AGRIC, DEPT. 
 
Serl 
 
 nes 
 
 Part I. 
 
 Correspondence 
 
 Agricultural 
 
 College 
 
 City, 
 
5F65 
 
 LECTURE XXVI. 
 
 POINTS TO BE OBSERVED IN THE PREPARATION AND 
 FITTING OF CATTLE FOR THE SHOW RING. 
 
 The first and most important step is to have the right 
 kind of an animal. It matters little what you feed if you 
 have not the right kind of beast to consume it, success will 
 not come your way. Thus, before commencing the training 
 and feeding you must determine whether or not the merits 
 of the animal are such as to justify the owner to lavish the 
 expense and trouble necessary to bring him out a prize win- 
 ner in first-class company. If you are doubtful, better to 
 throw him out at once, but if it is in the animal, go at him 
 and lose no time in sending him to the very highest degree 
 of perfection. 
 
 Conformation. Without good conformation it is impos- 
 sible to make a good show animal. The feet and legs must 
 be right, bone of good size, clean cut and joints well defined. 
 The legs should be straight and well set under the body. 
 The head should be short and broad, possessing a sweet coun- 
 tenance. The shoulders should be smooth and well laid in so 
 as to leave no depression behind them which would indicate 
 coarseness or lack of chest capacity. The ribs should be of 
 good length and well arched so as to insure width of back 
 and depth of body. The loin should be broad, the flank well 
 let down, the hindquarters long, broad and well filled in the 
 thighs and twist. The skin should be loose, and covered with 
 a good thick coat of mossy hair. 
 
 Feeding. It is difficult to outline any method of feeding 
 which will meet the needs of all animals. The wise and suc- 
 cessful feeder will study the individual likes and dislikes of 
 his animals and administer feed accordingly. In feeding 
 show cattle there is but one real object in view, which is to 
 present the animal in the best possible bloom at show time. 
 Labor and cost of feed are of minor consideration to the 
 ambitious and successful showman. In feeding steers for the 
 
128 
 
 MANAGEMENT. 
 
 P C ^ a da ^ is regarded by many 
 men as sufficient. The successful fitter of show cattle feeds 
 little at a time and often. That prince of cattle fitters, the 
 late "Willie" Watson, fed four times a day, viz.: at 5 a. m., 
 at 11 a. m., at 4 p. m., and at 8 p. m. 
 
 Always feed a variety of food. Cutting, chopping, grind- 
 ing and steaming may not be practical in cattle feeding oper- 
 ations, but they can all be practiced to good advantage in the 
 feeding of show stock. They not only stimulate the appetite 
 of the animal, but they also save labor in mastication. Every 
 half hour saved in feeding is just so much added to rest a 
 most important consideration in fattening cattle. The feed 
 troughs should be kept scrupulously clean, especially in 
 warm weather, as fermentation will soon take place. The 
 health of the animal must be carefully watched. The slight- 
 est indication of dullness or delicacy of appetite should be 
 noted. Should sickness appear, avoid as much as possible 
 the use of medicine and cure-alls. Overfeeding and irregular 
 feeding is generally the cause of sickness in pampered ani- 
 mals. In such cases a good dose of linseed oil will usually 
 give relief, but dieting is the surest and most effective 
 method of combating such troubles. Keep the animals 
 short of feed for a day or two and they will soon return to 
 their normal state.- 
 
 In our work we always aim to feed a variety of grain 
 feed. At present we are using a mixture of ground corn r 
 ground oats, ground barley, ground wheat, some gluten feed, 
 bran, and flaxseed meal. In addition to this, roots and green 
 forage crops should be fed at regular intervals to keep the 
 digestive system in regular order. 
 
 The steamed feed can oftentimes be used to good 
 advantage. Animals inclined to be soft in flesh may be very 
 much improved by substituting cooked wheat for a consid- 
 erable amount of the corn ration. Molasses sprinkled on the 
 chopped grain or cut fodder will have a good influence in 
 making the ration more appetizing. 
 
 Exercising. Exercise is very important. Different suc- 
 cessful fitters practice somewhat different methods of secur- 
 ing the same. Some advocate the keeping of the cattle in 
 box-stalls during the day in warm weather and allowing them 
 the run of a grass lot at night. The disadvantages of such a 
 system are that it is impossible to control the feed of the 
 
FITTING CATTLE FOR SHOW RING. 129 
 
 animals; also, it may be the cause of great bodily waste and 
 loss of fat. In case of animals which are badly off feed or 
 very weak in their legs such a system will often prove very 
 good. The other system is to keep the animals in comfort- 
 able, roomy box-stalls all the time except for a couple of 
 hours in the cool of the evening when they are allowed the 
 run of an open lot without any grass. On their return to 
 the stalls they are given their evening ration and left to rest 
 during the night. By adopting this method the feeder has 
 complete control of the animal's feed, thus is not likely to 
 be troubled with bloat, scours 'and other troubles caused by 
 weeds in the grass lot, or too much washy grass, which so 
 often mars the otherwise keen appetite. They should always 
 be liberally bedded and given every comfort possible. 
 
 Grooming. This is a most necessary part of the care of 
 animals intended for the show ring. It is just as essential 
 during the last three months as careful feeding. Cattle which 
 have been well bedded and kept clean can usually be gotten 
 into good form by about three months grooming. It is half 
 the battle in showing cattle to have their coats in good con- 
 dition, and stock owners who fail to have their cattle in the 
 very best possible form need not expect to win in strong 
 competition. If you wish to shed the coat this may be done 
 by the use of a warm blanket. If one is not sufficient, use 
 two. The blankets need not be kept on except during the 
 day. In addition wash the animals at least twice a week 
 with carbolic soap and tepid warm water. This will cleanse 
 the skin and do away with all dandruff and other scurf. In 
 grooming use a good, soft brush and a piece of thick flannel 
 or chamois skin and the skin will soon become soft under 
 this treatment. The curry comb, if used at all, must be used 
 very lightly, as it is likely to scratch and irritate the skin. 
 A skillful user of the cloth does his rubbing in a quick man- 
 ner, as then it is much more effective. Constant use of a 
 good flannel cloth is the only sure and safe way of securing 
 a soft and shining coat of hair. In putting on the final touch 
 nothing is more effective than the use of the bare hand in 
 rubbing. A good coat of hair and a soft mellow touch can- 
 not be secured in a week. It will take at least two or three 
 months of faithful work. In this connection the writer once 
 labored for six months to secure the proper bloom on a year- 
 ling bull. It came, but it took elbow grease and persistence 
 to secure the velvet touch. 
 
130 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Trimming the Feet. You must be very careful about the 
 feet of your show animals. Overgrown hoofs are a great 
 eyesore and sooner or later are likely to throw the animals 
 off in their hocks and hind legs. They should be frequently 
 dressed, kept clean and in good shape. The following tools 
 have been used by the writer for this work: a heavy wooden 
 mallet, an inch and a half chisel, a blacksmith's paring knife, 
 a rasp and a file. By the careful use of the same the feet 
 of any animal may be kept in good condition. 
 
 Clipping. The appearance of the head and neck of those 
 animals which are not supposed to have long curly hair, may 
 often be very much improved by the judicious use of the 
 clippers and shears. This should always be done a few 
 weeks before the show, so that in case an even job is not 
 made in removing the hair, growth enough will have taken 
 place to prevent it from being apparent to the public. The 
 tail should always be clipped, to indicate refinement. Coarse 
 hair on any of the other parts may be removed in the same 
 way. 
 
 Fixing the Horns. The horns should always be polished 
 and otherwise fixed so as to present a neat and attractive 
 appearance. The same treatment is not applicable to all 
 horns, as some are much more delicate than others. In some 
 horns the quick is very close, thus care must be exercised 
 in the scraping to prevent bleeding or the weakening of the 
 shell. 
 
 If the horn is too long, the first step will be to shorten 
 the same. This should be done with a fine-toothed saw, but 
 care must be taken not to cut too deep. Saw off the amount 
 you think necessary to make the horn the desired length. 
 After the cutting is done, then commence and file the horn 
 at the point to its natural shape, beginning about an inch 
 from the point and filing from the outside inwards, making 
 it look as natural as possible so as to avoid detection. If 
 the animal be a Shorthorn, commence filing the inside of the 
 horn, giving it a flat inside appearance, which is correct in a 
 Shorthorn, although not necessarily in all horned animals. 
 Next begin at the outside, smooth and round it, making it 
 blend as nearly as possible with the already dressed inside. 
 avoiding anything like a sharp edge along the top of the horn. 
 which would indicate at once that the horns had been fixed. 
 If you are real careful to reduce all unnatural sharp edges 
 
FITTING CATTLE FOR SHOW RING. 131 
 
 about the points of the horns, not even an expert will be able 
 to detect your handiwork. 
 
 The next step is to smooth the horn. This may be done 
 by first taking the section blade of a mower and scrape the 
 horn thoroughly smooth. A piece of glass may be used to 
 finish smoothing the same. For a final finish use sand paper 
 of the different grades from coarse to fine, then use emery 
 paper. Then take a piece of soft cloth, dip the same into 
 sweet oil and rub the horns. After this use the same cloth 
 to apply some whitening which, when rubbed well, will leave 
 a beautifully polished and handsomely formed horn. A piece 
 of oily flannel should be used to give the last touch. The 
 hoofs should be cleaned in the same way. Before entering 
 the show ring, rub both the horns and the hoofs with an oily 
 piece of flannel. 
 
 Showing in the Ring. Before leaving home you should 
 have all of your animals taught to lead well and to stand well 
 and for any length of time. The nearer the animal is made 
 to stand in its natural state the better he will usually show. 
 Do not twist your cattle around in the show ring into every 
 conceivable shape. Many people think that to show an animal 
 its head should be high in the air. This is oftentimes a 
 serious mistake, for usually when the head is high the back 
 is low. Some animals have to be shown with their heads low 
 to show a strong back. The best showmen are those who 
 keep their eyes on the animal and the judge. It is best to 
 stand on the same side of the animal as the judge, for then 
 you can see exactly how the animal appears before him. 
 Some men try to deceive the judge by hiding some fault in 
 the animal. As a general rule when you hide one fault you 
 add a couple more in some other part of the animal. 
 
LECTURE XXVII. 
 
 REARING CALVES DURING MILKING PERIOD. 
 
 At present there are two general methods of raising 
 calves, viz.: by hand feeding and by allowing the dam to 
 raise them. The former method is vastly different from the 
 latter and is of most interest to calf raisers in this portion 
 of the country or any other country where the land is high 
 priced. 
 
 After the calf is dropped and has been licked dry by 
 the mother, it is usually strong enough to rise and suck. 
 However, in case it is a very weak calf, assistance from an 
 attendant is sometimes needed in securing its first meal. A 
 calf that is to be raised by hand should not be allowed to 
 remain over three or four days with its dam; in fact, some 
 prefer to wean it at once. The reason for this is that, as a 
 rule, the calf is not so hard to teach to drink as when 
 allowed to suck the cow for several days or weeks. There 
 is one exception in which this method should not be em- 
 ployed. That is, when the cow has a hard or caked udder. 
 In such cases it has been found by experienced breeders and 
 herdsmen that the calf by sucking and rubbing tends to 
 reduce the inflammation and soften the udder. Where the 
 calf is allowed to remain with the cow, say two or three 
 weeks, it is a good plan to starve it a day. By so doing it 
 will become hungry enough so that it will not require a great 
 deal of patience to make it drink. 
 
 The nature of the milk and quantity to be fed is an all 
 important factor in raising calves successfully. In nature, or 
 from the cow, the calf gets its milk often but in small quan- 
 tities, and always at blood temperature. Thus we should 
 strive to imitate nature as nearly as possible. During the 
 first few weeks of the calf's life, ten to twelve pounds of milk 
 per day; when two months of age, fourteen to sixteen pounds 
 per day; and when three or four months, eighteen to twenty 
 
REARING CALVES DURING MILKING PERIOD. 133 
 
 pounds per day is sufficient. A calf is such a greedy sort of 
 an animal that the above allowance may not seem to suffice 
 him; however, one must bear in mind that a calf's stomach 
 is a very delicate organ, and when subjected to all the milk 
 the average calf will take, disastrous results are usually the 
 outcome. Care should be taken to keep the milk sweet, and 
 it should also be warmed before feeding. Since creameries 
 have been distributed throughout the country many calves 
 have been raised on skimmed milk. This method of raising 
 calves is the most economical of any now in vogue. It greatly 
 enhances the profit of a cow, because the butter is obtained 
 which would otherwise be consumed by the suckled calf. It 
 has been found possible to raise a calf on skim milk when the 
 milk was separated at the creamery; but since the hand sep- 
 arators on the farms have come into use the problem has 
 become very much simplified. 
 
 Under all conditions calves should be fed whole milk for 
 two or three weeks. In changing from whole to skim milk 
 the change should be made very gradually. About one to two 
 pounds per day, if the calf is getting twelve pounds per day, 
 is a sufficient change. That is, if the calf is getting twelve 
 pounds whole milk, the first day of the change feed eleven 
 pounds whole milk and one of skimmed milk; the second, ten 
 pounds whole and two of skimmed, and so on until the com- 
 plete change has been made. Where the hand separator is 
 available the change can be brought about by regulating the 
 skimming of the milk. That is, by simply removing a small 
 portion of the cream at first and gradually skimming closer 
 until you practically remove all the cream. If the calves are 
 consuming about ten or twelve pounds per day, the complete 
 change from whole to skim milk should cover a period of 
 eight to twelve days. When calves are about two or three 
 weeks old they will begin to nibble at hay and commence 
 to eat grain; and when they are about a month or five weeks 
 old they will eat from one-half to three-fourths of a pound 
 of grain per head per day. 
 
 Whatever supplement to the milk one feeds, care should 
 be taken to see that it is perfectly clean. That is, hay, grain 
 and roots should be clean and wholesome. Clover hay is the 
 best kind of roughage: and a ration of grain composed of 
 corn meal or oats instead of oil meal is much cheaper and 
 has been found to form a better combination, all things con- 
 sidered. Dried blood is not only a good supplement but also 
 
134 
 
 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 a splendid substitute for skim milk when fed in the right 
 proportions. Those who have fed it in connection with a 
 small quantity of whole milk have found it superior to linseed 
 or other meal slops. Dried blood should be diluted with 
 water until the quantity is equal to that of the milk fed in 
 connection with it. 
 
 When a number of calves are to be fed, stanchions are 
 indispensable, because several can be fed at the same time 
 without the slightest trouble. Calves will also learn to eat 
 from boxes made in connection with the stanchions and will 
 be prevented from sucKing each other, which is so common 
 where they are fed at random. 
 
 If calves have been kept in a stable for some time, con- 
 siderable difficulty is usually experienced when turning them 
 out on pasture. In order to avoid the sudden change, if pos- 
 sible feed a small quantity of green matter for a few days pre- 
 vious to turning them out into the field. Thus the change will 
 be brought about gradually and without any serious effects. 
 Fresh water should always be kept in the stalls or pens. In 
 winter, when the weather is chilly, the cold water should be 
 warmed. When the calves are allowed to suck the cows the 
 whole milking season, very little, if any, care is required in 
 the summer. On the other hand, if the cows and calves have 
 to be housed the greater portion of the time, as is the case 
 in winter, it is generally necessary to separate the cows 
 from the calves. While the calf is quite young and its 
 mother is giving more milk than it can take, the cow should 
 be milked out twice a day. Never allow the milk to become 
 stale in the udder, or serious trouble to both cow and calf 
 will be the result. 
 
 Under the best of care calves are often affected with 
 scours and infested with lice. Lice are most commonly found 
 in warm stables, but can be easily killed by washing the ani- 
 mals with some of the common disinfectants, such as Chloro- 
 Naptholeum Dip, kerosene emulsion, etc. 
 
 Scours are the worst enemy the calf has to contend with, 
 and under the best of care some are affected with this malady. 
 Calves are subject more or less to this disease during any 
 time of the year. However, it seems to be most frequent in 
 February and March and about the time calves are turned 
 on pasture. The principal causes are over-feeding, feeding 
 of sour milk, feeding of cold milk, dirty pails and feed boxes, 
 and irregular feeding. Every precaution should be employed 
 
RKARJNG CALVES DURING MILKING PERIOD. 135 
 
 in order to keep the disease out of the barn. Always keep 
 the stalls clean and well bedded, and do not keep too many 
 calves in a small stall. 
 
 When the weather is mild allow the calves plenty of sun- 
 shine and exercise, and during cold, windy weather keep 
 them out of draughty places so that they will escape colds. 
 
 In addition to the above two systems, sometimes calves 
 are fed on whole milk during the entire milk period. How- 
 ever, such a system is rather rare and is somewhat imprac- 
 tical for the average farmer, especially those on high priced 
 land. 
 
LECTURE XXVIII. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF A CALF AFTER 
 THE MILK PERIOD. 
 
 As a rule calves are dropped in the spring and are 
 weaned in the fall. This system seems the most natural; 
 however, there are many features in favor of having them 
 come in the fall. If they are dropped in the fall they can 
 be turned out on grass immediately after weaning and grow 
 more rapidly than on a dry winter ration. When they are 
 weaned in the spring and turned out on grass they need 
 practically no attention. However, if weaning occurs in the 
 fall or winter much attention is required. 
 
 Calves that are weaned in fall or winter should get food 
 of a nitrogenous nature, especially those that are designed 
 for dairy purposes. A mixture of oats and bran with a small 
 quantity of oil meal will make a good grain ration, while 
 silage, corn fodder, timothy hay and clover or alfalfa will 
 make a good roughage for a dairy calf. The clover or alfalfa 
 are the best kind of roughage because they are rich in pro- 
 tein, or muscle forming material, and are usually more pal- 
 atable than corn fodder or timothy. Whatever feed be fed 
 to dairy calves, it should be of such a nature that it will tend 
 rather to form muscle and frame than fat. The chief object 
 in feeding a dairy calf is that of producing plenty of bone 
 and muscle, together with a capacious barrel or paunch. In 
 order to do this considerable protein and roughage must be 
 consumed by the individual. If plenty of good clover or 
 alfalfa hay, a small amount of roots or ensilage and sorghum 
 or corn fodder be available, very little, if any, grain need be 
 fed to a growing dairy calf. 
 
 Calves intended for beef production after weaning should 
 get a ration that will not only keep them in growing condi- 
 tion, but also have a tendency to put on flesh and fat. A 
 mixture of bran, oats and corn meal with a small quantity 
 of oil meal, will make a good grain ration. One-half pound 
 of grain per cwt. of calf per day, gradually raised to one 
 
MANAGEMENT OF CALF AFTER MILK PERIOD. 137 
 
 pound, should make a good, liberal feed. A variety of fodders 
 .and roots or ensilage should be fed in connection with the 
 above mentioned grain ration in order to obtain the best 
 results. For roughage, clover or alfalfa is the best; how- 
 ever, timothy and millet hay, or corn and sorghum fodder 
 give good results. As the greatest gains can be made on a 
 given amount of feed with a young animal, liberal feeding 
 during the first winter is advisable. It is certainly poor 
 policy to allow the calf to lose its calf fat, because such can- 
 not be produced as economically at any other stage of life. 
 Thus while abundance of pasture is available during the 
 summer on nearly every farm, and while it furnishes the 
 cheapest and best feed, yet one should always strive to keep 
 the young animals in a sappy growing condition on winter 
 feed. 
 
 In the corn belt good warm sheds furnish sufficient shel- 
 ter for young stock. Sheds constructed so that they open 
 to the south will give ample protection, providing good yards 
 surround them. Calves in such quarters will become more 
 liardy than those that are kept in warm, poorly ventilated 
 liarns. Whatever kind of sheds or quarters calves be kept 
 in, they should be warm enough so that no extra feed be 
 needed to keep the animals warm. Although exercise is not 
 the most conducive to gains, yet every young animal should 
 have access to yards and sunshine if the best results are 
 expected. Racks, feed bunks and water tanks should be 
 located in as well a protected place as can be obtained in 
 the yard. The water in the tanks should be kept from 
 freezing as much as possible by placing covers on the tanks 
 at night; and in the severest weather, if ice forms in tanks, 
 tank-heaters should be employed. Always keep sheds well 
 bedded and as dry as possible. 
 
 In case the animals become infested with lice they 
 should be sprayed with a kerosene emulsion or some of the 
 commercial disinfectants which can be readily obtained. 
 Much depends on the care of the calf the first winter. In 
 fact every breeder and feeder should bear in mind that the 
 younger the animal, the cheaper the gain can be made. Thus 
 instead of just keeping the calf in growing condition in win- 
 ter, it should rather be pushed ahead as rapidly as possible. 
 The succeeding summer the calf should be put on good pas- 
 ture. If the pasture is short, a supplement of green feed 
 such as sorghum, peas, soy beans, etc.. can be fed very 
 profitably. Always keep animals growing and gaining. 
 
LECTURE XXIX. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF A BREEDING HERD 
 OF BEEF CATTLE. 
 
 On the average breeding farm in the corn belt, corn, hay 
 and grass are the most common feeds available. In summer 
 good pasture furnishes plenty of feed for breeding animals 
 However, as a rule the majority of breeders feed calves, 
 young bulls, and cows that are milking, a small quantity of 
 grain. 
 
 In winter when the herd is housed it is necessary to 
 feed considerable grain in order to keep the animals in a 
 good sappy condition. Corn being the most plentiful and 
 cheapest cereal in the corn belt, it invariably furnishes a 
 large proportion of the grain ration. Although corn is cheap 
 feed, it should not be fed alone, because it does not furnish 
 a well enough balanced ration for growing or breeding ani- 
 mals. Corn fed in connection with the nitrogenous feeds, 
 such as oats and bran, renders the most satisfactory results. 
 A mixture of one-third each of corn and cob meal, ground 
 oats, bran and a little oil meal, makes a very desirable and 
 palatable grain for all kinds of breeding stock. A grain 
 ration for calves might be advantageously modified by add- 
 ing corn meal instead of corn and cob; in fact, eliminating 
 the corn entirely and simply feeding them a mixture of oats, 
 bran and oil meal, is often advisable. 
 
 Clover and alfalfa are the best variety of roughage; how- 
 ever, timothy and millet will do. Corn and sorghum fodder, 
 if well cured, can be fed outside and thus economize the 
 higher priced fodder. When ensilage and roots are available 
 less grain is needed and the herd can be kept in a very thrifty 
 condition at much less expense. In case the breeder grows 
 very little, if any, of the grain he feeds, it is sometimes 
 economical to feed a small quantity of gluten meal. Avoid 
 feeding foods of a carbonaceous nature, especially to the 
 young animals of the herd. Calves should have grain rich 
 in protein and bone-producing elements, such as oats, bran, 
 
MANAGEMENT BREEDING BEEF CATTLE. 139 
 
 etc., and their roughage should consist of clover or alfalfa, 
 if possible. 
 
 Cows may be tied in double stalls, and their calves 
 kept in box stalls near by them. By feeding the cows twice 
 each day and allowing the calves to suck at the same time, 
 the cows can be turned out in the middle of the day to water 
 and rough fodder. 
 
 Young bulls may be kept two in a stall, but not very 
 satisfactorily. One is usually enough in a box stall, espe- 
 cially if he is of any size. Bulls require plenty of exercise 
 and sunshine in winter and should be pushed ahead as rapidly 
 as possible after weaning. 
 
 Young heifers will thrive exceedingly well and require 
 very little attention if allowed to run in a comfortable shed 
 which opens to the south. Of course they will need a liberal 
 grain ration, but as a rule will develop into stronger, hardier 
 cows. Every individual in the herd, except the very smallest 
 calves, should get outside for water, rough fodder and exer- 
 cise every day during winter, with the exception of a few of 
 the severest winter days. 
 
 Scours being a very common malady among the calves 
 of every herd, precaution should be exercised in order to 
 keep the disease out of the barn. 
 
 Regular feeding is an all important thing; and every 
 feeder should have a definite plan or routine of work. Sev- 
 eral small yards should be available in winter, and small 
 pasture lots in summer, for calves. In summer the calves 
 and young bulls are better inside during the day in a dark- 
 ened barn, so that the flies will not torment them. Always 
 keep plenty of water and salt in the fields in summer and 
 the yards in winter. 
 
 The feet and horns should also receive attention, and at 
 the right time. What little attention the calves' feet need 
 can be done with a good blacksmith's knife or a pocket knife. 
 The horns can be improved considerable in many cases 
 while they are soft and small. For instance, if a horn tends 
 to turn up or back too far, it can be directed forward or 
 backward by trimming it with a knife on back or top. When 
 cows', heifers' and bulls' feet cannot be trimmed without 
 more or less trouble, the animal should be put in a stocks, 
 which can be quite easily constructed by any farmer. Every 
 breeder should have one of these stocks. Pregnant cows, 
 
140 MANAGEMENT BREEDING BEEP CATTLE. 
 
 especially those heavy with calf, should not be put in stocks. 
 If a cow aborts, she should be immediately separated from 
 the rest of the herd, especially in case of contagious abortion. 
 Disinfectants should be used freely and all discharges from 
 the cow's womb destroyed. 
 
 In managing a herd one should consider his location and 
 demands of his customers. That is, one will find that some 
 buyers will want high class animals, while others will want 
 only medium or cheap ones. 
 
 It is advisable to have a large per cent, of the calves 
 dropped in the fall, because generally more attention can be 
 given them and the bull calves will be of good size and age 
 for disposing of the second fall or winter. All cows that 
 prove to be non-breeders after a fair trial should be sent to 
 market. While speculation is not advisable, yet one should 
 not use his own breeding too freely. That is, one should 
 avoid in-breeding if there is any tendency to reduce consti- 
 tution or the size of the individual. Introduce new blood 
 whenever you think it is going to benefit the herd, and always 
 keep a good bull at the head of the herd. 
 
 It should always be the aim of every breeder to keep his 
 herd in a condition worthy of inspection, and the animals for 
 sale in the best possible bloom; rather approaching the show 
 yard condition than the primitive or wild condition. If the 
 calves from twelve to eighteen months of age have not been 
 sold at private sale they should be sold at auction. 
 
LECTURE XXX. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF A BEEF BULL. 
 
 Considerable food of a carbonaceous nature may be fed 
 to a bull, providing he receives sufficient exercise and nitro- 
 genous food. However, if one is to expect the best results 
 from a bull, succulent and nitrogenous food must be pro- 
 vided. 
 
 A grain ration composed of oats, bran and oil meal is 
 the most desirable; however, gluten meal and corn may also- 
 be fed very economically and without any bad effects. A 
 variety of fodders, such as clover, alfalfa and sorghum fod- 
 der, will serve as roughage. Where roots and ensilage are 
 available, less grain may be fed and the animals kept in a 
 much thriftier condition. The amount to feed a bull is some- 
 what hard to get at, because there are so many variations. 
 However, if a bull has much work to do, about 10 pounds of 
 grain daily per 1,000 pounds live weight is a fair allowance. 
 
 In summer a good arrangement is to allow the bull free 
 run in a good pasture which has good shade and water. In 
 addition to this, if it is deemed advisable to keep the bull in 
 high flesh, a small quantity of the above mentioned grain 
 ration should be added. 
 
 In winter, as a grass substitute, roots or ensilage should 
 be fed if possible, as they tend to keep the system cool and 
 the digestive organs in a good healthy condition. 
 
 In summer when the flies are bad during the day, a bull 
 should be kept in the barn in a darkened, yet well ventilated 
 and bedded box-stall. During the night he should be turned 
 out in pasture in order that he may graze and exercise him- 
 self. 
 
 In winter much care should be exercised in feeding a 
 bull. That is. he should have his feed regular. Give him a 
 chance at water at least twice a day. so that he will not hav& 
 a tendency to drink too much at any one time. Do not feed 
 large quantities of hay to an old bull and then allow him to 
 drink large quantities of water, or you will derange his 
 
142 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 digestive organs so that he will become despondent and slug- 
 gish in many cases. Always allow a bull plenty of exercise, 
 because upon this factor depends, in a large measure, his 
 usefulness and activity. His feed should rather be of a con- 
 centrated nature than bulky, because some bulls have a 
 tendency to gorge themselves and become paunchy and slow, 
 poor servers. 
 
 The feet of a bull demand more or less attention, espe- 
 cially if he is getting a liberal supply of grain. Feet should 
 be trimmed so that the animal has always the proper use of 
 himself either in walking or serving. Some bulls are as 
 easily handled as a horse, and their feet can be trimmed 
 without the slightest difficulty; however, this is rather the 
 exception than the rule. The most expedient way is to put 
 the animal in a stocks and raise it off its feet. Then by 
 strapping the foot to be trimmed solid to a beam, so that 
 the sole will be facing upward, the operation can be executed 
 with a pincers and a chisel in a few minutes. Care should 
 be taken to avoid cutting too deep or into the sensitive part 
 of the foot, as this causes bleeding and lameness in many 
 cases. Bulls' feet are often attacked with what is commonly 
 known as foot rot, thrush, foul in foot, etc. Such diseases are 
 more generally found among bulls that have been fitted for 
 show than those that are simply kept in breeding condition. 
 However, there are many bulls rendered unfit for service due 
 to faulty feet which is often brought about through lack 
 of care at the right time. If a bull becomes lame, due to 
 cracks and foreign material between his toes, his foot should 
 be cleaned out thoroughly and treated with creolin or any of 
 the coal tar dips. Such treatment is simple, yet proves very 
 efficient, providing it is applied at the very outset of a dis- 
 ease. 
 
 In handling or working around a bull always make it a 
 point to have him tied up. Never depend on him, however 
 quiet and gentle he may seem to be. If a bull is inclined to 
 be vicious, as is often the case, do not abuse or fight with 
 him, because this invariably makes the animal worse. Keep 
 strangers away from a vicious bull as much as possible, so 
 that he will be kept quiet at all times. If a bull is a slow 
 server "*o not attempt to force him with a whip, etc., but 
 rather seek to remedy his deficiency by changing his feed 
 or dieting him. A bull is sometimes very clumsy in serving, 
 and when such is the case one should not allow him to serve 
 
CARE OF THE BEEF BULL. 143 
 
 large cows on the run. Never allow a bull to run in pasture 
 constantly with the cows, as this, in short, is simply cruelty. 
 In case abortion crops out in the herd, the bull should be 
 thoroughly disinfected after each service. If a mature bull 
 is carefully handled he should be able to leave 50 calves or 
 more a year, and have them all come within a period of a 
 few months. A bull may serve as many as three cows in 
 one day, but it is not advisable to subject any animal to such 
 heavy work. Even one service per day is enough, and many 
 bulls will become sluggish if such is long continued. 
 
LECTURE XXXI. 
 
 THE PRODUCTION OF BABY BEEF. 
 
 The production of baby beef is a feeding industry of com- 
 paratively recent origin. Several years ago the custom was 
 to keep steers until they were four or five years of age before 
 marketing them. There is little demand at present, however, 
 for old, heavy cattle, and as a rule we find that feeders now 
 market their cattle at from one to three years of age. 
 
 The production of baby beef may be divided into two 
 classes: first, the high grade calf, forced from birth and 
 finished for the market at an age of eleven to sixteen months ; 
 and second, the same kind of calves, but kept growing and 
 gaining the first year and finished at twenty or twenty-two 
 months of age. The former method is not so common as 
 the latter, and is not so successfully managed by the average 
 feeder. 
 
 In entering upon such a system one should have well- 
 bred calves. If the animals are to be marketed at eleven or 
 twelve months of age, they should be dropped in the fall, dur- 
 ing October and November, and be allowed to suck the cows, 
 if possible, for six or seven months. By having the calves 
 come at this time they can be weaned in the spring and 
 turned on good pasture. In addition to the grass they may 
 be fed a grain ration composed of corn, oats, bran and oil 
 meal. If they have access to clover pasture a large propor- 
 tion of the ration may be corn; in fact, the oats, bran and 
 oil meal may be omitted entirely the first month or two of 
 the feeding period. They can be kept gaining nicely on a 
 grain ration of shelled corn, or corn and cob meal, fed in 
 conjunction with clover pasture. Later, or during the last 
 two or three months, oats, bran and oil meal should be added 
 to the grain ration. About half a pound per head daily of 
 oil meal is sufficient at the beginning, 'and gradually increase 
 this quantity until each is receiving two or three pounds. 
 Many other feeds, such as gluten meal and dried blood, may 
 be fed economically when the animals are intended for the 
 
PRODUCTION OB 1 BABY BEEF. 145 
 
 market at one year of age. Their rations should be of as 
 concentrated a nature as they can handle profitably. 
 
 The other method is that of keeping the calves in a 
 growing and gaining condition by utilizing the cheaper and 
 rougher feeds of the farm and finishing them on concentrated 
 feeds, fed in connection with grass or other nutritious rough- 
 age, at an age of twenty or twenty-two months. Silage can 
 be utilized very profitably in this system. Range calves can 
 be fed successfully in this manner. That is, one can buy the 
 calves on the range at weaning time and have them shipped 
 immediately to his feeding farm. Such calves by getting a 
 liberal ration will retain their calf fat and keep in a sappy, 
 thrifty condition during the first winter. The succeeding 
 summer they can be turned out on good pasture and finished 
 during the fall or for the Christmas market. While one 
 might formulate a balanced ration, however, it should be 
 borne in mind that no single ration, fed for an indefinite 
 length of time, will give the best results. The most expe- 
 rienced feeders have found that animals relish an occasional 
 change. This is especially true of young animals; however, 
 such changes should be made very carefully, because violent 
 changes are apt to derange the digestive organs. 
 
 Heifers may be used as well as steers in production of 
 baby beef, providing they are put on market at an early 
 date. While the production of this kind of beef is not 
 adapted to feeders who have abundance of cheap pasture in 
 summer and plenty of roughage, such as hay and fodder, in 
 winter, however, such a system of feeding can be made 
 very profitable on high priced land if a high class of animals 
 is used and concentrated foods are available. 
 
LECTURE XXXII. 
 
 POINTS TO BE OBSERVED IN THE BUYING AND 
 SELECTING OF STEERS FOR THE FEED LOT. 
 
 Steers are put into the feed lot, fed and cared for with 
 the hope of obtaining for them at selling time a price that 
 will enable the feeder to realize a fair profit. After paying 
 for his steers, their feed, and any other direct expense con- 
 nected with them, he should still have left a margin that 
 would pay him at least 10%, and better 20%, on his invest- 
 ment. It often happens that this profit is not forthcoming 
 when everything is counted in on both sides of the account, 
 and often, too often in fact, instead of a profit to the feeder 
 there is a loss. This is the discouraging part of cattle feed- 
 ing. When much time and labor have been spent in buying 
 and bringing the cattle home, in gathering and storing the 
 feed, in caring for and feeding them, there is not much 
 encouragement when the feeder finds that instead of a gain, 
 he has sustained a direct loss on all his operations. 
 
 The question naturally arises: Is there anything which 
 the feeder can do to influence the amount of profit which 
 will accrue to his labor? There is certainly something for 
 him to do, and that is to exercise care and judgment in the 
 buying and selecting of the steers he puts into his feed lots. 
 No matter what skill is possessed by the feeder, unless the 
 animals placed under his care have been bought right, and 
 unless they have been carefully and wisely selected, his 
 efforts will be fruitless so far as the matter of profit is con- 
 cerned. Let us see first from what source or sources the 
 profits in steer feeding may come, and then we shall con- 
 sider the part which the buyer is responsible for. 
 
 Profit in steer feeding may come: first, from the con- 
 version of cheap raw materials, such as roughage in the 
 form of hay, corn stalks, and straw; grains, such as corn, 
 oats, peas, bran; or concentrates, such as oil meal, gluten 
 feed and blood meal, into high priced cuts of meat. In 
 the second place by the addition of extra fat and flesh we 
 
SELECTION OF FEEDER STEERS. 147 
 
 hope to increase the value of the whole carcass; i. e., we 
 aim to convert the 1,000-lbs. steer into a 1,350- It) s. prime 
 steer, and in doing this, make the whole carcass worth at 
 least 1% cents more per pound than when purchased for the 
 feed lot. There are several other items which may enter in 
 as profit to the steer feeder. A large amount of manure is 
 secured and thus increased fertility. A home market is 
 made for roughage and grains; and the manufactured pro- 
 duct, the beef animal, can be more easily and economically 
 transported to market. Then, too, there is employment for 
 labor which would perhaps otherwise have to be left unem- 
 ployed. The first two, however, are the important factors 
 in determining profit, and these are on such a narrow mar- 
 gin that they must be carefully looked after. 
 
 The buyer going out to purchase steers to put into the 
 feed lot must have before him an ideal which he seeks to 
 place on the market, and this ideal should be the prime or 
 choice bullock. He has in his mind's eye a low down, 
 blocky. deep, thick set animal with straight top and under- 
 line, a wide spring of rib giving a wide back, a wide, deep 
 loin, with good width between the hooks, a long, level rump, 
 and deep, thick hindquarters, with low down twist and inside 
 muscled to hock. This finished steer should possess a gen- 
 eral refinement in his whole make-up. He should be smooth 
 and fine about the head, which should be short and broad. 
 The neck should be short, thick and evenly blended with the 
 shoulders. The shoulders should be full and compact on 
 top and the hooks and pins should be snugly hidden away. 
 His legs should be short and fine, with no coarseness at the 
 joints. The flesh should be on evenly on all parts. With 
 all this refinement there should be no paunchiness. This 
 goes under the head of general quality, but in addition to 
 this the prime steer must possess what is termed ''handling 
 quality," which is indicated by a soft furry coat of hair, a 
 mellow, pliable skin, and firm, mellow flesh. This is the 
 prime steer which the feeder would seek to place upon the 
 market in order to secure the highest price going, and in 
 order that he may accomplish his desires the buyer must seek 
 to obtain for him the raw material in the shape of feeders 
 from which this sort can be made. He must secure such as 
 will put on flesh rapidly and economically. In order that the 
 
148 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 feeder steer may meet these demands there are certain attri- 
 butes which he must possess. First, he must be a good feeder. 
 We like a steer to be able to eat large quantities of food 
 and at the same time make good use of that food in the way 
 of laying on flesh. In the second place, he must possess a 
 strong constitution and have vigorous, stylish, general appear- 
 ance. In the third place he must possess the power of lay- 
 ing on flesh in the valuable parts on the loin, rump, ribs, 
 and rounds. In the fourth place, he must show signs of early 
 maturity. 
 
 The feeder steer has been described already in a pre- 
 vious lecture on "Market Classes and Grades," but on 
 account of its importance it will do no harm to repeat it in 
 this lecture. A low down, blocky form, is always desirable. 
 He should be deep in front and thick through the heart. A 
 wide spring of rib giving a wide back on which to carry 
 high priced meat. The rib should be round and deep, giving 
 the steer a roomy middle. If there is one thing to avoid in 
 a feeder steer it is that of a small, tucked-up abdomen. He 
 must have sufficient room for large digestive organs. The 
 loin should be wide and deeply laid on with muscles. The 
 hooks should be wide apart, but should lack any undue prom- 
 inence. A long, level rump, with heavily muscled, wide, 
 thick hindquarters, and a low twist. A short, broad head, 
 with large, mild, bright eye, large muzzle and mouth, a 
 heavily muscled under jaw, a short, thick, smoothly blended 
 neck, a big heart girth and roomy chest and low down hind 
 flank, all go with a good vigorous feeder. With this form 
 he should possess general refinement, which is indicated by 
 a clean cut head, free from meatiness and puffiness. A fine 
 flat horn, rather than one that is round and stubby; smoothly 
 laid shoulders without either sharpness about the bones and 
 joints of the legs. In addition to this he should be a supe- 
 rior "handler;" i. e., his skin should be loose, mellow and 
 pliable to the touch, and he should be thickly clad with a 
 soft, silky, furry coat of hair. He should have an abund- 
 ance of natural flesh or muscle along the back and loin, 
 about the hindquarters, over the shoulders and down the 
 ribs, and this should be mellow to the touch. 
 
 A feeder of this sort should give the very best returns 
 in a feed lot, so far as early maturity and economy of gain 
 
SELECTION OF FEEDER STEERS. 14J> 
 
 are concerned, and when taken to the market, if finished, 
 should find the top. 
 
 There is a leggy sort of steer possessing some general 
 roughness which will make a fair feeder. He will do away 
 with large quantities of feed and will always be up at the 
 rack, but he will not make such economical gains, nor will 
 he finish up at such an early age, and when he goes to mar- 
 ket he cannot command the highest price because he is off 
 on general quality. A steer of this kind is a loser all round. 
 
 Never select a long headed, long, slim necked, peaked 
 shouldered, narrow backed, slab sided, thin quartered, cat 
 hammed, harsh handling steer to put into a feed lot. Avoid 
 steers that are weak in constitution. They will always be a 
 source of annoyance by going off feed. 
 
 Choice feeders such as have been described above can 
 come only from some one of the special beef breeds. It is 
 not necessary that the dams should be registered. It is 
 well enough to have them high grades. It is necessary, how- 
 ever, that the sire should be a pedigreed animal with good 
 ancestry, and at the same time he himself should possess 
 the good points which we demand in the feeder, together 
 with that degree of masculinity which will insure prepotency. 
 
 Investigations have gone to show that beef bred feeders 
 are by all odds the most economical to feed. They dress a 
 higher percentage; deposit fat between the muscular tissue 
 instead of laying it on internally; their meat is "marbled" 
 and possesses a higher market value because of its juiciness 
 and delicious flavors. 
 
 It is better to buy young steers that have been kept 
 growing right along from birth and are in a good thrifty 
 condition. It is a well known fact that young animals make 
 more rapid and much more economical gains for the food 
 fed than do older animals. At the Chicago Fat Stock Show 
 in 1882 the cost of producing 100 pounds of gain was ascer- 
 tained to be as follows: 
 
 1 to 12 months. 12 to 24 months. 24 to 36 months. 
 $4.03. $7.98. $12.54. 
 
 Other investigations with larger numbers of animals have 
 shown similar results. 
 
 Young steers, too, adapt themselves to new and changed 
 conditions more readily than do older ones and lose less time 
 
150 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 in acquiring an appetite for the new foods which are sup- 
 plied in the feed lot. 
 
 Where one has a large amount of roughage to utilize, it 
 might be necessary to buy an older, larger animal to place 
 in the feed lot. It must be noted, however, that the day of 
 the heavyweight four or five year old steer is past. The 
 demand now is for the "handy weight" steer, weighing from 
 1,350 to 1,450 Ibs. The quicker he can be produced the 
 better it is for both the producer and the consumer. We 
 have discussed at some length the kind of steer to buy, but 
 we should know as well when and how to buy him. As to 
 when we shall buy him will depend largely upon conditions. 
 We usually buy when we are ready to handle them. The 
 market, too, will have something to do with time of buying. 
 The important matter is not so much when we "buy as what 
 we pay for our feeders. Much of the money lost in steer 
 feeding has been lost because of injudicious buying. There 
 was a time when we were sure of a good advance on the 
 buying price when the selling time came, but we can no 
 longer count on that. The steer feeder in order to insure 
 himself against loss should count on at least 1^ cents 
 advance on the buying price, and if feed stuffs are high, he 
 should count on not less than 2 cents advance. In order to 
 be sure of this advance, he must buy around 3 to 3%. Last 
 year (1902) beef was high and many feeders made good 
 money feeding steers. This caused large numbers to rush 
 into steer feeding during the winter of 1902-3. Many 
 paid over 4 cents for their stock. Corn became high in 
 price. Large numbers of animals placed on the market 
 made beef low and the feeders could realize no gains. Many 
 experienced serious losses. The man who would make a 
 success of buying and feeding must read carefully the signs 
 of the times. He should study well the local and market 
 conditions, and if these are not favorable, he should stay 
 out of the business until they are. 
 
 When buying, one should discriminate very seriously 
 against stunted steers that have been starved when young 
 things. These never do well and will be a source of con- 
 stant annoyance in the feed lot as well as a profit stealer 
 when the final balance is struck. 
 
SELECTION OF FEEDER STEERS. 151 
 
 Care should also be exercised in seeing that the steers 
 are weighed up right. If you buy steers that are weighed 
 up full of water or other cheap material, it will take a deal 
 of good feed to make good the loss you have allowed your- 
 self in this part of the operation. 
 
LECTURE XXXIII. 
 
 FEEDING STEERS IN THE DRY LOT. 
 
 While the results of many experiments and the experi- 
 ence of practical feeders conclusively prove that the most 
 profitable gains can be made by feeding steers on grass, 
 there are thousands of feeders who follow dry lot feeding 
 from necessity or choice. There are many others who prac- 
 tice feeding on grass, but who also follow winter feeding, 
 and this is necessarily dry lot feeding. It is, therefore, a 
 matter of prime importance to every feeder to become thor- 
 oughly conversant with those methods which have proved 
 to be of greatest value in producing maximum gains at a 
 minimum cost. 
 
 In feeding steers in the dry lot certain general consid- 
 erations demand attention. These are: size of lot, drainage 
 of same, bedding, protection from winds, sheds, watering 
 facilities, and arrangement of feed bunks. 
 
 The size of the lot, while variable, should be sufficient 
 in size to permit a team to be driven in and out, so that the 
 feeding may be done direct from the wagon. Extremely 
 large lots are not desirable, as the cost of surfacing them is 
 so great as to render it impracticable, and it is also a waste 
 of land, and it cannot be justified on the plea that the dis- 
 tribution of manure will repay the use of the land, for the 
 trampling of the soil during wet times in the spring more 
 than offsets the manuring the land receives. A lot 6x8 rods, 
 properly drained and surfaced, furnishes a far better place 
 for a load of fattening cattle than a larger lot, and is ample 
 for ordinary cases. 
 
 The matter of having lots that will remain free from mud. 
 even in wet weather, is of prime importance, and it must be 
 confessed a very difficult matter on the rich, black soils of 
 Illinois and Iowa. In Illinois the only apparent solution 
 seems to be the paving of feed yards ; but this is an expensive 
 matter, and we are not yet in possession of such data as will 
 prove the profitableness of such a plan. In Iowa, however, 
 it is possible to prepare and maintain excellent feed yards 
 without paving. 
 
DRV LOT FEEDING. 153 
 
 Good underdrainage is the first consideration, and where 
 the feed lots are located on a slope the tile should be laid 
 along the upper side of the lots, so as to prevent the moisture 
 from passing down from the higher land. The lot should 
 then be graded up with plow and scraper until it is high in 
 the center, with a fair slope to the sides; then haul gravel 
 on the lot until it is fairly well surfaced. This will require 
 the expenditure of some labor, but this will be practically 
 all, as there are but few parts of Iowa where gravel cannot 
 be obtained from gravel knolls or from stream beds. The 
 damage done to feeding cattle through having to remain in a 
 muddy feed lot may not be fully apparent to the novice, or 
 to those whose methods are so slipshod that they are unable 
 to tell definitely as to whether they are making a profit or 
 loss during the muddy weather; but while we have as yet 
 no definite data on this subject, experienced feeders are a 
 unit in declaring that profitable gains cannot be made in 
 muddy yards, and in a feeding experiment conducted by the 
 Iowa Experiment Station in 1903, where one lot of cattle 
 was kept in a fairly well drained yard, while another lot, 
 equally well fed, was kept in an extremely muddy lot, those 
 in the well drained lot made nearly double the gains that 
 the others did; and as it is a recognized fact that the great- 
 est gains can only be secured when cattle are most com- 
 fortable, no farther argument in favor of dry feed lots should 
 "be necessary. Bedding should be supplied in sufficient quan- 
 tity to permit the cattle to lie down in comfort. Economy 
 will usually be subserved by scattering the bedding on some 
 one side of the lot, and only over a limited space. 
 
 Expensive stabling is not to be thought of under western 
 conditions, and it is very doubtful whether the stall fed 
 steer enjoys life as fully, or gains as rapidly, as the brother 
 of the open feed lot. Protection from winds, however, should 
 T>e given either by artificial groves on the north and west 
 or by tight board fences. Inasmuch as groves cannot be 
 supplied on short notice, the tight board fences are often 
 resorted to, and with excellent success. These should be 
 strong and substantial, and are best made by setting strong 
 posts from 10 to 14 feet apart, nailing three 2x4 horizontally 
 to them at top, center and bottom and then nailing inch 
 "boards, six feet long, perpendicularly to these. The top 
 should be surmounted by regular fence capping, which can 
 
154 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 be secured at a nominal cost, and which will strengthen the- 
 fence greatly. 
 
 The sheds should be extremely simple. The only re- 
 quirement is that they shall protect the cattle from rain, 
 sleet or wet snows, for the cold rarely becomes intense 
 enough to make any provision for warmth necessary. For 
 this reason, sheds that have a wind proof north wall, similar 
 east and west ends, and a good roof, but that are entirely 
 open on the south, are usually sufficient for all practical pur- 
 poses, and the farmer's pocketbook will be far heavier than 
 if expensive stables were built. Summed up in a nutshell 
 the matter of fences and sheds is merely a matter of pro- 
 tection from wind and wet; the cold is usually no more than 
 sufficient to give a fattening steer a good appetite. 
 
 Water must be available to the steers at all times, and 
 dependence should never be placed on streams or ponds. In 
 the winter these are frozen, and by the time the owner or 
 hired man goes twice a day all winter to chop the ice and 
 drive the cattle to the freezing water, where they never 
 drink half what they ought to, patience will be a minus 
 quantity, and the steers will be short many pounds of gain. 
 In the spring, when freezing weather is past, the steers will 
 lose a pound or two by expending energy in pulling their 
 legs out of the mud. A tank in the feed lot so arranged that 
 it cannot freeze, and supplied from a cistern situated on 
 some height of ground, is the ideal arrangement, for this 
 water will be comparatively warm. Where the lay of the 
 land is such that a cistern cannot be arranged for, an ele- 
 vated tank must take its place, and this can best be put 
 up and arranged by some of the regular tank companies so 
 as to be free from frost. The piping should be well pro- 
 tected, and should be not less than 4% feet under ground. 
 For a tank in the feed lot, we have as yet seen no better 
 arrangement than that now in use at the Iowa Experiment 
 Station. These tanks are round bottomed, wooden tanks, 
 from ten to twelve feet long, similar to the wagon tanks in 
 use by many threshing companies. They are securely placed 
 on a rock foundation. The piping enters at the center of the 
 bottom and is controlled by a valve and a float. Around the 
 tank a cheap, strong frame was built, and this was packed 
 with sawdust. Hinged covers protect the top. The 
 frame is made of two inch planks and the cover of 
 
DRY LOT FEEDING. 155 
 
 the same material. The hinged portion of the cover two 
 feet at each end of the tank is of single thickness, but the 
 balance of the cover is double planked. Where it is desired 
 to water two lots of cattle, this tank can be set beneath the 
 partition fence, and works admirably. These tanks were in 
 use at the Iowa Station during the past year, and gave per- 
 fect satisfaction. Plenty of gravel and rock should always 
 l>e placed around the tanks to prevent mud. 
 
 The feed bunks should be of convenient size and mova- 
 ble, so that they may be changed from place to place to 
 equalize the tramping and to minimize the danger of making 
 mud holes. The ordinary flat bottomed feed bunk, from 12 
 to 14 feet long, constructed of two-inch stuff, and strongly 
 supported on 4x4 legs that are well braced with cross pieces, 
 is the most generally used of any and is probably the most 
 sensible arrangement yet devised. For roughage "sawhorse" 
 bunks can be built, or, better still, a roughage pen can be 
 built at one side of the feed lot, or between two lots. In 
 the latter case, it is simply a small lot built between two 
 lots, and forming part of the partition fence. The posts are 
 set about 12 feet apart, and the fencing, which should be 
 two-inch planks, is arranged so that the cattle can put their 
 heads through to feed. The roughage, be it straw, hay or 
 fodder, is piled up on the inside. Several loads may be 
 thrown off in this feeding pen at once, and an attendant can 
 move it up within reach of the cattle as seems necessary. 
 
 Comfort, without pampering, for the cattle, and conven- 
 ience, without needless expense, for the feeder, are the 
 essential features in the general management of feed lots 
 for dry lot feeding. 
 
LECTURE XXXIV. 
 
 FEEDING STEERS IN THE DRY LOT. (Continued.) 
 
 Having taken up in the previous lecture the general 
 points affecting dry lot feeding, we have next to deal with 
 actual feeding considerations. Long and short feeds, feed- 
 ing with and without hogs, getting cattle on feed, grains to 
 use, roughage best adapted to fattening steers, light, medium 
 and heavy rations, and the use of supplemental feeds, must 
 all be considered. 
 
 Long feeds are to be preferred where the cattle being 
 fed are comparatively young, the markets steady or rising 
 slightly, and where feed is low or medium in price. Under 
 such conditions the greatest possible gains are desired, and 
 these can best be secured on the 120 or 150 day feeds. 
 
 Short fed cattle make most money to the feeder when 
 grain is high in price, and when the margin between the 
 buying and selling price of cattle is narrow. Under such 
 conditions mature steers in thin condition can be crowded 
 at a phenomenal rate for 50 or 90 days, and while the cost 
 of gain will usually be as great or greater than in the case 
 of the long fed cattle, the investment is turned sooner, with 
 less risk at a time when markets are variable. 
 
 In feeding grain of any kind, more or less passes undi- 
 gested through the steers, and this waste is increased when 
 the cattle are on heavy feed. 
 
 Where good, thrifty shoats are allowed to run with the 
 steers, this waste is reduced to a minimum, for the hogs will 
 gather all waste that is to be found in the droppings. It 
 often happens, however, that cholera or swine plague de- 
 stroys the hogs, or renders them a very risky business prop- 
 osition, and in such cases the problem is to make the steer 
 utilize the feed so perfectly that little or no waste will be 
 left in the droppings. This is done by grinding the grain 
 fed, and the results of numerous experiments show that a 
 saving of about 12% is effected by grinding. Where hogs are 
 procurable, however, it is usually inadvisable to go to the 
 
DKY LOT FEEDING. 157 
 
 expense of grinding unless it be in the finishing period. At 
 this time the steer's digestive apparatus seems to be more 
 or less wearied, and the change from whole to ground grain 
 will usually result in stimulating gains. 
 
 Getting cattle properly started on feed is important, and 
 many novices make the error of undertaking to start the 
 steers too rapidly. The result is that the animals go off 
 feed, get to scouring, and are seriously set back. If the cattle 
 are natives, no difficulty will be experienced in starting them 
 on corn. Range steers, however, must acquire a taste for 
 grain, and it will often require two weeks feeding to get 
 them thoroughly in the notion of eating corn. During this 
 time they should receive such roughness as is at hand corn 
 fodder, hay or straw and should be given snapped corn. 
 This is the best feed known with which to start cattle. As 
 Professor Henry tersely puts it, "There is a freshness and 
 palatability about an ear of corn wrapt in nature's covering 
 which every steer recognizes and shows by the eagerness 
 with which he consumes it." The feeding hours should be 
 regular, and the attendants quiet. A rough, boisterous man 
 will do untold damage to a bunch of steers. If the feed is 
 to be a long one, the animals should receive but 4 or 5 
 pounds per head daily at first, with a gradual increase to 
 about 10 pounds per head daily by the end of the first month. 
 During the second month the feed can be gradually increased 
 and the animals brought to full feed by the middle of the 
 third month, and it will probably be advisable, where grind- 
 ing is cheap, to shift them to ground corn by the beginning 
 of the fourth month, even though the hogs are following. 
 Where a short feed is the rule, the feed should be increased 
 more rapidly; starting on 5 pounds per head daily, the in- 
 crease should be so gauged that they will be receiving 14 
 or 15 pounds per head daily by the end of the first month. 
 They should be on full feed, usually about 25 pounds, by the 
 middle of the second month, and for the most rapid forcing 
 the grain should be ground and mixed with cut hay or straw. 
 
 Changes in feed should always be made cautiously, and 
 can best be accomplished by gradually reducing one feed, 
 while increasing the other, and where cattle are on full feed, 
 at least a week or ten days should elapse in making the 
 change. At the start one feed per day is enough, but as the 
 feed is increased two feeds are preferable. 
 
158 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Corn is the feed par excellence for fattening steers, and 
 under prevailing conditions in the great central states it is 
 the only staple feed used. In regions where corn is scarce 
 or high in price, wheat, barley, oats and roots are used; 
 and in some of the western states, sole dependence is some- 
 times placed on alfalfa, and with very good success. The 
 question of feeding corn alone, or with other feeds, will be 
 discussed in a later paragraph. 
 
 The roughage fed must be controlled chiefly by supplies 
 on hand and prevailing prices. Good, bright clover . hay is 
 the ideal roughage to feed with corn; but it is difficult to 
 secure, and high prices often prevent its use. Corn fodder, 
 preferably cut before the leaves have dried up, can also be 
 used, and even wheat and oat straw, used as roughage, have 
 a feeding value that is surprising to many. Whatever the 
 roughage be, the steers should receive all they want of it, 
 but it should not be piled before them in such amounts that 
 they cannot clean it up. Steers will not eat roughage they 
 have breathed over for any length of time, and the aim 
 should be to supply their needs once or twice a day. 
 
 The question of light, medium and heavy rations for fat- 
 tening cattle has aroused much discussion since feeds have 
 become high in price. The experiments conducted along this 
 line by the Iowa Experiment Station in 1903 are the only 
 available ones, and cannot be accepted as conclusive until 
 further tests are made. They show, however, that the cost 
 of gain was least on the light, and greatest on the heavy 
 ration bunch; the medium ration bunch occupying a middle 
 position. When total gains and selling prices are consid- 
 ered, however, the heavy ration proved slightly the best, as 
 the greater gain in weight and the consequent higher selling 
 price were sufficient to place this lot in the lead on returns; 
 but the light ration bunch ranked next when the same factors 
 were considered. Further experiments must be conducted 
 along this line. 
 
 The use of supplemental feed stuffs from the packing 
 houses, oil mills and glucose factories, has engaged the atten- 
 tion of feeders for several years past. The experiments con- 
 ducted by the Iowa Experiment Station go to show that the 
 cost of these supplemental stuffs is the chief point to be con- 
 sidered. 
 
DRY LOT FEEDING. 159 
 
 When corn is high and these various by-products are 
 moderate in cost, they can profitably be used; but where 
 the reverse is true, corn alone will prove most profitable. 
 This question is too extended to be taken up in full here, 
 and the student should write to the Director of the Iowa 
 Experiment Station for full reports on this matter, which 
 have been published in bulletin form. 
 
 In conclusion, the chief points to be observed in feeding 
 steers in the dry lot are: comfort for the cattle, convenient 
 feeding facilities and water supply, quietness and regularity 
 in feeding, and a careful study of the comparative cost of 
 the feeds which it is desired to use. 
 
LECTURE XXXV. 
 
 FATTENING STEERS ON GRASS. 
 
 Throughout the corn belt the major portion of the cattle 
 feeding has been done during the winter months. There are 
 many reasons for doing so in preference to summer feeding. 
 With the crib full of corn a man naturally seeks some way 
 of disposing of the same. The farmer also has more time 
 to care for the stock during the fall and winter months than 
 during the summer. These things in the past seem to have 
 settled the policy that during the fall and winter months was 
 the most convenient time to make beef. 
 
 To the man who has tried both methods it is not neces- 
 sary to argue the matter. He knows too well that a combina- 
 tion of blue grass pasture and corn is the most economical 
 method yet known to the American agriculturist for the pro- 
 duction of beef of the very highest quality. All of our feed- 
 ing experiments verify the above statement. 
 
 Recent experiments conducted by the Iowa Experiment 
 Station, also those by other experiment stations, show very 
 clearly that a pound of gain on the beef animal can be pro- 
 duced in summer for less than two-thirds of the cost of pro- 
 ducing the same during the fall and winter months on the 
 same quality of cattle. In these tests the corn consumed 
 was valued at 50c per bushel, and the pasture charged at 
 the rate of $1.15 per month per acre. 
 
 One of the most vital periods in the life of a steer that 
 is to be finished on grass, is the changing from the dry feed 
 lot to the pasture. Right here is where many men lose a 
 month's feed, and in some instances give their cattle such a 
 serious set-back that they never make satisfactory gains 
 thereafter. Too much care and judgment cannot be exer- 
 cised by the feeder at this time. He must accomplish the 
 change without any loss or shrinkage in his cattle. In fact 
 he should aim to maintain his former daily gains, and such 
 a thing is possible. 
 
 In making this change no one set of instructions will 
 apply to all conditions. The previous management of the 
 
FATTENING STEERS ON GRASS. 161 
 
 cattle must be carefully considered. Cattle which have been 
 on full feed must be handled differently from those which 
 have been on medium or light rations. The length of time 
 the animals are to be fed that is, whether they are intended 
 for early summer, late summer, early fall, or winter market 
 must be considered. Cattle which have been on full feed for 
 several months and intended to be marketed not later than 
 the first of June, should not be changed from the dry lot to 
 pasture. Such a change cannot usually be made without a 
 loss to the owner. This is due to the fact that while they 
 have been almost finished in the dry lot, yet they will sell 
 as grass fed cattle. Further, they will not ship nearly so 
 well as those from the dry lot, as the grass during the early 
 months is very soft and washy, thus a heavy shrinkage must 
 be expected from cattle fed on the same. These points 
 should be carefully considered by the feeder. 
 
 When cattle are once placed upon full feed there should 
 never be any let-up, but they should be fattened to a finish 
 as soon as possible. Thus cattle which have been on full 
 feed should continue to receive the same after being changed 
 to the grass lot. In feeding cattle on grass, the best results 
 will usually be obtained from those which have not received 
 very much grain during the winter months. In this respect 
 animals which have never received more than half a grain 
 ration usually make much more satisfactory returns than 
 those which have been on a full grain ration. This Is due to 
 the fact that animals will usually make about as heavy gains 
 on a medium grain ration and grass as they "will on a heavy 
 grain ration. They will always make much more economical 
 gains from the light or medium rations. The main and only 
 advantage of the heavy ration is that it will usually furnish 
 an earlier finish. Thus the feeder must use his judgment as 
 to whether he will feed light or heavy rations and be guided 
 by the length of the feeding period. 
 
 Making the change from dry roughage to grass is a crit- 
 ical point. There is much difference of opinion as to the best 
 ways, each of which can be practiced with fair success. The 
 first is to keep the cattle in the feed lots until the grass has 
 made a good growth, then turn them on pasture for a few 
 hours each afternoon when the grass is free from external 
 moisture, the regular allowance of grain and roughage being 
 supplied them in the feed lots; that is, they are fed and 
 
162 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 watered as usual, and allowed to eat hay in the feed lots all 
 forenoon. When returned to the feed lot they should have 
 all the coarse fodder they will consume and their regular 
 allowance of grain. By continuing this method from ten days 
 to two weeks, gradually increasing the time in the pasture, 
 gain can be made continuously in the great majority of cases. 
 
 The advantages of the above methods are mostly in favor 
 of the pasture lot. It allows the grass to make a good growth 
 early in the season, thus enabling it to withstand heavier 
 grazing later on, and also periods of drought. The objections 
 are that some cattle after once grazing upon fresh grass will 
 not take kindly to the roughage supplied in the dry feed lot. 
 
 The other method of accomplishing this change, in many 
 respects the best one to adopt, is to allow the cattle a run 
 of the grass lot as it commences to grow in the spring. This 
 is especially true when the pasture lots are convenient to 
 the feed yards so that the cattle may have access to both 
 without involving too much labor on the part of the feeder. 
 Another point which will aid very much in making this 
 change will be the presence of the old grass in the pasture 
 lot. The wise feeder will not allow his pasture lots to be 
 grazed too closely the previous fall. An abundance of dried 
 grass in the spring of the year will aid the feeder very much 
 in making a gradual change from the feed lot to the pasture 
 lot, as then the tender blades, which are very watery, will 
 be combined with some of the matured grass, thus affording 
 a more substantial diet. Where the above mentioned condi- 
 tions prevail, the cattle should be allowed the run of the 
 pasture lot before the grass has made much growth. They 
 should receive their regular allowance of grain and have 
 fresh roughage supplied in their feed racks as long as they 
 will partake of the same. This allows of a most gradual 
 change. As the grass makes more growth they will get a 
 little more of it each day, thus requiring that much less of 
 the fodder in the feed lot. As previously stated, the presence 
 of matured grass in the pasture lot will aid very much in 
 bringing about this change. 
 
 Recent tests along this line conducted by the Iowa Ex- 
 periment Station on the Cook farms at Odebolt, Iowa, have 
 demonstrated that such a change is feasible. The cattle con- 
 tinued to eat their former roughage for several weeks and 
 made better than two and a half pounds gain per steer per 
 
FATTENING STEERS ON GRASS. 163 
 
 day during the intervening period. A change of this kind 
 does not allow the grass to get any start whatever, especially 
 early in the season, thus more acreage is required to furnish 
 abundant feed during periods of dry weather. 
 
 It is very doubtful as to whether it pays to feed young 
 animals or animals which have not previously had much 
 grain much, if any while the supply of grass is abundant. 
 This is especially true of animals which are not intended for 
 the early fall market. Tests made by the Iowa Experiment 
 Station along this line, where two bunches of cattle of equal 
 quality were allowed the run of equal areas of good blue 
 grass pasture, one receiving grain in addition, and the other 
 lot on grass alone, would lead us to believe that practically 
 as heavy, and much more economical gains, can be secured 
 from grass alone as from a ration of grain in addition to 
 grass during those months when grass is plentiful. During 
 the hot, dry months, a small ration of corn was found to be 
 very helpful. This will be governed to a certain extent by 
 the supply of grass. If the grass is short some grain can 
 be fed to advantage. The preparation of corn for cattle on 
 grass is an important point. When cattle are changed from 
 dry feed to grass their mouths soon indicate a tenderness 
 that makes the dry, hard corn difficult of mastication. This 
 calls for preparation of some kind. Many advocate the grind- 
 ing of the corn. In our experience shelled corn which has 
 been soaked for about twelve hours has given the best satis- 
 faction. The shelled corn which passes through the animal 
 undigested is more likely to be utilized by the hogs which 
 follow the cattle. Where there are no hogs to follow the 
 cattle and corn is high in price it should always be ground, 
 as this will save about twelve per cent. Thus the price of 
 corn will determine the advisability of grinding the same. 
 
 Cattle on grass should be fed grain but once a day, and 
 that always in the evening. The advantages of feeding in 
 the evening are that the cattle being full of grass then will 
 consume the soaked shelled corn more leisurely than when 
 the stomach is empty. They soon lie down and rumination 
 commences and is far more effective on the corn when the 
 stomach is full of grass. Careful observation leads us to be- 
 lieve that less undigested corn is found in the droppings 
 when the cattle are fed on full stomachs in the evening than 
 when they are fed on empty stomachs in the morning. 
 
164 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 An abundance of grass is one of the surest ways of secur- 
 ing good gains. Too many cattle feeders overcrowd their 
 pastures, and by so doing are always scarce of grass. "Grass 
 to the knees" is a good motto for the cattle feeder to frame 
 in his own mind and to put into practice on his farm. Plenty 
 of pure, fresh water should always be available. No effort 
 should be made, however, to induce feeding cattle to consume 
 large quantities of water, as it is not considered to be con- 
 ducive to the most economical gains. Fattening cattle usually 
 show a strong desire for salt, and this craving should be sat- 
 isfied by a reasonable supply. The excessive use of salt 
 leads to a heavy consumption of water, which is not consist- 
 ent with heavy gains. Where shelter is provided, granular 
 salt may be used, but if exposed to the weather rock salt only 
 should be supplied. 
 
 Protection from the hot sun and flies should be provided. 
 For this purpose a good grove will be a valuable adjunct. 
 If natural shade of this kind is not available, it should be 
 provided for otherwise. Some of the most successful Iowa 
 feeders have large sheds and barns for this purpose. One 
 very successful feeder houses his cattle during the day in 
 hot weather and allows them the run of the grass lot at 
 night. During periods of drought forage crops can be utilized 
 to good advantage. Sweet corn is one of the best things for 
 this purpose. Sorghum and field corn can also be made to 
 serve a useful purpose. These crops, however, are largely 
 water during the early stages, hence must be fed in large 
 quantities to insure good returns. 
 
 The shipping of grass fed cattle is an important point, as 
 grass cattle do not usually ship well. To ship such cattle 
 is a hard task, but it must be done, Where convenient it is 
 a good plan to place such cattle in a yard and feed them hay 
 for a day or two, reducing the corn ration somewhat. The 
 secret of shipping all classes of cattle is to place them on the 
 cars full of feed but with as little moisture as possible. Cattle 
 well bedded always ship better than those not thus provided. 
 
LECTURE XXXVI. 
 
 PREPARATION OF CATTLE FOR MARKET. 
 
 In preparing cattle for shipping every precaution and the 
 greatest care should be exercised by the feeder or shipper 
 so that the animals will reach the market in prime condition. 
 
 If the steers are being finished on grass and grain, they 
 should be taken off the pasture and put in a dry lot at least 
 twenty-four hours, or better still forty-eight hours, before 
 shipping, and fed only half their usual allowance of grain, 
 with all the hay they will eat. In some cases it is advisable 
 to feed no grain, thus getting the animals to eat considerable 
 bulky food, such as hay. The whole secret, if there is such 
 a thing, of shipping cattle successfully, is to get them full of 
 dry food just previous to the time they are placed on the 
 cars and market. That is, the less moisture the food con- 
 tains in proportion to dry material, the better, because as a 
 rule a steer that is largely filled with water has a tendency 
 to scour, and thus show up gaunt and bad on the market. 
 Some unscrupulous shippers have a custom of salting their 
 cattle, so that they drink large amounts of water and fill up 
 on the same. This is something that is usually very detri- 
 mental to the sale of the cattle. It is useless for the shipper 
 to think he can fool the buyer by such a practice. By feed- 
 ing a large quantity of salt one is apt to bring on a fevered 
 condition in the animal's stomach or digestive organs, thus 
 causing it to drink an unnatural amount of water, which in 
 turn causes a looseness of the bowels and a surprising shrink- 
 age. 
 
 When the cattle are taken off pasture they should be put 
 in as dry a yard as possible, so that they may keep tolerably 
 clean. Do not leave the ordering of the car until the last 
 minute, but rather order it so that it can be properly bedded 
 and a good supply of hay put in its racks. Straw, of course, 
 makes the best kind of bedding one can use; however, the 
 most essential thing is that of supplying plenty of whatever 
 
IQQ LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 is available. To simply half bed a car, in many cases, is like 
 cutting the price of the cattle, because they become dirty and 
 much of their finish and quality is apparently lost. 
 
 There is nothing better than good sweet hay for cattle 
 before loading or in transit. Some shippers advise feeding 
 a small quantity of grain, but as a rule grain, especially corn, 
 has a tendency to fever the animals and cause them to drink 
 too much water. Thus, all things considered, the less grain 
 that is fed just previous to and during shipment the better. 
 When the cattle are ready for shipment, they should be 
 driven over the scales and the weights recorded. They then 
 should be driven very carefully to the stock yards or station 
 where they are to be shipped. If the weather is warm, they 
 should be driven in the morning while it is cool. Quietness 
 and gentleness should be in evidence in putting cattle on 
 and off the cars. All hurry or violence should be dispensed 
 with, as such usually causes heavy losses in weight. 
 
 As a rule about twenty good sized steers will fill a car; 
 however, one should not rely on any given number, but 
 rather go by the amount of space in the car. That is, always 
 fill the car just as full as it will hold of cattle of a uniform 
 size. By allowing the animals too much space they will push, 
 fight and jam each other so that they will shrink considera- 
 bly more than if they are crowded enough to keep them 
 quiet. If the shipping takes place in mid-summer, when it 
 is very warm, care must be taken to supply the animals with 
 plenty of water on the car. 
 
 If the steers are on full feed in a dry lot the same pre- 
 cautions practically, as above mentioned, will suffice. How- 
 ever, less time or trouble will be required to get the animals 
 in good shipping condition. The full feed ration of grain 
 should be reduced to one-half, a couple of days before ship- 
 ping. 
 
 Whatever distance one has to ship, he should make it a 
 point to have the cattle arrive at the sale yards at 5 a. m., 
 or at least never later than 8 a. m. By such procedure the 
 animals can be fed and watered and thereby make a favora- 
 ble impression on the buyer, as they will evidently be 
 straightened up and appear fairly plump or full. In watering 
 cattle in the yards do not allow them to suck and drink at 
 a half or nearly empty trough, because they are certain to 
 partially fill themselves with air instead of water, thus caus- 
 ing them to appear full, yet weigh light. 
 
PREPARATION FOR MARKET. 167 
 
 It is also important that the cattle be treated decently 
 while in the care of the train crew. That is, one should not 
 allow his cattle to be abused by rough switching, etc., on 
 the road. In other words, always strive to reduce the excite- 
 ment of the changes to a minimum, and above all things, do 
 not run the cattle with a horse or dog, or allow boisterous 
 men to abuse them while loading or unloading. 
 
LECTURE XXXVII. 
 
 STABLING SUITABLE FOR BEEF CATTLE. 
 
 Live stock farming can be successfully followed without 
 the aid of expensive stabling, but protection from the severe- 
 cold and wind must be provided. 
 
 One must first study the conditions of his locality so that, 
 he may arrive at the best and cheapest methods to be used 
 in construction of a barn. He must also construct it so that 
 it will be adapted to the country, feed and animals. For in- 
 stance, in the eastern and north-eastern districts, where 
 plenty of stone is available, it is usually expedient to build 
 stone foundations or basement walls. 
 
 The custom in localities where plenty of stone can be 
 obtained on the farm is that of building a side-hill or bank 
 barn. That is, they select a bank or side hill in order to 
 reduce the approach to the second floor to a minimum. Some 
 build stone walls all around the basement, while others only 
 use stone against the bank. When the bank wall is built of" 
 stone and the balance of the basement of wood, as a rule 
 the stable is not as damp as when the walls are all stone. 
 Brick may also serve the same purpose as the stone, but it 
 is very expensive for the average farmer. Such barns should 
 be well ventilated if the animals are expected to keep healthy. 
 Never allow the ventilator ducts to open near the ceiling, 
 as this has a tendency to draw off the warm air. It is always 
 better to have the air come in and go out near the floor of 
 the barn, so that an even temperature can be kept at all 
 times and as much of the heat conserved as possible. 
 
 The above kind of barn is well adapted for conditions 
 where large quantities of roots, ensilage and foods of a sim- 
 ilar nature are fed. In such close, warm barns the food 
 required to keep up the heat of the animal body is reduced 
 to a minimum; and an abundance of feed can be stored in 
 the upper part of the barn. 
 
 The construction of prairie or western stables, however, 
 is something which we are more concerned with than those- 
 
STABLING FOR BEEF CATTLE. 169 
 
 of the east. In constructing a barn in the west one should 
 take into consideration the number of animals he intends to 
 house and the amount of shelter in the form of trees, he 
 has at hand. In many of the prairie districts rock or brick 
 is too expensive for the farmer to think of using them except 
 for foundation purposes. If one is building a barn for pure 
 bred stock, he should build it large enough to hold all his 
 cows tied up; and there should be room for bulls and calves 
 in box stalls. All young stock, such as heifers, are fully as 
 well off in comfortable sheds and well sheltered yards. If 
 the animals are to be fed largely on corn or food of a car- 
 bonaceous nature the stabling need not be made very close 
 or warm. Where a large number are kept in one barn, it will 
 be found warm enough if the walls are simply made of inch 
 boards. Of course all space or cracks between the boards 
 should be covered. A better and a more substantial wall, 
 however, is obtained by placing common boards on the stud- 
 ding; then paper on top of them and finishing outside with 
 drop siding. In such a barn one can feed considerable roots, 
 ensilage or watery foods very satisfactorily. In constructing 
 the basement everything should be arranged so that the 
 greatest number can be housed and attended with the least 
 labor possible. That is, one should have the feed room and 
 all the mature animals near the center of the barn, so that 
 the bulk of the feed will only have to be carried a short dis- 
 tance. It may seem unwise to keep the young animals, such 
 as calves, in the outside box stalls: however, all things con- 
 sidered, it is the best system. That is, the calves can be put 
 in stalls directly behind their mothers; the* droppings from 
 the cows can be readily cleaned out with a wheelbarrow 
 every day and the box stalls at intervals of once or twice a 
 week with the wagon. In tying up cows or matured animals 
 a stanchion is not a fit tie. Some prefer to have a cow tied 
 in a single stall, but such a method is better adapted to dairy 
 purposes than any other. It is true when such a method of 
 tying is employed there is less danger of cows tramping on 
 each other's teats, etc. In order to economize space it is not 
 advisable to tie cows separately, but instead it is far better 
 to tie them in pairs by chains. Bulls of all ages should be 
 kept in box stalls, which should have doors opening to the 
 outside. Water should be available in the barn, so that the 
 cattle may be watered inside on extremely cold days in 
 winter. 
 
170 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 In regard to floors that one should use in a barn, there is 
 considerable difference of opinion. A plank floor will last 
 from 3 to 5 years, or longer, providing it is kept dry or wet 
 continually. If allowed to become wet one season and dry 
 during the other, the life of a floor is usually very short. If 
 one is desirous of obtaining a permanent floor, cement is 
 undoubtedly the best. Some maintain that a cement floor 
 is too cold and that it is dangerous for pregnant cows to walk 
 on; this trouble, however, can largely if not altogether, be 
 overcome by bedding properly; something which should be 
 done by every stockman on any kind of a floor. 
 
 For feeding cattle inexpensive buildings will suffice in 
 the majority of cases. Most of the meat in the west that is 
 sent to market is produced by out-of-door feeding; however, 
 it is the poorest sort of economy to feed too much grain to 
 the wind or elements. Sheltered feed yards are a necessity 
 if the largest profits are to be reaped. If one has a good 
 grove around his buildings so that the penetrating winds will 
 be checked, sheds will furnish comfortable enough quarters 
 for cattle on full feed. The food of support required is much 
 larger on a windy day for an unprotected animal than for one 
 that is sheltered from the blasts, just as increased fuel is 
 demanded for the stove with unchecked draft. Close 
 stabling such as tying up in a stable has been found im- 
 practicable in the west. Cattle will do better where they 
 have their freedom and reasonable shelter. If one is unable 
 to build permanent substantial sheds which will keep animals 
 comfortable, a simple and cheap shed or shelter can be 
 obtained by stacking hay, straw or fodder, forming an L- 
 shaped corner. Then by setting a few poles for a straw- 
 thatched roof, the cold rains, sleets, snows and winds of our 
 prairie states can be warded off. A man who furnishes his 
 feeding animals with thorough protection from the wind and 
 gives them tempered water to drink, needs not consult his 
 pocketbook for costly buildings. The fundamental truth in 
 feeding should always be borne in mind; self-preservation is 
 the first law of nature. There is no use of pampering, as this 
 only tends to enervate animals; nor is close housing advisa- 
 ble, as this has a tendency to weaken the system and bring 
 on disease. There is loss in each extreme; thus the stock- 
 man should strive to find the happy medium. 
 
LECTURE XXXIII. 
 
 REARING DAIRY CALVES. 
 
 It is with the dairy animals just as with the beef animal. 
 If we are going to derive the greatest amount of gain from 
 them, we must start them right when young things. The 
 beef animal is trained from birth to put on flesh. The dairy 
 animal should be trained from birth with a view to the pro- 
 duction of milk. This must be our ideal a cow that is 
 capable of consuming and digesting large quantities of suit- 
 able food and capable also of exchanging that food into milk 
 rather than into flesh and fat, except what is required to 
 keep her body in a strong and healthy condition. 
 
 In order to get this kind of cow we must start with the 
 calf and feed it right. Do not feed it foods that tend to fat- 
 ten. Let it have its mother's whole milk for three or four 
 days. The calf should always have its mother's first milk. 
 For the next four weeks continue giving it warm sweet milk, 
 a part of which may be skim milk at the start. At the end 
 of two weeks skim milk may be substituted in whole for the 
 whole milk. At this time, when the whole milk is taken 
 away, it is a good thing to add a little oil meal to take the 
 place of the nutrients which are lost by taking away the 
 whole milk. Begin with about a tablespoonful a day, in 
 the form of gruel or flaxseed jelly, and gradually increase 
 this to two tablespoonfuls a day. Flaxseed jelly is made by 
 boiling the seed, while the gruel is prepared by steeping the 
 oil meal in water. 
 
 Do not overfeed your calf. When the calf is young, 
 feed at least three times a day, having the milk warmed to 
 blood heat. 
 
 Four to six quarts a day fed in three feeds should be 
 enough for a calf up to eight weeks old, when two feeds are 
 sufficient, and the quantity of milk can be increased as the 
 calf grows older until 20 to 24 pounds is reached. 
 
 By this time the calf will begin to nibble at hay if it 
 can get it. It is a good plan to have some nice early cut 
 clover hay to put in its manger. If you feed new clover in 
 
111! LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 the summer, be sure to have it cut some time before and 
 allow it to wilt before feeding. Ground oats, bran or shorts 
 may be given it now. It can be easily taught to eat them, 
 too. Take a little in your hand when you go to feed it milk, 
 and when it has finished let it rub its nose in your hand. 
 Some of the oats will stick to its nose. It will lick them 
 off, and by repeating this a few times the calf will have 
 acquired a liking for them, when they can be placed in its 
 manger. This method of feeding may be continued until 
 the calf is seven to eight months old. As has been stated 
 at the outset, this method of feeding the dairy calf is not 
 intended to produce fat, but it develops a strong, well 
 muscled frame. If the calf has been furnished sufficient 
 palatable coarse fodder, it will have developed, too, a large 
 roomy abdomen and digestive organs, without which we can 
 have no dairy animal. The greatest success has been 
 achieved with calves dropped in the fall. In the winter time 
 the farmer has more time to care for them, and when spring 
 comes and with it the succulent, nutritious grass of the pas- 
 tures, the young thing can be turned out and will make 
 steady and rapid growth. 
 
 Above all things do not allow your dairy animals to 
 acquire the habit of putting on fat. If you do so by feeding 
 them fat producing foods, such as corn, timothy hay, etc., 
 you will spoil what otherwise might have been an excellent 
 dairy animal. 
 
 The calf should for the first few months be kept inside 
 in clean, comfortable quarters, with plenty of light and pure 
 air. Keep the young things healthy. In winter they should 
 be protected from the cold, and in summer from the heat and 
 flies. Never allow grain to be left over in the manger from 
 one feeding time to another. Cleanliness should also be 
 observed in the matter of feeding the calf from a clean pail. 
 Do not ask the calf to drink from a sour, foul smelling pail, 
 as this may give rise to serious digestive trouble. This 
 method applies to both heifer and bull calves. 
 
LECTURE XXXIX. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY 
 HEIFERS. 
 
 The young heifers are taken in from the pasture in the 
 pink of condition. They should not be fat, but they 
 should be growthy and thrifty looking, with bright eyes and 
 large nostrils. Their coats should be sleek and glossy. A 
 large, roomy abdomen will indicate a large digestive tract 
 in which to make good use of large quantities of roughage, 
 such as corn stalks, hay, alfalfa and silage. 
 
 Provide good, comfortable quarters and feed good 
 muscle and bone forming ration made up of clover hay, corn 
 silage, roots, a little bran or ground oats, with some corn 
 fodder and straw once in a while for a change. Bear in 
 mind that the heifer, like the calf, must not acquire the 
 habit of putting on fat; so beware of corn or other fat 
 producing foods. Silage and roots will take the place of the 
 succulent pasture grass and will tend to keep them in good 
 health. 
 
 When to Breed Her. The heifer should be bred at from 
 15 to 20 months, so that she will freshen (drop her calf) for 
 the first time at from 2 to 2% years of age. Let her begin 
 her life duties at an early age. Giving birth to her first 
 offspring is a trying time in the life of the young heifer. 
 Comfort and kindness should not be spared her. Up to this 
 time she should be handled and made entirely familiar with 
 her attendant, the cattleman, whoever he may be. Even 
 then she will be timid at this time. Place her in a comfort- 
 able box stall when she shows signs of parturition, so that 
 you can be near to show her such attentions as she may 
 require. A couple of days before parturition reduce her 
 ration somewhat and give her a dose of salts as a drench. 
 This will have a tendency to prevent milk fever and other 
 troubles which might arise at this time. 
 
 After calving do not allow her to have any cold water 
 for 24 hours. Give her a little tepid water to drink, and if 
 
174 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 she need nourishment, make a thin gruel which she can 
 drink. After this, she may be put on a light ration of hay, 
 silage, roots, and grain (oats, bran, ground peas, a little oil 
 meal or gluten feed), which may be gradually increased until 
 at 3 or 4 weeks she may be on full ration. 
 
 Do not allow her calf to suck her more than two days 
 at most. The quicker it is weaned, the better for both calf 
 and cow. Sometimes a heifer wants her calf so badly that 
 she will be inclined to hold up her milk unless it is present. 
 This difficulty may be overcome by using a little kindness. 
 Never whip her or abuse her in any way to make her give 
 down her milk. Treat her kindly. It pays. You have the 
 making or spoiling of what otherwise might be a first-class 
 cow. Try the plan of having her calf near enough so she 
 can lick it while you draw the milk from her. Repeat this 
 a few times and pretty soon the calf can be removed alto- 
 gether. It is not a good plan to feed a cow to get her to 
 give down her milk. When the operation of milking is going 
 on the cow and the man should be working in perfect har- 
 mony. 
 
 Keep her milking just as long as you can get a drop of 
 milk from her at this first milking period. Feed her well on 
 milk producing foods and make her milk 11 months. Don't 
 let her dry up. She must form the habit of milking for a 
 long time and of giving large quantities. Feed and manage- 
 ment have much to do with her acquiring this habit. Do 
 not allow her to be bred right away after dropping her first 
 calf. This has been a severe trial to her and she should 
 have time to recuperate. Breed her so that she will drop 
 her second calf not less than 15 months from first fresh- 
 ening. 
 
 If, during her second period of lactation, she does not 
 give upwards of 6,000 pounds of milk or make 250 pounds of 
 butter, she should be disposed of, as she will not make a cow 
 that will pay her way as a dairy cow. 
 
 A heifer's first calf, if a heifer, should not be kept for a 
 dairy cow. 
 
LECTURE XL. 
 
 THE WINTER CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE 
 DAIRY HERD. 
 
 There was a time not so long ago when the dairy cow's 
 work was done almost entirely in the summer. Her master 
 thought it was asking too much of her to give milk during 
 the cold months of winter and thought that a ten months' 
 lactation period was too great a strain upon her nervous 
 system. 
 
 During the winter months he allowed her to eat straw 
 or corn stalks without any grain. She ran out of doors much 
 of the time, taking shelter on the lee side of a stack or rail 
 fence. 
 
 She was forced to travel perhaps a long distance to a 
 spring or creek in order to satisfy her thirst. No grain was 
 ever seen in her manger. 
 
 Times and conditions have changed and the dairyman 
 has changed, and the dairy cow has become a veritable 
 machine used for the purpose of converting plant food into 
 rich milk. The dairy cow is now kept for profit. In many 
 places she is kept milking almost the year round. She is a 
 constant care, and to this care responds with an increased 
 flow of milk containing a high percentage of butter fat. 
 
 Many follow the plan of having their dairy cows freshen 
 in the fall or early winter. There is usually more available 
 labor then to care for them. Dairy products, too, have a 
 higher value then as a rule. The cow has to be fed, housed, 
 ana kept in good condition. If she is milking, the same labor 
 with a little more feed will bring a profit to her owner. 
 When she has milked five or six months and is beginning 
 to let up a little on the flow, the spring is here and with it 
 the fresh, green, succulent pasture grass, and being turned 
 out on this the flow is increased and she is encouraged to 
 go on, giving a good amount for four or five months, when 
 she will begin to slack up to get ready for another lactation 
 period. 
 
176 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The first thing to see to is that the dairy cow be pro- 
 vided with a stable where she will be warm and comfort- 
 able in every respect. Cleanliness should prevail in her 
 quarters. Her attendant should be kind and gentle in all 
 his dealings with her. An animal with such a high nervous 
 temperament, and one from which so much is expected, 
 should never receive the slightest unkindness. Her feed 
 should consist of milk producing elements. The feeder must 
 study the likes and dislikes of his several individual cows. 
 He must study the individuality of each cow and suit his 
 feeds to them. A good and suitable ration for the dairy cow 
 is made up of clover hay, corn silage, roots, some cornstalks 
 and straw for variety, with a grain mixture consisting of 
 oats, barley, peas, a little oil meal or gluten feed. Science 
 and practice working together have demonstrated that a 
 ration consisting of 1 part protein to B 1 /^ to 6 parts carbohy- 
 drates, is most suitable for her when in milk. Feed her lib- 
 erally with the cheaper, bulkier foods, making them pala- 
 table. Feed meal and other concentrated foods, according 
 to the milk flow. Ten pounds of clover hay, 30 to 40 pounds 
 roots, and 30 pounds silage, with 8 pounds grain mixture for 
 every 30 pounds of milk (2^ gals.), has proven itself to be 
 a good ration. The grain mixture may consist of 4 pounds 
 bran, 2% pounds ground oats, \y z pounds oil meal or gluten 
 meal per day. This ration may be increased so long as the 
 cow responds and there are no signs of indigestion. Feed 
 this ration morning and evening, and at noon give a small 
 feed of coarse hay or straw. 
 
 Some follow the plan of cutting the hay and pulping the 
 roots, where such are fed. These are mixed in the feed 
 room by putting down a layer of cut hay, then a layer of 
 roots, and then a layer of silage. This is allowed to stand 
 for 12 hours before feeding. This makes the whole mass 
 soft and palatable. One of the secrets of success in the dairy 
 business is that of making the cow consume a great deal of 
 coarse but nutritious fodder. It pays to cut up the roughage 
 and the roots and also to grind the grain. By doing this you 
 relieve the cow of a good deal of grinding and she remuner- 
 ates you by a larger flow of milk. Study to give her a 
 variety of food. Make it palatable, watch her manger, and 
 see that nothing is left over from one meal to another. If 
 a cow is inclined to put on too much fat, reduce the carbo- 
 
WINTER CARE OF HERD. 177 
 
 hydrates. If she is inclined to grow thin, increase the car- 
 bohydrates. She should have access to clean, fresh water 
 at least twice a day. Water for the dairy cow should not be 
 ice cold. She should never receive a chill from any cause. 
 If she does, serious trouble may be the result. Never allow 
 her flow of milk to slacken from want of good, intelligent 
 care. It is much easier to keep her right than it is to get her 
 back to her flow again if she has once had a set-back. You 
 cannot afford to let cows stand out in the wind around a 
 trough and struggle with each other to get a place to drink. 
 
 Give them a little salt every day. About an ounce or an 
 ounce and a half to a cow per day. They want it and should 
 have it, especially when they are getting grain. 
 
 Never should there be any unusual noise in the dairy 
 stable. The dairy cow demands quietness and gentleness. 
 Noise and bluster around her are profit killers. You are the 
 master, it is true, but you must acquiesce in this and cater 
 to her demands. Think twice before you shout at her or hit 
 her with a shovel. You may be able to beat her and you 
 may be able to scare her, but if you do either you have yet 
 to learn that you do not understand the dairy cow's make- 
 up. Treat her kindly. Sacrifice a little in order to cater to 
 her whims and she will more than repay you. 
 
 Give her a clean, soft bed of straw to lie on. Do not ask 
 her to lie on hard boards or cold cement floor. She deserves 
 better. Make her comfortable. 
 
 Everything should be quiet at milking time. She must 
 be milked at the same time every day, and that by the same 
 person, if possible. A cow giving 10 pounds will do with one 
 milking a day. Others should be milked twice a day 12 
 hours apart. When cows are in the stable they should be 
 brushed and curried often, to free the skin from excretions. 
 The udder should always be wiped off carefully before start- 
 ing to milk. Cows should be let out a little while each day 
 in a sheltered barnyard, but not kept out long enough to 
 become chilled. 
 
LECTURE XLI. 
 
 SUMMER CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY 
 HERD. 
 
 It is not a good practice to turn cattle out to grass too 
 early in the spring. The pastures are often soft and they 
 will be much injured by being cut up by the cattle's feet. 
 The young grass, too, is soft and washy. If the cows are 
 kept off it until the middle or 20th of May, the grass then 
 will have a good growth and will be able to shelter the 
 ground so that it will protect itself against the drouth which 
 comes in July and August. The grass will then be less watery 
 and will be much more nutritious. When the warm weather 
 comes let the cows have the run of the yard, but do not let 
 them get a taste of the new grass, for if they do they will 
 not take well to the dry hay and other preserved foods. 
 When it is time to turn them on the grass, let them out only 
 for an hour or so at first, gradually increasing the time until 
 in three or four days they can be left out altogether. 
 
 Cows do not require any grain when the grass is good 
 in the pastures. Have salt where they can have ready 
 access to it at all times. Chunks of rock salt placed here 
 and there in the pasture serves very well. 
 
 Provide an abundant supply of pure water. Do not 
 allow your dairy cows to drink out of a dirty, stagnant pool. 
 A well is better, and a clean tank or trough. See that the 
 drinking troughs are kept free from filth. 
 
 The cow should not be asked to spend energy walking 
 back and forth to a distant pasture. Bear in mind that her 
 work is to manufacture milk for you, and it is your duty to 
 provide the raw material and have it in a convenient place 
 for her, if you expect her to give you a good return. 
 
 It is well to make provision for the hot, dry weather in 
 .July and August, when blue grass has gone to seed and the 
 pastures become brown and seared. The dried up blue grass 
 is nutritious, it is true, but the dairy cow must have succu- 
 
SUMMER CARE OF HERD. 179 
 
 lent food. Silage may have been stored for summer use. If 
 so, now is the time to use it. You may have sowed oats and 
 peas in the proportion of 1% oats to 1 of peas for your dairy 
 cows. Now is the time to cut it and draw it to the barn for 
 them. Do not throw this feed over the fence to them. Put 
 it in their mangers. Be sure that something has been pro- 
 vided for the dairy cows at this time of the year. 
 
 Then, too, the flies are bad in June and July, and if 
 allowed to bother the cows will cause a material decrease 
 in the flow of milk. You cannot afford to let this go un- 
 noticed. A preparation made of fish oil and crude carbolic 
 acid mixed in the proportion of a tablespoonful of carbolic 
 acid to one quart of fish oil, if applied once a week to all 
 parts of the cow except the udder, will prevent the flies both- 
 ering her. 
 
 Shade should be provided where the cows can get out 
 of the heat in the middle of the day. 
 
 Forbid it that any dairyman should allow his cows to 
 be chased with a dog. It will pay you to walk after them. 
 The more hurry in this case the less milk. Even a boy on 
 horseback will often drive the cows too fast. Be a friend of 
 your cattle. Love begets love, even in your dairy cows. 
 
 Provide a shelter also against the cold winds and rains 
 of October. Milk them as you did in the winter, always at 
 the same time, quietly, gently, but speedily. When you have 
 finished milking, do not sit and strip. It annoys the cow. 
 
 Keep in mind both summer and winter never to allow 
 your dairy cow to have a set-back in the flow of milk. 
 
LECTURE XLII. 
 
 FEEDS ADAPTED TO THE PRODUCTION OF MILK 
 DURING THE WINTER MONTHS. 
 
 Clover hay nicely cured is the best roughage that can 
 be offered the dairy cow. This feed is highly nitrogenous 
 and contains a large amount of mineral matter. It is admi- 
 rably suited to the production of milk. About 10 to 12 
 pounds per cow per day should be the allowance. If clean 
 and well cured, it is better to feed it long, as in this form it 
 is freer from dust than when cut. 
 
 In some sections, especially Canada, roots (mangels) are 
 fed in large quantities to dairy cattle in winter. Corn silage 
 has proven itself quite as valuable and can be more cheaply 
 secured. It is simply the stalks, leaves and ears cut up into 
 small half-inch lengths and stored away in an air-tight can 
 called a silo. The corn should be fairly well matured before 
 it is stored away. 
 
 Corn silage is highly carbonaceous, but because of its 
 succulence is a very acceptable ingredient in the dairy cow's 
 ration. With a little clover hay or alfalfa added, the ration 
 can be easily balanced. About 30 to 40 pounds is fed daily. 
 From this you can reckon that about 4 tons of silage should 
 be stored away for the dairy cow to tide her through the 
 winter months. She cannot subsist and do work on silage 
 alone, but must be supplied with clover hay and other food- 
 stuffs. 
 
 Corn stalks, if cut and cured properly, make a good sub- 
 stitute for timothy hay. Sometimes they are fed whole with 
 ears attached. When fed this way there is always a little 
 waste, as the cows will leave the coarser stalks after strip- 
 ping them of the ears and tender leaves. 
 
 Another method is followed sometimes that of running 
 the stalks, leaves and ears through a cutter. When this cut 
 stuff is fed, the cows leave nothing. 
 
 In the corn belt there is a great deal of what is known 
 as corn stover. This is the dried stalks and leaves after the 
 
WINTER FEEDS FOR DAIRY COWS. 181 
 
 corn has been husked. Much of this is dry and hard and not 
 very palatable. The cows will make use of the leaves and 
 bits of fine stalks, but this should be fed sparingly to dairy 
 cows and should be supplemented with silage or roots and 
 clover. 
 
 Timothy hay is a carbonaceous food. Because of its 
 value as a horse feed it usually is too high priced to feed 
 to dairy cows. It is not so well suited to milk production 
 as clover hay or alfalfa. 
 
 Oat and barley straw are sometimes fed to dairy cows. 
 They should be fed sparingly, too, as they are not milk pro- 
 ducers. They should be introduced only for variety's sake. 
 
 Ground oats with their hulls make one of the finest feeds 
 for the dairy cow. The hulls lighten up the feed and make 
 it a very safe feed; besides it is highly nitrogenous and 
 proves a good milk producer. 
 
 Oat hulls from oat meal factories would be valuable 
 only to use in lightening up a heavy grain, such as corn or 
 pease. 
 
 In the corn belt corn must of necessity form a part of 
 the dairy cow's ration. Corn on the average is a highly car- 
 bonaceous feed. Four or five pounds per day may be fed, but 
 this should be supplemented with wheat bran, and some oil 
 cake or gluten meal. Corn, if fed alone, would tend to pro- 
 duce fat and not milk. 
 
 Barley is an excellent milk producing feed and in some 
 places is fed very largely to dairy cows. 
 
 Where wheat bran can be purchased at a reasonable 
 price nothing better could be obtained for milk production. 
 Bran for a long time was considered of little value, but since 
 the dairymen found out its value in their business the de- 
 mand far exceeds the supply, and it is almost beyond the 
 reach of the men who gave it its popularity. It is extremely 
 rich in protein and mineral matter, and because of its light 
 character is a very valuable complement to corn. 
 
 Brewer's grains, too, are rich in protein and are highly 
 prized as feed for dairy animals. When situated near the 
 source of supply these are obtained in a wet form. The 
 cows like them when they are obtained fresh and sweet. 
 
182 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Gluten meal, gluten feed and other by-products of corn 
 are rich in protein and are valuable additions to the grain 
 ration for dairy cows. 
 
 New process and old process oil meals and cottonseed 
 meal are among the most valuable of the concentrated nitro- 
 genous feeding stuffs at the disposal of dairymen. 
 
 In the choice of feeds, if any are required, to supplement 
 the home grown feeding stuffs, the market price together 
 with the composition and palatability should be the guide. 
 
LECTURE XLIII. 
 
 FEEDS ADAPTED TO THE PRODUCTION OF MILK 
 DURING THE SUMMER MONTHS. 
 
 Dairy cattle can receive no better feed in summer than 
 that which nature provides for them grass. 
 
 Cattle up to their knees in Kentucky blue grass and 
 clover should be working under ideal conditions. Nothing 
 stimulates the flow of milk like the grass in June. Unhap- 
 pily for the dairy cow and the dairy farmer these conditions 
 will not last all summer. Something else must be provided. 
 
 Corn silage may be stored in a small silo and held over 
 for summer feeding. This with a little grain proves a valu- 
 able substitute for the grass. 
 
 Corn may be planted near the barns where it will be 
 handy to cut and draw to the stables. This, too, will help 
 very materially to keep up the milk flow which might other- 
 wise drop very low. It is a good thing to provide such a 
 crop. 
 
 Another valuable summer feed is obtained by sowing 
 peas and oats in the proportion of 1 bushel of peas to 1% 
 of oats. This cut green in July and August is one of the 
 best feeds to take the place of the pasture grass and will, if 
 fed in time, raise the flow of milk. Several small sowings 
 of this mixture should be made in order to insure a suc- 
 cession of cuttings. 
 
 Millet is sometimes used as a soiling crop, and if fed in 
 small quantities, proves very satisfactory. 
 
LECTURE XLIV. 
 
 CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE COW AT CALVING 
 
 TIME. 
 
 Cows never do so well as when they are on grass. It 
 is a good plan, if possible, to have the pregnant cow, when 
 dry, out on grass. She should be in good bodily health and 
 condition at calving time, and there is no better preparation 
 for this than out on grass. 
 
 If a cow is confined during the latter stages of preg- 
 nancy, she should receive a ration of clover hay, roots, silage, 
 corn stalks, a little ground oats, bran and oil cake, during the 
 last month or so. Near the time of parturition the feed sup- 
 ply should be reduced and a couple of days previous to calv- 
 ing she should be given a dose of salts in the form of a 
 drench. Kindness, too, is necessary at this time. Enclose 
 her in a box stall. If it is a heifer's first time, rub the 
 udder and teats at least twice a week for a month or six 
 weeks previous to parturition. This will tend to make her 
 quiet as well as give shapeliness to udder and teats. 
 
 After the calf has been delivered, give the cow a drink 
 of tepid water. A little oat meal put in the water will help 
 to nourish her. Do not allow her anything to eat for several 
 hours. Begin her on a light ration and keep increasing 
 until at the end of three or four weeks she can be put on 
 full ration. If she is a full grown cow, you can breed her 
 again the first or second heat, or at such time as it will suit 
 your conditions. 
 
 Milk fever is one of the serious troubles which you must 
 try to avoid. This is best done by keeping the cow's bowels 
 in a laxative condition and by lessening the milk producing 
 ration for a time before and after calving. 
 
 Allow the calf to take the colostrum (first milk) from 
 its mother, and wean it in not more than two days. 
 
LECTURE XLV. 
 
 .FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY BULL. 
 
 The bull as a calf may be reared in the barn along with 
 the heifers, for a time. At an early age he should be separated 
 from them and kept in a separate pen. His feed should be 
 similar to theirs. When summer comes, have a yard or 
 paddock with a strong fence, in which you can allow him to 
 take exercise. Give him a ration of clover hay and oats, 
 bran, and a little oil cake, with plenty of pure water. Give 
 him protection from the hot sun and flies in summer. He 
 should have a clean box stall when confined. Put a ring in 
 his nose when still young, at say ten or twelve months old. 
 This will tend to make him more tractable. 
 
 Dairy bulls with their highly nervous temperament, are 
 -easily made vicious. You never know what harm a vicious 
 bull is going to do. The part you have to do in this matter 
 Is never to tease the young bull or allow him to be teased. 
 To tease a bull is criminal. You do not know who is going 
 to be the victim. Never rub him on the head. If you do, 
 he will begin to play with his horns, and before you know it 
 he has learned that he has horns, and then comes the danger. 
 
 The young bull should not be allowed to serve cows 
 until at least 18 months old, and then only to a limited 
 number. At 2 years old he may have 30 to 40 cows, and at 
 3 or over, if service is well distributed, he may have 100 
 
 When he is in service he should be well fed. A narrow 
 ration of clover hay, silage, roots and a fairly heavy grain 
 ration (8 pounds), such as we gave the dairy cow oats, 
 bran, peas, oil meal or gluten feed a high protein ration. 
 
 Never let your bull run at large with the cows. It is 
 dangerous in the first place, besides it is unfair to your 
 neighbors. They may have a preference as to the bull they 
 -will use, but if their cows, when in heat, are near your bull, 
 
18(j LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 he will break over ordinary fences and serve them. Keep 
 him always so you will know exactly where he is. 
 
 Do not send a good bull to the shambles at 5 years old. 
 If he is getting good heifer calves, his lease of useful life- 
 cannot be too long. Keep him as long as you can and then 
 dispose of him to some one who needs a good bull. He 
 should be useful for service until the age of 12 years, at 
 least, if well cared for in his earlier life. 
 
 Keep this in mind, that you can never be too watchful 
 of the dairy bull. No matter how kind you are to him, he 
 will take advantage of you when you least expect it. It is 
 in this way that so many prominent breeders have lost their 
 lives. Have a strong stick with a snap in the end which 
 you can snap into the ring in his nose. This will make it 
 quite safe to handle him; but even this cannot always be- 
 depended upon to stop him. 
 
LECTURE XLVI. 
 
 STABLING SUITABLE FOR DAIRY CATTLE. 
 
 In the proper care and management of the dairy cow, 
 one of the most important points to be considered is suitable 
 stabling. Other classes of stock are able to withstand more 
 or less exposure to cold, but the dairy cow must have warm 
 quarters. She is, in a large degree, an artificial animal, 
 more delicate than the beef animal. This is especially true 
 of those breeds which belong to the so-called special purpose 
 dairy cattle; such as the Jersey, Guernsey, Holstein and 
 Ayrshire. Any exposure to cold will seriously check the flow 
 of milk. It will also increase the cost of production as the 
 feed which should be used for milk production will have to 
 be used to supply heat for the animal body. 
 
 In beef cattle the ration is of a fattening nature, which is 
 closely associated with heat production. Such feed stuffs as 
 corn and barley are useful for this purpose. The ration of 
 the dairy cow is of a more nitrogenous nature, thus not so 
 well adapted for heat production. This being the case it is 
 very important to supply the necessary heat by artificial 
 means in the way of warm stables. Beef cattle will do nicely 
 in stables with a temperature ranging from 40 to 45 F. 
 Dairy cattle should have warmer quarters; from 50 to 55 or 
 F. is about right. 
 
 The dairy cow is a hard worked animal and should do 
 service for several years. Many cows are profitable at fifteen 
 years of age. This being the case we can readily see the 
 necessity of taking every precaution possible to protect the 
 health of the animals. Since milk is used so largely as a 
 food by the human race, it is very important that the animals 
 which produce the same are in perfect health. This calls 
 for plenty of sunshine and pure air in our dairy stables. The 
 majority of our dairy cattle barns are sadly deficient in this 
 respect. Too many are dark, dirty places with no means of 
 
188 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 ventilation. Such stables are a source of contamination, as. 
 disease of some kind or other is sure to break out. Other 
 stables are too small. 
 
 The stable should be large enough so that there will be 
 1000 cubic feet of space for each and every animal housed 
 in the same. This calls for wider alleys and higher walls 
 than are generally found. The walls should be at least eight 
 feet high and are much better if they are ten. There should 
 be an abundance of sunshine. High walls with plenty of 
 large windows will furnish an abundance of light and sun- 
 shine. This is a point which must not be over- 
 looked. Sunshine and microbes or germs (which are 
 the cause of most diseases) are not found in the same 
 place. A few minutes exposure to sun will kill a great many 
 of the very worst disease producing germs. This being the 
 case the dairyman should take advantage of the same and 
 provide ample means for allowing sunshine in his stables. 
 
 The question of ventilation is one which is sadly under- 
 estimated by most dairymen. Plenty of pure air should be 
 supplied. Each and every stable should be so arranged that 
 there will be means of supplying fresh air, also a means for 
 the escape of foul or impure air. In many good barns the 
 fresh air is supplied by means of a sub-earth duct. This is 
 so arranged that the air is brought underground for some 
 distance, thus has the chill removed in the winter months. 
 In the summer months the air is somewhat cooler, due to the 
 same process. Ventilation tubes should be arranged with 
 openings at both top and bottom of the walls. 
 
 The walls should be thoroughly whitewashed once a year. 
 This will add much to the general appearance of the stables, 
 also to the health of the animals. Some disinfectants should 
 be added to the whitewash solution before it is put on the 
 walls. 
 
 In some sections of the country bank barns are popular. 
 This is a barn so built that part of it is partially under ground 
 in a side hill. It affords many conveniences from a feeding 
 standpoint. It also furnishes a large amount of room under 
 one roof, which is no small item in these days of expensive 
 roofing materials. 
 
 The objections to this plan of a barn are the difficulty of 
 securing proper light and good drainage. Where one end or 
 one side or an end and side of the stable is in a side hill 
 
STABLING FOR DAIRY CATTLE. 189 
 
 the light must all be secured from one side and end. Thus 
 it is difficult to furnish ample sunlight. In the spring of the 
 year such a stable is often very difficult to drain properly. 
 Nothing is more detrimental to the health of the dairy cow 
 than dampness. The basement barn is another kind which is 
 popular in many districts. The advantages of this structure 
 are much the same as those claimed for the bank barn, 
 the main difference being that the bank barn is built partially 
 underground while the other one is built above ground, thus 
 much more easily lighted and drained. 
 
 Concerning the interior construction of the dairy barn, 
 many methods of tying the animals are used. There are 
 many advantages and disadvantages claimed for each system. 
 Some are easy on the cow and hard on the man (the chain 
 system of tying around the neck) ; others are easy for the 
 man and not so comfortable for the cow (such as the 
 stanchion system). The Bidwell stall, which fastens the cow 
 in place by means of a chain behind the animal, is easy on 
 both cow and man, but not so convenient at milking time. 
 With the stanchion system it is much easier to keep the cow 
 clean, which in the eyes of many men is a very important 
 point. 
 
 The stalls should be roomy and the alleys wide. The 
 gutters behind the cow should be about eighteen inches wide 
 with from six to eight inches drop behind the cow and from 
 two to four inches drop from the alley way. 
 
 Every precaution should be taken to have every con- 
 venience possible arranged for, so as to make the feeding of 
 the animals an easy task. 
 
 Concerning the materials used in the floors, various kinds 
 are used with good results. Cement is easily kept clean, but 
 rather hard on the cows and inclined to be slippery. Brick 
 laid on edge is durable and not so slippery as cement. Plank 
 is easy on the cow, but not so durable as the other kinds 
 mentioned. 
 
 In recapitulation we would say that the stables should 
 be well lighted, well ventilated, have plenty of fresh air, 
 plenty of room, convenient for both man and beast and built 
 in such a way and of such material as to warrant durability. 
 
FEB 11 1904 
 
Series 
 
 PART 1 
 
 KENNEDY. 
 
 Correspondence 
 
 Agricultural 
 
 College 
 
 City, lotva 
 
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY SERIES. 
 
 PART I. NO. IV. 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 Feeding, Care and Management 
 of Live Stock 
 
 WILLARD J. KENNEDY, B. S. A. 
 
 Professor of Animal Husbandry 
 and Vice Director of Experiment 
 Station. Iowa State College of 
 Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. 
 
 Correspondence Agricultural College, 
 SIOUX CITY, IOWA. 
 
 All Rights Reserved. 
 
LIBRARY Of CONGKESS 
 Two Ooo.es Received 
 
 AUG 5 1904 
 Ctoynght Entry 
 
 No. 
 
 Copyright, 1904. 
 
 by 
 
 RURAL TEXT BOOK COMPANY 
 Assignee. 
 
 V, 
 
 1904. 
 
 Rural Text Book Company, 
 Press. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Part 1. No. IV. 
 
 CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK. 
 
 LECTURES. 
 
 Pages. 
 
 XLVII. Feed, Care and Management of the Breed- 
 ing Flock during the Winter Season 191-194 
 
 XLVIII. Feed, Care and Management of the Ewe at 
 
 Lambing Time 195-198 
 
 XLIX. Feed, Care and Management of the Lamb 
 
 from Birth until ready for Market 199-200 
 
 L. Feed, Care and Management of the Ewe at 
 
 Weaning and Mating T&ie, ..,,... 201-202 
 
 LI. Feed, Care arid" Management 'df /the Ram 
 
 during the Breeding- Reason. ...'.. t 203-205 
 
 LII. Preparation and Fitting of Sheep^/or Show 
 
 Purposes y. . ; V ..,,, '}-. . ./. 206-209 
 
 LIII. Preparation and Fitting of Sheep for Show 
 
 Purposes Continued 210-213 
 
 LIV. Raising Hot-House Lambs 214-218 
 
 LV. Fattening Sheep during Winter Months 219-221 
 
 LVI. Fattening Sheep during Summer Months. . . . 222-225 
 
 LVII. Dipping Sheep 226-229 
 
 LVIII. Forage Crops for Sheep 230-232 
 
 LIX. An Economical Method of Starting a Flock 
 
 of Sheep 233-235 
 
 LX. Sheds or Houses Suitable for Sheep 236-238 
 
LECTURE XLVII. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING 
 FLOCK, THE WINTER SEASON. 
 
 Sheep will eat and do well on almost any of the common 
 grains and roughage that are grown on the average farm. 
 The great trouble, however, is to get fodders in a palatable 
 condition for them. If the flock enters winter quarters in 
 good flesh, and have access to well cured fodders, such as 
 clover and alfalfa hay, native and millet hay and roots, very 
 little, if any, grain need be fed until near lambing time. 
 On the other hand, if the flock is in thin condition when 
 they enter their winter quarters, no time should be lost in 
 getting them in better condition if a good crop of lambs is 
 expected. 
 
 There is a wide variation in the rations which are fed 
 throughout the country. For instance, the shepherds of the 
 east think the roots are indispensable, while in the west 
 many shepherds think they can winter their flocks fully as 
 well without roots. No doubt too many roots or other foods 
 of a similar nature are not advisable; however, the most 
 practical shepherds find that a few roots judiciously fed in 
 connection with nutritious foods, such as bran, oats and clover 
 hay, make a splendid ration for ewes in lamb. A ration com- 
 posed of equal parts oats, bran and corn, with a small quan- 
 tity of oil meal, will give surprisingly good results. About 
 one-half pound of the above mixture fed daily to sheep in 
 conjunction with plenty well cured fodder will be sufficient 
 to keep the flock in a thrifty condition. Clover and alfalfa 
 hay are the best kinds of roughage; however, corn fodder 
 may be fed in the corn belt section of the country very eco- 
 nomically and satisfactorily. When corn fodder is fed it 
 should be scattered in large lots, or better still, in sod fields. 
 Sheaf oats also make a very desirable grain and fodder ration, 
 if cut and cured while they are still a trifle green. When 
 the grain is fed in this manner the weak and strong or 
 
192 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 robust and greedy individuals get about equal shares of the 
 ration. 
 
 Ewe lambs may be fed a ration similar to that of the 
 breeding ewes, but, if possible, a greater variety should be 
 given, as such is always relished by young things. The ram 
 lambs and breeding rams may be fed a liberal supply of grain 
 in conjunction with roughage, preferably of a nitrogenous 
 rather than of a carbonaceous nature. Corn should form a 
 small proportion of the grain ration, if other grains, such as 
 oats, wheat and barley, are available, or can be obtained as 
 cheap. Many other kinds of feed might be added to the 
 above, and several variations might be necessary in order to 
 comply with the conditions and feeds in some local districts. 
 
 Pure water should be supplied at all times; and salt should 
 always be kept where the sheep have access to it. It is a 
 great mistake to salt sheep only once a week, or at long 
 intervals, because they are apt to eat too much, thus often 
 causing heavy drinking, which sometimes brings on derange- 
 ments of digestive system or scouring. 
 
 Although the flock has access to the above variety of grain 
 and roughage, yet the success of the flock will depend almost 
 wholly on the cajre they receive. Without the care of an 
 intelligent shepherd a flock will return rather small profits. 
 When the flock is brought into their winter quarters they 
 should be divided or graded into several groups. That is, 
 the breeding ewes should be separated from the lambs, rams 
 and sheep which are intended for mutton, etc. The weak 
 or old thin ones should also be separated from the young 
 robust ones, so that they may receive better care and food. 
 The rams can be kept in small lots of ample size to allow 
 them plenty of exercise. Never allow rams to run with the 
 pregnant ones. 
 
 Regular feeding is very essential, and sheep will often do 
 better on a poor ration fed regularly twice a day than a good 
 one fed in a haphazard way. Exercise is important, especially 
 in care of breeding ewes. If ewes do not receive sufficient 
 exercise during pregnancy the offspring will often come forth 
 weak and puny. A ewe having insufficient exercise will usu- 
 ally experience more or less trouble in lambing. A good plan, 
 and one which many of the flock masters use at present, in 
 order that their flock may obtain plenty of exercise, is that 
 of making the flock walk about half a mile daily for part of 
 their roughage. If the flock is unable to obtain their exercise 
 
CARE OF THE BREEDING FLOCK. 193 
 
 in such a way as above mentioned, they should be carefully 
 walked a short distance every day. To keep a breeding 
 ewe penned up in a small place is simply nothing short of 
 killing her with kindness. 
 
 Whatever kind of quarters be provided for sheep, they 
 should be dry, both overhead and under foot. If the quarters 
 are dry sheep will endure considerable cold without any in- 
 convenience. Breeding ewes require about ten to fifteen 
 square feet in a building, and about one and a half feet at a 
 feeding rack. In building a barn one should also provide 
 ample room overhead for enough hay to winter the flock. 
 There should also be a room or office for the use of the 
 shepherd, especially during the lambing season. Such a 
 room should be equipped so that the shepherd can sleep and 
 cook in it during the lambing season if he so desires. It is 
 absolutely necessary to keep the sheds or barn where sheep 
 are kept well bedded, because if the sheep are compelled to 
 walk in a filthy, wet pen or muddy lot serious results are 
 usually experienced. Foot rot is often brought on by allowing 
 sheep to run in filthy places. Just how often one should 
 clean out a sheep barn is a question that cannot be answered 
 very satisfactorily. However, it is conceded by the most 
 practical flock masters and shepherds that it is advisable to 
 always clean the barn thoroughly before lambing time. It 
 is also advisable to hurry or rush such work, because many 
 undesirable and disagreeable odors usually accompany the 
 operation. A disinfectant such as air-slacked lime should be 
 used freely in the barn after the manure has been removed. 
 
 Ventilation of the sheep barn should receive careful con- 
 sideration by the shepherd. To keep the sheep in as pure 
 an atmosphere as possible and avoid draughts should be the 
 aim of every shepherd. Draught should be avoided, especially 
 when young lambs are in the barn, because such often brings 
 on rheumatism, etc. 
 
 Sheep seldom need tagging in winter, except when they 
 have been receiving a too generous allowance of succulent 
 food. If any of the members of the flock become filthy, due 
 to scouring, they should be thrown on their side and the dirty 
 tags of wool removed from the stem with a shears or knife. 
 Care should be taken not to trim too close in cold weather. 
 
 To keep the flock comfortable and quiet is an all important 
 thing; strangers and boisterous men and boys should not be 
 allowed to go plunging about among sheep. Sheep should 
 
194 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 also be kept separate from the other animals on the farm. 
 That is, sheep should not be allowed or obliged to run in 
 the same field or lot as horses, cattle or swine, because under 
 such conditions they cannot be kept quiet and comfortable. 
 Dogging should be avoided, especially among ewes that are 
 in lamb. 
 
 To manage the flock successfully one should take into con- 
 sideration the barn accommodations, feed and help he has 
 at hand. To make the business return the greatest profit 
 the flock should be sorted or the culls removed or disposed 
 of every year. The lambs should come at a time best suited 
 to the barn accommodations and feed available. For in- 
 stance, if one has comfortable barns and plenty of succulent 
 food, such as roots or ensilage, it is advisable to have the 
 lambs come in March, because they can be given sufficient 
 attention and be ready to go ahead when turned on grass. 
 They are also stronger and abler to guard off parasites. On 
 the other hand, if the barn or sheds are not warm enough 
 for young weak lambs, and no succulent food available for the 
 ewes, lambs had better not come until there is abundance 
 of grass in the fields. 
 
 All non-breeding ewes should be fattened and sent to mar- 
 ket. Old ewes that have become poor feeders, and have a 
 tendency to keep thin and delicate on good treatment, should 
 also be sent to market. In order to keep up the standard 
 of the flock and to improve them as should be the aim of 
 every flockmaster plenty of feed of the right nature, com- 
 fortable buildings, intelligent care, and all other accessories 
 conducive to the general health of the sheep should be fur- 
 nished. 
 
LECTURE XLVIII. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF A EWE AT 
 LAMBING TIME. 
 
 If the lamb comes at a season when plenty of grass is 
 available, a ewe will require no other food. On the other 
 hand, if the lamb comes in the fall or early spring, consid- 
 erable nutritious food must be fed the ewe immediately be- 
 fore and after lambing. 
 
 As lambing time approaches, a ewe weighing 150 pounds 
 requires daily about one pound of such grain as bran and 
 oats, three or four pounds of succulent food, and about the 
 same weight of such dry fodder as clover or alfalfa hay. 
 Other fodders, such as corn fodder, timothy and native hay, 
 oat straw and pea straw will suffice, providing plenty of suc- 
 culent and nitrogenous elements are fed in conjunction with 
 them. Some succulent food should be fed to breeding ewes 
 at all times; however, it is very easy to feed them too much 
 just previous to lambing. When roots or ensilage are fed 
 to breeding ewes in too liberal quantities, weak, large lambs 
 are likely to be the outcome. Just before lambing, three 
 pounds of any succulent food, such as turnips, mangel-wur- 
 zels, sugar beets, corn ensilage, will be found sufficient. A 
 mixture of ten pounds corn meal, ten pounds bran, two pounds 
 oil meal will make a very valuable ration for ewes after 
 lambing. 
 
 After lambing, unlimited quantities of succulent foods may 
 be fed in order that the flow of milk may be stimulated. How- 
 ever, it is always advisable to feed rich, stimulating rations 
 to ewes rather light the first few days after lambing, be- 
 cause such foods have often a tendency to scour a ewe and 
 her offspring. 
 
 A short time before lambing season and this can be ascer- 
 tained from the record kept by the shepherd the most for- 
 ward ewes should be separated from the rest of the flock. 
 A good plan, and one which is used by some of the up-to-date 
 
196 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 flock masters, is that of separating the ewes into four differ- 
 ent lots, as follows: 
 
 1. A yard of ewes heavy in lamb. 
 
 2. A yard of ewes with single lamb. 
 
 3. A yard of ewes with twin lambs. 
 
 4. A yard of ewes with very young lambs. 
 
 The first indications of lambing are: filling of the udder, 
 and later, restlessness, deep color and swollen condition of 
 the vulva, droop on either side of backbone, lowering of 
 belly, distracted look, and a clear discharge from vulva. 
 When these conditions are noticed, the ewe should be brought 
 into an enclosure and watched, if the weather is severe, and 
 especially if it is disagreeable and raining. A cold rain is 
 more detrimental to a new-born lamb than a lower and dryer 
 temperature nearly at zero. If a ewe has been well managed 
 previous to lambing, very little, if any, trouble will be ex- 
 perienced in bringing forth her offspring; but if she has been 
 neglected, of course "bad luck" is apt to make its frequent 
 visits. It is highly important that quietness prevail around 
 the sheep barn during the lambing season. One of the worst 
 things that can happen to a ewe is to be chased by a dog. 
 This should be carefully guarded against by every shepherd. 
 
 Under the best of management and care some ewes of 
 the flock have serious trouble in giving birth to their progeny. 
 Unnecessary interference with a ewe in labor is unwise. 
 It is much better to let nature take its course until it is 
 evident that help is really needed. The birth of a lamb is 
 always easy when the ewe is strong. A weak ewe, how- 
 ever, has always more trouble in giving birth to her offspring 
 than one that has been duly prepared for the occasion by 
 good care and feeding. The absence of shelter is usually a 
 very costly instance of want of thrift on the part of the 
 flock master. A lamb is a small thing; but it is generally 
 the income from these small things that determine the profits 
 in the sheep business. It is very essential that absence of 
 all disturbances by other sheep be avoided, and close atten- 
 tion be given the ewe by the shepherd until the lamb is on 
 its feet and sucking. 
 
 The foetus, if in the normal or natural position, should be 
 found with the head resting upon the two forelegs, and in 
 that case assistance is not usually required at parturition. 
 Some of the abnormal presentations or positions commonly 
 met with are as follows: One foreleg bent back; both fore- 
 
FEED AND CARE OF THE EWE. 197 
 
 legs bent back; head down between forelegs; head bent along 
 one side; and sometimes the foetus seems determined to come 
 stern first, with legs doubled back. In any of the above 
 cases of presentation the ewe needs assistance in delivery. 
 In most of them the lamb should be pushed back into the 
 womb and straightened out so that it may come in the natural 
 way. In case it is determined to come stern first with legs 
 doubled up, which of course is the wrong and unnatural way 
 to come, it should be pushed back and hind legs straightened 
 out, and the lamb then removed, hind parts first. When a 
 lamb's head is very large, sometimes by a little timely help 
 from the shepherd the ewe may be spared from much pain 
 and labor. That is, a few minutes' help at the right time 
 from the shepherd will often save the ewe from a trying 
 hour's trouble. For instance, if the lamb has a large head, 
 the shepherd can materially assist her by placing his hand 
 on the skin of the vulva and gently pushing it over the head 
 of the lamb. After the head is free the forelegs should be 
 straightened out; and then by taking both feet in one hand, 
 the lamb may be pulled in a circular direction toward the 
 ewe's udder. As soon as the lamb is born, some of the mucus 
 about its legs rubbed on the ewe's nose will greatly arouse 
 her maternal instincts, and often save or avoid much trouble 
 later on. If the ewe is weak and exhausted, there is nothing 
 better for her than a drink of warm oatmeal gruel three or 
 four times a day. This can be given from a long-necked 
 bottle, if she will not drink it otherwise. If the lamb is 
 chilled a hot bath is the best thing for it, and then rub it 
 by hand and wrap it in a flannel cloth. A teaspoonful of hot 
 gin or whisky and water, a little sweetened, is the common 
 treatment given by the Highland shepherd for the restoration 
 of a weak or chilled lamb, and it is certainly effective. 
 
 If a ewe refuses to care for her lamb, as is often the case, 
 especially with twins, she should be put into a small pen, 
 in which she cannot get away from the lamb. There are 
 n^any methods used by the shepherds in order to bring about 
 the maternal instinct or reconciliation of the ewe. Some 
 cut the tail off the lamb and rub the blood on the ewe's nose 
 and on the back of the lamb. Others use the method of 
 milking the ewe onto the back of the lamb, thus bringing 
 about the desired result. Where the ewe has a dead lamb, 
 and it is intended that she act as a foster-parent to some 
 strange lamb, the dead lamb should be skinned while it is 
 
198 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 still warm and its skin placed on the one which it is desired 
 she should adopt. 
 
 Ewes sometimes retain their after-birth, although this is 
 not as common among sheep as it is among the larger ani- 
 mals. The cause of this accident is frequently due to weak- 
 ness of the ewe, and can often be overcome by giving the ewe 
 a stimulant. Gorget or inflammation of the udder seldom 
 occurs at lambing time, but yet may crop out by reason of 
 exposure to cold, especially wet, cold spring rains, soon after 
 or at birth of lamb. By treating an inflamed udder with 
 some emollient, such as warm water almost hot, with a little 
 alcohol in it, the ewe can soon be relieved. After bathing 
 the udder should be rubbed gently by hand, and a little vase- 
 line applied. This condition is usually brought on after lamb- 
 ing by feeding too much rich food, such as oil meal, etc. 
 Again, ewes may become costive, which causes them to strain 
 more or less. A dose of either castor or linseed oil usually 
 stops a ewe from straining; and in case of a deranged sys- 
 tem, due to inflammation of the udder, two drams of Epsom 
 salts may be given, and the ration reduced to grass or hay 
 for a short time. 
 
LECTURE XLIX. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE LAMB FROM 
 BIRTH UNTIL READY FOR MARKET. 
 
 No class of animals responds more readily to good care 
 and treatment than the young lamb. It is very important 
 that they be given the very best of care during the first few 
 days, as they are then very tender. When a week or ten 
 days old they will withstand a considerable amount of ex- 
 posure. 
 
 At lambing time the ewe should have warm quarters if the 
 weather is cold and unfavorable. If the lamb is weak and 
 chilled, it must receive special care and stimulants to restore 
 vigor. One of the very best methods of reviving the chilled 
 lamb is to immerse it in hot water, then rub gently so as to 
 start circulation of the blood. This is one of the most 
 effective and at the same time simple methods of accom- 
 plishing the desired end. Sometimes whisky is given in 
 small quantities to a chilled lamb with good results. Nourish- 
 ment of some kind should be given as soon as possible. The 
 mother's milk is the best, as the first milk of the dam or 
 the colostrum is necessary to regulate the digestive system. 
 If the lamb is not strong enough to suckle of its own ac- 
 cord, the mother should be turned on her side and some of 
 her milk given to the lamb. Generally it will suckle with- 
 out any further aid. It may be necessary to handle the 
 mother in this way for a couple of days or until the lamb 
 is strong enough to walk around and obtain the necessary 
 nourishment itself. The mother's milk is all that is neces- 
 sary for the first few weeks, except in some instances where 
 a poor milker is trying to rear two lambs, then some cow's 
 milk should be given. 
 
 When about ten days or two weeks old the tails should be 
 docked and all ram lambs not intended for breeding pur- 
 poses should be castrated. 
 
 The docking may be done with a sharp two-inch flat chisel. 
 
200 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 This is one of the cleanest and most effective methods that 
 we have ever practiced. 
 
 Where it is desirable to force the lambs for market, they 
 should be taught to eat grain at an early age. For this pur- 
 pose a lamb creep should be provided which may be made 
 by partitioning off a small corner, leaving an entrance large 
 enough for the lamb but too small for the mother to enter. 
 In this should be small feed troughs or boxes in which a 
 little cracked corn or oat meal, which may be obtained by 
 screening the hulls out of ground oats, should be placed. 
 This will be eaten readily by the youngsters and will aid 
 very much in their development. This grain feeding can 
 be done to advantage even when the grass is good. Lambs 
 so fed will always thrive much better than those not fed 
 any grain. 
 
 In the spring of the year about ten days after the mothers 
 have been shorn the lambs should be dipped to free them 
 from the ticks which left the mothers and came to the lambs. 
 Any of the manufactured dips, such as Zenoleum and Chloro- 
 Napholeum or Creolin, will give very good satisfaction. 
 
 They should be weaned from the mothers when from four 
 and a half to five months old. They should then be given 
 the run of a good pasture. Where rape can be had, it makes 
 a most valuable adjunct at this season of the year. Some 
 grain should be fed in addition. The lambs should be divided 
 into two, and where pure bred stock are kept into three lots. 
 All those intended for market purposes should be put in one 
 lot, the ewe lambs intended for breeding purposes in another, 
 and the ram lambs in a third. The grain rations will vary 
 with the needs of the animals. Those which are to be fat- 
 tened should receive a ration composed of corn with a small 
 amount of either bran or oats in addition. Those intended 
 for breeding purposes should be fed a ration conducive to 
 growth, such as oats and bran. Some oil meal and wheat 
 can oftentimes be fed to good advantage. 
 
 The market lambs should be fat and marketed when they 
 will average about eighty pounds. Heavier lambs are dis- 
 criminated against on all of our leading markets. 
 
LECTURE L. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE EWE AT 
 WEANING AND MATING TIME. 
 
 There is no more important subject to the shepherd than 
 this, for upon the right work at this season depends the next 
 year's crop of lambs. He who raises a strong, healthy lot of 
 lambs, with a high percentage of twins and triplets, will be 
 financially ahead of the man whose flock yields low returns 
 at lambing season. 
 
 About the 1st of September for Iowa conditions the lambs 
 and ewes should be separated and put in separate fields, 
 preferably not adjoining. Under ordinary conditions the ewes 
 will need no special attention at weaning time, but if pasture 
 is very good and the ewes milking freely, it is best to turn 
 them on scant pasture for a few days to avoid troubles 
 arising from fever due to the sudden diversion of a large 
 blood stream from the mammary glands to the body circu- 
 lation. When the lambs have been taught to eat grain be- 
 fore weaning, and when pasturage is a trifle scant, the ewes 
 will usually be so reduced in milk flow that no precautions 
 are necessary, and the ewes may be turned at once on good 
 pasture and pushed for gains, or, as old shepherds express it, 
 "flushed." The reason of this is that it is an established 
 principle of breeding that females will breed more readily, 
 and will be surer to "catch," if they are pushed for gains at 
 breeding season; and there is but little doubt that the per- 
 centage of lambs is considerably increased where ewes are 
 so handled. 
 
 The matter of feeding to produce rapid, vigorous gains is 
 also of interest. The feed should be succulent, yet strong. 
 When pasture is abundant the ewes may be turned on this 
 and fed some shelled corn and bran in proportions of about 
 half and half. If pasture is limited, a field of rape, or rye 
 and oats, should be provided, and there is no better feed for 
 the ewes than a field of rye and oats, sown at the rate of two 
 bushels rye and one bushel oats per acre broadcast. This, 
 
202 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 of course, will need to be sown by the last of July; it will 
 then be fit for grazing by the 10th of September, and will 
 furnish a fresh run of strong succulent pasture, which with 
 a small ration of corn and bran will put the ewes to gaining 
 rapidly and will put them in excellent breeding shape, in 
 which they will be far more likely to produce twins than 
 they otherwise would, and the percentage of ewes that fail 
 to catch will be reduced to a minimum. 
 
 The ewes should have tags of wool cut away before the 
 ram is turned on them; and a record should be kept of all 
 ewes bred each week. This can be easily done by changing 
 the mark on the ram each week, so that the ewes bred one 
 week will be marked with black paint, the next week with 
 red, etc. ; and at the end of each week each ewe that has 
 been bred should be caught and her tag number recorded. 
 
 In conclusion, it should be noted that the really essential 
 thing is to have a fresh run of pasture on which to start the 
 ewes to gaining rapidly; this, with the fact that the sudden 
 diversion of blood into the system from the cessation of 
 secretions in the mammary glands, will very quickly bring 
 them into season, and if they are gaining the probabilities of 
 a high percentage in lamb crop will be greatly increased. 
 
LECTURE LI. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE RAM DURING 
 THE BREEDING SEASON. 
 
 The ram is at least half the flock and often more because 
 of his purer breeding, and it behooves the breeder to treat 
 him with the respect his value justifies. To do good service 
 in the breeding season he must be in good shape at the be- 
 ginning of the same, and it will not be amiss to re-emphasize 
 the necessity of this. The breed-ram should have as good 
 quarters during the winter as any of the ewes; should be 
 allowed plenty of exercise and should be kept in a strong, 
 vigorous, fleshy condition on corn, bran and oats or feeds 
 of a similar nature; and should be carried through the sum- 
 mer season in the same general manner. So cared for he 
 will be strong and vigorous when the breeding season be- 
 gins, will be "surer," and much more active. He should not, 
 however, be so fat as to be sluggish. 
 
 When the breeding season is fairly on and the ewes have 
 had ten days or two weeks of "flushing," it is time to think 
 of breeding. Two general policies may be pursued. If the 
 ram is a valuable one, and has many ewes to serve, he should 
 not be allowed to run with the flock, but should be kept in 
 during the day in a comfortable shed. At night, when the 
 flock is brought to the barns, a well grown, vigorous ram lamb 
 should have a band of canvas belted round his middle so 
 that he cannot possibly serve a ewe and should be turned 
 out in the ewe flock. He will quickly hunt out the ewes that 
 are in heat, and the shepherd should be at hand to place 
 them in a separate pen; frequently three or four ewes will 
 be found to be in heat. After the lamb has had time to hunt 
 the flock well over, he should be removed, and the breeding 
 ram turned out with the ewes that are in heat. He should 
 not be allowed more than one service to each ewe and the 
 services should be at least thirty minutes apart, especially 
 if several ewes are to be bred. A mature ram, in vigorous 
 condition, if handled in the manner above described, should 
 
204 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 serve eighty ewes, and may be allowed four or five every 
 evening, and the same again in the morning the "teaser" 
 should be turned in again in the morning to sort out the 
 ewes which are in heat. A young ram yearling or lamb 
 should not be allowed so many in a season nor in a single 
 night. A yearling should be able to care for forty-five ewes 
 and a lamb about twenty-five, if carefully handled, and their 
 energies conserved. A ram that is in high flesh should never 
 be turned out on pasture with the ewes even though it be 
 a small flock the strain of repeated services and the excite- 
 ment tend to impair his usefulness. A very simple and ef- 
 fective plan of marking the ewes that are bred is to smear 
 the breast of the breeding ram with some paint; he will then 
 mark each ewe he serves; and by changing the color of the 
 paint each week it is possible for the flock master to deter- 
 mine just what week certain ewes were bred in. 
 
 The other policy, which saves labor, is that of allowing 
 the rams to run with the ewes in pasture. Under this plan 
 not more than thirty-five ewes should be allotted to each 
 ram, and the same plan for marking the ewes should be 
 adopted as outlined above. 
 
 The feeding of the breeding ram during the breeding season 
 is extremely important, for led away by the excitement, he 
 will rapidly lose flesh, vigor and masculinity unless carefully 
 fed. He should receive an abundance of green pasturage, 
 with plenty of room for exercise, and should receive an abund- 
 ance of oats and bran, mixed in proportions of two parts 
 oats to one bran by weight; besides this he should be given 
 a little oil meal now and then, and a fair allowance of tur- 
 nips or beets but never mangels, as these nearly always 
 cause urinary troubles, which may result in the death of 
 the ram. Why this should be no one knows, but such is the 
 result in practice. 
 
 The ram should be carefully watched during the breeding 
 season and any disorder of the penis should be promptly 
 attended to. Inflammation of the penis may be simple or 
 cancerous. In the first, it is only necessary to give the ram 
 a dose of Epsom salts (4 ounces), and to inject a solution 
 of chlorate of potash into the sheath, which should first have 
 been washed with some warm water containing some dis- 
 infectant as Chloro-Naphtholeum, Zenoleum, or Creolin. If 
 the inflammation be cancerous, it will be necessary to turn 
 the ram on his back, the penis withdrawn, and the diseased 
 
FEED AND CARE OF THE RAM. 205 
 
 spots touched with solution of nitrate of silver. This will 
 destroy the fungus growths, after which the chlorate of potash 
 treatment will effect a cure. Care should always be taken 
 to shear away any tags of wool around the penis at the be- 
 ginning of the breeding season. 
 
 In conclusion, the essential points in caring for a ram are: 
 to give him the best of care at all seasons in order that he 
 may be strong and vigorous; to conserve his energies by 
 keeping him separate from the ewes, and by using a "teaser" 
 to hunt out the ewes in heat; to feed him liberally on a strong 
 grain ration, with plenty of pasture and room for exercise. 
 
LECTURE LII. 
 
 PREPARATION AND FITTING OF SHEEP FOR 
 SHOW RING. 
 
 In preparing or fitting sheep for show the thing of greatest 
 importance is that suitable subjects be selected for the shep- 
 herd to fit. In order to make the best selection the breeder 
 or flock master must be a competent judge. If a beginner 
 is desirous of exhibiting and is somewhat in doubt as to what 
 constitutes a good individual, he should not hesitate in pro- 
 curing the ability or ideas of an experienced flock master. 
 It matters little whether a breeder be a beginner or one who 
 has been several years in the business; in both cases the 
 services of an experienced shepherd should be secured. Al- 
 ways secure the very best service your business will support. 
 It is necessary for every breeder to remember that he might 
 as well try to take prizes without sheep as without the 
 service of a good shepherd. 
 
 Much of the success of the breeder and shepherd in the 
 show ring depends on their judgment, not only at the time 
 of drafting to fit, but also in drafting the finished product 
 for the arena. In selecting purebreds for show yard purposes 
 there are several points worthy of consideration, viz.: con- 
 stitution, form, and quality of fleece, skin and flesh. It is 
 of great importance that an animal have constitution, because 
 on this essential point much depends. Coarseness in a ewe 
 or ram should not be confounded with constitution, because 
 many large, coarse individuals are often weak constitution- 
 ally. Always avoid individuals that are flat ribbed or narrow 
 and shallow in the chest, because such animals possess in- 
 sufficient room for a strong, healthy pair of lungs. As a rule. 
 a sheep low set, well sprung in the ribs and deep and wide 
 in chest possesses plenty constitution. 
 
 At present fashion asserts itself more or less in sheep 
 breeding, and in view of this one must become thoroughly 
 conversant or acquainted with the qualities that merit, in 
 the breed he is handling. In these days the right type must 
 
FITTING SHEEP FOR SHOW. 207 
 
 be in evidence before one can win. The principal points to 
 be looked for in the form of a ram are: a thick, short neck; 
 a wide, deep body; short legs; straight, broad back; thick, 
 fleshy loin; and a well muscled leg of mutton. The same 
 general form will suffice for ewes; however, a feminine ap- 
 pearance must also be in evidence, as indicated, especially 
 by a refined head and rather long and thinner neck than is 
 usually seen in a ram. Just what constitutes a good leg of 
 mutton is something which many fail to grasp. Although a 
 sheep is not split up behind, this does not indicate that the 
 animal has a perfect leg of mutton. A well formed twist 
 or leg of mutton should not only be filled inside, but also out- 
 side, so that it will appear round and plump from every 
 aspect. A sheep with well muscled legs will not only be 
 better for the butcher's purpose, but will also be less liable 
 to break down in the pasterns, something which is especially 
 worthy of attention in breeding rams. Points that generally 
 receive too little attention are the shoulders and spring of 
 fore ribs. Too often one finds animals in the show ring that 
 are poor in the crops and cut up in the flank. Animals 
 deficient in the last mentioned points are usually poor doers, 
 thus should never be selected with the belief that they will 
 improve faster in the deficient point than in those that are 
 more nearly perfect. 
 
 The fleece should always be carefully examined, and if 
 any black spots be found in the wool on the body of the 
 animal it should be rejected. A short, dense fleece is usually 
 more preferable in the Down breeds than a long, coarse, open 
 one. 
 
 The show skin, and in fact the skin of all sheep in a 
 healthy condition, should be of a rich, brilliant, pink color. 
 A pale colored skin is generally associated with a delicate 
 constitution, disease, and animals that are either in a de- 
 pleted or overdone condition; thus one should pay attention 
 to this point, although it seems of minor importance while 
 selecting. 
 
 The quality of the flesh an animal possesses is also worthy 
 of close attention, especially in selecting sheep over a year 
 old. If a sheep is well muscled or fleshed over all parts 
 with fairly firm flesh, it will usually take kindly to feed and 
 make satisfactory gains. Never buy animals that have been 
 already fitted and are stale in their flesh, because they can- 
 not, as a rule, be fitted again satisfactorily. It is always 
 
208 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 advisable to use young animals each season; however, an 
 animal of outstanding merit may occasionally be fitted several 
 times. One should always select more than he intends to 
 show, because under the best of management and care cer- 
 tain individuals will not take kindly to feed or, in fact, do 
 any good. Although the best of selections have been made, 
 such only serves as a sort of index to the success of the 
 animals in the show ring. Selecting and feeding go hand in 
 hand, thus failure in either brings disaster to the whole busi- 
 ness or operation. 
 
 Successful feeding of show animals is an art of which 
 very few can boast. It is not a difficult thing to fatten a 
 sheep; however, it is usually difficult to be able to place an 
 exhibit in the arena ripe enough and just in the right bloom. 
 The majority who vie in the arena for honors too often 
 fall into the ranks of those that underfeed or overfeed their 
 animals. The mothers of lambs intended for show should 
 receive attention, especially the first few days after parturi- 
 tion. Too much grain should not be fed to the ewe until the 
 lamb is quite strong. Equal parts by weight of oats and bran 
 and with a small quantity of oil cake will make a good ration 
 for a milking ewe. About one pound of this mixture fed 
 daily in conjunction with good clover hay and abundance of 
 roots will be sufficient. When the lambs get large enough 
 to eat they should have access to grain and hay. The grain 
 ration may consist of oats and bran at first, and as the lambs 
 become older a little oil meal may be added. In pushing 
 lambs it is often advisable to feed them cow's milk from a 
 bottle in order to enhance their growth. When such methods 
 are employed the cow's milk should be given only in small 
 quantities at first and while the lamb is still young so that 
 there will be no danger of deranging the creature's delicate 
 digestive system. 
 
 When lambs are weaned a good plan to follow is that of 
 feeding a small grain ration in the morning, after which rape 
 or some other succulent food may be given. During the day, 
 or, in fact, all the time, they should have access to well 
 cured clover hay. About five or six in the evening grain can 
 be fed again; and they should be allowed to run in a rape 
 pasture in the cool of the evening. In order to cultivate 
 and keep a lamb's appetite keen, it is necessary to clean the 
 trough and rack after each meal. Never allow feed to become 
 stale in the feed boxes or racks. 
 
FITTING SHEEP FOR SHOW. 209 
 
 Regularity in feeding should always be adhered to, so that 
 the animal will not have to overtax its digestive system at 
 any one time. Show lambs should be pushed from birth 
 until they are placed in show ring. While grain is an indis- 
 pensable adjunct for show sheep, however, one is safe in 
 saying that more sheep are ruined every year and more fail 
 as fitters by overfeeding of grain than from any other cause. 
 Breeding sheep, especially ewes, should be fitted as much 
 as possible on juicy, succulent food. Do not feed too much 
 corn or food of a carbonaceous nature, or you will be liable 
 to produce blubber, which is very undesirable. Always try 
 and have some rape, cabbage, kale or turnips to feed, be- 
 cause such feed not only tends to keep animals healthy, but 
 also produces the bloom that is so desirable in the show ring. 
 
LECTURE LIII. 
 
 PREPARATION AND FITTING OF SHEEP FOR 
 SHOW RING (Continued). 
 
 In preparing sheep for exhibiting exercise should not be 
 neglected, because the health, bloom and nature of the flesh 
 the animal carries largely depends on this factor. They 
 should be allowed to run in a yard once or twice every day, 
 preferably in the morning and evening. In addition to run- 
 ning in a yard they should be taught to lead while young. 
 A halter made of light medium sized rope will suffice. While 
 breaking to lead, patience, gentleness and regularity should 
 be the watchword of the shepherd. 
 
 The feet of sheep which are being fed heavily always need 
 more or less attention. The shepherd should make a prac- 
 tice of examining the feet of his show animals at regular 
 intervals, and if trimming is necessary it should be done with- 
 out the slightest delay. In trimming always use a strong, 
 sharp knife and pare the feet so that the sheep can stand 
 firm and level on them. Trimming feet is a simple operation, 
 but when neglected the feet often become foul. A foul foot 
 can usually be cured if it is taken in time with a little blue- 
 stone (blue vitriol) ; but if left to run its course or neglected 
 it brings on foot-rot, a disease which invariably bars its host 
 from public appearance. 
 
 Some ewes when they become very fat are apt to scald 
 themselves with their urine. Unless ewes troubled in this 
 way are attended to immediately after the first indications 
 are noticed they will become unsightly specimens wholly 
 unfit for show yard purposes. This trouble can generally be 
 overcome by washing out the foul parts and rubbing or treat- 
 ing them with vaseline or lard. 
 
 According to the rules of most shows sheep cannot be shorn 
 before the 1st of April. Just how close shepherds adhere to 
 these rules is a question that cannot be very satisfactorily 
 answered; however, it is a fact that many of the winners in 
 evidence at our shows every year seem to possess in a marked 
 
FITTING SHEEP FOR SHOW. 211 
 
 degree the ability to produce wool. It is out of the question 
 to think of making a shepherd shear his show sheep close. 
 The method chieHy practiced by shepherds is that of stubble 
 shearing. Stubble shearing is simply nothing short of fraud 
 and dishonesty. It consists of taking a shears and shearing 
 the back so that it appears level and at the same time leav- 
 ing a good, long staple on the animal. The sides and belly 
 are slightly trimmed. The sheep should always be washed 
 immediately after they are shorn and trimmed while the 
 fleece is still moist. Although the fleece of the sheep at this 
 time is a trifle unsightly, yet with several careful trimmings 
 during the summer a perfect and pleasing form is obtained 
 by the time the show season opens. The long wooled sheep 
 should not be trimmed, but rather left in the natural con- 
 dition. In case of the middle wools or Downs trimming is 
 essential. The simplest manner to perform this operation 
 is to block out the sheep first; then take a pail of water, a 
 brush and curry-comb and thoroughly dampen the fleece. 
 Then with a keen cutting pair of shears at hand the straight 
 lines, graceful curves and fancy touches of the shepherd can 
 be produced. It is a simple process, but must be performed 
 on every subject several times in order to get an animal in 
 finished condition for the show ring. 
 
 Washing of show sheep is most commonly practiced among 
 the long wooled breeds. Like many other operations in the 
 sheep husbandry it has its advantages and disadvantages. 
 When properly done washing is of great benefit to the show 
 sheep because it cleans the skin and allows the pores to 
 work freely, thus stimulating the flow of natural oil and 
 growth of wool. Sheep should not be subjected to the wash- 
 ing operation until the weather is mild. Cold water with the 
 chill off, or, better still, warm water, should be used, and a 
 good quality of soap, preferably castile, should not be for- 
 gotten. 
 
 Whether one washes in a vat or any other kind of vessel, 
 the essential thing in the operation is to remove every trace 
 of soap from the skin and fleece, because if the slightest 
 trace is left it is not only injurious to the fleece but also 
 to the skin. 
 
 Dipping is often practiced, but as a rule such precautions 
 should only be resorted to in order to guard off disease. It 
 is not expedient to dip show sheep for ticks except they are 
 badly infested. Whatever the sheep are dipped for they 
 
212 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 should not be subjected to it later than six or seven weeks 
 before the show season opens, because it matters little how 
 the operation is performed it injures the fleece more or less, 
 thus detracting from its beauty. 
 
 Coloring of the fleece is advocated by some very prominent 
 authorities, while other up-to-date flock masters condemn it. 
 Olive oil, yellow ocher and burned amber make a suitable 
 mixture to use, but unless the shepherd is an expert at color- 
 ing and can experiment on one of the common members of 
 the flock, it is advisable to dispense with the coloring feature. 
 It is a fact that some sheep in the show ring are sometimes 
 daubed with a greasy mixture until they are nothing short 
 of filthy. 
 
 Show sheep should be blanketed so that the fleece may be 
 kept clean, compact and smooth. Blanketing also serves for 
 other purposes, such as keeping off flies and keeping the 
 sheep warm. It is a good plan to keep the blankets on the 
 sheep at the show until they are passed upon, so that visitors 
 will not destroy the fleeces. Blankets may be made of various 
 kinds of materials, such as duck and burlap. Duck makes 
 the most serviceable blankets for show purposes; however, 
 burlap or even bran sacks will suffice for home use. 
 
 During the summer or considerable time before the show 
 season starts, every flock master should make application for 
 catalogues and entry blanks of the shows at which he in- 
 tends to exhibit. In making entries care should be exercised 
 so that mistakes and confusion may be avoided the judging 
 day. When the time to start for the show arrives it is ex- 
 pedient to ship plenty of the same rations as the sheep have 
 been accustomed to, because usually it is impossible to obtain 
 well cured clover hay, turnips and cabbage at reasonable 
 price, if at all. In addition to feed one should equip himself 
 with a trocar, blue vitriol, castor oil, shears, blankets and 
 bedding for his own use. If the exhibit is small and you 
 are the only exhibitor from your locality, it will not be ad- 
 visable to hire a whole car, but instead it will be much 
 cheaper to ship by weight or rather by the hundredweight. 
 
 After arriving at the exhibition grounds the sheep will often 
 be very tired, especially if the journey has been a long one. 
 If such is the case one should not worry though the animals 
 refuse to eat or stand up. It is better to allow them to re- 
 main in the pens undisturbed than to entice them to eat 
 while they are tired or exhausted. In order to avoid tiring 
 
FITTING SHEEP FOR SHOW. 2J3 
 
 the animals too much it is often advisable to make arrange- 
 ments to have them hauled from the station to the fair 
 grounds. This is especially true if you wish to move them 
 from the cars to the ground during the heat of the day. How- 
 ever, they may be moved conveniently a considerable distance 
 on foot during the cool of the evening. 
 
 While the sheep are on the show circuit they should be 
 regularly exercised morning and evening if the health of the 
 animals is expected to be kept at its best. 
 
 When the judging day arrives the shepherd should have 
 his sheep in good form and have them so educated that they 
 will stand out bold and free. Do not allow a sheep to stand, 
 as it were, in a heap, but rather aim to have them stand 
 perfectly level on level ground. Never allow a sheep to 
 stand with its head downhill, but rather reverse the position 
 so that its front feet will be a trifle the highest. 
 
 The above methods will suffice for fitting of wethers; how- 
 ever, one may quite safely feed heavier grain rations to 
 wethers than to rams or ewes. 
 
 If the show animals are retained in the flock for breeding 
 purposes they should be reduced in fat immediately after 
 the show season is past. In reducing sheep to breeding con- 
 dition care should be taken to reduce the fat by degrees or 
 very slowly, so that the constitution of the animal will not 
 be impaired. 
 
LECTURE LIV. 
 
 THE HOT-HOUSE LAMB. 
 
 The term "hot-house lamb" often leads to a misunder- 
 standing, for the uninformed are liable to be led to believe 
 that the successful raising of these lambs requires extremely 
 artificial conditions. This is not true. The hot-house lamb 
 is simply a lamb born in November or December, and fattened 
 and sold during the first ten weeks of the year, at which time 
 there is a strong fancy demand for choice fat lambs ranging 
 from 45 pounds to 60 pounds in weight. They will bring 
 prices ranging from $8 to $10 each, and the demand is always 
 greater than the supply. The great cities furnish the mar- 
 ket, and selling must be done through commission merchants, 
 unless the producer has an intimate acquaintance with some 
 of the large consumers. Commission charges are 5 per cent. 
 The lambs are marketed, hog dressed, and are shipped by 
 express or refrigerator freight. 
 
 The advantages of raising "hot-house" lambs are: 
 
 1. Practical immunity from parasites, which so seriously 
 hamper the sheep industry in the United States. The para- 
 sites are far more fatal in lambs than in older sheep; but 
 inasmuch as they almost invariably gain access to the lambs 
 when the latter are feeding on pasture, this trouble is done 
 away with, and losses from this source are nil. 
 
 2. Constant occupation at a profitable task for the farmer 
 at an otherwise dull season. The work comes from November 
 to March when regular farm work is slack. 
 
 3. A high price and maximum profits. Lambs only eight or 
 ten weeks old bring as much money as those five or six 
 months old ordinarily do. Choice lambs will realize the owner 
 $8 to $10 per head, and as he has only had the care and feed- 
 ing of them during their babyhood days when they return 
 more pounds gain according to pounds of food eaten than any 
 other animals known their cost, so far as feed is concerned, 
 is at a minimum. 
 
 The raising of "hot-house" lambs, however, is not a task 
 
THE HOT-HOUSE LAMB. 215 
 
 for the careless and slovenly farmer. Certain peculiar con- 
 ditions must be met, and due attention must be paid to de- 
 tails which make for profit or loss. 
 
 The first requisite is that the lambs shall come at the right 
 season in November or December. October lambs are some- 
 what too early and must be marketed about the Christmas 
 holidays, for they will be too heavy to sell as fancy lambs if 
 they are carried on till the middle of January. The really 
 strong demand comes from the first of January till the middle 
 of March. In order to have the lambs come in November 
 or December, the ewes must be bred in June or July time of 
 pregnancy ranges from 151 to 154 days. Ordinary breeds of 
 sheep will not breed at this season of the year, and the only 
 sheep that can be depended upon to produce lambs in No- 
 vember or December are the Dorsets or their grades. The 
 Dorset-Merino grade has proved eminently satisfactory, and 
 the Dorset-Shropshire grade ewe is also an excellent ewe for 
 this purpose, though scarcely so sure to breed at the right 
 season as the former. The grade ewes are to be preferred 
 to the purebreds for raising such lambs, as their cost is less 
 and they are usually more vigorous mothers. The rams, 
 however, should be purebred, as a grade sire lacks prepotency 
 and consequently fails to sire lambs of uniform merit. 
 
 The ewes should be sheared early, and kept on light feed 
 from March until the latter part of May. They should be 
 kept in only medium condition. In May they will, of course, 
 be turned on pasture and should be kept gaining at a fair 
 rate until they are bred. If pasture is not good they should 
 receive grain in addition. The endeavor is to have the ewes 
 at breeding time in good, vigorous condition not fat, but 
 gaining in flesh. The rams should be in similar condition. 
 This gain in condition is known to shepherds as "flushing," 
 and is resorted to because long experience has shown that 
 it increases the tendency of the animals to come in heat, and 
 also renders conception much more certain. 
 
 In breeding the preferable plan is to keep the ram with 
 the ewes only at night; but this necessitates considerable 
 extra work, and breeders often find it more economical to 
 turn two rams with the flock, letting them remain all the 
 time. 
 
 After the ewes have all taken the ram, he should be re- 
 moved from the flock. The ewes should have an abundance 
 of good pasture, pure water from troughs or tanks, and shade. 
 
216 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 These are the essentials; given these, the flock will come 
 through the summer in fine shape, and the lambs will come 
 strong and hearty. 
 
 The barn or shed in which the ewes and their little ones 
 are to be cared for should be wind-proof, reasonably warm, 
 and should have considerable glass on the south side. Good 
 ventilation throughout the barn and separate quarters for 
 the lambs should be provided for. A creep will prevent the 
 ewes from passing into the lambs' portion of the barn. Suffi- 
 cient bedding to keep the sheep clean should be furnished, 
 but an excess is objectionable. Gypsum will keep down the 
 ammonia from the fermenting manure. Water and salt should 
 be furnished in the barn, and the ewes and lambs need not 
 be allowed outdoors from the time they are put in until the 
 lambs are all slaughtered and sold. 
 
 For feed there is nothing better for the ewes than good 
 bright clover or alfalfa, with corn meal, wheat bran, and if 
 prices permit, some oil meal or gluten feed. Cost is the de- 
 termining factor in deciding on these supplemental foods, 
 though due care must always be taken to secure only those 
 protein carrying foods that are palatable, for sheep are the 
 most particular about their food of all domestic animals. 
 Carrots or Swede turnips are also very valuable as supple- 
 mentary food for the ewes; but bright, fresh silage will 
 answer practically the same purpose, and is much cheaper. 
 The size and general thrift of the ewes should be the guide 
 in feeding, and enough grain should be given to keep the 
 ewes in a thrifty condition so that they will give an abund- 
 ance of milk for the little fellows. 
 
 The lambs should be fed grain in troughs of their own. 
 There is nothing better than corn meal and wheat bran, 
 mixed in proportions of about 75 pounds corn and 25 pounds 
 bran. This grain mixture with plenty of bright clover or 
 alfalfa hay will make the lambs grow at a surprising rate; 
 and if silage is available they should also receive some of 
 this once a day, with some bran or gluten feed sprinkled 
 over it. In feeding the lambs, they should be given all the 
 grain they will clean up three times a day. and be supplied 
 with bounteous hand. The troughs for both ewes and lambs 
 should be thoroughly cleaned out before each feed. 
 
 Joseph E. Wing, in the "Winter Lamb," warns feeders to 
 beware of silage when taken from near the bottom of silo, 
 and states that the acid present in such silage is like rank 
 
THE HOT-HOUSE LAMB. 217 
 
 poison to young lambs. However this may be, it is certain 
 that good silage is one of the most valuable feeds that can 
 be secured for lambs or ewes. 
 
 If proper care in feeding is taken the lambs should weigh 
 from 45 to 60 pounds in from eight to ten weeks, and should 
 also be very fat. They should now be slaughtered, hog 
 dressed, and prepared for market. This is more or less of a 
 fancy operation, as a well dressed carcass will far outsell 
 one that is poorly finished. In this connection, no better 
 directions can be given than those by H. P. Miller, in the 
 "Winter Lamb." He says: 
 
 "The preparation for market requires some skill, yet only 
 such as almost any one can develop after carefully studying 
 directions. We have greatly simplified our method of prepa- 
 ration, and the lambs apparently sell as well. 
 
 "It is very important to have them thoroughly bled out. 
 To secure this we have found it advantageous to suspend 
 the lamb by the hind feet in killing. Suspend a short single- 
 tree about six feet from the ground. Loop a small rope or 
 strong twine about each hind leg and attach to the hooks 
 of the singletree. With a sharp-pointed knife sever the artery 
 and vein in the neck close above the head. Be sure to sever 
 the artery. Bright red blood is the assurance. The venous 
 blood is dark. Severing the head with a broadax would per- 
 haps cause less suffering and insure a thorough bleeding. I 
 remove the head with a knife as soon as the lamb quits 
 struggling. Clip the wool from the brisket, and strip four 
 or five inches wide upward to the udder or scrotum, also from 
 between the hind legs as in tagging sheep. Now open the 
 lamb from the tail to the brisket. Slit the skin up the inside 
 of the hindquarters about four inches and loosen the skin 
 from the underlying muscles for two inches on either side of 
 the openings in the skin for the attachment of the caul fat. 
 This should be removed from the stomachs before they are 
 detached, and in very cold weather placed in warm water until 
 ready to use. Next remove the stomach and intestines. In 
 the early part of the season the liver, heart and lungs are 
 not removed, but when the weather gets warmer they must 
 be. Carefully spread the caul fat over all the exposed flesh. 
 Good toothpicks should be provided for attaching it and hold- 
 ing it in place. Make srcall slits in it over the kidneys and 
 pull them through. This part of the work is the one that 
 requires skill to make the carcass look attractive. Now hang 
 it in a cool place for twelve to twenty-four hours. In ex- 
 
218 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 tremely cold weather twelve hours will be enough, but better 
 make twenty-four the rule. Then neatly sew a square yard 
 of clean muslin about each lamb so as to cover all exposed 
 surface. We formerly wrapped each one in burlap and at- 
 tached to a stretcher, but now place three in a light crate 
 and tack the burlap over the top. We line the crate with 
 heavy paper. Prepare them as shortly before shipping as 
 possible. In warm weather ice may be put between the 
 lambs, not in them. Send them as they are ready, three or 
 six at a time. The market varies greatly, depending upon 
 weather and the number arriving. It is useless to try to 
 get them all in on a high market. Aim to slaughter regularly 
 each week if you have lambs in condition, and keep your 
 commission firm informed as to how many you will probably 
 send and when. 
 "Attention to details is the secret of success." 
 
LECTURE LV, 
 
 FATTENING SHEEP IN WINTER. 
 
 The fattening of sheep in winter furnishes a profitable in- 
 dustry to thousands of farmers, as well as to the large pro- 
 fessional feeders, who fatten any class of stock when they 
 consider market conditions right. Sheep, like beef cattle, 
 afford a means of condensing the products of the farm into 
 a concentrated market form; and fattening sheep are very 
 easily handled. 
 
 The first step is to see that the sheep are free from scab, 
 lice or ticks. Scab means ruin to profits, and lice and ticks 
 seriously curtail the fattening tendency. The sheep should 
 be carefully examined for these troubles, and if they are 
 western sheep the safest plan is to dip them anyway, as 
 scab may be present in limited degrees perhaps only on one 
 or two animals yet it will spread through the flock like wild- 
 fire when they are fairly started on feed. The safest and 
 cheapest plan is to dip; and this is taken up in detail in a 
 later lesson. 
 
 When sheep are fed on a very large scale, as is frequently 
 done in western Nebraska, or Minnesota, no sheds are pro- 
 vided, and the sheep are fed on the open fields, sometimes in 
 bands of ten or fifteen thousand. Picket fences through 
 which they can reach are provided, and hay is pushed up 
 to the fence once or twice a day. Grain is fed in shallow 
 troughs here and there in the lots. Under such general con- 
 ditions the grain is usually shelled corn, fed with prairie hay; 
 or under Minnesota conditions, wheat screenings and prairie 
 hay furnish the feed. 
 
 The economy of such a plan of feed, and the eminently 
 satisfactory results it has given, commands it to all feeders; 
 but Iowa winters usually furnish cold, wet snows, chilling 
 winds, and more or less rain toward spring. Sheep must be 
 protected from this wet; hence for most parts of the state 
 sheds which will protect the sheep from the north winds, 
 and from wet snows or rains, are necessary. These sheds 
 
220 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 need not be costly or elaborate; the south side may be left 
 entirely open. The yard should be well drained, graded and 
 surfaced to carry off superflous water. Sheep love the dry 
 and must have it if they are to do well. With sheds on the 
 north, dry footing beneath, and yards on the southern slope, 
 the sheep are under comfortable conditions and will do well. 
 For feeding roughage the old plan of a picket fence is the 
 best yet devised. It can be placed parallel to and about fifteen 
 feet distant from the regular outside fence, and between 
 these the hay and fodder can be thrown off in wholesale 
 quantities, and then moved up next the picket fence, where 
 the sheep can get it as needed. 
 
 Good clover hay is ideal roughage, and alfalfa is still bet- 
 ter, when it can be secured. Where neither of these feeds 
 is available, bright corn fodder is the next best feed, is greatly 
 relished by sheep, and gives good results. It is useless to 
 shred or cut fodder for fattening sheep (unless the refuse 
 is desired for bedding), as they will not consume the rougher 
 portions as cattle will under similar conditions. To feed 
 the grain, flat-bottomed troughs, from 10 to 12 inches wide 
 and 12 to 16 feet long, should be provided. Henry says that 
 100-pound sheep should be allowed 15 inches space at the 
 trough, and 200-pound sheep 24 inches. Where the troughs 
 set out in the open, where the sheep can get at them from 
 both sides, less room than this will be needed. 
 
 For grain feed shelled corn is the great standard. Sheep 
 masticate the food much more thoroughly than cattle do, and 
 grinding is unnecessary. The sheep should be brought on 
 feed very gradually, and as good a plan as any is to feed 
 some bran for the first ten or fifteen days. If the feed is to 
 be a short one, they should be receiving a pound per day per 
 head by the end of the first twenty-five days, and by the end 
 of forty or forty-five days should be receiving from one and 
 one-half to two pounds per head daily; the exact amount will 
 vary in the case of different bunches, some proving heavy, 
 hearty feeders and others much less so. The aim is, how- 
 ever, to give them all they will consume after they are once 
 up on full feed. Shelled corn, with some bran and clover 
 hay, is as satisfactory a ration as can be secured for fatten- 
 ing sheep, and under ordinary conditions is as economical 
 a ration as can be fed. When such supplemental feed stuffs 
 as oil meal and gluten feed are low in price, they can be used 
 to good advantage; and whenever emmer, cow peas or soy 
 
FATTENING SHEEP IN WINTER. 221 
 
 beans can be secured at moderate prices they can be used, 
 as they are greatly relished by sheep. 
 
 In the actual work of feeding, quietness should be observed. 
 It is well not to feed too early in the winter time; daylight 
 is plenty soon enough. The same attendants should do all 
 the work, or at least as far as possible; and strangers or 
 dogs should not be allowed in the lot, as they are very apt 
 to frighten the sheep and cause them to lose flesh in running 
 and jamming around. 
 
 Protection from sweeping winds, wet snow or rains, to- 
 gether with economical feeding arrangements, good judgment 
 in buying feeds, and regular, careful feeding, to the limit, 
 are the essentials which combine to make success certain. 
 
LECTURE LVI. 
 
 FATTENING SHEEP IN SUMMER. 
 
 Many experiments and the testimony of many practical 
 feeders have shown, conclusively, that cattle can be fed more 
 economically in summer than in winter; and while the ex- 
 periments along this line in sheep feeding are less numerous 
 than in cattle feeding, they are quite as conclusive. 
 
 Experiments conducted in 1901, at the Iowa Experiment 
 Station, in which 1G1 yearling wethers were fed, showed that 
 the sheep made .406 pound gain per day on bluegrass pasture 
 alone; that they made .46 pound gain per day on corn and 
 bluegrass; on oats and bluegrass pasture .42 pound per day; 
 on barley and bluegrass pasture .39 pound per day. Such 
 gains as these are very large in feeding sheep, and show 
 that very satisfactory and economical gains can be made 
 on summer feeding; and furthermore, it was found that the 
 most economical gains were made on bluegrass pasture alone. 
 In another experiment made the same fall, in which 100 head 
 of yearling wethers were fed in seven lots, the results showed 
 that more economical gains could be made on corn and 
 grass, or on grass alone, than on any usual combination of 
 grains and clover hay. The gains on grass, however, were 
 not as great as desired; this was due, however, to the fact 
 that the grass was washy, due to its having been burnt over 
 just prior to the time the sheep were placed on it. 
 
 The above experiments and the general knowledge of ex- 
 perienced feeders indicate that summer feeding is advisable 
 whenever good pasture can be secured; and the results also 
 show that where sheep have the run of abundant bluegrass 
 pasture, that more economical results can be secured on 
 grass alone than on grass and grain. This does not neces- 
 sarily indicate, however, that grain should not be fed to 
 sheep that are on pasture. This must be governed by local 
 conditions, such as kind of pasture, abundance of same, and 
 cost of grain that one desires to feed. 
 
 For yearlings or mature sheep bluegrass pasture is the 
 
FATTENING SHEEP IN SUMMER. 223 
 
 feed par excellence, but this caution must be borne in mind: 
 Parasites that are extremely destructive to sheep are far 
 more liable to find their way into sheep when they are 
 grazing upon short, close grass such as bluegrass is than 
 when they are running upon higher growing grasses, such 
 as red clover and alfalfa. Besides this, these parasites never 
 trouble sheep that are feeding on a pasture where sheep 
 have not previously fed; hence it is that new pastures insure 
 freedom from the parasites which are the bane of the sheep 
 grower's existence. Bluegrass is the earliest and choicest 
 feed we have, but if sheep have run on it for several years, 
 there is danger from the parasites, even in the case of ma- 
 ture sheep; and it is almost certain death to lambs. Hence 
 judgment must be used in allowing sheep to run on blue- 
 grass pasture, and it must ever be remembered that one is 
 taking considerable risk in allowing sheep on old pastures. 
 When bluegrass has been decided upon, however, and where 
 it is abundant and not too washy, no other feed need be 
 given. If soft or somewhat scarce, some corn and bran 
 should be fed with it. In starting the sheep on pasture in 
 the spring, it is best to turn them on some pasture where the 
 old grass makes up a large part of the feed; on such pas- 
 ture the sheep will get a bite of old grass with the new, 
 which will prevent scouring, which is very liable to occur 
 if the sheep are turned on pasture that consists wholly of 
 new grass. The pasture should be abundant and particular 
 care should be taken not to overstock it during May and June, 
 for if this is done, no feed will be procurable in July and 
 August; and it cannot be too thoroughly emphasized that 
 more feed can be secured from a pasture by grazing it mod- 
 erately than by keeping it grazed close to the ground. Corn 
 is the staple feed in the great central states, and gives the 
 most satisfactory results of any grain fed in conjunction 
 with bluegrass pasture. In starting the feed begin gradually 
 giving not more than one-third of a pound of shelled corn 
 with about the same amount of bran to each animal for the 
 first few days. The corn should be gradually increased and 
 the bran decreased until at the end of ten or fifteen days 
 the bran may be wholly discontinued, and the sheep should be 
 receiving from two-thirds to three-fourths of a pound shelled 
 corn per head per day. If the feeding period is to be a short 
 one, the sheep may be brought to full feed, about two pounds 
 shelled corn per day, within thirty days. But if the feed- 
 
224 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 ing period is to be long, a little more time should be used 
 in getting the sheep to full feed. The exact amount must 
 be governed by the particular conditions. On long feeds, 
 where pasture is plentiful, it will be most profitable to feed 
 only about half what the animals would take. On short 
 feeds and where pasture is somewhat limited, it is usually 
 advisable to crowd the animals, giving them all they will 
 eat up clean. 
 
 The fattening of lambs is a very profitable branch of sheep 
 husbandry, and lambs are preferred to the older sheep. The 
 favorite on the market is the handy weight lamb, aged about 
 six months and weighing in the neighborhood of 100 pounds. 
 They can be fed on pasture even more profitably than older 
 sheep, for blue-grass, alfalfa or clover supply a high per 
 cent, of protein, which the lambs need more than older sheep 
 do. Bluegrass pasture, however, is dangerous to young 
 lambs if sheep have grazed upon it during the preceding 
 season, for stomach worms and other such parasites are more 
 apt to be gathered up by the lambs when feeding on the 
 short, sweet bluegrass than on any other pasture. In fat- 
 tening lambs in summer, therefore, it is best to depend upon 
 red clover, alfalfa and the more common forage crops; and 
 wherever sufficient sheep are kept to warrant the employ- 
 ment of a regular shepherd the use of hurdles, whereby the 
 lambs may be permitted to run ahead of the ewes, will prove 
 very satisfactory, and will result in increased thrift among 
 the lambs. In pasturing either clover or alfalfa the sheep 
 should not be turned in until the clover or alfalfa is well 
 grown, and then should be turned in when well filled up on 
 other grass, and when the dew or wet is off; and after being 
 so turned in should never be taken off, though a shed may 
 be provided where the sheep may shade at midday. On 
 such pasture with their mothers the lambs will make prodi- 
 gious growth, and when weaning time comes they may be 
 turned into another such field, or if clover or alfalfa be 
 limited, they may be turned on rape, soy beans, or cow peas. 
 Any of these may be sown in a cornfield at the last cultiva- 
 tion, or in oats or barley, and no better feed can be found. 
 
 By the time the youngsters are a month or six weeks old, 
 the ewes should be given a little grain in long feed troughs, 
 where the lambs may get a taste of the feed. As soon as 
 they have developed a taste for grain a separate pen should 
 be provided, with a "creep" through which the lambs may 
 
FATTENING SHEEP IN SUMMER. 22o 
 
 pass. In this pen a feed trough should be placed, and here 
 the lambs may be fed twice daily, beginning on shelled corn 
 and bran, and gradually decreasing the bran till it forms not 
 more than one-tenth of the ration by weight. When the 
 lambs are weaned the grain ration should be increased until 
 the youngsters are getting all they will eat up clean twice 
 a day. Fed in this manner they will make rapid gains and 
 will also be ripe and ready for slaughter by the time they 
 weigh from 90 to 100 pounds. 
 
 In conclusion, we see that sheep may be fed more econom- 
 ically and profitably on grass and grain than in the dry lot; 
 that very profitable gains can be secured on bluegrass pasture 
 alone where such pasture is good; that lambs should not 
 be allowed the run of bluegrass pasture if sheep have pas- 
 tured on the same in preceding years; that alfalfa and red 
 clover are the most satisfactory early pasture for lambs; 
 that soy beans, cow peas or rape all make satisfactory late 
 pastures; and that corn is, as a general rule, the most satis- 
 factory grain feed that can be used in fattening sheep on 
 pasture. 
 
LECTURE LVII. 
 
 DIPPING SHEEP. 
 
 Sheep are dipped to free them from ticks and from scab. 
 Ticks occur in practically all flocks. They may be very 
 plentiful, in which case they do much damage; or they may 
 be present to only a slight extent. In either case they are 
 a detriment to the thrift of the sheep and should be gotten 
 rid of. 
 
 Scab is caused by a very minute parasite which burrows 
 into the skin, causes a scabby condition, and brings about 
 a loss of much of the wool, great emaciation, and restlessness. 
 Sheep so affected will do no good in the breeding flock or 
 the feed lot. The disease is spread by contact, either with 
 sheep that are affected, or with posts, fences, feed boxes, etc., 
 where scabby sheep have rubbed. Scab is exceedingly diffi- 
 cult of radication, owing to the fact that the scab parasite, 
 known to scientific men as Psoroptes communis, keeps under 
 the protection of the dry scales or scabs, and these must be 
 loosened or softened before the dipping solution can affect 
 the parasite. 
 
 Sheep ticks are easily seen by any one who will take the 
 trouble to examine affected sheep. The parasite that causes 
 scab is not so easily seen, but it reveals its presence by 
 small, scabby places here and there on the body, and by 
 bare places where the wool has been torn out by rubbing. 
 If some of the scales be removed and promptly transferred 
 to a piece of black paper, the parasite may be seen as a 
 very minute, light colored mite, crawling about. Scab is 
 extremely virulent, spreading rapidly in a flock of sheep 
 and precluding all possibility of profit in keeping an affected 
 flock useless unless prompt steps are taken to dispose of 
 the disease. 
 
 Treatment. 
 
 The only satisfactory method of dealing with ticks or scab 
 is by dipping. This should be done at least once a year as a 
 
DIPPING SHEEP. 227 
 
 precaution and to dispose of what few ticks are present, for 
 it is indeed a rare thing to find a flock wholly free from ticks. 
 Where the ticks are plentiful, two dippings per year are ad- 
 visable. Where scab is found the promptest measures must 
 be taken to stamp out the trouble. Two dippings should be 
 given ten days apart, and the dip should be applied warm 
 about 110 degrees F., unless a dip containing caustic, as 
 lime, is used. The dips that are recommended by the Bureau 
 of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C., are the lime and 
 sulphur dip, tobacco and sulphur dip, and nicotine and sul- 
 phur. These dips are all of such a nature that they may be 
 made up at home, and they are used very satisfactorily and 
 effectively on a large scale. The extreme care necessary 
 in making up these dips, however, and the injurious and 
 often dangerous results brought about by improper prepara- 
 tion of these dips, renders them somewhat impracticable for 
 the small farmer or flock owner. In addition to this is the 
 further disadvantage of the trouble of preparing them, and 
 the fact that the lime and sulphur dip always injures the 
 wool fiber to some extent, especially if it is used at any time 
 other than shortly after shearing. These dips, however, have 
 the advantage of being cheaper than any of the proprietary 
 dips, especially when used on a large scale. Inasmuch as 
 they are somewhat impracticable for Iowa conditions, full 
 directions for making them will not be given here. Those 
 who desire to use them should write to their congressman for 
 the Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal In- 
 dustry, which discusses these dips in full. 
 
 There are numerous proprietary dips on the market, some 
 of which are quite effective when used according to direc- 
 tions, and many which are not. All have the disadvantage of 
 higher cost than the home-made dips, but the best injure the 
 wool much less than the lime and sulphur dip. In fact, some 
 are rathe,r beneficial than otherwise in effect on the wool. 
 Those which appear to give the best satisfaction to flock 
 masters, so far as can be learned, are Zenoleum, Chloro- 
 Naptholeum, Cooper's Sheep Dip, Little's Sheep Dip, and 
 Car-sul Dip. 
 
 The first two are carbolized dips, based on coal tar by- 
 products. The third and fourth are arsenical dips, and the 
 last is a coal tar dip with sulphur. All appear to be reason- 
 ably effective, but must be used hot (110 degrees F.) in 
 order to soften the scab sufficiently to penetrate to the para- 
 
228 
 
 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 sites beneath. Any proprietary dip should be used strictly 
 according to directions. This is especially true in the case 
 of the poisonous dips. For ticks these dips need not be hot. 
 
 To accomplish satisfactory results it is necessary to have 
 a regular dipping tank. These can be made of wood, but the 
 galvanized tanks are cheaper and better. Galvanized steel 
 tanks 4 feet deep, 10 feet long on top, 5 feet long on bot- 
 tom, 20 inches wide on top and 15 inches wide at the bottom, 
 weighing from 160 to 225 pounds the standard size for such 
 tanks can be purchased most cheaply from the firms that 
 sell the proprietary dips, as they sell the tanks at very 
 low cost to introduce their dips. The cost will vary from 
 $8.50 to $16.00, depending upon the grade of tank purchased. 
 A very good one can be bought for $12.50. 
 
 The tank should be set in the ground and small yards 
 arranged so as to facilitate the passage of the animals to 
 the tank. The accompanying sketch shows a very convenient 
 arrangement: 
 
 PLAN / DIPPING PLANT. 
 
 By having two draining pens the dipping can go on con- 
 tinuously; one pen filled, the gate from the center partition 
 is simply swung around, diverting the sheep into the other 
 pen. The floor of the draining pens should be so arranged 
 as to divert the drainage into barrels stationed at F. Here 
 
DIPPING SHEEP. 229 
 
 the liquid can settle and then it may be drawn off with a 
 siphon, thereby preventing manure, etc., from passing from 
 the draining pens into the tank. 
 
 The same general principles laid down for sheep dipping 
 will apply to hogs, and the proprietary dips are used most 
 extensively. Lice are the parasites fought and there is no 
 difficulty in controlling them. 
 
 As to frequency of dipping, sheep should be dipped -twice 
 per year lambs and all. Hogs should be dipped whenever 
 it appears necessary, and it will usually be found profitable 
 to dip two or three times a season even though lice may not 
 appear to be present. 
 
LECTURE LVIII. 
 
 FORAGE CROPS FOR SHEEP. 
 
 The question of forage crops for sheep is one of the most 
 important to the sheep raiser in the central west, because 
 of the internal parasites which make life a burden to the 
 flock master. 
 
 The different crops used for forage purposes may be classed 
 as early or spring crops, mid-summer forage plants, and fall 
 forage. 
 
 Winter wheat and rye, where they can be grown, are two 
 of the most valuable early feeds. They may be pastured 
 when grown for the grain, but it is best to have a small plot 
 expressly for pasture purposes. Red clover and alfalfa both 
 furnish valuable early pasture, usually (in Iowa) becoming 
 available in the early part of May, and they are also good in 
 summer or in fall if mowed or kept grazed down. It is best 
 to have a limited area of these for the sheep to run on and 
 to graze this down before allowing more range to feed on. 
 In this way waste is reduced to a minimum a very import- 
 ant matter when the pastures are yet undeveloped. This 
 can be arranged by providing hurdles, which will be dis- 
 cussed later. 
 
 Of the spring sown crops which become available by the 
 last of June or the first of July, rape and sorghum are two 
 of the most valuable. Both do best on fairly rich soil, which 
 should be well prepared. Sorghum can best be sown broad- 
 cast, from 80 to 100 pounds per acre, according to the nature 
 of the soil; rape should be sown broadcast at from 3 to 4 
 pounds per acre. The heavier sowing gives a larger yield, 
 but it is scarcely so valuable from a food standpoint as the 
 lighter seeding. If sown in drills 24 inches apart, from 
 1 to l l / 2 pounds per acre is sufficient. Both rape and sorghum 
 ir ay be sown at any time from May 1 until August. July 
 sowing, however, is better for rape than sorghum. Rape or 
 sorghum sown in May will do to turn on by the last of June 
 or first of July. If sown about the middle of June in a 
 
FORAGE CROPS FOR SHEEP. 231 
 
 favorable season it will be ready to pasture in thirty days. 
 Both crops, however, possess more feeding value as they 
 approach maturity. Rape can very often be sown to good 
 advantage with oats. At the Iowa station (1889) rape so 
 sown one pound rape and six pecks of oats per acre gave 
 a yield of eighteen tons per acre besides sixty bushels of 
 oats per acre. The rape interfered but slightly in harvesting 
 the oats, and afterwards came on and made the above ex- 
 cellent yield. 
 
 Besides rape and sorghum, two of the most valuable forage 
 crops we have for sheep are legumes that can be spring 
 or summer sown to good advantage. These are cow peas 
 and soja beans. They may be sown alone or in corn, and 
 furnish the very choicest of feed. Best results are usually 
 obtained by sowing in drills, twenty-four inches apart, and 
 cultivating. The peas or beans should be dropped from 
 three to four inches apart in the drills. If sown broadcast, 
 from three pecks to one bushel of seed should be used per 
 acre on rich soil. Neither soy beans nor cow peas mature 
 with certainty in this state, and seed must usually be ob- 
 tained from a distance. If sown alone they should be sown 
 in May as soon as the ground warms up well. If sown in 
 corn it will necessarily be at the last cultivating, and the 
 cow peas are preferable to the soy beans for this purpose. 
 In early corn, which is laid by in June, the peas will make a 
 vigorous growth and will be in good shape to turn lambs 
 on in the latter part of August. 
 
 The foregoing list gives a succession of forage crops, all 
 desirable for sheep pasturage, from early in May until well 
 into the frost season in the fall, and sheep carried on such 
 pasture will remain free from stomach worms, liver flukes 
 and other intestinal parasites which infest only pastures that 
 are grazed for two or more consecutive years. 
 
 Other crops, such as oats and peas, sweet corn, etc., may 
 also be grown, but the ones mentioned are all crops that 
 have proved their worth, and no farmer need hesitate to 
 sow them. 
 
 In growing any forage crop, the most gains from a mini- 
 mum amount of land is secured when hurdles are used. These 
 are made of ordinary fencing material, sixteen feet long. 
 Each panel has three boards, held together by three or four 
 uprights. Two of these are attached by hinges to a third 
 in such a way that the three will fold together. The result 
 
232 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 is forty-eight feet of fencing in a light, handy form, and 
 when a number of these are hooked together and braced 
 with light, inexpensive braces, a fence that is cheap and 
 very easily moved is secured. With these hurdles a certain 
 portion of the forage crop may be fenced off and the fence 
 set forward every few days when the sheep have cleaned 
 up what they have access to. The advantage of this plan 
 in economizing the feed is apparent. The disadvantage is 
 that it requires some labor to move the hurdles from time 
 to time. Each man must decide for himself as to the ad- 
 visability of hurdling, as local conditions, such as scarcity 
 of feed, cost of labor, etc., must be the controlling factors. 
 
 The essential point about forage crops for sheep is that 
 they give practical immunity from parasites, which cause 
 most of the loss in sheep growing. In addition, they are sure 
 to produce plenty of pasture, even in seasons when blue- 
 grass pasture becomes brown and scant. 
 
LECTURE LIX. 
 
 ECONOMICAL METHOD OF STARTING A FLOCK. 
 
 In the central west sheep are kept for three purposes: as 
 mutton producers, as wool producers, and as weed destroy- 
 ers. These are the three sources of income from the flock 
 of sheep. As weed destroyers they have no equal, as they 
 will eat readily over 575 out of the 600 different kinds of 
 weeds which grow in this country. The horse eats about 
 eighty, while cattle eat but fifty or sixty. For this purpose 
 alone sheep are useful and no farmer can afford to be with- 
 out a small flock. 
 
 From a mutton and wool producing standpoint they are 
 also valuable. This being the case, we should pay attention 
 to mutton form and the growth of wool in selecting animals 
 for foundation stock. A man's liking for any business is 
 more or less controlled by the financial returns from the 
 same. This is especially true of the sheep breeding business. 
 If good judgment is used at the beginning no class of farm 
 animals will return as great profits on the investment as 
 will sheep. In starting the flock some advise the purchase 
 of purebred animals, such as a bunch of ewe lambs. This 
 means a heavy outlay of money at the beginning with not 
 much income during the first year. A ewe should not drop 
 her first lamb before she is two years old, thus the only 
 source of income from the ewe lamb is her wool clip, which 
 should pay for her keep. 
 
 For the man who has no sheep a much more economical 
 and profitable method of starting the flock would be to pur- 
 chase the so-called old ewes which have been discarded from 
 the flocks of sheep men. Many people consider a ewe to be 
 old and undesirable when she attains the age of five years. 
 Such a ewe, if a good breeder, will not appear so nice to 
 the eye of the visitor as the two or three-year-old ewe. Still, 
 if her udder is good, there is no reason why she should not 
 be profitable from a breeding standpoint until she is eight 
 or ten years old. She is just the kind of an animal for the 
 
234 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 beginner in the sheep business to handle. During the month 
 of September and the early part of October each year there 
 are thousands of just such ewes sent to our markets, where 
 they are a drug on the market. A ewe which has reared 
 a good lamb or perhaps two lambs is always rather thin in 
 flesh. This being the case, the butcher does not want her, 
 except at a very low price. They can usually be purchased 
 at from $1.50 to $3.00 per head at any of our leading live 
 stock markets. In selecting such ewes get those which show 
 good breeding and have good fleeces. Have them dipped 
 before leaving the yards, and better still, after they arrive 
 home as a safeguard against scab, vermin and other troubles. 
 
 Having secured a flock of old ewes for a small amount of 
 money, you can now afford to spend some money in the 
 purchase of a good sire. He cannot be too good from a 
 mutton and wool producing standpoint. It is not necessary 
 that he have all the fancy points of his breed, such as color 
 markings, wooling of the head and legs, and other fancy 
 points. It is very important, however, that he does have 
 a good mutton form, a good, heavy fleece of wool, and a 
 strong constitution, as indicated by width and depth of chest. 
 He must be right in every respect, because he is more than 
 half the flock. 
 
 The ewes should be well fed during mating season, also 
 during the winter months. The next fall some culling out 
 should be done. Those ewes which are oldest and least 
 prolific should be separated from the rest of the flock and 
 fattened for the market, to be sold in December or January; 
 not September, when the market is always overstocked with 
 such animals. A number of the best ewe lambs should be 
 selected to replace the old ewes which have been discarded, 
 in this way selecting the foundation for the future breeding 
 flock. If this method is followed up, in a few years all of 
 the old ewes will be replaced by younger ones of better type 
 and breeding. At the same time the flock will pay larger 
 dividends on the capital invested than any other class of 
 stock on the farm. 
 
 By getting a new and better sire every two years an ex- 
 cellent flock can be built up from a very small outlay of 
 money. More attention should be paid to breed type in the 
 selection of the sire from year to year, as by so doing the 
 type of the entire flock will be very much improved. If after 
 a few years' experience with the flock you wish to establish 
 
STARTING A FLOCK. 235 
 
 a purebred flock, a few choice purebred ewes may be added to 
 the original flock. Then by proper care and selection the 
 purebreds may be increased from year to year and the grades 
 discarded. 
 
 The majority of men, however, will make more money by 
 handling a flock of good, high grade sheep, the offspring of 
 which are sold for market purposes, than by engaging In 
 the purebred business. Every man should keep a purebred 
 sire, but few men are qualified to make a success of handling 
 purebred stock. 
 
LECTURE LX. 
 
 SHEDS OR HOUSES SUITABLE FOR SHEEP. 
 
 Sheep, unlike many other kinds of stock, do not require 
 elaborate buildings. There is no need of an expensive 
 structure, but ample provision must be made for the com- 
 fort of the animals. In this connection, however, the severity 
 of the winter must be considered. In those sections of the 
 country where the winters are long and severe more water 
 and more expensive sheep barns are needed than in the 
 milder climate. Plenty of room should be provided, as 
 sheep do not do well in cramped quarters. The fleece of 
 the sheep serves as means of protection in time of cold. 
 One thing, however, which must not be overlooked is the 
 fact that sheep must have dry quarters. They will not thrive 
 in damp quarters. They must be kept dry under foot and 
 overhead if the best of results are expected. Sheep in the 
 natural state always seek high ground, where it is dry and 
 clear. 
 
 In dry climates and especially where the lambs are not 
 dropped early in the season, sheep may be kept in almost 
 any kind of a structure that will be dry under foot; provide 
 shelter from draughts and storms. In many such instances 
 a shed made from poles covered with straw or native hay, 
 fixed in such a way as to prevent draughts and dampness due 
 to dripping, has served an admirable purpose for the beginner 
 in the sheep business. 
 
 In some instances the basement of a barn is used for sheep, 
 but as a general rule such a place is not dry enough, espe- 
 cially in the spring of the year, thus is oftentimes very un- 
 healthy. 
 
 Where the sheep barn is built as a separate building it 
 should be high enough to provide ample room for the storage 
 of a considerable amount of hay and straw overhead. This 
 will add very much to the convenience of the same and re- 
 duce very materially the amount of labor required in caring 
 for the flock. The barn should be narrow and long rather 
 
BUILDINGS FOR SHEEP. 237 
 
 than wide. In shape it should be L shaped and built so as 
 to provide protection from the north and the west, as it 
 is from these directions that most of our severe winds come. 
 A barn of this construction should not be more than twenty- 
 five or thirty feet wide. There should be an alley along the 
 north and west sides about four or five feet wide for feeding 
 purposes. In fact, many good barns are not more than twenty 
 feet wide with a four-foot alley, leaving about sixteen feet 
 clear for the sheep. This arrangement of a barn divides up 
 very nicely. No stationary partitions are needed, as the 
 feed racks, which should be sixteen feet long, will serve two 
 purposes. They can be put in crosswise, thus making a real 
 good partition. This method of dividing the barn proves to 
 be very convenient in the spring of the year or at any other 
 time where it is desirable to remove the manure. The feed 
 racks may then be taken out, thus leaving the building one 
 open space. In making the feed racks it is best to con- 
 struct them for the double purpose of feeding both roughage 
 and grain or other fine feed. This can be easily done by 
 having the racks about two feet or twenty-eight inches wide 
 at the bottom. Then have two boards about eight inches 
 wide each nailed together in the shape of a wide angled V. 
 The angle should be of at least 135 degrees. These boards 
 should then be placed on the center of the bottom of the 
 rack so as to form a slope on either side towards the outer 
 edge. This will be found very helpful in keeping the grain 
 or other fine feed in the outer edge of the bottom of the 
 rack. That part of the rack which is to hold the rough feed, 
 such as hay, straw or corn fodder, should be built on the 
 center of the V shaped ridge and project upwards to the 
 height of about three feet. They should slant gradually up- 
 wards so as to be about two feet wide at top. Vertical slats 
 about four inches wide and three inches apart should be 
 nailed on the sides. This affords a very good means of sup- 
 plying the roughness to the animals at their own will and 
 at the same time protecting their fleeces from chaff and 
 other foreign matter. The bottom of the feed racks should 
 be about eight inches from the ground. The side boards on 
 the lower part of the grain trough should not be more than 
 four inches in height. This makes a very good combination 
 feed rack, and is both economical from the standpoint of 
 exposure and labor. 
 
 In each and every sheep barn there should be one or two 
 
AUG 5 1904 
 
 238 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 warm rooms, which will be found very convenient and use- 
 ful at lambing time. These should be so arranged as to allow 
 of further division. A small pan is especially desirable and 
 necessary in the case of young ewes which do not take 
 kindly to their lambs. A feed room should also be provided 
 especially in a barn of any size. It will save much labor 
 at feeding time, as in such a room all of the various kinds 
 of grains or other feed stuffs used may be stored. In a small 
 barn such a room is not so necessary. 
 
 Plenty of sunlight and ample yard room are very necessary 
 for the health of the flock. This calls for a large number 
 of windows on the east, south and west sides of the sheep 
 barn. The yards should be located on the south and east 
 sides of the barn. All doors leading to and from the pens 
 should be low and of good width. A high step and a narrow 
 door make a dangerous and costly combination to the breed- 
 ing flock of ewes. Ventilation is necessary for the health 
 of the flock, but draughts must be guarded against, as the 
 sheep can withstand less exposure of this kind than any 
 other farm animals. 
 
-, COPY DEL TO CAT 
 
 AUG. 5 
 
Seri 
 
 es 
 
 Part I. 
 
 Jfifennetfy. 
 
 Correspondence 
 
 Agricultural 
 
 College 
 
 S/'oux City, 
 
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY SERIES. 
 
 PART I. NO. V. 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 ox 
 
 Feeding, Care and Management 
 of Live StocK 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLARD J. KENNEDY, B. S. A. 
 
 Professor of Animal Husbandry 
 nnd Vice Director of Experiment 
 Station. Iowa State College of 
 Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. 
 
 Correspondence Agricultural College, 
 
 SIOUX CITY, IOWA. 
 
 All Rights Reserved. 
 
LIBRARY Of CONGRESS 
 
 Two Copies Received 
 
 MAR 30 1904 
 
 Copyright Entry 
 
 CLASS A-XXc. No. 
 
 $ i. t 
 
 COPY A 
 
 Copyright, 1904, 
 
 by 
 Rural Text Book Company, Assignee. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Part 1. No. V. 
 
 CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK. 
 
 LECTURES. 
 
 Pages. 
 
 L.XL Feed, Care and Management of Brood Mare 241-244 
 
 LXII. Feed, Care and Management of Colt from Wean- 
 ing Time Until Ready for Work 245-247 
 
 LXIII. Feed. Care and Management of Work Horses 248-251 
 
 LXIV. Feed, Care and Management of Driving and Sad- 
 dle Horses 252-255 
 
 LXV. Feed, Care and Management of the Stallion 256-259 
 
 LXVI. Breaking and Fitting Horses for Market 260-2GG 
 
 LXVII. Fattening Horses for Market 267-270 
 
 I,XVIII. Stabling Suitable for Horses 271-272 
 
 LXIX. Feed. Care and Management of Brood Sows 273-275 
 
 LXX. Feed and Care of Young Pigs from Birth Until 
 
 Ready for Fattening 276-278 
 
 LXXI. Feed. Care and Selection of Stock Intended for 
 
 Breeding Purposes 279-280 
 
 LXXII. Fattening Hogs for Market 281-284 
 
 L.XXIII. Preparation and Fitting of Swine for Show Pur- 
 poses 285-287 
 
 LXXIV. Forage Crops for Swine 288-291 
 
 LXXV. Prevention of Disease in Swine 292-295 
 
 T.XXVI. Pens and Sheds Suitable for Pigs__ _ 296-302 
 
1904: 
 
 Rural Text Book Company 
 Press. 
 
LECTURE LXI. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BROOD MARE. 
 
 The proper care and management of the brood mare is 
 one of the most vital points to be considered in the produc- 
 tion of horses, so much of the success or failure is due to 
 this part of the work. A careful study of the methods prac- 
 ticed on the most successful horse farms reveals that al- 
 though there may be some minor points of difference, there 
 are certain well denned rules which must be adhered to if 
 the best results are to be expected. 
 
 It is universally recognized that nothing but mature 
 mares should be used if good, strong colts are to be reared. 
 Another point is the importance of exercise. This seems to 
 be one of the most essential features in the estimation of 
 most successful breeders. This may be accomplished by 
 allowing the mares to remain out of doors most of the day 
 during the w r inter season and all of the time when the 
 weather is mild and favorable. In those sections of the 
 country where the winters are not too severe and the 
 ground is not covered with snow, grazing for part of their 
 ration serves an excellent means of securing the much 
 needed exercise. Where some care is used in the fall of 
 the year in not allowing the pastures to be too closely 
 grazed, thus leaving an abundance of grass, it will provide 
 much feed of the very best kind during the winter months. 
 Grass, cured in this way, is better than hay, as it contains 
 just as much nourishment and in addition has a most favora- 
 ble influence on the digestive system. Where such grass 
 cannot be had some corn fodder should be scattered over 
 the pasture some distance from the buildings to encourage 
 and secure the desired exercise. 
 
 The above method is especially desirable on farms 
 where horse breeding is practiced on such an extensive scale 
 as to make it impossible to secure exercise in any other way. 
 On most farms such a method is not necessary, as the same 
 end may be secured by means of light work. The belief held 
 
242 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 by some that work is injurious to the brood mare is wrong. 
 Light, regular work is one of the very best things for such 
 an animal. Heavy, irregular work, especially during the lat- 
 ter part of pregnancy, must be avoided, else serious results 
 may be the result. All good horse breeders recommend light 
 work wherever it is at all practicable. 
 
 In the largest and best established horse breeding dis- 
 tricts of France the majority of the horses are produced by 
 small farmers who do all their work with their brood mares. 
 The colts are sold when about twelve months old to the 
 dealers, who mature and sell them for breeding purposes to 
 other countries. In this way they claim to be able to pro- 
 duce the very highest type of horses. The mothers always 
 have sufficient exercise, thus, as a result, strong, healthy 
 foals are secured, which always make much better horses 
 than those reared from dams which have been irregularly 
 exercised and overfed. 
 
 In most sections of the country spring foals are reared. 
 The fall foal seems to be the exception, thus in our treat- 
 ment of the feed and care of the dam it will be for those 
 which rear spring foals unless otherwise mentioned. Where 
 fall foals are reared it is very difficult to feed the mother 
 so as to have a liberal supply of milk. Another disadvan- 
 tage in rearing fall foals is the increased trouble during the 
 winter months, caused by teething. 
 
 Where spring foals are to be reared the mother should 
 be liberally fed during the winter months. The ration should 
 be of such a nature as to keep the system in a good, cool, 
 healthy condition. This calls for more or less nitrogenous 
 feed stuffs, such as some bright, pure clover or alfalfa hay 
 for part of the roughness, and oats and bran for the grain 
 part of the ration. A strictly corn or other carbonaceous or 
 heat producing diet must be avoided. Where too much corn 
 is fed the mother usually becomes very fleshy and plethoric. 
 As a result, at foaling time the mother will be more or less 
 troubled with inflammation and the colt will be weak and 
 have little or no use of its limbs. 
 
 Feed of a succulent nature should be supplied in some 
 form. Where roots can be had they rank first. Corn silage 
 when fed in limited quantities also gives good results, but 
 it must be fed with care else the same difficulties will be 
 experienced as when too much corn is fed. Where the foal 
 is dropped before the grass season has arrived, other feed 
 
CARE OF BROOD MARE. 243 
 
 stuffs of a succulent nature must be provided. For rough- 
 ness either alfalfa or clover hay will answer a good purpose, 
 as they are both conducive to milk production. For con- 
 centrates, crushed oats and bran are good. A mash of some 
 kind should be fed every evening. This can be made by 
 using bran and crushed oats, equal parts by weight, and 
 steaming for about half an hour or one hour. In some in- 
 stances skim milk has been added to the mash with good 
 results. The main object should be to supply an abundance 
 of food adapted to milk production. Great care must also 
 be exercised to feed the mother very regularly and on the 
 same kind of feed stuffs, so as to avoid any bowel trouble 
 in the foal. 
 
 When the grass season arrives nothing is better than 
 plenty of good, fresh grass. It is one of the very best aids 
 to healthy and abundant nutrition for both mare and foal. 
 
 When mares are worked while suckling it is better that 
 the foal should be left in the stable and that the mare be 
 taken to the foal for its nourishment at least three times 
 during the day. Ample time should be given for her to 
 cool off thoroughly before the foal has access to her, as 
 otherwise a gorge of the overheated milk may produce serious 
 disturbance in the digestive organs of the foal. Some farm- 
 ers, however, find little inconvenience from permitting the 
 foals, especially when quite young, to accompany the dams 
 to the field and follow them while at their work. This gives 
 them an opportunity to empty the udder of the mare as often 
 as it may be deemed advisable, and eliminates all danger 
 from over-gorging that occurs when the mare and foal are 
 separated. Generally a mare which is liberally fed will sup- 
 ply a sufficient amount of nourishment for the foal during 
 the first few months of its existence. It sometimes happens 
 that the milk of the mother is not sufficient to promote the 
 proper growth and development of the foal. In some in- 
 stances, too, the mother may die, thus the colt will have to 
 be reared by other means than nature's way. When the colt 
 requires additional food or has to be reared by hand, cows' 
 milk will be found to be the best possible adjunct or substi- 
 tute for the milk of the dam. The cow's milk should be 
 sweetened a little at first, as the milk of the mare is sweeter 
 than that of the cow. The colt can soon be taught to drink 
 milk. Care must be taken, however, to prevent overfeeding, 
 as this is the greatest danger in the hand rearing of colts. 
 
244 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 A half pint is sufficient at first, but it should be fed at least 
 six times per day. Gradually increase the amount as the colt 
 grows older. Some oats and grass should also be given. 
 When the colt is about two months old, skim milk should be 
 substituted for the fresh milk. Some oil meal or flaxseed 
 meal to the amount of about one pint per day should be fed 
 in conjunction to prevent constipation. It will also be very 
 helpful in developing the frame of the colt. Either whole 
 or skim milk can be profitably fed to any colt which is thin 
 in flesh, as such an animal will not otherwise do well during 
 the first winter. 
 
 It is always advisable to teach the colt to eat grain 
 before weaning. This will make the weaning period a much 
 less severe one on the colt. The best age to wean the colt 
 is at about five or six months, depending on the condition 
 of the dam and the colt. Generally speaking, a colt should 
 never be allowed to suckle longer than six months. In fact, 
 five months seems to be sufficient. 
 
 There are various methods of weaning the colt. One 
 very commonly practiced and one which gives good results 
 is to tie the colt in an adjoining stall from the dam with 
 the partition low or so open that they can see each other, 
 thus preventing unnecessary fretting and worrying on the 
 part of both animals. The ration of the mare should be 
 reduced and of such a nature as to be non-productive of 
 milk. A pound of Epsom salts fed in the grain will have 
 a beneficial effect upon the system. When the mare's udder 
 becomes so full as to cause her uneasiness, a part of the 
 milk should be drawn off, but she should not be milked dry. 
 This should be done by hand, as such milk is not good for 
 the colt. It will also be found much easier to dry off the 
 mare when the colt is not allowed to suckle. After weaning, 
 the mare and the colt should be kept apart. The colt may 
 be fed skim milk after weaning to good advantage. Care 
 must be taken, however, where the colt is fed by hand, to 
 avoid the common practice of making too much of a pet of 
 the colt and by so doing spoil it in after years. 
 
LECTURE LXII. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF COLT FROM 
 WEANING TIME UNTIL READY FOR WORK. 
 
 The usefulness and value of a horse is largely deter- 
 mined by the feed, care and management the colt receives 
 from weaning time until ready for work. The greatest of 
 care and the best of judgment should be exercised in the 
 selection of the feed stuffs, and the administration of the 
 same; also in the management of the youngster. A very 
 common mistake is made in trying to mature a young animal 
 too soon. By so doing, the proper development of both bone 
 and muscle is very often checked. In growing the young 
 animal the aim should be to secure uniform and proper 
 development of all the parts. This is especially true of the 
 bone and the muscle. The young animal should never be 
 in high flesh, just in good growing condition. 
 
 After weaning skimmed milk may be given to the colt, 
 especially if it is not in good condition to enter the winter. 
 Clean, sound oats, ground or unground, constitute the best 
 of all grain foods for the colt. It is better as a general rule 
 to have the oats ground at first. During the winter months 
 a ration of three parts ground oats and one part corn meal 
 will give very good results. A little oil meal can also be 
 added to the ration to good advantage. Do not feed too 
 sparingly of the above ration. More colts are ruined by 
 underfeeding and lack of exercise than by overfeeding when 
 combined with an abundance of exercise. It is very easy 
 to ruin a colt by too liberal grain feeding if it is not given 
 plenty of exercise. 
 
 The ration must be such as to produce bone and muscle, 
 and that is why oats and oil meal are so valuable. A sole 
 corn ration does not contain enough protein and ash for 
 the best results. For roughness nothing is better than 
 alfalfa, clover, or oat hay. Dusty clover hay should never 
 be fed, as it is likely to cause wind trouble. Some corn 
 fodder, prairie or timothy hay can always be fed to advan- 
 
246 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 tage during the first winter. Corn silage, when fed in con- 
 junction with other feed stuffs which are rich in nitrogenous 
 matter, will be very helpful. Some roots, especially carrots, 
 are an excellent adjunct to the colt's ration during the win- 
 ter months. During the first winter the colt should be 
 kept in a box stall during the night and allowed plenty of 
 out of door exercise during the day, especially when the 
 weather is fine. 
 
 Too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of 
 open air exercise as being absolutely essential to a healthy, 
 symmetrical development of bone, muscle, and the vital 
 organs. Practical breeders have for a long time recognized 
 the value of allowing the liberally fed colt to rough it to a 
 considerable extent, knowing that he always developed into 
 a much hardier horse. Many a good colt by too high feed- 
 ing and close confinement has grown up into an unsound 
 "weedy" horse. The horse is different from most animals in 
 that its future usefulness in no small measure is determined 
 by its hardiness and endurance. These necessary requisites 
 cannot be secured without plenty of bone and muscle form- 
 ing food, plenty of fresh air, and exercise. The long haired, 
 coarse boned colt invariably grows into the high priced horse. 
 On the other hand the sleek coated, fat bodied colt very 
 seldom develops into anything that is valuable and credit- 
 able as a mature animal. 
 
 Liberal feeding is necessary, and especially in those 
 feed stuffs which are rich in bone and muscle producing 
 material. This, combined with an abundance of exercise, 
 are two of the very most important essentials in the care 
 and management of the colt. 
 
 During the summer months, while the pastures are good, 
 nothing in the way of additional feed will be necessary. 
 They should be supplied with salt at all times and have free 
 access to pure water at all times. During the hot weather 
 and fly season, some kind of protection must be provided. A 
 grove of trees or a shed or some other structure will serve 
 an excellent purpose. 
 
 During periods of drought when the supply of grass is 
 scant, some additional feed should be fed. Forage crops 
 may be made to answer an excellent purpose, especially 
 when green oats, barley, clover, alfalfa, or sweet corn can 
 be supplied. A light ration of grain will usually be found the 
 best supplement in this connection. Oats stand at the very 
 top for this puropse. 
 
CARE OF COLT. 247 
 
 During the second winter the colt should receive much 
 the same treatment and feed as during the first winter. More 
 bulky feed can be fed to good advantage. The grain ration 
 should be liberal and composed largely of those feed stuffs 
 which are conducive to growth and bone production. 
 
 Draft colts of good size should be broken to work. 
 Light work will be more beneficial than harmful for such 
 animals. During the spring and summer they may also do 
 some light work. They can be used to good advantage, 
 where carefully handled, to rest the brood mare from time 
 to time. In this way they can be made to earn their keep. 
 Light work is always beneficial for a colt of this age, pro- 
 viding they are carefully handled. 
 
 There are a great many little things which must receive 
 careful attention in the management of the colt. The pre- 
 vention of lice is a most vital point. Many colts are very 
 seriously checked in their development, due to the presence 
 of lice. The indications of lice are rubbing against stall, 
 manger, fence, or some other obstacle, thinness in the colt, 
 when a colt ceases to do well, hair falling off or being 
 rubbed off. There are several methods of treating a colt 
 troubled with lice. They must be liberally fed on corn, oats, 
 bran, and hay. There are several kinds of powder recom- 
 mended to kill lice. Many of them are very good and will 
 give immediate relief. One of the best and surest remedies 
 is an application of gasoline put on a whisk broom or brush 
 and thoroughly rubbed through the hair on all parts of the 
 body, especially the neck, withers and back. Kerosene and 
 soft soap emulsion or Persian insect powder applied in the 
 same manner are also good. No colt will thrive and make 
 good growth while troubled with lice. 
 
 The teeth should also be given proper care, especially 
 at teething time. Loose teeth should be removed. 
 
 Grooming is another point which will prove helpful. It 
 is especially valuable in case of colts which have not ample 
 opportunity for exercise. It is also very important that the 
 colt should be properly halter broken, as outlined in the 
 lecture on this subject. 
 
 The feet should also be properly cared for. They must 
 not be allowed to grow out too long, or become uneven in 
 shape. Many otherwise good colts are ruined by allowing 
 the inside of hoof or outside to become much larger than 
 the corresponding side. Crooked legs are the result. 
 
LECTURE LXIII. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF WORK HORSES. 
 
 The feed, care and management of the work horse is a 
 very important subject. It concerns a very large number 
 of peoples. One man will take a horse thin in flesh, work it 
 hard and have the horse gain in flesh on very much less feed 
 than it had before. Another man will take a horse in the 
 height of condition of flesh and fit for work, and in a short 
 time the horse is seen to be dull and losing flesh, notwith- 
 standing that it had all the grain and hay it could consume. 
 This fact is of great significance and opens up a field for 
 investigation. It shows that it is not so much the amount 
 of feed given, as it is the properly balanced ration and the 
 regularity with which the feeding is done, together with the 
 manner of the handling. All of these points are worthy of 
 most careful consideration. 
 
 The average work horse is a hard animal to properly 
 care for on account of the irregularity of his work. During 
 certain seasons of the year he is taxed to his utmost by real 
 hard work. At other times work of a medium nature is 
 demanded, and at certain times he has little or nothing to 
 do, in fact may be idle. This is especially true of the farm 
 work horse. These different changes and demands require 
 special care and feed for the maintenance of good health, 
 flesh and endurance. A horse at real hard work must be more 
 liberally fed, and fed on a ration differing in composition 
 and preparation from the animal that is at light work or 
 idle. Thus we can readily see the necessity of making a 
 very careful study of the animal and its needs at all times. 
 
 A careful study of feeding tests and rations reveals the 
 fact that a horse at real hard work requires a ration of a 
 nitrogenous nature to supply the demand upon the system. 
 Such a horse must also be fed more grain and less roughage 
 than the horse at lighter work. While the grinding of grain 
 and the cutting or chaffing of the roughage is not advisable 
 in feeding horses under ordinary conditions, it may oftentimes 
 
( ARE OF WORK HORSES. 249 
 
 be very beneficial in the case of animals at real hard work. 
 The ration may be composed of various kinds of grain, such 
 as corn, oats, wheat, barley, shorts, bran, molasses, beans, 
 oil meal, gluten feed, and a variety of other feed stuffs. Too 
 much corn should not be fed, as it is claimed to burn out 
 the system in a short period of time. In many places where 
 horses are worked very hard the ration is largely oats and 
 shorts, with some wheat, barley, or corn added. For rough- 
 ness timothy, clover and mixed hay are used. In some in- 
 stances millet, sorghum and oat hay are used quite exten- 
 sively. Firms owning large numbers of horses which are 
 worked very hard usually grind all the grain, cut the rough- 
 age, then moisten it and mix the grain in and feed both at 
 the same time. This method seems to save the horse some 
 labor. Various methods are followed regarding the number 
 of times the animals are fed. Some feed five and six times 
 per day. Generally the animals are fed but three times per 
 day. The watering is usually done before feeding and no 
 water is given for at least two hours after feeding. This 
 method seems to favor more complete digestion of feed. 
 
 Horses at medium work do not require such liberal 
 feeding. Neither do they require so much nitrogenous feed, 
 thus cheaper feeds may be used to good advantage. There 
 is no necessity for grinding the grain or cutting the rough- 
 ness fed, as they have plenty of time to do this work them- 
 selves. They may be fed more corn and barley, which are 
 usually much cheaper feeds than oats, shorts, and other 
 nitrogenous feed stuffs. For roughness, timothy, clover, 
 mixed hay, sorghum, millet, oat hay and small quantities 
 of the various kinds of straws may be used to good advan- 
 tage. Where straw is used to any extent more of the grain 
 must be fed. Regarding the quantity it will depend on the 
 size of the horse and the amount of labor required. Horses 
 at medium work should receive about one pound of grain 
 and one pound of hay for every one hundred pounds live 
 weight of the animal. This may have to be modified to 
 some extent with different horses. Some horses, on account 
 of their conformation, require less feed than others. Horses 
 which are idle part of the time should be fed and handled 
 with much care. They must be maintained as economically 
 as possible while not at work. They do not require very 
 much nitrogenous food. They should always be fed a suffi- 
 cient amount of feed to keep them in real good flesh. Where 
 
250 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 horses are doing little or no work, the ration may be cheap- 
 ened in several ways. In some instances the grain ration is 
 almost solely withheld and the same kind and amount of 
 roughage is fed as when at work. In other instances part 
 of the grain is fed in conjunction with straw or some other 
 cheap kind of roughage. This in many ways is the better 
 method, due to the fact that the grain part of the ration, 
 seems to furnish more bottom and fettle in the animal, thus- 
 it will be in much better form for work when such is needed. 
 It is a fatal mistake to starve a horse while idle and then- 
 suddenly increase his grain ration when the work season 
 arrives. The increase should be made several weeks in 
 advance, and better still, to feed some grain all the time. 
 
 Idle horses should not be allowed to remain in the stable,, 
 but should be given exercise. Where light work cannot be 
 had, they should be allowed the run of an open lot. They 
 will then be in a much better condition to withstand work 
 when the time arrives. 
 
 There are certain general points which apply to all 
 classes of horses. For instance, during the winter season 
 some succulent feed should be supplied to keep the digestive 
 system in good condition. Roots, especially carrots, serve an 
 excellent purpose. Bran mash is also good. Steamed or 
 boiled grain to which has been added a little flaxseed is one 
 of the very best regulators that can be fed. It should be 
 supplied about twice per week. 
 
 The feet must also receive attention. They should be 
 kept trimmed from time to time. Horses which are at hard 
 work on pavements should have their feet packed so as to 
 soften the hoof and eliminate any fever or inflammation. 
 This is done by using steamed bran or shorts which is 
 packed in the bottom of the hoof at least twice per week, 
 and in some cases every night. It is very beneficial to the 
 feet. Grooming should never be neglected, as it keeps the 
 skin and hair in good condition, thus causes much better 
 circulation of the blood; consequently better health. 
 
 The teeth should be examined at least twice a year. 
 Any sharp projections on the grinders should be removed by 
 means of a rasp made for this purpose. Many horses suffer 
 a great deal due to sharp projections on the teeth. The 
 removal of the same by means of a file or rasp is called 
 "floating." Many horses which are thin and otherwise out 
 of condition are thus troubled. The front teeth sometimes 
 
CARE OF WORK HORSES. 251 
 
 become too long and slanting, thus need attention. Water 
 should always be given before feeding and none should be 
 given for at least two hours after feeding. The hay or 
 roughage should be fed first, then the grain part of the 
 ration. The harness should always be properly fitted to 
 the horse. Large collars or too small collars should never 
 be used. During warm weather the harness, and especially 
 the collars, should be kept very clean. They should be 
 scraped and washed every evening to prevent sore shoulders. 
 This is an important point, especially with young horses. 
 
LECTURE LXIV. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE DRIVING AND 
 SADDLE HORSES. 
 
 The driving or saddle horse is used almost solely for 
 pleasure purposes. This fact makes the care and manage- 
 ment of this class of animals very difficult to control. It is 
 very seldom that animals of this class receive regular exer- 
 cise. When the weather is fine and the roads are good, they 
 are usually worked hard. On the other hand, when the 
 weather is unfavorable they are oftentimes idle a great deal 
 of the time. Another point which makes their care difficult 
 is the fact that their labor is usually performed during a 
 couple of hours of the day, and generally of a severe nature 
 during this short period of time. All of these things are 
 unnatural, thus very hard on the animal. Animals to with- 
 stand such treatment must receive peculiar feed and care. 
 In many instances it is very hard to exercise such an animal 
 when they are not needed for pleasure purposes. This is 
 especially true in cities and towns, where they are confined 
 to the stable most of the year. The feet need special care, 
 also. 
 
 Whenever it is possible such an animal should have a 
 roomy box stall which has a ground floor. This will be 
 helpful in supplying some exercise and the ground floor will 
 be much easier on the feet and legs. This is a most import- 
 ant point. If this stall can open into an open lot, so much 
 the better. The horse should then be allowed a few hours 
 out in the open lot every day when the weather is at all 
 favorable. This will be very helpful and will have very 
 strong tendency to increase and lengthen his period of use- 
 fulness. No horse can be confined to a small stall in the 
 stable for any length of time and retain its vigor and sound- 
 ness. Imprisonment of this kind will ruin any animal. 
 
 Where an exercising lot can be had, it should be long 
 and rather narrow, so as to prevent the horse from running 
 in a circle, which so often results in a slip or a fall, which 
 
CARE OF LIGHT HORSES. 253 
 
 may prove to be very injurious to the animal. With a long 
 lot the animal will have a chance to extend itself, and when 
 near the end of the lot will stop with its feet under it, which 
 is not so liable to injure it as if running in a circle. This 
 is an important feature of the exercising lot. 
 
 The ration of the driving horse should be different from 
 that of the average work horse. This is due in a large meas- 
 ure to the peculiar demands of such an animal. They should 
 be fed much less roughage in proportion to their size than 
 horses at ordinary work. The roughage should also be of a 
 different nature. The driving or saddle horse must have 
 plenty of endurance, thus must be fed roughage which will 
 not in any way cause looseness of the digestive system, or 
 "washiness," as it is generally known. In this respect timo- 
 thy hay seems to be the very best kind of roughness for the 
 driving horse. Mixed hay does fairly well where animals 
 have very light work. Clover hay, when dusty, is very liable 
 to cause wind trouble. When good pure clover hay is fed, 
 it is too loosening, thus animals fed on this kind of a ration 
 are soft and "washy." Millet may be fed in very small 
 quantities. Good pure oat or barley straw may oftentimes 
 be used in small quantities. 
 
 For grain nothing is equal to good clean heavy oats. 
 Other feed stuffs may be equal as heat and flesh producers, 
 but they do not possess the stimulating qualities which are 
 found in oats. This is supposed to be due to a specific albu- 
 minoid which is found only in the oat grain. It gives the 
 horse his fire and snap which is so desirable in the saddle 
 or driving animal. Oats should form the major part of the 
 ration. Some other feed stuffs can usually be added to the 
 oat ration and by so doing reduce the cost of the grain ration. 
 Some bran, shorts, corn, gluten feed, barley, wheat and a 
 great variety of other feed stuffs might be mentioned in this 
 connection. Oats should always constitute at least one-half 
 and better still two-thirds of the ration fed. For instance, 
 a ration of three parts oats, two parts corn and one part of 
 either bran, shorts or gluten feed will give good results. 
 Regarding the amount of roughness and grain to be fed, it 
 will vary some, depending on the amount of labor to be per- 
 formed. It is not best to feed over ten or twelve pounds 
 of hay and from twelve to fifteen pounds of grain to a horse 
 which has regular work. 
 
954 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 For horses which have light work about the same 
 amount of roughness and from six to ten pounds of grain. 
 This will have to be regulated by the amount of labor per- 
 formed. It is not necessary to cut the fodder or grind the 
 grain for horses which have good teeth and plenty of time to 
 feed. Steamed feed or a mash of some kind should be fed 
 at least twice a week. 
 
 Roots, during the winter season, and some green feed 
 during the summer months, should be supplied. They will 
 iiave a favorable influence on the health of the animal. 
 
 Another important point is the watering of this class of 
 animals. They should always be watered before being fed 
 grain and should not receive any for at least two hours after 
 feeding. It is not best to give driving horses a large quan- 
 tity of water at one time especially just preceding a drive, 
 as it is very apt to affect the digestive system and may cause 
 the animal to scour. The horse which is required to make a 
 long drive should receive water every two hours, especially 
 during hot weather. Little and often is a good rule to adopt 
 in this connection. Water will never injure a horse, no 
 matter how warm the animal may be, providing it is given 
 in small quantities and slowly. 
 
 Salt should be supplied at all times. It should not be 
 added to the grain ration. A better method is to have it 
 in a separate box. Either rock salt or the common salt 
 may be used. 
 
 The teeth should always be examined at least twice a 
 year. Any sharp projections on the outer edges of the 
 molars should be removed by means of a rasp or file for this 
 purpose. The incisors or front teeth should be kept short 
 and even. This will aid very much in the proper mastication 
 of the feed. Many thin horses consume plenty of feed, but 
 on account of poor teeth cannot utilize the proper amount 
 of the same. 
 
 The appearance of the saddle or driving horse depends 
 in a considerable measure on the condition of the skin, hair, 
 tail, and mane. A well groomed horse always looks well. 
 This is really one of the most important points in the man- 
 agement of this class of animals. Too much care and atten- 
 tion cannot be given to the matter of grooming. The skin 
 should be soft, the hair fine, soft and short. The mane and 
 tail fluffy, ears free from long hair, and the legs to the 
 knees and hocks clipped in such a manner as to present the 
 
CARE OF LIGHT HORSES. 255 
 
 appearance of always being free from long hair. The hoofs 
 should be kept clean, well oiled, and polished occasionally. 
 
 These things add as much to the appearance of the 
 horse as neat, well pressed clothes, clean linen, neatly black- 
 ened shoes to the appearance of the well groomed man. 
 
 During cold weather a large, warm blanket will aid very 
 much in keeping the hair short and soft. When the weather 
 is warm a light cover should also be used to keep the hair 
 nice and at the same time it serves as a means of protection 
 in fly season. The curry comb should not be used except 
 to clean the brush from time to time. The brush alone 
 should be used to clean the hair. The mane and tail should 
 be combed out well with a comb for this purpose, not a curry 
 comb, as it will cut the hair. A piece of soft flannel should 
 be used to put on the finishing touches. Some prefer a 
 chamois skin for this purpose. 
 
 It is very important that the attendant should be careful 
 in all the little details. Kindness in every detail should pre- 
 vail, as the temperament and disposition of the animal add 
 very much to its value. 
 
LECTURE LXV. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE STALLION. 
 
 The proper feeding, care and management of the stallion 
 is a most vital point. Perhaps more mistakes are made in 
 this connection than in any other kind of horse management. 
 
 One of the most frequent mistakes made by inexperi- 
 enced persons, and even by many who think that they know 
 all about this subject, is the endeavor to keep the stallion 
 in fine show condition all the time, and especially at the 
 opening of the breeding season. To this end drugs and nos- 
 trums are oftentimes used. The horse is kept carefully 
 housed and closely blanketed; he is loaded with fat; his 
 muscles become soft and flabby for want of exercise, and 
 although he may come at the beginning of the season appar- 
 ently in the pink of show yard condition, he is not nearly 
 so well fitted for service in the stud as he would have been 
 had this fitting been entirely eliminated. 
 
 One of the very first principles in the preparation of the 
 stallion is that a healthy horse does not require any medi- 
 cine whatever to put him in condition for the stud. The 
 whole secret of successful preparation lies in a few words. 
 Let him be well and regularly fed on healthy, nutritious 
 food, with plenty of exercise every day to keep his muscles 
 firm and hard, with plenty of grooming so that his coat may 
 present a fine appearance. The skin should be kept thor- 
 oughly clean by occasional washing and frequent brushing and 
 grooming. The mane and tail should be kept clean and thor- 
 oughly brushed out. If very dirty, use soap in the cleaning 
 process; and when this is properly attended to there will be 
 but little danger of having fine tail or mane ruined by 
 rubbing. 
 
 The ration should be mainly good, sound oats, as noth- 
 ing is better. It may be varied somewhat from time to time 
 by an occasional ration of corn or barley for variety sake. 
 A change of diet at times seems to have a favorable influ- 
 ence on the health of the animal. Wheat bran is a most 
 
CARE OF STALLIONS. 257 
 
 valuable adjunct, thus should always form a part of the 
 grain ration. It is one of the cheapest, safest and best reg- 
 ulators for the bowels, and it is also especially rich in pro- 
 tein and ash, two important constituents from a nutrition 
 standpoint. For roughness, good, pure hay, timothy, timothy 
 and clover, or bright clover, or good, pure corn fodder, all 
 answer an excellent purpose. It should be clean and free 
 from mould and should not be fed in large quantities. Some 
 roots, especially carrots, can be fed to good advantage 
 twice or three times per week. The quantity of feed 
 will be governed by the animal and the amount of exer- 
 cise given. The number of times to feed also varies. Some 
 good horsemen recommend three and others four times per 
 day. In either case no more should be given than will be 
 promptly eaten up clean. Just feed what the horse will eat 
 up clean with relish. This, with plenty of exercise, will 
 usually keep the horse in good condition. 
 
 Water should always be given before feeding, and none 
 for a couple of hours afterwards. The stomach of the horse 
 is small (holding about sixteen quarts) and a pailful or more 
 of cold water will arrest the action of digestion, instead of 
 aiding it, thus the advisability of always watering before 
 feeding. The stallion should be watered often, and given 
 but a little at a time. Salt should be kept before him at all 
 times. Either rock or granular salt may be used. 
 
 The question of exercise is a most important one. The 
 amount of exercise to be given will vary somewhat with the 
 condition and habit of the horse. If he be in thin flesh and 
 it is desired to fatten him up, the exercise should be lighter 
 than it otherwise would be. On the other hand, if he be- 
 comes too fat, this may be remedied by increasing the 
 amount of exercise. The walk is the natural gait of the draft 
 horse and he should not be driven or led at a faster gait. 
 
 For roadster, coach, or running horses, a moderate "jog" 
 will not hurt them, but prove beneficial. The light horse will 
 also require much more exercise than the draft horse. It is 
 very difficult to have this exercising done properly. Most 
 grooms and stable hands are too lazy to do this work in a 
 right manner. The stallion should not be walked or jogged 
 long enough to become tired, but they should have enough 
 of it daily to keep the muscles firm, the appetite good, and 
 to prevent the laying on of an undue amount of fat. Most 
 
258 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 draft horses should have the equivalent of five or six miles 
 walk each day, while light horses require from seven to 
 eight to keep them in right condition. In many instances 
 where it is impossible to have the horses walked each day, 
 an open lot is used to provide exercise. This is not so good 
 but it is much more economical of labor, thus the reason for 
 practicing the same. The exercising lot should be long and 
 rather narrow, so as to prevent the stallion from running 
 in a circle, which so often causes him to slip and fall or 
 otherwise injure himself. With the long lot he will have 
 ample opportunity of extending himself and at the same time 
 little or no chance of accident. The fence around such a lot 
 should be tight for one-half its height (about four feet) 
 and slat fencing above so that the stallion may see all that 
 is going on on the outside, thus eliminating fretting and 
 worry on his part. 
 
 The main point in the stable management is to feed, 
 groom and exercise so as to keep the horse in the very 
 highest possible pitch of strength and vigor. A healthy horse 
 needs nothing but good food, pure air, plenty of exercise, 
 with due attention to cleanliness and regularity in feeding 
 and watering. Some horsemen confine their horses to stalls 
 in which they are tied, but the large majority use box stalls. 
 A box stall twelve feet wide by eighteen or twenty feet long 
 with a ground floor serves an excellent purpose. There should 
 be a manger or rack for hay; in some instances a box well 
 fitted in the corner is used for grain, while many prefer that 
 the feed boxes should be entirely detached from the stall 
 to be removed as soon as the horse is done eating. The hay 
 being fed on the floor in one corner of the stall, thus leaving 
 nothing in the way of projections such as boxes, racks, man- 
 gers, sharp angles, etc., upon which a spirited horse might 
 injure himself. If, in addition to these precautions, the sides 
 of the stalls be lined all around doors and all with stout 
 boards, standing out at the bottom about eighteen inches 
 from the wall, and sloping upwards and toward the wall for 
 a height of three and a half feet, you will have a stall in 
 which it will be next to impossible for a horse to injure his 
 tail or mane by rubbing. In such a stall the stallion should 
 be loose and the owner may rest assured that the liability 
 to injury is reduced to a minimum. 
 
 The stallion's feet require careful attention. They should 
 be cleaned out every day with a foot hook to prevent foul 
 
CARE OP STALLIONS. 259 
 
 matter from collecting about the frog of the feet and causing 
 "thrush" and other foot troubles. 
 
 The breeding stallion, during service season, requires 
 special attention for the best results. The regulation of the 
 service of the stallion is a feature that is not thoroughly 
 understood or practiced by many horsemen. Some stallions 
 which are very strong and vigorous can do a much heavier 
 season's work than others. This should be carefully regu- 
 lated with all horses, as the first two weeks' use is the 
 hardest. Many horses are ruined for the entire season by 
 too heavy use during the first week of the breeding season. 
 The number of services should be limited to about two the 
 first week and four the second week. After this one a day 
 or two one day and one the next with strong, mature horses. 
 This will depend to a considerable extent on the rations fed, 
 the health of the animal, and the previous management so 
 far as exercise is concerned. 
 
LECTURE LXVI. 
 
 BREAKING AND FITTING HORSES FOR MARKET. 
 
 This is one of the most important things to be consid- 
 ered in connection with the horse industry. More men fail 
 to reach the top in the horse business, due to lack of intelli- 
 gence in the breaking and preparation of horses for the mar- 
 ket, than from any other cause. This subject is of peculiar 
 interest, due to the fact that so many men are concerned in 
 the production of horses. The proper breaking of a colt 
 determines to a considerable extent the future usefulness of 
 the horse, and no man who has ever dealt in horses and 
 experienced difficulty in their management will deny that there 
 is room for a great deal of improvement over our present 
 methods of doing this work. From time to time we see illus- 
 trations of improper breaking. We see people who have 
 driven horses for two or three years which have never been 
 taught the lesson of how to back. A horse is not thor- 
 oughly broken until it is taught each and every one of the 
 things which it may be called upon to do at any time. In 
 addition to the losses resulting from improper breaking, 
 millions of dollars are lost to the farmers of this country 
 every year by selling horses that have not been properly 
 prepared for sale. It is a comparatively easy matter to fit 
 horses for sale. It can be done without taking them from 
 their regular work. Still, where heavy gains are to be made, 
 the less work a horse does and the quieter he is kept, the 
 quicker he will put on flesh. 
 
 In breaking a colt the first thing to be considered is 
 the nature of the animal. The disposition of no two horses 
 is exactly alike. As a rule there is a great difference in 
 the disposition of the native horse and those from the west- 
 ern states, especially from the ranges. The native horse is 
 much easier broken than the western horse, though the lat- 
 ter, when properly broken, is a very reliable animal. There is 
 also a great difference in draft and light horses, especially 
 those which are bred for trotting and running purposes. 
 
BREAKING COLTS. 261 
 
 The draft horse requires much less preparatory handling than 
 the trotting or running bred horse. 
 
 After making a careful study of the disposition of a colt 
 the next thing to do is to halter it. To do this properly the 
 person in charge must possess a great deal of patience. The 
 colt should be properly secured in a box stall or a small 
 shed, preferably one with a ground floor, so as to eliminate 
 all danger from slipping. Take a halter with a rope about 
 fifteen feet long attached to it. Pet the colt and treat him 
 kindly so as to win his confidence, and he will soon learn 
 that you are not going to hurt him, thus making it usually 
 very easy to put on the halter without any trouble. If the 
 colt is at all nervous and likely to pull on the halter it 
 is best to break him of this at the beginning. Take the 
 loose end of the rope and pass it through a hole in the 
 manger or around a post and back between the fore legs, 
 placing it around the girth and tying it there. The eolt is 
 now tied by both the head and the body. Step back from 
 him and let him fight it out, and it will usually not take him 
 very long to learn that he is conquered. When tied in this 
 way there is no danger of injury, as is oftentimes the case 
 when tied by the head only. As soon as he learns to stand 
 quietly and has given up pulling on the halter, pet him and 
 give him to understand that you are his friend. 
 
 It is well to leave him tied for some time before trying 
 to teach him to lead. Teaching a colt to lead by the halter 
 is a very important part of his education. Here is where a 
 great many men fail. A horse that is well broken to lead is 
 more attractive, easier to handle, and will command a higher 
 price in the market than one that is not properly broken. 
 In training to lead always teach the colt to walk beside you 
 and never allow him to follow along behind, as is often the 
 case. This can be done very readily by taking a whip in 
 the left hand and touching him up a little from behind as you 
 walk along. A few lessons of this kind will teach him that 
 the proper place for him is beside you, and he will not want 
 to be any other place. 
 
 After being well trained to walk beside you, encourage 
 him to trot. This can also be done with the gentle use of 
 the whip. It is well at the beginning to have the lead shank 
 in the mouth of the colt, so that he will not get away from 
 you should he become frightened. In leading, keep his head 
 
262 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 well up, so as to make him look attractive and stylish. Also 
 keep his head as straight ahead of him as possible. 
 
 Do not make the lessons too long or tiresome, as short 
 lessons, given often, are the best. A colt which is well 
 broken to the halter will always show to good advantage. 
 After he is thoroughly halter broken, the next step is to get 
 him used to the biting harness. This consists of an open 
 bridle with a check, surcingle, crupper and side lines, which 
 go from the surcingle to the bit to prevent him from turning 
 his head to either side. Put this on him and check him up 
 not too high at first, but raising his head a little each day 
 until the desired height is obtained which will make him 
 look most attractive. For this lesson let him have a yard 
 in which he may go about at his own will. After he has be- 
 come well accustomed to the bit and check, put on long 
 lines instead of the short side lines and teach him to drive, 
 start and stop at the word; also to back. This is a very 
 important part of the breaking. It is very easy to teach a 
 colt to back if you have plenty of patience. Most men are 
 in too much of a hurry to do this properly. Encourage him 
 to back, step by step, by steadily pulling on the lines and at 
 the same time telling him to back. As soon as he makes a 
 step backwards slacken on the lines and say "Whoa." Re- 
 peat this until he will back when told and as often as you 
 tell him. If proper care and kindness are combined it will 
 not take long to accomplish this part of his education. 
 
 The next step in the colt's education is to hitch him in 
 harness. This may be done either single or double. In many 
 respects it is preferable to break him single at first. The 
 advantages of breaking him double over single at first are 
 that when he is hitched with a reliable horse he will not 
 shy so readily at strange obstacles. The only reason we 
 recommend breaking him single at first is that his education 
 up to this point has been alone not with other horses. In 
 breaking him single he should be hitched to some kind of a 
 breaking cart. There are many good breaking carts on the 
 market which are not very expensive. The cart must be 
 strong and durable. These are points which must be given 
 careful consideration. Many a good colt is ruined by first 
 hitching him to some worn out or dilapidated cart or vehicle 
 of some kind. A man who has not a breaking cart may 
 accomplish the desired end in another way. He can make 
 a breaking cart by using two wheels of a light wagon with an 
 
BREAKING COLTS. 263 
 
 axle, to which he may attach two poles to act as shafts. 
 These poles or shafts should be long enough so that should 
 the colt kick he will not in any way hit the cross bar or get 
 his feet over the same. A seat should be placed on the 
 cart and then it is ready for use. While this may not look 
 so nice as a regular breaking cart, it oftentimes answers a 
 very good purpose and will save the breaking of a good 
 buggy or other vehicle which is not intended to be used for 
 breaking colts. 
 
 An open bridle is best, for when broken with an open 
 bridle the colt will usually go all right with the blinders. 
 Always start a colt with an easy bit, for a severe bit that 
 will irritate the mouth will oftentimes make him misbehave 
 when otherwise he will go all right. 
 
 When first hitching a colt always use a harness with a 
 breeching, so that he will get used to it along with the other 
 harness. Before hitching a colt in the cart it is best to put 
 a set of hopples on him. These can easily be made by taking 
 a set of straps, which should be strong and large enough to 
 pass around the fetlock. These straps should have rings in 
 them. To the rings attach a rope about twelve feet long. 
 Pass the rope from each one of these straps up through the 
 girth and back to the seat. This will be found to be very 
 helpful in case anything should go wrong and the colt should 
 become unmanageable so far as reining him by the bit is 
 concerned. Should anything happen just pull up on the rope 
 and you will bring him down on his knees, and thus prevent 
 him running. He should not be pulled up too severely, as 
 sometimes by so doing you may bruise or skin his legs. 
 This will also be found to be very helpful in teaching the 
 colt to stand, as he will soon discover that you have a power 
 over him which makes it impossible for him to get away. 
 
 When hitching the colt for the first time be as careful 
 as possible not to frighten him in any way, as much of the 
 success depends upon the first time he is driven. As soon 
 as the colt is gotten into the shafts and everything is securely 
 fastened, get on the seat and start him off as quietly as 
 possible. Should he attempt to run or do anything out of 
 place, a gentle pull on the hopples will soon convince him 
 that he is under your control. Keep him at a moderate 
 speed, stopping occasionally. Also teach him to walk. Be 
 sure and do not give him too long a lesson the first time. 
 Many people make a great mistake in this respect. Two 
 
264 1'IVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 hours will be sufficient for the first lesson. Kind treatment 
 and considerate driving will accomplish a great deal in a 
 short period of time. The colt should receive his lessons 
 each day until thoroughly accustomed to driving. Should he 
 show any inclination to shy, do not use the whip after he 
 has passed the same, as it always does more harm than good. 
 Some people object to leading a colt past a strange obstacle. 
 This is something which oftentimes can be done to advan- 
 tage. It is not good policy, however, to always lead an 
 animal by anything which in any way appears to scare it. 
 Sooner or later the animal must learn to pass by such 
 obstacles of its own accord. It is much better policy 
 to lead a colt past something of that kind than to try to 
 whip him by it. In getting a colt accustomed to electric 
 cars, steam cars and other such obstacles, do not take him 
 too close the first time. Gradually drive him a little closer 
 each time, until he finally learns that it will not in any way 
 harm him, thus he will stand real close without any fear. 
 
 Should the colt get his tail over the line, do not pull on 
 the line. By so doing you will teach him to grip it, thus 
 cause much trouble. Just slacken the line and usually you 
 can get it free without any trouble. 
 
 In teaching the colt to back when hitched, do it in much 
 the same manner as when driving with the lines. Be care- 
 ful, however, not to expect him to back too quickly. 
 
 After the colt has been driven and you wish to unhitch 
 him, never do up the lines first, then the tugs and last the 
 holdbacks. Always do up the tugs first, then the holdbacks, 
 and lastly, the lines. Then should he start to run you will 
 always have something to catch and prevent him. In hitch- 
 ing him double the same care and precaution is necessary. 
 It is best to hitch him with some well broken horse that is 
 a good walker and a free driver. Never hitch him with a 
 lazy horse that has to be whipped up all the time. Hitching 
 a colt with a lazy horse which requires the constant use of 
 the whip, will nine times out of ten ruin it. 
 
 If colts are of good size, and especially those belonging 
 to the draft class, they may do some light work very soon 
 after being broken. In fact they will learn just as fast, and 
 can be taught to do a great many things while doing light 
 work. Light horses or colts which are bred for trotting or 
 coach purposes can oftentimes be made to do a certain 
 amount of light work without any injury. In teaching the 
 
FITTING HOUSES FOli MARKET. 265 
 
 colt to draw a load, be sure and have it light at the begin- 
 ning. Gradually increase the weight from time to time as 
 he is able to handle it. Encourage him in his work, start 
 him easy and he will usually get along nicely. Balkiness in 
 horses is nine times out of ten caused by injudicious han- 
 dling at this stage. Many men will load a colt down with far 
 more than he can handle and then, if he does not start right, 
 will whip him and abuse him. When this once happens it is 
 very seldom that a colt will ever develop into a horse of 
 much value. In teaching a colt to draw at first it is very 
 important that he is always placed where he has good foot- 
 ing. Otherwise he may become discouraged and be made to 
 balk. After having him nicely started the main object should 
 be to keep him going and not to undo anything that has 
 already been accomplished. 
 
 In the preparation of horses for the market, breaking, 
 while very important, is only part of the work. Everything 
 should be done to make the animal attractive to the eye of 
 the purchaser. No man can expect to receive the full value 
 for his horses which he has raised and broken unless he fits 
 them in such condition as to meet the requirements of the 
 market. The market demands horses of mature age, and it 
 matters not whether they are trotting bred, coach or draft, 
 they must be in good flesh to bring their full value on the 
 market. Farmers, as a general rule, fail to recognize this 
 last fact, and millions of dollars are lost to the farmers of 
 this country annually, due to this one neglect. A horse is 
 not recognized on the market as being a mature animal 
 until he is five years old. 
 
 In fitting horses for sale it is very important that they 
 be in good condition. Draft horses may oftentimes be fat- 
 tened and will usually make much larger gains when they 
 are confined to the stalls than when worked or given exer- 
 cise. Light horses which are intended for driving purposes 
 cannot be fattened in this way, but should be given a regular 
 amount of exercise every day. and this can best be accom- 
 plished by moderate driving. The stables should be com- 
 fortable, the stalls kept well bedded, and horses so arranged 
 in the stalls as to best attract the eye of visitors or buyers 
 who may happen to visit the farm. 
 
 As previously stated, driving horses should be given a 
 liberal amount of exercise, and this can just as well be 
 accomplished by doing a moderate day's work, but under no 
 
266 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 circumstance should they be over worked or over driven. 
 Many men who are preparing horses for market make the 
 fatal mistake of allowing their animals to remain in the 
 stalls for a week or ten days, then take them out to exercise 
 and drive them for a few hours as fast as the animal can 
 go, and by so doing remove all the flesh which they have 
 put on in the previous eight or ten days. 
 
 Another point which we must consider is the grooming. 
 This is a very important part of the preparation. A horse 
 with a sleek and glossy coat is much more attractive than 
 one with long, dry hair. They should always receive a good 
 cleaning at least once a day. The feet and legs should also 
 be given proper attention. The manes and tails should be kept 
 well brushed, so as to give them a neat and attractive 
 appearance. Do not use a curry comb on the mane or tail, 
 as it has a tendency to cut the hair, thus give it a rough 
 appearance. A singer can usually be used to good advantage 
 to do away with the long hairs under the body and around 
 the throat. In light horses a great improvement can be 
 made by clipping the legs as far as the knees in front and 
 as far as the hocks behind. This requires to be neatly done 
 and well tapered off at the knee and hock, so as to look as 
 smooth as possible. The hair in the ear should also be 
 clipped out and the mane pulled. The feet should be prop- 
 erly trimmed and kept well leveled. A few hours put on a 
 horse in preparing him in this way will add much to his 
 appearance and may add $50 or $100 to his selling price. 
 
 When the horse is nearly ready for sale give him an 
 occasional lesson on the halter. Teach him to trot up well 
 with a graceful carriage, to stand with his head erect so as 
 to present a good appearance when the buyer inspects him. 
 In this respect it is always better in standing a horse to 
 stand him with his front feet a little higher than his hind 
 feet. If you wish to drive him in harness and present him 
 in this way for sale, be sure and have the harness well 
 cleaned and polished, as it will add many dollars to the value 
 of the animal. Have the harness properly adjusted and 
 fitted to the horse. Any deviation from this depreciates the 
 value of the animal. In showing a horse in harness, teach 
 him to drive up; also to stand with his head well up. 
 
LECTURE LXVII. 
 
 FATTENING HORSES FOR MARKET. 
 
 One of the most important points to be considered in 
 the preparation of horses for the market is to have them 
 properly fattened. This applies to all classes of horses, but 
 it more especially applies to the draft horse. Usually car- 
 riage horses and other types of horses intended for driving 
 purposes carry a sufficient amount of flesh. They should be 
 fat enough to give them a smooth appearance. The draft 
 horse, however, is a different animal. He must be unusually 
 fat to sell to advantage. Nine-tenths of our draft horses 
 which are sold weighing from 1600 to 1700 pounds, should 
 be made to weigh from 1800 to 2000 pounds. The draft 
 horse market is a peculiar one, as weight is one of the 
 most important factors in determining the price. Usually 
 every 100 pounds in a draft horse after he weighs 1600 to 
 1800 pounds is worth twenty-five cents a pound; every pound 
 from 1800 to 2100 pounds is worth about fifty cents a pound; 
 thus the importance of having the horse real fat. 
 
 In the preparation of the driving horse it is very import- 
 ant that he be given regular exercise. With the draft horse 
 this is not so important. In fact most successful fitters omit 
 exercise altogether, claiming that they can get much heavier 
 gains by keeping the animals in a quiet place. Many men 
 prefer tying them in stalls where they may have a ground 
 floor and a rather dark stable. These conditions seem to 
 be conducive to the putting on of flesh. 
 
 In the preparation of driving horses for market the feed- 
 ing of the same should be somewhat different from that prac- 
 ticed in the fattening of the draft horse. It is always best 
 to water before feeding in any class of horses, and never 
 after feeding until two or three hours have elapsed. Salt 
 should be kept within reach of the animals at all times. In 
 feeding the driving horse do not make the common mistake 
 of feeding too much. About three-fourths pound hay per 
 day for every one hundred pounds weight of the animal is 
 
268 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 sufficient. That is, a horse weighing 1200 does not require 
 more than nine pounds of hay daily. The hay should be 
 pure and free from dust. For grain a mixture of oats, corn 
 and bran, fed in the proportion of about fifty pounds corn, 
 fifty pounds oats and twenty-five pounds bran, makes a very 
 good mixture. Feed about one pound per day for every 100 
 pounds weight of the animal. In some instances, however, 
 it may be necessary to feed somewhat more. 
 
 Boiled or steamed feed, fed two or three times a week, 
 will be found to be very helpful in keeping the animal in 
 good health; also in giving a sleek coat of hair. A little oil 
 meal or flaxseed added to the feed before being steamed 
 will also be found to be very beneficial in this respect. 
 Some carrots or potatoes may also be fed to good advantage. 
 The method of feeding above referred to is especially 
 desirable and applicable to the fitting of light horses. They 
 must be given regular exercise. 
 
 The horse most commonly grown upon the farm and the 
 one which is so often neglected when it comes to preparing 
 him for market, is the draft horse. He should be fattened 
 in a somewhat different way. As previously stated, pounds 
 of flesh are an important factor in determining his market 
 value. This being the case it is very necessary to have 
 him make heavy gains. One of the first points to be con- 
 sidered in fattening a horse is to attend to his teeth. Many 
 horses fail to make good gains, due to the fact that their 
 teeth are not in proper condition. The preparation of the 
 teeth is known as the floating of the teeth. It is best to 
 get a veterinarian to do this, as he has the proper instru- 
 ments, and where there are many to do it can be done more 
 rapidly. Floating the teeth is a point which a great many 
 people overlook and is in many instances the real cause of 
 a horse being out of condition. When a horse has a number 
 of sharp projections on his teeth the gums become raw and 
 sore, so that he does not masticate his food thoroughly, con- 
 sequently indigestion often results and the horse runs down 
 in his condition. In examining a lot of horses recently it 
 was found that a large number of them had sharp projec- 
 tions on the under edge of the grinders. Their mouths 
 were in such a condition that a person would wonder how 
 they could eat at all. But after the teeth had been floated 
 down quite a marked change was noticed. 
 
FATTENING HORSES FOR MARKET. 269 
 
 As previously stated, one of the most important points to 
 be considered in fattening draft horses for market is to se- 
 cure heavy gains. In this connection fattening of the draft 
 horse is commonly termed stall feeding horses for market. 
 It is done in very much the same way as with cattle. In 
 one of the large horse feeding establishments of the West 
 the following method is practiced: The horses are pur- 
 chased, their teeth are floated and they are all put in the 
 barn and fed gradually, as great care must be taken for a 
 few days to avoid colic. It seems most preferable to feed 
 them grain about five times per day, due to the fact that 
 the stomach of a horse, being proportionately smaller than 
 the stomach of a cow, he needs his feed in smaller quantities 
 and often. The hay is placed in racks so that they may 
 have access to it at all times. They are given all the water 
 they will drink twice a day. The following method is fol- 
 lowed in feeding the grain: Corn is given at 5 o'clock in 
 the morning; water at 7; the hay racks filled at 9 o'clock, 
 when they are also given oats and bran, the proportion being 
 two-thirds bran and one-third oats. Then at 12 o'clock they 
 are fed corn again; at 3 in the afternoon oats and bran, and 
 the hay racks are refilled; at 4 they are given a second 
 watering: and at 6 the last feed of corn is given. The pro- 
 portion for each horse when upon full feed is as follows: 
 Corn, from ten to fourteen ears at each feed; oats and bran, 
 about three quarts per feed, making in all from thirty to 
 forty ears of corn and six quarts of oats and bran per horse 
 per day. The horses are not given any exercise. It seems 
 impossible to give them all sufficient exercise, thus they are 
 not given any from the time they are put in the barn until 
 a few days before they are to be shipped. As a substitute 
 for exercise, in order to keep the blood in good order, thus 
 preventing stock legs, Glauber salts is used. This is found 
 to be quite satisfactory and will in most cases prevent this 
 trouble. It is mixed with the oats and bran, as in this way 
 the horses eat them quite readily. These salts are fed about 
 twice per week. They can be purchased very cheaply from 
 the druggist when bought in considerable quantities. They 
 are not so strong as the Epsom salts and they have a desira- 
 ble and cooling effect upon the blood. The same firm also 
 feeds oil meal. They claim that it aids greatly in putting 
 on flesh; also that it gives the skin a soft, mellow touch. 
 The mangers and feed boxes should be cleaned out twice a 
 
270 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 clay, and the cobs and all other refuse thrown out behind 
 the horses and taken out with the manure. The horses 
 should be given sufficient time to rest their stomachs, and 
 this can be done by giving the first feed at 5 o'clock in the 
 morning and the last between 6 and 7 at night. Horses 
 fed as described above usually make good gains. In some 
 instances horses fed in this manner have made a gain of 
 five and one-half pounds a day for a period of fifty to one 
 hundred days. One horse gained 550 pounds in 100 days. 
 In many instances from one dozen to twenty horses have 
 made an average daily gain of three and one-third pounds 
 per day for a period of ninety days. 
 
 One of the largest horse feeding establishments in the 
 state of Illinois, a firm which has fed hundreds of horses 
 annually, feed much along the same line as outlined above. 
 They made a business of buying in horses in the half-fed 
 condition from farmers and feeding them from one to three 
 months in preparation for the market. The length of the 
 feeding period would depend upon the condition of the 
 animal when purchased and the prospective outcome of the 
 same. Large framed, coarse boned animals were always fed 
 much longer than the fine, pony built horses. The former 
 class would make heavier gains and required more flesh to 
 give them finish and to make them attractive to the eye 
 of the purchaser. 
 
 Many people have doubted the wisdom of forcing the 
 horses in this way. They claim that the animals will not 
 wear as long after being subjected to such fattening pro- 
 cesses. This may be so, and no doubt it is in no small 
 degree. Still, we must cater to the demands of the market. 
 We must give our purchasers what they want. In draft 
 horses they demand fat, thus if we hope to get the highest 
 value for our animals we must sell them in high flesh. 
 
LECTURE LXVIII. 
 
 STABLING SUITABLE FOR HORSES. 
 
 Shelter of some kind must be provided for the horse, 
 especially for the work horse. In this respect they differ 
 from the other kinds of stock, as nearly all the other classes 
 of stock in some country or portion of country are main- 
 tained without shelter. In cold climates stables are neces- 
 sary for the horse as a means of protection and from the 
 standpoint of convenience. In warmer climates they are 
 more often provided and used as a means of convenience. 
 This is due to the fact that the horse is used for labor pur- 
 poses, thus must oftentimes be had on very short notice. 
 This of necessity causes the owner to make some provision 
 of a place of some kind where the horse can always be 
 found. Out of this necessary provision has grown the many 
 elaborate stables of the present day. 
 
 In general, stables should be so constructed as to meet 
 the needs of the occasion to the very best advantage for the 
 smallest expense possible. They must be so constructed as 
 to protect the animals from the cold blasts of winter, also 
 to supply plenty of fresh air during the summer months. 
 They must be convenient and durable. They must be well 
 lighted and have proper facilities for ventilation. These 
 are points which must always be considered in planning 
 the stable. 
 
 Most men make the mistake of building too small a 
 structure, and as a result reduce the size of the stalls, the 
 alleys, the feed rooms and harness rooms, to such an extent 
 that they are always inconvenient. The horse stable should 
 "be convenient. It is used every day in the year and every 
 provision possible should be made to have feed rooms con- 
 venient, the stalls wide enough, the alleys wide enough, 
 so that either horse or man can pass behind the other ani- 
 mals with safety. The harness room should be near as 
 possible so as to eliminate all unnecessary walking on the 
 part of the attendant. Ample provision must also be made 
 
272 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 for plenty of light, as nothing will add more to the appear- 
 ance of the stable and the health of the animals than plenty 
 of sunshine. 
 
 The stalls should be of sufficient length and width to 
 answer the needs of the animals. Single stalls are prefera- 
 ble to double stalls on account of the greater safety and 
 freedom which they afford the animals. This is especially 
 true in the case of a man who is constantly purchasing new 
 animals. Some of the stalls should be larger than others 
 so as to make ample provision for larger animals. Box 
 stalls should always be provided. They are very convenient 
 for brood mares, foals, or horses which are in any way 
 injured. No stable is complete without at least two large, 
 well-lighted v box stalls. They also make a very safe place to 
 put a vicious horse in during the night, thus preventing his 
 harming the other animals in the stable should he by accident 
 become freed from his own stall. 
 
 The mangers should not be too high from the ground 
 and should be provided tight, bottoms. Boxes should be 
 arranged in one end of the manger for the purpose of feed- 
 ing grain. The floors may be brick, cement, wood or 
 ground. The brick floors are durable, but hard on the ani- 
 mal unless very heavily bedded. The cement floors are 
 much the same as the brick, with the exception that they 
 are not so durable where horses have sharp calkins on their 
 shoes. The sharp calkins have a tendency to chip the 
 cement and in time make holes in the same. The wooden 
 floors are not durable and are also filthy, due to the fact 
 that they retain too much moisture. The ground floor is the 
 only kind which is not hard on the feet of the horse. They 
 are objectionable in some instances, due to the fact that they 
 are easily "pawed" by horses which have such a tendency. 
 
 In recapitulation we would emphasize the importance of 
 securing the greatest amount of convenience, comfort, light, 
 and durability for the least possible expenditure of money. 
 
LECTURE LXIX. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BROOD SOWS. 
 
 One of the most common mistakes made in connection 
 with brood sows is the use of the immature animals for 
 breeding purposes. In the Central West, and in fact in 
 most sections of the country, from one-half to two-thirds of 
 the sows which are kept for breeding purposes are under 
 one year of age. This simply makes the breeding business 
 more or less complex in its nature. That is, we have no 
 assurance of the value of these young animals for breeding 
 purposes. A sow which has once been bred and reared a 
 good litter of pigs can usually be counted upon to do like- 
 wise afterwards. The evil results which follow the breeding 
 from immature sows are: 1. Reduced size of litters. 2. A 
 weakened constitution. 3. A general refinement in the ani- 
 mal and lack of size. These are all points which each and 
 every breeder of hogs must consider very carefully. As a 
 general rule, the only safe kind of a sow to keep for breed- 
 ing purposes is a mature animal which has already proven 
 her worth as a breeder. Brood sows should be fed differently 
 from those animals intended for fattening purposes. Corn, 
 while an excellent feed for fattening hogs, should be used 
 in very moderate amounts for breeding animals. It should 
 not form more than one-third of the ration. This is due to 
 the fact that corn is a fat and heat producing feed. The 
 ration of the brood sow should be of a nitrogenous nature, 
 so as to have a cooling effect upon the system. Sows which 
 have an abundance of exercise can withstand more corn feed- 
 ing than those that are confined to the pens. A ration of 
 shorts and oats, or some gluten feed, or any other feed stuff 
 which is fairly rich in nitrogen, will give good results. Prob- 
 ably one of the best rations will be a mixture of one part 
 corn, one part shorts, and one part oats. In some instances 
 bran is used, instead of shorts, for feeding of brood sows, 
 especially where mature animals are kept for breeding pur- 
 
274 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 poses. Oil meal, while used to a considerable extent for 
 breeding stock and for fattening hogs, must be fed with 
 great care to the brood sow, especially near farrowing time. 
 It has been known to cause abortion when fed in considera- 
 ble quantities shortly before farrowing time. During the 
 summer months, the brood sow should have the run of a blue 
 grass, clover or alfalfa pasture. If none of these are avail- 
 able, some forage crop, such as rye, oats and barley; peas, 
 oats and barley; sorghum, cow peas, sweet corn or rape 
 should be supplied. It is also very important that the 
 brood sow be fed succulent food during the winter season. 
 In this respect some corn ensilage or roots answer a very 
 good purpose. These keep the digestive system in good 
 order. It is further believed that some clover or alfalfa hay 
 which has been finely cut and steamed serves a good purpose. 
 In some instances the use of leaves of alfalfa or clover as 
 a part of the ration is recommended. One important feature 
 which should not be overlooked is the necessity of plenty of 
 exercise. Many men make a fatal mistake by confining 
 their brood sows to a small pen and feeding them heavily 
 on feeds of a fattening nature. Where such a course is 
 followed, evil results are almost sure to come at farrowing 
 time. The sow will usually be so fat and her system heated 
 to such a degree that milk fever or inflammation of the 
 udder is almost sure to occur. The number of litters per 
 year which a sow should rear will depend upon the condi- 
 tions. If you wish to market your pigs twice a year at the 
 age of six or seven months, it will be found much more 
 profitable to rear two litters per year than one. This is 
 especially true in those sections of the country where the 
 bacon hog is produced. Where mature sows are used for 
 breeding purposes, two litters per year can be reared to 
 advantage. It must be borne in mind that where two litters 
 per year are reared it is a very hard drain on the system 
 of the sow. Young and immature animals cannot withstand 
 such a drain on the system. Where mature hogs are used 
 and they are well bred, two litters per year can be reared 
 without much difficulty. 
 
 For a short time before farrowing it is not best to feed 
 very much grain feed. Thin slops are much better than any 
 other kind of a ration. This is due to the fact that it is 
 very necessary to keep the digestive system cool and to feed 
 feeds which are very easily digested. A couple of days pre- 
 
CARE OF BROOD SOWS. 275 
 
 vious to farrowing from four to eight ounces of Epsom salts 
 should be fed in the feed. This will prove beneficial in cool- 
 ing the system and thus prevent milk fever or inflammation 
 of the udder. After farrowing, the pigs should be left with 
 the mother. The mother should be fed on feeds conducive 
 to the production of milk. After farrowing, the sow should 
 have a light ration in the form of a mash composed of wheat 
 bran and shorts or their equivalent, gradually increasing 
 up to the tenth day, when the sow can be put on full ration, 
 and ground corn and oats in equal parts can be added to 
 the ration already mentioned. The sow should be fed, too, 
 according to the size of the litter. Other rations suited to 
 the same purpose are skim-milk and shorts; skim-milk, shorts 
 and corn; skim-milk, shorts and oats; skim-milk, shorts and 
 barley. Where two litters per year are to be reared the 
 young pigs should not remain on the mother more than four 
 or five weeks. Where they are taught to use other feed at 
 an early age, they will do just as well in a separate pen 
 after four or five weeks of age, as they will on the mother. 
 At weaning it is best to remove all pigs at once. If the 
 udder is inclined to be full and has a tendency to cake, it 
 should be milked out by hand. The practice of allowing a 
 few of the pigs to remain on the dam for a few days longer 
 is often very injurious to the mother. This is due to the 
 fact that each and every pig has its own teat, thus will not 
 drain all the others. In addition to the points which have 
 been mentioned above good general care and management 
 should be given to the dam. She should always be well fed 
 and fed on feeds conducive to health. 
 
LECTURE LXX. 
 
 FEED AND CARE OF YOUNG PIGS FROM BIRTH UNTIL 
 READY FOR FATTENING. 
 
 The brood sow should be placed in a comfortable pen a 
 few days before farrowing. If the weather is inclined to be 
 cool, this is especially desirable, while on the other hand if 
 the weather is warm sometimes she may be allowed to 
 run in a pasture lot. For a young brood sow, however, or 
 even for any age of a sow, it is safer to have her in a small 
 pen which has been especially prepared for farrowing pur- 
 poses. She should be accustomed to this pen, so that it 
 will not be strange or different to her. A fender which can 
 be made from a 2x6 or 8-inch scantling should be placed 
 along the wall about seven or eight inches from the floor. 
 This affords a means of protection by preventing the mother 
 from lying on the young, for in such a way she cannot get 
 within six or seven inches of the wall and they will not be 
 crushed but will have an opportunity to escape without any 
 injury. This point will often save the lives of several of the 
 little pigs. If the weather is cold, it is best that the bed 
 should be warmed properly and properly dried. For bed- 
 ding, cut straw or chaff is preferable to long straw. Long 
 straw makes it hard for the little fellows to get around, thus 
 more or less liability of their being crushed by the mother. 
 Cut straw also takes up the moisture much more readily 
 than does the long straw. If any of the little pigs are 
 chilled at farrowing time they should be removed from the 
 pen and taken to a warm place until they have recovered. 
 It is not a good policy, however, to keep the little ones away 
 from the mother too much of the time. By so doing, and 
 especially with a young mother, there is some danger of her 
 not owning her young. Provision should be made so that 
 the little fellows may have an opportunity to secure some 
 feed in addition to that provided by the mother as soon as 
 they are old enough to use the same. A little trough in 
 which some whole milk is supplied will prove very attractive 
 
CARE OF YOUNG PIGS. 277 
 
 to the pigs. The whole milk may be gradually changed, how- 
 ever, to a skim-milk ration, but the skim-milk must be sweet 
 to prevent scours or bowel trouble. As soon as they take to 
 the skim-milk a little shorts may be added to the same. 
 In this way the young pigs may get a great deal of their 
 ration required for maintenance by the time they are four 
 or five weeks of age, thus making the weaning period an 
 easy one. This is especially beneficial where two litters per 
 year are to be reared. It is then very desirable to have the 
 young pigs weaned at an early age, say four or five weeks. 
 After weaning, the same ration as that which was fed before 
 weaning may be fed to advantage. Nothing seems to give 
 better results for the young pigs at first than a ration of milk 
 and shorts mixed in the proportion of one part of shorts to 
 three or four parts of skim-milk. Feed them at least three 
 times a day. Better results may be obtained if they are fed 
 four times a day for the first month. During the spring and 
 summer season they should be allowed the run of a good blue 
 grass, red clover, or alfalfa pasture. Nothing seems to give 
 better results than blue grass or alfalfa in the growth and 
 development of young pigs. If blue grass, red clover or 
 alfalfa cannot be supplied, some forage crop such as that 
 mentioned in the previous lecture should be provided. As 
 they get older a ration of shorts may be fed with some corn 
 added to the ration. Corn is not so conducive to growth 
 but is an excellent feed for fattening purposes. Some oil 
 meal added to the corn ration will also prove good in that 
 it will have a favorable influence on the digestive system of 
 the animal. Sweet corn may be fed in conjunction with 
 grain ration during the fall months. It seems to answer an 
 excellent purpose. Squashes, mangels or some other kinds 
 of root crops may also be used to advantage. Where these 
 are fed it is better to have them cooked or steamed and 
 mixed with the grain ration. 
 
 One thing which must always be kept in mind is the 
 importance of having clean dry quarters for young pigs. 
 Filthy quarters are very injurious to the health of these 
 little fellows and prevent their proper growth and develop- 
 ment. The pens should be so arranged that there will be 
 an abundance of sunshine. 
 
 Where two litters per year are to be reared, the fall 
 litter should come early enough in the season so as to have 
 made considerable growth before the cold weather arrives. 
 
278 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 In this respect they should farrow at least by the 1st of Sep- 
 tember. These farrows should be given proper care and 
 attention until the 1st of December and then placed in warm 
 dry quarters and well fed, and should make good gains dur- 
 ing the cold weather. If, on the other hand, they come late 
 in the fall and are exposed to the cold weather and improp- 
 erly fed and housed, poor gains will be realized. 
 
 During the winter season it is especially desirable to 
 feed some steamed or cooked food. This seems to keep the 
 system in good shape. Pigs which are being fed on steamed 
 or cooked food must have warm comfortable quarters and 
 must not be exposed to extreme cold at any time, else inflam- 
 mation may occur. Hogs which are confined to warm quar- 
 ters part of the time and then exposed to real cold for a few 
 minutes are very susceptible to inflammation and other such 
 troubles. In some instances where young pigs are suckling 
 the mother, especially if the mother is a real heavy milker 
 and they are confined to small quarters, trouble may be 
 experienced through "thumps." This trouble may be pre- 
 vented by giving them more exercise. If it is during the 
 winter season, while the sun is shining bright, they should 
 be allowed out in front of the pen for an hour or so each day. 
 Plenty of fresh air and exercise will always be found a good 
 preventive for "thumps." 
 
LECTURE LXXI. 
 
 FEED, CARE AND SELECTION OF STOCK INTENDED 
 FOR BREEDING PURPOSES. 
 
 In selecting stock for breeding purposes there are several 
 points which must be given due attention. One of the first 
 and most important is good breeding. Another point which 
 we must consider is conformation that is, that in addition 
 to good breeding, the pigs to be selected should possess the 
 desirable conformation or form which is demanded of the 
 class to which they belong. Another point to be observed 
 in the selection of stock intended for breeding purposes is 
 that they be from mature stock, strong in constitution and 
 of good size. It is a very poor policy to select breeding ani- 
 mals from immature sires or dams, or from sows of weakened 
 constitutions or lacking in size. 
 
 By good breeding we mean stock descended from animals 
 which have for generations possessed the desirable qualities 
 which go to make up a real good market hog. Nothing but 
 pure bred sires should be used. The dams should also be 
 pure bred. Where grade sires are used, breeding is more 
 or less a lottery. Another point which should be considered 
 in selecting stock for breeding purposes is to select from 
 those strains or families which are noted for their prolificacy. 
 This is a point in which a great many of our breeds, and 
 especially families of certain breeds, are very deficient. In 
 conformation the young pig should have indication of devel- 
 oping in the desired form; that is, it should have length 
 of body, depth of body, smoothness of shoulders, width of 
 back, loin and hindquarters, should stand squarely on its 
 legs, should have indications of having bone and should have 
 the characteristics of the breed to which it belongs. It must 
 indicate constitution by having good depth and width of 
 chest. It must also have a good coat of hair that is, a thick, 
 straight coat. Thin-haired pigs are not desirable, as thin 
 hair usually goes with a weak constitution and lack of size. 
 
280 WYE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 After having selected the type of a hog desirable, it is 
 all important that this animal be given good feed, care and 
 attention. It must be fed on a ration conducive to the de- 
 velopment of bone and muscle. Breeding hogs differ very 
 much from fat hogs. They are expected to be kept until 
 they are several years old, therefore must possess good bone 
 and must also have good muscle. This calls for a ration 
 rich in nitrogenous matter. It also calls for a ration rich in 
 ash matter. This being the case, corn being a ration which 
 is deficient in nitrogen and ash, should form but a small por- 
 tion of the ration for young and growing animals. Feeds 
 rich in protein, such as shorts, oats, gluten feed, oil meal, 
 alfalfa, red clover, rape, skim-milk, etc., should constitute 
 the major portion of the ration fed. Corn, however, while 
 deficient in protein and ash, may be fed in a limited amount, 
 especially when properly combined with the other feed stuffs. 
 
 These young pigs must be liberally fed, as it is all 
 important that they obtain a good growth at an early age. 
 They should be separated from those intended for fattening 
 purposes before they are three months old. They require 
 more exercise and more nitrogenous feed stuffs than those 
 which are intended for fattening purposes. The boars should 
 be separated from the sows and given different care and 
 treatment. The sows should be forced rapidly and should 
 not be bred before they are at least eight months old. The 
 boars should also be fed liberally and should not be used 
 for breeding purposes until they are at least eight months 
 old. The boar should not be used very heavily the first year 
 and not more than ten or twelve sows should be served by 
 him during his first season. This is an important matter, 
 one which a great many breeders fail to give proper atten- 
 tion. The young boar especially, and the young sow, too, 
 should be given a liberal amount of exercise. This is a very 
 important feature. 
 
LECTURE LXXII. 
 
 FATTENING HOGS FOR MARKET. 
 
 The age at which hogs should be fattened will depend 
 more or less upon the market demands and the locality. In 
 .some countries and in different sections of the same country 
 we find that there are differences in the market demands. 
 As a general rule in this country the fat or lard hog has 
 been the most popular. When such is the case it is better 
 to market hogs at the weight of from 300 to 400 pounds. 
 These seem to meet with the most popular favor of the buy- 
 ers. In other sections of the country and in other markets 
 where the bacon type of hog is preferred over the fat or lard 
 hog, they must be marketed at an earlier age. The best 
 weight for the bacon hog is between 160 and 220 pounds. 
 They do not require to be nearly as fat as the fat or lard 
 hog; still, on the other hand, a bacon hog is by no means 
 a thin animal. They should have a covering of about one 
 inch of fat over the back. They should be deep sided and 
 Jong sided, and must be firm in quality. Where the bacon 
 hog is desired, as a general rule it will be found most profit- 
 able to have the hogs fattened and finished for market at 
 about five and one-half or six months of age. Where the fat 
 or lard hog is desired, the most profitable age to market the 
 same in order to meet the requirements of the market would 
 "be about eight to ten months. Hogs of this age should weigh 
 in the neighborhood of 300 to 350 pounds. As a general rule, 
 Tiowever, it may be stated that the greatest and most econom- 
 ical gains, especially the most economical gains, are made on 
 the younger animals. This is one point in favor of the bacon 
 "hog. 
 
 The season of the year at which the fattening should 
 "be done will depend upon various conditions. In some in- 
 stances, in fact in a great many cases, hogs are fattened 
 during the fall and early winter months. In other instances 
 they are fattened during the spring and early summer 
 months. Generally speaking, the most economical gains can 
 
282 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 be made during the early fall or spring months. The weather 
 is then not too cold nor too warm in fact, about right for 
 the best gains. In real cold weather a considerable amount 
 of the feed is used for the production of heat to supply the 
 heat required for the maintenance of the animal body. In 
 real warm weather, on the other hand, a considerable amount 
 of feed may be wasted. Where two litters per year are to- 
 be reared it will be found best to fatten the first bunch and 
 market them during the months of September and October. 
 The second litter should be fattened and ready for market 
 some time during the latter part of March or the month of 
 April. These are things which each and every feeder must,, 
 to a certain extent, control himself. 
 
 Concerning the various kinds of feeds which are to be- 
 used in the fattening of hogs, in this connection we must 
 consider the feed stuffs which are available, those which are 
 home grown and most easily grown, those which are most 
 palatable for the animals, and, lastly, those which are most 
 economical. All of these factors must be considered in 
 selecting the ration. There are a great many different kinds 
 of rations, comprised of different combinations of feed stuffs,, 
 which give very good results. One important factor seems 
 to be that variety be supplied. A combination of feed stuffs- 
 always gives better results than any single feed stuff when 
 fed alone. 
 
 In the western states corn must be the basis, and form a 
 large proportion of any grain ration fed. This is due to the- 
 fact that corn is the staple grain grown in this country. 
 Taking it one year with another it is the most economical 
 feed which the farmer has at hand for swine feeding pur- 
 poses. Corn, however, is not a well balanced feed for young 
 and growing hogs, thus should be fed in conjunction with 
 some other feed stuffs which are rich in those compounds- 
 such as protein and ash, in which corn is deficient. Corn is- 
 a strictly fattening food. For hogs which are a year or a 
 year and one-half old, and which are to be fattened in a 
 short time, perhaps a ration of corn will prove as economical 
 and give as heavy returns for the feed consumed as any- 
 other feed stuff or combination of feed stuffs that can bo- 
 used. 
 
 Hogs, however, as a general rule are not kept until a 
 year or one and one-half years old before marketing, but are 
 marketed at from six to ten months of age, thus should be 
 
FATTENING HOGS. 285 
 
 fed on some feed stuff which is not only adapted to the pro- 
 duction of fat, but conducive to growth as well. In this 
 respect a ration of corn and tankage, fed in the proportion 
 of four or five parts corn meal to one part tankage; or a 
 ration of corn meal and gluten feed, equal parts by weight, 
 or a ration of corn and shorts, equal parts by weight; or a 
 ration of one part corn, one part barley and one part shorts 
 by weight, or a ration of two parts corn and one part of 
 either wheat or shorts by weight, when fed in conjunction 
 with skim-milk, will give excellent results. These feeds are 
 especially adapted to fall or winter feeding. During the 
 summer months the most economical gains can usually be 
 secured by fattening hogs on some kind of pasture or forage 
 supplied in some other way. For instance, corn when fed to 
 hogs which have a run of good clover pasture, alfalfa pas- 
 ture, blue grass pasture, soy beans, rape, cow pea pasture, 
 and a mixture of peas, oats and barley which had been sown 
 early in the season, will give very good results. The forage 
 crops mentioned are all rich in protein and seem to have a 
 favorable influence on the health of the animals. 
 
 No one feed stuff is best under all conditions. Each and 
 every man must be governed largely in this respect by the 
 feed stuffs available, and those which are most economical. 
 
 Preparation of Feed Stuffs. 
 
 In the preparation of feed stuffs no definite rule can be 
 recommended which will answer all conditions. Different 
 kinds of feed stuffs and different ages of the animals will 
 have an influence in this respect. During the fall and winter 
 months, especially if the weather is somewhat cold, steam- 
 ing or cooking feed may be an advantage in that it supplies 
 the same in a warm condition. It may also increase the 
 palatability of the same. During the spring and summer 
 months there is no advantage derived from steaming or cook- 
 ing except from a palatability standpoint. In some instances 
 feed stuffs which are inclined to be musty may be made very 
 much more palatable by steaming them. Soaking has much 
 the same influence that steaming or cooking has, and seems 
 to be much more economical in spring or summer feeding. 
 
 Feed stuffs which have a hard hull, such as barley, 
 should be ground, or if not ground, should be soaked for 
 
284 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 twelve hours or steamed before feeding. Where alfalfa or 
 clover hay is added to the ration during the fall or winter 
 months it should be cut up very fine, steamed and added to 
 the ration. Hogs which are being fattened, especially if they 
 are being forced for a quick finish, should have some kind 
 of a condiment. This will aid digestion and give tone to 
 the system. In this respect, sulphur to the amount of one 
 teaspoonful every two or three weeks has sometimes been 
 found to be very beneficial. Probably one of the most com- 
 mon and at the same time beneficial preparations in this 
 respect is prepared from charcoal, wood ashes and certain 
 other adjuncts which are considered to be beneficial to the 
 health of the hogs which are being fattened. The following 
 mixture has been recommended : Six bushels of corn cob 
 charcoal that has been well crushed, or three bushels of 
 common charcoal, with one bushel of ashes, eight pounds of 
 salt, and two quarts of air slacked lime. Dissolve one and 
 one-half pounds of copperas in hot water, sprinkle it over 
 the mass and thoroughly mix. Put this into self feeding 
 boxes or somewhere where it will be protected from the 
 weather, and let the pigs partake of the same at will. 
 
 It is very important that the hogs be kept in comfort- 
 able quarters, well bedded and clean. They should be fed 
 all that they will eat up clean within a half hour or so after 
 feeding. It is a bad mistake to feed more than they will 
 clean up in the course of twenty minutes or half an hour. 
 It is much better to underfeed a little than to overfeed, espe- 
 cially during warm weather. Any feed which is left over 
 during warm weather soon ferments, and thus becomes unde- 
 sirable. The feed floors and troughs should be kept very 
 clean. In fact, most good swine feeders sweep off their 
 floors and feed troughs every morning and evening. 
 
LECTURE LXXIII. 
 
 PREPARATION AND FITTING SWINE FOR SHOW PUR- 
 POSES. 
 
 The successful fitting and preparation of swine for the 
 show rings is a business in itself. It is something which a 
 man must study carefully for himself; and to a large meas- 
 ure obtain his knowledge by experience in the show ring and 
 in the preparation of the stock for the same. There are so 
 many little details which must be observed closely, the 
 neglect of which may mean failure. Perhaps no other line 
 of live stock management is so important, and especially so 
 hard to master, as the proper preparation and fitting of ani- 
 mals for exhibition purposes. The first consideration, how- 
 ever, is to use good judgment in selecting animals which 
 have some outcome to them. It is the height of folly to 
 think of making a show animal out of an animal which is 
 not bred right. This is the first and most important essen- 
 tial. Nothing but strong, vigorous, healthy animals should 
 be selected in the hope of making prize winners. They must 
 possess good form; must have the desired form of either the 
 fat or the bacon hog, depending upon which class they belong 
 to in this connection. For instance, with the bacon hog 
 it would be useless to select short, chubby youngsters with 
 the hope of making show animals out of them. On the 
 other hand, in the fat hog class, we must not select too 
 short and chubby animals if we hope to be successful. Still, 
 there is such a thing as selecting too long and rangy an 
 animal as to make a good fat hog for show purposes. The 
 medium length should govern. Perhaps in no other instance 
 is breed type so important as in those animals intended for 
 exhibition purposes. It is really the first and foremost requi- 
 site. There are various breeds of fat hogs as designated by 
 those points which characterize the breed type of the animal 
 in question. This being the case, no animal which is at all 
 deficient from a breed type standpoint should be selected for 
 
286 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 exhibition purposes. It would simply mean time, money and 
 labor thrown away. 
 
 Constitution is a very important point. A hog which 
 lias a good constitution will withstand a great deal more 
 exposure and will make better gains than one which is poor 
 in constitution. Furthermore, in all our show rings, any 
 weakness in this respect is discriminated against most se- 
 verely. The question of bone is an important one. In many 
 instances it is the deciding point in the show ring. A hog 
 must have plenty of bone, and that bone must be of good 
 quality. A large, coarse, porous bone is not desirable. We 
 must have size of bone, combined with quality. The feet 
 and legs are also very important. A hog which does not 
 stand well on its feet and legs can never make a show ani- 
 mal. Crooked legs, long pastern, knock knees, and all other 
 deviations from the correct form should be discriminated 
 against. Quality throughout as indicated by the refinement 
 of the head, the ears, the shoulders and the bone, is a very 
 important feature. 
 
 The coat of hair must not be overlooked, as a swirly 
 coat will be very much discriminated against. Curliness or 
 coarseness of coat is also very undesirable. On the other 
 Tiand, a thin haired, fine haired hog is always discriminated 
 against. A good coat should be medium in length, straight 
 and very thick, and should be of the desired color of the 
 ftreed in question. 
 
 Having all these points, the next thing to be considered 
 is the feed which will produce proper and uniform develop- 
 ment It is very important that the hog intended for show 
 purposes should have a ration which is properly balanced. 
 That is, one which will supply plenty of muscle, building 
 material, and an abundance of bone. In this respect nothing 
 seems to serve a much better purpose than shorts combined 
 with oats, or shorts and barley, and shorts with a small 
 amount of corn. The best ration, however, is a ration of 
 skim-milk and shorts, with perhaps a little corn or barley 
 added. Sometimes as much as 10% oil meal is added to the 
 grain ration. It seems to have a favorable influence upon 
 the health of the animals, and also adds quality in finish to 
 the same. During the summer months a good clover or 
 alfalfa pasture, or, in fact, any forage crop which is rich 
 in protein, makes an excellent adjunct to the grain ration. 
 
FITTING SWINE FOR SHOW. 287 
 
 Hogs intended for show purposes should have abundance 
 of exercise. Many good show hogs are ruined by being con- 
 fined in too small a pen or yard. In such instances they go 
 lame, lose the power of their limbs, and other things which 
 would be very objectionable from a show ring standpoint. 
 
 If the hogs are not coming on quite as fast as you would 
 like them and have not quite as much finish as you would 
 like, feed some whole milk, as whole milk is the best feed 
 available for fitting a hog for show purposes. The only 
 objection to the use of the same is that it is rather costly. 
 Next to whole milk, skim-milk and oil meal probably stand 
 second. 
 
 Before going out on a show circuit it is well to wash the 
 hogs with a good brush, soap and luke-warm water. This will 
 clean the scurf out of the skin and present the skin and hair 
 in much better condition than it otherwise would be. Wash- 
 ing, practiced at least once or twice a week before com- 
 mencing the fair circuit would be found to be very helpful. 
 The feet should be trimmed and kept short. This will aid 
 very much in keeping the hog on his feet. If the toes are 
 long and allowed to grow out, the tendency will be for the 
 animal to go down on its pasterns. 
 
 Be very careful of the ears of show animals. Do not nip 
 them or put in labels which will in any way interfere with 
 the shape of the ear. This is especially true in those breeds 
 which have fine ears and which are of a drooping nature. 
 
 Another important point to be considered is the training 
 of the hogs at home to show well. No man should take a hog 
 out to an exposition or fair who has not spent some time 
 in training him to show at home. A hog which is a little 
 inclined to be weak in the back can usually be held up 
 fairly well by walking him around and keeping the head 
 down. The general tendency is, however, for a hog which 
 has never been shown to get his head up and back down 
 when it is taken into the ring with strange animals. 
 
 In the show business every little point counts, and each 
 and every man who hopes to be successful will be very much 
 benefited by studying all the little details. It is the giving of 
 attention to details that counts and the man who masters 
 this part is the man who will be successful in show yard 
 contests. 
 
LECTURE LXXIV. 
 
 FORAGE CROPS FOR SWINE. 
 
 Forage crops of some kind are very commonly used in. 
 connection with the production of pork. Various kinds have 
 been used in this country and some kinds are especially 
 suited to one locality, some to another. One of the main 
 things to be considered in planting forage crops is to get a 
 variety so that there will be plenty of feed throughout the 
 entire season. Many men make the mistake of confining 
 themselves to some one crop, thus have an abundance of the 
 same at certain seasons of the year while at other seasons of 
 the year they have little or no green feed for their hogs. 
 
 The use of green feed of some kind either during the- 
 summer or winter months has proven to be very beneficial 
 to the health of the animals. This is especially true in the 
 case of breeding animals and young stock intended for breed- 
 ing purposes. It seems to be necessary to supply forage of 
 some kind to animals intended for breeding purposes. Forage 
 crops also serve another purpose. They are very valuable 
 in balancing the ration. This is especially true in sections 
 of the country where corn is the staple grain crop grown. 
 Corn, while rich in carbonaceous matter and very valuable 
 from a fattening standpoint, does not contain enough protein 
 and ash for the proper development of bone and muscle. 
 Most of our forage crops, especially those belonging to the 
 legume family, are very rich in protein and ash, thus make 
 an excellent adjunct to the corn ration. Alfalfa, clover, soy 
 beans, cow peas, and the Canadian field pea are all very 
 valuable in this respect. 
 
 As previously mentioned, it is very important to supply a 
 variety of forage crops in order that there may be an abund- 
 ance of green feed at any and all seasons of the year. Some 
 men who are very successful in the swine breeding business 
 use rye, which has been sown the previous fall, to supply 
 the earliest green feed in the spring of the year. When rye 
 is sown in the month of September it furnishes an excellent 
 
FORAGE CROPS FOR SWINE. 289 
 
 pasture very early in the season. It can be used for a month 
 or two. It is especially palatable and very much relished by 
 the animals while it is young and tender. After it has ob- 
 tained some height the straw becomes rank and unpalatable. 
 It should either then be allowed to ripen, or be plowed under 
 and replaced by some other crop which will furnish green 
 feed later in the season. After that blue grass pas- 
 ture, red clover or alfalfa will furnish the next crop 
 for the spring months. Blue grass pasture does 
 very nicely at any season of the year providing 
 there is enough of it. Most men make a mistake 
 by pasturing hogs on the blue grass pasture lot by having 
 too many hogs for the amount of pasture. It is rich in pro- 
 tein and mineral matter, thus makes an excellent feed to 
 add to the corn ration. Red clover, where it can be had, 
 makes one of the most acceptable forage crops that can be 
 grown in this country. It is very rich in protein and ash 
 matter, thus an ideal food to feed in conjunction with corn 
 or barley for the proper development of the young animal. 
 In the spring of the year it does very nicely, but it cannot be 
 pastured continuously, as during the months of July and 
 August it becomes very coarse and fibrous, thus unpalatable 
 to the animals. If after it has been pastured a month or so 
 the hogs are taken off the same, and then stubble is cut 
 fairly close to the ground, a second crop will grow up and 
 make a fairly good pasture later on in the season. In this 
 way some swine men are able to get a couple and in some 
 instances three crops of red clover in one year. 
 
 In most sections of the country where alfalfa can be 
 grown it proves to be an excellent feed. It will probably fur- 
 nish more feed to the acre than any other crop which can be 
 grown. It is very rich in protein. In this respect it is 
 richer than bran or shorts. It is also rich in ash matter, 
 thus makes an excellent adjunct to feed in connection with 
 the corn ration. When treated in the same way as the red 
 clover, that is, cut at intervals of four or five weeks, several 
 crops per season may be obtained from the land. 
 
 Peas have been used to a considerable extent for swine 
 feeding purposes. They are used especially in Canada and 
 to -some extent in the United States. They furnish a con- 
 siderable amount of feed and are very similar in composition 
 to red clover and alfalfa. The English vetch is also used 
 
290 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 and is much the same from a feeding standpoint as peas. A 
 mixture of oats and barley, equal parts; or, one part oats, 
 one part barley, and one part peas; or two parts oats and 
 one part peas, is sown in many sections of the country and 
 used as forage crop for swine. It makes a very good feed for 
 a short time. If different pieces of ground are sown at in- 
 tervals of two or three weeks, a very good series of forage 
 crops may be provided in this way. Cow peas and soy 
 beans are both very rich in protein and make an excellent 
 feed in any locality where they can be grown. They require 
 a fairly warm climate, thus do not seem to do very well in 
 the northern states. In the southern, however, they stand 
 in the very front rank. Rape has been used quite commonly 
 and is grown very generally throughout Canada and the 
 northern states. When sown broadcast or when drilled in 
 rows two feet apart it furnishes an abundance of green feed. 
 It makes an excellent hog pasture and furnishes as much or 
 more feed than any other forage crop that can be grown. 
 Experienced swine feeders, however, do not seem to like it 
 quite so well as red clover or alfalfa. 
 
 Sorghum is grown in many sections of the country and 
 furnishes a very good feed during the latter part of the 
 season. To get the greatest returns from a crop of sorghum 
 it should not be pastured, but should be allowed to grow up 
 and cut and fed to the hogs in small lots. Where it is 
 pastured, there is a great waste, as much of the sorghum is 
 trampled under the feet of the animals. 
 
 The feeds mentioned furnish a variety of forage crops 
 during the summer months. It is very important, however, 
 for the man who has a large breeding herd that he make 
 some provision for succulent feed during the winter months. 
 This may be supplied in the form of roots, such as turnips, 
 mangels, carrots, sugar beets, etc. In some sections of the 
 country squash and pumpkins are grown quite largely for 
 swine feeding during the fall months. Some feed them in the 
 raw state; others steam them and feed them in conjunction 
 with grain. Theodore Louis, of Louisville, Wisconsin, one 
 of the most prominent and successful swine men on the 
 continent, always grows an acre of squashes for his hogs 
 each year. He feeds some of them in the raw state, but 
 most of the squashes are fed with grain after being steamed 
 for a couple of hours. In this way he claims he is able to 
 
FORAGE CROPS FOR SWINE. 291 
 
 get excellent results and to make very heavy gains on his 
 fattening swine. 
 
 Silage has been used to some extent as a succulent food 
 during the winter months. On account of its large water 
 content a great deal of other feed must be fed in addition 
 to the same if good results are to be obtained. 
 
 In summarizing results of the work of the different ex- 
 periment stations it would seem that red clover stands about 
 first in the list of forage crops, due to the fact that it sup- 
 plies an abundance of protein and ash; also that it can be 
 grown over a very wide area of country. Next to red clover 
 rape stands about second. After rape, a mixture of peas, oats 
 and barley, or alfalfa, stands about third. In the southern 
 states cow peas and soy beans seem to have the preference. 
 
 In growing the forage crops it is not necessary to grow 
 over two or three kinds, but it is very important that the 
 crops be so planted or arranged that a variety of succulent 
 feeds will always be available. Blue grass makes an ex- 
 cellent feed during the early months, and also makes a 
 very good feed during the fall months, but it ripens during 
 the summer months, thus it is not very palatable to the 
 swine. 
 
LECTURE LXXV. 
 
 PREVENTION OF DISEASE IN SWINE. 
 
 Of all the various classes of stock produced upon the 
 farm, no class has been more remunerative to the farmers 
 of this country than swine. This is due to the fact that they 
 will produce more pounds of meat from a bushel of corn 
 or one hundred pounds of any feed stuff than any other 
 class of animals. At the present day one of the most serious 
 troubles which the farmer who grows swine has to contend 
 with is that of disease. Disease in its various forms as it 
 attacks swine, causes the farmers of this country several 
 million dollars of losses annually. This being the case it is 
 very important that every precaution possible should be 
 taken to prevent the same. Swine, unlike other animals, do 
 not respond readily to treatment once they become affected 
 with any kind of disease. With other animals it is possible 
 to treat them and in many instances save a large percentage 
 when disease of any kind appears in the flock. The opposite 
 is true in the swine herd, thus we readily see the necessity 
 of using every precaution in preventing disease. 
 
 For many years we were somewhat in the dark as to 
 the cause of disease in swine. Science, however, has given 
 us much light on this subject. It is now very generally under- 
 stood that most forms of disease are due to a germ which can 
 be very readily transferred from place to place. Since this 
 is the basis of a large amount of the trouble we can readily 
 see the importance of using every precaution possible to 
 keep the animals in a cleanly condition. Most of these germs 
 or bacteria thrive and make their greatest growth under 
 filthy conditions. Scientists claim that most germs cannot 
 withstand sunlight, thus the importance of having plenty of 
 sunlight in the yards and pens which are used for swine 
 breeding or feeding purposes. These pens should be thorough- 
 ly cleaned and disinfected very often. By following such a 
 practice the health of the herd can be very much improved. 
 
PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 293 
 
 Another point which has a beneficial influence on the health 
 of the animal is the kind of feed fed. Some feed stuffs seem 
 to be very influential in keeping the digestive system in 
 good order. Others have the opposite effect. 
 
 Among the various feed stuffs which are not conducive 
 to the best health of the animals may be mentioned corn. 
 Still, corn is used in many instances as the sole grain ration 
 or almost the sole grain ration for swine. A variety of 
 feeds is claimed to be very beneficial in this respect. Oil 
 meal, roots, forage crops, shorts, skim-milk and other such 
 feeds are all supposed to have a favorable influence upon 
 the digestive system, thus are beneficial in keeping the ani- 
 mals in good health. 
 
 Another important point from a health standpoint is 
 exercise. Where swine are confined in small, damp, filthy 
 yards it is next to impossible to prevent disease. The sur- 
 roundings are just right and if disease should come in the 
 neighborhood it makes an excellent place for it to start. 
 Swine are not unlike people in many respects. Some people, 
 especially those who are in good health, are oftentimes ex- 
 posed to typhoid fever and other germ diseases without 
 danger. On the other hand, other people who are not in 
 good health when exposed to any such disease are very 
 susceptible to the same. The same thing is true in the case 
 of swine. 
 
 Another important point which will be found to be very 
 helpful in case disease should break out in the flock is that 
 of having the hogs scattered over the farm. By so doing 
 disease may break out in one place and the remainder of the 
 hogs on the farm may not be affected at all. On the other 
 hand, if they are bunched up in small yards and disease 
 should break out, in many instances the entire flock will be 
 affected before it is noticed. In such an instance the only 
 thing to do is to separate the hogs as soon as the disease is 
 noticed, disinfect all thoroughly and transfer them to other 
 yards. 
 
 Worms cause much trouble among swine. They may be 
 prevented by judicious feeding. They may be cured by many 
 of the well known worm powders which are advertised in 
 our agricultural papers. 
 
 In introducing or purchasing new stock upon the farm 
 the greatest precaution possible should be taken else disease 
 
294 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 will oftentimes be brought in in this way. No animal should 
 come upon any farm without being thoroughly disinfected 
 and then quarantined for two or three weeks before being 
 allowed near the rest of the animals. In this way should the 
 animal be affected with any disease, it will have plenty of 
 time to develop the same. Many men have brought hog 
 cholera and other very disastrous diseases upon their farms 
 in this way. They have purchased a hog from what was 
 supposed to be a healthy flock. They have taken the same 
 home and put him with the rest of their swine. In ten 
 days or two weeks the animal will show symptoms of sick- 
 ness. This is usually followed by other hogs showing the 
 same symptoms. By a little carelessness in this way often- 
 times an entire herd of swine has been wiped out by hog 
 cholera. The hog in question may have come from a healthy 
 farm, but in being shipped over some railroad may have been 
 exposed to cholera, thus contracted the disease. A hog which 
 has been brought upon the farm, thoroughly disinfected, 
 quarantined for three weeks and then appeared to be in 
 perfect health, can safely be introduced into the herd. 
 
 On each and every farm there should be some provision 
 made for dipping swine. This not only proves to be an 
 easy and effectual method of disinfecting animals which are 
 being brought upon the farm, but it also furnishes a good way 
 for disposing of lice. Every swine herd should be dipped 
 at least twice a year, in the spring and in the fall. There are 
 very few herds of swine that are not affected at some time 
 or other with lice. Some recommend sprinkling or spraying 
 for lice. This is not a very good way to overcome the dif- 
 ficulty, as the lice are usually found on the head close to the 
 ears, under the arm pits, and in other secluded places where 
 spraying could not in any way reach them. Swine thus 
 affected, when put through a dipping tank will be free from 
 all trouble. There are several patent dips on the market, 
 such as Zenoleum and Chloro-Naphtholeum, which give good 
 results. 
 
 In addition to all that has been said in regard to the im- 
 portance of having clean quarters, of feeding the right kind 
 of feed stuffs, of giving an abundance of exercise, of keeping 
 the hogs in small numbers in one place, of providing means 
 for killing worms, of quarantining animals which are to be 
 introduced upon the farm, and of dipping for lice and other 
 
PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 295 
 
 such troubles, we must pay due attention to the vigor and 
 constitution of the animal. Too much stress cannot be laid 
 upon constitution and vigor in selecting stock for breeding 
 purposes. Animals which are strong in constitution can 
 always withstand disease much better than those which are 
 weak in this respect. Constitution is indicated by the width 
 and depth of the chest, by width of head and general active- 
 ness on the part of the animal. In case hogs are troubled 
 with disease it is next to impossible to give them medicine 
 or anything else which will prove very helpful. About the 
 only thing that seems to be feasible is to feed a ration which 
 can be easily digested, keep them in clean quarters, thorough- 
 ly disinfect the pens, and let the disease run its course. 
 
 For hogs which are very sick from disease of any kind 
 perhaps no kind of feed is more palatable and easily digested 
 than whole milk. It is an excellent feed and has oftentimes 
 proven to be very beneficial in bringing hogs through a 
 spell of sickness. Next to the whole milk comes skim-milk 
 and oat meal or a little shorts. They must not be fed too 
 much grain. The ration must be thin, and the more milk 
 supplied the better the chances for their recovery. 
 
LECTURE LXXVI. 
 
 PENS AND SHEDS SUITABLE FOR PIGS. 
 
 Pigs like other domestic animals, make their greatest 
 and most economical gains when provided with proper shelter 
 shelter from the stinging blasts and frosty airs of winter, 
 and from the scorching sun of summer. Experience has 
 taught swine raisers that it will not pay them to withhold 
 shelter and comfort from their brood sows, growing and 
 fattening pigs, in either winter or summer. It is necessary 
 that some sort of shelter be afforded. 
 
 It is impossible in this lecture to go into details and 
 show plans for pig houses that will suit all men under all 
 conditions. The most we can hope to do is to point out 
 the fundamental principles that should be observed in the 
 location and building of such structures, while each individual 
 will have to master these principles and build to suit his own 
 conditions. 
 
 In the colder parts of the northern states and Canada 
 much more protection would have to be given than would be 
 necessary in the less severe sections of the middle west. 
 But even there warm, comfortable quarters must be provided 
 where little pigs are expected in the fall, winter or early 
 spring months, and some sort of shelter should also be 
 provided against the hot, scorching sun, especially in the 
 south. 
 
 Pig houses should be built on high, dry ground where the 
 water from rains and melting snow will easily run away. 
 Perfect drainage should be secured, either naturally or by 
 grading. Not only should the pen be properly located so as 
 to affect drainage, but care should be taken that it is placed 
 so that it will have the protection of a shelter belt if such 
 be present. Another important point to be observed is that 
 it be placed so that prevailing winds will not carry the pig 
 pen odors into the dwelling house. 
 
 In all our operations with live stock economy must be 
 considered, and in the building of a pig house cheapness of 
 
PENS FOB TIGS. -297 
 
 cost is a very important consideration which must be reg- 
 ulated by the amount of money which the builder wishes to 
 use for such a purpose. Very useful buildings that will serve 
 -every purpose can be erected at a very moderate outlay, 
 while, if a man has the money to spare, there need be no 
 limit to the luxurious quarters which he can provide. 
 
 Another important point is that of convenience. Prepar- 
 ing feeds and feeding the same, cleaning out troughs and 
 pens, caring in breeding, care for and management of sows 
 at mating and farrowing time, feeding little pigs, loading pigs 
 for market, lighting, ventilating and many other things which 
 might be mentioned make the swine herder's duties manifold. 
 Farm labor is not plentiful now. It is both scarce and 
 costly, and in planning the pig pen it should be so arranged 
 .as to make easy the carrying out of the little details that 
 ^o to make pig raising both a pleasure and a profit. 
 
 Comfort and health are the main objects to consider 
 -after cheapness and convenience, and these are secured by 
 providing quarters that are clean, light, dry, warm, well 
 ventilated and free from drafts. 
 
 Cleanliness is a point which must receive attention, 
 for it is upon this that much of the success of hog raising 
 depends. Dirty pens and troughs are breeding places 
 for all sorts of disease producing germs. Board 
 floors with cracks are harboring places for filth and are 
 .attended with all kinds of unsanitary conditions. 
 
 Sunlight must be let into the pen in abundance. In its 
 presence germs cannot live. Where it is denied, sickness 
 is sure to come. Let the pen have numerous large windows 
 in the south and east sides where the sun shines most of 
 the day. 
 
 A damp pen is sure to bring disaster to the hog raising 
 business. Rheumatism, lung troubles and numerous other 
 ailments are the result of such a condition. Cement or 
 stone walls are very cold and the moisture inside the pens 
 condenses on such walls and causes endless trouble. Board 
 walls, unless constructed with a dead air space, are almost 
 as bad. Bank pig pens are very undesirable for the same 
 reasons. Hollow cement blocks make a very good wall, but 
 -a better one is made by constructing a board wall so as to 
 provide a dead air space. This may be done by placing 
 2x4's upright, putting a tier of tongued and grooved sheet- 
 
298 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 ing on the inside, and on the outside a tier of rough boards 
 overlaid with paper and then sheeted on the outside of this. 
 This leaves a four inch dead air space which is an excellent 
 non-conductor of both heat and cold. 
 
 A pig pen should be well ventilated. No animals can 
 thrive in an atmosphere of impure air. But ventilation must 
 be secured without creating an appreciable draft or too 
 great an inflow of cold air. Sufficient fresh air may be 
 created through the cracks in the doors and windows, and 
 the foul air may find an escape through flues leading to 
 openings in the roof. When the weather is very severe 
 the opening should be closed. Another means of admitting 
 fresh air is by the use of the sub-earth duct which consists 
 of one or two rows of tile laid along under the alleyway and 
 having an opening both on the outside where the air enters- 
 and on the inside where it escapes into the pens. The out- 
 side end should be screened by wire netting to prevent the- 
 entrance of rats and other little animals. Flues may be 
 constructed in such a way as to open on the outside at the- 
 bottom of the wall and on the inside at the roof, and through 
 this fresh air will find its way into the pens and be dis- 
 tributed. The sub-earth duct plan commends itself because 
 in the winter the air is warmed while passing in as the earth 
 is warmer than the outside, and in the summer the air 
 entering is cooler than the outside air and thus cools off 
 the pen. 
 
 While securing ventilation you must not overlook the- 
 matter of drafts, for these are very harmful to pigs that are 
 lying down sleeping, and especially the young pigs. Air 
 sorts of troubles are brought on by exposure to drafts. 
 
 Pigs, too, should have warmth, as it takes less food to 
 maintain pigs in warm quarters, but good ventilation should 
 be sought first as pigs will do much better in colder quarters 
 with good fresh air in abundance than they will in warm ones 
 with the fresh air denied them. Provide a good, clean bed" 
 of straw or leaves or some such material, dry walls, good 
 feed, fresh air and sunlight, and healthy, robust, vigorous 
 pigs should be the result, other things being equal. 
 
 The combination breeding, farrowing and feeding pen 
 which consists of a large building containing a feed and 
 boiler room and alleyway and properly fitted pens, is one- 
 which is very suitable in many sections, especially so be- 
 
PENS FOR PIGS. 299 
 
 cause of its convenience. However, in those parts where 
 diseases are prevalent the small, isolated pens are much 
 safer and hence more preferable. In the larger combina- 
 tion house you have all your pigs together and if the dis- 
 ease breaks out all are apt to be affected, while in the 
 colony system with small isolated pens, one or two pigs may 
 be attacked and be destroyed, say, with cholera, and all 
 the rest of the herd might be left unhurt. This plan neces- 
 sitates more labor, it is true, to care for the herd, but it is- 
 attended with much better results, especially in the corn 
 belt where swine plague and cholera destroy such large 
 numbers. The small pens are constructed quite cheaply 
 and may be built on scantling runners so that they may be 
 easily hauled from one part of the field to another. 
 
 Open sheds are sometimes provided for swine to run into. 
 Where such are used they should always open to the south. 
 The north, east and west sides should be tightly boarded 
 and battened so as to protect the pigs from winds and driv- 
 ing snow and rains. 
 
 If the larger combination pen is adapted to your con- 
 ditions you should plan it according to instructions already 
 given in this lecture, and in previous ones, as regards cheap- 
 ness, convenience and the comfort and health of your pigs. 
 
 The pen should be placed east and west so as to face 
 the south. The feed room should be in one end and should 
 be large enough to accommodate grain bins and cooker and 
 fuel. There should be an alleyway of at least five feet in 
 width, but eight feet would be better. Pens should be eight 
 by eleven feet on both sides of the alley. It adds to the 
 convenience if you can have small swing doors, two feet 
 wide, leading from the alley into each pen. There should 
 also be a two and a half foot swing door in the partition 
 separating each pen so that the pigs may be moved easily 
 from one pen to another. Leading from each pen to an out- 
 side yard there should be a door two and a half feet high 
 by two feet wide. This can be a drop door which can be 
 easily raised or lowered by having a rope reaching from the 
 alleyway over a pulley in the ceiling just above the door 
 and then attached to the top of the door. 
 
 As has been already mentioned, the walls may be made 
 of hollow cement blocks, but a wooden wall as previously 
 described is more desirable. 
 
300 LIVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Cement floors are preferred for several reasons, chief of 
 which are cleanliness, coolness in summer, durability, and 
 they also prevent rats from working underneath and finding 
 harboring places from which they make raids on the grain 
 bins. But they are undesirable in that they are cold .in winter 
 and often cause lameness in pigs that are confined in them 
 continually. This difficulty can be overcome, however, by 
 constructing a portable wooden floor six by seven feet on 
 which the hogs may make their beds. A four inch railing 
 spiked around this will be very useful in keeping the bedding 
 in place. In this way the cement can be used for a feeding 
 floor and be easily cleaned, and will at the same time 
 help to save the litter which is a valuable fertilizer instead 
 of allowing it to run beneath the pen to make the hog's 
 environments unsanitary. 
 
 A cement trough of eight inches depth next the alley 
 five inches next the pen, and ten inches in width, in place 
 of a wooden trough, will prove a valuable investment because 
 of its durability and cleanliness. The alleyway, too, should 
 be made of cement for reasons already mentioned, durability, 
 cleanliness, prevention of the workings of rats, etc. 
 
 Convenience at feeding time is obtained by means of a 
 swinging partition next to the alleyway which is made se- 
 cure at the top while the bottom is allowed to swing over 
 the inside of the trough when the swill is being poured in 
 from the alley. The door is held there by a long rod which 
 slips down on the other side of the trough. The same holds 
 it fast when in proper position as a partition between the 
 pen and alley. 
 
 Any one or more of these pens may be turned into a 
 safe farrowing pen by the use of a simple device. Spike to 
 the three sides of the wall about nine inches from the floor 
 a 2x8 inch scantling and this will prevent the mother from 
 lying on her pigs. When she lies down they can usually 
 get away under this and escape unhurt. The south and 
 east sides of such a pen as we have described should be 
 provided with a large number of windows for the admission 
 of sunlight. If the roof from the north side is elevated 
 three or four feet above the roof from the south side, this 
 vertical space can be filled in at short intervals with the 
 windows which will serve a double purpose that of ventila- 
 tion and the admission of light, and sunshine during part of 
 
PENS FOB PIGS. 301 
 
 the year, to the pens on the north side. There should be 
 but one or two windows on the north side, according to the 
 size of the house. A good size for windows is two and a half 
 high by five feet long. 
 
 A very suitable height would be eight feet for the south 
 wall, eleven feet for the north wall, sixteen feet to the 
 peak of the north wall. 
 
 The colony plan calls for smaller and numerous houses 
 that may be scatttered over larger areas. Of these there are 
 different kinds. A small house, eight feet square at the 
 bottom is easily made by sawing 16 foot boards in two. Lay 
 out a foundation with 3x8 scantlings, 8 feet square. Nail 
 these eight foot boards at the bottom and bring them to- 
 gether at the top so as to form an equilateral triangle, and 
 nail to a scantling secured there. Board up both ends, leav- 
 ing a 2 1 /x2 foot opening which can be protected by hanging 
 over it an old sack or a drop door attached with leather 
 hinges. The pigs will get in the way of going in and out 
 and opening these themselves. The cracks should be well 
 battened and the opening should face the south. This house 
 may be put on runners and easily changed from one part of 
 the field to another. It is very convenient for the sow and 
 litter. In order to increase warmth it should be banked 
 up 2y 2 feet with horse manure. Another house, built on the 
 shanty plan is very suitable for housing brood sows in winter. 
 It is seven feet high in front, four feet at the rear, eight feet 
 wide, and sixteen feet long with a flat roof. In the front 
 there should be a window and at the corner a 2^x5 foot door, 
 with the upper two feet of the door fastened shut, but capable 
 of being opened when the attendant wishes to enter. This 
 pen, too, should be well banked up with horse manure and 
 should be comfortably bedded. 
 
 Corn cribs with a two thousand bushel capacity or of 
 such capacity as will suit the condition of the feeder, should 
 be placed conveniently near. Sometimes these are built in 
 connection with the hog pen, where pens are placed only on 
 one side of the alley. 
 
 Every hog pen should have an outside yard in connection 
 with the pen, in which the pigs may take exercise. These 
 mav be large or small, according to the conditions that pre- 
 vail. All hogs that must be confined in summer should have 
 long, narrow runways, between which may be sown forage 
 
302 I<IVE STOCK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 crops of rape, sweet corn, peas and oats, oats and barley, 
 soy beans, or some one or more of the forage crops men- 
 tioned in a previous lecture. 
 
 Hogs should not be allowed access to a stream coming 
 from sources where contamination from infectious diseases 
 may have taken place. Supply pure water to them at all 
 times in their pens and runways. Scratching posts with 
 kerosone soaked linen are not out of place in a hog house. 
 When hogs are removed from pens the whole apartments 
 should be cleaned and floor, walls and ceiling should be 
 thoroughly disinfected with Zenoleum, Chloro-Naphtholeum 
 or some other disinfectant of equal merit. 
 
 In summarizing, provide economical, convenient, comfort- 
 able, clean, dry, warm, light, well ventilated, free from draft 
 quarters for your hogs. Special pains taken with little pigs 
 in regard to comfort and warmth, will be amply repaid. 
 
MAR 30 1104 
 
 ' WV DEL. TO CAT. 01V 
 MAR 3! 1904 
 
 APR 6 1904 
 
Series 
 
 PART 1 
 
 KEHHEDY. 
 
 Correspondence 
 
 Agricultural 
 
 College 
 
 Vot/jr Cfty.Iotva 
 
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY SERIES. 
 
 PART I. NO. VI. 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 Principles of Breeding 
 
 AND 
 
 Poultry Management. 
 
 WILLARD J. KENNEDY, B. S. A. 
 
 Professor of Animal Husbandry 
 and Vice Director of Experiment 
 Station. Iowa State College of 
 Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. 
 
 Correspondence Agricultural College, 
 SIOUX CITY, IOWA. 
 
 All Rights Reserved. 
 
LIBRARY Of CON6RESS 
 
 AUG 5 1904 
 
 Otpyright Entry 
 
 CLASS XXt. Na 
 COPY A 
 
 Copyright, 1904, 
 
 by 
 RURAL TEXT BOOK COMPANY, 
 
 Assignee. 
 
 1904. 
 Rural Text Book Company 
 
 Press. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Part 1. No. VI. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING AND POULTRY MANAGE- 
 
 MENT. 
 
 LECTURES. 
 
 Pages. 
 
 LXXVII. Breeding A Science and an Art 303-305 
 
 LXXVIII. The Influence of Heredity and Prepotency 306-309 
 LXXIX. Atavism and Its Influence in Animal 
 
 Breeding 310-311 
 
 LXXX. Influence of Law of Correlation 312-314 
 
 LXXXI. Influence of the Law of Variation 315-317 
 
 LXXXII. Influence and Causes of Fecundity 318-320 
 
 LXXXIII. Influence of In-Breeding and Line Breed- 
 ing 321-323 
 
 LXXXIV. Influences of Cross-Breeding and Grading 324-326 
 
 LXXXV. Natural Breeding 327-328 
 
 LXXXVI. The Formation of New Breeds 329-330 
 
 LXXXVII. The Poultry Industry and Its Relation to 
 
 the Farm 331-332 
 
 LXXXVIII. Buildings, Sheds and Yards Suitable for 
 
 Poultry 333-336 
 
 LXXXIX. Marketable Poultry Products Eggs and 
 
 Meat 337-339 
 
 XC. Breeds of Poultry 340-341 
 
 XCI. Selection, Care and Management of 
 
 Breeding Stock 342-344 
 
 XCII. Judging Poultry from a Utility Standpoint 345-346 
 
 XCIII. Improving the Flock 347-349 
 
 XCIV. Management and Feeding for Egg Pro- 
 duction 350-352 
 
 XCV. Feeding Stuffs Suitable for Poultry 353-355 
 
 XCVI. Rearing Chicks Feed, Care and Manage- 
 ment 356-358 
 
 XCVII. Fattening, Killing and Preparing Poultry 
 
 for Market . 359-361 
 
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 
 
 LECTURE LXXVII. 
 
 BREEDING A SCIENCE AND AN ART. 
 
 The subject of animal breeding presents one of the most 
 interesting and, at the same time, most difficult fields of 
 investigation open to the student of animal husbandry. We 
 have records of systematized efforts along these lines ever 
 since the middle of the eighteenth century, when Robert Bake- 
 well sought to develop a mutton breed of sheep, a beef bread 
 of cattle, and a type of heavy draft horse which would be 
 superior to those existing at that time. 
 
 Notwithstanding this fact we are still pondering along in 
 the dark so far as many of the principles are concerned. 
 Animal breeding differs from animal feeding in that it takes 
 so much longer to get definite and reliable results. Few men 
 have patience and perseverence enough to follow any line 
 of investigation a sufficient length of time to get reliable and 
 helpful information. Furthermore, man's life is too short 
 in many instances to do much unless he should start at a 
 very early age and continue the same line during his entire 
 lifetime. This is due to the large number of force3 which 
 come into operation. There are certain laws which seem to 
 be fairly well understood, and in this connection we will con- 
 fine our attention to them. 
 
 The object in breeding animals should be to produce cer- 
 tain well defined types which are suited to some special pur- 
 pose or demand. We should use every particle of knowledge 
 available which will in any way aid us in securing this end. 
 
 This makes the systematic breeding of animals a science. 
 It is one of the most difficult of the sciences. The term 
 science simply means knowledge systematized. T.he breeder 
 of live stock, who in his breeding work discovers any point 
 
304 PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 
 
 or points which will be helpful to his fellow breeders, can 
 well be termed a scientist. 
 
 The animal breeder who applies the principles of breeding 
 as worked out by the men from Bakewell down to the present 
 day is an artist in the fullest meaning of the word. Art is 
 simply the application of science to some desired end. The 
 breeder of live stock is a moulder of animal form. His work 
 is the greatest of that of all artists. He does not deal with 
 dead forms of material. He is concerned in the moulding 
 and forming of living organisms. If he can by years of sys- 
 tematic study in the mating and care of animals produce a 
 horse with all the parts so developed and blended as to 
 possess the style and grandeur which we sometimes see in 
 the American gaited saddle horse, he has certainly accom- 
 plished a high art. 
 
 One of the most commonly accepted laws in animal breed- 
 ing is the law that like produces like. If this were not true 
 in a general way, we would not have any guide at all in our 
 work. Still, this law does not always hold true; in fact, it 
 is doubtful if it ever holds true in every detail. Animals, 
 like people, may possess many characteristics or points of 
 similarity, yet there is always or nearly always some point of 
 difference. It may be in color; it may be in form; it may 
 be in disposition, or one or several of a great number of 
 other things, all of which go to make up the animal. 
 
 If the law that like produces like always held true in every 
 detail the breeding of live stock would be a very simple and 
 uninteresting vocation. If such were the case, we would not 
 have our many different breeds and types of live stock. In 
 cattle, for instance, they would all be the same in color, form, 
 size, purpose, and so on. It is that law, which is working 
 all the time, sometimes in a marked way and more often 
 in an apparently unnoticeable manner, that like does not 
 produce like in every detail which makes the breeding of 
 animals difficult, interesting and one of the greatest of the 
 sciences. It is to this law that we owe our marked improve- 
 ment in the various classes of stock. It was by taking ad- 
 vantage of this law that Bakewell, Booth, Cruickshank and 
 the many other noted breeders were able to accomplish their 
 marvelous work in the field of animal breeding. If in the 
 breeding of animals we are ever to accomplish anything 
 permanent and useful, it will be done by having fixed stand- 
 ards or ideals of what is best, then start out and never let 
 
AIM OF THE BREEDER. 305 
 
 up until we have reached our mark. This at once emphasizes 
 the importance of a keen eye and a good judge of stock. 
 
 It requires a most critical observer to make a good breeder. 
 He must be a broad-minded man, else he will likely get side- 
 tracked by paying too much attention to minor points and 
 not enough to the real purpose. It is said of Bakewell that 
 he always aimed to make the beauty in the form and pro- 
 portion of his animals contribute to the development of the 
 useful characters. He had a well trained eye which enabled 
 him to detect the slightest deviation of form or any other 
 points desirable or undesirable. Whenever the law that like 
 does not always produce like appeared in his breeding opera- 
 tions he always studied the cause, and if possible applied it 
 at some other time to aid him in his work. 
 
 In breeding all classes of live stock we must ever keep 
 in mind that success will be valued by the actual value of the 
 products and the profits to be derived from them. The animal 
 is simply a machine whose duty or work is to convert raw 
 materials into finished products. If we can, by any means 
 or system of breeding, reduce the amount of running ex- 
 penses of this machine we have accomplished something of 
 value in animal breeding. If we can, by any method of breed- 
 ing, so perfect this machine that it will turn out a more val- 
 uable produce, we have accomplished much. For illustra- 
 tion: If we can produce a type of animal that can be main- 
 tained on less than the average ration, it will be more profit- 
 able, or if we can produce a meat animal with a larger 
 amount of high priced cuts than the average animal, we are 
 selling our raw material in a better market. There is no 
 subject of more vital concern to the farmer than improve- 
 ment in his methods of breeding animals. We cannot study 
 this matter too carefully. We must always have utility for 
 our watchword. 
 
LECTURE LXXVIII. 
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF HEREDITY AND PREPOTENCY. 
 
 One of the most commonly accepted laws in animal breed- 
 ing is that "like produces like." This simply means the in- 
 heritance by the offspring of the characteristics of the parents 
 at the time of procreation. Although there are many excep- 
 tions to this law, an examination of the facts will reveal that 
 this law is always in operation, also that it extends to every 
 feature of the organism. While in some instances it may 
 not show up very strongly, this is simply due to the fact that 
 some other law which is more predominant for the time be- 
 ing has obscured it. 
 
 The resemblance of the offspring to the parent is very 
 marked in most cases. This is simply the influence of the 
 law of heredity. It is very helpful and valuable in the breed- 
 ing of our best animals. By means of this apparently simple 
 law we are able to breed definite types for definite purposes. 
 It is the outward guide. -Its influence in animal breeding is 
 not confined solely to the external conformation, color mark- 
 ings, and so on. It shows its influence on the nervous sys- 
 tem, internal organs and, in fact, in every detail of the animal 
 organism. This being the case, it is sometimes a very dan- 
 gerous law. Through it, either directly or indirectly, many 
 of the very worst kinds of diseases are transmitted. 
 
 In discussing this law it might be well to illustrate the in- 
 fluence of the same by use of a few of the most common 
 and marked examples. The uniformity found in the different 
 breeds of our domestic animals is a very good example. In 
 almost every breed there are favorite families or strains 
 which are noted and valued because through the law of 
 heredity these characteristics can be readily transmitted to 
 the offspring. 
 
 The Down sheep, for instance, will invariably transmit their 
 dark face and leg color markings as well as their mutton 
 form to their progeny. 
 
 The ability of the cow to convert large quantities of feed 
 
INFLUENCE OF HEREDITY. 307 
 
 into milk is hereditary in a large measure and is usually 
 transmitted to the offspring. 
 
 The peculiar propensities of some kinds of animals to lay 
 on flesh in certain parts of the body is another illustration, 
 and one which is of great practical value to stockmen. Fe- 
 cundity, also another point which is of vital interest to the 
 stockman, is in a large measure hereditary. In the case of 
 swine certain families have larger litters than others; the 
 same is true in sheep and other classes of animals. 
 
 Certain peculiar color markings have also been known to 
 be hereditary. There are numerous other illustrations which 
 might be cited in this connection as belonging to what we call 
 normal characteristics, or those which are not unusual. 
 
 Another class of characteristics which are hereditary are 
 those which belong to the acquired or abnormal class. In 
 the acquired class may be placed those characteristics which 
 have been developed by the conditions in which they are 
 placed or the peculiar training they have received at the 
 hands of man. 
 
 A few illustrations of this form will suffice to show the 
 influence of this law. The tendency of the dairy cow to give 
 a large flow of milk, which is due in no small measure to the 
 influence of man, is hereditary. In the case of dogs we find 
 certain well defined traits which are transmitted to the young. 
 Young setters, pointers and retrievers, that have never been 
 in the field, will often work with as much steadiness as a 
 dog of long experience. This is an excellent illustration of 
 heredity. These are but a few of many examples which might 
 be cited. 
 
 Another class of characteristics which are oftentimes in- 
 herited are those of a rather unusual nature called abnormal. 
 They represent something unusual in the way of a freak. 
 In certain human families the presence of an extra toe or 
 finger in one of the parents has oftentimes been transmitted 
 to the children. In some instances of this kind every one of 
 some half a dozen children born to such parents have had 
 six fingers or toes, while in other instances one or two mem- 
 bers of the family would be thus affected and the remainder 
 be normal. In some instances the normal members of the 
 family gave birth to children with six fingers or toes. Take 
 the Dorking breed of fowls which has the fifth toe as one 
 of its characteristics at the present time, in early days had 
 
303 PRINCIPLES OP BREEDING. 
 
 only four toes. The fifth toe was inherited from a five-toed 
 variety introduced into Britain by the Romans. 
 
 There are hundreds of illustrations along this line which 
 might be cited. Scientists no longer doubt the possibility 
 of diseases being inherited. This is a point of vital import- 
 ance to the breeder of live stock. When hereditary disease 
 makes its appearance at the time of birth it is called con- 
 genital. Where considerable time elapses before it appears 
 it is designated as a case of predisposition or a tendency to 
 disease. There are certain diseases which are transmitted 
 with greater uniformity than others, yet a predisposition to 
 almost every known form of disease is almost likely to become 
 hereditary. In this connection we will not attempt to de- 
 scribe or enumerate all the diseases which are hereditary, but 
 to notice only those which illustrate the laws of hereditary 
 transmission or that are of peculiar importance to the 
 breeders. 
 
 Scrofula and its allies cover a large and very important 
 class of troubles which are more or less hereditary. In this 
 connection much of the trouble is due to constitutional defect 
 as indicated by a narrow, slack chest, indicating lack of vigor 
 and stamina. This is especially true in tuberculosis, which 
 is one of the most common and destructive troubles to cattle. 
 
 Bone spavin, curbs, ring bone, navicular disease and other 
 similar troubles of the bones and joints are in most instances 
 of a hereditary nature. These troubles are very seldom 
 present at birth. They usually make their appearance before 
 the animal is six years old, or as soon as the parts in question 
 are subjected to a strain of rather severe nature, such as 
 any horse is likely to receive at hard work. 
 
 Barrenness in animals belongs to this class and is very 
 likely to be inherited. These illustrations are but a few of 
 the large number which might be cited, still they show the 
 varied influences of this law in its relation to animal breeding. 
 
 By the law of prepotency is meant the superior influence 
 which one particular breed of animals has over another 
 breed, or the one particular parent has over another parent 
 in transmitting its characteristics to the offspring. This is an 
 important law in the improvement of our animals. It rarely 
 happens that we find an equal mingling in the offspring of 
 the natures of both parents. For some reason or other the 
 offspring generally possesses more of the characteristics of 
 one parent than of the other. In many respects this is a 
 
PREPOTENCY. 309 
 
 great advantage to the breeder. By securing a prepotent sire 
 he can oftentimes remedy a common defect in his whole fe- 
 male herd. 
 
 Prepotency is supposed to be governed by the vigor of 
 the animal, the age of the animal, and the length of time 
 during which its ancestors have been bred along a special 
 and distinct line. Certain breeds of cattle like the Galloway 
 are supposed to be more prepotent than some of the newer 
 breeds, due to the fact that the Galloway is one of our very 
 oldest breeds. Certain families are more prepotent than 
 others, due to the fact that they have been bred along a 
 distinct line for many generations. 
 
 Prepotency is usually treated as breed prepotency and as 
 individual prepotency. The former is general and the latter 
 special in its influence. The same law seems to act in the 
 same way in both cases. The division has a special and real 
 value to the stock breeder. Breed prepotency is seen when 
 animals of any of the old and well established breeds, such 
 as Shorthorns, Galloway, Jersey, Merino and many others, 
 are used on other breeds, or on the ordinary stock. The off- 
 spring will nearly always bear a very marked resemblance to 
 the one of the above mentioned breeds used. 
 
 Individual prepotency is seen in many of the families of 
 the different breeds of stock. In the trotting horse we find 
 certain sires which sired more noted animals than others, 
 due to their superior prepotency. In Shorthorn cattle certain 
 bulls have sired large numbers of prize winners, and so on in 
 all the breeds. This peculiar power which one parent possesses 
 in a greater degree than the other in determining the shape, 
 color, temperament and so on of the offspring is known as 
 prepotency. A thorough knowledge of this law is very help- 
 ful to the breeder, as nothing but prepotent sires should be 
 used in the breeding herd. 
 
LECTURE LXXIX. 
 
 ATAVISM AND ITS INFLUENCE IN ANIMAL BREEDING. 
 
 The law of atavism simply means a "throwing back" or 
 reverting to some form, color or other characteristic which 
 formerly existed but does not at the present time. 
 
 In the breeding of animals many problems rather complex 
 in nature present themselves. If ths first law that "like pro- 
 duces like" always held good, there would not be any differ- 
 entiation in animals. They would all be the same in every 
 detail. Such is not the case. Some animals resemble one 
 parent, some the other parent; some possess in a certain 
 measure the characters of both parents. In some instances 
 the young in one or more respects does not resemble either 
 parent, but resembles some remote ancestor perhaps four or 
 five generations back. This "breeding back" or "throwing 
 back" is called atavism. In this connection Mr. Darwin cites 
 the following . interesting case: "A pointer bitch produced 
 seven puppies. Four were marked with blue and white, which 
 is so unusual a color in pointers that she was supposed to 
 have been bred to a greyhound instead of a pointer; thus the 
 whole litter was condemned. A gamekeeper, however, saved 
 one as a curiosity. Two years afterwards a friend of the 
 owner saw the dog and declared that he was the image of 
 his old pointer bitch Sappho, the only blue and white pointer 
 of pure descent which he had ever seen. Upon close inquiry 
 they found that the young dog was a great-great-grandson 
 of Sappho." 
 
 In the case of poultry we have many illustrations of this 
 law. In one instance a poultry fancier crossed his fowls 
 with Malays. He tried very hard to eliminate the Malay 
 characters, but in vain, as they would appear from time to 
 time even forty years afterwards. 
 
 Miles refers to an interesting case in cattle breeding that 
 occurred in the Kennebec Valley. At one time there were 
 a few polled cattle in that valley, but they finally became 
 extinct. For thirty-five years after the last of these polled 
 cattle was killed the cattle on a particular farm all had horns, 
 but at the end of that time a polled animal made its ap- 
 
ATAVISM. 311 
 
 pearance in his herd having all the characteristics of the 
 original breed. 
 
 It is also stated on the authority of Mr. Sidney that in a 
 litter of six pigs two young ones appeared with the marks 
 of a Berkshire which had been used twenty-eight years before. 
 
 The occasional appearance of horns or "scurs" in the polled 
 breeds of cattle, which have been pred pure for many years, 
 furnishes another example of this law. 
 
 In early years tan color spots were common on the face 
 and legs of the Spanish Merino. These disappeared entirely 
 for many years, but at the present time many flocks are to 
 be found with these markings, no doubt the result of atavism. 
 
 The same thing may be said of the dark noses of Shorthorn 
 cattle and the tendency for the ears of the Poland China and 
 other drooping-eared breeds to become erect. These are 
 illustrations of atavism. 
 
 We could go on and cite hundreds of cases to illustrate 
 this law, but it is not necessary. There is no doubt but that 
 such a law is constantly in operation in animal breeding. 
 It is of vital importance to the breeder to have an under- 
 standing of this law. It simply makes the breeding of ani- 
 mals a more complicated and uncertain business. How are 
 we to know what to expect when we mate two animals? Is 
 it possible to overcome these objectionable features which 
 appear from time to time? There seems to be but one method 
 of combating this trouble, and that is by keeping a very 
 careful record of the ancestry of the animals. In fact, the 
 name and breeding alone is not sufficient. We should have 
 somewhere a complete description and history of each ani- 
 mal. If we had this back for a long period of years we might 
 then be able in a greater degree to prophesy what the progeny 
 should be. 
 
 This emphasizes the value of the pedigree. It furnishes a 
 means of tracing the history of ancestors, for the purpose 
 of determining the characters that are liable to be trans- 
 mitted by atavic descent. That is the only means available 
 at present in most herds. In some, however, where a com- 
 plete register is kept, we are able to get much valuable in- 
 formation concerning each animal. It would be of great 
 value to our stockmen if each and every breeder kept an 
 individual record of his animals. The breeding of animals 
 is a complicated subject, thus every possible method should 
 be practiced which would simplify this problem. 
 
LECTURE LXXX. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF LAW OF CORRELATION. 
 
 By the law of heredity and other influences we have dis- 
 covered that when two animals of extreme diversity of type 
 are mated the offspring does not, as a general rule, have the 
 peculiar or extreme characters of either parent developed 
 as fully as either parent. They seem, in a sense, to blend 
 together and form a happy medium. This same thing is illus- 
 trated in photography. By the continuous focusing of a 
 camera on a number of different animals, using the same 
 plate all the time, and then developing the same, we will 
 discover that if there were certain characteristics in common 
 in all of the animals these will be very marked in the photo. 
 On the other hand, if every other animal is of a different 
 type to what the preceding one was we will have nothing 
 but a blur. 
 
 In the same connection where animals which have some 
 points in common and in other respects are widely different 
 are mated the offspring will show prominence of those char- 
 acters which are in common and the suppression of those 
 which are different in the parents. 
 
 In the arrangement of these dominant characters in the 
 organization there seems to be a principle of development and 
 suppression, which is designated by naturalists as the law 
 of correlation. The law may be denned in a simple term 
 as follows: Any peculiarity in the development of one organ 
 or set of organs is usually accompanied by a corresponding 
 modification or suppression of organs belonging to some 
 other part of the body. 
 
 This law seems to be in keeping with nature, that is, that 
 each and every part should be properly developed. If by 
 artificial means, or by selection, we seek to develop one par- 
 ticular part, that in time the same will be checked as other 
 necessary parts will not be developed in a sufficient degree 
 to sustain life. 
 
 In blind people where the sense of sight is lacking some 
 
LAW OF CORRELATION. 313 
 
 of the other senses are generally unusually developed. The 
 sense of touch, for instance, usually attains a delicacy that 
 is surprising when compared with that of the average person. 
 There are some instances of blind people who could tell colors 
 and shades of colors by the touch. 
 
 People who are affected with color blindness seldom, if 
 ever, have an ear for music. In some blind people the sense 
 of smell is so highly developed that it is used in distinguish- 
 ing persons. Some blind people are enabled to perceive the 
 entrance of a stranger in a room by the sense of smell. Cats 
 which are white in color and have blue eyes are usually 
 blind. 
 
 We could go on and enumerate a large number of examples 
 to illustrate the basis of this law and its influences. It cer- 
 tainly should be of interest to stockmen. An understanding 
 of it may be helpful in accounting for some of the many 
 disappointments in animal breeding. In this day and age, 
 we hear much about the desirability of having an all 
 purpose, general purpose, or dual purpose animal. By 
 such an animal in the horse world we would mean one which 
 combined the speed of the trotting horse, the strength of the 
 draft horse, and the docility of the coach horse all in one 
 animal. That such an animal would be desirable cannot be 
 doubted. It would be a most useful animal on any premises. 
 Can such an animal be produced with any degree of certainty 
 is another question. 
 
 Practical experience would indicate that such a thing is 
 not possible. In some instances we may find animals which 
 in a measure have the requisites of an all purpose animal. 
 They will not stand the crucial test of comparison with the 
 best of any special class. The 1,300-pound horse has too much 
 weight to measure up with the lighter bodied, more angular, 
 fleet footed thoroughbred on the race course. The same thing 
 is true when compared with the trotting bred horse. On the 
 other hand, it cannot compare with the heavy draft horse 
 weighing a ton or more, when it comes to heavy pull. 
 
 It may have the energy, the pluck and the willingness to 
 do its best, but it has not the weight, and that is what counts. 
 When the steam engine was first invented it was thought 
 necessary to have cog wheels and a track to correspond to 
 insure its usefulness in pulling a load. This idea failed and 
 the engine would not work. A light horse oftentimes fails to 
 pull a heavy load up a hill, but when part of the load is put on 
 
314 PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 
 
 the back of the animal, thus giving it extra weight, the task 
 will be accomplished without any trouble. This illustrates the 
 impossibility of producing a horse suited to all kinds of labor. 
 If proficient in one, he is lacking in the other. 
 
 The general purpose cow, or the dual purpose cow, as she 
 is commonly called, belongs to the same class. There was a 
 time when all of our cattle were the same. The cow gave 
 milk enough to feed the young. Man, however, by selection 
 and feeding has developed two distinct types, one the high- 
 class beef animal and the other the high-class dairy animal. 
 It is not difficult to breed either one of these types, when 
 but the one quality is wanted. It is a most difficult matter 
 to breed an animal which combines these qualities in a fair 
 degree, to say nothing of getting an animal equal to the ideal 
 beef animal from a meat standpoint and possessing the milk- 
 ing propensities of the Jersey or Holstein. This is impossible. 
 It is possible, however, to breed an animal which will have a 
 fair beef form and at the same time possess medium milking 
 qualities. 
 
 This is really the dual purpose cow and is much nearer to 
 the type of cow which formerly existed than either the dairy 
 or beef types, both of which are in a large measure artificial. 
 This same principle holds true in the breeding of all classes 
 of animals. When we start out to secure an unusual develop- 
 ment of one part of the body, the same can only be secured 
 at the sacrifice of some other part. This is the law of cor- 
 relation of parts, which simply means a regular and uniform 
 development of all parts and organs of the animal. 
 
LECTURE LXXXI. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF THE LAW OF VARIATION. 
 
 The breeder of live stock notices from time to time 
 changes in his animals; the progeny do not always resemble 
 the parents in every particular. This difference in some in- 
 stances is very slight and confined to just a few points. In 
 other instances these changes are very marked; so marked 
 as to present an animal very different from either of the 
 parents. It is doubtful if there ever was an instance in 
 animal breeding in which the offspring did not in some way, 
 perhaps very little, differ from the parents. This being the 
 case, we can see that there is some law at work all the 
 time, which produces results different from the first law, that 
 of heredity, which is that like produces like. 
 
 This new law is called the law of variation, and may be 
 defined as the law that like does not always produce like. 
 In a sense it is antagonistic to the law that like produces 
 like. Still they both seem to operate in animal breeding in 
 a useful manner. The first law might be more properly de- 
 fined by saying that like produces like in a general way. 
 This would allow of some minor points of difference which 
 are always present. It may be a slight difference of form, 
 in any one of its numerous details. It may be a difference in 
 temperament, in color, in function or in any one of a great 
 many other points which might be mentioned. This is one 
 of the most important and useful laws in animal breeding. 
 Without it, it would be impossible for us in any way to im- 
 prove our animals. It may act in the way of improvement 
 or in the way of deterioration or retrogression. It is to this 
 law that we owe the presence of so many different breeds 
 of live stock. It is through the influence of this law that 
 we are able to breed animals for special, definite purposes, 
 such as the ideal beef steer and the highly developed dairy 
 cow. They both represent variations from the original type. 
 It is through the influence and presence of this law that our 
 various breeds and types of animals retrogrades so rapidly 
 
316 PRINCIPLES OP BREEDING. 
 
 when the conditions for retrogression are present. Thus, we 
 can easily understand the necessity for the stockman to 
 have a full understanding of this law in its action and the 
 causes which render it most influential. 
 
 In this connection we will discuss in a very brief manner 
 some of the causes of variation and the influences of the 
 same in animal breeding. The causes of variation in animals 
 are numerous, but in this connection we will mention a few 
 of the most striking examples, such as changed conditions of 
 life due to climatic influences, food, general care, selection 
 and so on. Thus we can readily see that variation in a cer- 
 tain degree can be controlled by the man in charge. Food is 
 a most influential factor. The high type of beef animal 
 which we have at the present time is the result of liberal 
 feeding and judicious selection. The kind of feed fed will 
 have a marked influence on the conformation of the animal. 
 For instance: Liberal feeding of roughage will develop the 
 digestive organs, thus expand the body. In this way the large 
 barrel and capacity of the daily cow has been produced. On 
 the other hand, by the use of concentrates in feeding swine 
 the length and capacity of the intestines of swine has been 
 materially increased over that of the wild hog, which had to 
 secure a considerable portion of his food by grazing. 
 
 The size of the animal can be materially increased or 
 decreased by the amount and nature of the rations fed. 
 Swine, for instance, when fed on a ration of corn alone for a 
 number of generations will dwindle in size of body and boney 
 framework. When fed on feed stuffs rich in ash and pro- 
 tein the opposite results will be obtained. 
 
 Selection is also an important factor and is one of the 
 most important points in accomplishing variation of a de- 
 sirable and useful kind. The fine wooled breeds of sheep are 
 a good illustration in this respect. By good care and proper 
 selection they have been developed up to their present state 
 of perfection. 
 
 Selection always plays an important part in all desirable 
 variation, whether it be in sheep, horses, cattle or swine. The 
 climate also has its influence. Its influence, however, is not 
 so marked in the case of our domestic animals, as in those 
 in their wild state. This is due to the artificial influences 
 which man has introduced in animal management by im- 
 proved buildings, thus better shelter from climatic changes. 
 The Shetland pony and the Galloway breed of cattle are both 
 
VARIATION. 317 
 
 good illustrations of climatic influences. These animals in 
 their native land have to rough it and are exposed to a 
 rugged climate. When introduced into other countries, where 
 they are more liberally fed and better housed, they lose their 
 rugged coats and increase in size. 
 
 Variation as treated thus far might properly be designated 
 as natural variation. We have another kind which sometimes 
 manifests itself in another form; a rather unusual form, 
 and is called spontaneous variation. 11, differs from natural 
 or ordinary variation in that it is much more marked 
 and usually confined to individuals rather than to a 
 number of animals in a herd or breed. Natural variation 
 usually is recognized as a slight change in form, color, or 
 some other point, and generally affects a number of animals 
 in a herd or breed. Spontaneous variation is more marked 
 in its influence and less general in its distribution, as in 
 many instances not more than one animal may be affected 
 in a herd. It is in a measure something over which the 
 breeder has no control. It usually comes as a surprise and 
 cannot be easily accounted for. Some claim that it is due 
 to a severe shock given to the mother, or mental impres- 
 sions at the time of conception, or during the early stages 
 of pregnancy. These influences do not, however, explain all 
 the cases which occur. Some illustrations along this line 
 might be cited. A calf with six legs, or two heads, would be 
 a good illustration. A rabbit with one ear, any radical varia- 
 tion in color, such as a red Aberdeen Angus, and so on, would 
 belong to this class. On account of the infrequency with 
 which these variations occur, they seldom if ever perpetuate 
 themselves. 
 
 Natural variation is one of the most important factors under 
 the control of man in the higher development of our animals. 
 By means of this law man has accomplished much, and by a 
 thorough understanding of the same and its application he can 
 still do a great deal towards the betterment of our domesti- 
 cated animals. 
 
LECTURE LXXXII. 
 
 INFLUENCES AND CAUSES OF FECUNDITY. 
 
 The percentage of increase in the breeding flock or herd is 
 an important matter. In many instances it determines in no 
 small way the profits or losses accruing from the breeding 
 establishment. It is of vital importance in the horse breed- 
 ing business that the percentage of increase should be high. 
 The same is true in the cattle, sheep and swine breeding oper- 
 ations. It has a double influence in the case of the dairy 
 cow, where the value of the calf and the product of the cow 
 must both be considered. This being the case, we can readily 
 see the importance of giving every attention possible to the 
 maintenance of a high standard of productivity in the herd, 
 stud or flock. 
 
 The regular bringing forth of young freely and abundantly 
 in the case of those animals which produce more than one 
 at birth is known as fecundity. It differs from prolificacy 
 in that the latter is used generally with reference to the 
 number of offspring only at one birth, while the fecundity 
 covers the ground of regularity as well as the numbers at one 
 birth. It differs from fertility in that fertility refers only to 
 an animal being in condition to produce young, not necessarily 
 producing regularly as is implied by the fecundity. By fecun- 
 dity we mean regular breeding, free or easy breeding, and 
 large numbers at one birth in the case of those animals which 
 produce more than one. It is the very opposite of sterility 
 or any inclination toward barrenness. It is usually applied to 
 females, but is in a measure applicable to males as well, as 
 they no doubt have an influence in this respect. 
 
 The reproductive powers of animals are easily influenced. 
 A full understanding of the causes which may adversely in- 
 fluence fecundity should be of value to the stockman, so that 
 he may avoid those causes so far as possible in his breeding 
 operations. 
 
 One of the most common of the causes is the lack of exer- 
 cise due to confinement. While this may affect both the 
 
FECUNDITY. 319 
 
 male and the female, its influence is usually most manifest in 
 the case of males. This is due to the fact that they are much 
 more likely to be confined than females. Still in some in- 
 stances females which are being prepared for exhibition pur- 
 poses may be thus affected. It is highly important that all 
 animals be given an abundance of exercise. In the case of 
 male animals which cannot be allowed the freedom of the 
 herd, a paddock of some kind should always be supplied so 
 that exercise may be had at the will of the animal. Food may 
 also exert an undesirable influence on fecundity. This is es- 
 pecially true when supplied in an irregular manner and with 
 uniform conditions. By uniform conditions we have refer- 
 ence to scanty supplies in times of exposure to storms. A 
 scanty supply of food is nearly always associated with de- 
 creased fecundity in the herd, stud or flock. This is noticeable 
 in those animals which are bred in countries of sparse pas- 
 tures. These animals are always shy breeders in their native 
 land, but when introduced into other countries having a more 
 liberal supply of feed their fecundity improves. This is well 
 illustrated in the Spanish Merino sheep which were for many 
 years maintained in large flocks and generally on scant ra- 
 tions. These sheep were decidedly lacking in their breeding 
 qualities when first introduced into this country. Since then 
 they have made marked improvements in this respect. The 
 same thing is true of the range sheep bred in this country. 
 Their productive capacity is always much improved when 
 they are placed on arable land and given liberal rations. 
 
 The nature of the food also has an important function in 
 this connection. Food which is rich in sugar is undesirable 
 and has a bad influence on fecundity. Food lacking in suc- 
 culence also is undesirable. The breeding animal does best 
 and is most fecundant when on grass, thus the necessity of 
 supplying succulent feed during the winter season. It keeps 
 the animal in a healthy, sappy condition. Liberal rations of 
 the most nutritious foodstuffs always have a favorable influ- 
 ence on fecundity. In fact it is out of the question to expect 
 good results without liberal feeding. In the case of sheep 
 it is always advisable to feed them very liberally at mating 
 time. By so doing the yield of lambs may be materially in- 
 creased. The same principle applies to other animals. 
 
 Animals in very high condition, especially where such is 
 the result of corn feeding or some other highly carbonaceous 
 feed which causes a plethoric condition of the system, are 
 
320 PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 
 
 seldom if ever useful breeders. This overloading with fat 
 seems to in some way have an undesirable influence on the 
 procreative organs. Animals which have been fitted for show 
 purposes should be gradually reduced in flesh by use of roots 
 and plenty of out-of-door exercise. In this way their usefulness 
 may be retained. Too close breeding, such as in-breeding or 
 in-and-in-breeding, is very likely to have an unfavorable in- 
 fluence on fecundity. This is very likely a provision of 
 nature so as to avoid the continued practice of too close breed- 
 ing, which has a tendency to concentrate the weak or unde- 
 sirable qualities in the offspring. This system also injures 
 the size and weakens the constitution of the animals. 
 
 In the case of twin calves, where one is a male and the other 
 a female, the female seldom, if ever, breeds. She is called a 
 "free martin." The cause of this barrenness is supposed to 
 be due to the fact that the generative organs of the female 
 partake somewhat after those of the male. 
 
 Fecundity to be secured in the highest degree in the breed- 
 ing of animals should be the aim of every breeder. To accom- 
 plish this end he must feed liberally on those feed stuffs most 
 nutritious, give the animals plenty of open air exercise, avoid 
 a high degree of flesh or fat in his breeding herd, and avoid 
 too close breeding of animals which are in any way related. 
 
LECTURE LXXXIII. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF IN-BREEDING AND LINE BREEDING. 
 
 Among the many interesting phases of animal breeding no 
 one is of more general interest or has given rise to more con- 
 troversy than the subject of in or in-and-in-breeding. From 
 the earliest records to those of the present day we find this 
 method has been more or less practiced. That it has been 
 beneficial cannot be questioned. That it has in many in- 
 stances been detrimental is also likewise true. 
 
 By in-breeding or in-and-in-breeding is meant the continu- 
 ous practice of mating these animals which are closely related 
 and then in turn using the offspring in the same way for gen- 
 eration after generation. The closest case of in-breeding is 
 that of brother and sister. The breeding of mother and son 
 or father and daughter and so on are examples of close breed- 
 ing. In fact, any method which brings together animals of 
 close blood lines may be called in-breeding. Where this 
 method is pursued generation after generation it is designated 
 as in-and-in-breeding. 
 
 In-breeding is necessary in the beginning of any new breed 
 of stock, as it is the surest and shortest method yet known of 
 intensifying desired qualities or characteristics in the off- 
 spring. 
 
 By following this method of breeding for a few years the 
 desired characteristics become fairly well intensified, then 
 more open or wider breeding methods are resorted to. In- 
 breeding is oftentimes resorted to as a means of securing 
 some desired end in many of the oldest and best established 
 breeds and herds. For instance, some particular color, shape 
 of body, flow of milk or quality of milk may be obtained tn 
 this way. In the development of the many of the best herds 
 of Shorthorn cattle in-breeding was practiced in a large de- 
 gree. In some instances certain breeders, who for jealousy or 
 other reasons did not care to patronize other breeders for 
 sires, used animals of their own breeding, thus followed in- 
 breeding for generation after generation. There is no doubt 
 
322 PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 
 
 but what it is the surest and quickest method yet known of 
 intensifying certain qualities either desirable or undesirable 
 in the breeding herd. 
 
 So much for the advantages of this method. We will now 
 discuss some of the objectionable features of this practice. 
 One of the first objectionable features noticeable will be a re- 
 duction in the size of the animals. This is very apparent 
 in those herds of cattle or swine in which the sires have 
 been selected from the male offspring of the herd from time 
 to time without regard to family relationships. It is impos- 
 sible to retain the size of the animals when in-breeding is re- 
 sorted to in the herd, stud or flock. 
 
 Another objectionable feature of in-breeding is its influence 
 on the constitutional vigor of the herd. That a weakened con- 
 stitution and greater delicacy of the system follows this sys- 
 tem of breeding is very evident from the fact that tuberculo- 
 sis and other diseases is so much more prevalent in those 
 families where this system of breeding is practiced. As 
 stated in the previous lecture the powers of fecundity may 
 be unfavorably influenced by continued in-breeding. There is 
 no doubt but what it has a tendency in this direction. A study 
 of the closely related families of many of our recognized 
 breeds of stock and the breeding records of the same will re- 
 veal this fact. 
 
 In-and-in-breeding caiiriot be carried on for any considerable 
 length of time without evil results making their appearance. 
 
 They may appear in any one of the ways mentioned, or more 
 likely in all of those mentioned. A decrease in size and a 
 weakened constitution are always noticeable and are very in- 
 jurious from a commercial standpoint. 
 
 Evil results from in-breeding can usually be remedied by the 
 introduction of new blood. In doing so nothing but strong, 
 vigorous animals should be selected, as weak animals would 
 not in any way remedy the trouble. The most obvious objec- 
 tion to in-breeding or close breeding is the difficulty of secur- 
 ing animals that are free from constitutional defects, and the 
 danger arising from the tendency of such defects to become 
 dominant in the offspring. 
 
 Line breeding is often practiced. It differs from in-breeding 
 in that in line breeding those animals of very near relation 
 are not bred together. Those from the same foundation stock 
 which are some three or four generations removed are used. 
 In the formation of new breeds in-breeding is of necessity used 
 
IN-BREEDING AND LINE BREEDING. 323 
 
 for a while. This cannot be avoided. As soon as there are 
 several animals of the breed, some of which are not very 
 closely related, line breeding is then resorted to. In this way 
 the desirable characters are intensified. 
 
 In many of the old and well established herds and breeds 
 line breeding is practiced. It is then called family breeding. 
 In this way the good qualities of a certain family may be pre- 
 served and maintained for many years without experiencing 
 the difficulties resulting from the practice of in-breeding. 
 
 This method of breeding to be successful must be prac- 
 ticed with much care and good judgment. The success of the 
 breeder will depend on his ability to keep within safe bounds. 
 He must ever be on the alert for any indication of weakness 
 of constitution, decrease in size or any other weakness which 
 is likely to follow in-breeding. 
 
 Both of these lines of breeding were used extensively in 
 the formation of our breeds of stock, also in the establishment 
 of many of our best herds. In the past their presence was 
 in many instances a necessity. At the present time it is 
 doubtful if such methods are of any special advantage in our 
 breeding operations. 
 
LECTURE LXXXIV. 
 
 INFLUENCES OF CROSS-BREEDING AND GRADING. 
 
 By the term cross-breeding, in the strictest sense, we mean 
 the pairing of animals of two distinct breeds. In this sense 
 it may be considered to be the very opposite of in-and-in- 
 breeding. It is the mating of animals which are in no wise 
 related. 
 
 Unfortunately the terms "cross-breeding," "crossing," "out- 
 breeding" and "making a cross" are very often misused and 
 interchanged so as to mean the mixture of blood of different 
 families of the same breed. For example, in the Shorthorn 
 breed of cattle we have several distinct families, such as the 
 Bates, the Booth and the Cruickshank. A man breeding the 
 Bates family might for some reason or other desire to use a 
 Booth bull. This would be termed "out-breeding" or an "out 
 cross," because it belonged to another family. Strictly speak- 
 ing, however, by cross-breeding we mean when animals of two 
 distinct breeds are used, such as the Shorthorn and the Gal- 
 loway, the Berkshire and Yorkshire, the Shropshire and Cots- 
 wold, or the Clyde and Shire. 
 
 This method of breeding has been practiced extensively on 
 all classes of stock. It is still used in all sections of the 
 country more or less indiscriminately in most cases. For 
 many years it was used most extensively with sheep. The 
 Leicester and the Southdown were both used very extensively 
 for this purpose. In more recent years the Shropshire has 
 been used in many sections of this country for crossing pur- 
 poses. 
 
 In the central west the crossing of the different breeds of 
 swine has been very commonly practiced. Several of the 
 newer and larger breeds have been crossed with the Poland 
 China with the hope of increasing their size and the size of 
 the litter. 
 
 That the crossing of breeds has been beneficial in the 
 building up and improving many ouf breeds of stock cannot 
 be questioned. Practically all of our present improved breeds 
 
CROSS BREEDING. 325 
 
 of sheep owe their origin in part from this method of breed- 
 ing. The same thing is true of our breeds of swine, while 
 the same method has been practiced in a small measure at 
 least in the building up and improvement of our many breeds 
 of horses and cattle. 
 
 In the foundation and improvement of the breeds of stock 
 crossing was introduced for various purposes. In some in- 
 stances where the animals of one breed were under-sized, by 
 the introduction of a cross from some new breed which was 
 noted for its size this difficulty could be remedied. In the 
 same way many other weaknesses in the breeds were over- 
 come. Certain of our dual purpose breeds of cattle were built 
 up by the crossing of two breads; one noted for its dairy prop- 
 erties and the other for its beef making qualities. To this 
 class belongs the Red Polls of today. 
 
 In swine breeding if a breed were lacking in length, size 
 or some other point a cross from some other breed which was 
 strong in these points was introduced. In this way much 
 good was accomplished. The crossing of pure breeds in this 
 country is practiced to a considerable extent. In most in- 
 stances it is being used as a short cut to some desired end. 
 For instance, with the hope of increasing the length of certain 
 breeds of hogs, or to increase the bone or the size of the litter 
 in those breeds which are under-sized or inclined to produce 
 small litters. It is also used in a similar way with the hope 
 of improving our sheep, cattle and horses. 
 
 In many instances the first cross gives very good results 
 where the offspring are intended for market purposes. They 
 oftentimes are an improvement over either sire or dam. This 
 method is very unsatisfactory where the young are intended 
 for breeding purposes, as then you must either go one way or 
 the other. For the purpose of producing market animals, it 
 is not to be commended, as it is too expensive, involving as it 
 does the purchase of new breeding stock from time to time 
 as the cross-bred animals do not make desirable breeding 
 animals. 
 
 As previously stated, it is used with the hope of making a 
 short cut to some desired end. This same end can usually be 
 obtained by careful selection, feeding and management of the 
 stock on hand. There is always a cause for retrogression 
 in stock. The cause should be removed and new blood of the 
 same blood introduced rather than resorting to the uncertain 
 method of cross-breeding. 
 
326 PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 
 
 The grading up of stock is a subject which should be of vital 
 interest to every farmer. This is the class of stock which is 
 to be found on over 70 per cent, of our farms. These animals 
 are bred and reared for market purposes. 
 
 By grading up we mean that system of breeding where the 
 sire belongs to some one of our pure breeds and the dams are 
 of common or mixed breeding. This is the most economical 
 method possible of improving our domestic animals. It is 
 the method which each and every man can practice. It does 
 not involve very much expense. The sire is the only neces- 
 sary outlay. Where the herd, stud or flock is small, two or 
 more men may combine and use the same sire, thus reducing 
 the outlay for the purchase of the same. 
 
 A very common mistake that is often made in the grading 
 up process is to select an inferior sire. Quite often the culls 
 which would not be used for breeding in pure bred herds are 
 selected for this purpose. This is a mistake, because in tho 
 grade or common herd there is more need for a good indi- 
 vidual than in many pure bred herds. He need not be so ex- 
 pensive as many of the most sought for sires in the pure bred 
 herds. It is not so necessary that he have all the fancy points 
 so far as color markings and other such points are concerned. 
 These are, in a large measure, fads, something which from a 
 packing standpoinut is not called for. 
 
 The sire for the grade herd must possess those characteris- 
 tics in a full measure which are of practical value, such as 
 beef form in the beef animal, milk in the dairy cow, mutton 
 and wool in the sheep, ability to make economical gains of 
 the right kind in the hog, and good draft form in the heavy 
 horse and the desired type of the light horse. These are the 
 points which mean money on the markets of the world, thus 
 they must be sought for in the sire to be used in grading up 
 the herd, flock or stud. 
 
LECTURE LXXXV. 
 
 NATURAL BREEDING. 
 
 In the previous lectures we have discussed some of the 
 various laws which are concerned in animal breeding. We 
 have also discussed some of the methods commonly adopted 
 in the creation, improving, and building up of new breeds and 
 in maintaining those already in existence. We have given 
 due consideration to the advantages and disadvantages of the 
 various methods. In most of them there seems to be as many 
 or more undesirable features as there are commendable ones. 
 In this connection we will consider the question of animal 
 breeding from a practical and logical standpoint. By natural 
 breeding we simply mean that method of breeding which will, 
 from time to time, give the best results and apply to all con- 
 ditions. In breeding Shorthorn cattle, for instance, instead 
 of breeding the Bates, the Booth, the Cruickshank or any par- 
 ticular family, you would select those from any or all of 
 these families of excellence, regardless of family or color. 
 Your only motive would be to breed a type of Shorthorn 
 which would approach as nearly as possible your standard of 
 excellence. A standard of excellence is always necessary, 
 else nothing definite and lasting can be accomplished. The 
 only restriction you would make would be that the animal in 
 question was a pure bred Shorthorn eligible for registration 
 in all the herd register associations of that breed. This would 
 be necessary for future protection from a sale standpoint. 
 
 By following this method you would not have to resort to 
 in-breeding or line-breeding unless when such a method was 
 the only possible source through which you could secure the 
 desired type sought for in your breeding business. Breed 
 from the best and the best only would be your motto. 
 
 The same thing would apply to all other breeds and classes 
 of stock. There would be no necessity for cross breeding. 
 Each and every breed would have plenty of good animals 
 within its own breed. 
 
 This method of breeding is the only salvation for a number 
 
328 PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 
 
 of our breeds at the present time. It differs from the, exist- 
 ing methods of breeding in that it does not run to fads and 
 fancies in the line of color markings, shape of ear, family 
 strains, and so on. This fad or fancy breeding has been the 
 ruination of some of the very best breeds of stock this country 
 has ever seen. Good pedigrees are desirable, but there is 
 such a thing as paying too much attention to the pedigree and 
 not enough to individual merit. They must both be given due 
 consideration. The only safe method of breeding stock is to 
 have a standard of excellence and always select animals with 
 the view of approaching this end, regardless of fads and 
 fancies, as they will always sooner or later bring you disaster. 
 
LECTURE LXXXVI. 
 
 THE FORMATION OF NEW BREEDS. 
 
 From time to time the student of animal husbandry is at- 
 tracted by some new breed of stock. These have increased 
 so rapidly that at the present time we have in the neighbor- 
 hood of one hundred distinct breeds of live stock belonging to 
 the horse, cattle, sheep and swine kind. The advisability of 
 having so many breeds is a pertinent question for discussion. 
 There are those who claim that the more breeds of live stock 
 we have the better, as each and every additional breed will 
 make the competition that much keener, thus improvement 
 along all lines will inevitably follow. There may be some just 
 ground for such claims. Perhaps these new breeds do in a 
 measure cause the breeders of the old and well established 
 breeds to look to the laurels of their stock and strive to keep 
 them in the foremost rank by improvement. 
 
 There would not be any just reason for the introduction or 
 the creation of something new unless it was to possess in 
 some measure at least qualities of a desirable nature which 
 were not to be found in those which previously existed. This 
 being the case, we would naturally expect that our domestic 
 animals have made wonderful strides along the line of devel- 
 opment during the last century and a half. 
 
 So much for the claims of these new breeds. Many of them 
 have, in a small way at last, made good their claims. Others, 
 on the contrary, have not been able to measure up, thus have 
 never gained any particular prominence or popularity. Merit 
 alone is the test. Where there is just merit there will be a 
 permanency, a growing and lasting popularity. This being 
 the case, we should be justified in assuming that those breeds 
 which made little or no progress since" their initial bow have 
 failed to measure to the standard. It is very doubtful if it is 
 necessary to have so many distinct breeds of stock. Would 
 it not be better for the live stock industry to have fewer 
 breeds, thus stronger associations, higher standards and more 
 complete records of the various animals of the different 
 breeds? Many of our so-called breeds of stock at the present 
 time are in reality sub-breeds of some main or parent breed. 
 
330 PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 
 
 By the removing of the horns a new breed is formed, which 
 does not differ in any other detail from the original breed, 
 except that in many instances it does not measure up to the 
 mother breed from a utility standpoint. This is due to the 
 fact that the promoters of the new breed have given most of 
 their attention to the removal of the horns, and in so doing 
 have lost sight of the points which made the mother breed 
 prominent and worthy of its place. The same thing is true 
 of a large number of our new breeds which are claiming the 
 attention of the public. That they are different in some re- 
 spects to the former breeds cannot be denied, but that this 
 difference makes them more desirable is another and very dif- 
 ferent question. In many instances the utility feature is lack- 
 ing, thus the new breed is of no real value to the live stock 
 industry. 
 
 The time has come when a few of the more substantial 
 breeds are likely to gain in public favor and many of the new 
 breeds or sub-breeds are likely to gradually give away to their 
 more useful competitors. 
 
 In the formation of a new breed the greatest precautions 
 should be taken to retain all the desirable qualities of our 
 present animals and to introduce such new features as will 
 be of practical value to the industry, rather than to just have 
 something different from what previously existed. The great- 
 est of care and the best of judgment should be exercised in 
 the selection of the foundation stock. Generally too much 
 leniency is allowed in this respect. By so doing animals of 
 inferior quality will be admitted which will always be a detri- 
 ment to the breed. 
 
 Before a new breed can be formed and a special and sepa- 
 rate registry association be organized for such a breed, evi- 
 dence must be available that this so-called new breed is dif- 
 ferent in some distinctive feature from all other breeds. It is 
 not necessary that it must have merit to start a new breed, 
 but this feature will have to be demonstrated before it will 
 become popular in the eyes of the people. 
 
 In organizing a registry association only certain animals 
 possessing the desired characteristics should be registered as 
 foundation stock. Thereafter no animals should be registered 
 except those whose sire and dam are foundation stock or trace 
 directly to them. In this way the more recent associations 
 have been organized and maintained for the protection of the 
 owners of this particular breed in question. 
 
POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 LECTURE LXXXVII. 
 
 THE POULTRY INDUSTRY AND ITS RELATION 
 TO THE FARM. 
 
 Although the poultry industry is now a large one, we can 
 see no reason why it should not in a short time very materi- 
 ally increase its present output both in meat and eggs. 
 
 A little more thought on our part put into the care and 
 management of our fowls and a greater attention to the mar- 
 ket demands are the main factors that will operate to make of 
 the poultry industry one of the most productive in connection 
 with our farm operations. The thin, blue colored, bony car- 
 casses that hang on hooks in front of grocery and meat market 
 windows are not inviting nor are they conducive to making a 
 market for the meat products of the poultry flock. What we 
 should do is to find out the type of fowl that will produce a 
 plump breasted, well fattened chicken with a minimum of 
 bones, neck and waste matter a chicken that will mature 
 early and furnish the largest percentage of nutritious and 
 palatable meat with the smallest percentage of offal. Boilers, 
 roasters and broilers of this sort properly killed, prepared and 
 put on the market will sell readily and will create a demand 
 for more of the same sort. 
 
 In the production of eggs, too, there is great room for im- 
 provement. A proper understanding of the markets as well 
 as an understanding of the breeds and their care and manage- 
 ment for the best production of eggs at different seasons of 
 the year is imperative in order to derive the maximum returns 
 from this end of the poultry business. Clean, fresh eggs 
 always command the highest price on the market. Brown 
 eggs on some markets are worth from 3 to 5 cents more than 
 white ones. Eggs uniform in size and color are more attract- 
 ive and bring better returns to the producer. Winter eggs are 
 always in great demand and bring high prices. 
 
332 POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 On the ordinary farm poultry may be counted on to give a 
 large return for the amount of capital invested and cost of 
 labor to care for them. They scratch about and hunt for 
 worms and grubs; pick up seeds that would otherwise be 
 wasted, eat the refuse from the garden, such as lettuce, cab- 
 bage leaves, beet and onion tops, peas and corn. In the or- 
 chard, too, they make their presence felt by destroying in- 
 sects such as the plum curculio. They take the waste prod- 
 ucts from the kitchen and the dairy. 
 
 It is true that poultry at certain times make themselves 
 somewhat of a nuisance, but the same might be said of all our 
 animals if preventive precautions are not taken. When the 
 garden is being made and when the small fruit is getting ripe 
 the flock should be shut up in suitable quarters or shut out 
 from the garden by means of hen-proof wire fence. 
 
 We can think of no greater source of pleasure and profit 
 from the same outlay than that derived from the investment 
 in a medium sized, well selected, well cared for flock of poul- 
 try on the farm. 
 
LECTURE LXXXVIII. 
 
 BUILDINGS, SHEDS AND YARDS SUITABLE FOR 
 POULTRY. 
 
 Poultry, like other classes of live stock on the farm, require 
 suitable protection if we are to look for the greatest gains 
 from our flock. The different forms of houses to suit the 
 fancier, specialist and farmer where only a few fowls com- 
 partively are kept though differing somewhat in size, design, 
 materials used, conveniences and cost, must be, in the main, 
 constructed upon the same general principles if the greatest 
 success in the end is attained. Successful results have been 
 achieved in so many different kinds of houses that it would be 
 impossible in this lecture to describe them, so we shall con- 
 tent ourselves with the outline of a few of the principles that 
 prevail in all well managed poultry houses. 
 
 In the first place, we all are agreed that a poultry house 
 should stand on high, dry ground preferably a gravelly or 
 sandy knoll, as such locations easily drain themselves. If 
 such are not to be had, then the scraper should be used to 
 make a slightly elevated spot on which to build. If advantage 
 can be taken of a windbreak or a location behind other build- 
 ings so as to protect it from the cold north and west winds, 
 all the better. 
 
 Successful poultry raising so far as housing is concerned 
 makes the following demands: That there be furnished a 
 large amount of room, light, warmth, pure air, dryness, free- 
 dom from draughts, roosts, nests, comfort and cleanliness. 
 The sheds, if such are provided, and the yards should furnish 
 ample space for exercise. 
 
 Room. Fowls should not be crowded, nor is it wise to keep 
 them in very large flocks; much success has been achieved 
 where only 15 to 25 hens were kept in a bunch, while success 
 has attended also the bunching of from 60 to 70. It is safer 
 to deal in the smaller numbers, as one is less apt to experience 
 the losses that sometimes result from housing in the larger 
 
334 POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 flocks. If but one room is provided, each fowl should have 
 from ten to fifteen square feet of floor space. If roosting and 
 scratching pens are in separate apartments, each fowl should 
 have five to six square feet of floor space in roosting pen 'and 
 ten to twelve in the scratching pen. Provide a roosting space 
 of seven to eight inches for the smaller Mediterranean fowls, 
 such as the Leghorns, eight to ten for Rocks and Wyandottes, 
 and ten to twelve for the larger Asiatic breeds the Brahmas 
 and Cochins. In the yard in summer from one hundred to 
 one hundred and fifty square feet of grass should be allotted 
 each fowl. 
 
 Light. Sunlight purifies the floors, roosts and drop boards 
 and helps to keep the fowl in a vigorous, healthy condition. 
 In order to make provision for a large admission of sunlight 
 at least one-third of the south and east sides should be glass. 
 The windows if placed high up will allow the sun to do its 
 most effective work in shining into the remotest corners of 
 the house. In some cases windows are placed in the roof of 
 the scratching pens. 
 
 Warmth. The roosting apartment must be warm and com- 
 fortable for the fowls while at rest. In order to make the 
 roosting apartment warm a small part may be curtained off 
 from the rest of the house so that the heat from the fowls' 
 bodies will warm it sufficiently. The scratching or exercising 
 part should be light and cool, but free from draughts. 
 
 Pure Air. Ventilation must be secured, as fowls cannot re- 
 main in a healthy condition in foul, damp, stagnant air. But 
 in securing change of air we must be careful to prevent 
 draughts, especially in those apartments where the fowls 
 roost. 
 
 Roosts. Roosts should be made of 2x3s. They should be 
 planed off smooth, rounded slightly on the upper corners and 
 should be free from splits or cracks, as vermin lodge in these 
 crevices and are hard to dislodge. The roosts should be 
 placed low not more than three feet from the floor, and 
 should be at least eighteen to twenty inches from the wall. 
 If more than one roost is used, all should be on a level, for 
 if you put one higher than the other the fowls will crowd for 
 the higher roost. Low roosts are easier to mount and to fly 
 from. A drop board should be placed under the roosts twenty 
 inches in width for single roosts and thirty-six inches for two 
 roosts. This must be made of planed inch lumber so that it 
 can be easily cleaned at last twice a week. 
 
BUILDINGS FOR POULTRY. 335 
 
 The nests can be placed under the drop board. They must 
 be fifteen inches wide and eighteen inches deep. Hens like 
 to steal away in a quiet place to lay, so it is best to leave the 
 opening on the side next to the wall. A little drop door may 
 be arranged on the back from which to gather the eggs. 
 
 Roosts, nests and drop boards should be so arranged that 
 all can be taken out easily, should you wish to give the quar- 
 ters a thorough cleaning. The inside must be whitewashed 
 now and again. This will add to the appearance as well as 
 imprison vermin that may be lurking about in the crevices. 
 
 A ground floor serves a good purpose. Raise it four or five 
 inches above the ground outside. Put in three inches of coal 
 ashes or gravel and fill in the remainder with sand or make 
 it entirely of sand. In August the upper two inches of sand 
 may be removed and the space filled in again with fresh ma- 
 terial. Let this be done early so that the floor may be well 
 dried out before the poultry have to be enclosed. The sand 
 floor should then be covered with chaffed clover hay, alfalfa 
 or straw, which must be frequently renewed. As has been 
 already mentioned, the drop board and roosts should be, put in 
 so that they may be easily taken out for cleaning and a sun 
 bath. 
 
 The partitions ought to be made of matched lumber to about 
 four feet in height and the remainder of wire netting. Each 
 partition should have a door large enough for a person to 
 walk through. Down at the bottom of the wall, leading from 
 the pen to the yard or scratching pen, there should be a small 
 opening, 10x12 inches, through which the hens may pass in 
 and out. 
 
 A cheap, convenient, suitable house for the ordinary farm 
 is made somewhat as fellows: It is made in the form of a 
 lean-too, sixteen feet long, ten feet wide, eight feet high at 
 front and four at rear. The frame is made of 2x8 scantling. 
 It is single bearded and battened all around except in the 
 little roosting compartment farthest from the door. This part 
 is made warm by means of paper and matched lumber on the 
 outside, and front of the roosts there is hung a canvas drop 
 curtain which, in severe weather, may be lowered to keep in 
 the heat generated by the fowls themselves. A door may be 
 left in the corner, and this doorway has hung over it a piece 
 of sacking or something of that nature. In the upper front is 
 a large window for the admission of light. A pen of this 
 kind has given excellent satisfaction for the production of 
 
336 POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 winter eggs; the hens continuing to lay except in the severest 
 snap. 
 
 Large yards are necessary for the pultry to run in during 
 the summer months if they must be confined. Let the yard 
 be at least fifty feet long by thirty feet wide. If there are 
 trees in this yard, all the better, as they will provide the shade 
 that is required during the hot weather. The yard may be 
 fenced with wire netting six feet high for the larger fowls, 
 while at least a seven or eight foot fence will be required for 
 the lighter breeds. The yard should be well grassed, clean 
 and supplied with pure water for drinking purposes. 
 
LECTURE LXXXIX. 
 
 MARKETABLE POULTRY PRODUCTS EGGS AND MEAT. 
 
 Spring and summer are the seasons most favorable and nat- 
 ural for the economic production of eggs. An egg is never 
 more palatable than when it is fresh. Brown eggs are pre- 
 ferred on many markets because customers have taken a 
 fancy to them for table use and for cooking. It should be our 
 business to put forth strong efforts to satisfy a demand for 
 those products which, with a little care on our part, can be 
 easily supplied from our farms. Large eggs are preferred to 
 small ones. The old country market demands that an egg 
 weigh at least two ounces to be up to the standard. Ten 
 dozen should weigh fifteen pounds. For every half pound 
 below the standard the price drops at the rate of about one 
 cent per dozen. 
 
 Clean eggs are sought for rather than the unsightly dirty 
 eggs that are too often found in the egg basket and box during 
 the spring and summer months. When the eggs are gathered 
 it would not take very long to see to it that dirty eggs are 
 washed before being put away. 
 
 Uniformity in any product adds to its attractiveness. If 
 eggs are sorted into lots of small, medium and large they 
 will on many markets bring a larger price than when lumped 
 off without any assortment having been made. 
 
 When cleaning and assorting have been attended to the eggs 
 require to be set away in a cool, dry place 40 degrees to 50 
 degrees F. where they will remain without harm for a few 
 days until they are marketed. A small 12-dozen case with 
 paper apartments makes a very convenient means of storing 
 away the eggs and carrying them to market. The merchant 
 must see to it, too, that the eggs are kept cool and dry until 
 delivered to his customers. By looking after these details a 
 good substantial trade can be worked up that will result favor- 
 ably for the producer. Winter eggs are always in demand and 
 bring the very highest prices. It should be the ambition of 
 the farmer to try if possible to secure the means and methods 
 of producing this high priced commodity. 
 
338 POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Spring and summer eggs are bought up and put in cola 
 storage at a little above 32 degrees and kept to supply the 
 winter markets, though these eggs cannot bring the price of 
 fresh-laid eggs. It has been found on investigation that eggs 
 in shipment, if close to apples or onions or such like, will take 
 on bad- flavors. 
 
 Egg preservatives are used to keep eggs until the winter 
 months. The egg thus preserved cannot take the place of the 
 fresh egg for table use, but does very well for cooking pur- 
 poses. The lime water preservative is prepared by using one 
 pound of fresh lime in four gallons of water. Stir the mixture 
 well and allow to settle. Drain off the liquid into a crock ; 
 which should be closely covered to prevent the air from enter- 
 ing, as it weakens the solution. Fresh eggs may be put into 
 this every day as they are gathered. Be careful not to put 
 cracked or spoiled eggs in, as they will destroy the others. 
 
 Poultry meat is considered a delicacy if it can be secured 
 in the proper form. In the late winter and early spring months 
 broilers, small plump chickens, weighing from one to two and 
 a half pounds, are in great demand, and because of their 
 scarcity command a high price. Roasters at three to four 
 pounds are in demand at almost any season. Can we not 
 plan to satisfy, to some extent at least, the demands along 
 these lines that are made by the people in our towns and 
 cities? We must carefully develop this industry and secure for 
 our care and labor remunerative returns. Study the markets 
 to find out exactly what is wanted. A creamy, white-fleshed, 
 plump breasted three and one-half to four-pound chicken is the 
 one which seems to give greatest satisfaction to our custom- 
 ers, and these are by all means the cheapest for us to pro- 
 duce. The white breast meat constitutes the most edible, de- 
 licious parts of the chicken. We should aim to secure this 
 kind with short wings and legs and short neck and small head. 
 Light colored birds usually dress cleaner than the darker 
 ones. Customers do not like any feathers on the legs, nor 
 do they like to see any development of spurs. Coarse legged 
 poultry indicates a coarseness of bone throughout and this 
 means a large per cent, of offal. Lean, scrawny chickens will 
 contain about 70 per cent, to 75 per cent, of offal. The well 
 fatted chicken contains a much larger percentage of edible 
 meat and this meat is of a much superior quality, being ten- 
 der, juicy and of delicate flavor, depending, of course, upon 
 the age of the bird. Old cocks and hens are tough and 
 
POULTRY PRODUCTS. 
 
 339 
 
 too highly flavored, and are not desirable from a market 
 standpoint. These delicacies in the form of poultry products 
 are not all to be sold ; the farmer and his family should share 
 in the pleasures that are a direct result of their labors. 
 
LECTURE XC. 
 
 BREEDS OF POULTRY. 
 
 Poultry is divided into breeds which may be classified (1) 
 according to use, that is, from a utility standpoint or from a 
 fancier's standpoint, or (2) they may be classified according 
 to origin, e. g., the Rocks and Wyandottes are spoken of as 
 American breeds; the Leghorns, Andalusians, Minorcas, Black 
 Spanish, as Mediterranean breeds, and the Brahmas and Co- 
 chins as Asiatic breeds; these may be spoken of again as the 
 medium, light and heavy classes layers and non-layers, sit- 
 ters and non-sitters. For reference we give a short descrip- 
 tion of a few of the more important breeds. 
 
 Light Breeds Leghorns. The Leghorns belong to the light 
 breeds; they are great egg producers, especially during the 
 summer months. Some strains will produce eggs in winter. 
 They cannot be relied upon to sit. The eggs are white and 
 rather small. They require warmer quarters in winter than 
 some of the other breeds because of their large combs, espe- 
 cially the males. They are very active fowls and are great 
 rustlers. They are too small to make good meat producers 
 except as broilers. 
 
 There are several varieties of Leghorns, chief of which are 
 the Single-Combed White, Brown and Buff. The Black, Rose- 
 Comb White and Brown are also raised. The egg of the Sin- 
 gle-Comb White is a little larger than that of the other varie- 
 ties. Both males and females have large combs. Care must 
 be taken that they do not get these frozen in winter. 
 
 Blue Andalusians. The Andalusians are midway in size 
 between the Leghorns and Minorcas. They too are non-sitters 
 and lay large white eggs. They do their best work in sum- 
 mer. They are blue in color, but cannot be depended upon to 
 breed true. They are hardy, vigorous and good mothers. 
 
 Minorcas. Minorcas are the largest of the light breeds. 
 There are several varieties, chief of which is the Single-Comb 
 Black. The Single-Comb White and Rose-Comb Black are 
 bred to some extent. They are fairly hardy and vigorous and 
 lay a large white egg. The standard weight for hen is 6y 2 
 pounds; cock, 8 pounds. 
 
BREEDS OF POULTRY. 341 
 
 American Breeds Plymouth Rocks. Barred, White, and 
 Buff are the three varieties which constitute this breed. The 
 oldest and most popular of these is the Barred variety. All 
 three are fairly hardy, and lay large brown eggs. They are 
 only fairly good summer layers, but can usually be depended 
 upon for winter eggs. They are sitters and make good moth- 
 ers. They have single comb, clean, yellow legs, and yellow 
 skin, and make a very good utility bird. 
 
 The standard weight for hen is 7% pounds; cock, 9% 
 pounds. 
 
 Wyandottes. Of these there are the White, Black, Buff, 
 Silver Laced, Golden Laced, Partridge, and Silver Pencilled 
 varieties. The White variety is the most popular one from 
 a market standpoint. In general characteristics they resemble 
 the Rocks, but are a little blockier, with a rose comb, and are 
 a pound lighter in weight. 
 
 Orpingtons. Black, White, and Buff varieties constitute 
 this breed. They are about a pound heavier than the Rocks, 
 possess the same general characteristics, tut have white 
 legs and flesh. They lay large brown eggs, are fairly good 
 summer layers, and do well in winter. They are sitters and 
 make good mothers. They usually have single combs. 
 
 Rhode Island Red. The Rhode Island Red is a compara- 
 tively new fowl which was originated in Rhode Island. They 
 are said to be fairly hardy, and only fair winter and summer 
 layers, are sitters, but only fair mothers; a brown egg breed, 
 have yellow legs and skin and mature early. They are red- 
 dish buff in color, with a strong tendency to black colored 
 tails and wings; also black ticking in the hackle feathers. 
 Weight of hen is 5^ pounds; cock, 7 pounds. 
 
 Games. The Indian Game is of interest to the farmer be- 
 cause of the large amount of breast meat which they carry. 
 They are only fair layers of medium sized brown eggs. They 
 give a good account of themselves when crossed with Rocks, 
 Dorkings and Wyandottes for the production of a market 
 carcass. 
 
 Dorkings. The Silver Grey Dorking is the favorite vari- 
 ety of this breed. They are exceptionally good market 
 fowls, only fair layers of large, white eggs. They have white 
 legs and skin and possess five toes. They are perhaps not 
 quite so hardy as some of the other breeds and do not stand 
 confinement very well. Weight of hen, 6% pounds; cock, 8 
 pounds. 
 
LECTURE XCI. 
 
 SELECTION, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING 
 
 STOCK. 
 
 Pure-bred or high-grade poultry are much more economical 
 to raise than the ordinary scrub that finds a place on so many 
 of our farms. In the matter of egg production they give much 
 better returns both in summer and winter, and in the pro- 
 duction of meat they put on flesh faster, cheaper and present a 
 more uniform product in size, shape and color and the flesh 
 possesses a more desirable flavor. 
 
 The farmer should, then, select some good, pure breed that 
 will suit his conditions. 
 
 For the production of summer eggs, the White or Brown 
 Leghorns, the Minorcas or Andalusians are all good, and will 
 fill the egg basket with medium-sized white eggs. But these 
 breeds give poor returns as meat producers and are of little 
 or no account as winter layers. Nor are they good sitters. 
 What the farmer wants is a general purpose breed that will 
 give a good account of itself as an egg producer and at the 
 same time produce good market fowls. The Barred Rock, 
 White Wyandotte and Orpington all stand in high favor as 
 general purpose breeds. The Rocks and Wyandottes have 
 yellow legs and yellow skins, which put them in general 
 favor on many of our American markets, while the Orpington 
 is a white-legged, white-skinned breed, which character makes 
 it a very suitable bird for the English market and some of our 
 home markets. The Dorking is the most typical meat pro- 
 ducing bird, but it is a forager and does not do so well in 
 confinement, nor is it as hardy as the other three breeds 
 mentioned. 
 
 In choosing a breed to suit our conditions it is well to look 
 to the particular strain as well, for much time has been spent 
 in the development of particular strains as heavy egg pro- 
 ducers, as sitters or non-sitters, as winter or summer layers. 
 Having chosen our breed we should then aim by selection, 
 care and management of our breeding stock to improve our 
 
CARE OF BREEDING STOCK. 343 
 
 flock along those lines that will tend to make them more 
 productive of eggs and flesh. 
 
 Our breeding birds should be carefully selected according 
 to the standard already described. 
 
 In early spring fifteen to twenty strong, vigorous females 
 should be enclosed in a clean, dry, light, airy, roomy pen 
 with a cock possessing similar characters to those of the 
 females all good representatives of their breed. They should 
 be kindly treated at all times never frightened by dogs or 
 strangers. Their diet should consist largely of green foods 
 and meats with a light grain ration. Give them whole grain 
 in their litter for their early morning feed. This may be scat- 
 tered the evening before. They will scratch about in search 
 for this and will gain the exercise so necessary to the pro- 
 duction of strong, vigorous germs in the eggs to be hatched. 
 Give them a mash at 9 o'clock and then some ground bone 
 or n:eat and some roots, carrots, turnips or mangels at noon, 
 and a mash of mixed grains, bran and shorts and sour milk 
 at 4 o'clock, and then some whole grain, oats or cracked 
 corn the last thing before going to roost. Feed plenty this 
 time so that there may be some left for them to search after 
 in the morning. Supply them with grit and shell-producing 
 elements, such as gravel, ashes, lime or dried egg shells. Keep 
 plenty of clean, fresh water before them at all times. It must 
 be borne in mind that good results will not follow if hens are 
 fed only grain foods, vegetables and meat are necessary. Too 
 much grain causes the hens to get fat and lazy; the eggs, if 
 they lay any, will be weak in the germ or perhaps thin-shelled 
 and easily broken. Breeding stock must have exercise and 
 you must see that they are induced to take it. 
 
 No eggs should be saved for hatching until the cock has 
 been with the hens at least ten days. Where we are trying 
 to improve our flock as egg producers we should use trap 
 nests so that a record can be kept of our breeding hens 
 through all their laying period, and by setting eggs from those 
 that are heavy layers we shall perpetuate the egg laying habit 
 in their offspring. We can, too, in this way perpetuate any 
 of the desirable qualities which characterize the parent stock. 
 When a hen wishes to set, make a nest for her in a quiet 
 place where she is not likely to be disturbed. The nest 
 should be about fifteen inches square. Place a sod in the bot- 
 tom and cover it with chaff or straw. Dust some sulphur in 
 the nest or place in it some dried tanzy. Do not set a hen 
 
344 POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 in an old nest, as it is usually infested with vermin. It is 
 easier to prevent the chicks from being infested with mites 
 than it is to cure them. It is well to place under the hen 
 for the first few hours some china eggs in order to find out 
 if she is going to be a good sitter. Put a box over her for 
 the night. After twelve hours take these away and place 
 under her thirteen of the eggs from the breeding flock. See 
 that only uniformly large eggs are used for this purpose. 
 They give stronger and more vigorous chicks. Keep the hen 
 well supplied with food and fresh water. When the eggs have 
 been under the hen eight days they may be examined by 
 holding them up to the light of a house lamp. The infertile 
 eggs will at this time appear clear, while the fertile ones 
 will appear dark. If a number say three of the hens have 
 been set at the same time it may be that all the fertile eggs 
 can at the end of eight days be placed under two of the 
 hens. 
 
 It is a difficult problem to get eggs suitable for hatching 
 during the winter months where hens have to be confined. 
 Where the breeding flock can have the run of a manure pile, 
 scratch about and have an abundance of out-of-door exercise, 
 much better results are obtained. When in confinement the 
 germ is usually so weak that it dies in the shell, or if a chick 
 hatches it is so weak that it has but a short lifetime. 
 
 Pour cocks to a hundred hens when running loose together 
 will give a large percentage of fertile eggs. When the breed- 
 ing season is over the cocks should be separated from the 
 hens and put in their own enclosures and fed a diet of green 
 food, and a ration similar to that of the laying hen. His 
 quarters should always be warm enough so that there will be 
 no danger of his comb freezing. 
 
LECTURE XCII. 
 
 JUDGING POULTRY FROM A UTILITY STANDPOINT. 
 
 This lecture is intended to enable one to pick out a utility 
 bird; but it is not intended to be used in judging poultry 
 from a fancier's standpoint any farther than conformation 
 is concerned. 
 
 A utility bird up to the required weight given for the 
 standard of the breed for a good sized, early-maturing bird 
 is what is wanted for the market. As the feeding bird in 
 order to be an economic producer must possess constitutional 
 vigor, so must the parent stock. 
 
 The Male. He should be a bird of good general appearance, 
 low-set, broad, deep, with vigorous stylish carriage, and should 
 possess the size and color and other characters that go to 
 make up the breed. 
 
 A medium length, broad, strongly curved beak, a wide 
 head, a large, full, bright eye and medium length of neck 
 are indications of constitutional vigor and good feeding qual- 
 ities. A long, slender beak, small, sunken eye, long, narrow 
 head and slim neck go with delicacy of constitution and 
 should be discriminated against. 
 
 A long, straight, shallow breast bone with a covering of 
 muscle to give it a plump appearance is what is desired. A 
 deep, angular breast bone gives the dressed carcass a rough 
 appearance that detracts very much from its selling price 
 when placed on the market. Thick-fleshed white breast meat 
 attracts the consumer. 
 
 Broad shoulders are looked for and this breadth should be 
 carried well back to the tail, as this adds to the size and 
 weight and gives a larger bird at time of maturity. The 
 back should possess only medium length, as this gives a 
 plumper, more symmetrical carcass. 
 
 A strong, well-muscled thigh is very desirable, not because 
 the thigh meat is the best, by any means, but strong, well- 
 muscled thighs usually indicate a strong, vigorous, heavily- 
 meated bird. The legs should be straight, strong and set 
 wide apart. The bone should not be coarse, but it should 
 
346 POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 possess sufficient size with quality to carry the body during 
 his period of usefulness. If the leg are bent in at the joints 
 it is an indication of weakness of bone and also of constitution. 
 He should be thickly covered with feathers fine in quality. 
 
 In summing up, the cock should be a vigorous, low down, 
 thick, blocky bird, with an abundance of breast meat, a strong 
 constitution, strong, straight bone and a wealth of plumage, 
 and should weigh 8% to 9% pounds. 
 
 The Hen. The hen, like the cock, should possess a pleasing 
 general appearance. The head should be medium short and 
 broad with a medium short, strongly curved beak, a large, 
 full, bright eye, and a medium, short, strong neck indications 
 of strength and constitutional vigor and easy to keep. A long, 
 slim beak, sunken eye and long head and neck are indica- 
 tions of weakness of constitution. The breast bone should be 
 long, straight and only medium depth, with a plump covering 
 of white meat to give the round, full appearance to the breast. 
 
 Broad shoulders, with width carried back to tail and a me- 
 dium length of back are very desirable. 
 
 The thighs should be large and plump; made so by a large 
 development of muscle. 
 
 Short, strong, straight legs are as much sought for in the 
 hen as in the cock. Long, weak, knock-kneed legs do not go 
 with a good producer of either eggs or cockerels for fat- 
 tening. 
 
 Then hen, too, should be covered with a thick coat of 
 feathers and present the appearance of a low-down, blocky 
 utility female weighing from 7% to 8 pounds. 
 
LECTURE XCIII. 
 
 IMPROVING THE FLOCK. 
 
 Many investigations have been conducted to ascertain the 
 relative value of pure-bred and scrub poultry as economic 
 producers of eggs and meat. The results of these are quite 
 conclusive in favor of the pure-bred. In the production of 
 eggs they yield a larger and more uniform product. As a mar- 
 ket bird the pure-bred gives a larger, plumper, juicier carcass, 
 more uniform in size and color. They are earlier maturers 
 and put on flesh more economically. 
 
 The farmer owning a flock of pure-bred poultry will think 
 much more of them; will take more pride in them; and will 
 consequently give them the care and attention that is neces- 
 sary for one to realize the greatest profit from any class of 
 live stock. Knowing these facts, it follows that we should 
 seek to improve our poultry either by establishing a pure- 
 bred flock or by carefully and intelligently grading up the 
 one we already have. 
 
 Dairy farmers have been busy for years improving their 
 dairy herds by increasing the quantity, improving the quality, 
 and lengthening out the period of lactation of the individual 
 cows in the herd. This improvement has been effected by 
 the use of the Babcock test and scales together with proper 
 care and management of the stock, selection, mating, feed and 
 care. 
 
 Cows that gave a good account of themselves at the pail 
 (that gave at least 6,000 pounds of milk a year) were kept 
 as breeders. Heifers were saved from these cows and were 
 trained to milk a long time. Bulls were saved from good 
 producing cows and were mated with heifers from good milk- 
 ers in order to perpetuate in their offspring the good milking 
 qualities which they had inherited from their ancestors. 
 Pure-bred males were always used and these must show in 
 their pedigree good performing ancestors on the dam's side 
 even to the third and fourth generation. 
 
 Now the same plan should be followed in the improvement 
 of our flocks. 
 
348 POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 A good method of starting a pure-bred flock is to buy, in 
 the spring, from some reliable source, a couple of sittings of 
 eggs from a good laying strain of utility fowls. Be sure that 
 the strain is right, for there are good strains and bad strains. 
 Strains that will lay in winter; strains that will lay ten dozen 
 eggs a year; and strains that will not lay three dozen; strains 
 that will want to sit all the time, and strains that will scarcely 
 ever ask for that pleasure. Some strains possess early ma- 
 turing characters without coarseness, while there are others 
 that are coarse, ungainly looking fowls no matter what at- 
 tention you give them. All these strains, and many others, 
 may be found in the same breed, depending upon the methods 
 that have been employed in developing them. 
 
 Having your two or three sittings hatched and reared in 
 the fall, separate the cockerels and pullets. You will likely 
 be able to dispose of the pure-bred cockerels to good advan- 
 tage to your neighbors, if they are from the right kind of 
 stock. If you cannot, put them in a crate and get them ready 
 for market . Do not keep them at any rate. Procure a cock- 
 erel from some breeder to mate with your best bird to get 
 your eggs for your next crop of chickens. 
 
 When your pullets begin to lay it is a good plan to pro- 
 cure what are known as trap nests. By using these you will 
 be able to keep a record of each hen's laying. When time 
 for mating comes shut up eight or ten of the hens, that have 
 proven themselves good layers, and that are otherwise suit- 
 able, with a good cock, and in ten days eggs may be saved for 
 hatching. The good layers may be marked by puncturing 
 a hole in the web of the foot or by a band of some sort 
 around the leg. Never allow a cock to run with hens, except 
 when you want eggs to set, and then only with the breeding 
 hens. Set the eggs under brooding hens, as mentioned in a 
 preceding lecture, and continue making selections based on 
 type and performance. Use cocks that are from good laying 
 strains. Feed and train the hens so that they will increase 
 their egg laying propensity, and in this way an excellent egg 
 laying strain may be built up and perpetuated. Breed only 
 from mature hens. 
 
 Grading Up. Many farmers have already some good laying 
 hens among their scrub flock. Cull out those that are poor 
 producers, procure a PURE-BRED cock as already described, 
 and mate him with the good layers. Set the eggs and make 
 careful selection in the fall. Fatten and kill ALL the cock- 
 
FLOCK IMPROVEMENT. 349 
 
 erels. If the old cock has given a good account of himself, 
 trade him with some breeder for another of equal merit, so 
 that you will not have to in-breed your stock. In-breeding is 
 likely to lead to weakness in your stock, though it is used 
 much by poultry breeders to intensify the blood and cause 
 greater prepotency in the transmission of desirable charac- 
 teristics in producing show stuff. By following this system 
 of procuring only pure-bred cocks and selecting the best fe- 
 males, in four or five years you will have a high grade flock 
 (practically pure-bred so far as utility is concerned). 
 
LECTURE XCIV. 
 
 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION. 
 
 The production of summer eggs is not a difficult matter at 
 all. Nearly every farmer with his ordinary scrub flock will 
 always have some eggs to carry to market. There are so many 
 producing eggs at this season of the year that the supply is 
 large and the price naturally falls until there is very little 
 margin left for the producer. 
 
 During the last winter we have seen eggs 50 and GO cents 
 per dozen, and in many of the eastern cities the price reached 
 even a higher limit, going in some cases to 75 cents. This 
 is, of course, very hard on the consumer, but the seller reaps 
 a handsome profit. During the past winter there was a great 
 scarcity, due probably in part to a reduced number of laying 
 pullets on account of cold, wet seasons of 1903 and 1902, when 
 young chicks could not be successfully reared. The excep- 
 tionally high prices of the winter of 1904 can be accounted 
 for in part, but taking one year with another the winter egg 
 is the one that yields the large profit to the producer, and it 
 will continue to do so for sometime, at least, until a very 
 much larger number of men have learned how to breed and 
 feed for winter eggs. 
 
 There are three or four essentials to success in this busi- 
 ness. In the first place, we must have the right breed. Some 
 breeds are naturally summer layers. These are the Leghorns, 
 Andalusians, Minorcas, all of which may with care have cer- 
 tain strains bred for winter laying. The American breeds, 
 Rocks, Wyandottes and the English Orpingtons, are better 
 winter layers. In choosing a breed for winter layers it is 
 better to select one from the last three named. But it must 
 be kept in mind that more depends upon the strain than upon 
 the breed. There are good and poor laying strains in every 
 breed. The laying character depends upon the breeding and 
 training rather than upon the breed. 
 
 Young pullets are usually the best winter layers. These are 
 obtained by having chickens hatched along the middle of 
 
EGG PRODUCTION. 351 
 
 April, not later than the first week in May. These birds, if 
 hurried along to early maturity, should arrive at that stage 
 not later than six to seven months and should start laying 
 about the first of November. You cannot expect good re- 
 turns from stock that is weak in constitution or lacking in 
 vigor. Select strong, matured pullets Gy 2 to 7 months of age 
 from a laying strain for the production of winter eggs. Keep 
 a record of these pullets and mark them in some way so that 
 the best ones may be kept the next winter as breeders from 
 which to raise the future flock. We believe that "like pro- 
 duces like," so that by breeding from these good layers we 
 shall obtain others of their kind. During the second winter, 
 these that are being retained as breeders should not be fed 
 on a laying ration until near spring, when we want eggs to 
 set. When this time comes, have them shut up with a cock 
 from a good laying strain and feed all on a laying ration. Eggs 
 set from these hens should give us the winter layers we are 
 seeking. To breed this kind of birds will require the patience 
 and perseverance that are so necessary to make any of our 
 live stock operations a success. 
 
 Yearling hens that moult early will usually give a good 
 account of themselves in the winter. Some poultry men man- 
 age their yearling winter layers somewhat as follows: In 
 July they turn them into a grassy enclosure, where they re- 
 ceive very little feed except grass and water and a half hand- 
 ful of grain per day. These hens when taken in and fed on 
 a laying ration will usually commence laying in a short time. 
 Hens over two years old are not profitable layers except in 
 rare cases found in the lighter breeds. Proper housing is 
 necessary. The house for winter laying should be dry, light, 
 well ventilated and comfortably warm, from 40 to 50 degrees. 
 Fowls are better to be in cooler quarters that are dry, light 
 and well ventilated than in warmer quarters lacking these. 
 The housing has already been taken up quite fully in the 
 lecture on "poultry houses," so that nothing further is neces- 
 sary here except to add that every precaution be taken to 
 add to the comfort of the fowls in the way of nests and roosts. 
 These should be so arranged that they can be taken out easily 
 to be cleaned and rid of vermin. 
 
 Best results are obtained in summer by keeping the hens 
 enclosed in a large run where they can have grass and ex 
 ercise. Each hen should have at least 125 to 150 square feet 
 of grass to pick over. 
 
352 POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The feeding of winter layers is one of the points which 
 is commonly overlooked. You may be ever so good to the 
 best laying strains of pullets, but if the ration is not carefully 
 selected you will have no eggs. The ration of the laying hen 
 in winter should be as nearly as possible like that obtained 
 when running free in the summer. Grain, vegetables and meat 
 in about equal parts should give excellent results. The grain 
 should be a mixture of barley, oats, crushed peas, and buck- 
 wheat, if these can be secured. In winter, especially when 
 the weather is cold, corn may be added. Too much corn 
 causes the hens to get fat and lazy, when they take to the 
 perch and spend most of their time there. This grain mixture 
 may be fed to advantage early in the morning, or late at 
 night. It should be scattered around in the litter so that the 
 hens will scratch about for the first two hours of the morn- 
 ing for it, thereby gaining sufficient exercise to keep them 
 in a good healthy condition. At 9 o'clock they should be 
 given a mash made by mixing about equal parts of bran, 
 shorts, ground corn, ground clover, or alfalfa leaves which 
 have been steamed. In winter this mash is made by mixing 
 with water and is fed warm. In summer sour milk may be 
 used. About a quart of this is fed to fifteen hens. 
 
 At noon they should receive some vegetable food such as 
 cabbage, mangels, turnips, carrots or sprouts. At 3 o'clock 
 another mash should be given, and at night the whole grain 
 should be scattered in the litter just before they take to the 
 roost. 
 
 A pound of ground raw bone should be fed twice a week to 
 fifteen fowls. Meat should be given them regularly at noon. 
 Boiled liver, beef heads and such like will supply this part of 
 the ration in winter. Animal meal and blood meal mixed with 
 grain about 1 to 1C is a good form in which to supply this 
 part of the ration in summer, as the other forms become 
 putrid in hot weather. 
 
 Grit, gravel, oyster shells and lime should be supplied in 
 abundance. Give them plenty of pure water to drink in win- 
 ter. Keep them in good healthy condition by giving them 
 exercise and fresh air. It is a good thing to throw the doors 
 open a good part of the day so long as the fowls are kept 
 moving about in search of food. Do not allow the hens' 
 combs to freeze as this will stop their laying. 
 
LECTURE XCV. 
 
 FEED STUFFS SUITABLE FOR POULTRY. 
 
 The body and feathers of a fowl consist of water, ash, pro- 
 tein and fat; so it is clear that the feed supplied must con- 
 tain the compounds that will supply these. About one-half 
 of the dry matter in the body of a fowl is protein and about 
 8 per cent, is ash. Investigations made by Jenter at the New 
 York Experiment Station show that the body of a Leghorn 
 hen body, blood, bones, feathers and viscera contains 55.8 
 per cent, water, 21. G per cent, protein, 3.8 per cent, ash, and 
 17 per cent. fat. 
 
 A fresh egg is made up of, shell, 11.4 per cent.; water, G5.7 
 per cent.; fat, 8.9 per cent.; protein, between 11 and 13 per 
 cent. Of the total dry matter in an egg, including the shell, 
 there is 35.G per cent, ash, 25.9 per cent, fat, and 33 to 38 per 
 cent, protein. 
 
 Carbohydrates and Fats. These supply the fat forming and 
 heat producing compounds. The fats are capable of doing 
 about 2.4 times as much work as the carbohydrates. These 
 are contained in the common grains used as feed stuffs. 
 
 Ash. This is the material from which bone and shell are 
 built up. 
 
 Lime is the compound which enters so largely into the com- 
 position of the egg shell, and must be supplied in some other 
 way than in the ordinary feeds grain and grass. 
 
 Animal Feeds. These consist of highly nitrogenous feed 
 stuffs made from meat scraps, blood, dried fish and skim milk. 
 
 Waste meat, such as beef heads, scrap and other waste 
 products may be fed either cooked or raw. If cooked, the 
 juices in which the meat is cooked should be mixed in with 
 the mash. 
 
 Dried blood is a concentrated food containing a large per- 
 centage of protein. It can be fed in mashes to growing chicks 
 or laying hens. It should be mixed 1 part to 16 of meal. 
 
 Ground Raw Bones. If raw bones are ground up fine so 
 fowls can eat them they are much relished. 
 
354 POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Milk. Sour skim milk and buttermilk are both excellent 
 feeds for fattening poultry or for laying hens. Nothing has 
 been found that will satisfactorily take the place of these 
 feeds. 
 
 Vegetable Food. In compounding a ration for fowls, vege- 
 table foods such as cabbage, turnips, mangels, carrots, clover 
 and alfalfa serve excellently in adding to the bulk and suc- 
 culence. Cabbage may be suspended from the ceiling so that 
 it will hang above the floor within reaching distance of the 
 fowls. Working at this they obtain much necessary exercise. 
 Turnips and other roots may be suspended in like manner 
 or they may be fastened on a nail on the wall. Clover and 
 alfalfa are very suitable for litter. Sometimes fowls take 
 too much of these dry vegetable foods and as a result their 
 crops become impacted. 
 
 Grains. Of the grains there are many that are very suit- 
 able. The kinds for you to use are the ones that are most 
 easily and cheaply obtained. Wheat is the food par excel- 
 lence for hens. Corn is also a very excellent food for poultry. 
 It is, of course, a fattening food and should be fed as such. 
 It is better to feed it cracked or ground. Cracked corn 
 sprinkled among the litter keeps the hens scratching to find 
 these nutty morsels, and in this way they obtain much valu- 
 able exercise. Ground corn may be fed to advantage with 
 other grains in mashes. Whole corn is large and easily seen) 
 and does not afford the exercise in the search for it. 
 
 Oats, with the hulls on, are somewhat bulky, and on this 
 account are not so desirable in this entire form; but when 
 hulled the oat grain for growing or fattening poultry is very 
 excellent. 
 
 Buckwheat partakes somewhat of the nature of corn and 
 is a good fattening food. In order to accustom hens to it, 
 it is well to boil it for them the first two or three times. 
 After that they will usually take to it readily. Sometimes it 
 is necessary to starve them a day in order to get them to 
 eat it the first time. 
 
 Barley on account of its course hulls is better to be ground 
 and fed in mashes with other grains. It, too, is somewhat 
 of a fattening food. 
 
 Bran and shorts serve an excellent purpose in a poultry 
 ration in that besides furnishing growing material they tend 
 to keep the digestive system in a good, healthy condition. 
 There are many seeds, too, around the farm that can be used 
 
FEEDING STUFFS FOR POULTRY. 355 
 
 to good advantage in the feeding of poultry. It must be kept 
 in mind that variety in the rations is the secret of much of 
 the success in poultry feeding. 
 
 Lime. A large amount of lime must be utilized by laying 
 hens in the manufacture of shells. This can be furnished 
 them in winter or summer, if confined, by giving them finely 
 pounded oyster shells, lime or previously dried egg shells. 
 The egg-eating habit is oftentimes forced upon hens by our 
 failing to furnish them with the necessary elements for the 
 structure of shells. 
 
 Grit. A hen has no teeth. Her food is masticated in what 
 we call the gizzard. This is a strong, muscular sack with a 
 tough membranous lining. This sack contains numerous 
 small, sharp, hard stones which serve to crush and grind up 
 the food that must pass through it. When hens are confined 
 they should be furnished with coarse coal ashes or gravel in 
 order that they may be able to secure the necessary "grit" 
 with which to grind their food. 
 
 Pure, fresh water should be supplied in abundance at all 
 times. Galvanized drinking tanks can be had at a very mod- 
 erate cost. 
 
LECTURE XCVI. 
 
 REARING CHICKS FEED, CARE AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The little chicks should have a good start when they first 
 emerge from the shell in order that they may be able to make 
 the best of their opportunities afterward. In giving them 
 this start we have an important part to perform in seeing 
 that the parent stock are fed and managed so that they will 
 produce eggs possessing highly vitalized germs. To do this 
 we must furnish them plenty of vegetable and animal food 
 and an abundance of pure, fresh air. The egg chosen to give 
 birth to the chick should be large and be covered with a 
 sound shell. The egg should be set under a hen that has 
 given evidence that she will be a good mother. Strong, 
 healthy chicks when hatched may soon succumb to the at- 
 tacks of parasites the three varieties of lice that infest 
 fowls. Precautions must be taken to prevent the ravages 
 of these pests. Do not set a hen in an old nest, as it is al- 
 most sure to be infested. Put a moth ball, some tansy or 
 sulphur in the nest before placing the eggs under the hen. 
 Dust insect powder into the feathers of the brooding hen 
 two or three times during her sitting period. Take a cloth 
 that has been moistened with coal oil and rub it over the hen's 
 breast. These precautionary measures should kill all lice that 
 may have infested either the hen or the nest. If the future 
 quarters are well removed from the hen house and kept clean 
 there should te no trouble from lice. After the little chick 
 is born warmth is much more necessary than food. He re- 
 quires a temperature of at least 90 degrees F., and this will 
 be furnished by the hen if the chicks are left in the nest with 
 her. No food is required by the chick for thirty-six hours 
 after it is hatched. Nature has provided for it, so that we 
 need not concern ourselves in regard to his diet until this 
 period of from thirty to thirty-six hours has elapsed. Many 
 chickens are lost from the attack of diarrhoea. This is caused 
 by giving them cold water to drink, sloppy food or by allow- 
 ing draughts to blow over them. "An ounce of prevention is 
 
REARING CHICKENS. 357 
 
 worth a pound of cure." When the chicks are thirty to thirty- 
 six hours old remove them with the mother to a small coop 
 that has been previously constructed, rain-proof on top, back 
 and sides, with vertical slats 2y 2 inches apart in front. This 
 may be conveniently made of a dry goods box two feet square 
 and two feet deep, or it may be built on a more elaborate 
 plan if time can be spared and tools and materials are at 
 hand. Place the coop out on a grassy sod and place around 
 it an enclosure about as large as a wagon box, 8 to 10 inches 
 high. After a week this may be removed and the chicks al- 
 lowed free range within call of the mother hen, which is kept 
 in confinement. 
 
 When placed in their new, clean quarters give them their 
 first meal prepared as follows: Take about equal parts of 
 onions, hard boiled eggs and dry bread. Chop everything fine, 
 including the shells of the eggs. Do not moisten with any- 
 thing. Feed this ration dry for two or three days, when oat- 
 meal may be substituted for the bread and some meat scraps 
 or boiled liver in the place of the onions and eggs. Give them 
 tepid water to drink. Cold water is apt to cause digestive 
 troubles which, if once provoked, are likely to cause serious 
 losses. If little chicks are confined, grit should be mixed in 
 their food. Sand and gravel should be always at their com- 
 mand. At ten days to two weeks old they should have scat- 
 tered in their litter a mixture composed of five parts cracked 
 wheat, three parts finely cracked corn, two parts millet. This 
 will keep them scratching and will afford them exercise, which 
 is all-important to the growth and development of healthy 
 chicks. Twice a day, now, they should receive a mash com- 
 posed of one part cornmeal, one part oatmeal and one part 
 bran mixed with sour milk. When fed the milk should be 
 squeezed from it and the mixture crumbled to them from the 
 hand. Succulent food must be supplied and may be furnished 
 by giving them lettuce, turnip, mangel, carrot or potato 
 sprouts; sometimes grain sprouts are fed. The chicken's ra- 
 tion should consist of about one-third grain, one-third vege- 
 table and one-third animal food. If the chicks are confined 
 and cannot range about in search of bugs and worms, you 
 must furnish a supply of animal food in the ration. Feed them 
 meat scraps, fresh boiled liver or you may add animal or 
 blood meal to the grain about 1 to 16. We must keep in mind 
 that for the first few days and weeks in the chick's life there 
 is a great drain on the system in order to provide material 
 
358 POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 for the growth of bone, muscle and feathers. Fat producing 
 foods such as corn will not supply the materials necessary to 
 the rapid upbuilding of these parts, but it will supply the 
 fuel and energy producing elements. The chick when hatched 
 from the shell will weigh less than two ounces. At ten weeks 
 old it should weigh nearly two pounds. At this rate there 
 has been an increase of about 1,700 per cent., an enormous 
 increase in so short a time. 
 
LECTURE XCVII. 
 
 FATTENING, KILLING AND PREPARING POULTRY FOR 
 MARKET. 
 
 There is usually excellent sale for birds properly fitted and 
 prepared for the market. Creamy white flesh is more desir- 
 able on most markets than yellow flesh. Birds weighing 
 about four pounds when finished bring the highest prices. 
 Large, coarse birds are not so attractive; besides, they are 
 more wasteful. Birds with deep, angular breast bones have 
 to be fed longer to make them look well, and so are more 
 costly feeders. 
 
 Select young, plump birds weighing three and one-half 
 pounds, or thereabouts, three and one half to four months old. 
 These are placed in crates made somewhat as follows: they 
 are six feet six inches long, twenty inches high, and sixteen 
 inches deep, and are divided into three compartments by solid 
 partitions. The top sides and bottom are made of one and 
 one-half inch slats, one-half inch thick. The slats on the back, 
 top and bottom run lengthwise, while those in front are placed 
 up and down two inches apart, so as to allow the birds to 
 run their heads through them at feeding time. The slats on 
 the bottom are three-fourths inch apart, so that the drop- 
 ping will fall through. Care should be taken that the last 
 slat is not placed tight against the back, so that the droppings 
 may fall through instead of lodging there. If the droppings 
 lodge in the crates they decompose and the crates become foul. 
 Slat doors are placed in front. A "V" shaped trough two and 
 one-half inches deep is placed along in front to hold their feed. 
 
 The crates may in warm weather be placed out of doors, 
 if covered so as to protect them from rain. In cold weather 
 they should be placed in a warm, dark place. The fatten- 
 ing period should not cover more than four weeks at most. 
 After that time feeding is very expensive and only the rougher 
 sort of birds will require the long period, hence the necessity 
 for choosing a right type of bird. 
 
 See that all birds are well dustM with sulphur before 
 crating. 
 
360 POULTRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The birds should be fed lightly for the first week three times 
 a day. After that they may be given all they will take twice 
 a day. Keep them well supplied with grit. .Pure, fresh water 
 should be given them twice a day to drink. Clean the troughs 
 one-half hour after feeding. Four to five birds, according to 
 size, may be placed in each compartment. 
 
 Birds take on flesh much faster and more economically 
 when fed in crates than when allowed to run at large or even 
 in pens. 
 
 A good fattening ration may be composed of two parts 
 ground corn, two parts ground buckwheat, and one part 
 ground oats made into a mush with sour milk or buttermilk; 
 or two parts ground barley, two parts ground corn, and one 
 part ground oats, mixed with milk; or ground oats without the 
 hulls, mixed with milk. When milk cannot be had, add animal 
 or blood meal about 1 to 16 grain, and mix with water. Add 
 a half ounce of salt to 150 chicks twice a week. 
 
 During the last week's feeding a little tallow may be added 
 to the ration, one pound for seventy to eighty birds. Too 
 much corn in the ration colors the flesh yellow. 
 
 Whsn the fattening period is over, which should be at the 
 end of three and one-half to four weeks, starve the birds from 
 thirty to thirty-six hours before killing, in order to allow time 
 for all food in crop and intestines to be removed. If the food 
 is left in the bird it decomposes and taints the flesh. 
 
 Killing is dene in two ways. The plan most in favor is to 
 dislocate the neck. This is done by holding the legs of the 
 bird firmly in the left hand just over the operator's hip, with 
 the back of the bird toward you. Seize the head of the bird 
 with the right hand, the forefinger back of the neck, the 
 crown of the bird in the palm of the hand, and the other three 
 fingers in front under the head. Draw the head down over 
 the right knee, stretch the neck and bend the head backwards, 
 dislocating the neck. Draw an inch and a half from the neck, 
 hold the head down so as to allow the blood to collect in the 
 neck. This method of killing gives a juicier, better flavored 
 product than does that of letting the blood out by cutting 
 deeply with a sharp pointed knife into the roof of the chicken's 
 mouth just below the eyes (from the inside course). 
 s Plucking should begin immediately after the neck is broken. 
 Pull the quill feathers of the tail and wings, strip the back, 
 wings and breast. Never allow the chicken to cool before 
 plucking, as the flesh is sure to tear if plucked cold. Leave 
 
MARKETING POULTRY. 361 
 
 a couple of inches of feathers on the neck nearest the head, 
 a little ruff around the hocks and last joint at tip of wing. 
 Pluck all the rest clean, leaving no pin feathers. Do not tear 
 the flesh. If you should happen to do so in your hurry, be sure 
 to draw the skin together with a white thread. Leave your 
 bird looking as attractive as possible. As soon as you have 
 finished plucking fold the legs up along the breast and place 
 the bird breast down in a shaping board, cover with a paper 
 and place on its back a brick or iron. The shaping board is 
 made with inch lumber. It is simply a right angled trough 
 six inches deep and six feet long. It should be tipped up a 
 little and the birds placed in it side by side with weights to 
 press them into shape. Allow them to cool twelve to twenty 
 hours before packing. They should be packed neatly in a box 
 three feet long, twelve inches deep and twelve inches wide. 
 The box should be lined with parchment paper to keep the 
 fowl clean and dry. Pine or basswood make good boxes. 
 Cedar is apt to taint the meat. 
 
 Having a first-class product, you should aim to have it reach 
 the best customers in order that your products may have a 
 ready market. Always have the best article and there will be 
 no danger in regard to its disposition at a good remuneration. 
 
JU 5 1904 
 
FOURTEEN DAY USE 
 
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