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 UC-NRLF 
 
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 BERKELEY 
 
 SUMMER SESSION 
 
 June 21 to July 31, 1915 
 
 ANNOUNCEMENT OF LECTURES 
 
 UPON 
 
 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE 
 WAR SPIRIT 
 
 BY 
 GEORGE MALCOLM STRATTON 
 
 Professor of Psychology in the University of California 
 Special Lecturer of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 
 

 • • ••: 
 
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAR SPIRIT 
 
 The place of warfare in human nature, and the prospect 
 of. bringing it under control. The occasion and motives of 
 combat in the civilized adult and in the child, in the savage 
 and in the animal. The service and quality of individual 
 and collective fighting generally, and its relation to war. 
 War's effect upon the great interests, and their effect and 
 judgment upon war. The historic devices for abolishing 
 war. Present incitements to war, and the means of allaying 
 them. The need of public conviction and of institutions 
 through which this conviction may act. The difficulty and 
 promise of a well-ordered international life. The future 
 of the combative impulse. 
 
 Lectures to be given throughout the Summer Session 
 on Monday, Wednesday and Friday at 2 p.m., in Room 206, 
 Bacon Hall. 
 
 346661 
 
The lecturer, formerly Professor of Experimental Psy- 
 chology in the Johns Hopkins University, is a graduate of 
 the University of California, of Yale University, and of the 
 University of Leipzig. He is the author of Experimental 
 Psychology and its Bearings upon Culture (New York and 
 London, 1903), The Psychology of the Religious Life (Lon- 
 don and New York, 1911) , and of articles in various journals 
 of Psychology. Upon war and its control two papers of his 
 have appeared in the series entitled International Concilia- 
 tion: ''The Double Standard in Regard to Fighting" (Oct., 
 1912), and ''The Control of the Fighting Instinct" (Dec, 
 1913). 
 
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF TIIE WAB SPIBIT 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE LECTURES 
 
 Introduction 
 
 The present condition of our thought about war. Diffi- 
 culties confronting those who would not be visionary, but 
 would respect the findings of history, of biology, and of 
 psychology, as well as the requirements of practical politics. 
 The need of perceiving the place which war holds in human 
 nature and in institutions. Only after a patient survey can 
 one intelligently judge to what extent there is soundness 
 and sanity in the effort to control and repress warfare. 
 
 Lists of the more important works upon war and its 
 control will be found in the following : 
 
 David Starr Jordan and Edward B. Krehbiel: Syllabus of Lectures 
 on International Conciliation, Stanford University, 1912. 
 
 Henri La Fontaine: Bihliographie de la paix et de I'arbitrage inter- 
 national, Tome I, Bruxelles, 1904. 
 
 Charles H. Levermore: Suggestions for the Study of International 
 Belations, World Peace Foundation Pamphlet Series, Boston, 
 Nov., 1913, vol. 3, no. 11, part 2. 
 
 Frederick C. Hicks: ** Internationalism: A Selected List of Books, 
 Pamphlets and Periodicals,^' in International ConciliatioUf 
 no. 64, New York, March, 1913. 
 
 John Metz: ''Syllabus of Lectures on the War and Peace Problem 
 for the Study of International Polity," published by the 
 American Association for International Conciliation, New York, 
 Feb., 1915. 
 
 Edwin D. Mead: The Literature of the Peace Movement, Boston, 
 World Peace Foundation. 
 
 Benjamin F. Trueblood: The Federation of the World, Boston, 1899. 
 See list of works at the end. 
 
 A Library of Peace and War, with an introduction by Francis W. 
 Hirst, London, 1907. 
 
 Other lists are published by the Association for Inter- 
 national Conciliation, The Library of Congress, and The 
 Brooklyn Public Library. 
 
 A few titles are given below in connection with each of 
 the lectures outlined. 
 
TBE PSYCHOLOGY OF TEE WAR SPIRIT 6 
 
 PART I 
 
 WAR'S SOURCES IN THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 1. The External Occasions of Fighting 
 
 The situations that arouse pugnacity. The importance 
 of personal confronting : persons are to us the most valued 
 and most irritating of objects. Situations that call forth 
 or'oppose the primary impulses and instincts. The impulses 
 of appropriation, of mating, and of domination. The 
 invasion of ''rights," special and general. The imponder- 
 able character of many affronts. The defense of personal 
 dignity, of character, of beliefs, of "the cause." Import- 
 ance attached to the intention of the opponent. Formal 
 features in insult. 
 
 Eefebences 
 
 William James: Principles of Psychology, New York, 1890. Ch. 24, 
 on ' * Instinct ' ' and ch. 25 on " The Emotions. See especially 
 vol. II, pp. 409, 478. 
 
 Th. Eibot : ProhUmes de psycJiologie affective, Paris, 1910. Especially 
 ch. 3. 
 
 Alexander Bain: The Emotions and the Will, 4th ed., London, 1899, 
 ch. 9. 
 
 James Sully: The Human Mind, London, 1892, vol. II, pp. 93 ff. 
 
 Particular descriptions of personal rage and combat, e.g., in Dana's 
 Two Years Before the Mast, chs. 15 and 27; in Nicolay and 
 Hay's Abraham Lincoln, New York, 1890, vol. 1, pp. 79 ff; etc. 
 
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAB SPIRIT 
 
 2. The Inner Sources of Combativeness 
 
 The chief motives for fighting. Is self-interest the sole 
 or the dominant motive? Relative importance of the dif- 
 ferent motives; the confusion of motives. Motiveless con- 
 tention, in the sense in which ''motive" is here used. The 
 latent love of fighting for its own sake. The love of atten- 
 tion and of admiration as affecting pugnacity. The love 
 of justice and of injustice. Fear of pain and contempt for 
 pain. The motives of personal fighting compared with those 
 which control states. 
 
 Eeferences 
 
 Hiram M. Stanley: Evolutionary Psychology of Feeling, London, 
 
 1895, ch. 10, '* Anger.'' 
 Th. Jouffroy: Melanges philosophiques ; Psychologic, pt. 11, *'De 
 
 ramour de soi," pp. 202 ff. 
 Articles on "Anger," "Hate," "Kevenge, " in the Dictionary of 
 
 Philosophy and Psychology, ed. by Baldwin. 
 G. F. Stout: A Manual of Psychology, London and New York, 1899, 
 
 pp. 307 ff J 2nd ed., 1904, pp. 319 ff. Analytic Psychology, 
 
 London and New York, 1896, vol. 11, pp. 96 f . 
 
TEE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAB SPIRIT 
 
 3. The Psychic Condition of Hostility 
 
 The mental state of the fighter. The delusions produced 
 by anger; the false attribution of motives to the opponent. 
 Inhibitions and facilitations during the pugnacious seizure. 
 Restriction of the mental field. Change of the object of 
 hatred as the seizure develops; changes from passion to 
 comparative calm. The frequency of emotional catharsis 
 from combat; the reasons. The subconscious factor in 
 hostility. The union in it of instinct and intelligence. The 
 psychic state of the pugnacious individual compared with 
 that of the belligerent nation. 
 
 Eeferences 
 
 William James: Principles of Psychology, New York, 1890, vol. II, 
 
 p. 460. 
 A. Eoss Defendorf: Clinical Psychiatry, adapted from Kraepelin^s 
 
 Lehrbnch der Psychiatric, New York, 1902, p. 326. 
 Sir Henry M. Stanley: Autobiography, Boston anS'^ew York, 1909, 
 
 pp. 189, 198, 201, etc. 
 Field Marshal Viscount Wolseley: The Story of a Soldier's Life, 
 
 New York, 1903, especially vol. I, pp. 69 fff 368 ff. 
 
TEE PSYCHOLOGY OF TEE WAR SPIRIT 
 
 4. The Value and Control of Pugnacity 
 
 The relation of pugnacity to the anger-reactions in gen- 
 eral. The group of reactions opposed to them. The office 
 of each group in the life of the individual and of society. 
 Their connection with originality and with imitation. Self- 
 control and social control of pugnacity in the individual. 
 Social pressure upon the pacific and upon the combative. 
 Evidence that while the individual is incurably antipathetic, 
 he is not incurably pugnacious. The proper place, propor- 
 tion, and direction of pugnacity. The contentious spirit 
 without physical onslaught. Findings significant for the 
 control of international fighting. 
 
 Eeferences 
 
 G. Tarde: L 'Opposition JJniverselle: Essai d'une Theorie des con- 
 traires, Paris, 1897, especially ehs. 6 and 7. Les transforma- 
 tions du pouvour, Paris, 1899, especially eh. 11. 
 
 William McDougall: An Introduction to Social Psychology, 7th ed., 
 London, 1913, ch. 11, ^'The Instinct of Pugnacity." 
 
 Herbert Spencer: The Study of Sociology, chs. 8 and 9. 
 
 Sophie Bryant: "Antipathy and Sympathy," Mind, vol. 4 (n.s.), 
 July, 1895, p. 365. 
 
 ' ' The Control of the Fighting Instineij^ in International Concilia- 
 tion, New York, Dec, 1913, nof 73.J 
 
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAR SPIBIT 10 
 
 PART II 
 
 THE ANTECEDENTS AND CHARACTER OF 
 WARFARE PROPER 
 
 5. Fighting Among Animals and Among Children 
 
 The lower and higher forms of animal pugnacity. Pug- 
 nacious and pacific animals of like level of development. 
 Pacific traits in pugnacious animals, and pugnacious traits 
 in the pacific. Occasions and motives here compared with 
 those in human fighting. Co-operative fighting among 
 animals. The service and effect of animal pugnacity. 
 
 The rise and decline of pugnacity in the child. Source 
 of the difference of behavior of boys and girls. The * * code ' * 
 of boys' fighting. The incitements offered by "public 
 opinion ' ' among boys. ' ' Gang ' '-fighting among boys. The 
 likeness and the difference between the fighting of children 
 and of adults. Children 's fighting as a source of light upon 
 war. 
 
 Eeferences 
 Charles Darwin: The Expression of the Emotions in Man and 
 
 Animals; especially chs. 4, 5, 9, 10. 
 Alexander Bain: The Emotions and the Will, 4th ed., London, 1899; 
 
 especially ch. 9. 
 G. F. Stout: Analytic Psychology, London and New York, 1896, 11, 
 p. 96. Manual of Psychology, 2nd ed., London, 1904, 319 ff. 
 S. J. Holmes: The Evolution of Animal Intelligence, New York, 1911, 
 
 ehs. 5 and 6. 
 G. Stanley Hall: Adolescence, Boston, 1907, vol. I, pp. 26 ff. 
 Special examples of fighting among animals and among children 
 are scattered through books of travel and of biography: e.g.. 
 Sir Eichard Burton's Pilgrimage to Al Madinah and Meccah, 
 Ed. of 1898, vol. I, pp. 301 f. John Morley's Life of Glad- 
 stone, New York, 1903, vol. I, pp. 27 f. The Woman Home- 
 steader (Elinore Kupert Stewart): "Letters on an Elk 
 Hunt," Atlantic Monthly, June, 1915; etc. 
 
TRE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAB SPIRIT 11 
 
 6. Fighting Among SavxVges 
 
 The difference between tribes as regards pugnacity ; war- 
 like and pacific tribes and peoples. Savage restrictions upon 
 fighting. Individual and collective fighting among the 
 uncivilized. The cementing and separative effect of savage 
 warfare. Its value as a discipline in co-operation. Com- 
 parison of this form with other forms of discipline and 
 co-operation. Occasions and motives here compared with 
 those of civilized communities. 
 
 Eeferences 
 Theodor Waitz: Anthropologie der Naturvolker, Leipzig, 1862-1877. 
 F. Eatzel: The History of ManTcind, transl. by Butler, London, 1897. 
 William G. Sumner: Folkways, Boston, 1911; especially ch. 13. 
 Spencer: Principles of Sociology, part IV, ch. 17. 
 Wm. McDougall: An Introduction to Social Psychology, 7th ed., 
 London, 1913, ch. 11, "The Instinct of Pugnacity." 
 
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAE SPIRIT 12 
 
 7. Significant Changes Among Leading Peoples 
 
 Growth of the distinction between legitimate and illegiti- 
 mate fighting. The common quality and difference in per- 
 sonal brawls, piracy, raids, riot, rebellion, war. Fighting 
 as a state monopoly. The decline of personal brawling, 
 family feuds, clan- warfare, inter-urban wars. The suppres- 
 sion of baronial warfare. The cause and effect of these 
 changes. The enlargement of internally pacific areas as 
 affecting the magnitude and frequency of wars. Does war 
 and the preparation for war serve as an outlet and allayer 
 of petty pugnacity? The federation of states into unions 
 and empires. War as the great instrument of these changes. 
 The reaction upon the instrument itself. 
 
 Eeperences 
 
 Max Jahns: Handhuch einer Geschichte des Kriegswesens von der 
 Urzeit Ms zur Benaissance, Leipzig, 1880. Geschichte der 
 Kriegswissenschaften vornehmlich in Deutschland, Miinchen and 
 Leipzig, 1889-91. 
 
 Hans Delbriick: Geschichte der KriegsTcunst in Bahmen der polit- 
 ischen Geschichte, Berlin, 1900-1907. 
 
 Simonde de Sismondi: History of the Italian BepuMics in the Middle 
 Ages, recast by Boulting, London [1905], especially the parts 
 that deal with the Condottieri, and with inter-urban warfare. 
 
 Nicole Machiavelli: The Prince. 
 
 E. Norman Angell (Lane): The Great Illusion, 4th ed., New York 
 and London, 1913, part 11, ch. 5. 
 
TEE PSTCEOLOGY OF TEE WAE SPIEIT 13 
 
 8. The Present Quality of Warfare 
 
 Its illustration of the psychology of crowds. The con- 
 trast between national and individual judgments of fighting. 
 The deliberate and rational, the passionate and irrational 
 elements in war. The lower and the higher motives which 
 enter into it. The attempt to *' civilize" warfare; the 
 dilemma of the modern warrior. The unifying and separa- 
 tive effects of war. Its limited schooling in co-operation 
 and in competition. Rival forms of discipline. The con- 
 trast between the police-function and warfare as at present 
 organized. The want of finality in the present system. 
 
 Keferences 
 
 General Friedrich von Bernhardi: On War of Today, trans, by 
 
 Donat, London, 1912-13; especially vol. I, ch. 8. 
 Sir Garnet Wolseley: Soldier's Pocket Boole for Field Service, 5tli ed., 
 
 London, 1886. 
 Colonel Sir Patrick MacDougall: Modern Warfare as Influenced ly 
 
 Modern Artillery, London, 1864; especially ch. 4. 
 Tadayoshi Sakurai: Euman Bullets; a Soldier's Story of Port Arthur, 
 
 transl. by Masujiro Honda, Boston and New York, 1907. 
 Gustave Le Bon: The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind, London, 
 
 1910. 
 '-^The Double Standard in Eegard to Fighting, '^ in International 
 
 Conciliation, no. 59, New York, Oct., 1912. 
 
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAS SPIRIT 14 
 
 PART ni 
 WARFARE AND THE GREAT INTERESTS 
 
 9. Commerce and Science 
 
 Commercial motives and effects of war. The expenses of 
 past wars and of the present war. What can and what 
 cannot be accomplished commercially by war. Growth of 
 trade with and without military and naval mastery. The 
 wealth of the more pacific peoples. Economic effect of sup- 
 pressing pugnacity outside of war. Yet war will never be 
 controlled solely from prudential motives; the importance 
 of the essentially improvident reactions. 
 
 The effect of war upon the intensitj^ and direction of 
 scientific and intellectual effort. Inferences from observa- 
 tion upon the inhibitions and facilitations due to anger. 
 The use of science to support and combat war. Arguments 
 based on history, biologj^, and psychology. Nature as a 
 criterion of morals in human action. 
 
 Eeferences 
 
 E. Norman Angell (Lane): The Great Illusion, 4th ed., New York 
 and London, 1913. 
 
 Jean de Bloch: The Future of War in its Technical, Economic and 
 Political Eelations, transl. by Long, Boston, 1903. 
 
 W. E. Lawson: Modern Wars and War Taxes, A Manual of Military 
 Finance, Edinburgh and London, 1912; especially part VL 
 
 David Starr Jordan: The Unseen Empire; A Study of the Plight of 
 Nations that do not Pay their Debts, Boston, 1912; and (with 
 Harvey Ernest Jordan): War's Aftermath, a Preliminary 
 Study of the Eugenics of War, Boston and New York, 1914. 
 
TEE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAR SPIBIT 15 
 
 References — (Contniued) 
 
 Vernon Kellogg: Beyond War, New York, 1912. 
 
 J. Artlmr Thomson: **A Note on the Biology of War," Concordia, 
 
 Aberdeen University [1913]. 
 Captain Palmer: *' Insurance of Peace/' Scribner's Magazine, vol. 
 
 51 (1912), p. 186. 
 Lieut.-Gen'l Hart: ''Vindication of War," Nineteenth Century, vol. 
 
 70 (1911), p. 226. 
 M. A. de Maday: ''Des sanctions economiques en cas de violation 
 
 du Droit international." Bulletin Ofjficiel de XX^^ Congres 
 
 Universel de la Paix, tenu a La Haye, 1913, p. 271. 
 
TBE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAB SPIBIT 16 
 
 10. Art and Religion 
 
 War's influence upon the art-impulse. Pugnacity as 
 material for great art. Illustrations from the work of the 
 poets, novelists, painters, and composers of music. Proba- 
 bility that war will always furnish prized subjects for the 
 artist. Yet the difference between the love of the aesthetic 
 contemplation of catastrophe and the love of catastrophe 
 itself; tragedy in contrast with real death. The tendency 
 to enjoy in idea what is acknowledged to be illegitimate in 
 reality. 
 
 Effect of war upon religion, and of religion upon war. 
 The non-Christian religions. Christianity and its various 
 expressions, ancient, mediaeval, and modern. The religious 
 attitude toward a particular side in a given war, and toward 
 war as a permanent system of international adjustment. 
 The Christian use of warfare as a symbol of spiritual 
 endeavor. 
 
 Eeferences 
 John Euskin: The Crown of Wild Olives, lecture III, ''War.'* 
 Admiral A. T. Mahan: Some Neglected Aspects of War, Boston and 
 
 London, 1907. 
 Agnes Eepplier: "Christianity and War," Atlantic Monthly, Jan., 
 
 1915. 
 W. D. Howells: ["War Stops Literature"] The New YorTc Times, 
 
 Nov. 29, 1914. 
 Walter Walsh: The Moral Damage of War, Boston, 1906; especially 
 
 chs. 7 and 8. 
 John Bright: Selected Speeches, London and New York, 1907. 
 
THE FSYCROLOGY OF THE WAR SPIBIT 17 
 
 11. Morality 
 
 The moral elation of the nation at war. The loftiness 
 and yet narrowness of such feeling. Purification through 
 the slaughter of foreigners. The demoralizing effects of 
 peace. The unquestionable discipline which war has given 
 in the past. How far it is still needed. The eft'ect of army- 
 training and of the campaign. The character of great 
 warriors. The upbuilding and destruction of personal 
 standards; the weakening and support of public injustice 
 and tyranny. The contradiction between private and public 
 morality. The standards of judgment. 
 
 Eeferences 
 
 General Friedrich von Bernhardi: Germany and the Next War, transl. 
 
 by Powles, London, 1913; especially ch. 2, ''The Eight to 
 
 Make War/' and ch. 3, ''The Duty to Make War." 
 Walter Walsh: The Moral Damage of War, Boston, 1906. 
 Von der Goltz: The Nation in Arms, transl. by Ashworth, 5th ed., 
 
 London, 1906; especially ch. 7. 
 L. P. Jacks: in The New York Nation, Oct. 1, 1914, vol. 99, p. 402. 
 The Imperial Chancellor's Speech in the Reichstag, Dec. 2, 1914, 
 
 in International Conciliation, no. 86, Jan., 1915. 
 Lloyd George: Queen's Hall Speech, Sept. 19, 1914. 
 Various official reports of Atrocities in connection with the present 
 
 War. 
 
TEE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAB SPIRIT 18 
 
 12. Statecraft 
 
 Does government rest ultimately upon force ? The inti- 
 mate relation between war and the growth and life of states. 
 Warriors as rulers and as counsellors. The present influence 
 of the military class upon state policy. The traditional 
 honors and decorations attached to war. The tendency to 
 exaggerate the good of victory and the evil of defeat. 
 Opposing conceptions of the state in its relation to war. 
 The state as policeman, as traffic-manager, and as school- 
 master. The state as the supreme object of loyalty, and as 
 without external obligations. How shall we determine the 
 true function and place of government? The influence of 
 democracy and of the newer social movements. 
 
 References 
 
 J. K. Bluntschli: The Theory of the State, Engl, tr., Oxford, 1885; 
 especially book I, ' ' The Conception of the State, ' ' and book 
 V, ''The End of the State.'' 
 
 Baron de Jomini: The Art of War, transl. by Mendell and Craighill, 
 Philadelphia, 1862; especially ch. 1. 
 
 Karl von Clausewitz: Vom Eriege, Berlin, 1911; especially bk. VIII, 
 ch. 6. 
 
 General von Bernardi: On War of Today, transl. by Donat, London, 
 1912-13, vol. II, ch. 2. Germany and the Next War, transl. by 
 Powles, London, 1913; especially chs. 1 and 6. 
 
 Von der Goltz: Conduct of War; A Brief Study of its Most Im- 
 portant Principles and Forms, transl. by Dickman, Kansas 
 City, 1896. The Nation in Arms, transl. by Ashworth, new 
 ed., London, 1906, ch. 3. 
 
TBE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAR SPIBIT 19 
 
 PART IV 
 
 METHODS OF CONTROLLING WAR 
 
 13. The Principles of Cure 
 
 The Utopian and the non-Utopian approach to the prob- 
 lem. Reasons for believing that the control of the war- 
 impulse is possible. What can and what cannot be eradi- 
 cated from human nature. Progress already made in the 
 control of fighting. Warfare itself involves a great amount 
 of such control ; and the development of society and of the 
 state involves still more. The control of war does not 
 require a revolution in human nature, but merely an im- 
 provement in human organization. Nor is perfection of 
 human character a pre-condition of such control. Lessons 
 from municipal government and from other government. 
 
 References 
 
 Vernon L. Kellogg: Beyond War, New York, 1912; especially ch. 5, 
 
 ''Human Nature: a Product and Subject of Evolution." 
 R. Norman Angell (Lane): The Great Illusion, 4th ed., New York, 
 
 and London, 1913; especially part II, ch. 3, and part III, ch. 3. 
 Elizabeth Woodbridge: "Our Unchanging Human Nature," Atlantic 
 
 Monthly, vol. 109 (1912), p. 852. 
 H. M. Chittenden: ''Does Human Nature Change?" Atlantic 
 
 Monthly, vol. 109 (1912), p. 777. 
 Admiral C. F. Goodrich: "Wanted — an International Police," 
 
 Nineteenth Century, vol. 70, p. 24. 
 
TEE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAB SPIBIT 20 
 
 14. The Needed Discipline of Feeling and of Judgment 
 
 The emotional and the argumentative factors in every 
 great reform. The need both of clear judgment and of 
 revulsion and protest. Illusions in the popular sense of 
 value connected with warfare. Expression of these in the 
 press, in politics, and in religion. The kind of education 
 needed to dispel these illusions. The growth and value of 
 the peace movement. No means will control war until there 
 is a widespread desire to control it, and a conviction that 
 it can be controlled. Yet these alone are not enough ; there 
 must also be inventiveness and indomitable will and leader- 
 ship. 
 
 Eeferences 
 
 H. S. Pritchett: "The Power that Makes for Peace," Atlantic 
 Monthly, July, 1907; reprinted in Admiral Mahan's Some 
 Neglected Aspects of War, Boston and London, 1907, p. 3. 
 
 Nicholas Murray Butler: "The Education of the World for Peace," 
 in his The International Mind, New York, 1912. 
 
 Year Boole of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, three 
 vols., 1911-1914. 
 
TEE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAR SPIRIT 21 
 
 15. The Present Incitements to War 
 
 Commercial inducements to bring on war or to make 
 war immanent. The influence of great armaments and of 
 a powerful military class. Means employed to induce the 
 nation to make the sacrifices needed for such armaments. 
 The effect of such means on international relations. Secret 
 treaties and espionage. Boundaries that are commercially 
 unfortunate. Boundaries that are politically unfortunate. 
 Tyranny abolished in certain forms, continues in others. 
 Difficulties from diversities of language and of race. Yet 
 the lesson from Switzerland. Perils from international 
 unemployment among governments. The advantage that 
 will accrue when governments commit themselves to con- 
 structive enterprise. 
 
 Keferences 
 
 Eichard Stockton, Jr.: Peace Insurance, Chicago, 1915; especially 
 ch. 5, ''The Underlying Causes of War." 
 
 J. A. Cramb: Germany and England, New York, 1914. 
 
 Francis McCullagh: "Syndicates for War," in the New York Even- 
 ing Post, Apr. 1, 1911, and reprinted by the World Peace 
 Foundation, Boston, July, 1911. 
 
 Sydney Brooks: ''The German Spy System," Atlantic Monthly, 
 Feb., 1915. 
 
 The Diplomatic Correspondence of the various nations now at war, 
 published by the several governments, and reprinted in 
 International Conciliation, New York, 1914-15. 
 
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAE SPIBIT 22 
 
 16. Peace Projects and Present Attainments 
 
 Methods in Greece and in Rome. The plan of Henry 
 IV and Sully; of Saint-Pierre, of Kant, and others. The 
 Holy Alliance. The Concert of Europe. The hope of the 
 free-traders. The rise and spread of arbitration. Treaties 
 for postponement and report. The Conferences at The 
 Hague. The present Permanent Court of Arbitration. In- 
 ternational law. Value and short-comings of all these. The 
 existing international unions for purposes other than war. 
 Innovations in international relations and politics. 
 
 Eeferences 
 Baroness von Suttner: Memoirs, Boston, 1910. 
 Traites generaux d'arMtrage communiques au Bureau International 
 
 de la Cour Permanente d' Arbitrage, La Haye, Premiere Serie, 
 
 1911; Deuxieme S6rie, 1914. 
 W. Evans Darby: International Tribunals; a Collection of the Various 
 
 Schemes which have been Propounded, 4th ed., London, 1904. 
 H. La Fontaine: Pasicrisie Internationale; histoire documentaire des 
 
 arbitrages internationaux, Berne, 1902. 
 Benj. F. Trueblood: The Historic Development of the Peace Idea, 
 
 Boston, 1906. 
 Sir Thomas Barclay: ''Peace" and ''Peace Conferences,'' Encyclo- 
 pedia Brittanica, 11th ed., vol. 21. 
 L. Oppenheim: International Law: A Treatise, London, 1912. 
 James Brown Scott: The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1909, 
 
 Baltimore, 1909. 
 
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE WAR SPIRIT 23 
 
 17. The Need of International Institutions 
 
 The great influence of public opinion upon international 
 action; but the insufficiency of this when not expressed in 
 working institutions. Reasons why nations will not as yet, 
 like individuals, go unarmed. Wars will continue until 
 institutions are established to accomplish more effectively 
 and at less vital cost the aims of war. Character of the 
 institutions needed. The inconveniences of the present 
 system wherein the litigant is also judge, jury, and police. 
 Freedom of the aggrieved to initiate war, compared with 
 the injustice of private combat. Obstacles to strengthening 
 international institutions. Hope from the foundations 
 already laid. 
 
 References 
 
 Lowes Dickenson: "After the War," Atlantic Monthly, Jan., 1915. 
 
 ' ' The War and the Way Out, ' ' Atlantic Monthly, Dec, 1914, 
 
 April, May, 1915. 
 Irving Fisher: ''After the War, What?" New York Times, Aug. 
 
 16, 1914. 
 Nicholas Murray Butler: [prophesies "The United States of 
 
 Europe"] New York Times, Oct. 18, 1914. 
 Admiral C. F. Goodrich: "Wanted — an International Police," 
 
 Nineteenth Century, vol. 70, p. 24. 
 Eaymond L. Brigman: World Organization, Boston, 1905. 
 
TEE FSYCROLp^Y OF TjETF. WJ,M'JP^MIT 24 
 
 18. The Treatment of the Hopelessly Warlike 
 
 Defensive warfare must be the common enterprise of an 
 ever-enlarging body of nations. Promise and preliminary- 
 training in the present war-alliances. Improvements needed 
 to make these alliances instruments of peace. The elevation 
 of the common interest and of world-interest above the par- 
 ticular interest. Evidence that patriotism will oppose, but 
 need be no insuperable obstacle to larger organizations. The 
 use and future of war-energy. The control and re-direction 
 of instinct, in contrast to its eradication. 
 
 References 
 
 William James: "The Moral Equivalent of War," in International 
 
 Conciliation, no. 27, Feb., 1910. 
 Aneurin Williams: "Proposals for a League of Peace and Mutual 
 
 Protection among Nations," Contemporary Beview, Nov., 
 
 1914, vol. 106, p. 628. 
 Letter of S. Perez Triana to the President of the Eepublic of 
 
 Colombia, in the New YorTc Times, Dec, 13, 1914. 
 Andrew Carnegie: "A League of Peace," Rectorial Address at the 
 
 University of St. Andrews, 1905; publ. in Boston, 1906. See 
 
 also The New York Times, Dec. 6, 1914. 
 "The Control of the Fighting Instinct" in International Concilia' 
 
 tion, no. 73, New York, Dec, 1913. 
 
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