aiOLOG LJBRAR G A HISTORY OF BRITISH BIRDS, WITH COLOURED ILLUSTKATIONS OF THEIR EGOS. BY HEXBY SEEBOHM. VOL. I. L O N D ON : PUBLISHED FOR THE AUTHOR BY R.^H. PORTER. 6 TEXTERDEN STREET, W., A>T) DULAU & CO., SOHO SQUARE, W. 1883. BIOLOGY LIBRARY G AI/EKE T FLAMMAM. PRINTED I?Y TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. CONTENTS OF VOL. I. Plate Page INTRODUCTION ix Family FALCONUXE i Genus VFLTUR x 2 Tid fur fulv us. Griffon- Vulture 1. 4 percnopterus. Egyptian Vulture 1. 11 Genus FALCO 15 Falco gyrfalco. Brown. Jer-Falcon 1 3 16 candicans. White Jer-Falcon J peregrinus. Peregrine Falcon 3. 23 subbuteo. Hobby 4. 31 (esalon. Merlin 4. 34 vespertinus. Red-footed Falcon 4. 42 tiiniuih-i.iJus. Kestrel 4. 45 ctnchris. Lesser Kestrel , 4. 51 Genus PANDION 54 Pandion lutliaetm. Osprey 3. 55 Genus ELAXOIDES 62 Elanoides furcatus. Swallow-tailed Kite 6. 63 Genus MILVUS 73 Milvus regalis. Common Kite 5. 74 - ater. Black Kite 5. 80 Genus HALIAETUS 86 HaUaetus nlbicilla. White-tailed Eagle 2. 87 GenrfS AQUILA 95 Aquila clirysaetm. Golden Eagle 2. 96 ncevia. Lesser Spotted Eagle 2. 106 lac/opus. Rough-legged Buzzard Eagle 5. Ill 703410 iv CONTENTS. Pkte Page Genus BUTEO 116 Buteo vulgaris. Common Buzzard 5. 117 Genus CIRCUS 123 Circus ceruginosus. Marsh-Harrier 6. 124 cyanus. Hen-Harrier 6. 128 cineraceus. Montagu's Harrier 6. 131 Genus ACCIPITER 134 Accipiter nisus. Sparrow-Hawk 4. 135 palumbarius. Goshawk 5. atricapillvs. American Goshawk 145 Family STEIGID5J UQ Genus ALUCO 147 Aluco flammem. Barn-Owl 7. 148 Genus STRIX 152 Strix aluco. "Wood-Owl 6. 154 - otus. Long-eared Owl 7. 160 tengmalmi. Tengmalm's Owl 7. 164 brachyotus. Short-eared Owl 7. 167 Genus NOCTUA 173 Noctua noctua. Little Owl 7. 174 Genus SURNIA 176 Surnia nyctea. Snowj- Owl 7. 177 funerea. Hawk Owl 183 Genus BUBO 186 Bubo maximus. Eagle-Owl 7. 187 Genus SCOPS 192 Scops scops. Scops Owl 7. 193 Family PASSERID-ffi 196 Subfamily TURDIN& 197 Genus GEOCICHLA 198 Oeocichla varia. White's Ground-Thrush 8. 200 sibirica. Siberian Ground-Thrush . 204 CONTENTS. Genus TUEDUS Plate Page 206 207 213 220 228 234 235 243 249 252 253 xxiii 261 262 269 276 280 281 286 287 293 297 298 304 307 311 312 317 322 323 328 332 Turdus viscivoi'us. Missel-Thrush 8. musicus. Song-Thrush 8. ilicicus. Eedwing . 8. pilaris. Fieldfare ... 8. Gemis MF/RT7T.A , , Merula merula. Blackbird . . . 8. torquata. Eing-Ouzel 8. atrigularis. Black- throated Ouzel .... Genus CINCLUS Cinclus aquaticus. Common Dipper 11. Genus EEITHACIJS Erithacus rubecula. Eobin . . .... 9. su6cicY. Xat. i. p. 147 (1806). Hierofalco caudicans (Gmel.), Cue. Regne An. \. p. 312 (1817). Falco gyrfalco. Linn, apud Pall. Zo^gr. Hosfo-As. i. p. 324 (1826). Falco islandicus caudicao*, Holb. Zeitechr. Ges. Xat. iii. p. 426 (1854). Falco (Hierofalco) gyrfalco (Linn.), var. candicans (Gmel.), Ridyic. X. Amer. Birds, iii. p. Ill (1*74). Au anonymous reviewer, iii an able article on this subject (Ibis, 1862, p. 44) recognizes three species of Jer-Falcons, F. gyrfalco, F. candicans, and F. is/audits. Nine years later Newton (Yarr. Brit. B. i. pp. 36-52) does not suggest any alteration in this conclusion. Sharpe (Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. i. p. 410), in 1874, admits the validity of the two first-men- tioned species, but splits the last-mentioned into two, F. islandus and F. hulbceUi. In the same year Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway (Hist. N. Arner. Birds, iii. p. 108) only recognize one species, which they subdivide into five varieties. F. yyrfalco is split into var. sacer, var. gyrfalco, and var. labradora; F. candicans is called var. candicans; and F. islandus and F. holbcelli are united under the name of var. islandicus. In 1876 Dresser (' Birds of Europe/ vi. pp. 15-30) reunites var. sacer and var. gyrfalco under the name of F. yyrfalco, but admits the distinctness of F. labradorus. F. candicans is recognized as a good species, but F. holboelll is reunited with F. islandus under the latter name. The characters upon which these alleged species are based are very variable, and the localities of examples in various museums are very inexact. In the literature of the subject still more uncertainty prevails, in conse- quence of wrong determination of immature birds; but after making allowance for these supposed errors, the following appears to me to be the most rational solution of this puzzling problem. We may at once dismiss -F. labradorus as a perfectly distinct species, of a nearly uniform brown colour in the adult, with a few buff streaks on the flanks, and a perfectly brown tail. This species breeds in Eastern Labrador ; and there seems to be no evidence of any kind that any inter- mediate fornis/>ccur between it and F. gyrfalco. F. candicuns is the arctic form, breeding only north of the arctic circle, in North Greenland, and Eastern America north of Hudson's Bay. No Jer- Falcon has ever been found breeding in North Russia or Siberia. The VOL. j. c 18 BRITISH BIRDS. thoroughbred bird has a white tail at all ages, and entirely white under- parts in the adult ; the upper parts below the head are sparingly marked with tear-shaped spots. In the young the feathers of the back are brown, with white margins and bases, and a few longitudinal streaks appear on the head, breast, and flanks. In birds that are not thoroughbred, the spots on the back gradually broaden until they become bars ; and examples may be found showing every intermediate form between a few spots on the tail and flanks and a perfectly barred tail and flanks in the adult, and in the young with the addition of spots on the breast. Where the back is barred and the thighs are streaked only or white, it is the so-called dark race of the white Jer-Falcon, Sharpens intermediate stage between young in first plumage and adult of that bird. When the thighs are barred and the breast white, it is Sharpens adult F. holbcelli ; and when, in addition to the barred thighs, the breast is spotted, it is Sharpe's supposed intermediate stage between young in first plumage and adult of that bird. The white edges to the feathers of the back in the young of these half-bred forms have become pale brown, and every feather of the underparts has a con- spicuous brown longitudinal streak in the centre. All these intermediate forms are found in Greenland, and are connected with another series of intermediate forms, also found in Greenland, with the Iceland birds, F. islandus, differing but little from the preceding in first plumage, but always being streaked on the breast in the adult. The changes I have described are also accompanied by a greater development of the dark spots on the head, which, in the thoroughbred F. gyrfalco, are almost distributed over the entire feather, causing the head to look nearly uniform dark brown. In western North America intermediate forms occur between the Iceland and Norwegian birds'*. The selection of any one of these intermediate forms is purely arbitrary; and between the two extreme forms it is just as easy to make ten subspecies as two. Even in such a comparatively small series as that in the British Museum, intermediate forms are found upon which ornithologists differ in opinion as to which race they should be referred. Three at least of the four principal forms of Jer- Falcon above enu- merated have occurred at various times in the British Islands. From the manner in which the several forms of this Falcon have been confounded, it is extremely difficult to apportion the " large Falcons " that have so often visited our shores to their respective subspecies. It is very evident that the white Jer-Falcon was well known as a British bird a century ago ; and * Compare P. Z. S. 1870, p. 384, where Newton refers them " without doubt " to F. islandicus, " though belonging to the darker phase of that form," with P. Z. S. 1875, p. 115, where Dresser asserts that, if the American specimens had not unfortunately been sent back, every one then present could have convinced himself of their specific identity with JF. yyrfalco. BROWN AND WHITE JER-FALCONS. 19 Latham informs us that it was then an inhabitant of Scotland, probably a winter visitant from its far northern home. Some half dozen specimens of the White Jer-Falcon are recorded as having been taken in England, eight in Scotland and its islands, whilst in Ireland but three specimens are recorded. A young bird, from which YarrelFs excellent woodcut was taken, was killed in Pembrokeshire, and is now preserved in the British Museum. A specimen was shot in Corn- wall, and preserved in the collection of Mr. Rodd. Stevenson records one killed in Norfolk, near Crorner; Mr. Hancock one which was caught near York in 1837; and Mr. Roberts another specimen, captured in Robin Hood's Bay, near Scarborough. Gray, in his ' Birds of the West of Scot- land/ instances four examples as having been taken in the Hebrides, another in Lanarkshire, in 1835, also an immature male in Perthshire, in the spring of 1862. The bird described and figured in Pennant's 'British Zoology ' was said to have been obtained near Aberdeen. On the 3rd of March 1866, on the authority of Dr. Saxby (Zool. p. 288), a female was shot on Balta, one of the Shetland Islands. Thompson records two from Ireland, both in co. Donegal ; and Mr. Blake Knox records a third, killed in the winter of 1862-63, and now preserved in the Museum at Dublin. Although we have no reason to suppose that the Iceland Jer-Falcon has appeared less frequently in our islands, still, possibly from its far less con- spicuous dress, it has certainly been less noticed and recorded. Mr. Hancock has two birds in his collection one recorded in the ' Zoologist ' (1845, p. 935), obtained at Bellingham on the North Tyne, and the other at Norrnanby, in Yorkshire, in March 1837. In Mr. Borrer^s collection is an adult bird, shot at Mayfield, in Sussex, in January 1845. In Scot- land, as may naturally be supposed, the occurrences are far more frequent. Gray records numerous examples, from Ross-shire, Sutherlandshire, and Inverness-shire, between the years 1835-51 ; and in more recent years he is satisfied that several examples have been obtained in the west. Four specimens are recorded from the Hebrides; and Mr. Elwes mentions another trapped in 1866 in Argyllshire. In the Shetlands we have Dr. Saxby's authority for the bird having been a somewhat regular visitor ; but it is now only occasionally seen. The only authentic instance of the occurrence of the Norwegian form of the Jer-Falcon in this country is an immature example, which was obtained at Orford, in Suffolk, on the 14th of October 1867. It was shot by Mr. George Hunt, in the act of devouring a hen, and is now in the possession of his brother, Mr. Edward J. Hunt, of Pimlico, by whom it was stuffed. It is in an excellent state of preservation ; and the plumage is scarcely at all abraded. Tlie head is somewhat darker than the back ; and the under- parts, including the thighs, are longitudinally streaked. It is probably a bird of the year which has not yet assumed the yellow legs. c2 20 BRITISH BIRDS. The Jer-Falcon is an arctic Peregrine, with all the dash and courage of that bird. It is the only Hawk resident in the arctic regions. Its keen eye, rapid powers of night, and capability of being tamed make it a favourite with the falconer, and the terror of the weaker birds. Its home is the tundra, beyond the limits of forest-growth, where it selects the rocks and the mountains on which to breed. The arctic form of this bird (F. candicans) is clad in a snowy dress, protective to a degree amongst the eternal snows of its northern home. This protective dress, however, is not to shield the bird from danger ; for a bird of such prowess need fear no foe. Its protective colouring serves to conceal it from its prey, and enables it to sit watching for it, or steal upon it, unseen. The arctic form of the Jer-Falcon used to fetch the highest price for hawking, as it was considered the boldest bird, possessing the most rapid powers of flight. Holboll states that the food of the Jer-Falcon in Greenland is principally composed of Ptarmigan and water-fowl, and that on one occasion a bird was once seen with a young Kittiwake in each foot, and another was observed with a Purple Sandpiper in each foot. Although such instances would seem to show how successful this biid is in the chase, still Holboll says that the Jer-Falcons were not very expert at catching his pigeons. Richardson, who observed the Jer-Falcon in Hudson's Bay, states that its food is Ptarmigan, Plover, Ducks, and Geese, mostly the former. The flight of the J er-Falcon is spoken of by all Avho have had the oppor- tunity of witnessing it as grand and powerful in the extreme. Many of its motions resemble those of the Peregrine ; and if an intruder should chance to threaten its nest, it will often fly round in circles with such velocity as to produce a rushing sound as it darts through the air. Jer- Falcons have been seen perched on the high stakes near the shore, in a similar position to that which a Tern would choose, to pounce upon the Puffins sitting unconcernedly at the entrance of their burrows close at hand. During the summer months the Jer-Falcon ofttimes takes up its abode near some bird-rock, to prey upon its feathered denizens. Holboll states that he found young Jer-Falcons moulting throughout the winter ; and he has determined by dissection that birds of this species breed the following season after their birth. In Greenland the breeding- season of the Jer-Falcon is in June. The nests are sometimes placed on the loftiest cliffs, either near the sea or further inland, and sometimes on the tops of pines and other trees. In Iceland they are always on the rocks. Out of eighteen nests taken by MacFarlane on the Anderson river, north of the Great Bear Lake, sixteen were on the tops of pines or other trees from ten to twenty-five feet high ; one nest was on a ledge of rocks ; and the other was built on the rough ground on the side of a steep and high hill. The earliest eggs were found on the 27th of May ; but eggs are often found as late as the end of June. These early nests are often com- BROWN AND WHITE JER-FALCONS. 21 me need before the rigours of an arctic winter have passed away and while the snow still lies deep upon the ground. The nest is composed of twigs and small branches, lined with moss, hay, deer's hair, feathers, &c. Ac- cording to Audubon, it is built at an altitude of 100 feet, is very flat, 2 feet in diameter, and made of sticks, seaweeds, and moss. At the nest the bird is very noisy and bold ; and Richardson mentions an instance where the bird attacked him while he was plundering its home. As regards the nesting-economy of the Brown Jer-Falcon, Wolley was probably the first to give, from his own personal observations, particulars respecting it. In Scandinavia its breeding-season is much earlier than that of its American and arctic allies ; and out of upwards of twenty nests observed by that enthusiastic naturalist in West Finmark, the eggs were almost all taken towards the end of April. The first nest he obtained was in a cliff, veiy flat and large, made out of bleached and barkless twigs, and lined with a bundle or two of dry grass. This nest contained four eggs, slightly incubated. Another nest was under an overhanging rock, made of fresh sticks, very large, and had the inside lined with willow-twigs and sedgy grass ; other nests he saw contained feathers. On the 7th of June another nest came under his notice, which contained three young ones and an egg. The hen bird appeared with food in her talons at this nest. It was built in a recess a short distance from the ground, the downy young birds inside continually uttering a chirping cry. One egg of the Jer-Falcon was brought to Mr. Wolley, and was said to have been taken from a nest in a tree standing on the edge of a very large marsh. This nest suggests the theory that the Jer-Falcon accommodates itself to certain localities which contain its food ; for the large marsh near the nest was probably its favourite hunting-ground. Wolley found near some of the nests the bones of Whimbrels and Ptarmigans ; and Audubon mentions that beneath the nests he found were wings of the Ptarmigan, Puffin, and Guillemot. Collet's information, probably relating to East Finmark, differs somewhat from that quoted from Wolley ; my Swedish friend says that the Brown Jer-Falcons almost invariably nest on the tops of large fir trees. The note of the bird when an intruder is at the nest is much like that of the Peregrine, and very loud, shrill, and piercing. The eggs of the Jer-Falcon are usually four in number, sometimes only three. The ground-colour is creamy white; but usually the markings entirely conceal it from view. They are closely freckled and spotted with orange-brown, rich reddish brown, and bricky red. Many eggs of this bird closely resemble typical Hobby's eggs ; others approximate more nearly to certain varieties of the Peregrine. In a large series in my collection, however, I do not find that the eggs are ever so dark as those of some other British Falcons, and the markings are very evenly dispersed, some- 22 BRITISH BIRDS. times becoming confluent, at others uniformly distributed over the entire surface. Some specimens have the markings smoothly and evenly laid over the entire surface, giving them the appearance of ground-colour which is marbled and more intensified here and there. Another very beautiful variety is mottled all over with pale rosy-pink shell-markings, intermixed with pale reddish-brown blotches and spots on a creamy-white ground ; whilst others have the spots and blotches mostly confined to the larger end of the egg, leaving the white under surface exposed to view. Jer-Falcons' eggs are slightly more elongated than Peregrines', have a somewhat rougher shell, and possess little gloss. In size they vary from 2'4 to 2'2 inches in length, and in breadth from 1'9 to T8 inch. In the autumn many Jer-Falcons wander southwards ; but these are mostly birds of the year which may have lost their way, or been tempted to follow in the wake of the retreating hordes of wild fowl that go south at the approach of winter. The female Jer-Falcon (length of wing 16 to 15 inches) may always be distinguished from the Peregrine (length of wing 14^ to 12 inches) by its larger size, and the female Peregrine from either sex of the Jer-Falcon by the structure of the feet. In the Peregrine the outer toe without the claw is longer than the inner toe without the claw ; Avhilst in the Jer- Falcon the outer and inner toes are about equal in length. The tail of the Jer-Falcons is also uniform in ground-colour, whilst in that of the Peregrine the bars are obscurer towards the tip, making the general colour darker at the tip than at the base. Sharpens very ingenious theory, that the intermediate forms between the White Jer-Falcon and the South-Greenland Jer-Falcon are an interme- diate stage of plumage between the young in first plumage and the adult, is entirely unsupported by evidence; indeed the existence of young in first plumage of each form is strong proof to the contrary, to say nothing of the fact that his supposed intermediate stage of plumage remains con- stant for years in confinement. In the ' Zoologist' for 1867 (p. 597) Mr. W. JefFery records the occur- rence of a " Buzzard " which was brought into Chichester Harbour by a coal-vessel. It was caught in the rigging of the ship when off Flamborough Head. Mr. Gurney, in the 'Zoologist' for 1875 (p. 4721), alludes to this capture, and corrects the statement. The bird in question was sent to the Zoological Gardens, and was ascertained to be a Jugger Falcon (Falco jugger}. As this Falcon is very commonly used in India for hawking, it was most probably an escaped bird, although the circumstance is worth recording. PEREGRINE FALCOX. 23 FALCO PEREGRIXUS. PEREGRINE FALCON. (PLATE 3.) Accipiter falco, Briss. Ont. i. p. 321 (1760). Accipiter falco peregrinus, Briss. Orn. i. p. 341 (1760). Falco gentilis, Linn. Syst. Xat. i. p. 126 (1706)*. Accipiter peregriims, Gerini, Orn. Meth. Dig. i. p. 55, pis. xxiii., xxiv. (1767) ; et auctoruni plurimorum (Latham}, (Temminck), (Naumann), (Gould), (GVrtyX (Hume), (Xeirton), (Dresser), &c. Falco peregrinus, Tunst. Orn. Brit. p. 1 (1771). Falco orientalis, Gm. Syst. Xaf. i. p. 264 (1788, ex Lath.). Falco conimunis, Gm. Si/st. Xat. i. p. 270 (1788, e.r Buff.). Falco calidus Lath. Ind. Orn. i. p. 41 (1790). Falco lunulatu*. Daitd. Traite, ii. p. 122 (1800, ex Lath.). Falco abietinus, Bech*t. Xaturg. Deutxchl. ii. p. 759 (1805). Falco pinetarius. Steph. Share's Gen. Zool. vii. pt. i. p. 195 (1809). Falco anaturu. Bp. Comp. List B. Eur. X. Am. p. 4 (1838, ex Audubon). Falco micrurus, Hodgs. Grays Zool. Misc. p. 81 (1844). Falco nigriceps, Cass. B. Calif, p. 87 (1855). Falco brookii, Sharpe, Ann. Xat. Hist. xi. pp. 21, 222 (1873). The Peregrine Falcon is undoubtedly the commonest of the larger birds of prey now found in the British Islands a bird noted for its marvellous rapidity of movement and flight, its almost unequalled audacity and bold- ness, and for the great reputation it bore in the days when falconry was a favourite pursuit. Although slowly but surely becoming extinct in the British Islands, the Peregrine still breeds in a few localities in England, but is much commoner in Scotland and Ireland, where the wildness and seclusion of the scenery afford it a safer and more suitable refuge. At the present day the Peregrine breeds sparingly on the sea-girt cliffs of the south coast from Cornwall to Kent, the rocky headlands of Wales, and inland in several localities of Cumberland and Westmoreland ; but it is most probable that the bird has now deserted the cliffs of the Yorkshire coast for ever. In Scotland we find it becomes much more numerous, most, if not all, the great bird-rocks and precipices being tenanted by a * There seems to be little doubt that the F. gentilis of Linnaeus is an immature Pere- grine. There cannot be the slightest doubt that the Falcon Gentle of Albin, to -which he refer?, is a Peregrine. Many of the Linnaean names (notably those of the Owls) admitted by ornitholog^ts are much more doubtful and much less clearly denned. There are only three logical ways of treating this question. If you do not reject the doubtful names alluded to, or adopt the name of F. gentilis for the Peregrine, the only alternative is to reject the laws of priority of publication and clear definition before they have still further complicated and confused the study of ornithology. 24 BRITISH BIRDS. pair or so, the birds becoming more numerous in the less frequented districts, notably amongst the mountain-scenery of the Highlands and the Western Isles, particularly in Skye, the bold rocky coast-line and moun- tainous scenery of which is so well adapted to its wants and security, and where it is universally known as the " Falcon." In Ireland the Peregrine inhabits and breeds in all suitable localities throughout the island, both on maritime cliffs and inland mountain districts. In the wideness of its distribution the Peregrine is equalled by few other raptorial birds. It is a circumpolar bird, and breeds more or less regularly in every country in Europe north of the basin of the Mediterranean up to lat. 68, a considerable number migrating into North Africa &c. for the winter. It also breeds throughout Asia north of the Himalayas, wintering in India and Burma. It nests in North America wherever suitable loca- lities are found, and has occurred in winter as far south as the Argentine States of South America. The Peregrine's haunt is the open country the moorlands, mountain- sides, and commons and waste lands near the sea being its favourite places. Although by no means a common bird, still in suitable localities it may be justly considered far from rare. Truly indeed the Peregrine is a noble bird ; his courage when on the wing and his proud bearing when seated on some naked branch or rock-pinnacle stamp him as one of the most lordly of his race. A study of the Peregrine's habits leads the observer into the wildest and grandest of scenery. His chattering cry once heard can never be mistaken, usually uttered as he sails at some consi- derable height in ever widening circles. It is wonderful how gracefully he glides, not, perhaps, so evenly as the Buzzard, nor so lightly as the Wind- hover, but with a peculiar motion strictly his own. Perched, it may be, on some rocky boulder, he sits quite upright, his broad head ever and anon turned anxiously from side to side, and his wings frequently half expanded as though he were about to take wing. The Peregrine is indeed a bird of the moor, the fjeld, and the tundra. The Grouse, the Ptarmigan, and the blue hare supply him with his meal, and the mountain precipices a fitting nesting-place. But the Peregrine is also found on the borders of the ocean, choosing for his home some rocky islet or inaccessible sea- washed cliff. Here the sea-fowl are his sustenance ; and here he remains throughout the year, rearing his brood safe from the inroads of man, save, indeed, the bold and hardy rock-climber, who, for the sake of gain, not unfrequently robs his nest. The Peregrines breeding in our islands are non-migratory ; but in the spring and autumn numbers of birds pass over, remaining some little time to rest, and then proceeding again on their journey. These Falcons usually attend the vast flocks of waders and water-birds migrating to or from their breeding-grounds in the Arctic regions, and thus secure an PEREGRINE FALCON. 25 abundant supply of food. It is doubtless to this migratory movement of the Peregrine from the extreme northern limits of its range that we must attribute the appearance of the bird in those localities now so little suited to its requirements, as, for instance, the low-lying eastern counties. Indeed, in the greater part of England the Peregrine is only known as a migrant, most common in the autumn, and in a few cases remaining through the winter in some favoured spot. It is also worthy of remark that these autumnal wanderers are, for the greater part, young birds; but in the spring movement northwards old birds are more numerous. Even young birds bred in our own land quit the place of their birth so soon as they can forage for themselves, their parents guarding their own stronghold with the greatest jealousy from intruders, and breeding there year after year if unmolested. Naturally enough, the time for studying the Peregrine Falcon's move- ments to best advantage is when it is engaged in obtaining its food. Most species of water- fowl are preyed upon, as well as Grouse and Partridges; but perhaps his favourite food is the Rock-Doves which nestle on the ocean- clifls around him, and the Stock-Doves in the more inland districts. Few birds, indeed, fly more swiftly than these two species of Dove, yet the Pere- grine takes them with comparative ease, fairly flying them down, or perhaps more frequently darting with great rapidity upon them unawares. Dixon, writing of the Peregrine on Skye, says : " A f avourite morsel with the Peregrine is the comical little Puffin, or ( Sea-Parrot/ as the fishermen call him ; in fact in some localities this bird almost forms his only food. Here, for instance, on this steep ocean-cliff a colony of Puffins have established themselves. The time is early morning; and the Puffins are coming to and quitting their holes, from and to the sea below, where quite a large company are fishing and disporting themselves. Several of the curious little birds leave the cliff together, and with rapid beats of their short wings pass to the water below. Suddenly a loud flapping of wings is heard, something flits like a meteor from the air above, and follows the Puffins in their downward course. Perceiving their danger they scatter; but too late ; already one of their number is struck and quivering in the sharp talons of their common enemy. All for the moment is commotion : the birds on the sea beneath dive out of danger; and those on the cliffs are in uproar at the suddenness of the onslaught. But the alarm soon sub- sides, and the birds are pursuing their usual avocations again. Indeed it is a noteworthy fact that the birds display very little alarm whilst the Falcon sails high in air above them ; and it is no uncommon thing to see the bird, aridently when its appetite is satisfied, surrounded by Terns and Gulls, and see the Puffins sitting quite unconcerned a stone's throw from their enemy." The Peregrine also feeds on young rabbits and leverets, especially of the blue hare. 26 BRITISH BIRDS. The Peregrine is of a very wandering disposition, and frequently goes miles away from its accustomed haunt, often exploring the coast-line for long distances in lazy soaring flight, ever and anon being mobbed by the Gulls and Terns, or even the Carrion-Crows and the Hoodies, who seldom fail to set up an uproar as soon as it makes its appearance. As a rule the Peregrine is a comparatively silent bird, save when alarmed and to some extent a solitary one ; for although these birds live in pairs, still they frequently hunt for sustenance alone, and are seldom seen together except during the season of reproduction. Mr. Cordeaux informs me that " the Peregrine is a resident in North-east Lincolnshire in the winter months. A pair invariably frequent the dis- trict between Broadley Wood and Croxby Lake. They are mature birds, and feed almost exclusively on Wood-Pigeons and the common Pigeons of the dove-cotes, frequently showing great boldness in the capture of the latter. The female, which I have seen at very close quarters, and in the act of devouring a tame Pigeon, is a magnificent bird, the underparts almost pure cream-coloured without a spot. On the coast I have seen the Peregrine swoop at Curlews, but never successfully and never repeating the swoop. The power of the Curlew on the wing is so great that it may defy even the attempts of this swift-winged destroyer. Both old and young frequently occur in autumn, in September and October, on mi- gration." The breeding-season of the Peregrine commences early in April, the young being often found in down by the beginning of May. Although the birds pair for life, the same nesting-ground is not always tenanted other situations being chosen, seemingly at the caprice of the bird. One season it will be in one part of the cliff, the next in another, as though the birds had several favourite places and used them each in turn. Its nesting-sites are various : in some localities the nest is placed in the tallest trees, notably so in Pomerania and the wooded districts of North Germany, while in others it is amongst the most inaccessible rocks, as in our own islands ; and in some countries, such as Finland and Lappland, the ground alone is ofttimes chosen as a resting-place for it. The pair of Peregrines that frequent the Bass Rock have chosen an admirable situation for their nest, which is situated near the summit of the stupen- dous cliff on the west side, where they have an almost boundless view and are comparatively safe from their only enemy man. Dixon visited this nest on the Bass, and writes as follows : " So soon as we reached the neighbourhood of the nest the female bird dashed rapidly from it, uttering her harsh chattering cry as she went, which speedily brought the male bird upon the scene. As I was partly lowered and partly climbed down the face of the rock, the scene around me was an impressive one, dear to the heart of him who delights in nature and her works. Far down below, PEREGRINE FALCON. 27 the Guillemots and Puffins were disporting on the sea at the base of the cliff, looking for all the world like small animated air-bubbles or specks of foam, whilst the air around was full of Gannets sailing dreamily about, their snow-white plumage glistening in the noonday sun, and their grating cries, harsh though they were, lending a wild charm to the scene around. Far up in the air above the two old Peregrines were sailing in ever widening circles, the female bird, easily distinguishable by her superiority in size, venturing the closest, sometimes coming so near as to enable me to catch the sparkle of her bright black eye and hear the rustle of her pinions. The male bird was much more wary, and kept at a respectful distance, whilst both birds incessantly uttered their sharp chattering cry of alarm at the threatened danger to their offspring. The nest was on a narrow ledge of the rock, just affording sufficient standing-room, and was a poorly made crude structure. It consisted for the greater part of a few bits of vegetation, placed there by chance alone, carelessly strewed in a little hollow. Quan- tities of feathers, a few pellets, and the bones and feet of various birds strewed the vicinity of the nest, amongst them being the legs and feet of a Puffin just recently conveyed there. Of course, had the nest only contained eggs, the feathers and other refuse would probably have been absent. It contained a single young bird in dirty white down, that allowed me to examine it minutely without the least show of resistance. Scattered round and in the nest were numerous pellets, formed of fur and feathers and small bones, the refuse of the bird's food, which is thus ejected." Harvie-Brown and I found the Peregrine breeding on the steep clay banks of the river Petchora in North-east Russia, at Stanavialachta. On the 27th of June, on the grassy top of a mound halfway down the mud-cliffs overlooking this great river, and within sight of the Arctic Ocean, we came upon the nest. It contained four eggs, one of which was much lighter in colour than the others. This mound had probably been used for some years as a nesting-place by the Falcons, since the grass was much greener upon it than upon the surrounding places. A little way off there rose another mound just similar to it : and this was apparently the Falcon's dining-table ; for scattered all about it were feathers of Grouse, of Long- tailed Duck, and of divers small birds. While we remained near the nest the two Falcons hovered round, uttering sharp cries ; when we approached nearer still they redoubled their screams, hovered over us, closed their wings, and descended perpendicularly till within a few yards of our heads. A mile up the river we found a second nest upon an exactly similar green-topped mound. This nest contained three eggs; and the behaviour of the birds as we neared it was the same as that of the previous parf. I also met with the Peregrine breeding on the tundra on the steep mud cliffs on the banks of the Yenesay. In lat. 69^ I spent the night of the 13th-14th of July on shore, shooting. I had no sooner 28 BRITISH BIRDS. landed than a couple of Peregrines showed me their nest by their loud cries. A glance at the cliffs decided the place where the nest ought to be, on the top of a steep mud promontory, which stretched out to a sharp ridge beyond and above the surrounding coast, and which was conspicuous by its greenness. I climbed up a valley in which the snow was still lying, and walked straight along the ridge to the little hollow, where the four red eggs were placed upon a dozen small flakes of down. These eggs were considerably incubated. The eggs of the Peregrine Falcon vary from two to four in number. The ground-colour of the egg when exposed is a pale yellowish white, and the markings vary from brick-red and orange-brown to rich reddish brown. Many of the eggs are often suffused with a beautiful purplish tint, which is seen, but more rarely, on the eggs of the Kestrel. Peregrine Falcons' eggs vary considerably in size and form, some being much elongated, others almost globular. They vary in length from 2'15 to 1*95 inches, and in breadth from 1*75 to 1*52 inch. The specimen figured may be taken as a fairly typical egg of this species. Time was when the noble Peregrines lived as favoured birds, the company and amusement of kings and princes, being trained for the chase. The female bird was always known as the Falcon, the male as the Tiercel ; and from her marked docility she was not unfrequently called the Gentil or Gentle Falcon. Then the Peregrine was under man's protection, and penalties were inflicted on him who molested or destroyed it. But the days of hawking have long waned ; and the Peregrine, once so favoured, is now open to an incessant persecution, which bids fair to exterminate it from our land. This persecution, which is continually being waged against all our raptorial birds, is slowly but surely doing its work. The Peregrine in its sea-girt fortress will be one of the last Falcons to disappear before it ; but the time will soon be when each noted eyrie will but exist in an empty name. The Heron was the favourite bird of chase for the Falcon, the sport usually taking place as the birds went to and from the streams to the heronry. Sir John Sebright, in his ' Observations on Hawking/ gives the following particulars respecting this peculiar sport : 7, pi. lii. (1767X Falco naumaniii, Fleischer, Sylvan, 1817, p. 175. Falco xanthonyx, Xatt.Jide Fleischer, Sylvan, 1817, p. 175. Falco cenchris*, ynnm. J'oy. Deutschl. i. p. 318 (1820, ex Frisch) ; et auctorum plurimorum Cuviei; (Kaup), Schickel, (Bonaparte), (Gray), (Newton), Dresser, fee. Falco tinnunculoides, Schinz, Jiile Xauni, Vb'a. Deutschl. i. p. 323 (1820). Falco tinmmcularius, 7'iViV/. Fa**. Franc,, p. 36, pi. 16. fig. 3 (1829). Cerchueis cenchris (Xaum.). Brehm, Voy. Deutschl. p. 74 (1831). Tinnunculus ceuchris (AT/MMi.), Bp. Cat. Met. Ucc. Eur, p. 21 (1842). Tichornis cenchris (Xaum.), Kaup, Classif. Saug. u. Voy. p. 108 (1844). Pcecilornis cenchris (Xauni.), Kaup, Contr. Orn. 1850, p. 53. Cerchneis naumanni (Fleischer), Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. p. 435 (1674). The claim of this species to be considered a British bird rests upon a single example which was shot in the neighbourhood of York by Mr. John Harrison, of Wilsthorpe Hall. There can be no doubt about the authenticity of this specimen, which was identified at the time by my friend the late Mr. Thomas Allis, of York, an excellent ornithologist. I have seen the specimen, which was stuffed by Mr. Graham, and is now in the York Museum. Mr. Harrison assures me that he has no doubt whatever that the bird in the museum is the one he shot. He is himself an ornithologist, and has a fine collection both of birds and eggs. His attention was first attracted to the bird by noticing it flying about on his farm very late in the autumn of 1869 ; and he shot it under the impression that it was a small and curious variety of the Common Kestrel. That this bird does occasionally wander north of its usual habitat is proved by its having been obtained on Heligoland. Its breeding-range may be said to be the basin of the Mediterranean. It is very common in Southern Spain, and is said to breed in some parts of the Pyrenees. It is not uncommon in Sardinia and Sicily, but is very rare in Italy. In Greece it is extremely abundant, breeding as far north as South Bulgaria. In Russia it breeds only in the extreme south. It is very common in the Caucasus, Western Turkestan, Persia, Asia Minor, * F. cenchris is the name which has been applied to the Lesser Kestrel by an over- whelming majqjfty of ornithologists : and Dresser still retains it in defiance oi the law of priority, although in his synonymy he shows four older names. Sharpe, led away by the Stricklandian code, uses one of these old and deservedly forgotten names : and if the law of priority survives long enough, some ambitious ornithologist will be found rash enough to back Geriui's name against the field. a 52 BRITISH BIRDS. and Palestine. It is occasionally found in North France and North Germany ; but these examples are rare stragglers out of the usual line of migration. It passes through the whole of North Africa, where a con- siderable number remain to breed. It winters in South Africa, having been found in Damara Land, the Transvaal, and the Cape. In the east it is represented by a very nearly allied species, F. pekinensis, which breeds in China and winters in India, where a few are said to remain in the mountains during the breeding-season. The Lesser Kestrel is a very gregarious bird, seldom found in isolated pairs. It is very partial to rocks and ruins ; and I have seen them in great numbers flying in and out of the holes of the ruins of the Acropolis at Athens. In the villages of the Parnassus and in Asia Minor, for want of more suitable places, it breeds under the eaves of the houses ; and I particularly remember a colony in a street in Missolonghi. Dr. Kriiper says that he has found the nest in hollow trees ; and I have frequently seen it perched in a tree. In and around the village of Menemen, not far from Smyrna, it was especially abundant, and we generally saw half a dozen on the wing together. We shot one out of three perched on the branches of an old olive-tree in the middle of the village ; and once in the Parnassus we shot several birds which were flying about in the company of the Common Kestrel. The Lesser Kestrel is a migratory bird, arriving at its breeding-quarters about the middle of March. It breeds towards the end of April ; and I found several nests late in June containing young birds. Some of these were under the eaves of the houses, and others in holes of the walls. The nests were extremely slight; and frequently the eggs were laid in a hollow scratched in the rubbish. Five seems to be the usual number of eggs; but I have clutches of four, and one of seven. The male bird appears to relieve the female in her duties, as on a nest which we took, containing five eggs, on the 15th of May in a village in the Parnassus, we caught the male and afterwards shot the female. The food of this bird during the breeding-season appears to be almost entirely com- posed of grasshoppers ; and we often saw flocks or small parties flying up and down in the vicinity of their nests not at all disturbed by our watching them. We could see them thrust out their feet to catch the flying grass- hoppers, and could notice them bring their feet to the bill, after which the hard parts of the grasshopper were distinctly seen to fall to the ground. They are very noisy on the wing ; and their cry is very peculiar : Dr. Kriiper pointed out to me its resemblance to the Greek word /3e/3a<&>9 (pronounced vev-ai'-ose), which may be translated into American-English as " yes, certainly/' Canon Tristram mentions their abundance near some of the villages in Palestine, pursuing insects, especially cockchafers, towards evening. He also mentions that he never found a colony of these birds without finding many of the Common Kestrel breeding in the same LESSER KESTREL. 53 place. Saunders thinks these two species occasionally interbreed (see 'Ibis/ 1871, p. 59). The eggs of the Lesser Kestrel are very round, almost globular, with but little difference between the larger and smaller ends. Their general ground-colour is pale brick-red, with dark brick-red spots, which are very generally diffused evenly over the whole surface, and very small, occasionally forming large blotches. Others, again, have an almost white ground-colour, with more than usually distinct spots and blotches, re- sembling very much a similar type of the Common Kestrel. In fact the eggs of the Lesser Kestrel go through the same varieties as the Common Kestrel, but are smaller and of a paler and more bricky red instead of blood-red. In size they vary from l - 45 to 1'Sinch in length, and from 1-2 to 1-03 inch in breadth. The Lesser Kestrel resembles the Common Kestrel in colour very closely ; but the males differ from our bird in being slightly smaller, in having no black spots on the back, and in having the innermost secondaries slate-grey instead of chestnut, and the claws white instead of black. The females are more difficult to determine; but the smaller size and pale claws of the Lesser Kestrel are the best characters. The Chinese Lesser Kestrel is a doubtfully distinct species, and only differs from its westeni ally in having more slate-grey on the wing- coverts. 54 ' .BRITISH BIRDS. Genus PANDION. The genus Pandion was established by Savigny (who separated it from the genus Falco of Linnseus) in 1810, in his ' Systeme des Oiseaux de TEgypte et de la Syrie/ p. 9. The only species known to him was P. haliaetus, which must therefore be the type. There is only one species of Osprey in the world ; and this may be said to be almost cosmopolitan. The characters which distinguish it from all other allied birds of prey are the combination of the finely reticulated (not broadly scaled) tarsus, and the long first primary (much longer than the secondaries), with the absence of a forked tail and a notched bill. Its food is almost exclusively fish. OSPREY. 53 PANDION HALIAETUS. OSPREY. (PLATE 3.) Accipiter falco piscator caroliniensis, Briss. Orn. i. p. 362 (1760). Aquila haliaeetus, Briss. Orn. i. p. 440 (1760) ; et auctomm plurimorum (Lin- lueus), (Gray), (Schkgef), (Gould), (Xeicton), (Sharps), &c. Falco haliaetus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 129 (1766). Falco arundinaceus, Gmel Syst. Nat. i. p. 263 (1788). Falco carolinensis, Gmel. loc. cit. (1788). Falco cayennensis, Gmel. loc. cit. (1788). Aquila piscatrix, Vieill. Ois. Am. Sept. i. p. 29, pi. 4 (1807). Pandion fluvialis, Savign. Syst. Ois. de FEgypte, p. 36 (1810). Aquila haliaetus (Briss.), Wolf, Taschenb. i. p. 23;(1810). Triorches ihivialis (Sav.), Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. fyc. Brit. Mus. p. 10 (1816). Aquila balbusardus, Dum>:.nt, Diet. i. Nat. i, p. 351 (1816). Pandion americanus, rieill. $ And. Gal. Ois. p. 33, pi. 11 (1825). Accipiter haliaetus (Briss.), Pall. Zo^gr. Rosso- As. i. p. 355 (1826). Balbusardus haliaetus (Briss.}, Flem. Brit. An. p. 51 (1828). Pandion haliaetus (Briss.), Less. Man. WALLOW-TAILED KITE. 65 According to Audubon, " the flight of this elegant species of Hawk is singularly beautiful and protracted. It moves through the air with such ease and grace that it is impossible for any individual who takes the least pleasure in observing the manners of birds not to be delighted by the sight of it whilst on wing. Gliding along in easy flappings, it rises in wide circles to an immense height, inclining in various ways its deeply- forked tail to assist the direction of its course, dives with the rapidity of lightning, and suddenly checking itself reascends, soars away, and is soon out of sight. At other times a flock of these birds, amounting to fifteen or twenty individuals, is seen hovering around the trees. They dive in rapid succession amongst the branches, glancing along the trunks, and seizing in their course the insects and small lizards of which they are in quest. They always feed on the wing. In calm and warm weather they soar to an immense height, pursuing the large insects called Musquito- Hawks, and performing the most singular evolutions that can be conceived, using their tail with an elegance of motion peculiar to themselves. Their principal food, however, is large grasshoppers, grass-caterpillars, small snakes, lizards, and frogs. They sweep close over the fields, sometimes seeming to alight for a moment to secure a snake, and holding it fast by the neck, carry it off and devour it in the air. When searching for grass- hoppers and caterpillars, it is not difficult to approach them under cover of a fence or tree. When one is then killed and falls to the ground, the whole flock comes over the dead bird, as if intent upon carrying it off. The Fork-tailed Hawks are also very fond of frequenting the creeks, which in that country [States of Louisiana and Mississippi] are much encum- bered with drifted logs and accumulations of sand, in order to pick up some of the numerous water-snakes which lie basking in the sun. At other times they dash along the trunks of trees and snap off the pupae of the locust or that insect itself. Although when on wing they move with a grace and ease which it is impossible to describe, yet on the ground they are scarcely able to walk." Dresser, writing on the habits of this bird in Texas (Ibis, 1865, p. 325), says : " On the Colorado, Brazos, and Trinity rivers it is one of the com- monest birds, and every child knows it under the names of Scissor-tailed, Forky-tailed, and Fish-tailed Hawk, or Fish-Hawk. It only remains during the summer months, arriving early in April. ... I watched one very closely as it was hunting after grasshoppers on a piece of prairie near Brenham. It went over the ground as carefully as a well-trained pointer, every now and then stooping to pick up a grasshopper; and, to me, the feet and bill appeared to touch the insect simultaneously. They seem vrfy fond of wasp-grubs, and will carry a nest up to some high perch and sit there, holding it in one claw, and picking out the grubs. I once saw one drop a nest and catch it before it reached the VOL. i. r 66 BRITISH BIRDS. ground. I examined the stomachs of all I shot (some ten or twelve), and found them to contain sometimes beetles, sometimes grasshoppers/' A very interesting note on the Swallow-tailed Kite's partiality for bees in Guatemala is recorded by Mr. R. Owen, in ' The Ibis ' for 1860, p. 241 : " Proceeding on our journey, and passing over the broAv of a hill which rose considerably above those surrounding us, we suddenly saw, on the slope beneath us, a large number of Swallow-tailed Kites, gliding back- wards and forwards through the air, directly over the road which we were pursuing. They were near the ground, many of them within ten or twelve yards of it, and numbered from 150 to twice that quantity. They were closely packed, not one straggling for a moment from the rest, and reminded one of our English Swifts as they congregate in flight round an old and lofty edifice. My companion was surprised, no less than myself, to find so many of these birds in company; for, according to the experi- ence of the Coban hunters, they generally go in pairs, although three or four may be occasionally met with together. A few yards of precipitous descent brought us immediately under the birds, and into a swarm of bees upon which they were feeding. The swarm was slowly skirting the hill in compact order, its persecutors sweeping through and through it, with wings extended, and their scissor-like tails widely opened .... At times birds would pass within four or five yards of us, giving us time to observe their movements accurately. Every now and then the neck would be bent slowly and gracefully, bringing the head quite under the body, the beak continuing closed ; at the same time the foot, with the talons contracted as if holding an object in its grasp, would be brought forward until it met the beak. This position was only sustained a moment, during which the beak was seen to open ; the head was then, with closed beak, raised again, and the foot thrown back. . . . The bees, so far as I could observe (for I could not catch one for examination), were about the size of our English hive-bee, but of a brilliant colour, between red and yellow/' Although the Swallow-tailed Kite is so abundant in certain localities, but little information has been published respecting its nidification. Audubon mentions that it pairs immediately on its arrival in its summer haunts, and that its courtship takes place in the air, where its fine powers of wing are displayed to even still greater perfection than usual. The same accomplished naturalist also states that the nest is usually placed amongst the topmost branches of the tallest trees, usually on the margin of a stream or pond, and that it resembles that of a Crow, being made of sticks intermixed with " Spanish moss/' and lined with coarse grasses and feathers, and that the eggs are from four to six in number. Dresser, in the article previously referred to, on the birds of Southern Texas, mentions that he found the Swallow-tailed Kites very numerous on a creek near the SWALLOW-TAILED KITE. 67 Rio Colorado, on the 26th of May, but, on shooting and dissecting them, found that they had not at that date commenced breeding. Preparations for nidification were, however, in progress ; and from what he observed of their habits, he suggests that they may possibly breed in society a fact not at all unlikely when we bear in mind the gregarious habits of the bird. He was told that the birds in Texas built high up in the oak, sycamore, or cotton- wood trees. He did not at that time succeed in obtaining eggs, but has since received them through Mr. Henry Buckley, and most kindly lent them for use in the present work probably the first authentic spe- cimens of the eggs of this bird which have been figured. Two specimens taken in Iowa differ considerably : the first is decidedly an Osprey type of egg ; the second is very pale bluish white, irregularly and sparingly marked with minute specks and one or two larger spots of rich reddish brown ; the shell resembles that of a Harrier in grain, and possesses no gloss whatever. They vary from 1'9 to 1'95 inch in length, and from 1'5 to l - 4? inch in breadth. Mr. Buckley's correspondent asserts that the eggs are usually two in number a statement at variance with Audubon's. The colours of this very handsome bird are in bold contrast and decided. The head and neck all round, the rump, and the whole of the underparts are white, the remainder of the plumage being black with blue and purple reflections. Cere pale blue ; irides red (but Audubon describes them as black) ; feet dirty bluish white according to Audubon, but yellow according to Wilson ; claws white or flesh-coloured. Male and female do not differ in external characters, save that the latter bird is more robust and slightly larger. F2 68 BRITISH BIRDS. Genus PERN IS. The genus Pernis was established by Cuvier in 1817 in his ' Regne Animal/^ i. p. 322, for the reception of the Honey-Buzzard, which he removed from his genus Buteo, in which Yieillot had erroneously placed it. As the Honey-Buzzard was the only species of the genus known to Cuvier, it became unquestionably the type. There is only one European species of this genus, which may at once be distinguished from any other European bird of prey by its feathered lores. The genus is confined to the Old World. Besides the European bird, two other very nearly allied species are known, inhabiting some of the islands of the Malay archipelago, and two more distantly related one inhabiting New Guinea, and the other South Africa. HONEY-BUZZARD. 69 PERXIS APIVORUS. HONEY-BUZZABD, (PLATE 3.) Accipiter buteo apivorus, Briss. Orn. i. p. 410 (1760). Falco apivorus, Linn. Syst. Xaf. i. p. 130 (1766) ; et auctorum plurimorum umann), (Temminck), (Cuvier), (Bonaparte}, (Sharpe), &c. Falco tachardus, Daud. Traite //>'. Xat. i. p. 126 (1766). Falco cineraceus. Mont. Orn. Diet. i. (1802); et auctorum plurimorurn Teinminck, Xaumann, (Carter), (Gould), (Neicton), (Dresser), &c. Falco hyeuialis, Gn,d. apud Peiin. Brit. Zvol. i. p. 243 (1812). Circus cinerarias (M"iit.'), Leach, Si/st. Cat. Ma mm. Sfc. Brit. Mus. p. 9 (1816). Circus ater, fifill. X. Diet.