very contrary of that atmosphere in which true education can proceed. Schools which receive grants in aid from government are naturally prohibited from offering direct religious instruction, except under circumstances in which those who attend that instruction do so of their own choice. On the other hand, there is no restraint upon the exertion of private and personal influence according to a teacher's own convictions over those who willingly put themselves under that influence. There is a small number of Mohammedan lower and secondary schools over which government supervision is extended and to which state aid is granted. It is well known, moreover, that the Indian universities give official recognition and the government grants aid in support of the College in Aligarh in the Punjab, founded by Moham- medans, conducted exclusively by Mohammedans and attended largely by Mohammedans. Forman College in Poona represents the same relation to Hinduism. The government demands nothing except that the college shall be declared by the inspectors to do standard college work. Undoubtedly the state would be willing to patronize like institutions of this INDIA 273 and other faiths in India in far greater measure than it has yet had opportunity to do. We may feel sure that the government was glad to find a Mohammedan institution which it could thus sustain when once it had launched upon the policy of grants in aid to Christian colleges and schools. The smallness of the number of Mohammedan colleges and universities, even in the strongholds of the Moslem world, is however in striking contrast with the number of excellent educational institutions which the Christian propagandists have established in those very same centres where at first the Christian movement had no constituency at all. Even where such Moslem schools and colleges which offer a real education have come into being, they usually owe their existence to Christian stiumulus and example, to the necessity of offering a counterpoise in the realm of education to that which the Christian communities had done. This remark applies also to the Mohammedan University in Cairo and to others projected at Constantinople and elsewhere. Strangers are often impressed when they learn of the vast numbers of students in the schools for the Koran, like that in Cairo, from which a far-reaching missionary activity has gone out. The numbers are impressive. The zeal gives one food for thought. Such schools however do not come within the compass of this discussion. They do not offer education. Nothing whatever is studied except the Koran. Even these studies merely follow the tradition. They conform to no scientific principles such as the Mohammedan University at Cairo or the government higher schools or the mission colleges seek to apply to the study of Mohammedanism and the Koran. Returning, however, to the question of the aided Christian schools in India, it is of course open to any religious body to say that it cannot conscientiously submit to conditions like those outlined above. It is open to the board supporting these schools to say that it ought not to use for education conducted under these auspices funds given with a view to religious propaganda. It may say that it does not wish to enter into such relations with a state proclaiming religious neutrality. Such missionary institutions would still have a legitimate field in the training of the children of Christian 274 WEST AND EAST converts. They might have in addition a constituency among the youth of those non- Christian families who still wished to use the school in full knowledge of the position which it had taken upon the religious question. This last class is not always small. Yet we may rejoice that on the whole the missions have not taken the course just outlined. It is the other position which, after all, more nearly accords with the best tradition of Christian education in our own land. It is the position which affords the greater oppor- tunity for the real Christianization of the life of foreign lands. With all that has been said in sympathy with industrial and lower education as having relation, on the one hand to the necessities of the peoples of India and, on the other, to the development of the land, we ought not to lose sight of the opposite side of the case. It is indeed to be conceded that one effect of a widely disseminated higher education has been the raising up of a far greater number of men academically trained than can at present find work commensurate with their attainments. The Indian has apparently an almost instinctive desire to serve the govern- ment. There are still few employments apart from the service of the government to which the educated Indian can turn. There has thus come into being in India what has been called an educational proletariat. Out of this circle many of the disturbers of the peace in India come. There is an educational proletariat in Russia. There also it is a menace to society. From it are recruited in a measure the ranks of the revolutionists. Out of it emerge occasion- ally those whose ideas and spirit are the hope of the future. Out of it come also some whose fanaticisms jeopardize the very hopes they cherish. Many of the revolutionists in India are disappointed university men. They affect the temper of the universities themselves. They are the mal- contents and enemies of the existing order which every such situation produces. They are far more dangerous than they would be if they had not been educated. Yet, when all is said, it has been by the aid of the old higher education which first the state, or rather the Company, and then the missions, were eager to establish, that an Indian leadership INDIA 275 of the Indian peoples under British rule has been raised up. This competent and honourable Indian leadership has been manifest in many things which make for the best life of India. The educational institutions founded early in the nineteenth and even late in the eighteenth century looked to the education of leaders. The pioneers founded colleges which looked forward to becoming universities. They let schools follow afterward. We observed a like fact in Japan and China. A more conspicuous example still is the edu- cational work of American Protestants in the Ottoman Empire, a work which has had unparalleled significance for the transformation of that Empire. They all began at the top, that is, with the colleges. The Puritan Fathers also began with Harvard College and let the general school system of the colony follow afterward. Apparently it is only t 1 ^ nineteenth century instinct which would lead us to reverse the process and to say that effort should have begun with the industrial schools. It should then have advanced to primary and secondary schools and only at last have arrived at the college and university. Whatever logic there may be in this instinct the historical order has been the reverse. The pioneers of whom we are speaking had this instinct of leadership, and perhaps if there had been no leaders such as the colleges raised up there would have been no state to need primary schools and industries. It is clear concerning the Ottoman Empire that had there been no leaders such as Robert College and the Syrian Protestant College raised up, there would have been no modern Turkey which now is asking for primary schools and industries. Similarly, had there been no Indian leaders such as the colleges and universities have bred there would have been indeed a government in India, but not the one which Indians now in large part ably administer for themselves. It is the old higher education which has fitted not a few native princes to rule under the British crown with a freedom and responsibility which the crown has been only too glad to accord to them. It is the old higher education which has given to editorial work many men who are well fitted, through the Anglo-Indian and vernacular press, to shape public sentiment and whose 276 WEST AND EAST labours we forget when we think only of the incendiary press. It is the old higher education which has filled the ranks of the real reformers, labouring for the amelioration of every aspect of the life of these peoples, whom also we are prone to forget when we think of the mere agitators. It is the old higher education which has brought about that which one may meet everywhere in India, gentlemen who are the peers of men of highest European culture. One thinks of the background of these men. We recall that we are not here in the area in which there is but slight trace of an older culture. We remind ourselves of the rich Sanskrit in- heritance and of the achievements of the Indian peoples, notably in philosophy and jurisprudence. We realize the strong dislike of European civilization which is found practi- cally everywhere in the East. We own that India is more oriental than any other eastern land. Then we begin to realize the magnitude of that which has been accomplished. So ordered a participation in the government on the part of a subject people has had no parallel, so far as we know, under any foreign rule which the world has seen. Such an extension of the subtle and interior benefits of one civilization for free participation on the part of the children of another, seeks its like. Such a mediation as these men to whom we refer accomplish by their labours and constitute in their very presence, between two worlds of culture to both of which they mean to be perfectly loyal, is of quite incom- parable worth, and that both to India and to Europe. It is the prophecy of that which we may hope some day to see in all the other nations of the earth as well. If in the matter of the lower and popular education the missions were in the field before the government, in the provision for the higher education the initiative was with the state, or rather with the Company, which in such curious fashion shared certain of the functions of a state. The inauguration of this education was due to some of the functionaries of the Company of whom we have not always spoken in high commendation. It was Warren Hastings who in 1782 founded the College at Calcutta and for some years maintained it at his own expense. His purpose was described by Sir John Strachey in these words : "He desired INDIA 277 to educate the Mohammedan population of Bengal in order that they together with the Hindus may qualify themselves for the state service, more especially in juris- prudence." It was Lord Wellesley who appointed to the same Calcutta College Carey, " the consecrated cobbler," who meantime had become a distinguished Sanskrit scholar. It was in 1791 that the College at Benares was founded " primarily for the study of the law, the literature and the religion x>f the Hindus, that these might render skilled assistance in legal matters to the European judges." Medical schools were instituted by Lord William Bentinck in 1835. Amidst all the confusion of the Sepoy mutiny three universities were founded, namely : Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, and a resolution was taken to proceed in the largest way with public education. It may be that the optimistic views advanced by the Anglo-Indian School Commission in 1883 have proved in part illusory. It may be that the last report of the Commission of Investigation appointed by Lord Curzon is on the whole too discouraging. Asia is not Europe. Calcutta is not Oxford or the University of Edinburgh. It is certainly true that the great endeavours which England has made for education in India are a two- edged sword. Dangerous consequences of the freedom and enlightenment which England has accorded are just now much talked of although tendencies which show the loyalty of India to England are of even greater significance. Even were not this last statement true, what could England do ? How could she be conceived to have acted otherwise ? Certainly that is interesting testimony which is offered by Vambery, a Hungarian Jew, distinctly predisposed against any religious influence whatsoever of Occident upon Orient. He has declared concerning the generation which has arisen in India under the present system of education, that, " if not in an intellectual, yet at all events in a moral sense it is favourably distinguished from all its predecessors." " It is this moral side of the neo-Hindu," he continues, " which promises so much. This moral stability is a feature not often seen among western Asiatics brought up in contact with European civilization. It has seldom shown itself among Turks, Arabs or Persians. It is the absence of moral 278 WEST AND EAST principle which has shipwrecked all attempts at civilization in the western Islamic world." Strongly conservative Orientals and also some superficial observers among Europeans have declared that with the entrance of our culture the primitive virtues of the Asiatic have been destroyed. They allege that the Oriental while he was yet untouched was more faithful, more honest and responsible than the Asiatic who has been educated upon European principles. It is only too easy in any eastern land to find illustrations which support this judgment. Of the man educated according to western standards who mean- time has lost all hold upon the social, moral and religious maxims which guided his ancestors, this may be true. The decline of one set of ideals without the substitution of another may well be expected to have this effect. A similar effect is possible and even common with the half-educated in our own land. It happens to those who pass sharply from one moral climate to another. This is not true however of those Asiatics in whose case the intellectual and spiritual development takes place upon a solid basis and upon any greater scale. Partial education is often the fate of Orientals who have visited European countries. They have no entree to those circles in which a deeper insight would have been given them. They return alienated from their own peoples, full of pretentiousness and at the same time victims of misapprehension concerning Europe or America. - It is no contradiction if the very next phase of their development is that they join the ranks of the bitterest enemies of European influence. They are renegades from one home without having been adopted into another. Of the diligent and thorough however, of the earnest-minded and the just, of those who love their own country well enough to wish to see all that is best in the life of other countries placed at its disposal, the case is widely different. The integrity of Indian judges is famous. Their ruling by code and precedent and without fear or favour is well known. Yet these are traits alien to the oriental mind, if all that we know of oriental history does not mislead. Energy and initiative and unflagging patriotism, these are traits not always found among Asiatics. They are traits which in India become INDIA 279 more and more characteristic under tie conditions which the stable and fundamentally just rule of Great Britain has imposed. There has been a great awakening of the sentiment of humanity and of pity for the poor and oppressed, which are in striking contrast to the old anti-social sentiments which caste hallowed. This is full of promise for the future. There has come an increasing sense of shame at the re- membrance of many cruel things which in the past have been done in India in the name of religion, and which many Indians feel with humiliation to be identified in western minds with Hinduism. The industries of India must some day show in high relief the same qualities of the Hindu which are now revealed in his government and in his philanthropies. In the era of transition everything is being done to safe- guard, if possible, the old domestic arts and crafts. In the end it may be that these must suffer if not be destroyed. The domestic industries have been largely destroyed in England and in Switzerland and Italy. They are being destroyed in Syria and Asia Minor. The factory chimneys in the suburbs of Bombay or of Damascus predict a change from which India and Syria can no more escape than have Osaka or Hankow. The Hindu who, a little more than a generation ago, lived in strictest seclusion, who starved if a livelihood did not come to him in his seclusion, now commits himself to the " black water." He goes in search of work all over the world, he sends back money to his native land, he returns to spend what he has earned. Again, he takes his family with him and looks to permanence in his new abode. He has seen other men and races. He has received a material supplementing of his education or even an appre- ciable substitute for an education, in that which he has seen. There are Indian merchants in every greater city in Europe, America or Australia. There are Indian labourers in Mauritius and Jamaica, in Demerara and Trinidad, in Columbia and Fiji, in the Straits Settlements and Surinam, in Natal and East Africa. In spite of all this, or because of it, there has come also an actual resuscitation of the racial feeling for India, an awakening and universalizing of Indian sentiment, an intensification of Indian self-con- 280 WEST AND EAST sciousness, an enlargement of national hope, ambition and resolve. Rather, perhaps, we should say that there has come the creation of a national self-consciousness and loyalty which never before existed. Closely related to the matter of education is that of the influence of the press. In many of the centres of the oriental world, especially in the Ottoman Empire, the first printing presses were set up by missionary societies and in conjunc- tion with the work of the missionary colleges. They were thus established because even the work of the college itself could not be carried beyond its rudimentary step without the press. They were set up because by the press the in- fluence of the college could be carried far beyond its own walls. They were thus established because those who were interested primarily in the translation of the Bible and then in the production of vernacular literature were likely to be connected with the colleges. Even where, as in India, printing establishments were set up in the same period at the instance of the government, the men who were connected with education were entrusted with the work of publication as well. The missions and the presses worked hand in hand. In Japan the press was from the first an independent factor in the educational movement and one of varied influence. It was never in any great degree under the influence of foreigners. In China also the example set of the political and commercial and social uses of the press in the foreign communities in the old treaty ports was quickly followed by the Chinese themselves. The missions however and Christian literature societies had also developed a great activity. As the influence of the press extended and the aspects of its work were multiplied it became an inde- pendent factor, touching every phase of life in the East just as it does in the West. The general influence of the press in the transformation of the East has been hardly less than that of the educational movement or of the missions. The present civilization and culture of the West cannot be conceived without books and periodicals and newspapers and the manifold influences which depend upon the printed page. As little can the changes which have taken place in the East be thought of apart from this influence. Twelve THE PRESS 281 years ago one might have held in his hand at Peking a copy of the tiny yellow-covered Imperial Gazette. He could scarcely do so without a curious sensation. He was told that items of official announcement from the court had been printed from block type and issued practically in this same form centuries before the so-called discovery of print- ing in Europe and the epoch-making application of that discovery at Venice and in Germany. This was the ancestor of all the newspapers. . Yet there were no other newspapers in China until less than two generations ago. England was still in the Dark Ages and America was undiscovered when the Peking Gazette is alleged to have been first published. Europe received a vast impulse through the invention of printing. The presses at Niirnberg and Rome and Paris created for the learned a new universe as compared with that in which men had copied rare and jealously- guarded manuscripts on costly materials by the slow labour of the hand. Printing was discovered in Europe only a few years before the fall of Constantinople and the voyages of the Portuguese navigators in the East and of the Spaniards with Columbus to the West. Yet until the middle of the eighteenth century the spread of the benefits of that discovery to the common people even in Europe was relatively slow. The enormous modern expansion of the influence of the press has taken place since the middle of the nineteenth century. The invention of the telegraph to gather news, of railways to distribute printed product, the cheapening of paper, the great proportionate increase of the numbers of those who can read, the unexampled growth of publishers' business in all portions of the earth, these factors have all had to do with the result. They have had their full significance in the West in the life-time of men now living. They have entered into the life of the East practically at the same time that they have so largely modified life in the West. In other words, that which Europe has been fifteen genera- tions in developing has been given in an instant to the Orient. The distance from Gutenberg's Bible or the grand folios of the Aldine presses to the sensational newspaper, Europe travelled in four hundred years. India has travelled a similar distance in a generation and a half, Japan in a genera- 282 WEST AND EAST tion. In Turkey also the Bible was the first book printed but the yellow journal has arrived. Goethe once said, "It is humiliating to think what time we waste in the reading of mere newspapers and periodicals, literature of the most ephemeral worth, even if we can truly assign to it any worth whatsoever." If the sage in little Weimar could so speak at the beginning of the nineteenth century, what would he say in New York at the beginning of the twentieth ? There was a certain compensation in the days of few and expensive books. It was that most books which got themselves printed had worth and few people knew how to read at all except those that cared to read that which had worth. One sometimes thinks that the possibility of culture has been brought to the doors of the average man through the vast organization which we possess for the dissemination of the printed page, only to be taken away from him again by the worthlessness of most of the pages which are disseminated. We were told in the old days touching tales of the reverence of the Chinese even for the torn fragments of a letter or a printed book. Servants cherished scraps from their master's waste basket as if wisdom might exhale. One foresees that this reverence, along with certain others, will wane in new China. Yet when all is said, it remains that the modern world is incon- ceivable without an interchange of thought and the forma- tion of opinion which takes place, not more on the basis of that which we read than in spite of much of our reading. The education which takes place in schools is impossible without books. The education which begins after one leaves school and continues for the rest of life has almost exclusively books for its masters, its fellow-students and its friends. With all of the loss and despite problematical aspects of the matter the gain has been immeasurable. The world movement of the nineteenth century brought, among other things, the press from the West to the East. The press continues the world movement in the East. The press in a large measure brings the reaction from the East to the West. The assimilation which is taking place between East and West is inconceivable without the press. When the British East India Company first entered upon THE PRESS 283 a policy of education in India, one of its first steps was the establishment of the press. The purpose was the dissemina- tion of translations of standard European works. It was also the publication of writings of Indian authors whether in English or in the vernacular. If Hindus and Moham- medans were to be admitted to responsibility in public affairs they must be educated for their work. The Company patronized presses independently established as business ventures. Moreover Carey's missionary work at Serampore was in no small part the work of publication. The issuing of translations of the Bible had been the end primarily in view, but in the fostering of the mission press all of Carey's love of learning and of his practical qualities made them- selves felt. His ultimate appointment to the professorship of Sanskrit in Fort William College brought these phases of his work and that of the government into happy co-opera- tion. For mow fifty years several of the great British publishing houses have had branches in India. Yet by far the largest part of the owners of publishing business in India are Indians. There is scarcely anything which more surely attracts the attention of a traveller in India than the demand for literature of every sort from the most serious to the most ephemeral. The provision for the meeting of this demand meets him at every turn. The stranger is apt to think concerning the first shop which he has chanced upon, that he has not passed beyond the area of the trade which ministers to the foreigners in the cantonments. He thinks he must go further to see the Indian trade for Indians. The book bazaar upon which he has happened is however almost surely kept by a Hindu. Its trade is among Hindus, a large part of the books written in English which he sees upon the shelves were written by Hindus. They discuss Indian topics or represent the contribution of Indians to the litera- ture of the world. The maturer discussion of a certain range of topics is almost invariably in English. This is in order that it may reach Indians themselves. English is the only common language of the various racial elements. Yet the other side also is true. Culture in India is seeking to become democratic. To become democratic it must speak in the vernacular. It can reach but the few in English. 284 WEST AND EAST It must reach the masses in their mother tongue. There is therefore also in recent years a vast output of the Indian presses in the vernaculars. The works now being trans- lated into the native languages are no longer merely Shakes- peare and Milton, or even Mill and Spencer. They are the new additions to the literature of economics, of socialism and even of feminism. They are works both of scientific and of popular form. Books on these and similar topics are increasingly produced by Indian authors in the ver- naculars. Then there is poetry, the lyric of the people and prose for agitation among the people. This agitation often hides itself in the vernaculars. If one would really know what is going on in India he has need at all events to have friends who know many more languages than one. A generation ago certain portions of the collection known as " Sacred Books of the East " gave the western world a notion, in some sense at first hand, of the Indian religions. The Harvard Oriental Series has worked to the same effect. European scholars have wrought to bring to the West a better understanding of eastern faiths. Now however men are writing in India books of strictly scientific character, sympathetic and discerning treatments of one and another of these faiths by men who devoutly profess these faiths. It is upon such treatment of Asiatic religions, so to say from within, that a deeper understanding of these religions waits. There are histories of the various races, there are works on Indian art and archaeology, on customs and castes and sects, all of them by Indians, which vastly enrich our knowledge. In them is information which no European could have given but which, on the other hand, no Asiatic would have ever given save under an impulse and with a training in method which only European learning has inspired. Within a few years the English-speaking world has been stirred by the lyric of Rabindra Nath Tagore. An acknowledged place in English literature is thus accorded to an Indian of high caste. Religious movements in India have kept pace with the others in their increasing use of the agency of the press. The Christian movement was first in the field in this regard but the reforming movements in Brahmanism all have their THE PRESS 285 organs. In the missions there has been a constant produc- tion of literature, both for the edification of those who have already embraced Christianity and for purposes of propa- ganda among those who have not. The educated in the churches can read English, but for the grounding of the Christian movement in the real sentiment of the people, which is the only hope of perpetuity, a vernacular literature is everywhere absolutely requisite. If moreover this liter- ature can be, as it ought to be, of genuine literary quality, it will deepen the Indian Christian's love for his own language and his own land. It is evident however that this literature will have to be produced in large measure by the Indians themselves. For the literature of controversy, for the great debate which is now going on among the religious, English is the medium naturally employed. Christianity presents itself alongside of western science and philosophy in their invasion of India. The natural medium of communication concerning all three is as yet the English tongue. For apologetic among the people and still more for devotional utterance the case is the reverse. Indian propagandists realize this fact. The Somajs all have English organs but they have also papers and periodicals in the popular speech. Mr Farquhar declares that whether in the form of apologetic or in that of the utterance of its own pure joy and spontaneous power, the Christian truth which has sunk into Indian hearts will, if we may learn anything from the analogy of the past, break forth into literary expression in the vernacular. This has always been the history of religious revival in India. If one asks concerning the literary movement in Japan during the Meiji era, we are met by the spectacle of an even swifter development than that which we have seen in the case of India. There was of course a great treasure of literature from the earlier period, very dear to the Japanese, which even now is only slowly coming to the knowledge of the outside world. There was a literary revival after the end of the Kamakura period when, as in the so-called Dark Ages of Europe, learning was almost a monopoly of the monks. Classic discussions of Shinto and of Japanese Buddhism belong to this period. Much of this material is only now finding its way into print. It is however exerting 286 WEST AND EAST great influence. The cultivation of the feeling for this national literature is a phase of the return to things Japanese which everywhere makes itself felt. At the opening of the Meiji era however there was an influx of western ideas. For fifteen years after 1867 literary men were occupied largely with the task of translating European works and explaining European ways. It was felt to be the great duty of the hour to endeavour to secure the safety of the nation by the full examination and wise use of all discoverable elements which had contributed to the strength of foreign states. One might fairly speak of a European invasion of Japan at this time in literary ways and by the eager aid of the Japanese themselves. In this work of bringing to the knowledge of the nation medicine and all the natural sciences, geography and law and history, books of. English origin had a paramount place. Toyama was a graduate of Michigan University, Kikuchi of the English Cambridge. The former laid the foundations of western education in Tokio, the latter became the head of the University at Kyoto. Fukuzawa recorded in his " Condition of Western Countries " his frank impressions of Europe and America. His school, a news- paper which he founded, with his published lectures and addresses, wielded great influence. Neesima stood some- what apart from the others. Their debt to the West was largely intellectual, his was religious as well. He had im- bibed ardent Congregationalism in New England. His relation to the Doshisha has been spoken of. He exercised great literary influence too. Darwin and Spencer were from the first entrenched in Tokio University. Evolution was just the creed for Japan in that day. The period of German literary and scientific influence came later and had the powerful support of Count Ito. He believed that German ideals were more in harmony with the oligarchic spirit and the semi-divine monarchy of Japan. Okuma in his political writings had stood always upon the English side. About 1885 it may be said that the period of absorp- tion ended and that of creation, which was also that of the counter-movement, began. Now the old-fashioned romance of chivalry was superseded by modern novels which had the definite aim of portraying contemporary Japanese life in its THE PRESS 287 essential truth. The poetry of the period was full of glowing patriotism. Men turned to the study of social problems. About the end of the nineties Nietsche began to exert great influence upon the intellectuals. Philosophy took a direc- tion of which the government grew suspicious. It was alleged that insubordination was inculcated. Prosecutions, fines, and the suppression of journals followed. What a picture this is of the turbulent life of Japan in the Meiji era. In literature, also, the Japanese were expressing themselves, yet one hears always the overtones of that which the whole human race had been striving to express. The first news- paper of which there is record appeared in 1861. It did not survive the first copy. The second came in 1864 and lasted six months, when the editors went, one to China and the other to America. Even now the Japanese censorship of the press is vigorous. In 1912 there were twenty-five hundred registered newspapers and periodicals of all sorts in Japan. The Christian movement in Japan had from the earliest days a share in the work of the press. There is no country in which it is more important that that work should be continued. The civilization of the West has profoundly influenced Japan, but Christianity is practically unknown to large masses of the people. It is known and rejected by a large majority of educated men. These last profess agnosticism as do many in the West, or else they profess Buddhism, which for many means a rather vague pan- theistic philosophy. Count Okuma, the present Prime Minister of the Realm, recently wrote in a very striking article : " We Japanese have been for the last generation so absorbed in the struggle for existence both individual and national that we have hardly had time to attend to the interests of the higher life. We have attempted to master centuries of western development in a few decades. Yet although we have paid but little attention to the problem of religion we have not been uninfluenced by religious ideals. For example, although Christianity enrols in Japan less than two hundred thousand believers, yet the indirect in- fluence of Christianity has been poured into every realm of Japanese life. It has been borne to us on all the currents of western civilization. Christianity has affected us not 288 WEST AND EAST alone in superficial ways, as in the legal observance of Sunday, but also in our ideals concerning political institu- tions, as to the family and with reference to the status of women. It is an inspiring thought that the true religious ideals and experiences of all races and peoples are bound to progress and to form in time one noble and comprehensive whole. The good and the true will persist. The ephemeral, the non-essential and the false will be left behind. The races are at bottom one, the truth is one. The fact and power of religion are admitted by all, only the interpreta- tion and application of that power are in dispute." In Japan the explication and propaganda of Christianity is apparently to be more and more carried on by the aid of the press. The thoroughgoing discussion of the contrasts between Christianity and Buddhism and Shinto and Con- fucianism can never be carried on in any other way. Not merely is there the flood of newspapers and periodicals and books of which we have spoken, continually poured from the press, the most of it being either neutral to Christianity or positively hostile, Japan is moreover in immediate posses- sion of practically all the literature produced in the West which is hostile to Christianity. The government has made the effort to found morality upon patriotism and imperial apotheosis. The result has been increasingly disquieting to those in positions of responsibility. Among the con- spicuous signs of this fact was the so-called Conference of the Religions held in February 1912. Japan's problems, moral and religious, do not differ in principle from our own. They do not differ from those of any nation which enters unreservedly into the modern cosmopolitan civilization, where life is characterized by increased spiritual perplexity and moral peril. Faiths inherited from the past have been lost and nothing has come to take their place. This means that life is becoming worthless, that existence is at bottom irrational and non-moral. Yet without values for human life the foundations of society are destroyed. At this level it does no good to seek social welfare, for the personality which is both the source and the issue of that welfare has been destroyed. However valuable English and German works may be for the land in which they are produced, none of BIBLE SOCIETIES 289 these fully meet the situation in Japan. No apologetic of occidental origin is sufficient for the case. The most im- portant thing is to stimulate the production of books by the Japanese themselves which shall adequately present the interpretation of Christianity in the modern world. This effort has scarcely begun. We cannot close this paragraph touching literature and the press, with the relation of these to civilization and Christianization, without allusion to one phase of the work which is not national, but international, not racial but universal and not general but most specifically religious. It has to do, not with many books, but primarily with one book alone. It is older than any of the literary movements in Eastern lands which we have been describing. It binds all Christians and all aspects of their service rendered to non-Christian peoples together in a manner which perhaps few even of the best informed have realized. We refer to the work of Bible translation and publication and circula- tion. We can, because of limits of space, allude to but one of the many societies which have been engaged in this work. We must treat the contribution of the British and Foreign Bible Society as typical in this relation, although there are other societies like the Scottish and American which have done only less amazing work. In the same early years of the nineteenth century which saw the rise of the great missionary societies there came into being another society which was also interdenomina- tional in its origin and world-wide in its aim. Impressed with the significance of the Scriptures for the life of men and nations, friends of the work of evangelization both at home and in foreign lands, banded themselves together to print and circulate the Bible, either in whole or in its parts, in every language and in every portion of the world. Not a few of the same names occur in the lists of the founders of the British and Foreign Bible Society and of the various societies for the prosecution of foreign missionary work and of many forms of philanthropic endeavour which were founded about the same time. For all reasons they decided to make it a principle to publish the Scriptures without note or comment. The venture met with ready and hearty 290 WEST AND EAST response. The Society has always been most generously supported. It has been admirably managed as a great business organization. It has had to seek men who could translate the Bible into new tongues as the need in the ever- expanding fields of mission work arose. It had to provide for the printing, binding and distributing of the books when these were prepared and for their circulation at the lowest price possible or gratis, if need be, when the books reached the land for which they were destined. Few persons have any idea of the magnitude of its transactions. The Society observed the one hundredth anniversary of its founding in 1911. It celebrated the occasion by the publication of a history of its transactions and a catalogue of its issues. The catalogue contains 1750 pages of closely-printed bibliography. Some sixty or seventy items catalogued are versions in languages now obsolete. Setting these aside, we find here described editions of the whole Bible, or of parts of it, in more than five hundred distinct languages and dialects. Yet we are told that there are still more than one thousand dialects spoken among men in which there is not yet even one printed Gospel. Many of these languages will become obsolete in time as will also many of those languages into which translations have already been made. There is no other destiny before the North American Indian languages or those of the South Sea Island populations or of the minor tribes of Africa. The great languages, as for example Zulu and Kaffir in Africa, will take the place of these latter as the circulation of the tribes increases even in the heart of the continent from year to year. These Bibles will then remain our sole source of knowledge of languages which some day will have completely disappeared. The Society has never abandoned its principle that where men speak a language they shall have the Bible in that language. In many scores of cases languages have been reduced to writing by missionaries in order that the Bible might be rendered into them. There was no book before the Bible in these tongues and in some cases there has been no book since. The Bible is their only printed book. For the sake of that book their language, as written language, exists. Of the difficulties which beset the work it is hard to form an idea. BIBLE SOCIETIES 291 The difficulty of rendering narratives or parables touching Palestine into the tongue of Esquimaux, for whom there was scarcely one plant or animal on the whole face of nature which was as it existed for the Jew in his own land, suggests itself. Again there is the difficulty of rendering the abstract conceptions of Paul into the language of Fijis or Maoris. The making of a written language, when as yet no man can read it, the printing of a book in that language in order that a few men who speak it may learn to read it, the building up of the whole life of a people about that one book, the dis- covery, almost one might say the creating, of the needs of savage souls and then meeting those needs out of this one book, describe it as you may, it has been a wonderful process, not less so for the fact that the vast majority of mankind has never so much as known that it was going on. There are scores of versions in the languages of the rudest peoples of the earth. There also are versions into elaborate literary idioms read by the learned alone. Nearly fifty titles stand under the designation " Zulu." Over one hundred are in Sanskrit, including some in which Hebrew poetry is rendered into classical Indian verse. There are seventy pages of titles in Chinese. Yet also the Gospel is provided for the Chippeway Indians, a tribe once great but which has now barely five hundred souls. The Esquimaux have had the Gospel for two hundred years in their own tongue, thanks to a Dane. Work of this sort which the Moravians could not carry on, the Bible Society took over. The Society will publish at this moment any translation for any people, if only the translation is judged by com- petent persons to be creditable and the people for whom it is desired are in need. The missionary who gives years or a life-time to the language of his little neighbourhood need never fear that he will find no publisher. Wild hill tribes of India like the Todas, who number less than a thousand souls, can read the word which the Brahman studies in Sanskrit. When we remember that all of these versions arose out of a demand and then enlarged and satis- fied that demand, when we realize that the books had often at first to be given away in order that men might learn to wish to buy them, when we realize that these are not books 292 WEST AND EAST for curiosity, but for use in the highest life of man, we have an evidence of faith and conscientiousness for which it would be hard to find a parallel. Professor Hope Moulton has said : " As a mere chronicle of intellectual achievement this catalogue of the British and Foreign Bible Society is worthy to stand by the side of the transactions of any learned society in Europe." There are relatively few names of authors or translators in the crowded pages of these bulky volumes of which even enthusiasts for philology, ethnology or, for that matter, even for missions ever heard. Yet minds truly kin to those which have achieved justly famous triumphs have here been dedicated in obscurity to a task pre-eminently worthy of their powers. Moulton cites one example which may serve for all : " The record concerning the Tonga Islands contains in its earliest entry the name of Thomas Adams, Wesleyan Missionary, who was among the pioneers of that work. The entry is suggestive to those who know that he was the brother of John Couch Adams, the astronomer, whose name is often coupled with that of Newton and Leverier. The astronomer's achievement will be remembered to all time. His brother stands as the repre- sentative of a great company of men who have cut them- selves off from any hope of fame. They have lived in willing exile from their homes and friends. They have died without any taste of the world's rewards, content if they could but take the humblest part in the work of bringing an everlast- ing Gospel to the lowest of mankind." One of the authors of the catalogue inaugurated an inquiry as to the number of translations in which other books besides the Bible have appeared. The research has never really been carried out. Its results would assuredly be most in- teresting. It seems that the Iliad is known to have been published in over twenty of the leading languages of Europe. The Shakespeare Memorial Library at Birmingham gives evidence that the master poet may be read in whole or in part in twenty-seven languages. The British Museum catalogue enumerates forty different versions of the Imita- tion of Christ. Books of Count Tolstoi are said to appear in forty-seven different languages. The Religious Tract Society declares that Bunyan's " Pilgrims' Progress " has BIBLE SOCIETIES 293 appeared in one hundred different translations. In other words, so far as this inquiry goes, the only book which appears in more than one-tenth as many versions as the Bible is itself close kin to the Bible. It has almost been made out of the Bible and has undoubtedly been largely translated by missionaries for the edification of the same clientele for which they translated the Bible. Surely this is a most impressive fact. Finally even these comparisons with the circulation of other books remain misleading. The contrast is not that with the number of languages in which the masterpieces of the world's literature may now be read. The contrast is in respect of the results which have followed from their reading. We know the elevating and refining influence of good literature, the stimulus and illumin- ation of science, of history and criticism or of any other form of thought. It would be foolish to belittle that which these have done for the elevation of mankind. The more heartily we speak of their praise however the more astound- ing will appear the contrast of the work done by the pages of the book which the Bible Societies have sent forth. Under our own eyes a single sentence from these pages has been sufficient to work a change by which the impure have been restored to purity, the dissipated to sobriety, the unstable have become courageous and responsible, the utterly selfish full of generous consecration. What we know here at home has been multiplied a thousandfold abroad. No one who has any imagination can fail to realize that nearly any edition on which, in this catalogue, his eye may fall has human documents for its commentary. We read only the entry of the date, size, contents and the name of the missionary who produced it. What about the men for whom it was produced ? We are fairly safe in assuming that there is not one of these works which has not behind it the record of lives transformed through its instrumentality. When one thinks of these things a book which, when it was opened, seemed but a bare and rather curious catalogue becomes, upon reflection, a source of wonder and of admiration and of boundless gratitude. If we are thinking of the forces which have made for the expansion of Christendom and the naturalization of Christianity in the Orient in the nineteenth 294 WEST AND EAST century, here is one of primary consequence. If we are thinking of the influence of literature and the relation of the press to the movement which we are discussing we are dis- posed to think that this is the very greatest factor of them all. At the close of these paragraphs touching education and the press, we turn to certain considerations pertaining specifically to women. Much that has been said in the lectures of the effect of the contacts of West and East has related to society as a whole. It has affected men and women together. Western conquest wrought general changes in the Orient. Reference to these changes called for no specific word touching their influence upon women. Without doubt, the women received the least of any good effect of these changes. They suffered most from any evil effects. That was however because of their status in their own lands before these changes came. Neither western conquest nor trade did anything to change that status. Slavery, war and famine had always had worse consequences for women than for men. Even in peace and prosperity their lot was that of beings inferior to men. On the other hand western education, with its joint agencies of school and press, has directly endeavoured to change the status of women. The western religion, whose first apostle to the nations had said that in Christ was neither male nor female, had directly endeavoured to change the status of women. It had at least announced the ideal of the equality of men and women. To be sure, the effect of this announcement has been prejudiced and the influence of this endeavour hampered by the fact that the status of women, even in the most favoured nations of Christendom, still left so much to be desired. In parts at least of the Occident there are hardly any reforms more imperiously demanded than those touching the position of women, although here also we meet the familiar fact that the parts in which these reforms are most imperiously demanded are not those in which they are most imperatively needed. Even in the West move- ments for women's education are very modern movements. In Christendom itself the Master's spirit and the apostle's maxim have been none too well taken to heart. We deserve WOMEN 295 reproach. Yet, when we are not in the mood of wilful exaggeration, it can hardly be denied that the status of women in practically any western nation is higher than among any of the oriental peoples. The oriental man has his own point of view. His women often share that point of view. Yet surely there are absolute values even in such a discussion as this. The possibility of the development of the individuality of the women is such a value. This is the real criterion. Judged by this criterion the West has still abundant room for progress. Yet, on the whole, it has advanced far beyond the East. Even the possibility of the development of the individuality of the woman is how- ever not the whole question. The development of the personality of the woman stands in inviolable relation to the development of the race as a whole. It stands in a closer relation to this development than does the individuality of man. In one way of looking at it this is an additional reason on the side of the highest realization of woman's personality. On the other hand with women, no less than with men, the untrammelled pursuit of this self-realization on the part of the individual, shuts our eyes to our obliga- tions. No one can reflect upon the higher education and the larger liberty of man without seeing that this is a fact. It is even more obviously a fact in respect of the training and enfranchisement of women. There is however nothing which strikes the western man in the East more forcibly than do the dreadful dis- advantages of women. There is nothing which more im- presses the Oriental as he travels in the West than the con- trast in the position of women. It is easy for him to discover our foibles and to lay his finger upon great wrongs. Yet there is nothing which the Oriental who really knows the West and has seen something of its best home life, more readily concedes to be necessary for his nation than the amelioration of the condition of its women. Western educa- tion and the Christian religion cannot influence eastern society in any larger way without raising the question of women. This is only the more true because the West itself is at the present moment so much agitated with this question. The confidence with which many among us spoke until a 296 WEST AND EAST few years ago of the condition of women in England and America is considerably impaired. If any of us felt that in this regard the goal of human progress had been reached that complacence has suffered a rude shock. We are pain- fully conscious that both education and religion among us have failed to do what needs to be done for women. One of these ideals, that of a higher education for women, may be said to have dawned upon us only a century ago. Its realization was seriously attempted less than half a century ago. The equality of women wage earners in respect of wage, even when their work is fully as good as that of men, is a thing which not even the most enlightened and pro- gressive of modern states as yet knows how to achieve. The economic aspect of the question is new and extremely difficult. We have moods in which we almost feel that we ought to apologize to the Oriental for our smug assumption of the superiority of the western world at this particular point. At all events we have here a new illustration of the fact which we have before observed, that the greatest of modern problems no longer have nationality. They are problems for the whole world at once. They are problems in which provincialism disappears and it is not given to any race to play the pharisee. Evils which beset western women, particularly of certain strata of society, are very great. They are so great as to call out the sympathy of the women of the East, when these come to know about them. Yet a widening of our horizon enables us to see that they are not the only evils. There is no one remedy for all evils. Even the women's movement would gain a sense of proportion from seeing itself as a whole. " You know," said an old Mohammedan Sheikh, as he somewhat timorously contemplated the prospect of education for his daughter " You know we Moslems do not care to have our daughters stay very long at school." " Oh, but that is all past," broke in a young Moslem Bachelor of Arts who had ventured within the same precincts to place his child in the same school. " Our country can never be great until our own women are properly educated." This episode, related by Miss Selincourt, is characteristic. With the proclamation of the Constitution in Turkey in August, 1908, WOMEN 297 hundreds of women are said to have thrown off their veils and poured into the streets, joining with the men in the general shout for liberty. The action was unpremeditated. It was more striking than those who do not know Turkey can imagine. It was sharply curbed. The leaders of the revolution knew that they were bound to give offence to Moslem sentiment at many points. They were anxious not to multiply occasions of offence. Precisely as Christians were forbidden to have a share in the liberation lest the issues should be confused, so women were by the liberators forced back into their seclusion. Yet no one can be in Turkey without realizing that beneath the surface the ferment con- tinues. Social reforms also will have their day. It is reported that in a bazaar recently held in Constantinople for patriotic purposes women lifted their veils, permitting those with whom they joined in the enthusiasm for the new ideas to see their faces. On this occasion a part, at least, of the social world applauded that which had been done. Many women are seen unveiled upon the street. Women of the highest class meet foreigners unveiled. In China schools for girls have been opened in every larger city. They are often upon private initiative but the government scheme has place also for the education of women. The eagerness of the people themselves to imitate that which a few years ago only the missions were doing is sig- nificant. The position of women has always been relatively a high one. The older matrons have exerted great power in the wide family circles. There are tales of beloved daughters receiving tuition in their homes, whose learn- ing was like that of a mandarin, who have been to their fathers and brothers a sort of family oracle. Chinese popular fables, the long narratives which the women spin to one another as they work, turn often upon the question, " What can an adoring father do with his only child, a daughter ? " In this modern education of women however which takes place outside the home, the lack of teachers makes itself felt. Women teachers qualified in modern subjects are still very few. Much of the work done in the way of imparting western learning to women is lamentably crude. The missionary schools for girls have a high tradition. 298 WEST AND EAST They have had for a whole life-time the benediction of the service of such women as Miss Porter of Peking. They repeat in their own way the experience described in a previous paragraph concerning the mission schools for boys. Their graduates are everywhere desired. There is however something very touching about even the crudity of the wider movement for the education of women. Here also the liberating impulse has its bizarre manifestations. One hears of strange acts which even younger women allow them- selves on the supposition that they are following western ways. The circumstances often add a tinge of pathos to the amusement which we naturally feel. So difficult is it for an eastern woman to sense the difference between things which a western woman does in full freedom and unconscious- ness and other things which she never does. After all, it is the difference between two worlds which here makes itself felt. Reaction from oppression counts for something in both East and West. Far beyond that however, trifling episodes are signs which cannot be misread. In Japan the family was and still is in a profound sense the unit of society. Loyalty to the family and through that to the state was felt to be the only duty of women. Romances of the feudal age are being used to point this moral for our own time. One gets the impression that in those golden days the woman as individual was very little considered. The Imperial Ordinance of 1889 marked the clear emergence of the purpose of the state to provide for the higher education of women on lines which in the West also we are still only seeking to work out. The Woman's College, now Uni- versity, founded by Naruse in 1897, has had leading place in the movement. The secondary schools for girls have long since taken their place in the compulsory system of government education, and the school-girls, as they pass on the street in their attractive uniform, which is required by the state, suggest many things to one who knew the Japan of even half a generation ago. The most recent develop- ments in the education of women came from the recognition of the fact, emphasized since the Russian war and, as well, by the industrial progress, that it may be necessary in far larger measure than ever before to fit women to earn their WOMEN 299 own living. The employment of girls and women in the factories of Osaka raises the same questions with which we are only too familiar in Bradford and Nottingham and Lowell. One may hear in Tokio the same conversations in which men and women engage in the settlements in the crowded districts in New York. Both the higher education and that of the more vocational sort alluded to have as their premise the acknowledgment of the rights of women as in- dividuals. They have as their aim to give women the opportunity to express themselves as individuals or at least to meet the stress of life as self-respecting individuals. Yet the ultimate question is everywhere the same. It is that of the relation of the development of the individual to society as a whole and to posterity. It is alleged that the older statesmen and public leaders in Japan still feel the single impulse which aimed at providing for women an education equal to that given to men and in some cases also identical with that given to men. With the present educational authorities there is not exactly an impulse to draw back. There is however a somewhat anxious recognition of the changes, even if only passing, which have come over the ideals of the sanctity of home life and the spirit of discipline and of subordination to the common weal which was certainly inculcated in the old Samurai households and which from them made itself felt in every home in the land. In India, side by side with the growth of national ideas and aspirations, the question concerning women steadily gains in importance. In a district in Eastern Bengal of a population of eight hundred and fifty thousand where six years ago there were four schools for girls three hundred are now reported. There is no province in the land where there has not been progress. Women's clubs have been formed. Periodicals are issued. Philanthropic activities are undertaken by Indian women on behalf of India. It is reported that a society founded in the United Provinces in 1911 drew together Hindu and Moslem and Parsi women. Their national publication declares : "No nation can rise above the spirit of its women." The executives of the society are to be chosen from among women of the faiths named. Yet helpers in the work may also be selected from 300 WEST AND EAST amongst Anglo-Indians and Christians, " since these have had greater experience in work like that which we have undertaken." A Hindu woman speaking recently to an English audience said : " It is clear that the advance of Indian women must be based upon our Indian history and literature. We need, however, the sympathy and fellow- ship of the noble women of the world." There can be no dispute that Christian missionaries have played a larger part than any others in bringing about this awakening. During the greater part of the nineteenth century they stood almost alone in India in their championship of the woman's cause. The state education for a generation did nothing for women. Until quite recently no Indians founded and endowed private institutions for the education of women. It was practically only in Christian circles that women of education were to be found. Even now the great majority of leaders in the cause of women are Christians. Moreover, some of the most emancipated of the leaders in the feminist movement in India at least have been Christians. They are in the same relation to Christianity with some of the leaders in this movement at home. They have been elevated by the Christian emphasis upon women as individuals, but they revolt against the Christian emphasis upon the relation of women to society. Singularly enough they do this often in the name of socialism. Yet the realization of the need of an educated and emancipated womanhood in India is now by no means confined to those who have been directly in- fluenced by Christianity. National sentiment now demands that which once only foreigners were interested in impart- ing. Zenana Missions are not yet very old, but their use- fulness is already limited. Considerable portions of Indian society have no need of that which they specifically offer. Formerly teachers were obliged to go to houses to meet the women of the middle and upper classes. Now the girls' schools are so numerous as to have made teaching the great career for Indian women. Formerly there were no women physicians. Yet male physicians were never permitted to enter the quarters of the women. Now there are both physicians and nurses in large numbers among the women. Literary work of many sorts is open to women. Oppor- WOMEN 301 tunity of public speech lias opened to some women a career. There have been no more cultivated and charming advocates, whether of the cause of their own sex or of the Indian people at large, than certain women who for years have been well known in the West. In India, as in every country, women have always exercised an incalculable influence under the surface of life. That influence in India has been until recent times overwhelmingly conservative. It was long ago dis- covered in the Christian movement that in some measure the immobility of the men was due to the fact that the women in their homes had not been reached. With the advance of education and the increase of freedom of the women this influence also is becoming more progressive. It may in certain cases even become radical. There are Indian women who have taken a place in public life and in civil agitation. The direct participation of women in political life in England has long been in advance of that in any other country. It was far larger than that of women in America although the rights conceded to women were larger in America than in England. If there is one field above others in the discussion of morals in which indignant protest makes itself felt, it is that of the double standard which obtains for the morals of men and women, especially in the matter of chastity. This double standard is still tolerated, it is sometimes even brutally asserted in the West. It is hardly too much to say that it has been perfectly openly acknowledged in large parts of the East. It is not so much as criticized. It has been assumed to be part of the order of the universe. The attitude is a survival of barbarism, but a barbarism which even in the centres of civilization will apparently be among the last to disappear. The distinction is defended by the assertion of the greater strength of the sexual instinct in men and the more immediate and obvious responsibility of women for the consequences of excess. As a matter of fact it is probably nothing but a survival of the right of the stronger and the failure to realize that the stronger have a greater obligation than the weaker. The moralization of life might almost be stated in terms of the recognition of this obligation. Polygamy and concubinage were once 302 WEST AND EAST largely prevalent in many parts of the Orient. They still obtain to some degree in certain classes of society. They are now however largely recognized among the Orientals themselves as representing an inferior idea of the family and working injury to all concerned. They are incompatible with the highest interests even of man, still more of women, and most of all children. The same economic pressure which in the East sometimes makes a woman a concubine, is one of the causes which in the West sometimes makes her a prostitute. There is less prostitution where there is more of polygamy and concubinage. It is not therewith made out that the evils offset one another. A society which refuses to acknowledge any ideal save that of the relation of one man and one woman bears more hardly upon the individual who is in defection from that ideal. It breeds up however more men and women who altogether refuse to admit any other ideal. The chastity of women in the East and in Africa may often have been stimulated by fear and enforced by violence. Unchastity has even been fostered by religion. Yet the apparent level of that chastity profoundly impresses a foreigner accustomed to certain frightful street scenes in any city of Europe or America. It arouses wonder when we think what large areas of interest in life have always been closed to women in the Orient, how they have been subjected to disabilities and denied all play of individuality, how they have been treated as slaves when they were un- happy and mere playthings when they were happy. It is sometimes asked : " What will be the effect of the greater freedom of women in the Orient ? " No one can walk the streets of a manufacturing town in Japan without asking himself that question. But then, no one can walk the streets of a manufacturing town in America without asking himself the same question. At a certain level it will even turn out to be the freedom of some women to be immoral. That is a freedom which has been very much more limited in the East than in the West. In large parts of the East there have been almost no women who were not in some way directly responsible to some man. For other women, on the other hand, this freedom will mean liberation from conditions in which morality has been well nigh impossible. WOMEN 303 The traditional relation of women to religion is under- going in our day a startling change. One might get the impression from some of the churches in Christendom on any given Sunday, that the main appeal of religion was to women. Until very recently in any country in the Orient the situation would have been exactly the reverse. The attendants would have been almost exclusively men. Christianization is fairly well advanced where women in Eastern lands attend public worship on the same footing with men. Even then they rarely sit with the men. This matter of church attendance is however only the most superficial index of the matter. In the Orient, as in the Occident, there has always been an inner relation of religion to women, a relation to their idealism, to their community sense and again as a source of comfort and uplift to those who have been downtrodden and cut off from hope. Nietsche's interpretation of religion as an appropriate interest for slaves has indeed insufficient justification. It is not however without explanation in the manner in which religion has been frequently advertised. It is one of the glories of religion that it has been the help of those dis- heartened and oppressed. This is not however the only glory that it has. Superstitions have deceived mankind. The duty of submission has been set forth to the exclusion of the gospel of self-help and of high self-realization. If these were the only aspects of religion it would be, as some say it is, one of the things of which a world, oriented as is our modern world, is bound to get rid. It is not altogether surprising if, for example, the so-called labouring classes, many of them disillusioned in their view of the universe, turning eagerly to self-help, have reacted violently against a religion which, as they think, adds itself to the forces of those who keep them down. Just such a revolt against religion has been a phase of the progressive enlightenment and liberation of women. It has come with the vanishing of superstition and the enhancement of the spirit of self- realization among women. Christianity was long quoted in the interest of slavery. It is only the greater wonder that the free blacks did not turn against religion more often than they did. Christianity has been quoted against any 304 WEST AND EAST change in respect of the rights and privileges of women. Religion has been quoted on the side of every tyranny. This is so true that it is almost naive to deceive oneself or seek to wax eloquent upon the point. The reaction has long since come in the West. It is a good reaction as against an inadequate or evil view of religion. The reaction is coming in the East as well. It undermines the faith of Indian women in their own religions first, because these are identi- fied with their past oppressions, and as well because they are the most vulnerable to criticism from the side of modern enlightenment. The Indian woman knows however that many women in Christendom take a parallel position as over against Christianity. This faith too has come to appear to some in its own world as identified with past oppressions and impossible of combination with modern liberal notions. It is open to us to say that both in the East and West this is an attitude toward religion in general, which rests upon a grave misapprehension of the nature of religion. It is however a misapprehension which will never be done away with save by greater liberty and enlightenment. Finally, both in West and East the world does women this honour, that it dimly feels that the loss of all religion is a greater loss for women than it is for men. We have touched more than once in passing upon the question of the relation of religion, and especially of Christi- anity, to the status of women. The relation has not been a simple one. Rather it gives cause for much reflection. The literature of the Hellenic peoples, although it contains some pictures of imperishable loveliness, gives us no high idea of the freedom of women or of their opportunity of self-realization. Even in the best days of Greek culture they were not assigned high places side by side with men in the loftier activities of man's life. The Romans had the advantage in this regard. The Roman matron was famous. It was however always the matron and besides her, at most, it was the vestal who was praised. As the Empire declined demoralization set in. This was the background for Christi- anity in the western world. Christianity however brought over, among the items of its Jewish inheritance, a nobler conception of the position of woman. In Israel there had WOMEN 305 been prophetesses and saints. There had been national heroines, besides all those who stand even now in the Old Testament as types of all that women should be as wives and sisters and mothers. The Master's treatment of the question concerning women was, as was so much else with him, by implication rather than by argument. With him the position of women was not so much discussed as ex- quisitely taken for granted. It was a position very different from that which obtained in general in the world before him or about him. With every sense for the dignity of wife and mother, yet for him woman was primarily soul, individu- ality, moral and spiritual personality. This was as true for him in the case of women as in that of men. It was true with all the possibilities and obligations which that involves. This is the key to the whole position in the Gospel. One gets the impression that in the little circle of his followers there was not much thought about the disadvantages of women, nor even about the previous history of some women who were drawn within the circle. Similarly there was not much considera- tion given either to the wealth and honours or again to the humble origin of some of the men who formed that band. The question of the soul overtopped every other, and in the sense of that for which Jesus was striving all souls of men or women were alike. It was for the soul made one with God to express itself in its own appointed lot as best it could, and then to transform that lot so that it should be worthy of the soul which lived through Christ in God. Women in the early church filled a place and performed a part at which, we are told by the church fathers, the pagan world wondered. They were not taken out of their lot but their lot was forgotten. Just so slaves were not primarily taken out of their lot and yet everything in Christianity worked against slavery. Just so everything in real Christianity tends to work against that which is unworthy in the lot of women. So truly was the fact that these women were Christians the great fact about them that it was forgotten that they were women, save again in so far as their being women opened to them peculiar and inestimable opportunities to manifest Christianity in women's ways. By the time, however, that the Empire had fallen and 306 WEST AND EAST the church had risen in its place new forces had made them- selves felt. Over against the depravity of ancient society, or at least of a part of it, the church had taken up a position which had no relation to Christianity. Asceticism, celibacy, monasticism were not Christian ideals, though now they were to become such. They are not of Christian origin, although they have played a great part in Christian history. The lauda- tion of virginity, the assumption of the spiritual superiority of monk or nun, the setting up of a double standard of life, as they wrought for the degradation of the family, so also they did untold injury to the position of women throughout the Middle Age. In chivalry the age sought to make some amends. We in the modern world owe much to the spirit of chivalry, far more than many modern women seem dis- posed to acknowledge. Yet even in chivalry the position assigned to women was far from granting her the freedom, responsibility or power which the best women desire. The homage which it rendered had often the flavour of a com- pliment which one pays from the serenity of a superior position and in place of rights and privileges denied. The age was an age of force, often of savage manifestations of force. An age of violence has never been favourable to women, just as among modern nations, even Christian nations, in those which worship force the position of women leaves much to be desired. So true are these strictures upon the society which monastic Christianity and mediaeval chivalry produced, that it has often been doubted whether the real source of the loftier ideals for women and the larger legiti- mate scope given to women among the northern races of Europe is not to be sought elsewhere than in Christianity. It is asked whether this is not a consequence of the place accorded to women among the Teutonic and Saxon peoples, even before the coming of Christianity. Of that place Tacitus speaks with admiration. It is asked whether we have not here a racial contribution rather than an achieve- ment of religion or, at all events, of the Christian religion. It is indeed quite certain that the view which these races took of women before the coming of Christianity did, when they came to be Christians, exert the profoundest influence to counteract certain evil tendencies in the Christianity WOMEN 307 which was then current. Those tendencies, even if we say that they were not original with Christianity, must have seemed to these northern races absolutely characteristic of Christianity as it was preached to them. The Teutonic element certainly came in to reinforce an inward meaning of Christianity which we claim to have been the true mean- ing but which, at all events, greatly needed reinforcing. Nevertheless, when all has been said against the mediaeval ideals, the conventual life gave to some women, as the heads of great orders and powerful ecclesiastical institutions, a place in the world which we ought by no means to overlook. It opened a career to able women by which they might advance to an elevation scarcely second in influence and honour to that of any positions open to the men. It pro- vided escape for thousands of women from marriages in which they would have been little better than slaves, or from situations as unmarried women in households in which they would have been nothing more than slaves. It gave place and scope for many pure and gentle souls in a rough and turbulent world. It established a refuge for widows and the unfortunate. It held out help even to women for whom in the modern world there is as good as no recovery. Here penitents took sanctuary against their own remorse. Here was room for women who wished to give themselves to study, or again, from an assured position to devote them- selves to works of mercy. It is no disparagement of the family and of motherhood to say that the history of the sex and of the race would be indefinitely poorer without the type of womanhood for which the mediaeval church thus offered an honourable place and an appointed scope. When the Protestant movement came it bitterly condemned the monastic life. It denounced the celibacy of the clergy. There had been grounds of accusation in the corruption of many convents and monasteries. Protestants upheld against the monastic ideal the sanctity of the home. They advocated a religion which must show itself not in flight from the world but in the fulfilment of all social obligations, especially the service of the state. They contended for that which we now call the gospel of the secular life. They closed the monasteries and nunneries. In Roman Catholic lands the 308 WEST AND EAST celibate life and a double standard of piety survived long after they had disappeared among the Protestants. Yet here too, in the end, the spirit of the revolution in France assailed them. Rationalism had no understanding of them. In the reactionary period of the nineteenth century, after 1815, the orders grew again with astounding rapidity. In recent years the Republic in France has aimed to make an end of them altogether, although the opposition has been not as in the sixteenth century from the religious but mainly from the secular point of view. A grand organization of the life of some women, which in the Middle Age was universal in Christendom and in Catholic lands has continued down to our own time, has been taken away and nothing was provided to take its place. In Protestant lands the emphasis upon family life, just enough in its way, went far toward making marriage the only honour- able lot for women, and the lot of all unmarried women almost impossible. It went far toward making the position of unmarried women one of dependence and of condemnation to trivial activities. It is a reprisal for this relapse that many women in Protestant lands are now seeking. Quite characteristically however they are seeking this adjustment on lines different from those on which the early church and the Middle Age appealed to religion and Christianity. They are seeking freedom and an opportunity of self-realization through vocation in the world, through industrial emancipa- tion, through independent civil rights and even complete political responsibility. The English squire of the eighteenth century would have been horrified at the thought of his daughter becoming a nun, yet it never occurred to him to give her any opening into real and responsible existence such as the nunnery two centuries earlier would have offered her. In one sense we may say that these modern women in their revolt are only making earnest with that thought of the relation of religion and life with which the Reformation merely played. The Protestant application of its principle remained often superficial and one-sided. Men said that the noblest function of woman was in the home, which was true. It did not follow, however, that the only function of woman was in the home, or that woman must be com- WOMEN 309 pelled to remain in the home even if she had there no worthy function. What wonder that these countries of the North have been the centre of the revolt which we describe. Monasticism in its development for both sexes raised a question for the Middle Age, which it is possible that we also shall have to face, although for us it arises from another and not certainly from a better quarter. The historians of the Middle Age have generally agreed in considering it one of the causes of retardation of the life of that age that in large areas of society, and those the very best, there was no inheritance of talent. There was no transmission of certain of the higher qualities of leadership, especially of leadership in saintliness. There were no children born to certain people of the loftiest qualities. In a sense society always rejuvenates itself from below, but the loss of the highest qualities at the top is a very serious loss. Not a religious ideal but socialism, state philanthropy and the taxation which these impose, the economic conditions of the upper classes, have tc some extent the same effect among us at the present moment. They raise the question of the sterility of the best. They raise the question whether an undue proportion of the children born into the world are not born of the elements of society mentally least potent and morally least fit. We sometimes ask, are the women with children to have no careers, or shall we be obliged to say that, with the ever-increasing intensity of life for those who have careers, it might be better that they should have no children. Men in the highest careers are not cut off from family life. In part it may be only because of a temporary mal-adjustment in social conditions that the way to both of these fulfilments of life at once is so much more difficult for women than it is for men. In part, however, it is a condition which can never be wholly done away. With every desire to open to women every opportunity of self-realization, it cannot be questioned that it is between the two poles indicated above that the life of a woman must move. It is within this centra-distinction that the problem will have to be solved. It is one of the curious facts of an age in which men and women fairly conjure with the word social, that socialism itself often fosters a fatal emphasis upon the individual. It 310 WEST AND EAST fosters rebellion in the interest of individual self-realization, against all the ties which have bound men and women in the past, including that from which men and women can never be free if there is to be any human race at all. The world as yet does women the honour to be more painfully impressed when women seek this isolating self-realization than when men do the same. It has been the custom to think of women as less selfish than men and more sensitive to the claims of society as a whole. Modern women have it in their own hands to perpetuate or to reverse that estimate. There has been asceticism in the Orient, far more than in the Occident. Wherever Buddhism has gone there have been and are now Buddhist monks. There have been however relatively few Buddhist nuns. The development of the con- ventual life for women assumed far less proportions in the East than in the West. In some lands it was altogether lacking. It followed often from the oriental view of the status of women that the pathway of holiness was not open to her. In other words, a view of the religious life which was an importation from the East into the West and which, even so, was attended with much good for women in the West, never had any comparable benevolent results for women in the East. There has been education in the East but, with rare exceptions, women have been shut out from it. There has been liberty in the East, liberty of the most absolute sort for a few exalted individuals. The smallest conceivable proportion of these individuals have been women. There have been reformers in the East but only in the minutest measure have the reforms of civil, economic and social, or even of religious life touched women. We are speaking, of course, of the whole long lifetime of the world prior to the middle of the nineteenth century. There have been illustrious periods in the history of all these races. Little of that glorious history has been the history of women save, indeed, for the glory of the unwritten history wherever in both East and West women have manifested a love and faithfulness which are the more surprising when one thinks of the hardness of their lot. When one considers facts now fairly familiar to us as, for example, the fact that heredity often crosses sex with every generation, we are WOMEN 311 surprised that the degradation of women in some parts of the East has not exerted a far more injurious effect, even upon the life of men. When one reflects upon the absolute power, for example, of the Sultan of Turkey as it has been in times past and recalls that the mothers of Sultans have been almost invariably captives, or women presented to the rulers, or slaves chosen for no other reason than their physical beauty and never admitted to any share in the larger life of their country, it is fair to ask whether any other social system ever took such risks of catastrophe to the state. We reflect how much depends upon the age and health of mothers and again upon the earliest environment of children. Then we think of the youth or veritable childhood of many mothers in India, of the ignorance of mothers in every eastern land, of the influences which must at times have prevailed in zenanas and harems and in patriarchal estab- lishments where dual and triple marriages, and concubinage besides, prevailed. We can but be filled with wonder that the physique, the mentality and the morals of the male sex itself, to speak only of that, has not suffered immeasurably more than it has. One must be amazed that races among whom such conditions prevail have ever achieved the tithe of that which they have achieved. We see clearly, and the Orientals themselves now begin to see, that within this area lie the greatest of the changes which must come in oriental lands if they are ever to attain that to which, in the mobility and pressure of the modern world and in the competition with the western nations, they must attain or go under. It is not too much therefore to say that of all the influences which the West has exerted upon the East, none has been more significant than this which touches the question of women. LECTURE VII CHURCH AND MINISTRY IN that which we have thus far said in these lectures we have endeavoured to describe an influence of the West upon the East, the influence of greater Europe upon the rest of the world. We have endeavoured to deal with effects of this influence as these are visible in the life of practically all non-European peoples. The movement began in being a conquest, or at least an attempted conquest. It continued in being an exploitation of the weaker by the stronger for the purposes of trade. It has ended in being a vast and complex assimilation to standards of the West which is evidenced in every phase of Eastern life. We have traced that assimilation in the departments of civil life and government, in economic and social relations and in the area of education and morals. We have spoken now and then of reflex action of East upon West. We come now to the larger paragraph upon effects within the sphere of religion. We shall be led to recognize that in no aspect of life does the reflex influence make itself more profoundly felt than in that of religion. Bishop Berkeley lies buried in the cathedral of Christ Church here in Oxford. Americans read his epitaph with varied emotions. Berkeley was one of the few cultivated Englishmen who lived for a long time in our country in the period when its earlier close contacts with Cambridge and Oxford had ceased and before the era when they had become numerous and fruitful again. Bishop Berkeley wrote : " Westward the star of Empire takes its way." We have lived to see that prophecy fulfilled and again in a sense reversed. A West whose fringe Berkeley touched has grown great. It has claimed the East. The East claims it again. Whether we journey through the Suez Canal to India and Japan, or across America and the Pacific 812 CHURCH AND MINISTRY 313 to Japan and India, now makes little difference. Europe has claimed Asia and Africa. It has not made good these claims without concessions, conscious or unconscious, to the mind and life of those whom it has touched. It has changed Asia but it has itself been changed in the process. It has given laws to its conquests whether they be conquests of its arms or of its spirit. Once again the old saying verifies itself, the conquered give laws to the conquerors. This is partially true even in the realm of outward facts and acts. It is increasingly true as we leave that realm and enter the kingdom of the spirit. Religion, morals and social life will show this reflex more than trade or government. This is true because of the subtler aspects of human nature which are involved. These are the areas in which the deeper elements of men's lives assert themselves. These are the elements in respect of which it is more im- probable that nature will be permanently overlaid. War may be carried on, trade conducted, medicine practised, even government administered, almost precisely as these things are done in the West. Deeper matters however, education, manners and morals and religion, will show in an ever-ascending scale the way in which the mind of the man of the East inevitably works upon the material and through the methods which he has derived from the West. We have here a gamut, an ascending scale, another illustration of the law which we have tried to follow in the arrangement of all the bewildering details which are dealt with in this book. We meet an ever greater resistance as we approach the inner life of men. We must expect that the reaction of that inner life will be ever greater upon our own. We think that the hard facts in life are the outward and material ones. On the contrary, the elements most nearly insoluble and impenetrable are the spiritual ones. The elements most sure to assert and to reassert themselves are the spiritual ones. Medicine may be much the same the world over because men's bodies will be much the same. We easily make our- selves at home with the assertion that medicine should be the same the world over. Religion will never be the same because men's souls are different. The religions of the East 314 WEST AND EAST were the highly developed expressions of the souls of the men of the East and of the answer of God to their souls when as yet they had no contacts with the West whatsoever. Even the same religion is not the same in West and East. Judaism is not the same thing in Russia and in New York. Christianity will never be the same thing in the East that it is in the West. It will show differences because Christian souls are different. The life of the soul is more permanent than any other life whether of an individual or of a people. The traits of the soul are the most permanent traits, the more unconscious the more permanent. Christianity will present the spectacle of uniformity in West and East only so long as Christianity in the missionary lands is in the exotic, the artificial and imitative, the missionary stage. It will show this face only so long as these lands are in the state of tutelage. When Asiatic Christianity advances beyond that we shall have Japanese and Chinese and Indian Christianity. When these reach any measure of maturity they will react powerfully upon European and American Christianity. As we dwell upon the specifically religious results of the movement we are seeking to depict, this reflex and reciprocation will be constantly borne in upon us. The characteristic influences of Europe are altered upon alien soil. They undergo significant variation in changing their environment. Racial climate and soil affects them. In- sistence upon sameness of method dooms us to secure a different result or no result. A different method would be the only way to secure an identical result. One must have originality enough to see this. This is the point at which literalism fails. The best of intentions cannot offset the lack of sympathy and commonsense. It is not that we are given over here in the sphere of morals and religion to a boundless relativity. It is only that we are working in the sphere of the intensest and the freest life. Asiatic interpretations and applications of Christianity may help us to understand differences, denominational and others, which exist among ourselves. We are struggling with the problem of Christian unity here at home. We are too near to the differences which divide us to see them aright. We see them larger than they are. We permit them CHURCH AND MINISTRY 315 to hide from us through a false perspective far more signifi- cant elements in respect of which we are already at one. When we see, as we may see in Japan at the present moment, a vigorous oriental Christianity in which our historic differ- ences have practically no significance whatever, when we realize that oriental Christendom gets on no worse but rather the better for that fact, we may learn that after all uniformity is not unity. Unity may be best secured by those who, realizing in what measure unity already exists, have given up all desire for uniformity. After all, the being a Catholic or a Protestant is a kind of climate. The being an Anglican or a Nonconformist has some of the effects of latitude and longitude. It is with many a question of soil and history. If Christian unity is to be postponed until all Catholics become Protestants or even until all dissenters become Church of England people, it will be postponed a very long time. It is to be feared that most churches and many individuals are still in the attitude of mind which might be described as the mind of conquest. They are obviously willing to make a complete conquest of their ecclesiastical opponents. It has certainly been true that in time past most of those interested in missions expected to conquer for their faith those whom they prevailingly described as heathen. It is interesting to note that this term is used with diminished frequency. There are some of us who have almost desisted from its use. When we do use it we refer quite as often to residents of avenues or denizens of the slums in our own great cities. We therewith denominate those who are really without serious hold upon any religion. We by no means suppose that all such are dwellers in non-Christian lands. The Christianization of the world will not leave all the other religions without adherents, or at least not for a very long time. On the contrary, Christian elements will per- meate the mind and life of many who will yet for a long time hold to non-Christian faiths. Only when these faiths fail to support the highest life of the various races will they fade away. If they do thus fade away and their followers come to bear the name of Christian, memorials of these ancient faiths will be found living within the Christianity which 316 WEST AND EAST their former adherents have adopted. The Christianization of the world to which we may reasonably look forward, will be the parallel of all those Christianizations of parts of the world which have already taken place. It will be the parallel of all the other aspects of the extension of Christendom which in these chapters we have been studying. The prospect of what one might call an outward displacement of all faiths by one is immeasurably less than is the prospect of a similar displacement of all civilizations by one. Yet until we have considered it we are likely to think just the opposite. Christi- anity will assimilate much in these other faiths to itself. It will be in its measure assimilated to them. How long some of these faiths can last, now that the period of disintegration and inner transformation has begun, is for their own con- scientious adherents to say. It is a matter concerning which it would be rash for any of us to prophesy. Christianity itself cannot live with its new world except upon terms of meeting the deepest spiritual needs of that new world. We believe that long before it does away with other faiths, and perhaps without ever doing away with them, Christianity will stimulate and enhance the good of other faiths and correct their evils. It will lose, we may hope and pray, some of the traits which have been limited, unworthy and evil in any historic manifestation of Christianity which we have yet had. We may thus make our own sincere profession of faith as to what Christianization means. We may deprecate the ideal of conquest for the extension of Christianity, just as we have already deprecated that same ideal of conquest pure and simple for the expansion of Christendom. The idea of the complete displacement of one religion by another is not more worthy than is that of similar displacement of one civilization by another. It is also distinctly less feasible, as the whole tenor of our discussion shows. Did not the associations of our current speech, and even the language familiar in our moments of truest consecration to high ends mislead us, we should know this. We should know that the destiny of both our faith and of our civilization lies not in its destroying but in its fulfilment of all that has heretofore been worthiest in the life of mankind. Nevertheless we shall certainly not obtain the true perspective for the theme to be TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY 317 discussed in these remaining lectures, unless we put ourselves back at the beginning of our movement and into the mood of those who began it. We must be just to the history. We must realize that the men who inaugurated this magnificent missionary endeavour would by no means have agreed with that which we have just said. The eager advocates of missions at the opening of the modern movement, the heroic men and women who took their place in the van and laid down their lives upon the frontiers of the world, looked forward to a victory of Christi- anity over the ethnic religions, a conquest over them, their displacement by it, their gradual elimination before it. We may use every one of these phases but we are aware that we use them with a different shading and in a different context from that in which our fathers' minds found rest. The heroic spirits of the opening of the missionary endeavour, certainly did not look forward to an issue like that which we above outlined. They certainly did not look forward to a transfusion of those religions with Christian elements. They did not expect that if these religions disintegrated and lost their identity it would be by an inward process and not merely, nor even mainly, by an outward withdrawal of adherents through the conversion of these to Christianity. Still less did they look forward to a transfusion, even if only temporary, of Christianity by elements drawn from the indigenous religions, philosophies, cultures and other factors of social and moral life. We may hold these views and say that we have learned them in the century of missions. We ought not to try to validate these views by alleging that the founders of the movement also held them. Prevailingly they viewed the ethnic religions as more or less completely erroneous, mere creations of the darkened minds and super- stitious fears of men or else bare fragments of a lost and almost forgotten revelation of God. One and all were of evil. They were misleading, soul-destroying. One and all were to give place to the one real and true religion, that of Jesus. The missionaries were for the most part not aware that in thus arguing they were departing from the nobler tradition of Christian apologetic as exhibited in Clement of 318 WEST AND EAST Alexandria and Origen, when these and others like them, children of the best life of their age, lived as true Christians in the midst of a cultivated heathen world. They forgot all about the witness of " the soul naturally Christian." They forgot what seem to us clear intimations of Paul in the very chapter of the Romans in which he sets forth the wickedness of the pagans. They followed rather the tradition of the Roman Church from which at most points they so sincerely dissented. Again, in their allegiance to the ecumenical creeds and the Reformation symbols as embodying the gospel which had fallen in original purity from Jesus' lips, with their sense that their own forms of church government, episcopal, presbyterian, independent, or whatever they might be, their confidence that their own mode of baptism, their own ritual of worship or their lack of ritual, was guaranteed in the words of an oracular inspiration, they could not but expect that the church in China or in Turkey, in Africa or the Islands, would assume the form which it had in England or New England and would never depart from the same. For Protestants the absolute character of the revelation contained on the Holy Scriptures was an inviolable pre- supposition. The view of scripture and of the other faiths which was taking shape under the hands of Lessing and Herder never touched the Pietists. Evangelicals thought as hardly of Coleridge for one reason as Newman did for another. Those mitigations of the doctrine of the atone- ment which Campbell offered were far from commending him to Chalmers and the leaders of the Free Church from whom the missionary propaganda received such splendid impetus. Yet these all would seem to us to make easier and not more difficult the approach of the non-Christian mind to Christianity. We have to remember that it was not the approach of the non-Christian mind to Christianity which was sought. It was the submission of that mind to Christi- anity which was demanded. It was not mediation between two sets of ideas which was desired. It was substitution of the one series for the other which was intended. The scientific study of the history of religions is a development largely of the last generation. The philosophy of religion within that same RELATION TO OTHER RELIGIONS 319 period may be said to have become a new science. Students of the last quarter of a century have had a chance to become conversant with these themes. Missionaries have rendered illustrious contribution to these studies. Points of contact and of contrast among the great faiths of men appeal to us in a manner widely different from that which our fathers assumed. Quite apart from such formal studies, experience in the field affects the minds of devoutest emissaries of Chris- tianity in a way which once would have been esteemed hardly consonant with loyalty. Men sometimes demanded of those who would confess Christianity such an attitude of antagon- ism to ancestral faiths, to national and family traditions in neutral and even trivial matters, that we sometimes wonder that the number of confessors was even so great as it was. The way of the convert seems to us often to have been made needlessly difficult. We now feel that the spiritual elements in the indigenous faiths should be joyfully recognized. Its ethical achievements and possibilities should be availed of. The points which unite us to the men to whom we preach should be dwelt on and utilized before the points dividing us should be brought into view. This all belongs however to a theory of missions and a view of the missionary propa- ganda which is to us so axiomatic that we can hardly realize how new it is. The gentle Oriental has had much to suffer from the energetic occidental emissary of salvation in this way. He must often have had cause to wonder over that curious state of the western mind which could lead a man to leave his home and kin ostensibly oh no, most really to persuade others to listen to a revelation of love, and then permit or almost enjoin upon him to assume a dogmatic attitude which fairly precluded persuasion and made love and trust improbable. All this however has passed away. The change has perhaps taken place more rapidly among the missionaries abroad than among the supporters of missions at home. These last are moved sometimes neither by studies nor experience. Sympathetic appreciation of the religious views of the ethnic systems and of the moral and social conse- quences of the ethnic faiths still seems to some of these a betrayal. To the missionaries, to many of them at all events, 320 WEST AND EAST the same attitude appears as a concession gladly to be made and indeed impossible to be withheld. In the preparation of the volume on Education in the series of reports to the Edinburgh Conference in 1910, your lecturer read thousands of pages of letters written in answer to questions bearing upon the points here raised. There was scarcely an opinion expressed by a missionary in the field in dissent from the view above expressed. Principal Cairns in another of the volumes of those reports takes occasion to say : " We in our armchairs at home have verily no need to indite any lectures to our brethren on the importance of knowledge of and sympathy with the religions of the peoples whom they seek to evangelize. They can preach better sermons than can we on the pregnant saying of the Master : ' I come not to destroy but to fulfil.' In every portion of the field the most typical missionaries are bending all their powers to the task of acquiring a sympathetic understanding of the people's thought. They are busy with the heaps of chaff which lie upon the threshing floor, not to estimate with scorn the mass of it which is good for nothing but the fire. Rather, they are busy to pick out the grains of scattered seed which are to grow in their own Master's field. Even those who labour among the lowest animists are not exceptions to this rule." On the other hand a civil servant of high rank in India, who had spent forty years in that land, wrote : "I find no fault with the most sympathetic attitude toward Hinduism. I do not see how- ever that we gain much if the ugly aspects of Hinduism are forgotten in our effort to bring out its better features. I do not see that we gain much if we fall into the mood of mere extolling of the good in theoretical Hinduism and simply find fault with actual Christianity. It is the theoretical Hinduism in which one largely finds the good. It is in the practical effect of Christianity that one becomes most deeply aware of the difference. We may easily read high meanings into other faiths by mistaken explanations of acts which are only outwardly capable of such high interpretation. The man who knows the country may know only too well that the lower meaning is the actual and prevalent one." There is nothing in the comparative study of religions, there is nothing in the experience of the advocates of Christianity RELATION TO OTHER RELIGIONS 321 in their contact with, the representatives of the ethnic faiths, to shake the confidence of Christians that the religion they profess does represent a higher level of intuition in its reveal- ing personality, a higher level of experience and inspiration in some of those who followed in his steps, than do any of the other faiths. Such students are afresh convinced that this is the highest religious level which the world has seen. They feel that there is a power in this faith for the regeneration of character and the transformation of the life of mankind beyond any which has elsewhere been evinced. They may be led in humility to abandon claims for Christianity which they themselves once made and which are obviously un- tenable. They may very easily be led to see that claims which the church has at times made for itself are without foundation. The claim that there is in Christianity however a power for the renewal of the individual, and for the recon- struction of society as a whole, which has wrought wonders in time past and among all races with which it has ever come in contact, seems quite tenable. He who has felt this power of renewal in himself and witnessed it in others feels that he has no right to withhold it from any man to whom he can bring aid. He who esteems the bare mandate of the master to be sufficient, to him it is sufficient. He should not judge pharisaically the man to whom the same commission is sufficient not because it is a mandate but because of the meaning it conveys. He who has felt the power in himself and felt the need of the world, the need and the power of personal renewal and of social transformation, is happy in seeing the rivalry of all the other powers of good which the world has produced, each striving to confer upon men the highest benefit that it has to bestow. He has no doubt within himself which of these powers will ultimately prevail. We repeat however that the pioneers of missions had no such vision of the triumph of Christianity as this. Those for whose minds Christianity is always and only the Christi- anity of the past have no such vision of the triumph of Christianity now. But what is Christianity ? Is it any- thing but that element of the pure spiritual intuition and enthusiasm of Jesus which, in composition with elements given in time and place and circumstance, did the work 322 WEST AND EAST which a given race or era needed to have done and aided men to live their lives in God ? Few would any longer contend that a religion is to be understood by its origins alone. Most would assert that, on the contrary, the highest religions are to be estimated by their most highly developed stages and widest applications. Their whole essence is revealed only in the sum of their racial and chronological manifestations. Of those which are still in vital and vigor- ous relation to the world something of their essence waits still to be revealed. The Christians of yet unknown lands and times may say of the Christians of our own lands of to-day and of those of all the past : They without us could not be made perfect. Equally we may say that we without them cannot know what the height and depth of Christianity is. We may be only too deeply and too justly depressed at the sight of all that is sordid and brutal in our western civiliza- tion, shocked at its vices and crimes, humiliated at the miseries and sins which it leaves almost untouched. The time is gone by however when we could wish that the Oriental might not have come into contact with it. He is in contact with it. He desires that contact. He desires nothing so much. His own ancestral faiths have withered by that contact. It is not certain that they can ever recover what they have lost in that contact. It is certain that they must be greatly transformed because of this contact. We rejoice that they are seeking to transform themselves. Our own faith must be transformed to meet the need of a new time, even here in our own lands. It must be transformed to meet the need of different lands in the same new time. The Oriental must be brought into contact with our faith. The Oriental is in contact with both our morals and our faith and, for that matter, in contact with our lack of faith and with our treason to morals. He appropriates much that is worst in our situation as if he had not already full measure of that which is bad of his own. The best that we can now do about it is to see that he comes in contact also with that which is best in our civilization and with that which we believe to be the source of all that is best. The one thing which we can now do about it is to offer him that which, as we see it, is the saving element within our own civilization. THE CHURCH 323 We must try to offer it to him in such a manner that he can really make it his own. The only thing that we can now do about it is to offer him our faith, not indeed as the only faith by which God has ever drawn near to men. It is not that. We may offer it as the faith which has gone further than has any other in adjustment to the civilization which he seems determined to have. We may offer it as the faith which on the witness of the last two thousand years, as we see it, has on the whole carried men farthest, has compre- hended most and has best fostered the life of the soul by the things of the spiritual world, the eternal life in the midst of time. For all reasons the treatment of this portion of our subject in detail must begin with the discussion of the church and its reproduction in the foreign lands, at first upon the lines which were familiar to the missionaries in their own lands. We must speak of its organization and equipment, of the provision for its extension and perpetuation, of its modifica- tion to meet new conditions, of its accommodation to the instincts and impulses of new peoples, of its naturalization in the national life. The church at home and abroad is the central force for the real expansion of Christendom. Without this vital force the expansion of Christendom is such only in name and outward appearance. It is the attempt to cause other nations to enter into the enjoyment of some of the fruits of Christianity but not to graft them into the living root whence these are sprung. It is not to insure that the new peoples shall be able to bring forth like fruit in their turn. The church, the specifically religious community, is the conserver and transmitter of this vitality. Chronologically also, as well as logically, this is the point at which we ought to begin. In overwhelming proportion it has been the missionaries and not the soldiers and governors, it has been the missionaries and not the merchants and civil servants, with whom has lain the initiative in almost all the civilizing work to which we have referred. It has been the missionary doctors, not medical men as such, who have opened the hospitals and laid the foundation of medical instruction. Not professional students of language as such, but mission- aries, have done by far the largest part of the work of reducing 324 WEST AND EAST the new languages to writing, of translating the Bible, of producing other books and creating literature. Not pro- fessional educators in the first instance, but missionary teachers, have been founders of schools and colleges, in- augurators of the work of the press. Not industrial inno- vators and social reformers as such, but missionaries, have been the first to struggle with the poverty of the converts and their exclusion from castes and trades, with the status of women, with the helplessness of orphans, with conditions of plague and famine. Others have followed in their steps, but the missionary has usually blazed the way. Yet the missionary has always regarded these matters, however valuable in themselves, as merely subordinate to his main end. He has always considered them side issues and by- products of his main endeavour. He has considered these works as but the fringe and circumference of his task. His central task, and in the early stages you might almost say his exclusive task, was the preaching of the gospel of God as revealed in Christ to the souls of men. The later representa- tives of the mission cause have indeed come to regard these secondary aims as more intimately connected with the essen- tial purpose than the earliest of the missionaries had felt them to be. We in our generation feel more strongly than did the men of a century ago the unity of man's life, the impossibility of touching it effectually if we touch it at one point only. Yet the most modern missionary with all of his sympathy with humanitarian ends does not regard these as his main ends. He would still say that he held himself to be primarily a minister of religion, that he sought converts to a faith, that he wished to build up a church and to establish a religious community. The church has been from the beginning and is now the first thing, because the missionary believes that out of the heart are the issues of life. He follows one who said, " Man shall not live by bread alone." He hears ever ringing in his ears the cry of the Master : " What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose his soul ? " That is the difference between the minister and the philanthropist, the agitator or reformer at home. That is, this is the difference between the agitator and the minister who remains a real minister, and does not merely THE CHURCH 325 become an agitator who has surreptitiously converted a pulpit into a platform and a worshipping community into a mere audience for political and social harangues. This is the difference between the missionary and the agitator and reformer abroad. You can solve the problem of men's lives if you can touch their souls. There is no certainty that you will do anything but deaden their souls by that which turns out to be a mere improvement of their lot. It is certain that neither in the West nor in the East does mere social service and philanthropic work show that power over the deep places of the personal life, that recreative influence upon character, which the specific religious propaganda has always set for itself. It will be possible to demonstrate in the East as truly as it has been already demonstrated in the West, that mere relief of the distresses of men may leave them only the more selfish and vicious, the more demanding and less dutiful, the more rebellious and less responsible, than they were before. So that the missionary who, in all the welter which faced him when he came, a century ago, to these strange lands, kept close to the problem of the soul and had no ambition but to gather a company of believers, a band of repenting, praying, loving disciples of a faith, no end but to establish a little church, was at all events in the company of his own Lord and Master. The Master also must have seen about him a thousand things which needed reforming. Despite that fact, or rather because of his deeper insight into the nature of that fact, he kept close to the problem of the soul. He aimed immediately at discipleship. He made of his followers an apostolate. He founded a religious society. There is therefore something very great and beautiful about the work and influence of the men who for generations, in face of opposition from those to whom they came, despite obloquy and misunderstanding in the lands from which they went, have kept on their way. They stuck to their task, subtle as it was and disheartening often in the last degree, the task of endeavouring through the possession of the secret places of their own life by the spirit which was in Christ, to bring others to that same spirit and inwardness of life. They sought to cheer, uplift and fortify men and women by 326 WEST AND EAST the touch of Christ for the life which these had to lead. They were not unmindful of the fact that the great agents of necessary change in the outward conditions of a people's life must be the people themselves, whose characters they sought to elevate and purify. They sought to create little groups and communities, communions rather, of men and women of like spirit with their own. They established churches. It is possible for us now to say that we do not altogether lament that Robert Morrison was so long detained in Macao and again shut up to one activity in Canton, that namely, of studying the languages of China, of translating the Bible, of writing a grammar and making a dictionary. We say perhaps that he builded better than he knew. He worked for a larger future than he understood. Robert Morrison however lamented these facts. He would far rather have preached the gospel and fathered a church. He counted the one convert, his own language teacher, whom after years he was permitted to see, as of far more conse- quence than the monuments of his literary labour. He had gone to China with the burning love of souls. Such had been his experience of the solid wall which the China of those days presented that he left a pathetic estimate that perhaps after a hundred years there might be in China a thousand converts to the name of Christ. He was a man of faith. But that two hundred thousand Chinese Protestants would be counted in the year of the hundredth anniversary of Morrison's arrival would have seemed to him incredible. We can follow in some measure the influence of Morrison's books. We cannot follow the influence of his convert. He is lost to us. There is no way of proving that Morrison was not right, that the man would do more for the spiritual life of China than all the books. One thing is certain. It is because the early missionaries sought men and counted their gains in souls that their work has come to the fruition that it has. This of evangelism is the phase of missionary work which preponderated in the past. It was almost the exclusive ideal at the first. In some lands there was for a time opportunity for no other phase of work than this. It is the phase from which just now, in the prevailing temper of the age, there is some risk that we turn aside. It is a phase THE CHURCH 327 which is often spoken of rather slightingly, relegated to a period of unsophistication and generally regarded as a stage good to have outgrown. There is a little feeling that if we could only keep this aspect of our work of evangelism and extension of the religious community in the background we might win support where heretofore we have had little sympathy. Now it may be true that in the time to come the missionaries themselves will have less to do with evangel- ism. They may turn it over far more than they have thus far done to representatives of the race among whom the converts are sought. This is however another matter. That is not because we have less interest in evangelism. It is because we have so great interest in it that we wish to turn it over to those who can do it best. What is certain is that if the point of view of the presentation of the gospel to individual souls of men for their acceptance, if the point of view of the extension of the church as church, as religious community, is lost, it will be something less than Christianity which is propagated in these lands. The history of the missions in the Ottoman Empire alone seems to offer an exception to this rule of the priority of the church in the missionary endeavour. This is, however, an exception rather in appearance than in fact. It is well known that the first American missionaries who went to the Levant had the aim of the conversion of the Jews. Finding practically no opening for that work, they turned to the task of co-operation with and regeneration of the ancient Christian Churches which had been so long persecuted by Islam. Here at least were churches of the Christian name, and the mission- aries' reverence for them prevented at the first even the thought of proselytizing amongst them or occasioning schism from them. At first the co-operation of the missions was welcomed. Only when the effect of this new energy, this light and moral stirring from the side of the new men of the West, began to make itself felt, were the ecclesiastical authorities disturbed. There was disaffection in the mem- bership and insistence upon the education of the priests. An occasional priest took a stand against the exclusive ceremonialism which had become traditional, or in favour of preaching and urged the renewal of the moral life. Such 328 WEST AND EAST priests were disciplined. The authorities drove out those who had really been moved by the missionaries. Only then and only in the light of the Ottoman rule that every subject of the Empire must be classified under some recognized religious communion, did the missionaries and their adherents give up the effort merely to quicken these venerable churches and reluctantly set up a Protestant body alongside of the Greek Catholic communions within which they would gladly have been included. Those conversant with the history must have been aware of the interesting parallel presented by the dream which they had cherished to the ambition to reform the Eastern Church through its touch with the Protestant ideas for which the Patriarch Cyril Lucar had laid down his life two hundred years before. There came a brief period in which, because these puritans and their followers had fallen out with the Christian ecclesiastics, the Mohammedans took them up. The enmity of the Orthodox magnates would have been almost sufficient in itself to cause the followers of the Prophet to look with favour on the new movement. There were moreover other traits which appeared to command sympathy. There was the simplicity of worship, the absence of images, the reverence for a book. These seemed to imply a point of view not remote from the Moslems' own. Yet here also it was not long before the friendship cooled. The zeal for education after the western fashion, the tradition of liberty, the pressure for reform of some things in the social life of Islam, led to the same troubles as before. As for conversions, the resistance of the Moslems was if possible even greater than that of the Jews. Thus perforce, as it were, and having tried the specific religious work on every side in vain, the missionaries were driven to take up the work of education. They turned to the practice of medicine, to the setting up of presses and the dissemination of literature. We recall the labours at Con- stantinople of a most distinguished group of western scholars in the translation of the Bible into all the more important languages used within the realm. We are reminded of the flood of literature of every sort which has gone out from the presses at the Bible House in Stamboul. We think of the founding of Robert College, of the college at Beirut, of THE CHURCH 329 Constantinople College for Women, and of the nine colleges under the American Board in Asia Minor. We think of the youth of a dozen races and of half as many faiths who have gone out from these halls, now for half a century. We learn of the part which they have played in their own countries and of the share which they have had in the changes which have taken place in Turkey in these later years. We may indeed question whether there has not been a more rapid permea- tion of the whole country under the Sultan with western political and social and economic ideas, a more general setting forth of western moral and religious principles, than would have taken place had the usual order of missionary endeavour, church first and civilization afterwards, been observed. Men have gone over in masses to western ideas, who have been farthest possible removed from going over to Christianity. Abdul Hamid II. is credited with having said apropos of the Bulgarian troubles in 1877, that if there were two Robert Colleges his throne would not be secure. It cannot be doubted that of all the liberalizing and moderniz- ing influences in the Empire, of all the forces which have long been preparing in silence the way for reform, the greatest has been that of these agencies of the missionaries, who yet neither dared nor desired to descend to agitation but have simply given light. On the other hand the instability which has been manifested by the constitutional government in- augurated so few years ago with such high hope, the obvious and grave mistakes which have been made, the hollowness which its time of trial has revealed and the dramatic retribution which has fallen upon it, may well serve to prompt the question whether at this point too, our exception does not prove the rule. The thing which has been conspicuously absent has been a sufficient number of men of character corresponding to the new ideals. The qualities requisite to the carrying out of the ideals of the new regime are of slower growth than the ideas. Those qualities are fostered in a different way. They come more often by the influence of personalities and through the discipline of established relations. It is character which every missionary worthy of the name wishes before all things to foster. It is character which the church makes 330 WEST AND EAST it its aim to build up. It is character which Christianity as a religion, far more than Christianity as a reforming and revolutionary agency, tends to create. Influence for char- acter the missionaries in the Ottoman Empire have exerted, but precisely the instrumentality best adapted to that purpose has been developed on but a small scale compared with those other agencies of which we have spoken and through which they have been able to make themselves felt. Influence for Christian character others have exerted, statesmen and diplomats and men of affairs. Indeed we should be the last to imply that Mohammedanism has not been to many of its adherents a ministry of character. Whether however Mohammedanism can be the vital religion of a civilization so vastly transformed in all other respects after the pattern of that which is western, remains to be seen. In the suddenness of the transformation, representa- tive government and democratic institutions and social policies have laid stress upon the individual. They demand personal responsibility upon the part of the masses of men in a manner which Christianity has tended in high degree to develop, when it has had its own opportunity to work patiently upon the masses. The missions and their little churches had a contribution to make toward the stock of character for the nation against that emergency. They have not been favourably situated for making it. The influence of this sort which they have exerted has been almost exclusively upon the Armenian race. It may well be argued that, within the limits of influence which they could have exerted in any case, the kind of influence which the misisonaries instinctively desired to exert would have been the very thing which was needed. The slower process which they would naturally have inaugurated would have been better in the end than the indirect, inverted and more rapid course which they were obliged to pursue. The religious ideal has been to try to develop a certain type of individual character and then to give it its sphere. The course of events in Turkey has been such as to give to indi- viduals all over the land a sphere and responsibility such as they before never dreamed. The sphere was thus forced to develop the character. This it will no doubt in some THE CHURCH 331 measure do in Turkey as elsewhere. The process is, however, precarious. It is subject to disastrous oscillations and reverses. Demand is made of men and nations to which they have to grow up. Experience is paid for in a dear school, especially when the experience is on so stupendous a scale as that of the series of international complications into which the Porte had been drawn within these last years. If Turkey thus furnishes an exception to our rule in this fact, that all the other missionary activities and instrumentalities developed were far beyond the missionary church, it still casts an interesting side-light upon the general rule of the priority of the church. Let us take a case which represents almost the opposite extreme, the case of a work like that of John Paton and his islanders in the New Hebrides. It is practically the same case which was presented in the early stages of the work of the men who Christianized all the islands of the South Seas. It represents the ideal and practice of the men from Williams and Coleridge Patteson and Titus Coan to Hiram Bingham and Logan. With certain characteristic variations the case was not dissimilar in the work of Mackay and Hannington in Uganda. There was no highly developed and deeply entrenched religion with which the emissary of Christi- anity was brought face to face. There was no proud civiliza- tion whose standards he had to dispute and whose influence he had to resist. There was primitive superstition and barbar- ism. There was murderous propensity and cannibalism and a naive sort of shamelessness in vice. If these seemed at the first to constitute great difficulties, yet the very vastness of the interval between the white man and these brown or black children gave him, when once the initial barriers of suspicion had been broken down, a leadership of which the value can hardly be estimated. One reads Paton's auto- biography and the charming and humorous letters of his shrewd Scottish wife, or again the account of the short struggle of Coleridge Patteson so soon to be crowned with martyrdom. One would not detract for a moment from the honour due their sufferings and sacrifice or underrate the address and patience which their victories cost. Yet surely there is a sense in which we may say that these prob- 382 WEST AND EAST lems were relatively simple. They were easy and simple problems in contrast with the complexity and subtilty presented by other missions in their own time their own missions in a later time. That the good man should have been able to bring his handful of islanders in less than a single generation from a condition of abject savagery to a state in which there was hardly an adult who was not a communicant in good standing in the church was indeed a notable achievement. That this venerable father in God should have been both priest and king to his people, execu- tive, legislator, doctor and nurse, teacher of trades, founder in every aspect of it of an immeasurably purified and up- lifted tribal life that was a feat possible only, if we may so say, upon an island, and that practically only so long as no other white man visited the island. That naked cannibals, whose greatest glory was in the number of murders they committed, should have been brought to the position of a community in which violence had ceased, adultery was almost unknown and even theft rarely heard of, where Sunday was kept as it is not in any corner of Europe or America, where the church was the one and adequate social centre, where the golden rule was axiomatic and the law of love the maxim of men's lives, that was an achievement which without the personality of Paton would indeed have been inconceivable but which even with the personality of Paton only the peculiar circumstances could explain. Allow what you will for exaggeration in our portrayal, say if you will that it was too good to be true, it was at all events too good to last. It was an idyllic condition. It was like a home life with heavenly minded parents and little children and as yet no contacts with the world. The coming of white men to sell liquor, the going of the natives to Australia to work on the plantations under contracts which amounted to enslavement and from which they returned infected with the white man's diseases and inured to his vices, made an end of that idyllic condition, or at least gave those who had laboured so devotedly for it a heart-breaking struggle and made its ending a matter of relatively little time. Indeed, here as in most of the islands, the contact and competition with the stronger race proves the beginning of the end of the native THE CHURCH 333 population altogether. The Sandwich Islands and Samoa show this only too plainly. Duncan created such a situation for a time with his Indians on Metlakahtla. The white man wanted the island. Over on the mainland whither the Indians were forced to move, first the virtues and then the possessors of them tended to fade away. The church in Uganda was once the wonder of the >vorld. It is still a church and kingdom of significance. The protectorate has prevented a fate just like that alluded to and which would almost surely have befallen them. Yet the first radiance with which the Uganda Mission shone when the spirit of God moved upon it has somewhat faded, although it seems as if it must always be salt of the earth and light of a dark world in eastern equatorial Africa. The record of the worship and service of these blacks, whose own fathers killed Hannington, is still wonderful. Korea has been the field of such revivals of religion as elsewhere in our generation we have hardly known. Yet the fact that it was the " hermit nation " had something to do with that. It is not now a hermit nation. Its isolation and aversion to the influence of Chinese, of Russians or of Japanese had some relation to these facts. The testing time for Korean Christianity is yet to come. It seems likely to be a very serious testing. It would seem to be true some- times of tribes and nations as of individuals that there is a heaven which lies about the infancy of their spiritual life. It is part of maturing that the radiance of dawn fades into the common light of day. Conversion is a great uplift but men do not always do their first works. Indeed life demands of us something more than that which conversion alone supplies. No one who has travelled among the missions and visited particularly the remoter stations can have failed to be im- pressed, despite the relative age of some of these missions and despite all the movement and disturbances of our time, with the docility with which men and women have received the new gospel of the grace of God in Jesus Christ. He is struck with the zeal with which they try to follow those who have brought them the message, with the simplicity with which they believe and the single-heartedness with which they obey. They are all eagerness to assent to that which 334 WEST AND EAST they esteem should be assented to. They relate their Christian experience in phrases which one must have heard in any revival meeting in England or America. They sing translations of revival hymns to hardly recognizable attempts at the reproduction of our tunes. They preach in the lan- guage of Zion with which we are familiar but are endlessly surprised to find them familiar too. They read " Pilgrim's Progress " in any one of scores of languages. They interpret the religious experience as if they were puritans of Bunyan's time. At first we ask ourselves, why so ? And then we ask ourselves, why not ? How could it be otherwise ? Must it not be so, so long as Christianity is as yet insufficiently naturalized in these lands or not naturalized at all ? At the first, the very reverence with which his grateful converts look up to the man who brought them the treasure of the gospel forbids them to think of it in any other form than that in which he brought it. Hostility to the foreigner may be the trait of their race in many or in all other relations than this of the gospel. Assertion of themselves may become their attitude by and by in dealing even with this. For the time however the experience of the Christian faith, with those with whom it becomes an experience at all, and the exaltation which it gives to life, carries everything before it. It is a tribute to the greatness of the gospel. For the moment its messengers shine by its reflected light. Two hundred and eighty miles from one of the ports of Southern China, in a mountainous country which presents great difficulties to travellers, is the central station of a mission which has been cultivated for now nearly fifty years. In this whole long period it has been but rarely visited by strangers. It has had the greatest difficulty in maintaining its staff. Conditions of family or of health really governed many of the changes. Some of the members of the larger body of the mission adapted to other phases of work deemed it enough to have spent a few years in so remote a place. One man's ministration covered almost the whole period, as also his touring had touched almost every village in the whole wide field a score of times. Mild scepticism had been expressed as to whether a proposed visitation of responsible persons from America would ever be carried out. It was THE CHURCH 335 doubted whether the deputation would ever bring themselves to undertake so prolonged and arduous a journey. When, with the old hero of that station the deputation were still three or four days' march from their desired goal, explana- tion began to be offered. The station had been often denied reinforcement. Work elsewhere had been, or at least had seemed, more pressing. The missionary had had to place almost all the work far and wide in the hands of native preachers and evangelists and biblewomen. There were no gothic churches built with New York money. There were only courts in Chinese houses with now and then a little hall or an old shrine. There were only Chinese Christians wor- shipping under their own ministers, supporting their own places of worship and schools and collecting and distributing their own beneficence. The hospital with its physician and nurses was the chief new gift of the Board, after decades in which there had been no European physician within a hundred and eighty miles. Only recently a young preacher had come out from America to hold up the hands of the veteran. The churches were, however, practically every- where upon the responsibility of the Chinese. The year of the Boxer outbreak the consul had ordered all the mission- aries down to the port. It would be too difficult to protect them in their far inland post. They were absent a year. Meantime there had been persecution and martyrdom of the Chinese Christians but the church work was nowhere suspended. The deputation met thirty of these Chinese pastors and evangelists in one conference and nineteen in another. The veteran seemed to feel that apology was due because so many of the foreign traits of foreign mission- ary work were absent. The deputation felt that they had seen as if in instantaneous photograph a most interesting stage in the naturalization of Christianity. They saw nothing more impressive in their journeyings than these assemblages of Dr. Walker's preachers in Shaowu. Con- siderable part of the observations in this paragraph upon phases of work, admirable, touching and humorous as well, \v ere gathered from that highly characteristic field. We may go to one of the missions at the stage which we are endeavouring to describe and it seems as if it were an 336 WEST AND EAST island in the midst of a great sea. It seems as if we had been in a moment transported to our own land, so much is the religion of the type with which we are familiar and so much is their religion the only point at which we, for the present, come into contact with the men, or at all events the point through which we come into contact with the rest of their lives. They rebuke us, for we realize that their religion is the whole of their life in a way in which we find it extremely difficult to make religion the whole of life in England or America. The breaking of caste in India, the social ostracism which has been meted out to converts in China, has brought it about that these adherents of an alien faith have often had in fact but few contacts save with the adherents of their new faith. This is all fast changing now. It has been so, however, in good measure in time past. It would be so in eminent degree of a convert from Moham- medanism at this moment in any country in the world. The ascendency of the new ideas and the separation from the old associations alike play their part. They used to create for the little Christian churches a kind of insularity which was in an invisible way a parallel to the isolation of Paton's New Hebrides. They put us in the position in which we understand the allusions in the church fathers to the church as to a ship in a wild sea, or the word in the New Testament scripture which compares the hope of salvation to Noah's ark. They created little realms of the Christian spirit in which the faith was everything and where as yet the foreign missionary ruled. There is something truly humbling in this readiness to follow the lightest word of the missionary even when obedience to that word might cost the convert very dear. It is all the more surprising when one considers how often the countries whence the missionaries came had been guilty of political or commercial aggression, of double dealing in diplomacy and of ruthlessness in face of the weakness of oriental governments. These deeds might have accounted for a very different attitude of Orientals toward any persons connected with the nation guilty of them. Sometimes indeed missionaries have been included in a general animosity against all foreigners whatsoever. In such a case they have often been of all foreigners the THE CHURCH 337 most isolated and exposed. Upon rare occasions they have been guilty of adding their share to the general obloquy of things alien. Still more rarely they have, after indiscre- tion, called upon their consuls for protection. Too often they have endeavoured to extend the protection of foreign consuls to Christian Chinese even in matters only of property and as against the law of China. In the overwhelming majority of cases, however, they have stood apart from those things which have brought reprehension upon the foreigner or, as in the opium matter or the traffic in liquor, they have lost no chance to lift their voices against it. In the large the Indian, Chinese or African has distinguished unerringly between those who came to his country in their own interest and those who sought the interest of the peoples among whom they came. They know the difference between a Christian and a man who merely comes from some place in Christendom. Men at home sometimes say that Christianity is discredited by some more than ordinarily brutal and treacherous conduct on the part of some so-called Christian nation. These pleasant words about the discrediting of Christianity pass current among anti-missionary enthusiasts in the cool seclusion of the home lands. The " heathen " however know that it is not Christianity which is discredited. Christendom has been frequently discredited in its dealings with oriental nations, Christianity much less frequently. The Oriental has had abundant opportunity to observe that Christendom has at all times manifested too little Christianity and upon some occasions none. He leaves confusion of mind upon this point to those in western lands to whom opposition to missions is an undiscriminating cant. The " heathen " have not usually held missionaries responsible for things with which the latter had nothing to do. They have often forgiven national wrongs in light of an individual devotion which compelled their confidence and called out their wonder even as they do our own. In times and places of great and just resurgence of national spirit, they have accorded an influ- ence to the foreign religious teacher and conceded the validity of the standards of life and conduct he imposed, in a manner which fairly reproaches us. They have identified themselves Y 338 WEST AND EAST with an alien faith in a manner which must ever be impres- sive and which admits of no explanation except that they found in the teaching that which so fully satisfied the deeper needs of their own inner life that they counted the loss of all besides as small. It has no explanation except that, upon reflection, and no doubt with an interval of wonder- ment, they concluded that many men and women both from Christendom and in Christendom must have no inner life worth mentioning and must be strangers to the Christian faith. Every thoughtful observer must at some time have been set wondering how oriental converts could possibly repeat with such unction elaborate doctrinal statements couched in phrases of a philosophy which never had the slightest relation to the intellectual life of their own race. He must have queried how they could pour out their whole mood of worship through a European liturgy, or again express part of their conscientiousness through a puritanical aversion to liturgy. He must have asked himself how they could ever have been brought to observe Sunday in exactly the manner that they do, or take part in the revivalist's experience meeting or imitate the peculiarities and even the idiosyn- crasies of a particular sect or missionary who had greatly influenced their lives. One has only to reflect that the Christianity which they have taken over is as yet an eminently concrete thing, and furthermore as yet an undifierentiated mass. Christianity is, not indeed exactly because of those things alluded to, but also not altogether in spite of them, the pearl of great price, the hidden treasure, the release and uplifting and glorifying of men's souls. If they want to wear frock coats, as do so many Hindus at a certain stage of their Christianization, or white ties, as do some Africans after they reach the stage where they wish to wear any, what of it ? Even the laity in negro churches at the South affected white ties in the days when the negro ministry was the only aristocracy. What of it ? One looks in those little com- panies of large-eyed Indians decorously taking part in a Sunday School or a prayer-meeting which is conducted exactly as it might be in Oberlin. He is filled with con- flicting emotions. These are a touching tribute to the con- THE CHURCH 339 quest which the mission has made. It is not however in this form that the further conquests of missions are going to be made. Some listen to the repeating of the Nicene Creed upon the lips of negroes at Zanzibar as if it were an event as natural as is the rising of the sun. To others it is a thing strange and suggestive almost beyond expression. Alien elements in thought and practice which the converts so naturally once took up, they must with equal naturalness some day again lay down. The little isolated almost purely ethical and spiritual communities must begin their journey into the world. The world begins its invasion of the church. The simplicity and idyllic character of the earliest situation, the patriarchal traits give place. The relation of the missionary as of a father with his children is at an end. One may rejoice in it or one may say it with a pang. One usually does both. Important it is only that we recognize the fact. Every mission has a history of the kind of which we have been speaking and of a longer or shorter duration behind it. In many missions, as in many families, there are those who would perpetuate the period of immaturity if they could. It is almost impossible not to look back upon that age of relatively simple problems as the golden age of missions. One is tempted to look back upon the boyhood of his son as the golden age of his relations with his father. The church has been fain to look back upon the period of apostolic fervour and simplicity, before the great amalgama- tion with the Graeco-Koman world took place, as the golden age of the Christian church. We are very far from being pessimistical enough to believe that these really are the golden ages. Their simplicity and the more spiritual nature of their problems, as compared with the complexities and perplexities of later life, may make them appear to have been such. What is meant is merely that the beauty of childhood is past. The glory of adolescence and maturity have come. If, out of these lovely first stages of missions, the stage in which the church was everything, there have come, despite all the limitations which may easily be pointed out, Chinese and Japanese, Indian and African Christian men, who have been nurtured as in a family, the family of God, into the maturity of the life which is by the spirit of Christ, 340 WEST AND EAST that is enough. In the home lands too there are some of us who walk village streets and say perchance of some little church home of our souls in the days of our youth the old prophetic word : " This man was born there." God's pity on the man to whom no church ever filled that place. Missions exist primarily that in no lands churches may fail of which the best citizens and largest benefactors of those lands may some day say just that. Life will take care of all the changes which must come. None of all the changes which must come will necessarily produce the life. Therefore no changed conditions can ever do away with the need of the church. " For though ye have many instructors in Christ Jesus," said Paul, " yet have ye not many fathers. For by the grace of God I begot you in the Gospel." No prouder word was ever spoken. No more profound ex- plication was ever given of the purpose and issue of a mission- ary's life. No more permanent charter was ever given to the instrumentality through which the primary purposes of such a life are fulfilled. That instrumentality is the church. To neither missionaries nor converts will the church always be everything, but it will always be something, the right thing in the right place in men's lives, when these have gone forth to be everything and render every service in their world. We have spoken thus far of the significance which the church as the body of Christian believers has had and now has in missionary work and of the attitude of converts toward the church. We have spoken of it in a perfectly general way as the organization primarily of the religious life of the believers. What we have said would be true with but slight modifications of the propaganda of any church in any country. It is cheering to realize how much of the discussion can be conducted on this basis and how large is the element which is common to all denominations. It is not possible, however, to ignore questions pertaining to the form of government of the churches, to the varying views of the sacraments, to the theory of the ministry and other matters of the sort. It is not possible to deny that beyond the large area of agreement which has been thus far discussed there are these elements also of disagreement. It is not THE MINISTRY 341 possible to deny that these differences of opinion among Christians at home have played a considerable part in the propaganda for Christianity abroad. There are some Christians who do not regard these as minor matters. They have not taught their constituencies abroad to regard them as minor matters. To these minds that would seem a strange discussion of the church which should leave these matters altogether on one side. Even from the point of view of these lectures, which is not exactly ecclesiastical or sectarian, there are points here for brief discussion which ought not to be altogether passed by. The little groups of converts which were later to grow into churches were at the beginning almost necessarily organized according to the view of the missionaries. Indeed, as was often the case in the early church also, the groups were so small and their interests were so simple that they needed but little organization. The letters of Francis Xavier and the records of the early work of the Jesuits in India show the emphasis upon the outward form and constitution of the church, upon its ritual of worship and especially upon the administration of its sacraments. This emphasis was perfectly natural to Xavier and the Catholicism of his time. It accorded with the theory of an institution within which alone was salvation and whose priesthood in an authoritative succession were the sole almoners of a miraculous grace. Not merely was this view congruous with the claims of the Roman Church. Inci- dentally also it was congruous in a general way with any view of religion which the Hindu subjects of the Jesuit propaganda were likely to take. Any other view would have been incongruous. These observations are as true to-day as they were four hundred years ago. It has lain almost in the nature of the case, at the inception of any missionary work, that those who function in the worship and are responsible for instruction are the foreign priests or ministers. The Catholic churches, Greek or Roman, are in high degree organizations of the clergy, the Anglican much less so. The Roman Church was that in the period of which we speak even more than is now the case. It was that even more naturally in a land of aliens and among a constituency 342 WEST AND EAST of children in the faith than in lands where it had long been part of a complex and more widely Christianized life. One feels this in a vast community like that which gathers round the cathedral in Peking to-day. You feel this in the Greek Catholic community gathered in Tokyo, largely the fruit of the life-work of the illustrious archimandrite recently gone to his reward. It is a community in which the laity have but a passive part. Yet Chinese and Japanese have been admitted to the priesthood in comparatively early stages of such work. It is because they have absorbed completely their teachers' views of the mysteries of grace, of the significance of worship and the powers of the sacrament, and finally because they have received at the hands of the missionaries the enduement which these themselves had received from the succession in which they stand and from the institution which they represent. It is safe to say that youth from among the converts in the churches of which we are now speaking have been raised to the priesthood more quickly than candidates in like case in Protestant communi- ties have been advanced to the ministry. This is true because on the one hand there is less work of instruction demanded of the priest and less matured and intellectual understanding of the faith required. It is true again because in a hierarchical church with its discipline and gradations of authority there is less risk of the inconvenience which elsewhere arises from the placing of a newly-ordained representative of the converts upon the same level with those who have been his teachers. We come here upon a fact with reference to the ministry which is parallel to the one which we have already observed in another connection in reference to church membership. It is a curious fact but one of which the explanation is not difficult. The communions which stand most firmly for the very letter of an authoritative dogma, for the minutest point of ceremony, for a fixed traditional practice and an un- changeable function in the world, are yet easiest of approach from the side of the convert. This is true of baptism and confirmation. It is true also in general of ordination to the priesthood. They have made larger concessions to the notions and practices of those whom they wished to convert than have those churches which have made less boast of a THE MINISTRY 343 faith once delivered to the saints or of a practice from which it is treason to depart. They more easily make leaders of those who but recently joined the company of those led. On the other hand, it might have seemed at first to be axio- matic that the most democratic of the Protestant bodies would find easiest the admission of converts to the ranks of its ministers and, as well, the concession of the equality of these ministers with the missionaries themselves in the settlement of questions of administration in the church. Reasons were hinted above for doubting whether this is so. Here too the explanation of the paradox lies close at hand. In churches like the Congregationalist, Baptist and Presbyterian all the ministers, once they are ordained, are on an equality. The native ministers are bound in any wider extension of the church to outnumber the missionaries. At very early stages power of momentous decisions is thus thrown into the hands of those who were but a little while ago pupils and almost, you might say, children of the mission. These facts often give the most high-minded of the missionaries pause. The expedient never seems to have worked well of giving the mission, properly so called, one organization and the in- digenous churches another completely independent of the first. The line of demarcation of interests is too difficult to draw. When such a situation has arisen because of strife its effects have usually been unfortunate. On the other hand, those who have sacrificed most to lay the foundations of the Christian community can hardly be expected not to have moments of sinking of heart, as they see the control of that for which they have given their lives pass into the hands of those concerning whom they may very naturally ask : Are they yet ready for it ? Correspondence has recently come to the offices of one of the boards which may perhaps be taken as typical. It touches the administration and the whole life of the churches and mission schools, as also of the industrial and relief work, of one of the stations in the central part of the province of Shantung in China. The Shantung man is reputed to be one of the sturdiest individuals in the world. Some of these pastors and laymen who wrote were peasants, hardly men of great light and leading in any matter as yet. Shantung is so frightfully 344 WEST AND EAST poor that even a very little money was an object of jealousy in a degree almost beyond belief. Not all of the documents, appeals and counter-appeals, arguments and expressions of dissent, were models of amenity, despite the fact that most Chinese are instinctively polite, at least until they feel that they are being pushed too far. This dispute had of course gone far or it never would have been heard of beyond the mission itself. There were some apparent misapprehensions as to fact. There was the throb of the revolution which is felt everywhere through China now. One could see that there would be great need of judgment and tact, of sympathy and patience and then patience and yet patience, on the part of missionaries who really had all the qualities of leadership. There was no evidence that there was a man of them who thought that there could be a step backward from the equality granted to all the ministers and the responsibility of all members toward which the mission and its churches are moving. The episode illustrates the thing which has often been said of the freest of the free churches in America and which might be said of democratic governments as well. It is that they are sometimes less good governments than they might be because they assume that men are on the average better than they yet are. Some of those who attended the Shanghai Conference in 1907 were amazed to find that it was not a conference of the Chinese churches in any sense whatsoever. It was a missionary conference exclusively. It was freely said that, even as things then stood in China, a conference of missionaries and Chinese ministry and laity, all together, would have been an indefinitely more effective thing. It was predicted that this would be the last con- ference of the old sort. The conferences of the year 1912-13 held at many points in China and in other nations as well, under the auspices of Mr Mott as the representative of the Continuation Committee of the Edinburgh Conference of 1910, have all been on the new basis. There has been no thought but that the indigenous churches must be repre- sented in due proportion with the missions, and by their laity as well as by their clergy. The Continuation Committee has appointed co-operating committees from all lands and touching every phase of Christian work. The lists of these THE MINISTRY 345 committees show invariably the names of Christian leaders native to these lands. No pains must be spared to avoid the repetition in other lands of a situation which for an interval in Japan gave pain to the right minded both of the missionaries and of the Japanese themselves. Every effort must be made to mitigate the asperities of a transition which must everywhere take place. That transition is in all likelihood felt in its own way even within the Catholic churches, although not made evident to all the world as is the way with the Protestants. In this sense we may say that the Japanese episode was typical. It shows again how Japan has led the way in all these ques- tions. It has both suffered and inflicted upon others some of the pains which those who lead the way in new situations are rarely spared. The Christian movement in Japan showed in the decade of the eighties the popularity of every- thing foreign. Equally in that of the nineties it showed the unpopularity of everything foreign. It felt the effect of the resurgence of the national spirit, the revival of race conscious- ness. In the first period extraneous elements were absorbed and artificial relations established. In the second all these were sloughed off again. Those only who really cared for the Christian movement were retained within it. Those with whom it had been merely adventitious separated themselves from it. Foreigners connected with the Christian movement suffered more in this reaction than the best of them in any way deserved. Japanese connected with the movement developed however in this time of trial a reflection upon the essence of Christianity, upon its meaning and upon its adjustments to new surroundings, of a sort which they had surely never known before. Those were the times which made the hearts of the missionaries alternately heavy or light, according as they felt preponderantly the distress occasioned by the ready departure of their spiritual children from the mission standards, or else the joy of the fact that their children were now ceasing to be children and were asserting standards of their own. Those were the times when it was freely predicted that by the end of the century no more missionaries would be sent to Japan and there would be little which the elder missionaries on the ground could 346 WEST AND EAST do to fill out their years in the land to which they had given their youth. It was no longer the Japanese pastor who co-operated with the mission and was perhaps partially supported by the mission for his service in the indigenous church. The time came when the urban church supported not merely its own clergymen but also the Japanese evangel- ists, colporteurs and field preachers and rural missionaries and perhaps sent funds to the congregations of Christian Japanese among the labourers in Honolulu or Seattle. These were the times in which missionaries who had given themselves to the founding of the Japanese church had opportunity to decide whether they would co-operate with that church upon any terms which the Japanese imposed or else not co-operate at all. Here and there extremists said that no more missionaries from foreign countries were desired. It seemed to them that even the measurable keeping up of the old staff implied the failure to recognize racial and Christian equality and the fitness of Japanese to bear their own responsibilities. Not a few of the most conspicuous Japanese Christian leaders have spent a considerable part of their time and energy in the last few years in urging, especially upon America, that this view was not that of responsible or representative persons. They have urged that in view of the necessities of mature Christian leadership in Japan, in view of the concentration of their own forces largely in urban communities, in view of the inadequacy of their numbers or again of their resources to the problem presented by the rural districts and the remoter islands, missionaries of every sort and in numbers shall still be sent to them and the helpful connection with western Christen- dom maintained. This later and, as it would appear, juster contention of the Japanese themselves that foreign co-operation be maintained has hardly had time yet fully to wear down the impression of the earlier urgency that it should cease. Certainly no more convincing proof could be given of the development of independent Japanese Christi- anity, of the self-reliance of the churches, of the commanding ability of some of their ministers and lay leaders, and of the confidence which the Japanese repose in them. That con- fidence indeed the most far-sighted of the missionariesralso THE MINISTRY 347 have shared. They have won golden opinions by their tact and patience no less than by their devotion. They have set the standard for that which those unfamiliar with the history might regard as a new kind of missionary. It has been suggested that the force of foreign co-operation might almost cease to be called missionary, so completely has its attitude and function changed. Such a change of name could aim only to avoid misunderstandings which by this time are taking care of themselves. On the other hand, it would seem to cut off the movement from a great tradition. It would imply that the purposes of the movement had changed, whereas in reality nothing but the conditions have changed. It is true, however, that the missionary forces in Japan will probably never again be large, and that they will never again do some things which they have done in the past. There is the more need that the force be always and only of the highest quality. Its function will be more or less restricted. Friend, counsellor, helpful coad- jutor, resourceful supporter the missionary, with his touch with the churches in America or Europe, may still be. His great service may be to prevent the Japanese church from falling into a nationalism and provincial- ism, the polar opposite of that provincialism of the missions themselves, the danger of which has long since passed away. One of his functions may be to keep the Japanese Christian movement in touch with the outside world and the long past. Help in its own work Christian Japan surely needs, when one remembers that the Protestant and Anglican communicants are as yet only a little over two in a thousand of the total population, and the Catholic bodies together only a little larger. Such help, whether with men or with money, the churches in America and Europe which have fostered missionary work in Japan in time past are more than glad to continue to render. The paragraph on church membership and the ministry will have suggested the direction of the only comment which it is necessary to offer upon questions of church organization in general and of the sacraments in particular. Each one of the Christian churches engaged in missionary work has ordained chosen men from among its converts in the new 348 WEST AND EAST lands to the duties of the priesthood and the sacred privilege of the ministry. It has ordained them or consecrated them to this office according to its own rites and imparted to them its own views of the nature of the office. It has conferred upon them the powers of that ministry according to its own ecclesiastical theory and revered tradition. The Catholic churches, as we have seen, proceeded to the confirmation of clergy more easily than did the Protestants. They confer upon them a grace which differentiates them from their fellow-converts in far higher degree than the Protestant would admit. Yet the problems which arise for the priest- hood at this point are far less complex and difficult than the corresponding questions which beset the Protestants. The priesthood thus endowed with traditional powers, works for the perpetuation of a system and is committed to the maintenance of an order of things in a manner for which the Protestant ministry has no parallel. The priest works for the conservation of tradition. He repeats the rites which he is privileged to perform. He would hand on the faith and practice of his church in the integrity with which it has been handed down to him. Exactly in the proportion in which religion is an isolated area in life it may remain an unchanged area. It tends to pass even from one nation to another people and to be relatively unmodified by the lapse of time as well as by all its wide dissemination in space. Exactly the same observation may be made in Europe. The monks at Athos quarrel. The various branches of the Greek church find it difficult to tolerate one another. Their dissensions however touch points which arrayed parties and divided communions centuries or a millennium ago. Only in slight degree do their divergences relate to the application of Christianity to living problems in the world of to-day. The Roman Church has its modernist movement. It has devoted sons who seek to find the harmony of faith with the critical and scientific and social movements of our times. They do this not because they do not love the church, but exactly because they do love it profoundly. The church treats them in somewhat step-motherly fashion. The men who seek to alter the course of the church in their own lands or to mark out a new path for it in a mission field are viewed THE MINISTRY 349 with disfavour. They are not usually promoted to places of influence. The encyclicals are all on the side of the con- demnation of the modern, whether in faith or life. They are on the side of the assertion of the changelessness of religion. One goes into a Franciscan chapel in the Holy Land and kneeling in the stillness he might easily think himself in Rome. There is something wonderfully imposing in this timelessness of the Church of Home and in the fact that it is the same in every land upon which the sun rises. You meet a Japanese Roman priest and talk with him in the leisure of a long voyage. Very possibly he is a thoroughly cultivated man. All your points of contact with him are exactly what they would be had you met him in Paris. It is not easy to draw him out as to what, of all the many new and changing things which are necessary in Japan, his church is doing for the people and what this new and mobile people is doing to his church. The charities and philanthropies which are often much in evidence have the usual ecclesi- astical air with which you have been familiar in Belgium or Bavaria. The instruction in the seminary for the priests covers the familiar disciplines in the conventional way which has so long produced priests at Saint Sulpice. The church is an island. It seems always to be the same island what- ever seas you cross to get to it. It has crossed those seas before you. It is the same island which you left behind you. There is something very sweet and restful about its being so. He must have little sensitiveness to certain values in religion who does not feel this, whether he wanders into a shack in Alaska, a log cabin chapel in the Hudson Bay country or a neat little stucco building on a side street in Tunis. It rescues men from life. Even all its manifold charities and selfless ministrations to the world's sorrow and pain are not in the least degree incongruous with this im- pression of the changeless institution which rescues men from life. How different is the impression of the Protestant ministry and churches. It is not but that the Protestant bodies too had each and all of them, at the beginning of the period of missions, full faith in the unchanging divine character and fixed obligation of their own statements of dogma. How- 350 WEST AND EAST ever these churches may have dissented from Rome or Constantinople or again even from Canterbury, they have been as confident of the exclusive rightfulness of their own form of organization and government and of their own ritual or worship as ever any Roman could be. We have but to remind ourselves with what fervour devout souls among the Lutherans have stood and even now stand for the last letter of Lutheranism in Eastern Asia Minor or the heart of Africa. Agreements are made in comity only to be broken in conscientiousness. The parties have come to feel that it was treason ever to have made such agreements, therefore it is virtue or at least necessity to break them. One has only to recall the certitude of the Puritan concerning his order or, in former days at least, of the Scottish Presby- terian concerning his or of the Anglican concerning his, to forecast what, save as modified by other causes, the contentions of their respective adherents in foreign lands must needs have been. They were very different orders and conflicting contentions to be sure. But then that was true in Europe and America. It would be not less true in Asia, where there were few if any who knew the historic origin of these differences or had seen the other side of the shield. Almost they might seem to an outsider to be mutually exclusive positions and mutually destructive arguments which were used in the defence of the respective systems. This never prevented the several bodies of their adherents from finding sanction for all of their tenets in one scripture and making these tenets binding upon every soul in the name of scripture. A missionary is liable at times to be a zealot. It is zeal which makes him a missionary. A type of experience has sometimes been demanded by him as invariable. His interpretations of scripture have been thought by him infallible. He hardly took them for inter- pretations, no matter how individual they were. He believed them to be inspirations. The Protestant diversity is fairly bewildering even here in the home lands. How much more confusing and misleading and discouraging must it have been on foreign shores. The worst days of denomina- tional rivalries are indeed over. Men are ashamed of the waste which they involved and the lamentable spectacle THE MINISTRY 351 which they presented. The time has gone by when, on any large scale, Christian fellowship is not accorded to those who have not been baptized in a particular way. It is the more deplorable that exactly upon the point of the eucharist the unedifying controversy should have broken out afresh. It has broken out on the side of those from whom better things were to be expected. From the first it could hardly be doubted what the deliverance of the highest authorities of the Church of England would be. That decision, while it reflects the actual state of the case, that there is no agree- ment within the Church of England itself as to the abstract view of the sacrament, yet leaves the practice of missionaries in the field to be guided by the spirit of brotherliness and co-operation, by the spirit of consecration to the large ends which the missionary endeavour has in view. No solution except that which represents the actual facts in the mission- ary world will be accepted. There is no prospect that all Christians will ever come to one view of the sacrament. There is no need that they should. But to say that those who hold different theories of the communion cannot com- mune together is preposterous. It hardly admits of doubt that the whole miserable episode will redound to the unifying of the endeavours of Christian men in the whole missionary world as scarcely any other event could have done. It is not, however, at this point of tradition alone that the Protestant churches differ from their great historic rivals. It is not merely with reference to their past. It is as much or even more with reference to their present that they are in contrast. It is in respect of their relation to the world and of their apprehension of the purpose of their being in the world. It is in reference to their view of the effect of the world upon the church. In the view which comes more and more to prevail in those fragmentary bodies which together constitute the Protestant Church, the aim of religion is not to rescue men from the world. It is to rescue men in the world. It is to rescue the world through the men. It is this thought which has done more than anything else to relegate denominational differences to the background and to make the contentions of ecclesiastics properly ridiculous. The church is not an island. It is not an ark of safety. It is 352 WEST AND EAST not a walled town. It is, in one way of looking at it and in its furthest aim and ideal, the world itself. It is at any given moment the body of men and women who are pos- sessed by a certain characteristic spirit. The very aim however of their being possessed of that spirit is that all other men may be possessed by the same spirit. The aim of having that spirit manifested in some relations in life is that some day it may be manifest in all. The purpose of the layman in asking admission to the church, as of the minister in setting about his calling, is not that he may do what all Christians always and everywhere have done, or say what they have said, but that he may do that which ought now to be done to make his little circle, his nation, his race and the whole world truly Christian. This is the reason why those pastors of whom we were speaking in China and Japan, dissented so readily from their preceptors in Christianity and threatened to depart or actually have departed from the traditions of the denomination to which at the first they naturally belonged. This is the reason why, as over against the admirable dignity and unity of the Roman Church, these Protestant churches convey the impression of greatest possible diversity and of expending their vitality upon every imaginable problem. At their worst they often seem to the unbiassed observer to have lost any profounder sense as to what their identical business is. This is true both at home and abroad. At their best, on the contrary, they make the impression of initiative and originality, of freedom and fear- lessness and indefinite resourcefulness, of unbounded sym- pathy. They make the impression of being destined to play a large part in the creation of a new Christendom in those portions of the world to which Christianity has been newly extended, a Christendom many of whose traits neither they nor we can forecast. This is the reason why we have so often the rather troubled sense that the human element is uppermost, that errors are being made and steps taken which will have to be retraced. This impression may not even be a mistaken one. Yet through all we have the confidence that this state of things is inevitable in the divine plan for the permeation of the world in all aspects of its life by the spirit of the gospel of God in the man Jesus Christ, WHAT IS CHRISTIANITY? 353 and through the men whom he has called out of every nation and kindred and tongue to be his instruments in this work. After all, it comes down to a single question at the last, does it not What is Christianity ? If we can answer that, we can answer the question as to what are dogmas and rituals, what are forms of organization and theories of the sacraments ? What is Christianity ? With the pietists and evangelicals who inaugurated the modern missionary move- ment, with the revivalists and others who have had large share in continuing it, there can be no doubt what Christi- anity was. There can be no doubt that it was primarily a personal and inner relation of the individual soul to the God whom Jesus revealed and to Jesus as the Revealer and Saviour. Secondarily, it was all that series of facts and phenomena in which the life of believers, in their communion one with another and with their Lord and Master, found expression. It was doctrine, the formulation of the truth which the church had framed. It was worship, the rites and ceremonies, but above all the sacraments, wherein the divine grace was symbolized and the divine gifts ever more renewed to men. It was the law of an institution with its guarantee of order and of the conservation of sacred principles. It was discipline of life in the lig;ht of the eternal. It was a teaching, an inspiration, a guidance of the soul. It was worship in the spirit and according to a tradition august in itself and about which gathered much of touching associa- tion. It was the fellowship of endeavour of those to whom life in this world was, if need be, nothing and eternity was all. This was Christianity as the pietist would have phrased it, and mutatis mutandis, as the Roman Catholic would have phrased it too, only he would have inverted the order. He would have claimed that the latter considerations, the ecclesiastical aspects of the matter, were the primary aspects. The individual experience of life in God came only by con- nection with the community of Christian men. The church was the organ and instrumentality of the continuing grace of God among men, the medium of revelation, the depository of the truth and the authoritative guide in the divine life. To spread the church was to mediate salvation. Through z 354 WEST AND EAST her men came to God and were guided out of darkness and error and weakness into manhood complete in Christ. To the mind of the one as truly as to that of the other assent to the doctrines of the church, conformity to its practices, obedience to its discipline, renunciation of all other religions, would have been regarded as the evidence of the acceptance of Christianity. The growth of the church would have been esteemed the only practical measure of the spread of Christianity. That it is a measure of some- what uncertain value is clear from all that we have been saying. Yet it was the only measure which either would have known well how to apply. The Catholic Church with its grand sense of the significance of the church as institution, with its developed apparatus for dealing with the problems of the tutelage of men and races, with its sense of the organic nature of the families and spiritual communities of men, with room within itself for every degree of immaturity, has admitted to its communion those who had as yet separ- ated themselves but a little way from the old life to which they belonged and travelled but a very little distance on the road toward Christian perfection. It thought of the church as the Father's house, the home of the soul, and esteemed that the children of the faith best grew up within that home. They should not be kept waiting outside the house until they are nearly adult. It was too problematical whether they then would wish to come in. It was certain that they would have lost much in the nurture of the Christian life. How easy it is to state this in the light of its own great and wonderful truth. The Protestants with perhaps a greater emphasis upon the intellectual element in faith, certainly with a larger stress upon the individualistic element in life, with a profounder concern for the moral consequences of belief, has characteristically kept its converts more anxiously at a distance. It has viewed the church as composed more exclusively of those of a maturer Christian grace. It has prevailingly viewed the church as a company of the spiritually adult. In doing so it has run some risk of exacting that which hardly belongs to the vital elements of faith. Everyone knows that, not alone in the mission field but CHURCH AND WORLD 355 also in Christendom, these two theories stand the one over against the other. The statistics of the one group of churches are only with difficulty comparable with the statistics of the other because of this radical difference in basis from which they are taken. We have sought to por- tray each view in the sympathetic language which would naturally be used by one of its own adherents. It is clear that each has a truth on its side. Each is trying to con- serve a Christian ideal. The point to be seized however is evident: The one, on the line of its invasion of the world, puts its boundary of the church much further out than does its rival. The one instinctively includes, the other as instinctively excludes, many who are as yet the representatives of but a partial prevalence of the Christian spirit. Yet the difference is, after all, only a difference in degree. It is a difference as to where the line falls between church and world. It is not a question as to whether there is any such line. It is not a question whether we ought to call all of that which is within the church Christian and that which is beyond the church not Christian. At least it is contended that we ought to strive so to fashion the church that this assertion could be verified. So much is for both parties, and that both at home and abroad, made out. Yet that which is all the time emerging in this discussion is that this boundary is an elusive one. It corresponds to nothing. It is a vanishing distinction. The spread of the church, this church or that, the work of a mission from decade to decade how shall we make up any statement as to this, save by saying, that so many members have been admitted to communion, there are so many catechumens, there are so many pupils in schools conducted by the mis- sion, so many patients have been treated by the missionary doctor. We all know that this is where we must begin. We all know that this is where we must not end. We all know that a vast number of issues in national and social and personal life, both abroad and at home, are the direct or indirect result of the dissemination of the Christian spirit. They are aspects of the Christianization of life. They are parts of the domestication of Christianity in the world, of the assimilation of the world to Christianity, of 356 WEST AND EAST the naturalization of Christianity in alien lands. These are all parts of the process by which Christianity is ceasing to be exotic and is becoming indigenous in all lands. These wider aspects of Christianization have been the objects of endeavour of some to whom the church of Christ was most dear. They have also been, and in no inconsider- able part, the objects of endeavour of many to whom the church was not dear at all and Christianity was very doubtful. This we cannot deny and should be ashamed of wishing to deny. What we wish to assert is that in some large sense they are all parts of the naturalization of Chris- tianity. It is precisely the nineteenth century which has seen greatest gain in this particular phase of the naturaliza- tion. We do not for a moment minimize the transcendental answer to the question : What is Christianity ? We have not failed to recognize the church as the bearer of Chris- tianity in the world. We do not deny that the most intimate and essential consequence of the Christian move- ment abroad as at home is the growth of the church. We are forced however to say that by no means the only index of the spread of Christianity is the growth of the church. Christianization is a process which does not take place within one sphere of the life of man alone. It is not merely a process ecclesiastical. It is not solely a process which men would conventionally call religious. It is a movement of which the individual experience of the divine grace is the secret, of which the church is the hearthstone and centre, but of which the whole life of man is the range and scope. The world is the object of redemption. More than we realize, what we call the world is also the active subject under God in the redemptive process. Forces of the world work together with the spirit in the church to bring about a redemption of every aspect of man's life here in this world, from which no man of all the humanity shall be shut out. The gifts of a civilization really permeated by the spirit of Christ we aspire to confer upon all men. Greater however than those gifts is that spirit. That too, and with even greater enthusiasm and consecration, we would seek to confer. But the real bestower of that gift is God himself. For its bestowal we can only create the conditions REDEMPTION 357 and prepare the way. Furthermore the real recipient is the individual soul. By the co-operation of the individual will in the resolute shaping of the personal life, by this only can the purpose of God in the relation of the redeemed soul to its own world be fulfilled. Even the Christian tenet of immortality bears to this faith of world redemption no merely external relation. For even immortality is not thought of as a mere conferment and bestowal upon those upon whom in the mystery of God's will it is to be bestowed. It is the eternal continuance of the life by the good upon which men have entered already here in time. It is the eternal continuance of those who have entered upon that life by the good. LECTURE VIII DOCTRINE AND LIFE IN the preceding chapter we spoke of the nature and results of the Christian propaganda in foreign lands. We have said that its immediate address was to individuals and its direct effect was the formation of groups of adherents of the new faith. To these new adherents the faith tended to become the organizing principle of their entire life. This was the more true because conversion had often occasioned a breach in the convert's relation to the life about him. It set up new standards. Besides, the new life did not at first pass beyond the imitative stage in which the influence of the missionary was supreme. No more beautiful examples can be found of the reality and simplicity of the Christian religion than in some of these missionary churches in their earliest stage. We observed how naturally the form and organization of the church, or rather churches, as these exist in the West, became the pattern of those raised up in the East. We noted how inevitably the rites of worship followed the tradition of those observed in the West. Priesthood and ministry were at first exercised exclusively by men who were still actually in official relation to religious institutions of the West. The influence of western ecclesi- astical organizations would therefore naturally have been great, even in those communions in which the church was viewed as but the association of believers and in which salvation acknowledgedly depends upon the direct relation of the individual soul to God through Christ. It would be still greater in those communions in which the church, with its properly ordained clergy and its duly administered sacraments, was the actual instrumentality of salvation and the believer's approach to God was through the church alone. For obvious reasons churches holding the latter THE CHURCH AND DOCTRINE 359 view present greater resistance to the process of naturaliza- tion in new lands. Yet also exactly because of their more efficient organization they can make minor and superficial concessions at which the freer churches occasionally pause. There is no more flexible institution in the world than the Koman Church within the area within which it is flexible. There is no organization concerning which it is more fatuous to say that even in very grave matters it cannot and will not adapt itself to new conditions. It will adapt itself to new conditions when such concession becomes necessary. Its adaptation often takes place in very un- obtrusive fashion so that the intelligent observer is some- times surprised to see how far the change has gone. It never commends the principle of change as we are doing in these lectures. Kather it affirms the principle of unchangeableness and changes nevertheless. For the Protestant bodies on the other hand, the moment we get beyond the area of superficial things, this power and duty of adaptation is recognized. It is joyfully asserted. We do not deny that Protestants also have occasionally viewed their own organization, their rites and dogmas from the Catholic point of view. Some of these, despite Protestant inheritance, logic has carried to the recognition that they are Catholics only not in connection with either the Kornan or Greek Churches. Others again, more Protestant than Protestants, have insisted upon one and another of the various details magnified by the sects, as if these had been given in a pattern from which true Christianity never could depart. It is illuminating to observe that it is oftenest upon matters of detail that such minds do insist. In the large, however, the exigencies of their work have carried the Protestant missions far, not merely in the direc- tion of unity among themselves but also in the direction of those nationalizations and naturalizations of their institution and of its ministry to the life and mind of other peoples of which we have been speaking. The process has of course gone much further in some lands than in others. It is more evident in the work of some denominations than of others. We come in the lecture of to-day to make parallel 360 WEST AND EAST assertions in the realm of doctrine and in the application of Christianity to life. We shall have in this lecture to reflect upon actual and possible changes in doctrine and dogma, changes, that is, in the statement of faith which are the counterpart of those just noted in the area of organiza- tion and church life. Doctrine is the theory of religion. Dogma is that part of doctrine which has been officially declared by the authorities of particular churches to be the theory about religion which those who belong to these churches ought to hold. Both doctrine and dogma are the result of reflection, primarily the reflection of a given age and race, of a given church or of leaders in that church, upon the religious experience and the facts of the religious consciousness. Dogma is such reflection formally authorized and ordered to be perpetuated. Doctrine and dogma are thought about religion, but doctrine is still living thought. Dogma is crystallized, finished, immobile thought. Doc- trine is usually conscious of its present relation to history. Dogma is fain to declare that it has no such relation. Primary for Christians is of course Christ's thought about religion and the apostles' thought, the thoughts vouchsafed to them in God's revelation of himself within their souls. Similarly we speak of the doctrines of the apologists, the doctrines of the church fathers and of the great theologians of the Middle Age. We speak of the doctrines of the school-men and of the reformers and of the classic age of Protestantism. When we speak however of the dogma of the church we have added another notion. We have meant to indicate the fact that some of all of these various doctrines, at first put forth by individuals, have now been declared authoritative by the church or churches. They have been enunciated as the statements of truth upon which the church has always stood and from which it will never depart. We are thinking of it then as doctrine which has become a sacred tradition, a formula of faith assent to which is usually demanded of those who would belong to a particular church. Not all men think clearly at this point. They still identify the truth which makes them Christians with statements of truth which have been made by revered men or put forth by DOCTRINE 361 churches as the truth of Christianity. More and more how- ever men in our generation have learned to distinguish between religion and the statement of religion. They understand the nature of doctrine. They realize that doctrine and dogma are the fruit of reflection. Every statement of faith is drawn in part indeed from the great objects of faith which have been revealed to us, God, redemption and immortality. Every such statement bears however besides, the un- conscious mark of those who made it. It gives evidence of their time and place and circumstance, of their character and spiritual quality. There is an infinitely precious personal quality of the revelation in Jesus which warrants us in saying that it was in the human spirit of the Nazarene that God once in time and in in- comparable fashion made himself manifest. Similarly there is a very intense personal quality about everything that Paul ever wrote, which does not in the least forbid us to say that it was an inspired man who thus wrote. The recognition of this fact alters our notion of inspiration. It alters our doctrine of revelation. It makes us see that it is not revelation but the record of revelation which the New Testament documents constitute. The revelation was in the personality of Jesus. It was in the experience of those upon whom the Spirit came. The Nicene Creed is what it is because it was produced when and as it was produced. Augustine wrote as he did because he was Augustine. God spoke to him and he still speaks to us through Augustine, a living man with a hot heart and a strange and pathetic and uplifting history. The law is universal. There is no creed or theology which is not what it is in part because of the history which entered into its making. That history may have been the history of individuals. Or it may have been the history of whole races, of whole branches of the Christian church, of whole ages of the Christian life. The subject of the history of doctrine has been rewritten in our own times from this point of view. It has become one of the most impressive chapters in the history of thought. For on one side it is simply that. It is the history of human thought about things Christian and divine. It is that just as truly WEST AND EAST as, on the other side, it is the record of God's progressive giving of himself to men and of the application of that which God has given of himself in revelation to new conditions in the thought and life of the world. Doctrine is dynamic, not static. It is mobile, not stationary. It has been the fashion in certain circles to deride doctrine. It has been urged that we should seek a Christianity which is without doctrine. No men however can be without doctrine except those who are without thoughts concerning religion. Those who really think concerning religion are those who are least likely to repeat in lifeless way that which they have been told that other men have thought. When Hampden delivered his Bampton Lectures in Oxford in 1832 he set forth within narrow limits the general view which we have here been dealing with. He applied the thesis only in the particular relation of the scholastic philosophy to the theology of the Middle Age. His contention was epoch making. Newman was entirely right from his own point of view in declaring that Hampden's principle, once admitted, would alter our view of every creed and of every theology whatsoever. Harnack has only done in our day on a universal scale that which Hampden did within a limited sphere. Few however any longer doubt that the theology which Catholics and Protestants alike inherit has all the marks of the naturalization of that reform of prophetic Judaism which Jesus inaugurated within the areas of Greek culture and under the Eoman State. No one denies that our Christianity is characteristically Aryan and not Semitic. It is western in the form of its reflection and in its application to life. For most of us Protestants it has become in addition a Teutonic and Saxon religion. Yet it was an Asiatic religion at the first. When it goes back to Asia, must it not become Asiatic again in order that it may reach Asiatics ? Must it not in Paul's phrase become all things to all men in order that it may save some ? This is only to assert that that which has happened to Christianity in the past is that which must happen to it also in the time to come. One who knows the history of thought knows that all our great Christian HISTORY OF DOCTRINE 363 creeds and systems of theology have followed the lines of ordered reflection laid down by Plato. Besides our thoughts concerning religion we think all our other thoughts on lines laid down by Plato, and modified only by certain well-known western thinkers since Plato, most of all by Kant. What however does the Hindu know about Plato or Kant? What does the Chinese man know of them ? Or what does he need to know ? The cultivated man among them may learn sometimes to think in these terms as he becomes familiar with the whole life of the West. The common man would never think in these terms, save for a brief time on the particular topic of the Christian religion and so long as he was under the overpowering influence of the foreign missionary. And even concerning that topic the most accurate thing to say would be that he would merely think that he thus thought. Christianity will never mean what it should mean to China until common men embrace it and think freely about it in its relation to all the other things of which they think, in the natural way of Chinese men. They have a mode of reflection, a background in the life of the mind of the race, which is as instinctive with them as it appears remote and unnatural to us. It is the philosophy of their race. When they think powerfully and freely concerning Christianity they will think in terms of that philosophy. It is only within the lifetime of men now living that these ideas concerning the doctrines and dogmas of Christianity have become widely familiar in Christian lands. The discovery and apprecia- tion of them is a chapter in the intellectual history of our race. It is easy to see at what advantage the candid holding of such views puts us with reference to the Christian movement among other races. It is a factor which ought to help us indefinitely in interpreting that movement. It ought to enable us to take wise part in aid of other races in the changes which they face. It ought to prevent our unreasonable insistence upon things which are non-essential. It ought to save us from even un- wittingly bewildering and hindering the men whom we most desire to help. This is one of the points at which the most 364 WEST AND EAST assured results of modern learning ought to be most helpful in the propaganda for the Christian faith. We might go even further and say that the considerations named not merely alter our view of the nature of doctrine, they tend to diminish the stress which has often been laid upon doctrine, as if it were almost the only thing in Christian teaching which is of consequence. These con- siderations do away with an exclusiveness of emphasis upon doctrine which has been misleading and injurious. They make us see that doctrine, the thoughts which we have about religion, are only one phase, the intellectual phase, of the religious life. Eeal religion expresses itself in other ways besides this, although the religion of culti- vated people will naturally express itself also in this way. Keligion has often been treated as if it were mainly a matter of doctrine. Much of Christian history makes the impression that the adherents of Christianity themselves have held that the matter of being a Christian at all was chiefly a question of the formal beliefs to which a man gave his assent. The so-called Athanasian Creed goes the length of saying in its opening sentence, "Whosoever will be saved, before all things it is necessary that he hold the Catholic faith," and in its closing sentence it declares, "Except a man believe this faithfully he cannot be saved." If it could thus be authoritatively asserted that men were permitted to approach God or else altogether turned away from God, only on the basis of assent to extremely difficult meta- physical propositions, what wonder is it if, even down to our own times, men have been thrust out of particular churches because they had ceased to hold the precise views which those at the moment in power in those churches declared to be requisite ? Men have been admitted to the churches upon that which bore the semblance at least of mere assent to propositions. Men in great numbers stand aloof from the churches in our own lands to-day, because they cannot give assent to propositions which the church either does hold or is supposed to hold. Christianity has had no monopoly of this evil. Men are classed as adherents of Islam or of Buddhism because of certain tenets which they hold. This tendency to apprehend religions almost DOGMA 365 wholly from the point of view of their theoretical concep- tions is a very ancient one. It is the tendency to judge religions by the kind of the philosophy of the universe which they furnish. It is the evaporation of religion until nothing but the intellectual element is left. It is the assumption that nothing but the intellectual in religion counts, that feeling and conduct are of less consequence. We sometimes say that this vicious process by which religion was reduced to metaphysics was an evil effect upon Chris- tianity of its contact with the Greek spirit. In that spirit the intellectual element had always largely preponderated. There is a measure of truth in this. Neoplatonism was a quest of salvation by the process of thought. It was not expected that any would be saved except the intellectuals. Hellenic Christianity certainly bore far too largely this cast. It is this emphasis which appears in the very title of the Holy Orthodox Church. It must not be forgotten that Jesus' bitter censure of the scribes in his day revealed the fact that Judaism also had degenerated in this direction. Stress was laid upon certain dogmas which a man must hold. If he held these with sufficient tenacity he might be pardoned much besides. What else of religion was left was mainly legalism and ceremonialism which also Jesus judged to be poor substitutes for religion. It is therefore hardly surprising that Christianity, as its first enthusiasm waned, became transformed in considerable measure from a life into a metaphysic. It came to be measured not so much by what men did as by that which they thought, or worse still, by that which they were able to repeat of that which other men had thought. This process of the loss of Christianity, just at the time when the church as institution came to wield the greatest in- fluence in the world, has ; been much dwelt upon by historians of late. This deflection of what had been a sound vital influence into mere intellectualism, this gauging of all things by creed and not, as in Christ, by deed and love has been deplored. It has been described as the first great heresy, although it was the movement out of which arose the persecutions of all the other heresies. That which we are here concerned to note is, however, that Christianity is 366 WEST AND EAST not alone in having pursued this downward course. In many other religions this perversion has been manifest. Every religion which has had currency among peoples of any intellectual life has tended to find expression far too much in terms of thought. It is so much easier to think something than to be something. Mohammedanism became largely a system of dogma of the most rigid sort. In fact Mohammedanism was largely dogma from the beginning, because it stood over against both a Christianity and a Judaism in which dogma had assumed the first place. The infidel was one who dissented from true dogma. The con- flicts between the various sects of Mohammedanism have been and still are largely upon the basis of differences of opinion as to dogma. At this point they offer a close parallel to the animosities of Christian sects. Buddhism was a teaching. Brahmanism exalts those who are sup- posed to have insight into divine truths, asking often far too little as to the effect which these truths have had or have failed to have upon men's lives. Surely these lectures will have made plain how large a thing religion in our view is. We should be far from identifying the enlargement of the circle of those who assent never so vehemently to Christian dogma with the spread of the Christian faith. On the other hand, insist- ence upon a so-called religious life which is to be without any creed may be quite as utterly a fanaticism as is the harping upon creeds. The relation of religious thought to religion and life is very simple. It is so simple that you would not think that men could have erred so often con- cerning it. The Christian impulse must find its expression in the realm of thought also, as well as in that of feeling and conduct, supposing that one lives the life of the mind at all. Even those who do not live the life of the mind for themselves imbibe a theory and system of life from others who have thought. There is an intellectual basis of con- duct, and a philosophical interpretation of life from the religious point of view, which even those possess who are unconscious of its possession. In fact those who are thus unconscious might fairly be said to be possessed by this philosophy. He who has the grand experience which DOGMA 367 religion is must reflect upon it, either in his own terms or in the terms of someone else. There is moreover a world of thought into which the thoughts about religion must fit, unless indeed we attempt to wall off our religious thoughts from all our other thoughts. Life is a whole. We do not safely live with our religion in a watertight com- partment. He who would divorce religion from the intel- lectual life degrades religion and impoverishes the intellect. The system of thoughts about religion, if it is a living system, must necessarily be congruous with the living system of thought about all things besides. The creeds of the Middle Age did actually prevent for a time the rise of the sciences. When later, in spite of everything, the sciences had arisen, the slowness of the adjustment of religion to the sciences caused religion to appear to many earnest men to be the one theme of which a thoughtful and free mind could make nothing. To such a mind it was an object unworthy of attention. No religion can be without doctrine. No religion can continue in well-being with a doctrine which has completely lost relation to the natural thoughts of men upon other themes. Changes in Christian theology as it has traditionally pre- vailed in the West have taken place on a great scale among us within the last two generations. Some of these changes are such as to make the presentation of Christianity easier to men of the East. There may be yet greater alterations in Christian theology when the matured contribution of the East toward the understanding of Christianity begins to make itself felt. Exactly in proportion as we are led to divest ourselves of our provincialism, to see Christianity in its simplicity and greatness and adaptability, do we interpret it in terms which are universal and enhance its appeal to universal humanity. Our own claim is that Christianity is for all men, that it is a universal religion. We must not forget however that, as a matter of fact, the only part of Christendom which has thus far in any larger way assisted in bringing Christianity to the men of the East is that portion of the West whose interpretation of Christianity has the most pronounced occidental traits. The contrast between the view of religion which is often presented by 368 WEST AND EAST the missionaries and that which would be instinctive with the oriental man is thus at its acutest. There is a striking distinction to which few who have listened to missionary preaching in the Orient can have failed to be sensitive. There are missionaries who present their message with a fluent use of the vernacular speech, yet their thoughts are utterly foreign to those of the audience whom they address. Their speech is the speech of India, but the thoughts are those of an evangelical revival meeting in England or America. Their thoughts are those of their own denomination, or they are those which have had intimate relation to the development of their own religious life. They seem never to have given a moment's consideration to the question whether these thoughts are possible to the men whom they are addressing or whether, even if possible, they are not unnecessarily remote and difficult. The suggestion that they should, so to say, change the language of their thought as well as that of their utterance would perhaps hardly have been under- stood by them. Perhaps they would have considered it treasonable. Of all the elements in the training of the missionary, his training to know the mind of the people to whom he goes is probably the most difficult. The knowledge of a language is only one of the gateways to the knowledge of the mind of a people. Without the first the second is almost impossible. Yet with the former the latter is not always assured. The actual ideas uttered by the speaker in question may reveal that he has stood still since he has left his own country, perhaps he has even stood still since his own youth, while in the mastery of the mere vehicle of utterance he has taken long steps toward the people among whom he works. The people among whom he works are taking long steps in the world movement of modern thought. When it is enjoined upon such a man to speak simply he harks back to the view of religion which he entertained before he began to think. What we see here is however only the same breach which we often perceive in home lands between what are supposed to be thoughts about the gospel and all the other thoughts of the congregations to which they INDIAN DOCTRINE 369 are addressed. Nothing is commoner than to hear eighteenth century revivalism, seventeenth century Calvin- ism, or even hopeless medievalism offered in all serious- ness as the gospel to men all of whose other thoughts are set in the key of the doctrine of evolution, of a monistic philosophy, of history and criticism and of the social enthusiasms of the opening of the twentieth century. Then perhaps we wonder why this which calls itself simple gospel does not lay hold upon the thoughts of men who think or, to put it more pungently, why it does appeal so powerfully to people who do not think, or at all events do not think upon this theme. We need not imagine that Christendom alone affords this spectacle. India presents it on a vast scale. India has been perhaps more completely obsessed than has any portion of Christendom, at any time, with the mistaken notion that religion is doctrine, with the hallucination of salvation by right opinion. The Indians are pre-eminently an intellectual people. The very ideal of life for the Indian has always been the life of thought. It has not been the life of action, as has been the case prevailingly with the man of the West. Religion has never been organized in India as it has in the West. There has never been either in Brahmanism or in Buddhism an institution even remotely comparable to that which the Roman Church was to Europe in the days of its power. You may test that by attempting to use the phrase, the Brahman Church, the Buddhist Church. The phrases correspond to nothing. These faiths have had practically no machinery for enforcing orthodoxy. In extraordinary degree however the weight of popular sentiment has done this and it has been orthodoxy, religious opinion as such, which has been enforced. It was doctrine with which the people were concerned, although there was no force but that of public sentiment to elevate it to dogma. There have been heresies without end, reforming doctrines without number, societies to pro- pagate this or that new doctrine, formed and dissolved again. Always however it was doctrine about which the contest turned. There have been persecutions about 2A 370 WEST AND EAST doctrine, but always they have been popular persecutions, not plans of an institution like those of the Inquisition. With incredible vitality Hinduism has absorbed a thousand reformers and their doctrines back into itself again. Christi- anity, reduced by the Greeks to opinion and organized by the Romans into the basis of a supremely powerful state, was more formidable to the particular reformer with his truth or error. It has however never been half so effective in devouring all reform into itself again, as has this impalpable popular force of Hinduism working on behalf of a religion which was never anything but a doctrine with certain related ceremonies. An Indian writer, Har Dyal, writes thus bitterly : " Metaphysic has been the curse of India. It has blighted her history and compassed her ruin. It has converted her great men into miserable quibblers and led them off into useless channels of inquiry and effort. It has been the dangerous will-o'- the-wisp of the Indian intellect during many centuries. It has elevated sophistry to the rank of an art and substituted empty fancies for knowledge. It has con- demned the mind of India to run in the same old groove for hundreds of years. It has blinded her seers and led them to mistake phantasms for realities." In light even of such reproach as this it is not necessary to dewy that the Indian besides being a profoundly intellec- tual is also an extremely religious people. It is perhaps the most religious people in the world, Indians are not at all naturally inclined to secular views and aims as are we of the West. Religion has been the great magnitude in India, thought about religion the great world of thought. India's claim to a foremost place among the nations is not based upon her contributions to law and government. It is not based upon that which she has achieved in science or trade. It is based upon her rich contribution to the religion of the race. Her people is essentially a people of spiritual outlook upon the problem of the universe. This has been more true perhaps than of any ancient people except the Hebrews. In the Christian era and even under most unfavourable con- ditions the Hebrews until recently kept that outlook. In the freedom and prosperity and power of the modern INDIAN RELIGION 371 world they have, like many Christians, in some measure lost that outlook. One reminds himself of this fact when he thinks of the modernization of India. The Indians have been a people by whom the things which are seen have been recognized as temporal and the things unseen as eternal. To keep this view permanently before the minds of men, to insist upon it in face of all opposition, to live in the light of it in spite of other people's absorption in lesser aims, this has been the mission of India in the world. It is a mission for which India has been especially endowed and to which she has been particularly called of God. Other interests are not thereby excluded. If however this is abandoned or relegated to a secondary place, India will lose her special rank among the nations of the earth. This is the reason why the secularization of India is so sad. It is because of this exalted conception of the nature of India's task that the process of reconstruction of religious belief in India commands our sympathetic interest. The necessity of such reconstruction is being brought home to the mind of many, especially of the cultivated in India. It is felt also by many besides the educated, even if the feeling results often in their case only in their discarding of in- herited statements without the endeavour on their part to put anything into the place. The only class who do not seem to feel this necessity are the religious authorities, the priests and the gurus. Among them one looks in vain for a single leading personage who appears to recognize that the power which they have immemorially exerted is passing away. In the religious as in the political sphere men are demanding liberty. A revolution is taking place in the attitude of large classes toward Hinduism. The spread of education, the alteration of the whole aspect of civilization for many Hindus, has created a mental environment in which the old religious ideas are slowly fading away. The ancient rites are more or less perfunctorily performed but the life has gone out of them. Their utility is questioned. Answers vouchsafed by the gurus are far from being satis- factory. Under the old order the masses left all such questions to the religious authorities whose word was implicitly accepted. Just so did Europeans in the period 372 WEST AND EAST preceding the Kenaissance and Keformation. The people of India have contributed and now contribute vast sums out of their incredible poverty for the support of religious foundations, for priests, monks and holy men and for the sacrifices. They are now asking what becomes of the money and what do we receive in return ? Just so did the Europeans in the period before the Kenaissance and the Keformation. Just so many are doing in the Russian and other Greek churches to-day. Just so men have done in Protestant lands, from time to time when power had lulled the church to sleep. Only there have been few times or places in these eras of Christian decadence when there have not been some even among the official representatives of the faith who thundered from its pulpits that which the awaken- ing age proclaimed. Perhaps we are yet to see this spectacle in India as well. Our Kenaissance came to us in no small measure from without. It came from contact with the intellectual inheritance of the Greeks. Yet the Byzan- tines had been for ages in contact with that inheritance and had made nothing spiritual of it. Western Europe contri- buted its own vital share. It is not too much to say that the Hindu Kenaissance also comes to him borne upon an influence from without. Therewith is not said that the Hindu does not bring to it awakening powers and longings which are all his own. At all events the awakening seems to have come. We shall do well to speak then for a moment of the forms which this spiritual revival among the Indian peoples has taken. They represent the effort of devout men to maintain in their faith the continuity of their own past. They represent the attitude of these men toward the present. They show the reaction of Indian religion under the pressure of many of the forces of Christendom and in the face of an active propaganda for Christianity. Without doubt they represent a genuine religious revival of the Indian spirit as well. The Bhagavad Gita, the divine song, is declared to be the most important religious book of India. It inculcates in its oldest portion a doctrine of salvation by loving devotion to God. There is a God who is a conscious, almighty and eternal being. The souls of men are distinct from God DOCTRINE IN INDIA 373 and are declared to be imperishable. All of God's activities are for the good of the universe. Sin has often become rampant among men. God assumes new forms of mani- festation in the phenomenal world for the protection of the good and the destruction of the evil. The relation of God to man and to the universe is not here, as in the doctrine of Karma, determined solely by the law of retribution. It is determined by God's love to those who know him and love him in turn. God delivers from sin those who take refuge in him. As if the resemblance of these thoughts to later Hebrew prophetic utterance and even to the teaching of Jesus were not enough, we are told that when, in the fourteenth century of the Christian era, Eamananda carried these doctrines throughout a large part of India, he made it his first concern to bring the message to the masses. He chose twelve disciples, not from princes and nobles, but from the common people and even from the despised castes. One was a leather worker, another a barber, a third the son of a weaver. The doctrine became prevalent mainly through preachers and saints of the humbler orders of the people, and even through saintly women. The Bhagavata religion did not teach incarnation in such a fashion as to do away with polytheism. Yet even so, as one thinks of the stories of the incarnation in Rama, which are in their earliest forms so beautiful, what wonder that when, at the end of the eighteenth century, the Christian ideas began to be prevalent in India, pious men arose who were jealous for the honour of the Indian faith, holding this ancient body of truth and these exalted ideas above alluded to. They said of many points of the Christian contention, "We have heard all this before." Indian sages had said the same things. Indian saints had found peace and salvation in the same way. To be sure, there were endless and tasteless expansions of the tales of Rama and Krishna. These figures were carried over into the realm of the wildest mythology of which the Hindu imagination was capable. There have been however legends of Jesus also, apocryphal gospels and Christian folklore. It was not even left for Christianity to be the first and only agency to point out the way by which Hinduism, with its 374 WEST AND EAST doctrine of incarnations, was to be ridded of polytheism. With a rough hand the Mohammedan zealots broke down temples and destroyed idols, esteeming that they were purifying religion. It did convert some Indians to Islam. It modified the faith of millions whom it never converted. Considerable numbers of Indians especially in the lower classes did become Mohammedans. The greatest service of Islam to India however was not in the converts whom it made. Eather that service lay in the fact that it inspired many devout and thoughtful Hindus to perceive the truth of monotheism, a truth which when their own teachers had pursued they had wandered off into pantheism. Even here therefore when the Christian truth came to be offered, the Hindu could say, " We have heard that also ! " Hume of Ahmednagar who has been quoted in the above passage, says in this connection : " Profoundly suggestive for those who would Christianize India is an understanding of that which Islam did for India altogether outside of the circle of those who became Mohammedan. There has been teaching of monotheism in India ever since the conquests of Islam." Almost the first effects of the contact of Christianity with the higher thought and life of India showed them- selves in the career of Earn Mohun Eoy and in the organization of a movement called the Brahma Somaj which went out from him. Earn Mohun was a Brahman of high attainments whose one great enthusiasm was religion. He felt profoundly the value of the religious contribution of his own race. He believed that God is the father of all men. All religious movements are blindly seeking after this one God. The goal of religious endeavour is that all men should unite in the spiritual worship of the one God whom they all seek and vaguely acknowledge, and that they should join in the service of their fellow-men. He early published a tract entitled, " The Precepts of Jesus, a Guide to Peace and Happiness." In the preface to this tract he wrote : " This simple code is so admirably calculated to elevate men's minds to high and liberal notions of one God who has subjected all living creatures, without dis- tinction of caste or rank or wealth, to change and disappoint- MODERN DOCTRINE 375 ment, to pain and death, and admitted all to be partakers of the bountiful mercy which he has lavished in nature, it is moreover so well fitted to regulate the conduct of the human race in the discharge of its various duties to God, to itself and to society, that I cannot but hope for the best effects from its promulgation in the present form." It must be said in all honesty that this figure of Ram Mohun Roy and his theistic movement stands out against a very dark background. The popular religion had never got very far away from polytheism and degrading superstition, from unmeaning ceremony and the immoralities for which even the reforms of Sankhara had left open door. On the other hand the enlightened had trodden the way of specu- lative pantheism, of absorption in metaphysical subtleties and of the pride and remoteness of an esoteric faith. After all, this had been the real content of the teaching of Sank- hara, when he had yielded to the age-long obsession of his fathers that salvation comes by meditation. The teaching of the doctrine of Bhakti, of loving devotion to God and of God's love for men was indeed ancient. It had never been wholly lost sight of. It sounds through many reform move- ments all down the centuries. It emerges now and then in temporary radiance and is obscured again. On the whole however it is fair to say that Hinduism has never been in more than slight measure modified by such spiritual move- ments as were, for example, Sikhism and Sadhuism in their first purity. The work of Ram Mohun Roy was later taken up by Rabendra Nath Tagore and still later by Keshab Chander Sen, the latter of whom, in the face of conservative elements which were already taking possession of the Somaj, urged the elimination of caste and set forth other far-reaching principles. Similar, but even more syncretistic in its tendencies is the religious reform movement in India which has issued in the organization of the Prarthena Somaj. The best thoughts of Hindus, Moslems and Christians are here declared to have been directed to the evolution of the spiritual aspirations of mankind. "The duty of every spiritual movement is not to destroy but to fulfil the highest doctrine of preceding teachers. India is above all other countries fitted to be the sphere of the newest and most 376 WEST AND EAST truly spiritual religion because it is the genius of India to absorb the best of all influences that come to her. The nature of the new religion which is to be established will be liberation from formulated law or dogma. It will be an intuitive faith, a loving devotion to God by which the carnal in man will be subjugated to the spiritual. The gate to the spiritual kingdom is repentance. Mercy and service of man, not ceremonies or sacrifice, are to be the fruits of religion." In these high phrases are gathered together in striking fashion some of the noblest thoughts which have been attained in the long struggle, not alone of the religious life of India, but, as well, in the aspirations and revelations of all other races which have ever reached an exalted plane of faith and religious life. If distinction between this and the so-called Arya Somaj is to be sought it would apparently be to this effect, that in this last there is less explicit acknowledgment of obligation to all faiths. There is less recognition of the highest elements of religion as universal. There is more assertion of the primacy, not to say the sufficiency, of India. There may be room for difference of opinion how large is the unconscious debt of the Arya Somaj to the subtle influences of a very real Christendom which has long been present in India. Certainly this belief, that it is less influenced by the West, is the thing which com- mends the Arya Somaj to many Indians to-day. The move- ment has had the following of far greater numbers than its predecessors. Only thirty years after the death of its founder it is reported to have nearly a quarter of a million adherents. It is recruited very largely from the upper classes. The Christian movement on the other hand has drawn largely from the lower classes. The aim of Saraswati was to save India from threatened denationalization. It was to purify Hinduism of its superstitions and horrors. It was to find the inspiration of a true nationalism in the un- polluted fountain of the Vedas. It has urged civic and social service. It has awakened, organized and directed the energies of thousands of thoughtful men who, left in isola- tion, would never have had the courage to protest against great social evils. It has been energetic in the sphere of social education. It has urged even the education of girls. THE SOMAJS 377 Yet the future of Aryism seems to its best friends full of uncertainty. Orthodox Hinduism is moving en masse to less trenchant but more acceptable reforms. Aryism is at once too little and too much. Nationalism is only too apt to turn away from religion altogether. Criticism must in- evitably destroy the extravagant claims made on behalf of the Vedas. More than one of the leaders of these various Somajs has come to grief upon the limitless claim of a personal oracular inspiration. Finally the Arya must some day take up a consistent position with reference to caste. Either it will break with caste or else it will renew allegiance to caste. Either alternative would appear to portend its ruin. With the profoundest sympathy with these aspects of liberal and reforming Hinduism, certain reflections force themselves upon us. In statements such as those cited above there is that which must appeal to every generous mind. The contrast is humiliating which such wide-hearted- ness presents with claims which have been made by some, at least, of the emissaries of Christianity, who have asserted the exclusive validity of their own truths and even of the particular form in which these truths are held by the emissaries themselves. The contrast is unjust. It sets certain great and luminous figures chosen out of a whole race on the one side, over against some who certainly do not represent the best spirit of the missionary movement on the other. There are few who would not rejoice in the insight which such exalted utterances display and the suggestion of a basis for a universal faith of men which they convey. Yet when all is said, there remains the question whether these synthetic statements can ever have the power of what Schleiermacher called the positive religions. He so named them because they have their basis in an historic personality, which personality their respective adherents have believed to be in some sense a revelation of God to man. It is not unjust to call these lasi: the real religions by contrast with the artificial and eclectic ones. It is not unjust to ask whether a program, a scheme of sentiments, be they never so fine, enters into the area of religion at all and does not rather 378 WEST AND EAST abide in the realm of ideas concerning religion. Schleier- macher himself called attention to the fundamental error into which the positive religions have sometimes fallen. It is that of making no distinction whatever between the re- vealing personality and the God who is revealed. Devoted pietist that he had been and in some sense always remained, Schleiermacher felt that many Christians had in their zeal fallen into this error. Criticism has altered among us the traditional conception of the nature and authority of the documents of revelation. Men have held a belief in the inspiration of the Christian scriptures not widely different from that which obtains among the Hindus as to the Vedas or among the Mohammedans as to the Koran. There has been much argument among us as to the absoluteness of Christianity or, as some would prefer to phrase it, the finality of Christianity and the absoluteness of Jesus. The discussion has been in large part unsatis- factory. Those who love most to conjure with the word absolute seem indeed often to desire to impress us with the idea that they do not mean to assert that which has been traditionally understood by the phrase. Yet they are not able to make clear what they do mean to assert. This however would seem to be true. A religion which does not enshrine in the hearts of men a personality which comes then to dominate their lives and through which they believe that they have hold upon God himself, must in the end lack the dynamic which the great positive religions have shown and which has led to their being called, one after Moses, one after Zoroaster, one after Buddha, one after Mohammed and one after Jesus of Nazareth. It is true that there has often been a tendency to expand this dynamic faith of a revealing personality either on the one hand into a mythology for which the materials were given in the popular imagination, or on the other hand into a metaphysic according to abstract notions of the deity already current in the schools. To correct this tendency, and eliminate its results, to refine and purify the concep- tion of the revealing personality, so that in being the manifestation of God it may not cease at the same time to be true man this is the problem of culture in any DOCTRINE 379 religion, nob excluding Christianity. To refine this con- ception of revealing personality quite away has been the fate of many liberal movements. This is the death of religion. The tenets be they never so elevated have not that power for the reconstruction of personality in the believer which religion needs. This observation may be verified many times over in Christendom. By this process revelation and Christ, specific revelation in Christ, become vanishing notions. Christianity ceases to be a religion and becomes a form of culture. There is no reason why we should expect a different fate for parallel movements which do not bear the name of Christianity. Sankhara was right. The masses of men will always believe by the aid of their will and affection. Those who believe solely by the aid of their reason are always on the rerge of not believing. Eeligion is of the whole man. Any attempt to make it the activity of but part of the man is fatal. Religion makes itself known in all the experiences of men and not merely in some of them. We have no cause to go over to the obscurantists, to praise what Luther called " kohlerglaube," or to join in that misrepresentation of Paul which delights to make him say that God chose only the foolish. Let us be glad of the leadership in religion which only the cultivated can furnish. Let us make clear to ourselves however that no great religious movement ever went out from this class or moved this class alone. If a faith moves this class alone it is because it is not a faith, but only a reflection upon faith, a resume' of the opinions of those who have had faith, an argument about faith, a reasoning concerning faith. These are perfectly familiar observations touching self- conscious liberalism among ourselves. It is not therefore invidious to apply them to the case of others. Indian theology is thus feeling its way toward great changes under the impulse of the outside world and, more particularly, of the Christian propaganda. We may speak with much greater assurance however concerning the transformation which Christian theology has undergone in the West during the same period. It has accepted the doctrine of evolution, a doctrine which has largely modified 380 WEST AND EAST our ideas of the world and of man. It has accepted the results of the critical study of Scripture and of sacred history. With a general philosophical view which asserts the unity of the universe, it has adopted a new theory of knowledge which has altered our view of revelation. It has learned much by the comparative study of the history of religions and from specific research into the psychology of religion. It has profited by the complete reconstruction which the philosophy of religion has undergone. To some extent the transformation of theological opinion has been due to our enlarging contacts with the ideas and spirit of the non-Christian world both ancient and modern. To a far greater degree however these changes have been due to revolutions which have taken place in the world of western thought itself. These changes have carried us far away from deism. For by that name we may frankly and fairly describe the philosophical tendency regnant in Christian theology down to the end of the eighteenth century. No one can read, for example, so famous a book as Butler's " Analogy " without seeing that it was in fact a deistic philosophy which lay at the basis of that devout apologetic. It was deism in spite of the fact that the devout so strongly opposed deism none more strongly than Butler. The defenders of the faith did not realize that they proceeded from the same fundamental assumptions from which their antagonists also set out. Mark Patison has clearly shown that the reason why deism, despite the fact that it had never really been defeated in the argument, yet ran into the sand, lies in the fact that the premises from which both it and its opponents proceeded lost their validity for both. They faded away from the minds of the thoughtful on either side of the debate and left the unthoughtful quarrelling for another generation about the old shibboleths which meantime had lost all meaning whatsoever. It was precisely this which happened also to the old Unitarianism. It was never really silenced in the argument. Its pre- suppositions however melted away just as the contrary presuppositions slipped away from the hands of the orthodox. Or to put it more accurately, the presupposi- DEISM AND PANTHEISM 381 tions which a hundred years ago were valid for both parties are now valid for neither. Deism viewed the world as created of God by the word of his power, called out of nothingness, but standing over against the God who had called it forth. God thus tended to be spoken of more and more as a great artificer and designer, in Addison's high phrase a " great Original," an intellect and will prior to the world and external to it, like a greater man over against the mechanism which in his wisdom and power he has produced. God could of course supervene upon his world in the way of miracle if he would. He had in former times and on great occasions done so. At other times it seemed as if he let nature, which was thus thought of as evil and apart from God, run her course. Man stood over against God in the same way. Man too was of evil until the miracle of grace made possible for him any beginnings of good. Finally, the mysterious connection between man and nature was never given the tithe of the attention which we now accord to it. The divine and the human were mutually exclusive con- ceptions. The natural was the contradictory of the super- natural. What was of nature could not be of grace. This dualistic view of the universe, with the traditional theology which belongs to it, represented, we may say, one pole of thought. When the early missionaries, who were naturally imbued with this theology, first came into contact with Hindu pantheism, it is not to be wondered at if they judged that this system represented exactly the opposite pole of thought from their own. Two views more widely divergent in all their implications could hardly be imagined. When the missionaries realized that this Hindu theology asserted the identity of God and the world and again the identity of God and man, they were outraged. When they saw that it was possible to hold this doctrine and at the same time to be indifferent to the most fundamental moral distinctions the contention seemed to them blasphemous. They saw that this assumption leads to the notion of the unreality of the world. It leads to the denial of much that they esteemed most tragically real in the life of man, before all things, the fact of sin. Such an identification of 382 WEST AND EAST God and man as these pantheists asserted either demands a perfection in humanity which we nowhere find or else it disclaims certain perfections on the part of God which religion, as the missionaries understood it, can never be without. A Christian theism which reckons with the new factors which the nineteenth century has brought within our ken is far better able than was the earlier orthodoxy to perceive what the Hindu pantheists always and every- where have been aiming at. These latter might have said on their part that they were shocked at the duality of the universe which Christianity, as set before them by the missionaries, implied. They were indignant at the denial of the truth of the imminence of God in nature and of the divine nature of man. They were shocked at the descrip- tion of the beginnings of the divine life in man as if it were merely a miracle accomplished from without. We ought to be able now more easily to see that for which pantheists have contended. The man whose forebears for centuries and millenniums have thought in terms of pantheism ought to find it easier to understand that for which we argue. Somehow humanity ought to have been able to say, " I and the Father are one." There are words of Jesus which seem to imply that some day through him we shall be able to say this. Humanity has not however been able to say this save as it ignored one great side of the life of a man, namely the fact of sin. It has never been able to say this truthfully except upon the lips of one man, Jesus Christ. Let us hasten to say however that Jesus uses those words not either in description of an isolated experience, a single moment of ecstasy, in his life, or yet as if it were an experience in which he stood alone and was separated from the potential and ideal life of all humanity. Those words upon his lips were not the utterance of the consciousness of what men have called his divine nature in distinction from his nature as true man. The supposition that one part of his consciousness could utter that of which the other was not aware seems to us but playing with names. Those words were the utterance of a single self which felt itself to be in perfect PANTHEISM 383 moral harmony with God. It is not going too far to allege that Jesus has here expressed the profound truth which the pantheist has sought to reach but has never been able to attain. Jesus' word does no violence to the consciousness of the divine to which the Orient has pathetically held in face of much which made the claim seem utterly preposterous. He does no violence to his own normal and continuous consciousness, the conscious- ness of his life as a whole. He does no violence to a true man's own recognition of the fact that, while the capacity for God is inherent in every man, the actualiza- tion of that unity with God is a problem of supreme moral endeavour. Pantheism in India has done violence to all three of these truths. It is the denial of these three obvious facts which has been the secret of its decadence everywhere. The pantheistic declaration of the oneness of man in essence with God is a mere logical conclusion drawn from given premises. For that matter the polar opposite contention long regnant in Christendom, the doctrine of the total depravity of man, is also only a logical conclusion drawn from given premises. The Indian position is the conclusion of an endeavour to find the universe a unit, despite its obvious variety. The obsolete Christian position is the issue of a determined effort to find the universe a duality in spite of all that proves it to be one. The statement of Jesus, " I and my Father are one," is not a metaphysical proposition, it is the utterance of a moral and spiritual experience. The pantheistic statement is made in the teeth of the profoundest knowledge we possess both as to the real state of the moral case with man and of that which our hearts demand in the moral nature of God. The declaration of Jesus is in consonance with all that we know of either. In a remarkable passage Bernard Lucas has said : " Hindu theology had set out to find God. It had returned with the discovery that he was undiscoverable. It had set out to know God. It had returned, it alleged, with the bitter knowledge that God was unknowable. The impulse which had set the Hindu thinker to his task was essentially a religious one. He went forth with the conviction that 384 WEST AND EAST the greatest knowledge to which man can attain is the knowledge of God. He came back with the sense that he had been deluded and that such delusion was an essential part of all experience, including his own. Only the conclusion that all is illusion can be called knowledge in any real sense. Brahm could not have relations. If he were to be set in relations he would not be Brahm. Brahm could not be nothing. He could not be limited by anything which is. He must therefore be all. All sense of anything apart from him is illusion. Man's consciousness of himself as a separate existence is part of the universal delusion inseparable from all existence." Unquestionably Christian theology has erred in that it has sometimes spoken of God, to use Matthew Arnold's bitter phrase, " as if he were a man in the next street." "Thou thoughtest that I was altogether such an one as thyself" the Psalmist makes God in derisive mood to say. Christendom also has had its mood of reaction from this over-familiarity, this license of affirmation. Christen- dom also has turned to agnosticism. Yet it has never been able to abide in its agnosticism. To have proved that the supreme reality is utterly unknowable was doubtless a great achievement. Its chief significance lay however in demonstrating that we had taken the wrong road. To show that so long as we confine ourselves to pure reason the unknown remains the unknowable, simply suggests that we might do well to try and see what we can do with the practical reason. We might admit the validity of the facts given in feeling and moral will and thus form a working notion about life and God, which the experience of those who committed themselves to it as working notion would then more and more tend to verify. The Hindu religious thinkers never would have admitted this. The Hindu hopelessness about man's life would never have permitted him to make such a wholesome and courageous venture as that. For the first he dealt too much in abstraction and for the second he was too much of a pessimist. He had attempted to describe the supreme reality in an ever enlarging series of statements which sought to say what it is not. It is AGNOSTICISM 385 not anything which bears any resemblance to man. The higher Indian speculation has been saved in this manner from anthropomorphism, that is, from the making of God too much like men. Yet after all, and setting excesses aside, have we any symbol for that which is higher than anything that we know, save the highest thing that we do know, namely the moral consciousness of man ? Even Spencer said that his objection to describ- ing God in terms of human personality was, not that it said too much, but that it said too little. All turns upon this. Do we describe the Almighty, whom we cannot find out to perfection, in terms of the highest in man in spite of man's defects ? Or do we describe him in terms of the lower elements in human nature, despite man's nobler qualities ? It is this last which makes anthropomorphism reprehensible and injurious. Curiously enough moreover while the highest Hindu thought was preening itself upon having avoided all description of God in terms of the life and nature of man, the common people never could grasp that. The common mind could never be satisfied with the abyss of emptiness which seems to the learned the height of wisdom. Accordingly in popular Hinduism, the unworthiest of the traits of men have come back as the very attributes of God. The pedantic philosophy had striven hard to rescue man from this terrible popular religion. It had taken the wrong road. It had taken the road of pure reason, along which the magnitudes with which in religion we are most con- cerned cannot be found. The conception of God which we need to satisfy our religious aspirations is not that of Brahm existing in eternal dreamless sleep, unmoved by our miseries and by all the cosmic process. It is that of a living God expressing himself in the course of nature and in the lives of men, and yet also not com- pletely absorbed in these. The conception of the universe which will satisfy the modern mind is decidedly not that of the world as a purely illusory appearance, the result of Maya. It is rather an unfolding of the mind and power, a revelation of the will and life of God, leading to some consummation and far off divine event toward 2s 386 WEST AND EAST which the whole creation moves. The conception of the relation of the individual soul and God which will satisfy the religious instinct is not that ignorance has in some inexplicable way separated us from God and that this separation will be ended when we realize the futility of life and all desire. It is rather that of loving dependence and fellowship, it is a communion of soul and a companion- ship of moral endeavour which issues in oneness of life and finds, even in the contradictions of existence, if these be bravely met, both a fulfilment of self and the honour and service of God. Christian theology has many affinities with the doctrines of other religions but it differs from these in the fact that its con- stitutive element is the historic personality of one whom we regard as in a unique sense the revelation of the invisible God. This essential feature of Christianity causes the problem of the historicity of Jesus to occupy a far more important place than does the parallel problem touching one and another of the founders of the other faiths. The biographies of Buddha and of Mohammed are of great interest to their followers. They are in no sense essential to the religions. In Christianity on the other hand, the life of Jesus is vital to the religion. This is said without intention of ignoring or underestimating Jesus' teaching. Yet his teaching is un- questionably subordinate to his life. Jesus was no mere bringer of a new doctrine. He said, not " I give you the truth," but " I am the truth." He said that his truth was such that only those who did it could know it. It cannot be questioned that the review of the doctrine concerning Jesus which was inaugurated by the modern critical and historical movement has brought the living Jesus nearer to our thoughts than did the older assumption of his divinity in terms which practically contradicted his humanity. Men felt in those old statements that the divine and the human were mutually exclusive conceptions. In predicating the divinity, or as they preferred to say the deity, of Jesus, they did so in terms which removed him completely from the category of normal humanity. They had a deep and instinctive fear that in emphasizing his humanity they imperilled the assertion of his divinity. They thus did their INCARNATION 387 part to provoke the reaction into which rationalism fell, when it depicted Jesus with all the traits, even down to the weaknesses and foibles and sins, of ordinary men. The historical and literary criticism of the gospels has made such trivial representation untenable. It has done much to restore to us the real Jesus, although it is not certain that all Christians are as yet fully prepared to rejoice that this is so. To declare that Jesus was an ordinary man is to leave out of view his most salient characteristics. His moral nature transcends every other. His consciousness of God was a unique consciousness. Whatever else there was in his life which was unique stood in relation to this. It is these factors which give him his unique place in the religious life of humanity. We have full room for Jesus' own assertions, " I came down from heaven." We under- stand that however of the sources of his heavenly spirit, of the springs of his ethical purity, of the ground of his tran- scendent love of God and men, of the purposes of supreme self-sacrifice in which nevertheless he found peace and self- fulfilment and joy. We have no need to understand this, as if it separated him in intellectual and still less as if it differentiated him in physical inheritance from others of the sons of men. Now nothing can be more obvious than that such a view of the incarnation presents radical differences from those views which are embodied in the faith and lore of the Indian world. " The Word became flesh and dwelt among us, and we beheld his glory, the glory as of the only begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth." The view which we have offered is far more possible to the Indian mind than was the traditional Christian dogma of the in- carnation, resting as it did upon a duality of the present and the transcendent world. The traditional dogma claimed both too much and too little. It was impossible from the point of view of that unity of the universe which was in- stinctive with all thoughtful Hindus. Yet on the other hand it seemed only too much like the tales of countless incarnations in which popular Hinduism abounds. It too closely resembled notions current among their own peoples which the loftier spirits among the Hindus had rejected. 388 WEST AND EAST Brahm, the one sole reality, the one without a second, is so conceived that an incarnation of him is strictly speaking unthinkable. In philosophic Hinduism there is no incarna- tion of God. The basis of any manifestation of God is found in the phenomenal Brahm, Ishvawa, the world- framer. One must account for the universe, which yet the conception of Brahm compels us to regard as unreal. The Brahm of the phenomenal world can be no more real than the world itself. The God whom the universe reveals is not the one and sole reality. It is only his shadow, knowing which you know that you know only ignorance. You perceive that what you perceive is illusion. The avatars of Vishnu appear to be the true incarnations in Hindu religious thought. These incarnations reveal in some sort an ascending order. The god took the form of a fish, of a tortoise, of a boar, then of a creature half man and half lion, of a dwarf and, finally, there was the human incarna- tion. Always however the avatar is the cloak to disguise the God. The true object is never to reveal but to conceal the deity, while he is accomplishing some particular purpose for which he assumes the disguise. That accomplished, the disguise is thrown off again. A full manifestation of the character of the god is apparently not so much as thought of. Consequently actions and notions which are utterly unthinkable in connection with God, as he is conceived in the western world, are attributed to the avatars without even an idea of their impropriety. The philosophy and the religion are thus in hopeless contradiction. The Indian mind has had to choose between these two alternatives throughout its history. A subtle metaphysical mind has contended with a sensitive religious nature and a high imagination. Philosophy and religion have in turn dominated the one over the other. They have never really assisted one another or been assimilated into one whole. Buddhism was a revolt of the religious nature against the tyranny of the Brahmanical metaphysics, quite as much as against the pretensions of priestcraft. With his simple creed and beautiful life Buddha incarnated in his own person the religious ideal of his people. Before the absolute sincerity of his motive and the whole-hearted MANNERS AND MORALS 389 devotion of his followers Brahmanism retreated for a time discredited. In time however Buddha was himself incor- porated into the Hindu pantheon. He himself became but another avatar of Vishnu. The very man who condemned the mythology of the priests became a new figure in that mythology. The abstract notions concerning God, which were drawn from every quarter except that of the character of man, dimmed the outline of the revelation which had been given in the beautiful spirit and self-sacrificing career of Buddha. For, surely, few of us would now deny that Buddha in his lofty living and pure teaching revealed something of God. Few would hesitate however to affirm that his revelation would have been far more vital and uplifting had not the philosophy within which he moved prevented his thinking of God, and so also of man's likeness to God, in terms of personality, and also if he had not set so low an estimate upon the value of human life. Every line of the Gospels tend to make plain that it was exactly the character of God which Jesus felt that he was charged in his own personality to reveal. Furthermore, it was his own human life which, in all the serene and sad and glad acts and thoughts and feelings of it, as it was lived among men, was to constitute the revelation of God. Thus the highest conceivable estimate is put upon human life. This was to be the medium through which the revelation of God was to take place. It would seem as if here too Christianity were especially adapted not to destroy but to fulfil that which Buddhism had attempted and in large measure failed to accomplish and, as well, that which Hinduism has always been seeking, and in such pitifully small measure has ever been able to find. We had reserved opportunity to speak at the end of this lecture concerning certain matters which pertain, not to the organization and rites of the church, and not to the dogma of Christianity in its contact with the teachings of the religions of the East. It is intended rather to speak of certain points in the habit and practice of oriental peoples, to touch upon certain questions of manners and morals which often reveal the spirit of the other religions and which have significant relation to the propaganda of the 390 WEST AND EAST Christian faith. We can speak only of a few representative and typical problems. One of the most interesting of these is the matter of the so-called worship of ancestors in China. This matter was, as is well known, the root of an old contention within the Koman Catholic missions. It is a living, not to say a burning, question in Protestant circles in China at this hour. It is a very ancient question which alien religions entering China had to meet. It has often been said that, judged in the light of its own principles, a Buddhism which tolerates the worship of ancestors as Buddhism in China does is, to say the least, a singular combination. It has also been said and probably with truth, that had Buddhism when transplanted to China not tolerated the worship of ancestors it would hardly have made the conquests which it did make. Matteo Kicci, the first great Jesuit leader in China, at Canton after 1581 and at Peking after 1601, made a great impression upon the Chinese of governmental and literary circles by his display of learning in mathematics and the exact sciences as these were taught in the West. In his riper years he was a scholar of no mean pretentious in the Mandarin language and in his knowledge of things Chinese. It is well known that he allowed converts to continue to practise the rites of ancestor worship on the ground that he considered these rites purely civil and social in their nature. So surprising was the success of his mission and that of his immediate followers that high officials of the Empire became alarmed. Steps were taken to limit an activity which was constantly increasing. Moreover Dominicans and Franciscans learning of the success of the Jesuits flocked to China. The dis- sensions of the rival orders did more to imperil the position of the nascent Koman Catholic Church in China than did the opposition of the Chinese themselves. The Dominicans declared the ancestral worship idolatrous. The matter being referred to the Pope, Innocent X. sustained the Dominican view. The Jesuits however despatched a special agent to Rome and Alexander VII. reversed the previous decision, approving the opinion that the ancestral rites had no religious significance. A French bishop in China continuing the agitation, the Jesuits carried the ANCESTOR WORSHIP 391 matter before the great emperor, Kang-Hsi himself. The Emperor in a most interesting document declared the custom political and social. Not to the physical heavens but to the Great Spirit is adoration rendered in the worship of heaven and earth in which the Emperor represented the whole people. The worship of ancestors however is the mark only of filial piety and veneration. As such the rites may be participated in by men of many faiths. Exactly as such however they are of primary interest to the state. As connected with the family and clan system and with the maintenance of social order, when they are denounced as pernicious or if it is sought to alienate men from them, the state must be alarmed. In 1704 Clement X. reverted to the elder papal decision that the rites are idolatrous. A papal legate arriving in China ordered converts to desist from practices interdicted by the Pope. Kang-Hsi was not the man to take that tamely. He made it known that all those who wished to break with the Chinese social structure would be outlawed. Missionaries were ordered to leave China upon pain of death. Converts numbering hundreds of thousands were deprived of their spiritual guides and subjected to bitter persecution. Escorted to the frontier many of the priests returned in disguise. For decades their converts protected them. New priests from the West came in time to their aid. Their resolution and fortitude became legendary in the East. The succession never failed until the opening of mission work again far on in the nineteenth century. At least such is the tradition of the Jesuits. The problem of ancestor worship was thus bequeathed to the Protestant period of missions. Difference of opinion concerning it obtains both among foreign Christians and as between Chinese adherents of the faith. Despite the utterance of the great emperor and the oft-repeated opinion of many enlightened men, the common man in China presumably makes no fine distinction in filial veneration offered before the tablets between the propitiation of a possibly aggrieved progenitor and the homage which is natural to loving hearts and is also closely connected with the patriarchal social order, an order which sometimes seemed stronger than 392 WEST AND EAST even the imperial government itself. A Sicilian gentleman would assuredly assert that it is not worship that is offered to the image of the saint. The Sicilian peasant however does not make that distinction. The great mass of the Protestant missionaries would surely side with the Dominicans and not with the Jesuits in this matter of ancestral worship. It is not difficult on the evidence of other matters to accuse the Jesuits of accommodation. It is not easy to explain away the Chinese emperor's definite assertion. Still the opinion which he uttered might well be true for men of cultivation like himself and not true for the mass of the Chinese. Despite the inflexible position which most missions have taken that ancestral worship must be abandoned entirely if a man is to become a Christian, there are not wanting distinguished men in the Protestant missions to-day who feel that here jealous and uncompromising Protestantism has made a mistake. They feel that it has made a mountain out of a molehill, a religious issue out of one which is social and secular. In the end the missionary will generally refer you to the native convert himself and bid you ask him how he feels about it. The great majority of those questioned answer that they feel the worship of ancestors to be idolatrous. Even by this testimony curiosity is not altogether allayed. The men questioned are likely to be so essentially of the type which we have described as foreign Christians, that one could not be sure that they were not sincerely echoing the opinions of their revered foreign missionary teachers and incidentally expressing what they supposed to be the opinion of their interlocutor as well. Furthermore it may well have seemed to these men, as also to their teachers, that the safer course is to make a clean breach with many aspects of the popular religiosity, ancestor worship included, in order to be safe from temptation and escape the complex situations which may ensue. This may be practically true, but such practical reasoning does not settle the theoretical question as to what we really ought to think concerning the meaning of ancestor worship. With the lapse of time, the sure tact, the racial feeling of the native Christians who are truly such will, when the influence of foreign ANCESTOR WORSHIP 393 Christians is diminished or removed, lead the Chinese church to a satisfactory conclusion of a question which no man can answer with entire confidence at this time. If the ancestor really is only one more among the many possible malevolent spirits which the Chinese man must exorcise, if the worship is only part of the general nature- worship and superstition which has been such an incubus and which now, with the advance of the knowledge of nature is being rolled away, then the ancestral worship too will disappear. If however it is something different, of nobler origin and connected with the best and not with the worst traits of men, it will survive, no matter what the missionaries may say or do against it. It will be sub- limated and ennobled as it comes to stand in clear relations to a higher thought of God and man. It will still express the fact that the Chinese man reveres the authors of his life and the traditions of his past in a way in which he feels that we energetic and irreverent worshippers of the future do not revere our fathers and our past. Kicci directly asserted that the worship of Confucius stood upon the same level with that of the ancestors. It was a social and civil act, not a religious one. The im- plications of Kang-Hsi's statement are the same. The judgments of most students of the history of religions agree that Confucianism is not a religion but merely an ethical system. Thus the veneration accorded to Confucius would be but the grateful recognition of one of the greatest bene- factors of the human race, the father of the intellectual and moral life of thousands of millions of men through twenty- five hundred years. It is one of the curious episodes therefore of the year 1907 that, by imperial decree, it was ordered that the same divine honours should be paid to Confucius which were paid to Heaven and Earth. The decree has been repeated by the republic within recent years. All sorts of questions arise in one's mind as he asks himself what this decree may mean. Is it an attempt to meet Christianity, so to say, on its own ground ? Is it an attempt to galvanize the honour which China has always done to its great teacher into divine homage, parallel to that which Christians, so many generations ago, accorded 394 WEST AND EAST to their great leader, the Galilean Jesus? Is it thus an attempt by decree to make Confucius to be more like that which the Christ of theology has been to the Christian Church and world ? In an age when the influx of modern learning is displacing ominously the old study of Confucian literature, is this an effort to win the ears and hearts of men for Confucius again ? These are questions which the outsider asks. Among the Chinese themselves there are not wanting those who assert that such an elevation of Confucius to divinity is absolutely out of harmony with the teaching and spirit of Confucianism. It is declared to be absurd in the face of what Confucius indubitably said and of the light in which he plainly wished himself to be viewed. Yet in state schools and elsewhere provision has been made to enforce the worship thus enjoined. Participation in it at least once a month was to be obligatory. Theoretically no man could be in the employ of the state who did not con- form. The enforcement has not anywhere been undertaken with great seriousness. In many cases Christian converts are refusing it. The whole situation gives occasion for thought. Is this the retort of the Chinese to the absolutist view of Christianity which has generally prevailed among those who brought Christianity into their midst ? Can Confucianism be resuscitated in this way ? Must it not go over into a syncretism in which a religious factor, larger and more vital than Confucianism has ever shown itself to be, will find place, but in which also the ethical and social philosophy of Confucius will be accorded an influence far greater than any Christian propaganda has ever yet assigned to them. Turning from questions like these, which have distinct theological suggestion, to popular superstitions and customs which in almost all the missionary lands are much in evidence, we are often forced to ask the question, Are not some phases of faith now dead to us living phases with men who stand at the same point in the religious experience at which our ancestors stood not very long ago ? In China for example it will be pointed out to you that the Scripture of the New Testament gives colour to the belief in de- moniacal possession. In confirmation of the Scriptures you DEMONOLOGY 395 will be told that the Chinese almost universally believe in demoniacal possession. Old China is so to say permeated with this belief. A book written by a missionary not many years ago cites possibly a hundred examples of unquestion- ably authentic experiences in China, to show that pheno- mena of demoniacal possession occur in that land which are precisely similar to those recorded in the Scripture. By these examples the Scriptures are supposed to be defended against modern criticism. Observations in China are de- clared to make it certain that men were and are possessed. A missionary in China said that he thought that it had been almost a generation since, in the field with which he was familiar, a western emissary of Christianity had preached material hell-fire and the physical torment of the lost. He doubted if the natives of the younger generation had ever heard from a foreigner an exposition of Scripture looking in that direction. Yet here were native preachers, when they went off on their preaching tours, making men tremble with the thought of a hell of torment as Edwards in Northampton made our own ancestors tremble as they thought of an angry God. Did not the Scriptures speak of a hell of fire ? The Chinese man never had to wait to be told by missionaries about a literal hell-fire. He believed in that before he ever heard of missionaries. Does not the Chinese man in his legal processes even now resort to torture ? Is it so long since our own fathers also depicted their God as an oriental sovereign ruling without a code or even having a code which might conceivably reverse the maxims which seemed true and good to mortal men. When the Hottentot reads in his Bible about witches the mis- sionary, with his modern sense as to the Bible, is hard put to it to maintain for the Hottentot the latter's belief in the Scripture and at the same time to rid him of his murderous superstition about witches. The poor man believed in witches before he ever heard of the Bible. For the moment he believes in them the more and not the less because the book, which has been described to him as the Word of God, seems to sustain him in that belief. So also did the Bible prove the witches to our own Massachusetts forbears and, fortified by the Bible, they too committed abominable crimes 396 WEST AND EAST and lived in nameless fear. These seem most interesting examples of the contact of the gospel with the rudimentary notions and sad mistakes of men. They remind us, right from the face of our own Scriptures, how the spiritual im- pulse which Judaism and then also the teaching of Jesus was, passed through a period of amalgamation with notions which are not true and do not tend to good. It may be almost in the same order and sequence that a new race in contact with the gospel will pass through some of these same amalgamations. They show how subtle a matter is the teaching of religion and with what circumspection one must deal with practices which are in any way connected with religion. Everyone knows the difficulty which missions in India have had in dealing with the question of caste. Almost with unanimity the emissaries of Christianity have declared the caste system to be absolutely opposed to the Christian ideal. On the other hand Indian society has almost uni- formly driven the convert to Christianity out from his caste. In many cases it would be practically impossible for the convert to maintain the customs of his caste. For a long time the adherents of Christianity were drawn very largely from the outcasts, that is from those whose social position could not be made worse and might possibly be made better, by any change which they might make. It is needless to say that a great many other causes are at work in India to-day, besides the spread of Christianity, to weaken the hold of the caste system. Yet Christian converts are still obliged in a measure to create for themselves a social order outside the framework of the one with which they are familiar. It has been much easier to assail the caste system as iniquitous than to provide something which will in the long run take its place, or even to deal justly with the immediate situation which the abolition of an immemorial social order creates for the converts. Nothing is easier than abstraction and negation. One is reminded of the parallel in the case of slavery in North America. It was compara- tively easy to be an abolitionist, especially if one did not live in a slave-holding state. Comparatively few would now dispute the principle which was involved in the CASTE 897 emancipation, although they may greatly regret the immed- iate and wholesale enfranchisement. There was however in many quarters a pathetic waning of enthusiasm for the emancipation when the stage of abstraction and negation, the stage of abusive rhetoric was past. Gifts of a different order were asked for when it came to the struggle of genera- tions, and possibly it will be of centuries, to build up an economic, civil and social order for the emancipated, or rather to make the emancipated able to build up such an order for themselves. The parallel seems instructive. It is easy to say caste must go. The democratic trend of modern society makes itself felt even in India, now that India is in midstream of modern movement. What to do with the men and still more with the women and children who, as the result of our teaching of Christian idealism, have become outcasts, that is the question, or at least it is one of the questions. How to sustain them now in love without making them feel that they are always going to be sustained. There is much that not missions only but also government must do. There is much that the government is making splendid effort to do. There is much that only a new industrial order can gradually achieve. There is much that the people must do for themselves. At the present, weak and helpless as they are, some of these converts cast themselves upon the foreigner. The foreigner takes up his load as he ought to do, this load which he has had so con- siderable a part in creating. The consequences however for the Christian movement in India are far reaching. Commerce, politics, and most of all, education, are working this tremendous upheaval, not Christianity alone. The day of statesmen, of builders of industries, of educators and above all of moulders of the character of men in a struggle which will last for generations, has come. Yet although the foreigner may gird himself for his task with a light heart, or possibly with a heavy heart, as the case may be, he realizes in his best moments, how much there is which no foreigner can ever do. The greatest and beet part of all that is necessary the Hindu must do for himself, or it will never be done. The oriental world even when it shall have become thoroughly permeated with the spirit of Christianity 398 WEST AND EAST will still be the oriental world. The Orient will never be- come Christian in the sense of the transfer of all that we think and feel just as we think and feel it to the Oriental. It has been mercifully provided that the trees shall not grow into the sky. Though we sometimes feel depressed with the thought that the type of civilization which we know in the West, with all of its good qualities and all of its evil ones, will become dominant over the world, yet we may have profound faith that the quality of races which God has for ages been making for himself will reassert itself. What is really made their own by these races will be made so truly their own that our own civilization and our own faith will some day confront us in a different, and why should we not say in a better, light. It is comparatively easy to say that polygamy and con- cubinage as these exist and are recognized in almost all Eastern lands and in Africa do not comport with the Christian ideal. It is however a very difficult question to say what a convert should do who has stood in these relations, who has in the past, in good faith, assumed responsibility for others, both women and children, and given them a status which was in no way illegal, to which indeed practically no stigma and hardly even reproach attached. Shall he signalize his new views of morality by repudiating these obligations and compromising the position of those who under the old system were not only not to blame but were hardly even unfortunate. It is difficult here not to do evil that good may come, or at all events not to do good in such a manner that evil is sure to come, and that to innocent and helpless ones. It might not be difficult to win assent for the proposition that, all things considered, monogamy is the ideal of society even apart from specific Christian notions. Yet, as the merest matter of fact, that has not been the ideal, say, of Chinese society. The home has existed for a large part of Chinese society upon the contrary assumption. There are few countries in the world in which the home has played a larger part than in China. There are few countries, possibly there is no country in the world, in which the family may be said to be more really the, basis of the social order. There are few POLYGAMY 399 social systems in the world in which women have, within limitations, a more defined position and, particularly the older women, mothers and grandmothers, have immemori- ally exerted a greater influence. Despite dreadful things which one hears concerning the mortality among children, there are few countries in the world in which the bearing and rearing of children is looked upon more generally from the point of view both of duty and of privilege and few in which the love of little children is more in evidence. One realizes that in touching this general subject he has touched the plague spot of the human race. At all events one who has lived to maturity in Europe or America can but have his moments of doubt whether a society like our own, which is theoretically monogamous and supposedly under the influence of Christian ideals, has much to boast of. If he is candid it will not be easy to reply when the Oriental tells him that the same things which exist in his land measur- ably acknowledged and provided for, exist in ours with the additional horror that they are not acknowledged and not provided for. There may be no doubt whatever as to the ideal, but the question is, how to deal with the facts, how to get from one system to the other without temporarily making matters worse rather than better or, to put it more pungently still, how to make the ideal of one man and one woman prevail among these peoples, not merely as well as it prevails among us, but much better. Time and economic changes are bound to have the greatest effect upon the patriarchal system and upon the customs concerning marriage, but particularly upon the customs concerning very early marriage, in China, in India and elsewhere in the East. These are changes in which the foreigner can hardly do more than point the way. They are changes which only the man of the race instinct and sympathy can work out. It will be interesting to see whether the Chinese govern- ment and society will be more successful in enforcing a theoretically absolute prohibition of opium than the American government and public sentiment has ever been in f he statutory prohibition of alcoholic drink. The English- speaking missionaries' protest against opium has hitherto been somewhat impaired in value by the fact that, as the 400 WEST AND EAST Chinese cannot forget, the English had much to do with the bringing of opium into the land. The matter has gone far beyond a mere protest however sincere. The vice is so absolutely ruinous, the havoc it works so dreadful, that the Chinese people may be said to have risen against it in their might. The fact that theoretically at least the state will employ no man who is addicted to the opium habit must have weight. The fact that families and guilds inflict punish- ment and even death, in a way of which the government takes no cognizance, upon members who become obnoxious, makes the way of the transgressor hard, if his family come to think that he is wasting family property or if his guild esteems that he is impairing its good name. The result of this is that drastic prohibitory measures which have been adopted are, on the whole, much more likely to be enforced in China than similar measures would be with us. In the last days of the Empire and, still more, since the establishment of the Eepublic, we witness efforts on the part of the Chinese themselves to stamp out the production, the sale and the use of opium, which are without parallel in the history of any nation. Legislation is of the most drastic sort. It would certainly be regarded as sumptuary legislation in Europe. Such laws could hardly be executed in America. Even in China their execution seemed, at the first, improb- able because of their extreme severity. We are at a loss whether most to wonder at the serious resolve of the people as a whole, or at the submissiveness of culprits to that which we should regard as an intolerable invasion of per- sonal liberty. Punishments extend to confiscation of pro- perty, to disqualification for every post of public service and even to death itself. The effort is an agonizing one. The intent is to rid the country of this secret of poverty and degradation. Growers of opium have been ruined. Large numbers of the population are ready and anxious to give information against transgressors. Sellers are con- fronted with the alternative of burning their stock and implements in the presence of the officers of the law, or else of having their establishments burned over their heads by mobs with which the authorities will not interfere. A curious mixture of law and lawlessness often confronts one PROHIBITION OF LIQUOR 401 in China. The one thing which is certain is that the government will have popular support in anything which it does against opium. The Chinese have not arrived to that pitch of sentimentality which among us regards the seller as a criminal and the buyer as a mere victim. Victim he often is, diseased he rapidly becomes. The Chinese how- ever mete out to him his share in the responsibility for a transaction which, after all, involves two persons. They pursue remorselessly habitual users of the drug, from the lowest to the very highest in society, with also the cor- rupters of youth and of women by aid of the drug. No one doubts that the evils of gambling and prostitution, which are immemorial arid would be sufficiently large in any case, have been greatly increased within the nineteenth century. Nor can one doubt that, in certain districts and in certain strata of society, there has been grave physical deterioration of the people, as well as injury to their mental powers. The very earliest stages of the European war furnished material for profound reflection upon the general question which is here involved. Eussia was a country in which intemperance had assumed very grave proportions and in which a very considerable portion of the national revenue was drawn from a taxation of the manufacture of and the trade in spirits. Yet Russia signalized its entrance upon the great struggle by a prohibition of the use of alcohol throughout the length and breadth of the land, which was almost absolute and which was apparently vigorously enforced. If one is disposed to ascribe this result to the powers of an absolute government, what are we to say to the case of France ? For France is one of the freest countries in the world. In France too in more recent years the consumption of the more injurious forms of alcoholic liquors had increased in portentous fashion. In France too there has been since the beginning of the war almost entire prohibition of the traffic in and consumption of liquors of the more injurious sort. In England, on the other hand, the national legislation did not at first care to touch in very serious fashion this evil which was yet as notorious in Great Britain as in any nation in the world. Changes came at first slowly, but were later very effective. 2c 402 WEST AND EAST It is but fair to say that the attitude of the nation upon conscription is to be compared. Men dimly feel that some- thing more than the concrete matters affected, either drink or conscription, is at stake. Men hesitate to fight the battle of liberty by infringing liberty in any measure greater than that which proves absolutely necessary. War-time prohibi- tion would be easily conceivable in the United States. Upon that the demand for permanent prohibition would certainly follow. We cannot speak even of these few points in the moral life of the East without being impressed anew with the extraordinary parity of movement which is displayed in all the nations of the earth in our time. The diminution in the consumption of opium in China has been attended by an increase in the use of alcoholic drinks by the Chinese and also, it may be noted in passing, by a very large increase in the use of tobacco. This latter has been introduced into China on a vast scale and at lowest prices, it has even been given away by American firms, in the effort to establish their trade. Conversely there is no question that the use of opium and of drugs is increasing in the United States in deplorable fashion. The problems of the world are the same problems everywhere. The vices and crimes which are rampant in Christendom, the cynical indifference to ail higher considerations manifest in times of peace, the atrocities which have made the very phrase civilized warfare a mockery, leave us verily little cause to malign the Orient. They reveal in startling fashion how thin is the veneer of civilization and how far Christendom is from being Christianized, despite all the centuries during which a part of its people have professed the faith of the Nazarene. A certain general influence of Christianity upon their civilization, which is by no means to be ignored or minimized, gives the nations of *the West a certain vague right to be called in the aggregate Christendom. At all events, if these nations are to be spoken of in terms of any faith whatsoever, the Christian is the only faith which has attained such proportions in them as to be considered. Yet even an Oriental who has never been outside of one of the old treaty ports knows the difference between a CHRISTIANITY AND CHRISTENDOM 403 Christian and one who merely comes from Christendom. In every nation in Christendom there is a considerable portion of the population which does not so much as profess allegiance, even in name, to the faith of Christ. This is not because they own allegiance to some other religion. It is because they acknowledge allegiance to none. There is furthermore a very considerable element of those who profess the faith of Christ, but they do this merely in name. And finally, no one would admit more sincerely than the truest Christians themselves, that many, even of those with whom the confession of Christ is by no means a mere confession, fall lamentably short of the ideal which their faith enshrines and bring reproach at times upon the cause which yet in heart they honour above all things besides. The humility and contrition of this last class besides being, upon occasion, the most immediate homage they could render to the truth, has been described by their own Lord and Master as the secret of the renewal of their spiritual power. The lapses of the latter class and the existence of the first two groups must however always be taken into account when one is tempted to enter upon a general indictment of Christendom. How Christian is Christendom ? That is the question to which we are often forced to recur, never more fatefully than in the last few months. It may indeed be the very gist of our offending and the deepest cause of our repentance, both before God and man, that Christendom is not more Christian than it is. At all events, however, we are not, as Christians, in the least committed to defending anything, either within Christendom or in the conduct of inhabitants of Christendom toward other nations, for which there can be in Christ's light no defence. Furthermore it must be regarded as an evidence of the progress of humanity and it is only fair to say that it is one of the trophies of the spread of real Christianity, that this distinction between real religion and the mere form of it, is to the generality of men in Christendom entirely evident. This has by no means always been the case. Time was when even in Christendom if a man had been asked, " Are you a Christian ? " he might have answered 404 WEST AND EAST testily : " Do you think I am a pagan ? " In those days it was not recognized that the real paganism is not the worshipping of idols, as it was called. The real paganism is the worshipping of one's self and the forces of an evil world, either with or without the aid of wooden idols or, for that matter, either with or without the aid of dogmas and sacraments conventionally related to an alleged faith in Christ. Now it is recognized that the being a Christian is a matter of an inner moral and spiritual experience. It is a real attempt to fashion all of life according to certain ideal standards. With the clear emergence of this conception of the nature of religion has come the recognition that there are many men and women in Christendom who do not for a moment profess to follow these standards. Besides, there are many more who merely profess to follow it. Now this is a great gain. It is a gain which more than offsets some aspects of the loss of prestige on the part of the church which is sometimes bewailed and throws for the thoughtful a new light on church statistics. It is not certain that there are more heathen within Christendom than there have been at any previous time. There are however more heathen who proclaim themselves to be such and whom the right- minded recognize as such without any proclamation. This we repeat is a great gain. It is in line with Christ's own insistence upon the spiritual and ethical nature of religion, as distinguished from ceremonial or dogma, and again, as distinguished from purely economic and reformatory enthusiasm. It is probable that the constituency of our middle category, that of those who profess religion without possessing it, has in Christendom in modern times very greatly diminished. This also is a great gain. There is less object in hypocrisy now than there was in the days when religion was popular. There is also less tolerance for the hypocritical, or even for those who, without being hypo- critical, are merely conventional. The number of those who rejoice to discard and despise all convention is much increased. On the whole, men are more likely, in our day, to conceal and under-estimate the religion that they have than to feign that which they have not. A man who in our CHRISTENDOM 405 day really has no religion is far more likely than ever before to find it out and frankly to join the company of those who profess none. One who utters a clear word like this as to the actual state of the case with Christianity in Christendom utters it with joy. He feels that we are being delivered from sham and subterfuge, that we cherish no illusions and ask others to cherish none. We repeat that this clarifica- tion of the mind of Christendom as to the real nature of Christianity and the real issue which is at stake in our efforts on its behalf, both at home and abroad, is not the least of the gains which we have to record in our century. It is not the least of the fitnesses, of which we need all that we can honestly find, as we try to bring the knowledge and spirit of Christianity to the non-Christian world. Now it is interesting to note that this same thing is happening to non-Christian faiths in non-Christian lands. Time was when to live, or at least to live in honour, in a Mohammedan land it was practically necessary to be a Mohammedan. That is not to say that all who professed Mohammedanism lived up to the inner spirit of Moham- medanism. That was probably no more true in Islam than in Christendom. But at least, all who were not practically interned in the little Christian or Jewish communities, professed the dogmas of Mohammedanism and observed its ordinary practices. In the sense in which we are speaking the Mohammedan world was a world of Moham- medans. The Ottoman government ever since the conquest has dealt with its subject populations on the basis of their religious affinities. Jews were all Jews and Christians all Christians. Not only did the government deal with none who professed no religion, but this state of things had its part in bringing about that there were practically none who professed no religion. Time was when there were exceedingly few in Japan and almost none in India who professed no religion. Now there are in both lands many who profess none. This is in reality not because the professing of religion has come to mean less, but because religion has come to mean more. They recognize it as meaning something which now, in the contagion of modern influences in the world, they for themselves do not mean. 406 WEST AND EAST They are not alone nowadays in professing that they do not mean it. It is not merely that this contagion has spread from the West. Like causes produce this same situation in both East and West. In the Orient, no long time ago, there were practically no men who took the absolutely secular view or, at least, who understood them- selves and wished to be understood as taking that view. Now there are many. This has its dark side. It has its bright side as well. The discipline which religion may have exerted upon men, so to say externally, falls away in this process. Certain universal assumptions and practices, which had, for the most part, not been much thought about, fall away. On the other hand the realiza- tion of the true nature of religion, and the purpose of an intenser application of religion to life, is apparently insepar- able from this process. The Buddhist communities are made purer by it. Mohammedanism burns with a brighter enthusiasm because of it. From this point of view what is often deplored as a disintegration of religions, may be pointed to as one of the conditions and concomitants of their revival. The exigencies of life will show to nations, as they show to individuals, that they cannot long and cannot well live without religion. Moralities are likely to fade away without transcendent ideals and spiritual power. Men cannot live without God. The withdrawal from God is frequently the means of the opening of men's eyes and of inclining their hearts to the return to God. Heretofore the Christian movement in non-Christian lands has been essen- tially a spiritual movement. It has lacked background in traditions and institutions, in civilization as a whole, the background which it had at home and which, as we have just seen, is sometimes disadvantageous to it in its home. The Christian movement has been face to face, in these new lands, with religions which had all these immediate advan- tages. They were intrenched in custom, interwoven with civilization and glorified by tradition. Now in these lands also civilization is changing, institutions are assailed, tradi- tions thrown to the winds. Now in those lands also, in this amazing world movement which we contemplate, the in- digenous religions are to some extent losing their extraneous PARALLELS 407 advantages. They too are coming gradually to the same kind of clarification, as spiritual magnitudes, which we have spoken of in our own case. They too are suffering the same loss of prestige and artificial significance which we have suffered. They too are certain to gain something of that which we are gaining by this same process. There are now many intelligent men in China who do not confess Buddhism or Confucianism. To those who do confess them they must mean something. The point which is here to be emphasized is that in these lands the indi- genous religions and the Christian religion are now all coming to the same level of apprehension and of spiritual endeavour. In the times of stress which are coming on, the religions which can meet the spiritual needs of men in these lands will be their religions. The others will fade away. There is a free field and a fair chance in a sense which has never been true before. The extraneous factors which, both there and here, have counted so much, either for or against religion, are now diminished and, what is more important, they are recognized as extraneous. This freedom of access for the spirit of Christianity to the life of these peoples is all that we can desire. All that we have said in these lectures however makes plain, and this for reasons which have been illuminated from many different sides, that Christianity will never take the highest place in the life of these various nations save as vitally transformed by the spirit of the peoples themselves. The tragic confessions which we have just made about the effects of Christianity in Christendom, or rather its huge failure of effect, warn us against expecting too great things in the Christianization of the life of all the nations all at once. Our confessions bring home to us how slow the process has been among ourselves and how much is still unachieved. It is conceivable that other nations will make more rapid progress toward Christianization of life than we have done. Perhaps the world as a whole will make more rapid progress, in this as in other respects, now that it is one world, than it has made thus far, while the different races worked in their isolation each at its own task. There are signs of such acceleration of the world movement in 408 WEST AND EAST some departments of life. This is true in commerce. Per- haps it is true in education. There is no inherent reason why it should not be true in religion. It is by the zeal of Christian men and women in all lands that this issue can be brought to pass. It is necessary that Christians, both in the lands which we have called foreign missionary lands, and in our own countries as well, should realize before all things the spiritual nature of Christianity. Equally it is necessary that we realize that this spirit which Christianity is, the spirit of Jesus, must be applied to every problem in life and illustrated in every work and purpose of men. It is advisable that we attempt nothing more than this. It is necessary that we be content with nothing less. The vast- ness of the work commands our patience and our faith. It is something if in these lectures we have been enabled in any measure to rid ourselves of provincialism, of prejudice and fear. It is something if we have been able to see the problem clearly and to see it whole. It is something if we have drawn from the great movement which we have been considering renewal of our reverence for all humanity, of our faith in and love for men, of our loyalty to Christ and our confidence in God. If one ever has moments of misgiving about the working out, in the hands of the peoples of these national churches, of a problem so complex, and into the solution of which already so much that is precious has been poured, it may be well to recall an observation which every thoughtful man must have made many times concerning the propagation of religion in his own land. This observation is profoundly true in the missionary world as well. There must have been times in the experience of every one of us when, if we had listened only to the form of the statement of faith inculcated and the type of doctrine advanced, if we saw only how the minds of zealous persons fix upon some rite or ceremony and insist upon some small detail in the regulation of life, we should have been profoundly dis- couraged. We realize however that these are not the only sources of influence of the man who is in the pulpit or of the institution which we call the church. They are not the main sources. It is possible that they are not the THE CHRISTIAN CHARACTER 409 sources of his influence at all. It is possible that they are minus quantities and distinct deductions from that influence. We perceive the fortitude and patience, the peace and love which average men and women show, the fidelity and courage, the cheer and hope, the purity and unselfishness, the devotion to ideals, the solicitude for others, which their life reveals. We perceive that these are not only the true fruit of the gospel, but they are the real working power of the gospel. It is these which undo a large part of the harm which dogma or ritual or narrow and mistaken practices exert. It is these which exert an influence which all the narrowness and inadequacies alluded to are not able to destroy. These things are true at home, as every one must have observed. They are even more true abroad because they are the qualities which are universally under- stood. They are felt and do not need to be understood. Language and race differences may make the theoretical propositions which the missionary of the new faith brings, and the newly trained native preacher sets forth, most difficult. They may make his rites impossibly remote. But character commands unfailingly respect and reverence. It leaves an impression that can never be effaced. Far more than we realize it is at this level of the Christian character, it is by this possession of the Christian character, that the Christian propaganda has taken place and is now taking place. We wonder at the apparent adoption, on the part of Chinese or Japanese, of forms of thought and action most widely different from those instinctive with these peoples. It is not that this adoption of foreign forms explains the assimilation of the peoples to the Christian ideal of character. Precisely the reverse is true. It is that the zeal and desire to be conformed to the type of character which is seen in real Christian man, carries along with it, for a time, customs and forms of speech which have been associated with that moral and spiritual influence. These customs and forms of speech will however be dropped off again as easily as they were taken on, in the working out of the Christian character of the Chinese, of the Japanese and of the Indians themselves. By this absolutely natural and spiritual process, at the level of the Christian character, 410 WEST AND EAST an oriental Christianity will arise and the specific occidental form by which this great transmission of life was mediated will disappear. "Except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die it abideth alone," said the Master, when balked of a foreign mission which there is every reason to suppose he would have been glad to undertake. " But if it die, it shall bear much fruit." " He must increase, but I must decrease," said John the Baptist, as he thought of the larger work of the Messiah in the world. He said of himself that he was but a voice. He prepared the way. The Christians in the Orient for whom Christians in the Occident have been allowed in God's good grace the privi- lege of working they must increase. We must decrease. This may well be the last word of those who in these quiet hours, in this privileged place, have sought to think as Christians on the destiny of Christ's cause and kingdom among the nations of mankind. INDEX ABDUL HAMID II, 179, 329 Adams, John Couch, 292 Adams, Thomas, 292 Addison, 381 Africa, 14-16, 187-97 ; Belgians in, 195-7; Dutch in, 15; free negroes in South, 189 ; partition- ment of, 16 ; Portuguese in, 38 ; Western education in, 222 African slave trade, 16, 185-7, 189 African wilderness, Europeans in the, 194 Africans, and slavery, 15, 185, 186 ; in America, 224 Agnosticism, 384 Alaska, 349 Alexander VII., 390 Aligarh College, 272 Altruism, unconscious, 159 Amalgamation of races, 224 America. See United States American Board, 119 ; and educa- tion in Turkey, 181 American missions in Turkey, 180 Anabaptists, 104 Ancestor worship, 108 ; and Pro- testant missions, 392 ; converts' view of, 393 Ancient world, naturalization of Christianity in, 81 ; unity of, 20 Anesaki, Prof., 255 Anthropomorphism, 385 Armstrong, General, 229 Apocrypha, 373 Apologetic, ancient, 317 Apologetic literature in Japan, 289 Apostolate, 325 Armenian Church, 115 Armenians in Turkey, 179 Arnold, Matthew, 384 Arya Somaj, 376 Asceticism, in the Orient, 310 Asia Minor, ancient Christian churches of, 116, 327 ; Lutheran- ism in, 350 ; Protestant Church in, 328 Assimilation of West and East, 49 Assimilation, period of, 210 Athanasian Creed, 364 Atlanta University, 227 Augustine, 361 Australia, 11 Authority, in Protestant missions, 119 BAGDAD Railway, 59 Balkan States, 14 Balkan Wars, 179, 182 Bangweolo, 192 Baptism, 351 Beaufort, Huguenot colony at, 39 Belgian Congo, 196 Belgians in Africa, 195-7 Bengal, schools for girls in, 299 Bentinck, Lord William, 184, 277] Berkeley, Bishop, 312 Bethlen Gabor, 13 Bhagavad Gita, 372 Bhagavata religion, The, 373 Bhakti, 375 Bible, translations of, 289 ; Chinese, 326 ; Chippeway, 291 ; Esqui- maux, 291 ; Sanskrit, 291 Bible House, in Stamboul, 328 Bible societies, 289 Bingham, Hiram, Jr., 331^ Bliss, Daniel, 99 Book trade in India, 283 Bowring, Sir John, 99 Boxer uprising, 164 Brahm, 388 Brahma Somaj, 374 Brazil, Huguenot colony in, 39 British and Foreign Bible Society, 289 ; its catalogue, 290, 292 411 412 WEST AND EAST British East India Company, 41, 44, 198 ; and the press, 283 ; reformation of, 70 British Empire, 9, 10, 15, 18-24, 32, 35, 41-3, 46, 198-202 ; change in character of, 20 ; compared with Roman Empire, 19 ; extent of, 18 British government in India, 22, 199, 201 Buddha, 146, 378, 389 Buddhism, 77, 140 ; doctrine in, 366 ; in Japan, 258, 259 Bulgaria, 329 Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, trans- lations of, 292 Business, in China, 171 ; in the Ottoman Empire, 174 Butler's Analogy, 380 By-products of missions, 324 CAIRO, Mohammedan university in, 273 ; Mosque schools in, 273 ; teaching of the Koran in, 273 Cairus, Principal, 320 Campbell, 318 Canada, 11 Carey, W., 75 ; his press, 283 Carpet-bag regime, 227 Caste and humanity, 279 Celtic church, 84 Chalmers, 318 Change, law of, 359 Character and propaganda, 409 China, 24-8, 162-3, 168-75, 182-3, 202-8, 232-44, 297-8, 326, 344, 390-5, 398-401 ; administration of public business, 172 ; ancestor worship, 108, 390, 393; Boxer uprising, 164 ; business, 171 ; Christian education and secular life, 240 ; Christians in public service, 237 ; church and ministry, 240 ; civil service, 233 ; concessions, 174, 203; education, 212, 216, 232-9, 241-2; effects of revolution, 242 ; Empress Dowager, 26 ; extra -territori- ality, 203 ; foreign trade, 202 ; Franciscans, 390; graft, 173; Imperial Maritime Customs, 172, 208, 238; industries, 168-9; influence of Europe, 24 ; Jesuits 25, 107, 391 ; medical education, 163 ; medicine, 159, 162 ; mis- sionary colleges, present oppor- tunity of, 239 ; opium, 202, 205-6 ; opium wars, 206 ; par- ti tionment of, 182 ; piracy in the West River, 204 ; Portuguese in, 25 ; poverty, 170 ; pressure of Japan upon, 183 ; prohibi- tion of opium, 400 ; relation to Western civilization, 33 ; siege of the legations, 26 : status of women, 297, 398 ; taxation, 171, 174 ; transformation of, 27 ; treaty ports, 207 ; unfortunate position of, 205 ; union theo- logical schools, 243 China Medical Board, 164 Chinese church, leadership in, 236 Chinese students in America, 221, 242 Chivalry, women in Age of, 306 Christendom and Christianity, 337, 402, 407 ; sectarianism in, 405 Christian Association, The, 145 Christian character, influence of the, 409 Christian education and secular life in China, 240 Christian movement in Japan, 345 Christian thought in the nineteenth century, 379 Christianity, 79-80 ; absoluteness of, 378 ; adjustment of, in the modern world, 257, 262 ; and Christendom, 337, 402, 407; Catholic view of, 353 ; early views of the triumph of, 317 ; naturalization of, 128, 334, 339, in the ancient world, 81 ; origin of, 79 ; pietist view of, 353 ; power of, 321 ; profession of, 404 ; propaganda on behalf of, 4 ; relation to other faiths, 321 ; spiritual nature of, 408 ; spread of, 80-94 ; traditional presenta- tion of, 261 ; what is, 353 Christianization, 316 ; of life, 355 Christians in public service in China, 237 Christina, Queen of Sweden, 100 Church, The, and the expansion of Christendom, 323 ; and the INDEX 413 ministry in China, 240 ; and the world, 355 ; as index of progress, 354 ; as measure of growth, 356 ; in the Catholic view, 353 ; in the earliest stage of missions, 358 ; in the Protestant view, 353 ; missionaries and, 323 ; signific- ance of, 340; tutelage of, 109; unchangeableness of, 348 Church Missionary Society, 75, 119 Church unity and missions, 125 Churches, The, and the secular life, 351 Civil service in China, 233 Civilization, influence of, 62 ; rela- tion to missions, 99 Clement of Alexandria, 318 Clement X., 391 Clergy, dominance of the, 341 Clive, Lord, 9 Coan, Titus, 331 Coleridge, 318 Colleges, for freedmen in America, 226 ; missionary, in China, 236-9 ; women's, in Japan, 298 Communities, religious, 326 Community of life in world of to- day, 153 Concubinage, 301, 398 Conference of religions in Japan, 255, 288 Confucianism, 220, 233, 394; in Japan, 255 Confucius, veneration of, 393 Congo, Belgian, 196 Congo Free State, 195 Conquest for the faith, 67 Conscription, 402 Constantinople, 84 ; and the Venetians, 12 Constantinople College, 180, 329 Contacts of West and East, 149 Continuation Committee, 344 Controversy, religious, in India, 285 Conversion, 109, 126-8 Converts, 354 Cook, Captain, 9 Cranmer and missions, 74 Cromwell, 107 Crusades, effects of, 13 Curzon, Lord, 277 Cyprus, 12 DEISM, 380 Democracy, 177 ; in the West, 156 Demoniacal possession, 395 Denominational differences, 314 Denominationalism in the mission field, 350 Dependence, sense of, 386 Discipleship, 325 Doctrine and life, 364 ; assent to, 364-5 ; history of, 362 ; in Buddhism, 366 ; in Islam, 366 ; nature of, 360 ; restatement of, 368 Dogma, nature of, 360 Dominicans, 108, 390 ; conflict of, with the Jesuits, 110 Doshisha, 244-6 Dualism, 381 Duff, Alexander, 99, 265 Duncan, William, 333 Dutch, 41 ; in Africa, 15 ; in Japan, 29 Dutch colonization, 41 EAST, The, 1-4, 7-9, 11-12,21-2,31, 33-4, 45-54, 61-6, 89-90, 148-59, 175-8 ; asceticism, 310 ; con- tacts with the West, 149 ; con- ventual life of women, 310 ; effect of Western education on, 278 ; foreign communities, 208-9 ; hospitality of, to Western ideas, 2 ; intervention of West in the affairs of, 150 ; meaning of the term, 11 ; political influence of West in, 176 ; power of Western nations in, 9, 21-2 ; problems of West precipitated upon, 6 ; re- surgence of racial feeling, 2, 65 ; sacred books of, 284 ; solidarity of, 7 ; status of women, 294, 302 ; trade, 208 ; Western edu- cation in, 219, 221 ; women and the church in, 303 East and West, assimilation of, 49 Ecclesiastical endowments, 219 Economic revolution, 158 Edinburgh Conference, 320 Education, 213-311 ; and character in China, 234 ; and denationaliza- tion in India, 268 ; and govern- ment in China, 233, 241-2 ; and labour, 228, 230 ; and philan- thropy in India, 271 ; and Pro- 414 WEST AND EAST testantism, 115 ; and rationalism, 213 ; and religion, 218 ; and revolt in India, 266, 274 ; and the Roman church, 114 ; effect of Western, on Orientals, 278 ; enthusiasm for, in China, 211 ; enthusiasm for, in the nineteenth century, 212, 216 ; government support of, 215, 217 ; in India, 154, 274, 276 ; industrial, 221-2, in China, 236, in India, 269; missionary, in China, 236 ; of negroes in America, 223, 226-7 ; of women in Moslem lands, 296 ; popular, 214; private support of, 215-7 ; public, in Japan, 254 ; schools for girls in Bengal, 299 ; Western, in Africa, 222 ; in China, 232-3; in India, 265; in Japan, 244; in the East, 219, 221 Educational endowments, 219 Educational reforms in China, 235, 238 ; in Europe, 214 Egypt, 59 Election, doctrine of, 117 Eliot, John, 69 Emancipation of slaves in America, 225, 228 Empress Dowager, 26 Endowments, ecclesiastical, 219 ; educational, 219 Enfranchisement of freedmen in America, 225, 228 English language in India, 265, 267 Erasmus, 104 Esquimaux, 111, 291 Eucharist, The, 351 Eurasians, 224 European sovereignties in the Orient, 21 ; change in character of, 22 Evangelicals, 119 Evangelism, 326 Evangelization, limit of the work of, 91, 93 Evolution, doctrine of, 286 Exotic Christianity, 338-9 Expansion of Christendom, 323 ; first period of arrest in, 81 ; periodicity of the movement, 79 Expansion of Europe, two senses of the phrase, 31 Extraterritoriality, 203 FAITHS, reciprocal relation of, 322 ; transformation of, 322 Folk-lore, 373 Foreign communities in the Orient, 208-9 Foreign trade in China, 202 Foreman College, 272 France, 16-7, 39-41, 43 ; and civil liberty, 158 ; colonies of, under Louis XVI., 40 ; prohibitory legislation in, 401 ; relations with England in the eighteenth century, 43 ; religious orders and the Republic, 308 ; religious orders and the Revolution, 308 Franciscans in China, 390 Francke, 119 Free churches, 344 French in Tonking, 203 Fukuzawa, 286 GERMANY, 15, 18, 57-9 ; colonies of, 57 ; imperial projects of, 14 ; relations with Great Britain, 58 ; relations with Ottoman Empire, 58 ; theory of the relation of trade to government, 198 ; world empire of, 18 Goa, 38 God, imminence of, 382 ; person- ality of, 385 God and Man, oneness of, 382 Goethe, W. von, 282 Gordon, General, 99, 188 Government inspection of schools in India, 271 Graft, 173 Grants in aid of mission schools in India, 271 Great Britain, and France in the eighteenth century, 43 ; and the slave trade, 187, 189 ; emigra- tion from, 46 ; foreign relations of, 58 ; prohibitory legislation in, 401 ; world empire of, 18. See also British Empire. Great War, India in, 199 ; Turkey in, 182 HAMLIN, CYRUS, 99, 141 Hampden, his Bampton Lectures, 362 INDEX 415 Hampton Institute, 229 Hannington, Bishop, 188, 331 Har Dyal, 370 Harnack, his History of Dogma, 362 Hart, Sir Robert, 99, 172, 208, 238 Harvard College, 275 Harvard Oriental Series, 284 Hastings, Warren, 276 Havelock, Sir Henry, 99 Hell, 395 Herder, 318 Heredity, 309 Herreros, The, 196 Hinduism, 140, 272, 387 ; doctrines of, 320 ; orthodoxy in, 369, 377 ; pessimism of, 384 ; vitality of, 370 Holland, world empire of, 18 Holy Land, 349 Holy Orthodox Church, 365 Holy War, A, 180 Hong Kong, 46, 204 Hong Kong University, 242 Honolulu, 346 Howard, John, 72 Hue, Abbe, 64 Huguenot colonies, in Beaufort, 39 ; in Brazil, 39 Huguenot refugees, 39 Human life, estimate of, 389 Humanitarianism, 76, 97 Humanity, conception of, 61 ; en- thusiasm for, 134 ; sentiment of, in India, 279 Hume, R. A., 374 Hutten, Ulrich von, 104 Hypocrisy, 404 IGNORANCE, 386 Iliad, translations of, 292 Imminence of God, 382 Imperial Gazette, Peking, 281 Imperial Maritime Customs, 172 Incarnation, 387 Incarnations, Indian, 388 India, 22-4, 32-3, 70-1, 140, 184-5, 198-202, 265-80, 283-4, 299-301, 369-87, 396-7; and the Great War, 199; bishops in, 119; book trade, 283 ; British rule, 22, 199, 201 ; careers of women, 300 ; criticism of religion, 371 ; development of industries, 279 ; education, 23, 154, 269, 274, 276, and denationalization, 268, and philanthropy, 271, and revolt, 266, 274, of women, 300 ; English language in, 265, 267 ; government inspection of schools, 271 ; grants in aid of mission schools, 271 ; influence of Islam, 374 ; influence of the press, 280 ; influence of women, 300 ; Islam and caste, 268 ; Islam and nation- alism, 268; Jesuits in, 113, 341 ; judges, 278 ; liberty, 23, 154; life of the mind, 369; loyalty to Great Britain in the war, 24 ; metaphysics, 370 ; missions and government, 270 ; national feeling, 24, 377 ; poverty, 270 ; racial feeling, 279 ; reforms, 154 ; relation to Western civilization, 33 ; religion in aided schools, 273 ; religious controversy, 285 ; religious press, 285 ; religious syncretism, 375 ; religiousness, 370 ; secularism, 141, 371, 405; sentiment of humanity, 269, 279 ; universities, 277 ; unrest, 199 ; vernacular literature, 284 ; Western educa- tion, 265 ; youth of mothers, 311 Indian Mutiny, 23, 71, 199, 200 Indian National Congress, 267 Indian religion, reforming impulses in, 371 Indians, American, 69 Individualism of the West, 7 Industrialism, Age of, 45 Industries, in China, 168-9; in India, 279 Inner life, permanence of traits of, 314 ; reaction in the, 313 Innocent X., 390 Inspiration of Scripture, 318 Intervention, governmental, 175 Irreligion in the eighteenth century, 132 Ishvawa, 388 Islam, 86-7 ; and caste in India, 268 ; and nationalism in India, 268 ; conquests of, 84 ; influence of, in India, 374 ; in Turkey, 330 ; Moslem schools in India, 272-3 416 WEST AND EAST Isolation of converts, 336 Italy, world empire of, 18 Ito, Count, 286 JAMES I., King of England, 107 Jansenism, 106, 118 Japan, 25, 27-31, 33, 59-60, 244-64, 285-9, 298-9, 345-7 ; a Christian university in, 247-9 ; abdication of the Shogun, 29 ; apologetic literature, 289 ; Buddhism, 258-9; Christian movement, 345 ; con- ference of religions, 255, 288 ; Confucianism, 255 ; Dutch in, 29 ; early independence of church, 246 ; education of women, 298 ; influence of America, 29-30 ; influence of Europe, 25 ; in- fluence of Nietsche, 287 ; in- fluence of, upon Asia, 59 ; Jesuits in, 28, 112 ; Kamakura period, 285; literary revival, 285; loyalties, 256 ; medicine, 160 ; Meiji era, 286 ; missionaries, 252, 347 ; national spirit, 30 ; natural- ization of things Western, 252 ; newspapers, 287 ; observance of Sunday, 288 ; pressure of, upon China, 183 ; public education, 254 ; reaction, 252 ; science and religion, 261 ; secularism, 255, 405 ; Shinto as State religion, 251, 255 ; Western education, 244 ; Western educators, 250; women's colleges, 298 Japanese Christians, 113 Japanese church, independence of, 246, 346 Jesuits, as explorers and mission- aries, 37-8, 40 ; early aims of, in Europe, 101-2, in the mission fields, 103 ; early policy of, in China, 107-8 ; exclusion of, from China, 391 ; in China, 25 ; in India, 113, 341 ; in Japan, 28, 112 ; in North America, 113 Jesus, 378, 382 ; biography of, 386 ; his consciousness of God, 387 ; his treatment of women, 305 ; personality of, 386 ; teaching of, 80, 325 Jesus, Society of, 101 John the Baptist, 410 KAIO CHOW, 183 Kamakura period, 285 Kang-Hsi, 391 Karma, 373 Keshab Chander Sen, 375 Ketteler, Baron von, 204 Kikuchi, Baron, 254 Kirk, Sir John, 188 Kitchener, General, 188 Knowledge, theory of, 380 Kohlerglaube, 379 Koran, 378 ; study of, at Cairo, 260, 273 Korea, 333 Krishna, 373 LABOUR, and education, 228, 230 Leopold, King of the Belgians, 195 Leopoldine debauch, The, 196 Lessing, 68, 318 Liberal movements, 379 Liberalism and missions, 133 Liberty in India, 23, 154 Literary revival in Japan, 285 Livingstone, David, 190 ; and slavery, 187 ; and the Protector- ates, 191 ; death of, 192 ; scien- tific achievements of, 190 London Missionary Society, 73, 191 Loyola, Ignatius, 101 Loyalties in Japan, 256 Lucar, Cyril, 328 Lucas, Bernard, 383 Lull, Raymond, 14, 88 Luther, 74, 105 Lutheranism, in Asia Minor, 350 MACAO, 37 Macaulay, Thomas B., 266 Mackay, 331 Malabar customs, 107 Maronites, 115 Marriage, 399 ; in Protestantism, 308 Martyn, Henry, 122 Mass movements, 124 Maya, 385 Mayhews, 69 Mediaeval missionaries, civilizing work of, 85 Medical education in China, 163 INDEX 417 Medical sciences, newness of, 161 Medical work, in the East, 159-68 ; inadequacy of, 167 ; independ- ence of, 163, 165 Medicine, in China, 159, 162 ; in Japan, 160 Mediterranean, basin of the, 81 Meiji era, beginning of, 286 Metaphysics, 364, 388 ; Indian, 370 Methodism, 105 Metlakahtla, 333 Mexico, 36-7; trade of United States in, 201 Militarism, 45 Mind, life of the, in India, 369 Ministry, ordination to, 343 ; status of, 343 Missionaries, and the church, 323 ; in Japan, 252 Missions, 4, 25, 66-7, 74-6, 99, 312- 57 ; and business, 197 ; and church unity, 125 ; and civiliza- tion, 99, 125 ; and culture, 120 ; and government in India, 270 ; and liberalism, 133 ; and phil- anthropy, 142 ; and the educa- tion of women, 300 ; and the secular movement, 4, 97 ; and the war on the slave trade, 197 ; by-products of, 324 ; early aspects of, 4, 334, 336; the ministry in, 341 ; modern period, 90 ; Mohammedan, 87 ; objec- tions to, 133 ; organization of early churches in, 341 ; Pro- testant, 116-27, 343-52 ; Boman Catholic, 26, 40, 66, 101, 107-16, 341-2, 348-9 Mohammed, 378 Mohammedan missions, 87 Mohammedan university in Cairo, 273 Mohammedanism. See Islam Monasteries, Protestant condemna- tion of, 307 Monogamy, 398 Moors, piracy of, 13 Morality, double standard of, 301 Moravians, 72, 74, 119-20 Morrison, Robert, 127, 142, 326; his converts, 326; his transla- tions, 326 Moses, 378 2 D Moslems, early attitude of, toward missions, 328 Mosque schools in Cairo, 273 Mothers, youth of, in India, 311 \ Mott, John R., 344 Moulton, Hope, 292 ! Mutiny, Indian, 23, 71, 199-200 NARUSE, 298 I Nationalism in India, 377 \ Natural and supernatural, 381 Natural religion, 131 Naturalization of aliens in America, 228 Naturalization of Christianity, 128, 334, 339 Naturalization of things Western in Japan, 252 Nature and God, 381 Nature and Man, 381 Neesima, Joseph Hardy, 244-5, 286 Negroes, in America, 112, 223, 230-1 ; in South Africa. 189 Nestorians, 115 New Hebrides, 331-2 New humanism, 67, 95 New Zealand, 11 Newman, John Henry, 362 Newspapers in Japan, 287 Nietsche, 303 ; influence of, in Japan, 287 Non-Christian faiths, approach to, 318 ; assimilation of, 316 ; dis- integration of, 317 ; earlier views of, 317; perpetuation of, 316; spiritual elements of, 319 North America, Jesuits in, 113 Nunneries, 307 Nyasa, Lake, 188 OBSCURANTISM, 106 Okuma, Count, 286-7 Opium, in China, 202, 205 ; pro- hibition of, 399-400 ; fuse of, in America, 402 Opium Wars, 206 Orders, The, and the French Republic, 308 ; and the Revolu- tion, 308 Ordination to the ministry, 343 Orient. See East Origen, 318 Orthodoxy, Hindu, 369 418 WEST AND EAST Osman invasions, 86 Otherworldliness, 123, 137, 139-40 Ottoman Empire, 14, 55-9, 178-82, 296-7, 327-9 ; Armenians in, 179 ; business in, 174 ; constitutional- ism in, 329 ; foreign relations of, 58 ; in the Great War, 182 ; missions in, 180-1, 327 ; secular- ism, 405 ; women in, 311 ; Young Turks, 178-9 PANTHEISM, 381-3 Parker, Peter, 142 Patison, Mark, 380 Paton, John, 330 Patrick, Mary M., 99 Patteson, Coleridge, 331 Paul, missionary principles of, 91, 111, 129 ; teaching of, 80, 291 Peking Cathedral, 110 Peking Gazette, 281 Periodicity in missionary en- deavour, 79 Persecutions of Christians, 80 Pessimism, Hindu, 384 Peter the Great, 13 Philanthropy and missions, 142 Philippines, 230 Pietism, 138 Pietistic mind, The, 121 Piracy, in the West River in China, 204 ; of the Moors, 13 Plato, influence of, 363 Political influence of the West in the East, 176 Polygamy, 301, 398 Port Arthur, 47 Porter, Mary, 298 Porto Rico, 230 Portuguese, in Africa, 38 ; in China, 25 ; in South Africa, 38 ; traders, 37-8 ; world empire of, 16-7 Poverty, in China, 170 ; in India, 270 Press, influence of, in India, 280 ; the religious, in India, 285 Priesthood, early admission to the, 342 Printing, discovery of, 281 Problems of the West precipitated upon the East, 6 Prohibitory legislation, in France, 401 ; in Great Britain, 401 ; in the United States, 402 Propaganda, on behalf of the Christian religion, 4, 52 ; on behalf of Western civilization, 3,52 Propagation of the Gospel, Society for the, 74, 119 Prostitution, 302 ; ceremonies in- volving, 184 Protestant awakening, The, 74 Protestant church in Asia Minor, 328 Protestant churches, membership in, 109 Protestant missions, authority in, 119 Protestant obscurantism, 106 Protestant view, of the church, 353 ; of salvation, 352 Protestantism, 104-7 ; and demo- cracy, 105 ; and education, 115 ; and missions, 119 ; and other reforms in the sixteenth century, 103 ; as popular movement, 122 ; in Catholic lands, 116 ; marriage under, 308 Protestants, early attitude toward missions, 74 ; French, 39 Puritanism, 105 Putomayo, 196 RACIAL equality, 346 Racial feeling in India, 279 Ram Mohun Roy, 374 Rama, 373 Ramananda, 373 Rationalism, 130 ; and education, 213 Reaction, in Japan, 252 ; in the inner life, 313 Reason, pure, 385 ; rights of, 68 Reform, educational, in Europe, 214 ; relation to missions, 98 Reforms in India, 154 Reformation, The, 372 ; symbols of, 318 Religion, and doctrine, 361 ; and dogma, 361 ; and reform, 98 ; as experience, 379 ; in aided schools in India, 273 ; ministry of, 324 ; natural, 131 ; non- dogmatic, 366 ; of slaves in INDEX 419 America, 226 ; personality in, 378; philosophy of, 319; psy- chology of, 318, 380 ; relation of, to civilization, 78 Religions, adjustment of, to modern conditions, 256-8 ; comparative study of, 320 ; eclectic, 377 ; history of, 318 ; interpretation of, 78 ; positive, 377 ; rein- terpretation of, 259, 262 Religiousness, in India, 370 Renaissance, The, 372 Revelation of God, 378 Revivals, in the eighteenth century, 130 Revolution in China, effects of, 242 Rhodes, 13 Ricci, Matteo, 103, 390 Rigorism, 123 Robert College, 115, 180, 275, 328 Roman Catholic Church, 106-7, 341 ; and education, 114 ; and other faiths, 110 ; celibacy of the clergy, 118 ; missionary revival in, 113 Roman Catholic view of the church, 353 Roman Empire, comparison of, with the British, 19 ; conditions of spread of Christianity in, 82 ; naturalization of Christianity in, 81 Royal Geographical Society, 191 Russia, and Turkey, 55 ; Asiatic relations of, 54 ; conquests of. 55 ; prohibition of vodka in, 401 SACRAMENTS, 347 ; efficacy of, 109 Sacred Books of the East, 284 Sadhuism, 375 Samurai households, 299 Sankhara, 375 Sanskrit versions of the Bible, 291 Saraswati, 376 Sati, 184 Schaal, Adam, 103 Schleiermacher, 377-8 Scholasticism, 260 Science and religion in Japan, 251 Scribes, 365 Scripture, authority of, 104 ; in- spiration of, 318/378 Sectarianism, 126-7, 359 Secularism, 144 ; and missions, 4, 97 ; in Christendom, 405 ; in India, 141, 371, 405; in Japan, 255, 405 ; in Turkey, 405 Sentiment of humanity in India, 269 Shakespeare, translations of, 292 Shanghai, concessions in, 203 Shanghai Conference, 344 Shantung, 343 Shaowu, 335 Shinto as State religion in Japan, 251, 255 Shogun, abdication of the, 29 Shupanga, 100 Siberia, 111 Sicily, 111 Sickingen, Franz von, 104 Sikhism, 375 Slave trade, African, 185-9, 223; and missions, 197 Slavery, abolition of, in America, 72 ; African, 15, 185-6 ; among the Greeks, 186 ; among the Hebrews, 187 ; in America, 187, 224-5 Social questions, 134 Social service, 325 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 74, 119 Society of Jesus, 101 Solidarity of the East, 7 Somajs, The, 285 Soul-salvation, 136 South America, Portuguese in, 38 South Sea Islands, 332 Spain, conquests of, 16-7, 36 Spencer, Herbert, 385 Spener, 105 Stanley, Sir Henry M., achieve- ments of, 190 ; education of, 192 Sunday, observance of, in Japan, 288 Supernaturalism, 131 Syncretism, religious, in India, 375 Syria, 114 Syrian Protestant College, 275 TACITUS, 306 Tagore, Rabindra Nath, 284, 375 Tai Ping Rebellion, 26 Taoism, 77 Taxation in China, 171, 174 420 WEST AND EAST Teachers in coloured schools in America, 227 Thagism, 184 Theism, 382 Theological schools, union, in China, 243 Theology, changes in Christian, 367 Thirty Years' War, 42 Thomas Christians, 115 Tippoo Tib, 192 Tolstoi, translations of, 292 Torture, ceremonies involving, 184 Toyama, 286 Trade, in the Orient, 208 ; relation of, to government, 198 Translations of the Bible, 289; influence of, 293 Treaty concessions in China, 174 Treaty ports in China, 207 Tripoli campaign, 179 Tunis, 349 Turkey. See Ottoman Empire Turkish conquests, 13 Turkish women and the revolution, 297 Tuskegee Institute, 229 UGANDA, 188, 333 Unitarianism, 106, 120, 380 Unitas Fratrum, 121 United Provinces, organizations of women in, 299 United States, and trade in Mexico, 201 ; as an extension of Europe, 10 ; Chinese students in, 221 ; education of freedmen, 226-7 ; education of slaves, 226 ; eman- cipation of slaves, 225 ; en- franchisement of freedmen, 225 ; independence of, 10 ; influence of, in Japan, 29-30 ; naturalization of aliens in, 228 ; progress of negroes, 230-1 ; prohibitory legislation in, 402 ; religion of slaves, 226; slavery, 224-5; teachers in coloured schools, 227 ; use of opium in, 402 Unity, and uniformity, 315 ; of the ancient world, 20 ; tendency i toward, in the modern world, 2 I Universities in India, 277 University, a Christian, in Japan, i 247-9 University, ideal of a, 248 Unrest in India, 199 VALUES, universal, 152 Vambery, Arminius, 181, 277 Vedas, 376 Venetians, 12 | Verbeck, Guido, 99, 244 I Vernacular literature in India, 284 Virginity, laudation of, 306 Vishnu, 388 Voluntary societies, 120 WALKER, J., 335 Washburn, George, 99 Washington, Booker, 229-30 Wei Hai Wai, 204 WeUesley, Lord, 277 Wesley, John, 71-2 West, The, 1-12, 21-2, 31, 33-4, 49-54, 61-6, 148-59 ; contacts of, with the East, 149 ; democracy in, 156 ; education of, in the East, 219, 221, 278 ; individualism of, 7 ; influence of, in the East, 9. 24-5, 33, 125, 176 ; isolation from the East, 89-90; intervention of, in affairs of the East, 150 ; problems of, precipitated upon the East, 6 ; propaganda on behalf of civilization of, 3 West and East, assimilation of, 49 Western educators in Japan, 250 Widows, remarriage of, in India, 185 Wilberforce, William, 73 William of Orange, 117 Williams, John, 331 Williams, S. Wells, 64 Witches, 395 Women, 294-311 ; and chivalry, 306 ; and Christianity, 294, 304 ; and religion, 303 ; and the ascetic ideal, 306 ; and the church, in the Orient, 303 ; and the family, 309 ; careers of, in India, 300 ; conventual life of, in the Orient, 310 ; education of, in China, 297, in India, 300, in Japan, 298, in Moslem lands, 296 ; freedom of, in the Orient, 302 ; Hebrew, status of, 304 ; in China, 398 ; in Christendom, 295 ; in the mediaeval church, INDEX 421 307 ; in the Ottoman Empire, 311 ; influence of, in India, 300 ; Jesus' treatment of, 305 ; missions and the education of, 300 ; of the Orient, 294 ; organizations of, in United Provinces, 299; statue of, among Teutons, 306; in Europe and America, 296 ; in Greece and Rome, 304; in the early church, 305 ; in the Middle Age, 307 ; under Christianity, 304 ; Turkish, and the revolution, 297 World, The, as object of redemp- tion, 136, 138, 352, 356 World empire, of the British, 18 ; of the Germans, 18 ; of the Italians, 18 ; of the Portuguese, 17 ; of the Spanish, 17 XAVIEK, Francis, 37, 101, 341 YOTTNG Turks, 59, 178 ; and reform, 179 ZANZIBAB, 188, 232 Zenana missions, 300 Zinzendorf, Count, 74, 105, 121 Zoroaster, 378 Zulu language, 290 Zwingli, 104 JUST PUBLISHED. In the well-known "Studies in Theology" Series 267 and xii pages. Crown Svo. Cloth Gilt, $s. net (Postage 5^.) The Theology of the Epistles BY H. A. A. KENNEDY, D.D., D.Sc. PROFESSOR OF NEW TESTAMENT EXEGESIS AND THEOLOGY, NEW COLLEGE, EDINBURGH CONTENTS INTRODUCTION Method Scope St Paul's Letters Catholic Epistles Scheme of Treatment : I. St Paul ; 2. Post-Pauline Christianity. PART I PAULINISM CHAP. I. ST PAUL'S ENVIRONMENT: Judaism Hellenism. CHAP. II. ST PAUL'S EXPERIENCE UNDER THE RELIGION OF THE LAW : Presuppositions- Sense of Failure Power of Sin in the Flesh Human Nature Origin of Sin Significance of the Law His Relation to the Nazarenes. CHAP. III. ST PAUL'S CONVERSION : Revelation of Jesus as Risen Call to Service His Election Bearing of Vocation on Theology. CHAP. IV. NORMATIVE INFLUENCE -OF ST PAUL'S CONVERSION ON HIS RELIGIOUS THOUGHT : Jesus the Conqueror of Death Significance of the Cross The Messiah (Son of God) The Lord The Spirit The New Attitude to God. CHAP. V. ST PAUL AND THE CHRISTIAN TRADITION : The Historical Jesus Eschatological Conceptions The Era of the Spirit The Death of Christ. CHAP. VI. THE FUNDAMENTAL CONDITIONS OF PAULINISM : In Christ The Crucified Redeemer The New Relation to God The Activities of the Christian The Body and Members of Christ The Cosmic Relations of Christ. PART II PHASES OF EARLY CHRISTIAN THOUGHT IN THE MAIN INDEPENDENT OF PAULINISM CHAP. I. THE FIRST EPISTLE OF PETER : The Situation Practical Character of the Theology Affinities with St Paul Atmosphere of Common Church- Consciousness Conceptions Characteristic of the Epistle: i. Old Testament Prophecy ; 2. The Death of Christ ; 3. The Descent to Hades. CHAP. II. THE EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS. A. PROLEGOMENA: Special Character of the Epistle Perils of the Community Relation of Author to Paulinism Relation to Alexandrian Judaism. B. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTIONS OF THE EPISTLE : The New Covenant : i. The New Covenant and the Old ; 2. Superiority of Christ, the Mediator of the New Covenant Consummation of the New Covenant : i. Christ's Priesthood a Link between Temporal and Eternal Worlds ; 2. Faith, the Attitude of Members of the New Covenant. PART III THE THEOLOGY OF THE DEVELOPING CHURCH Shaping Forces Moralistic Tendency in Religion Thinning of Redemptive Ideas Prominence of the Church Consciousness Conception of God Law of Liberty Eschatological Outlook Influence of Heretical Movements Hellenistic Colouring Bibliography Index. DUCKWORTH & CO., CO VENT GARDEN, LONDON, W.C.2 The Works of Man BY LISLE MARCH PHILLIPPS CONTENTS CHAPTER I. The Temples of Egypt CHAPTER II. The Tyranny of the Nile CHAPTER III. Enter the Greek CHAPTER IV. What Art Means to the Greeks CHAPTER V. The Last Word in Classic Architecture CHAPTER VI. The Arab in Architecture CHAPTER VII. The Gothic Contribution CHAPTER VIII. The Rise of the Renaissance CHAPTER IX. Sculpture and the Modern Mind CHAPTER X. Painting and the Intellectual Movement CHAPTER XI. The Art of an Aristocracy A SURVEY of the Creative Art of the World. In this book the author does not treat Art from the aesthetic standpoint, as a realization of the beautiful, his desire is to consider Art as an expression of human life and character. Selecting some of the great periods, or creative epochs, in the art of the world, he deduces from them the distinguishing qualities, limitations and point of view of the races which produced them. He deals chiefly with architecture, for architecture, being the most broadly human of all the arts, is the richest in human character. Each race Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Goth, Arab is represented by its own style of building, and the character and view-point of these peoples can be read in the works of art that have survived them. We may be able then to look out on life with the eyes of these vanished generations, to feel as they did, and to see them and know them as they really were. Ancient art, therefore, will in future have for its students another significance besides the aesthetic, the power of instilling the spirit of past times and peoples. A New and Revised Edition. With 26 Plates 343 and xix pages. Large Crown %vo. Cloth, Gilt top Js. 6d. net {Postage DUCKWORTH & CO., COVENT GARDEN, LONDON, W.C.2 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewals only: Tel. No. 642-3405 Renewals may be made 4 days prior to date due. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. Due end of FALL Quarter nrr * < 11 ^for uv v/ * * RECTJ01 OEGH73-MAi ,R3^8tro a uTa 1U A'!o IwSSg^^gSSg-ta ( rto72osl0)47o A-oU Rlrl-*l<*w z>cf KcJcy