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 OBJECT-LESSO^\S AND ESS AY 8. 
 
 How to Understand Music: 
 
 ri CONCISE COURSE IN 
 
 Musical Intelligence and Taste. 
 
 TO H-'HICH IS ADDED A PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY AND CONDENSED 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MUSICAL TERMS AND INFORMATION. 
 
 By W. S. B. MATHEWS. 
 
 CHICAGO: 
 LYON & HEALY, PUBLISHERS. 
 
 1881.
 
 Copyright, 1880, By W. S. B. Mathews.
 
 TO MY MOTHER, 
 
 Whose unwearying Care, inexhaustible Patience, and never-pailing 
 Encouragement, Hope and Love, have many times enabled 
 
 HER son to overcome DIFFICULTIES OTHERWISE 
 insurmountable, THIS WORK IS DEDI- 
 CATED AS A feeble TOKEN 
 OF GRATITUDE AND 
 AFFECTION, 
 BY 
 
 The Author.
 
 I
 
 PREFACE 
 
 As a text l)ook, the present work covers a new ground. Its prime 
 object is to lead the student to a consciousness of music as music, and 
 not merely as playing, singing, or theory. It begins at the foundation 
 of the matter; namely, with the observation of musical phraseology, 
 the art of hearing and folloxmng coherent musical discourse. This oc- 
 cupies the first two parts, and covers a wide range of topics, as will be 
 seen by reference to the table of contents, or the chapters themselves. 
 
 From that point the studies take a different turn, and lead to the 
 perception of the inner something which gives music its life. That in- 
 ner life of music is imagination and feeling, and almost the en- 
 tire remainder of the work is taken uj) with the study of music in re- 
 lation to these, its Content. These studies, like those in the externals 
 of music, begin simply, at the very line where form and content touch. 
 In their progress they take in review the principal works of the classical 
 and modern schools, as will be seen by reference to Parts III, V, VI, 
 VII, and VIII. The object of all this study is two-fold; first, to de- 
 velop in the pupil a consciousness of the inherent relation between 
 music and feeling; and, second, to do this by means of master-works, 
 which, of course, form the only complete and authoritative illustrations 
 of this relation. In this way the musical perceptions are sharpened, 
 the student is introduced to the best parts of musical literature, and 
 thereby his taste and musical feeling are cultivated. It is easy to see, 
 therefore, that this book occupies a ground not previously covered by 
 a text book. 
 
 In form, the chapters are object-lessons. Such and such works, 
 or parts of works, are supposed to be played or sung to the pupils, who 
 observe in them such and such peculiarities. This form was selected 
 because it is the true v.^ay of communicating this instruction, which 
 can not be taken into the mind through the reason, but must be called 
 up within the mind through a comparison of sense-impressions with 
 each other, and these, again, with the feelings which they awaken. Music 
 is one thing, and ideas about music another. It is the design of this 
 study to bring the pupils to music; for doing this, the book marks out a 
 
 5
 
 6 PREFACE. 
 
 plan, and furnishes along with it such ideas about music as will aid the 
 process. 
 
 The Illustrations^ or pieces to be played, cover a wide range, es- 
 pecially in the higher departments, and the objection has been made 
 that they are too difficult. To this it can only be answered that the 
 very efssence and pith of music is here in consideration, and that the 
 points in discussion could be adequately understood only by the help 
 of these great works, wherein they are fully illustrated. It will be 
 found possible, generally, to omit the most difficult works in cases where 
 there is no one to play the parts of them here wanted. In other cases, 
 where an entire lesson turns on difficult works, it is safe to conclude 
 that if there is no one to play any part of them, there will be no one 
 to understand them, and the lesson may be postponed. 
 
 In Part Fourth we have, in effect, an outline of ^'Esthetics. The 
 Author believes that the time has come when Art-appreciation, and 
 especially Music, has much to gain by such an orientation of itself with 
 reference to cardinal principles. These four chapters, naturally, address 
 themselves t th mature and serious. They are not written for children, 
 nor even for youth. A work like this addresses many adults, ex- 
 perienced teachers, and friends of music, on whom a discussion of this 
 kind will not be lost. Doubtless the execution is crude, and in a sub- 
 sequent edition will be improved; it is hoped that the expectation of 
 this may serve to draw a veil of charity over any present imperfection. 
 The Historical sketches are merely sketches, and are in part re- 
 printed by permission of Messrs. Biglow and Main, from the New York 
 Musical Gazette. They may be made the basis of lectures or school- 
 room talks, in connection with their Illustrations. 
 
 The Dictionary^ at the close, affords a mass of readily accessible 
 information, such as is in constant demand among students and teachers, 
 but is not elsewhere to be found except in large Encyclopedias of many 
 volumes. The preparation of it has involved much more labor and ex- 
 pense than was anticipated* but its value for ready reference is un- 
 mistakable.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 LESSONS IN MUSICAL PHRASEOLOGY. 
 
 I. Thematic and Lyric. — II. Phrases and Periods. — III. Cadence. — IV. Modula- 
 tion. — V. Counterpoint and the Contrapuntal Spirit. — VI. Variations. — VIL 
 Rhythmic Pulsation and Measure. — VIII. Measure and Rhythmic Motion. — 
 IX. Rhythm and Motivization. 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 LESSONS IN MUSICAL FORM. 
 
 X. Elementary Forms. — Phrases and Periods. — XL Open and Closed Form?. — 
 XII. Irregular Period Forms. — Unitary Forms. — XIII. Binary Forms. — 
 XIV. Ternary Forms.— The Rondo. —XV. The Sonata Piece.— XVI. The 
 Sonata as a Whole. 
 
 PART THIRD. 
 
 PRELIMINARY STUDIES IN THE CONTENT OF MUSIC. 
 
 XVII. Content Defined.- XVIII. The Intellectual and the Emotional. — XIX. 
 Passages, Cadenzas and Effects. — XX. The Sensuous and the Idealized. — 
 XXI. Descriptive and Suggestive Music. 
 
 PART FOURTH. 
 
 STUDIES IN ART. 
 
 XXII. The Ideal and the Object of Art. — XXIII. The Nature and Meaning of 
 the Beautiful.— XIV. The Symbolic, the Classic, and the Romantic in Art. 
 XXV. The Content and Meaning of the Different Arts. 
 
 PART FIFTH. 
 
 STUDIES IN CLASSICAL MUSIC. 
 
 XXVI. ThePlaytul. — XXVII. The Tender and Soulful. —XXVIIL The Con- 
 tented and Jovial. — XXIX. The Earnest.— The Sonata as a Whole.— XXX. 
 The Beautiful in Classic Music, and the Transition Towards the Romantic. 
 
 7
 
 8 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART SIXTH. 
 
 • STUDIES IN THE ROMANTIC. 
 
 XXXI. The Chivalrous. — XXXII. The Gentle and Sentimental. — XXXIII. 
 The Humoristic and Passionate. — XXXIV. The Fanciful and the Pleasing. 
 — XXXV. The Sensational and the Astonishing. 
 
 PART SEVENTH. 
 
 STUDIES IN SONG. 
 
 XXXVI. — The Formative Influences in Music Generally. — 'The Influence ot 
 Poetry Upon Music, and the Conditions of Their Successful Union. — 
 XXXVII. Simple Ballads.— XXXVIII. Recitative. — XXXIX. The Aria.— 
 XL. The Thoroughly Composed Song {DurcJicoraponirte Lied), and the 
 Arioso. — XLI. The Opera and Oratorio. 
 
 PART EIGHTH. 
 
 BIOGRAPUICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS SKETCHES. 
 
 XLII. Bach. — XLIII. Handel. — XLIV. Ilavdn.- XLV. Mozart. — XLVI. 
 Beethoven.— XLVII. Mendelssohn.— XLVIII. Schumann.— XLIX. Chopin. 
 — L. The Piano-Forte Virtuosi and Liszt. — LI. Wagner, and the Music ot 
 the Future. — LII. Of Programmes. — LIII. A Study in the Psychology of 
 Music. 
 
 PART NINTH. 
 
 PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY AND CONDENSED ENCYCLOPEDIA OP MUSICAL TERMS, 
 INSTRUMENTS, COMPOSERS AND IMPORTANT WORKS. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 MUSICAL NOTATION, AND THE PRINCIPAL MELODIC EMBELLISHMENTS, VV^ITH THE 
 PROPER MANNER OF PERFORMING THEM.
 
 Pak»t First. 
 
 LESSONS IN MUSICAL PHRASEOLOGY. 
 
 LESSOI^ FIRST. 
 
 MOTIVES, PHRASES AXD PERIODS. 
 
 It is the object of this ler<son to lead tlie pupil to observe the 
 division of the music into periods and phrases; and subsequently to 
 develop a perception of the ditt'orent modes of period structure here 
 distinguished as thematic and lyric. As it is the sole design of tliis 
 course of lessons to facilitate intelligent hearing^ the pupils' pow(M-s 
 of observation are to be appealed to from the start. He is to' be clearly 
 infoi'UKHl of wliat he is expected to hear; the proper selections are 
 then to be i)layed over as many times as necessary until he does 
 observe. Each stage of the lesson is to begin with a definition, or 
 explanation of the phenomenon or peculiarity of music it is desired 
 to observe. Inasmuch as these earliest lessons represent only the 
 beo-innino-s of musical discrimination, the definitions in them will 
 possess somewhat of the character of off-hand approximations to the 
 truth, leaving exact statements to come later, when the pupils are 
 better prepared to appreciate them. The definitions here given repre- 
 sent so much of the truth as the pupil at this stage is ready to receive. 
 As thus: 
 
 1, A passage of melody tliat makes complete sense is 
 called a Period. 
 
 Play the first three or four of the Schubert danses twice through, 
 and more, if necessary. Instruct the class to say " Period " aloud at 
 the close of every period. Do not let the playing stop for them to 
 speak, but the feeling of repose mav be intensified by sliglitly empha- 
 sizing the cadence, and perhaps retarding a little, if found necessary. 
 As the period forms in these danses are clearly defined, it will be 
 foiuid easy to observe them.
 
 10 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 Let this be followed by No. 2 of the list of illustrations, repeat- 
 ing it as often as necessary, the pupils signifying every period-close by 
 the word " Period," as before. 
 
 No. 3, treated in the same manner, will conclude this stage of the 
 lesson. 
 
 2. A passage of melody that makes sense, but not com- 
 plete sense, is called a Phrase. 
 
 This topic is to be treated in the same way as the previous, the 
 pupils announcing the completion of every phrase by the word 
 " Phrase." Begin with No. 3, for in this the phrases are clearly 
 defined. Follow this by the next illustration, which may need to be 
 repeated several times. Then go back to No. 2 again, for its phrases. 
 This may be followed, if convenient, by No. 5 of the illustrations, 
 treated separately for periods and phrases. Then take up No. 6, 
 going over this also for both periods and phrases. 
 
 3. A fragment of melody that is reiterated over and 
 over, or transformed and developed into a period, is called a 
 Motive. (A motive is a musical text) 
 
 Begin by playing several times over the first six notes of No. 6, 
 which form a melodic figure. Then play the various transformations 
 of this figure which occur during the piece, omitting the accompani- 
 ment. Then play the entire first part of the Novellette (preceding 
 the slow melody), and let tlie pupils observe how many times the 
 melodic figure is repeated. It will be seen that this motive is the germ 
 of the entire movement. 
 
 Then take up No. 7, where will be found a period composed from 
 one motive — that contained in the first four notes. 
 
 Play again No. 3, and cause it to be observed that the melody there 
 is not developed out of a single motive, nor predominantly out of any 
 one motive. Thus we come to recognize two different forms of period- 
 structure. In one of them the periods are developed mainly from a 
 single motive; in the other there is a flowing melody. 
 
 4. Music developed out of a single motive, or a small 
 number of motives, is called Thematic, or motivized. 
 
 Examples of this mode are found in Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. 
 
 5. Music not developed motivewise, but having a flowing 
 melody, is called Lyric.
 
 THEMATIC AND LYRIC. H 
 
 Examples of this kind are Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and the slow melodies 
 in Nos. 5, 6, and 9. 
 
 Several lyric and thematic examples should be played one after 
 the other in irregular order, until the pupils readily distinguish 
 between them. 
 
 Musical Illustkations. 
 
 1. Schubert Danses (Peters' Ed.) 
 
 2. Schubert Menuetto in B miu., op. 78 (Peters' Ed. " Schubert Pieces). 
 
 3. Adagio, from Beethoven's Sonata in F min., op. 2, No. 1 (16 measures.) 
 
 4. No. 1 of Mendelssohn's " Sontrs Witliout Words" (Peters' Ed. "Kullak"). 
 
 5. Allegro from Beethoven's Sonata in Eb, op. 7. 
 
 6. Schumann Novellette in E, op. 21, No. 7. 
 
 7. Thirty-two measures of Finale of Beethoven's Sonata in D min., op. 31, No. 3. 
 
 8. Bach, Two-Part Inventions, No. 1, in C (Peters' Ed.) 
 
 9. Schumann Novellette in B miu., op. 99. 
 
 10. First movement of Sonata in F min., op. 3, No. 1, Beethoven. 
 
 LESSOR SECOND. 
 
 THEMATIC AND LYRIC. CLOSER OBSERVATION OF MOTIVES. 
 
 This lesson jDursues the same line as the first, in order to bring 
 the point out more clearly in the pupils' minds. Begin by a recapitu- 
 lation of that lesson. Play again the Schumann Novellettes and 
 Beethoven Adagio for periods and phrases. 
 
 Then play the Novellette in E clear through, in order to call 
 attention to the lyric middle part. Play then the AdcKjio from Sonata 
 Pathetique, of Beethoven, first for them to determine whether it is 
 thematic or lyric; then for phrases and periods. 
 
 The second part of the lesson is to be devoted to a Bach Prelude; 
 the one in B min. in the second book of the Well-tempered Clavier 
 suits well for this purpose, especially as there is a copy to be had 
 (Root & Sons Music Co., Chicago), in which the motives are numbered. 
 The immediate purpose is to recognize the different motives. This 
 prelude, e. g.^ contains seventeen or eighteen different motives. Prob- 
 ably the best way of securing sharp listening will be by first playing 
 over a single motive several times, in order to fix it securely in the 
 minds of the listeners. Then play the entire prelude, requiring each 
 listener to observe how many times that motive occurs in the course 
 of the piece. When the playing is done, ask each one in turn to state
 
 12 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 how many times the motive was repeated in the course of the work. 
 It will be found that a majority of the class will have succeeded in 
 recoo-nizing the motive at most of its repetitions. It Avill then be well 
 to play another motive, and then go through the work again, in order 
 to see how many times that one occurs. 
 
 Take next, e. g.^ the Bach Two-part Invention in F, No. 8, aiid 
 T)lav it first for "Thematic or Lvric?" Then define clearlv the first 
 motive, and go through the piece, the pupils meanwhile listening to 
 discover how many times that motive occurs in the right hand alone ; 
 then o-o throuo-h it asxain, to see how many times the same motive 
 occurs in the left hand alone. The object of this exercise is to lead 
 the pupils to attend to the left-hand part, as well as the treble. 
 If there is time, it will be well to play through the Schumann Novel- 
 lette in B min.,^ for the pupils to count the number of times the leading 
 motive occurs in it. 
 
 Play again eight measures of the Adagio from Sonata Pathetique, 
 in order to show that in lyric music there is generally a flowing melody 
 and accompaniment, and that the leading melody is not to be found in 
 the l)ass or intermediate parts, as in most of the examples of thematic 
 nuisic thus far introduced. 
 
 6. Lyric music is founded on the j^eople's song. It is 
 simple, natural nuisic. Thematic music represents a more 
 active musical life, and was j^i'iiii'irily derived from the 
 dance. Excitement finds expression mainly through the- 
 matic nuisic ; rej^ose through lyric. 
 
 Musical Illustrations of Second Lesson. 
 
 1. The Schumann Xovellettes in E (op. 21, No. 1) and B min. (op. 99), 
 
 2. Adagio from Beethoven's Sonata Pathetique. 
 
 3. Bach's Prelude in B min., No. 24 in Vol. II of "Clavier." 
 
 4. Bach's Two-part Invention, No. 8.
 
 ON CADENCE. 
 
 13 
 
 LESSOR THIED. 
 
 ON CADENCE. 
 
 7. A cadence is a formula of chords leading to a close. 
 
 Thus, e. </., in the key of C: 
 Ex. 1. 
 
 So in the Icev of Eb: 
 
 Ex.2. 
 
 (Play also in several other keys.) 
 
 Besides this, which is called a Complete cadence, there are other 
 cadences, the most common varieties of which are the Half Cadence 
 and Plagal Cadence. The latter is the well known "Amen " cadence 
 of church music. For example, play No. 1, above, and conclude with 
 the following- two chords, added: 
 
 Ex.3. 
 
 V 
 
 
 JL^ ^ 
 
 o 
 
 \\\\ ^ 
 
 
 \^ 1/ (V 
 
 ■% 
 
 %J _ 
 
 ^ 
 
 This is also called the Church Cadence. 
 
 8. The complete cadence is used to mark the close of 
 periods and imj^ortant divisions in musical compositions. 
 
 Listen now to the Adagio from the first Beethoven Sonata, and 
 when I play a cadence, say "cadence." At tlie end of the first pln-ase 
 there is a "half-cadence." (Play it.) Those who are able ma\' also 
 point out the half-cadences. 
 
 Play also Adagio from Sonata Pathetique; also, Schubert Menu- 
 etto in B min., and, finally, the Adagio in E from Beethoven's Sonata 
 in E min., op. 90. 
 
 If there is any difficulty in the pupils recognizing the cadences in
 
 14 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 these works, it will be well to introduce two or three pieces of church 
 music, for further practice in recognizing cadences. 
 
 Point out, also, the cadences in the Bach Invention in F, No. 8, 
 the Invention in C, No. 1, and the Fugue in G min., first volume of 
 " Clavier." 
 
 Musical Illustrations of Third Lessox. 
 
 1. Adaffios from Beethoven's Sonatas, No. 1 in F, op. 2, and op. 13 in C min. 
 
 2. Adagio from Beethoven Sonata in E, op. 90. 
 *3. Schubert Menuetto in B, op. 78. 
 
 4. Bach's Inventions in F (No. 8), and C (No. 1). 
 
 5. Bach's Fugue in G min. (No. IG), from " Clavier," vol. 1. 
 
 LESSQ]^ FOURTH. 
 
 IMITATIVE AND FUGUE FORMS. 
 
 9. Imitation in music takes place when a second voice 
 exactly re})eats a melody or phrase already heard in another 
 voice. 
 
 The term '-voice" here means voice-part. Observe, e.g., the Bach 
 Invention presently to follow, and you will perceive that it has only 
 two voices, a bass and soprano. It is in strict style, to the extent that 
 each part or voice contains no chords. Each part might be sung by a 
 single voice ; and two singers, a bass and soprano, could sing the 
 whole piece. 
 
 Listen now to the right hand alone, and point out the end of the 
 first phrase. It is: 
 
 Ex.4. 
 
 
 The first eight notes form the subject for imitation. Throughout 
 the first period the treble leads, and the bass afterwards imitates. In 
 the seventh measure the second period begins, and the left hand leads. 
 (Plays.) Listen and see how many times the bass imitates the treble 
 throughout this piece. (Seven times, viz.: in measures 1, 2, 15, 16, 17,
 
 IMITATIVE AND FUGUE FORMS. 
 
 1^ 
 
 18, and 20.) Listen again and see how many times the treble imitates 
 the bass. (Four times.) 
 
 Listen now to the Eightli Invention, and see how many times the 
 treble imitates; also how many times the bass. 
 
 The subject of the Fourth Invention is this: 
 
 Ex.5. 
 
 Listen as it is played through, and tell me how many times this subject 
 is repeated. (Plays.) 
 
 10. A fugue is a composition in which one voice an- 
 nounces a subject or theme, which is taken up in turn by 
 the other voices, each one entering after the 2:)revious has 
 completed the subject. 
 
 In fugues the imitating voice does not enter upon the same degree 
 as the antecedent, nor on the octave of it, as in most of the examples 
 so far given; but replies in a different key, according to certain rules 
 characteristic of this form of composition. The voices not performinof 
 the subject play complemental parts, called counter-subjects. As a 
 first example, listen to the following fugue in G minor, from Bach's 
 "Well-tempered Clavier." The subject is: 
 
 Ex. G. 
 
 How many times is this melodic figure repeated in the course of the 
 fugue? (Plays.) 
 
 Are fugues thematic or lyric? 
 
 Listen now to the Menuetto from Beethoven's Sonata in E^-i, 
 op. 31. Is it thematic or lyric? Observe the imitation at the begin- 
 ning of the second period. 
 
 Hear also the Scherzo from Beethoven's Sonata in C, op. 3. Is 
 this lyric or thematic? Is it imitative or not? 
 
 Hear also Schumann's Spring Song. Observe the imitation in 
 measure 18, where the alto imitates the soprano motive in the seven- 
 teenth measure; also in measures 23 and 24, where the tenor imitates
 
 10 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 the soprano phrase of the previous two measures. (In playing, bring 
 out these imitations by sufficient accentuation.) 
 
 Musical Illustkations. 
 
 1. Bach's First, Fourth, aud Eighth Inventions. 
 
 2. Bach's Fugue in G min., Chivier. 
 
 3. Menui'tto from Beethoven Sonata in E5, op. 31. 
 
 4. Scherzo from Beethoven's Sonata in C, op. 2, No. 3. 
 
 5. Schumann's Spring Song, from " Alhum for the Young," (No. 15). 
 
 LESSO]^ FIFTH. 
 
 OF COUNTERPOINT AND THE CONTRAPUNTAL SPIRIT. 
 
 11. The term "counterpoint" means, in general, any 
 new voice-part added to one already existing. 
 
 In a very rudimentary use of the term, it would be permissible to 
 describe the bass of an ordinary people's song, like "Hold the 
 Fort," as a counterpoint, though, to be sure, it is a very poor one. 
 The idea of counterpoint carries with it not only the construction of 
 an additional voice to one already existing, but of ?a\indep€)ident and 
 individually distinct voice, and not of a mere natural bass. Thus, e. g., 
 observe the bass of " Hold the Fort." (Plays.) You perceive that 
 the bass has properly no melody or movement of its own, but is all the 
 time concerned with furnishing a proper foundation to the chords. 
 Take now, on the other hand, E wing's air, "Jerusalem the Golden." 
 (Plavs.) Observe the bass, how freely and independently it moves, 
 and to what interesting harmonies it gives rise. How much more 
 inspiring than the monotony of "Hold the Fort!" The bass of 
 Ewing's "Jerusalem the Golden" is contrapuntally conceived. 
 
 Observe, again, this Gavotte of Bach's; it is in D (from a violin 
 sonata). In this, pro])erly speaking, we have little counterpoint. 
 
 Listen now to the following: It is Bach's Gavotte in D min. from 
 one of his suites. Notice the bass, and you will find that it has a steady 
 rhythmic motion of eighth notes. This bass has what is called "a 
 contrapuntal motion," and of that variety called "two against one," 
 tliat is, every melody note has two notes in the counterpoint.
 
 OF COUNTERPOINT. 17 
 
 Again, observe this Invention of Bach's, in K minor. In the first 
 part there is no contrapuntal Tuotioii; hut with the second period it 
 begins. Observe. (Also referred to in tlie next lesson.) 
 
 Listen now to this cluxrch tuno, " ])<>nnis." Is it eontrapuntal 
 or not? 
 
 Listen to this Chorale. Is tliis contrapuntal or not':' IT contra- 
 j)untal, in which part does the counterpoint lie? (It mav l)e proper to 
 say that the counterpoint in tliis piece is of the kind called "note 
 against note," with occasional "passing" notes; and that the ]>rincipal 
 counterpoint is the bass.) 
 
 Observe, again, the Bach Invention in E niin., No. 7, in the Three- 
 j^ai-t Inventions. In the first thirteen measures there is not wliat is 
 called a "contrapuntal motion." In the fourteenth measure such a 
 "motion" begins in the bass, and horn that point onwards for twenty- 
 three measures there is a contrapuntal motion of sixteenth notes, 
 interrupted only by the omission of a single sixteenth note at the 
 beginning of its twelfth measure. The motive is transferred from one 
 part to another; for four measures it runs in the l)ass, then for five 
 measures it alternates between the soprano and alto; it is then trans- 
 ferred to the bass for four measures; the soprano retains it during the 
 remaininof ten measures. In listenino- to this, one should also observe 
 that the leading motive of the piece is constantly transferred from one; 
 kev to another, and one voice to anoth(;i'. 
 
 Counterpoint gives dignity to a music-piece. It does this because 
 it displays intelligence^ and that in such a way as to lieighten tlu; 
 musical quality of the piece. 
 
 Musical J li.ustkations. 
 
 1. IMd the Fort. (Any other jxipular soiia; will do as well, c. <j.. Dr. Lowell 
 
 Mason's "Work, for the Night is C-oiiiing.") 
 
 2. Ewing's " Jerusalem the Golden." 
 
 3. Gavotte in D, Bach. (Arranged by Dr. AVni. ]\rason.) 
 
 4. Gavotte iu D min., Bach. (Pieces Favori.s, Bach. Edition Peters.) 
 .■). Bach's Tliree-jiart Invention in E niiii., No. 7. (I'eters.) 
 
 G. (Mun-ch Tune, " Dennis." 
 
 7. Chorale, " 8t. Paul," "Sleepers, Wake."
 
 IS HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 LESSOI^ SIXTH. 
 
 VARIATIONS. 
 
 The lesson to-dav beo-ins with the foHowiiio- niv Iroin the Andante 
 of Beethoven's Sonata in G, op. 14. TJiis will be played twice in order 
 to lix it in your memory. (Plays twenty measures.) 
 
 Observe now the followinar strain and see if it has anv resemblance 
 to the previous. (Plays the next ensuing twenty measures.) 
 
 In what respect is this like the air at beginning-? Listen now to 
 the harmony of the first eight measures. (Plays as before.) ■ 
 
 Hear also this, the harmony of the first ei"-ht of the sixteen meas- 
 lu'es last played. 
 
 Ex. 7. 
 
 I I I I III 
 d ^ ^ 4^ «i d c*, 
 
 E=3:e3 
 
 —I 
 
 $ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 It will be seen that they are exactly the same, except that the 
 melody is now in a middle voice. 
 
 Observe now the melody of the first eight measures. (Plays again 
 eight meas. of air.) And the melody of the eight measures j^layed after- 
 wards. You perceive that the melody is the same, although in the 
 latter case it is assigned to the tenor. The accompaniment, however, 
 is considerably elaborated, and comes above the melody; the time also 
 is cut up into half and quarter beats. We have here a variation in the 
 form of the air. The melody and harmony are the same; merely the 
 form of them is changed without imparting any essentially new mean- 
 ing to the air. Observe now the second variation of the same air. 
 (Plays.) In this you hear the melody in the soprano, but entering- 
 always on the half-beat. When it is played on the beat you at once 
 recognize it. (Plays aij- in simple form.) This, also, as you see is 
 merely a variation in the form. The harmony and melody are the same 
 as before, and there is therefore no new meaning except such as is derived 
 from or denoted by the increasing animation and complexity of rhyth- 
 mic motion.
 
 VARIATIONS. 
 
 19 
 
 The next variation is a little more elusive in character. It besrins: 
 
 Ex. 8. 
 
 RZ5 «2' 
 
 — 6 — \-» — I >■ i~^ «, ■ "! -# — \-^--i-* — ; — » - - f—s-a — ■--'*-* — f—^*—^*^:^ — 
 
 P?EE= 
 
 _L. 
 
 
 
 Wlieu played softly the melody is not distinctly perceived, l)ut 
 seems to be looking out at us throng-h a veil. If the uj)p(M- notes of the 
 right hand part are played alone (as indicated by the accent marks,) 
 it is at once perceived that we have here the melody in its orio-inaj 
 form. Here also the melody and harmony are unchanged, and here 
 again, consequeiitly, we have no essentially new meaning. 
 
 Consider now the following air from Beethoven's Sonata in Aflat, 
 op. 26. (Plays air.) Observe now the first variation. (Plays.) Here 
 we have a more decided departure from the original. The hai-mony 
 remains the same; enough of tlie melody remains unchanged toenal)h> 
 the listener to refer it to the air just heard as its source. Still it is in 
 several respects a new air. 
 
 The second vaiiation makes a still wider departure. (Plays.) 
 Here you observe that the melody is cut up into repeating notes, and 
 ])laced in the bass. In the third variation the key is changed to the 
 minor of the same name, and the original harmonic figure is carried out 
 in syncopation, producfng a distortive effect, not unlike that of viewing 
 your face in a bad mirror. In the fourth variation we have the air trans- 
 formed into a scAgrso, a playful movement, as different as possible from 
 the repose of the original air. The fifth variation, again, l:»rings back 
 the original air, but much ornamented. 
 
 In both these sets of variations is to be observed the same law of 
 progression, namely, from the siuq^le towards greater variety and di- 
 versification. The cocTa at the end of the last set was for the purpose of 
 conducting the movement back again to a natural repose. 
 
 These variations in the last set (A flat, op. 2(5) are of a dilferent kind 
 from those first examined. In these not only is the form of the original 
 air diversified, and in that way varied, but the variations are of such a 
 nature that they have the eff"ect of imparting or bringing out a new 
 meaning- in each variation. Beethoven was the great composer of this 
 form of variation. 
 
 Let us examine another set of variations by Beethoven, his Eight
 
 20 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 Variations on the theme " Une Fiebre brulante," by Gretry, found in the 
 volume of "Beethoven's Variations." Each one of these is to be com- 
 pared with the theme until its construction is obvious, and its relation 
 to the theme plainly understood. Another example of formal varia- 
 tions is to be found in the Andante and variations of Beethoven's Sonata 
 Appassionata, o]^. 57. (Billow's edition.) See also Mozart's variations in 
 A, in one of his sonatas (No. 12, Peters' edition). 
 
 12. A variation of an air is an amplification of it, or 
 nnfolding, by means of auxiliary notes, rhythmic devices, 
 changes of movement, etc., yet in such a way as to leave 
 resemblance enouoli between the theme and variation to 
 indicate their relation. 
 
 In order to do this and yet allow the varying to be carried to the 
 full extent of the composer's genius, it is usual to arrange the series of 
 variations progressively according to their elaboration, tlie simplest first. 
 
 13. Variations are of two kinds, Foj^mal and Charac- 
 ter. In the former the air or theme is elaborated without 
 changing its original meaning or expression. Of this khid 
 are the Beethoven variations in C and J)b (Nos. 1 and 5, 
 below). Character variations change the original character 
 or expression of the melody, as was seen in the Beethoven 
 variations in K.b. 
 
 List of Illustuatioxs. 
 
 1. Audante from Beethoven's Sonata in G, op. 14, No. 2. 
 
 2. Air and Variations in Kb. from SoBata, op. 26. 
 
 3. Variations on Grctry's " Une Fiebre brulante," Beethoven. 
 
 4. Air and Variations in A, No. 12 of Peters' ed. of Mozart's Sonatas. 
 
 5. Andante and Variations from Beethoven's Sonata Appassionata.
 
 RHYTHMIC PULSATION AND MEASURE. 21 
 
 LESSON SEVENTH. 
 
 RPIYTPIMIC PULSATION AND MEASURE 
 
 14. Kliytlnn means "measured flow." 
 
 Music is measured by a pulsation which goes entirely through the 
 movement at the same rate of speed, like the human pulse. This tunda- 
 mental rhythmic pulsation is commonly expressed by the accompani- 
 ment. Observe now the accompaniment of this little waltz. (Plays 
 left-hand part of the first Schubert waltz.) Beat with your hands on 
 the table before you, the same pulsation while I play. 
 
 Mark the pulsation in the example I now play. (Plays No. 2, in 
 the list.) 
 
 In the same manner mark the pulsation in the example, I now play. 
 (Plays a polka. No. 3, or any other convenient one; but not too fast. 
 Be sure that it sounds here like four beats in the measure.) 
 
 These pulsations are grouped by means of accents into groups 
 called measures. 
 
 There may be two, three, four, six, nine or twelve pulsations in a 
 measure. Observe now the following, mark the pulsations and the 
 accents, and tell me how many pulsations there are in a measure. 
 (Plays No. 1, again. Be sure that every measure has a decided accent.) 
 
 Observe the following: (Plays No. 4.) 
 
 How many pulsations are there in a measure in this example? 
 (Plays No. 5.) 
 
 Mark the pulsation in No. G. (Plays.) 
 
 Observe now the measures in the same. (Plays again.) How 
 many pulsations were there in a measure? (If not correctly answered, 
 repeat the example and accent a little more.) 
 
 Observe the pulsation in this example. (Plays No. 7.) This 
 admits of being understood in two ways: If played slowly it sounds 
 like six pulsations in a measure. (Plays.) If played more rapidly and 
 accented a little differently, it sounds like two triplets in the measure, 
 and you naturally beat it as if there were two pulsations in a measure. 
 (Plays.) 
 
 Observe the pulsation in this example. (Plays No. 8.)
 
 22 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 Observe now the measures and tell me how many pulsations in a 
 measure. (Plays again.) 
 
 Mark the pulsation in this example. (Plays No. 9). 
 
 How many pulsations in a measure? (Plays again if necessary.) 
 
 Observe the pulsation and the measures in this example. . (Plays 
 No. 10.) 
 
 Observe further that the same pulsation runs through an entire 
 movement. (Plays No. 11, the class marking the pulsation by a motion 
 of the hand for each pulse, paying no attention to the measures.) 
 
 Note : — There are two opiuious in regard to the ultimate nature of measure, 
 one lioUling it to be " a portion of time," the other " a group of pulses." The 
 true conclusion would seem to be that measure in music is " portion of time " 
 manifested by means of pulses and accents. Measure is the precise analogue of 
 foot in poetry. Poetic quantity is also related to time. We ourselves, and every 
 thing that we know by our senses or think of under sense-forms of thought, are 
 related to time or space. Music is related to time, and so is meter. The time of 
 music is in the rhythmic pulsation, measure, and rate of movement. And so 
 7neasure in its ultimate nature is certainly time; but time is not measure until it 
 becomes recognized as such through the rhythmic pulsation and accent: and 
 therefore it is sufficiently correct for musical purposes to think of measure as 
 pulse-grouping, as is here done. 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. The First of the Schubert Waltzes. 
 
 2. Schumann's Nachtsti'icke in F, op. 24, No. 4. 
 
 3. A Polka, e.g. Karl Merz's " Lconore Polka." 
 
 4. The Waltz from Weber's " Der Freyschiitz." (Any other quick waltz will do 
 
 as well.) 
 
 5. Schubert's Menuetto in B minor. 
 
 6. Two strains from the Schumann Nachtsti'icke in C, op. 24, No. 1. 
 
 7. "The Carnival of Venice." 
 
 8. Chopin Polonaise in A. 
 
 9. Sixteen measures of the Adagio in Sonata Patlietique. 
 
 10. Thirty-two measures of Rondo in same sonata. 
 
 11. Allegro from Sonata in F, op. 2, No. 1, Beethoven.
 
 MEASURES AND RHYTHMIC MOTION. 23 
 
 LESSOIST EIGHTH. 
 
 MEASURES AND RHYTHMIC MOTION. 
 
 Begin this lesson by recapitulating enough of the previous one to 
 refresh th"e memories of the class concerning measures. Use, if con- 
 venient, other examples, only be sure to select at least two, each, in 
 double, triple and common time. 
 
 15. A rliytlmiic pulsation may be called a rhythmic 
 motioji, and, when satisfactorily completed by an accent, 
 is called a Rhythm. 
 
 (Plays here a scale in common time, like that in " table x\," in 
 Mason's Pianoforte Technics.) 
 
 The rhytiunic motion may be twice as fast as the pulsation. Thus, 
 e.g.^ the Adagio in Beethoven's Sonata Pathetique is written in 2-4 
 time with a pulsation of sixteenth notes. The eflfect is as if vou were 
 to count four in a measure and each pulse had two notes. (Plavs.) 
 Counting four in a measure, the motion here is a half-pulse motion. 
 
 Example nine of the previous chapter had the same kind of motion. 
 Observe the bass, and at the same time count the time aloud while 1 
 play. (Phays.) 
 
 Observe now the first nineteen measures of Beethoven's first sonata, 
 example eleven of the previous chapter. Mark the pulsations and 
 measures, and tell mo whether it is a pulse-motion or a lialf-pidse 
 motion. (Plays. This must be repeated until the pupils are conscious 
 of the quarter-note motion which is unmistakable in th(^ first in'ne 
 measures, and strongly implied in the first nineteen.) 
 
 Observe ao-ain how the motion chano-es in the twentieth measure. 
 (Plays again from the beginning through to the double bar.) From 
 the twentieth to the forty-first measure there is what sort of a motion? 
 ("Half-pulse." But play it until they observe it.) AVhat kind of a 
 motion begins at the forty-first measure? (Quarter-pulse. Plays it.) 
 
 Observe now example five, especially in regard to tlie change of 
 motion. What sort of a motion has it at beginning? (Phiys, "Pulse- 
 motion.") Where the motion changes, raise your handa (Plays again. 
 "Half-pulse " motion begins in tenth measure of the second period.)
 
 24: HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 Observe the trio of the same. What sort of a motion luis it? 
 
 (Rays.) 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. Scale of C or G in 4s (rhytlmi completed). 
 
 2. Adaii'io from Sonata Patlu'ticjue. 
 '■]. Rondo of same Sonala. 
 
 4. Allegro from first Sonata. 
 
 5. Menuetto from Beethoven's Sonata in F min. (op. 2, Xo. 1). 
 
 LESSQ]^ ]sri]srTH. 
 
 MEASURES, RHYTinilC MOTION AND MOTIVIZATION. 
 
 In the examples of the previous lessons we have observed in 
 every ])iece a rhytlnnic pulsation carried through the piece at a uniform 
 rate; and in connection with this a full-pulse, half-pulse or other rhyth- 
 mic motion, which changes several times in the course of a piece, being 
 generally quicker towards the last. 
 
 Thus, e. g. observe the first eight measures of Pauer's " Cascade." 
 What is the pulsation? What the motion? (Observe the half-pulse 
 motion in tlie bass.) (Plays.) 
 
 Observe now that the melody has a certain definite motivization 
 of its own. Its rhvthm is 
 
 Ex. 9. 
 
 I 
 
 This rhythmic figure is repeated over and over. Observe now the 
 rapid motion that begins after the theme is com])leted. Here we have 
 an eighth-pulse motion in the fine work, a half-pulse motion in the 
 bass, and a full-pulse motion in the melody. (Plays.) 
 
 Observe the combination of measure-2:)ulses, rhythmic motions and 
 motivization in the Bach Invention in E min. In the first thirteen 
 measures there is a half-pulse motion, except the fifth measure, which 
 has a quarter-pulse motion. (Plays, the pupils marking the measure- 
 pulses by motions of the hand.) 
 
 Along with this is the melodic subject which runs through the 
 piece. Its rhythm is 
 
 Ex. 10. 
 
 3 • \ ' \ • I 
 
 At the fourteenth measure a quarter-pulse motion begins in the 
 counterpoint and continues for twenty-three measures. (Plays.)
 
 MEASURES, RIIYT1131IC MOTION AND MOTIVIZATION. 2') 
 
 Again, take the Allegro of the sonata (X(j. 3, on the list ol this 
 chapter). This is in 6-8 time and has the efTect of two pulses in a 
 measure. Throughout the first twenty-f<jur measures there is a triplet 
 (or "third-pulse") motion transferred from bass to treble, and l)ack 
 again, but not interrupted. (Plays twenty-five measures.) Fnjm tlicrc 
 to the thirty-ninth measure there is no uniform motion, but two differ- 
 ent rhythms alternately appear. (Plays.) From the thirty-nintii to 
 the fifty-ninth the triplet motion appears again. At this point the 
 triplets disappear and we have a full-pulse motion for eight measures. 
 
 Observe, again, the rhythm of this polonaise. (Plays the Chopin 
 Polonaise in A, No. 4, of the list.) Here we have a three-pulse meas- 
 ure, with half and quarter-pulse motion. 
 
 Ex. 11. ? 
 
 At the entrance of the second subject (in D maj,), the rhythm of 
 the melody chano;es to tliis fisrure. 
 
 Kx. 1.. I I I '^ *? ^ I I 
 
 Rhythm is the primary element in a motive, and is in fact that to 
 which it owes its name of motive, or mover. 
 
 A conspicuous example of rhythmic uniformity carried through 
 almost an entire long movement is afforded by Beethoven's Allegretto 
 in the Seventh Symphony, which moves in this figure. 
 
 Ex. 13. 
 
 4 r ij'ir r ii' u'if r ii Ij'Ii i ii j ^^ i 
 
 It will also be useful to study the manner in which riiythmic 
 characterization of subjects is managed in long movements generally; 
 as e. g. in any of the binary and ternary forms analyzed in the second 
 part of this work. (See Lessons Thirteenth and Fourteenth.) 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. Pauer's Cascade. 
 
 2. Bach's Invention in E min. (Three-part, No. 7.) 
 
 3. Allegro of Sonata in E flat op. 7, Beethoven. 
 
 4. Chopin's Polonafse in A.
 
 Part Secot^td. 
 
 LESSONS IN MUSICAL FORM. 
 
 LESSON TENTH 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY FORMS. CLOSED FOR:\rS. 
 
 PERIOD-GROUPS. 
 
 vaglt:. 
 
 16. A Form in music is a period, or group of periods 
 belonging together; or possibly belonging together only to 
 the extent of being connected with each other, and more or 
 less contrasted with a following homogenous and well-closed 
 period group. 
 
 By " well-closed " is meant " fully and decidedly closed." Thus 
 for example, observe the following- three waltzes of Schubert. (Plays 
 the first three numbers in Schubert's Danses.) The first has for its 
 leadinar motive this: 
 
 Ex. 14. 
 
 fM^i&i 
 
 — I- 
 -•- 
 -0- 
 
 This motive occurs six times in the first two periods. The second 
 has for leadino- motive this: 
 
 Ex.l5. tfe?zl2^^_- 
 
 ^^■■^-■^ — 
 
 3 
 
 ^ -0- -0- -»■ 
 
 This occurs five times in two periods. Analyze the third in the 
 same way. 
 
 Observe, again, that the first waltz begins and ends in the key of 
 A flat. So also the second and third. The cadences are complete and 
 satisfactory. This will be better observed by playing the accompani- 
 ment alone. 
 
 26
 
 THE ELEMENTARY FORMS, ETC. 27 
 
 Observe, rui'tliei-, tluit the iirst two periods are intiinatelv connected 
 by reason of the preiloniinance of the same leading- motive in both. So 
 also are the two periods of the second waltz. Two of these periods 
 together, make "a form." The two jieriods in each form are homo- 
 genous, because in the same key and having the same rulino- motive. 
 Each form is a " closed form " because it concludes in its own principal 
 key and is shut off from the following 25eriods by the entrance of new 
 motives and a new movement. 
 
 Again, listen to the first twenty measures of Beethoveifs first 
 sonata, in F min. op. 3. (Plays.) Mention the periods. There are 
 two of them. The first ends in the dominant of the principal key, in 
 the eighth measure. The second begins with the same leading motive, 
 but immediately forsakes it, and builds with the second motive of the 
 first period. The first period begins in F minor, and ends with the 
 dominant of it. This is a half-cadence, and denotes incompleteness. 
 The second begins in C minor, and finally ends in E flat, as the domi- 
 nant of A flat, the key of the next-following period. The first period 
 is the principal subject of this sonata, and is not a " closed form." The 
 second period is modulatory or transitional, and is designed to lead 
 across to the introduction of the second principal subject, which enters 
 at the last beat of the twentieth measure. 
 
 Take, again, the Adagio of this same sonata. Observe the periods 
 of the first sixteen measures. (Plays.) Here, again, we have two 
 periods. They are homogenous, because the second period concludes 
 with the principal motive of the first, and in the same key. Both 
 periods begin and end in F major. They are shai-[ily cut off from the 
 next following periods, because these latter begin in a new key and 
 with new motives. These first sixteen measures, therefore, form a 
 homogenous period-group of two periods, which unite to make " a 
 closed form." The next followino- fifteen measures also contain two 
 periods. The first one has eleven measures. It begins in D minor. 
 It ends in C major. It is followed by an abridged period of four meas- 
 ures, or joerhaps Ijetter, an independent section of a transitional char- 
 acter. These two periods are not homogenous, their modulatory 
 structure is vague, and therefore they do not unite to make a form. 
 
 Observe now the Menuetto of the same sonata. (Plays.) How 
 many Periods have we? (Plays.) The first subject has this motive. 
 (Plays motive of Menuetto.) When the form is complete and a new 
 one enters, say " Form." (Plays.) Class listens and says " form " as 
 the forty-first or forty-second measure is begun. The three periods in 
 these forty-one measures should then be examined again in order to
 
 -^8 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 discover whether they unite to make a homogenous period-group, and 
 a closed form. The trio may then be examined in the same way. 
 
 Examine in the same way the first sixteen measures of the Adagio 
 of Sonata Pathetique. Then the next following twelve measures. 
 Then the eight measures following this (the repetition of the theme.) 
 And the fourteen measures following this. All these are period- 
 groups, more or less homogenous. 
 
 Take next the first seventeen measures of the Finale of the same 
 sonata. This also is a closed form. 
 
 It would be well to introduce also a salon piece, as, e. g.^ Wollen- 
 haupt's Whispering Winds, the pupils watching for new subjects, and 
 pointing out the ends of the closed forms. Mason's Danse Rustique is 
 another good example. 
 
 Musical Illustrations. 
 
 1. The first three of Schubert's Danses. (Peters' Ed., No. 150.; 
 
 2. Part of first iiioveiucut of Beethoven Soaata, op. 2, No. 1. 
 
 3. Part of the Adagio of the same. 
 
 4. Menuetto of the same. 
 
 a. Part of the Adagio of Sonata Pathetique. 
 
 6. Part of Finale of the same. 
 
 7. Salon Pieces, such as Wolleuhaupt's " AVhispering Winds," and Mason's " Danse 
 Rustique." 
 
 LESSON ELEVENTH. 
 
 FURTHER EXAMINATION OF OPEN AND CLOSED FORMS. 
 
 In the previous lesson Closed Forms were the subject of our ex- 
 amination. In opposition to the term " closed," we might apply to 
 imperfectly closed period-groups the term " open," although the ex- 
 pression " open form " is to a certain extent a solecism. If, now, we 
 listen attentively to the period-group immediately following the double- 
 liar in the principal movement of a sonata, we shall find it to consist of 
 from two to four or five imperfectly closed periods, freely modulating. 
 (Plays fifty-seven measures in E minor. Allegro tnolto e con brio, 
 of first movement of Sonata Pathetique.) Now observe the first part 
 of the same movement, (Plays,) We see tliat this contains two dis- 
 tinctly marked forms; and that the part following the double-bar is in 
 reality a free-fantasy on certain leading motives out of the first part. 
 
 Again, observe the Impromptu in A flat, (op. 29,) of Chopin. 
 (Plays,) Of how many closed forms does tliis consist? Analyze the
 
 OPEN AND CLOSED FORMS. 29 
 
 first form into its periods. (Plays again, and again until successfully 
 anah'zed.) 
 
 Observe the Schumann Novellette in E, No. 7, op. 21. (Plays.) 
 Of how many closed forms does this consist? (Flays again.) 
 
 Note. — It may be well to remark thai this work consists of three forms, the 
 melody in the middle (iu A maj.) being the second, and standing between the 
 other two. 
 
 Examine now the Bach Gavotte in 1) minor, No. 3 in Bach's 
 "Pieces Favoris."" (Plays.) I^isten again and point (nit the periods. 
 (Plays.) Does this consist of one form or more than one? (One, 
 since the same motive prevails throughout the movement.) 
 
 Observe now the Gavotte in D, immediately following the previous. 
 (Plays.) 
 
 This, as you jjerceive, is composed' on the same motive as the 
 previous, but in a major key, whereas that was in minor. This also 
 constitutes a sino;le " closed form." 
 
 Observe now the first Mendelssohn Song without ^Vords. (Plays.) 
 Define the periods as I play. (Plays again.) How many forms have 
 we in this? (Ans. One form, of three periods.) 
 
 We have thus discovered that a long jjiece of music may consist 
 of several shorter forms. 
 
 17. A piece consisting of a single form is said to he in 
 " Unitary Form," whether of one, two, three, or four pe- 
 riods. 
 
 Generally a unitary form will contain not more than three periods, 
 the first and last of which at least must be homoo-enous with each other. 
 
 Examples of unitary forms are numerous and owing to their 
 brevity easily recognized. 
 
 Single church-tunes ai'c one-period unitary forms. 
 
 Examine Schumann''s '-Traumorei; Also the "Entrance" and 
 " Wayside Inn " of the Forest Scenes, op. 82, Nos. 1 and 4. Also 
 Mendelssohn's " Hunting Song." Test them separately and repeatedly 
 for (1) periods, (2) homogeneity of periods, and ()>) for close of forms. 
 
 Musical Illustrations. 
 
 1. Extract from Allegro of Sonata Pathetique. 
 3. Inijjromptu in A flat, op. 29, Chopin. 
 
 3. Schumann Novellette in E, No. 7, op. 21. 
 
 4. Gavotte in D min. from Bach's '• Pieces Favoris." (Peters' Edit.. No. 221.) 
 
 5. First Song without Words. Mendelssohn. 
 
 6. "Traumerei " Schumann. 
 
 7. " Hunting Song." Mendelssohn.
 
 30 
 
 HOW TO UXDERSTAXD MUSIC. 
 
 LESSON TWELFTH.*- 
 
 IRREGULAR PERIOD-FORMS AND PERIOD GROUPS. 
 
 The natural length of the simple period is eight measures in slow 
 or moderate time, and sixteen in quick time. But in good writing these 
 lengths are constantly varied by shortening, extending, etc., to such a 
 degree that period-lengths of forty or fifty measures are sometimes 
 found. 
 
 The true way to distinguish periods from each other is by their 
 motives and the relation of Antecedent and Consequent. 
 
 The simple period consists of two similar sections (or halves) 
 standing in the relation of antecedent and consequent. 
 
 Each of these sections, again, consists in general of two phrases, 
 making four phrases in the period. As a rule two of these phrases are 
 entirely or very nearly alike, and the other two correspond or answer 
 to each other, having a similar rhythm, but different harmony and 
 melody. 
 
 Thus, (Beethoven), 
 
 Ex. ic. r 
 
 First Section. 
 
 Antecedent.- 
 
 I 
 
 PHRASE 
 
 m^s;^ 
 
 In the same manner analyze the first eight measures of the Adagio 
 in tlie Beethoven sonata in F, op. 2, No. 1. Also the first eight meas- 
 lu-es of the Adagio of Sonata Pathetique. This is the simplest form of 
 period. The first eight measures of the Beethoven sonata in G, op. 14, 
 No. 2, afford an example of a period in which the antecedent contains 
 the same phrase twice repeated; and a consequent entirely different. 
 
 *Tliis Lesson may be omitted at the dictatiou of the teacher.
 
 IRIJEGULAR PElilOD-FOiniS AND I'EKIOI) (JKOUPS. 
 
 31 
 
 The Antecedent in the period is the purt that asks a question; it 
 presents tlic subject in an incomplete i'orni. The Consequent completes 
 the form, answers the question, and so forms an equipoise to the ante- 
 cedent. It does this by (1) completing the rhythm (/. c, by filling 
 up the natural number of eight or sixteen measures,) and (2) by re- 
 turning to the tonic. Thus in the example above, No. IG, the first 
 section leads to the dominant; the second returns to the tonic. 
 
 Sometimes the period does not return to the tonic, but leads oif to 
 some foreign key. In that case the period is incomplete, and is either of 
 a transitional or a modulating character, or else is intended to be properly 
 finished at some subsequent appearance of the same subject. An ex- 
 ample of this kind is found in the first eight measures of Schumann's 
 Aafschwung, where the antecedent is in F minor, and the consequent 
 concludes in K flat. 
 
 Periods are extended to nine, ten or twelve measures, by piolong- 
 ing the cadence, or by inserting matter just before the point where the 
 cadence was expected. 
 
 A comj^lex period is one in which the antecedent is repeated, 
 usually in a higher pitch, thus intensifying the feeling of expectatioii 
 and making the consequent more satisfactory when it does come. An 
 example of this is found in Schubert's Sonata in C. Thus: 
 
 ^••i-l . •,^**i i^^"^ ^"^"-^ r^~i"^ ^^''T- ' I i I I*?* I * I 
 1 *_#_* J _!• r m *z:Th " * * t _ 
 
 ^4 -M-^-M- Z- ^ Z. ^ ^ ^ M.M.M. i * i- !,™- i 
 
 -+ *-■•-*- J0. J». J0. J». J0. -^ J0.j0.j0. T I I -^^ \>-»- 
 
 ^ J 
 
 li—s- 
 
 
 
 -4 
 
 l—ts-izi::t=.zzz 
 
 |] 
 
 
 T '- 
 
 One of the most remarkable examples of this kind is a period in 
 Chopin's Scherzo in B flat minor, op. 31, (beginning with the sixty-
 
 32 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 fourth measure) which extends to fifty-three measures, the antecedent 
 being repeated four times: viz., in G flat, A flat, D flat, and in D flat 
 in octaves. It may be proper to add, however, that many would regard 
 this passage as in reality consisting of two periods, the first ending with 
 the first consequent. It is a question of names merely, the last ante- 
 cedent and consequent having precisely the same content as the first, 
 additionally emphasized by means of the octaves. 
 
 A period-group is a succession of periods on the same motives (as 
 in unitary forms) or on different motives, as in transitional periods and 
 the "elaboration " of sonatas. (See Chap. VI.) These parts of com- 
 position may be easily studied by the student privately, using the 
 JMtson reprint of the Biilow (Stuttgart) edition of the Beethoven 
 Sonatas. 
 
 For our present purposes it is enough to be able to recognize the 
 principal subjects in extended movements. Ability to follow the treat- 
 ment of transitional passages and elaborations is a more mature accom- 
 plishment. 
 
 LESSON THTPvTEENTH. 
 
 BINARY FORMS. 
 
 18. A Binary Form is a form composed of two unitary 
 forms, which may or may not be connected by means of 
 intervening passages or transitional periods. The two forms 
 uniting to compose a binary form, stand in the relation of 
 Principal and Second. The Principal stands at the begin- 
 ning, and is repeated after the Second. Thus the Principal 
 occurs twice; the Second once. This is for the sake of 
 unitv. 
 
 This is the form, e. g., of the Menuetto of the Beethoven Sonata 
 in F min.,op.2, No. 1. (Plays until the class clearly perceive the con- 
 struction.) 
 
 In the older forms of this kind we sometimes find the Second com- 
 posed from the same motives as the Principal, but changed from minor 
 to major, or vice versa. Bach's Gavotte in D minor is an example of 
 this kind. (Plays as many times as necessary.)
 
 BINAKY FORMS. 33 
 
 Observe a'lso the Monuc^tto by Sclmliort, in V> minoi-, o]). 78. (Piiiys, 
 as before.) 
 
 Ill both these cases the Second comes in wliat is sometimes called 
 a milder form than the Principal, and is of a softer and less pronounced 
 character. In this form it is called a trio, proba])ly 1)ecause in the 
 olden time these parts were performed by a smaller number of instru- 
 ments. 
 , Observe also, the Clmpin Polonaise, in A, op. 40. (Plays until the 
 class perceive this form.) 
 
 In other cases, again, the Second is of a more animated character. 
 Observe the Adagio from Beethoven's first sonata. (Plays.) 
 
 Sometimes the Second is not so distinctly a unit as the Principal. 
 This is the case, e. g., in the Largo of Beethoven's second sonata. 
 (Sonata in A, o]:). 2, No. 2.) (Plays.) 
 
 Binary forms are frequently extended by a Coda composed of new 
 material, put in after the repetition of the Principal in order to lead 
 more satisfactorily to a close. Such an example we have already in 
 the Laro-o last played. Observe again, the Scherzo from Beethoven's 
 Sonata in C, op. 2. No. 3. (Plays, and repeats, until the class success- 
 fully analyzes it.) 
 
 Very many popular pieces are in this form. For example, Wollen- 
 haupt's " Whispering Winds." (Plays.) The first page is introduction. 
 The next four constitute the first form, the Principal. The part in six 
 flats is the Second. Then the Principal occurs again, but in an abridged 
 form. This is followed by anew strain serving as Coda, or conclusion. 
 
 Observe also Chopin's little waltz in D flat, oj). (U. (Plays.) 
 
 Also the Chopin Impromptu in A flat, op. 29. (Plays.) 
 
 The Chopin Scherzo in B flat min., op. .31, is another example of 
 this form. 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. Mcnuetto, Beethoven's Sonata in F, op. 2. 
 
 -I. Bach's Gavotte in D miu. (Peters' Ed. Bach's Favorite Pieces, No. 221.) 
 
 :>. Menuetto in B min. Sclmliert, op. 78. 
 
 4. Cliopin Polonaise in A, op. 40. 
 
 5. Adagio from Beetlioven's Sonata in F, op. 2. 
 
 (f. Larii'o, from Beethoven's Sonata in A, op. 2, No. 2. 
 
 7. Scherzo, from Beethoven's Sonata in C, op^. 2, No. 8. 
 
 8. Wolleuliaupt's "Whispering Winds."- 
 g. Cliopin's Valse in D fiat, op. 64. 
 
 to. Chopin's Impromptu in A flat, op. 29. 
 11. Cliopin's Scherzo in B flat min., op. ;?1.
 
 34 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 LESSON FOURTEENTH. 
 
 TERNARY FORMS. 
 
 19. Any musical form consisting of three distinct unitary 
 forms, is called Ter7iary. 
 
 Observe, c.g.^ the following: (Plays Adagio of Sonata Pathetique.) 
 The first subject is this: (Plays eight measures.) The second is this: 
 (Begins in seventeenth measure and plays seven measures.) The third 
 subject is this: (Plays fourteen measures in A flat minor, beginning 
 after the repetition of the Principal, which ends in the thirty-sixth 
 measure.) 
 
 These subjects we will designate as Principal, Second and Third, 
 Observe now when I play the movement tlirough, and as I begin each 
 subject, say "Principal," "Second" or "Third," as the case may be. 
 (Plays.) Observe again the character of the diiferent movements. 
 The Principal is a pure lyric; tlie Second is much less reposeful; the 
 Third, again, is lyric, but the triplet motion in the accompaniment 
 evinces an excitement such as we do not find in the Principal. Observe 
 again while the movement is played through from beginning to end, 
 and see how many times each subject occurs. (Plays. Tlie Principal 
 occurs three times, the Second and Third once each.) 
 
 This movement is type of a rare class, namely, of a slow movement 
 in ternary order. 
 
 Anotlier example of ternary form is to be found in No. 2 of Schu- 
 mann's Kreisleriana. This work consists of a Principal, the-first thirty- 
 seven measures. First Intermezzo, or "Second," twenty-six measures; 
 Principal, thirty-seven measures. Second Intermezzo, or "Third," 
 fiftv-four measures; Transitional matter bringing back the Principal, 
 and the conclusion of the whole, forty-seven measures. 
 
 20. The most common form of this order is the Rondb, 
 or round, a form deriving its name from its returning to the 
 same theme, circularwise, after every digression. 
 
 Observe, e. <7., the following. (Plays two periods, seventeen meas- 
 ures of tlio Beethoven Rondo in C, op. 51.) This is the Principal.
 
 TERNARY FORMS. 35 
 
 Then follows a transition of seven measures, leading to the key of G. 
 (Plays.) Then the Second in G, ten measures. (Plays.) 
 
 This is followed by the "return," a series of passages leading back 
 to the Principal. (Plays nine measures.) Then follows the Principal 
 shortened to eight measures. (Plays.) Here enters the Third subject 
 in C minor. It consists of three periods: First, eight measures; Second^ 
 seven, and Third, six. Twenty-one in all. (Plays.) 
 
 This is followed by a transition of three measures, the Principal in 
 A flat, thirteen meas., and passage of three nieas. loading back to the 
 Principal in C, shortened to thirteen measures, followed by the con- 
 clusion, thirty-one measures. (Plays.) 
 
 Thus we see that the primary elements of this Rondo are three. 
 The Principal, (Plays eight meas.,) the Second, (Plays ten meas.,) and 
 the Third, (Plays eight meas.) Everything else in the Rondo is sub- 
 ordinate to these three leading ideas. These, again, are subjected to 
 the Principal, which by its four recurrences impresses itself upon the 
 attention as the principal idea of the work. 
 
 Observe again these three ideas. (Plays them again.) Now let 
 us see if you know them when you hear them. (Plays the first three 
 or four measures of each several times in various orders until the class 
 easily recognize them.) 
 
 Observe now while I play the entire work through and designate 
 the leading ideas as " Principal," "Second " and " Third " as tlu^y ixp- 
 pear. (Plays, the class responding.) 
 
 Still further exercise in this form may be had by treating other 
 pieces in the same way. In order to save space, the work is not given 
 here entire, but only the analysis. 
 
 Thus, another example is the Rondo from Beethoven's sonata in 
 C, op. 2, No. 3. Its plan is: Principal and transition twenty-nine meas- 
 ures; Second and transition thirty-eight; Principal and transition 
 thirty-four; Third, in F, much elaborated, seventy-eight; Principal 
 thirty-seven; Second and transition thirty-five; Conclusion sixty. 
 
 (Note.— In treating a work so large as this, it is better to begin by playing 
 separately the three principal ideas, and afterwards going tlirough the entire work 
 in the same manner as the preceding.) 
 
 The Rondo in Beethoven's sonata in A flat, op. 2G, is another 
 example. 
 
 Still another is the Rondo in Beethoven's sonata in B flat, o]i. 22. 
 This work consists of Princi])al, (two periods, 9 and 9) 18 measvn-es; 
 transition 4; Second 9; transition (two periods, 9 and 9) 18; Principal 
 18; transition 5; Third, (four periods, 6, 17, G, 10), 39; Principal 18;
 
 36 
 
 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 transition 6; Second abridged, and transition 29; Principal 18; Coda 
 (12 and 5) 17. 
 
 In the Rondo of Sonata Pathetique the Principal occ urs ybwy times. 
 
 The Rondo is founded on the people's song-, and in its essential 
 spirit is easy and rather cheerful. 
 
 List of IllustbatiOjSts. 
 
 1. Adagio of Sonata Pathetique. 
 
 2. No. 3 of Schumann's Kreisleriana, op. IG. 
 
 ;]. Rondo in C, Beethoven, op. 51. (Peters' No. 297.) 
 
 4. Rondo from Souuta in C, Beethoven, op. 2, No. 2. 
 
 5. Rondo in A6, op. 26, Beethoven. 
 
 6. Rondo in B&, op. 23, Beethoven. 
 
 LESSON FIFTEENTH. 
 
 THE SONATA PIECE. 
 
 We begin in this lesson the examination of the most important 
 form known to instrumental music; — so important, indeed, that many 
 theorists designate it the " principal form," and say unqualifiedly that 
 it is the type of all serious forms. This, as we shall see, is claiming 
 too much for it, for there are in fact two primitive types, the people's 
 song the type of the lyric^ and the ancient binary form the type of the 
 thematic. 
 
 The form we now take up is called the " Sonata- Piece," or simply 
 the Sonata-form, because it is this form which gives name to the three 
 or four separate forms combined in the sonata. 
 
 Observe now this piece. It consists of three large divisions. The 
 
 first part contains several distinct ideas, as thus: (Plays the following 
 
 motives:) 
 
 Ex. 18. 
 
 (1. 
 
 ^^m^ 
 
 
 
 (2.) :, 
 
 
 :E=f: 
 
 inzii 
 — )— 
 -0 
 
 N- 
 
 2*^ 
 
 (3.) 
 
 
 \' 

 
 THE SONATA -PIECE. 37 
 
 (Plays then tlie first pa<^-o of Beethoven's Sonata in F. op. 2, as far as 
 tlie double bar.) 
 
 Observe ag-ain this entire page. (Plays again.) 
 
 N(nv listen to the following while I play, and tell me if your hear any 
 motives vou hav(> heard before. (Plavs fiftv-two measures beo-innin*"- 
 at the double bar.) 
 
 Let us familiarize ourselves with the original motives. (Plays 
 the motives Nos. 1, 2 and 3 in different orders until the class is able to 
 name each one as heard "one" "two" or "three.") Now listen to 
 these fifty-two measures again, aiid when either of these original motives 
 occurs, name it "one," " t\vo " or "three," according to which it is. 
 (Plays then the part again, and very clearly, the class naming each 
 motive as it occurs.) 
 
 Observe now the continuation of this movement. (Plays the re- 
 mainder of the movement, from the re-entrance of the theme.) Does 
 this resemble either of the two parts previously played? (Play again 
 until the class discover that it is precisely similar to the first part.) 
 
 21. Thus Ave find our sonata-piece to consist of three 
 parts, the third of which is like the first, and the second is a 
 fantasia on the leading motives of the first. The fantasia is 
 called the " Elaboration." 
 
 The first subject is called Principal ; the next the 
 Second (or by the Germans the So7ig-group or "lyric 
 period ") ; the third, the Close. 
 
 Again observe this. (Plays the first j^art of Beethoven's Sonata 
 in C minor, op. 10 No. 1, as far as the double bur.) 
 
 Listen again and designate the Principal, Second and Close. 
 (This will prove a matter of some difficulty. The Principal ends in the 
 thirty-first measure. The Second begins in measure fifty-six. The melo- 
 dious passage beg-inning in measure thirty-two is really of a transitional 
 nature. This will become plain by hearing several times the two j)as- 
 sages; the transition, measure thirty-two to forty-eight, and the Second, 
 fifty-six to eighty-six; it will then appear that the latter is a completely 
 organized period, a consistent melody, whereas the former is merely 
 a series of melodic and harmonic sequences. The part from forty-(;iglit 
 to fifty-five inclusive is a pedal-point. Measures seventy-si.x to 
 niiK^ty-four a continuation of the cadence of the Second. In measures 
 eighty-six, etc., the motives of the Principal are recalled.) 
 
 The Elaboration should then be studied until its motives can be
 
 38 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 referred to their origin in the first part of the work. The Elaboration 
 ends at the fifty-third measure after the double bar; at that place a 
 pedal point begins, lasting until the re-entrance of the theme in the 
 sixty-third measure. 
 
 The Sonata-piece is of so important a character, including, as it 
 does, the genius of all seriously composed music, that it will be well to 
 return to the subject several times, at considerable intervals. On these 
 occasions new examples should be taken up, for which purpose the fol- 
 lowing analyses are appended. The early sonatas in the Stuttgart edi- 
 tion (Ditson's reprint) as far as op. 53, are analyzed in respect to their 
 form, and will be found very convenient for studies of this character. 
 
 The first movement in Beethoven's sonata in G, op. 31, has this 
 plan: Principal in G, thirty measures; Passag-e fifteen; Transition 
 proper twent}-; Second, in B maj. and B min. (twenty-three and ten) 
 thirty-three; partial conclusion thirteen. The Elaboration begins at 
 the double bar, and for twenty measures handles the second motive of 
 the Principal. It then takes up the "passage" figure out of the first 
 part and carries that through to the forty-eighth measure, where the 
 harmony remains stationary on the dominant seventh of the principal 
 key. This is continued as a sort of pedal-point to the seventy-ninth 
 measure, where the Princi])al is resumed. 
 
 Tlie first movement of Beethoven's Sonata Appassionata contains 
 four important ideas. The analysis of the whole movement is as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Principal, F min. (sixteen and eight), twenty-four measures; Transi- 
 tion eleven; Second, and passage, in Ab, fifteen; partial conclusion 
 (ten and five) fifteen. The Elaboration contains six periods. The first 
 from the Principal, little changed, in E min., thirteen measures; then, 
 the same motive capriciously handled, passing through E min., C min., 
 Ab to ]Jb, fifteen measures; third, transition, as before, little changed, 
 sixteen measures; fourth, leading idea of the Second, capriciously 
 evading a cadence and passing through D^>>, Bb min., Gi';, B min., G 
 F min., fourteen measures; fifth, passage work on diminished seventh 
 of E, seven measures; sixth, pedal-poiut on C, dominant of Fmin., the 
 principal key of the work, thus leading back to the Principal which 
 then follows, five measures. The Recapitvilation closes with the con 
 elusion very much extended. For whereas in the first part the partial 
 conclusion had only two periods, fifteen measures in all, the full con- 
 clusion has no less than nine periods, and seventy-four measures, as 
 thus: I. Same as in partial conclusion, ten. II. Partial conclusion 
 extended, eleven. III. Motives from Second, seven. IV. Cadence work,
 
 THE SONATA -PIECE. 39 
 
 nine. V. Piissjigc, nine. VI. From transition in first j)art, four. 
 VII. Fioin Second, nine. VIII. New matter, eiglit. IX. Pedal point 
 to close, seven measures. 
 
 The Sonata-piece is sonu^tiuu^s used for slow movements, in which 
 case the elaboration is less extended. An example of this is furnished 
 hy the Adagio of the sprigjjtly Sonata in B flat, op. 22 of Beethoven. 
 Its plan is this. First Division, not repeated: Principal, E flat, twelve 
 meas. ; transition, six; Second, B flat, nine; partial conclusion, three. 
 Elaboratiox: I, motive from principal, nine; II, seven. Kki'Etition: 
 Principal, E flat, eleven; transition, eight; Second nine; conclusion, 
 three. 
 
 Quite a number of the last movements in the Beethoven Sonatas 
 are designated Finale. These are generally not Rondos, but precisely 
 like the Sonata-piece, except that directly after the double bar there 
 follows a third melody, called a Middle-piece ( Mittehatz) which takes 
 the place of the Elaboration. An example of this is furnished by the 
 Finale of the flrst Sonata of Beethoven, F min., op. 2. These move- 
 ments may be distinguished from Rondos even bv inexpericMiced stu- 
 dents, by means of the double bar, which does not occur in Rondos. 
 
 The Sonata-piece is derived from the " Ancient Binary Form," 
 which is the form of the Bach gavottes, courantes, etc. It consists of 
 two parts, the first of which is repeated. In Courantes the first part is 
 generally about three periods long, on the same or very slightly different 
 motives. In the Sonata-piece these three periods have been expanded 
 into separate subjects. After the double bar the original motives were, 
 worked uj) in the dominant of the principal key. This part has be- 
 come the elaboration. A return to the subject in the principal key 
 completed the movement, as in the Sonata-piece. 
 
 Illustrations. 
 
 1. First movement of Sonata in Y, op. 2. Xo. 1. Beethoven. 
 
 2. Fir8t movement of Sonata iu C minor, op. 10, No. 1. Beethoven. 
 
 3. First movement Sonata in G, op. :>1, No. 1. Beetlioven. 
 
 4. First movement Sonata Appassionata, op. 57, Beethoven. 
 
 5. Adagio from Sonata iu B flat, op. 22. Beethoven.
 
 40 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 LESSON SIXTEENTH. 
 
 THE SONATA AS A WHOLE. 
 
 The name " Sonata,*" as we have already seen, properly belongs to 
 a certain form, or single movement; but in process of time it has come 
 to be applied to an entire work, consisting of three or four movements, 
 only one of wliich is properly a sonata. In this larger sense all trios, quar- 
 tetts and chaml)er music generally, as well as all symphonies are sonatas, 
 having- the same form as pianoforte sonatas, only somewhat longer. 
 
 The sonata as a whole consists of three or four movements, or 
 forms, of which at least one is a sonata-piece. In general the sonata-piece 
 is the first form. The second is an Adagio or other slow movement. 
 The third either a Rondo or a Finale. 
 
 When the sonata has four movements, a Minuet, Allegretto, or 
 Scherzo, intervenes between the slow movement and the Rondo. Tn 
 a few cases this short movement precedes the slow movement. The 
 general ])lan of the sonata, therefore, is this: 
 
 Sonata- Piece; Slow Movement; Rondo (or Finale). 
 Or this: 
 
 Sonata-Piece; Slow Movement; Schekzo; Finale. 
 Let us beffin with an easv examole. Observe the Beethoven 
 
 .-5 
 
 Sonata in F, op. 3, No. 1. (Plays the entire sonata.) You recognize 
 the separate movements, having already heard three of them in the 
 previous lessons. What we wish to observe now is that the movements 
 thus associated into a single work have no motives in common, are in 
 different keys, and generally contrasted with each other; yet that they 
 go together to make up a sort of story, a musical cycle, which seems 
 more and more satisfactory as we become better acquainted with it. 
 Listen again to the whole work. (Plays again.) 
 
 Sonata Pathetique is an example of a sonata in three movements, 
 unless we count the Grave introduction for an independent form. Tn 
 this work the contrasts are extremely strong, not only between the 
 leadiii"- ideas of each movement but between the different movements.
 
 THE SONATA AS A WHOLE. 41 
 
 The Introduction opens as follows: (Plays eight measures.) This 
 very slow movement is followed by a very tumultuo^as one. (Plays 
 the first period of Allegro.) And this, again, by a wonderfully 
 deep and reposeful Adag-io. (Plays eight measures.) After this comes 
 the Rondo, a cheerful yet plaintive movement. (Plays first period.) 
 
 These difi"erent movements are not without certain bonds of union. 
 These are, first, the Sequence of Keys. The Introduction and Allegro 
 are in C minor; the Adagio in A flat, a nearly related key; and the 
 Rondo, again, in C minor. Besides this there is a certain RJii/thmie Pul- 
 sation common to all the movements. Thus a sixteenth-note in the 
 Grave is nearly of the same length as the half-note in the Allegro, a 
 sixteenth in the Adagio, and a half-note in the Rondo. 
 
 Note. — The contrasts in this sonata are intensified by the usual, and prob- 
 ably correct, tempos, wliicli make the half-note of the Allegro considerably ciuicker 
 than the sixteenth in the Introduction, recovering the movement again in the 
 Adagio where the sixteenth corresponds to the sixteentli in tlie Introduction. 
 The Rondo goes sliglitly faster, but not quite so fast as the Allegro, (the half-note 
 of the Allegro being at the metronome rate of 144, and of the Rondo about 12(5.) 
 
 The principal point to observe in hearing a sonata is the progress 
 of the emotion, the cycle of feeling. In tiie first movement wo have 
 generally the trouble, the conflict; in the second repose; and in the 
 closina; movement the return to the world again. 
 
 In the same manner should l)e examined Mozart's Sonata in F, 
 (No. G, Peters' edition,) Beethoven's Pastoral Sonata, op. 28, the Sonata 
 in G, op. 31, that in C minor, op. 10, etc. 
 
 This exercise should be distribute 1 over a considerable lapse of 
 time; it occui'S again in a. later cha])ter, (Lesson XXIX.)
 
 Paet Third. 
 
 THE CONTENT OF MUSIC. 
 
 LESSON SEVENTEENTH. 
 
 CONTENT DEFINED. 
 
 We have here three small pieces of music, all well made, and in 
 fact works of genius. 
 
 The first is the Bach Invention in F, ( No. 8 of the two-part In- 
 vention) already known to us. The second is the first two strains of 
 the Anclante in Beethoven's Sonata in F minor, op. 57. The third, the 
 Schubert Menuetto in B minor, op. 78. Observe them. (Flays.) 
 
 Let us consider the impression they leave upon our consciousness. 
 The first has the spirit of a bright, rather talkative, but decidedly talented 
 person, who is not wanting in a certain mild self-conceit. The second 
 is full of repose and deep feeling. x\s we hear it over again a serious- 
 ness comes over us, as when one enters a forest in an autumn day. 
 The third has a spice of the heroic in it, as well as a vein of tender- 
 ness; the latter especially in the second part (the trio). 
 
 2. Or take, again, two other pieces. Tlie first is the Adagio of 
 Sonata Pathetique; the second Chopin's Polonaise in A. (Plays.) 
 The first has a deeply tender spirit, sad yet comforted. In the second 
 we have the soul of a hero and patiiot who hears his country's call. 
 
 3. Or take again two pieces by a single author, and for our first 
 trial let them be by Bach. Tliey are the Inventions in F, (No. 8, as 
 before,) and the three-part Invention in E minor, No. l-i. (Plays.) 
 The first has the character alreadv assigned to it. The second is full 
 of repose and quiet meditation. 
 
 4. Or take, again, two pieces by Chopin. Let them be the Noc- 
 turne in E flat, op. 9, and the Polonaise in A, already heard. (Plays.) 
 
 42
 
 CONTENT DEFINED. 43 
 
 In tiie nocturne we have a soft ami tender musing, as when at 
 twiliofht one sinks into a tender dav-dream. 
 
 From these and multitudes of otiier examples that might be ad- 
 duced it will be seen that there is in music sometliing beyond a pleas- 
 ant turning of words and phrases, something more than a symmetrical 
 succession of well-contrasted periods. Every })iece leaves a greater 
 or less effect upon the feelings. It has its own spirit of grave or gay, 
 heroic or tender. Tliis inner something, this soid of the music we call 
 Content. 
 
 22, The whole Content of a piece is the total impression 
 it leaves uj^on the most congenial hearer. Or, as another 
 has said, " The whole Content of a piece is all that the author 
 put into it, technical knowledge and skill, imagination and 
 feeling."* 
 
 The Content is to be foiind out by hearing tlie piece a sufficient 
 number of times for its meaning to be ascertained. The Content is 
 not some peculiarity of the piece that can l)e pointed out, but the final 
 impression it leaves after repeated hearings. It is for that reason tliat 
 the examples thus far referred to have been such as were already 
 familiar through previous citation. 
 
 Pieces lacking Content are merely empty forms — bodies without 
 souls. There are many such to be met with. 
 
 A piece may be of considerable length and elegantly written and 
 yet contain but a small Content. Compare, e. g. these two pieces. 
 The first is Fields' nocturne in B flat, one of his cleverest works. The 
 seiSond, Schumann's Romance in F sharp, op. '-28. (Plays.) The first 
 is an elegant piece of verse, but it says very little. The second is ex- 
 tremely earnest and heartfelt; yet even this is not of such deej) mean- 
 ing as, ,e. r/., the Largo of Beethoven's second sonata. (Plays.) 
 
 (These works should be repeated until the pupils or the greater 
 part of them perceive the differences of which mention is made. It is 
 a mistake to tell them beforehand the qualities they are to iliid. Let 
 them learn to feel them for themselves.) 
 
 As music is a much more complete emotional expression than 
 speech, it will be found impossible to fitly describe in words the general 
 impression musical master- works make upon the feelings of congenial 
 listeners. " Congenial listeners," is said, because when one lacks a 
 
 *J. C. Fillmore.
 
 44 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 musical soul, or is out of the mood for it, a piece makes no impres- 
 sion upon him. 
 
 The principal cliflFerence between the creations of genius and those 
 of an inferior order is one of Content. Any student who will study the 
 best models, and follow the directions of competent teachers, may master 
 the technical art of the musical composer, so as to satisfy a technical 
 criticism in all respects. But unless he happens also to have musical 
 feeling of a high order, his works will be nearly or quite wanting in 
 Content. Even among the greatest composers there are some (Francis 
 Joseph Haydn, e. (j.^) whose works are masterly in form and taste, but 
 as a rule elegant rather than deep. 
 
 In general every piece falls into one of two categories. Either it 
 is stiinulatire or restful. All well-written thematic works belong to the 
 former category; lyric movements to the latter. 
 
 The stimulative effect resides in the quick movement, and a vigor- 
 ous harmonic and melodic movement. The restful, in a quiet movement, 
 generally slow or at least moderate, and a lyric structure. 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. Bach Invention in F. (No. 8.) 
 
 2. Andante from Beethoven's Sonata in F min., op. 57. (sixteen meas.) 
 8. Schubert Menuetto in B min. 
 
 4. Adagio of Sonata Palhetique. (sixteen meas.) 
 
 5. Chopin's Polonaise Militaire in A. 
 
 6. Bach's tlu'ee-part Invention in E min. No. 14. 
 
 7. Chopin Nocturne in E flat, op. 9. 
 
 8. Field's Nocturne in B flat. 
 
 9. Scliumann's Romance in F sharp. 
 
 10. Largo of Beethoven's Sonata in A, op. 2, No. 2.
 
 THE INTELLECTUAL AND EMOTIONAL. 45 
 
 LESSON EIGHTEENTH. 
 
 THE INTELLECTUAL AND EMOTIONAL. 
 
 Let us observe again two of the pieces out of the last lesson. 
 They are the Bach Invention in F, No. 8, and the theme of tlie Andante 
 in the Beethoven Sonata appassionata, op. 57. (Plays.) 
 
 Which of these seems to mean the most? Which one has the 
 more feeling in it? (This point must be dwelt upon and the pieces 
 played repeatedly until the pupils perceive that there is more feeling in 
 the Andante.) Let us analyze the phraseology of the Andante. Its 
 interest is chiefly harmonic. Its peculiarly serious expression is due to 
 the alternation of the tonic and subdominant chords, thus: 
 
 E-19- 1 J I andi i A 
 
 -2 •^■ 
 
 
 The effect of gravity is also partly due to the low position of the 
 chords in absolute pitch, especially of the seventh-chord which opens 
 the second period. To the same impression the slow movement con- 
 duces. The passage presents nothing of outward sensuous melody for 
 the ear to seize upon. 
 
 On the other hand, observe again the phraseology of the Bach In- 
 ventioia. (See Chaj). IV, where it is analyzed.) It consists almost 
 wholly of two motives which are repeated many times in different keys 
 and in both voices. The first is the bold arjDCggio figure, the first six 
 notes of the treble. The last tone of this motive is also the first of the 
 second fio^ure, the descendino- run in sixteenths. These two motives 
 together make a phrase and form the principal idea of the piece. 
 
 This phrase occurs entire ten times in the Invention; besides these 
 the first motive occurs six times, and an inverted imitation of it (see 
 measure 21, in the bass) several times more. 
 
 Thus it would hardly be too much to say that the entire Invention 
 consists of nothing more than this single idea, and that the two speakers, 
 or rather singers (the treble and bass) arrive at nothing new after all 
 their prolonged discussion.
 
 46 now TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 In the harmonic structure of this piece we find a decided plan. It 
 begins in F major. At the seventh measure it goes into C major, and 
 makes a cadence in this key in the eleventh measure, closing w^ith the 
 accent of the tw^elfth measure. Then ensues the middle part which 
 begins in C, passes into G minor, D minor, B flat and so back to F. 
 The climax occurs in the nineteenth or twenty-first measures. 
 
 The construction of so elaborate a piece from so few materials is 
 an evidence ot intellectual activity on the part of the composer. 
 
 3. Another example of a similar mode of construction is afforded 
 by the Bach Invention in C, No. 1, analyzed in Chap. IV. This work 
 also consists of a single phrase imitated, transformed, transposed, car- 
 ried through C, G, D minor, A minor, F, and so back to C, and all this 
 within a compass of twenty-two measures. 
 
 3. Yet another exami-)le of this mode of construction is afforded 
 by the Bach Fugue in C minor. (Clavier, No. 2, Plays.) 
 
 In all these a leading subject is taken as a text, not to come back 
 to and repeat entire as in the Rondo and other binary and ternary 
 forms, but to ico7'k icith, to transpose and transform, to elaborate by 
 means of harmonic treatment until an entire movement is built up out 
 of it. This is the type of musical composition as it existed in Bach's 
 time. Some pieces are more emotional tlian others, but all of them are 
 built up on this plan. They contain Musical TJiought, These trans- 
 formations of motive are equivalent to reasoning" in language. To ap- 
 preciate them properly one needs to follow the idea through all its 
 modifications and modulations. 
 
 The opposite of this mode of structure, as we have long ago seen, 
 is the lyric, the natural type of the emotional. Observe now, for the 
 sake of the contrast, the first sixteen measures of the Beethoven Adao-io 
 from the Sonata in F, op. 2, No. 1. (Plays.) 
 
 In general the following may be advanced as a sound doctrine 
 regarding the Intellectual in Music. 
 
 All thematic music is of an intellectual character. In order to 
 fully appreciate it, the hearer needs to firmly seize the leading motive, 
 so as to be able to follow it through its various transformations. Such 
 a following out and participating in the author's musical thought, im- 
 plies an unconscious comparison of the motive with its various trans- 
 formations. All thematic music is characterized by more varied modu- 
 lations and a more a^rtificially contrived, or at least a freer, harmonic 
 structure than is found in lyric. Here, again, in this elaborate harmonic 
 setting, we have the trace of mastership on the part of the composer ; 
 a token of his musical thinking^ as distinguished from merely meditating.
 
 THE INTELLECTUAL AND EMOTIONAL. 47 
 
 Yet this kind of music is not uneinotioiiul. On tlio conlrary, it is 
 sometimes intensely exciting. AVhen tliis is tlie case the eirect is due. 
 to a fitly chosen harmonic pi'ogression ])y means of which a clinia.v is 
 attained, and the intensification of the effect thi-ouafh the reiteration of 
 the leading- motives. 
 
 The leading motive is repeated many times in all music, for in this 
 way only can unity be attained iu a music-piece. There is this differ- 
 ence, however, between the repetitions in thematic and lyric pieces, 
 viz., that in lyric pieces the motive is repeated unchanged, but in the- 
 mitic pieces with manifold changes. 
 
 Thematic music is at first unattractive to hearers in general, because 
 they do not know how to liear it properly. When they hear the same 
 piece many times they become reconciled to it, and in the end enjoy it 
 and even prefer it to lyric pieces they at first thought more beautiful. 
 
 One of the most decided examples of tlie intellectual in music is 
 afforded by counterpoint. (See Lesson V.) The simplest theme 
 treated contrapuntally acquires a dig'nity which was before wanting. 
 In double counterpoint the intellectual is even more strongly maikcd. 
 
 The strictest type of musical composition is the Fugue. In this a 
 single subject forms the substance of it. This subject can not be trans- 
 formed with absolute freedom, but each imitation must take place on a 
 particular degree of the scale. Thus, e. g., if the antecedent is in the 
 tonic, the imitation or answer (" consequent''') must be on the dominant, 
 and vice versa. When a modulation takes place and the subject ap- 
 pears in a foreign key, the imitation takes place in the dominant of that. 
 
 Besides these restrictions there is also the " counter-subject " which 
 every voice must take ujd immediately after finishing the subject. Thus 
 the counter-subject forms almost an invariable accompaniment to the 
 subject throughout the Fugue. In spite of these limitations Bach was 
 able to use this form with such freedom as to leave us a verv sxreat 
 number of Fugues which are not only masterly in their construction but 
 emotional and thoroughly free and musical, and among the most cher- 
 ished treasures of the musician's repertory. 
 
 Note. — Students desirinsi' to study Fugue analytically can do so in ^Ir. 
 James Pliggs' "Fugue" (iu Novello's " Music Primers," price one dollar.) 
 Those able to read German will find a very interesting treatment of the subject in 
 the third vol. of J. C. Lobe's Kompositionslehre, in which he bases his theories 
 on Bach's remarkable work " Die Kunst der Fugue " (Peters' Ed.) a series of 
 twenty-four Fugues on a single subject. 
 
 The subject of this lesson may be continued through another one,
 
 48 
 
 HOW TO UNDEKSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 in which case the "list of additional illustrations" will be found 
 
 useful. 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. Bach's Invention in F. 
 
 2. Andante from Beethoven's op. 57. (sixteen meas.) 
 
 3. Bach's Invention in C, No. 1. 
 
 i. Allegro from Beethoven's Sonata in F, op. 3 No. 1. 
 
 Additional Illustrations, not analyzed above. 
 
 1. Bach's Fugue in C minor, Clavier, No. 3. 
 
 2. Schubort Impromiitu in C minor, op. 90, No. 1. 
 
 3. Bach's Fugue in G minor, Clavier, No. IG. 
 
 4. Schubert Impromptu in E flat, op. 90, No. 3. 
 
 5. Lefebre-Wcly's " Titania." 
 
 6. First movement of piano solo in Chopin's Concerto in E minor, op. 11. 
 
 7. Handel Chacoune and variations in G. No. 3 of Kuhler's Handel's " Lessons, 
 Pieces, and Fugues." (Peters' Ed. No. 40.) 
 
 8. Handel's Capriccio in G minor, No. 3 of " Seven Pieces " in same volume. 
 
 LESSON NINETEENTH. 
 
 PASSAGES, CADENZAS AND EFFECTS. 
 
 Sequence is the general name given to the immediate repetition of 
 a phrase or motive whether in unchanged or modified form. 
 
 In thematically composed periods the motive is followed b}^ several 
 ]-epetitions of it in a somewhat changed form. The Sequence thus 
 formed proceeds no farther than compatible with a graceful return to 
 the key in which the period is intended to conclude. A Sequence not 
 thus returning: and completing itself into a period, becomes either an 
 independent section, or a passage, which is the general name given to 
 such parts of a music- piece as do not fall into periods. The following, 
 e. g., is a very simple passage. 
 
 Ex. 20. 
 
 *3^3^«E£ 
 
 
 m 
 
 -0- 
 
 Here is one slightly more complex 
 Ex. 21. 
 
 '=i-^-^#*=^i-^s===i 
 
 mi]
 
 PASSAGES, CADENZAS AND EFFECTS. 4'J 
 
 Observe the I'ullowing- two passages from Cramer's First study. 
 (Plays as far as the middle of the eighth measure.) Observe also the 
 Dassa^e descendinir from tlie second l)eat of Ihe tcutli measure to the 
 iirst note of the thirteenth. (Plays.) Also the ascending and descend- 
 ino- passages following. (Plays the whole study.) Explain the con- 
 struction of these passages. Thus, e. <j.^ the right hand ascends in the 
 thirteenth measure and three measures after by sequencing on the 
 figure at a Ex. 22. 
 
 Later it descends by sequencing on figure i, Ex. 22. 
 
 {In 
 
 ^Ei^iL= 
 
 X-X-C=f^-=^-\ 
 
 etc. 
 
 Such passages as these dilfer from regularly constructed plu-ases 
 in this, that being composed of a merely artificial sequencing on a 
 single motive, whatever sensible ox definite may come of it must be 
 owino- to the harmonic treatment and progressions. 
 
 Passages in musical composition serve the purpose of gracefully 
 connectinti- one part of a work with another, and of relieving the atten- 
 tion from the strain of the thoughtful or deeply expressive periods be- 
 tween which they intervene. In this use we find them in Bach, Handel, 
 Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and in fact all good composers. Tn modern 
 writers, however, they have been very much developed and have been 
 made the vehicle for the display of bravoura effect, especially on the 
 pianoforte. The effectiveness of a passage is in proportion to its appar- 
 ent difficulty, which impression, again, is derived either from the visible 
 labor of the player, or from the inability of the hearer to understand 
 the construction of it. Any such Sequence as those in Exs. 20 and 
 21 is easily comprehended by even an inexperienced ear. But we 
 find in various modern works passages not susceptible of ready analysis 
 bv the ear, especially when played rapidly. Thus, e. g., observe this 
 cadenza from Liszt's Rigoletto. (Plays Chromatic Cadenza on p. 4 of 
 that piece.) When played rapidly it produces an immense effect. Tt 
 is derived from the chromatic scale. Let us build it. Suppo-^o we 
 take a descending chromatic scale of one octave. 
 
 ^ — '-- ' ' ' ^^ — ' • • ' ■ — ^- 
 
 Instead of descending simply, in tliis way, let us go down Iiy 
 4
 
 50 
 
 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 sequences of a motive ascending one degree, played with both 
 iiands. 
 
 ^ . s s s s 
 
 Ex. 24. -^^-V^-^^i i g ---g=;< -^= « 
 
 c. 
 
 Now let the little finger play a chromatic scale a sixth above the 
 treble and a sixth below the alto. Then tlie right hand will play this: 
 
 Ex. 25. 
 
 =^r^=Er^^ 
 
 ^^•^^^,^^^^^=&i= 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 zt__' 
 
 And the left hand tliis: 
 
 --«■ Sii^Sillilfp -■ 
 
 Y-V-Y- 
 
 And both hands this: 
 
 Ex. 37. 
 
 t2-4- * bbnJ- 
 
 
 ^F=-T 
 
 r — I — T — r 
 
 In Chopin's works we find a great variety of passages consisting 
 generally of a combination of sequences of diminished sevenths re- 
 solved chromatically. Of such a kind are, e, </., the following from the 
 Concerto in E minor. Here (p. 105 of the Augener edition of Klind- 
 worth's Chopin) are two ascending sequences of diminished chords, 
 diiferently treated (second and third lines).* 
 
 On p. 168 of the same edition we have a different passage con- 
 structed on the same general plan. (See in general, the chain of pas- 
 sages following the soft melody in C, middle part of the first movement 
 of the Chopin Concerto.) 
 
 Reference may also be made if convenient to the Cadenza in the 
 Rive-King edition of Liszt's Second Rhapsody. 
 
 ♦Reference is here made to the sequences immediately preceding the close 
 of the solo part in E major, first movement of Concerto in E minor.
 
 THE SEXSUOUS AND THE IDEALIZED. 51 
 
 List of Ilm'stiiatioxs. 
 
 1. Cramer's First Study. 
 
 2. Cadenza from Liszt's " Rigoletto." 
 
 3. Passages from Cliopiu Concerto in E minor. 
 
 LESSON TWENTIETH. 
 
 THE SENSUOUS AND THE IDEALIZED. 
 
 In dance music all its good harmony and melody, and grace- 
 ful treatment generally, are made subservient to the sense of physical 
 motion. Thus, e. //., observe the following. (Plays a part of Strauss' 
 " Blue Danube Waltzes.") This music unquestionably is genuine and 
 valid, but it appeals mainly to the dancing instinct. As played by the 
 the orchestra it is much more voluptuous than it appears on the piano- 
 foi'te. 
 
 Observe now another waltz. (Plays Karl Merz's "• Pearl of the 
 Sea.") In this we have the dance-instinct also addressed, but not in so 
 enticing and voluptuous forms as in the Strauss music. This belongs 
 to the class of " drawing-room waltzes," and partakes of the naivete of 
 the People's Song. 
 
 Again, take a still less pronounced type. (Plays the Cho{)in 
 Waltz in E flat, op. 18.) Here we have also a waltz; the same rhythm 
 and the same form. Yet in this piece the sensuous element has retired. 
 It is not now an actual flesh-and-blood dance to which the composer 
 invites us, but to a poetically conceived meditation upon a waltz. 
 Here the fancy runs wild. Tiiis we see in the extremely rapid tempo, 
 which is more than three times as rapid as a waltz could be danced. 
 
 The Strauss "Blue Danube" reminds us of the whirling ball- 
 room, the thickly perfumed air, the blazing lights, and all the sensuous 
 intoxication that goes with it. The ^lerz waltz is still a danci', a llcsh- 
 and-blood dance, but no lonarer so exciting. Tt is a nice, heartv faiiiilv 
 dance under the trees in open sky. The Chopin waltz leaves the physi- 
 cal scene entirelv. This is the idealized dance. 
 
 Observe again the following. (Plays the waltz fiom (.ounod's 
 "Faust.") And then this. (Plays the Chopin Waltz in A flat, op. 42.) 
 
 Here again we have the same contrast. One of the pieces invites
 
 ' 53 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 us to a real waltz; the other to an idealized revery. Which is the 
 material? And which the poetic? 
 
 If convenient it will be well to show here how the physical " Faust " 
 waltz is itself idealized, although in a sensational direction, in Liszt's 
 arrang'ement of Gounod's " Faust." Here we have the dreamy melody 
 in the middle of the waltz dwelt upon and idealized, and the slow 
 movement interposed, recalling the first meeting of Faust and 
 Marguerita. 
 
 The same distinction between dance music proper, and parlor 
 music in dance forms, prevails throughout all the movements originally 
 designed to control the physical motions, such as the March, Waltz, 
 Polka, Mazurka, Minuet, etc. It will be felt by the observant that 
 those pieces which most strongly suggest and invite to physical motions 
 (as the Strauss waltzes, for example) st6p there, and do not possess a 
 poetic Content. 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. Strauss' Blue Danube Waltz. (Any other supe?'io,r dancing waltz will do.) 
 
 2. Karl Merz's " Pearl of the Sea," 
 o. Chopin Waltz in E tlat, op. 18. 
 
 4. Waltz from Gounod's " Faust." (Sydney Smith, perhaps.) 
 
 5. Chopin Waltz in A flat, op. 42. 
 
 6. Liszt's Grouuod's " Faust." 
 
 LESSON TWENTY- FIRST. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE, SUGGESTIVE AND POETIC MUSIC. 
 
 Quite in line with the previous lesson, we have here to do with music 
 in which certain external events or objects are referred to by means of 
 music. 
 
 Observe the following. (Plays Henry Weber's " The Storm," 
 but without naming it.) Ask the question : " Do an}- of the 
 class know this piece?" If none of them know it, ask them to 
 tell what it means. It will prove a very amusing experiment, 
 the accounts will be so diflferent. If any of the class already 
 know it, ask them to remain quiet, and allow the others to give their 
 explanation of it. When this has been done, read aloud the author's 
 prefatory note as follows:
 
 DESCRIPTIVE, SUGGESTIVE AND POETK^ :\IUSIC. 53 
 
 "The Storm. An Tmitatioji of Natur(^(!) Tlie followino- is tlie 
 idea conveyed by this composition. ^V siie])hei-d is goino- liome witli 
 his flock — while he is playing an air on his flute a storm approaches. 
 The thunder, the roaring of the water, the crash of trees and tlie fire- 
 bellsare to be heard in succession." (Plays again.) Asan "imitation 
 of nature" tliis pretty little piece is scarcely successful. For altlii)UL;li 
 the flute and the muflflcHi thimder are tolerably suo-irested, the crash of 
 trees and roaring of the waters do not appear. The fire-bells also 
 would scarcely be heard in a pastoral neighborliood. However, this is 
 a point relating to the poetic conception, with which we have reallv 
 nothing to do. Our question is, Do these musical figures really repre- 
 sent or remind us of the natural objects to which the author refers 
 them? To this question we must return a decided negative. Even 
 with all the resources of the modern orchestra in the hands of such a 
 master as Wagner, a storm is very imperfectly represented. 
 
 Again, observe this. (Plays Mr. G. D. Wilson's " Shepherd Boy.") 
 This pretty little piece has no imitation of nature as such. A name is 
 given it which serves as a starting point. But the music gives us 
 neither the rocks, the grass, the sheep, the sheep-bells, the boy, his 
 crook, or the l:)right sky over head, but only the peaceful and monoton- 
 ous spirit of such a scene. This is an Idyll and not a description. 
 
 For a still more fortunate example observe this. (Plays Schvi- 
 niann's " The Hobby Horse" No. 8, out of the Album for the Young, 
 without naming it. When the piece'is concluded, ask the class their 
 impression of it, as to what it means or represents.) In such a piece 
 as this it is not possible to infer the meaning of the author from simply 
 hearing the piece. But when the clue is aff'orded, the suitability of 
 the music becomes apparent. ' 
 
 Observe also "The Jollv Farmer" No. 10 in the Album for the 
 Young. (Plays.) Tliis piece might be called by any other name that 
 would be sufficient to account for its simplicity, heartiness and satisfac- 
 tion. Schumann's title is on the whole the easiest hypothesis by which 
 to account for it. 
 
 Plavs also "Santa Glaus" No. 12 in the All)uni, the Snrino- soiio- 
 No. 15, the little Romance No. 19, and the Sailor's song No. 37. 
 
 It Avlll also be advantageous to study in this connection, as time 
 serves, Schumann's " Scenes from Ghildhood" op. 15. These thirteen 
 little pieces are extremely varied and clever, and belong rather to 
 poetic, music, than to descriptive music proper. 
 
 The difference here implied is this: — In descriptive music it is 
 attempted to represent the external traits of objects by means of music,
 
 54 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 in such a way that a person hearing the music will recall the object, 
 which is 'practically impossible. In poetic music it is attempted to 
 represent the spirit of such and such natural objects or experiences. 
 The title serves to connect the two. Whoever hears the music with- 
 out knowing the title, hears only some very animated and widely dif- 
 ferent pieces of music, interesting and fresh considered simply as 
 music. When he knows the title he has in that a clue to the com- 
 poser's intention or desire of representing something beyond the actual 
 content of the music as such. Such pieces, therefore, form useful 
 studv lor pupils not yet thoroughly musical. 
 
 Of the same class Init in a lower grade are the fanciful titles so 
 common in parlor jjieces, such as " Warblings at Eve," " Monastery 
 Bells," " Maiden's Prayer," etc., in all of which the title was an after- 
 thought, put on to sell the piece, frequently, indeed, assigned by some 
 other than the composer, and often with very little reference to the 
 actual Content of the music- 
 Observe again this. (Plays the "Battle of Prague," without aii- 
 nouncino- title.) This, ao-ain, is an indenendent and fairly well made 
 piece of music, a Sonata, indeed. That the low tones represent can- 
 non no one would know except he knew the intention. 
 
 If convenient it will prove very interesting in this connection to 
 observe a four-hand performance of Wagner's "Ride of the Valkyrie," 
 one of the most singular compositions before the public. 
 
 There are also at least two of the Beethoven Sonatas which are of 
 especial interest in this connection. They are "The Pastorale " op. 28, 
 and "The Adieux, the Absence and the Return," op. 8-i. 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. "The Storm '' by Henry Weber. 
 
 2. "The Shepherd Boy," G. D. Wilson. 
 
 3. "The Hobby Horse," etc. from Schumann's "Album for the Young," op. 68. 
 
 4. "The Battle of Prague," byKotzwara. 
 
 5. " Scenes from Childhood" op. 15. Schumann. 
 0. "Sonata Pastorale," op. 28. Beethoven. 
 
 7. "The Adieux, the Ab.sence, and the Return." Sonata op. 81. Beethoven.
 
 Part ForRTii. 
 
 STUDIES IN ART AND THE BEAUTIFUL 
 
 CHAPTER TWENTY-SECONB. 
 
 SECTIOX FIRST. THE IDEAL AND ITS PHASES. 
 
 Every thing that is, stone, phmt, tree, hindseape, Iniilding-, animal 
 and man himself, presents itself to the mind in two aspects. First as 
 an actual appearance, an established and ordered existence, proceeding 
 according to its own laws and expressing its own nature. .Nian at 
 first accepts it in unquestioning simj)licity. Presently, however, tiiis 
 unquestioning acceptance of whatever /.s because it /.s, gives place to 
 a spirit of inquiry which seeks to know irhy it is. Tlie answer to this 
 gives the second aspect of things; namely, that every thing that is 
 is the representation or embodiment of some particular i(7(((, which 
 existed before the appearance of it, either in the present individual or 
 any of its predecessors. 
 
 Thus if we attentively consider a piece of crystalline rock, as 
 of granite, we find it first a merely natural appearance, an inanimate 
 substance, a piece of matter. But when we jneditate upon it more 
 deeply, we perceive that its particles are organized into crystals, 
 determinate forms, in the construction of which the particles of matter 
 have followed certain laws. Thus, beyond all we can learn of the ])i(>ce 
 of granite by mere inspection, there lies back of this its /(/ir, tlu^ ruHng 
 principle of its tt/pe; the idea, of which granite is the expression. So 
 every piece of inorganic nature manifests laws, i(l(>as, which are liack 
 of the natural appearance. 
 
 In an organized existence, as, e. (]., a plant, we recognize the idea 
 much more clearly. For, whereas in the crystal the inq)eliing force 
 acted in the original formation once for all, in the plant we have be- 
 fore us a continual creation. With its leaves open to the sunshine
 
 56 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 and showers, and its rootlets groping in tlie soil for moisture and 
 other elements of its beino- it o-athers to itself from the world about it 
 whatever is most necessary for its growth, and shapes and fashions it 
 according to the organic law of its species. Here, then, we come upon 
 certain rudimental appearances of self-determination; or, as we might 
 otherwise say, upon a higher step in the representation of idea. 
 
 How much stronger is the expression of idea in a tree! Take 
 the oak. The acorn is a little fruit, scarcely larger than the end 
 of vour finger. Planted,' it yields but a tender shoot. But when a 
 hundred suns of summer have shone upon it, and a century's winds and 
 storms l^eat upon it, how sturdy and grand it stands! There is in the 
 oak an idea^ the law of its being; and sunshine, rain, storm and pass- 
 ing years, but afford it opportunity to bring this idea to expression — to 
 work out its own ideal. 
 
 Again, consider the animal, more highly organized, gifted with 
 self-movement, and with a certain amount of mind and intelligence; 
 nay,even with the more precious qualities of friendship and affection. 
 Yet each kind is true to its type. Individuals differ, but there is be- 
 hind all these variations the idea of the species, the type of the kind, 
 the ideal., from which no one varies in any radical degree. 
 
 Thus we come to the still higher expression of idea in man, whose 
 glory is his mind; his complex and wonderful intellectual and emotional 
 luiture, the image of God. This it is which investigates the outer 
 world, arranges her phenomena into orderly sequence of cause and 
 effect, and classifies her appearances according to their essential 
 character. It is the mind of man which multiplies the wants and 
 capacities of life, as well as the means of gratifying them. Still more 
 the mind shows itself in literature, and here in such true sense as to 
 make all these other achievements seem of no meaning and significance 
 as if they were indeed only the very "small dust of the balance. " Thus 
 we have in the lower department of mental effort, what we might call the 
 "matter-of-fact" part of literature, the newspapers and magazines through 
 which man learns of the doings and ideas of his fellow men throughout 
 the world, and the histories in which he learns of the rise and fall of 
 nations, and reads the lessons of the past. How wonderful is the evi- 
 dence these give of far-reaching human thought and sympathy ! 
 But above this great practical department of literature which relates 
 itself to material success, we find Poetry, and Imaginative Composition 
 of every kind, in which the human spirit soars into higher regions of 
 fancy and feeling. Here the soul is represented as unhampered by 
 accidents of fortune, or as triumphing over them in the exuberant
 
 THE IDEAL AND ITS PHASES. 57 
 
 force of its own individuality. Nay ! the spirit seai'ches into 
 the eternal principles of good and evil, 'and sets them in order before 
 us. This progress goes yet further in Art. Temple, Statue, Picture, 
 Symphony and Psalm, all unite in giving evidence of a spiiilual 
 activity in man which rises above the i-outine of everyday life and its 
 necessities, into the cleai- and more enduiing radiance of the ideal. 
 
 Thus, whether we consider the progress of creation, from the rudi- 
 mental forms of the earliest geological periods to the highly organized 
 beings which occupy the earth at tlie present time; or if we stud}- one 
 natural appearance after another and see how plainly each bears wit- 
 ness to the existence of a higher law, an eternal idea which determines 
 its appearance, and then again coml)ine these into an ascending system 
 of excellence: — in either case we have to do with ideas and the Ideal; 
 and so with everlasting truth, the inner nature of things, the soul, and 
 immortal interests; for the ideal is the abiding, the eternal. As 
 Schopenhauer says: 
 
 *•' For thousands of years a chemical force slumbered in matter luitil 
 the touch of re-agents set it free; then it appeared, but time is only for 
 the appearance not for the force itself. For thousands of years galvan- 
 ism slept in copper and zinc, and they Ijoth lay resting over against 
 silver, which as soon as all three are combined under proper conditions 
 must burst out in flames. Even in a dry seed-corn foi' thi-ee thousand 
 years the slumbering force lay hidden which in the final appearance of 
 suitable circumstances bursts out as plant. But, as before, time is not 
 for tlie idea itself, but only for its appearance." 
 
 Ao-ain, let us observe further that in no sino-le individual is its own 
 ideal fully realized. Even in the lowest types, as crystals, it is rare to 
 find fully formed specimens, but rather they mostly appear witli a corner 
 broken here, a line or ])ro.portion distorted there, and so on. On the 
 higher plane of plant-life the difficulty of discovering a perfect speci- 
 men is much greater. In one the branches are not symmetrical; in 
 another the stem is distorted; even a single perfect leaf is rarely seen. 
 A perfectly formed animal is equally rare. Whetiier belonging to the 
 lowest grades of animal life or the highest, or at any intermediate place 
 in the scale, in almost every individual we llnd some imperfection or 
 other; a hard winter, a season of famine, an untimely ;uid unsuccessful 
 struggle for supremacy; — some one or all of these liave interfered with 
 the developmentof the animal, and have left their mark of imperfection 
 upon him. In man is this much more the case. A form perfect in all 
 its proportions we never see. It is even difficidt to discover perfectly 
 proportioned single members. In his mental disposition, likewise, the
 
 58 HOAV TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 same imperfect results are observed. For wherever we search we dis- 
 cover no complete man; but on the coutrary unbalanced faculties, con- 
 tradictory impulses, imperfectly developed reasoning powers, undis- 
 ciplined affections, and in short a general want of harmony and coher- 
 ence in the manifold capacities of the soul. 
 
 Nevertheless, in all these innumerable degrees of manifestation,, 
 the Ideal itself remains steadfast and eternal. For although we may 
 not be able to discover a single individual but lacks some element of 
 perfection or grace, yet we have at least our idea of the average excel- 
 lence of many individuals of the same class, and in this an imperfect 
 ideal. Beyond and above this, again, is the much higher ideal arrived 
 at by collecting all the most eminent perfections ever known in indi- 
 viduals of a given class, and combining these together into the concep- 
 tion of a more perfect crystal, plant, animal, or character than any one 
 has even seen realized. 
 
 In like manner, there is no delicacy or splendor of color, nor any 
 sweetness and harmony of tone, no pleasant savor or odor, no symmetry 
 or grace of form, nor any magnificence of mental endowment or genius 
 of any kind, but that beyond it one innnediately imagines something 
 more satisfactory and complete. Thus in all these, the sensuous and 
 the purely spiritual as well, we have our human ideals which we form 
 by collecting and combining separate perfections. These remain 
 steadfast, or become constantly more complete in spite of the counter- 
 acting influence of the discovery of imperfections in individuals. 
 Beyond these, again, exists the true ideal, perfectly known only to 
 God, but in some feeble degree imaginable to the specially gifted or 
 inspired; and these are the naturalists, statemen, prophets, seers, 
 artists and poets of the world, who all find their true distinction in 
 their successful divination and communication of the ideal. 
 
 Under the term Ideal, therefore, we properly include 
 every thing that is eternal and true. Any object in nature 
 or art is ideal accordino; as it manifests in outward form 
 the inner nature of the Ideal. 
 
 There are three great phases of the ideal which include within 
 themselves all possible grades of goodness and excellence; and imply 
 as opposites all grades of imperfection and wrong. These all inclusive 
 phases are the True, the Beautiful, and the Good. 
 
 Under the name True we include not only all truthfulness of 
 statement and teaching, whether relating to material objects, to history,.
 
 THE DESIGN AND SCOPE OF ART. 59 
 
 or to speculation, but also all genuineness and consistency, or the quality 
 of agreement between the (ippearance and the real nature in any 
 material thing or person. 
 
 The conception we call Goodness relates to the moral nature, and 
 involves in it the idea of the exercise of benevolence and love as the 
 iiabitual motive of action. This form of the ideal is that habitually 
 appealed to in religion. In its lower applications it involves the idea 
 of fitness, suitability, adaptation to a proposed end. 
 
 The ideal we call the Beautiful involves in it predominantly the 
 o^w^Xxty oi perfection of apjyearance^'AwiS. is expressed in forms addressed 
 to sense-perception, or to the inner senses. Truth is primarily 
 addressed to the intellect; Goodness to the moral nature; Beauty to 
 the senses. 
 
 All these, the True, the Beautiful and the Good, unite 
 in the One Ideal, GOD. 
 
 All qualities of the ideal whether in material things, 
 animals, or personal character, are but reflections, im2:)erfect 
 appearances,- or intimations of the Divine. 
 
 SECTIOX SECOND. T^IE DESIGN AND SCOPE OF ART. 
 
 Art has for its object the expression of the Ideal in sense-form ; 
 or, which means the same thing, the expression of the Beautiful. 
 
 " The sole principle of Art is cognition of the ideal; its sole design 
 the communication of this knowledge. While Science^ tracing the 
 restless and inconstant stream of manifold princi))les and sequences, in 
 each point reached finds always something further, and never a last 
 limit, nor yet ever can find complete satisfaction (just as little as one 
 by running can reach the point where clouds touch the horizon); Art^ 
 on the other hand, is already at the limit. She arrests the object of 
 her contemplation out of the stream of the world-course, and holds it 
 isolated. And this Single, which in the stream was but a little vanish- 
 ing part, becomes for her a representative of the vhole., an Equivalent 
 of the endless Many in space and time. She remains fast, therefore, 
 ])y this separate. She stops the wheel of time; relations vanish for 
 her; only the essenti((l^ the Idea, is the o])ject. 
 
 " We can, therefore, straightway designate Art as the examination 
 of things hi their eternal nature and meanhni. in contrast to the exami- 
 nation of things in their temporal aspects, which is the way of sense- 
 perception and knowledge. This latter mode is an endless, like a
 
 iiO HOW TO UXDERSTAXD MVSIC. 
 
 horizontal line; the former is a perpendicular cutting the horizon- 
 tal line at a chosen point. The usual mode of examining things is the 
 reasonable one, which in practical life, as in science, is alone valid and 
 profitable. The other is in Art the only valid and profitable. The 
 scientific is the mode of Aristotle; the artistic, in the main, that of Plato. 
 The first is like the furious storm, which hurries along without begin- 
 ing or limit, bends, moves, and carries every thing along with it; the 
 second like the quiet sunbeam which cuts its way through the storm 
 -entirely unmoved by it. The first like the innumerable, tempestuously- 
 moving drops of the water-fall, which, constantly changing, suffer no 
 glance to linger upon them; the second like the rainbow resting in 
 stillness upon this tumultuous crowd."* 
 
 The Powers of Art are thus broadly defined by Hegel: "It is 
 the task and scope of art to bring to our perception and spiritual 
 realization all that in our thought has a place in the human spirit. 
 That well-known sentence, J^ihil humani a me alienum piito^ Art 
 shall realize in us." 
 
 Its clesign is, therefore : To awaken and to animate the 
 shimbering feelings, desires and passions of all kinds ; to fill 
 the heart and to j^ermit to be conscious in man everything 
 developed and undeveloped which human feeling can 
 carry, experience, and bring forth, in its innermost and most 
 secret parts; whatever the human heart in its manifold 
 possibilities and moods desires to move and excite ; and 
 especially whatever the S23irit has in its thought and in the 
 Idea of the -most Essential * and High ; the glory of the 
 Honored, Eternal, and True. 
 
 " It may also express vinhappiness and misery, in order thus to 
 make wickedness and criminality conceivable, and to permit the 
 human heart to share every thino- horrible and dreadful, as well as all 
 joy and happiness. Then fancy may at last indulge herself in vain 
 sport of the imagination, and run riot in the ensnaring magic of sensu- 
 ously entrancing contemplation." 
 
 That is to say : It is within the power of Art to portray the entire 
 content of the human spirit; its evil no less than its good. Neverthe- 
 less the proper mission of Art, as the expression of Beauty, forbids 
 
 ♦Schopenhauer.
 
 CONDITIONS OF ART AND OF ITS ENJOYMENT 61 
 
 the representation of the evil except in so far as it can be used for 
 contrast in order thereby to reveal a deeper beauty. Any use of evil 
 in art other than in this subjection to good, makes false art. 
 
 SECTIOX THIRD. CONDITIONS OF ART AND OF ITS ENJOYMENT. 
 
 The effectiveness of Art rests primarily iij)<)ii the fact 
 that our knowledge of the outer world comes in through 
 sensation and sense-perception, and thus first reaches the 
 feelings and will. Therefore, whether it is the external 
 reality itself which occupies the attention, or only the appear- 
 ance of it (as in pictures, drawings, or representations) "by 
 means of which a scene, or relation, or life-moment of any 
 kind is brought to us, — it remains for our soul the same, in 
 order to depress or rejoice us according to the nature of 
 such an idea, to stir and excite and to thrill us with the 
 feelings and passions of anger, hatred, and sympathy; of 
 anxiety, fear, love, esteem, and wonder ; of Honor and of 
 Glory. 
 
 "This waking up of all sensations in us, the education of our feel- 
 ings through each life-picture; to set in operation all these inner 
 movements through a merely deceptive external presence — it is which 
 is especially seen as the peculiar, unexcelled power of art. 
 
 "Nevertheless, Art in this manner, impresses good and l)ad upon 
 the feelings and ideas; and the design should be to strengthen it to the 
 noblest, so as to nerve it up to the most thoughtful and useful iiis])ira- 
 tions." (Hegel.) 
 
 In all art- work we have to do with two elements, " first 
 a content, design, meaning ; then the expression, representa- 
 tion and realization of this content ; and both sides so brought 
 together that the oiLter and material is presented (tiily as the 
 representation of the inner, and not otherwise; as that which 
 the covering has received and expressed out of the content T^ 
 
 The Fine Arts are Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Music, and 
 Poetry (including all imaginative composition). Each one of these 
 
 , »Hegel.
 
 62 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 seeks to express the beautiful in its own way, according to the nature 
 and capacity of the material through whicli it works. 
 
 In order to thoroughly appreciate and justly estimate any master- 
 work of art, therefore, we need to consider its conception or intention, 
 and the technical merits of its execution. Hence, the intention of the 
 previous parts of the present work has been to lead to an intelligent 
 observation of the more external qualities of music as a form of art. 
 This having been measurably accomplished, we here enter upon a 
 consideration of the content or meaning of music, in doing which we 
 find it most convenient and helpful to inquire also concerning the 
 scope and meaning of all the arts, as well as the leading characteristics 
 of the beautiful itself which they all have for their ideal. 
 
 All forms of the Beautiful as we saw in the beginning, are to 
 be enjoyed through contemplation, rather than thought. A beautiful 
 sunset, a grand movnitain view, a great moment in history, lose their 
 charm of beauty or grandeur when we reason about them and occupy 
 ourselves with an inquiry into the scientific principles underlying them. 
 The drops of water in the rainbow are but ordinary examples of the 
 substance chemically known as H2O. It is only our own accidental 
 position with regard to them and the sun, wliich enables us to j^erceive 
 in them the beautiful token of God's remembrance. We look, and 
 behold! it is there! We approach to analyze it, and lo! it is gone. 
 
 K\\ art and all perception and enjoyment of the beautiful, come 
 through childlike faith and openness of spirit. 
 
 And whenever for the sake of studv and knowledo-e we analyze 
 an art-work in order to surprise the secret of its construction, we 
 need to re create it again, according to the simple directness of its 
 meaning as art, in order to recover its charm and inspiration.
 
 OF THE NATURE AND MEANING OF THE BEAUTIFIL. 03 
 
 CHAPTER TWEXTY-TIITKI). 
 
 OF THE NATURE AND MEANING OF THE BEAUTIFUL. 
 
 Under the term " Beautiful " are included an innumerable mani- 
 fold of meanings, so great and in their higher reaches so glorious, that 
 language fails in power to express them, and even the mind is lost 
 amid the bewildering splendor. For in this term we reckon together 
 all that is j^leasing in sensation, contentful and satisfactory in con- 
 templation, or kindling and inspiring in spiritual perception. It em- 
 braces within itself every graceful and lovely existence in created things, 
 all that artists have represented, poets dreamed, or seer and revela- 
 tor made known, and every possibility of splendor, glory, and excellence, 
 which the longest ages of eternity shall make real to the blessed. 
 
 Since, then, the Beautiful itself is not yet fully revealed, it is no 
 wonder that a complete and satisfactory discussion of the subject has 
 never been made, for such an achievement is in its nature impossible. 
 
 Nevertheless, every act of esthetic judgment involves within it 
 the determination of "beautiful" or " un-beautiful," and hence the 
 soundness of our subsequent progress in the present studies requires 
 .of us here such preliminary consideration of tliis wonderful ideal as we 
 may be able to attain to. Of all writers on this subject Ruskin is the 
 most eloquent and suggestive, though perhaps not the most complete 
 in scientific form. The liberty is taken, therefore, of availing our- 
 selves of his words, to piece out the more systematic, rational, and 
 practical classification we find ready to our hand in Lotze's work on 
 " Ji:sthetics in Germany " {'■'■ Aesthetih in DeutschlancV by Hermann 
 Lotze, Munich, 1868). 
 
 " By the term beauty," says Ruskin,* " properly are signified two 
 things. First, that external quality of bodies, which, whether it occurs 
 in a stone, flower, beast, or in man, is absolutely identical, which, as I 
 have already asserted, may be shown to be in some sort typical of the 
 Divine attributes, and which, therefore, 1 shall, for distinction's sake, 
 call typical beauty; and, secondarily, the appearance of felicitous full- 
 filment of function in living things, more especially of the joyful 
 and right exercise of perfect life in man. And this kind of beauty 1 
 shall call vital beauty. 
 
 *" Modern Painters," Vol. II., p. 27.
 
 04 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 " Any application of the word beautiful to other appearances or 
 qualities than these, is either false or metaphorical, as, for instance to 
 the splendor of a discovery, the fitness of a proportion, the coherence 
 of a chain of reasoning, or the power of bestowing pleasure which 
 objects receive from association, a power confessedly great, and inter- 
 fering, as we shall presently find, in a most embarrassing way with 
 the attractiveness of real beauty." 
 
 All modes or degrees of the Beautiful may be counte<l in three 
 categories. These are: (1.) The Pleasing in Sensation. (2.) The 
 Satisfactory in Contemplation, and (3.) Beauty of Reflection. 
 
 SECTIOX FIRST. THE PLEASIXG IN SEXSATIOX. 
 
 All the faculties of sense-perception and sensation are susceptible 
 of pleasurable exercise, but none of them awaken in us sensations of h 
 distinctly elevated character save only the two ideal senses of sight 
 and hearing:. 
 
 These are the two avenues along which most of the ideas come 
 which relate us to the kingdom of spirtual existence. In the joleasur- 
 able exercise of these senses there is not only the vision of intelligence 
 and the voice of wisdom, but a manifold and entirely pure and proper 
 pleasure of sensation as such. 
 
 This we have in the purity, contrasts, harmonies, and sequences 
 of color, such as form a material foundation for our enjoyment of 
 beauty or gorgeousness in nature or art. 
 
 So, also, in tone, we have the various grades of consonance, and 
 especially the contrasts and agreeable combinations and gradations of 
 tone-color as in orchestral works, and in human voices. Of this kind, 
 also, is the pleasure derivable from chromatically modulating chords, 
 such as we find in the works of Spohr and Gounod, and very often 
 in Italian opera; where no idea is suggested or intended, but only the 
 sweet, the ])retty, the well-sounding. 
 
 All these are unmistakably pleasurable, and at the same time 
 allied to the perception of the beautiful. They all have implications 
 which suggest higher qualities of the beautiful, as one may see below 
 in Ruskin's words on Purity. 
 
 " PupaTY, the Type of the Divine E)iergy. — The only idea 
 which r think can be legitimately connected with purity of mat- 
 ter, is this of vital and energetic connection among its parti- 
 cles, and that the idea of foulness is essentially connected with dis- 
 solution and death. Thus the purity of the rock, contrasted with 
 the foulness of dust or mould, is expressed by the epithet 'living,'
 
 OF THE NATURE AND MEANING OF THE BEAUTIFUL. G5 
 
 verv sino-vilarlv ijiven in the rock, in almost all laiiarnagros: siiio-ulariv 
 I say, because life is almost the last attribute one would ascribe to 
 stone, but for this visible energy and connection of its particles; and 
 so of water as opposed to stag-nancy. And T do not think that, how- 
 ever pure a powder or dust may l)e, the idea of beauty is ever connected 
 with it, for it is not the mere purity, but the active condition of the 
 substance which is desired, so that as soon as it shoot into crystals, or 
 gathers into efflorescence, a sensation of active or real purity is received 
 which was not felt in the calcined caput viortuum. 
 
 "And again in color. I imagine that 'the quality of it wdiich we 
 term purity is dependent on the full energizing of the rays that com- 
 pose it, whereof if in compound hues any are overpowered and killed 
 by the rest, so as to be of no value nor operation, foulness is the 
 consequence; while so long as all act together, whether side by side, 
 or from pigments seen one through the other, so that all the coloring 
 matter employed comes into play in the harmony desired, and none 
 be quenched nor killed, purity results. And so in all cases I suppose 
 that pureness is made to us desirable, because expressive of the con- 
 stant presence and energizing of tlie Deity in matter, through which all 
 things live and move, and have their being, and thnt foulness is pain- 
 ful as the accompaniment of disorder and decay, and always indicative 
 of the withdrawal of Divine support. And the practical analogies of 
 life, the invariable connection of outward foulness with mental sloth 
 and degradation as well as with bodily lethargy and disease, together 
 with the contrary indications of freshness and purity belonging to 
 every healthy and active organic frame, (singularly seen in the effort 
 of the young leaves when first their inward energy prevails over the 
 earth, pierces its corruption, and shakes its dust away from theii- own 
 white purity of life,) all these circumstances strengthen the instinct 
 by associations countless and irresistible. 
 
 " And then, finally, with the idea of purity comes that of spirituality, 
 for the essential characteristic of matter is its inertia, whence, by adding 
 to it purity or energy, we may in some measure spiritualize even matter 
 itself. Thus in the descriptions of the Apocalypse it is its purity that 
 fits it for its place in heaven; the river of the water of life that ])ro- 
 ceeds out of the throne of the Lamb, is clear as crystal, and the pave- 
 ment of the city is pure gold, like unto clear glass." 
 
 SECTION SECOND. THE SATISFACTORY IN CONTEMPLATION. 
 
 But above pleasures of mere sense-perception as such, mere ebb 
 and flow of sensation, we must reckon the quiet pleasures one has in 
 5
 
 CG HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 merely contemplating a beautiful object. One of the most obvio-;s 
 examples of this is the satisfaction universally experienced in looking 
 at a beautiful face. Such is the gratification one involuntarily feels in 
 its symmetry, its pleasantness and justice of ])roportion, that for a 
 long time one overlooks whatever of emptiness or shallowness of 
 spiritual expression it may betray. Nay, with some observers this 
 pleasure is so strong that it suffices to overcome the strongest and best 
 grounded elements of dissatisfaction one may have in the personal 
 character of the owner of the face. 
 
 The foundation of this satisfaction lies in Symmetry ("the type of 
 the Divine justice") of which Ruskiu speaks thus: 
 
 " We shall not be long detained bv the consideration of this con- 
 stituent of beauty, as its nature is universally felt and understood. 
 Tn all perfectly beautiful objects, there is found the opposition of one 
 part to another and a reciprocal balance obtained; in animals the 
 balance being commonly between opposite sides, (note the disagree- 
 ableness occasioned by the exception in flat fish, having the eyes on 
 one side of the head,) l)ut in vegetables the opposition is less distinct, 
 as in the boughs on opposite sides of trees, and the leaves and sprays 
 on each side of the boughs, and in dead matter less perfect still, often 
 amounting only to a certain tendency towards a balance, as in the 
 opposite sides of valleys and alternate windings of streams. In things 
 in which perfect symmetry is, from their nature, impossible or improb- 
 al)Ie, a balance must be at least in some measure expressed before they 
 can be beheld with pleasure. Hence the necessity of what artists re- 
 quire as opposing lines or masses in composition, the propriety of which, 
 as well as their value, depends chiefly on their inartificial and natural 
 invention. Absolute equality is not required, still less absolute 
 similarity. 
 
 "A mass of subdued color may be balanced by a point of a powerful 
 one, and a long and latent line overpowered by a short and conspicuous 
 one. The only error against which it is necessary to guard the reader 
 with respect to symmetry, is the confounding it with proportion, 
 though it seems strange that the two terms could ever have been used 
 as synonymous. Symmetry is the opposition of equal quantities to 
 each other. Proportion the connection of nnequril quantities wnth each 
 other. The property of a tree in sending out equal boughs on opposite 
 sides is symmetrical. Its sending out shorter and smaller towards the 
 top, proportional. In the human face its balance of opposite sides is 
 symmetry, its division upwards, proportion. 
 
 "Whether the agreeableness of symmetry be in any way referable
 
 OF THE NATURE AND MEANING OF THE BEAUTIFUL. GT 
 
 to its expression of the Aristotilian Ifroir^c, that is to say of abstract 
 justice, I leave the render to (leteriniiie; 1 only assert respecting it, 
 that it is necessary to the dio-nitv of every form, and that l>v tlie 
 removal of it we shall render the other elements of beauty com- 
 paratively ineffectual; though on the otluu- hand, it is so to be observed 
 that it is rather a mode of arrangement of qualities than a quality 
 itself; and hence symmetry has little power over the mind, uidess all 
 the other constituents of beauty be found together witli it." 
 
 x\ll degrees of the satisfactory in contemplation depend chiefly 
 upon the qualities which naturally appertain to and cluster around sym- 
 metry. They are Regularity, Moderation according to law, Harmony, 
 and Proportion, all of which are the qualities we discover first in the 
 beautiful things of nature. 
 
 All of these, again, show themselves equally in space-relations^ 
 and in time-relations. Those of space, or of visible forms, are already 
 referred to in the extract from Ruskin, above. 
 
 The element of time, properly includes every thing in music; not 
 only its measure and rhythm, but even its harmony and melodic 
 organization, since tone itself finds its power in regularly determined 
 vibrations, which although physically taking place in space, enter the 
 soul only in the forms of time. In this respect they ally themselves to a 
 deeper department of the soul; for Schopenhauer very cleverly points 
 out that space-relations as such are not received into abstract thought, 
 but transformed into those of time^ as all the equations and computa- 
 tions of planetary spaces are carried on in mathematical formuke. 
 In other words, space itself is nothing more than time made visible. 
 Time and Eternity are the symbols of immortality. 
 
 Now in the element of time we have in music innumerable rela- 
 tions and cunningly intermingled gradations of harmony, proportion, 
 order, symnietrj', and the like, as we have already seen in our studies 
 in phraseology and form; and as we shall see vet more plainly in our 
 studies in classical music particularly. 
 
 Moreover, these elements of beauty imply also unity., else there 
 would be no Single in which the beauty inheres. And so it follows 
 by implication that in order, proportion., and hdrmony., we have tlie 
 " unity in variety " so often quoted and »o little understood. But this 
 element of Unity has a yet higher reach, therefore its particular dis- 
 cussion is reserved for the next section. 
 
 In all these together we have Formal Beauty, the outward con- 
 ditions of beauty; or purely physical beauty, the form in which the 
 higher spiritual beauty may inhere. And formal beauty, again, implies
 
 68 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 as its check or safe-guard yet another quality, of wliich Ruslcin shall 
 
 tell us. 
 
 Moderation: 
 
 The Tij2:>e of the Divine Government by Law. 
 
 " I have put this attribute of beauty last, because I consider it the 
 girdle and safeguard of all the rest, and in this respect the most essen- 
 tial of all, for it is possible that a certain degree of beauty may be 
 attained even in the absence of one of its other constituents, as some- 
 times in some measure without symmetry or without unity. But the 
 least appearance of violence or extravagance, of the want of modera- 
 tion and restraint, is, I think, destructive of all beauty whatsoever in 
 every thing, color, form, motion, language, or thought, giving rise to 
 that which in color we call glaring, in form inelegant, in motion 
 ungraceful, in language coarse, in thought undisciplined, in all un- 
 chastened; which qualities are in every thing most painful, because the 
 signs of disobedient and irregular operation. 
 
 "And therefore as that virtue in which men last, and with most 
 difficulty attain unto, and which many attain not at all, and yet that 
 which is essential to the conduct and almost to the being of all other 
 virtues, since neither imagination, nor invention, nor industry, nor 
 sensibility, nor energy, nor any other good having, is of full avail 
 without this of self-command, whereby works truly masculine and 
 mightv are produced, and by the signs of which they are separated 
 from that lower host of things brilliant, magnificent and redundant, 
 and further yet from that of the loose, the lawless, the exaggerated, 
 the insolent, and the profane, I would have the necessity of it foremost 
 among all our inculcating, and the name of it largest among all our in- 
 scribing, in so far that, over the doors of every school of Art, I would 
 have this one word, relieved out in deep letters of pure gold — 3Iodera- 
 tionr 
 
 SECTION THIRD. THE BEAUTIFUL IN SPIRITUAL PERCEPTION. 
 
 We now reach the degree where the beautiful fully becomes what 
 in the original conception it was defined to be, namely, the expression 
 of the ideal in sense-forms (or in outward appearance). When we con- 
 template a gorgeous sunset, we experience much more than a merely 
 contentful satisfaction in splendid masses of crimson and gold lying 
 above the western horizon. It is not the magnificent and incredible 
 purity of the colors, nor the pleasing evanescence of the silently 
 changing cloud-masses, nor yet any sensuous gratification in tliQ brilliant 
 lights reflected from the mountainsin the east, or the passingsails on the
 
 OF THE NATURE AND MEANING OF THE BEAUTIFUL. {j<3 
 
 ocean, but rather an inspiration and kindling of spirit such as all sensi- 
 tive and highly organized natures well know, and which all recognize 
 as among the most spiritual moments of their lives. Or v.-hen one looks 
 olT from a mountain top, how grand and exh'larating the experience. 
 So, again, as one listens to a great symphony, how it thrills and over- 
 powers with its exquisite expression. In all these experiences, and in 
 an endless number of similar ones left unmentioned here; because so 
 universally recognized, we liave always two elements: some object or 
 combination of objects presented to sense-perception, and as such sat- 
 isfvinfn" at least the chief demands of formal beauty; and, second, a kind- 
 linsr of emotion in the soul, a su2:2restion of the unutterable and the in- 
 effable, which for the moment makes even common natures poetic and 
 appreciative. 
 
 This play of the imagination, this unconscious kindling of soul, 
 rano-es throu<xh all grades, from the merely pleasino- to the most over- 
 powering sense of the Infinite, as in the sublime. But it is in some 
 degree inseparable from the highest perception of beauty, and depends 
 more upon sensitiveness and iineness of organization in the beholder, 
 than on any definable physical properties of the object awakening it. 
 We call it, therefore, the beautiful in spiritvuil perception; or, with 
 Kant and Lotze, the "beautiful in reflection," as if in contemplating 
 these objects something of the radiance of the spiritual woi-ld was re- 
 flected upon the beholder, or called up from the depthsof his own soul. 
 This emotion is what Richard Wao-ner calls "the sense of the illimit- 
 able;" and what Ruskin eloquently describes as intimations or sugges- 
 tions of Unity, Repose and Infinity: — 
 
 UxiTv: — The Type of the Dwbie Comprehensive7iess. "All things," 
 says Hooker, " (God only excepted,) besides the nature which they have 
 in themselves, receive externally some perfection from other things." 
 Hence the appearance of s(!paration or isolation in any thing, and of 
 self-dependence, is an appearance of imperfection; and all appearances 
 of connection and brotherhood are pleasant and right, both as signifi- 
 cative of perfection in the things united, and as typical of that Unity 
 which we attribute to Goth and of which our true conception is rightly 
 explained and limited by Dr. Brown, in his XCII lecture; that 
 Unity which consists not in his own singleness or separation, but 
 in the necessity of his inherence in all things that be, witliout which 
 ■ no creature of any kind could hold existence for a moment, which 
 necessity of Divine essence I thiidc it better to speak of as com- 
 prehensiveness, than as unity, because unity is often understood 
 in the sense of oneness or singlenesB, instead of universality, whereas^
 
 70 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 the only Unity which by any means can become grateful or an object of 
 hope to men, and whose types therefore in material things can be 
 beautiful, is tiiat on which turned the last words and prayer of Christ 
 before his crossing of the Kedron brook. "Neither pray I for these 
 alone, but for them also which shall believe on me throuo-h their word. 
 That they all may be one, as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee." 
 
 " And so there is not any matter, nor any spirit, nor any creature, 
 but it is cajDable of an unity of some kind with other creatures, and in 
 that unity is its perfection and theirs, and a pleasure also for the be- 
 holding of all other creatures that can behold. So the unity of spirits 
 is p;irtly in their sympathy, and partly in their giving and taking, and 
 alwavs in their love: and these are their delio-ht and their strenjrth, 
 for their strength is in their co-working and army fellowship, and their 
 delight is in the giving and receiving of alternate and perpetual cur- 
 rents of good, their inseparable dependence on each other's being, and 
 their essential and perfect depending on their Creator; and so the 
 unity of earthly creatures is their j^ower and their peace, not like the 
 dead and cold peace of undisturbed stones and solitary mountains, but 
 the living peace of trust, and the living ])ower of support, of hamls 
 that holil each other and are still; and so the unity of matter is, in its 
 n()l)]est form, the organization of it wiiich builds it up into temples for 
 the spirit, and in its lower forms, the sweet and strange affinity, which 
 gives to it the glory of its orderly elements, and the fair variety of 
 change and assimilation that turns the dust into the crystal, and sepa- 
 rates the waters that be above the firmament from the waters that be 
 beneath; and in its lowest fornr, it is the working and walking and 
 clinging together that gives their power to the winds, and its syllables 
 and soundings to the air, and their weight to the waves, and their 
 burning to the sunbeams, and their stability to the mountains, and to 
 every creature whatsoever operation is for its glory and for its good. 
 
 Now of that which is thus necessary to the perfection of all things, 
 all appearance, sign, type, or suggestion must be beautiful, in what- 
 ever matter it may appear. And so to the perfection of beauty in 
 lines, or colors, or forms, or masses, or multitudes, the appearance of 
 some species of unity is in the most determined sense of the word 
 essential. 
 
 But of the appearances of unity, as of iinity itself, there are 
 several kinds which it will be found hereafter convenient to consider 
 separately. Thus there is the unity of different and separate things, 
 subjected to one and the same influence, which may be called subjec- 
 tional unity, and this is the unity of the clouds, as they are driven by
 
 OF THE NATURE AND MEANING OF THE BEAUTIFUL. 71 
 
 parallel winds, or as they are ordered by the electric currents, and this 
 is the unity of the sea waves, and this of the bending and undula- 
 tion of the forest masses, and in creatures capable of will, it is the 
 unity of will or of iiisijiration. 
 
 And there is unity of origin, which we may call orifyinal unitv, which 
 is of thinsrs arisino: from one sprino; and source, and speakinjj: alwavs 
 of this their brotherhood, and this in matter is the unity of the branches 
 of the trees, and of the petals and starry rays of flowers, and of the 
 beams of light, and in spiritual creatures it is their filial relation to 
 riim from whom they have their being. And there is unity of se- 
 quence, which is that of things that form links iii chains, and steps in 
 ascent, and stages in journeys, and this, in matter, is the unity of com- 
 municable forces in their continuance from one thing to another, ;in(l 
 it is the passing upwards and downwards of beneficent effects among 
 all thinors, and it is the melody of sounds, and the beauty of continuous 
 lines, and the orderly successions of motion and timer;. And in 
 spii'itual creatures it is their own constant building vip by true know- 
 ledge and continuous reasoning to higher perfection, and the singleness 
 and straight-forwardness of their tendencies to more complete com- 
 munion with God. 
 
 And there is the unity of metnbership, which we may call essen- 
 tial unity, which is the unity of things separately imperfect into a 
 perfect whole, and this is the great unity of which other unities are 
 but parts and means, it is in matter the harmony of sounds and con- 
 sistency of bodies, and among spiritual creatures, their love and happi- 
 ness and very life in God. 
 
 Repose: — The Tijpe of the Diolne Permanence. Repose, as it is 
 expressed in material things, is either a simple appearance of perman- 
 ence and quietness, as in the massy forms of a mountMin or I'ock, 
 accompanied by the lulling effect of all mighty sight and sound, which 
 all feel and none define, (it would be less sacred if more ex])lirable,) 
 iuSourrv^ (VopiiDv y.oprxfai ri /.at (pdiiayyz!:^ or else it is repose proper, 
 the rest of things in which there is vitality or capability of motion 
 actual or imagined; and with respect to tliese the expression of repose 
 is ixreatet in proportion to the amount and sublimity of the action 
 which is not taking place, as well as to the intensity of the negation 
 of it. Thus we speak not of rejiose in a stone, because the motion of 
 a stone has nothing in it of energy nor vitality, neither its repose of 
 stability. But havino- once seen a o-reat rock come down a mountain 
 side, we have a noble sensation of its rest, now bedded immovably 
 among the under fern, l)ecause the i)ow(m- and fearfulness of its motion
 
 72 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 were great, and its stability and negation of motion are now great in 
 proportion. Hence the imagination, which delights in nothing more 
 than the enhancing of the characters of repose, effects this usually by 
 either attriljuting to things visibly energetic an ideal stability, or to 
 things visibly stable an ideal activity or vitality. Hence Wordswortli, 
 of the cloud, which in itself having too much of cbangefulness for his 
 purpose, is spoken of as one "that heareth not the loud winds when 
 they call, and moveth altogether, if it move at all." And again of 
 children, which, that it may remove from tiiem the child restlessness, 
 the imaoination conceives as rooted flowers " Beneath an old o'rav oak, 
 as violets, lie." On the other hand, the scattered rocks, which have 
 not, as such, vitality enough for rest, are gifted with it by the living 
 image; they "lie crouched around us like a flock of sheep." 
 
 Thus, as we saw that unity demanded for its expression what at 
 first sight might have seemed its contrary (variety), so repose demands 
 for its expression the implied capability of its opposite, energy, and 
 this even in its lower manifestations, in rocks and stones and trees; 
 By comj)aring the modes in whicii the mind is disposed to regard the 
 bouglis of a fair and vigorous tree, motiordess in the summer air, with 
 the eifect produced by one of these same boughs hewn square and issed 
 for threshold or lintel, the reader will at once perceive the connection 
 of vitalitv with repose, and the part they both bear in beauty. 
 
 Hence I think that there is no desire more intense or more exalted 
 than that which exists in all rightly discijilined minds for the evidences 
 of repose in external signs, and what I cautiously said respecting 
 infinity, I say fearlessly respecting repose, tliat no work of art can be 
 great without it, and that all art is great in pi'oportion to the appear- 
 ance of it. It is the most unfailing test of beauty, whether of matter 
 or motion, nothing can be ignoble that possesses it, nothing right that 
 has it not, and ni strict proportion to its appearance in the work is the 
 majesty of the mind to be inferred in the artificer. Without regard 
 to other qualities, we may look to this for our evidence, and by the 
 search for this alone we may be led to the rejection of all that is 
 base, and the accepting of all that is good and great, for the paths of 
 wisdom are all peace. We shall see by this light three colossal images 
 standing vip side liy side, looming in their great rest of spirituality above 
 the whole world horizon, Phidias, Michael Angelo, and Dante (and Bee- 
 thoven — Ed.); and then, separated from their great religious thrones only 
 by less fullness and earnestness of faith, Homer, and Shakspeare; and 
 from those we may go down step by step among the mighty men of every 
 age, securely and certainly obseiv;int of diminished lustre in every
 
 OF THE NATURE AND MExiNING OF THE UEAITIFUL. 73 
 
 appoaraiice of restlessness and effort, until the last trace of true inspira- 
 tion vanislies in the totterinii" affectations or the tortured insanities of 
 modern times. 
 
 Tlier(} is no art, no pursuit, whatsoever, l)ut its results mav 1)0 
 classed by this test alone; every thin<j of evil is betrayed and winnowed 
 awav by it, glitter and confusion and glare of color, inconsistency or 
 absence of thought, forced expression, evil choice of subject, over 
 accumulation of materials, whether in painting or literature, the 
 shallow and unreflecting: notnino-ness of the En<>-lish schools of art, the 
 strained and diso-ustino; horrors of the French, the distorted feverish- 
 ness of the German; — pretence, over decoration, over divisions of 
 parts in architecture, and again in music, in acting, in dancing, in 
 whatsoever art, great or mean, there are yet degrees of greatness or 
 meanness entirely dependent on this single quality of repose. 
 
 Ixfinity: — The Type of the Dinme InconiprehensihilUy. " What- 
 ever beauty there may result from thn dew of the grass, the flash of 
 the cascade, the a-litter of the birch trunk, or the fair davlis'ht hues of 
 darker things, (and joyfulness there is in all of these,) there is yet a 
 light which the eye invariably seeks with a deeper feeling of the 
 beautiful, the light of the declining or breaking day, and the flakes 
 of scarlet cloud burning like watch-fires in the green sky of the horizon, 
 a deeper feeling, I say, not perhaps more acute, but having moni of 
 spiritual hope and longing, less of animal and present life, more mani- 
 fest, invariably, in those of more serious and determined mind, (I use 
 the word serious, not as being opposed to cheerful but to trivial and 
 volatile;) but, I think, marked and unfailing even in those of the least 
 thoughtful dispositions. I am willing to let it rest on the determina- 
 tion of every reader whether the pleasure he has received from these 
 effects of calm and luminous distance be not thc^ most singular and 
 memorable of which he has been conscious, whether all that isdaz/ling 
 in color, pei'fect in form, gladdening in expression, be not of evanes- 
 cent and shallow appealing, when compared with the still small voice 
 of the level twilight behind the purple hills, or the scarlet arch of dawn 
 over t*lie dark troublous-edged sea." ...... 
 
 '• It is not then by nobler form, it is not by positiveness of hue, it 
 is not by intensity of light (for the sun itself at noonday is effectless 
 upon the feelings), that this strange distant space possesses its attrac- 
 tive power. But there is one thing it has, or suggests, which no other 
 object of sight suggests in equal degree, and that is, — Infinity. It is 
 of all material things the least material, the least finite, the farthest 
 withdrawn from the earth prison-housL', the most typical of tlie nature
 
 74 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 of God, the most suggestive of the glory of His dwelling-place. For 
 the sky of night, though we may know it boundless, is dark, it is a 
 studded vault, a roof that seems to shut us in and down, but the bright 
 distance has no limit, we feel its infinity, as we rejoice in the purity 
 of its light." 
 
 SECTION FOURTH. THE PERCEPTION OF THE BEAUTIFUL ONE OF THE 
 
 HIGHEST FACULTIES OF THE SOUL. 
 
 Thus it plainly appears that in its ultimate relations the perception 
 of the Beautiful is one of the hio-hest faculties of the soul. For as 
 
 CD 
 
 Hegel points out, there are three kingdoms of absolutely spiritual activ- 
 ity, having the same content, namely knowledge of God; and differing 
 from each other only in the form in which they bring the ideal to con- 
 sciousness. These three kingdoms of spirit are Art, -Religion and Phil- 
 osophy. 
 
 Art communicates its content through sense-forms; Religion 
 through the "representing consciousness"; and Philosophy through 
 free thought addressed to the pure reason. Art is most nearly related 
 to Religion, "because both have to do with heart and feeling" (Hegel). 
 
 Still in the very nature of the medium through which it communi- 
 cates, namely sense-forms, Art has great temptation to remain with and 
 of the senses exclusively. And this we find plainly ilkistrated in all per- 
 iods of its development. Even in the times when there was high art 
 in the world, there has alwavs been alono- with it a lov) or debased art, 
 appealing to the senses as such, and remaining there. The depart- 
 ment of Painting has Ijeen perhaps the most exposed to this debase- 
 ment, from which, indeed, it has never been able entirely to free itself. 
 
 Music and Poetry also have at times fallen under the same temp- 
 tations, as we see in the music of Strauss and Gounod, and some of the 
 poetry of Byron and Swinburne. We need to be on our guard, there- 
 fore, against all forms and degrees of this low art, which may always 
 be known by its peculiarly sensuous charm, and its lack of higher and 
 deeper suggestion. 
 
 In this light also we discover the moral relations between the 
 practical pursuit of Art, Religion and Philosophy. The latter, indeed, 
 has to do with pure reason, and is rarely found conjoined with an ac- 
 tive condition of the artistic faculties. Between Art and Religion, 
 however, (as between Science and Religion,) there has long been amis- 
 understanding, having its origin in the one-sidedness of their respec- 
 tive votaries. The pursuit of Art in the highest sense necessarily 
 relates one to Religion, because it not only exercises liis heart and
 
 OF THE NATURE AND MEANING OF THE BEAUTIFUL. 75 
 
 feelinj^s, but calls out his highest spiritual intuitions as such. Artists 
 in whom the religious sense is wanting, will l)e discovered on careful 
 consideration to be concerned with low fcH-nis of art, either resting in 
 the sensuous as such, oi at the most not rising above the enjoyment of 
 formal beauty. Art in the lowest stage is intoxicating in its effect 
 upon the mind, and debilitating; in the second stage it is absorbing ami 
 contentful to those in whom the sense of formal beauty is acute, and if 
 they yield themselves to this purely external charm, it has the effect 
 of filling up the attention to the exclusion of the higher activities of 
 the soul. Still, between Art in this second stasre and Relicrion tliere is 
 no contradiction nor incompatibilty. On the contrary, the influence of 
 Art is useful provided that merely formal beauty be not made an end. 
 
 Art also exercises great influence upon Religion, and has the ten- 
 dency to soften the rigor of its dogmas and practices, and encourages 
 in it a broader humanity, as we may see plainly enough by comparing 
 Puritanism with later forms of vital religion. Besides, Art aids Religion 
 in a very important way by furnishing it with its revelations of beauty 
 and truth in sense-forms, in availing itself of which Religion becomes 
 intelliirible and attractive to the common mind. 
 
 On the other hand. Religion exercises important influence upon 
 Art, especially by elevating the thoughts of the artist, and purifying his 
 soul, thereby permitting truth to shine into it with greater lustre. And 
 so we may conclude on a jyriori grounds that the exercise of religion 
 is helpful to the artist, and that we have a right to expect from him in 
 such case a higher and more ins2)iring revelation of beauty, than 
 would otherwise be possible. And this, also, experience confirms, as 
 we see plainly in such men as Danto, Michael Angelo, Bach, Handel 
 and Beethoven, who are of the very highest type.
 
 76 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 CHAPTER TWENTY- FOURTH. 
 
 THE SYMBOLICAL, THE CLASSICAL, AND THE ROMANTIC IN ART. 
 
 The progress of Art has been gradual, from the imperfection and 
 crudity of early attempts, to a well-nigh perfect beauty in the time 
 of its full development. Thus it may be said in general that 
 "the oldest works in all forms of art yield in themselves vague 
 contents: in poetry, simple history, Theogenies fermenting with ab- 
 stract ideas and their incomplete expression; separate saints in stone 
 and wood, etc. The representation remains unpliant, monotonous or 
 confused, stiff, broken. Especially in the pictorial arts is the visible 
 expression dull; in repose not that of the spiritually deep in itself, but 
 mere animal emptiness; or else sharply distorted and immoderate in 
 characteristic expression. 
 
 "So likewise are the forms of the human body and their movements 
 dead; the arms huns: on the bodv, the bones not articulated, or 
 else awkward, angular, sharply moved; so likewise the figure untem- 
 pered, dumpy, or immoderately meagre and extended. Upon the ex- 
 ternals, on the conti'ary, garments, hair, weapons and other adornments 
 much more love and care are bestowed; but the folds of the garments, 
 e. g., remain wooden and independent, without fitting themselves to 
 the form of the body (as we can see often enough in the old-time pic- 
 tures of the Virgin Mary, and the saints). 
 
 "Even so are the earliest poems incomplete, disconnected, monot- 
 onous, only ruled remotely by one idea or sensation; or else wild, ve- 
 hement, the different ideas confusedly entangled, and the whole not 
 vet brought tos-ether into a firm oro^anization."* 
 
 Nevertheless these early monuments have a certain rude impress- 
 iveness and grandeur which has been felt by many generations of the 
 human race who have appeared, admired, and passed away in the pres- 
 ence of these imposing memorials of the thoughts and aspirations of 
 the earlier times. 
 
 Progress in art has arisen mainly from a clearer perception of the 
 ideal. It may be divided into three stages, called by Hegel the Sym- 
 
 *Hegel's Aeslhttik, II, p. 246.
 
 THE SYMBOLIC ART. 77 
 
 bolical, the Classical, and the Romantic. These differ from each other, 
 not only in a progressive elevation of the faculties addressed by Art, 
 as suggested by the classification of the previous chapter, but also in 
 the mode of conceiving the ideal itself. Tlie complete discussion of 
 these ideas and their illustration in the various arts would take us far 
 beyond present limits. The barest outline will suffice. 
 
 SECTION^ FIKST. SYMBOLIC ART. 
 
 The Symbol is a natural object, having a plain relation to 
 the idea it represents; thus, tlie lion is the symbol of courage; the fox, 
 of cunning; the ox, of patience; the sheep of simplicity; the elephant 
 of docility and power; etc. Besides these natural symbols derived 
 from the animal kingdom, there are also abstract symbols, whose 
 meaning is almost universal; such as the triangle, symbol of the trinity; 
 the circle, of eternity; etc. Yet each one of these natural objects has in 
 it something more than the limited meaning it affords as a symbol. Thus 
 the lion is not onlv couraa-eous, but fierce and treacherous; the ox is 
 patient, but also slow and stupid; the fox is cunning, but in his own de- 
 gree is fierce and blood-thirsty also. And in this we find a natural 
 limitation or inherent ambiguity in symbolical art. 
 
 Symbolical art is in general the entire art of the Oriental nations. 
 To this class belong the towers of Babel, Pyramids, Pagodas and Temples 
 of China and India, the sculpture and temples of Assyria and Egypt; 
 Myths, the Niebelungen lied, etc; as well as much of the poetry of the 
 Old Testament, as, e. g.^ parts of Ezekiel, etc. In all these the mean- 
 ing is unclear; each work of this period is a sphynx, an enigma. 
 
 The sculjDture of the symbolical period is mighty and vast. One 
 thinks of the colossal Memnon, the statues at Karnac, the figures of 
 gods in China and India, monstrous figures outraging all principles of 
 natural form, yet strangely impressive to so many millions of the hu- 
 man race, who have found in these their clearest emblem of the 
 Divine. In all these symbolical productions the beautiful, as such, is not 
 sought. It is the mighty, the grand, the eternal, the everlasting, the 
 all-creatinsr; — these are the vasrue forms in which the Eternal and 
 Absolute su2:o-ests itself first to the human race. 
 
 We find that in every nation, whenever movement takes place, 
 the symbolical in art gradually merges into the beautiful. Temples 
 lose somethins: of their massiveness in favor of lightness and symme- 
 try. The gigantic structures of Egypt give place to the delicate pro- 
 portions of the Parthenon and Acropolis. The many-armed gods 
 yield precedence to the scarcely super-human forms of Jupiter, Mi-
 
 78 H0¥/ TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 nerva, Venus and Apollo. The eyes of Zeuxis and Apelles discover 
 for mankind the beauty everywhere veiled in nature. Thus Art comes 
 to the classical period, when beauty has become complete, in so far as 
 it resides in form. 
 
 SECTION SECOND. CLASSICAL AKT. 
 
 Classical art is above all unconscious of any want of harmony 
 between the ideal and the means by which it must be expressed. The 
 human form, that temple of in-dwelling spirit, is especially the chosen 
 type of this period, and sculpture, therefore, its distinctive expression. 
 Of the content and meanino- of this form of utterance there will be 
 occasion to speak in the next chapter. For the present let it be ob- 
 served that sculpture shows a progress towards the spiritual in art. 
 The Greek artist, in forsaking the vast masses of architecture in favor 
 of the comparatively insignificant bit of marble only so large as the 
 human form, was bearinnino^ to learn the same lesson that was taug-ht 
 to one of old, hid in the cleft of the rock, that not in the lightning, 
 the earthquake, nor in the thunder could one find God, but in the 
 " still small voice." Yet here we anticipate, for the voice, as a token 
 of soul, was the peculiar ideal of the Romantic. , 
 
 At presQnt the artist advances only so far as to discover in the 
 human form the most complete expression of the beautiful. Thus 
 Hegel says (Bryant's translation): 
 
 " The Greek ideal has for its basis an unchangeable harmony between 
 spirit and sensuous form — the unalterable serenity of the immortal 
 gods; but this calm has about it something cold and inanimate. Clas- 
 sic art has not comprehended the true essence of the divine nature, 
 nor penetrated to the depths of the soul. It has not known how to de- 
 velop its inmost powers in their opposition, and again to re-establish 
 their harmony. x\ll this phase of existence, the evil, the sinful, the 
 unhappy, moral suffering, the revolt of the will, remorse, atid the 
 ao-onies of the soul, are unknown to it. Classic art does not pass be- 
 yond the proper domain of the veritable ideal. 
 
 "As to its realization in history, it is scarcely necessary to say that 
 we must seek it among the Greeks. Classic beaut}^, with the infinite 
 wealth of ideas and forms which compose its domain, has been allotted 
 to the Greek people, and we ought to render homage to them for hav- 
 inof raised art to its hio-hest vitalitv." 
 
 This was the perfect completion of formal beauty. All the quali- 
 ties of symmetry, proportion, harmony, unity, and the like that enter 
 into and constitute perfection of form, are here manifested in exquisite
 
 THE CLASSICAL AND THE ROMANTIC ART. 7J) 
 
 loveliness. As Hegel says: "Tlioie neither is nor ever can Ije anything 
 more beautiful." 
 
 Greek plastic art attained its highest achievements in the time of 
 Phidias. Immediately after this Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, succes- 
 sively, "effected for man, once for all, the perfect distinction between 
 idea and sensuous image — between content and form — the indissolu- 
 ble union of which, it can not be too much insisted upon, constitutes 
 the central characteristic in classic art. Thus had the human mind 
 passed beyond the limits of the classic ideal, and henceforth the his- 
 tory of classic art is but a history of its decline and fall." * 
 
 SECTION THIRD. ROMANTIC ART. 
 
 The key of romantic art is " internal beauty of spirit" as distin- 
 guislied from outward beauty of form. This ideal began to apjiear in 
 later sculpture. We have a token of it in the well-known Venus de 
 Medici, where the effort is made to represent the modesty of a delicate 
 woman appearing unclad in public. The conception is just, but untrue 
 to the spirit of the classical ideal; for in this nothing is represented 
 but the eternal, the enduring. This conflict between womanly delicacy 
 and the public gaze, creates shame, an unbeautiful and temporary 
 affection. 
 
 Collision is the principal means of the romantic. By collision is 
 meant a conflict between oj)posing principles, in the out-come of which 
 the superiority of the nobler principle is made to appear. Collision is 
 totally foreign to architecture, and almost so to sculpture. Later 
 sculpture, as the well-known Laocoon, introduces tliis element, but 
 to the destruction of absolute formal beauty. The work of art is no 
 longer heautiful out-right and in itself, but beautiful on the whole, 
 and considering what it means. 
 
 In romantic art it is not the human form, the outward covering 
 which furnishes the; artist his ideal of beauty, but the inner, the soul, 
 the disposition, the life. Hence sculpture which has to do mainly with 
 form, gives place to painting, which affords perspective, places its 
 heroes in suitable scenes, and contrasts one personage with another; 
 painting in turn gives place to music and poetry. The meaning of 
 these various changes will appear in the next chapter where we have 
 to examine each art in its turn. 
 
 In all this later cycle of art the key-tone is unmistakeable; it is 
 beauty of spirit rather than of the form. 
 
 * Bryant.
 
 80 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 " Tlie material of romantic art, at least with reference to the 
 divine, is extremely limited. For, in the first place, as we have already 
 jjointed out, nature is deprived of its divine attributes; sea, mountain, 
 and vallej', streams, springs, time and night, as well as the universal 
 process of nature, have all lost their value with- respect to the repre- 
 sentation and content of the absolute. The imao-es of nature are no 
 longer set forth symbolically. They are stripped of the characteristic 
 which rendered their forms and activities approjjriate as traits 
 of a divinity. For all the great questions concerning the 
 origin of the world — concerning the whence, the whither, the 
 wherefore of created nature ami humanity, together with all the 
 symbolic and plastic attempts to solve and represent these pi'ob- 
 lems — have vanished in consequence of the revelation of God in the 
 spirit; and even the gay, tliousand-hued earth, with all its classically- 
 figured characters, deeds, and events, is swallowed up in spirit, con- 
 densed in the single luminous point of the absolute and its eternal 
 process of redemption (^Erlosensgeschichte). The entire content, 
 therefore, is thus concentrated upon the internality of the spirit — upon 
 tlie 2:)erception, the imagination, the soul — which strives after unity 
 with the truth, and seeks and struggles to ])roduce and to retain the 
 divine in the individual {SuhjeJd). Thus, though the soul is still des- 
 tined to pass through the world, it no longer pursues merely worldly 
 aims and undertakings. Rather, it has for its essential purpose and 
 endeavor the inner struo-o-le of man within himself, and his reconcilia- 
 tion with God, and bi"ings into representation only personality and its 
 conservation, together with appliances for the accomplishment of this 
 end. The heroism which can here make its appearance is by no means 
 a heroism which makes its own law, establishes regulations, creates and 
 transforms conditions, but a heroism of submission, for which every- 
 thing is settled and determined beforehand, and to which there thence- 
 forth remains only the task of regulating temporal affairs according to 
 it, of applying to the existing world that liigher principle which has 
 validity in and for itself, and, finally, of rendering it practically valu- 
 able in the affairs of every-day life. We may now comprise 
 in a sino;le word this relation between content and form as it 
 appears in the romantic — for here it is that this relation attains 
 to its complete characterization. It is this: just because the ever- 
 increasing universality and restless working depth of the soul 
 constitute the fundamental principle of the romantic, the key-note 
 thereof is musical^ and, in connection with the particularized content 
 of the imagination, lyrical. For romantic art the lyrical is, as it
 
 THE IDEAL IN THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF ART 81 
 
 were, the elementary characteristic — atone vvhicli tlie epic and the 
 drama also strike, and which breathes about the works of the arts of 
 visible representation themselves, like a universal, frai^rant odor of the 
 soul; for here spirit and soul Avill speak to spirit and soul through all 
 their imasres."* 
 
 CHAPTER TWENTY -FIFTH. 
 
 THE IDEAL AS MANIFESTED IN THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF ART. 
 
 In each one of the different arts we are able to trace the progress 
 of the human mind through the various stages of art-conception de- 
 scribed in the previous chapters, although the complete progress is not 
 fully illustrated in any one of them. 
 
 SECTION FIRST. AliCHITECTUKE. 
 
 The oldest of the arts is architecture. Hegel enumerates three 
 general classes of structure which are essentially symbolical in char- 
 acter. These are: (1) Works built for a union of people; such were 
 the great works of the Assyrians, Egyptians, etc., all of which were in 
 effect religious works. So Goethe says, "What is holy? That which 
 binds many souls together." 
 
 (2) Works intermediate between buildings and sculpture. Sucli are 
 the Indian Pagodas, the Obelisks, the Memnon, Sphynx, and Labyrintli, 
 expressive of vague ideas or mystical conceptions. 
 
 (3) The transition to the classical, as in the Egyptian tombs, Pyr- 
 amids, etc. 
 
 Classical architecture we find in the Greek temples. Romantic 
 architecture finds its expression in the Gothic Cathedrals of the middle 
 ages. 
 
 Architecture in general is related to the Ideal as the expression of 
 the symmetrical, the regular, the united, the grand; — the atterance of 
 spirit which has seized the material from without and formed it, but 
 which is neither represented nor conceived as residing in it. So, e. g.^ 
 the Memnon had no voice of its own, but was played on from without 
 by the rising sun. 
 
 *Hegel, Bryant's translation.
 
 82 now TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 SECTION SECOND. SCULPTURE. 
 
 Sculpture has for its central idea "the wonder that soul should 
 dwell in body."* Again: "Sculpture, in general, perceives the wonder 
 that spirit imagines itself in the wholly material, and so forms this ex- 
 ternality that it becomes actually present in it, and acknowledges 
 therein the suitable look of itself." 
 
 "Sculpture is the peculiar art of the classical ideal as such."f 
 Tims it belongs properly to the classical epoch, and the few works of 
 the symbolic period are to be regarded rather as apprentice works in 
 which the artist is acquiring the plastic control over his material, than 
 as independent and significant expressions of the ideal. 
 
 Hegel speaks of three styles in classical sculpture: 1. The ITard, 
 Axistere, Strong^ characterized by great masses and simple content. 
 
 2. The Purely Heautiful, characterized by a more living beauty^ 
 and represented in the works of Phidias. 
 
 3. The Pleasing style, where beauty gives up something of its 
 eternal repose for the sake of gaining a greater appearance of human 
 interest. The Apollo Belvidere if not properly to be reckoned in this 
 category, is at least transitional between the style next preceding and 
 this. 
 
 The Content and meaning of this form of art is already fully ex- 
 pressed in the previous chapter on " Classic Art," to which reference 
 is again made. The pith of it all is in the following sentence in the 
 third volume of the AesthetiJc: "Sculpture has for its principle and 
 content. Spiritual Individuality as the classical ideal, so that the Inner 
 and Spiritual finds expression to the spirit in the immediate bodily ap- 
 pearance, which art has here to represent in actual art-existence." Or, 
 again, as Benard phrases it, "The Content of sculpture is the essence, 
 the substantial, trvie, invariable part of character," as distinguished 
 from what is accidental and transient. 
 
 So, also, Mr. Wm. M. Bryant: "Sculpture constitutes the first step 
 in advance beyond Architecture, and it ^?a?/.ses loith this first step. It 
 takes as its object the simple form of the human body, and by this 
 form it expresses spirit, because spirit does not yet know itself apart 
 from this form." 
 
 Doubtless the artist turned himself to the human form as the most 
 suitable expression of the ideal in consequence of living in Greece, a 
 land so mild of climate and so simple in mode of life as to aiford on 
 every side attractive examples of fully developed, healthful, beautiful 
 
 * Hegel, f Bryant's Hegel's Philosopliy of Art, " Introductory Essay."
 
 SCULPTURE AND TAINTING. 83 
 
 men and women. This outer manifestation of vital licantywas encour- 
 aged by the influence of the games and o-ymiiastic training, so that taking 
 one reason with another it niay bo doubted wlunliei' anvpartof the 
 world at any period of its history ever aiforded a sculptor so satisfactorv 
 a surrounding as Greece in its prime. At the same time intellectual 
 life had become more visrorous. The imao-ination had lono- heeu kin- 
 
 O O o 
 
 died by the Plomeric poems, recited universally by the strolling min- 
 strels. The constant wars between the different States, and the vary- 
 ins: fortunes of defense ao;ainst the Persians did much to stimulate the 
 mind and bring out the force of individual character. Thus it happen- 
 ed that the works of Phidias were produced soon after the times of 
 Pythagorus, and shortly before the days of Socrates. This was the 
 moment when the classical idea reached an equilibrium between form 
 and content. 
 
 As already pointed out, Socrates, and after him Plato and Aristotle, 
 accomjDlished once for all the separation l)etween/(9r?» and content in 
 art. The human spirit went forward to a higher developincTit ; it 
 turned inward to deeper and more innnortal thoughts. It was then that 
 Romantic Art became inevitable, and therein a revelation of the ideal 
 in living, self-determined beavity, for which sculpture was inade- 
 equate. 
 
 SECTION THIRD. PAINTING. 
 
 When we think seriously u])oii the art of painting and remember 
 its list of triumphs from the days of Appelles and Praxiteles to Rapliael, 
 Correggio, and Angelo, and even to our own times, we cannot wonder 
 that so many writers upon art have taken this as the type and coin})lete 
 expression of the artistic faculty. 
 
 Painting represents the dawn and progress of a deeper perception 
 of the beauty of the visible world. Evidently it began in color, the 
 effort to i-epresent the evanescent glories of the heavens at sunrise or 
 evening, the exquisite tints of flowers, masses of foliage, etc. 
 
 At first painting was merely decorative, and was employed to 
 beautify the walls of the more precious shrines, tlie best rooms in the 
 homes of the wealthy, etc. 
 
 Afterwards it became imitative. The forms and tints of flowers 
 and fruits were its subjects. We trace this very distinctly in the 
 well-known anecdote of the two great Greek painters wlio had a trial 
 of skill. One of them painted a plate of cherries so naturally that the 
 birds came and pecked at them; the other represented a fly on the nose 
 of a portrait so naturally that the other artist attempted to brush it off 
 in order to examine the picture better. Therein he acknowledged his
 
 84 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 superior; for he himself had deceived only the unreasoning birds, while 
 the other had deceived an artist. 
 
 Painting in any large sense involves at least three arts: Drawing 
 (the art of representing outlines as they really appear), Color and Per- 
 spective, The appearance of solid projection, that is to say, the ap- 
 pearance of reality^ depends upon the latter. There is reason to sup- 
 pose that color and drawing were brought to a high degree of excel- 
 lence by the Greeks and Romans, as indicated by the anecdote 
 given above, and by the Pompeian discoveries, where in some of the 
 rooms the colors remain to the present day as clear as when first put 
 upon the walls, nearly two thousand years ago. 
 
 The sulijects of painting in that olden time, as we have said, were 
 flowers, fruits and other natural objects not requiring difficult perspec- 
 tive for their intelligible representation, and the gods and goddesses 
 of the popular mythology, episodes from Homer, and the poets, 
 etc. 
 
 To the painters (and their brethren the poets) mankind owes its 
 perception of the beautiful in nature. The plowman, wearily treading 
 in the furrow the livelong day, sees not the fleecy clouds above him, 
 nor is he inspired by the mighty pinnacles and peaks of the mountain 
 horizon towering so grandly, as if matter herself were striving upward 
 toward her God. Nay, he overlooks even the delicate perfection of 
 the daisies and buttercups whose sunshine his furrow so relentlessly 
 ends. Yet in the water he drinks to quench his thirst he might, if he 
 would, see all these distant glories repeated; as if, out of this pure 
 fountain of refreshing, the voice of God called to man to look upward 
 for the secret of the beautiful and the holy. But it is only once in a 
 thousand years that a Burns rises above the depressing influence of a 
 plowman's environment. It is the idle painter, or his brother, the poet, 
 lolling at ease under the shading oak to whom this deeper vision of 
 beauty is revealed. 
 
 When we speak of painting as a form of high art, representa- 
 tive of the spiritual meanings of nature and life, we immediately think 
 of that glorious company of great Italian masters of the fifteenth 
 century, chief among whom were Raphael (1483-1520), Leonardo da 
 Vinci (1452-1519), Titian (1477-1576), Michael Angelo (1474-1563), 
 Tintoret (1513-1594), Paul Veronese (1532-1588). Nor can we forget 
 their eminent successors in the next century, Claude Lorraine (1600- 
 1682), and Rembrandt (1606-1669). 
 
 In the productions of these great artists we find the art of Paint- 
 ing unfolded in all its capacities except that of strict, literal realism —
 
 SCULPTURE AND PAINTING. 85 
 
 imitation of nature as such; this was left for hiter masters. Every pro- 
 duction of these ohl masters has its mannerisms. Natural forms are 
 conventionalized, or at times distorted, witli unhesitating bohlness. 
 Historical anachronisms are connnon in tlie historical pieces. But they 
 show, nevertheless, a life, a meaning, an expression of spirit, such as 
 nowhere existed in this art before. 
 
 Were we to analyze the impressions they severally ])r()duce upon 
 us, we should find certain marked difl'erences in the iaculties to 
 whicli they appeal, as pointed out in Chapter XXIII. Thus, e. r/., the 
 works of Titian and Paul Veronese are noted for their nuignificent and 
 exquisite coloring. In this quality they appeal to the " pleasing of 
 sensation," and less decidedly to the spiritual as such. Raphael is 
 noted for the expression of his works. They are characterized by a 
 serene and matchless grace, such as one seeks in vain elsewhere. 
 Michael Angelo, on the contrary, is neither a great colorist, nor a com- 
 poser of graceful forms. But he conceives with such superhuman 
 boldness, and pierces so deeply into the very pith and marrow of the 
 world about him, that he stands recoarnized on all hands as one of the 
 very greatest minds who have made human nature illustrious by their 
 participation in it. 
 
 The art of Painting also shows a progress beyond sculpture, in the 
 direction of the spiritual. The massive matter of architectui-e, and tlie 
 solid dimensions of sculpture, have here given place to merely the ap- 
 pearance of matter. But this diminution of material is accoihpanied 
 by a most important increase in power of expression, and this espec- 
 ially in the direction of a more complete mastery of the scale of beauty. 
 For here at the basis of it we have the wonderful delio-hts of 
 color and "tone," an entire new kino-dom of sense-irratification. 
 Every facility for representing human relations and deeds, which 
 sculpture or basso-relievo could furnish, here exists entire, and in 
 the far greater perfection of natural perspective. ()iil\- in a single 
 direction is there a loss, namely in the direction of the sublime, 
 in which architecture certainly has greater power. Yet this 
 concession is immeasurably atoned for by the wonderful increase 
 in power to represent the feelings of the soul. For while 
 Architecture gave us the mighty enigmas of Egypt, and the 
 everlasting beauty of the Parthenon; and Sculpture revealed to man the 
 beauty and dignity of his own form wliou permeated by a noble soul, 
 and thus by images of Mercury and .lujiiter led his mind toward the true 
 God; Painting has given to mankind not oidy the beauties of field and 
 flower, and preserved for liim a life-like send:)lance of the living faces
 
 86 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 of its heroes, but has portrayed in bodily form the incarnate sufferings 
 of his Redeemer. 
 
 SECTION FOURTH. MUSIC, 
 
 The three forms of art previously examined have this in common, 
 that they address the observer by means oifoi'ms permanently existing 
 msjKice. Architecture deals in matter in vast masses, only a small pro- 
 portion of which in any single form comes into actual contact with 
 spirit. The exterior, the form, is shaped and fashioned by spirit ac- 
 cording to its own ideal. In a pyramid, for example, how slight a pro- 
 portion of the whole is the surface. The inner part does indeed bear 
 the impress of spirit in the fact of its location so as to maintain the 
 integrity of the form; yet this relation to spirit is faint at most. In a 
 temple the mass of matter is greatly reduced and the interior parts are, 
 distinctly subservient to the mechanical necessities of structure. Here 
 therefore, soul has left its impress upon a much greater proportion by 
 the whole mass than in the pyramid. 
 
 Sculpture again greatly reduces the quantity of matter, and is much 
 more particular about the quality of it. Only the finest marble will 
 answer to tlie artist's dem-ands. But here art has to do with the form and 
 with the surface^ which jDractically is the form. The inner is inert, dead. 
 Yet sculpture conceives of this inner part as having been alive, as is indi- 
 cated by the care with which muscles and joints and all particulars which 
 indicate internal organizatioxi are represented. The spirit does not reside 
 even in the most speaking statue; yet one thinks it a suitable residence 
 of soul, and scarcely wonders at the miracle of Psyche. 
 
 In painting, the quantity of matter is still further reduced, and art 
 has to do with forms, and the appearances of matter^ by means of which, 
 as we saw, relations of soul are manifested. 
 
 Yet all these forms of art deal with forms permanently existing in 
 space, outside of and entirely separate from the most a23preciative ob- 
 server. As Hegel well says, " Painting, as we saw, may likewise give 
 expression in physiognomy and shape, to the inner life and energy, the 
 determinations and passions of the heart, the situations, conflicts and 
 fate of the soul; but what we have always before us in painting, are 
 objective appearances, from which the observing 7", as inner self, re- 
 mains entirely separate. One may never so completely absorb and 
 sink himself in the subject, the situation, the character, the form, of a 
 statue or painting, admire the art work, gush over it, nay, may complete- 
 ly fill himself therewith; — it matters not, these works of art are and re- 
 main independent objects, in review of which we come not beyond the 
 position of an observer."
 
 MUSIC. 87 
 
 Music, on the contrary, builds no permanent fabric in space. It 
 has no form which can be seen. ]t is a voice. Out of the unseen, in 
 cunning-lv modulated tones, it speaks to the heart of the hearer. Like 
 the voice itself it no sooner utters its word than it is silent. Whenever 
 we would recall its messao-e we must recreate the inforniino- 
 word. 
 
 In this way music approaches the observer as none of the previous 
 arts can. When it is ])erceived it is no loni>;er somethinir outside of 
 and separate from the observer; it is within liini; if, has penetrated into 
 the very center of the soul. Hence its power to absorb thii observer, 
 to carry him along with it, so that men everywhere "delig-ht to sing 
 with the melody, to strike with the measure, and in dance music it 
 comes into the very bones." 
 
 This remarkable power of music lies fundamentally in the sense of 
 hearing to which it appeals, and in tlnie^ which is the material of its 
 form. For by the sense of hearing we are brouglit into our nearest 
 relations to other souls. It is with the ear that man receives the word 
 of reproof, the approval of his fellow, and the commandment of his 
 God. This wonderful mechanism- of hearing is particularly the sympa- 
 thetic channel of feeling. Many shades of emotion may be conveyed 
 by modulations of the speaking voice, without use of words. x\ll this 
 material of inflection and pitch relation, carried to an almost infinitely 
 greater perfection of delicate organization than in speech. Music em- 
 ploys with such cunning mastership as to indicate very plainly that 
 this was one of the ends intended in all the delicate organization of the 
 inner ear. 
 
 But music rests its greatest power in its modulation in time. The 
 beat, the measure, chimes in with the human pulse, hurries it or retards 
 it; the motive brightens up the rhythm, modifies it, characterizes and 
 individualizes the different moments in a piece; and measure, motivi/.a- 
 tion, and rate of movement, all combine with the melodic and harmonic 
 filling up, to complete a form of utterance in which soul speaks to soul 
 not of its ideas and notions, but of \t^ feelings^ its general states. Thus 
 the content of music, in general, is Emotion. " It extends itself in 
 every direction for the exj^ression of all distinct sensations and shades 
 of joyousness, serenity, jokes, humor, shoutings and rejoicings of soul ; 
 as well as the graduations of anguish, sorrow, grief, lamentatioiy, dis- 
 tress, pain, regret, etc.; and, fiiuilly, aspiration, worship, love, etc., 
 belong to the proper sphere of musical expression." (HegeFs Aesthetik, 
 III. 144.) 
 
 Of the material of music we have already learned in the earlier
 
 88 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 lessons of this course. Its form is a syiametrically co-ordinated suc- 
 cession of movements, expressive of a sequence or cycle of feelings. 
 
 Thus music in its very nature expresses spiritual relations. True 
 the material of hearing may lend itself to play. Mere jingle is not 
 witlKHit charm. Agreeable, piquant, or bizarre combinations of tone- 
 color mav tickle or delight the sense of hearino; without utterino- a 
 
 •/CD O o 
 
 message to the soul. But properly conceived all these are part of the 
 vocabulary of this voice ; part of its material for spiritual communica- 
 tion. Tlierefore music is in itself a romantic art. And it quite agrees 
 with this idea tliat its systematic and artistic development is the very 
 latest of all the arts. 
 
 Hence the terms symbolical and classical have only a modified ap- 
 plication in it, as wo shall hereafter see. The earliest attempts at music, 
 such as the Gregorian or Ambrosian hymns, tlie oldest songs of tlie 
 church, we may well enougli style symbolical. They fully agree wiLh 
 the peculiarities of this epoch in all the other arts. The true handling 
 of the material, the value of tone as tone, and the significance of time 
 and melodic modulation they have not yet fathomed. And yet their 
 quaint cadences have a strange power, and are the source of all the dis- 
 tinctly "ecclesiastical" conventionalities of music. 
 
 The classic in music exists in all those works which afford a content 
 entirely harmonious and commensurate with their form. Such works 
 are those of Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and part of those of Beethoven and 
 Schubert. 
 
 In many works of the latter two composers, form and content do 
 not coincide ; the beautv of the form as form is sacrificed to the 
 expressiveness and meaning of the work. Here, therefore, form is less 
 than content; and we have the romantic moment in art. To this cate- 
 gory belong many of tiie Beethoven works, notably such as the "moon- 
 light" sonata, and the last two or three, almost everything of Chopin's 
 and Schumann's, etc. The true relation of all this, we shall learn later. 
 (See Parts V. and VI.) 
 
 SECTION FIFTH. POETRY. 
 
 We have seen from the beginning of this discussion that the beau- 
 tiful is the expression of the ideal by means of forms directly addressed 
 to the senses and intuitions, rather than to the reason. In architecture 
 the ideal merely begins to appear; in sculpture it sliines out more 
 plaitdy, though even in this form the spirit is not living; in painting 
 are represented transition movements of human life, the very point of 
 spiritual defeat or triumpli, and thus we go deeper than the merely
 
 POETRY. 89 
 
 outward form, and become conscious of the inner life of spirit as rejDre- 
 sented in the appearance before us. In music we go still further in tiie 
 same direction. For here vre have not a representation which stands out- 
 side of us and over against us, iiulependent, to appreciate which re- 
 quires that the beholder should at least yield himself to ii; but Instead (jf 
 it a finely organized and infinitely complex voice, which tells its story di- 
 rectly to the soul, and as already pointed out moves and excites the 
 hearer, " carries him along with it, quite otherwise than the way " in 
 which other arts affect him. Music represents the self-moved activity 
 of the soul. In no other art is the difference so sfreat between the in- 
 spired and the merely mechanically-put-together. 
 
 Yet music also has its limitations. As already pointed out in th(> 
 passages on Romantic art, the true meaning of this stage of clevelop- 
 ment is the fuial beauty of spirit attained through conflict and suffering. 
 The ideal of the romantic is none other than that of the Christian re- 
 ligion itself ; the attainment of complete repose, and blessedness of 
 spirit, in which bodily sense and appetite and all the negative or sinful 
 elements of the moral nature are finally subjected to the reason, itself 
 illumined by clear vision of the truth, and the whole spirit glorified 
 into the imaofe of the Divine. This state is attainable onlvthrouo-h 
 conflicts, in which one after another the evils of the nature are met and 
 overcome; nor yet by conflict only, but by conflict sustained in faith 
 and love. This is the Christian ideal. Nor is it the mission of art to 
 instruct or definitely or directly- aid the individual in this work. Yet 
 in an indirect way it does do this and always will. For it is the artist 
 who earliest sees the beauty of every natural appearance, the deeper 
 meaning of the lake, and ocean; and it is the artist, the poet, who sees 
 deepest into the dejiths of the soul. Hence in art-works one finds re- 
 presented the moments of this redemption conflict, through which every 
 individual must pass; seeing which the tempted soul takes heart again, 
 knowing that some one has already passed by the same path to 
 victory. 
 
 Now these conflicts of the spirit. are not representable in architecture 
 or sculpture. Later sculpture tried this; but it is a work foreign to the 
 proper genius of that art. In painting they may come to a limited ex- 
 tent. But a ])ainting is necessarily but a single moment of life; it gives 
 us onlv a position, a relation, a contrast. AVhereas no account of a 
 soul-conflict is intelligible which does not give us the opposing princi- 
 ples, and also their collision and final resolution in the triumph of the 
 good; and this is a story too long for painting. 
 
 Music can give us a prolonged action of the soul, a lif(>-]iistory, and
 
 90 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 in this is its great superiority in spirituality to the other forms of art. 
 Nevertheless we come here to its limitations. A collision is an opposi- 
 tion of evil and good. The good, in music, is the consonant, the well- 
 sounding, the melodious, the pleasing; the evil is the dissonant, the 
 discordant, the dis-united, the heterogenous. Now music itself as 
 music has properly and chiefl}^ to do with the consonant, ov with the 
 dissonant introduced in strict subjection to the consonant. Just as soon 
 as the dissonant forms any considerable proportion of the musical art- 
 woi'k, it ceases to be music and becomes unmusical, tiresome, as we see 
 in long passages of Wagner's later operas. The proper sphere of music 
 is to portray the progress of the soul from grief or sadness to comfort, 
 joy, and blessedness; it can do this with an intelligibility entirely its 
 own. It is, so to say, the art of the ideal sphere of the soul, the sphere 
 into which sin and its consequent suffering has never entered. What- 
 ever is bright, tender, joyful, resolved, or noble, music expresses with 
 peculiar j^ower. But evil lies outside its pure province. This, then is 
 one of its limitations. 
 
 Music suffers a second limitation in its entire want of relation to 
 reason. It is the ofHce of reason to receive from the senses and the 
 understaiiding the apparent facts of the outer world, to compare them, 
 discern their essential nature, and especially the deeper laws that regu- 
 late their co-ordination and succession. It is also its office to determine 
 concerning any particular piece of conduct that in view of its real 
 nature and its relation to other parts of the same life, it does or does 
 not conduce to virtue; that such and such things are related to the 
 lower parts of the nature, and such and such others to the higher. 
 Reason is the faculty of man by means of which he generalizes and so 
 arrives at a distinct conception of the truth. This faculty is, therefore, 
 the ruling intelligence of the entire man w-ith power to co-ordinate his 
 movements and conduct as well as his thought so as to bring him more 
 rapidly and surely along the road to goodness and God. Now music 
 is outside of reason. Reason begins to act only when it is furnished 
 with distinctly formulated conceptions or thoughts, and these are not 
 found in music. Music and reason, therefore, have nothing in common 
 with each other, but belong to different departments of the soul. Music 
 goes in through sense-perception and addresses the feelings directly as 
 such. Reason operates in the range of thought, and by comparisons 
 between' the information it receives from sense-perception and its own 
 a priori conceptions (time, space, and causality) is able to arrive at 
 certain forms of trutli; wliieli may or may not afterward be applied to 
 the feelings and motives of conduct.
 
 POETRY. 91 
 
 Thus as soon as art contemplates conflicts of soul and a blessedness 
 of victory residing in a complete union of all the powers of the spirit, 
 including the reason, some higher and more universal form of art be- 
 comes inevitable. Such a form we have in poetry, which expresses it- 
 self aot in shapes and forms outwardly visible as such, but through 
 words, which reason understands. 
 
 Because it finds its expression in words and through ideas and 
 conceptions 2:)roperly belonging to reason, poetry comes into nearjorox- 
 imity to prose, to ordinary discourse. Poetry is distinguishable from 
 prose in its form as well as its content. 
 
 The poetic form or mode of expression is imaginative and pictur- 
 esque. However intensified by thought, the mode of expression must 
 be such as to create in the inner sense pictures of the outer world, ov 
 of such and such living beings in such and such conflicts and relations. 
 Thus poetry in its picturesque modes of embodying thought addresses 
 the inner sense exactly as an external reality resembling it would ad- 
 dress the same feelings going in through the ordinary gates of sense- 
 perception. This is the distinctive trait of poetic expression. Verse 
 is an added grace, which is useful in so far as it lends smoothness and 
 musical quality to the discourse, and is a token of the complete control 
 which the creative artist exercises over his material. Verse also serves 
 a purpose in idealizing the style and so setting it apart to nobler uses 
 than those of common every-day life. 
 
 The content of poetry is spiritual existence and eternal truth, as 
 illustrated in the lives and conduct of men. "The entire circle of the 
 outer world enters poetry only in so far as the spirit finds its activity in 
 ruling over the material ; as the environment of man, also, his outer 
 world, which has its essential value only in reference to the inner of 
 consciousness, but dares not make claim to the honor of being itself the 
 exclusive subject of poetry. Then the word, this most plastic material, 
 which belongs immediately to the spirit, and is the most capable of all 
 of seizing the interests and movements of things in their inner life, 
 must here be applied to the highest meaning of which it is capable. 
 
 " Thus it becomes the chief task of poetry to bring to consciousness 
 the power of spiritual life, and especially whatever swells an.d sinks in 
 human passion and feeling, or passes quietly before the attention; the 
 all-embracing kingdom of human idea, activity, work, fate, the machin- 
 ery of this world and the divine government. So has it been and still 
 is the most general and broadest teacher of human kind. Its teaching 
 and learning are knowledge and experience of this which is. Star, 
 beast, and plant neither know nor experience their law; but man exists
 
 92 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 in the suitable law of his actual life only when he knows what he him- 
 self is and what is about him; he must know the power which drives 
 and manages him; — and such a knowledge it is wiiich Poetry gives in 
 its first substantial form." (Hegel.) 
 
 The superior power of poetry lies equally in its mode of expression 
 and in. its content. In the former because all men comprehend and are 
 moved by picture-building discourse. This mode of expression also 
 lends itself most easily to the artist's way of conceiving truth, which 
 is by direct intuition and not by reason. Hence in the earliest time the 
 deepest eternal trutlis were perceived, not clearly, but as if through a 
 veil; in epic, ode, psalm, projDhecy, and drama they found clearer and 
 clearer expression. And thus long before the philosopher had dis- 
 covered that man had a soul. Poets and seers had shown to the spirit of 
 man the love and providence of his God. 
 
 The principal kinds of poetry are tliree: The Epic^ which treats 
 of the deeds of heroes, and the fortunes of a people; the Lyric, in which 
 the human heart sings its own sorrow, hope, joy, or love; and the 
 Drama, in which men live and act l^efore us, and so by collisions and 
 conflicts the lesson of motive and consequence is read. 
 
 In its very nature, therefore, the art of Poetry is universal. It 
 belongs to every age, and to every grade of intelligence. And in all 
 it elevates, refines, a-nd educates. 
 
 Yet in its very definiteness and the completeness with which the 
 artist may work out his- full meaning in it, it leaves less room for the 
 imagination of the reader. And in this respect Music possesses a certain 
 advantage over it. We have thus comj^Ieted the circle of the arts, and 
 have seen in all, and more and more plainly as we have advanced, 
 that the ideal of them all is the expression of the True in sense-forms 
 — in other words, the expression of the beautiful. 
 
 Art is a sort of Jacob's ladder on which from the days of Adam 
 until now the angels of God have descended to man, and up which man 
 has gone to seek his God.
 
 Part Fifth. 
 
 STUDIES IN CLASSICAL MUSIC 
 
 LESSON TWENTY-SIXTH. 
 
 THE PLAYFUL JVEOMENT IN THE CLASSIC. 
 
 We find the starting point of the playful in the classic in such 
 productions of Bach, as the little fugue in C minor, No. 2 in the 
 "Clavier." (Plays.) Here the playful spirit is unmistakable. It is 
 shown in the rhytiim, tlie quick movement, and especially in the way 
 in which one part catches up another. These, again, are to be referred 
 to the Gigue of Bach, Mozart and other composers of that day, wiiich 
 were an idealized form of an old Italian dance in triplet rhythm. 
 
 Observe now the following: (Plays the Scherzo from the Beetho- 
 ven Sonata in C, op. 2.) This charming little piece deserves to be 
 heard twice. It is one of the most complete little bits of imitative 
 writing to be found in Beethoven. This is in thematic style. 
 
 Observe now this: (Plays the iVllegro in E flat, f time, third 
 movement of the Sonata in E flat, op. 7.) This is the lyric style at first, 
 but in the second period falls into the imitative forms for a while. The 
 charming feature in this work is its delicacy. Observe that the "trio" 
 refrains from definitely enunciated melody, although a melody is sug- 
 gested by the progression of its harmonies. 
 
 Again, observe this: (Plays the Menuetto from Sonata in D, 
 op. 10.) In point of structure, this little piece very much resembles 
 the Allegro last played. The impressive feature in it as one knows it 
 better, is the peculiarly graceful turn of the melody, in wliich it is not 
 surpassed bv any of the Beethoven short movements. 
 
 Observe again this, which is in the form of a Rondo: (Plays Finale 
 of Sonata in G, op. 14.) Here we have a similar spirit, and the agree- 
 able contrast of the sins^ino: melodv in C which beo-ins in tho seventv- 
 third measure. 
 
 93
 
 94 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 Still more unmistakable in its form, and very beautiful in its way, 
 is the Schei'zo from the " Pastoral" sonata of Beethoven, op. 28. This 
 movement goes very fast. It is relieved by a trio which contains a 
 lovelv melodic phrase, repeated several times with different harmonies. 
 (Plays.) 
 
 Of the same general character are the other playful movements in 
 the Beethoven Sonatas. Those in the sonatas for piano and violin, as 
 well as the trios for violin, 'cello and piano, afford yet more decided 
 humoristic traits. They are full of quirks and catches of time, caprices 
 of motives — in short, they are frolicsome. 
 
 Movements of this kind were introduced into the sonata by Bee- 
 thoven, as a compensation for the greater length and seriousness he 
 imparted to the other movements as compared witli those of Haydii 
 and Mozart. Independent movements of this kind are, however, nu- 
 merous in the Bach, Haydn and Mozart works. See, e. g., the Mozart 
 " Pieces," (Peters' ed.) and similar collections of other composers. 
 All of these movements are idealized dance-forms. 
 
 List of Illustratioxs. 
 
 1. Bach Invention ia C, No. 1. 
 
 2. Scherzo from Beethoven Sonata in C, op. 2. 
 
 3. Allegro (3d mov't) of Sonata iii E flat, op. 7, Beethoven. 
 
 4. Menuetto from Sonata in D, op. 10, Beethoven. 
 
 5. Finale of Sonata in G, op. 14, Beethoven. 
 
 6. Sclierzo from Pastoral Sonata, Beethoven. 
 
 LESSON TWENTY-SEVENTH. 
 
 THE TENDER AND SOULFUL IN THE CLASSIC. 
 
 In order rightly to comprehend the works of the greatest composers 
 we need to give especial attention to their deepest and tenderest 
 moments. These, of course, are to be found in the slow movements of 
 the sonatas and symphonies. These movements are founded upon the 
 people's song; they are in lyric forms, in slow and sustained melodies, 
 which in the longer movements are contrasted with second and third 
 subjects of a different character, as we already saw in our studies in 
 form. 
 
 The general type of these movements is the Cantabile. They are
 
 THE TENDER AND SOL'LFUL IN THE CLASSIC. 95 
 
 not to be found in Bach, nor yet in Handel. Haydn gives us tlic ibrm 
 but not the deep spirit we now look for in a iiioveinent of this kind. 
 A jjleasing example is found in one of liis s^niphonies. (Plays Z,((r(jo 
 Cantabile fi'om Haydn's symphony in D, No. 5 in Wittinan's arrange- 
 ments for piano solo, Ed. Peters, No. 197.) The second subject is in 
 the principal key of the movement, G, Ijeginning in the thirty- 
 first measure. 
 
 The slow movements in the pianoforte works are not so serious or 
 well-sustained, because the pianoforte of that day had not the "singing 
 tone" necessary for properly rendering movements of this kind. For 
 the same reason such movements can not be met with in the Mozart 
 pianoforte sonatas. In these the ideas lack breadth and depth. In 
 Mozart's string quartettes and symphonies, however, we find move- 
 ments of this kind beautifully sustained, but not characterized by the 
 depth we find in Beethoven. Such a movement is the Andante from 
 the 5th Quintette. (Plays.) Another example is the Larghetto in D 
 from the Clarinet concerts. ( " Mozart x\lbum,"' Ed. Peters, No. 1823, 
 p. 3G.) 
 
 Beethoven, however, is the great master of this type of composi- 
 tion. We find traces of it even in his earliest works, as in the 
 Adagio of the first sonata, op. 2 in F minor. This movement was 
 originally written by him when he was fifteen years old; it formed part 
 of the first quartette for piano, violin, viola and 'cello. The quartettes 
 were not published until after his death. The principal subject is ex- 
 tremely tender and fine. (Plays the entire movement.) 
 
 The Largo appassionata of the second sonata, op. 2 in A, is a still 
 more notable example. The principal idea of this movement is ex- 
 tremely large, and full of feeling. The second idea, beginning with 
 the last three notes of the eighth measure, is rather insignificant, and 
 indeed is used merely as an interlude. The second subject, 2:)roper, 
 begins v/ith the last three notes of the nineteenth measure. The depth 
 and seriousness of this movement are due to its slow })ac(>, the long 
 tones in the melody, and the low staccato notes in the bass, which give 
 an impression of repressed passion. 
 
 The beautiful Adagio grazioso of the sonata in G, op. 31, No. 1, is 
 perhaps a better example of a purely classical movement of this kind, 
 since it has all the classic peculiarities in a high degree; such as repose, 
 symmetry, moderation, purity, and an exquisite grace such as one may 
 search through many volumes elsewhere without finding. (Plays.) 
 This piece, as indeed the whole sonata, .seems a jDurely classical work. 
 It means absolutely nothing more than it says. It is a beautiful ex-
 
 96 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC 
 
 ample of Beethoven's most cheerful work when he was at the very 
 prime of his health and powers. Many other works of his mean more 
 than they say and so belong to the romantic. This one is the full 
 expression of its own idea, and for that very reason requires a certain 
 maturity and refinement of taste to properly appreciate it. 
 
 A short movement in dance form, but in very much the same 
 serious vein, is found in the Menuetto in E flat, out of the third sonata 
 of this opus 31. (Plays.) 
 
 A very long but Vjeautiful movement in similar spirit is furnished 
 by the second part of the sonata in E, op. 90. This is one of the most 
 refined and satisfactory cantabile pieces of Beethoven. It has in it an 
 exquisite air of tenderness and nobility, like that of a refined and noble 
 woman. (Plays.) 
 
 Yet another movement of the same kind is found in the Tempo dl 
 Menuetto of the sonata in G, op. 30, for piano and violin, one of the 
 three great ones dedicated to the Emperor Alexander II. (Letthisbe 
 heard if convenient.) Nor ought we to overlook the exquisite Andante 
 and variations of the Sonata ajyjxissionata, op. 57, which are also 
 characterized by the same repose and elevated beauty. (Plays.) 
 
 In all these movements the predominant impressions are of repose, 
 and depth of soul. As Hegel says of Greek sculpture, "this is the un- 
 alterable permanence of the immortal gods." 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. Largo Cantabile from Haydn's 5th Symphony, in D, No. 5, in Wittmann's arr, 
 
 for piano solo, Ed. Peters, No. 197. 
 
 2. Andante from Quintette, Mozart. 
 
 :}. Adagio from Sonata in F, op. 2, No. 1, Beethoven. 
 
 4. Largo Appassionata from Sonata in A, op. 2, No. 3, Beethoven. 
 
 5. Adagio Grazioso from Sonata in G-, op. 31, No. 1, Beethoven. 
 
 6. Menuetto from Sonata in C minor, op. 31, No. 3, Beethoven. 
 
 7. Tempo di Menuetto from Sonata in G, op. 30, Beethoven. 
 
 8. Andante and Variations from Sonata, op. 57, Beethoven. 
 
 9. Larghetto in D, from Clarinet Concerto, Mozart (p. 36 in "Mozart Album," 
 
 No. 1823 Peters.^
 
 EXPRESSIONS OF THE HONDO. 97 
 
 LESSON TWENTY-ETaHTTT. 
 
 THE CONTENTED, THE JOVIAL, THE COMFORTABLE, AS EX- 
 PRESSED IN TTTE RO:^DO. 
 
 As to its form the rondo consists of a principal subject three or 
 four times repeated, with second and third subjects intervening be- 
 tween these repetitions. As already appeared in the second part of 
 tins work, the rondo differs from the sonata-piece in having- less thematic 
 work, and less} seriousness. The rondo is derived from the people's 
 song, and represents a spirit of cheerfulness, of burgh(3r-like satisfac- 
 tion; a comfortable contentment in life which is too lively for repose, 
 and too cheerful for work or striving. Thus, e. r/., observe the follow- 
 ing: (Plays Rondo in E flat from Beethoven's op. 7.) 
 
 In the very first idea we have this feelin"' of rather satisfied com- 
 fort, and the secondary matter only serves to bring this spirit out 
 more })laiidy. 
 
 For anotlier example take the rondo out of the little sonata in G, 
 op. 14, No. 2. This is still more playful. (Plays.) 
 
 Even in the serious and deeply moved sonatas, the rondo is in ;i 
 spirit which indicates that conflict has had its victory in happiness or 
 something approaching it. (Plays rondo of aonaita. pathetique.) 
 
 One of the most interesting of the Beethoven rondos is the ex- 
 tremely bright and clever Rondo Capriccioso, op. 129, one of his very 
 latest compositions. The theme of this might have been written by 
 Haydn, it is so clear and sunny, but Haydn could never have indulged 
 himself in the endless caprices of the elaboration. (Plays Rondo 
 Capriccioso of Beethoven.) 
 
 If further examples are desired, let them be found in the two 
 rondos of Beethoven, op. 51 in C and G, and Mendelssolni's well-known 
 Rondo Capriccioso. 
 
 In several of the Beethoven sonatas we find in place of the rondo 
 a movement called "Finale," which is in the same form as the sonata- 
 piece except that a third subject (or middle-piece) takes the place of 
 the Elaboration. An example of this is found in the first sonata in F, 
 op. 2. In other instances the Finale is a sonata-piece, but conceived in 
 7
 
 98 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 a ligbtcr spirit. Such are found in the Sonata op. 10 m C minor, op. 
 31 No. 2 in D minor, op. 31 No. 3 in E flat, etc. 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. Rondo of Sonata in E6, op. 7, Beethoven. 
 
 3. Rondo of Sonata in 6, op. 14, No. 2, Beethoven, 
 o. Rondo of Sonata Pathetique, op. 13, Beethoven. 
 
 4. Rondo Capriccioso, op. 129, Beethoven. 
 
 5. Two Rondos, op. 51, Beethoven. 
 C. Rondo Capriccioso, Mendelssohn. 
 
 LESSON TWENTY-NINTH. 
 
 THE CYCLE OF THE SONATA. 
 
 The form of the sonata-piece and the composition to which it has 
 given its name we liave already considered in Lessons XV. and XVI. 
 The emotional cliaracteristics of its component j^arts have now been 
 considered in detail. We are ready, therefore, to enter upon the study 
 of the work as a wliole. This cannot be done profitably otherwise than 
 by repeatedly hearing' an entire sonata until one knows it in its sepa- 
 rate movements and parts, and again in the unity of the complete work, 
 so that one thinks of the different movements as chaj^ters in the same 
 life - history, or as successive and logically- related states of the same 
 person. This unity of the sonata as a whole is one of the peculiar ex- 
 cellencies of Beethoven's works. We do not find the same comprehen- 
 sive grasp on the part of any other composer in this form of composi- 
 tion. 
 
 The first movement represents the earnest and intellectually de- 
 termined part of the work. The second, the reposeful and deep mo- 
 ments. The third, the out-come into healthful, every-day activity. If 
 there are four movements, a playful moment intervenes between the 
 second and third or the third and fourth, as a sort of interlude. The 
 first movement, therefore, strikes the key-note of the whole work. If 
 its subjects are trivial and scantily handled, no great depth of senti- 
 ment in the following part, the slow movement, can reasonably be ex- 
 pected. We already know that the different movements in the same 
 sonata have no motives in common; they "are not even in the same key. 
 They are not composed at the same time. Generally we may conceive
 
 THE CYCLE OF THE SONATA. 99 
 
 of a sonata-piece as having first occurred to the composer merely as a 
 single motive, with certain dimly-perceived possibilities of elaboration. 
 Possibly a second motive, that of the lyric digression, was thought of at 
 the same time. Perhaps the entire Principal was written out immcdi- 
 atelv; by chance the Second also, though this is not common. The inter- 
 vening passage work and the elaboration may liave occu])ied the leisure 
 moments of several days. Thus after considerable delay the composer 
 is in possession of the entire first movement. It may be a week later 
 before he composes the slow movement, and a month before the sonata 
 is finished. Yet tliis does not 2:0 to denv the unitv of the sonata as a 
 whole. For do not novelists write the most absorbing tales in ])re- 
 cisely similar piecemeal way? These delays represent the time of medi- 
 tation, duriiig which the author decides what the natural out-come of 
 his characters shall be, taking into account all the circumstances of 
 their history as represented. 
 
 In some cases the motives of a work were thought of several years 
 before they were finally worked up. In Beetlioven*'s " note-books" 
 (rude memorandum books of music paper, on which he wrote down at 
 the moment any good idea that struck him) we find the motives of 
 liis symphonies sometimes for several years before the symphony was 
 composed. Some of these motives undergo remarkable changes l^efore 
 they come into a form satisfactory to the great master. When the 
 sonata is done it is not always satisfactory. Thus, the well-known 
 '^'•Andante Favoris in F" of Beethoven was written to c:o in the Wald- 
 stein sonata in C, op. 53. But on trial it did not suit him; perhaps 
 because of its length. So it was taken out and published separately, 
 and the short " Introduction" which now stands there, put in its place. 
 Yet it would be wrons; to conclude from this that the association of 
 pieces in the sonata was a matter of experiment, instead of insight and 
 logical development. It is rather as if an author had concluded on re- 
 flection that in a certain chapter he had allowed an unsuitable weight 
 to certain tendencies in some one of his principal characters. 
 
 A few general traits of these sonatas we may easily observe. Thus, 
 if the first movement is vio-orous and stronsilv marked, the ensuing 
 movements partake of the same decision. To take a very strong ex- 
 ample, consider Sonata Pathetique. Here the Introductio.n (Grave) 
 opens very broadly and passionately. (Plays.) Then follows an equally 
 forcible Allegro which goes at an extremely rapiil pace, and is strongly 
 accented and marked by wide transitions of power. (Plays.) The 
 Elaboration in this is equally forcible, and includes motives from the 
 Introduction as well as from the Allegro proper. (Plays.) Then after
 
 iOO now TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 the completion of this movement, there follows an Adagio of the most 
 deep and spiritual expression. (Plays.) On this follows a Rondo, 
 which manifests the habitual carelessness of the rondo, as throuo-h a 
 veil of tears. The third subject in it is perfectly dry and unemotional, 
 only to give place for an unusual and unprecedented recapitulation of 
 the principal subject of the rondo. It maybe confessed that this ron- 
 do, fine as it is, sometimes seems inadequate to the sonata it concludes; 
 and yet Beethoven put it there, and the world generally accepts this as 
 one of his most satisfactory. 
 
 Again in the sonata in F, op. 2 No. 1, we have an extremely for- 
 tunate example of association. The Allegro is founded on one of 
 Friedmann Bach's. It has no properly developed lyric digression. The 
 Adagio is one of the loveliest, and as we know, taken out of a youthful 
 work. The Menuet is pretty, and the Finale charming and impetuous, 
 and saved from a flavor of the morbid only by the exquisite melody in 
 A flat (third subject). 
 
 It is unnecessary to multiply examples. To properly comprehend 
 the sonata in all its possibilities is to comprehend everything in instru- 
 mental music. All that can here be done to assist the student is to 
 suggest the unity of the sonata as a whole. More must come by study 
 and experience. It will be found a profitable experience in every way 
 to resume this study from time to time, using the four-hand arrange- 
 ments of the symphonies of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. Some 
 one work is to be taken and each separate movement studied until it 
 becomes familiar; afterwards the entire symphony, and this, also, sev- 
 eral times in succession. It is an excellent thing in a boarding school, 
 for example, when an eight-hand arrangement of one of these works is 
 undertaken; we have there immediately four pupils practically inter- 
 ested in one work. The length of time necessary to bring such a per- 
 formance to a satisfactory state, suffices to thoroughly familiarize the 
 entire school with the motives and leading features of the work. In this 
 way very much genuine musical cultivation can be had in places where 
 orchestral music is never heard. For such a purpose a list is added, 
 below. 
 
 List of Illustrations, 
 
 « 
 
 1. Sonata Pathetique, op. 13, Beethoven. ' 
 
 3. Sonata in F minor, op. 2, Beethoven. 
 
 3. Four-hand arrangement of Beethoven's Septette, op. 20. 
 
 4. Beethoven's 2d, 5th and 7th Symphonies, for four hands. (Peters' ed.) 
 
 5. Beethoven Sonatas for Piano and Violin, arranged for four hands. In partic- 
 
 ular Nos. 5 in F, 7 in C minor, and 8 in G.
 
 THE BEAUTIFUL IN CLASSIC MUSIC. 101 
 
 LESSOX THIRTIETH. 
 
 THE BEAUTIFUL IN CLASSIC MUSIC, AND THE TRANSITION 
 
 TOWARD THE ROMANTIC. 
 
 As compared with sensational modern works, classical music 
 seems cold, impassive. Much of this impression deioends on one's mu- 
 sical habits of thouglit. A student who spends a large irdvt. of his 
 practice on finger exercises and studies, will find almost any classical 
 sonata musical and grateful to him; but one who idles away his pre- 
 scribed "hours" on pleasing and capriciously chosen i:)ieces, and never 
 practices exercises or studies, will find a sonata tiresome — at least, 
 until it is heard often enougli for its real character to impress itself 
 upon an inattentive player. Still it is l)y no means necessary for a 
 student to avoid modern works in order to enjoy a sonata. It will be 
 enough if he is willing to decide for himself that he prefers music as 
 such, to the strained and forced or empty in expression. 
 
 When we take uj) a piece of Bach's, as, for example, the first 
 movement of the Italian Concerto, it at first seems tame. AVhen heard 
 many times, however, a certain fluency and genuine melodiousness ap- 
 pear in it, which l)etray the touch of genius, (Plays.)' The piece seems 
 to our ears somewhat too long. This impression is not due to its ab- 
 solute length, but to its want of contrast. If we take up a larger 
 piece of Bach's, such as the Passacaglia in C min. (organ works ar- 
 ranged for four hands), we find in it a certain monotony, yet a decided 
 progress toward a climax. The piece is a set of variations on a 
 "ground bass," or cantusfermus which goes through all the variations 
 unchanged. It ends with a splendid fugue. When we compare these 
 variations with each other we observe that each is more complex than 
 the preceding. (Plays theme and variations, remarking the com- 
 mencement of each. Afterwards it would be well to examine the va- 
 riations in detail, pointing out tlie motives of each. Then play the 
 whole again.) In all this we have no new disj)Osition or emotional 
 contrasts represented, but only an unfolding of what was already ])()S- 
 sible in the theme. As the rose in full bloom displays no petals which 
 were not enrolled in the bud, so these latest and most luxui'iant bios-
 
 J02 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 soms give us nothing that was not already implied in the theme. 
 Nevertheless it vpas only Aaron's rod that budded, and it is only a 
 theme of such a man as Bach that blossoms out like this. 
 
 Here we conic upon one of the characteristic moments of classical 
 music. It is that in which music itself is trying its wings for itself. 
 Nothing here seeks expression save only the musical ideas themselves, 
 nay, tlie single idea of the theme, and its logical implications. 
 In order to appreciate it, therefore, one needs to hear it many times, 
 and especially to have within himself a really musical nature. All the 
 greatest masters since Bach have admired, wondered at, and enjoyed 
 these works of his, the greatness of which lies in the lengths they go 
 as music, and their entire freedom from any thing like emotional effort. 
 They are not without emotional expression; they could not be, with a 
 rhythmic pulsation so thoroughly established and so long maintained, 
 for the heart falls in witli it and retards or accelerates in sympathy. 
 Add to this the constantly augmenting energy of the motivization, and 
 we have a certain amount of emotional expression in spite of the mo- 
 notony of the harmonic foundation. Yet with all its energy and 
 strength, and its climax, it remains in some way cold. It is like a won- 
 derful statue in music. 
 
 Let us examine it in the lio-ht of our studies in the beautiful. 
 Beginning on the lowest plane, we ask what has it for the pleasure of 
 hearing? In answer it must be at once admitted that merely sensuous 
 charm is not here sought. It sounds well; all its dissonances are prop- 
 erly prepared and resolved, and the finest of all harmonic instincts pre- 
 sided over the arrangement of its chord-sequences. Here, therefore, 
 it jdelds only negative results. We ask again, what has it for satis- 
 faction in contemplation? And in this direction it has much to say 
 for itself. Each period is symmetrical and well concluded. The 
 strictest unity prevails throughout. The work as a whole does not 
 manifest symmetry, since it does not consist of two, three, or any num- 
 ber of sections or members standino- over ao^ainst each other. This 
 element of form is wantinrr. The Passacan-lia is merelv the life-histo- 
 ry of a single idea from its first simple form through its devplo])ment 
 to its return again into repose, the JV^irvcma of music. Yet this de- 
 velopment itself is traced with such skill, each step follows so natural- 
 ly on the preceding and the whole is managed without any overdoing 
 or forceful effort, that in the unity and movement of the work we have 
 one of the earliest forms in which the beautiful, as such, found expres- 
 sion in music. Nor is the work without a decided outlook in the di- 
 rection of the higher perception and spiritual realization of beauty.
 
 THE BEAUTIFUL IN CLASSIC MUSIC. 103 
 
 Perhaps this is shown in tlie persistence of the theme; and its final 
 conflict and victory in the fugue. All that goes ])efore is to interest 
 us in the theme. We must not forget that in Bach's day, lovers of 
 music generally were familiar with fugal phraseology and followed with 
 readiness and interest all the vicissitudes of the subject as only musi- 
 cians now do, so that intricacies of treatment which sound to us 
 somewhat far-fetched and difficult, sounded to them natural and right. 
 On the other hand, the extreme modulations common in modern 
 works, and the brilliancy and comparative looseness of treatment in 
 modern pieces, would have occasioned them a genuine shock of sur- 
 prise and disapproval. 
 
 Again, let us observe the Andante from Mozart's fifth quintette 
 for strings (No. 3 on the list below). It is in the form of a rondo. 
 The principal subject is this. (Plays first subject, IG measures.) The 
 second subject is in E fiat. (Plays.) 
 
 Now when we attentively consider the impression this work 
 makes upon vis, we immediately perceive that it manifests the ele- 
 ments of formal beauty in a much more complete degree than the 
 Bach works just mentioned. Considered merely as music it is less se- 
 rious than the Bach pieces. For this reason it bestows less attention 
 upon developing a single subject. The world goes more easily here than 
 there. Life has certain ameliorations. The episode comes not in the 
 form of additional trouble for the theme, but in a complete digression 
 from it, like a visit to a new world. (Plays entire movement again.) 
 Such an introduction of a complete digression within a movement 
 is very rare in Bach. Mozart's appreciation of its restfulness marks 
 his deeper comprehension of the emotional nature of music. Examined 
 with reference to its degree of beauty this piece does not manifest im- 
 portant diff"erence from that of Bach. Thus in the merely well-sound- 
 ing; the Mozart Andante is stronger. Tt has more svmmetry and 
 sweetness; a more evident harmony and proportion of parts; the com- 
 plete digression into another key relieves the ear. Still this last com- 
 parison is hardly fair, for the Passacaglia has its modulatory structure 
 determined by its ground bass. On the other hand the Vf.ich piece is 
 very much more earnest and vigoror.s. The intellectual element pre- 
 ponderates in it. As already pointed out, it is a monologue, a discus- 
 sion of a single theme carried out thoroughly in all its parts, with uo 
 regard for the hearer. The Mozart Andante, on the contrary, is dis- 
 tinctly lyric. It is a song. And so in all its parts it is simpler, more 
 easily comprehended, more pleasing. Yet both pieces are so masterly 
 in their wav that neither can be accredited with a general superiority
 
 104 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 over the other. The .latter maiks a progress in the direction of the 
 secular, and the softer.and less divine sides of beauty. 
 
 Or take, asfain, the Beethoven "Moonlio-ht" sonata. Its first 
 movement is also a monody on a single theme. (Plays the first strain 
 of melody of Adagio in sonata.) It is of the most plaintive character. 
 The same spirit pervades the entire movement. (Plays the entire 
 movement.) This sonata has always been regarded as a cry of the 
 heart. Tlie beautiful as such, the symmetrical, reposeful, the well-pro- 
 portioned and sweet, are not here the objects of expression. But instead 
 of them we have the very heart of the composer; its sorrow, its grief, 
 its desire. (Plays again.) 
 
 This wonderfully sad movement is followed by a Scherzo which to 
 some extent relieves the tension. The afflicted mourner takes up again 
 the sympathies and associations of life; not with undisciplined buoyancy, 
 but with a sad and tender resignation. Is this all fancy? (Plays Al- 
 legretto.) On this, again, follows the Finale, which is in fact a regu- 
 larly constructed sonata-piece with all its appurtenances. In this we 
 have the soul in its hours of solitude, when, no longer distracted by the 
 world about it, all the waves of its grief come over it. At times hope 
 springs up, but only to be immediatel}' overwhelmed. (Plays the en- 
 tire Finale.) 
 
 Thus in the whole sonata as well as the movements separately, we 
 have a life history, not of a single musical theme and its implications 
 (as in the Passacaglia), but a story of the human heart, a voice from 
 the soul. However fine wc may find this sonata in point of construc- 
 tion, we do not listen to it for its music merely. It is distinctly a poem, 
 carrying a meaning which is not in any sensuous charm of pleasant!}' 
 chosen harmonies or agreeable sequences of melody, nor yet in any 
 formal beauty. Indeed, the beautiful, as such, is not the impression 
 this work leaves upon ns, but its expression^ its sorroio. In this, then, 
 we come upon the romantic moment of music, when art becomes the 
 expression of the joys and sorrows of the soul. 
 
 Yet another example. Let us take the Beethoven Sonata in E flat, 
 op. 31 No. 3. This belongs to the more pleasing moments of experience. 
 The Allegro opens with a motive that sounds like a question, an im- 
 pression having its source partly in the motive itself but more in the 
 harmony which supports it. The entire movement is short and not 
 seriously intended. (Plays entire movement.) Tliis is followed by a 
 Scherzo which has something: sonar-like in it, although it is in the same 
 form as the preceding, a sonata-piece. (Plays.) This is followed 
 by a Menuetto, a genuine cantahile movement (one of the loveliest, by
 
 THE BEAUTIFUL IN CLASSIC MUSIC. 105 
 
 tlie way), which is a simple binary form. (Plays,) This, again, is fol- 
 lowed by the Finale, which also is a sonata-piece, perhaps the only ex- 
 ample in the Beethoven sonatas where three of the forms of the same 
 sonata are of this kind. This movement is extremely jolly and pretty. 
 (Plays.) Listen now to the entire sonata. (Plays entire sonata.) Here, 
 as you perceive, we have not a moment of grief or any deep sorrow, nor 
 yet any great moral earnestness. But instead of it the musical, the 
 symmetrical, the pleasing, the beautiful. If now we would bo fully 
 conscious of the musical distance we have passed over we should liear 
 again the Bach Passacaglia. (If agreeable the Passacaglia may here 
 be heard again.) 
 
 When we thus bring these two extremes, or at least widely separ- 
 ated points, of the musical scale into juxtaposition, we are able to real- 
 ize that the beautiful itself is not the principal subject of the Bach 
 piece; and that from Bach to Beethoven a great progress has been 
 made in the direction of the lovely and the expressive. 
 
 Yet one more example. Let us observe carefully the Air and ^'ari- 
 ations in B flat by Schubert. (Plays Schubert's air from the Im- 
 promptu in B flat, op. 142. Then play the beginning of each variation, 
 callina: attention to the naotivization of each, and afterward the entire 
 piece.) In this lovely work we have something very different from 
 any thing we find in the Passacaglia, or even in the Mozart Andante. 
 Yet its prevailing expression is one of beauty and grace. A careful 
 examination of it will indicate considerable attention to the well-sound- 
 ing, a strict but purely unconscious observance of formal beauty, and 
 beyond this a perceptible flavor of more inward and exquisite move- 
 ment of spirit. Yet this without at all going into the depths of the 
 soul. Like a pleasant sunset, one regards it with delight, but eoni- 
 posure. As when the duties of the day are done, its pleasant ex})er- 
 iences remembered, all its annoyances and cares forgotten, in })oarcful 
 contemplation one awaits the hour of sleep. 
 
 In all these examples we have had to do chiefly with formal beauty, 
 save where the "Moonlight" sonata brought us to a still more inward 
 exercise of spirit. The progress thus traced, from the strict musical 
 logic and elevated formal beauty of Bach, through the pleasing aiul 
 enchanting in Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert, and the deeply heart- 
 felt in Beethoven's latest works, goes yet further in the romantic 
 school, as we shall hereafter see. This same progress is traced from 
 the vocal side in Part VII., on Songs, where new conditions lead to 
 new and important results. The smaller classical composers, such as 
 Clementi and Dussek, display in the main the same general character-
 
 10(3 
 
 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 istics as we have observed in Beethoven, yet with less unity and im- 
 aginative power. Indeed we must think of Dussek as an imitator, or 
 at least follower of Mozart, and as breaking no new paths. Baoh, 
 Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven comprehend everything that properly 
 belon2:s to the classic in music. 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. Allegro from Bach's Italian Concerto. 
 
 2. Passacaglia in C minor for the organ. Bach. (Arranged for 4 hands ow the 
 
 piano. Peters' Ed. No. 224.) 
 
 3. Andante from 5th Quintette, Mozart. (4 hands. Peters' Ed. No. 997.) 
 
 4. The "Moonlight" Sonata of Beethoven, op. 27 No. 8. 
 
 5. Sonata in E flat, op. ol No. 3, Beethoven. 
 
 6. Impromptu in B tlat, op, 142, Schubert.
 
 Paut Htxtti . 
 
 STUDIES liN THE ROMANTIC. 
 
 LESSON THIRTY -FIRST. 
 
 THE CHIVALROUS. 
 
 "The chief content of Chivahy," says Hegel, " may be expressed 
 as Honor^ Love, and FideMty.'''' The idea of chivahy carries with it the 
 heroic, the tender, the graceful and considerate, and above all the noble 
 and dignified, or, as Southerners say, " the high-toned." This phase 
 of musical expression finds its most congenial expression in the works 
 of Chopin, especially in the Polonaises. Yet the polonaise exj^resses 
 these graces in many instances with a certain qualification. The Chopin 
 polonaise not only represents the phases of chivalry, but there runs 
 through it the sad and almost morbid element of Polish character, as if 
 the unfortunate history of this country had imparted a tinge of sadness 
 even to its moments of victory. Of the polonaise in general, Liszt 
 writes : 
 
 " While listening to some of the polonaises of Chopin, we can al- 
 most catch the firm, nay, the more than firm, the heavy, resolute tread 
 of men bravely facing all the bitter injustice which the most cruel and 
 relentless destiny can ofi"er, with the manly pride of unblenching cour- 
 age. 
 
 "The progress of the music suggests to our imagination such mag- 
 nificent groups as were designed by Paul Veronese, robed in the rich 
 costume of days long past; we see passing at intervals before us, 
 brocades of gold, velvets, damasked satins, silvery, soft and flexible 
 sables, hanging sleeves gracefully thrown back upon the shoulders, 
 embossed sabres, boots yellow as gold or red with trampled blood, 
 sashes with long and undulating fringes, close chemisettes, rustling 
 trains, stomachers embroidered with pearls, head-dresses glittering with 
 
 107
 
 108 
 
 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 rubies or leafy witli emeralds, light slippers rich with amber, gloves 
 perfumed with the luxurious attar from the harems. 
 
 " From the faded background of times long past these vivid groups 
 start forth; gorgeous carpets from Persia lie n.t their feet, filagreed fur- 
 niture from Constantinople stands around; all is marked by the sump- 
 tuous prodigality of the magnates who drew, in ruby goblets embossed 
 with medallions, wine from the fountains of Tokay, and shod their 
 fleet Arabian steeds with silver ; who surmounted all their escutcheons 
 with the same crown which the fate of an election might render a royal 
 one, and which, causing them to despise all other titles, was alone worn 
 as hisigne of their glorious equality.'" 
 
 Thus in the Military Polonaise of Chopin, already heard several 
 times in the course of these studies, we have the martial element 
 strongly brought out. This runs through the whole piece. In form 
 this polonaise is of the simple binary order. The second leading sub- 
 ject beginning: 
 
 Ex. 28. 
 
 is of the nature of a " trio." Yet in this, where if anywhere we would 
 look for the expression of tenderness, the military ardor glows still 
 unquenched. After one strain of this we encounter a different spirit. 
 What is it? (Plays the middle strain of trio beginning with the trill 
 on C sharp in the bass.) This is In eflfect a salute. It is as if we had 
 been witnessing a grand review. Here the general and his staff ride 
 down the line, and we hear the salute of honor, the roll of musketry, 
 the blare of the trumpets, and see the waving of the colors. 
 
 On the other hand let us examine a work in which tiiere is much 
 greater diversity of momentary expression, and consequently much less 
 coherence. 
 
 Observe, now, the following: (Plays the first twelve measures 
 of Polonaise in C sharp minor, op. 26.) Here the first four 
 measures have the force of a full period; they start off splendidly, with 
 the greatest determination and courao;e. In the next eio-ht measures 
 tliis courage still exists, it is true, but with it a vein of weakness be- 
 comes apparent. (Plays this plu^ase; and then repeats the entire 
 period.) 
 
 At the twentv-fifth measure a new fio-ure meets us, not referable 
 to any warlike spirit as such. It more reminds one of Liszt's descrip- 
 tion of the complicated figures and constantly fresh inventions intro-
 
 THE CHIVALROUS. 109 
 
 duced into the Polish dance. (Plays seven measures.) At the tenth 
 measure of this part the cliivalrous spirit reappears. (Plays to the end 
 of this part; i. e., to the signature of live fl.its.) 
 
 Here enters an entirely new spirit. Our valiant soldier has be- 
 come entangled in the snares of love. Yet note how tender his devo- 
 tion. With what subtle nobility of tenderness he breathes his love. 
 (Plays sixteen measures of this part.) Here at the seventeenth meas- 
 ure a different spirit enters. It seems a conflict, a dialogue. Above 
 we hear the woman's voice, gentle, persistent, tender; below the man's, 
 more importunate, not so reserved and regular. The denouement each 
 hearer may imagine for himself. When tliis little conflict is over we 
 have again the gentle song of love which opened this part. And thus 
 the piece ends. (Plays.) 
 
 Observe again the entire piece. (Plays the whole piece.) It con- 
 sists, as you perceive, of two equal parts or pictures, diff"erent sides of the 
 same nature. The first martial and ardent; the second tender and 
 pleading. The work has no unity except in so far as the uniform rhyth- 
 mic pulsation throughout the piece enables us to recognize, underneath 
 all those moods, the beatings of the same hearts. 
 
 Here, again, and in order to study the polonaise from a different 
 stand-point, observe the following: (Plays Polacca Brilliant in E, op. 
 72, Von Weber.) This, as you perceive, is a melodious and poetic 
 piece, but it lacks the nameless grace and charm of the Chopin works, 
 though to very many, and perhaps to all, there is something extremely 
 pleasing in its freshness, whicia has nothing in it of a morbid char- 
 acter. 
 
 Again, observe this little polonaise of Schumann's: (Plays the 
 polonaise in D, out of the pajoillons, op. 2.) 
 
 In order to understand this phase of music fully we need to ex- 
 amine three more vorki. The first is the Chopin polonaise in A flat, 
 op. 53. This is in the grand style. Observe the Introduction. (Plays 
 sixteen measures.) See how strong and resistless the impulse! Then 
 enters the theme. (Plays from seventeenth measure to the end of this 
 part', through forty-eighth measure.) Here at the forty-iiinlh measure 
 there enters one of those capricious figures referred to by Liszt. 
 Evidently it is of a grandiose and somewhat startling character; it is 
 repeated with emphasis (represented by the transposition to a higher 
 degree). At the fifty-seventh measure a grand and dignified melody 
 begins, whicli presently brings us again to the theme. (Plays four 
 measures and four measures; and then this melody; then the theme 
 and so on through the Principal to the change of signature.)
 
 no HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 Here at the change of key a new caprice presents itself. In the 
 treble we have a very quiet melody; under it in the bass a monotonous 
 octave figure repeated over and over many times, at first very softly, 
 then by degrees louder. It expands and expands until it fills the whole 
 field of observation; then it subsides only to mount up once more. 
 (Plays through the passage containing bass running passage in octaves.) 
 At the end of the octaves there enters a gentle figure in G major, 
 afterwards transposed to A flat, and this, after some time, leads again 
 to the principal, and so to the close. (Plays last part of piece.) Ob- 
 serve now the whole work. (Plays the entire polonaise.) This piece, 
 in spite of a considerable degree of contrast between the various strains, 
 is essentially of one spirit, and that of an extremely heroic, dignified, 
 and noble character. 
 
 Another work of this class and remarkable for still greater con- 
 trasts, though, as a whole pervaded by a more refined (and possibl}' 
 effeminate) spirit, is the Chopin ])oIonaise in E flat, op. 22. This work 
 is preceded by a charming A7idante Spianato, which belongs to the 
 tender side of emotion. The polonaise enters thus: (Plays.) In the 
 sixtieth measure of the polonaise proper (not counting the orchestral 
 tuttl intervening between the andante and the polonaise) a series of 
 strong contrasts begins. Here we have two lines of extremely bold 
 octaves in both hands. (Plays.) In the sixty-seventh measure a soft 
 and delicate melody enters, concluding with some delicate cadencing, 
 in the sixty-rtinth, etc. (Plays.) In the seventy-third measure a bold 
 and fiery passage bursts in, closing with an octave passage. (Plays.) 
 In the eighty-third measure a lovely melody in C minor begins. (Plays.) 
 But enough. Suffice it to say that in this piece we have almost every 
 phase of the Chopin nature represented, and it is rightly counted for 
 one of his most exquisite works. 
 
 Still another and more sensational work of this school is Liszt's 
 
 Polonaise in E. This great work (one of the best of Liszt's) contains 
 
 very few of the refinements we have seen so abundant in the work last 
 
 considered. Nay, it is even less so than the heroic polonaise in A flat. 
 
 Yet it is a concert-piece of the same general type, and as such deserves 
 
 to be carefully heard. The finest work' in it is in the Cadenza. 
 
 (Plays.) 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. Chopin's Polonaise Militaire, op. 40, No. 1. 
 
 2. Chopin's Polonaise in C sharp minor, op. 26, No. 1. 
 
 3. Polacca Brilliante in E, Weber, op. 72. 
 
 4. Schumann's Polonaise in D (out of Papillons, op. 2). 
 
 5. Chopin Polonaise in A flat, op. 53. 
 
 6. Chopin's Andante and Polonaise in E flat, op. 2^ 
 
 7. Liszt's Polonaise Heroique in E.
 
 THE GENTLE AND SENTIMENTAL; THE DEEPLY TENDER. m 
 
 LESSON THIRTY- SECOND. 
 
 THE GENTLE AND SENTIMENTAL; THE DEEPLY TENDER. 
 
 The earliest consistent examples of this kind of spirit worked out 
 in pianoforte music in simple forms, are to be found in some of the 
 Haydn adagios and andantes, and the Field nocturnes, the latter most 
 particularly. Field very probably derived more or less suggestion from 
 the slow movements in Beethoven sonatas, all of which, as far as 
 the "Waldstein" appassionata and "Kreutzer" sonatas, were published 
 before the Field nocturnes. In many of the earlier sonatas of Bee- 
 thoven we find short passages in the genuine nocturne vein; as, e. g., in 
 the- Adagio of sonata pathetique, the Menuet in the sonata in E flat, 
 op. 31, etc. To Field, however, is due the credit of having established 
 the form of the nocturne as an independent piece for piano, in a ten- 
 der, elegiac vein, and, both in point of difficulty and emotional range, 
 keeping it within the resources of amateurs generally. Here, e. f/., is 
 such a piece. (Plays Field's nocturne in B flat.) This piece, like all of 
 Field's, is characterized by an extremely clear and limpid style, and a 
 truly refined and delicate spirit. 
 
 Field was not insensible to the advantages of contrast, as we see 
 in the following, where the second subject makes an admirable con- 
 trast with the first. (Plays Field's nocturne in D, No. 13.) 
 
 Mendelssohn, however, is the magician who first made known to 
 amateurs generally the latent singing powers of the pianoforte. This 
 he did in his famous works, the " Songs Without Words." No doubt 
 the fortunate selection of title had much to do with their immediate 
 popularity, which was very great, and has in fact continued ever since. 
 
 The first book of these beautiful works was published in 18?9 
 and contained six pieces, in which the MendelssohniaTi spirit is unmis- 
 takable. In the first we have a tender melody and a gentle and 
 well-blended accompaniment, which, when well played, is truly charm- 
 ing. (Plays.) In the second we have a vein of sadness or melancholy, as 
 well as the usual tenderness. (Plays.) The" third is the well-known 
 "Hunting Song," which may well enough be heard here for the sake of 
 the contrast. (Plays No. 3.) No. 6 is a Venetian Gondallied in which
 
 113 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 one plainly hears the melancholy and passion of a decayed and fading 
 race. (Plays.) Whatever meaning we may be led by their fanciful 
 titles to attach to these pieces, they all speak unmistakably the voice of 
 tenderness and sadness. Whenever we are in any similar mood these 
 pieces chime in with our feelings, and utter the very tones we would 
 ourselves have originated. This is the quality of popularity: to seem 
 to say what every reader would himself have said (if only he had 
 thought to do it). And this quality the Mendelssohn songs possess 
 in the most eminent degree. Another example of the same spirit we 
 have in the lovely Duetto in A flat, No. 18, which may be heard again 
 if desired. (Let it be played if it is not clearly remembered from for- 
 mer citations.) 
 
 Chopin- took up the nocturne form as Field left it, and imparted 
 to it a greater depth and range of meaning. One of the simplest 
 types of his is the second one, the lovely nocturne in E flat, op. 9, 
 No. 2. This consists of a gentle melody and a delicate accompaniment 
 of chords. It is extremely unpretending, yet it is one of the most 
 perfect gems in this department of composition. (Plays.) 
 
 Here, in the 4th nocturne, he avails himself of a stronger contrast. 
 (Plays nocturne in F, op. 15, No. 1.) 
 
 Another of the singing nocturnes of Chopin is that in B maj., op. 
 32, No. 1. (Plays.) 
 
 In the 13th nocturne there is a deeper meaning. It tells of greater 
 depths of passion, and has stronger contrasts than those already 
 heard. (Plays the nocturne in C minor, op. 48, No. 1.) 
 
 Two of the most admired of these works are those in G, op. 37. 
 No. 1 in G minor is an elegy full of sadness and longing. It is relieved 
 by an episode of pure uninverted triads, like a church piece. In 
 this we have portrayed a deep and spiritual peace. (Plays.) 
 
 The second one, in G maj., is of a much more genial and cheer- 
 ful character, delicate and tender. Owing to the preponderance of 
 thirds and sixths it is extremely difficult to play well. (Plays.) 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. Nocturne in Bb, Field. 
 
 3. Nocturne in D, No. 13, Field. 
 
 3. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 6 and 18 of Songs without Words, Mendelssohn. 
 
 4. Nocturne in E6, op. 9, Chopin. 
 
 5. Nocturne in F, op. 15, Chopin. 
 
 6. Nocturnes in B, op. 32; C min., op. 48; and G, op. 37, Chopin.
 
 THE HUMORISTIC AND THE PASSIONATE. 113 
 
 LESSON THIRTY -THIKD. 
 
 THE HUMORISTIC AND THE PASSIONATE. 
 
 By the name Humor tlie Germans denote caprices, whims, moods, 
 chano^e : and not the ludicrous, as in later Eno-Hsh usaije. Tliere is one 
 side of the modern romantic school which can be appropriately named 
 by no other term than humoristic. This is nearly tlie same as whim- 
 sical, the difference being that the latter term has acquired an objection- 
 able meaning', like the "foolishly humoristic" or the "unreasonably 
 humoristic." This element of musical expression frequently exceeds 
 the bounds of beauty, and is indeed allied to realism, since realism in 
 music is in fact nothing but musical expression made subservient to a 
 strictly literal representation of natural sounds or common-place sen- 
 sations. Humor in music frequently approaches the grotesque. • The 
 great exponent of this school is Schumann, whose fancy ran wild in 
 every direction, and only in exceptional cases controlled itself accord- 
 inor to the moderate and decorous. 
 
 Here, for example, are three little pieces from the Kinderscenen. 
 (Plays successively, "From Strange Lands," "A Curious Story," and 
 "Playing Tag," the first three pieces in the "Scenes from Childhood.") 
 These little pieces, as you observe, are entirely unlike each other, and 
 each one is complete in itself. Tiie first a graceful little melody. The 
 second a bright and rather sprightly and forcible little piece in march 
 time. The third a sort of presto with very strong accents. It would 
 be a very superior sort of clairvoyance in any one who should be able 
 to guess the names of these pieces from hearing them played. Yet the 
 names give a very decided assistance toward divining the author's 
 meaning. Observe now the following: (Plays No. 5, "Happy Enough," 
 No. 7, "Traumerei," and "Frightening," No. li.) Among larger 
 pieces of the humoristic type are to be mentioned the Schumann Plian- 
 tasiestiicke, op. 12. Tt is of the first of these that Franz Brendel re- 
 marks: "It brings us blessed enjoyment, vernal airs, and flowery sa- 
 vors." (Plays "In the Evening.") This dreamy nocturne is followed 
 by a powerfully excited piece called '■'■Aufschwung,'''' "Soaring," a name 
 intended to convey the idea of such a mental state as one falls into in 
 8
 
 ]U 
 
 now TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 wakeful hours of night, especially after taking too strong tea, or a light 
 opiate. Then the brain is preternaturally active, nothing seems im- 
 possible; the most brilliant conceptions throng the mind, one visits 
 strange lands, rises into unknown regions, solves impossible problems. 
 The sober light of day dissolves all these visions, but while they last 
 the\; carry the bewildered visionary captive at their will. Such a piece 
 is this: (Plays "Soaring.") Tlien follows a sort of musical conundrum, 
 " TFarwm," "Why." It consists of a single motive many times slowlv 
 repeated, accompanied by a restless accompaniment of chords entering 
 on the half-beat. (Plays VTcirian.) Then follows yet a different strain, 
 called "Whims," of which we need no further explanation than the 
 title. (Plays Grilles.) 
 
 In all these pieces we ]:)lainly see that the beautiful, as such, is not 
 sought by the composer. They afford neither the sensuous charm of 
 delicately-balanced phrases, sweetly-modulating chords, or any other 
 mere gratification of a love for the well-sounding. Quite as little do 
 they afford satisfaction in contemplation. Formal beauty they do not 
 possess. Their distinctive merits are two: First, their coherence as 
 music. Here comes along anew composer, Schumann, a hundred years 
 later than Bach, and develops musical ideas in ways that are musically 
 right and proper, and yet new. And, second, these humoristic pieces 
 carry us along with them, move us, excite us, as the Bach pieces do 
 not. You may pronounce them unbeautiful if you please, but they are 
 musically right and genuinely expressive. 
 
 There is also a darker side of the picture. Observe now this: 
 (Plays Schumann's "In the Night.") It is of this piece that Franz Bren- 
 del says: " It is a powerful night-piece, hobgoblin-filled, awful pictures, 
 anxious waking-dreams; a state of soul the opposite of the 'Evening' 
 formerly mentioned." This vein is not uncommon in Schumann, es- 
 peciallv in his later years. It also appears in Chopin as the first part 
 of the first movement of the sonata in B flat minor, op. 35, and in many 
 other places. So also many of the Beethoven pieces must have sounded 
 in this vein when they were new, before the listener's ears had be- 
 come accustomed to the rapid modulations of these pieces and their 
 restlessness. This spirit is also to be met with in Bach, as in the great 
 organ prelude in A minor, and in many other pieces. This prelude, 
 for example, seems to aim at representing a tossed and troubled spirit, 
 like the waves of the sea. Neither the tuneful as such, nor still less 
 the reposeful, could have been intended. They cannot be called beau- 
 tiful since they are neither pleasing to hear, satisfactory to continually 
 meditate upon, nor inspiring except as they widen the range of musical
 
 THE FANCIFUL AND PLEASING. 11,5 
 
 expression and serve for contrast, thereby heightening' the beauty of 
 other movements with whicli they are associated. Tliis use, liowever, 
 was not intended either by Bach or Schumann. The former wrote them 
 for the purpose of expressing himself in this direction, which he saw to 
 be legitimate and possible; Schumann, to satisfy his musical instincts 
 in the same way, and also to gratify morbid moods. 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. Schumann's Kinderscenen (Scenes from Childhood) op. 15. Nos 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, IL 
 3. Schumann's " In the Evening," No. 1 in op. 12. 
 
 3. AvfscJiwung, or " Soaring," No. 2 in the same. 
 
 4. TTarwrn, " Why ?" the same. 
 
 5. Grillen, " Whims," from the same. 
 
 6. " In the Night," No. 5 in the same. 
 
 7. First part of Allegro in Chopin Sonata, op. 35, 
 
 8. Great Organ Prelude in A minor. ("V ol. II. Bach's Organ Works, Peters' Ed.) 
 
 LESSON THIRTY-FOURTH. 
 
 THE FANCIFUL AND PLEASING. 
 
 Pieces of this class represent the lighter sentiments of social life, 
 especially of polite society. We find in them symmetrical and grace- 
 ful forms, permeated by a bright and pleasing spirit. They are re- 
 fined and true, but they do not express the heroic or despairing 
 moments of the soul. In consequence of their representing so com- 
 pletely the spirit of social life, they are eminently suitable for parlor 
 performance. ■ Observe this elegant waltz. (Plays Chopin's waltz in A 
 flat, op. 34, No. 1.) This is the very spirit of the world and of society. 
 Another example of the same kind is Rubinstein's Valse Caprice in 
 E flat. (Plays.) Still another, and a famous one, too, is "Weber's 
 " Invitation to the Dance." (Plays.) This latter is more perfectly ideal- 
 ized than either of the preceding. The introduction is moderate and 
 meditative, as if undecided whether to dance or not. Fanciful people 
 have imagined that they saw in it the advance of the gentleman and 
 his address to the lady, her acceptance, their quiet and fragmentary 
 talk in the moment before the dance actually begins. Then the dance 
 itself. At the close he re-conducts the lady gracefully to her seat, in 
 the fiirure of the introduction.
 
 116 
 
 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 Another example of similar spirit is the elegant Chopin Rondo in 
 E flat, op. 16, which, though long and difficult, is conceived in the spirit 
 of play, and represents the .light and worldly side of feeling, yet with true 
 refinement and earnestness. (Plays.) Were we to go further in this 
 field we might bring forward the elegant Scherzo in B flat minor, op. 
 31, a very beautiful and poetic piece, which contains, perhaps, rather 
 more of meaning than this list properly includes. 
 
 This field is practically illimitable. It includes all the lighter 
 works of the greatest composers, except Schumann, who has left nothing 
 properly belonging to it, and almost the entire production of very 
 many smaller writers, such as Schulhoflf, Jaell,Hunten, Leybach, Gotts- 
 chalk, etc., etc. 
 
 Pieces of this class should be elegantly written and agreeably 
 sounding. In the nature of the case they are perfectly easy to under- 
 stand, for which reason we do not dwell upon them, but content our- 
 selves with simply calling attention to them. 
 
 List of iLLUSXRAXioifs. 
 
 1. Chopin's Valse in A flat, op. 34, No. 2. 
 
 2. Rubinstein's Valse Caprice in E flat. 
 
 3. Weber's Invitation to tlie Dance. 
 
 4. Chopin's Introduction and Rondo in E flat, op. 16. 
 
 5. Chopin's Scherzo in Bflat minor, op. 31. 
 G. Mill's 1st Tarantelle. 
 
 7. Rafl^s Valse Impromptu in B flat, op. 94. 
 
 LESSON THIRTY - FIFTH. 
 
 THE SENSATIONAL AND THE ASTONISHING. 
 
 In ordinary English usage, the term Romantic implies something 
 " striking," " characterized by strong contrasts," " sensational," etc. 
 Our studies thus far in this school of music are sufficient to show us the 
 propriety of its name. In the previous lessons we have, indeed, come 
 ujDon only the more reasonable and justifiable features of the romantic, 
 in which the beautiful in some sense is the supreme object. Recent 
 music, however, and particularly pianoforte music, contains many pro- 
 ductions in which the sensational and the astonishing are the ends 
 sought. Of this kind are concert pieces in general, especially the
 
 THE SENSATIONAL AND THE ASTONISHING. II7 
 
 earlier works of Liszt, and most of the productions of other virtuoso 
 l)layers. Such, also, are very many orchestral works, especially some 
 of Berlioz, Saint-Saens, Wagner's " Ride of the Valkyrie," etc. 
 
 In making the sensational their object, all of these exceed the 
 bounds of the beautiful, and are of real use in art only in so far as they 
 break new paths of technical accomplishment, and thereby provide 
 means of expression which ma}- afterwards be employed in artistic 
 creation. In this way all great virtuosi have illustrated the capacity of 
 their instruments, and in their works have provided useful studies for 
 the mastery of j^eculiar difficulties. Of this kind, for examj^le, are the 
 Caprices of Paganini, which, while containing many musical and beauti- 
 ful passages, are in general rather extravagant, and almost entirely 
 wanting in symmetry and repose. They reseml^le tropical vegetation 
 where in a humid soil and a dank atmos2:)here the most extravagant and 
 fantastic growths are seen, luxuriant and beautiful in abounding 
 vitality, yet oppressive to the senses. 
 
 In all these productions, moreover, there is a certain charm wliicli 
 recommends them to the player. It is not unlike what Ruskin calls 
 " vital beauty, or the appearance of felicitous fullillment of function in 
 living creatures;" in other words, their remarkable adaptation to the 
 instrument for which they were composed. The study of them has 
 particular value in affording a free and dashing mode of playing. 
 
 The sensational in piano music dates from the discovery of the 
 diminished seventh and its chromatic susceptibility. Thus in many of 
 the earlier Liszt joieces there are passages which are neither pretty nor 
 expressive, but which are merely noise. This kind we have illustrated 
 in the " Lucia," for instance, and in the Rigoletto chromatic cadenza, 
 described in Lesson XIX, 
 
 Another example is found in the cadenza near the close in Raff's 
 Polka de la Reine. (Plays cadenza of diminished sevenths in the bass, 
 and the ascending passages belonging to them; afterwards the entire 
 piece.) 
 
 Of this kind are the cadenzas in the Chopin concerto, referred to 
 in Lesson XIX. (Play if convenient.) In the Liszt concerto in E 
 flat, we have many examples of this kind of work, put together much 
 more loosely. (Play, if convenient.) 
 
 It cannot be denied that there is somethins: satisfactorv in the 
 way in which these effects are planned. Thus in Liszt's "Rigoletto'* 
 fantasia we have opening passages which although l)rilliant and pleas- 
 ing are not very difficult. Then follows the pretty melody, and. after 
 the striking secpience of chromatic modulations, the cadenza already
 
 118 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 described comes in. The work then resumes the melody pianissitno, 
 with very delicate and pretty runs, rising occasionally to ^fortissimo. 
 Still the general build of these three pages is the jncoiissi mo. At the close 
 of this pai't there is a cadenza which is of extremely simple construc- 
 tion, but when well done is even more showy than that at the e>jd of the 
 first part. This, in turn, is followed by the octave finale, at first softly, 
 but at the close working up to a brilliant and astonishing effect. The 
 success of the piece lies in the care with which the brilliant passages 
 are preceded with those of a soft and pleasing character, and this must 
 be observed by the performer who expects to make a success with it. 
 
 This reserve — these long passages of really musical writing leading 
 to astonishing and sensational passages, are the saving elements in 
 bravoura pieces. The Liszt concerto is an extremely fragmentary 
 work. It is written on a plan, and very cleverly too; but its primary 
 elements are few, and it entirely lacks the artistic coherence and re- 
 pose of such work as that in Chopin's concerto in E minor or in F 
 minor. All of the Liszt bravoura pieces are written on the same plan, 
 the climaxes being of occasional occurrence and carefully foreseen. 
 Thus the well-known "Tannhauser March" opens brilliantly with 
 the trumpet call, but presently subsides into a very reasonable and 
 agreeably sustained presentation of the chorus. Gradually, however, 
 the movement becomes more and more elaborate, and at last reaches 
 an imposing effect. 
 
 All this modern virtuoso bravoura rests upon the idea of astonish- 
 ing by mere sensation, and therein stands upon a lower plane than the 
 cadenza formations of the older musicians. Bach, Handel, Beethoven 
 and Mendelssohn, all were great performers who could entertain the 
 most cultivated audiences by their masterly improvisations. But in 
 their cadenzas they made their effect by the musicianship with which 
 they elaborated and handled their themes, and not with any merely 
 vulgar scrambling about the keyboard in apparently impossible pas- 
 sages. 
 
 Nevertheless the ways of Nature are not so crude after all; for 
 every creature has its natural enemy which acts as a check upon its 
 undue multiplication. So here, this sensationalism finally reaches 
 bounds. Such a passage of sevenths as that of Raff''s, already referred 
 to, is the limit. This is mere noise, and just as bad and astonishing 
 as any other hideous succession of chords played fortissimo on the bass 
 of the pianofortet So, also, Liszt in one piece and another covered the 
 ^possibilities of radically diff'erent passages which would at the same 
 time be playable, and therein effective. Hence in the later period
 
 THE SENSATIONAL AND THE ASTONISHING. JI9 
 
 of his creative activity he gave over the piano as a hravoura instru- 
 ment, and applied his powers to the reproduction of pieces of every 
 kirld npon it, which had hitherto hecn supposed impossible. And in 
 tliese, although a great technique and abounding courage are presup- 
 posed for the player, the emphasis is put on musical declamation and 
 the imitation of orchestral effects, or at least their substitution In- 
 pianoforte equivalents (as in engraving such and such lines represent 
 one color, and such and such another, though all in tlie engraving are 
 in black and white). In this, wliile he by no means rises into the plane 
 of original creation, he certainly entitles himself to respect by employ- 
 ing his powers for worthy uses. Three remarkable examples of this 
 kind are afforded by Liszt's transcriptions of the Wagner "Spinnlied,"' 
 "Isolde's Liebes Tod," and "Lohengrin's Verweis an Elsa." Another 
 fine example is in Billow's excessively difficult transcription of Wag- 
 ner's "Faust Overture." These observations hold true of other vir- 
 tuoso work since Liszt, such as the concert pieces of Tausig, Saint- 
 Saens, etc. 
 
 It should be said of these experiments in the sensational tliat, like 
 most of the prominent features of the romantic school, they have found 
 their inciting cause in poetry, or the effort to represent by means of 
 music something which, ])roperly speaking, is neither in :nusic nor in 
 any strict and proper sense representable by it. This has already been 
 suggested in the lesson on descriptive music, and comes more plainly 
 in review in the next following discussion of Songs. 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. Li?zl's"Rigoletto." 
 
 2. Raff's " Polkii de Ic Reiuc/ 
 
 3. Chopin Coucorto in E minor, op. 11. 
 
 4. Liszt's Concerto in E flat. 
 
 .■). Liszt's "Tannbauser March."
 
 Paet Seyentii. 
 
 STUDIES IN SONG. 
 
 LESSON THIRTY-SIX. 
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF POETRY UPON MUSIC. 
 
 Modern music owes its development to the co-working of three in- 
 fluences. The first of these is tlie better comprehension of tlie nature 
 of music itself; the true relations of tonality, harmonic progressions, 
 melody, and form to each other; and the logical metliods of handling 
 musical ideas merely as music, and aside from a definitely chosen 
 emotional content seeking expression through them. The sedond 
 operative force is the general progress in art concejotion, and especially 
 the overmastering desire of the Romantic for a natural and valid means 
 of expressing feeling, merely as such, and uncolored with conscious 
 thought. The third of tliese forces is the influence of jioetry upon 
 music, and especially of the desire to express, by means of music, ideas 
 not properly belonging to it, but suggested to it by poetry. 
 
 These three have operated simultaneously throughout the history 
 of music. Yet it may be truly said that the first of them came soonest 
 to expression; and this very naturally. For in the earliest times, when 
 the development of nnisic began, its relation to the other arts was not 
 understood; indeed the meaning of art in general has only lately begun 
 to be fathomed. So the musician worked b}' himself as a musician, 
 seeking to comprehend the mysteries of this new form of art, and to 
 reproduce his thoughts in it. Outside influences were not wanting 
 here, particularly that of the church. On the whole, as ali-eady suggested 
 in Chapter XXIil, the influence of religion has been of the highest 
 advantage to art by raising and purifying its ideal. But Religion is 
 one thing, and the Church sometimes anotlier. And so while Religion 
 has always performed this service to art, and lias further extended her 
 
 120
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF ruETKY LPU.N .M I Sic. i;)i 
 
 inspiration to nuisic in particular, in the ft)nn of sublime hymns and 
 canticles wliic-h become truly complete in the liturgv only when music's 
 voice has modulated and shaped the hallowed utterance, the influence 
 of" the Church has sometimes tended in the direction of mere con- 
 ventionality. They have it for a proverb in Germany, that when a 
 composer has written all his original ideas, he can then compose onlv 
 cluircii music. And so the truly original musicians in every generation 
 have developed and matured their talents in purely secular fields, and 
 onlv in old age have brought a single wreath (often of flowers lunv 
 precious! and gathered in fields, how far away ! ) and laid it with pal- 
 sied but reverent hand upon the altar. So did Bach in his Passion 
 Music and his* one Mass; so also did Handel with his immortal "Mes- 
 siah," a work in which we hear not the feeble and uncertain accents of 
 age, but the sweet songs of hope anil trust, as if the old comijoser had 
 tasted before time the fountain of eternal yovith, or that, like the servant 
 of the prophet, his eyes had been opened so that he saw the mountains 
 full of the chariots of the Lord. So was it with Mozart in his Requiem; 
 and Beethoven with his colossal Mass in D minor. But as a rule, all 
 the composers, who gave coherence and shape t(j music, arrived at their 
 results by working in purely secular fields, where the swift-coming 
 fancies might all find legitimate utterance. In particular the com- 
 posers who wrote music, as music merely, were Bach, Ilaydn, and 
 Beethoven; and, since them, Schumann and Chopin, though the latter is 
 rather to be counted for a worker in one particular ])rovin('e of music, 
 the pianoforte, than in the whole field of absolute and independent 
 music. 
 
 The influence of the second of these operative forces has been 
 silent and unconscious, as indeed, inspiration generally is. There has 
 never been an authoritative declaration of the mc^aning of art, least of 
 all by artists. Each man has builded, moulded, painted, sung oi' pro- 
 phesied as the inner force' imi^elled him. His life has gone into his 
 works. "When death overtook him he dropped his workman's tools, 
 and sank unconscious into the bosom of mother earth. Sometimes, 
 his very friends have not taken the trouble to count and reckon up his 
 effects, and only the tardy justice of posterity has been i\h\c to gather 
 up the precious tokens and place them in the pantlieon of ail. So 
 was it with Bach, and Schubert; and so almost with Schumann and 
 Berlioz. 
 
 Yet in one way this force has operated upon musical development, 
 and that in great power; namely, in the extinction of other forms of 
 art, leavino- almost the wiiole idealitv of several generations to seek e.\-
 
 122 now TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 pression through music. This comes out plainly enough in the dates. 
 Michael Angelo and Raj^hael were nearly two hundred years before 
 Bach and Handel. Dante was two centuries earlier still. Shakespeare 
 was a hundred years earlier than Bach. Thus Bach, Handel and 
 Beethoven had the stage to themselves for a century, during which 
 there was no absolutely great master in any other form of art. In this 
 way the world gained leisure to attend to music ; and so it has been 
 since, for during the last century there has never been a genius of the 
 highest order outside of music. Thus, what music could do, as music, 
 we must learn for the most part in the works of Bach, Haydn, Mozart, 
 Beethoven, and Schumann. And in the very same works, also, we 
 must measure its value as a form of art and an expression of the ideal. 
 And this has been our labor in these studies hitherto. We now come 
 to the point where we must enter upon the historical and practical 
 study of the relation of music to poetry, and of the manner and extent 
 of the action of j^oetry upon it. The subject is a very large one, and 
 for full handling takes us over wide lapses of time and a considerable 
 range of topics. In general, however, we shall obtain a fair idea of 
 the course of this development if we attend carefully to the observa- 
 tions followino-. 
 
 In the vmion of poetry and music, both sides have to make im- 
 portant concessions. These are of so seinous and so vital a character 
 that, speaking in a broad sense, we might say that both poetry and 
 music must needs sacrifice their most eminent qualities, as poetry and 
 music respectively, in order to successfully unite themselves in the 
 complex utterance of song. We arc alread3^, to some extent, pre- 
 pared to understand this, by our studies in Chapter XXY. For, as we 
 there saw, the distinctive excellencies of Poetry are its sense-pictures, 
 and its power of awakening emotion by contrasts and collisions of 
 persons, respectively living and acting out the opposing principles be- 
 tween which the collision takes place. The highest jDoetry, while 
 always in sense-forms, is peculiarly and pre-eminently intensified by 
 thouo-ht. 
 
 The first and perhaps chief difficulty Poetry has to contend with 
 ifi uniting with music, is the long time consumed by musical utterance, 
 a time from two to six times greater than speech, — and, it may be 
 added, constantly increasing in the later composers, as we see, for ex- 
 ample, in Max Bruch's Lay of the Bell, etc. Almost any poetical pic- 
 ture or scene runs through four lines, and sometimes through ten or 
 twenty, but as all tiiese lines do something towards completing the 
 picture, they must all be retained in tlie mind at the same time. Ordi-
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF POETRY UPON MUSIC. 103 
 
 nary reading passes so quickly as to permit the mind to do this with- 
 out difficulty. But when tliis time is spun out too long, and especially 
 when the unity of the description has been destroyed by the inception 
 and completion of several musical periods to one period of words, the 
 pictorial quality of the poetry is lost in the song. In like manner, the 
 very form of musical utterance is fatal to the intelligible expression of 
 any kind of reasoning, or deduction of eoni'luslons from premises. 
 Not even Beethoven would be able to set to music successfully such a 
 passage as Portia's Plea for Mercy, in "The Merchant of Venice.'* 
 Music, as we well know, is the expression of feeling; when poetry be- 
 comes directly expressive of emotion it becomes musical — provided 
 only that its feeling is not outside of or contrary to music. Thus 
 when hate, revenge, or remorse are the feelings seeking expression in 
 the words, music can do nothing to aid them, for they are in their 
 essence contrary to music, and if at all representable in sounds, repre- 
 sentable only in harsh and hideous discords. Yet even this rano-e 
 must not be denied the opera; we can only limit its recourse to such 
 extravagant measures, to its moments of brief and insuperable necessity, 
 to bo atoned for by many a bar of tuneful penance. Hence we may 
 say in general that, in order to adapt itself to musical expression, 
 Poetry must forego its reason, its long-spun descriptive passages, and, 
 to a certain extent, its coherence. Its pictures must become mere 
 outlines, such as a couple of phrases will compass; its thought sharp, 
 incisive, terse, and never of an abstract character. And it is onlv 
 when it speaks directly the language of the heart, that musical utter- 
 ance becomes indispensable to its completeness. K. true lyric requires 
 music to fully express it. Of such sort are all true hymns, such as the 
 "Gloria," the "Te Deum," the "Venite," "Jubilate."' These without 
 the voice of song are but birds or ano-els without vring;s. 
 
 On the other hand. Music has much to lose in a direct union 
 with poetry. She, also, must part with her coherence in long forms. 
 Such closely knit and legitimately developed musical creations as the 
 great organ fugues of Bach, and the sonatas or symphonies of Bee- 
 thoven- are entirely foreign to the spirit of song. Here first music has to 
 consider the compass and pitch of the voice, and its eifectiveness in 
 different registers. One recalls here the remark of the teacher, him- 
 self a distinguished composer, who, when a pupil brought him an an- 
 them in which the tenor had the words "Praise the Lord" on G below 
 middle C, crossed out the passage with the remark, "The tenor am 
 not ' praise the Lord' below middle C," alluding, of course, to the non- 
 effectiveness of the tenor voice at so low a pitch. So, also, music
 
 Vii 
 
 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 must provide the singer with opportunities for breatliing, and inter- 
 ludes for rest after trying passages. Slie must not forget to 
 confine herself within a practicable range of keys, for singers sing on 
 melodic principles, and no singer sings or thinks a full score. These, 
 with many other such like restrictions, inhere in the very nature of song, 
 and hamper the musical composer extremely. The old proverb says 
 that "necessity is the mother of invention"; so here the necessity of 
 finding compromises or mutual concessions between music and poetry 
 has at length led to several well defined types of song, which differ 
 from each other in the manner and nature of the concessions made. 
 These are (1) Simple Ballad, (2) The Recitative, (3) The Aria and 
 Scena, (4) The German Thoroughly Composed Song, (5) The Arioso, 
 and (G) the union of them all in The Oratorio and Opera. 
 
 In all these modes of union there are, however, certain prin- 
 ciples that remain constant and must not be violated. These are the 
 correct accentuation and emphasis of the Avords, according to the sense, 
 and the correspondence of the music to the poetry in respect to feel- 
 ino^. All forms of sono- must observe these conditions. To this extent, 
 at least, poetry is dominant. Besides, the musical phrasing must be 
 made to correspond with the grammatical and declamatory necessities 
 of the text, and this in all forms of vocal pieces. Besides these, there 
 are important variations in style, resulting from the greater or less at- 
 tention paid to the convenience of the voice. Thus Italian songs, in 
 general, are carefully planned so as to suit the voice, and to require ef- 
 fect only at ranges of pitch in which effect is possible. Moreover, this 
 entire school indul2:es itself less with chromatic and difficult modula- 
 tions, and in general is mucli less elaborate, as music merely, than the 
 German sonars. The Italians consider the voice the main thinsf in 
 sinjT-ino-: the Germans the idea. In thus rano-insr themselves under 
 ojiposite principles, both parties fall short of their goal. The German 
 ruins his song for actual delivery, by placing it badly for the voice. 
 This appears continually iu Bach, and Schumann, and frequently in 
 other writers. The Italian's method of work, on the other hand, pro- 
 duces a composition in which the voice makes an agreeable effect; so 
 that these works are cherished all the world over, as the most conveni- 
 ent show-pieces for singers. Nevertheless he works within so narrow 
 musical limits as seriously to impair the value of his pieces from the 
 musical side. And in general it is not too much to say that even the 
 best Italian music sounds thin and unsatisfactory when compared with 
 the best German music; while the common run of Italian work is thin 
 indeed.
 
 THE SIMPLE 15AI.LAD. 125 
 
 Yet, after all, tlio Italian certainly has the advantage in the matter 
 of taste, and we find in the productions of such writers as liossini, Bel- 
 lini, Donizetti and Mercadante, as well as in the simple canteleni of 
 less noted composers, a grace and elegance of style which, since Gliick 
 and Mozart, is no longer to be found in German sontr. 
 
 LESSON THIRTY -SEVENTH. 
 
 THE SIMPLE BALLAD. 
 
 The nearest example of the union of poetry and music is afforded 
 by the simple ballad. Musically considered it consists of a symmetri- 
 cally balanced and pleasing melody, of a quiet character, with words 
 easily enjoyed by the common people. In this form of composition the 
 •melody is of the foremost importance, and in very many cases was first 
 composed, and the words afterwards written to fit. As a rule, l)()tli 
 words and music are pleasing, quiet, popular, and l)ut a shade removed 
 fi'om the commonplace. Examples of this class are i^ractically innu- 
 merable. We may begin with almost any specimen. Let it be Dr. 
 Geo. F. Root's "Brooklet," from the "Curriculum." (T'laj^s and sings.) 
 Another examjDle is "Joys that we've tasted," adapted to an Irish 
 inelody. (Plays and sings.) Other examples are the two by Mr. Root 
 so popular many years ago, " The Hazel Dell" and "Ro^salie, the 
 Prairie Flower." (Sings "Hazel Dell.") This class also includes manv 
 songs of a sad and mournful temperament (as well as manv sadly poor 
 ones), such as "Pass Under the Rod," Mr. Root's "Vacant Chair," 
 Miss Linsay's " Resignation," etc. 
 
 Of the same kind is Claribel's "O many a time I am sad at heart." 
 (Sings.) The life of this song is mainly in its words. This was not so 
 much the case in the earlier American sono-s of the same class, as is 
 shown by the continual popularity of the music in cotillons, quadrilles, 
 etc., after the words have been forgotten. This was also the case with 
 Mr. Stephen C. Foster's "Uncle Ned" and " Massa's in the Cold, Cold 
 Ground," "Old Folks at Home," etc. In all of these the distinsruishino- 
 feature was the asfreeable and easilv-remembered melody. Another 
 example, depending partly on its words and partly on its music for a 
 deserved popularity is Claribel's "Five o'clock in the Morning." 
 (Sings.) In this the music takes a wider rauge of harmonies than in
 
 136 
 
 now TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 any of the American examples referred to. In Claribel's "Come Back 
 to Erin" we have a still more unmistakable example of a purely musical 
 interest and that mainlv in the melodv. This melodv has been sunc: 
 and played, varied and arranged, all over the English-speaking world. 
 (Sings.) 
 
 The apparent depth and meaning of these songs are very much in- 
 creased when the words are deliberately and clearly spoken, and the mel- 
 ody delivered with artistic emphasis. An example of this was afforded 
 bv Nillsen's singrinar of "Old Folks at Home" in her American concerts, 
 and in the practice of ihe popular singers in London, as well as Mme. 
 Parepa-Rosa's "Five oVlock in the Morning," etc. Such a delivery 
 would lend dignity and worth to any air, however empty. Tt is there- 
 suit of thorough control of the voice and extended experience in the 
 deliverv of evorv kind of sono-. 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. The Brooklet, l)y Dr. Geo. F. Root, " Curriculum. 
 
 2. Joys thiit We've Tabled. 
 
 n. Hazel Dell. Dr. Geo. F. Rof)t. 
 
 4. Pass under the Rod. 
 
 5. The Vacant Chair. Root. 
 
 6. Resignation. Miss Linsaj-. 
 
 7. O Many a Time I am S:ul at Heart. Claribel. 
 
 8. Five o'clock in the Morning. Claribel. 
 
 9. Come Back to Erin. Claribel. 
 
 LESSON THIRTY- EIGHTH. 
 
 RECITATIVE. 
 
 Our second type of song is one in which, cleaily, the text receives 
 primary consideration. By Recitative is meant a form of song to which 
 the text is set to musical pitch and cadence, but not to a definite speed, 
 rhythm, or in lyrically-adjusted phrases. In this form of song it is the 
 sole task of the music to afford an impressive and suitable delivery of 
 the words. In plain recitative the accompaniment consists only of sim- 
 ple chords. Of all writers, Handel was at times particularly fortunate 
 in his recitatives, and nowhere more so than in the " Messiah." Observe 
 the dignity of the following: (Plays and sings the recitative " Behold a
 
 RECITATIVE. I07 
 
 virgin sliall conceive," from "Messiah.") And this: (Plays and sings 
 "Then shall the eyes of the blind be opened," also from the "Mes- 
 siah.") 
 
 This form of song admits of great pathos. Handel affords a great 
 example in the tenor recitative " Thy rebuke hath broken his heart." 
 (Sings it.) In this the melodic cadences are extremely clever, and 
 will be tlie subject of remark presently. Measured recitative differs 
 from the plain, in having a measured accompaniment, and hence in re- 
 quiring of the voice at least an approximate adherance to the measure. 
 In one instance Handel has contrasted these two methods witli fine 
 effect. Thus in the " Messiah" we find the plain recitative " There were 
 shepherds abiding in tlie field." This is followed by a measured 
 recitative to the words "Andlo! the angel of the Lord came upon 
 them." And this, again, by the j^lain recitative "And the angel 
 said unto them." And this, again, bv the measured recitative "And 
 suddenly there was with the angel." (Sings the two measured recita- 
 tives first, and afterward the four in succession.) One of the most 
 beautiful examples of measured recitative is found in the opening num- 
 ber of the " Messiah," "Comfort ye, my people." (Sings.) 
 
 In all these examples the music is determined in the effort to fur- 
 nish suitable expression to the words. To recur to an example already 
 given, consider " Thy rebuke hath broken his heart." The very fiist 
 upward inflection on the word "rebuke," and the downward swee]) of 
 the octave in "hath broken liis heart," are extremely impressive. So, 
 again, when the words come " but there was no man," the emphasis 
 falls on the last word; but when the same words are repeated the 
 emphasis falls on " was." 
 
 In many instances the phrases of recitative are interspersed or in- 
 tercalated between descriptive phases of the accompaniment. Of this 
 we have many examples in Haydn's "Creation." So we have it in 
 Raphael's "Now furious storms tempestuous rage," which is preceded 
 by the storm in the orchestra. And so successive! v are set "As chair 
 by the winds are impelled the clouds," "By heaven's fire the sky 
 is inflamed," "And awful thunders are rolling on high," etc. This 
 ])lan of structure suggests the Apostolic practice of afterward inter- 
 preting the prophecies just delivered in unknown tongues. In the 
 same way is treated "In splendor bright." (Sings.) 
 
 Perhaps the most insignificant form of recitative is that where tlie 
 voice recites on a monotone while the orchestra pursues a measured 
 melody. In this case, of course, the text is little if at all considered. 
 A convenient example of tliis is afforded by a passage in Anibi'oise
 
 1-28 
 
 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 Thomas's well-known song from " Mignon," " Know'st thou the land," 
 where a difficult and unmusical part of the text is treated in this 
 way. Here, indeed, it is managed with real art, since it but serves 
 to intensify the climax that follows. (Sings Mignon's song.) The 
 musical structure of recitative is necessarily coherent, else it could 
 not bo sung. But it does not return upon itself in lyrically-arranged 
 phrases. 
 
 List of Illustuatioxs. 
 
 1. "Behold !i vh'giu ^luill conceive." No. 7 of Handel's " Messiah." 
 
 2. "Tlicn shall the eyes of the blind be openeil." No. 17, the same, 
 o. "Thy rebuke hath broken his heart." No. 27, the .same. 
 
 4. "There were shepherds abiding in the field." No. 14. 
 
 5. " Comfort ye, my people." No. 1, the same. 
 
 (). "And God made the firmament." No. 4, "Creation." 
 
 7. "In splendor bright." No. 13, " Creation." 
 
 8. Mignon's song from the Opera of" Mignon," by Ambroise Thomas. 
 
 LESSON THIRTY-NINE. 
 
 THE ARIA AND SUENA. 
 
 The aria is a regularly developed musical form. Its text is usu- 
 ally meagre. In the older works it consists of l)uta single couplet, or 
 at most of but tw(^ or three. The music seizes the emotional content of 
 the text, and repeats it over and over, builds out of it, intensifies it in 
 many wavs. Examples are innumerable. Let us begin with Bach's 
 "My heart ever faithful." (Sings.) In this we have, first and foi'emost, 
 good music. And this also is elaborated out of very few motives. 
 The first phrase returns with the persistence of a rondo. In tlie in- 
 termediate couplets, which serve for episodes, the words are l)roken in 
 two, the syllables separated, and elocutionary ])i'oprieties violated 
 with impunity. Yet it is an extremely enjoyable piece of music. In 
 this case we see plainlv that niusic has o-iven up little of its own. 
 
 Of the same kind is Handel's "Oh had I Jubal's lyre," except that 
 he.-e there is an evident ])leasure in providing agreeable passages for the 
 voice, which, however, are in very good keeping v/ith the emotional 
 stand-point of the song. (Sings.) In other cases the text is treated 
 more seriously, as in Handel's "He shall feed his flock," and "How 
 Ix^autiful are the feet." (Sings.) In both these, as indeed in tlic pre-
 
 THE ARTA AND SCENA. 12? 
 
 vious examples, we have eonsisteiiLly developed musical creations, 
 which in ])Oiiit of I'orni are the same as the gavottes, sarabands, etc. 
 of the ancient binary oi'dei'. In respect to musical devidopmcnt they 
 ])artake somewhat ol' the spirit of tlie thematic, sinc(> the; leading 
 motives are often repeated, transformed, presented with various har- 
 monies, modulated into new keys, etc., in a manner \-erv dilfi'i-ent 
 from what we find in the simple ballad. 
 
 The aria is also capable of being applied to descriptive purposes. 
 Of this we have two very pretty examples in Haydn's "Creation," in 
 the well-known soprano songs "With verdure clad," and "On mighty 
 pens." (Sings, ]>oth, if convenient.) The descriptive; part, it will ])e 
 <)])served, is in the accompaniment rather than in the vocal ])hrases. 
 
 Mozart imparted to the aria the simplicity and grace of the pe(> 
 ple's song, and at the same time contrived for the most part to remain 
 true to the spirit of his text. Some of these songs are of the most ex- 
 (piisite character, as for example, " T^ec^rt^i Carlno'''' and'^'-Jidtti, 7>(YWtV' 
 sung by Zerlina in "Don Giovanni." (^f the same kind is the tenor 
 ai'ia '■''Ilinio tesoro^' in that opera,. Another one of tiie same sort is 
 '■'■Poryt (0)101%'''' in Mozart's "Figaro." Tn ^'■Dove Hon.o^'' of the same 
 opera, we have a more varied treatment. An (Khh/io^ first })art, 
 changes to an allegro^ closing part. (Let any of these be sung that 
 can be conveniently produced. It does not particularly matter which, 
 since all manifest in general the same traits.) 
 
 Another famous example of the aria is Beethoven's well-known 
 
 ' J. 
 
 song, "Adelaide."* (Sings.) This song is a fully developed piece of 
 instrumental music, in whicii the voice is treated fi'oni a imisical 
 standpoint, merely, as if it were a violin or 'cello. 
 
 Tn Italian opera we have various kinds of aria, all, however, hav- 
 ing the quality of adaptation to the voice. Tn tlu^se the well-sound- 
 ing, the effective, the astonishing, the tuneful, are the chief points of 
 concern. Thus in Bellini's "Norma'' we have the lovely "(/a.s'^f 7>//v^," 
 an air which is now out of style, and is indeed somewhat wanting in 
 heart when compared with those of Mozart, Ijut which, nevertheless, 
 is tuneful and lefined, and, when well done, an extrenndy ])ri'tty piece 
 of singing. (Sings.) Tn Bellini's " Sonnaml)ula" we have a similar 
 song, '•'•Ah non Credea^'' and, at the close, the famous war-horse cjf 
 prima doimas, '•'•Ah non r/iunr/e,'''' where the voice becomes a mcM-e in- 
 strument of reioicino- and the text as such is verv little resfarded. 
 
 Again there is the scena, or scene, to be taken into account; a 
 composition in which recitative, arioso, and aria altc^rtiate according 
 
 *Tae pronunciation required by the musl c is iid-el-a-ec -de. 
 9
 
 130 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 to the I'aiicy of the composer, in order to meet unusual transitions in 
 the text. Examples ol' tliis are found in the great dramatic scene for 
 soprano in Weber's "Oberon," "Ocean, thou mighty monster," and in 
 "Der Freyschixtz," where the prayer occurs. In these the fullest re- 
 sources of the orchestra are unsparingly employed to paint the dra- 
 matic situation 
 
 Throughout all forms of the aria, the music is consistently devel- 
 oped, as music. The general spirit of the text is seized and repre- 
 sented, but no effort is made to represent merely transitory shades of 
 feeling, except in descriptive arias. When this is done it naturally 
 dejirives the aria of its power to absorli and carry along the listener, 
 because such a lingering on separate uleas precludes attention to any 
 single, grand, overmastering impulse of feeling; and this is what the 
 aiia has for Its fundamental design to express. It is to be observed 
 further of the examples here referred to, that they are all from master- 
 works, by great composers, and are, for the most part, the chief arias in 
 the works in question. They represent, therefore, the highest con- 
 ception of song in this direction, and for their adequate interpretation 
 demand exceptional voices, thoroughly trained, and musical endow- 
 ments of high order. Nevertheless, an inferior presentation of 
 them will serve to familiarize one with their pliraseology and mode 
 of treatment. Only, if they fail of effect in such presentation, it must 
 be remembered that thev are reallv £i;reat works, and require to be 
 heard many times. 
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 1. "My heart ever faithful," Bach. 
 
 2. "O, had I Jubal's lyre!" Handel. 
 
 3. "IIj shall leed his flock," Handel. 
 
 4. "How beautiful are the feet." Handel. 
 
 •J, "With verdure clad," from the "Creation," Haydn. 
 
 G. "On mighty pens," Haydn. , 
 
 7. "Vedrai C irino," irom "Don Giovanni," Mozart. 
 
 8. "Balti.Balti," froai "Don Giovanni," Mozart. 
 
 9. 'II mio tesoro," from "Don Giovanni," Mozart. 
 
 10. "D.jve sono," from "Figaro," Mozart. 
 
 11. "Porgi amor," from "Figaro," Mozart. 
 
 12. "Voi che sapete," from "Figaro," Mozart. 
 
 13. "Adelaide," tenor song, Beethoven. 
 
 14. "Casta Diva," from "Norma," Bellini. 
 lo. "Ah non Crcdea," Bellini. 
 
 IG. "Ah non giunge," "Sonnambula," Bellini. 
 
 17. "Ocean, thou mighty monster," from "Oberon," Weber,
 
 THE THOROUGHLY COMPOSED SOXG. 131 
 
 LESSON FORTY. 
 
 THE THOROUGHLY COMPOSED SONG. 
 
 Tlie simple ballad and the aria liav(^ this in common, that the}'' 
 both strive first for a symmetrically r<>turning lyric melody. Each 
 ballad or aria represents on the whole a particular phase of emotion, 
 or state of feeling, from which no wide departure is made throughout 
 the song. In the ballad this arises from the necessity of repeating all 
 the stanzas of the words to the same melody; and in the aria it is a 
 natural consequence of the paucity of words. An aria although fre- 
 quently extended to six or eight or ten periods, rarely has more than 
 two or three cou]ilets of words. Thus, in placing the emphasis upon 
 the tnusic, rather than upon the text, both ballad and aria display a 
 decided congeniality of spirit. The aria is a ballad, magnified or exalted 
 to meet more important demands. 
 
 We come now to the study of a form of song whlcli we owe chiefly 
 to Schubert and Schumann, in which the text and music receive almost 
 equal consideration, yet in such a way as to afford every part of the text 
 a legitimate musical expression. This necessarily includes the idea of 
 a spontaneous musical activity in the music, for as soon as it ceases to 
 be free in its movement, it ceases to be expressive. The Germans call 
 it the durc/icompoirii'te Lied^ or "song composed throughout.'" As 
 there is no English equivalent of this expression in use, the title here 
 employe<l is "thoroughly composed song;" and the meaning is that 
 every stanza of the song has its own music, different from the others, 
 and suited to the peculiar needs of the words. Unity is subserved by 
 a rotiu-n of the first stanza, or of something very like it, in the form of a 
 refrain. 
 
 We cret somethins: of this in the earlier son2;s of Schubert, as the 
 "Miller" son as. But it is in the "-rand ballad of the " Erl Kin<i:" that 
 we have one of the most shining examples. This ballad contains five 
 speakers, the narrator, the boy, the Erl King and Erl King's daughter, 
 and the father. Although the singer represents them all, each one has 
 a particular form of expression. Thus the narrator has a plain figure 
 accompanied by that wonderful figure of repeating octaves. The father 
 speaks in a low voice; the son in a higher one, and with more wildness.
 
 132 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 The Erl-King's daughter speaks caressingly, and this, also, tlie accompa- 
 niment intensifies. When the boy is touched by the Erl-King, he cries 
 out with terror, and always a semitone sharp of the accompaniment. 
 This is a touch of realism. Considered merely as music this piece is one 
 of the most remarka,ble examples of the romantic school; it has been 
 very popular in instrumental arrangements. But it is plain to see that 
 the music has derived its most important suggestions from the words. 
 (Sings.) 
 
 Another examjile, equally fine in its way, though not so diversified, 
 is found in Schubert's " Gretchen at the spinning wheel." , In this we 
 have the n:ionotonous whirlinsx of the wheel, the sadness of Marguerite 
 after meeting Faust, her dreams of love, and her fears she Avill never 
 see him again, and especially the very effective climax at the word 
 "kiss." (Sings.) 
 
 Schumann effects a still closer union between the text ana the 
 music. Indeed we might say that Schumann's genius consisted in his 
 preternatural quickness in tJimking music, and his intuitive realization 
 of the true relation between music and emotion. Amono- the greatest of 
 his sono-s are the six called "Woman's Love and Life." These are bv 
 no means of equal merit. Perhaps the very choicest is " He, the best of 
 all, the noblest," in which the maiden tells the virtues of her love. 
 This sona; is one of the most remarkable that exist. The interest of it 
 is not in the vocal part alone. The melody is very far from com- 
 pleting itself within the usual lyric limits. The first period closes with 
 a half-cadence into the dominant, and the subject is completed by the 
 piano alone. The harmony is extremely fresh and varied. The princi- 
 pal tnotive appears in many forms, and modulations are unsparingly 
 employed. Yet the song as a whole has a warmth, a vitality, an onward 
 sweep, such as is hardly anywhere else to be found m a song. And 
 especially the music is remarkably true to the text. (Sings.) 
 
 The next one gives us a different phase of the woman's heart. 
 
 " Tis true, I cau not believe it, " 
 A dream doth my senses enthrall," 
 
 After this follows the charming piece 
 
 " Thou ring upon my finger 
 Thou dear little golden ring." 
 
 a sono- little if at all inferior to the o-reat one before-mentioned. 
 (Sings.) 
 
 The entire Schumann nature is to be found in his songs. One 
 phase of it, although not strictly belonging here, we may characterize as
 
 THE TIIOKOUGIILY COMPOSED SONG. 133 
 
 the tender and deep. It is illustrated by the lovely little piece " Moon- 
 light." (Sings.) 
 
 Again in '■'■ Wdldesgesprdch'''' (Woodland Di ilogue), we have 
 another example of a dual personality expressed by means of a change 
 of style in the music. There are two speakers, the knight and the 
 sorceress " Loreley." The knight speaks in a quick, martial motive; 
 Loreley in more gentle accents and to a harp-like accompaniment. 
 (Sings.) 
 
 There is another form of song nearly allied to these, called Arioso. 
 By this is meant an aria-like form, which may be either a small and less 
 intense aria, or a piece in which lyric phrases do not comjilete themselves 
 by sequences aiid tonality into regular period forms. But instead 
 thereof, the melody closely follows the words, and the periods are 
 lengthened, shortened, modulated into other keys, or completed in any 
 way that the feeling of the words seem to require. Mendelssohn uses 
 the term arioso to denote a small and less complete aria. In this sense 
 we have in St. Paul the arioso, " But the Lord is mindful of His own." 
 (Sings.) Wagner is the great ex])onent of this form of writing. He has 
 employed it with the greatest freodon, and, it maybe added, with great 
 propriety and beauty. A lovely example is Elsa's balcony song in 
 "Lohengrin." (Sings.) 
 
 The thoroughly composed song and the arioso represent the latest 
 advance in the union of music and poetry. As suggested in the Chap. 
 XXXVI, both music and poetiy have something to sacrifice in the union. 
 If we attend closely to the texts of these later songs we shall find that 
 the unmusical elements of poetry have been eliminated, and that the 
 words now express sentiments congenial to music. On first sight the 
 music seems to have retained its qualities better. But if we examine 
 these later songs and arioso-pieces we shall fiml that clearness and 
 definiteness of form have nearly departed from the music. The period- 
 forms are so vague, and the modulations into so remote keys, and occur 
 so frequently (" near and far," as the song has it) that it requires a 
 special training in the most recent music in order to really enjoy them 
 when heard as instrumental music merely. If such works are to be 
 enjoyed, it is only when the voice and musical qualities of the singer 
 have been cultivated to an extent adequate to these demands, and are 
 employed in subjection to a strongly conceived and trulv dramatit- in- 
 terpretation of the text. They require much more of a singer than the 
 famous "voice, voice, toujours Voice." 
 
 Of the same general nature as the thoroughly composed song is the 
 Enseitihle, an important form in opera. The ensonhle staads at that
 
 134 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 point in the drama where certain opposing' principles have been intro- 
 duced in the personages representing them, and here they are all 
 brougiit upon the stage together. The problem for the composer to 
 solve is to unite these contradictory imjDulses in the performance (or, 
 as it seems on the stage, productioii) of a consistent and satisfactory 
 piece of music, without causing the persons to violate their own indi- 
 vidual characters and dispositions. In the nature of the case this prob- 
 lem is impossible of solution. For altliough a certain amount of indi- 
 viduality in the different parts of an ensemble piece can well enough 
 be attained by skillful use of counterpoint, it remains certain that no 
 piece produces a coherent impression, that does not present some lead- 
 ing idea, and therein a dominant emotion, which of course can not be 
 done without practically extinguishing at least a considerable part of the 
 opposing element. Many beautiful ensemble pieces are to be found in 
 opera. In some the librettist has simplified the matter by leaving out 
 the contradictions. In others the most antagonistic persons alternate 
 with each other and presently join in as soprano and second, like society 
 women who kiss in public and back-bite in private, and the music of 
 the whole goes not as tlie text goes, but as the composer would have 
 it. AVagner has attempted to meet this difficulty in other ways, as we 
 sliall see later. Some of the best ensemble pieces are to be found in 
 Mozart's operas. There is one in " Figaro" which lasts forty minutes 
 and includes some eight or ten pieces of music. The form is referred 
 to here merely because it represents an additional phase of vocal writ- 
 ing, the study of which by composers has been of use in ascertaining 
 how far it is practicable to go in music in the simultaneous represen- 
 tation of opposite determinations. 
 
 List of Illustkations. 
 
 1. The"ErI King," Schubert. 
 
 2. "Gretchen at the Spiuniu5 Wlieel," Schuljjrt 
 
 3. " He, tfie best of all, the noblest," Schumann. 
 
 4. "Thou ring upon my finger," Schnmaim. 
 
 5. "Moonlight." Schumann. 
 
 G. " Waldesgesprach," Schumann. 
 
 7. " But the Lord is mindful of fl;s own," from " St. Paul," Mendelssohn. 
 
 8. " Elsa's balcony song," 'Ye Wandering Brcez23" from "Ljhengrin," Wagner.
 
 THE OPERA AND ORATORIO. 135 
 
 LESSON FOKTY-ONE. 
 
 THE OPERA AND ORATORIO. 
 
 Oratorio, as is well known, is a musical worlv for solo voices, chorus, 
 and orchestra, on a sacred subject. It is sung without action, although 
 the te.xt is conceived in a dramatic spirit if not strictly in dramatic 
 form. Of dialogvie oratorio has very little if any. The nearest ap- 
 proach to it is in passages where an angel or other speaker delivers a 
 message and a reply is made, but this is rare. The text deals with 
 the large, the heroic or religious interests, and not with those of every 
 day life. Indeed, oratorio was in the beginning an actual part of re- 
 lio-ious service. This was so with Bach's church cantatas, and the Pas- 
 siou Music. 
 
 HandePs oratorios were essentially concert works. As we shall 
 see hereafter (Iti Chapter XLTTT), Handel composed operas for some 
 forty years before he began to write oratorios, and during most of that 
 time had his own sina:ers and theater. So, wlien actuated bv some 
 fortunate instinct, or by the neglect of the public, he began to write 
 oratorio, he changed his style of composition but very little. The use 
 of an English text, the vernacular of his audience, no doidjt had a 
 certain tendency to increase his verbal accuracy in adapting his music 
 to it. But such airs as " O had I JubaFs lyre" from ".Joshua,'' and 
 " Reioice orreatlv " from the " Messiah" are almost exactlv of the same 
 cut as the bravoura arias in his innumerable operas. So, also, very 
 many of the smaller choruses are revamped from some of his former 
 works. 
 
 Still, when all this has been said, the difference between Handers 
 oratorios and his operas is very great; not so much in exceptional 
 moments as in the average of the oratorio, which is on a higher and 
 more serious level than the opera. Then, too, between Handel's opera- 
 music and his text there was often a certain contradiction, or at least 
 what seems to be such in our day. The contrapuntal sjjirit was the 
 habit of Handel's musical thought, and this spirit in its essential nature 
 is suited to grave and elevated discourse. So when Handel fell into 
 the sacred vein, it was not so much a change of style, a conversion, or
 
 136 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 a rising" to a new plane of work, as a choice, fortunate though somewhat 
 hite, of a text suitable to the nature of his musical phantasy. 
 
 Yet when this change was made and tlie sacred words applied, and 
 all the best and most elevated of his previous efforts fished up from 
 their waters of oblivion and stood upon honest English feet in march- 
 ing order, like EzekieFs dry bones, which, also, the vrord of the Lord 
 had clothed upon, — even then it is but rarely sacred music that comes 
 to utterance, but concert music still; music to attract and please, music 
 to elevate and edify; — but iu:)t music with wliich to worship. To de- 
 monstrate this position would take us too far. It must suffice here to 
 call over the names of some of these works, leaving the student to con- 
 firm or overthrow our position at his leisure. They are "Solomon," 
 "Joshua," ".fudas Maccabeus," "Israel in Egypt," "Esther," "De- 
 borah," " Susannah," " Theodora," etc. In some of these he reaches 
 great heights. \\\ particular is this the case in " Israel in Egypt" 
 where those great double choruses must have been inspired by some 
 idea of what his great contemporary Bach had done at Leipsic in his 
 Passions Music. 
 
 Oratorio had at least one other decided advantage for Handel, and 
 for the development of music after him. It put the emphasis on the 
 chorus, and not on tlie solo. • The operatic chorus is small at best. It 
 is the peasantry of singers and must on no account usurp a leading- 
 interest in the drama. But in music there is a sense in which the Latin 
 proverb is true. Vox, popuU vox del — the voice of the people is the 
 voice of God. 
 
 Th-ese Handel choruses have, indeed, a great advantage in their 
 texts, which for the most part are well-known passages of scripture. The 
 familiar word of some Biblical war-crv, such as " Sin"- to the Lord, for 
 He hath triumphed gloriously," " Worthy is the Lamb," etc., awakens 
 the historical associations that belong to it ; these join in with the in- 
 herent majesty and impressiveness of the music, the effectiveness of its 
 instrumentation and especially the deep, thrilling, pervading support 
 of the organ, and all combine in introducing music to the public in a 
 new light, tliat of the sublime. 
 
 Tiien, for once, it was permitted the almost inspired master to 
 write with headlono- haste all throuo-h that blessed fortnight, one great 
 work, which stands, and will long stand, as a ne i^lus ultra of musical 
 effort in the direction of the pathetic, the inspiring, and the sublime. 
 The " Messiah " draws a part of its impressiveness, no doubt, from its 
 noble text, which traverses the entire range of the most precious 
 religious associations. And this also helped the composer, who here.
 
 THE OPERA AND ORATOKiO. , 13r 
 
 at tiiues, rises almost aljove hiiiiself. But to wliatever sourco we may 
 attribute its power over us, it is certain that in Handel's " Messiah " 
 we have a work without which our idc^a of music wouhl 1)C much hjwcr 
 ttian it is, and the worhl wouhl l)e l)y mucii the loser. 
 
 In the Bach "Passions Music" we have a different work, and one 
 which is decidedly the expression of worship. But of this subject 
 more is said in chapter XLII. Suffice it to point out here that oratorio 
 is the field in which music has been furnished with the occasion and 
 ihe means for exercising itself to its farthest bounds in the direction 
 of the elevated, the heroic, and the sublime. 
 
 Opera is of the world, worldly. And this for two reasons : As a 
 drama it deals witli life, idealized, perhaps, sometimes made ludicrous, 
 hut in any case with Jife. Its trinity in unity is " the world, the flesh, 
 and the devil." ^Ye have only to run over the librettos, if we have 
 never seen the pieces for ourselves, to find in almost every one of 
 them " the prince of this world" enthroned. Read the books of " Don 
 Giovanni," "Figaro," "Robert le Diable," "Faust," "II Trovatore," 
 " II Traviata," and almost all the rest. Then, in the second place, 
 opera stands for an amusement. The opera composer must meet his 
 public. They do not go to the play-house to hear sermons, nor to 
 ^ing psalms, but to hear, to enjoy, and to be merry. 
 
 The o})era is the great field in which, sooner or later, all worldly 
 emotion comes to expression. As a form of art it is as blessed in 
 abundant means as the oratorio. For although it lacks the massive 
 chorus, it has a hiro-er number of trained singers, and the advantas^e of 
 action and spontaneous sympathy with the audience, as helps to inspi- 
 ration. Librettist, composer, scene-painter, and singers, all combine to 
 place before us a form of art which has in it every possible pleasure of 
 the senses of hearin<>- and sio-ht, and alona; with this much of a finer 
 and higher character. 
 
 From the very nature of the stage and the drama, opera was im- 
 possible in Handel's day. The prophet and founder of the modern 
 opera, Gliick, wrote his great works more than thirty years after Handel 
 had laid down his operatic pen forever. Counterpoint needed to relax 
 its severity somewhat in favor of the weakness of the flesh in chamber- 
 maids and valets upon the stage. Fugue, also, might find artistic jus- 
 tification in a fire, where the first engine company on the ground gave 
 out the theme, the next answered it, etc., but for guests at an evening 
 party it is but a tedious form of utterance. The opera needed the peo- 
 ple's song. Gliick took a great ste[) in the true direction, and estab- 
 lished the canons of operatic work. Mozart went beyond him ; and
 
 138 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 Weber beyond liim. In " Der Freischiitz " we have the very peo- 
 ple's song itself. 
 
 Besides the people's song, o^Dera needed the neat and pleasing 
 melodic and harmonic forms of Haydn and Mozart. With these it be- 
 came fully equipped in its department, and went forth under its cap- 
 tains, such as Rossini, Meyerbeer, Weber, Bellini, Donizetti, Auber, 
 Verdi, and last of all, Wagner, to conquer the world of secular 
 music. 
 
 In its nature as a form of drama, dealing with men of the 
 present or the immediate past, who in any case are presented on the 
 stage as living before us, and in ranging through all varieties of plays, 
 from roaring farce up through comedy to heroic and elevated phases 
 of life (though these are always given from what, in stage parlance, one 
 might call the " practicable " side as opposed to the " impractical " of 
 oratorio), the oj^era calls upon music for every form and phase of its 
 pleasant modulation, all its love and its hate, its rejoicing and its sor- 
 row. And what the voice can not do, it offers to complete through the 
 unrivalled riches of the modern orchestra; and in every time of 
 "trouble," where music, as such, fails of power, it produces the 
 " sheejD-skIn," its diploma of powers yet unexpended. 
 
 Thus the opera and oratorio together present us on the whole 
 with every result that has been reached in the effort to clothe words 
 with music, and are to be reckoned among; the liio'hest achievements 
 in music. Yet, even in these, all that was said in the beginning con- 
 cerning the influence of poetry upon music holds true; and all the 
 limitations of vocal music as a form of art are here to be found illus- 
 trated. We have on one side Poetry, of which the practicable libretto 
 is but a very small part. And on the other side Music, of which opera 
 and oratorio are, to be sure, a larger part, yet still lacking very much 
 of the elevated sentiment and the epic sweep of pure music, as found 
 in the symphony. Nevertheless, vocal music retains for itself two 
 great points of merit: It is the most understandable form of music, 
 for even the unmusical can follow the words. And, second, through 
 the effort to unite music to poetry, and to extend its range to an 
 equal compass, the true relation of music to emotion has been 
 worked out, and instrumental music itself has gained in freedom of 
 form and range of expression.
 
 Paet Eighth. 
 
 HISTORICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 SKETCHES. 
 
 CHAPTEE FORTY-TAYO. 
 
 JOHN SEBASTIAN BACH. 
 
 Across this interval of nearly two centuries Bach's life appears to 
 have been very dull and uneventful. He was born at Eisenach, Prus- 
 sia, March 21, 1685, as Ritter says, " a musician of the fifth generation 
 of one of the most musical families ever produced by any country." 
 His entire life passed in the burgher-like simplicity of the middle class 
 German. His mother died when he was very young; and before he was 
 ten years old he had lost Jiis father also. He then went to his elder 
 brother, John Christopher, organist at Ohrdruff, who gave him his first 
 lessons in piano playing. Bach had scarcely more than made a begin- 
 ning (which must have been exceedingly easy to so gifted a nature as 
 his) when he cast his covetous eyes on a paper-bound volume contain- 
 ing pieces by Frohberger, Kerl, Pachelbel and others. But such 
 treasures of art were not to be trusted to a bov not vet twelve rears 
 old — at least not if the crusty John Christopher could help it — so he 
 logked the book in a corner cuj:)board, and gave himself no further 
 anxiety on the subject. But the little John Sebastian was of a perse- 
 vering kind, as we shall see before we have done with him, and his 
 little hand proved able to push through the lattice work door and reach 
 tiie precious book. But how to make it his own. Why copy it, to be 
 sure. But the awful John Christopher ! " Do it at night," said tlie 
 tempter. " But I've no candles," said the boy. "The full moon." 
 "Sure enough," said plucky John Sebastian, "free to all." So for six 
 lona; months every brio:ht niHit found him diliffentlv coiivinn' the for- 
 
 139
 
 140 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 bidden treasure — copying, we may he sure, witli rare patience, and a 
 singularly line iiand for a boy, for paper was scarce. Alas! just as the 
 task was done, in an unlucky moment his brother found him out, and 
 not only confiscated the original but the copy as well, and the poor 
 John Sebastian had only the comforting recollection that at least he 
 " had done his best." 
 
 After a while the brother died, and the boy was sent to the " gym- 
 nasium" (or grammar school) at Luneberg, and was soprano singer at 
 St. MichaeTs church. While here he lost no opportunity of hearing 
 good j^layers. On one occasion he went to Hamburg (about forty miles 
 away) to hear Reinken, who was at that time a famous organist, and 
 again to Zell to hear the Prince's band there, arid especially to l)ecome 
 better versed in the French taste that prevailed. All the while he ap- 
 plied himself so diligently to the study of the organ and piano that at 
 the age of eighteen (in 1703) we find him widely recognized as an un- 
 doubted master, and appointed court musician at Weimar. The fol- 
 lowing year he became organist at the new church of Arnstadt — pro- 
 l)ably because he could pursue his taste for the organ better there, for 
 his duties as court musician involved only his services as violinist. In 
 his new place he manifested the diligence that had all along character- 
 ized him. Wherever in all the country around there was a celebrated 
 oro-a,nist, there would Bach be sure to go in order to discover the charm 
 and secret of his power. He went on foot to Lubeck to hear Bux- 
 tehude, a distinguished master there; and, too poor to take lessons, he 
 even remained a full quarter of a year a secret hearer of that organist. 
 All this time he diligently exercised himself in organ and piano play- 
 ing, and in all schools of composition. He studied with the closest 
 care all the older master works he could lay his hands on. He fervently 
 desired to make a longer art journey into Italy, but poverty prevented. 
 By degi'ees, however, he possessed himself of the chief works of Pal- 
 estrina, Caldara, Lotti, and the other best writers of the Italian school. 
 He had already learned the Italian art of singing, from Italian singers 
 he had known in Hamburg. 
 
 With such diligence no wonder his fame spread abroad as that of 
 a master. Accordingly we find him soon back to Weimar as Court 
 organist, and later (1717) as chief music director. Here, doubtless, he 
 composed many of his chief works for the organ and his orchestral 
 suites. 
 
 About this time Marchand, Handel's master, died at Halle, and 
 Bach was invited to succeed him. He even went to Halle to prove his 
 qualifications, but for some reason did not take the place. Sometime
 
 JOHN SEBASTIAN BACH. Ui 
 
 Ijel'ore this Marchand and Bach had been invited to play in contest 
 before the king at Dresden, but at the hist moment Marcliaiurs courao-e 
 failed him, for he had in some way found out that the young German 
 had an unparalleled fluency of ideas combined with rare skill in treat- 
 ment; so Bach amused and astonished for hours the great audience 
 gathered by his wonderful performances. Passing over Bach's service 
 as court music director under Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Cothen (extend- 
 ing through six years), and his journey to Hamburg to play the oro-aii, 
 where he excited the greatest wonder in the breast of the veteran 
 Reinken by his masterly improvisations on the chorale, " An JVosser- 
 flussen Babyloii^s^'''' we come to the year 1733 when Bach was appointed 
 Cantor to the St. Thomas school in Leipsic, where he spent twentv-six 
 fruitful and peaceful years. What good came of this quiet life will 
 appear when we come to speak more particularly of his works. The 
 chief episode of his Leipsic life was his visit to' Frederick the Great, at 
 Potsdam, in the year 1747. This visit was paid only after the most 
 pressing invitations from the king, expressed through Bach's second 
 son, Carl Philip Emanuel, who was at that time chapel master to the 
 Princess Amelia. King Frederick was a flute player, and, like the 
 most of the breed, thought himself a fine one. So every night, when 
 not too busy with cares of state, he was accustomed to get his orchestra 
 together "and astonish them with his flute virtuosity. In this way he 
 imagined himself greater than a king — a God-endowed artist. One 
 night just as the musical hilarity was about to begin, a servant brought 
 him the list of arrivals. "Gentlemen," said the king, solemnly, " Old 
 Bach is come!" So, all stained with travel and tuml)led and torn with 
 the horrible stage-coaching of those days, with never a moment for a 
 hasty bite of something to eat, with scarcely a. glass of beer to soothe 
 the inner man, the great king was confronted by a greatei', the king of 
 the organ, John Sebastian Bach. Bach, taken from one room to 
 another by the king and assembled musicians, was compelled to i.ispect 
 and play upon every one of the numerous Silberman pianos in the 
 palace. After Bach had improvised for a while he asked the king to 
 give him a subject in which to work out a fugue, and the learning dis- 
 played in the work was highly admired by all present. H(i then selected 
 a suitable subject and worked out extempore a fugue in six o1)ligato 
 parts. 
 
 The next day they made the tour of all the organs in Potsdam, in 
 in order that the King might hear his organ-playing. On his return to 
 Leipsic, Bach composed tlie subject he had received from the King m 
 three and six parts, and had it engraved under the title " Miisikal-
 
 142 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 isc/ies Opfer'''' (musical offering), and dedicated it to the inventor — 
 certainly a neat and proper thing to do, and for which 1 hope the 
 rather stingy King had the grace to make a fit acknowledg- 
 ment. , 
 
 Bach not only used his eyes enormously in reading and writing an 
 immense mass of works in early youth, seriously undermining his sight 
 by the moonlight writing, but in. many cases he had engraved his own 
 compositions. In consequence of all this application through more 
 than sixty years, at last his eyes became much inflamed, and finally he 
 lost his sight altogether. This so weighed upon his spirits that he con- 
 tinued to decline for fully half a year, and finally expired July 28th, 
 1750. 
 
 Bach was twice married. The first wife had seven children; the 
 second thirteen, of whom eight were sons. Several of his children 
 were music d, and one of them, Carl Philip Emanuel, was the forerun- 
 ner of the Haydn and Mozart school of music. His theory was that 
 the instrument must be made to sing; accordingly we find him content 
 with shorter forms and less learned musical phraseology than that 
 adopted by his father, whom, on his own ground, he modestly confessed 
 liimself totally incapable of rivalling. 
 
 As a piano player Bach was one of the greatest of his ti me. His 
 touch was silvery, distinct and expressive, his legato playing extremely 
 perfect, and his contrasts of power remarkable for tliat day. He had 
 a short, thick hand, and Prof. Karl Klauser (of the seminnry at Farm- 
 ington, Conn.) says that as near as he can make it out from Forkel's life, 
 Bach's touch must have been much the same as that employed by Dr. 
 Wm. Mason — a touch which then, as now, produced the most lovely 
 and varied tones from the piano-forte. 
 
 As an organ player Bach has had great injustice done him by those 
 who suppose that every time he sat down to the organ he drew all the 
 stops and " blazed away " by the hour on the full organ. Not he. The 
 organ builders used to complain of his audacity in making combina- 
 tions. They said he put stops together in the most unheard of and 
 unorthodox manner. And all this is easy enough to understand. 
 Bach was first a violinist, and there is no record of a violinist who 
 could not appreciate melody. He was full of melody. Consider fur- 
 ther that he was a.n orchestral writer of rare power — quite an innova- 
 tor in his day, coloring his scores to the full scope of the instruments 
 then employed. Besides, his very organ works themselves contradict 
 this notion, for the full organ pieces do not make up more than half 
 the volume of them; but we find trios for two claviers and pedale,
 
 JOHN SEBASTIAN BACH. 14:5 
 
 and variations which you may be sure Bach " varied" in combination 
 no less than in harmony and melody. 
 
 While Bach was Cantor of the St. Thomas Church he h:id two 
 clioirs and an orchestra at his disposal. Music was no small pai-t of 
 the service. The hearty sin_2,'inij of the Gei-man peasants and scliool 
 children in the simple chorals, which Bach accompanied with such 
 wonderful harmonies, and the well-trained choirs, combined to alford 
 the composer rare facilities for the illustration of the musical ideas^ 
 with which liis solid-looking old head teemed. So on every feast day 
 he broug-ht out a new Cantata, a psalm set to music for one or two 
 choirs, orchestra and organ, now and then a verse of a psalm-tuno in- 
 terspersed, in which everybody took part, and the freest use of solos 
 that the subject demanded. Of these works about seventy have been 
 pul)lished, ranging from twenty minutes in length to an hour — works 
 which suggested Mendelssohn's " Hyinii of Praise," " As Pants the 
 Heart," etc. 
 
 To be sure i)ut few of the common people knew what wonderful 
 things they were hearing. Robert Franz tells that he once saw a very old 
 man who was sexton of the St. Thomas Church while Bach was there. 
 "And what did they think of his works?" asked the enthusiastic and 
 reverential Franz. "Mr. Bach's compositions," said the sapient critic, 
 " were very much alike." 
 
 The greatest work of this period was Bach's " Passions M usic," 
 according to St. Matthew. This consists of about two hours' music, 
 solos, choruses, interspersed stanzas of liyinn tunes descriptive of the 
 passion of the garden and the cross. It was written for and first given 
 oi Good Friday evening in 1729, and does not seem to have been 
 given again until Mendelssohn exhumed it a hundred years later, and 
 gave it on Good Friday 1829. Since then it lias been frequently done 
 in Germany, and always on Good Friday in the St. Thomas Church in 
 Leipsic. This work has become much admired in London, and was nib- 
 bled at bravely hy the Handel and Haydn Society in Boston at their 
 Festival in 1871, and finally given entire in 1877, largely, be it said, 
 through the perseverance of Mr. Dwight and two or three other enthusi- 
 astic admirers of Bach. 
 
 When given at Leipsic, and as a religious service, the Passion 
 Music is full of pathos and beauty. Let us imagine a vast, barn-like 
 clmrch, dimly lighted, with two galleries, one al)ovo the other. Far 
 up in the upper gallery, with never a soul in sight, we hear the voices 
 of the choirs and organ. The choirs occupy opposite galleries. At the 
 appointed hour the gentle strain begins, "Come, ye daughters, weep
 
 144 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 for anguish," and presently breaks in the penetrating voice of a couple 
 hundred school children, singing independently the choral, " O Lauab 
 of God, all blameless," a tone and words as familiar there as the Old 
 Hundredth here. The effect is totally indescribable. The gentle and 
 cultivated tones of the choir as they thread the graceful strains of the 
 counterpoint, the reed-like and lusty tones of the boys' voices, the 
 coloring of the orchestra, and the sombre majesty of the organ — all this 
 with never a performer visible; you sit thei-e in the darkness and from 
 some far-away shore the sounds come to you and overwhelm you 
 with waves of music. i\.non the chorus dies away and a piercing haut- 
 boy takes up a charming theme which a solo voice interprets, "I'll 
 watch with my dear .lesus," and softly, yet richly, the chorus responds, 
 " So slumber shall my sins befall." 
 
 And further on the whole congregation, cho-irs and instruments, 
 all in tender devotion, take up the strain — 
 
 "O Head, all bruised aud wouaded, 
 HuQg up to brutal scorn ! 
 O Head with shame surrounded 
 "With crown of cruel thorn ! 
 O Head, to honor wonted, 
 To splendor all divine, 
 Now outraged and affronted : 
 All hail, dear master mine!" 
 
 This indeed is religious art! Not these the utterances of the 
 bright concert room, for the applause of the unthoughtful crowd; but 
 here the Christian heart meditates on the mystery of redemption, and 
 to celebrate that wondrous love tearfully brings every offering that 
 the musical art affords. 
 
 Mr. John Hullah, in his lectures on " The Transition Periods of 
 Music," holds that Bach's obscurity of expression is such as will for- 
 ever debar him from wide popularity. This way of putting it does not 
 seem to me fortunate. " Obscurity of expression" is not properly pre- 
 dicable of Bach. Nor has he any lack of melody. On the contrary, 
 he is absolutely the most inexhaustible of all in this direction. It can 
 not be denied that Bach carried the intellectual in music beyond the 
 point where technical devices assist the expression of emotion — at least 
 for our day. But let us not forget that while there are now few musi- 
 cians who can handle contrapuntal forms well, in Bach's day this was 
 a common accomplishment, and formuhe of expression which in his 
 day were clear enough, aud dramatic enough- "A"'^- in the li-'hi of this 
 excitable nineteenth century, too cold.
 
 JOHN SEBASTIAN BACH. I45 
 
 And liowever Bacli may stand with the public, lie has been the 
 great inspiration to all the best and most poetic of later musicians, — 
 as for instance Mendelssohn, Schumann and Chopin — and this, across 
 a century or so, is surely groat honor. To the organist and violinist 
 Bach's works are at once the best exercises for developing his art as a 
 player, and the freshest and most characteristic pieces for his instru- 
 ment. Yet not all Bach's compoe'tions are great. But in the mass 
 (the manuscripts make a pile over two feet high, and, it is computed, 
 would occupy a copyist more than twenty years to copy them — 
 although this, I dare say, is making it rather a fat thing for the copy- 
 ist) masterworks of the purest conception are to be found, and that in 
 laro-e numbers. 
 
 T can not sum up Bach's works better than in the words of Wilhclm 
 Rust, in Mendel's " C onversatioixs-Ijexicon^'' article " Bach." 
 
 "In all these works, from the greatest and richest in compass clear 
 down to the smallest range of musical formations. Bach maintained his 
 imperishable glory as the lofty representative of the Inner and Spiritual 
 in art, as the boldest and mightiest herald of the ideal in art works. 
 The great contrapuntal skill which holds performer and hearer in the 
 chains of the most perfect polyphony, the mastership of the works in 
 their organic development, and their value and thankfulness for the 
 purposes of study, serve only as means for expressing his ideal. All 
 these are the stuff through which he expresses the spiritual. The purely 
 technical, therefore, can in no way be regarded as Bach's chief great- 
 ness, although many still suppose so. His greatness rests not in the 
 ingenious forms of which, to be sure, he is master, so that.no one before 
 or since has expressed himself in them so easily and naturally, but 
 rather in the noble, free and lofty spirit, which in its mighty flight is 
 able to rule and control his thoughts and perceptions, and with equal 
 ease strike the strings of a sought-for emotion, or rise into the bound- 
 less fields of free music. Deep moral earnestness is the very founda- 
 tion of his music, and glorifies even his playful creations; {esthetic 
 loveliness adds itself to him, as it were, of its own accord. Only such 
 a strength, eminent in depth of thought, and equally skillful in expres- 
 sion, could possibly have produced such colossal structures and giant 
 forms as Bach has left ns in his great church works, which, in all their 
 greatness, are created out of the deepest and most trustful piety." 
 
 10
 
 146 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 Programme of Bach Illustrations. 
 
 1. (Moderately Difficult ) 
 
 1. Prelude and Fugue in G minor, " Clavier" I. No. 2. 
 
 2. Loure in G, arranged by Heinze. 
 
 0. Sarabande in A, No. 5, Bach "Favorite Pieces," Peters, No. 231. 
 
 4. Gavotte in D, No. 3 in the same. 
 
 5. Song, " My Heart ever Faithful." 
 
 6. Invention in E minor. No. 7 of the 3-part Inventions. 
 
 7. Gavotte in D, arranged by Mason. 
 
 3. {Difficulty Employing the Piano, Organ, and Violin.) 
 
 1. Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue. 
 
 2. Air for G, string, (As played by Wilhelmj). 
 
 3 Courante in E minor. No. 7, from Peters, No. 231. 
 
 4. Organ Prelude in B minor, Organ works Vol. II, No. 10. 
 
 5- Chaconne for violin Solo. 
 
 6. Grand Prelude and Fugue In G minor, Organ works. Vol. II, No 4. 
 
 7. Meditation upon Bach's 1st Prelude, by Ch. Gounod, For organ, piano, ana 
 
 violin. 
 
 3. {For Piano and Voice.) 
 
 1. Cbromatic Fantasia and Fugue. 
 
 2. Song, "My Heart ever Faithful. 
 
 3. Invention in F, No. 8, two part. 
 Sarabande in A. 
 
 Invention in E minor. 
 
 Gigue in G, (No. 2 in Peters, No. 331). 
 
 4. Slumber Song from Christmas Oratorio. 
 
 5. Invention in C minor, 3 part. 
 Loure in G, Ileinze. 
 
 Siirabande in F, No. G, Peters, No. 321. 
 Echo in B minor, No.- 8 of ihe same. 
 Gavotte in E major, Arr. by Tours. 
 
 6. Echo Aria from the Christmas Oratorio. 
 
 7. Grand* Organ Fugue in G minor, Arranged for piano by Liszt
 
 GEORGE FREDEIUCK ilA^y'DEL. 147 
 
 CHAPTER FORTY-THREE. 
 
 GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 
 
 At Halle, in Lower Saxony, Feb. 23, 1685, was born Bach's great 
 contemporary, and, in after times, rival, Geo. Frederick Handel. His 
 father was a ])hysician and surgeon. The little George early showed 
 an immense desire for music, and that to his poor father's discomfiture; 
 "For," said the judicious sire, "music is an elegant art and fine 
 amusement, but as an occupation it hath little dignity, having for its 
 object nothing better than mere entertainment and pleasure." So he 
 kept the boy out of school lest he should learn to sing, and taught him 
 his Latin and humanities at home. But, by connivance of mother or 
 nurse, they say, the boy contrived to get a dumb spinet hid away in the 
 garret, and there, by night, taught himself to play. The " dumb spinet" 
 was a very small piano-forte, of which the strings were wound with cloth 
 so that when struck it gave forth only a mild tinkling sound. They 
 were made for nuns who might want a little music in a quiet way with- 
 out disturbing the lady superiors. 
 
 When still a small boy, scarce eight years old, his father made a 
 trip to Weissenfels, to visit his eldest son, who was in the service of 
 the Duke there. Of course he had no idea of takinsT the little Geors^e 
 Frederick with him, for, at court, the boy would be almost sure to hear 
 some music and so get further strengthened in his pestiferous liking for 
 the shallow art. But as the good old doctor drove away in liis chaise 
 the boy ran after him a mile or two, and begged so hard to be taken 
 that the father finally bundled him into the chaise and took him along 
 "to get rid of him." Arrived at court, the boy was left to shift for 
 himself while papa and the big brother were seeing- the Hcmis of the 
 place. Bv a natural attraction the young musician soon found himself 
 in the chapel, and, with the friendly aid of a good natured servant at 
 the bellows, was soon in fine frenzy of harmony at the organ. By a. 
 lucky chance the Duke came along, and immediately perceived the real 
 talent of the young player. And here, to his great horror, papa Handel 
 found him a little later. But the Duke assured the old gentleman that 
 the boy had a genuine talent for music which must on no account be
 
 148 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC 
 
 « 
 
 hid; that he must put young George Frederick under strict training as 
 a musician, and not try to thwart the jjlain design of Providence. 
 
 So, on his return to Halle, young Handel was put under the in- 
 struction of the great organist there, Zachau, who, for about three years, 
 put him through a course of the heroic training those times" delighfed 
 in. Towards the last of this course Handel wrote a cantata or motette 
 every week — many of them, I dare say, poor stuff; for what else could 
 be expected of a boy of ten, although they must have been technically 
 correct to satisfy the conscientious old pedagogue. iVt length Zachau 
 had not the heart to keep it up any longer, for a boy who could produce 
 fugues with such facility and of so good an average of merit was already 
 a mastei-, and so Zachau told him. 9o Handel went next to Berlin, in 
 1G9G, and studied the opera school, under tire auspices of the Elector. 
 The next year old Dr. Handel died, leaving his family poorly provided 
 for. George Frederick then went to Hamburg, where he hoped to 
 earn a living as violinist in the opera orchestra. Being a rather poor 
 player he got a very subordinate position, that of rlpieno second violin 
 (a sort of fifth wheel), and was regarded by the other players as a verit- 
 able dunce, for he was nineteen, large, awkward, rather shy, and a poor 
 fiddler. But one day the leader was sick and the rehearsal likely to 
 fall through; and Handel took his seat at the harpsichord (or piano) 
 because he could best be spared from his place in the orchestra, and 
 carried the rehearsal through with such spirit that the whole orchestra 
 broke into loud applause. 
 
 On the strength of this recognition he appears soon as permanent 
 conductor of the orchestra, and, along with his dear friend Matheson, a 
 chief composer of opera for the Hamburg stage. Here presently he 
 brought out '"'•Ahnira " and '•'•Nero^'' and, probably, '•'•Florindo and 
 Daphne^'' which he had already written while in Berlin. But it was 
 Handel's great desire to visit Italy. So, refusing the liberal offer of 
 Prince Giovanni Gaston de Medici to send him, he saved his money and 
 was straightway able to go at his own expense, and in 1707, at the age of 
 twenty-one, he entered Florence. Here, however, he stayed only long 
 enough to compose the opera " Roderigo^'' for which he received one 
 hundred sequins, when he immediately betook himself to Venice. 
 Here he was received with open arms. The abounding vitality of his 
 music and its sparkling and good natured originality was such as to 
 secure for him the epithet "the dear Saxon" (" // Garo /Sasson.e^''). 
 
 Domenico Scarlatti was the great harpsichordist of all Italy at that 
 time. He was a sort of Chopin of his day, imparting a new grace and 
 scope to piano-forte music, yet not creating in such a masterly way as
 
 GEORGE FREDEllICK HANDEL. I49 
 
 to conquer the after-coming' generations. Handel, also, excelled as a 
 harpsichordist, and the relative merits of the two artists were widely- 
 discussed. It was generally thought that Scarlatti played with more 
 grace; but at the organ Handel was unquestionably the superior. 
 Scarlatti himself, however, was not satisfied. One night at a masked 
 ball a disguised player seated himself at the harpsichord and amid 
 the noise and confusion played away unnoticed. But just then Scar- 
 latti came in and at once his trained ear recognized the masterly touch. 
 "It is either the Saxon or the Devil," said he. It vjcis the Saxon. 
 Whenever people used to praise his playing he used to pronounce 
 Handel's name and, with the Italian grimace, cross himself. But Handel 
 and Scarlatti became fast friends. 
 
 Here in Venice, Handel in three weeks composed an opera 
 '•'• Agrippina^'' which made a furore from Venice to Rome. Here 
 he secured the patronage of Cardinal Ottoboni, whose band-master 
 was the Celebrated Corelli, a composer and viotinist of somewhat re- 
 fined and gentle nature, but of marked genius. Here Handel wrote 
 five operas, of which we have no room to speak further. 
 
 In 1709 he was back again in Germany, at Hanover, where he was 
 retained in the service of the Elector George of Brunswick, afterwards 
 the English George I, at a salary of £300 a year. Here he fell in with 
 some Eno'Iish noblemen, who invited him over to London. So with 
 gracious leave of absence from the Elector, he came to London in the 
 Autumn of 1710, where he found the Italian taste everywhere prev- 
 alent. To meet this he composed the opera Hinaldo, which was 
 brouo-ht out in 1711 with immense success, and was forthwith arranq-ed 
 for pianos and barrel organs, and was thrummed, whistled and beat 
 from one end of the kingdom to the other. Walsh, the publisher, is 
 said to have made £1,500 out of the sale of the pieces of this opera. 
 Within a few months Handel was back again in Hanover, but the quiet 
 German Court was not much to his taste after the success in London. 
 So again he got leave of absence for a visit to London, and in 1713 
 brought out an ode on the occasion of the Queen's birthday. The follow- 
 ing year the peace of Utrecht gave occasion for the Te Deuni and -Jubi- 
 late (both well known in England), and for these three the composer 
 received a pension of £200 a year from Queen Anne, and forthwith 
 Handel (to use a western phrase) " went back " on Hanover and its 
 rather slow court completely and for good. Now this was all very well 
 as long as the Queen lived, for the public was ready to hear and pay. 
 But presently Queen Anne died, and, bad luck for Handel, George I, 
 in very wrathful mood at the trick played him by liis quoidam chapel
 
 150 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 master, came over himself to reign. Handel was forbidden the court; 
 but Handel's music was sung and jilayed everywhere, and the new King 
 not only knew good music when he heard it, but he knew Handel's 
 music as well as he knew his robust frame and round face. So one 
 day as the King went down the river in a state barge, a boat came 
 after him plavina^ some new and delio-htful music, which in the turn of 
 the phrases was Handel's clearly enough. This was the celebrated 
 "water music," well enough in its day, but now, in spite of its election 
 and high calling, rather 2->ctssec- But it appeased the ire of the King, 
 and Handel's pardon was sealed with a new pension of £200 a year. 
 
 Mr. Haweis, in " Music and Morals," gives a pleasant picture of 
 the society in which Handel moved at that' time. " Yonder heavy, rag- 
 ged looking youth, standing at a corner of Regent street with a slight 
 and rather refined looking companion, is the obscure Samuel Johnson, 
 quite unknown to fame. He is walking with Richard Savage. As 
 Signor Handel, the composer of Italian music, passes by. Savage be- 
 comes excited, and nudges his friend, who only takes a languid in- 
 terest in the foreigner. Johnson did not care for music ; of many 
 noises he considered it the least disao-reeable. 
 
 " Toward Charing Cross comes, in shovel hat and cassock, the 
 renowned ecclesiastic. Dean Swift. He has just nodded patronizingly 
 to Bononcini in the Strand and suddenly meets Handel, who cuts him 
 dead. Nothing disconcerted, the Dean moves on muttering his famous 
 
 epigram : 
 
 ' Sorae say that Signor Bononcini, 
 Compared to Handel, is a niun_y ; 
 While others vow that to him Handel 
 Is hardly lit to hold a candle. 
 Strange that such difierenccs should he 
 'Twixt tweedledum and tweedledee.' x 
 
 " As Handel enters ' Turk's Head,' at the corner of Regent street, 
 a noble coach and four drove up; it is the Duke of Chandos, who is 
 inquiring for Mr. Pope; presently a deformed little man in an iron- 
 grey suit, and a face as keen as a razor, hobbles out, makes a low bow 
 to the burly Handel, who, helping him into the chariot, gets in after 
 him, and they drive off together to Cannons, the Duke's mansion at 
 Edge ware There they meet Mr. Addison, the poet Gay, and the witty 
 Arbuthnot, who have been asked to luncheon. The last number of 
 the /Sjyectato?' lies on the table, and a brisk discussion soon arises be- 
 tween Pope and Addison concerning the merits of the Italian Opera, in 
 which the poet would have the better, if he only knew a little more 
 about music, and could keep his temper."
 
 GEORGE FREDEIUCK HANDEL. 151 
 
 The Duke had a private chapel, and a])pointed Ilaiidel organist 
 in place of Di\ Pepuscli, who retired with very good grace belore one 
 so manifestly his superior. The Duke's chapel became a very fashion- 
 able Sunday resort of those who wanted to worship God in great com- 
 pany and hear Mr. Handel play the organ. While in this position 
 Handel composed what were called the " Chandos Anthems," nuniljering 
 over a hundred pieces. These are interesting as marking his transi- 
 tion towards the oratorio ; but they are never performed now, except 
 for their historical interest. During his residence at Cannons, which 
 extended to 1721, Handel composed his oratorio of " Esther." 
 
 In 1720 Handel was engaged by a societ}'' of noblemen to com- 
 pose operas for the Royal Academy of Music at the Haymarket, of 
 which '■'• Radamistus'''' was one of the tlrst fruits; on this followed 
 '•'•Flor'idante'''' in 1721 and '■'■Oito'''' in 1753 — the latter being considered 
 the flower of his dramatic works. Of the favorite air "xVffani del pen- 
 sier," Dr. Pepusch remarked, "The great bear was certainly inspired 
 when he wrote that song." This career of activity went on with full 
 tide of fashionable favor for four years, including seven more operas. 
 Then the fashion changed. At a rival theatre Dr. Pepusch brought 
 out 'The Beggar's Opera,' composed of all sorts of bits from every 
 source including much from Handel himself, and all the public went to 
 laugh at and enjoy it. 
 
 Not disheartened, Handel posted off to Italy to get a supply of 
 the best singers, determined to "fight it out on that line." But fash- 
 ion is a fickle goddess, and it was many a struggling year before tough 
 old Handel saw her smiling face again. New and better operas were 
 o;iven with new and good clothes ; but the ])ublic did not respond. 
 Giving operas with Italian singers is apt to try one's temper, as jx^haps 
 Messrs. Maretzek, Strakosch and Grau could inform us if they would. 
 It is related that at a rehearsal, after repeated signs of insubordiiuition 
 that had terribly tried the composer's irascible temper, the famous Cuz- 
 zoni finally declined to sing " Falsa Immagine." Handel exploded at 
 last. "He flew at the wretched woman and shook her like a rat. 'Ah! 
 1 always knew you were a fery tefil,' he cried ; and T shall now let 
 you know that I am Beelzebub, the prince of te tefilsl' and dragging 
 her to the open window, was just on the point of ])ilching her into the 
 street, when, in every sense of the woi-d she recanted.*" 
 
 The struo-o-le ao;ainst fate lasted until about 1741. In 1732, we 
 read that '-'• HeHtei\ an English oratorio, was performed six tinu?s, and 
 very full." Within the next seven years he wrote sixteen operas and 
 
 •Music and Morals.
 
 152 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 five oratorios. Still, with strange blindness, Handel could not see 
 that the public had done with his operas. He wrote ballet music 
 (fancy Handel writing music for "the Black Crook" or "the Field of 
 the Cloth of Gold") and lavished immense sums in scenery, " new 
 clothes " and properties. But it was all in vain. In eight years he 
 lost £10,000 in opera and was obliged to suspend payment and close 
 the theatre. With failing health he betook himself, sick, discouraged 
 and mad, to Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1727 he was much amended and re- 
 turned to Engla,nd, as Mr. Havveis suggests, "not like Mozart from 
 Baden, to write his ow^n requiem, but some one's else." It was the 
 funeral anthem in memory of Queen Caroline that claimed his atten- 
 tion. 
 
 Resolute still, he tried the opera again, producing three successively; 
 but each failed worse than the last. Still many were true to him. 
 King George II, paid him well for his work, and taught the Prince of 
 AVales (afterwards George IV) to love his music. " Southey tells us 
 that Handel asked the boy, then quite a child, who was listening very 
 earnestly to his playing, if he liked the music, and when the little prince 
 expressed his delight, ' A good boy! a good boy!' cried Handel. ' You 
 shall protect my fame when I am dead.' " The best writers, too, stood 
 up manfully for Handel. Such were Gay, Arbuthnot, Hughes, Colley 
 Cibber, Pope, Fielding, Hogarth and Smollett. " These were the men 
 who kept their fingers on the pulse of the age ; they gauged Handel 
 accurately, and they were not wrong. At a time when others jeered 
 at Handel's oratorios, these men wrote them up ; when the tide of fine 
 society ebbed, and left Handel high and dry on the boards of a deserted 
 theatre, they occupied the pit ; when he gave his benefit concert they 
 bought the tickets, and when his operas failed, they immediately sub- 
 scribed and had them en^•raved."* 
 
 The people, also, were true to Handel. His music was played by 
 bands everywhere throughout the kingdom. He became very popu- 
 lar as a player, and at every oratorio performance performed one or 
 two "new organ concertos." The vear 1739 was a verv active one for 
 Handel; in it he produced the oratorios of " Saul," " Alexander's Feast," 
 and "Israel in Egypt." The latter is truly a colossal work, containing 
 twentv-seven choruses, nearly all of which are double, that is, written 
 for two choirs. This work has been given by the Boston Handel and 
 Haydn Society several times, and perhaps elsewhere in this country. 
 It is very grand, but many regard it as somewhat tedious on account of the 
 preponderance of choruses. This succession of such mighty choruses 
 
 *Music and Morals, p. 167.
 
 GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 153 
 
 has always struck musicians with wonder. Mendelssohn regarded it as 
 somethiniz; almost suoerhuinau. In the letters from 1833 to 1847, Men- 
 delssoliii recounts the use he made of a part of this oratorio in an en- 
 tertainment of music and tableaux given at Dusseldorf, in honor of the 
 Ci'own Prince. " Thev took place in the great hall of the Academy 
 where a stage was erected. In front was the double cliorus (about 
 ninety voices altogether) standing in two semi-circles around mv Eng- 
 lish piano; and in the room, seats for four hundred spectators. R 
 
 in mediiBval costume interpreted the whole affair, and contrived, very 
 cleverly, to combine the different objects in spite of their disparity. 
 "He exhibited three transparencies: 1st. 'Melancholy,' after 
 Durer, a motette of Lotti'Sibeino- o-iven by men's voices in the far distance: 
 then the Raphael, with the Virgin appearing to him in a vision, to 
 which the 'O Sanctissima' was sung (a well known song, but which 
 always makes ]:)eople cry); thirdly, St. Jerome in his tent, with a song 
 of Weber's '■ Mor'' tots, Warhcit.'' This was the first part. Now 
 came the best of all. We besran from the very beo-inninfi: of ' Israel 
 in Egypt.' Of course you know the first recitative, and how the chorus 
 gradually swells in tone ; first the voices of the alti are heard alone, 
 then more voices join in, till the loud passage comes with single chords, 
 'They sighed,' etc. ( in G minor), when the curtain rose and displayed 
 tlie first tableau, ' The Children of Israel in Bondage,' designed and 
 arranged by Bendeman. In the foreground was Moses, gazing dream- 
 ily into the distance in sorrowful ajmthy; beside him an old man sink- 
 ms. into the ground under the vveio-ht of a beam, while his son makes 
 an effort to release him from it; in the background some beautiful 
 figures with uplifted arms, a few weeping children in the foreground — 
 the whole scene closely crowded together like a mass of fugitives. 
 This remained visible till the close of the first chorus; and wlien it 
 ended in C minor the curtain at the same moment dropped over the 
 bright picture. A finer effect T scarcely ever saw. 
 
 "The chorus then sansr 'The Plasrues,' 'Hail Darkness' and -The 
 First-Born,' without any tableaux, but at the chorus 'lie Led Them 
 Out Like Sheep,' the curtain rose again, when Moses was seen in the 
 foreground, with raised staff, and behind him, in gay tumult, the same fig- 
 ures who in the first tableaux were mourning, now all pressing onwards 
 ladened with gold and silver vessels; one vouns: girl (also by Bende- 
 man) was especially lovely, who, with her pilgrim's staff, seemed as if 
 advancina: from the side scenes and about to cross tlie stage. Then 
 came the choruses ao-ain, without any tableaux, 'But the Waters.' 
 'He rebuked the Red Sea,' ' Thy Right Hand, O Lord,' and the recita-
 
 154 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 tive 'And Miriam, the Prophetess,' at the close of which the solo so- 
 prano appeared. At the same moment the last tableau was uncovered 
 — Miriam with a silver timbrel sounding praises to the Lord, and other 
 maidens with harps and citherns, and in the background four men 
 with trombones pointing in different directions. The soprano solo was 
 sung beliind the scenes, as if proceeding from the picture, and when 
 the chorus came in J'orte vea,l trombones and trumpets and kettle drums 
 were brought on the stage and burst in like a thunderclap. Handel 
 evidently intended this effect * * * " 
 
 In 1741 Handel composed his master work, "The Messiah," in 
 seventeen days. P''or a detailed criticism on this work and the "Judas 
 Maccabeus" I have no place. It must suffice to say of " The Messiah" 
 that certain numbers of it are masterpieces of the most precious quality. 
 Even the quaint and curious " And He Shall Pui'ify" is one of the 
 most characteristic morceaux to be found in the whole chorus repertory. 
 The " Hallelujah " chorus is now everywhere known. Still those who • 
 have never heard this chorus with hundreds of voices, full orchestra 
 and organ, have not yet heard HandeTs " Hallelujah," but only a part 
 thereof. It is generally known that Mozart added new wind parts to 
 the score of the "Messiah." These additions in this chorus fill up 
 seven staves, and impart a characteristic splendor to this noble crea- 
 tion, which the orchestra in HandeFs time could not attain.* 
 
 There is no doubt in my mind that- Handel was helped in the 
 " Messiah " very much by the text, which contains the most inspiring 
 passages to be found in all literature; besides, in his other works he 
 only rarely rises to the heights he reaches in this one. 
 
 " The Messiah " was first produced in Dublin in 1742, for a charita- 
 ble purpose, and it is interesting to note that this oratorio has con- 
 tributed more money in charity, first and last, than any other work of 
 art whatever. The production of these great oratorios was the turning 
 point in Handel's fortunes. He speedily paid off his debts, and with- 
 in the next seventeen years accumulated a handsome fortune. His 
 last oratorio was " Jephtha," written in 1751, about which time he began 
 to be blind, from the affection known as gutta serena. He was couched 
 several times, but he finally lost his sight entirely. He continued 
 to give oratorio performances, at intervals, until about a week before 
 his death. He died in London, Good Friday, April 14, 1759, in his 
 seventv-fifth vear. His larcje proiiertv, amounting^ to somethins^ like 
 
 i' *' Oil./-' t~ o 
 
 £50,000 was all bequeathed to charitable institutions. Handel was 
 
 *(Tliose curious in this matter can obtain the full orchestral score of "The Messiah," in the 
 Peters' edition, incliuling Mozart's additions for about tliree dollars.)
 
 GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL. 155 
 
 never married, had no vices except an irasci])Ie temper, and seems never 
 to have been in love but once. 
 
 As an organist, he was of the greatest eminence. The clearness 
 with which he expressed his ideas, the dignity of his musical thought, 
 so well suited to the organ, together with his decision and spirit as a 
 performer, combined to make him immensely successful. 
 
 It is diflicult to define the relative rank <jf Handel and Bach 
 as great masters, and to weigh their influence on the course of 
 musical development since. As Brendel well says, they were the cul- 
 mination of musical progress in their age, but they represented oppo- 
 site poles. Bach was a quiet home-body, writing always in a higlily 
 subjective manner out of the depths of his own feeling. Although the 
 greatest organist of his times, and often listened to by kings and lords, 
 he did not allow himself to change from the ideal of art that was con- 
 genial to his nature. Handel on the other hand, a bustling, energetic 
 man, of a truly cosmopolitan taste, had it always for his task to please 
 and attract the masses. Resources were not wantins^. He controlled 
 for nearly forty years the best singers and players in the world. His 
 genius had every thing to favor it. To a German honesty and depth 
 (jf artistic conception he united the Italian art of clear expression; yet 
 all this with no sacrifice of the nobilitv of his art, and for a ixenius of 
 such composition, England, the land of common sense, was, of all others, 
 the field of action. Handel has done more to make the musical art 
 respected by the public generally than any other composer. Bach has 
 been the inspiration of musicians. Bach and Handel are the corner 
 stones of Modern Music. 
 
 Handel was pre-eminently a composer of vocal music. In his 
 recitatives he attains a dignified and truly musical declamation of the 
 text, as we already saw in Chapter XXXVIII, and occasionally rises to 
 true pathos. In his arias he is frequently diff"use. The leading motive 
 is too many times turned over. Yet this fault is wellnigh universal in 
 the classical aria, which is, as we know, merely a prolongation of a 
 single moment in the dramatic movement. Besides, this prolixity only 
 gave more opportunity to the prima doruia. At other times, however, 
 his arias are not too long, even for the rapid age we live in. In very 
 many of them we find a close relation Ijetween the text and the music, 
 and always a careful consideration for the voice. His style, although 
 melodious and thus far Italian, was distinguished for its contrapuntal 
 spirit, and its elevation and dignity, and was therefore especially suited 
 to the oratorio. In his choruses he rises to the highest points yet 
 reached in this form of art. Of this one finds very many examples, of
 
 156 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 which the "Hallelujah," '-The Horse and His Rider," "The Hail- 
 stone Chorus," " Lift up Your Heads," and "Worthy is the Lamb" 
 are known to all. His instrumental music is not so important. It is 
 melodious, and of course well written, but in general somewhat diffuse. 
 Even his famous organ concertos do not escape the charge of being 
 commonplace. 
 
 Programme of Handel Illustrations. 
 
 1. {Moderately Difficult, Employing the Piano and Soprano.) 
 
 1. Fugue in E minor (" Fire Fugue"). 
 
 2. "As when the dove laments her love," from "Acis and Galatea." Soprano. 
 
 3. Pastoral symphony, from " Messiah." 
 
 4. " How beautiful are the Feet " (from " Messiah"). Soprano. 
 
 5. Air and Variations in E, " The Harmonious Blacksmith." 
 
 6. Aria, "Lasciach' io Pianga," from "Riuaklo." 
 
 7. a. Minuet from Samson. 
 h. Chaconne in F. 
 
 c. March from occasional Oratorio. 
 
 8. "I know that my Redeemer liveth." Soprano. 
 
 9. Hallelujah Chorus from the "Messiah." 
 
 (3. Employing Soprano, Alto, Tenor, and Chorus loilh Piano-forte.) 
 
 1. a. "Comfort ye mj^ people." 
 
 b. Every Valley shall be exalted. Tenor Solo. 
 
 c. Chorus "And the Glory of the Lord." 
 
 2. a. INIinuet from Samson. 
 
 b. March from Joshua. 
 
 c. Air Bour(5e and Double. Arr. by Mason. The Piano-forte. 
 
 3. "Hope in the Lord," Arr. by Mason. Soprano. 
 
 4. " O thou that tellest," from " Messiah." Alto solo and Chorus. 
 
 5. a. "Thy rebuke hath broken his heart." 
 
 b. " Behold and see if there be any sorrow." Tenor. 
 
 c. " But Thou didst not leave his soul in hell." From the " Messiah." 
 
 6 "How beautiful are the Feet." Soprano. 
 
 7 Hallelujah Chorus, or "Worthy is the Lamb."
 
 FRANCIS JOSEPH HAYDN. 157 
 
 CHxVPTEE FORTY -FOUR. 
 
 FRANCIS JOSEPH HAYDN. 
 
 Up to the time of which I am now about to write, the great crea- 
 tive geniuses, Handel and Bach, had devoted their efforts to vocal 
 music; instrumental music had received a certain amount of attention, 
 it is true, and the organ especially was carried no further until the time 
 of Mendelssohn. But althouo;h Bach and Handel were not altosretlier 
 above playfulness, it was of a sort essentially masculine and earnest. 
 The light and easy-going spirit of modern society, which chiefly culti- 
 vates instrumental music, formed no part of Bach or Handel's nature, 
 and hence it has no expression in their works. Nevertheless, what they 
 had done went far to render instrumental -music possible, as they im- 
 ])arted to music a degree of emotional coloring entirely unknown before 
 their time. At the hands of Handel, also, melody had assumed more 
 definite form. Both these men, also, were able to develop a musical 
 thought in a purely musical spirit (that is, independently from words, 
 and influenced simply by conditions of syiPimetry and contrast, as well 
 as unity) to a masterly degree, which has never been surpassed. One 
 of Bach's sons, Carl Philip Emanuel, began the career of instrumental 
 music. He was wonderfully gifted in the art of improvising, for which 
 he was amply qualified by the thorough training he liad received from 
 his father. Emanuel Bach was the father of the Sonata. 
 
 In March, 1T32, in the village of Rohrau (not far from Vienna), a 
 certain wheelwright, of a musical turn, was blessed with a dark and 
 perhaps rather scrawny little son, to whom was given the name of 
 Francis Joseph Haydn. Papa Haydn played a little on the organ and 
 harp, and sang with a fine tenor voice. . Sunday afternoons, when his 
 official duties as sexton were over, he was accustomed to have a sort of 
 concert with the aid of his wife. The little Francis Joseph was an 
 interested assistant at these domestic celebrations, and soon learned to 
 add his own pioing little voice to the family concerts. x\t an earh' age 
 he went to Hamburg with his cousin Frank, who promised to teach 
 him music and Latin. When vet hardlv eio-ht vears old the vouno'ster 
 became celebrated as a choir-boy, and veiy soon lie was captured by
 
 158 HOW TO UNDEKSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 Reuter, the director of the music at St. Stephen's Church in Vienna, 
 who used to make frequent tours in search of promising voices for his 
 choir. Haydn afterwards said that all the time he was with Renter 
 (over ten years), never a day passed in which he did not practise from 
 sixteen to eighteen hours, although the boys were practically their own 
 masters, only being obliged to practice two hours. 
 
 When thirteen years old he composed a mass, which to his great 
 chao-rin was niercilesslv ridiculed by Renter. Havdn presentlv saw 
 that a knowledge of harmony and counterpoint was essential to success 
 in composition. But who would teach a penniless choir boy ? For 
 Haydn was absolutely as poor as poverty itself. Bread and cheese and 
 an annual suit of clothes he had to be sure, but the authorities of St. 
 Stephen's Church in Vieinia preserved their choir boys as carefully 
 from " the deceitfulness of riches," as many churches do their ministers 
 now-a-days. But genius is indefatigable. Haydn found a copy of a 
 treatise on counterpoint by Fux, in a second-hand bookstore, and by 
 some desperate expedient contrived to get possession of it. Now Fux's 
 book is in Latin, and not in the clearest form. But Haydn knew there 
 were worse things in the world than bad Latin, and one of these was 
 ignorance. So he " pegged away" at it, like the plucky little man he 
 was, lying a-bed in cold days to keep warm, taking his diurnal portion 
 of the sorry old book as conscientiously as he did his daily mass and 
 diinier. About the time he had begun to get easy on the subject of 
 counterpoint, Providence sent him another lesson. 
 
 In the suite of the Venetian ambassador at Vienna was the great 
 Italian master and singer, Nicolo Porpora. Now Porpora was a crusty 
 old person, and was not a man who at all looked like taking up -a pro- 
 tege in the shape of a seedy looking little choir boy. But if Porpora 
 did not know Haydn, Haydn did know Porpora, and that he was the 
 same great master who had been brought over to London to rival the 
 mighty Handel, just now in the very glory of his fame. So Haydn got 
 up early, cleaned the boots, brushed the coat, and curled the wig of the 
 amiable master, whose only recognition of these services was a mut- 
 tered "^/ho'," when Haydn entered the room. But, as Sara Slick dis- 
 covered, " soft soap " will tell if persevered in, and when to these 
 civilities was added the fact that they were gratis^ and when the boy 
 had proved himself so useful in accompanying some of Porpora's songs, 
 which the beauteous lady of the ambassador was fond of singing — at 
 last the severity began to relent, and Haydn got many a word of sound 
 advice, and with it the Italian taste in singing. Presently the ambas- 
 sador recognized the young man's progress by a pension of fifteen
 
 FRANCIS JOSEPH IIAVDN. 15<j 
 
 dollars a month, and a seat at the secretaries' table. Haydn was lunv 
 lull ol" activdty; as soon as it was light he made haste to the Church ot" 
 the Father of Mercy, where he played first violin; from thence he 
 hastened to the chapel of Count Haug-witz, where he played the organ; 
 afterwards he sang the tenor at St. Stephen's. He then returned liome 
 and finished out the day at his piano. If there is any one lesson that 
 the early lives of these composers teach more plainly than another, it is 
 that laziness is not a sign of genius. Hard toork is an indispensable 
 condition of success in any business that is woi-th following. Haydn's 
 voice l)roke when he was nineteen years old, and he found himself 
 without employment. A wig-maker named Keller kindly received 
 him as a son, and in this house Haydn gave himself more decidedly 
 to composition. When he was twenty he published six instrumental 
 trios, which attracted general attention. The individuality of his talent 
 was more fully confirmed by his first quartette, which soon followed. 
 Presently he left the house of Keller, and found a boarding place with 
 a Mr. Martinez, on condition of his giving piano and singing lessons to 
 his two daughters. In the same house lived the poet Metastasio, who, 
 being fond of music, took Haydn into his friendship, having him daily 
 to dinner and good converse. In this way Haydn picked up a great 
 deal of o-eneral knowledo;e and some Italian, affording:, I daresay, with 
 his simple German nature, fully as much as he gave. 
 
 In 1758 he entered the employment of Count Mortzin, as leader 
 of his orchestra. In this capacity some of his works attracted the at- 
 tention of old Prince Esterhazy, who in 17G0 appointed him Jcapell- 
 meister. The old gentleman died a year after,, but Haydn continued 
 for thirty years in the service of his son Nicholas, who died in 1790. 
 Within the ten years previous to this appointment, he had composed 
 his opera "The Devil on Two Sticks," a number of quartettes and 
 trios, and just now his first symphony, and here he is twenty-eight 
 years old. Yet this short list of works was by no means all Haydn had 
 written. He had produced an immense mass of pieces of every kind, 
 wliich had merely served the purpose of giving him that facility of 
 expression, that mastery over the technics of his art, without which a 
 genius, however highly gifted, is curtailed in the most promising 
 flights. 
 
 .The thirty years that followed were monotonous in the extreme. 
 About two months of every year were spent in Vienna; the other ten 
 at the prince's quiet Hungarian estates. Haydn produced an enormous 
 list of pieces, many of them of great beauty. They comprise 119 sym- 
 phonies, 83 quartettes, 21 trios, 19 operas, 15 masses, 163 compositions
 
 160 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 for barytone (Prince Esterhazy's favorite instrument), 44 pianoforte 
 sonatas, etc. 
 
 Haydn appears to have been unconscious of the immense reputa- 
 tion he had achieved throughout Europe, and was never more aston- 
 ished than when, soon after Prince Esterhazy's death, a stranger burst 
 into his room, saying, " I am Salomon of London, and am come to carry 
 you off with nie; we will strike a bargain to-morrow." "Oh, papa," 
 said the youthful Mozart, "you have had no education for the wide, 
 wide world, and you speak too few languages." "Oh, my language," 
 replied the papa with a smile, " is understood all over the world." 
 And so at the age of sixty, in the full maturity of his powers, came 
 Haydn to London. Here in little more than a year he wrote six 
 new symphonies, and many other smaller things. These symphonies 
 were brought out as novelties, Haydn conducting in person, seated at 
 the piano. 
 
 The bustle of London and the favor with which he was received 
 struck Haydn favorably. "He tells us* how he enjoyed himself at the 
 civic feast in company with William Pitt, Lord Chancellor, and the 
 Duke of Lids (Leeds). He says, after dinner the highest nobility — 
 i.e. the Lord Mayor and his wife (!) — were seated on a throne. Li 
 another room, the gentlemen, as usual, drank freely all night; and the 
 songs and the crazy uproar and the smashing of glasses were very 
 great. The oil lamps smelt terribly, and the dinner cost £6,000. He 
 went down to stay with the Prince of Wales (George IV.), and Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds painted his portrait. The Prince played the violon- 
 cello not badly, and charmed Haydn by his affability. 'He is the 
 handsomest man on God's earth. He has an extraordinary love of 
 music, and a great deal of feeling, ])ut very little money.' From the 
 palace he passed to the laboratory and v/as introduced to Herschel, in 
 whom he was delighted to find an old ob5e player. The big telescope 
 astonished him, so did the astronomer. 'He often sits out of doors in 
 the most intense cold for five or six hours at a time.'" 
 
 In 1792 Haydn returned to Vienna, where he brought out his new 
 symphonies. In 1795 he was back again in London, and earned no less 
 than 12,000 florins (five or six thousand dollars). He bought him a 
 little home near Vienna, where he passed the remnant of his days in 
 peace and quiet. In 1795 he began, and in 1798 finished his cantata 
 or oratorio " The Creation," which we commonly speak of as his greatest 
 work. Haydn died at the age of seventy-seven, in 1809, and was 
 buried in the cemetery of Gumpfendorf, Vienna. 
 
 * " Music and Morals."
 
 FRANCIS JOSEPH HAYDN. 16L 
 
 Haydn's works number about eight buiulred, many of them of 
 small value, yet all finished with great care. I hardly know whether 
 in strict iustice we ouo-ht to accord Havdu the s-reater honor as a vocal 
 or instrumental composer; for, although his woi'ks in the line of cham- 
 ber music and symphony have exercised the greatest influence upon 
 composers, his "Creation" has been very influential (in this country at 
 least) in educating the taste of the ]>ul)lic. It is the one oratorio that 
 receives the earliest attention of amateur societies, a pre-eminence it 
 well deserves from the grace and sweetness of its ideas, and the elegance 
 with which they are worked out. And although " The Creation " ap- 
 pears somewhat childlike and bland, for a work in severe style (espe- 
 cially when compared with Handel's " Messiah " or " Israel," Bach's 
 " Passion's Music," or even Mendelssohn's " Elijah"), we can nt)t dcMiy 
 the consummate grace of the lovely airs " With verdure clad," and 
 "On mighty pens," or the almost operatic sweetness of the trio "On 
 thee each living soul awaits," and the concerted duet " By thee with 
 bliss." " The heavens are tellino- " has been universallv a fav- 
 orite. 
 
 Nevertheless the critic turns from this work, wliich in everv trait 
 except grace and sweetness has been far surpassed, to the quartettes; 
 and here, as the conditions have remained substantially the same from 
 his time until now, Haydn has not been so far out-ranked. Mozart had 
 a livelier imagination, Beethoven and Schumann more of Bach's 
 earnestness. Haydn's music, even in its most elaborate moments, is 
 simple in its essential nature — the expression of a child-like, contented 
 soul, so completely well bred as almost to seem never to ha-ve required 
 training. 
 
 As an orchestral writer Haydn made enormous advances. He 
 gave the symphony the systematic development of the sonata form, in- 
 troduced many new combinations, atid established the type of the 
 Andante cantahile movement, which Mozart and Beethoven afterwards 
 carried to so great a perfection. 
 
 His pianoforte compositions sound narrow and old fasliioned. 
 
 In the mere fact of producing so much of a somewhat uniform 
 texture, Haydn did a great deal for the cultivation of instrumental 
 music. He seems always to have had a singularly accurate idea of the 
 practical and the available. We may be sure both that he was a 
 pleasant man to get along with, and an agreeable writer, or he would 
 not have remained so long in one position. 
 
 Haydn attached small importance to the actual substance of the 
 germinal ideas in his works. He had such consummate art that he 
 il
 
 .162 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 could work up the most commonplace ideas into an attractive and 
 beautiful whole. Hesaid^A^^ ireattne/it was every tluug. 
 
 List of Haydn Illustrations. 
 
 {Employing Soprano, Tenor, Bass, and the Pianoforte.) 
 
 1. Sonata in E flat. 
 
 2. " My Mother Bids me Bind my Hair," Soprano. 
 
 3. Minuet in C (Oxen Minuet). 
 
 4. " In Native Worth," Tenor. 
 
 5. Variations on " God Save the Emperor" (Haydn Album, p. 38). 
 
 6. " Now Heaven in Fullest Glory Shone," Bass. 
 
 7. Symphony in D for four hands (No. 5 Peters' Edition). 
 
 8. Trio, " On Thee each Living Soul Awaits," Soprano, Tenor, and Bass. 
 
 CHAPTER FORTY-FIVE. 
 
 MOZART. 
 
 Rarely does it fall to the lot of a writer to undertake a more genial 
 task than to sketch the short life of WoUgang- Amadeus Mozart, born 
 at Salzburg, about a hundred miles from Vienna, January 27, 175G — a 
 life of such marvellous richness as to give to a sober account the air of 
 liveliest romance. Bach had died only si. x years before. Handel was 
 in his old age and blindness, and died three years later ; Haydn was in 
 the very pinch of his hardest fortunes, living in the house with Metas- 
 tasio, as previously recorded. Yet these proximities of dates look far 
 more significant to us now than they could have looked a hundred years 
 ago; for tlien there were many other composers of great talents who 
 contested with these giants the claim to immortality. The century 
 that has intervened has been very busy in analyzing and sifting their 
 productions, and tliis has finally resulted in giving due honor to these 
 great ones, who the more they have been weighed in the balance have 
 proven themselves the more worthy. 
 
 Leopold Mozart, the father, was himself a musician of marked 
 talent. He published an instruction book for tlie violin and held a place 
 as court musician with the Arciibisiiop of Salzburg. When "Wolfgang 
 was three years old his talent for music began to manifest itself. 
 When he was four years old he could play a number of minuets and
 
 , MOZxVRT. 163 
 
 the like, and learned with wonderful facility. He found out for himself 
 thirds and other concords. When yet under six years old his father 
 found him one day writing something which he called a "concerto for 
 the harpsicliord." The father of course laughed at such a work by a 
 mere baby, but the little fellow insisted that it was really a concerto, 
 and on examination it proved to be written strictly according to rule, 
 although so overloaded with difficulties as to be impossible. When a 
 little over six years old he performed at the court of Francis I., at 
 Munich, with his eldest sister, where his wonderful gifts excited the 
 greatest astonishment. Still it is but just to say that child-virtuosity 
 was of much easier attainment then than now, for the pianos of that day 
 were very small, the touch light, and the compositions in vogue were of 
 an amiable and unimpassioned character. 
 
 Presently young Wolfgang learned the violin, and surprised his 
 father by playing correctly in a quartette. Of anecdotes of this kind 
 the Mozart biographies are full. Suffice it to say, that during his first 
 twelve years his talent shone out brighter and brighter, and on all 
 hands he received the warmest approbation, yet he never became a 
 spoiled child. He was of a gentle, confiding disposition, of a sweet 
 and even temper, fond of play — a queer compound of manly talent and 
 skill with childish tastes and habits. He spent some three years in 
 traveling, visiting France, England and Holland — his public life as a 
 youthful virtuoso being supplemented by regular and daily studies in 
 musical theory, and the regular branches of a polite education, [nthis 
 way he learned French, Latin and Italian. In 1767 or so he visited 
 Vienna, and composed a small opera, which, however, was never per- 
 formed. By the command of the Emperor, he wrote a mass for the 
 dedication of the new Waisenhaus cimrch, and conducted with baton 
 in hand. When scarcely twelve 3'ears old, he was appointed concert- 
 meister by the Archbishop of Salzburg, and within the next year wrote 
 a number of masses. 
 
 But his father was anxious that Wolfgans; should become known 
 in Italy, which was at that time the fountain of musical inspiration. So 
 in December, 17G9, they set off for Italy, staying some months in Rome, 
 Bologna, Florence Milan, etc. The Pope made him a " knight of the 
 golden spur." 
 
 The most significant triumph of this tour was his admission as a 
 member of the Philharmonic Academy of Bologna, at that time the 
 highest musical authoritv in the world. At its head was the learned 
 contrapuntist. Father Martini, and at his right hand the great singer, 
 Farinelli, also a learned musician. These men and the members of
 
 164 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. . 
 
 the Academy generally recognized Mozart's genius as a performer, but 
 no one could believe that a boy of twelve could pass triumphantly 
 through the severe tests in counterpoint required of candidates for ad- 
 mission. Nevertheless, Padre Martini rightly judged that the extreme 
 youth of Mozart made it necessary that his admission to the distin- 
 guished honor of membership should be justihed to the world by the 
 severest tests ever assigned. This task was the composition for four 
 voices of oneof the canticles of the Roman A)diphonariinn. The work 
 was to be treated according to severe rules, and performed within three 
 hours in a locked-up room — the Academy waiting as patiently as they 
 mio-ht in order to judge the work as soon as it was accomplished. Men 
 who rea-arded themselves great masters had often failed in this task, con- 
 sumino- the whole time in the production of a few lines. It was there- 
 fore with no small misgivings that Father Martini delivered to the hope- 
 ful Mozart the task which was to announce his manhood in the most 
 difficult department of musical theory. But great was his surprise, when 
 after little more than a half hour the beadle came in saying that the 
 young Mozart declared himself ready to be let out, having finished the 
 task. 
 
 " Impossible !" said many of the members. " In the hundred 
 years the Academy had been established such a case had never occur- 
 red." Nevertheless, when the committee, proceeded to Mozart's room 
 they received from him a manuscript, written in his usual neat and 
 delicate hand; and after careful scrutiny they were compelled to admit 
 that it contained no faults whatever. I may add that it took the old 
 doctors about an hour to go through the paper thoroughly enough to 
 convince themselves that Mozart's rapid work was faultless. The young 
 composer was then led in, and the whole Academy greeted him with 
 hearty applause, and recognized in him an accomplished Maestro^ and 
 a Knight of Harmony. 
 
 Now, the gratifying point of this transaction is, that this highly 
 gifted boy, traveling from place to place, playing in public almost 
 daily, found time for such thorough study as to be able at the childish 
 age of twelve to meet and conquer the most learned theorists on their 
 own o-round. And better than this, he does not seem to have been 
 puffed up by his success; to him it was not difficult, and while proud of 
 the commendation of these learned men, and of having proven himself 
 a master, we find his letters just as simple, and child-like, and modest 
 as before. 
 
 After this Italian tour Mozart returned to Salzburg, which, how- 
 ever, he soon left for Munich. But his future ups and downs we have
 
 IVrOZAIiT. 105 
 
 not room to follow; for, unlike Bacli, Ilundel and Haydn, whose lives 
 embraced long periods of twenty years and more passed in one ])lace, 
 Mozart was rarely mort^ liian a few years in a place, except his last ten 
 years, which ho spent in Vienna. It is the more difficult to bring his 
 life into a sketch from the fact that he went much into society, and has 
 left on record a large collection of letters which give a very graphic 
 picture of life at tliat time. These letters fill two volumes, and are well 
 worth reading. The little book called "Mozart's Early Days," lately 
 published, gives a very lively and entertaining account of his life up to 
 the time of his triumpli in tlie Bohjgna Academy. Lee & Shepard also 
 publish a book — " Mozart and Mendelssohn " — which not only gives a 
 succinct account of his life, but a o-reat deal of interesting information 
 about his music. To these sources I beg to refer the reader for the 
 details of Mozart's marriage and later life, assuring them that only in 
 the life of Mendelssohn dcj we find equally rich musical materials. 
 
 In 1779 Mozart produced his opera, " Idomeneo," the first upon 
 which his present fame rests. It was followed during the next ten 
 years by "The Marriage of Figaro," "Don .luaii,'"' and "The Magic 
 Flute," which comprise his master-])ieces in this department of com- 
 position. These operas showed a marked advance over similar works 
 of preceding composers, chiefly in their wealth of imagination and fancy, 
 and especially in their geniality. They were in the first place tauslral 
 to a high degree, and this in spite of the unquestionabUi science dis- 
 played in the concerted pieces. What was the state of music as left 
 by Mozart's predecessors? Handel gave a clear form to melody, 
 but we rarely (md liim successful in avoiding prolixity. His greatest 
 sono-s are open to this charg(>. lu the line of delicate sentiment he was 
 also out of his element to a degree not always admitted by his admirers. 
 He was fully successful only in a certain rude and genial energy, and 
 in setting passages of such overpowering emotional import as to carry 
 him beyond himself. In such airs as, "Oil, ruddier than the cherry," 
 we find, to be sur(;, freshness to the last degree gratifying, yet it is not 
 sentimental music. 
 
 Haydn, as we have already seen, developed musical life as such; 
 for, in his manifold symphonies and quartettes, we find musical motives 
 worked out in a manner at once elegant and musical, and essentiallv 
 independent of words for their explanation. At the same time, Haydn 
 was simply genial and good natural iiwd not, in a high degree, ^^oe^^'c or 
 imaginative, still less dramatic. His "Creation," indeed, was written 
 after Mozart's death, and here Haydn l)uilds on Mozait, ni>twithstand- 
 ino- that twelve or fifteen years before Mozart had l)iiilt his first sym- 
 phonies on Haydn's fouiidiition.
 
 lOG now TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 In Mozart's operas we find the orchestra treated with a fullness 
 greater than in the Ilaydn syinijhojiies. An equally masterly working 
 out of jxerminal ideas meets us here, but how chano-ed ! Mozart had 
 rich imagination, and no small amount of the dramatic spirit. He had 
 studied singing thoroughly, and well knew what was suitable for the 
 voice. Still better, he knew what would please the public. And those 
 amateurs who hold up their hands in blind worship of Mozart's operas 
 (as some literary men do of every thing bearing the name of Shake- 
 speare), imagining that he evolved them out of a prophetic inner con- 
 sciousness, a striving after the ideal, with no consideration for the ap- 
 proval of the public of the day, show in this a strange ignorance of the 
 man and his music. What is there in " Figaro," 1 ask, unappreciable 
 by the Prague public of 1787? Nothing at all! Of this the best proof 
 is that it was played the lohole Winter long in that theater where first 
 brought out. It is not the fate of prophetic masterpieces (music of the 
 future) to succeed at once with the theater-going public like that. 
 
 Let it suffice for the operatic fame of Mozart to say that he first 
 wrote melodies of matchless grace (see '■^Vedrai Ccirino^'''' in Don Juan) 
 and the most genial and bewitching sentiment. It was the beautiful 
 especially in its lighter aspects that Mozart came to reveal. These he- 
 witching strains of opera, ground on iiand organs, sung by amateurs, 
 and strummed on pianos the world over, were exactly the new revela- 
 tion needed to render music a household word among all enlio-htened 
 people. 
 
 Mozart's indifference to all but music is further shown by his find- 
 ing himself able to set such objectionable texts as " Figaro" and "Don 
 Juan;" this, as we shall hereafter see, would have been impossible for 
 Beethoven or Mendelssohn, or for any man of sensitive moral earnest- 
 ness. Nor do I find myself able to attribute to Mozart the dramatic 
 ability many think they find in his works. But to discuss this would 
 take me too far. In the opera, then, we see Mozart reaching the 
 highest triumphs of his age, namely, fascinating and individualized 
 melodies, the loveliest instrumentation, and a high degree of dramatic 
 contrast. 
 
 In the symphony his success was almost equally great — although 
 he gives no foreboding of the transition from the purely musical sym- 
 phony of Haydn to the tone-poem symphony of Beetlioven. His great 
 art is in the increased wealth of instrumentation he displayed, more 
 dramatic contrast, and an incomparable elegance and fascination ot 
 style. 
 
 Mozart left a great many string quartettes, duos, etc., of the most
 
 MOZART. 1(J7 
 
 lovely cliaracter. In lliis kiiul of composition he was eminently suc- 
 cessful, as the iiistruuKMits and the spluire of thai kiml of iiiusi(,' were 
 as well understood then as lujw. 
 
 His pianoforte sonatas, though mucli talked aijcnit in school cata- 
 logues and the like, are really old fashioi.ed, narrow and meagre works; 
 ])OSsessing, indeed, beautiful ideas, yet, on the whole, so far inferior to 
 more recent ])rodu('tions as to convey but an extremely imperfect idea 
 of Mozart's real powers. 
 
 Of his church writino- much inia'ht be said. He left a larcfe num- 
 ber of masses, nearly all composed before he was twenty, and, therefore, 
 full of a lively spirit of cheerfulness and hope, but not characterized by 
 the deep and reverent devotion of Bach or Handel. Mozart was not 
 distinctively a relitjious writer, but a worldhj. He was fond of dancing, 
 (jf society, loved every beautiful woman, liked a glass of wine, and in 
 every thing was the opposite of the ascetic, self-forgetful church com- 
 poser. Still, these works contain many beautiful movements, and give 
 another side of the richly endowed Mozart nature. The last of the so- 
 called sacred works was the Requiem^ written shortly before his death, 
 under the circumstances so well known as not to require recounting 
 liere. Tliis '• Mass for the Dead"' is a fittino; climax to the life of the 
 great com[)Oser. 
 
 One of the most useful services of Mozart was the addition of wind 
 and brass parts to the score of Handel's "Messiah'' — a helpful act 
 which has undoubtedly done much to prolong th(^ popidarity of that 
 sublime masterpiece. Mozart died on December D, 1792, at the early 
 ac-e of thirty-five, worn out by hard work and too much society. 
 
 It deserves to be remembered that while this great master was en- 
 dowed by God with a wealth of musical inspiration, so that in iliis re- 
 spect no one has yet surpassed him, iie found time to thoroughly study 
 the works of his predecessors — especially of Bach, Handel, Gliick and 
 Haydn; and thought hims(ilf not above the drudgery of mastering the 
 theoretical principles of his art; and in this way only did he contrive 
 to leave on record such a brilliant list of beautiful creations. 
 
 PROGKANr>rK OF ^loZAItT Tl.I.lSTnATTOXS. 
 
 1. (Employing Soprano tuid Pianoforte). 
 
 1. Hympliony in C, ".Tupitor," for 4 liancb, Tlie Piano. 
 
 2. Air, " Vcdrai Carino" from " Don .luan," Soprano. 
 ;}. Air, " Voi Che Sapcte " from "Figaro," Soprano. 
 
 ■4. a. March from the Magic P^'lutc. 
 
 b. Menuet in E flat, arranged by Schulhoif, Tlic Pianoforte, 
 o. Air, " D.ive Sono'' from " Figaro,'' Soprano. 
 G. The OvcTtar;! to "Figaro" for four Irnuls, The Piano. .i
 
 168 now TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 CHAPTER F0RTY-8IX. 
 
 BEETHOVEN. 
 
 All our studies throughout this course have revolved around 
 Beethoven. His works furnished a part of the illustrations of the very 
 first lesson, and there is scarcely one of the thirty-seven practical les- 
 sons in the present course where his name does not ai:)pear. Not only 
 is this the greatest name in Music, but it is one of the grreatest that 
 has appeared in Art. When men thiid<; of the grace and refinement 
 and incomparable beauty of his work, they call him the Raphael of 
 music, althouofh such a title bv rio-ht should belong to Mozart. When 
 they listen to the Heroic S\^mphony or the Mass in D minor, they 
 call him the Michael Angelo, or the Milton of music. But both these 
 are misnomers. Others call him the Dante of the tone-art, or the 
 Shakespeare. These, also, are unfriutful suggestions. There is no 
 Shakespeare in music, nor can be; the arts are too dissimilar. For 
 the same reason there is no Raphael, nor Tintoret, nor Angelo in tones. 
 Mozart had a grace and sweetness equal to that of Raphael's. But be- 
 sides these qualities there is in Mozart's work a simplicity and unaf- 
 fected naivete peculiar to him. The grandeur and seriousness of 
 Milton exist in music also, and in greater measure, but without the 
 labored and somewhat pedantic form of Milton's phraseology. 
 
 What we do have in Beethoven is a genius of as pure a ray as the 
 world has ever seen. He was not technically the most scientific of 
 great composers. Bach, Handel, Haydn and even the genial and spon- 
 taneous Mozart, wrote smoother counterpoint, and traveled more easily 
 within the lines of fugue. Yet Beethoven knew Music bettor than 
 any of these, and left works which out-rank theirs in every direction 
 except that of purely formal phraseology. AVhat wa^ it then, in which 
 Beethoven excelled? And wherein lies the secret of the estimation in 
 which he is held by the whole civilized world? 
 
 Beethoven's greatness as a composer, and his influence upon tlie 
 develojiment of music since his day, lies in one point, namely, his intui- 
 tion of the relation of music to emotion. As already pointed out, Bach 
 wrote more learnedly, Handel, at times, quite as heartily, Haydn as
 
 BEETHOVEN. 169 
 
 clearly, and Mozart as sweetly; but what JBeethoven does is to avail 
 himself of all these excellencies of form and substance, in order to ex- 
 press feeling through them. The greatest of his predecessors, Bach, 
 also had feeling and expressed it in his Passion Music with great 
 power. But his style* is not easy, the phraseology is too learned. It 
 seems to us cold. The composers after him relapsed his severity, as we 
 have seen. Through Handel, the sons of Bach, Haydn, and Mozart — 
 the World and Art were drawing nearer each other. In Beethoven 
 they coalesce. And so it is the proud pre-eminence of this Master to 
 have expressed his soul in music aS fully and as exclusively as Sliakes- 
 peare expressed his in his jilays, or Raphael in his cartoons, and with 
 ■ such force and range of imagination, and such exquisite propriety of 
 diction, that all the world immediately listens to him. Like all these 
 geniuses of tlie very highest rank, his soul is in his works. His daily 
 life is nothing. He is never a citizen, magistrate, a teacher, a writor, 
 a talker, or a man of property; but alvvays and only a creative Artist. 
 In early life he was, indeed, a virtuoso, not through study and drud- 
 gery, but by sheer force of the overmastering inspiration within him. 
 The world used him, how shall we say? Well, or badly? If we 
 reflect upon his' humble origin, his steady elevation during his life- 
 time into the hio-hest estimation ever accorded a musician and com- 
 poser, his comparative immunity from want or the necessity of drudg- 
 ing toil eitiier in teaching or playing, and this through the ready sale 
 of the productions of his pen — we must say xoell. On the other hand, 
 if we think of his lack of education or early training, his solitary life, 
 his graceless nephew, his deafness and his suspicious and difficult habit 
 of mind, — in these we recognize the unfavorable side of his relation 
 to the world; and when we think that all this befell one whose creations 
 have added delight and beauty to the daily lives, not only of his con- 
 temporaries and compatriots, but to that of the whole civilized world 
 in three generations, we can not hel[) perceiving here a certain disso- 
 nance the resolution of which we are not able to trace. 
 
 It is our difficult task, therefore, to outline the life of this man, to 
 describe his surroundings and personal peculiarities, and to trace his 
 mode of outward life, so as to bring him before our minds in sume re- 
 semblance to the form he wore in the eves of his neighbors and friends; 
 and yet along with tliis, t(^ trace, in his works, the transcendently beau- 
 tiful operations of his mind and Iiiikm- nature, and to hold tlicm up as 
 the true expression of the Beethoven soul, which they most certainly 
 were. If in doing this we might also unite both pictures into one, so 
 that we could think of Beethoven as a humbly-born, hardworking boy,
 
 170 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 of the most determined "grit," yet with a delicacy and sweetness of 
 fancy which is absolutely nobler than even Shakespeare's (for Beetho- 
 ven nowhere descends to coarseness), and then trace his growth to man- 
 hood, his steady pursuit of his one ideal, Music, the blessing that 
 followed him in it, and that has followed us for his being in it; and 
 crown the whole with the still nobler side of his nature in his un- 
 selfish and well-meant love and providence for a graceless relative, 
 when he himself was, as we ordinarily say, "a crusty old bachelor" of 
 fifty; — if we could bring all these together into a single consistent 
 idea we should then have performed for the reader a service 
 indeed. 
 
 Ludwig van Beethoven was born at Bonn, the Resldenz-Stadt of 
 the Electors of Cologne, in 1770. His father was tenor singer in the 
 Elector's Chapel, an ill-natured, drunken fellow with a shiftless, easy- 
 goiTig wife. They lived in a very humble way, the annual income of 
 the family being probably less than three hundred dollars. As Mo- 
 zart was just then at the height of his celebrity, the father of our 
 Beethoven was in no small degree delighted to observe the promising 
 musical talent of the boy — a talent which manifested itself at a very 
 earlv ao:e. There was music in the family, unquestionablv — Beetho- 
 yen's grandfather having been an organist and a composer of credita- 
 ble talent. So at the early age of five he was taken in hand by his father 
 and set Lo work in the laborious German fashion to learn to play the 
 piano r.nd the violin. The crusty father is said to have pulled him 
 out of bed in the middle of the night, to make him fin.ish up the prac- 
 tice he had neglected. Nor was the practice sweetened for him; for 
 the boy was not allowed to play melodies, many of which came to him 
 even then untaught, but only the exercises then most approved for 
 practice. 
 
 At that time tne works of Bach held high honor for purposes of 
 study, and the boy Beethoven was so thoroughly exercised in them 
 that at the age of twelve he was perfectly familiar with the entire 
 forty-eight preludes and fugues of the "Well Tempered Clavier," and 
 could play them with the utmost facility. All this time he went to 
 the public school, but owing to his father's ambition to bring him out 
 as a musical wonder-child, his studies in letters were seriously neg- 
 lected. When the boy was about eight years old his fatlier turned 
 him over to the teaching of one Pfieifer, an oboe player and pianist, 
 under whose kindlier direction he got along more rapidly and no doubt 
 much more pleasantly. Presently the organist Neefe took him in hand 
 and tauo-ht him the organ and composition, so that when twelve or
 
 JiEETllOVE^. 171 
 
 thirteen years old he apj)ears as autlior of three sonatas for piano, 
 vvliich are small, but very clever for a boy. 
 
 For some time, probably since his tenth year, he had played a 
 viola in the orchestra. About this time he became assistant organist 
 to Neefe, although the formal appointment was not received until 
 he was about iifteen. When he was about thirteen, he began to act 
 as pianist and assistant director in the orchestra during Neefe's ab- 
 sence, which frequently extended over several months. The duties of 
 this position were not small. Iligli Mass was performed in church 
 three times a week besides Sunday, and on at least as many days there 
 were elaborate vesper services. The theater gave a light opera or 
 operetta three times a week, and comedies on other nights, for all of 
 which music had to be prepared. This kind of activity seems to have 
 continued vuitil Beethoven was about twenty, interrupted only by his 
 first visit to Vieima, where he somehow managed to go when he was 
 about sixteen. Beethoven's duties as organist must have been very 
 unthankful, since the old organ had been removed from the chapel, and 
 in his time only a small chamber-organ stood in its place. That he 
 had no special vocation for the organ appears plainly from his never 
 havino- written aiivthino- for it. The particulars of his Vienna iournev 
 are rat'her hypothetical, especially the anecdote of his having played 
 before Mozart and receiving lessons from him. 
 
 During all these years he attained no recognition in Bonn as a 
 promising artist. On the several lists of the Elector's musical staff, 
 the name of Beethoven figures as organist and player of clavier con- 
 certos, but amid many who are distinguished as of exceptional talent, 
 he stands unnoticed and undistinguished. 
 
 The theater at Boiui produced a fine selection of works for that 
 dav, amono- which were the best of Gliick's operas. On the whole we 
 can hardly imagine a place better calculated to familiarize a young 
 composer with every slightest peculiarity of the composers before his 
 day, than Beethoven found in his six years' service as assistant director 
 at Bonn. In the work of arranging and adapting the scores to the 
 limitations and weaknesses of his orchestra, he could not fi'.il to acquire 
 rare tact, and a spontaneous comprehension of all effects of instrumenta- 
 tion. He played the piano part from the full orchestra score, and it 
 was thus that he developed that lightning-like com])rehension of the 
 fullest scores, which he always manifested. Mendel says that Max 
 Franz (the Elector, brother of Joseph II) when he appointed Beethoven 
 second organist furnished funds for him to go to Vienna to make more 
 extended studies.
 
 172 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 During this Bonn life Beethoven early attracted the attention of 
 the von Breunings, a wealtliy and refined family of that town, aiid at 
 their house he was always at home. No doubt it must have required 
 a arood deal of faith in the diamond concealed in his rousfh exterior, for the 
 fine von Breunings to have made so much of so unpromising a customer 
 as the boy Beetlioven. He was moody, often irritable. He was the 
 very prince of awkwardness, upsetting and breaking every fragile 
 article he came near. Still "there seems to have been a charm about 
 him, for as we shall see later, he was through life a favorite among the 
 best people, especially the ladies, of an elegant and ceremonious court. 
 Here at the Breunings' he became familiar with the books and pictures 
 denied him at home. Count Waldstein, also, was one of the friends 
 he made in this early time, and who always remained true to him. It 
 was Waldstein who recommended him to the notice of the titled 
 relatives of his family when Beethoven came to Vienna to live; and 
 it was to Count Waldstein that in 1803 the brilliant sonata in C, op. 
 53, was dedicated. 
 
 In personal appearance Beethoven must have been rather striking. 
 He was of medium height (or rather under), thickset, a noble forehead, 
 small, brown eyes, deeply set in, very profuse hair, generally "' tow- 
 seled," his dress of rather common texture originally, but now rich 
 with the sedimefitary deposits of many brushless months. His hands 
 are well shaped, but the nails are not well kept. In movement he is 
 quick and abrupt, often boorish. This want of politeness adhered to 
 him through life. Still, it was his lot to associate with many eminent 
 men, and from them he doubtless imbibed a o-reat deal of cultivation. 
 His manners must liave been worse about the time of his departure 
 from Bonn and first entrance into Vienna than afterwards. 
 
 As to his self-conceit, all testimony proves it. Nor is it difficult to 
 account for it. It must have been perfectly apparent to Beethoven 
 that he was able to improvise music of such rare power over the feel- 
 ings that nothing of Haydn's or Mozart's or Handel's could be compared 
 with it. We read remarkable stories of this faculty. As, for instance: 
 " Ignace Pleyel had brought some new quartettes to Vienna, which 
 were performed at the house of Prince Lobkowitz. At the close, 
 Beethoven, who was present, was asked to play. As usual, he had to 
 be pressed again and again, and at last was almost dragged by force 
 to the instrument by the ladies. With an impatient gesture he 
 snatched from the violin desk the open second violin part of Pleyel's 
 quartette, threw it on the desk of the pianoforte and began to impro- 
 vise. His playing had never been more brilliant, original and grand
 
 BEETHOVEN. 173 
 
 than on that evenin<^. But through the whole improvisation, in the 
 middle parts ran like a thread or canto fermo the notes, unimportant 
 in themselves, of the accidentally open page, on which lie built the 
 noblest melodies and harmonies in the most brilliant concert style. 
 Old Pleyel could only show his astonishment by kissing his hands. 
 After such improvisation Beethoven would break out into a loud, 
 merry, ringing laugh." 
 
 This is the spirit of hisfiist entrance upon the Vienna lifti in 1T93. 
 Here he lived until his doatii, in lb27. At first he was the pupil of 
 Haydn, who since Mozart's death, was king again. For these lessons 
 his fee was exactly eight groschen, eighteen cents! Later he went to 
 Albrechtsberger for lessons in counterpoint, and to Salieri for lessons 
 in dramatic composition. 
 
 As early as 1800 he began to be hard of hearing, gradually in- 
 creasing to almost total deafness as early as 1810. This affliction, as 
 well as the false behavior of his two brothers, his nearest relatives, had 
 the effect to cloud his mind with suspicion of all the people around him. 
 In the period from 179:^ to 1810, he produced a constant succession of 
 the noblest works. Before he had got beyond the fifth symphony the 
 critics had begun to talk of his "obscurity"," " want of melody," etc., 
 just as they did a few years ago of Schumann, and just as they do now 
 of Wao-iier. Yet, he seems to have cared very little about it, and said 
 that if it amused them to be constantly writing such things about him 
 they might be freely indulged. 
 
 His personal habits were whimsical enough. One lodging was 
 too high; anotlier he left because the landlord was too obsequious. 
 He would walk his room half the night through, " howling and roar- 
 ing" the melodies that filled his imagination, and flooding the floor 
 and ruining the ceiling and tempers of the occupants of the rooms below 
 with the water he poured over his hands to cool his feverishness. He 
 would hire a boy to pump water over his hands by the hour together. 
 It is related apropos to his carelessness in money matters that " tlie wait- 
 ers in the cafes in Vienna were content to be unpaid sometimes, if they 
 were paid double and treble the next day. It was not worth while to 
 quarrel with a privileged person, who always had the laugh on his side, 
 and had been known to throw a dish of meat at the head of a waiter 
 suspected of cheating. Here, after the close of his day's labor, he ap- 
 peared at his best, and those who knew liim speak of his loud laugh- 
 ter, his richness and originality of conversation, his wit, Ixild and reck- 
 less as his harmonies, his strong opinions, his interest in books and 
 politics. On all hands we see the signs of the broad and wholesome
 
 174 now TO L'NDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 huiiiaiiity which formed the o-round of his stranijelv mi nailed character. 
 SO much caricatured aud so little understood by the retailers of anec- 
 dote, who can see in Beethoven nothing ])ut an inspired artist, and a 
 mixture of misanthropy and buffoon."* " To his friends he was a warm 
 hearted, unselfish friend, not to be treated carelessly, much less to be 
 played with or slighted; a friend whose friendship was worth a sacri- 
 fice, because it was founded on perfect sincerity, could endure no 
 suspicion ,of insincerity in others. That Beethoven — great Mogul as 
 he was, and capable of many unmannerlv words and actions — was not 
 unacceptable to those who loved good society, we may learn from the 
 fact of his having always been well received by the great ladies of a 
 ceremonious court. It was true that his dress was untidy to dirtiness; 
 that he picked his teeth with the snuffers, upset inkstands into the 
 pianoforte, and broke every thing he touched; and that he had been 
 known to play off ill-bred practical jokes on some of his friends; but 
 in spite of all incongruities, princesses and countesses — nay, person- 
 ages of still higher rank — received him as an equal or a superior 
 This result could hardly have been brought about by his music alone. "f 
 
 From 1800 to 1S06 Beethoven was in the height of his creative 
 activity. During this time he produced the sonatas opus 22 to 57, the 
 third and fourth symphonies, a number of chamber pieces (quartettes, 
 trios, etc.), and the opera " Fidelio." This creative activity continued, 
 with little falling off in speed, and with a decided progress in the 
 quality of the work produced, down to 1815, by which time he had 
 written all the nine symphonies except the last. These years were 
 especially productive in smaller works — such as songs, bagatelles of 
 various kinds, three sets of Scotch and Irish airs, arranged with ritor- 
 nellos and accompaniments. 
 
 Beethoven was now forty-five years of age. He was in ill health, 
 probably for want of proper care of himself. He was overrun with 
 commissions from publisher^, and had the most flattering offers to 
 travel in different countries, of which, however, he was too fond of 
 Vienna and too ignorant of the world to take advantage. At this period 
 misfortune befell him, in the shape of a nephew — the son of his 
 brother Carl — left in his guardianship. As already shown, there were 
 undesirable streaks in the Beethoven family. This had not been 
 mended by Carl's marrying a shiftless woman, of bad repute, 
 and it was the product of this union that was left in the com- 
 poser's care. He undertook the task in the loftiest spirit. Hence- 
 forth for eleven years the boy regulated all the affairs of Beethoven's 
 
 •"Lives and Letters of \ieet\\o\en."—Edinburg Review, Oct., 1853. fH'''^'
 
 BEETHOVEN. 175 
 
 menage, and a most thankless time the old gentleman had of it. The very- 
 worst housekeeping bachelor tliat ever was was a jjrince of managers 
 compared with Beethoven. IL' IkkI not the slightest " faculty " for 
 business. It discomposed him to be obliged to transact the most or- 
 dinary affairs. Wo may well imagine what a time he had of it with a 
 reckless, ungrateful youth on his hands. His love was repaid with in- 
 gratitude, and, to crown all, the nephew seems to have been responsi- 
 ble for his uncle's deatli; f(jr, when sent for a doctor, he carelessly 
 gave the message to a billiard marker, who forgot it for a day or two, 
 and wh(Mi tlie doctor arrived there was no longer a possibility of cure. 
 
 These last years of Beethoven are sad in the extreme That a man 
 should have had so much (greatness, vet so little comfort! That his in- 
 ner world should have been so full of lovely fancies, which he has left 
 on record for the gratification of aftercorning generations, and yet his 
 own daily life have been so unblessed by woman's teiid;M-ness, and the 
 amenities of home, is one of the mysteries of life. Y(;t we may l^e glad 
 that Beethoven undertook the care of this boy, and stuck to it so man- 
 fully; for his letters and the whole history of this time place his 
 character in a much nobler lio;ht of self-sacrifice than would otherwise 
 have been the case. And as to the works we might else have had 
 from this period, our composer has already left the highest monument 
 so far in the world of music. Surely it is better for us to know that 
 he was a noble-hearted, true man, than for us to liave had another sym- 
 phony. Besides, there is no doubt that this discipline, painful as it was, 
 must have wrought a great softening and deepening in Beethoven's 
 disposition. , 
 
 \n IT'25 he imagined himself in poverty. Moscheles, who was 
 then in London, wrote to him, and arranged for the London Philhar- 
 monic Society to give a concert for his benefit, in return for wliich he 
 was to write them a tenth symphony. This concert was given and a 
 sum of £100 made up and sent to Beethoven a short time before he 
 died. The whole correspondence may be found in Moscheles' edition 
 of " Schindler's Life of Beethoven,'' and in Moscheles' "Recent Music 
 and Musicians." 
 
 Beethoven died ]\Larch 29, 1827, at the age of fifty-seven, during 
 a violent thunderstorm. He was buried at Wahring, a small village 
 near Vienna, and was followed to the grave by an immense concourse 
 of people (over twenty thousand, some say). 
 
 Beethoven's genius was distinctly that for expressing feeling. 
 Feeling is the source of the all-penetrating unity, which is perhaps 
 one of the most conspicuous marks of his work. We do not mean by
 
 irO HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 this that he is always in a passion, or under the influence of some 
 dark or disturbing mood. Far from it. The genius of his music is 
 characteristically the peaceful^ the tranquil. In these (jualities he is 
 hardly surpassed by Mozart. It is the unity and the repose of the great, 
 the lasting, the true. Beethoven was extremely fond of the open air 
 and the country. When the weather was fine he would spend whole 
 days and half the nights wandering about the fields or stretched at 
 ease in the shade of a tree. In these walks his eye was quick to 
 notice every pleasant bit of landscape, every pretty flower, or effect of 
 light, and if he had a companion, he remarked upon these things with 
 warmth and force. 
 
 Such beauty and quiet took musical shape within him. Out came 
 the memorandum book of music-paper roughly stitched together, and 
 the walk and discourse gave place to that curious "howling and roar- 
 ing" with which his labor of composition was always accompanied. 
 His published works are full of ideas which may be traced sometimes 
 for years, through wide and strange changes from the forms in which 
 they at first suggested themselves to him to the shape in which they 
 were at last employed. Those tranquil days under the pleasant sky 
 are all expressed in his music. Of sucli a spirit are the pianoforte 
 sonatas in E and G, o]). 14, the "pastoral," op. 28, tliat in G, op. 31, 
 and several of those for piano and violin, as well as the pastoral 
 symphony, and the seventh and eighth. In deriving his inspiration 
 from external nature as a source, Beethoven was like Schubert, in 
 whom every movement of soul translates itself into tones. With 
 Beethoven there is, however, this difference, that he selects the more 
 significant for publication, and then shapes and prunes it with more 
 care. Beethoven is never too long; certainly never tedious. 
 
 Another of the most remarkable peculiarities of Beethoven's music 
 is the clearness and l^eauty of his orchestral coloring. No other com- 
 poser knows better just where to throw in a few notes of the flute, a 
 soft low tone of the horn, a clever bit of the bassoon, or just how to 
 place a subordinate phrase in order to have it express itself without 
 interferinof with the blendino; and harmonv of the whole. This 
 delicious reserve is one of the most eminent traits of the symphonies, 
 although no doubt, a part of it is apparent only, and due to the re- 
 markable heio-htenins: and streno-thenina: of orchestral coloring since 
 his day. 
 
 Were we to attempt to measure up and estimate the place of 
 these works on the scale of beauty, we should be first struck with 
 their elegance, clearness and the agreeable nature of their sound. They
 
 BEETHOVEN. 177 
 
 have for pleasure of sensation all that they could have and still retain 
 their distinguishing olcvation of sentiment, in foniuil beauty, like- 
 wise, they hold an oxtrcmoly high rank, porliaps as high as any. There 
 is in Mozart a certain sweet and spontaneous grace, an unconscious 
 sweetness, such as we rarely find in Beethoven; but Beethoven com- 
 pensates for this lack, if lack there be, by a greater coherence and 
 unity, through which he reaches a more serene repose, especially in 
 the classical moments of his art. 
 
 And then, finally, we come to the symphonies. Those are the 
 thoughts Beethoven had while he lay under the trees out in thecountrv. 
 Far on into tlie night ho would wander, and drink in his fill of the 
 silent teaching of nature. Here in the symphonies we have them all. 
 If in the pastoral symphony wc have a moment of pleasantry in the 
 bird song or two, it is thrown in only to bring us still nearer the in- 
 scrutable mystery of the growing grass; nearer to the trees, by their 
 subtle chemistry building themselves up out of intangible air and the 
 hidden riches of the ground; nearer to the light nnd fleecy clouds, and 
 the golden and crimson sunset, fitly emphasizing the finished day, ever 
 more to be numbered with the infinite ages of God; and, above all, 
 nearer to the greater mystery of thoughtful life, the imago of the In- 
 visible, the sure witness of the Infinite. Nv^ other instrumental music 
 so completely seizes and exalts the hearer. 
 
 The inner nature of Beethoven allies him to Bach. They were 
 both universal musicians, inu'vators and experimenters in every direc- 
 tion, according to the light and resources of their respective genera- 
 tions. Both found in a particular style and form, afield which, on the 
 whole, satisfied them and afforded room for the elaboration of their 
 most beautiful ideas. Bach's was the fuo-ue. There was no kind of 
 musical production known to Bach's day which he did not to some ex- 
 tent try, except, perhaps, the opera. The suite, church pieces, organ 
 works, and compositions for violin and almost every instrument, he 
 produced in large quantities. But, after all, the one form which he 
 always adopted, or came back to for a climax, was fugue. This great 
 form, the ne plus ultra of musical logic, was not original with Bach. 
 On the contrary it had been worked out by three centuries of experi- 
 menters and geniuses, until it assumed the form in which Bach found 
 it, and in which it is in eff'ect the valid and final solution of coherent 
 tonality. Counterpoint, which is the basis of fugue, is the exiiaustive 
 solution of melodic invention. Bach's work was to seize this form and 
 appropriate it to the needs of musical revelation. Tie filled it full of 
 novelty, grandeur, caprice, humor, true musical feeling and beauty.
 
 178 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 He exhausted it, completely filled up the capacity of the form, so 
 that since Bach there is no longer any thing new to be said in 
 Fugue. 
 
 In like manner Beethoven was a composer of sonatas. The role 
 'of his works embraces every kind of production known in his day; but 
 the one form which he made liis own, and in which his most beautiful 
 and characteristic ideas are expressed, is the sonata. This form includes 
 his thirty-three for piano solo, which would eternally have estab- 
 lished his fame if they alone had constituted his serious works; nine- 
 teen sonatas for piano and other instruments; eighteen trios, mainly 
 for piano and other instruments; twenty-three quartettes and quin- 
 tettes; the sextette and septette, and the nine symphonies. In all, more 
 tluDi three thousand large pages of sonata writing. Beethoven, like 
 Bach, was in every way progressive and an innovator. He experi- 
 mented in all forms, and in all combinations of means of expression. 
 Yet, on the whole, he was a composer of sonatas. 
 
 This form he found ready to his hand in the works of Haydn and 
 Mozart. The form, as such, he accepted with little improvement. But 
 he put into it such a wealth and many-sided possibility of expression 
 as surpassed tlieir efforts in every direction, and amounted finally to 
 completely exhausting the subject. There have been, really, no 
 genuine composers of sonatas since Beethoven. Every great master 
 has tried it out of deference to public opinion, but the chief ideas and 
 distinctive excellencies of all composers since Beethoven are expressed 
 in other forms and not in the sonata. Even in symphony, where they 
 have enjoyed tlie inestimable advantages of modern wealth in instru- 
 mentation, no one has been able to create works at all equal to his, or 
 even such as add any thing essentially new and important to what he 
 has said. 
 
 Again, Bach and Beethoven were both of them characteristically 
 instrumental composers. Although both have written v/orks employ- 
 ing the human voice in solo, ensemble and in great masses, and have 
 therein reached the most sublime heights yet attained in musical crea- 
 tion, they have in all cases treated the voice like an instrument, and with 
 almost total disregard of the conditions of its agreeable and pleasing 
 exercise. This limitation, of course, is a detraction from their success, 
 for if they were to use the voice at all, there was no valid reason why 
 its convenience and inherent capacity should not be as much regarded 
 as that of any other instrument. Bach and Beethoven are both of 
 them exponents of the inner in music. While they both reach the 
 highest mark of formal beauty, they do so accidentally, so to say; as an
 
 BEETHOVEN. 170 
 
 incidental result of the spontaneous expression of the inner and 
 spiritual. 
 
 •Beethoven marks a g'iant stride in musical progress since Bach, in 
 the direction of the luiinoristic. Bach himself was full of this 
 spirit, and of playful phantasy, as all his works show. But the new 
 forms developed or perfected by Haydn and Mozart, and lln- lessons 
 tau<rht by their disregard of scholastic tradition, and especially the 
 vigorous flight of his own all-comprehending and untamed spirit, en- 
 abled Beethoven to go vastly farther than Bach in tliis direction, and 
 to reveal music in its true nature as spontaneous expression of heart, 
 feeling, and imagination. x\nd thus he not only concentrated in himself 
 and fulfilled all the tendencies and prophecies of musical history be- 
 fore him, and enriched the world with some of the most precious and 
 immortal productions of the human spirit, but afforded in turn the most 
 pregnant tokens of possibilities in music yet unrevealed — indications 
 of new paths, which the great masters since have occupied themselves 
 in exploring. 
 
 T.isT OF Beetiiovex Illustrations. 
 
 1. {Moderately Difficult, Employing the Pianoforte and Tencr.) 
 
 1. Sonata in Gr, op. '14, No. 2. 
 
 2. Menuet in E flat out of Sonata op. 31, No. 3. 
 
 3. Scherzo in C, out of Sonata op. 2, No. 3 
 
 4. "Adelaide." Tenor. 
 
 5. " Niclit zu Geschwind," out of Sonata in E, op. 90. 
 
 6. Rondo in G, op. 51, No. 2. 
 
 3. Difficult. 
 
 1; Sonata Appassionata, op. 57. 
 
 2. Air and Variations in A flat, op. 2G. 
 
 3. "Adelaide." Tenor. 
 
 4. Sonata in A flat, op. 110. 
 
 5. Rondo Capriccioso, op. 129.
 
 180 HOW TO LMDEKSTAJSD MUSIC. 
 
 CHAPTER FORTY-SEVEN. 
 
 MENDELSSOHN. 
 
 Felix Mendelssohn was born in Hamburg, February 3, 1809. He 
 was the son of x\braham Mendelssohn, a banker, a man of very refined 
 tastes, and grandson of Moses Mendelssolin, the eminent Rabbi and 
 philosopher. The name Bartholdy was his mother's, and was taken 
 later in life as a condition of some property inheritance. Felix was 
 the second of four children, of whom Fanny, the eldest, manifested the 
 most remarkable talents in music. When Felix was only three or four 
 years old the family removed to Berlin, At the age of eight he al- 
 ready played the piano well. The theorist Zelter was his teacher in 
 composition, and Berger in piano playing. When only twelve he was 
 pronounced by Zelter his best scholar. In 1824 Zelter wrote to Goethe: 
 " Yesterday evening- Felix's fourth opera was brought out here iu a little 
 circle of us, with the dialogue. There are three acts, which, with two 
 ballets, occupied about two hours and and a half. The work was re- 
 ceived with -much applause. I can hardly master my own wonder how 
 the boy, who is onl^- about fifteen, has made such progress. Every- 
 where you find what is new, beautiful and peculiar — wholly 2:)eculiar." 
 
 In the year 1824 he became the piano pupil of Moscheles, and so 
 began the long and delightful intimacy, which, like a golden thread, 
 runs through the volumes of ^lendelsschn's charming letters and 
 Moscheles' " Recent Music and Musicians." 
 
 In 1829 Mendelssohn started to visit London. He made a long 
 tour through many places of interest, especially in Italy, before he 
 reached England. Among the new pieces he brought to show 
 Moscheles, were his overture to " FingaFs Cave," " AValpurgis Night," 
 and his G minor concerto for piano-forte and orchestra. In London, 
 Mendelssohn was rapturously received. His organ playing excited the 
 greatest astonishment, and remains to the present day a bright tradi- 
 tion with English musicians. Yet it is but fair to say that .the opinion 
 there held of his organ playing was by no means shared by the best 
 authorities in Germany. There is very good reason for believing that 
 his pedal technic was by no means superior, however charming his
 
 MENDELSSOHN 181 
 
 manipulation and registration may have been. Be this as it may, he 
 undoubtedly gave a decided impetus to English organ playing, es- 
 pecially to the study of Bach. 
 
 Mendelssohn came to Leipsic in 1835, and remained there all but 
 one year of the rest of his life. lie assumed direction of the Gcwand- 
 haus concerts, which, henceforth, reached a delicacy unknown to them 
 before. The oratorio of " St, Paul " was written for tlie Lower Rhine 
 Musical Festival, held at Diisseldorf in 1836. It excited tlie highest 
 enthusiasm. 
 
 In the SjDring of 1837 Mendelssohn was married to Miss Cecilia 
 Jeanrenaud, of Dresden, a daughter of a clergyman, with whom he 
 lived very happily until his death. 
 
 " St. Paul " was brought out at the Birmingham festival, in 1838, 
 where it at once took a high place. Three of his psalms, "As the Hart 
 Pants," "O Come let us Sing," and the one hundred and fifteenth 
 were the product of this period. 
 
 In 184:3 the Leipsic Conservatory was opened with about sixty 
 j)upils. The teachers were Mendelssohn, Schumann (pian(j), David 
 (violin), and Becker (organ). Other teachers were soon added. This 
 renowned institution seems to have been chiefly the creation of Men- 
 delssohn's brain, and to him it owes its character. It has turned out a 
 a vast number of pupils, all more or less well grounded in music. No 
 school has had greater influence in this country. There is one draw- 
 back to the association of a man like Mendelssohn with such a school, 
 namely: that after he leaves it his charming manner and peculiar ideas 
 become the ideal which places subsequent directors, however talented, at 
 a disadvantage. There is some reason to believe that the Leipsic school 
 has not been entirely free from this failing. One good point about this 
 school must not be overlooked: that there they always hold content for 
 the first merit of a work. This, in a town enriched l)y the labors of 
 Bach, and ^Mendelssohn, and Schumann, is what we might expect. 
 
 Space does not permit to follow closely Mendelssohn's subsequent- 
 career. It embraced a year's residence in Berlin, frequent visits to 
 England, where he brought out " Elijah," in 1840, as well as constant 
 appearances throughout Germany, as director, composer and pianist. 
 His life was a ceaseless round of activity, and it is little wonder that 
 the delicate frame wore out. lie died in Leipsic, November 4, 1847. 
 
 In personal appearance Mendelssohn was rather under the me- 
 dium size, graceful '\\\ walk and bearing. His forehead was high and 
 arched, his nose delicate, slightly Roman; his mouth fine and firm, and 
 his head covered with glossy, black, curly hair. His countenance was
 
 182 HOAY TO UJNDEKbTAJSD MUyiC 
 
 A'ery expressive, and his whole manner fascinating in the extreme. He 
 Avas the idol of men and women alike in every circle where he moved. 
 He inherited large means, which he freely dispensed in the most deli- 
 cate and unostentatious charities. His entire indejiendenceof the need 
 of labor for sustenance gave no slackening to his ardor in compositionc 
 In my opinion, Mendelssohn's chief characteristics must have been his 
 genial fancy, his exquisite taste and kind heartedness. In his charm- 
 ing letters from Italy and Switzerland we have these qualities fully 
 exhibited. Two more delightful books than those of his letters do not 
 adorn literature. The same qualities shine out in his music. Every- 
 where we meet a romantic and delicate fancy, a sjirightfulness and 
 ever-present sense of the beautiful, which carries us back to Mozart. 
 
 As a composer Mendelssohn built on Bach. By this I mean that 
 Bach stood to him as a model of true greatness in music. It was not 
 possible for such a nature as Mendelssohirs to emulate the lofty repose 
 of Bach's greatest things. Still everywhere in his serious moments we 
 find the traces of the iiiiluence of the sober old Leipsic cantor. 
 
 Mendelssohn's greatness as a composer lies in his oratorios and 
 psalms. Brendel regards these as no longer religious works, strictly 
 speaking, but as "concert oratorios," in which he thinks the worldly 
 element comes fortli. In this he is right to a certain extent. Handel's 
 " Messiah " does not manifest this worldly spirit, because the subject 
 forbade it. In the first place, this spirit manifests itself in a linger- 
 ing over details, such as beautiful tone effects of one sort or another 
 (just as the ribbon, the ornament, or other little piquancy of dress, 
 betray a woman's instinct for being admired), and, for this sort of 
 thing, the haste in wdiich Handel wrote the " Messiah " left him no 
 time. Besides, as I have before said, the text of the " Messiah " in- 
 spired in him an elevation of sentiment to which he was commonly a 
 stranger. Moreover, the worldly element in music was then in its in- 
 fancy. The foundation of it was there, namely, the taste of the public. 
 The " Messiah," and all of Handel's oratorios were written for the 
 concert, and not for religious use. In this he differs from Bach, who 
 had nothing to consult but his own ideal. His pieces were written for 
 church and played in church. Religious worship was their inspira- 
 tion. It is the absence of the influence of the public that j^ermits 
 Bach's unquestionable prolixity, which, in our day, seems tediousness. 
 
 It is in " Elijah " that Mendelssohn most fully moves the public. 
 The dramatic stor}^, the j^icturesque contrasts, the richness and taste 
 of its orchestration, its novel and fascinating choruses, and especially 
 the beauty and graphic appropriateness of his melodies, give this
 
 MEXDELSSOIIX. 183 
 
 oratorio a won(l(M"ful cliariu. One should read Mr. Dwiirlil's fflowiiior 
 description of it, found at the end of Lami^adius' Life of Mendelssohn. 
 I confess that there is hardly a tedious moment to nie in tliis lovely 
 work. From the first i-ecitative, " Thus saith the Lord," through the 
 entire work, I find tlie rarcist appreciation of beauty, and the rarest 
 truth to the words. How overpowering the choruses, "Thanks be to 
 God," and "Be not Afraid;" how sweet and lovely " He, watching 
 over Israel;" how graphic the recitative where fire descends; how 
 mighty the contrast in the quartette and chorus^ " Holy, Holy, Holy, 
 is God the Lord! " 
 
 In this oratorio Mendelssohn seems to have reached the acme of 
 taste in the compromise he has effected between the religious and the 
 merelv beautiful. This same admirable taste manifests itself also in the 
 psalms. Take, for instance, the "Hear my Prayer." Here we have a 
 solo, "Hear my Prayer," the excited chorus, "The Enemy shouteth," 
 and, fniallv, the altogether unique solo and chorus obligato^ " Oh, for 
 the Winffs of a Dove! " Nothing could be more beautiful. 
 
 In his piano forte music, especially- the "Songs Without Words" 
 we have the same loveliness of fancy and sentiment. These are works 
 which all tasteful people admire. Tlie larger pieces no longer hold 
 the position in the estimation of musicians they once did, although it 
 would be impossible to find two more lovely pieces for ladies' per- 
 formance than the "Rondo Capriccioso" and "Capriccio in B minor." 
 
 It is further in proof of the ruling quality of Mendelssohn's mind 
 that the scherzo is his most perfect triumph. There we have a fairy - 
 like playfulness truly exquisite and altogether unique. The " six organ 
 sonatas" were made up for the English market. They have marked 
 beauties and are ecclesiastical in tone; and, in s])ite of their peculiar 
 "sonata" form, I hold them in high (Estimation. Besides, there was a 
 justification for this irregularity (which, perhaps, I ought to explain, 
 consists of their having but two movements in place of the usual four), 
 in the congeniality of their spirit to religious service, and especially 
 the benediction like effect of the soft and ^ongh\\' andantes forming 
 their conclusions. In cjuartettes, quintettes and symphonies, Mendels- 
 sohn was also extremely successful, but it may be (questioned whether 
 he ever surpassed his lovely overture to the " xMidsumiuer Night's 
 Dream," the work of his boyhood. 
 
 List of Mkndki.ssohx Illustrations. 
 
 {Employviff a Soprano, Alto, and the Pianoforte.'} 
 1. Overture to llie Alitlsummer Xisjht's Dream (for four hands), 
 2 " On Wings of Music," Tenor (or Soprano).
 
 184 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 3. Rondo Capriccioso. 
 
 4. " Jerusalem, Thou that Killest the Prophets," Soprano. 
 
 5. a. Hunting Song (No. 3). 
 6. People's Song (No. 4). 
 c. Spring Song (No. 27). 
 
 6. " O ! Rest in the Lord," Alto. 
 
 7. " Duetto " (No. 18 in Songs without Words). 
 
 8. Duet, "Would that my Love," Soprano and Alto. 
 
 9. Finale from "Italian" Symphony, (four hands) Pianoforte. 
 
 CHAPTER FORTY-EIGHT. 
 
 CHOPIN. 
 
 Frederic Chopin was born at Zela-zola-Wola, near Warsaw, 
 March 1, 1809, and died at Paris, October 17, 1849. Within these 
 forty years were l:)ound up the activities of one of the most remarkable 
 spirits in music. In Chopin we Iiave another example of precocious 
 talent, such as are seen in Mozart, Schubert, and Liszt. At the ao;e of 
 nine he played in public a concerto by Gyrowetz, and improvised. His 
 studies were begun under the direction of Ziwna, a passionate admirer 
 of Sebastian Bach, and carried on later under Joseph Eisner, principal 
 of the Conservatory of Warsaw. The records of Chopin's early life 
 are extremely meagre. AVe know that he was then a fluent Bach 
 player, to whom through life he remained devoted. We are also sure 
 that even as eaily as sixteen he must have been a great viituoso, not 
 only equal to every thing that had been planned for the piano before 
 his time, but already the author of the completely new methods indi- 
 cated in the excessivelv difficult variations on ha ci dareni la niano. 
 the first nocturnes, op 9, tiie early mazurkas and waltzes, and es 
 pecially the great studies op. 10 and the two concertos. These studies 
 have passed into the standard repertory of advanced piano-piaying, 
 and the two concertos, although weak m orchestral handling, are ex- 
 tremely brilliant and poetic for the piano, and have the great merit of 
 complete novelty and freshness of style. 
 
 With these great compositioirs already finished, as well as many 
 others of a char-acter more immediately available, he set out for Vienna, 
 Paris, and London, at the age of nineteen. He reached Paris, and 
 there met Liszt, with whom he formed a devoted friendship. Here
 
 CHOPIN 1S5 
 
 Chopin found a congenial public. lie was of a shy and delicate na- 
 ture, proud, yet somewhat effeminate, and jiuljlic appearance was 
 distasteful to him. In manners cultivated and refined, and quick of 
 intellect, Chopin innneduitely became the center of a consideraljle 
 circle of artistic people, who esteemed him no less for his personal 
 qualities than his remarkable musical gii'ts. He was overrun with pu- 
 ])ils, of whom, however, ho would take but a small number. In 1S37 
 the lung- disease, with which he had been threatened since childhood, 
 developed itself. In company with his devoted friend, M'me Geo. 
 Sand, to whom he had been introduced by Liszt, he resided at the 
 island of Majorca for several years. Deceived by a show of returning 
 health he came back to Paris, and, as already recorded, died at the age 
 of Raphael and Mozart. 
 
 Chopin's music is not the unwersal music of the German compo- 
 sers, nor is it the humoristic music of the romantic school, although 
 with both these it has somethino- in common. It is a contradiction. 
 He is wild, passionate, capricious, yet always graceful, subtle, refined, 
 and delicate. Nothing could be less like Bach's music, yet it has much 
 in common with it. Chopin's genius is especially for the piano. All 
 the (jrace and eleu'ant manner of modern virtuoso i)iano-i)lavino- come 
 from him. Yet tlie inner life, the musical feeling which is the determ- 
 inins: cause of this grace and refinement, comes rather from Schumann. 
 Chopin was an innovator for piano in his matter and manner. He 
 gave depth to the nocturne; enlarged the poetic range of the piano by 
 his Polonaises, Scherzos, Impromptus, Ballades, and Etudes. His 
 passages are new, ingenious and beautiful. Like Schumann he writes 
 mainlv for the pianoforte. Unlike him, he does so in a manner which 
 completely harmonizes with the nature of the instrument, and, indeed, 
 foresaw its latest improvements. Hence we find in Chopin's works 
 the well-sounding always considered. Nevertheless they an; not re- 
 poseful. x\lthoug'h the themes are fully developed, the harmonic 
 structure and the rhythmic organization of these pieces gives them a 
 character of restlessness and dissatisfaction. By so much they fall 
 short of srreat ai"t. In all of them it is rather the manner of saving 
 which charms,than the actual idea itself. Psychologically considered they 
 are unhealthv. There runs throuorh them a vein of sadness and mor- 
 bid feelina" which renders them too exciting for the weak and nervous. 
 Their most conspicuous external quality is the subtlety, the evan- 
 escence, of tlieii liarmonies. It is this which makes Chopin's music so 
 difficult to remember. Its technical novelty was ])artly in a utMv ami 
 freer use of the i)edal, and tlie effective employment of extended
 
 18G HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 chords, and partly in better sustained and more brilliant passages, 
 especially those constructed on the diminished seventh. As to its 
 metrical structure, Chopin's luusic is lyric. His period-lengths are re- 
 markably uniform, as com.pared with those of Beethoven or Schumann. 
 The other qualities of his music appear best in the actual illustrations. 
 
 List of Chopix Illustratiojts. 
 
 1. Moderately Difficult. 
 
 1. Polonaise in C sharp min., op. 27. 
 
 2. Valse in D flat maj., op. 04. 
 
 3. Nocturne in E flat, op, 9. ' 
 
 4. Impromptu in A. flat, op. 29. 
 
 5. Prelude in D flat. 
 
 G. Valse in E flat, op. 18. 
 
 7. Nocturne in G min., op. 37. 
 
 8. Polonaise Militaire in A, op. 40. 
 
 2 Difficult. 
 
 1. Etudes out of op. 10, No. 8 in F, No 5 on the black keys, and No 13 for the 
 
 left hand. 
 
 2. Nocturne in C min., op 48, or in G maj , op. 37. 
 
 3. Fantasie Impromptu in C sharp, op 6G. 
 
 4. Andante Spianato and Polonaise in E flat, op 22. 
 
 5. Prelude in D fiat. 
 
 6. Ballade m A. flat, op, 47. 
 
 CHAPTER FORTY-NINE, 
 
 ROBERT SCHUMANN 
 
 Robert Sciiamann was born in Zwickau, in Saxony, June 8, 1810. 
 His father was a bookseller and publisher, a man full of eneigy and 
 circumspection, and of decided literary tastes and ability The boy 
 was sent to school and began to learn music at an early stage As 
 early as the age of seven or eight he wrote some little dances, although 
 ignorant of the rules of harmony. It is said that even then he was 
 fond of sketching in music the peculiarities of his friends, and did this 
 "so exactly and comically that every one burst into loud laughter at 
 the similitude of the portrait." Schumann was scarcely nine years old 
 when his father took him to hear Ignatz Moscheles, the famous pianist.
 
 ROBEIIT SCIIUMAKX. is; 
 
 whose playing made the most profound impression upon him. At tlie 
 ag-e of ten lie entered the academy, and here formed a companionship 
 with a boy about his own age, with whom he played many of the 
 works of Haydn and Mozart, arranged for four hands. His father evi- 
 dently encouraged his h)V(! for music, and gratified him with a fine 
 piano and plenty of new music. 
 
 Presently the boys came across the orchestral parts f)f Righini's 
 overture to "Tigranes," and forthwith mustered their forces for per- 
 formance. They had two violins, two flutes, a clarionet, and two 
 horns. Robert directed and undertook to sujjply the missing jjarts 
 upon the piano. Their success encouraged them to undertake other 
 tasks of a similar kind, which, also, Robert directed. He also set to 
 music the one liuiidicd and fiftieth psalm for chorus and orchestra, and 
 this was given by the same performers, assisted by a chorus of such 
 bovs as could sino;. In all these and such like exercises, the fatlier 
 recognized the plain indication of Providence that the son was in- 
 tended for a musician, nor was he disposed to thwart the design. The 
 mother, however, had aj^oor idea of the musical profession, and thought 
 only of the hardships it carried with it. 
 
 As a boy Robert was full of tricks and sports. ]5ut at the age of 
 fourteen a chan<):e came over him, and he became more reserved and 
 prone to revery. This habit never forsook him tiirough life. It was, 
 perhaps, increased by the d(,^ath of his appreciative and kind-hearted 
 father, which took })laee in 1826, when Robert was l)ut sixteen. In 
 deference to his mother's wishes he matriculated at Leipsic as a law 
 student in 1828. 
 
 Through his father's example ho had already made the ac(piain- 
 tance of Byron's jjoems. He now became infected with a perfect fever 
 for Jean Paul. Here, also, he made the acquaintaiict^ of Fi-icdrich 
 Wieck, and became his ])upil in piano-playing. I'he daughter, Clara, 
 then but nine years old, attracted him very much by her remarkable 
 talent. Schumann left Leipsic for Ileidelburg for a while, in order to 
 attend certain lectures there. Now ensued a still more violent con- 
 test between law and music, which resulted at last in his return to 
 Leipsic in 1830, for tlu; purpose of devoting himsplf to music, which 
 he be<ran to do airiii'i under Wieck's instruction. But this course was 
 not rapid enough for the impatient student, who imagined himself the 
 discoverer of a secret by which the time of practice could be much 
 shortened. The. experiment, whatever it was, worked disastrously, and 
 had the effect of destroying the use of the fourth finger of the right 
 hand, and consequently in disabling him from piano-playing altogether.
 
 188 now TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC, 
 
 He now devoted himself to composition, and produced his op. 1, 
 A-ariations on the name "Abegg," and directly his " Papillons,*' or 
 scenes at a ball. In these his talent and originality were plain enough, 
 as well as the lack of clearness. Incited by the criticism which these 
 works met on all hands, he took up the study of counterpoint and com- 
 position, and little by little acquired smoothness of style. Thus he 
 produced his two sets of studies after Paganini, op. 3 and op. 10, the 
 DavidsbiindlertMize. op. G, the Toccata, Allegro, Carnival, op. 9, the 
 sonata in Fsharp minor, and the " Phantasie Stiicke," on. 12. The 
 latter set of jDieces has become universally favorite, and shows Schu- 
 mann's originalitv^ in a favorable lisrht. Thev have alreadv been ana- 
 lyzed in Chapter XXXIII, and need not here be taken up 
 ao-ain. 
 
 One of the most remarkable of the works of this first epoch is the 
 Etudes Syinjyhoniques, an air, twelve variations, and a finale. These 
 variations are not so much unfoldings of the theme, as associated or 
 congenial ideas and images called up l)y it, as it is dwelt upon in the 
 mind. It would be impossible to conceive any thing less like an ordi- 
 nary set of variations. Instead of the usual, somewhat timid jirogres- 
 sion from one variation to the next, we here effect the boldest transi- 
 tions. At times we lose the theme completely. Then it re-appears. 
 This work is extremely interesting, because the forms are short, and 
 the musical nature of the whole is of the most precious quality. Of 
 similar excellence is the Kreisleriana, op. 16, and the Humoreske, 
 op. 20. 
 
 In 1833 Schumann united with a few others in establishinor the 
 Netie Zeitschriftfiir Jfusik (New Journal of Music), as the advocate 
 of progression, and as opposed to pedantry and (other people's) conceit. 
 Like all journals devoted to art, it was published at a loss, but was 
 kept up for several years, and to it the world is indebted for the pre- 
 servation of Schumainrs opinions and criticisms upon contemporary 
 music. Two volumes of his writings are now available in English, and 
 exhibit him in an altoo-ether favorable lio-ht. Meantime his affairs of 
 the heart made haste slowly. After several episodes, he finally settled 
 down to the conviction that Clara Wieck was indispensable to his hap- 
 piness. Father Wieck objected, for reasons not publicly stated, but 
 probably on account of doubt of the lover's fixity of purpose and sta- 
 bility of talent. At length an engagement was allowed, and in 1840 
 Schumann burst out in song, composing in a single year one hundred 
 and forty. Among them were those two sets " Woman's Love and 
 Life," and " Poet's Love," which still remain among the most highly
 
 KU13EKT SCHUMANN. 189 
 
 prized achievements in this line. Tn this year he was married to Clara 
 Wiecli, on the 12th of SeptombQr. 
 
 He now turned his attention to orchestral instruments and pro- 
 duced his piano quartette and quintette, and his B flat symphony. 
 Tliis was followed by other orchestral works, and in 1851 bv the svni- 
 phony in 1) minor. In 1S41 he became connected with the Conserva- 
 tory at Leipsic as teacher of piano-playing, composition, and the art 
 of playing from score. This continued until his removal to Dresden, 
 which took place in 1814. He had already in 1840 composed his 
 charming and highly romantic work " Paradise and the Peri." As soon 
 as he arrived in Dresden he set to work on the epilogue to the Faust mu- 
 sic. The incessant activity of his mind finally resulted in throwing it 
 completely off its balance, and gave rise to distressing symptoms of 
 melancholy. In 1848 he wrote his opera of " Genoveva," which, al- 
 though full of beautiful music, is not well adapted for dramatic per- 
 formance. Here also followed, in an order which we have no room to 
 trace, the later compositions for the piano. In 1850 he removed to 
 Diisseldorf as municipal director, and was received with a banquet and 
 concert. His position here was pleasant, but he had as little talent for 
 directino^ as teachina:. In 1853 he and his wife made a concert tour 
 throuo-h the Netherlands, where Schumann was delio-hted to ilnd his 
 music as well known as at home. "Everywhere," he writes, "there 
 were fine performances of my symphonies, even the most difficult." 
 
 Still his malady increased. He imagined he heard a tone, which 
 pursued him incessantly, and from which harmonies, nay whole com- 
 positions were gradually developed. He became sleepless, and cast 
 down with melancholy. At length he threw himself into the Ivliine, 
 from which he was with difficulty rescued. Ho was removed to a 
 private asylum at Endenich, where he died two years latei', Jvily 31, 
 18CG. 
 
 " Robert Schumann was of middling stature, almost tall, and slightly 
 corpulcMit. His bearing while in health was haughty, distiiiguisiied, 
 dignified and calm; his gait slow, soft, and a little slovenly. While at 
 home he generally wore felt shoes. He often paced his room on tip- 
 toe, apparently without cause. His eyes were generally down-cast, 
 half-closed, and onlv biio-htened in intercourse with intimate friends, 
 but then most pleasantly. His countenance produced an agreeable, 
 kindly impression; it was without regular beauty, and not particularly 
 intellectual. The fine cut mouth, usually puckered as if to whistle, 
 was, next to the eyes, the most attractive feature of his full, round, 
 ruddy face. Above the heavy nose rose a high, bold, arched brow,
 
 190 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 ■which broadened visibly at the temples. His head, covered with long, 
 thick, dark-brown hair, was hrm and intensely powerful, we might say 
 square.*" 
 
 As a composer Schumann is one of the most important in the en- 
 tire historv of music. Liszt acutely remarked, •' Schumann thinks 
 music better than any other since Beethoven." AYe have already seen 
 that Bach established modern tonality by taking it as he found it al- 
 ready developed for him in Fugue, and applying it to the exjDression 
 of musical feeling, the vital element which had .been generally want- 
 ino- in the music written before his dav. After Bach, nothina: new was 
 done for music but to invent clearer forms, and to master its use as 
 the expression of light and deep feeling according to the demands of 
 the classical school. We have also seen that Beethoven, in some of his 
 works, goes beyond the classical idea, and actually enters upon the 
 province of the romantic. This he does in the stronger contrasts of 
 his works, especially in the pianoforte sonatas, op. 13, 110 and 111 
 Yet in these works which are so full of feeling, and expressed with such 
 masterful power, there is after all a certain repose and classical dig- 
 nity bevond which they do not come. These elements are still more 
 noticeable in his opera " Fidelio," where there was room for him to 
 have expressed himself in a truly romantic manner. But no! here, as 
 elsewhere, he is distinctly the instrumental composer, considering the 
 music first and the text afterwarcis. That the music is far above that 
 of any Italian opera, comes not from Beethoven's seizure of the text, 
 but from his range of expression as a musician. It is as music that 
 " Fidelio " surpassed other operas, and not as a poetico-musical inter- 
 pretation of a highly poetic and suggestive text. The same peculiari- 
 ties of Beethoven's music are still more perceptible in the symphonies, 
 where he is always moved by musical considerations as such. Nothing 
 tempts him from the strictly appropriate and suitable development of 
 his theme. True, he does this with consummate beauty, and sets it off 
 bv the most delightful contrasts, but in all he is reposeful, elegant, 
 beautiful. The very fineness of the work makes it ineffective to com- 
 mon minds. Yet, how much more effective to those who have the ears 
 to hear. 
 
 Schubert is in many respects to be counted a romantic composer. 
 Yet we have but to study his music deeply to perceive that his roman- 
 ticism is spasmodic and temporary, while the natural range of his 
 thouo-ht is accordino^ to the methods of the classical. Thus while in 
 his great romantic songs, like the Erl King, he is distinctly a romantic 
 
 *Von Wasielwski.
 
 ROBERT SCHUMANN. 101 
 
 writer, as soon as the stimulus of poetry is withdrawn he develops his 
 }nusical ideas at groat lengtiis, strictly in the classic method. This is 
 to be seen everywhere in Scliubert's instrumental works, and he is es- 
 pecially the longest-ioinded composer of all. No one else is so un- 
 wearied in turning over the same idea; and, it may be added, no one 
 else does so with such elej^ance and orace. 
 
 Schumann, on the contrary, is romantic in the very essence of his 
 musical tlioui^-ht. AYhcii ]\(\ is writinof to a text he is <rranliic and \\o\- 
 ible in conforming to tlio spirit of the words. But when Im is writing 
 instrumental music merely, he is equally direct and full of humor. 
 The classical Tnethod of developing musical ideas is contrary to his na- 
 ture and impossible for him. All through his life he made the most 
 strenuous efforts to write eleii'antlv, and accordin<>* to the canons of 
 form. He disciplined himself in counterpoint and fugue* under tlic 
 best masters of his dav, and studied eao-erlv Bach and Beethoven. 
 Yet he could never develop an idea easily and naturally according to 
 the fashion of the classic. His fugues are forced, liis counterpoint 
 spasmodic, and his sonatas his poorest work. His songs are at times 
 badly placed for the voice, and entirely uidlke every thing that a song- 
 ought to 1)0 — if we may believe the critics who wrote upon lliem in 
 Schumann's life-time. Yet they have made their way and are now 
 accepted as among the most successful efforts yet made to unite poetry 
 and music. So also in the instrumental pieces. These little, fantastic, 
 irregular compositions are now played and enjoyed all the world over, 
 althouii'li thev do not contain a sino;le element of the "o-rateful " salon 
 piece for the pianoforte. 
 
 Yet the classical moment in music had not passed ])v in Schu- 
 mann's day. Beethoven's later sonatas were as yet a sealed book. 
 Mendelssohn, although on the whole to be counted for a roinanti(M-oin- 
 poser, handled musical ideas with an ease and classical elegance, 
 limited only by the inherent lightness of the ideas themselves. Cho- 
 pin, a still more poetic writer, and the inventor of very many entirely 
 nevv ways of proceeding, yet develops his ideas in his own new ways, 
 somehow not unlike the spirit of the classical model. Chopin is every- 
 where new and original; l)ut ho has also a' certain epic breadth. He 
 writes lono- movements, which are well sustained, and thorouii-hlv 
 satisfactory in point of formal beauty. 
 
 Schumann, doubtless, would have agreed with the late Edgar A. 
 Poe, that "a long poem is a contradiction in terms." There is never 
 a long piece of music in Schumann. But instead thereof, short pieces, 
 strongly differentiated and contrasted, and out of them are built up,
 
 193 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 mosaic-wise, long movements. So it is in his pianoforte concertos, 
 sonatas, his quartettes and symphonies. The distinguishing greatness 
 of Schumann, then, is not in liis large pieces, for in all of them he is 
 one way or another hampered. In the pianoforte concerto, for exam- 
 ple, there are no effective passages. It is in places difficult enough, 
 but it is very far from a bravoura piece. Even the cadenza is as far 
 as possible from anything likely to bring down the house. Yet it is 
 one of the most delightful works ever written, and full of the most 
 beautiful ideas, although, to be sure, these are mainly for the piano. 
 
 It is another ^peculiarity of Schumann's genius, that he is on the 
 whole a pianoforte composer. iVlthough he wrote a large amount for 
 other instruments and for the voice, his piano works are the ones on 
 which his fame chiefly rests. And it is curious to observe that while 
 this is the case, he has never written "gratefully" for the jDianoforte, 
 but always the new and original. Hence his piano pieces had to wait 
 a long time for their merits to become known. One might almost say 
 that they had to wait for a generation of players able to understand 
 them and do them justice. 
 
 Schumann is essentially the music thinker. He writes well for 
 no instrument whatever, nor even for the voice. The entire art of 
 piano playing, and especially of early technical practice, has had to be 
 re-modeled in order to provide the technical ability with which to 
 properly render these works of his. His symphonies not only are made 
 up out of bits, like all his long pieces, but are badly written for the 
 strinsrs, the verv fovmdation of the orchestra. Yet the music has in it 
 such force and freshness, that these works hold their position, not only 
 against the more reposeful and elegant works of Beethoven and the 
 classical composers, but against modern works also, even though in 
 some cases much l^etter written. Bach established the musical vo- 
 cabulary within which the entire classical school expressed itself. In 
 like manner Schumann did this for the romantic school. Nothing es- 
 sentially new has been added to musical phraseology since Schumann, 
 but only to master the use of his new modes of expression. What 
 these are it would be difficult to point out. If we examine the har- 
 mony we can not say that Schumann uses any chord that may not be 
 found in Bach. Nor is the novelty in period formations. But perhaps, 
 if in any single element, in the manner of motive-transformation. In 
 this respect the difference between Schumann and Bach or Beethoven 
 is world-wide. \n Bach there is, to be sure, a fresh and thoroughly 
 right thematic development, and so in Beethoven. In the latter his fan- 
 tasy sometimes carries him to great lengths, as in the Rondo Capriccioso.>
 
 ROBERT SCHUMANN. 193 
 
 But in Schumann this fantasy becomes much more fantastic and hu- 
 rnoristic. Tn many cases it is so violent as to forhid his adlieriiig to a 
 singUi idea and working" it out thoroughly. Instead of that lie flies 
 restlessly from one idea to another, and to yet another, until the lis- 
 tener wearies of it. So lie violates all canons of beauty, and destruc- 
 tive criticism breaks all her vials of wrath upon him. Yet the strongest 
 of these pieces has something true and tender in it. "When a Rubin- 
 stein produces the key that unlocks the magic door, we enter and find 
 here a world of tenderness and fanciful beauty. So has it been with 
 the apparently most unjustifiable of these works, like, for example, the 
 Carnival, the Faschhigsschwank cms Wien., and so on. 
 
 It is Schumann who has in oiKi effort taught the musical world 
 two lessons : that there is poetry in music, and that there is music in 
 the pianoforte. His creative activity busied itself along the line where 
 poetry and n.usic join. Although an imaginative and fanciful person, 
 he had a true instinct for valid and logical expression in music. So, even 
 in his most far-fetchod passages, the melodic and harmonic sequences, 
 although new, are inherently rigiit, and entirely compatible with those 
 of Bach and Beethoven. Hence whatever ground his music has gained, 
 it has held. On the other hand he had also a fancy in which every 
 fantastic idea found congenial soil. The jn-oper, the conventional, the 
 allowable, meant nothina: to him. He "-ave loose rein to his humor 
 and followed it whithersoever it led. Xor yet in this did he lose his 
 balance. For at the bottom he iiad the key to the riddle, which we 
 have before several times pointed out: the relation of music to emotion. 
 And so while his fancy took him fai', and into many new paths, his fine 
 musical sense kept him from jiassing beyond what was inherently right 
 in music, as such. That he often passes beyond the limits of the sym- 
 metrical, the well-sounding, or even the agreeable, we can afford to 
 foririve for the sake of the vi<ror of his imaa-ination, and the inherent 
 sweetness and soundness of his disposition. And it is these which on 
 the whole have supported and justified his works. 
 
 List of Sciiumanx Illustrations. 
 
 1. {ModenUely Difficult, Employing the Pianoforte and a Soprano.) 
 
 1. "The Entraucf," " Wayside Inn," and " Homeward" from the Forest Scenes, 
 
 op. 82. 
 
 2. "Tlie Hat of Green," Soprano. 
 
 3. a. Romance in F sharp, op. 28. 
 1). Hunting Souij:. 
 
 4. " O Sunshine," Soprano. 
 
 13
 
 194 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 0. Nachlstiicke in C and F, op. 23. 
 
 6. " Moonlight," Soprano. 
 
 7. "End of the Song," from op. 12. 
 
 2. Difficult. 
 
 1. Etudes Symphoniques, op. 13, Theme, variations 1, 2, 3, 7, 11, 12, and Finale. 
 
 2. " Thou Ring upon my Finger," Soprano. 
 
 3. " Aufschwung," " Warum," and " Ende vom Lied," from op 12. 
 
 4. " He the Best of all, the Noblest," Soprano. 
 
 5. Novelette in F, No. 1, Romance in F sharp, and Novellette in E. No. 7, 
 
 3. Illustrations of the Romantic 
 
 1. Schumann. — a. Novellette in E, No. 7. 
 
 b. Prophetic Birds. 
 
 c. Traumeswirren. 
 
 d. Warum. 
 
 e. Ende vom Lied. 
 
 2. Schubert. — " The Erl King," Soprano. 
 
 3. Chopin. — a. Scherzo in D flat, op. 31. 
 
 h. Nocturne in F sharp, op. l"). 
 c. Ballade in A flat, op. 47. 
 
 4. Schumann. — " He the Best of all, the Noblest." 
 
 5. Chopin. — Polonaise in A flat, op. 58. 
 
 CHAPTEK FIFTY. 
 
 LISZT. 
 
 Liszt is one of the most remarkable personages wlio has yet ap- 
 peared in music. His life is briefly told by Francis Heuffer, in Grove's 
 " Dictionary," as follows: 
 
 "Franz Liszt was born October 22, 1811, at Raiding, in Hungary, 
 the son of Adam Liszt, an official in the imperial service, and a musi- 
 cal amateur of sufficient attainment to instruct his son in the rudiments 
 of pianoforte-playing. At the age of nine young Liszt made his first 
 appearanee in public at Oedenburg, with such success that several 
 Hunofarian noblemen j^uaranteed him sufficient means to continue his 
 studies for six years. For that purpose he went to Vienna, and took 
 lessons from Czerny on the pianoforte, and from Salieri and Rand- 
 hartinger in composition. The latter introduced the lad to his friend 
 Franz Schubert. His first appearance in print was probably in a va- 
 riation (the 24th) on a waltz of Diabelli's, one of fifty contributed by
 
 LTSZT. 195 
 
 tlie most eminent artists of the day, for whicli Beethoven, when asked 
 for a single variation, wrote tliirty-tliree (op. 120). Tlie collection, 
 entitled Vaterlandischo Kiinstler-VercMn, was published in June, 1833. 
 In the same year he proceeded to Paris, wlu^re it was hoped that his 
 rapidly growing rejiutation would gain him admission at the Conser- 
 vatoire in spite of his foreign origin. But Cherubini refused to make 
 an exce-ption in his favor, and he continued his studies under Reicha 
 and Paer. Shortly afterwards he also made his first serious attempt at 
 composition, and an operetta in one act, called ' Don Sancln>/ was 
 produced :it the x\cademie Royale, October IT, IS'2."), and well received. 
 Artistic tours to Switzerland and England, accompanied by brilliant 
 success, occupy the period till the year 1827, when Liszt lost his father 
 and was thrown on his own r(;sources to provide for himself and his 
 mother. Duriuii- his stay in Paris, where he settled for some years, he 
 became acquainted with the leaders of French literature, Victor Hugo, 
 Lamartine and George Saiul, the intluence of whose works may be 
 discovered in his compositions. P^or a time also he l)ocaniean adherent 
 to Saint-Simon, but soon reverted to the Catholic religion, to which, 
 as an artist and a man, he has since adhered devoutly. 
 
 " The interval from 1839 to 1847 Liszt spent in traveling almost in- 
 cessantly from one country to another, being everywhere received 
 with an enthusiasm unequaled in the annals of Art. In England he 
 played at the Philharmonic Concerts of May 21, 1827 (Concerto, Hum- 
 mel), May 11, 1840 (Concertstuck, Weber), and June 8, 1840 (Kreut- 
 zer-sonata). Here alone liis reception seems to have been less warm 
 than was expected, and Liszt, with his usual generosity, at once un- 
 dertook to bear the loss that might have fallen on his agent. Of tliis 
 generosity numerous instances might be cited. The charitable pur- 
 poses to which Liszt's genius has been made subservient are legion, 
 and in this respect as well as in that of technical perfection, he is un- 
 rivaled amono-st virtuosi. The disaster caused at Pesth by the inun- 
 dation of the Danui)e (1837) was considerably alleviated by the 
 princely sum — the result of several concerts — coTitributed by this 
 artist; and when two years later a considerable sum had been col- 
 lected for a statue to be erected to him at Pesth, he insisted upon the 
 nioney being given to a struggling ycjuug sculjitor, whom he moreover 
 assisted from his private means. The poor of Raiding also had cause 
 to remember the visit paid by Liszt to his native village about the 
 same time. It is well known that Beethoven's monument at Bonn 
 owed its existence, or at least its speedy completion, to Liszt's liber- 
 ality. When the subscriptions for the purpose began to fail, Liszt
 
 19(1 . HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC, 
 
 offered to pay tlie balance required from his own pocket, provided 
 oidy that the choice of the sculptor should be left to him. From the 
 beffinniniT of the forties dates Liszt's more intimate connection with 
 Weimar, where in 1849 he settled for the sjiace of twelve years. This 
 stay was to be fruitful in more than one sense. When he closed his 
 career as a virtuoso, and accepted a permanent engagement as con- 
 ductor of the Court Theater at Weimar, he did so with the distinct 
 puroose of becoming the advocate of the rising musical generation, by 
 the performance of such works as were written regardless of immediate 
 success, and therefore had little chance of seeing the light of the stage. 
 At short intervals eleven operas of living composers were either per- 
 formed for the first time or revived on the Weimar stage. Amongst 
 these may be counted such works as Lohengrin^ Tannhdyser, and 
 The Flying Dutchman of AYagner, Benvenuto Cellini by Berlioz, 
 Schumann's Genoveca^ and music to Byron's 'Manfred." Schubert's 
 Alfonso and Estrella was also rescued from oblivion by Liszt's exer- 
 tions. For a time it seemed as if this small pruvincial city was once 
 tnore to be the artistic center of Germany, as it had been in the days 
 of Goethe, Schiller and Herder. From all sides musicians and ama- 
 teurs flocked to Weimar, to Avitness the astonishing feats to which a 
 small but excellent communitv of sino-ers and instrumentalists were 
 inspired 1)v the crenius of their leader. In this way was formed the 
 the nucleus of a "-roui) of vouno- and enthusiastic musicians, who, 
 whatever mav be tliou'rht of their aims and achievements, were and 
 are at &ny r:;te inspired by perfect devotion to music and its poetical 
 aims. It was, indeed, at these Weimar gatherings that the musicians 
 who now form the so-called School of the Future, till then unknown 
 to each other and divided locally and mentally, came first to a clear 
 understanding of their powers and aspirations. How much the per- 
 sonal fascination of Liszt contributed to this desired effect need not be 
 said. Amongst the numerous pupils on the pianoforte, to whom he at 
 the same period opened the invaluable treasure of his technical ex- 
 perience, may be mentioned Hans von Billow, the worthy disciple of 
 such a master. 
 
 "The remaining facts of Liszt's life may be summed up in a few 
 words. In 1859 he left his official position at the Opera in Weimar 
 owing to the captious opposition made to the production of Cornelius' 
 ' Barber of Bagdad,' at the Weimar Theater. Since that time he has 
 been living at intervals at Rome, Pesth, and Weimar, always sur- 
 I'ounded by a circle of pupils and admirers, and always working for
 
 LISZT. 197 
 
 • music and musicians in t]\o unselfish and tndy catliolic spirit character- 
 istic of his wliole life/' 
 
 Liszt's 250sition in tlio world of art is one that is altogether pecu- 
 liar and unexampled. ILi appeared in Paris just at the time wlien 
 Thalberg- had made a profound impression by the ease of his playing and 
 the remarkable results attainable from the piano. What Thalberg did 
 was to carry a melody in tlie center of the compass of the instrument, 
 principally with the two thumbs, and to surrouTid it with an elabora- 
 tion of passage-work entirely unheard of before. The melody so car- 
 ried was not left to itself, or merely pounded out, but made to sing, 
 and delivered with the utmost refinement of phrasing, as if, indeed, 
 the player had nothing whatever to do just then but to play tliat 
 melodv. There was in all of Thall)er^■"'s pieces a certain similaritv of 
 style, and in his performance a certain coldness. 
 
 All this, which Thalberg did so' beautifully and elegantly, yet so 
 coldly, Liszt did spontaneously, and []with an endless caprice of 
 color and shadincr as the mood chanced. Besides these things, to 
 which, indeed, he attached little importance, Liszt's exuberent fancy 
 broke out in, every direction, especially towards the new, the startling, 
 the astonishing. For his calmer moments he had his work readv to 
 his hands in the elegant but dramatically suggestive compositions of 
 Chopin, and these Liszt played wilh a fire and strength far beyond the 
 . feeble powers of Chopin himself. 
 
 As a player Liszt gathered up and combined witliin himself all 
 the excellencies of piano-playing known before him, and added to 
 this, his inherited capital, a perfectly tropical luxuriance of elaboration 
 in every direction. ' 
 
 The possibilities latent in the diminished seventli and llic cln-o- 
 matic scale, were very plainly suggested in Mozart's Avind-parts of 
 Handel's " The People that AValked in Darkness," but they remained 
 a sealed book to the pianist until Chopin showed them at the'r true 
 value on the pianoforte. This new path attracted Liszt, who has 
 effected a thousand transformations on these elements, most of them 
 much simpler and less subtle than Chopin's, but perhaps on that very 
 account all the more effective in concert. And so W(' find in Liszt's 
 transcriptions and paraphrases of songs and orchestral works, not only 
 very effective solos for virtuoso pc^-formance, 1)ut also an actual and 
 very influential enlargement of the available field of the piano, and, 
 more and more in his later works, a demand u]ion {\\o player for intel- 
 ligence and musical discrimination of touch. In liis earlier transcrip-
 
 198 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 tioiis Iio is concerned with operatic melodies, and those mainly of 
 Verdi, Rossini and Meyerbeer. In his later works he traverses the 
 whole range of musical literature. Symphonies, quartettes, masses, 
 operas, oratorios, and, last and least jDromising; of all, Wagner's " Art- 
 Work of the Future," — all these re-attire themselves in habiliments 
 of pianoforte passages, and pose for drawing-room use. 
 
 Liszt has been the great music teacher of the last forty years. He 
 has never received a dollar for musical instruction, but has given his 
 services in pure love for the art. All good pianists owe much to him ; 
 not only to the silent but forcible inspiration of his printed works, but 
 also still more to his personal example and criticism. As long ago as 
 1852 he had a class of seven or eight young men at Weimar, all of 
 whom have since become famous. Amono; them Avere Hans von 
 Biilow, Carl Klindworth, Joachim Half, William Mason, Dionys Priick- 
 ner, and .Joseph Joachim. Later additions were Edouard Rcmenyi and 
 Carl Tausig. Not only were pianists here, but violinists, singers, 
 painters, sculjDtors, poets, and literary men of all kinds, all of whom 
 found something inspiring and helpful in this magical and unconven- 
 tional atmosphere. Since 1853 it is safe to say that every concert 
 pianist in the world has been for a longer or a shorter time with Liszt. 
 
 A wrong idea of Liszt as a pianist is held by those who suppose 
 that his playing is characterized by great force and extravagance. 
 Lnagine a very tall and slender man, more than six feet, with enor- 
 mously long arms and fingers. He sits bolt ujiright, his long legs bent 
 at a sharp angle at the knee. The trowsers ai'e held down by straps. 
 His face bears an ascetic expression. His hair is long, white, and 
 floats upon his shoulders. His eyes are- half-closed, and he scarcely 
 ever looks at his hands. He sits perfectly still. Those long fingers 
 go meandering over the key-board like gigantic spiders. You shud- 
 der at the sight. He seems to bo playing slowly. Tlie touch is every- 
 thing but legato. This he does with the jied:;!. Yet in this easy, non- 
 chalant fashion he is improvising the most wi-erd or impressive harmo- 
 nies, or plays at first sight the most difficult j^roductions of other vir- 
 tuosi. Nay! he even takes a full score of a ^^ianoforte concerto bv 
 some new author, and plays it from the cramped and obscure hand- 
 writina: as coollv and vioforouslv as if he had written it himself, and zt 
 the very same first sight reads also the orchestral ])arts, and makes 
 spoken comments on the instrumentation as he goes along! This,' 
 which sounds like a rhapsodical description, is literally true of Liszt. 
 xV virtuoso pupil brings him a fug'ue on which he has sj^ent much prac- 
 tice. Liszt thinks it too slow, and plays it at the projjer tempo. The
 
 LISZT. 109 
 
 youngster takes it liome and works at it six weeks before he brings it 
 up to the rapid tempo. If now he were to bring it again to Liszt, he 
 would be just as likely to play it again in yet double speed. 
 
 Liszt seems to have been expressly designed for a sort of appre- 
 ciative older brother to all new and original composers. For this use 
 his temperament exactly suits. The points ifi their work that criticism 
 sticks at, are, of course, the new and sometimes the very turning-points 
 of their lasting value. These points Liszt seizes by intuition. Imper- 
 fections of a triflino- character, or even of a serious kind, so thov do 
 not interfere with the main idea of the work, have no power to with- 
 draw his attention from vital points. It was Liszt who first joined 
 with Schumann in recognizing the genius of Schubert. It was Liszt 
 who even went beyond Schumann and every other critic in recogniz- 
 ino- the hiirh artistic significance of the works of Berlioz and "Waarnor. 
 
 As a composer Liszt has worked in every field. He is never re- 
 poseful. His works are generally fragmentary. They are character- 
 ized by intense contrasts and sensational transitions. All available 
 resources he uses unhesitatinglv. His influence in art will be very 
 great, but as a composer it will probably be limited to his own genera- 
 tion. His power is rather in his personal inspiration to other men of 
 genius, than in a vocation for a distinctly new artistic utterance, ex- 
 cept, indeed, upon the pianoforte. 
 
 Programme of Liszt Illxtstrations. 
 
 {Employing two Pianists and a Soprano.) 
 
 1. Concerto in E flat, with second pianoforte accompauiment. 
 
 2. Song, " Thou'rt Like a Lovely Flower." 
 
 3. a. Waklesrauchen, Concert Study. 
 
 b. Spinning Song from " Flying Dutchman." 
 
 4. " Mignon's Song." 
 
 5. a,. Polonaise Ileroique in E. 
 h. Schubert's " Wanderer." 
 
 c. Second Hungarian Rhapsody. (Rivo King Edition.)
 
 200 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 CHAPTEE FIFTY-ONE. 
 
 WAGNER. 
 
 In the old University city, Leipsic, was born on May 22, 1813, one 
 Richard Wagner, who for many years lias seemed to the older and 
 more conservative musicians to be turning the world upside down, but 
 who in the outcome bids fair to add another name to the list of Leipsic 
 celebrities. AVagner was the son of a police magistrate, and a relative 
 of the distinguished tragedienne, Johanna Wagner. The boy was in- 
 tended for the law, and jDursued his studies at the St. Thomas school 
 until he was about seventeen. Long before this, however, as he tells 
 in his autobiography, he heard Weber's " Freyschiitz" and a symphony 
 of Beethoven, and thenceforth he forsook the Shakespearean tragedies 
 it had been his pleasure to compose, in favor of symphonies and over- 
 tures. One of the latter was actually performed at the Leipsic thea- 
 tre, but the effect of it was somewhat marred, Wagner says, by the 
 big bass drum, which he had brought in on tlie accented part of every 
 third measure throughout the piece; whereat, when the audience 
 fairly realized it, there was most derisive laughter. 
 
 In 1830 AVagner entered as a music-student at the University. 
 In this year he carried a symphony of his to Dionys AVeber in Vienna, 
 who praised the talent he displayed in it, and advised him to study. 
 Three years later he went to Warzburg, vvhere his brother Albert lived, 
 and wrote there his first opera, "Die Feen."" In 1837 he went to 
 Koniorsburg: as musical director, and two vears later he was writins: on 
 his " Rienzi," at Dresden. Later he went to Paris, and on the 
 way read the legend of the " Flying Dutchman," and in the sea voy- 
 age encountered the storm he has represented in the overture to that 
 opera. In Paris he nearly starved, and was reduced to the necessity 
 of writing j^ianoforte jjotpourris to boil his own pot. He left Paris in 
 184'2. In 1844 and 1845 he wrote " Tannhiiuser," and very soon after- 
 wards his " Meistersinger von Xiirnburg," and had sketched " Lohen- 
 grin." "Rienzi" was brou<rht out for the first time in Berlin in 1847, 
 with great success. As early as this he was already at work on his 
 poem of '^ Siegfried's Death." In the year 1848 he was mixed up in
 
 wag.\"i:k. ;iUl 
 
 the political rovolutioii, and comjjolhid to fly to Switzerland. The 
 following year he brovigiit out his inijjortant pampiilets "Art and Rev- 
 olution," "The Art-Work of the Future," and was at the same time 
 enirau'ed in tiie study ol" the " Xiebelunijen Lied." As alreailv re- 
 counted ni the notice of Liszt, it was at ^Veiinar that " Tannliaiiser " 
 and '' Loheng-rin " first found their success. Tiie former spran*'- into 
 popularity and in 1853 was performed in Leipsic, Frankfort a. ^L, 
 Schwerin, Uiisseldorf, Cologne, Bromberg, Poscn, Freyburg, Konigs- 
 burg, Danzig, Bremen, Hamburg, Riga, Cassel, Darmstadt, etc. 
 
 About ISTO AVagnei- l)egan to plan seriously for tlie first Bay- 
 reuth Festival, whicli took })lace August 13-17, 187G. For this a thea- 
 tre had been erected, complete in all its appointments, at an expense 
 of over half a million dollars. The orchestra was composed of the best 
 musicians in Germany, to the number of one hundred, and the singers 
 embraced the most dist in s-ui shed artists — all of wiiom volunteered 
 their services for the occasion. The audience was from every part of 
 the world. The scenic effects were of the most elaborate^ and oforareous 
 description. In this magnificent manner two performances of his great 
 quartette of operas tiie " Ring of the Niebelungeu " was performed. 
 This festival was repeated in ]878. 
 
 .As an artist Wagner stands in a three-fold capacity : as a mu- 
 sician, in wliicli his inliuence has been on the whole in the direction of 
 the realistic, and beyond the romanlic. The Romantic, as we saw in 
 tlie earlier parts of this work (Chap. XXI), rests in a suggestiveness 
 of poetic idea, rather than in an actual representation of the external 
 world; whereas Wagner, without attempting the impossible in seek- 
 ing to represent actual inanimate existence by means of tones, has 
 many times represented the forces and effects of nature with remarka- 
 ble cleverness, as, for example, the storm in th(! "Flying Dutchman," 
 the sunrise in " Lohengrin," etc. Besides, in representing emotion he 
 carries it to the verge of literalism. As an orchestral writer he is an 
 innovator, and one of the greatest masters the world of music has 
 
 ever seen. 
 
 Wagner has also claims as a poet, and lit(M-ary man. As to the 
 literary value of his works, opinions in Germany differ. But there 
 can be no (|uestioii as to the remarkable freshness and suggestiveness 
 of his writings on music, a part of which have lately been translated 
 into En<rlish. As a scenic artist, he has very much improved the 
 mechanisms of the stage, and introduced the most complete spectacu- 
 lar effects yet contrived. Personally, Wagner represents the opposite 
 disposition to that of Liszt. For whereas Liszt is generous and (piick
 
 202 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 to recoo'iiize merit in -all, and the last to claim any for liimself, Wagoner 
 is so entirely absorbed in liis own ideas as to have little time to study 
 those of other men. Perhaps T shall make plainer my estimate of 
 Wagner by comj^aring his operatic works with those of his predeces- 
 sors. 
 
 Tlie day of Wagner's triumph draws near. The Bayreuth Festi- 
 val, the persistent quarreling between his adherents and classic mu- 
 sicians, the efforts of the Thomas orchestra, all have done something 
 to bring it on. It is the peculiarity of Wagner's operas to hold their 
 own wherever they once gain a foothold. Such is the splendor of 
 their instrumeatation, the magnificence of their stage effects, and es- 
 pecially tkeir remarkable unity, that they not only improve on acquain- 
 tance, but make almost all other operas pale in comparison. Their 
 masterly unity is the great point in their favor. They exhibit no dis- 
 crepancy between poet and comjjoscr, nor between both and the stage- 
 manager; but the same master mind that conceived the plot, elabora- 
 ted the dialogue, and the musical declamation that fitly expresses it. 
 The same skill seized the orchestra, greatly enlarged it, enriched its 
 treatment, and handled it in complete subjection to the dramatic idea. 
 The music is intense, and even if the listener fails fully to compre- 
 hend it, he can but feel that the fault is with him, for the masterly 
 grip of the composer is expressed in every strain. 
 
 Wagner is the legitimate successor of Meyerbeer. He is the heir, 
 who having buried the dead body "with all jiroper respect, lives on the 
 property bequeathed him, which with rare skill he manages to increase 
 four-fold. 
 
 Meyerbeer was an artist in effects. There is scarcely a line of 
 really heartfelt musical inspiration in all his writings; yet such are 
 the stage effects, and the brilliancy of the scoring, along with the 
 somewhat over-strained rhythms, that iiis operas form excellent stage 
 pieces for large theatres. Meanwhile the spectator feasts his eyes, is 
 impressed by the gorgeousncss of it all, and wonders why he isnot 
 affected, wonders why he is even (shall he say it?) a little bit bored. 
 He dares not attribute this feeling to his musical superiority, for he 
 well remembers hearins; "Der Frevschiitz" with pleasure only the 
 niffht before. Two nio^hts afterwards he heard " Lohengrin " with 
 enjoyment. Why then does he stumble at Meyerbeer? The explana- 
 tion is to be found in the change of standpoint which the composers 
 have effected, without mentioning the fact, until Wagner perceived 
 it and explained it. Such operas as " Fra Diavolo " and " Wm. Tell " 
 are written to amuse. The former is a comedy. The music is me-
 
 WAG .NEK. O03 
 
 lodious, and the kind of melody that fits into easy harmonies, and car- 
 ries with it a sense of play. Wairner's nnisic, on tlie other hand, 
 carries with it a sense of work, and v(M-y hard work it is too. The 
 Gluck operas were designed as music-dramas. This was also Mozart's 
 idea of " Uon Juan." In this idea he was exactly contrary to the 
 author of the libretto, Da Ponte, who designed merely a comedy. 
 Mozart was himself too good natured, and too mucli a man of his time 
 to fully carry out his own inner conviction. Besideg, the world had 
 wrestled faithfully with the workiiuj music of Bach, and was'just then 
 ready only for something that could be enjoyed without work. In 
 his ensembles Mozart discards well-turned tunes, and elaborates lonor 
 finales of inlierently dramatic music, rising finally to a powi^rful Imt 
 not showy climax. On the other hand, his peasants and smaller char- 
 acters speak in melodies of the most deliciously simple cut, and these, 
 while dramatically true, serve at the same time to amuse the audience. 
 Thus the Mozart standpoint is not consistent witli itself; and hence, 
 in spite of their beauty, the Mozart operas do not fully satisfy either 
 party. Beethoven in his " Fidclio " intended to be true to the drama, 
 and his music in that opera is of the most refined and ])oetic descrip- 
 tion. Still Beethoven was too good a musician to be a good opera 
 composer. In his idea, repose was an element of beauty. Now re- 
 pose shows itself in music in the well-rounded return of melodies upon 
 themselves, and in the intervention of simple passages to serve as 
 contrasts with the more noble and passionate, in the same way that 
 the delicious idiocy ol the grave-digger in " Handet " relieves the 
 attention and serves to emphasize the subtilty and high intellectual 
 quality of much that occurs in the same connection. It was impossible 
 for Beethoven not to regard musical symmetry. Yet this must be dis- 
 regarded if the opera is to lie really a drama. Another element of 
 repose in Beethoven, and in all the composers before AVagner, is the 
 simplicity of the harmonies. Dissonances do not abound. This and 
 the decided tonality of almost every period makes tlie harmonic 
 structure clear, and bv so much assists the hearer. All tlie Italians 
 have written opera first for the voice, and secondly to amuse. 
 
 The Wagner music-dranja, on the other hand, is not an amuse- 
 ment, and was not tlesigned to be. It is a work of art; a powerful 
 achievement of the imao-iuation, actinu: throuiz-h a cond)ination of mu- 
 sically declaimed speech, dramatic action, and an orchestra controlled 
 solely for the purpose of heightening the effect. "Wagner's standpoint 
 is consistent with itself, whether the true one or not. He does not 
 sock effects merely as such, but only where they trutlifuUy belong to
 
 20i HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 the drama. He neither sacrifices to the prima-doniia by means of 
 encore-compelling cadenzas, nor to the groundling with airs that may 
 be whistled. If the singers make effects they must do so through the 
 intelligence and power of their declamation, and by the intensity 
 and truth of their action. Such demands as these for a time disabled 
 both singers and hearers. Wagner has had to wait twenty-five years 
 for a generation of singers who have mastered the art of the lyric 
 stage in this conceptioti, and even now their number is small. So also 
 audiences and critics had to be educated to the new order of things, 
 before they could recognize the merit that showed itself in the new 
 "way. 
 
 Let us consider two of Wagner's operas, "The Flying Dutch- 
 man " was written thirty years ago. Wagner had only set out on the 
 new path. He had not then mastered his ov/n idea. His arioso style 
 was not yet smooth. But the dramatic structure of the play is simple, 
 effective, and well contrasted. It was originally designed to be played 
 in a single act. This for the sake of unity. It is now plaj^ed in three. 
 The first is in the little bay where the ships of Daland and Vander- 
 decken have taken refuge from the storm. Here are male choruses, 
 the pilot's beautiful song, the monologue of Vanderdecken, and the 
 dialogue between him and Daland. The second act takes place in 
 Daland's house, and makes us acquainted with Senta, and afterwards 
 brings in her would-be lover, Eric, and later the Dutchman himself. 
 In this act there is a female chorus. The third act takes place on the 
 quay, the peasants on shore, the Dutchman's ship, which presently 
 sets sail and departs. The stage situations are simple, plausible, and 
 effective. Already here is a music-drama with a conceivable plot. 
 The musical contrasts in this work are fine. The work opens with the 
 sailors' chorus, bold, wild, and original; then follows the pilots' song, 
 wh'cli comes very near the spirit of the Italian aria. Much that fol- 
 lov.s between Vanderdecken and Daland is a little tedious, but the act 
 concludes with the sailors' chorus that opened it. In the second act 
 the music brino-s Senta's verv strikino- l)allad, the legend of the 
 " Flying Dutchman," the spinning chorus of the girls, as well as much 
 that is less intelligible. If the standpoint be once conceded that opera 
 is a music-drama, and not simply a "play," there is nothing in this 
 work but possesses interest. Wagner lias not over-stepped the ability 
 of music. His next opera was "Tannhiiuser," and then came, three 
 years afterwards, " Lohengrin." " Tannhiiuser " goes farther in the 
 new direction. Several of its numbers are great. But it is in " Lo- 
 hengrin " that his genius takes a bolder flight. The unity of this piece
 
 WAGNER. 205 
 
 is complete. It does not present the aspect of a series of disconnected 
 numbers strung- togetlier by a chain of recitatives, but from first to 
 last it is cojisistent witii itself. In this work Wao-ner has attained a 
 high mastery over his favorite ideal, the dramatico-musical ileclama- 
 tion. Tills varies very much in style. Some of it is lyric in every- 
 thing except tlie rounding of the [)eriods; other parts run into a 
 well-cadenced recitative of entirely new cut, accompanied \)v a flowin^r 
 melody, or rather a melodiouslv-fiowin": river of orchestration. The 
 latter is in itself a study. Leading motives already apj)ear in it; these 
 striking bits of melody are each one associated with an important 
 moment in the drama. Each is worked into the musical comment 
 upon the moment to which it belongs. Later, when the consequences 
 of such a moment begin to appear, this motive returns with greater or 
 less emphasis. Such, for example, is the striking bit of melody in 
 which Lohengrui in tiie first act solemidy enjoins Elsa never to 
 ask his name. Li the third act, when Elsa begins to approach the 
 fatal question, this motive begins to occur in the instrumentation. At 
 first it is hinted at obscurely. Then it comes stronger and stronger, 
 until finally just before the fatal question, it is given out boldly and 
 with solemnity. So speaks conscience to the wavering heart; except, 
 unfortunately that conscience, lazy jade, is too apt to reverse the 
 order of emphasis, speaking weaker and yet weaker as the fatal mo- 
 ment of yielding nears. 
 
 ' Loheriffi'in " is a true drama. Thouo-h founded on a mvth, it 
 deals with the eternal conilict between good and evil. This conflict 
 here is veiled somewhat, and in this the nobility of the drama is ele- 
 va-ted. For although the ending shows the separation of Lohengrin 
 and P]lsa, l)rought about by the evil working through Ortrud, the eifect 
 is reached without any loss of virtue in the hero and lieroine who have 
 occupied our attention. The ending has genuine pathos witliout 
 tra<''edv. The diiferent acts are symmetrical] v balanced over a<i;ainst 
 each other. The evil stands in Ortrud and Frederick. The first act 
 shows the wager of battle and the triumph of the right. The second 
 act has the evil for its motive. The evil begins and well-nigh ends it. 
 The third act shows a fictitious triumph for the evil. Yet it brings 
 also the death of Fredei'ick. The scenic effects are sjjlendid. The 
 first scene is extremely 1)ril]iant, and tlie entrance of Lohengrin is 
 beautiful. The second act opens with a long duet between Ortrud 
 ami Frederick. This takes place in the night, on the steps of tlie 
 church, w.here the liright moon casts a dark sliadow. The sulijcct 
 matter of the dialogue is hate and vengeance, and it ends with ( )r-
 
 206 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 trud's profane appeal to false gods, uttered in the very shadow of a 
 temple to Jehovah. The contrast here implied is forcible and poeti- 
 cally conceived. The scene is long, partly, perhaps, in order to allow 
 the impression of the first act to subside. Then enters Elsa on the 
 balcony, and her song of love is one of the purest and most beautiful 
 on the stao-e. One analyzes it in vain to find its secret. It is not in 
 the song alone, nor in the accompaniment, nor yet in the 
 scenic effect; but rather, perhaps, in one of the most perfect unions 
 of all these elements ever accomplished by any composer. Tart 
 of the effect is due doubtless to the contrast with the scene 
 immediately preceding. The following bit of stage eifect, where 
 the warders blow their trumpets from the towers of the castle 
 at the approach of dawn; the gradually increasing light, the 
 music that accompanies it, the gathering of the people in the square — 
 all these have no bearing on the developement of the story. Thev 
 form a splendid scenic effect that serves to relieve the attention pre- 
 paratory to what follows. 
 
 Wagner has himself pointed out that Shakespeare expected im- 
 possibilities from his actors. Men of mediocre minds, untrained and 
 hampered by the necessity of daily toil, arc required to assume heroic 
 parts, where keen wits and strong passions are clothed in noble human 
 forms, such as it is impossible for them with their experience and low 
 imaginations to conceive of, much less to fitly personate. He say.s 
 that this must always be the case in master-works of imaofination, and 
 he has not hesitated to go perhaps farther in this direction than even 
 Shakespeare. For the dramatic part finds its actor when it finds in- 
 telligence, flexible mimicry, good declamation and suitable personnel 
 combined. But Wagner goes further. With these important qualifi- 
 cations must coincide the infinitely rarer one of a phenomenal voice of 
 the proper range. Now your singer begins by training his voice. To 
 train his voice he goes to Italy. If he has time or ambition, perhaps 
 he does a little something in the way of training^ his intellect. As a 
 rule, however, he stops with his throat, or if beyond that, with his 
 arms and legs. Hence, we may expect that an adequate appointment 
 of principals in " Lohengrin" will be something like ten times more 
 rare than an adequate support for Booth or Barrett in "Hamlet" or 
 " Shylock." 
 
 To the chorus Wagner has been still more cruel. He has written 
 for the militia of the stage, evolutions possible only to regulars in com- 
 ]ilete training. On the whole, the orchestra has come up to its part in 
 this compound work rather more promptly than the others. " Lohen-
 
 WAGNER. 207 
 
 grin " is no longer impracticable for orcliostral players. The weak 
 point in the Wagner drama, the fallacy that underlies its whole con- 
 ception, is a misapprehension of the capacity of music. Music is tiie 
 language of love and of serious and noble affection. It may become 
 so little musical as to express apprehension and grief. But hate is 
 discord, bold and biting. Dissonance is a discord that is musically 
 cured by what is called " resolution," or its subsidence into conso- 
 nance. Thus sorrow and trouble are cured into peace. But hate can 
 not subside into love; it is contrary to love. Hence, the sounds that 
 properly represent it are not those of " sweet bells jangledoutof tune,"' 
 but rather the mutterino-s and crashinjrs of on-comino- doom. Such 
 a scene as tliat between Oitru<l and Frederick, in the second act of 
 *' I^ohengrin," can be made interestino: onlv bvan Oilrud rarelv irifted 
 ■with passion and dramatic art; and the interest then excited is but a 
 hellish fascination. Such a scene is an ungrateful strain u])on the at- 
 tention, and it is questionable whether it has any business with music 
 at all. 
 
 Another weak point in this drama is its lack of repose. As we 
 have already seen, the old operas afford a sense of repose by the arias 
 which suspend dramatic movement and attract the musical attention. 
 In the Wagner drama, on the contrary, there is no suspension of the 
 action except where an act is completed. In accordance with this, the 
 musical-declamation falls into what Wagner calls an " endless melody," 
 which to a certain extent, is a contradiction of terms. 
 
 Still the entire parts of the King, Elsa, and Lohengrin admit of 
 being well done. They are not impossible, any more than Portia and 
 Shylock are impossible. They ask merely for endowments and genius 
 — endowments being tlu^ IxmIv, and genius the soid. 
 
 Nothing is more conspicuous in Wagner than his lack of wit or 
 humor. He is always grimly in earnest. Doubtless in his estimation, 
 wit is out of place in a noble work. But here he might have drawn a 
 lesson from Shakespeare. Surely playfulness is not fartlier from a 
 noble imagination than sensuality. Yet this he has not scrupled to 
 depict in "Tannliaiiser," and still more decidedly in some of his later 
 works. 
 
 Be the final out-come what it mav, the Wacfiier drama makes a 
 powerful appeal to the senses and the intelligence. Unqiu^stionably 
 it has genius. Whether, on the whole, it is worth the trouble, wlio 
 sliall sav? Meanwhile, there is room down-stairs for the average opera. 
 The world will alwavs contain those wiio, as it has been said, " sjo 
 throuo^h life like flies, seeking oidv to be amused." Yox them the
 
 208 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 Wagner "Art- Work of the Future " wiJl never possess beauty or even 
 
 intelliofibilitv. But earnest souls, whether aa-reeina; with the com- 
 
 poser or not, w'ill always recognize in Richard Wagner an earnest 
 
 man, a genius, and a Great Master. 
 »■ 
 
 Wagner Illustrations. 
 
 {Employing two Pianos, a Soprano, Tenor and Chorus of Female Voices.) 
 
 1. Overture to "Tannliiluser." 8 hands, two pianos. 
 
 2. Elsa's Balcony Song from " Lohengrin." 
 
 3. Romance. The Evening Star ; from " Tannhauser." Tenor. 
 
 4. Elizabeth's Song from " Tanuhiluser." Soi)rano." 
 
 5. Grand March from " Tannhauser." Liszt (piano solo). 
 
 6. Spinning Song from " Flying Dutchman." Female chorus. 
 
 7. Ride of the Valkyrie. For two pianos. 
 
 CHAPTER FIFTY-TWO. 
 
 CONCERT PROGRAMMES AND THEIR EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION. 
 
 In selecting pieces for a musical performance, the first considera- 
 tion, properly, should be their adaptation to the end proposed in the 
 performance or production of the music. Thus, for example, a per- 
 formance may be intended to illustrate the work and genius of a par- 
 ticular composer. In that case the first consideration is to select a 
 sufficient number of his best works to represent him in the strongest 
 light. Or it may be desired to contrast the genius of two different 
 composers, in which case, of course, care will be taken to select the 
 most characteristic pieces of both. Or the production of music may 
 be designed to give pleasure and zest to an evening gathering in a 
 parlor. Or it may be intended to illustrate the varied powers of a 
 great pianist, in which case the selections must cover a wide range. 
 And so we might go on for pages, enumerating the possible purposes 
 for which musical illustration is sought. But it must suffice to lay down 
 clearly the law, that every performance of music must have an intelli- 
 gent purpose, in order to produce an intelligent effect; and that this 
 purpose must be regarded in the selection of every piece upon the 
 programme. 
 
 In the second place, the means available will enter into and
 
 CONCERT PROGRAMMES. ^09 
 
 modify the conclusions iinivod at under tlie principle just enunciated. 
 Thus it may happen that some asi)ect of Bach's work is the point of 
 consideration, while the performance is to take place in a town or 
 room where there is no organ. In this case, of course, a pianoforte 
 arrangement of tlie work must serve, or a different piece altogether be 
 chosen. Or it may be that some of the difficult works of Chopin jr 
 Liszt are wanted, while yet there is no player availal)le to perform 
 them well. In such a case easier pieces must be taken, or four-hand 
 arrangements of the same, or an abler performer secured. The genius 
 of Handel may be in question, where there is neither chorus nor even 
 a solo singer available, and consequently it becomes impossible to 
 represent him, except inadequately, in an instrumental performance 
 of pieces written iov voices. In all these and such like complications, 
 which are innumerable, concessions must be made on both sides, 
 until a practicable mean is reached. Only we may be very sure that 
 no concert or musical perTormance can produce a satisfactory effect 
 unless it consists of intelligently chosen pieces, practicable for ncr- 
 formance by the players or singers available. 
 
 Then, in the third place, the pieces must be intelligentli/ arramjcil 
 in the programme. This involves several different principles, one or 
 more of which are violated in almost every programme. The first of 
 of these is the law of contrast. Music expresses feeling. Feeling is 
 merely modification of consciousness. There is no absolute scale of 
 emotion. ^lirth seems like insanity if too long continued. Grief be- 
 comes tolerable after a while. The human system attunes itself to the 
 key. Thus it is with the weather. On a clear day, a slight becloud- 
 ing is niimediately noticed. On a rainy (hiy the very same sky may 
 be so much above the general dullness as to brighten anticipation with 
 the hope of fair weather. 
 
 The second law is that of ^:)rO(7rgssto??. in the emotional determina- 
 tion of the music. This law is almost universally disregarded in pro- 
 grammes. Let us refI(K't upon our own hal)its of mind. \V"e liegiii 
 the day brio-htlv, indeed, but seriouslv. A whole dav's work lies be- 
 fore us. Presently we become fatigued and rest a bit. Towards night 
 the serious thought of the morning gives place to the sense of duty 
 well done, and tlie feeling of deserved repose. It is then that we 
 gladly turn ourselves to enjoyments and pastimes for which in the 
 morning we had little appetite. Or, to put it in another way, at tlie 
 beginning of a, concert the audience is fresh and interested. It is then 
 that tlie serious work should be heard. Later, the air in the room bo- 
 comes impoverished, and the listener tired. It is then that they re-
 
 210 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 •\-i\'e vuider the magical excitement of the well-sounding, the lively and 
 the sensational. 
 
 Again, progression must be carried farther, even to climax. \\\ 
 this a misconception may easily lead to undesirable results. Tl)e 
 climax must be sought along the line of natural emotional progress, as 
 already defined. For the programme to close with a great and serious 
 work, like Bach's Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue, after light salon 
 pieces, and sensational pieces by Liszt, might, indeed, be a climax in 
 the line of the intellectual, but it could not possibly succeed; because 
 this composition of Bach's is of a highly intellectual structure, and can 
 be satisfactorily followed only by similar vigor of mind, which, as 
 already pointed out, is not to be reasonably expected in an audience 
 fatigued by a long programme. The climax which can most easily be 
 reached is one of jihysical effect; as, for example, when all the singers, 
 after having previously appeared in solos or duets, unite in an ensemble 
 ])iece to close a part. This practice has much to commend it. In 
 " recitals," where only a single singer or player takes part, this form of 
 climax is of course impossible. But the same result can be reached in 
 aiaother way, namely, by bringing the most sensational pieces toward 
 the end of the programme. 
 
 When different composers are represented, the historical order is 
 in general the best, because the development of music has been from 
 the intellectual and artificial to the well-sounding, the emotional, the 
 expressive, and the more completely beautiful; and, even beyond this, 
 to the sensational and astonishing. Yet this historical order may fre- 
 quently be varied with good effect. Sherwood, the pianist, sometimes 
 introduces Handel's "Fire Fugue" into the middle of a pi'ogramme, 
 after one of the lighter sonatas of Beethoven, or even more modern 
 compositions. So placed, it has the force of a complete contrast with 
 the pieces before and after it, and while it relieves the emotional ten- 
 sion and thereby heightens the beauty of the pieces in immediate 
 proximity to it, it is heard for itself as little more than a piece of 
 virtuoso finger- work. 
 
 It is impossible to give examples of programmes suitable for models, 
 since the circumstances vary so much. It must serve our present 
 purpose to point out the principles which properly should be considered 
 in selecting and ai-ranging the pieces, and beyond these to refer the 
 student to the study of entire operas and oratorios, which are in effect 
 completely original programmes, determined after much study, by men 
 who not only appreciated music, but possessed creative ability in it. 
 One would do well to study the programmes of Mr. Theo. Thomas,
 
 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF MUSIC on 
 
 who possesses a fastidious taste, and lias liad tlie advantage of almost 
 unlimited experience and observation. The illustrations at the end of 
 the chapters in this book are not to be taken for model program mes, 
 since they have not been made for the sake of the music as a wiiole, 
 but only for the sake of such and such phases of it, which form the 
 subjects of the dill'erent chapters. 
 
 CHAPTER FIFTY - 1TTREE. 
 
 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PvELATIONS OF MUSIC. 
 
 The limits within wliich this chapter is necessarily concluded, do 
 not permit a thorough discussion of the psychological relations of 
 music, even if the present state of knowledge regarding sense-jiercep- 
 tion were such as to make it possible. There are, however, certain 
 points which need attention, on account of the practical bearing they 
 liave upon the co-ordination and adaptation of educational means. 
 
 Attention must first be calh^d to the extremely complex activities 
 of the mind involved in the perception and enjoyment of music, es- 
 pecially of the finer kinds. A piece of music, if only a single period 
 of simple melody, reaches the brain in the form of individual sense- 
 perceptions, which are there somehow taken account of and perhaps 
 remembered entire; at all events compared in various ways, whereby 
 their coherence is realized. These comparisons are of several orders: 
 such as those of jntch., whereby tonality or coherence in key is per- 
 ceived; rhythm, whereby all the tones are compared with some unit 
 of time, and all tlie phrases with each other, so that in the out-come 
 the melody is perceived as determinate in measure, motivization and 
 symmetry of structure; and poj'^er, whereby the intensity of the cause 
 is estimated. These comparisons of pitch, moreover, are greatly com- 
 plicated by the harmonic treatment, and by the orchestral coloring, if 
 the music be for tin; orchestra. All sucli comparisons go on uncon- 
 sciously, or rather sub-consciously, and cohsciousness takes cognizance 
 only of the result, as complete periods and forms are turned over to it. 
 
 Different o-rades of music make verv dilferent demands uiion these 
 three classes of comjiarison. Light, ])c^pular nnisic is simple, and ex- 
 tremely limited in the range of its harmonies and the comjilexity of 
 its melodies. The. memory of a single phrase-rhythm, and of the three
 
 212 HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 principal chords of the key, exhaust the catalogue of its demands upon 
 the mind. A fugue deals with a single subject, and hence fi'om a mel- 
 odic point of view is easy to follow; but its harmonic structure is 
 highly elaborate, and the subject itself dodges about so from one voice 
 to another, that the unwary easily misses it. A sonata is longer, and 
 contains more subjects, is even more diversified in harmonic treatment 
 than a fuo;-ue. Hence, thouo-li not so severe, because not dealing- ex- 
 clusively witli a single subject, it makes, in some respects, even greater 
 •demands upon the attention. 
 
 Aptitudes for performing these comparisons and co-ordinations of 
 elementary sense j^erceptions, vary extremely in individuals, and in 
 many cases fail entirely in one department, or more. Absolute ina- 
 l)ility to perceive pitch-relation is very rare; but an inability to follow 
 anything more than an easy digression from one key to another is 
 very common, probably from failure in liarmonic perception. Rhyth- 
 mic sense is frequently imperfect, although this is the simplest of the 
 acts involved in music. All rhythm in music consists of multiples or 
 relations of twos or threes. Relations of tioo and all its multiples by itself 
 are almost universally intelligible; relations of ^Aree are frequently be- 
 yond the individual. Thus in all the so-called failures in the musical ear 
 of pupils, the teacher will do well to observe carefully in what depart- 
 ment of perception the failure takes place, and in a great majority of 
 cases means can be found for supplying the missing link. This is to 
 be done by a course of exercises in hearing^ after the general plan of 
 the object-lessons in the early parts of this course; which, indeed, 
 will l)e found helpful in many cases where positive deficiencies of aj)- 
 titude are unsuspected by the teacher. The Mason system of rhyth- 
 mical treatment of exercises is also very helpful in cases where the 
 sense of rhythm is imperfect. 
 
 An attentive study of the lines of perception indicated in the first 
 twenty chapters of this course, will serve to explain what we already 
 knew by observation, namely, that the finer and more highly devel- 
 oped forms of music are appreciable only by persons of active mind, 
 nor even by these generally, except after more or less practice. We 
 have also seen that music is intimately connected with, or related to, 
 that great class of modifications of consciousness we call e?notions, 
 which extend from those almost imperceptible shades of elation or de- 
 pression occasioned by trivial matters or atmospheric influences,to the 
 mightiest movements of the soul, wherein the whole being is over- 
 whelmed by the surges of passion, agony or grief ; or borne aloft on 
 the swellings of delight, joy, or blessedness and spiritual triumph.
 
 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF MUSIC 213 
 
 Human life is nuulo up of sucli emotional transitions, ami the oreater 
 part of them take place within us through tlie operation of causes of 
 which at the time we are frequently unconscious. 
 
 The relation of music to emotion lies partly in the rhythm, the 
 pulsation of which hastens or retards the human pulse, while the mo- 
 tivization intensifies and varies the stimulus. \Vitli this the melodic 
 content chimes in. A preponderance of accent or emphasis on the 
 strong tofies, or on the sad tones of the scale, also has great power. 
 Then, too, music has positive value in its ability to interest and occupy 
 the mind, or at lea.st to awaken it to activity. An eminent barrister 
 s])eaks of an evening at the opera as the best prejjaration for a trving 
 L'Hse in court. The reason of this is doubtless to be found in the ab- 
 sorbing character of the opera as an anmsing and complicated body of 
 tiense-perceptions, which causes liim fur a time to forget his case and 
 thereby rest his mind; and in the stimulative effects of the rhythms 
 prevalent in opera, which have the effect of quickening the activity of 
 the mind, l)y means of which much of his thinking is done for him sub- 
 consciously — as we all know in what are sometimes called the auto- 
 matic activities of the brain. In this and many similar cases we have 
 a suggestion of a possible value of music as a mind quickener; which 
 also tallies with the well-known fact, already adverted to, that the 
 higher and finer kinds of music are enjoyed only by those of active 
 mind. 
 
 Again, the psychological relations of musical performance deserve 
 attention, even if what we can say takes only the form of suggestion. 
 A musical performance, as upon the pianoforte, is in fact a lenu'thv 
 and elaborate series of muscular operations, the proper co-ordination 
 of which is accomplished ])y means of various combinations into sec- 
 ondary reflexes. In an important piece all the scale and arjieggio 
 passages, and most of the accompaniments are either partly or com- 
 pletely automatic in character, and the melody notes only are purely 
 the product of direct volition. It is in this way, by concentration of 
 attention upon the melody notes, which after all contain the real idea, 
 that music is interpreted to the listener. Now this, which seems so 
 easy in the saying, carries with it important conclusions, which have a 
 most significant bearing upon elementary education, especially upon 
 the pianoforte. And this more especially, upon the mode of study 
 and practice. 
 
 In all elementary musical study there are at least three interests 
 which go hand in hand, aud nnist receive equal attention. They are: 
 First, the technical or tlic inechanical ability to perform the necessary
 
 214: HOW TO UNDERSTAND MUSIC. 
 
 motions; second, the musical, or the ability to think of the melodies, 
 chord sequences, time relations, etc., that compose the piece; and third, 
 the feeling of these as expressive of something. 
 
 The technical progress depends upon the practice of suitable ex- 
 ercises for developing tlie muscles of the hand and arm, and especially 
 those which render the touch flexible and expressive (like Mason's 
 two-finger exercises); and then in the case of any particular piece, the 
 practice of it in sloxo time^ very 7)%any times in succession, taking the 
 utmost care to fully perform every muscular motion in its right order, 
 and with occasional trials of the passage at the proper speed in order 
 to ascertain how nearly complete the mastery of it has become.* 
 
 The musical comprehension of a work and a true feeling of its 
 emotional meaning are best reached by committing the piece to mem- 
 ory and playing it without notes. In this way, sooner or later, it becomes 
 absorbed into the musical life of the student, and not only is felt and 
 enjoyed at its own value, but also facilitates the comprehension of other 
 pieces. In this connection, also, it may serve to remind the reader of the 
 great value of opportunities for hearing music, such as are by far too 
 scarce in this country, and even where available too much neglected, 
 especially by students. 
 
 This chapter is to be regarded as suggestive rather than complete, 
 and as indicatino; a line of thouofht which deserves to be more thor- 
 oughly explored. 
 
 *See Mason's Pianoforte Technics, " Tlie Mind in Playing, " for further discussion of this point.
 
 IXDEX 
 
 Antecedent, 30. 
 
 Adieux, the Ab. and Ret., Beethoven, op. 84; 5.). 
 
 Architecture, Oriental, 77. 
 
 Architecture, 81. 
 
 Aria, and Sccna, 128, 130. 
 
 Astonishing and the Sensational, 116. 
 
 Art, Design of, 54. 
 
 Conditions of its Enjoyment, 61, 
 
 Content and Korm of, 61. 
 
 Religion and Philosopliy, 74. 
 
 and Sense, 74. 
 
 and Religion, 75. 
 
 Ancient, 76. 
 
 Symbolical, 77 
 
 Classical, 78, 
 
 Romantic, 79. 
 
 Romantic, Conflict in, 79. 
 
 Romantic, Keynote of 79. 
 
 Design and Scope of, 59. 
 Bach, 2 pt. Inventions, No. i : 11, 48, 94. 
 
 Prelude, Rm. W. T. C. Bk. II., 11. 
 
 2 pt. Inv. in I', No. 8 : 12, 14, 44, 48, 146. 
 Fugue in G niin., W. T. C I. ; 14, i6, 48. 
 Inventions i, 4and 8: i6. 
 
 Gavotte in D (Wm. lMason\ 17, 146. 
 Gavotte in I ) min., 17, 29, 33. 
 
 3 pt. Inv, ill IC mill.. No. 7 : 5, 25, 146 ; 44. 
 X'ugue in C.min., No. 2, W. T. C, 48, 146. 
 Illustrations of, 146. 
 
 Italian Concerto, 106. 
 
 Passacaglia, in C niin. for Organ, 106. 
 
 Organ prelude in A niin., 115. 
 
 Loure in Ij, 146 
 
 Song, My Heart Ever Faithful, 146, 130. 
 Ballad, The Simple, 125. 
 Bellini, Operatic Illustrations, 130. 
 Battle of Prague, Kotzuara. 54. 
 Beautiful, Perceived by Contemplation, 62. 
 
 Nature of, 63. 
 
 in Spiritual Perception, 68. 
 
 in Reflection, 69. 
 
 in Classic Music, loi. 
 
 Perception of one of the Highest Faculties, 74. 
 Beauty, p'ormal,67. 
 
 Psychological Rank of Perception of, 74. 
 Beethoven, 168. 
 
 Op. 2, No. 1 : 10, II, 13, 14, 22, 24, 28, 30, 33, 
 
 ^ 36, 39i 48, 96, 100. 
 
 Op. 2, No. 2: 33, 44,96. 
 
 Op. 2, No. 3: 15, 33, 36, 94. 
 
 Op. 7 : 7,11,25,94,98. 
 
 Op. 10, Son. in C min.,39, 41. 
 
 Op. lO, Son. ill D, 94. 
 
 Op. 13; II, 12, 13, 14,22,24, 28, 30, 44, 98, 100. 
 
 Op. 14, No. 2 : 20,30, 94, 98. 
 
 Op. 20, Septette, 100. 
 
 Op. 22, Son. in B/', 36, 39. 
 
 Op. 26, Son. in Ad, 20, 36. 
 
 Op. 27, No. 2 : 106 
 
 Op. 28, Son. pastorale, 41, 54, 94. • 
 
 Op. 30, Son. ill G for P. P\ and Violin, 96. 
 
 Op. 31, No. I, in G, 39, 41, 96. 
 
 Op. 31, No. 2 : in D. minor, 10, 11. 
 
 Op. 31, No. 3: in \id. 15, 96, 106. 
 
 Op. 51, Two Rondos, 36, 98. 
 
 Op. 57, Son. app. 20, 39, 44, 48, 96. 
 
 Op. 81, Sonata, 54. 
 
 Op. go. Sonata, 13, 14. 
 
 Op. 129, Rondo Capriccioso, 98. 
 
 Vari. oiiGretry's " Une Fifcbre lirfilante," 20. 
 
 Symphonies. 2(1, 5th and 7th, 100. 
 
 Sonatas for Piano and Violin, 100. 
 
 List of Illustrations, 179. 
 Chopin, List of Illustrations, 186. 
 
 Life, etc., 183. 
 
 Op. 9. Nocturne in E(5, 44 
 
 Op. II, Concerto in E min., 48, 57, 119. 
 
 Op. 16, Rondo in E.^, 116. 
 
 215 
 
 Chopin, Op. iS, V.ilse in E/5, 52. 
 
 Op. 22, Polonaise in ULt, no. 
 
 Op. 26, Polonaise in C sharp, m. no. 
 
 Op. 29, Impromptu in \/>, 29, 33. 
 
 Op. 31, Scherzo 111 Vii> min., 31, 33, 116. 
 Op. 34, No. 2 : V.dsc iu A^, 1 16. 
 
 Op. 35, Sonata, 1 15. 
 
 Op. 40, Polonaise in A, 22, 25, 33, 44, no. 
 
 Op. 42, Valse in A^, 52. 
 
 Op- 53i Polonaise in A/', no. 
 
 Op. 64, Valse in D^, 33, 
 
 Polonaises, 107. 
 Cadenza from Liszt's Rigoletto, 57. 
 Cadenza, 49. 
 Cadence, 13. 
 Carnival of Venice, 22. 
 Cascade, Pauer, 25. 
 Classic, The Playful in, 93. 
 
 I'he Tender and Soulful in, 94. 
 
 The Rondo, 97. 
 
 Music, the Beautiful in, 101. 
 
 Music, Tran>itioii from Romantic to, loi. 
 Coda, 33. 
 Counterpoint, 16. 
 Consequent, 30. 
 Content, 42. 
 
 Contemplation. The Satisfactory in, 65, 
 Chivalrous, The, 107. 
 Claribel, Songs, 126. 
 Descriptive Music, 52. 
 Elaboration, 37. 
 Emotional, 45. 
 Fugue, 15. 
 Form, 26. 
 Forms, Open and Closed, 28. 
 
 Unitary, 29, 
 
 Irregular Period, 30. 
 
 Binary, 32. 
 
 Ternary, 34. 
 Field, Nocturne in B/-, 44, 112. 
 P'aust Waltz, Liszt, 52. 
 Fanciful, The, and Pleasing, 115. 
 Gentle, The, and Sentimental, 111 
 Greek Ideal, The, 78. 
 Handel, Chaconne and Var, 48. 
 
 Capriccio in G minor, 48. 
 
 Messiah, Selections, 128, 130, 147. 
 
 O Had I Jubal's Lyre, 130. 
 Harmony, 67. 
 Haydn's 5th Symphony, 96. 
 
 Creation Selections, 128, 130. 
 
 Illustrations, i6i. 
 Hobby Horse, Schumann op. 68 : 54. 
 Humoristic, The, and the Passionate 113. 
 Imitation, 14. 
 Intellectual, 45. 
 Idealized, The, 51. 
 Ideal, The, 54, 58. 
 
 Phases of, 55. 
 
 Greek, The, 78. 
 
 in different Arts, 81. 
 
 and its Phases, 55. 
 Infinity, 73. 
 
 Influence of Poetry upon Music, 120. 
 Liszt s Rigolctio, Cadenza, 51, 119. 
 
 Polonaise Heroique in E, no. , 
 
 Concerto in E/', 119. 
 
 TannhSuser March, 119. 
 
 Life, etc., 194. 
 
 Illustrations, 199. 
 
 antt Tlialberg compared, 1^7. 
 Lyric, 10, 12. 
 Mills' ist Tarantellc, 116. 
 Motive, 10. 
 Mendelssohn, Sw. W., No. 1 . 11, 29. 
 
 Chorale from St. Paul, Sleepers wake, 17. 
 
 Hunting Song, 29. 
 
 Rondo Capriccioso, op, 14, 98.
 
 216 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Mendelssohn, Life, etc., 180. 
 
 List of Illustrations, 183. 
 
 Aria from St. Paul, 134. 
 Measure, 21. 
 Merz, K, Leonore Polka, 22, 
 
 Pearl of the Sea, 52. 
 Motivization 24. 
 
 Mason, Wm.. Dance Rustique, 28. 
 Mozart, Son.'in F. (No 6 Peters' Ed.), 41. 
 
 Andante for Quintette, 96. 
 
 Larghetto in I ', from Clarinet Concerto, 96. 
 
 Andante from 5th Quintette, 106. 
 
 Life, etc., 162. 
 
 Operas, 165. 
 
 lUiislrations. 167. 
 
 Operatic Selections, 130. 
 Moderation, 68. 
 Messiah, The, 154. 
 Music as Related to otherArts, 86. 
 
 Limitations of, 89. 
 
 Classic, the Beautiful in, loi. 
 
 Influence of Poetry upon, 120. 
 Opera, The, 135. 
 Oratorio, The, 135. 
 Oriental Architecture, 77. 
 Painting and Sculpture Compared, 85. 
 Painting, 83, 
 Passage, 41. 
 
 Passionate, The Humoristic and the, 113. 
 Pauer, Cascade, 25. 
 Period, 9. 
 Period-group, 32. 
 Phrase, 10. 
 
 Philosophy, Art, Religion and, 74. 
 Playful, The. in the Classic, 93. 
 Pleasing, The Fanciful and the, 115. 
 
 in Sensation, 64. 
 Principal, 32. 
 
 Psychological rank of the Perception of Beauty, 74. 
 Psychological Relations of Music, 211. 
 Programmes, How to Plan, 20S. 
 Poetic Music, 52. 
 Poetry, 88. 
 
 Content of. 91. 
 
 Kinds of, 92. 
 Proportion, 67. 
 
 Poetry, Influence upon Music, 120. 
 Pulsation, 21. 
 Purity, 64 
 Raff, Op. 94, Valse Impromptu in Bi, 116. 
 
 Polka de la Reine, 119. 
 Religion and Art, 75. 
 
 Art and Philosophy, 74. 
 Regularity, 67. 
 Repose, 71. 
 
 The Touchstone for False Art, 73. 
 Recitative, 126. 
 Rhythm, 21, 23. 
 Rhythmic Motion, 23. 
 Rigoletto, Liszt, Cadenza, 51, iig. 
 Romantic Illustrations, 194. 
 
 Art, 79. 
 
 Art, Conflict in, 79. 
 
 Art, Keynote of. 79. 
 
 Art, Transition from, to Classical, loi. 
 
 The Chivalrous, 107. 
 
 The Gentle and Sentimental, iir. 
 
 The, Humoristic and Passionate, 113. 
 
 The Fanciful and Pleasing, 115. 
 Rondo, 34. 
 Root, Geo. F., The Brooklet, 126. 
 
 Hazel Dell, 126. 
 
 Vacant Chair, 126. 
 Rubinstein's Valse Caprice in E^, 116 
 Ruskin on Beauty, 63. 
 
 on Infinity, 73. 
 
 on Moderation, 68. 
 
 on Purity, 64. 
 
 (in Repose, 71. 
 
 on Symmetry, 65. 
 
 Ruskin on Unity, 69. 
 Schumann, Life, etc., 186. 
 
 List of Illustrations, 193, 194. 
 
 Contrasted with Beethoven and Bach, 192. 
 
 Op. 2, Polonaise in D, no. 
 
 Op. 12, Aufschwung, 31, 115. 
 
 Op. 15, Scenes of Childhood, 54, 115. 
 
 Op. ID, Kreisleriana, No. 2, 36. 
 
 Op. 21, Novelette in E. No. 7; 11, 29. 
 
 Op. 24, No. I, in C, 22. 
 
 Op. 24, No 4, in F, 22. 
 
 Op. 28, Romance in F sharp, 44. 
 
 Op. 68, Spring Song, 15. 
 
 Op. 68, Hobby Horse, 54. 
 
 Op. 99, Novelette in B minor, 11. 
 
 Traumerei, 29. 
 
 Songs, 134. 
 Schubert, Dances, 11, 28. 
 
 Menuetto in B min., Op. 78 : 10, 11, 13, 14, 22, 
 
 33. 44- 
 
 Waltz, No, I, 22. 
 
 Sonata in C, 31. 
 
 Op. 90, I., Impromptu in C min., 48. 
 
 Op. 90, II., Impromptu in ILi. 48. 
 
 Op. 142, Impromptu in Bi>, 106. 
 
 Songs. 134. 
 Sentimental, i'he Gentle and, in. 
 Second, 32. 
 Sequence, 48. 
 Sensuous, T'he, 51. 
 
 Scenes from Childhood, Op. 15, Schumann, 54. 
 Sensation, The Pleasing in, 64. 
 Satisfactory in Contemplation, The, 65. 
 Sense, Art and, 74. 
 Sculpture, 82. 
 Sonata, piece, 36. 
 Song-group, 37. 
 Sonata, 40. 
 
 Plan of, 40. 
 
 Unity in, 41. 
 
 The Cycle of, 98. 
 Sculpture and Painting Compared, 85. 
 Soulful and Tender in the Classic, 94. 
 Sensational and Astonishing, 116. 
 Scena and Aria, 12S. 
 
 and Aria, Illustrations of, 130. 
 Scarlatti, D., 148. 
 Strauss, Blue Danube. 52. 
 Storm, The. H. Weber, 54. 
 Song, The Thoroughly Composed 134. 
 
 Illustrations of 
 Suggestive Music, 52. 
 Symmetry, 66. 
 Symbolical Art, 77. 
 Thematic, 10, 12. 
 Third, 34. 
 
 Titania, Lefebre-Wely, 48. 
 Time, 67. 
 
 Tender and Soulful, The, in the Classic, 94. 
 Transition from Romantic to Classical, 10'. 
 Thomas, A., Mignon, 128. 
 Unity in Variety, 67. 
 Unity. 69. 
 
 ofSeparate and Distinct Things, 70- 
 
 of Origin, 71. 
 
 of Membership. 71. 
 Voice, 14. 
 Variations, 18. 
 
 Defined, 20. 
 
 Formal, 20. 
 
 Character, 20. 
 Variety, Unity in, 67. 
 Weber, " Der Freischiitz,"' Waltz, 22. 
 
 Polocca Brillante, Op. 72, no. 
 
 Ocean, Thou Mighty Monster, i^t 
 Wieck, Clara, 189. 
 Wagner, R., 200. 
 
 Aria from Lohengrin, 134. 
 
 lUuslrations, 208. 
 Zachan, 148.
 
 PRONOUNCING DICTIOXARY 
 
 Condensed Encyclopedia 
 
 OF 
 
 MUSICAL TERMS, INSTRUMENTS, COMPOSERS, 
 AND IMPORTANT WORKS. 
 
 JDegigneti to Eccompani? ''liub) to iLlnTJcrstanti /Busi'r." 
 
 BY 
 
 W. S. B. MATHEWS. 
 
 COPVRIGHT, 1880. 
 
 CHICAGO : 
 DONNELLEY, GASSETTE & LOYD, PRINTERS. 
 
 1880.
 
 PEEFAOE. 
 
 Every musical student, teacher, amateur, and newspaper critic lias frequently 
 experienced tlie need of a handy little book of reference, in which he mijjht be 
 reasonably sure ot finding the pronunciation and definition of terms, description 
 of instruments, tlie names, composers and dales (Jf important works (such as 
 oratorios, operas, cantatas, symphonies, etc.), and the names, nationality dates, 
 and general characteristics of all the principal composers. The present work is of- 
 fered for general use as stich a dictionary, and a sort of condensed encyclopedia of 
 mtisic. 
 
 Its difference from other musical dietionarics may be inferred from the fol- 
 lowing memorandum of its mode of preparation, and its contents. Taking Men- 
 del's MusUmUscIics Conversations-Lexicon (11 vols. Svo. Berlin 1870 — 188C.) a list of 
 titles was made under each initial. That work is-sufficiently rich in the explana- 
 tion of terms, and especially so in larger articles, such as "Assyrian Music," 
 " Hebrew Music," " Harmony," as well as German biograpliy. To the list of titles 
 thus made, were then added the most desirable ones from Gi-ove's "Dictionary of 
 Music and ^Musicians" (London 1879 — 1881, 2 vols. Svo). To this source are we 
 indebted for the names of operas, etc., descriptions of instruments, and the En- 
 glish biographical matter. Next, Stainer and Barrett's " Dictionary of Musical 
 Terms " (Svo. pp. 45G, Ditson & Co. 1870) was gone tlirough, as well as Mr. Lud- 
 den's excellent and remarkably complete " Pronouncing Dictionary of Musical 
 Terms " (J. L. Peters & Co. N.Y.) The additions from tliese la,tter sources were 
 considerable. Even this did not suffice to complete the list. ISTames were over- 
 looked, and some whicli were obviously desirable, were not to be found in any of 
 these works. These omissions were supplied in a measure tlirough the promptings 
 of Mr. G. Schirmer's very complete " Catalogue of Music," and by personal corre- 
 spondence. In the nature of the case, the satisfactory selection of titles for inclu- 
 sion in a handy book like this, is a matter of difficulty, if not impossibility. Tlie 
 explanations given above will perhaps serve to condone the shortcomings yet re- 
 maining. 
 
 The definitions and characterizations of musicians have been freely taken 
 irom the sources indicated above, where, in turn, they had been just as decidedly 
 acquired from previous -writers. So also with the pronunciations of terms from for- 
 eign languages ; when practicable they are here taken from Ludden or from Zell's 
 encyclopedia. While they may not give an accurate idea of the true pronunci- 
 ation of the terms, according to vernacular usage, they at least may lay claim to 
 the merit of making as fair an approximation thereto as the type and popular 
 character of this book permitted. To the whole is added an explanatory Synop 
 sis of ]Musica] Notation and a list of the principal ]\Ielodic Embelishments, with 
 the proper manner of performing them, carefully prepared from the best 
 authorities. Titles improperly omitted from this will be added to subsequent 
 editions in an appendix. 
 
 W. S. B. Matheavs.
 
 BTCTTOXAP.Y. 
 
 A, or Ab, (Ital. prep.) from, of; also name of a 
 pitch. 
 
 Abbreviatioiliii. These are the more usual 
 Look for lietiiutions under the words them- 
 selves. 
 
 A(re/., for accelerando ; Accomf>., Accom- 
 pagnement ; Adgo. or Ado., Ad-igio ■ a.l 
 iib.,7iA libitum; rt//' c/., all' ottava • .J//,; 
 Allegro; Allgito., Allegretto; Amhw., An- 
 dantino ; Amite., Andante; arc, coll' arco • 
 ^rpw Arpeggio; d.t., i tempo; Basso.\ 
 Contrabasso; C. B., Contrabasso; c. Zva' 
 coir ottava; C. D., colla destia- C L 
 col legno ; C. S., colla sinistra -CVj^/., Caden- 
 za; crt/., calando; c. i5.,col Basso- C/ttr 
 Clannetto; C/aro., Chirino; O;., Corno'- 
 ^^-^•jc., crescendo ; />., destra, droite ; /). c] 
 da Capo ; D. S. , dal Segno ; (/cent., decrescen- 
 do; ih'm., diminuendo; efiv., divisi ; (/o/. 
 dolce; es/r., esprcssivo; _/., forte; /^ar., 
 Kigotto; yf., fortissimo; jV., Flauto; /=>., 
 forte piano; yb., lorlzando; (7., gauche • Z 
 laeva; A-^., legato; /o.. hto., loco or luogo ■ 
 lusznj^., lusingando; 7>ia>!c., mancando; 
 7Hnrc., marcato ; 711. d., mano de-tra ; m. d., 
 main droite ; vtez. , mezzo; tn/. or m/p.. meno 
 forte, mezzo forte piano; -iiiodto.. iiioderato • 
 m.y. (vzzv.), mezzj voce ; Oi^., Oboe(Haut- 
 bois) ; J*., piano; ped., pedale ; perd.,-per- 
 dendosi ; P. p.. Piano- Forte ; //., pin forte ; 
 pizz., pizzicato ;//., pianissimo or piii piano ; 
 rail., rallentando; rf. r/z., rinforzando; 
 rtt., ritardando; ritcn., ritenuto ; S. sin.^ 
 sinistra; scherz., scherzando ; seg., segue; 
 J<?/«., scmpre; s/z., sforzando ; sim., simile;' 
 stnorz., smorzando ; i-oii"., sostenuto ; s. S.. 
 senza Sordini; s. T., senza Tempo ;'.r/'af<-.," 
 staccato ; string-., stringcndo; 7'., tasto. ten- 
 ore ; 7"., tutti, tempo; /^«.. tenuto ; Tiiiip., 
 Timpani; /;•.. trillo; tretii., tremolando ; 
 Tromb., trombone ; Tro/iip., Trompette ; 
 T. S., tasto solo; u. c, una cord a ; itn/s.' 
 unisono ; /'.. Voce ; I'a., Viola ; r.i>-., varia- 
 zione; I'o., Violino ; Fcilo., Violoncello- 
 K S., Volti subito. 
 
 Abbaildoiio. oon dial, a-briii-du'-nr.) or 
 .\bl>aniloiiat«'lll(>iite. With abandon, 
 
 with eiithusia.-im. 
 
 Aboild Mll!>iik (Ger.) Evening music. 
 
 Abert, J. J. (ii-bert), a German orchestral 
 and operatic composer, born at Kachowitz, in 
 Bohemia, 1832. liest known by his orchestral 
 transcriptions of Bach's organ fugues. 
 
 Ab Initio (I.at. in-ish'-io). From the begin- 
 ning. 
 
 Abt. Franz, the popular German song-writer 
 ("When the Swallows," etc.) b. Dec. 22, 
 1819, at Eilenburg, Prussia. Visited .Americ.i 
 in 1872, and conducted at the Gilmore Jubilee. 
 
 A capella (Ital. ka-pel'-lii). In church style ; 
 i. f., voices only, without accompaniment. 
 
 A .-apHooio (Ital. cii-prlt'-zir.). At caprice: 
 
 at ]ikasnre. 
 
 A<M-«>l«>raiMlo(Ital. at-tsl.nl-a-rrin'-dr.i. Ac- 
 celerating ; gradually hastening the time. 
 
 AcfOnt. an emph.-isis or stress upon particular 
 notes or chords for the purpose of rendering 
 the me.iningof a passage in-elligible. The 
 principal .iccents in music are(iuhe t/tf^s- 
 nre, occurring on the first beat of every 
 measure ; (a) the oratorical or dvclawatory 
 on the emphatic note of a phrise, or most 
 important word in a phrase ; (3) secondary 
 rliytliJiiic accent on the first tone in smaller 
 groups than those of a full measure, as .-. ^. 
 on the first note of triplets, etc. 
 
 Aroidciital. unforseen, a name given to sharps. 
 Hats, or naturals in music outside of the sie- 
 natiirc. •" 
 
 Ac-Ct'lltliatO (Ital. at-tshun-too-3'-t0). Ac- 
 cented. 
 
 A('(M>|||]iai;iiaill<>lltO (Ital. ak-krn.'-pan- 
 ya-niiin'-tii'. Acron fanimeiit ; parts of iinisic 
 sounding with and supporting the leading 
 
 idea. 
 
 AtM'Oi'd, to sound well together. (.See conso- 
 nance.) A chord. 
 
 AcoilNtios (a-coos'-tics). The science of .sound. 
 
 Aocoi'dioil. a well known instrument, the 
 tones of which are produced by " free reed-." 
 Large instruments of this class have a com- 
 pass of about four octaves. 
 
 Aoiw and l.alatj'a (ri'-«is, gill-fi-te'-u). A 
 
 pastoral cant.iia by Hamlel in 1720. 
 Adas:io (Ital. a-da'-jo, literally ad agio, at 
 ease, leisurely 1. A slow and tender move- 
 ment, slower thap andatite, but not so slow 
 asliirg.i. See " IVinpo." 
 
 Adajfissimo (Ital. S-dii jes'-sI-mO). Super- 
 lative degree of adagio. 
 
 Adam. Adolph Charles, a French composer of 
 light operas (Le Postillion du Lonjumeau, 
 etc.), newspaper critic and professor of com - 
 position at the Conservatoire ; b. 1S05. d. 
 1856. ■" 
 
 .'IdaniN. Thomas, a distinguished English 
 organist and composer, born 17S5, died 1858. 
 
 Ad liib itum (Lat.) At pleasure ; /. ,-., slow 
 or last. 
 
 Alller. Vincent, a young composer living in 
 Paris, belonging to the school ,.f Stephen 
 Heller. Autlior of many interesting piano 
 
 pieces. 
 
 .\ dii«'(Fr.) For two. (Used in orchestral scores.) 
 .V dlir ((^.er. a-dur). The key of A major. 
 A moll (I .er.) .\ minor [key of). 
 -Kolian Koy. one of the "church modes," 
 
 having the tones .-V B C D E F G A ; the 
 
 natural minor scale. 
 
 a aU, a add, a arm, e cvf, e end, I ice, I ///, o old, 6 odd, doz't, 00 moon, u lute, u but, U Fr. sound 
 
 3
 
 JEO 
 
 DICTIONAEY. 
 
 ANS 
 
 .^]Oliau Harp, a harp played by the wind. 
 Should be of thin pine, 3 ft. long, 3 in. deep, 
 5 broad, with beech ends for insertion of pitch 
 and tuning pins. Is strung with 12 catgut 
 strings passing over low, hard-wood bridges, 
 and tuned in perfect unison. Placed in a 
 window open enough to receive it, and some- 
 what obliquely to the wind, it produces the 
 most delightful chords. 
 
 .iEst'liylus (Ger. es'-ke-lus), a Greek (Attic) 
 philosopher, born B. C 525. 
 
 Affetuoso (Ital. af-fet'-oo-6'-zi'", or Con 
 affOttO. with feeling. 
 
 Ag'ilita (Ital. tUjH'-i-ta). Agility, quickness. 
 
 Agitato (Ital. iij-i-ta'-toi, or foil Agita- 
 tions, agitated, disturbed ; cummcnly im- 
 plies hurrying. 
 
 AgiiHS I>ei CLat. ag-nus da-ee\ Lamb of 
 God ; part tf the service of mass. 
 
 Ail*, a melody or tune. See Aria. 
 
 Al, All, Alia (Ital.) To the ; in the style of. 
 
 Albert!, H. (al-bar'-tee). At once poet, organ- 
 ist and composer. Born at Lobenstein 1604. 
 Died 1657. 
 
 Albaili (al-ba'-nee). The stage name of a 
 favorite soprano. See Lajeunnesse. 
 
 Alboni, Marietta (al-bo'-nee). The most cele- 
 brated contralto of the 19th century. Born 
 Censensa, Italy, 1824. Sang with the greatest 
 ^clat throughout Europe. Visited America 
 in 1852. Her voice was large, r^ch and true, 
 and her method delightful. Lives in Paris. 
 
 Aloeste (Fr. al-s6st').. Tragic opera in three 
 acts by Calzabigi and Gliick, 1761. 
 
 Albreelitsberger (al' - bretchts - bar' - ger), 
 
 Johann Geo. Contrapuntist and teacher of 
 sacred music, composer and organist, born 
 1736, at Klosterburg, near Vienna. Died 
 Vienna March 7, 1809. Among his pupils 
 were Beethoven, Hummel, Weigl, Seyfried, 
 etc. 
 
 Alexantler's Feast, an "ode" of Handel's to 
 Dryden's words, 1736 Re-scored by Mozart, 
 1790. 
 
 AJkail, Charles V. Born at Paris, 1813. Pian- 
 ist and composer, chiefly of Etudes and 
 caprices for piano. His studies are extremely 
 difficult, and are important. Has published 
 op. 72. 
 
 Alia Breve, indicated 2-2, a form of com- 
 mon time, taken somewhat faster and beat 
 with two beats in a measure. 
 
 Allegro (Ital. al-lii'-grO J, literally "cheerful." 
 A tempo mark, indicating a quick movement. 
 See Tempo. 
 
 Allegretto (Ital. lil'-Ie-gret'-to). Diminutive 
 of allegro ; cheerful ; not so quick as allegro. 
 See Tempo. 
 
 Allegrezaia (Ital. al-le-gret'-za). Gayety ; 
 cheerfulness. 
 
 Allegri (al-lag'-ree), Gregorio, a priest at 
 Fermo, 1580-1652. Author of a celebrated 
 " jSIiserere " used at the Pontifical chapel 
 during Holy week. 
 
 Alleiliande (Fr.) One of the movements of 
 the suite. It is of German origin, and was not 
 a dance. 
 
 2. Also used as equivalent to Deutscher 
 Tanz, a dance resembling the waltz. 
 
 3. A German natioilal dance of a lively 
 character, in 2-4 time. 
 
 Al Segno (Ital. san'-yo;. From the sirn ; re- 
 turn to the sign , and play from there to 
 
 " Fine." 
 
 All L'uisono (Ital. oo-m-so'-no). In unison. 
 
 Alto (Ital.) literally, " high." The highest male 
 voice, having a range above the tenor. The 
 low female voice now commonly called by this 
 name is properly contralto^ which see. 
 
 Alto Clef, see Clef. 
 
 Amabile (ItaL ii-mii'-be-le). Lovingly ; ten- 
 derly. 
 
 Aniati (am-a'-tee). A celebrated family of 
 violin makers, who lived and worked at Cre- 
 mona. Their best work was : Anckea, about 
 1550; NicoLO made basses; Antonio and 
 Geronimo, sons of Andrea, 1550-1635.". 
 NicoLO, 1596-1684, the most eminent of all 
 the family ; Geronimo, his son, an indifferent 
 maker. 
 
 Anibros, August \V. (am'-broz). Born 1816, 
 in Bohemia. A brilliant writer on musical 
 topics, and author of a fine Musical History, 
 four volumes of which have appeared. Died 
 June 28, 1876. 
 
 Anibrosian Chant, the ecclesiastical mode 
 of saying and singing Divine service, set in 
 order by St. Ambrose for Milan cathedral, 
 about A. D. 3S4. 
 
 Ambrosian H^inn. the Te Deum. 
 
 Amoroso (Ital. am-or-6'-z5). Lovingly, ten- 
 derly, with warmth. 
 
 Anipllion. one of the oldest Greek musicians; 
 flourished about 1300 B. C. 
 
 Anapest, see " foot." 
 
 Andante (Ital. an-dan'-te, from andare^ to 
 walk.) Going, moving along at a moderate 
 pace. See " i'empo " Also used as the name 
 of a piece of music in andante movement. 
 
 Andantino (Ital. an-dan-tee no. diminutiveof 
 the preceding). A movement somewhat 
 quicker than andante. Sometimes used to 
 denote a slower movement than andante. 
 (Mendel.) 
 
 Andre. Johann (an'-dra), the head of an ex- 
 tensive musical family. B. 1741, d. 179Q. 
 Author of many works of almost every kind. 
 JoH.\XN A., his son, 1775-1842, also a prolific 
 composer, and teacher of the piano and vio- 
 lin ; Johann B., his son, pupil of Aloys 
 Schmitt, a resident of Berlin ; Julius, son of 
 J. A., an organist and writer for the organ. 
 
 Angeliea. angelic. Vox Angeliea. angelic 
 
 voice, the name of an organ stop, free reed. 
 
 Anlagnier. Antonin, a French composer of 
 popular piano pieces. Born i8ooat Manosque, 
 educated in the Paris Conservatoire, and later 
 a music dealer there. 
 
 Aninia (Ital. an'-i-mii), eon aninia, with 
 
 life. 
 AlliniatO (Ital. an-i-ma'-to). Animated. 
 
 Anna Boleua (bo-la'-na). Opera by Doni- 
 zetti. 1831. 
 
 AnselinetZ, Karl (iin'-sheetz). B. about 1831. 
 Died in New York about 1875. An opera and 
 orchestral conductor and composer. 
 
 Answer, the imitation of a previous phrase. 
 
 alCt a add., ii arm., e eve., 6 end., 1 ice., i ill., 6 old, 6 odd., 6 do-jc., 00 moon, 11 lute., ii but, U Fr. sound
 
 ANT 
 
 DUTIONAKV 
 
 AVE 
 
 Antec<'<leilt, a phrase proposed for imitation. 
 
 The first section in a period. 
 
 Alltli«'ill. a sacred motet for use in Divine ser- 
 
 viie. 
 
 Anticipation, the entrance of a single note 
 of a chord in advance of the remaining notes, 
 thus making a dissonance with the cliordinto 
 which it thrusts iiself. 
 
 Antienne, (Pr.) An anthem. Also used as the 
 name of a solt and quiet organ piece. 
 
 Antipliony, responsive singing, between two 
 choirs or the priest, and choir. 
 
 Antiplionai-iiini Romanuni. Roman 
 
 Antiplioiiary, the Romish collection of anti- 
 phons. 
 
 A piaoei-e (Ital.ii pr-ii-tsha'-re) At pleasure, 
 
 faster or slower. 
 
 AppaKKionatO (Ital. ap-piis-se-o-na'-toK 
 Impassioned ; jiassionateU-. Beethoven's son- 
 ata op. 57 was thus named, by Cranz, the pub- 
 lisher. 
 
 AppliraturCf.er.ap-plik'-a-tur). Application, 
 as /(?</(// applicatitr : pedal marks for apply- 
 ing the toe and heel. 
 
 Appog;^iatui'a(Ital. ap-pod -jla-tiV-rii), from 
 ap/>oggia>-e to lean uoon. A melodic orna- 
 ment consisting of a dissonant tone occurring 
 on the accent and resolving into the true 
 melodic tone one degree above or below. The 
 long A. occupies haff the time of the note it 
 leans upon, and is written as a grace note. 
 The short A . is player' as quickly as possible ; 
 written as a grace note with a stroke through 
 the stem. .See Appendi.\, pp. 78 and 79. 
 
 AppOffSfiatlsra l>OHbIo. a melodic orna- 
 ment consisting of tw.. grace notes before a 
 melody note. Played rapidly, and in time 
 taken from the principal note. 
 
 Aptoniinas, two Welsh brothers, harpists. B. 
 
 1S26 and 1829. 
 
 Aroailt'lt. Jacob, a singer, teacher and com- 
 poser, at Rome about 1539. Born in the 
 Netlierlands. Author of madrigals, masses, 
 etc. 
 
 Areo (Ital. Ur'-ko).^ The bo'w of stringed in- 
 struments. c:oll* ai'co. or aroato. with 
 the bow, as opposed to pizzicato, which see. 
 
 Arditi. Luigi (loo-ee'gee ar-dee'-tee). Born 
 at Crescentino in Piedmont, 1822. Author of 
 several operas, overtures, songs, etc. Conduc- 
 tor of Italian opera in London, Vienna, etc. 
 Visited America several times. 
 
 ArdltO (Ital. ar-dee'-l6). Warmth; ardor. 
 
 Aria (Ital. ilr'-Ia). Air. See Lessons x.vx, x.xxv. 
 
 Ariotta (Ital. iir-I-ft'-tii). A little air. Lesson 
 
 xiv. 
 
 Arioso (Ital. iir-I-u'-zo). In style of an aria. 
 Lesson xxvii. 
 
 AriOIl, a Greek musician, fabled to be the sou 
 of Neptune and Oncea, Lived about 620 B. C. 
 
 Arinid<' (ar-meed'). One of Chick's greatest 
 operas. Produced in Paris .Sept. 23, 1777. 
 
 Arne, Thomas A., Mus. Doc. An English 
 composer of glees, anthems, and the music of 
 several operas or stage pieces, music to 
 
 Shakespeare's " Tempest," two oratorios 
 " Judith " and " Abell,' CiC. 1710-1778. 
 
 Ariie. Michael, son of preceding, 1741-1S06. A 
 conductor and popular composer of operas, 
 etc., in his day. 
 
 Arpegjjio (Ital. ar-pt'd-jn). A melodic figure 
 composed of the tones of a chord struck suc- 
 cessively. A broken chord. 
 
 Al'nold, Samuel, Mus. Doc, born in I^ndon, 
 1740. Died 1832. An organist, conductor 
 and author. Composed many dram.itic works. 
 
 Art of Fus:iie, The {Die Kittist tier Puge), a 
 wonderful work of Sebastian Bach's, contain- 
 ing eighteen fugues, all on one subject. Com- 
 posed in the last year of his life. 
 
 Asclier, Joseph, born in London, in 1831. Died 
 1869. A fashionable pianist and composer of 
 drawing-room pieces. 
 
 AH(Ger.) Aflat. (A/1.) 
 
 Asmai (Ital. Us-sii'). Very, e. g., Allejjro 
 assai, very fast, etc. 
 
 ANSOllltO (Ital. as-so-lfi'-to). Absolute. 
 I'riiiia donna asNolulo, absolute, or 
 
 first, |irinia douna. 
 
 Atliaiisi(ath-ai-i -ii). The third of Handel's 
 oratorios. 1733. 
 
 Atliali*' (Ger. Ut -tal-y). Overture, march and 
 si.x vocal pieces (op. 74) to Racine's drama, 
 composed by Mendelssohn, 1S43. 
 
 A tempo (Ital. a tern -po). In time. 
 
 Attwooti. Thomas, English composer of dram- 
 atic ami cathedral music ; conductor and 
 organist ; ;i favorite pupil of Mozart, and one 
 of the fir-t English musici-uis to recognize the 
 genius of Mendelssohn. 1767-1838. Buried 
 in St. Paul's Cathedral, under the organ. 
 
 Atta«M'a (Ital. iit-tak-kii). Attack. At«A«-oa 
 Nllltito. attack the following immediately. 
 
 AttO (Ital. iif-to). Act. 
 
 Allber, Daniel-Franfois-Esprit, born 1784 at 
 Caen. Died 1871. Auber was the most popu- 
 lar of the French composers of this ci-ntuiy. 
 Auber was composer of a large number of 
 operas, among the besl of which are " Crown 
 Diamonds," "' Kr.a hiavolo," and "LaMu- 
 etie de Portici" (Masaniollo). His works 
 are characterized by bright and si>arkling 
 melody, and pleasant and piquant instnimen- 
 tation, though Wagner says he uses the 
 orchestra like a mighty guitar (implying 
 Auber's lack of thematic treatment). He 
 was made Director of the Conservatoire by 
 Louis Phillippe, and remained so until his 
 death. A. was genial and witty. 
 
 Alldaoe (latl. S-oo-dii'-tshe>. Same as ,if<///o. 
 
 Anflosune (Ger. ouf-16-sung). Resolution 
 
 (of dissonances). 
 Allt'la«*t iGcr. ouf-takl). The unaccented beat 
 
 of the measure. 
 
 An;;ni«'ntation. the extension of a phr.tse or 
 subject by lengthening the time of all its 
 notes, imitating quarter notes by halves, etc. 
 
 AnsdriM'k (Ger. ous -druk>. Expression. 
 
 Av«' .llariu (Lat. a -v? mUr-ee -iiV "Hail 
 Mary." The angelic salutation, Luke i, 28. 
 
 ii a/e, a ai/</, a rtrw, ij ezr, e cm/, l ice, I ///, o o/<i, o ot/ti, 6 <iove, 00 moon, u /ute, ii />«/, U /•>. sounti
 
 AUT 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 BAR 
 
 Atltlientic certain of the ecclesiastical modes. 
 They are : 
 
 No. 
 
 Mode. 
 
 Comp.aii, 
 
 Dorian 
 
 Phrygian... 
 
 Lydiin 
 
 Mixolydein 
 
 .'Eolian 
 
 lonion, or I 
 lastian t 
 
 D to D 
 E to E 
 F to F 
 G'to G 
 A to A 
 
 C to C 
 
 Kiii.ll. 
 
 D 
 E 
 F 
 G 
 A 
 
 Doiniimiit. 
 
 A 
 C 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 ira, or The Magic Rose, 
 English version of Spohr's 
 
 Azor and Zeniira. 
 
 in three acts. English version of Spohi 
 Zejiiire unci Azor^ produced at Covent Gar- 
 den, April 5, 1831. 
 
 B, the name of a pitch. In Germany the name 
 B is applied to the tone V>b^ and B is called 
 H. 
 
 Bacll, Johann Sebastian (biikhl,oneof the great- 
 est masters who have ever appeared in music. 
 B. 1685, d. 1750. Bach's ancestry for a cen- 
 tury had been musicians, and several of them 
 eminent. See chapter on Bach. 
 
 Baoh. Wilhelm Friedmann, called also the 
 Halle Bach, oldest and most talented .son of 
 John, born at Weimar 1710. Was noted for 
 his originality as a composer and improviser, 
 but owing to dissipated habits he left com- 
 paratively few works. Died at Berlin, 1784. 
 
 Bacll. Karl Philipp Emanuel, third son of J. S., 
 born at Weimar 1714. Studied law, but as 
 he had been educated in music from child- 
 hood, he presently betook himself to it as his 
 calling, and became kammermusiker and 
 cembalist at the court of Frederick the Great. 
 As composer, director, teacher and critic, his 
 influence was very great. He beloiigs to the 
 transition period from his father to Haydn. 
 His works are remarkable for refinement and 
 elegance rather than power. Died 1788. 
 
 Baeh Society, in London, devoted to the 
 study and promulgation of Bach's works. 
 1849-1870. Its library is now in the Royal 
 Academy of Music. 
 
 Baoh <);esoliell«ohaft, a German society 
 for publishing Bach's works, of which some 
 thirty volumes are now issued. The idea 
 originated with Schumann and Hauptmann. 
 
 Baelie, Francis Edward (bak), born at Birming- 
 ham, Sept. 14, 1833, died there Aug. 24, 185S. 
 A talented yonng composer, a student at 
 Leipsic, who died before his talent was fairly 
 developed. Author of several piano pieces, 
 a concerto, etc. 
 
 Bachelor of llllSic, a degree conferred 
 complimentarily by American colleges. At 
 Oxford and Cambndge(Eng.) a candidate for 
 degree must pass certain written and vh'a 
 voce examinations in harmony, counlerfoint 
 principles of orchestration, etc , and piesent 
 a good vocal composition containing pure 
 five-part harmony and good fugal counter- 
 point, with accompaniment for strings, suffi- 
 ciently long to occupy from 23 to 40 minutes 
 in the peiformance. Fees about ^18. 
 
 Badinage (Fr. bad -in-ag). Playfulness. 
 
 Badarzewski. Thekla.born at Warsaw 1838. 
 Died 1862. Immortalized by her composition, 
 "• I'rioe de la Vierge" " Maiden's Prayer." 
 
 Baertanze. (Ger.) Dance of the Bayardiers; 
 
 female dancers in the East Indies. 
 
 Baj^atelle (Fr. bag-a-tel), a trifle. A name 
 applied to short compositions. 
 
 Bagpipe, a famous instrument of great an- 
 tiquity. It consists of a combination of fixed 
 tones, or " drones," which sound continuously 
 when the instrument is played, and a 
 "chanter." The drones are made by three 
 pipes with reeds, tuned differently in different 
 parts of the country ; A A A, G D A, G D 
 G, etc. The chanter is an instrument akin 
 to theoboe, with a compass of only nine notes, 
 not tuned accurately, but approximating the 
 scale of the black keys of the piano. The 
 wind is furnished by a windbag or sack, 
 worked by the left arm. 
 
 Baker. B. F., born about 1820. Author of 
 a text-book of Harmony and several bool« of 
 psalmody. 
 
 Balfe. Michael William, born at Dublin 1808, 
 died 1870. A prolific composer of songs and 
 operas, the best of them being " The Bohe- 
 mian Girl," " Siege of Rochelle," " The En- 
 chantress," " Talisman," and " Puritan's 
 Daughter." Balfe was a fine melodist but a 
 careless composer. 
 
 Balatka. Hans, a fine German musician, 
 teacher and conductor, in Chicago. Born 
 about 1830. 
 
 Ballad, from the Itali.in baiiata, a dance. 
 Biillata^ a dancing piece ; Suonata, abound- 
 ing piece; and Cantata, a singing piece. — 
 Gro7'e.) In Italy the ballata was a song to 
 be sung while dancing. A poem in narrative 
 form, adapted to be sung to some ballad tune. 
 
 Ballade (Fr. bal-lad). A ballad. Capriciously 
 applied by Chopin to four pieces of piano- 
 forte music. 
 
 bal-ler-ee -na). A female 
 
 Ballerina (Ital. 
 
 ballet-dancer. 
 
 Ballet (Fr. bill-la ). A suite of elaborate 
 dances for performance on the stage. The 
 term B. is applied eijually to the music, to 
 the dancers, and to the dances. 
 
 Ballo in Maschera (Ital. bal-lo in mas - 
 ker-ii). " The Masked Ball," opera by Verdi, 
 1839. 
 
 Band, a company of instrumental players. See 
 "String band," "Brass band," "Wind 
 band," " Military band." 
 
 Banjo, an American instrument of the guitar 
 kind, the body covered with parchment like 
 a drum-head. It has five or six strings, 
 tuned: A, E, G sharp, B, E, or G, D, G.B, 
 D, G, the lowest string being in the octave 
 below middle C. Its pitch is an octave lower 
 than its notation. 
 
 Bar. a line across the staff" to mark the measures. 
 In England often applied to the measure itself. 
 
 Barliaja, Domenico (bar-ba-ya), an Italian 
 opera manager, who introduced most of 
 Auber's and Rossini's operas to the world at 
 .San Carlo theatre in Naples and La Scala in 
 Milan. 1778-1841. 
 
 Barher of Seville. English name of an 
 opera by Rossini, 1816. Also opera of Paisello 
 »77S. 
 
 Barcai*oIe (Ital. 
 
 A piece written i 
 a boatman. 
 
 biir -ka-rol), a boat-song. 
 11 the rocking movement of 
 
 a ale^ a add, ii arm, e eve, 6 end, I ice, \ Hi, o old, 6 odd, 6 dove, 00 moon, u lute, \\ but, ii Fr. sound 
 
 6
 
 BAR 
 
 DICTION A i;V. 
 
 IJEL 
 
 BarKi«''» VVoldcmar (vol -de-miir biir-geel). 
 Step-brother of Mine. Clara Schumann. 
 Born in Berlin 182S. A teacher and an ele- 
 gant composer of piano forte pieces, chamber - 
 music, etc. B. stands too near Schumann for 
 his own talent to have fair play. 
 
 Baritone, a male voice of medium range and 
 large body of tone. Also the name of the 
 smaller bass saxhorn, in B6. 
 Baritone Clef, the bass clef applied to the 
 
 third line of the staff. 
 Bai'liby. Joseph, a prominent English com- 
 poser of church music, glees, songs, etc. 
 Born about 1837. For some reason omitted 
 from prove's Die. and Mendel. 
 Barnett. John F., an English pianist and com- 
 poser of three Cantatas, 'The Ancient 
 Mariner" 1867, "Paradise and the Pen 
 1870, "Raising of Lazarus" J873, " Lay of 
 the Last Minstrel " 1874 ; also of several con- 
 certos, overtures, quartettes, etc. Born Oct. 
 6, 1838. 
 Barri'l OrjEan. of various design and con- 
 structi >u. Some are merely enlarged music- 
 boxes, others small orchestrions, in which the 
 tones are produced by reeds or pipes. All are 
 controlled by means of a barrel, or cylinder, 
 on the surfoce of which pins are set at such 
 intervals that a revolution of the cylinder 
 opens thc^ valve; and so produces the tones ot 
 a piece. By sliding the barrel a minute dis- 
 tance, another set of pins come into operation, 
 and ther<.by the tune is cri?.nged. In orches- 
 trion organs the crank not only revolves the 
 cylinder, but also works the bellows. 
 Bartholrt.V. se; Alendelssohn. 
 Bar.\<Olie. a stringed instrument of the violin 
 family, having six or seven catgut strings 
 stretched over the fingerboard, and frorr. nine 
 to twenty-four metal strings which act sympa- 
 thotically. Has a weak but pleasing tone. 
 Has given place to the violoncello. 
 BasiiM (bas), the lowest part in harmony. ALo 
 
 the lowest male voice. 
 Ba^SO Profnndo (prd-fun'-dd). The low- 
 est male voice, of deep qual.ty of tone. 
 Ba!!>»«et Horn (Ilal. como di bassetto). a bass 
 clarinet in F, rea'zhing from F below the bass 
 clef. Written for by Mozart and Mendelssohn. 
 
 BaSH Clarinet, a low clarinet ranging up- 
 wards from E below middle C. A slow-speak- 
 ing, hollow-toned instrument. 
 
 BaS!S <'lef. the sign of the bass staff. Repre- 
 sents F next below middle C. 
 
 Ba^S Tuba, th . lowest of the saxhorn family. 
 That in E^ reaches E/' of the 16 ft. octave. 
 The B/' Tuba, B/' in the 32 ft. octave, three 
 octaves belov.- middle C. 
 
 Bassini. Carlo, an Italian teacher of singing, 
 living in New York from 1864 or thereabouts. 
 Died in 187J. 
 
 Bass Horn, see Serpent. 
 
 Bassoon (ba-zoon), Ger. Fagott, a wooden 
 double-reed instrument of 8 ft. tone. Its 
 compass is from 16 ft. Bb to A/' on 2d space 
 of treole. Is the natural bass of the oboes 
 and clarinets, i. *., the "wood."' 
 
 Bas<iO i'antante (Ital. kan-liin-tfO. The 
 Mn<'ing bass, or principal bass singer, as dis- 
 tinguished from tlie ^w.fo/'«^f, comic bass, 
 and the basso pro/undo, or very low bass 
 
 Basso <'oiltinuo. a bass running through the 
 whole piece, from which, with figures, the 
 accompaniment used to be played. See 
 Thorough Bass. 
 
 The 
 
 Bass Posaiine (Ger. biLss po-soun'— 
 
 1, -ss trombone. 
 Bsisteii et Bastienne, a German operetta 
 
 in one act. .Moziirt 1768. 
 
 Bass Viol, English name of the violoncello. 
 
 Baton (Fr. ba-tonh ). A conductor's stick -or 
 
 beating time. 
 Battle of I'raKtie, a descriptive sonata by 
 
 Kotzwara, 1792. One of the most famous 
 
 pieces of programme music. 
 
 Battle Symphony. English name for Bee- 
 thoven's •• Wellington's Sieg oderdie bchlagt 
 bci Vittoria," op. 91. 1813. 
 
 Battement (Fr. bat -tP-mon). An old em- 
 bellishment similar to the mordente, but 
 made with the note below. 
 
 Battisllill, Jonathan, an English composer of 
 ":oncs, glees, catches and anthems. 1738-1801. 
 
 Bannibaell. Adolph, a German piano forte 
 teacher and prolific arranger of piano pieces, 
 living some time in Boston. Came to Chicago 
 about 1863. Died 1880. 
 
 B dlir (Ger. dur). B major. 
 
 Bearinss, the few notes a tuner lays down 
 carefully as guides. Usually the middle oc- 
 tave. 
 
 Beat. An embellishment of the mordent kind. 
 2. The conductor's motion in indicating 
 
 the time. _ , ,. 
 
 - The throbbing efTect of dissomnce, pro- 
 duced by the occasional interference and con- 
 sequent extinction of a vibration. 1 he 
 number of beats per second is equal to the 
 difference between the rates of vibration in 
 the notes. 
 Beeker, Paul, a German piano te.acher and 
 fine musician, resident in Chicago since '8,3, 
 where he was for many years the leading ex- 
 ponent of classical music. 
 
 Beeker. Carl Ferdinand, or3anist and professor 
 at the Conservatorium of Leipsic. Born 1804. 
 died 1877. Especially learned in musical 
 literature. 
 
 Beer (biir). Original name of Meyer Beer. 
 
 Beethoven. Ludwig van (lood vTg fan bu'- 
 
 td-vn). 1770-1827. See P.art VIII. 
 Belir. Fr., a German composer of light pieces. 
 Ke::Ieiten (Cer. bPg-li -tPn). To accompany. 
 
 BeSKiU-'s Opera, a celebrated piece, written 
 • m .727 by Gay. Its songs were all written to 
 old melodies, or to the most popii.ar airi ol 
 the day. It had an immense success. 
 
 Bell, the expanded opening in which most brass 
 instrume.us terminate. AUo .appl.ed_t_o or- 
 gan pipes, as in the - bell diap.ison, bell 
 g.amba.^' in whi Ji all the pipes end m a bell. 
 
 BelisarlO (bPI-I-sUr -Id). Italian opera in 3 
 acis by Donizetti, 1836. 
 
 Belie7./.a (Ital. bi5l-Wit -za). Beauty of tone 
 .iiul expression. 
 
 Beliieoso (Ital. bPl-H-kd -i'o). Warlike. 
 
 ,{;}~r7,«, a ar,.,. e e-.e. 6 .W, i /<v, I ://, 6 old, o odd, ,/.... 00 ;...«, u luU, ,1 but, U />. sound
 
 BEL 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 BIS 
 
 Bellini, Vincenzo (vin Itli5n'-dz5 bel-lee- 
 nee). Italian composer of operas, the best of 
 which are " Sonnambula,'' " I Puritan! " and 
 "Norma." His writing is characterized by 
 delicate and graceful melody, and great refine- 
 ment. Bellini died very young, perh3<ps before 
 his powers were fully developed ; still he rep- 
 represents the simple, natural side nf Itali.i-n 
 music, where the music e.xistsfor itself alone, 
 paying very little attention to the te.xt, a 
 school which was ev<-n in his day giving place 
 to the stionger style of Verdi and Wagner. 
 i8o2-i335. 
 
 BellOM'S, the wind receptacles of organs. 
 
 Bells, musical instruments of metal, sounding 
 by percussion. E.xtremely ancient. Bell metal 
 consists of copper and tin, 3 to i. 
 
 Belly, the upper side of violins, that ne.xt the 
 strings. 
 
 BelsliaKirar, an oratorio by Handel, 1745. 
 
 2. Dramatic piece by Mr. J. A. Butterfield, 
 1871. Written for amateurs. 
 
 Benierkbar (Ger. be-mark-biir), marked ; to 
 be played in a prominent manner. 
 
 Be niol (Fr. bg-mol ). B flat. 
 
 Ben, Bene (Ital. ben, ba -ne). Well. 
 
 Bcnecliet. Sir Julius, born at Stuttgart, Nov. 
 27, 1S04. " One of the most eminent foreign 
 musicians settled in England since Handel's 
 time." Author of several operas, the ora- 
 torios of " St. Cecelia" and "St. Peter." One 
 of the most eminent conductors of the present 
 time. Lives in London. Vi-ited this country 
 with Jenny Lind in 1850. 
 
 Benedietus (Lat.) The song of Zachariah, 
 Luke i. 
 
 Benclel. Franz, piano virtuoso and composer of 
 avast mass of piano music, among the best 
 of which is his " Am Genfer See," also his 
 op. 8, 45 and 47. Visited the United States 
 and played at 2d Peace Jubilee in 1872. Died 
 about it>74. B. 1833. 
 
 Bennett, William Stemdale.Mus.Doc, M.A., 
 D.C.L., one of the greatest English compos- 
 ers since Purcell. Born 1816. B. was a great 
 friend of Mendelssohn's, whose style in- 
 fluenced him very much. Composer of many 
 piano works, two concertos, 1840, for piano 
 and orchestra, cantata "The May Queen," 
 1858, and an oratorio " The Women of Sama- 
 ria," 1867. (Given in Boston in 1S74.) His 
 works are characterized by elegance and finish 
 rather than power. Died Feb. i, 1875. 
 
 Ben pronunziato(Ital. pro-noon-tse-ii'-to). 
 
 Pronounced clearly and distinctly. 
 
 Berceuse (Fr. bair-siirs'), a cradle song. 
 Characterized by a rocking and monotonous 
 accompaniment, and great delicacy, 
 
 BerenS, Hermann (bii -rens), born at Hamburg 
 1826. A good pianist and a successful popu- 
 lar composer. Resides in Stockholm, Sweden, 
 where he is very active in all departments of 
 musical work. D. 1880. 
 
 Bei'ger, Ludwig (lood-vig bair-ger), a fine 
 pianist and composer in Berlin 1777-1838. 
 Pupil of dementi. B. was teacher of Men- 
 delssohn, Taubert, Henselt, and Fanny 
 Hensel. A prolific writer. 
 
 Bei'Se, William (bar'-ga), a piano-teacher, 
 organist, and arranger of pieces in New York. 
 
 Bers;niaiin. Karl, a 'cellist and conductor, 
 born at EisenaKrh in Sa.\ony, 1821. Came to 
 America with the " Germania " orchestra in 
 1850. In 1857 he removed from Boston to 
 New York, where he occupied a leading place 
 as conductor of the "Arion," " Philharmon- 
 icj' etc. Died 1877. 
 
 Bei'iot, Charles Auguste de (ber'-io), a 
 celebrated violinist, born in Belgium 1802. 
 Died 1870. In 183s he married the famous 
 singer Malibran. Author of many pleasing 
 works for piano and violin. 
 
 Berlioz, Hector (bair-lioi), a great French 
 composer, critic and litterateur. Born Dec. 
 II, 1803, died March 9, iSfg. Composer of 
 many overtures, symphonic poems, et;., of 
 the "programme" order, in which all the 
 resources of the modern orchestra are em- 
 ployed with consummate mastery for the por- 
 trayal of poetic, bizarre, piquant, or profound 
 sentiment. Berlioz seems like a genius of 
 great power, in whom a vivid imagination is 
 not restrained by good j udgment. Asa writer 
 about music he is one of the most gifted of 
 the present century. His place as a com- 
 poser is not yet settled. His greatest dramatic 
 work, "The Damnation of Faust" 1846, is 
 only just receiving its due recognition. 
 
 Berttni, Henri (bar-teen'-ee), a pianist of 
 French family, born at London 1798. Settled 
 in Paris 1821. Died at Meylan 1876. B. 
 was author of more than 200 compositions, of 
 which his piano-school and "etudes" had 
 wide currency. They are now superseded. 
 
 Bes (Ger. bes). The note B double flat, en- 
 hai'monic with A natural. 
 
 Best, William T., the eminent English virtuoso 
 organist, born at Carlisle 1826. Since '55, 
 organist of St. George's Hall in Liverpool. 
 Composer of many church services and many 
 skillful and effective " arrangements " for the 
 organ; also of a large "organ school." B. 
 has been called " the Liszt of the organ," a 
 title more complimentary than e.xact. 
 
 Beyer, "Ferd. (bl'-er) 1803-1863. A prolific 
 '■ arranger " for the piano-forte. 
 
 Bianea. or tlie Bravo's Bride, a grand 
 
 opera in 4 acts, by Balfe. i860. 
 
 Bianea K Faliero (bee-an'-ka a fal-ya'-r5). 
 
 Opera by Rossini, 1819. A failure. 
 
 Bind, see Tie. 
 
 Birniins;liani Festival, triennial. The 
 
 most imponant in England. Among the 
 great works written for it were " Elijah " in 
 1846, "Eli" i8ss, " Naaman" 1864. Profits 
 go to hospital funds. Last one occurred in 
 
 1S79. 
 
 Billert, Karl, a German composer of psalms, 
 songs, overtures, symphonies, etc. A promi- 
 nent and active musician. 1821 — . 
 
 Bilse, Benjamin (bi!'-se), one of the most 
 famous conductors of the present day. Born 
 1816. His famous orchestra at Berlin, has 70 
 men. B. is also a composer of dance music. 
 
 Bird. H. D., organist in Chicago. Born about 
 
 1837. 
 Bis, twice ; equivalent to encore, " again." 
 
 Bishop, Sir Henry Rowley, a popular English 
 composer of songs, stage pieces, operas, one 
 oratorio (never performed), etc. 1786-1855- 
 
 a ale., a add^ a arm., e eve, 6 end^ i ice., i III, o old, 6 odd, 6 dove, 00 moon, u lule, u bitty u Fr. sound 
 
 8
 
 BLA 
 
 DlCTiU^■AUV. 
 
 liliA 
 
 Blaxe (called Castil-Blaze), Francois (blUz), a 
 French writer upon music in " Le Menestrel," 
 and in books. 1784-1857. 
 
 BluNillNtriimeiltS (Ger. from blasen^ to 
 blow). Wind in--trunn;nts, which see. 
 
 ItlaNMiliaiin. Adolph J. M.,born 1823 at Dre»- 
 dcM, An accomplished musician, composer 
 and director at Dresden. 
 
 ItlechillStruiIieutN (blek). Brass instru- 
 ments. 
 
 ISIow. John, Mus. Doc, a voluminous English 
 writer of church music, odes, songs, etc. 
 1648-1708. Organist of Westminster Abbey, 
 where also he was buried. 
 
 Kllinicntlial. Jacob (blu'-men-tal), a fashion- 
 able jiiano teacher in London, and composer 
 of light pieces and popular songs. Born at 
 Hamburg 1829. 
 
 It lliol. the German name of the key of B flat 
 
 minor. 
 
 Bo«'tra ricit'llte (It. bo'-kii re-dan'-te). Smil- 
 ing mouth. .Applied in singing to a position 
 of mouth believed to be f.ivorable to the pro- 
 duction of a good tone. 
 
 MoeolK'I'ini, Luigi (Iwee'-geebdk-er-een'-ee), 
 a hi;.;hly gifted Italian composer of chamber 
 music, of which he left a vast amount, and of 
 masses, songs, cantatas, concertos, etc. An 
 e.\tremely melodious and pleasing writer. 
 1740-1805. 
 
 Uo<'ll!>ia, Robert N. C. (bok'-sii*, a composer 
 and eminent harpist, 1789-1855. As a com- 
 poser, " too prolific for his own fame." As a 
 man, " irregular and dissipated to the last 
 degree." 
 
 K«»St' (bo-je). A bow for stringed instruments. 
 
 Btjelllll, Theobald, a famous flute-player at 
 Munich, and inventorof ihe flute which bears 
 his name. Born 1802. -Vuthor of a well known 
 set of 32 studies for Flute. 
 
 Boieldieil, Frangois .Adrien (bwal'-dfi), born 
 1775 at Rouen. B. made his debut in Paris 
 as an opera composer with " Famille Suisse " 
 in 1797, which had a run of 30 nights. His 
 famous " Califle do Bardad'' was produced 
 in 1798. "La Dame Blanche" 1825. This 
 latter opera up to June 1875 had been per- 
 formed 1,340 times. B. was the greatest mas- 
 ter of French comic opera. He died in 1834. 
 
 BoIei*0 (bo-lar'-o) A brisk Spani^ll dance, 
 similar to the polacca. It is in 3-4 time, in 
 eighth notes with two sixteenths on the last 
 half of the first beat of the measure. 
 
 BoloSfHSl (bi>-l'">n'-v;n. The seat of the earliest 
 music school in Italy, founded 1482. 
 
 Boillbai'dttll. or Btttlllbai'd. now applied to 
 
 the lowest of the sa.\-horns. (Sec Bass-tub.i.) 
 
 2. The name of a reed pedal-stop in the 
 
 organ, generally of 32 ft., large scale, rich 
 
 tone and frequently on a heavy wind pressure. 
 
 BoiK'S, four pieces of the ribs of horses or o.xen, 
 l-.cld in the hands and struck together rhyth- 
 mically, like castanets. 
 
 Boosey «!lt <'<>.. music publishers in London. 
 
 Lstablislied about 1820. 
 Bor«los<», Luigi (Iwee'-gee bor-da-se), a light 
 
 opera and song composer of the present time. 
 
 Born in Naples in 1S15. 
 
 ltor<lo;;iii, Marco (bur-dun'-ye), one of the 
 most celebrated singers and masters of sing- 
 ing of recent limes. Born in Bergamo 1788, 
 died 1856. Author of many songs, collections 
 of studies for the voice, etc. For 32 years from 
 1824, professor of singing in the Paris Conser- 
 vatoire. 
 
 Bourduil (boor'-don). An organ stop, usually 
 of 16 ft. pitch, consisting of stopped wooden 
 pipes, otherwise called " stopped diapason." 
 
 Boiiclic FerilU'C (Fr. boosJi fur-mu'). The 
 
 mouth closed. 
 
 BotU'Miiii. Giovanni (jo-vUn'-nee br>t-t("s-see'- 
 nee), a celebralcti virtuoso contrabassist. 
 
 successful operas, as we 
 
 3. Aul 
 11 as ui 
 
 quattettes, sym- 
 
 Born in Lombjrdi 1823. Author of several 
 successful op 
 phonies, etc. 
 
 BouiT«'«' (boor-ra). \ dance of French origin, 
 similar to the gavotte, but quicker, having 
 only two beats to the measure. Found in 
 suites. 
 
 Bow. Used to set in vibration the strings of the 
 violin family. C'insists of a stick of Brazilian 
 lance-wood. From 175 to 250 hairs arc put in 
 a violin bow. The present lorm was pcricctcd 
 by Tourte ne.ir the close of the i8th century. 
 
 Bowing (bo-inf). The art of using the bow. 
 
 Boyoo. William, .Mus. Doc, an Engli.sb com- 
 poser of church music, odes, oratorios, a few 
 pieces for the theatre, and a collection of 
 standard music for the cathedral. 1710-1779. 
 
 BrabaiiSOiillC. La (brii-ban'-son-ne). The 
 national air of the Belgians, dating from 1830. 
 
 Bra«*e. A vertical line for connecting the staves 
 of music performed simultaneously in a score. 
 
 Brahms. Johannes (yo-hiin'-ncs briimsj, one of 
 the greatest living composers. Was born at 
 Hamburg, 1833. He was the son of a musici- 
 an, and his education commenced early. B. 
 has composed a large number of works, all of 
 masterly workmanship, and they are rapidiv 
 becoming current throughout the musical 
 world. They consist of very many songs 
 (over iod), piano forte pieces, quartettes and 
 other chamber music, variations, and two 
 symphonies which have been received with 
 enthusiasm wherever performed. 
 
 Itl'aiilf, an old English dance. 
 
 Bra>!>s Band. A band fiirni>hed with br.ass 
 instruments of the sa.\-horn family. The 
 proper appointment of such a band requires: 
 Band of Eight. — i \-J> Cornet, 2 \Mt Cor- 
 nets, 2 V.b Altos, I 'Rb Tenor, 1 V>b Baritone, 
 I E<^ Bass. 
 
 B.^Nl> OF Twelve.— 2 E* Cornets, a B/' 
 Cornets, 3 E^ Altos, 2 \\b Tenors, i B^ Bari- 
 tone, I B2 Bass. I E/> Bass. 
 
 Band of Sixteen.— 3 Ei Corne's, 3 B/- 
 Cornets, 3 E/' Altos, 2 B/i Tenors, 1 B^ bari- 
 tone, I B/' Bass, 3 E/> Basses. 
 
 The addition of oboes and clarinets trans- 
 forms a "brass" band into a Military band, 
 which sec. 
 
 Bra.ssin. Louis (briis-sahn), one of the most 
 noted piano virtuoso> of the present time. 
 Was bom in Brussels in 1840. Was a studrnl 
 at Leipsic, and later teacher of piano at 
 Stern's conservatory in Berlin. B. is a 
 talented composer, and an exceedingly good 
 interpreter of music, both old and new. 
 
 BratHf ll. The German name for the viola, or 
 tenor viol. 
 
 a ale, il add, ii arm, e eve, e end, i /V<-, I ///, 6 old^ o odd, diK>i\ 00 ihooh, u lute, u but, U Fr. sound 
 
 9
 
 BRA 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 CAL 
 
 Bravura (Ital. bra-voo'-rii). Courage; brav- 
 ery. A style of music in which effect is 
 sought for. 
 
 Breit (Ger. brit). Broad. 
 
 Breitkopf A: Hartel, a Leipsic firm of 
 music publishers, which on Jan. 27, 1869, 
 celebrated its 150th anniversary, the business 
 having descended from father to son. 
 
 Brendel. Dr. Karl Franz, musical critic and 
 lecturer on the history of music in the Con- 
 servatory .It Leipsic ; succeeded Schumann as 
 editor of the " Neu Zeitschrift fur Music." 
 1811-1B68. 
 
 Breve, a note equal to two whole-notes (semi- 
 breves) ; not now used except in church music. 
 
 Bridge, the wooden contrivance used to sup- 
 pjrt strings of stringed instruments, and to 
 communicate their vibrations to the sounding- 
 board. 
 
 Brio (Ital. bree -6). Spirit; vigor; force. 
 
 Brilliante (Ital. and Fr.) Brilliantly. 
 
 BriStOW. Geo. F.. director and music teacher 
 in New York. Born 1825. Author of two 
 symphonies, an opera, etc. 
 
 Brilltlisi (Ital. brin'-dee-see,/^?- brindisi, to 
 drink a health). A drinking song. 
 
 BriSSOll. Francois, a French composer of piano 
 pieces. 
 
 Broken Chords, chords the tones of which 
 are sounded separately instead of simul- 
 taneously. 
 
 Broiisart. Hans von, a distinguished pianist, 
 a pupil of KuUak and Liszt, and music dnec- 
 tor at Hanover. Born 1830 in Konigsburg. 
 A talented composer, his concerto in F sharp 
 minor having been much played by Billow. 
 
 Bruoll. Max (briikh), one of the most erninent 
 living German composers, especially in re- 
 spect to large vocal works, such as his 
 " Loreley," " Frithjof," "Odysseus," " Flight 
 of the Holy Family," " The Lay of the Bell," 
 etc. To this must be added his two \iolin 
 concerios, a symphony, etc. Bruch is a mas- 
 ter of the orchestra, an earnest and serious 
 composer, highly. gifted in melody no less 
 than harmony, and wiiiial a genius. B. 1838. 
 
 Bliek, Dudley, born at Hartford, Conn. 1837. 
 His studies in composition were mainly made 
 with Julius Rictz at Leipsic and Dresden, 
 where also he was an organ pupil of Schneider. 
 His first" Motette Collection " was published 
 in 1867, and marks an epoch in American 
 church music. His second in 1871. Buck 
 has also written very much church music for 
 Episcopal choirs, and three important cho;a! 
 works: "Don Munio,'' the "46th Psalm,'' 
 and last •' Scenes from the Golden Legend," 
 which gained the $1,000 prize at Cincinnati 
 in 1880. He has aUo written several chamber 
 compositions, overtures and two symphonies. 
 Buck must be regarded as one of the most 
 distinguished American composers. In 1871 
 he became organist at the Boston Music Hall. 
 In 1875 he removed to Brooklyn, where he 
 still resides. 
 
 Butt'O (Ital. boof-6). Comic. 
 
 BuelOW, Hans Gu'do von (bii'-lo), the great 
 pianist, born at Dresden, 1830. Became pupil 
 of Liszt in 1851. Made his first concert jour- 
 ney in 1853. Since then resident in Berlin, 
 Dresden, etc. Visited America in 1876. 
 Billow is one of the most learned musicians 
 
 of the present day, a great conductor, and a 
 pianist with iiO superior (except perhaps 
 Liszt). B. has a prodigious memory, know- 
 ing by heart almost the entire classical litera- 
 ture of music. He is also a composer of 
 important works. 
 Burden, a chorus or refrain in old songs. 
 
 Burgniueller, Norbert, born at Dusseldorf, 
 1810. Died in 1836. He left a symphony and 
 several other works of decided value and 
 promise. 
 
 Burla. Burlesca or Burlesque, a musi- 
 cal joke. 
 Bisrletta (Ital. bUr-lef-ta). A musical farce. 
 
 Burney. Charles, Mus. Doc, 1726-1814. A 
 cultivated and genial Englishman, best known 
 by his " History of Music," 1776-1789 Wrote 
 before modern music was developed ; it is nC 
 wonder, therefore, that his erudite work con- 
 tains little of present value. 
 
 Burroives, John F., London, 1787-1852. 
 Best known by his piano-forte and thorough 
 bass "Primers," two of the most successful 
 and worst text-books ever made. 
 
 Busby. Thomas, Mus. Doc, a laborious Eng- 
 lish composer and writer of works about 
 music, now forgotten. 1755-1838. 
 
 Butterfield, J. .•\., born in England, 1837. 
 Author of popular songs and several dramatic 
 pieces, " Belshazzar " 1871, " Ruth " 1875, "A 
 Race for a Wife " 1879. 
 
 Buxteliude, Dietrich, a celebrated organist 
 and composer, whose playing Bach went to 
 LUbeck to hear. 1637-1707. 
 
 Byrd, William, a prolific English composer and 
 publisher. 1538-1623. 
 
 C, the key note of the natural scale. It is the 
 Ionic scale of the church modes. The name 
 of a certain pitch (see " Pitch "). The sign 
 of common time, 4-4. 
 
 Cabinet Orjjan. a reed organ. (This name 
 is ovv.ied by the Mason & Hamlin Organ Co., 
 who were the first to use it.) 
 
 Cabinet Piano, a small upright piano. The 
 large upright pianos are sometimes called 
 " cabinet grand." 
 
 Cabaletta (Sp. kii bal-iit tii). A lively melody 
 in triplet time and rondo form. 
 
 Cadence (from cado^ to fall). The close of a 
 strain or piece of music. Cadences are " per- 
 fect," "imperfect," "half and " plagal." 
 See Lesson iii. 
 
 2. Also the name of an old embellishment 
 resembling the mordente. 
 
 Cadenza (Ital. ka-diint'-zai. A more or less 
 elaborate bravoura passage, introduced by a 
 performer just before the close of a piece. In 
 concertos, cadenzas are sometimes extended 
 to several pages. 
 
 CseeiliaCse-sTl -la). A German musical periodi- 
 cal founded by Gottfried Weber. 1824-1848. 
 (See Cecilia, Si.) 
 
 Ca Ira (sa ee-ra). The earliest of French revo- 
 lutionary songs. 
 
 Calando (Ital. from calare, to descend). With 
 decreasing force. 
 
 Caldara. Antonio (k:il-da'-ra), born at Venice 
 1678. Died 1768 (or 1736, date disputed). 
 Wrote 69 operas and oratorios. 
 
 a ale. a add^ a arm^ e eve, eend^ i ice, i il^, o old, 6 odd, o do~je, 00 moon, u lute, u bitty ii Fr. sound
 
 CAL 
 
 DICTIUNAKY. 
 
 CEL 
 
 C'aliftV' cle ICii;;«l:ul (Fr.) Comic opera in 
 
 one act. l.ib. by Saint -Just. Music by 
 Boiuldieu, i8oo. 
 
 Callcwtt. John W., Mus. Doc, an English 
 composer of glees, anthems, etc., and a musi- 
 cal grammar. 1766-1S21 
 
 CallllUtU Cital. kal-ma'-to). Calmed ; quieted. 
 
 €alore (Ital. kal-o -re). Heat ; warmth. 
 
 Camera (Ital. kam -er-a). Chamber, or room. 
 Applied to compositions ( sonata di camera) 
 to distinguish thein as secular. 
 
 Cailipaniiii, Italo (kam-pan-ee -nee), the 
 great tenor, born at Parma in 1846. Studied 
 at Parma and iMilan. Debut in leading char- 
 actersin 1870. Knows the tenor lolesof more 
 than eighty operas. 
 
 Caiiipaiiella (Ital. kam-pan-el -la), a small 
 bell. A piece of music suggesting little bells. 
 
 Canon (Grk.) A musical form in which a 
 second voice exactly repeats the melody of 
 another (called the anteL-edcnt) at any pitch. 
 Canons are in unison (antecedent and conse- 
 quent at the same pitch) in the octave, 
 second, third, fourth, etc. Also in contrary 
 motion, where the consequent repeats the 
 antecedent backwards, and inverted (the ups 
 and dov.ns of the antecedent reversed). 
 
 Cantabile fital. kan-tii'-bil-e, from cantare^ 
 
 to sing). In singing style. 
 
 Cantata (ital. kan-ta -ta), sung. A composi- 
 tion for voices with or without orchestra. 
 Sung without action. 
 
 Cantate ]>oinino (Lat. kan-ta'ti? dom - 
 In-6). " O sing unto the Lord," Ps. 98. 
 
 Cantilena (Ital. kan- ti-lii -na). A short, 
 song-like piece for voice or instrument. A 
 
 ballad. 
 
 Canto (Ital. kan'to), song. The melody. Bel 
 Canto, beautiful song. j 
 
 Cantor (Lat.) Precentor. The director of a 
 
 choir. 
 
 CailtUH FerniU!« (Lat.) The fixed melody. 
 A subject to which c junterpoint is to be auded. 
 
 i'ailKOna (Ital. kan-zO'-fa). A song in a 
 particular Italian style. 
 
 Canxoiietta (Ital. kan-zo-net'-lS). A little 
 canzona. A liglit and airy little .^ong. 
 
 Capella (Ital. ka-pel'-la). A chapel. 
 
 <'ai»elle (Ger. kii-pel'-PK See Kapell. 
 
 Cape 11 Ell (' letter (Ger. mis'-tPri. See Ka- 
 pellemeister. 
 
 Capo (Ital. ka -pOi. The head or beginning. 
 
 Capo tasto. or Cap4» d astro (Ital.> A 
 small piece attached to the neck of a guitar 
 to shorten all the strings in order to facilitate 
 playing in difhcult keys. 
 
 Caprferio (Ital. kii-prlt-zTo), or Caprice 
 I Fr. kii-presi. A freak, whim or fancy. A 
 composition irregular in form. 
 
 CaprieeiONO iltal. ka-prit-zio -zo). Capri- 
 ciously. 
 
 Capiilleiti e Monteechi (Ital. kli-pool- 
 
 let -tee ed mon-tak'-keel. "The Capulets 
 and the Montagues." Italian opera in 3 acts, 
 from Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, by 
 Bellini Venice, March 12, 1830. A fourth 
 act was added by Vaccai. 
 
 Carafa. .Michclc (ka-ra'-fa», a popular Italian 
 
 opera and piano-forte composer. Born at 
 
 Naples 1785. Made profcsor of con.pusiiion 
 
 [ at the Paris Conservatoire in 1828. Died 1876. 
 
 Carea.«*«<i, Matteo (kiir-kjls'scei, an eminent 
 guitar virtuoso. Born about 1792. Died in 
 Paris 1853. 
 
 Carillon (kHr-IC li'ini. a chime of bells. A set 
 of bells so arranged as to be pl.iycd upon. 
 
 CariNMimi. Giacomo ( jak-O'-mo kiir-ees -sl- 
 mee 1, a celebrated Italian composerof church 
 music and oratorios, in which he greatly im- 
 proved recitative and acconipaniiricnts, and 
 left many works deserving to bi belter known 
 than they are at present. Born at Rome 
 1604. Died 1674. 
 
 Carlbersr. Gotthold (gm'-hold karl -biirg), a 
 German teacher, conductor, editor and com- 
 poser, residing in New York. Born about 
 1837. A sharp and rather sarcastic writer 
 in excellent English. 
 
 Carnai>.v. Wm., Mus. Doc, an English com- 
 poser of vocal music. 1772-1839. 
 
 Carnaval iltal.i carnival. The title of a set 
 of fantastic piece> u\ Schumann, op. 9. 
 
 Carnaval <li 1'eiiise. a popular Venetian 
 air, to which grotesque variations have been 
 written by Paganini and many others. 
 
 Carter. Henry, an English organist living in 
 New Vork. Born perhaps about 1840. 
 
 Carter, Thomas, an English composer of 
 operas, a singer and pianist. 1735-1804. 
 
 Cary, Annie Louise, a celebrated contralto 
 singer, born in Maine in 1846. 
 
 Catalani, Angelica (iin-gel'-e-ka kat-u-IS'- 
 neei, a great singer born 1779. Died 1849. 
 She had a soprano voice of gieat compass, 
 purity and power, and prodigious execution. 
 
 Catell. a round for three or more voices, the 
 singing of which was extremely fashionable 
 in the reign of Charles II. 
 
 Catel, Charles Simon (ka-tel), born 1773, died 
 1830. A French theorist, teacher of harmony, 
 and composerof military music and operas. 
 Best known by his treatise on Harmony. 
 
 CattfUt.the name given to the material for cer- 
 tain strings. It is derived from the int.-stines 
 of the sheep ; never from the cat. 
 
 Cathedral IBllNie, music composed for the 
 
 English cathedrals. 
 
 Cavailie (kav -al-15), a family of distinguished 
 organ-builders in the South of France. The 
 present representative of th* name is Ca- 
 vaillc-CoU, the distinguished P.arisian organ- 
 builder. 
 
 Ceeilia, St., a young Roman lady of noble 
 birth, a Christian and a martyr of the second 
 century. She has beei. lonij regarded as the 
 patron saint of music and niii -icians, although 
 there is no authentic evidence of her having 
 had any musical accomplishment whatever. 
 
 Celeste 'Fr. sf-lest ). An organ stop or tremu- 
 lous e T^-ct. produced by a set of reeds or pipes 
 slightly lower than the true pitch. 
 
 Celtic Music was entirely melodic in charac- 
 ter, no harmonj being employed, except per- 
 haps a drone las in the bag-pipe). The scale 
 consisted of five tones: .M.ijor, C d c g a; 
 minor, .-V c e d g, .and D e g a c. Several ol 
 the Scotch and Irisli melodies, especially 
 those in the minor keys, are of Celtic origin. 
 
 a «&, a add, a arm, e eve, 6 end, \ ice, I Hi, o aid, r> odd, o dove, 00 ttioon, u iute, u 6u/, U />. soumi 
 
 II
 
 CE:\r 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 CHR 
 
 Cembalo ( Itul. chem -bal-6). Adulcimer. The 
 addition of keys made it Claviercembalo, 
 which see. 
 
 Ceillbal d' Aniore. " cymbal of love," an 
 old form of the Clavichord, which see. 
 
 Cenereiitola. La (Ital. chen-er-an -to-la). 
 An opera on the story of Cinderella bv Ros- 
 sini, libretto by Feretti. Produced in Rome, 
 1817. 
 
 Cliaconiie (Ital. Chiaconna). An obselete 
 dance, probably of Spanish origin. It is in 
 3-4 time, moderately slow, and in form of 
 variations. Bach's Chaconne from his 4th 
 sonata for violin solo is a very celebrated ex- 
 ample. 
 
 Chamber llu><ie, is the name applied to all 
 that class of music specially fitted for perform- 
 ance in a room, rather than in a large hall or 
 church. The '"chamber" quality refers 
 chiefly to the serious and elevated character 
 of the thought, and the consequent difficulty 
 of finding a congenial audience. 
 
 Chanson (Fr. shang-song ). A little poem or 
 song. 
 
 Chansonette (Fr. shan-son-6t ). A little 
 chansonne. 
 
 Change, any order in which the bells of a chime 
 are struck. 2. A change of key. 
 
 Chant, a musical utterance in definite pitch, 
 the rhythm of which is entirely determined 
 by the needs of the words. 
 
 Chant, Single, a chant, the music of which con- 
 sists cf but a single couplet. Each phrase 
 consists of two parts, a chanting note and a 
 cadence. 
 
 Chant. Double, a chant consisting of two coup- 
 lets. 
 
 Chapelle (Fr. shap-ell >, the chapel. Origin- 
 ally the musicians of a chapel ; afterwards 
 extended to include the choir ?.nd orchestra 
 of a church, chapel or palace. See Kapelle. 
 
 Chappell. William, a learned English musi- 
 cian, born in 1809 in London. Author of 
 "Popular Music in the Olden Time," etc. 
 
 Character of Keys, a supposed difference 
 in the emotional effect of keys, which, if it 
 really exists, is probably due to absolute 
 pitch. C was pure, simple ; D maj., the tone 
 of triumph ; I^ maj., joy, etc. 
 
 Characteristic Tones, the fourth and 
 
 seventh of the key, because these tones de- 
 termine the tonic. 
 
 ChaSSe (Fr; shasl, the chase, hunt. Applied 
 to music imitative of the spirit or actual 
 sounds of the hunt. 
 
 Chef (Fr. shef), chief. As Chef cT attaque., 
 leader of the ist violins in an orchestra. 
 
 Chernbini, Maria C. Z. S. (ker -ii-been -ee), 
 an Italian composer born at Florence 1760. 
 In 1822 he became Director of theJaris Con- 
 servatoire. Died 1842. C. was a prolific and 
 talented composer in almost every depart- 
 ment, but is best known by his treatise on 
 " Counterpoint and Fugue," now superseded, 
 and his favorite opera, " Tlie Water-Carrier." 
 
 Chiekering & ^ons, an eminent firm of 
 piano-makers, established in Boston, Mass., 
 by Jonas Chickerine 1823. 
 
 Chiming. A bell is said to be chimed when 
 she is swung through the smallest part ot a 
 circle possible so as to make the clapper 
 strike. Ringing tunes. 
 
 Chiroplast (ki-ro-pliistt. An apparatus in- 
 vented by Logier in 1814, designed to facili- 
 tate the acquisition of a correct position of 
 the hands at the piano-forte. The C. con- 
 sisted in effect of a wrist-guide in two paral- 
 lel bars, between which the wrist was moved, 
 and finger-guides in ihin plates of metal, con- 
 fining each finger to the vertical plane over 
 the particular key which that finger was to 
 strike. Bohrer's" hand-guide" accomplishes 
 a much better purpose. 
 
 Chlatlni. Ernst F. F. (klad'-nee), a German 
 philosopher, 1756-1827. One of the first in- 
 vestigitors of sound, and the father of the 
 modern doctrine of acoustics. 
 
 ChO]>in, Francois Frederic (sho -pan), born in 
 Poland March i, 1809. Died 1849. See Chap- 
 ters on Chopin. 
 
 Chorus, a body of singers. A composition to 
 be sung by all the singers. 
 
 Chorale (kor-al'i. A sacred song in slow and 
 sustained tones. 
 
 Choral Fantasia (ko-ral fan'-ta-sia). A 
 compositi m of Beethoven's, op. 80, for piano 
 solo, orchestra, solo quartette and chorus. 
 1808. 
 
 Choral Symphony, Beethoven's 9th sym- 
 phony, in the finale of which a chorus is in- 
 troduced. 1824. 
 
 Choralbuch (Ger. k5 -ral-bukh). A book of 
 chorals. 
 
 Chorister, a choir singer, or leader. 
 
 Chord, a harmonic combination of tones, all 
 related to the chief tone called the root. In 
 consonant chords the root is the greatest com- 
 mon measure of the series of vibrations com- 
 posing the chords. Dissonant chords have 
 one or more intruding tones not related to the 
 root. These afterwards retire in favor of 
 (resolve into) the consonant tone or tones they 
 displaced. 
 
 Choir, a body of singers. The part of a cathe- 
 dr.^.l set apart for the performance of ordinary 
 daily service. 
 
 Chorley. Henry F. (kor'-ly), an English jour- 
 nalist, authorandart-critic. 1S08-1872. From 
 1830 to 1S68 he was associated with the 
 "Athenaeum." Authorof numerous sketches, 
 vacation letters, novels, etc., and libretti. 
 
 Choron, Alexander E. (ko'-ron\ a French 
 teacher of music, especially singing, and 
 author of numerous articles, prefaces, etc. 
 1771-1834. 
 
 ChristUS. an oratoriS projected by Mendels- 
 sohn to form a trilogy with " Elijah "' and 
 " St. Paul." He finished only 8 numbers of 
 it. 
 
 Chi'istns am Oelbei'ge. Christ on the 
 Mount of Olives. Oratorio by Beethoven. 
 
 Chromatic, literally colored. The name given 
 to tones intermediate between the tones of a 
 key. Also applied to tones written with ac- 
 cidental sharps or flats. 
 
 Chromatic Scale, a scale composed of 
 twelve equally separated tones in an octave. 
 The scale produced by the keys of a piano- 
 forte struck consecutively from left to right, 
 or the reverse. 
 
 ale^ a add^ ii arin^ e eve^ 8 end^ I ice, 1 ///, o old, o o.id, 6 dove, 00 moon, u lute., ii bitt, u Fr. so und 
 
 12
 
 CI IK 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 COM 
 
 C'lii'oniutio Diesis (di-ee-sls). A Greek 
 
 interval equal to 27-26. 
 
 Chromatic FUSIH', a fugue witli a chro- 
 matic subject. 
 
 <']lM'iltal. Krauz Xaver, a prolific Bohemian 
 composer of quartettes, symphonies, instruc- 
 tion books, etc. Born 1808. 
 
 C'^rysanrtiT, Friedrich, the il'ustrious H.m 
 del scholar and editor of his works. B. 1-2' 
 at Liilitliee. 
 
 C'ilUlH'll, John, a large music publisher of Cin- 
 cinnati, li. about 1830. 
 
 4'iat*onna (Ital. tchii-kon -na). A chaconne. 
 
 Cilliorosa. Domenica (che-mo-ro -zah 1, an 
 Italian musician and compo-er of some 90 
 operas, the best of which is the // Matrimonio 
 Segreto. 1749-1801. 
 
 C'inqiie (Fr. singk). Five. 
 <'is (Ger. tsiss). C sharp. 
 
 Cittern, or <"itliera. an instrument some- 
 what resembling the guitar. Of the greatest 
 antiquity. Mentioned by Homer. Has wire 
 strings, and is played with a plectrum. 
 
 ClapiSSOll, Antoine Louis, an Italian com- 
 poser, born 1808. Composer of 16 operas. D. 
 i8€6. 
 
 Cla«iue (Fr. klak). An organized body of hired 
 persons distributed through a theater to 
 create applause. 
 
 C'iari, Giovanni (jo-vUn'-nee kliir'-ce), an 
 Italian composer of church music. 1669-1746. 
 
 C'larJilot, a musical instrument consisting of a 
 small conical tube of wood about 24 inches 
 long, with a trumpet-shaped bell. The tone 
 is produced by a vibrating reed inthe mouth- 
 piece. It has a reedy quality, and about three 
 octaves compass. Much used in orchestral 
 scores and military music. 
 
 Clarke, John, Mus. Doc, an English composer 
 of church music, songs, etc. 1770-1836. 
 
 Classical, a term used somewhat vaguely in 
 music. See Chapter XXVI. 
 
 Clavecin (klav -e-sin). The French name for 
 harpsichord. 
 
 ClaviceniUalO (kia,v'-T-tchem-ba -16). Ital- 
 ian name for a harpsichord. 
 
 Clavicliortl, or Clavier (klav'-I-kord, or 
 klav-eerl. A keyed instrument, shaped like 
 a square piano-forte. Strung with brass wire, 
 vibrated by means of "tangents," instead of 
 hammers. 
 
 Clef (klt'f ), a key. A character written at the 
 beginning of a staff to determine the_ pitch. 
 The C clef represented middle C. The G 
 clef represents the Ci ne.xt above middle C, 
 and is now always written on the second line. 
 The F clef, on the fourth line, represents F 
 ne.xt below middle C. 
 
 element!, Muzio (mud-zio klem-en'-tee). 
 An Italian pianist and composer. Born at 
 Rome 1752. Died in England 1832. Clementi 
 was one of the greatest pianists of his day, 
 and the author'of a set of studies, " The 
 Gradus,'" etc., still indispensable to the vir- 
 ' tuoso. He was author of many sonatas and 
 
 other pieces, and his sonatas were highlv 
 prized by Beethoven. Clementi lived through 
 the most memorable period in music. 
 "At his birth Handel was alive ; at his death 
 Beethoven, Schubert and Weber were bu- 
 
 ried." His writings are characterized by great 
 freshness, clearness and individuality. 
 
 i'lciiiciixa ill Tito, La ( klfm - r*n - zU dec 
 lee -lOi. '■ Ihe Clemency of Titus," Mo- 
 zart's 23d and last opera. 1791. 
 
 Climax, the summit. A point of culmination, 
 in power or interest. 
 
 <'«! (Ital. kol), with, or at the same time with. 
 As collti parte, v/'xlYi the part; colia voce, 
 with the voice. 
 
 <"oloratHr (Ital. kol-or-Ii- tur l, coloration. 
 Runs or embellishments introduced in sing- 
 ing. 
 
 Combination Tones, tones produced by 
 the coincident vibrations of two tones sound- 
 ing together. Thus e' and g' sounded to- 
 gether on a reed organ, produce middle C for 
 a combination tone, which may be plainly 
 heard. 
 
 Combination Pedals, pedals serving to 
 draw or retire organ-stops, and thus change 
 the "combination.'' 
 
 Come (Ital. ko'-nie), how, as. Cotne sofira, 
 as above, etc. 
 
 Comes (Lat. ko-mees), the comp.anion. The 
 "answer" in fugue. A name given to the 
 subject when it answers in another voice. 
 
 Comic Moil^i^!'*! songs with ludicrous words. 
 
 Comettant. Oscar (kom-met-tan), a French 
 composer, pianist and musical critic on Le 
 Si'i'c/e. B. 1819. C. is an easy and humorous 
 writer and a great traveler. Author of a few 
 piano pieces and several books on musical or 
 semi-musical subjects. 
 
 Comma, a minute interval, represented by the 
 ratio 8o-8r. Thus, e.g., if E be tuned four 
 perfect fifths above 8-foot C, it will be exactly 
 a comma sharper than the same E tuned two 
 octaves and a major third above the same C. 
 
 Common Time, or 4-4, a measure consisting 
 of four units, each written a quarter note. 
 Primary accent on "one ;"' secondary accent 
 on " three.'' 
 
 Commotio i Ital. kom-mO -dO>. Easily ; com- 
 fortably. 
 
 <'ommnnion JSlervice, a set of anthems for 
 I'. K. church service. 
 
 Complementery Interval, that which 
 
 added to any interval completes the octave. 
 Inversion, is the change from an interval to 
 its complement. Complements follow accord- 
 ing to the two rows of figures here given, the 
 sum of the names of any interval and its 
 complement being nine : 
 
 12345678 
 
 8 7 6 s 4 3 » ■ 
 
 Perfect intervals have perfect complements. 
 .\11 others go by contraries. Major, minor; 
 augmented, diminished. 
 
 Comitound Intervals, intervals greater 
 than an odavc. 
 
 ComponiKl Mtops, a name given to organ 
 stiips having several pipes to each key. See 
 Mixture. 
 
 Com|>OUllll Time, a measure composed of 
 two or more simple triple measures. 6—3X2, 
 9=3X1, 12 = 3X1. See " Rhythm '* in " .Ma- 
 son s technics.' 
 
 Composition, a musical work. The art of 
 composing music. 
 
 a aie, a aM, ii arm, e eve, 6 end, I ice, \ ill, o old, 6 odd, 6 dove, 00 moon, u lute, il but, U Fr. sound 
 
 13
 
 CON 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 COU 
 
 Con (Ital. konl, with. Coil Bl'io. with spirit. 
 
 Concert, a musical entertainment deriving its 
 name from the concert of the musicians. 
 
 Concerto (Ital. kon-tshiir -to. Ger. Concert, 
 kon-sairt). A solo piece for some instrument, 
 with orchestral accompaniment. Classical 
 concertos are written in-sonata form. 
 
 Concertante (Ital.) In style of a concerto. 
 
 Concei'tini (kon-sur-tee -nat. A portable 
 instrument of the accordeon family. Is hex- 
 agonal in shape, a key-board at each end, 
 and an e.vpaiisive bellows between the two. 
 Compass of three octaves, capable cf great 
 variety of effect. 
 
 Concerted MlliSic. music in which several 
 instruments take important parts. 
 
 Concert lleister (Ger. kon-sart mis-ter). 
 The leader of the first violins in an orchestra. 
 
 Concert Spirituelle (Gr. kon-sair spir-it- 
 
 oo-ell ). Sacred concerts. A famous institu- 
 tion in France, consisting of ''sacred" con- 
 certs on Sunday evenings in the opera house. 
 From 1725 to 1791. 
 
 Concert Pitch, the pitch usual at concerts — 
 slightly higher than the ordinary pitch. See 
 "diapason."' 
 
 Concone. Guiseppe (gwe-sep'-pe kon-ko -ne), 
 a well-known Ital'an composer of songs and 
 e.xercises ; best known by these and his duets. 
 Born at Turin, 1810. D, 1861. 
 
 Concord, see consonance. 
 
 Condnctor. director of a concert. It is the 
 conductor's duty to study the score, correct 
 the parts and see that they are clearly 
 marked, beat time for the orchestra and cho- 
 rus at rehearsal and performance, and gen- 
 erally be responsible for the due interpretation 
 of the composer's intentions. 
 
 Consecutive Fifths, parallel progression 
 of two voices at the interval of a fifth. Uni- 
 versally forbidden, e.xcept an imperfect fifth 
 following a perfect. 
 
 Consecutive Octaves, parallel motion of 
 
 two voices at the interval of an octave. Ad- 
 missible when intended for strengthening a 
 melodic phrase. The doublings which occur 
 in the performance of a full score are unob- 
 jectionable if the four-part harmony is pure. 
 
 Consequent, the more or less exact imitation 
 of an antecedent. The second or concluding 
 section in a period. (See Lessons .\, xi and 
 xii.) 
 
 Con Sordini (Ital.kon sor-dee -nee). With 
 mutes. See Sordino. 
 
 Conservatory, an institution for preserving 
 and fostering musical culture. The principal 
 conservatories in Europe are those at Leipsic, 
 Stuttgart, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Paris, 
 Berlin, etc. 
 
 Consonance, the agreeable relation of 
 sounds. Consonance depends on the fre- 
 quency of coincident vibrations in the conso- 
 nant tones. The most perfect consonances 
 are the octave 2-1, the fifth 3-2, the fourth 
 4-3, the maj. thii'd 5-4, the minor third 6-5, 
 ete. 
 
 Contra Bass, the double bass, the largest of 
 the violin family. Also the name of a 16 ft. 
 crgan stop of metal pipes. 
 
 Contra I>ance, country dance. An English 
 dance, in 2-4 or 6-8 time, consisting uni- 
 formly of eight measure phrases. Derives 
 Its name from the dancers being arranged 
 over against one another (centre^ . A series 
 of five or six contredances form a Qijadrille. 
 
 Contra FagOtt (Ger.) The double bassoon. 
 
 Contralto (Ital.) The lowest female voice, 
 distinguished by depth and fullness of Ihe 
 chest registers. The head register is com- 
 monly difficult of use. 
 
 Contrary Motion, a contrapuntal term sig- 
 nifying the movement of two voices in oppo- 
 site directions, up and down. 
 
 Cor, orCornO (Ital. kor -no). A horn. 
 
 Cor Anglais (Fr. kor an-gla). English horn, 
 a tenor oboe. It has a wailing and melancholy 
 tone. 
 
 Corda (Ital. kor-dal, a string, or chord, l^na 
 Cord a, one string ; i. <?., with the soft pedal. 
 
 Corelli. Arcangelo (ar-kan-gel-o kor-ell'ee), 
 an Italian violinist and composer, born 1653, 
 died 1713. Author of many pleasing and 
 melodic pieces for violin and string quar- 
 tettes. 
 
 Cornet, a brass instrument of the sax-horn 
 family, with three valves. Also an organ 
 stop of the '■ mixture" family, which see. 
 
 Coi'O (Ital. kO -ro). A chorus. 
 
 COSi Fan Tutti (kO -see fan tootee). An 
 
 opera buffa in two acts, libretto by Da Ponte, 
 
 music by Mozart. 1790. 
 
 Costa, Sir Michael (mik- ell kos -la\ the cele- 
 brated English conductor, born at Naples in 
 tSio. The composer of a number of operas. 
 Costa became director of the Italian opera in 
 London in 1S33. Author of two oratorios, 
 " Eli " and " Naaman,'' etc., etc. 
 
 Cotillon (Fr. ko-til -yon). A country dance. 
 
 Cottage Piano, an upright piano-forte. 
 
 Counterpoint, the " art of combining melo- 
 dies," or of composing one or more independ- 
 ent melodies capable of serving as accom- 
 paniment to a given subject called the cantt)s 
 yerjinis. See Lesson v. Double counterpoint 
 is one which may be inverted in the cctave, 
 tenth, twelfth, etc , without giving rise to 
 faulty progressions. The interval of the in- 
 version gives the name to the counterpoint, as 
 "of the octave," " of the icth," " the 12th,'' 
 etc. The best practical tieatises on C. are 
 tho.se of Ritcher, Lobe, and Dr. Bridges. 
 
 Counter SUh.ject, the principal counterpoint 
 to the "subject' in fugue. Each voice on 
 completing the subject takes up the counter- 
 subject, while the answering voice takes the 
 subject (or answer). 
 
 Couperin, Frangois, called " Le Grande," a 
 French composer of clavecin music, who exer- 
 cised important influence on his successors. 
 166S-1733. 
 
 Coupler, a mechanical device for connecting 
 the keys of two key-boards on an organ so 
 that they may be played as one. The usual 
 couplers are "swell to great," "choir to 
 great" (played from "great "^, "swell to 
 choir'' (played from "choir''>, "swell," 
 "great," and "choir to pedals" (played 
 from pedals). There are also super-octave 
 and sub-octave couplers acting on another 
 octave of the attached key-board. 
 
 a ale, a add, a. arm, e eve, e end, i ice, K ill, o old, 6 odd, 6 dove, 00 moon, u lute, u but, u Fr. souna 
 
 14
 
 cou 
 
 DICTION A liV. 
 
 DAI. 
 
 <"OHraiite (Fr. koor-ant , from cotirir.to run). 
 A dance of French origin in 3-2 time, quick 
 movement. 
 
 2. The Italian courante is more rapid, in 
 running passages allegro or allegro assal in 
 3-8 or 3-4 time. The second movement in a 
 sziiie, 
 
 Coveiit <iiai*<lcn Tlioater. in London, 
 
 opened Dec. 7, 1732. Several time; burnt 
 and rc-built. One of the two principal opera 
 houses in London. 
 
 Coweu, Frederic Hymen, born at Jamaica Jan. 
 29, 1852. Author of several operas and many 
 popular songs. Lives in London. 
 
 Co.v ami Box, a musical farce by Sir \. Sul- 
 
 livaji. 
 
 Covered Fifthw. an implied parallelism by 
 fifths, produced by the progression of two 
 voices to a perfect lifth by similar motion. 
 
 Craeovieiine (Fr. krak-o -vee-yan). The 
 national dance of the Polish prasantry around 
 Cracow. It has a rather sad melody in 2-4 
 time, and is accompanied by singing. 
 
 Cramer, J. B. (krii'-mer), one of the principal 
 
 founders of the modern piano-forte school, 
 born at Mannheim Feb. 24, 1771. Lived 
 mainly in London. Died in 1858. A prolific 
 composer of sonatas, concertos, etc. Known 
 now mainly by his famous *' studies,'' though 
 these are losing ground. 
 
 Crjinier. Henri, a talented composer of light 
 pieces, operatic potpourris, etc., for the piano- 
 forte. Born 1818. Has resided chiefly at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maine and Paris. 
 
 Creation, The, an oratorio by Haydn. Pro- 
 duced 1798. .'^n extremely elegant and 
 melodious work, but neither "sacred" nor 
 " sublime." 
 
 CrertO (Lat. kre'-do), " I believe." The creed. 
 One of the movements in a mass. 
 
 Cremona, a town in Lombardy famous for its 
 violin-makers, the Aniati, which see ; also 
 Stradivari and Guarnerius. 
 
 2. Sometimes applied to an organ stop as a 
 corruption of " krum horn." 
 
 Crescendo (Ital. kres-shen'- do). Increasing 
 (/. t; , in loudness). Indicated by Cres, or 
 
 Cristof'ori (kris-to'-fo-ree), a harpsichord 
 maker at Padua, the inventor of the piano- 
 forte. B. 1651, d. 1731. 
 
 Croft, William, Mus.Doc, an Knglish composer 
 and organist of the Chapel Royal. 1677-1727. 
 Buried in Westminster Abbey. Distinguished 
 for his anthems. 
 
 Crooks, short pieces of tubing for insertion 
 between the mouthpiece aiul body of a born, 
 to lower the pitch by lengthening the tube. 
 
 Croisez. Pierre (pee-fir' krois-sa ), a French 
 composer of parlor pieces, lessons, etc. B. 
 
 1S14. 
 
 Croteh, William, Mus. Doc, English com- 
 poser, principally of church music and occa- 
 sional " odes." Also of an oratorio, " Pales- 
 tine." 1775-1847. 
 
 Croteliet, old English name of the quarter 
 
 note. 
 Cro>vn Diamonds, opera of .Auber, 1841. 
 
 Criiveili. Jeanne, a celebrated dramatic so- 
 prano, who>e debut took place at Venice 1847. 
 
 Crwtll (krooih). A Welsh instrument of the 
 viclin family, 22'/, inches long. \o% to 9 inches 
 wide, and 2 inches high. Vcr)- ancient. Played 
 
 as late as iSoo. 
 
 CsardaN (tschiir'-das). A national dance of 
 Hungary, in two movements, an andante an<l 
 allegro. Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsodies are 
 founded on old csdrdiis. 
 
 Cnrselinian. Karl F., bom at Berlin. June 21, 
 1805. Died 1841. A popular song-writer. 
 
 Curwen, Rev. John, the R'eat educator and 
 apostle of the Tonic Sol-Ka method of sing- 
 ing. Was Ijorn at Heckmondwikc in Vork- 
 shire, Nov. 14, 1816. He was educated lor 
 the ministry, but in 1844 his attention w.is 
 attracted by Sliss Glover s school at Norwich, 
 and he set about claboiating the system of the 
 Tonic Sol-Fa (which secj. Its success was 
 wonderful, and in 1862 he established the 
 T. S.-F. College for the education of tcai hers. 
 Mr. Curwen's labors had the eflTect of intio- 
 ducing hundreds of thousands of singers in 
 England to the oratorios and cantatas f if .Men- 
 delssohn, Handel and Bach, who otherwise 
 would never have known them. He was es- 
 sentially an organizer and teacher. Died May 
 30, 1880, in London. 
 
 4'zar nnd Xiniinerman. Czar and Carpen- 
 ter, iipLra nf 1, .rtzing, founded on the story 
 of Peter the Gieat. 1S54. 
 
 Cymbals, a Turkish instrument of percussion, 
 con^>iing of two thin circular metal plates. 
 
 Cyelie Form.S. such as the suite, sonata, can- 
 tata, etc. See Lessons xvi and xxvi. 
 
 Cytlier, see Zither. 
 
 I'ieerny, Karl (tchiir'-nT), an excellent piano- 
 forte teacher and composer at Vienna. 1791- 
 1857. Among his pupils wire Beiilioven's 
 nephew and Franz Liszt. He was modest and 
 simple in his manner of life, and gentle in 
 manners. C. composed an immense .imount, 
 little of which has artistic vilue. His once 
 famous "studies'' are rapidly falling into 
 disuse. They do not prepare for the roman- 
 tic school of piano-forte music, nor even for 
 Beethoven. 
 
 D, key of, consistsof the tones D, E, F sharp, G, 
 A, B, C sharp, D. 
 
 I>a (Ital. dii, also compounded with the article 
 lidl^ iinll(i), from, from the, through, etc. Da 
 Capo, from the beginning. 
 
 I>a <'a|>o al Fine (dii kii'-po iil fr-'-ni'i, 
 
 from the beginning, ending at the word /'7ft<'. 
 
 Daetyl idak-ill). .\ poetic foot (— ■-' - ). 
 Ex. : Brightest and | best of the | sons of the 
 
 I morning ^-' | . 
 
 Daetj lion (dak-tll'-Ion*. An apparatus de- 
 signed fjr strengthenii g tile fingers in piano 
 praijtice, invented by Henri Hertz, but now 
 disused. It consisted of a wooden bar paral- 
 lel with the keys, and from this were sus- 
 pend, by elastic bands, rings tlimuyh which 
 the fingers were pasvcd, so that in pressing the 
 keys increased force had to be employed in 
 order to overcome the pull of the clastic cords. 
 
 Dal Setcno (Ital. dal san -y<"i> 
 sign ; /. 1-., return to the sign 
 as far as the word Fine 
 
 Fr^m the 
 ;n ^^ and repeat 
 
 a aie^ a add^ ii anity e e-ie, 5 end, i ice, I ///, o old, o odd. <"> ,i,':'r. 
 
 00 Ulih'll. U
 
 DAM 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 DIA 
 
 Dame Blanche, La (diim bliinshi. The White 
 Lady. Opera coinique lu 3 acts by Boieldieu, 
 the hbretto by Scribe, founded on Scott's 
 " Monastery." 1825. Played the loooth time 
 Dec. 16, 1862. 
 
 OaillI>. to extinguish a vibration by pressing 
 upon the string. 
 
 i>aiHl>er!S. cushions of felt resting on the 
 strings of the piano-forte in order to prevent 
 vibration. When a key is pres-ed the corre- 
 sponding damper rises ; when the key returns 
 to its place the damper falls on the string and 
 extinguishes the tone. 
 
 I>ailiper Pedal, or simply Pedal or Ped., a 
 mechanisdi in the piano-torte, commonly but 
 improperly known as " loud pedal," which 
 raises all the dampers at once, thus allowing 
 the vibrations of the strings to continue until 
 gradually extinguished by the resistance of 
 the particles. 
 
 Daiiee lllisie, music to dance by, or to sug- 
 gest dancing. All musical forms, except reci- 
 tative, had their origin in dances or songs. 
 
 Oaiinreiltlier, Edward fdiin-roit'-er), born 
 at Strassbourg Nov. 4, 1S44. When 5 years 
 
 » old moved to Cincinnati, O. Began his studies 
 under Dr. F. L. Ritter, and continued them 
 brilliantly at Leipsic, where he held all the 
 scholarships. Settled in London in '64, where 
 he '■ holds a high position as piano-forte 
 player, teacher, litterateur, lecturer, and a 
 strong supporter of progress in music." D. 
 translated Wagner's " Music of the Future." 
 
 I>avl(l, Felicien (da-veed), one of the most 
 prominent French composers. Born at Ca- 
 denet in 1810. Died Aug. 29, 1876. David 
 was laborious rather than gitted. His most 
 successful work was his "Desert" 1844, an 
 " ode-symphony," a descriptive piece in three 
 parts, partly vocal and partly instrumental. 
 His other ereatest works are '" Lalla Rookh " 
 and a popular comic opera, "La Perle du 
 Brasil" 1851. 
 
 David. Ferdinand, the celebrated violin teacher 
 at Leipsic. Was born Jan. 19, iSio, and died 
 1S75. D. was a great friend of Mendelssohn, 
 and was by him appointed concertmeister of 
 the G"wandhaus orchestra in 1836, a position 
 he held until his death. As a teacher David 
 was strict but inspiring. Among his pupils 
 are nearly all the prominent violinists of the 
 present day, foremost of them, of course, be- 
 ing Joachim and Wilhelmj. As a virtuoso he 
 was one of the most solid, and as a leader he 
 had the rare quality of holding together and 
 animating the orchestra. D. edited with ad- 
 ditional marks of expression and traditional 
 nuances almost the entire classical reper- 
 tory for the violin (Edition Peters). " He 
 was particularly fond of intellectual pursuits, 
 was eminently well-read, full of manifold 
 knowledge and experience." 
 
 Davidde l*eilitante. II, a cantata for three 
 solo voices, chorus and orchestra, by Mozart, 
 1785. 
 
 Davidsbtieildler (da'-vids bind-!er). An 
 imaginary association of Schumann and his 
 friends, banded together against pedantry, 
 " old-fogyism '' and stupidity in music. 
 
 Day. Alfred, M. D., author of an imf)ortant 
 theory of Harmony, proposing considerable 
 changes in its terminology, some of which 
 have since been accepted. London. i8ro- 
 1849. 
 
 De (Fr. du), or d'. of. 
 
 Deborah, an oratorio of Handel's. 1733. No 
 less than 14 of its airs and choruses are trans- 
 ferred Irom other works of Handel. 
 
 Debutant (Fr. dii-bU-tahn). One who makes 
 a first appearance. 
 
 Debut ( Fr. da -bu). A first appearance. 
 
 J>eeani (Lat. da-ka -nee). Used in antiphons 
 to designate the singers on the Dean's side 
 of the choir, which in a cathedral is the south 
 side. 
 
 Deciso or Decisaniente (Ital. de-see' so 
 or de-see -sa-men -te). Determined ; decided. 
 
 Deelaniandu (Ital. dek-la-man -do). In 
 declamatory style. 
 
 Declamation, the delivery of text with suit- 
 able emphasis and intelligence. 
 
 DecrescendO (.Ital. da-kre-shiin -do). De- 
 creasing; with gradually diminishing force. 
 
 Degrees, of the Staff, eleven in number, 
 viz.: the five lines andsi.x appiriaining spaces. 
 
 Degrees in llnsic, are two. Bachelor and 
 Doctor. The former is conferred only on ex- 
 amination and proof of fitness. (See Bache- 
 lor.) Doctor is also conferred on examination 
 at Oxford and Cambridge, but in this country 
 as an honorary distinction. 
 
 Delln. Siegfried Wilhelm (diin), a teacher of 
 harmony, musical writer, and editrr of many 
 of Bach's works. Born at Altona 1796. Died 
 at Berlin 1858. 
 
 DeliberatO (dii-lee -ba-ra'-to\ Deliberately. 
 
 Delioux. Charles (del'-I-ooj. A French pian- 
 ist and composer. 
 
 Delicato or Con delicatezza (del-i-ka - 
 
 to or del-i-ka-ted -za). Delicately, or with 
 delicacy. 
 
 Demi-senii-quaver. a thirty-second note. 
 
 l>e|)I)C, Ludwig (lood'-vig dep -pe), a distin- 
 guished conductor and teacher of music, and 
 especially of the piano-forte, concerning which 
 he holds many new theories, or, as his ene- 
 mies think them, "' hobbies." Born Nov. 7, 
 1828. 
 
 Des (Ger.) D flat. 
 
 Destra (Ital.), right. Mano destra, the 
 
 right hand. 
 
 Dettingen Te Denm (det'-tn-gen\ writ- 
 ten by Handel to celebrate the victory at 
 Dettingen, 1743. 
 
 Dens llisei'Catnr, " God be merciful unto 
 us," Psalm Ixvii. 
 
 Deux Journees. Les, comedy lyric in 3 acts. 
 Music by Cherubini. 1800. Known in Ger- 
 many as " Der Wassertrager," and in English 
 " The Water-Carrier." Beethoven thought 
 the book of this opera the best in e.xistence. 
 
 Devrient. Eduard Phillip, a distinguished 
 baritone-singer and musician, and a particu- 
 lar friend of Mendelssohn. Born at Berlin 
 1801. 
 
 Devil's Opera, in two acts. Music by G. A. 
 Macfarren. 183S. 
 
 Diabelli. Anton (dee'-a-bel-li), head of the 
 firm Diabelli & Co., music publishers in 
 Vienna, and composer of piano-forte and 
 church music. Born at Salzburg Sep. 6, 1781. 
 Died 1S58. 
 
 a iiUy a at£d, a nnii^ § eve, e end, 1 ice, 1 ii/, o old, 6 odd, o dove, 00 moon, w lute, u but, U Fr. sound 
 
 16
 
 DIA 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 DUL 
 
 I>iaiiiaiits <le la <'oiivoiiii«>. Les, "The 
 Crown Diamonds,"' comic opera in 3 acls. 
 Words by Scribe, music by Auber. 1841. 
 
 DiapaMOU (di-ii-pa'-son). Originally meant 
 throngh an octave. In French it means 
 "standard of pitch.'' In English, the name 
 of the most important stop in an organ. (See 
 Organ.) 
 
 I>iat<>ni(*. "through the tones," /. c, through 
 tlie tones proper to the key without employ- 
 ing chromatics. Applied to scales and to 
 melodies and harmonies. 
 
 l>ibclill. Charles, an English actor, singer, and 
 prolilic composer of popular stage pieces, 
 among which are some 60 operas, etc. 1745- 
 
 18:4. 
 
 Diotioiiariesii of Music. The best are the 
 large Oerman Conzu-rsations - Lexicon of 
 Mendel (11 vols.); ^' Biographic U^tiverselle 
 des Musiciens,"' by J. L. Fetis (8 vols. 8 vo.), 
 and Grove's "Dictionary of Musicians'' (a 
 vols, large 8 vo., Macmillan & Co., 1879-80), 
 to which the present summary is largely in- 
 debted. 
 
 Wipsis. a very small i'lterval, about an eighth 
 of a tone. Its ratio is 125-12S. It occurs be- 
 tween two tones, one of which is tuned a per- 
 fect octave to a given bass, and the other 
 three perfe ,t major thirds above the same bass- 
 Dies Ira? (de az e-iii). " Day of Wrath," 
 a celebrated old Latin hymn, which is the sec- 
 ond number in the Mass for the Dead. 
 
 Dilettante (Ital. deel-a-tant -a, from licii- 
 tare, to love). One who feels an especial in- 
 terest in an art without making it his principal 
 business. Also used in an unfavorable sense, 
 of one vi\\o prt'tends to a considerable knowl- 
 edge of dn art which he ha.s never learned. 
 
 Diniinislied Intervals, those derived from 
 
 minor or perfect intervals by chromaiic dim- 
 inution ; e. g.^ perfect lifih, C G ; diminished 
 fifth, CG^. 
 Diminution, a term used in counterpoint to 
 denote the repetition of a subject in notes of 
 less value, as halves by quarters, etc. 
 
 l>iniinuen<lo (Ital. dim-in-oo-an'-do). Di- 
 minishing in power. 
 
 Dinorah (dee -no-r!i). The Italian title of 
 Meyerbeer's opera, otherwise known as " Le 
 Pardon de Ploermel,'" in 3 acts. 1859. 
 
 Direct, a jnark formerly used at the end of a 
 
 page in music to warn the player of the first 
 note over the leaf. 
 
 Direct iflotion. motion of pans in harmony 
 in similar direction. 
 
 l>is (Ger.) D sharp. 
 
 I>iscailt, originally the counterpoint sung with 
 a plain song. Thence the upper voice in part 
 music. In earlier English, air. 
 
 Discor«l, the inharmonious relation of sounds. 
 I), depends on the want of common measure 
 between the two sets of vibr.ilions producing 
 the discord. D. and dissonance are often 
 used as synonymous, but not properly. The 
 latter is a discord properly introduced and re- 
 solved. 
 
 Dissonance, a discord. A combination of 
 notes which on sounding together produce 
 beats. (See Discord.) 
 
 l>iNSOluto I'unitO. II Ossia il Don Giovan- 
 ni. I- nil title of Mo/art's famous opera now 
 known by the last part of its name. See Don 
 Giovanni. 
 
 Dittersdorf, Karl Dirtcrs von, a distin- 
 guished violinist and- prolific composer of 
 operas, popular i:i their day, and an intimate 
 friend of GlUck and Haydn. IJorn at Vienna, 
 
 1739. Died 1799. 
 
 Divertimento (Ital. dee-var-tee-miin'-to). 
 Divcrtisement. A name given by Mozart to 
 22 suits of pieces, ranging from 4 to 10 move- 
 ments each, for strings, wind and strings, and 
 various chamber combinations. 
 
 Divertissement (Fr.) The same as the pre- 
 ceding. Applied to a kind of short ballet; 
 also to potpcHirris. 
 
 Divise (Fr. de-vec -sii). Divided. Used in 
 scores where the 1st violins or soprani are di- 
 vided into an upper and lower part. 
 
 D Major, a key containing the tones D, E, F 
 sh.irp, G, A, B, C sharp, D. 
 
 I> Minor, a key containing the tones D, E, F, 
 G, A. Viby C sharp, D. The relative minor of 
 F major. 
 
 Do (do). The syllable applied to the first tone 
 of the scale in sol-faing. 
 
 Doctor of niusic. the highest honorary de- 
 gree in music. The candidate at O.xford or 
 Cambridge must pass an e.Yamination ia Har- 
 mony, Eight-part Counterpoint, canon and 
 imitation in eight-parts. Fugue, Form, In- 
 strumentation, Musical Histor)-, a critical 
 knowledge of the scores of the standard works 
 of the great composers, and so much of the 
 science of Acoustics as relates lo the theory 
 of Harmony. An " Exercise" is lequired in 
 advance, which may be sacred or secular, in 
 good eight-part fugal counterpoint, with^nc- 
 companiments for full orchestra, of such length 
 as to occupy from 40 to 60 minutes in perform- 
 ance. After passing the previous examination 
 the candidate must have his composition pub- 
 licly performed with orchestra and chorus in 
 Oxford or Cambridge at his own e.xpense, and 
 deposit the MS full score in the library of the 
 Music School. The fees amount to about C10. 
 
 Dolller. Theodor (duh-ler), of a Jewish fami- 
 ly, born at Naples 1814. Died at Florence 
 1S56. An accomplished pianist and composer 
 of salon music. 
 
 P>OiSte (Fr. doig -ta, cfoigter, to finger*. 
 Fingered ; /. e , the proper finger-application 
 marked. 
 
 Du'rin^;. Karl Heinrich vdt'j -ring), an eminent 
 composer and pianist of the present time. 
 Born 1S34 at Dresden. D. is author of pieces 
 in various departments ; piano pieces, masses, 
 songs, and articles about music. 
 
 Dolby, see Sainton-Dolby. 
 
 Dolce (It.il. di")! -cheV Sweetly. Alsothcname 
 of an extremely soft 8 ft. string-toned organ 
 ston. 
 
 DolcissimO(Ital.dril-checs'-I-m<j). Superla- 
 tive of the preceding. 
 
 Dolente (Ital. dO-ISn'-tS, also doUntatiifiite, 
 
 iii>/fiitissiwo, con dolorr^ con duolo, all 01 
 which mean substantially the same thing'. 
 In a plaintive, sorrowful style ; with sadness. 
 
 Doioroso(Ital. do-lor-o -so). Grievingly. 
 
 il ah, a add^ a arm, e C7>e, 5 end, I ice. \ ill, old, odd, dove, 00 moon, u lute, u but, U Fr. sound 
 
 17
 
 DOM 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 DRO 
 
 Doni Choir (dom). The cho'r of the dom or 
 cathedral church. The three celebrated evan- 
 gelical choirs of this name in Germany, are 
 those of Berlin, Hanover and Schwerin. 
 
 l>Oniiliant (dom-in-ant). Ruler. The name 
 now given to the fifth tone of the key, count- 
 ing upwards from the tonic. The U. is the 
 key next in importance after that of the tonic, 
 and is the one into which modulation is first 
 made. 
 
 DoiUMlO Hfoir, Le (dom'-in-o nwar). The 
 Black Domino. Opera coinique in 3 acts. 
 Words by Scribe. Music by Auber. 1837. 
 
 Donizetti, Gaetano (ga-ta -n5 don-T-zef-ti), 
 one of the most distinguished Italian com- 
 posers of light operas. Born at Bergamo 1798. 
 Died 1848. D. was a composer highly gifted 
 with melody and with sparkling sentiment, as 
 well as with a certain amount of dramatic 
 ability. His success was early and decided, 
 and lasted all his life. His principal operas 
 were "Anna Bolena " 1831, " Elisir d' Amor " 
 1829. "■ Lucrezia Borgia" 1834, "Lucia di 
 Lammermoor " 183=;, " Belisario " 1836, " Po- 
 liuto" 1838, " La Fille du Regiment," 1840, 
 " La Favorita'' 1842, " Linda de Chamounix' 
 1842, " Don Pasquale '' 1843. 
 
 Don Carlos, i. Opera seria in 3 acts, by 
 • Costa, 1844. 
 
 2. Grand opera in 5 acts, by Verdi, 1S67. 
 
 Don Giovanni (don jo-van'-ee, in German, 
 "Don Juan"). Opera buffa in 2 acts by 
 Mozart. Produce 1 at Prague Oct. 29, 1787. 
 (The overture written the night before.) 
 
 Don Pasquale (pas-kwal-a). Opera buffa 
 in 3 acts, by Donizetti, 1843. 
 
 Don Quixote (ke-ho'-ta). Comic opera in 
 2 acts, by G. A. Macfarren, 1846. 
 
 Donna del Liago, La (la -go). The Lady 
 of the Lake. Opera in 2 acts. Music by Ros- 
 sini, iSig. 
 
 Doppel Sehlag (Ger.) A Turn, which see. 
 
 DOppiO (Ital.) Double; e. g.^ doppio movi- 
 inento^ at double the movement — twice as 
 fast ; doppio pedale^ with pedals doubled. 
 
 Doppel Flote (Ger. dop'-pelfl(it-a). Double 
 flute. An organ stop composed of wooden 
 stopped pipes with two mouths. 
 
 Doric mode, or l>orian, a church mode 
 from D to D in naturals. Many old German 
 chords are written in this key, as " Vater 
 unser," " Wir glauben all," etc. 
 
 Dorn. Heinrich (Ludwig Edmund), a musician 
 of the present in Germany. Born at Kijnigs- 
 berg, Prussia, Nov. 18, 1804. Dorn is one of 
 the first conductors of his day, a melodious 
 con>poser of operas (10 in nuniber), many 
 symphonies, overtures, piano-forte pieces, etc. 
 
 Dot, a point placed after a note to indicate that 
 its length is to be increased one half. A sec- 
 ond dot adds half as much as the first. 
 
 Double Dot, two dots after a note, adding 
 three-fourths to its value. 
 
 Double Bar, two lines, or one heavy liiie, 
 across the staff to indicate the end of a strain, 
 or of hue of text in church music. 'I'he 
 double bar does not properly have any refer- 
 ence to measure. 
 
 Double (Fr.) A turn. Also an old name for 
 variation. 
 
 Double Bass, the violon, the largest of the 
 violin family. 
 
 Double Chorus, a chorus for two choirs and 
 eight-parts ; as, e. g.^ in Handel's " 1-racl in 
 Egypt." 
 
 Double Concerto, a concerto for two in- 
 struments at once. 
 
 Double Flat, hh, two flats before the same 
 note, representing a depression equ^l to two 
 Semi-tones, Mbb being the same on the piano 
 as A natural. 
 
 Doullle Fugue, a fugue on two different 
 subjects which are afterwards combined and 
 worked together. 
 
 Double Mouthed, an organ pipe liaving two 
 mouths, in front and rear. 
 
 Double Tonguing, a method of articulating 
 applicable to flutes and cornets. Effective in 
 staccato passages, but requires long practice. 
 
 Double Sharp, .r, a character representing 
 a chromatic elevation equal to two semi-tones. 
 
 Dowland, John, Mus. Bac.,an English com- 
 poser and musician, author of many books of 
 songs and airs. 1562-1626. 
 
 Down Beat, the downward motion of the 
 hand in beating time, marking the beginning 
 of the measure. 
 
 I>rag;onetti, Domenico (do-men -ee-ko drag- 
 on-net-tee), one of the greatest known per- 
 formers upon the double bass. Born at Venice 
 in 1755. A friend of Haydn, Beethoven, 
 Sechter, the theorist, etc. D., at the age of 
 90, headed the double basses at the Beethoven 
 lestival at Bonn, in 1845. Died in London, 
 1846. 
 
 I>rania, a play for the stage. 
 
 DraiUUiatico (It.) In dramatic style ; i.e.^ 
 with forcible and effective expression. 
 
 Drei (Ger. drii. Three. 
 
 Dressel, Otto (dra -sel), a refined and elegant 
 pianist and highly cultivated and poetical 
 musician, born at Andernach-on-the-Rhine 
 in 1826. He made his higher studies with 
 Fr. Hiller in Cologne, and Mendelssohn at 
 Leipsic. Came to Boston 1852, where he has 
 ever since resided, and where his influence 
 has been highly im.portant. Has composed 
 much piano-forte music, as well as songs, 
 chamber quartettes, etc. 
 
 Dreyschock, Alexander (dri'-shok), born at 
 Zachi, in Bohemia, Oct. 15, i8i8. Died in 
 Venice 1869. Dreyschock was an extremely 
 correct and remarkably brilliant virtuoso 
 pianist. He traveled throughout Europe, 
 giving concerts with great success, for about 
 twenty years, after which he settled at 
 Prague as a teacher. Among his American 
 pupils were Nathan Richardson (about five 
 years), and Wm. Mason (one year). 
 
 Droit (Fr. drwiit). Right. Main droite^ right 
 hand. 
 
 Drone, the name given to the three lowest 
 pipes of the bag-pipe, which sound continu- 
 ally while the instrument is being played. 
 They usually give two octaves of the key-note 
 D, and the fifth A. 
 
 Drouet, Louis F. P. (droo-a), one of the most 
 
 famous flute-players and composers for the 
 flute. Born at Amsterdam 1792. Died 1873. 
 
 a. ale^ a add, ii arm, e eve, e end, \ ice, i ///, o old, odd, o dove, 00 moon, \\ lute, u but, ii Fr. sound 
 
 18
 
 Dur 
 
 DICTKJ.NAllV. 
 
 SG3I 
 
 I>ruill. Drums are of several kinds ; (i ) a sinele 
 skui on a frame or vessel open at bottom as 
 the lambounne, Kgyptian drum. etc. • (21 a 
 single skin on a closed vessel, as Kettledrum • 
 (3) two skins, one at each end of a cylinder 
 as the side-drum, snare-drum, etc. ' 
 
 » String, the third open string on the violins, 
 the seconii on tenors, violoncellos, and three- 
 stringed double basses, and fourth on the 
 guitar. 
 
 I>uet (du-et'). A piece of music for two ,>cr- 
 
 lormers. 
 
 l>HettO (Ital. du-et'-to). A duet. 
 
 I>uettillo (Ital. du-et-ee'-no). A little duet. 
 
 J>UloiiUia (dul-si-un -a). An organ stop of a 
 sweet, stnng-like quality of tone. In the 
 great or choir organ for accompanying solos 
 in the swell. •■ ■> b 
 
 DuIoillliT, a trapeze-shaped instrument of 
 about three feet in greatest width, strung with 
 tine brass or iron wires, from three to five wires 
 to each note. Its compass was 3K octaves, 
 and It was played by means of small hammers 
 held one in each hand. The D. is the proto- 
 type ol the piano-forte. 
 
 Duiekon. Madame Louise (dul'-ken), a great 
 piano-forte player, sisterof Ferdinand David 
 bornat Hambur-, March 20, 181 1. Waspupil 
 of Grund. Married in 1828, and removed to 
 London where she resided the rest of her 
 life. She was "an executive pianist of the 
 hrst order, with remarkable brilliancy of 
 hnger, an intelligent and accomplished wo- 
 man, and a very successful teacher.' Queen 
 Victoria was one of her pupils. Died April 
 12, 1850. 
 
 Dllleken, Ferdinand, son cf the preceding, 
 born at London about 1837. Taken by .Men- 
 delssohn 10 Leipsic at an early age, where he 
 W4s educated under the immediate super- 
 vision of Mendelssohn and his uncle, Fer. 
 David. Dulcken is a go jd pianist, a superior 
 accompanist, a good conductor, and a remark- 
 ably talented composer and arranger. 
 
 I>llO (Ital. du -o). Two, hence a duet. 
 
 I>llO ('OlHMTtailte (kon-tsher-tan'-te). A 
 duo in which each part is alternately princi- 
 p.il and subordinate. 
 
 Dlipoiit. Auguste (dQ-pont ), a prominent Bel- 
 gian piano virtuoso and composer. Horn 1828. 
 Since 1853 professor of piano in the Hrussels 
 Conservatorium. Author of string quartettes, 
 piano trios and sonatas, Etudes, salon piece-;' 
 etc. "' 
 
 Dupre«, Gilbert (du-pril'), a famous tenor in . 
 Paris, 1825-1849, and prjfessor of singing at 
 the Conservatoire, 1842-1850. Born 1806. 
 
 Uurcllfiioliriiiig (Ger. durk - fee - rung). 
 Carrying out, or elaboration of motives, bee 
 Lesson xv. 
 
 I>ur (Ger. dur). Hard. German name of the 
 
 m.-ijor mode. 
 
 I>U!«iSek, J. L., one of the most renowned 
 pianists and composers of the latter part of 
 the 18th century. Born at Czaslaii 1761. Died 
 1812. Author of many elegant pieces for the 
 piano. 
 
 I>HX (Lat. dfiks). The subject in fugue. 
 Dtlvei'lKty. Charles, a French composer and 
 elementary teacher in the Conservatoire. B 
 
 1820. 
 
 I>uv«'rnoy, J. B., a well known music teacher 
 and piuno composer in I'aris. author of many 
 studies, an elementary school, etc. 
 
 Dyk«^H, Rev. John B., .Mus. Doc. (diks , 1823- 
 1876. Author of several services and hymn 
 tunes. Vicar of St. Oswald, Durham, ling. 
 
 I>%viglit. John S., one of the most cultivated 
 and in (act for many years the leading musi- 
 cal critic of America, was born in 1820 
 Graduated at Harvard. Was one of the mem- 
 bers of the " Brook Farm " community, and 
 in 1852 founded U\i,yourna/ 0/ Music'u\ Bos- 
 ton which he still edits, and which has been 
 perhaps the most powerful sint;le agent in 
 awak^-ning a love of music in this country. 
 Mr Dwight IS a highly cultivated gentleman, 
 and was educated for the pulpit ; has also 
 evinced the possession of decided poetic 
 ability. 
 
 I>ynailli<>. relating to force, or power. The 
 dynamic degrees range from pp., the softest 
 possible, to ff., or as loud as possible. 
 
 K (Ital. lit, or, before a vowel, Ed, and. Also the 
 name of a pitch, which see. 
 
 Ear for MiiMi«-. the ability to recognize and 
 remember modulated successions ot sound. 
 
 Eberl, Anton (u'-berl), a distinguished piinist 
 and composer, contemporaneous with Bee- 
 thoven, and friend of GlUck and .Mozart 
 born at Vienna 1766. D. 1807. Author of 
 operas, symphonies, sonatas, etc., all more or 
 less successful in their day, but now forgotten. 
 
 Echo, the reflected repetition of a sound. 
 
 Echo Organ, an obsolete contrivance for 
 securing soft effects in organ-playing. The 
 pipes of one manual were enclosed in a box, 
 thus giving a soft and distant effect. The 
 addition of moveable shades or shutters, giv- 
 ing the power of crescendo or decre.scendo, 
 produced the swcU organ. 
 
 Eckert. Karl (6k'-ert), violinist, pianist, com- 
 poser and conduc.or. Born at Potsdam 1820 
 Studied with Mendelssohn. Composed an 
 oratorio, "Judith" 1841. In '51 .accompanied 
 Sontag in her tour through this country. At 
 present head director at Berlin, in which ca- 
 pacity he is distinguished. 
 
 Eclat (Fr. A-klii). A burst of applause. Ex- 
 pressions of approbation. 
 
 Eclogue u'k-log). A poem or song of a simple 
 or pastoral nature. An idyl. 
 
 Ecole (Fr. Pk-kol). School. 
 
 Eccos^aise (Fr. ek-kas-saz'). In the Scotch 
 style. A dance oiigiiially in 3-2 or 2-4 time 
 accompanied by the bag-pipe. In modern 
 form it is a species of coiitredance in quick 
 2-4 time. 
 
 Eddy. Hiram Clarence, an eminent organ vir- 
 tuoso and musician, head of the Hershey 
 School of .Music, in Chicago. Born 1851 in 
 Greenfield, Mass. Pupil of Dudley Buck and 
 later of Haupl, of Berlin. .Mr. K. has per- 
 formed the unprecedented feat of looconsecu- 
 tive programmes of organ music, without 
 repetitions. 
 
 E dur (Ger.) The key of E m.ij. 
 
 Kgmont. Beethoven's music to Gcethe's trag- 
 edy of that name. .An overture, 2 sop. songs, 
 4 entr'acts, Clara's death a melodram, and a 
 finale— 10 numbers in all, op. 84. 1809. 
 
 a aie, a cidd^ a «>;«, e eve, 6 end, i ice, I ///, o old, 6 
 
 '9 
 
 odd, o dove, 00 moon, u lute, fl but, U Fr. sound
 
 EGG 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 ENH 
 
 Eggliaril. Julius, pseudonym of Gount Julius 
 von Hordegan, a talented virtuoso pianist and 
 composer of parlor pieces for the piano. B. 
 1834 at Vienna. Pupil of Czerny. Died 1867. 
 
 Eguale (Ital. a-gwii'-le). Equal; even; alike. 
 
 £gualllient (Ital. a-guiil-man -te). Equally, 
 evenly. 
 
 Elllert, Louis (a'-lert), pianist and composer, 
 but cbiefly known as a cultivated critic and 
 writer upon music. His " Letters upon Mu- 
 sic "' (1859, translated by F. R. Ritter, and 
 re-printed by Ditson, 1870) contain notices of 
 the chief musicians and their works, and pic- 
 turesque observations upon them. Also com- 
 poser of symphonies, etc. B. 1825. 
 
 Elll'lioll. Heinrich (hln'-rlk ar'-llk), a distin- 
 guished pianist, teacher and wiiter, born 1824. 
 Since about 1858 he was the first teacher of 
 piano in Stern's Conservatory in Berlin. As 
 a player, is distinguished for his Beethoven in- 
 terpretations. Is also the author of several 
 successful novels of a semi-musical character. 
 
 Eichberg, Julius (ikh'-barg), a distinguished 
 violin virtuoso and teacher, head of the Bos- 
 ton Musical Conservatory (1867), and for 
 many years principal of musical instruction 
 in the Boston public schools. E. is author of 
 two operas, " I'he Doctor of Alcantara" and 
 " Rose of Tyrol," both of which are often 
 given ; but is most celebrated for his success 
 as a teacher of the violin, in which he is one 
 of the greatest. Born 1828 in Diisseldorf. 
 
 EiSenllOfer, Franz X. (is'-sen-ho'-fSr),_ a 
 German song->vriter, 1783-185S. Is most dis- 
 tinguished for his songs for male voices and 
 cantatas for the same, of which he generally 
 wrote the words himself. 
 
 Eiiie Feste Blirge (ine f es'-te burg). "A 
 sure defense," Luther's version of Ps. xlvi. 
 Hymn written 1530. Tune probably 1538. 
 The form now in use is that giveix. by Bach 
 in several cantatas. 
 
 Eisfelrt. Theodore, for many years one of the 
 leading musicians in New York. Born 1816 
 in Wolfenbiittel. Came to New York in 1848. 
 
 Eisteddfod (Welsh, es-tet'-e-vodV " Sitting 
 of learned men." Musical and literary festi- 
 vals held by the \Vel>h in all parts of the 
 world ; originated in the triennial festivals of 
 the Welsh bards in 1078. 
 
 Elegante (Fr. el-a-gan'-te). Elegantly, taste- 
 fully. 
 
 Elegy (Ital. clegia, Fr. elegie). A poem of sad 
 and touching character, generally commemo- 
 rative of some lamented decease. A piece 
 of music in similar vein. 
 
 Elevation, a voluntary suitable for use at the 
 
 elevation of the Host. 
 
 Elevatezza (Ital. el-6-va-tad'-za). Elevation, 
 sublimity. 
 
 Elijah, an oratorio by Mendelssohn, first pro- 
 duced at the Birmingham Festival, Aug. 26, 
 1846. 
 
 Elisa, oil ie Voyage an Mont Bernard, opera 
 in 2 acts. Music by Cherubini. 1794. 
 
 Elisir d' Amorc (a-lee-ser _dam-or'-e). 
 ■' The Elixir of Love," opera in 2 acts by 
 Donizetti. 1829, 
 
 Ella, John, an English violinist, founder of 
 the " Musical Winter Evenings," and origina- 
 tor of " analytical programmes." Author of 
 a memoir of Meyerbeer, and " Musical 
 Sketches." B. 1802. 
 
 Elson. Louis C, born at Boston, Mass., 184S, 
 of German parents. Studied with Karl Glogg- 
 ner, Castelli, Kreissmann, and others. Is a 
 successful teacher of piano and singing at 
 Boston, a musical critic, poet and litterateur. 
 
 Elvey. Sir George J., Mus. Doc, born 1816. 
 A composer of church music in England. 
 
 Emboiicliure (Fr. iim'-boo-shur). The part 
 of a musical instrument applied to the mouth. 
 Hence used to denote the disposition of the 
 lips, tongue, etc., in producing a tone. 
 
 Emerson. L. O., a well known teacher of 
 music, conductor of conventions, and author 
 of 35 successful books of pisalmody, chorus 
 collections, anthem books, a method for voice, 
 for organ, etc. Born at Parsonsfield, Me., 
 Aug. 3, i£2o. 
 
 E Moll (Ger.) The key of E minor. 
 
 Emperor Concerto, a title gratuitously be- 
 stowed on Beethoven's concerto in E flat, op. 
 73. 1S09. 
 
 Emperor's I^ymn, music by Haydn, also 
 used as theme for variations in his quartette, 
 op. 76, No. 3. 
 
 Enipfiudung (Ger. emp-fin'-doong). Sensa- 
 tion. 
 
 Encke. Heinrich (enk -e). A talented pianist, 
 arranger and composer, pupil of Hummel. 
 B. i8n. Died at Leipsic, 1859. 
 
 Encore (Fr. ong-kor). Again; used for de- 
 iTianding repetitions in concerts. 
 
 Engedi (en-ga-dee). See " Mount of Olives." 
 Energia (Ital. en-erd-jee-a) Energy. 
 Energico (Ital. en-ar -jee-ko). With energy. 
 Engel, David H. (eng-gel), organ virtuoso and 
 composer in Germany. B. 1816. 
 
 Engel, Gustav, a distinguished teacher of sing- 
 ing in Berlin. B. 1823. E.is also a writer of 
 musical works and on philosophical subjects. 
 
 Engel, J. Karl, musical condiicter and composer 
 in Berlin, and composer of dances, matches, 
 etc. B. 1821. 
 
 English Opera. Opera by English com- 
 posers. Or, (2) opera in English. 
 
 English Horn, the tenor oboe in F. 
 
 English Dances, contredances, ballads, 
 hornpipes, etc. 
 
 English Horn, a species of oboe a fourth or 
 fifth lower than the common oboe. See Cor 
 A iigiais. 
 
 English Fingering, called also American 
 fingering, see Fingering. 
 
 Enharmonic (en'-har-mon -ic). Therelation 
 of pitch between tones having different names 
 but sounding alike on tempered instruments ; 
 C sharp and D flat, F flat and E, etc. 
 
 Enharmonic Organ (or "perfectly tuned"). 
 An organ invented by RIessrs. Alley & Poole, 
 of Newburyport, Mass., about 1848, so con- 
 structed as to play in perfect tune in all keys. 
 It contained 48 tones to the octave. Is des- 
 cribed in Silliman's A mericau 'Journal about 
 1850. Was practicable in plain music. 
 
 a aCe^ a add^ a «r;«, § eve^ 6 etid^ i ice^ l zV/, o old, 6 odd^ 6 dove, 00 iHOon^ u lutc^ u but, u Fr. sound
 
 ENH 
 
 DICTIONARY 
 
 EXT 
 
 £llliai-|llOllio Sosile, the name of an im- 
 aginary, or at least undetermined, scale em- 
 ploying enharmonic inttrvals. 
 
 KlllKll'lllOilic Modulation, a change of 
 IvL-y involving an enharmonic change of chords. 
 
 Ell!»4>nil>l<' (Fr. on-sam -bl). Together; the 
 
 whole. The total effect of the combined 
 forces. 
 
 Entree (Fr. ohn-tra ). The entrance ; introduc- 
 tion. 
 
 Entfiielirunjs; aus dem Serail (ent-fee- 
 rung ous dem siir-Il ). A comic operetta in 
 3 acts by Mozart. 1782. 
 
 £l'ai'd, a famous family of piano and harp- 
 mikers in Paris, established 1777, when Se- 
 bistian Erard mads the first piano-forte ever 
 made in France. 
 
 Eolian, see jEolian. 
 
 Epic, an extended poem on a heroic subject. 
 
 £piMOde, a digression. A part of a piece not 
 
 founded on the principal subject or theme. 
 Epodo, an after-song. A burden or refrain. 
 El'ben, Henry, an eminent organ-builder in 
 
 New York. Established about 1835. Died 
 
 in 1878. 
 
 Erdniansdoerfor, Max, a talented director 
 and composer in Germany, born 1848. 
 
 Erk, Lud wis; Christian (iirk), a musical director 
 author of school songs, etc., in Kerlin. A 
 prolific writer. ' B. 18-7. 
 
 Erkol. Franz, a distinguished Hungarian com- 
 poser of the present time. B. 1810. Author 
 of several operas, etc. 
 
 El*nani (ar-na'-nee). Italian opera in 4 acts by 
 Verdi, founded on Victor Hugo's " Ernani." 
 1844. 
 
 Ernst, Henry William, celebrated violin player 
 and composer of pieces for the violin. Born 
 at Briinn, 1814. D. 1865. 
 
 Eroioa. The sinfonia eroica is the 3d of Bee- 
 thoven's symphonies, op. 55. 1804. 
 
 Eroico (Ital. ar-o'-I-ko). Heroic. 
 
 El!»(Ger.) E flat. Es inoll. E flat minor. 
 
 Escildier (es-koo'-dee-il) brothers, Marie and 
 Leon, French critics of music in " La France 
 Musicale." 1819 and 1821. 
 
 ESClllIiann. J. K., talented composer for the 
 piano, highly esteemed by Schumann, Born 
 1825. Is a piano teacher in Zurich. 
 
 Eslava, Miguel Hilario, one of the most dis- 
 tiiiguised Spanish composers and musicians 
 of the present time, was born in 1807. Was 
 composer ofoperas, church music, etc. D. 1878 
 
 Espirantio (Ital. es-plr-an'-do). Used in the 
 same sense as pcrjenjosi^ dying away ; /. f ., 
 gradually softer and slower. 
 
 Espi'essivo (Ital. es-pres-ce'-vO). Expres- 
 sively. 
 
 Esser. Heinrich (es'-er), a well known German 
 composer of popular songs, born 1818. In 
 1847 was director of the Royal Opera in 
 ^'ienna. Died 1872. 
 
 Ei^St'otial, the necessary or indispensable. In 
 harmony the essential tones are those belong- 
 ing to the chord, one of each. The doubles 
 or repetitions of these, and the auxiliary notes 
 are not an essential part of the harmony, al- 
 though they may be to the effect. 
 
 E.tther. Handel's first oratorio, 1730. a. Can- 
 tata by \\m. B. Bradbury, words by C. .M. 
 Cady. 
 
 Estorliazy. a distinguished musical family, 
 living partly in N'icnna and partly in Hun- 
 gary, who for very many years kept up a com- 
 plete orchestra. (Jf this Haydn was director 
 ft>r about 33 years. This and the supjxjrt of 
 his private opera cost the prince, in 1790, 40, 
 000 florins I $20,000). 
 
 Et Inoarnatus (Lat. Tn-kar-nlt -tus), "and 
 was born.'' A part of the Credo, in the Mass. 
 
 Etolle dii Xord. L', "The Star of the 
 North." grand opera ir. 3 acts. .MuaIC by 
 Meyerbeer. 1S54. 
 
 Et Resurre.xit, " and rose again." Part of 
 the Credo. 
 
 Etnde (Fr. a-tude). Study. Etudes are of 
 several kinds: (ii .Mechanical, such as those 
 of Czerney, Kiihlcr, Kalkbrenner, Herz, etc. 
 (2) Mechanical and arti-itic, as when a new 
 method of practice is proposed to facilit.ite 
 certain artistic effects. Such are the Clement! 
 Gradus (best in Tausig's arrangement) for 
 the classical school; the Chopin studies and 
 Liszt's studies in transcendent execution, for 
 the new school. (3) Studies in musical effect, 
 such .as: B.ich's "Clavier" and Kunst dcr 
 Fugue; Heller's Art of Phrasing ; Schu- 
 mann's etudes symphoniqiies, and studies 
 founded on Paganini s caprices. (4 I Studies 
 for elementary instruction, among the best of 
 which are those of Locschhorn, op. 66, for 
 forming the execution. 
 
 Etwas lancNanier (Ger. et'-vas liing -sa- 
 
 nier). A litile slower. • 
 
 Eulor. Leonhard (oil-er), a great mathematician 
 and acoustician, one of the first who investi- 
 gated the scientific principles of vibrations in 
 tones. Born at Basel, 1707. D. 1783. 
 
 Euphony, sweet sound. 
 
 Eupliouiniu. a brass instrument, the B flat 
 bass sax-horn. Usually furnished with 4 or 
 5 valves. 
 
 Elir.vailtlie 1 yoo'-rl-iin -thr', Ger. pronuncia- 
 tion oi'-ry-an-the). The 6th of Weber's 7 
 operas. 1823. 
 
 Evers, Carl, a pianist and composer residing in 
 Vienna. B. 1819. .\uthor of sonatas, fugues, 
 fantasias, etc. 
 
 Extempore Playing, the art of working 
 up a subject without premeditation. In this 
 art the old masters. Bach, Handel, Beetho- 
 ven, .Mendelssohn, etc., were very proficient. 
 It depends on natural musical feeling, and a 
 mastery of the art of musical expression by 
 means of much practice in wilting. The ex- 
 tempore playing of uninstructed players is 
 generally egregious nonsense, and ought not 
 to be tolerated in church or society. .Among 
 American musicians the most distinguished 
 for ability in extempore performance, are 
 I'lidU-y Buck .ind Wm. Mason. 
 
 ExpresMion. the utterance of feeling. 
 
 Extravaicanza (Ital. ex-lruv-.'J gUnt -zii). A 
 cadence or (;rnament in bad ta-te. .V work of 
 art ill which the acccpted'lawsarc caricatured 
 or violated for a purpose. 
 
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 21
 
 EYK 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 FES 
 
 Eyken, John A. van (I'-ken), a distinguished 
 Dutch virtuoso organist, and a very talented 
 composer. Born 1823. Died at Elberfield 
 1868. Author of many compositions, among 
 the best of which are his organ sonatas. 
 
 Extreme Keys, an old term implying those 
 keys having many sharps or flats, as B, F 
 sharp, D6, C^, etc. 
 
 F, the fourth of the key of C. In French, Fa. 
 The name of an absolute pitch. See table of 
 pitches in appendix. F holes are the holes in 
 the belly of the violin. 
 
 Fabl'i, Annebale Pio, a famous tenor of the 
 i8th century, who was also a fine musician. 
 Born at Bologna 1697. Died in Lisbon 1760. 
 
 Faeilita (Ital. fa-sil'-i-tii, or Fr. Faciliie)^ 
 made easy. An easy arrangement of a pas- 
 sage. 
 
 FackletailZ (or Marcke au Flavtbeaitx), a 
 torch-light procession. The music, for mili- 
 tary band, is in 3-4 time, polonaise rhythm. 
 Meyerbeer has written four. 
 
 FagOtt (Ital. Fagotto), German name for the 
 bassoon. 
 
 Fair Rosanioncl, a grand opera in 4 acts. 
 Music by John Barnett, 1837. Also a name 
 applied to a melody of Schubert's, on which 
 he has composed variations in his Impromptu 
 in B flat, op. 142. 
 
 FaiSSt, Immanuel (fist), a distinguished Ger- 
 man organ virtuoso, theorist and compos'-r. 
 Born 1823 in Esslingen. F. founded a school 
 of organists in Stuttgart in 1847, ^'^^ busied 
 himself with organizing a conservatory there, 
 which he accomplishei in 1857, and was made 
 director of it in 1859. Best known as a musi- 
 cal educator. 
 
 Fa-la, an old English refrain. Also applied as 
 a name to pieces ending with it. 
 
 False, in music, signifies incorrect. 
 
 False KelatiOIl (or Cross relation) is the 
 occurrence of a chromatic contradiction be- 
 tween two voices in composition ; as when 
 one sings C, and the other immediately follows 
 it with C sharp. The false relation is cor- 
 rected when the C sharp is given to the voice 
 that had C. 
 
 Falsetto (Ital. fal-set-to). The head register 
 of the voice, especially in men, where it has 
 a feminine quality. 
 
 FalstafF, a comic Italian opera in 2 acts, by 
 Balfe. 1838. 
 
 FantlangO, an Andalusian dance accompanied 
 by the guitar and castanets. Originally in 
 6-8 time, slow tempo, mostly in the minor. 
 Later in 3-4 time, written with six 8ths to the 
 meaAire, the second being divided into trip- 
 let of i6ths. 
 
 Fanfare (fan -fart. A short, lively and loud 
 piece of music for trumpets and kettledrums, 
 u'=ed on state occasions to announce the 
 entrance of important dignitaries. 
 
 Faniska (fan-is'-ka). Cherubini's 21st opera, 
 in 3 acts. 1806. 
 
 Fantasia (Ital. fan-tii'-zl-a, Ger. Fantasie, 
 f an'-ta-zee), a fantasy. A composition fol- 
 lowing no regular form. 
 
 Fantasiestueck (Ger. fan-ta-zee -steek). 
 Fantasy piece, a name adopted by Schu- 
 mann to characterise various pieces, for piano 
 alone and with other inr.truments. 
 
 Fantastic© (Ital. f an-tas-tee-ko, Fr. Fantas- 
 tigue, fan-tas-teek ). Fantastic. In an irregii- 
 lar and capricious manner. 
 
 Fa.rce {/arcio, related to the 'La.tm yarcire, to 
 stuff). A play stuffed full of fun. 
 
 Farandola (Ital. far-an-do-la, Fr. Faran- 
 doiilt\ far-an dool). A peasant's dance in 
 the south of France and adjacent parts of 
 Italy. 
 
 Farinelli. Carlo Broschi (far-in-el'-lee), a 
 celebrated male soprano, one of the most 
 beautiful voices ever he'ard. Born at Naples, 
 1705. D. 1782. F. was a good musician, an 
 incomparable artist, and an intelligent and 
 highly esteemed man. 
 
 Fasch. Carl (fash), founder of the Singakad- 
 emie at Berlin. 1736-1800. 
 
 FascliinKSSChAvank (fash- ings - swank). 
 Carnival-pranks, the name of Schumann's 
 op. 26, for the piano-forte. 
 
 Faure, Jean Baptiste (for), the most distin- 
 guished baritone singer of the present time, 
 as well as a good musician, a fine actor and 
 a man of culture. Engaged chiefly at Paris. 
 B. 1830. 
 
 Faust (fowst). Opera in 5 acts by Gounod. 
 1859. There is also a " Faust" by Lind- 
 painter 1832, Prince Radziwill 1836, and 
 Spohr 1813. 
 
 Faust, Karl, a favorite German dance composer 
 whose works exceed 200 in number. B. 1825. 
 F. was in 1836 band-master in the 36th Inf. 
 of the Prussian army. Later in 1869 music 
 director in Waldenberg. 
 
 Faus-bourd'sn (Fr. fos boor-don). False 
 bass. A simple accompaniment once sung by 
 ear to the plain song. 
 
 Favoi'ita. La (fav-6r-ee-ta). The favorite. 
 Opera in 4 acts by Donizetti. 1842. 
 
 Favarger, Rene, a French pianist and com- 
 poser of parlor pieces. Died in Sept. 1868 in 
 Paris. 
 
 Feierlich (Ger. fi-er-likh, from Feier, a 
 feast). In festival style. Grandly. 
 
 Ferniato (Ital. far-ma-to). A pause, or hold. 
 
 FerniO (Ital. f ar'-mo). Firm. 
 
 Feroce (Ital. fa-ro -tshe)or ConFerocita, with 
 
 ferocity, ferociously. 
 Ferrara, an Italian city, for very many years 
 
 the seat of influential schools of instruction 
 
 in music, of which the oldest was founded in 
 
 1600. 
 Ferrari. Benedetto (fer-ra'-ree), an Italian 
 
 musician and composer of words and music 
 
 for a species of drama. 1597-1681. 
 Fervente (Ital far-van'te), fervently, with 
 
 warmth. 
 Fernando <"ortez, opera in 3 acts, by Spon- 
 
 tini. i8oi. 
 Fes (Ger. fes), F flat. 
 
 Fesea, Freidrich Ernst, a popular German com- 
 poser, born at iMagdeburg 1789. Produced ' 
 very many works of chamber music and songs, 
 which are melodious and beautiful, though 
 not deep. D. 1826. 
 
 Fesca, Alexander, son of the preceding, was 
 also a promising composer of chamber music, 
 songs, an opera, etc. 1820-1849. 
 
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 '.nd
 
 FET 
 
 DICTIOXAKY. 
 
 FLO 
 
 FotiM, Francois Joseph, (fa -tee), the learned, 
 laborious and prolific musical litt(5rateur, 
 audior of a " IJiographie Universelle des 
 iMusiciens" and '" Histoire general de la 
 Musique," as well as several opencs, theo- 
 retical works, and many critical essays. Horn 
 at Mons 1784. Died at Prus^els 1871. Feiis 
 was founder of " I,a Revue .Musicale'' ia 
 1827. llis Biographic is marred by many 
 errors of dates. 
 
 Festivo Utal- fes-tee -vo), festively, solemnly. 
 Festoso (Ital. fes-to -zo), joyously. 
 FiaSfO (Ital. fee-as-ko), applied to a failure 
 111 performance. 
 
 Fidelio. 0(/^?- die ehelichc Liebe (ft-da -llo) 
 " Fidelio, or Conjugal Love,'' Beethoven's 
 single opera, in 3 acts. Op. 72. 1804. 
 
 Field, John, born at Dublin, July 26, 1782. 
 Died at Moscow 1S37. One of the most 
 charming pianists of his day, a good compo- 
 ser, and deservedly celebrated as the foundar 
 of the "nocturne'' as a separate musical 
 form. 
 
 Field Music. Military music (which see). 
 
 Fierrahras (feer'-rab-ras), an opera in 3 acts 
 by Schubert. 1823. 
 
 Ficr (Fr. feer), or Fii'ro^ f It'al. fe-a-ro), proud, 
 fierce. 
 
 Fierailieilte (Ital. feer-a-men-tS), proudly, 
 fittrcely. 
 
 Fife, the smallest variety of the simple flute, 
 possessing but one key. Higlier octaves are 
 produced by over-blowing. Used in military 
 music. 
 
 Fiftlli the interval between any tone of the 
 scale and the next but three above or below 
 C G, D A, E B, etc. The perfect f^fth h.as 
 the vibrational ratio 2 : 3. 
 
 Fifteenth, the interval of two octaves. An 
 organ stop of diapason tone, 2 ft. pitch. Used 
 only in chorus effects, for brightening the 
 somewhat dull tone of the 8 ft. stops by 
 strengthening their overtones. 
 
 Figaro. (See Figaro's Hochzeit.) 
 
 Figaro's Hoelizeit. Opera in 3 acts, by 
 
 Mozart. 1786. 
 
 Figurante (Fr. f Ig -u-rant\ a ballet-dancer, 
 who takes an independent part in the piece. 
 
 Fisill'e, a motive. Any short succession of 
 notes, or group of chords, used as a model in 
 sequencing. See Lessons i, 2, and 19. 
 
 Figured Bass, a bass furnished with tho- 
 rough bass figures indicating the accompany- 
 ing chords. Used in scores as a convenience 
 to the accompanist, and an additional assis- 
 tance in correcting typographical errors. 
 Many of Handel's arias have no other written 
 accompaniment, the composer filling it out 
 from this short-hand. 
 
 Figured C'lloraU'. a harmonized choral, 
 having one or inoic of the parts contrapun- 
 tally developed and ornamented. 
 
 Fille du Regiment. La (feeldu RegimanX 
 " The Daughter of the Regiment," oper.a in 
 2 acts, by Donizetti. 1840. 
 
 Finale (Ital. fen-a -IP), the finale, the closing 
 movement. Of sonata finales see Lesson 15. 
 Opera finales consist of sever.il single pieces 
 strung together in cumulative succes^ion, until 
 a climax is reached. 
 
 Fine (Ital. (t-r-n r-i. the end. Pl.ited over a 
 b.ir indicates that the piece end^ there afier a 
 
 ./.* iU/'i>. 
 
 Fingering, the mode of applying the fingers 
 to the keys in the exccutiuii of passages. 2. 
 The mode of designating the fingers by nu- 
 meraU A mericun fingering designates the 
 thumb and four fingers by X 1 2 3 4. J-'or- 
 eigti fingering denotes the thumb by the nu- 
 meral I. I'he same scale would be marked in 
 the two ways as follows, the same fingers 
 being indicated in t>oth methods. 
 
 American. /. i 2 X 1234. 
 
 Foreign. _ i 23 1 2345. 
 Foreign fingering is gradually supersed- 
 ing the other on account of the constantly 
 increasing use of foreign copies of cla^ical 
 music, e>(>ecially the Peier?i' Edition. 
 
 Fink. Christian, a distinguished organ virtuoso 
 and composer for the organ and voice. Born 
 1831 at Dettingen, near HciJcnheim. 
 
 Fink, G. W., a German composer and poet. 
 Born 1783. In 1827 became editor of the 
 "Allgemeine Musikalisches Zeitung," in 
 Leipsic. D. 1846. 
 
 Fiorature (Ital. fee -or-Ji-turt, flowerets, 
 ornaments, arpej.'gios, shakes, turns, etc., 
 introduced by singers into airs. Also illus- 
 trated in the small-note runs, in the melodies 
 of Chopin's slow movements. 
 
 Fis (Ger. fees). F sharp. 
 
 Fischer. Karl A., a distinguished organ virtu- 
 oso of the present time, in Dresden. Born 
 1S29 at Ebersdorf. .Author of many organ 
 compositions, a sinfonie for organ and orches- 
 tra, an opera Lorely, etc. 
 
 Fitz.william :Vlusie. a collection of MS. 
 music left the University of Cambridge in 
 1816, by Viscount Fitzwilliam, containing the 
 ■Virginall-book of Queen Klizabeih, much 
 church music, afterwards published by No- 
 vello, etc. 
 
 Flageolet, the modern form of the old. straight 
 lliitc, or Jlute II bee, shaped like an oboe or 
 cl.irinet ; the tone is produced on the princi- 
 pal of a stopped pipe. 
 
 Flat, a character signifying depression of pitch. 
 
 To depress the pitch. 
 FlautO. Italian name for flute. 
 
 F^lautino (Ital. flaw-teen -6), a little fiute. A 
 light organ stop of 2 ft. pitch and flute qual- 
 ity, commonly in the "swell." 
 
 FlautO Trayerso (truv-er'-sfi), a flute, so 
 
 named in distinction from the old "Jlute a 
 bee," OT, "flute with a beak," or flageolet. 
 An organ stop, generally of wood and 4 ft. 
 tone, harmonic in quality (/./•. made to speak 
 the octave of the true pitch of its pipes by 
 over-blowingt. Sometimes of 8 ft. pitch, in 
 which case it is nearly the same as the 
 " melodia," but more brilliant. 
 
 Fliegendf^ Hollander. Dcr i rtce-grn-dP 
 
 hul-ir'n-dPri, "The Flying Dutchman." 
 opera, in 3 acts. Words and mu>ic by 
 Richard Wagner. 1843. 
 Fl0ri(>. Caryl, pseudonym of Mr. W. J. 
 Rabjohns, an organist and composer, resiu- 
 ing in New Votk. Born about 1S50. 
 
 Florid <'oiinter|toint. a counterpoint con- 
 si-.tini^ cif an .iltcrnation of all the primary 
 varieties, .is " note against note," " two 
 against one," " four ap^ainst one." and 
 "syncop.ition," in sncc:ssive me.asures. 
 
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 »3
 
 FLO 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 FUG 
 
 JPlOl'id, music in rapid figures, trilh, runs, 
 roulades, etc. Variations are the readiest ex- 
 amples of florid writing. 
 
 I'l0t0\v% Friedrich (flo'-to), a German opera 
 composer, born April 27, 1812, at Mecklen- 
 berg. Resides at present in the neighbor- 
 hood of Vienna. F. is the author of no less 
 than 14 or 15 operas, of which " Stradella,'' 
 " Martha," " L'Ombre'' have been extreme- 
 ly successful. Flntow is a pleasing melodist 
 and a genial musician. 
 
 rilifgeS (Ger. flee'-gBl), a wing. The name of 
 the grand piano-forte, suggested by its shape. 
 
 Flliegel Horn, a bmss instrument of the 
 Bugle kind, used in the German armies. The 
 F.H. now usetl is a Bb cornet with pistons 
 and a horn mouth-piece. 
 
 Flllf-woi'li. Organ pipes in which the tone is 
 generated by the wind passing through a 
 fissurt;, fluey or wind-way, and striking 
 against an edge above, all belong to the 
 Flue-work, as distinguished from the Reed- 
 work, which see. 
 
 iPlute. called also German Flute, to distinguish 
 it from t\\G flute a dcc\ a kind of flageolet. 
 Produces three octaves of tones from D below 
 the treble staff. The Boeh(n flite is an im- 
 portant improvement in the mechanism of 
 the keys, having the effect of equalizing the 
 difficulty of playing in different keys. An 
 organ stop now made in 8 ft., 4 ft. and 2 ft. 
 pitch, and of several qualities. 
 
 Flute d'AniOUr (Fr. flut dam-oor'), a flute 
 01 light and pleasing tone. Used also as 
 name for a 4ft. organ register. 
 
 Foot, a measure in prosody. 2. That part of 
 an organ pipe below the mouth. Also used 
 as part of the pitch designation, as 8 ft., the 
 normal pitch. See Pitch. 
 
 Foittana. J. (fon-ta-nal, a composer of pleas- 
 ing salon pieces for piano. 
 
 Fontaine, Henri L. S., a noted piano-forte 
 virtuoso and composer. B. i8i6 at Wisnio- 
 wiec. 
 
 Foer.Ster, Emanuel Aloys (furstert a German 
 composer of chamber music, and a thcorisr. 
 Born 1748. Died at Vienna 1823. Held in 
 high esteem by Beethoven. 
 
 Form, the organization of musical ideas into 
 phrases, sections, periods, period-groups and 
 complete forms. See Part Second. Also in 
 general, the external part of an art-work. 
 See Chap. 22. 
 
 Fovnies. Karl (for-mes), a celebrated bass 
 singer, born 1810. Came to America in 1857. 
 Led rather an irregular life. 
 
 Forte (Ital. for -t(5i, loud. 
 
 FortiSJ<iinO (Ital. for-tees-si-mo), superla- 
 tive of the preceding. As ioud as possible. 
 
 Forte- Piano in its abbreviation fp. signifies 
 a first note forti\ and all the rest piano. 
 Much used by Mozart. 
 
 Fortzando (Ital. fort-zan-do). Forcing. A 
 sudden force, emphasis or accent oa a particu- 
 lar note or chord. 
 
 Forza del I>estino, La (furd-za del des- 
 tee'-no). I'ragic opera by Verdi. 1862. 
 
 Fourth, the interval between any tone of the 
 scale and the next but two above or below. 
 The perfect fourth has the vibrational ratio 
 3:4- 
 
 Fra I>iaVOlO (fra di-iiv -o-lo). Opera in 3 
 acts by Auber. 1830. 
 
 Fradel, Charles (frii'-del), a German musician, 
 piano teacher, composer and arranger, for 
 many years resident in New York. Born 
 
 in 1S21. 
 
 Franz, Robert, the most distinguished song- 
 writer, and one of the foremost musicians of 
 the present time. ,Born June 28, 1815, at 
 Halle, HAndel's birth-place. Franz studied 
 music against his parents' wishes; when 
 his first set of 12 songs (1843) were published 
 they attracted the favorable notice of Schu- 
 mann and afterwards of Gade, Mendelssohn, 
 etc., after which he had a pleasanter time. 
 His hearing becoming affected, he was obliged 
 to relinquish (in 1868) his employment as or- 
 ganist and lecturer on music at the University 
 of Halle. Franz is the author of very many 
 songs, and of many other compositions. Be- 
 sides 'vhich, he has added missing parts to 
 several of the scores of Bach and Handel, 
 thereby rendering them available for modern 
 use. 
 
 Free Reed, a reed in which one end of the 
 
 vibrator or tongue swings entirely through 
 the opening in the metal socket at each vibra- 
 tion. Opposed to " impinging " reed, inwhich 
 the vibrator beats upon the socket. Free reeds 
 are used in accordions, flutinas, melodeons, 
 harmoniums, reed organs, and in free reed 
 organ pipes, the chief of which are the 
 "euphone" and " vox angelica." 
 
 Free Fugue, a fugue in which the rules are 
 not strictly observed. 
 
 Free Style, or simply Free Composi- 
 tion. Compositiou in which the rules of 
 part writing are not observed, and no stated 
 number of voices is maintained. 
 
 Freiscliuetz, Der (fri'-sheetz), " The Free- 
 shooter." Opera in 3 acts by Weber. 1821. 
 
 Frenell Horn. The orchestral horn, a brass 
 instrument consisting of a very long tube 
 curved into a circular fjrm, and furnished 
 with valves like a sa.x-horn. It produces a 
 beautifully clear and mellow tone, or it can be 
 blown brilliantly like the trumpet. Very 
 difficult of intonation. 
 
 Freueh Si.vtil. A name sometimes applied 
 to the sharp 6th, 4th, and 3d. 
 
 FreSCObaldi, Girolamo, the most distin- 
 guished organist of the 17th century. Born 
 at Ferrara about 1587. Was organist of .St. 
 Peters, at Rome, from i6'5. Published many 
 works for the organ and for voices, the last of 
 which appeared about 1657. 
 
 Frets, small pieces of wood or metal fixed 
 transversely on the fingerboard of the guitar 
 and lute for the purpose of marking the place 
 for applying the fingers. 
 
 Froberger. Johann Jacob, (fro -bar-ger), an 
 eminent organist, born at Halld. VVas ap- 
 pointed court organist to the Emperor Fer- 
 dinand 111., in 1635-1695. Was a pupil of 
 Fiescobaldi. 
 
 Friscll (Ger.), lively. 
 
 Froelicll (Ger. fru-llsh), joyous, gay. 
 
 FugatO (leal, fu-gii'-tol, an irregularly con- 
 structed movement in fugue style. 
 
 Fuglietta (Ital. fu-get-iai, a short, but 
 strictly composed fugue. 
 
 a aUy a, add^ a arm., e eve., e end^ i /tv, 1 ill., o old^ 6 odd., o dove, 00 moon., vl lute., u but, ii Fr. sound 
 
 24
 
 FUG 
 
 DICTI().\Ai;V. 
 
 GUY 
 
 es. 
 extending 
 
 Fugue, or Fusa (fflgi, from /iigare to fly 
 A composition developed from a single sub- 
 ject which IS taken in turn by each voice 
 answering each other according to certain 
 rules. 
 
 FuKue, l>oiible, a fugue with two subjects, 
 both of which are finally introduced together. 
 
 Full Anthem, an anthem in which there 
 are no solos, or duets, but continually chorus. 
 
 Full <;hord. a chord lacking none of its ton 
 A chord with many doubles 
 through several octaves. 
 
 Full Org-an, implies generally the use of all 
 
 the stops in the Great Organ. To this may 
 be added the principal registers of the other 
 manuals. 
 
 Full to Fifteenth, a direction for the use 
 of all the stops of tlie Gre.it Organ, except 
 the mixtures and reeds. 
 
 Full Seore, a complete score. See Score. 
 
 Fundamental Ifia^.s, a bass consi^ting of 
 the roots of the chords only. See Koot. 
 
 Funebre Fr. fu-nabr), funeral, mournful. 
 Marche funebre^ funeral march. 
 
 Fuoeo (Ital. foo-d'-ko), fire, energy, passion. 
 
 Fuoeo*i« (Ital. foo-o-ko -z6), fiery, ardent, 
 
 impetuous. 
 
 Furia (hal. foo-re-a), fury. 
 
 Furie (Fr. (ii-rC), fury, passion, rage. 
 
 Furore (Ital. foo-ro -re), fury, passion, rage. 
 
 Fuss (Ger. foos\ a foot. 
 
 Furnltlll-e. a name formerly applied to cer- 
 tain mi.\;ture stops, in the oigan. 
 
 Fux, Johann Joseph, a celebrated theorist, 
 author of the Gyadiis ad Parnassu»i,s. trea- 
 tise on composition, written in I.atm in the 
 form of a dialogue, for many years the stand- 
 ard text-book in harmony. F. was a prolific 
 composer of sonatas, masses, motets, hymns, 
 dramatic works, etc., all of which are now 
 .tntiquaied. Born at Gratz in 1660. Died at 
 Vienna, 1741. 
 
 <jr (in Itai. and French Sol'), th- fifili of the scale 
 ofC. Keynote of a scale. Name of a pitch. 
 
 <jlabriel. Virginia, pseudonym of an English 
 lady, the author of many popular songs. 
 
 Ciabu.ssi. Vincenzo (gii-boos -see), composer 
 and teacher of singing. Born at Hologna 
 1804, and educated there. He went to London 
 in 1825, where for about 1:; years he was a 
 teacher of singing. Returning to Bologna he 
 brought out his opera " Ernani," in 1840, 
 and "Clemenza do Valois," without success. 
 Died in London, 1846. 
 
 CSade, Neils (gii -di"), one of the most gifted 
 and accomplished of living composers and 
 conductors, was born Oct. 2?, 1817, at Copen- 
 hagen. Studied music early, in 1841 he was 
 "crowned" for his '■ Ossian" overtuie, and 
 went immediately to Leiosic, where he was 
 warmly received hy Mendelssohn and intro- 
 duced to the public. In 1845-6 he acted as 
 sub-conductor to Mendelssohn at Leipsic, 
 but in 1848 he returned to Copenhagen, wheie 
 he still lives. Vi. has published 7 symphonies, 
 5 overtures, scver.d cantatas, etc. His music 
 is melodious, pleasing, refined, poetic, and in 
 a style similar to Mendelssohn's. 
 
 ♦jlaertlHT. Carl, a German musician and teach- 
 er of the violin and singing. Born about 
 1830. Came to Boston in 1852, where he 
 has since resided. 
 
 Galop (gul -01, a spirited round-dance in 2-4 
 time, usually in binary form. 
 
 Ganiba, Viola da, (Ital. gamba, legi, a knee 
 violin, an obsolete si ringed instrument, re- 
 sembling the violoncello, but originally fur- 
 nished with frets like the guitar. It had 6 or 
 7 catgut strings, the lowest 3 spun with wire. 
 I uned D 1 belour the bass staffs G, C, E, A, 
 D, and (j. 
 
 Gamba, or, Viol da Ciianiba, an organ 
 stop of 8 ft. pitch and string quality of tone. 
 Generally in Great Organ. 
 
 Cjiamut, the scale. The word means ^^wwa 
 and «/, the latter the fir-ft tone of tlie scale, 
 and the former the letter which represented 
 it. Now obsolete. 
 
 Gauelie (Fr. gdzhi, left, as gauche main, left 
 hand. (From the same root as "gawky,"' 
 awkward.) 
 
 Gareia.M.-inuel (gSrts -zeeil), a Spanish teach- 
 er of singing, the original investigator into the 
 anatomy oltlie vocal organs and the physio- 
 logy of singing, and the first to u^e the 
 laryngo.scope. Born at .Madrid 1805. Came 
 to .■\merica with hi-, father, the celebrated 
 tenor, and his sister Malibran, in 1825. '" 
 1847 he was appointed teacher of singing at 
 the Paris C jnservatoire, and among his pupils 
 were Jenny Lind, Kate Hayes, etc. 
 
 Gardiner. \Vm., author of the interesting but 
 desultory book " Ihe Music ol Nature, and 
 other writings about music, was bom at Lei- 
 cester, England, 1770. Died in 1853. 
 
 Gavotte (ga-vntV a French dance, deriving 
 its name from the Gavdts in Dauphine It 
 is in common time, moderately quick, in t.ne 
 .incient binary iorm. 
 
 Gaxza liadra. JLa (g!id -za la-drii), " The 
 Thieving Magpie," a comic opera in 2 acts, 
 by Rossini. 1817. 
 
 <>edaeht (Ger. g.a-dakt ), covered. 
 
 Gedaeht-Work, all the flue pipes of an 
 or^an that are closed or covered at the top. 
 
 Ge;;enNatx (Ger. ga -g6n-sJitz, against-piecei, 
 a contrast. 
 
 Geijren Principale (Ger. gl -gPn prin -sl- 
 
 P-'' ' ffoni gi-i^eii^ a stting-toned diapason or- 
 gan stop, of 8 ft. pitch. Usually in the choir. 
 
 GemNhoril. a string-toned organ stop, gener- 
 ally of 8 ft. pitch. The name is not now 
 much used. Its pipes were metal, small scale, 
 with bells. 
 
 Gemiieiider, George, one of the most distin- 
 guished and successful violin- makers of the 
 present time. Born 1S16 in logelfingen in 
 Wurtemburg. Came to London in 1851 and 
 some ten years later to New York or Brook- 
 lyn, where he still resides. G. h.as re-disco- 
 vcreil several of the ancient processes. 
 
 Geseh wind ( Ger. ge-schvind ). Quick; rapid. 
 
 GewandhauM (Ger. gg-vflnd'-hows). The 
 name of a famous series of classical concerts, 
 given every season in Leipsic since 1723. 
 
 <iill.yH. Joseph (geez>, a distinguished Belgian 
 violinist and composer, born 1S04. Died at 
 St. Petersburg, 1848. 
 
 aa/^, ii add^ ii ariity e eve, 6 end^ 1 ice, I ///, 6 old, 6 add, o d(K>e, 00 iiioiin. u lu.'e, u /■.•//, ii F' 
 
 • . sound
 
 GIA 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 GOT 
 
 (iiiarclini. Felice de (jlar-deen -ee), an emi- 
 nent violinist, born at Turin 1716. Came to 
 London in 1750, where he made a great suc- 
 cess, and afterwards became a popular con- 
 ductor. Author of many .chamber composi- 
 tions. L). 1796. 
 
 Gibbons. Orlando, Mus. Doc, an old English 
 cathedral composer. 1583-1625. 
 
 Hiss, (Ital. jee'-ga). A jig, or lively dance in 
 triplets, either 38, 6-8, 3-4, 6-4, or 12-8. 
 
 «ig:ue(Kr.jig). A jig. 
 
 tiiiocoso (Ital. iio-l;o'-zo). Jocosely ; humor- 
 ously ; playfully. 
 Gioja (Ital. jio -yii). Joy; gladness. 
 
 Gipsy's 'Warning, The, opera in 3 acts by 
 Sir Julius Benedict. 1838. 
 
 GiuramentO. II (joor'-a-miln'-td'l, "The 
 (Jath.' D>-a/>t/uaserioby^leTC3.d3.nte. 1837. 
 
 GiUStO (Ital. joos-to), just. In equal, steady 
 time. 
 
 GlPPser. Franz (gla'-zer), composer and opera 
 director, born in Bohemia 1798, studied at 
 Prague, and in 1S17 became opera director at 
 Vienna. Here he brought out his best opera, 
 " Des Adlers Horste '' 1833. In 1842 he was 
 called to Copenhagen, where he died in 1861. 
 
 GIe<?, a piece of unaccompanied vocal music for 
 at least three voices, and for solo voices, usu- 
 ally for men. [Grove.] The word is from 
 An.-Sa-x. £'h'£'g; music, and glees are in every 
 vein of feeling. 
 
 Gloria in Kxcolsis, "■ Glory be to God on 
 High," otherwise known as the " angelical 
 hymn." Pait of all the great Christian 
 liturgies. 
 
 Glover, William Howard, an English violin 
 player, opera composer and song-writer, in. 
 the latter of which capacities he is generally 
 known. Born i8iq. Died in New York 1875. 
 
 Glnclc, Christopher Willibald Ritter (gluk), was 
 born July 2, 1714, at Weidenwang in the 
 Upper PUatinate. In 1736 went to Vienna, 
 where he was seen by Prince Melzi, who en- 
 gaged him for. his private band and took him 
 to Milan to study. His first opera, " Artaser- 
 se," was written in 1741. In 1745 he went to 
 London as composer of operas for the Hay- 
 market theatre. He made no success in Eng- 
 land, and returned to Vienna in 1746. After 
 six years of insignificant activity here, he 
 produced in 1762 his " Orfeo,'' in which he 
 entered upon the period of hi.s real maturity ; 
 in this he composed "Alceste," "Armide " 
 and "Iphigenia," the latter of which was 
 the greatest dramatic work composed up to 
 that time. Gluck brought out this wrrk in 
 Paris in 1774. In 1780 he returned to Vienna 
 where he died of apoplexy. Nov. 15, 1787. 
 Gluck'sinfluence on musical development has 
 been very great. The dramatic principles 
 which he promulgated have never been dis- 
 puted, and but little has been added. As a 
 melodist he was not unlike Mozart, but much 
 less spontaneous. 
 
 Goddard, Arabella, one of the most distin- 
 guished English lady pianists. Born 1838. 
 Studied with Kalkbrenner and Thalberg, 
 and Mr. J. \V. Davidson, Editor of the 
 London " Musical World." She made conti- 
 nental concert tours in '54 and '55. In i860 
 she was married to Mr. Davidson, Visited 
 America in 1873. Lives in London. 
 
 Godfrey, a family of English band-masters. 
 Daniel^ the well-known waltz composer, 
 took his band to the United States in 1872. 
 Born 1831. Master of 'band of the Grenadier 
 Guards since 1856. 
 
 God Save the Kins;, the English national 
 air. First sung by Henry Carey, the com- 
 poser, in 1740. 
 
 Godefroid. Felicien, a distinguished French 
 harp virtuoso, and composer for the harp 
 and piano. Born 1818, was educated at 
 the Conservatoire, and has made many bril- 
 liant concert tours. Lives independently at 
 Paris. 
 
 Gocltel. August, a noted German pianist 
 and composer. B. 1831. Studied at Leipsic 
 1845 and after. Was in America 1853-1856. 
 Author of many pleasing and elegantly writ- 
 ten works. 
 
 Goldbeck. Robert, a talented composer and 
 pianist, and a brilliant critic, litterateur and 
 teacher, now living (1880) in St. Louis. Born 
 ill 1835 at Potsdam. Studied with Henri 
 Litolff. and in 1851 went to Paris. In 1856 to 
 London, wherethrough Alexander von Hum- 
 boldt he was introduced to the Duke of Devon- 
 shire, through who.^e patronage his operetta, 
 " The Soldier's Return," was brought out at 
 Drury Lane. Came to New York 1857, «i"d 
 in 1868 to Chicago, where he lived until 1873, 
 at the head of his conservatory, and com- 
 posed many important compositions, especial- 
 ly a quintette and trio, and some much 
 admired part-songs. 
 
 Goldniark, Karl, a brilliant Austrian com- 
 poser, born in 1832 in Hungary. His first 
 compositions, a psalm, overture, etc., were 
 produced in 18^1. His best known works are 
 his " Sakuntula " overture, and selections 
 from his opera, " The Queen of Sheba." 
 
 Gollniiok, Karl G., born 1796, died 1866 at 
 Frankfurt. Was a pleasing composer lor the 
 piano, author of Several text-books in sing- 
 ing, etc., and a teacher of music. 
 
 Goldseliniidt. Otto, pianist, composer and 
 conductor, was born 1829 at Hamburg. 
 Studied at Leipsic. Married Jenny Lind in 
 1852. At present occupies a prominent place 
 in En.gland as Vice-Principal of the Royal 
 Academy of Music, and author of an oratorio, 
 "Ruth" (1867), a piano-forte concerto, 
 songs, part-songs, etc. 
 
 Golterman, George Eduard, an eminent 
 player and composer for the 'cello, born in 
 Hanover in 1825. In '78 celebrated his 25th 
 anniversary as conductor at Frankfort. 
 
 Golterman, Louis, professor of the 'cello at 
 Prague. B. 1825 in Hamburg. 
 
 Gong, a Chinese instrument, made of bronze. 
 
 GOSS, Sir John, Mus. Doc, an English com- 
 poser of melodious and well wiitten church 
 music Born 1800. Died May 10, 1880. 
 
 Gossec, Fran9ois Joseph, a French composer 
 of operas and the originator of symphonies 
 for orchestra. A very celebrated musician in 
 his day, and still held in honor in France. 
 B. 1733. D. 1829. 
 
 Gotterd{eniinerun2;(got -er-dam -er-ung). 
 
 "The Twilight or llorning of the Gods." 
 The fourth and last piece in R. Wagner's 
 " Ring des Nibelungen." 1876. 
 
 a aCCy ii add^ a arm, e eve, 5 end, 1 ice, 1 ill, o old, o odd, o dove, 00 moon, 11 lute, u btct, U Fr. sound 
 
 26
 
 GOT 
 
 DK-TIOXAKV. 
 
 f;i;i 
 
 GottMclialk. Louis AForeau, a (Ustingulshed 
 Anifiiican pianist. Born in 1829, at New 
 Orli-ans, a pupil of Ch. Halle and Chopin at 
 Paris in 1846. He made brilliant concert tours 
 through Kurope in 1S47 ; in 1853 and after 
 he played in all parts of the United States, 
 Central America and South America. He 
 died in Rio de Janeiro in 1860, where he oc- 
 cupied an important artistic position. Gotis- 
 chalk was of a semi-Spanish nature, loved the 
 passionate and effective, and as a composer 
 is genuinely melodious and original, though 
 rarely deeper very tender. 
 
 Gott»<eliaI«;, Alexander Wilhelm, a Ger- 
 man organist, arranger, and litterateur, born 
 1877, at Mechelroda, near Weimar. 
 
 (jioildiinol, Claude (goo -de-mel), a celebrated 
 trench composer and teacher. Born in the 
 early part of the i6th century, supposed to 
 have been a teacher of Palestrina. Author 
 of church music, etc. Was killed at the 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew, i5;2. 
 
 (irOunod, Chas. (goo-no), the popular com- 
 poser, was born in Paris, June 17, i8i8. His 
 mother was a distinguished pianist. G. was 
 pupil of Halevy, etc. In 18:56 he took the 
 " Pri.xde Rome." In 1852 he became con- 
 ductor at the Orpheon in Paris, but it was 
 only after a number of failures in other pro- 
 ductions that his ''Faust" in 1859 placed 
 him in the front rank of living compo- 
 sers. Gounod has resided much in England. 
 As a composer he is learned, ingenious and 
 masterly in orchestration, and his works are 
 on the whole rather sensuous and into.vicating 
 than inspiring. His songs are extremely and 
 deservedly popular. 
 
 CoOW, Neil, a Scotch composer, born in 1727. 
 DiediSo7. ' ' 
 
 G'rsibcn-IIoflrmanil. Gustav (gra -ben), a 
 German song-composer and teacher of sing- 
 ing at Dresden. Born 1820 at Bonn. 
 
 Grace Xotes, the Knglish name for orna- 
 ments in singing, or in melody in general, 
 such as appogiaturas, after-notes, etc. 2. A 
 small note. 
 
 Gradual, a short anthem sung at High Mass, 
 between the Epistle and the Gospel for the 
 day. Also used by French composers as 
 title for organ pieces. 
 
 Gradlial, The Roman, a vi'umc of Ritual 
 music, containing the plain song melodies for 
 use throughout the year. 
 
 GradiiM ad Fariia.sMuni. the title of two 
 
 eminently instructive works in musi:. i. 
 Fax's treatise on counterpoint and fugue, 
 1725. 2. dementi's 100 exercises in all styles 
 of piano-forte playing. 1784. (See Etudes.) 
 
 Grailllliar of :flllNie, the laws of musical 
 speech. Embracing Tonality, Harmony, 
 Counterpoint, Fugue, Form and Orchestra- 
 tion, or the entire art of musical composition. 
 This mass of material has never yet been 
 thoroughly systematized and .set in order. 
 
 Grand Piano, the long piano-forte, with 
 three legs, and keyboard at the large end. Its 
 merits are longer bass strings and conse- 
 quently more pervading tone, larger sounding- 
 board, more powerful action, and greater 
 carrying power of tone. 
 
 4>;rand ronoort, properly a concert in which 
 an orchestra pl.iys the accompaniment. First 
 so called in 1777. 
 
 Grand Op«>ra. opera in which all the dia- 
 logue is carried on in recitative. 
 
 4>irand Trix de Itonic. a prize offered by 
 the Paris "Acadcmie of Fine Arts." entitling 
 the successful contestant to a pension for 
 studying at Rome. 
 
 <>randiOMO (Ital. grifn-dl-o -zO). Grandly; 
 in a dignified manner. 
 
 Graun. Heinrich, born 1701, died at Berlin. 
 
 1759. .\uthor of many operas and other 
 works, chief of which are his " Te Deun. " 
 and " Der Tod Jcsu." a Passions cantata. 
 G. was a fine contrapuntist, and a good har- 
 monist. 
 
 Grave ( Ital. gr:i-ve), grave. A slow and solemn 
 movement. A low pitch. 
 
 <>ravita(ltal. grii'-vp-tai. Gravity ; majesty. 
 
 <«raxia fltal. grad'-zf'-a). Grace; elegance. 
 
 <.irazioNO (Ital. grifd-ze-o -zO). Gracefully. 
 
 Greatorex, H. W., an American author of a 
 collection of psalmody. Lived in Boston. 
 
 Greatorex. Thomas, an English composer of 
 church music, and organist (1819) of West- 
 minster .Abbey, in which he is buried. 1758- 
 
 1831. 
 
 Great Ors^an. The principal department of 
 
 the organ, embracing all the most powerful 
 stops, controlled by the hands from the key- 
 board called " Gre.it." Large churches h.id 
 formerly two or more organs ; a large one, for 
 voluntary playing, in the tower, and a soft 
 one, for accompaniment, in the chancel. This 
 is perhaps the orijjin of the term as applied 
 to the most powerful part of large organs. 
 
 Great Octave. The German name for the 
 notes between 8 ft. C and the B next above 
 (9 notes below middle C). 
 
 Greene. Maurice, Mus. Doc, an old English 
 
 composer of church music. 1696-1755. 
 
 Greensleeves. an old English ballad and 
 tune mentioned by Shakspearc (..Merry Wives, 
 ii. I ; v. 5). 
 
 Gregorian Modes, the musical scales set in 
 order by Pope Gregory the Great, A. D. 590. 
 
 GreUTOrian Tones, or tunes, the melodies or 
 Plain Son;;, for the Roman Ritual, established 
 by Ciregory the Great. (590.) 
 
 Greek lliisie. appears to have been chiefly 
 melodic. Its notation is so impirfect that 
 antiquarians entirely disagree in their in- 
 terpretations of the same melody. It is 
 literally " all Greek to us.'' 
 
 Gretry. -Andre (era-trl), was an extremely 
 prolific, popular and gifted composer of over 
 50 operas, many symphonies, etc. Born at 
 Liege 1741. Died at Paris 1813. 
 
 Griesbaell. John Henry, an English 'cellist 
 teacher, composer of an oratorio, " BcKhaz- 
 zar's Feast," overtures, operettas, etc. Bom 
 at Windsor 179S. Was 14 times director of the 
 Philharmonic Society. D. 1875. 
 
 Griea:. Edward (greeg), composer and pianist. 
 Born June 15, 1843,31 Bergen, in Norway, is 
 a pleasing and rom.intic composer of songs, 
 overtures, sonatas for piano solo and pi.ino 
 and violin, a concerto for the same and or- 
 chestra, etc. Was educated at Leipsic. Is 
 teacher and conductor at Christiana. 
 
 a ale, a add, ii arm, r , . v, r c„d, J ice, X ill, 6 eld, i, odd, o djvc, 00 moon, u lute, I'l but, U /•>. sound 
 
 27
 
 GKI 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 HAR 
 
 ■Crrisi, Guilia (jiool-ia gree -zee), one of the 
 
 most celebrated operatic singers (soprano). 
 Born at Milan, 1810, made a brilliant debut 
 in 1829, and Bellini wrote his Adalgisa in 
 "Norma" for her. From 1834 until 1861 she 
 sang in London and throughout Europe. Was 
 married to Signor Mario, the great tenor, by 
 whom she had three daughters. Died 1869. 
 
 CJrOSSVatertaJia!, " Grandfather's Dance,'' 
 a curious old German dance, theconventional 
 signal of the end of dancing in German balls. 
 
 Cil'OUp. several short notes connected by their 
 stems. A figure of tone-s, a motive. 
 
 <Srouiltl Bass, a set bass, on the repetitions 
 of which, by mean-; of variations, etc., an en- 
 tire composition is built up. An old device. 
 
 CirutZIIiacher. F. W. L. (grutz'-makh-er), a 
 
 distinguished German 'cellist, and composer 
 
 for his instrument. Born at Dresden 1832. 
 
 Lives at Dresden. 
 
 4jtuariiieri, or iiiuariierius (gwa-na -ri- 
 
 us), a family of celebrated violin-makers, 
 living in Cremona. They were: Andreas, 
 whose best work was made between 1662 and 
 1680; Peter, 1670-1717 ; Antonio, best work 
 1725-1745; Joseph del Gesu (so called from 
 the letters L H. S. on his tickets). 
 <>ilt$|;'liel!Ili, Pietro, a favorite Italian composer, 
 1727-1804. His son Pietro was also a popular 
 composer of operas, etc. 1763-1817. 
 
 'Onillauine Tell (gweel'-yom teh, " William 
 'I'ell." Opera in 4 acts. Rossini's 34th and 
 last. 1829. 
 
 Crtlllniailt. Alexander (geel-man), a' distin- 
 guished French organ virtuoso and composer, 
 son of an organist, born at Boulogne, Slarch 
 12, 1837. Organist of the church of the Trinity 
 at Paris. 
 
 CrUitar. a well known stringed instrument of 
 very, limited musical resources, but vastly 
 romantic associations. Strung with si.\ 
 strings, tuned E A D G B G. Practical only 
 for vocal accompaniment, and in very limited 
 range of harmony. 
 
 CJuilJs'l. Joseph, a favorite dance composer of, 
 the present time, born 1810 in Hungary. He 
 has a celebrated orchestra in Berlin. Visited 
 America in 1848. 
 
 Gl'IippettO (Ital. groo-pet -to). Literally " a 
 little group,'' i. e.,a. turn. 
 
 Ouida (Ital. gwee -dii). A guide or direct, an 
 obsolete mark. 
 
 B. (hii), the German name for B natural. Their 
 B is our B flat. The key having five sharps, 
 
 Habciieoli, Francoise Antoine, a French 
 violinist, conductor, and professor of the violin 
 at the Conservatoire, etc. H. was the first to 
 introduce Beethoven's symphonies in France. 
 B. 1781. Died 1849. 
 
 Haberbier. Ernst (hab'-er-beer\ a distin- 
 guished German virtuoso pianist, was born at 
 Konigsberg, Oct. =;, 1813, the son of an organ- 
 ist. Made concert tours in Europe in i850-'52, 
 and in 1866 was living as director of music at 
 Bergen in Norway. Died March, 1869. H. 
 was remarkable for his brilliant " interlocking" 
 passages. 
 
 Halevy, Jacques F. F. E. (jak hal-ev-a), a 
 Jew, whose real name was Levi. Born in 
 Paris, 1799. Studied with distinction at the 
 Conservatoire, and by 1828 became a promi- 
 nent composer of operas in Paris. His 
 greatest was " La Juive" (1835). Died 1862. 
 
 Half Beat, a name applied to the second half 
 of a time-pulse. 
 
 Half Xote. an open note with stem, formerly 
 called minim. 
 
 Half Step, the interval produced by two suc- 
 cessive keys on the piano-forte. This term 
 is indefinite, and stands for any kind of a 
 semitone, whether diatonic or chromatic. 
 Varies from 24 . 25 to 16 : 15. 
 
 Half Sllift, a position of the hand in violin 
 playing between open and first shift. 
 
 Halle. Clias. (hal-a'), the celebrated classical 
 pianist, born April 1 1, 1819, at Hagen. Stud- 
 ied with Rink at Darmstadt, and later with 
 Cherubini, Chopin, Liszt, etc., at Paris. 
 Settled in London in 1849, since which he has 
 played in public every season, and is a lead- 
 ing teacher of piano. Hall^ has played in 
 public the entire 33 sonatas of Beethoven, 
 twice in two successive seasons. 
 
 Ha^utlel, Geo. Fnedrich (hen -del). See His- 
 torical Sketches. Born 1685. Died 1759. 
 
 Hand (wuide, a mechanical contrivance affi.ved 
 to the piano-forte, designed lo facilitate the 
 acquisition of correct position and movements 
 of the hand and wrist. The least objection- 
 able is BOhrer's. 
 
 Handel and Haydn Soeiety, a cele- 
 brated vocal society of mixed voices, at Bos- 
 ton, which has been one of the most impor- 
 tant influences in the elevation of American 
 musical taste. Founded 1815. Still active. 
 
 Hamlet, Grand opera in 5 acts. By Ambroise 
 Thomas. 1868. 
 
 Hammer, that part of the piano action which 
 strikes the strings for the purpose of produc- 
 ing vibrations. Hammers are now made of 
 light wood, covered with felt made from the 
 finest wool. The felt is put on by hydraulic 
 pressure. 
 
 Hammer Clavier, the piano-forte. 
 
 Hanover Square Rooms, a celebrated 
 concert hall in London, opened in 1775, 
 variously remodelled, and finally sold for a 
 cl5b house 1875. 
 
 Hamerik, Asger (as-ger ham-er-eek), a dis- 
 tinguished Danish composer, born Apiil 8, 
 1843, at Copenhagen. Was educated in Ger- 
 many and England, and composed operas, of 
 which he wrote both words and music himself. 
 In 1872 he became Musical Director of the 
 Peabody Institute in Baltimore, Md. Several 
 of H's. compositions for orchestra have been 
 played with great favor by Theo. Thomas. 
 
 Hansliek, Eduard, a prominent pianist, and 
 a discriminating and celebrated critic and 
 writer on music in the Vienna " Freie Presse'' 
 Born Sept. 11, 1825, at Prague, was a pupil 
 of Tomaschek, and educated in law at the 
 University of Vienna, .Attracted attention 
 as a critic as early as 1S4S. In 1859 and after, 
 he has given several courses of lectures on the 
 History of Music. 
 
 Harmoniea, a musical instrument the tones 
 of which are produced by vibrations of cir- 
 cular glass plates strung on a horizontal 
 spindle, revolved by meansof a treadle. The 
 lower edges of the plates dip in, a trough of 
 water. The tones were obtained by rubbing 
 the plates with the tips of the fingers. The 
 tone was delicate and pleasant, but had little 
 artistic value. 
 
 2. This name is now given to a set of glass 
 rods or bars strung on tapes and struck by 
 hammers. 
 
 ;a ale, a add, ii arm, e eve, e end, i ice, t ill, old, 6 odd, o dove, 00 moon, u lute, u but, u Fr. sound 
 
 28
 
 IIAK 
 
 DICTIONAKY. 
 
 HAL 
 
 Harmon icM, the overtones which form part of 
 complex tones. Supposing C to be the funda- 
 mental, the harmonics would be as shown in 
 the following table : 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 T) 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 > 
 
 
 V 
 > 
 
 -n 
 
 
 C4 
 
 -c" 
 
 a 
 
 1-. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 o 
 
 *^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 b 
 
 o 
 
 U^ 
 
 o 
 
 r^ 
 
 C 
 
 9 lo 
 D E 
 
 tM w O 
 
 12345678 
 
 CCGCEGBiJC 
 
 2. The soft, flute-like tones obtained from 
 
 a vibrating string, by lightly touching it with 
 
 the finger at proper points of division. 
 
 Harmonic Flute, a flute stop in the organ, 
 
 over-blown so as to speak the octave above 
 
 its normal pitch, thus acquiring a clear and 
 
 ringing quality. Of metal or wood, the latter 
 
 called " traverse flute." 
 
 Harmonic Stops, organ stops not of the 
 foundation pitch ; such as octave, twelfth, 
 fifteenth, mixture, etc. 
 
 Harmonie Musik (Ger. har-mo-nee moo- 
 zeek ). The wind instruments in the orches- 
 tra. 
 
 Harmonic Progression, movement from 
 
 one chord to another. 
 Harmonium, a reed instrument of the ser- 
 aphine family, in which the vibrations are oc- 
 casioned by wind forced out from the bellows 
 through the reeds ; whereas in reed organs 
 the wind is sucked in through tlie reeds. In- 
 vented by Alexandre Debaui in 1840. 
 
 Harmony, the legitimate association or com- 
 bination of sounds. The theory of H. in- 
 volves the formation and permutations of 
 chords, and their proper connection and 
 movement according to the principles of ton- 
 ality. Usually acquired by much practice in 
 writing after " figured bass.'' 
 
 Harmonic Se«iuence, a sequence or suc- 
 cessive repetitions of a harmonic figure ; e.g:, 
 the chords of C G, A E, F C, etc., a sequence 
 of descending fourths. 
 
 Harmonic Figure, a determinate succession 
 of fundamentals or inversions in harmony ; 
 e. £"., let the figure be of two chords, the sec- 
 ond fundamental ascending a fourth. The 
 bass then is C F, or D G, or E A, or F m. 
 
 Harmstoil, J. W., a popular composer of 
 salon music. 
 
 Harold en Italic, the 4th of Berlioz's^ 5 
 symphonies, op. 16, i3j4. A descriptive 
 work in four movements, t. Harold at ihe 
 Mountains. 2. March of the Pilgrims and 
 Evening Prayer. 3. Serenade: 4. Orgie de 
 Brigands. 
 
 Hai'P, one of the oldest instruments, represen- 
 tations of which occur in the decorations of 
 tombs at Thebes, supposed to date from 
 about the time of Joseph. The simple harp 
 produces the tones of the diatonic scale only. 
 Double action harps aftbrd sharps and double 
 sharps by the action of pedals moving pins on 
 revolving disks in such a way as to shorten 
 the string and raise the tone. Each pedal 
 sharps all the notes of the same name through- 
 oift the compass of the instrument. This 
 action was invented by Sebastian Erard. The 
 harp is tuned to the key of Qb. 
 
 Harper, a celebrated family ot English trumpet- 
 ers, of whom the elder, 'J'/toinas,v.a.s born 1787, 
 and was the greatest trumpeter in England 
 from 1806 to his death in 1S53. His son 
 Thomas succeeded him in all his positions. 
 The elder Harper played a slide trumpet, 
 and produced a pure, brilliant, even tone. 
 
 Harpsichord, the predecessor of the grand 
 piano. Had from 4 to S>^ octaves. The 
 wires were mide to vibrate b)^ means of plec- 
 tra or quills acting on the strings by friction 
 instead of percussion, as in the piano-forte. 
 Invented as early as 1600. Gave place to the 
 piano-forte about the beginning of the pre- 
 sent century. 
 
 Hsertcl, Benno, a talented German musician, 
 and teacher of theory in Joachim's Royal 
 Academy of Music at Berlin. B. 1846. 
 
 Hartmann, Freidrich, a noted song composer 
 and director. Born 1803. 
 
 Hartmann, Johann Peter Emil, a distin- 
 guished Danish piano-forte, vocal, orchestral 
 and operatic composer, born at Copenhagen 
 1805. Lives at Copenhagen. 
 
 Harvard llusical Association, The, 
 in Boston, a society designed to promote 
 musical culture by giving classical concerts,, 
 etc., in Boston and Cambridge. Organized 
 1837, largely through the efforts of Mr. John 
 S. Dwight, who is still secretary (.1880). 
 
 Haslingcr, a distineuished firm of music pub- 
 lishers at Vienna, founded 1826. One of the 
 original publishers of Beethoven's works. 
 
 Hasse. Johann Adolph (has -se), for a third of 
 the i8th century one of the most popular dra- 
 matic composers in Europe. Born 1699 at 
 Bergedorf, Hamburg, where his father was 
 schoolmaster and organist. In 1724 became 
 pupil of Porpora at Naples, and afterwards of 
 Alessandro Scarlatti. Began his career as 
 opera composer at Naples. In 1731 he went 
 to Dresden, where he lived as kapellmeister 
 until 1760. Died in Venice 1783. He wrote 
 more than 100 operas, besides masses, canta- 
 tas, psalms, symphonies, and a host of 
 smaller works. He was a great singer and a 
 fine pianist, and had an inexhaustible flow 
 of pleasing melody. 
 
 Has.se, Faustina Bordoni, wife of the foregoing, 
 a great operatic singer, noted fir the beauty 
 of her voice, her exquisite method, pleasing 
 manners and amiability. 1700-17S3. 
 
 Uatton, John Liphot, born in Liverpool 1809, 
 is one of the foremost composers in Eng- 
 land at the present time. Has composed 
 music for several of Shakspeare's plays, an- 
 thems, part-songs, operas, and last the sacred 
 drama " Hezekiah," produced at the Crystal 
 Palace in 1877. Hatton is a fine accompanist, 
 and visited this country in that capacity in 
 1848, and again with Parepa in 1S67. 
 
 Hauk, Minnie (hawk, or howk), born in New 
 York to a German father in 18^2. Made her 
 debut as A minn in Sonnambula in 1868. 
 From 1869, she sang (or several years in Vien- 
 na, Berlin, Paris and Brussels in a large range 
 of parts. Revisited .\merica with Mapleson in 
 1879. Her voice is a mezzo soprano of great 
 force and richness. 
 
 Haupt (Ger. howpt). The head or chief. 
 
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 21)
 
 HAU 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 HER 
 
 Huupt, Karl August (howpt), one of the most 
 distinguished German organ virtuosos of the 
 present time, was born in iSio at Cunau. 
 btudied at Belflin with A. \V. Bach and Dehn, 
 and appeared in public in 1831. Has made 
 many concert tours to France and England, 
 and throughout Germany, and for many years 
 has occupied a commanding position in Berlin 
 as organist and teacher of organ and theory. 
 Among his American pupils are Prof John K. 
 Paine,' of Harvard, Mr. H. C. Eddy, of Chi- 
 cago, and Samuel P. Warren, of New York. 
 
 Hatiptmann, Moritz (howpt -man), the great 
 theorist, was born in 1792 at Dresden. Studied 
 the violin, on which he distinguished himself, 
 and was from 1812 to 1818 a violinist at Eh-es- 
 den, and again from 1822 at Kassel, where 
 also he taught theory, and had. among his 
 pupils Ferd. David, Curschmann. Norbert 
 Burgmiiller, Kiel, etc. In 1842 he became 
 cantor of the St. Thomas school and church, 
 in Leipsic, and teacher in the Conservatory, 
 where he maintained his rank as one of the 
 greatest theorists of his time. Died 1868. 
 He was a fine composer of songs, motettes 
 and church works. He laid great stress upon 
 two aesthetic requirements, unity of idea and 
 symmetry of form. 
 
 Haiiptwerk. (Ger. howpt'-vark). The Great 
 
 Organ. 
 Hautbois (Fr. ho-bwa). The oboe. 
 Hautboy (Eng.) The oboe. 
 
 JHawkillH, Sir John, born 1719, was educated 
 for a lawyer, but being fond of music wrote 
 words for cantatas, etc., and finally his 
 General History of the Science and Practice 
 of Music, in 5 vols., 1776. This has been re- 
 printed by the Novellos. H. was one of the 
 e.\ecutors of Dr. Johnson's will. Died 1789, 
 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Haydn* Francis Joseph (hl'-dn), father of the 
 string quartette and symphony, was born near 
 Vienna 1732. Died 1809. See Historical 
 Sketches, p. 157. 
 
 Haydn, Michael, younger brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was a fine musician, and a successful 
 composer, although his fam.e has been too 
 much over-shadowed by his greater brother. 
 Born 1737. Died 1806. 
 
 Hayes, Catherine, a very popular Irish soprano, 
 born in 182;. Died 1861. 
 
 Head Voice, the falsetto register, which in 
 men has more or less the quality of the 
 female voice, and in women a flute-like qual- 
 ity. 
 
 H dlir (Ger. ha dur) the key of B major. 
 
 Hebrides, The. One of the names of Mendels- 
 sohn's concert overture in B min. op. 26, 
 Called in Germany " Fingals Hohle," and 
 " Die einsame Insel." 1831 or 1832. 
 
 Heftig (Ger. hef tig), vehement, boisterous. 
 
 Heiter (Ger. hi -ter), serene, bright. 
 
 Heiss (Ger. his), hot, ardent. 
 
 Heinikebr aus der Frenide, German 
 name of Mendelssohn's operetta, " The Son 
 and Stranger." 
 
 Heller, Stephen, the universally known and 
 elegant composer of etudes and salon pieces 
 for piano, is an accomplished pianist. He was 
 born May 15, 1815, at Pesth. Since 1838 he 
 
 has resided in Paris, rarely playins in public, 
 but highly esteemed as teacher and composer. 
 His studies op. 45, 46 and 47, as well as the 
 older set op. 16, have been in universal use 
 among piano students, and for elegance and 
 refinement of diction they are not equalled by 
 other works of similar difficulty. They are, 
 however, open to the pedagogic objection of 
 being extremely unprogressive, easy and 
 difficult ones strangely alternating. 
 
 Helmesberger, Joseph, a member of a dis- 
 tinguished musical family in Vienna, was 
 born in 1828, appointed violin professor and 
 director of the Conservatory at the early age 
 of 24. In i860 he was appointed first violin 
 at the Imperial opera, etc. He leads quartette 
 parties every season. His playing is noted 
 for grace, poetic quality, refinement, and 
 brilliancy. 
 
 Helniholtz, Hermann L. F., the celebrated 
 investigator of sound, and the physiology of 
 music, was born at Potsdam, 1821. Is pro- 
 fessor in the Berlin University. His great 
 work, " Tone Sensations," is now translated 
 into English. 
 
 Helniore, Rev. Thomas, an English clergy- 
 man, author of several works in church mu- 
 sic devoted mainly to the restoration of the 
 Plain Song. B. 1811. Educated at Oxford. 
 
 HenkeS, 
 
 a prolific composer of organ 
 
 and church pieces, was' born at Fulda, 1780. 
 D. i8si. His son, Geo. Andreas.v,s.i born 
 1805, and was also a prolific composer. D. 1871. A 
 younger brother, Heinrich^ b. 1822, is a dis- 
 tinguished organist, and in 1844 was elected 
 organist of St. Eustache, in Paris. Lives at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maine. 
 
 Henscliel, George, born Feb. 18, 1850, was 
 first a pianist, but at present the leading bari- 
 tone singer in England. Is also a prolific and 
 talented composer. 
 
 Hensel, Fanny Cecile, an elder sister of Men- 
 delssohn, was born 1805. Was a fine player 
 and a good musician. Died 1847. 
 
 Henselt, Adolph, one of the most distin- 
 guished virtuoso pianists of the present day, 
 but so nervous that he rarely plays in public, 
 was born May 12, 1814, in Bavaria, and since 
 1838 resident in St. Petersburg. H. was a 
 pupil of Hummel, but is distinctly a virtuoso 
 of the modern school. H. is a fine musician, 
 and a very successful teacher. As a composer 
 he has decided originality and poetic value, 
 though perhaps not such as will rank him 
 permanently with the highest. His piano- 
 forte concerto is regarded as one of the most 
 difficult ever written. 
 
 Heptachord, a .scale or system of seven 
 sounds. 
 
 Herculaneum, opera in 4 acts, by Felic. 
 
 David, 1S59. 
 
 Hercules, a musical drama or 'oratorio, by 
 
 Handel, 1744. 
 
 Herold, Louis Joseph Ferdinand, one of the 
 most gifted of the French opera composers, 
 was born at Paris 1791, the son of a pianist. 
 His earliest success was in 1813, but he com- 
 posed a large number of operas before he 
 achieved a cosmopolitan success in " Zampa" 
 in 1831. H. died young, just at the maturity 
 of his powers, in 1833, .aged 42. 
 
 a ale^ a add^ a arm, e eve, e end, i ice, 1 ///, o old, 6 odd, 6 dove, 00 moon, u lute, vl but, u Fr. sound 
 
 30
 
 HER 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 II OF 
 
 Herrilliilin, Gottfried, a many-sided German 
 musician and composer, born 1808 at Sonder- 
 hausen, educated by his father, a violoncelist, 
 and afterwards with Spohr, Aloys Schmitt, 
 etc. Since 1839 he has occupied a very hi.^h 
 position as conductor, opera composer, and 
 teacher of singing, not only at Sonderhausen 
 and LUbeck, but in many festivals, etc. 
 
 Hers^cliel. Frederick William (Sir William 
 Hersjhel), the great astrononier, was born at 
 Hanover in 173S, and at the age of 14 was 
 placed ill the orchestra as oboeist. He came 
 to England with the regiment about 1757, and 
 was stationed at Durham. He soon became 
 organist at Halifax, and afterwards at Bath. 
 While living here he turned his attention to 
 astronomy, and pursued his studies in the 
 intervals of his professional duties for many 
 years. In 1781 his discovery of the planet 
 Uranus by means of the great telescope which 
 he had budt, procured his appointment of 
 private astronomer to the king, and a pen- 
 sion of £400, whereupon he abandoned the 
 musical j>rufcsslon. i). 1S22. 
 
 HertiK, Michael (mik -el hartz), piano virtuoso 
 and composer, is one of the most talented 
 young musicians in Germany. Was educated 
 at Leipsic, and at present teaches at Berlin. 
 Born 1844 at Warsaw. 
 
 Ucrz, Henri, a much admired composer and 
 pianist, was born in 1806 at Vienna, and 
 learned music of his father. In i8i5 he was 
 entered at the Paris Conservatoire, and two 
 years later began to compose. His concert 
 tours from 1831 to 1834 were made chiefly in 
 Germany and France. In the latter year he 
 came to England, and in 1846 to 1850 to the 
 United States and South America. In 1851 
 he was back in Paris and professor at the 
 Conservatoire, which he relinquished in 1874. 
 He set up a piano factory of his own in 1853. 
 and his instruments hold high rank. As a 
 compo^er he has always written in the mode 
 of the day. 
 
 Ilesise, Adolph (hes-se\ a great organist and 
 elegant composer for ttje organ, as well as in 
 most other forms of music. He was born at 
 Breslau, Aug. 30, i8og, and in 1831 became 
 organist there. He made concert tours to 
 Paris, England and throughout Germany. 
 Died August 5, 1863. 
 
 Slexacltoril. a scale of six sounds, having a 
 semi-tone between the third and fourth, and 
 major seconds elsewhere. 2. A lyre of six 
 strings 
 
 Hexailicron. a set of six pieces, or songs. 
 This name is given to Liszt's Variations on 
 " I Puritani" for two pianos. 
 
 Hidden Fifths, fifths produced by the pro- 
 gression of two voices to a pejfect fifth through 
 similar motion. , 
 
 Hig'll Mass. a mass sung with full ceremo- 
 nial. 
 
 Hig'llland Fling;, a step in dancing peculiar 
 to the Scotch Highlands. Also the dance 
 itself. The music to which it is danced is the 
 Strathspey 
 
 Hiller, Ferdinand, one of the most eminent 
 living German composers and musicians, was 
 born of Jewish parents at Frankfort-on-the- 
 Maine, Oct. 24, 1811. He studied the piano, 
 violin, and composition, partly with Hummel 
 at Vienna. From 1828 to_ 1835 he lived at 
 Paris, composing and teaching, and was inti- 
 
 mate with Rossini, Chopin, Liszt, Meyer- 
 beer, Berlioz, Nourrit, Heine, etc. He was 
 the first to play Beethoven's E flat concerto 
 in Paris. .'Vfter living some lime at Leipsic 
 and Dresden, he organized the Conservatory 
 at Cologne, where he has resided ever since. 
 His most distinguished pupil is Max Bruch. 
 Hiller writes in a classical style, and has pub- 
 lished 183 works, of almost every kind; chief 
 of them being his " Destruction of Jerusa- 
 lem,'' " Spring Symphony, ' and Piano con- 
 certo in K sharp. Hiller is a polished and 
 genial man, who has never Licked friends 
 
 Iftilloi*, Johann .4dam, a very active, produc- 
 tive, and influential German musician, was 
 born at Wendisch-Ossig, in Prussia, 1728, and 
 lived indepciidently at Leipsic, actively em- 
 ployed ill promoting public concerts. As a 
 composer he is credited with having enlarged 
 the scope of the i-/t'<-/. Died 1804. 
 
 Hininiel. Freid Ilcinrich, a melodious, but 
 unimaginative composer, born 1765, died 1814. 
 
 Hodges, Dr. Edward, an English musician and 
 organist, was born at Bristol, 1796, and was 
 organist of Clifton church. In 1838 he came 
 to New York and became organist of St. 
 John's, and in 1S46 at Trinity. Returned to 
 England 1863. Died 1867. His daughter, 
 Faustina J/asse Hodges, is an organist, as 
 is also his son. Rev. J. S. Hodges. 
 
 Hoirniann, a celebrated name in literature 
 and music in Germany. Among the chief 
 composers by this name were: Ernst llieo~ 
 dor, a highly original composer and liitera- 
 ieur, as well as jurist, b. 1776, d. 1822. H. 
 was an extremely clever but lantastic news- 
 paper writer, and many of his pieces have 
 been translated, one by Carlyle. He wrote 
 also II operas, <a requiem, two symphonies, 
 etc. Karl Julius A. H., b. 1801 atRaiisbon, 
 lives at Lobschiitz, and is author of " History 
 of Musicians in Silesia from 960 to 1830," 
 also of several other musical histories, as well 
 as very many compositions, songs, chorales, 
 piano pieces, concertos for different instru- 
 ments, an operette, etc. yohann George, an 
 organist and founder of musical theory, born 
 1700, died 1780. Composer of many church 
 cantatas, 400 serenades, concertos, etc. Lud- 
 luig, a clever composer, b. at Berlin, 1830, 
 where he lives as teacher of singing, conduc- 
 tor, etc. Heinrich Anton, violin virtuoso 
 and conductor, 1770- 1842. His brother, 
 Phillip Karl, was a pianist and prolific com- 
 poser. 1769-1820. 
 
 Hofniann, Heinrich (hin-rik), a talented and 
 progressive composer of the present time. 
 Born Jan. 13, 1842, iu I'.erlin, where he stud- 
 ied piano and composition with Kullak, 
 Dehn, and Wiierzt, and still resides. Is the 
 composer of operas, symphonies, songs, 
 and especially a number of very successful 
 cantatas for chorus and orchestra, "The 
 Fable of the Fair Melusine,' " Cinderell.i,'' 
 " Loreley,'' etc., which have been extremely 
 successful. Hofmann is a pleasing composer, 
 and a good colorist with orchestra. 
 
 Hofi'nian, Richard, a distinguished piano-forte 
 virtuoso, teacher and composer in New York. 
 Born in Manchester, England, May 24, 18-0. 
 Came to New York in 1846 or 1847, where he 
 has since held high rank as teacher and 
 pianist. 
 
 Hoffman, Edward, brother of the preceding, 
 a popular writer of light salon pieces. 
 
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 HOII 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 HYP 
 
 Holilfloto (Ger. hoi -flo'-te), hollow-toned 
 flute. An organ stop producing a thick and 
 hollow flute-tone. Usually of 8 ft. 
 
 Hollhstock. Karl, a' distinguished pianist, 
 violinist, and musician, of Philadelphia. Born 
 1828 at Brunswick. Came to Philadelphia in 
 1848. 
 
 Holden, Oliver, one of the original American 
 psalir.odists, acarpenter by trade. Published 
 his "American Harmony" about 1790. Died 
 at Charlestown, 1831. 
 
 Holmes, Alfred, a talented composer and fine 
 violinist. Born at London 1837. Died 1876. 
 His iirincipal works were his symphonies, 
 " Robm Hood'' and the '"The Siege of 
 Paris." 
 
 Home Sweet Home. This melody occurs 
 ill Bishop's opera of "Clan," 1823. It is 
 designated as a "Sicilian Air," but is very 
 possibly Bishop's own. 
 
 Iloinopliony, the same in sound. Equivalent 
 t<j unison^ and opposed to Polyphony, or 
 manifold sound. Now commonly applied to 
 mlisic in which the parts all move together, 
 instead of imitations, etc., as in polyphonic 
 style. 
 
 Hook E. & G. G., and Hastings, a firm of organ 
 builders, established in Boston about :835. 
 and for the last twenty years occupying the 
 foremost place among American builders. 
 'I'heir work is remarkable for sweetness and 
 purity of voicing. 
 
 HopkintS, Edward John, an English organist 
 and composer of church music, born at West- 
 minster i8;8. Died at Ventnor 1873. 
 
 Hopkins. E. Jerome, an indefatigable teacher 
 of chorus singing, and eccentric pianist and 
 organist in New York son of the late Bishop 
 Hopkins, of Vermont. H. publishes " The 
 OrpJieoiiist^' a curious musical periodical. 
 
 Horn. IPreneli Horn, one of the most 
 
 characteristic and important brass instruments 
 in the orchestra. Is composed of a tube 17 
 feet in length, rolled into a spiral form, 
 riodern instruments are furnished with valves 
 on the same plan as those of the cornet, and 
 crooks for the purpose of changing the pitch 
 of the whole tube The tone of the horn is 
 peculiarly soft and pure. 1 1 is an e.vtremely 
 difficult instrument to learn to play, and the 
 instruction books are said by players to be in- 
 correct. 
 
 Horneman. Johann Ole Emil, a Danish com- 
 poser, b. 1809, d. 1870, at Copenhagen. 
 
 Horneman, a young German composer, edu- 
 cated at Leipsic, well known by his pretty 
 overture to "Aladdin." Born about 1850. 
 
 Hornpipe, an English dance in common time, 
 r.i ther quick. 
 
 Hor.sley, William, Mus. Doc, an English or- 
 ganist, and glee and church composer. Born 
 1774, died 1858. 
 
 Hliebald (hfik'-biild), a monk of St. Amaud. 
 in Flanders, born about 840, died 932, aged 
 92. .The author of the earliest treatise on 
 harmony which has comedown to us. Owing 
 to the imperfect notation he employs, there is 
 some doubt as to the real intention of his 
 music. But on the whole it sounds to us 
 dreadfully crude. It consists of parallel 4ths 
 and 5ths. 
 
 Huig^uenots, Les. Opera in 5 acts, by Meyer- 
 beer. 1836. 
 
 Hllliall, John, LL.D., a distinguished teacher 
 of singing and musical educator in England. 
 Born at Worcester 1812. Came early to Lon- 
 don, where he has lived ever since. In 1838, 
 after composing several small operas, Mr. 
 Hullah turned his attention to the popular 
 instruction in vocal music in which he has 
 ever since been engaged. Hullah advocates 
 the " fi.\ed Do," as distinguished from the 
 " movable Do " of the 'I'onic Sol-P'a schools. 
 He is the author of many te.\t-books of mu- 
 sic, lecturer and professor of vocal music in 
 Queen's College, London, and Inspector of 
 Training Schools for the United Kingdom. 
 His lectures on Musical History are very in- 
 teresting, (z vols.) 
 
 Humor (Ger. hu-mor). Whim; fancy. 
 
 illimoreske (Ger. hii-mor-es-ke). A title 
 adopted by Schumann for his piano-forte 
 piece, op. 20. 
 
 Humphry, Pelham, an English composer of 
 anthems, songs, etc. B. 1647. D. 1674. 
 
 Hummel (hum -mel\ J. N., a celebrated pian- 
 ist, and an elegant and in some sense, classi- 
 cal composer for the piano, was the son of a 
 musician, and born at Presburg, 1778. About 
 1786 He became an inmate of Mozart's house, 
 and for two years enjoyed his instruction. 
 He traveled several yars as a concert pian- 
 ist, studied composition at Vienna with 
 Albrechtsberger, was front 1804 to 181 1 Capell- 
 meister to Prince Esterhazy in Haydn's place, 
 and afterwards lived at Weimar, with frequent 
 journeys to Russia, France, England, etc. 
 Died at Weimar, 1837. He wrote 3 operas, 2 
 masses, much piano music, etc. He had good 
 musicianship, elegance of style, but little 
 force and concentration. As a pianist he was 
 for some time the rival of Moscheles at 
 Vienna. 
 
 Hunten, Francois (boon -ten), a French pian- 
 ist and composer, author of n.aiiy light pieces 
 for piano, studies, etc. B. about 1810. 
 
 Hlircly-gurcl.V, an obsolescent instrument, 
 som'ewhat resemblinga viola or large violin. 
 The strings are made to vibrate by means of 
 the friction of a wooden wheel let into the 
 belly, just above the tail-piece, and revolved 
 by means of a crank. Two of the four strings 
 are used for melody strings, or chanters, and 
 are stopped by means of keys on the finger- 
 board. The other two are drones and sound 
 continuously when the instrument is played. 
 It is essentially a peasant's instrument. 
 
 Hntehinson Family, a family of natural 
 singers, born in Milford. New Hampshire. 
 Four of the brothers, born from 1818 to 1828, 
 were very noted as temperance and anti- 
 slavery singers throughout the Northern 
 States and England from 1846 to 1858. Later 
 they were broken up, andarenow represented 
 by John and his ffimily and Asa and his 
 family. They had musicil voices and sang 
 simply. 
 
 Hymn, a song of praise to Deity. A lyrical 
 poem for singing in church. 
 
 Hymn of Praise, The, a cantata by Men- 
 delssohn, in 1840. 
 
 Hyper iGr. hi -per). Above. 
 
 a ale^ a add. a ami, e eve, 6 end, i ice, I ///, 6 old, 6 odd, o </.':•_', oo /noon, u lute, \\ luct, i'l Fr. sound 
 
 33
 
 lAM 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 INT 
 
 lamhlliS. a poetical and musical foot, consisting 
 of one short and one long syllable. 
 
 Idea, a theme or subject. 
 
 Ideal, that which is expressive of the idea. See 
 Part IV 
 
 Idonieiieo Ite di Cveta (ee-do-man-a-o 
 rii dee kree-ta). " Idomeneo, King of Crete," 
 opera seria in 3 acts, by Mozart. 1781. 
 
 Idyl. i,i'-dil;. or Idylle (Fr. ee-dil), a short 
 poem in pastoral style ; an eclogue. 
 
 II (Ital eel.) the. 
 
 Im (Ger. in d.'iii), in the. 
 
 Iluag^iiiati<Mi. the faculty of forming lively 
 images within one's mind, of scenes, histories, 
 sounds, plays. It is the same as Phantasie. 
 
 ImbOOCatlira (Ital. eem-b<3k-kii-too -ra). 
 The mouthpiece of a wind instrument. 
 
 Inibrog'lio (Ital. eem-brol -yo), confusion, 
 want of distinct ideas. 
 
 Imitation, the repetition of a melodic figure 
 or motive called atitccedenty previously ap- 
 pearing in another voice. Imitation takes 
 place '■ in the unison," /.f., at the samepitch, 
 in the second, third, fourth, etc., above or 
 below. Strict iinitatio7i is an e.\act repeti- 
 tion of the antecedent ; Free imitation an 
 appro.vimate imitation, one or more of the 
 intervals being enlarged or diminished. 
 
 Ininier (Ger. im'-mer). Always, ever. 
 
 Imperfect, less than perfect. Applied to in- 
 tervals to denote that they are too small. 
 
 Iniperfeet <'onsonances. the major and 
 minor thirds and sixths, as well as their com- 
 pounds with octaves. 
 
 Imperfect Cadence, a full c.idence in 
 which the soprano ends on the third of the 
 chord. 
 
 Impeto (Ital. eem -pii-tO). Impetuosity, ve- 
 liemence. 
 
 Inipetuoso (Ital. eem-pa-too-o-zo). Impet ■ 
 uously, vehemently. 
 
 Impresario (Ital. eem-prS-za-re-o). A 
 manager of operas or concerts. 
 
 Impromptu (Fr. fthn-promp'-too). An ex- 
 temporaneous production. A light and spon- 
 taneous composition. 
 
 Improperia (Lat.) The Reproaches. A 
 series of antiphons and responses used in the 
 solemn service of the morning of Good Fri- 
 day. 
 
 Improvisare (Ital. em-prO-ve-zii -re). To 
 
 improvise. 
 
 Improvisateur (Fr. ahn-pro-ve-za-tur ). 
 .■\n improviser. 
 
 Improvissatore (Ital eem-pio-ve-sa-to-re). 
 One who sings or declaims in verse or music 
 extemporaneously. 
 
 Improvisation, the act of singing, playing, 
 or composing music without previous prepara- 
 tion. The composition so produced. 
 
 In alt. tones above the F of the 5th line of the 
 
 treble statT. 
 
 In altissimo (Ital.al-tees-se-mo). The oc- 
 tave above the preceding. 
 
 Incalzando (Ital. een-kal-zan'-do). Some- 
 what quicker (than the preceding part). 
 
 Incarnatus est (Lat. Tn-kUr-na-toos est), 
 " and was born." A part of the Credo, usual- 
 ly set to slow music. 
 
 Indeciso (Ital. een-de-tshee-z6). Undecided, 
 wavering ; with unsteady time. 
 
 Index, the old name for " direct,'' which see. 
 
 Indift'erente (Ital. cen -dif- fe -ran'- te). 
 Coldly, iMdifferenily. 
 
 Infinite Canon, also called Endless Canton. 
 X canon without proper ending, each part 
 leading back to the beginning, like a round. 
 
 Inflection, any change of pitch or modifica- 
 tion of the tone ot the voice. 
 
 Infra (Lat. In'-fjii). Beneath. 
 
 Inlialt (Ger. en-halt). Content ; meaning. 
 
 Innig (Ger, Tn'-nlg). Cordial, fervent, sincere, 
 devout. Used by Beethoven and Schumann 
 in the last senses. 
 
 Innocentemente (Ital. een-nO-tshan-ti- 
 man -te;. Innocently; in a simple and artless 
 
 style. 
 
 In Partita (Ital. piir-lee -ta). In score. See 
 
 " Score." 
 
 In 4^uesta Toniba (Ital. een kwSs -tatom'- 
 ba), " In this Tomb." A celebrated contral- 
 to song of Beethoven's. 1808. Also effective 
 for bass. Much sung by Mr. M. W. Whitney. 
 
 Inquieto (Ital. een-kwe-a'-to). Restless, un- 
 easy. 
 
 Instante (Ital. een-stan-te). Instantly. 
 
 Instantemente (Ital. een-stan-te-man -te). 
 
 Vehemently, urgently. 
 
 Institute, Prix de 1' (prees dii lin-sil-tut), 
 " Prize of the Institute." A prize founded 
 by Napoleon III in 1839, of 20,000 francs, 
 awarded biennially to the member of the In- 
 stitute most deserving of it. It has once 
 been taken by a musician, Felicien David, in 
 1867. 
 
 Institute, any body or society established un- 
 der law for a particular purpose. 
 
 Institute Rationale, a great national in- 
 stitution in France, established by the Direc- 
 tory in 1795. It consists of 5 Departments: 
 I, Academie Fransaise. 2, Inscriptions ei 
 Belles-Lettres. 3, Sciences. 4, Beaux A rts. 
 5, Sciences Morales et Poliiigues. 
 
 Instrument, in general a tool. In music an 
 apparatus for producing mus'cal sounds. 
 Orchestral instruments consist of the strings, 
 violin family ; the 7t//«rtf(wO(?(/), flutes, oboes, 
 clarinettes, and bassoons, and U'rass), horns, 
 trumpets, trombones, ophicleid, tuba, etc., 
 percussion, drums, triangle, cymball, tam- 
 bourine, etc. All wind instruments are re- 
 garded as descended from the pipe, and all 
 stringed instruments from the lyre. 
 
 Instrumentation, the art of writing for 
 orchestra. Berlioz has a book on the subject. 
 See also the 2nd Vol. of J. C. Lobe's Komfio- 
 sitionslelire. Also a primer of the Novcllo 
 series. 
 
 Intendente (Ital. een-ten-dan'-tS). Director, 
 conductor. 
 
 In Tempo dtal. tSm-po), in time, i.e. resum - 
 ing the ])roper movement after a ritard. 
 
 Interlude, a short passage played between the 
 stanzas of a song or hymn. Also a light play 
 introduced between the acts of a drama. 
 
 a aUy a, add, a arviy e eve, 6 end, i ice, 1 ill, o old, o odd, d dove, 00 moon, n lute, u iut, u Fr. sound
 
 INT 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 JAC 
 
 Kuterniezzo (Ital. een-ter-mat-s6). An in- 
 terlude, or intermediate piece between two 
 others. An interlude, a name frequently em- 
 ployed by Schumann to designate short and 
 not very important pieces. An /. was origi- 
 nally of a light and pleasing character. 
 
 Interval, difference of pitch between tones. 
 Intervals are named from the number of de- 
 grees of the scale they include. A second is 
 the interval between any tone of the scale 
 and the next abDve or below. A third takes 
 to the next tone but one, etc. The represen- 
 tation of an interval is determined by its na- 
 ture. A second is represented by two notes 
 on adjacent degrees of the staff; a third by 
 two notes on successive lines, or successive 
 spaces, etc. Intervals which sound alike, as 
 the minor third and augmented second, are 
 iiitroduced and resolved differently. Like 
 different words of the same sound, they can 
 not be determined when standing alone, as 
 ail and ale: plain z.i\<i plane: so and j<?7c.- 
 can to be able, and cati a receptacle. 'I'he 
 manner of their use explains their meaning, 
 and the true spelling thereupon follows. The 
 principal intervals in perfect intonation are 
 represented by mathematical ratios, those of 
 the tempered scale are not easy to determine, 
 and almost impossible to produce on different 
 instruments twice alike, owing to the diffi- 
 culty of tuning. (See " Temper.iment,'' and 
 I' Scale ratios.") The ratios of the principal 
 intervals, beginning with the most consonant. 
 ^xeoctaveiw \ pery7/V// 3:2; \>f:x fourth 4 : 3, 
 maj. third 5:4; niin. third 6:5: m.ij. 
 seconds : 7, 9 : 8, and 10 : g, according to its 
 place in the scale ; min. second 14 : 13, 15 : 14, 
 16:15. 
 
 Intervals, Perfect. The unison, octave, 4th 
 and 5th which occur between the tonic 
 and the 4th, 5th, and 8th of the major scale. 
 These are called perfect because they have 
 perfect "complements,'' and because 'they 
 are the only consonant intervals of those de- 
 nominations. 
 
 Intervals, Major. Seconds, 3ds, 6ths, yths, 
 and gths, between the tonic of the major 
 scale .Tnd tlie corresponding diatonic tones. 
 
 intervals. Minor. Seconds, 3ds, 6ths, 7ths, 
 and Qths, a chromatic semi-tone smaller than 
 the major intervals of the same name. 
 
 Intervals, Augmented. A chromatic semi- 
 tone larger than major or perfect intervals. 
 
 Intervals, Diminished. A chromatic semi- 
 tone smaller than perfect or minor intervals. 
 
 Interrupted Cadenee, called also evaded 
 
 cadence, a cadence that is interrupted by the 
 unexpected entrance of some other chord 
 (usually the sixth degree) where the tonic 
 was expected. 
 
 IntOliare (Ital. een-to-na'-re). To pitch the 
 voice ; to sound the key note ; to intone. 
 
 Intrada (Ital. een-trii -da). An introduction. 
 
 Intrepidu (.Ital. een-trix'-pe-dO). Intrepid, 
 bold. 
 
 Introduction, a short preparatory move- 
 ment. 
 
 Intonation, the pitch. Also the introductory 
 notes of the Plain Song where the precentor 
 is hunting for the key. 
 
 Introit (in-tro -It, or F'r. ahn-trwa). Entrance, 
 a hymn or anthem sung while the priest 
 enters within the rails at the communion 
 
 table, or at the opening of the service. An- 
 ciently sung while the faithful were entering 
 the church. 
 
 Invention, a name given by J. S. Each to 
 certain small piano-forte pieces in two and 
 three parts. 
 
 Inversion, a turning upside down. In har- 
 mony the change from an interval to its com- 
 plement. Also the substitution of the 3rd, Sth. 
 or 7th of a chord as bass, instead of the root, 
 the natural bass. In counterpoint the inter- 
 change of voices, the higher becoming the 
 lower, and vice versa, at some pre-contrived 
 interval, which may be the octave, ninth, 
 tenth, or twelfth. In melody the repetition 
 of a motive or jihrase, with its ups and downs 
 reversed. In the inversion of a chord, the 
 " combination tone" remains unchanged, 
 hence the identity of the chord is unaffected 
 by it. 
 
 Ionic Key ( One of the church keys, hav- 
 
 lonian iVlode f ing the tones C D E F G 
 ABC, being in fact our major scale. 
 
 Iperniestra, an opera libretto, by Metastasio, 
 which has had 18 composers. A,inong 
 them Sarti, Jommelli, Hasse and Gluck. 
 
 Iphi^enie en Aiilide, " Iphigenia in 
 
 Aulis,'' tragic opera in 3 acts, by Gluck. 1774. 
 
 Iphigenie en Tauride, "Iphigenia in 
 Tauris," tragic opera in 4 acts, by Gluck. 
 1779- 
 
 Irene (i-reen). An English version of Gou- 
 nod's ^^Reine de Saba." 1865. 
 
 IrlandaiS i^Fr. eer-Iahn-da'). Anairordance 
 tune in the Irish style. 
 
 Irish Music. is noted chiefly for its sweet and 
 pathetic melody, and lor its wild and devil- 
 may-care dance tunes. 
 
 Irresoluto (Ital. ee-ra-zo-loo-to). Irreso- 
 lute, wavering. 
 
 Isochronous, in equal time. 
 
 Isotonic System, a system of tuning in ab- 
 solutely equal temperament. 
 
 Istesso (Ital. ees-ta-so). The same. 
 
 Isouard, Nicolo, a prolific French composer of 
 operas, distinguished by melody and freedom 
 from vulgarity. 1775-1S18. 
 
 Israel ill Egypt, the 5th of Handel's ora- 
 tories. 1738. This work contains a greater 
 number of bare-faced plagiarisms from other 
 composers than was perhaps ever offered in a 
 great work by a man of genius. It is distin- 
 guished, nevertheless, for grandeur and mo- 
 notony. 
 
 Italian llusic was formerly noted for it. 
 scientific cleverness, and always for its melody 
 and pleasing quality. See Lessons .\xxix and 
 xli. 
 
 Italiana in Algieri, L', " The Italian in 
 Algiers." Comic opera by Rossini. 1813. 
 
 Italian Sixth, a name sometimes given the 
 chord of the augmented sixth and maj. third, 
 asD^ F B. 
 
 Ite. .nissa Est, "Go! Mass is finished." 
 The dismissal anthem in the Mass. 
 
 Jack, an upright piece of wood standing on a 
 key of the harpsichord, bearing on its upper 
 end a transverse piece of crow-quill to twang 
 the string in passing, when the key i-^ pressed 
 by the finger. In the piano the Jack is the 
 upright lever of the action, communicating the 
 motion from the key to the hammer. 
 
 aa/(7, a addy a cnn, e eve^ e end, i ice, I ///, 6 old, 6 odd, o dove, 00 moon, u lute, u but, U Fr. sound 
 
 34
 
 JAC 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 JOM 
 
 Jackson. William, an English violinist, organ- 
 ist and composer. Born at Exeler 1730. Died 
 1803. Author of several operas and dramati- 
 cal works, and writings about music. 
 
 Jackson, William, an organist and chorus 
 master, whose earliest business was that 
 of a tallow-chandler, and who educated 
 himself, wa-^ born at Masham )8i6. Was the 
 author of an or.itorio "The deliverance of 
 Israel from Babylon," 1845, ""^d several can- 
 tatas. Died 1866. 
 
 Jackson, Samuel, an organist, composer and 
 arranger of music, and teacher, in New York. 
 
 •FaclaSSOlin, Saloman, a m.any-sided composer 
 of the present time, was born at Bru-slau in 
 1831, and studied with Hesse, LUstner, 
 Brosig, and at Leipsic. In 1852 became resi- 
 dent in Leipsic and conductor of the 
 "Euterpe" society. J. is a teacher of har- 
 mony , composition and piano in the Conserva- 
 torium, and a fruitful composer of piano 
 pieces, songs, symphonies, etc. 
 
 Ja<lin, Louis Emmanuel, a French composer, 
 of Belgian origin, conductor and teacher, who 
 wrote very many patriotic songs, much cham- 
 ber music, and several operas. Born 1768 at 
 Versailles. Died in Paris 1853. 
 
 JaellllS, Friedrich Wilhelm, (written Jahns, 
 yiins), royal music director at Berlin, was 
 born 1809. He has composed and arranged 
 much for the piano, and is author of an ex- 
 haustive thematic catalogue of the works of 
 Carl Maria von Weber. 
 
 Jacll, Alfred (yal), a distinguished piano-forte 
 virtuoso, was born at Trieste, Ma.. 5, 1332, 
 studied the violin and piano at an early age, 
 and made his first public appearances as 
 pianist at the age of 11. From this time for- 
 ward his success as a virtuoso was very great. 
 In 1843 he settled in Paris, but left at the time 
 of the revolution in 1847, and soon afterwards 
 came to America. In 1S51 and 1852 he played 
 with great success in Boston and New York. 
 Since 1854 he has divided his time between 
 England and the Continent. Jaell is an ele- 
 gant pianist, with great fluency and neatness 
 of technic, but not much depth. He married 
 a pianist, Miss Trautmann, in 1866. 
 
 Jall'e, Moritz (yaf-fa ), A good violinist and 
 composer, living at Berlin. Born 1835. Au- 
 thor of two operas, a string quartette, etc., 
 and a superior leader of a quartette. 
 
 Jalin, Otto (yan), the biographer of Mozart, 
 and a distinguished philologist, archaeologist 
 and writer on art and music. Born June 16, 
 1813, at Kiel. Studied there and at Berlin 
 and Leipsic ; took his degree in 1831. Lived 
 at Bonn 1855 to 1869. Died that year at Gcitl- 
 ingen. His great work of musical interest is 
 his " W. A. Mozart," 1856-59. 
 
 Jail rbueclicr fur llusikalisclie ^Vis- 
 scnscliaft, " Yearbooks of Musical Sci- 
 ence." Published in 1S63 and 1867, containing 
 many valuable papers. (Breitkopf & Hiirtel, 
 Leipsic.) 
 
 Jalco de Xeres (Spa. hii-la-o da ha-res). 
 A Spanish national dance, of a quick, light 
 character. Frequently introduced in operas. 
 
 Jannota, (yiin-nfit-ta), the leading 
 
 Italian teacher of singing in Cincinnati. 
 
 tf can de Paris, " John of Paris," comic 
 opera in 2 acts by Boieldieu. 1812. 
 
 JjMiny Rel], comic opera in 3 acts by Auber, 
 1855. The scene is laid in England. 
 
 •Jen.seil, Adolph (yen -st-n), one of the most 
 imaginative and pleasing composers of the 
 present time. Born Jan. 12, 1837, at Kijnigs- 
 berg. Was a pupil of Ehlert and Marpurg. 
 He has published very many works, songs, 
 piano pieces, etc., in a style somewhat re- 
 sembling bchumann, but more pleasing and 
 not so deep. His studies for piano, op. 32, 
 are worthy of particular mention as affording 
 an agreeable introduction to Schumann. Died 
 at Baden-Baden, 1879. 
 
 Jcptliall. Handel's last oratorio. His blind- 
 ness came on during its composition. 1751. 
 This subject was also set by Bartholemon at 
 Florence in 1776, and Reinthaler about 1855. 
 
 Jerusalem, grand opera in 4 acts by Verdi, 
 being a French adaptation of " I Lombardi.'' 
 Also an oratorio in 3 parts by H. H. Pierson, 
 1852. 
 
 Jessoilda, a grand German opera in 3 acts by 
 Spohr. 1823. 
 
 Jeuue lleiiri, Le, opera-comique in 2 acts 
 by Mehul. 1797. 
 
 Jeu (Fr. zhiih), play. The style of playing an 
 instrument. Also a register in an organ. 
 
 Jeux (Fr. zhuh, plural of the preceding). Stops. 
 
 Jeux d' Anches (Fr. zhuh d'ansh). Reed 
 stops. 
 
 Jeu 4«rande (Fr. zhuh gran'-de). The full 
 organ. 
 
 Joat-llini, Joseph (yo-akh'-eem), the greatest 
 of living violin pl.'vyers, was born at Kitt'^ee, 
 June 28, 1831. He began to play the violin 
 at 5 years of age. In 1S43, a boy of 12, al- 
 ready an accomplished player, he went to 
 Leipsic, where his remarkable talent was 
 recosnized by all, and he remained with 
 David, and at the same time made thorough 
 studies in literature and musical composition, 
 until 1850, when his career as virtuoso began, 
 and has continued ever since with the great- 
 est distinction and honor. In 1S6S he became 
 headof the " High School for Musical Execu- 
 tion " in Berlin, where he has since resided 
 and labored, with themo^t beneficent results 
 Joachim is noted for the breadth, erace, ten- 
 derness and deep feeling of his playing, as 
 well as for his unapproachable technique, in 
 which respect he is not surpassed by any. 
 He is also a composer of exceptional ability. 
 His greatest work is his "'Hungarian Con- 
 certo," op. 11. 
 
 Joan of Arc, opeia in 3 acts, by Balfe, 1837. 
 
 Joconde, ou Les Coureursd'Aventure, comic 
 opera in 3 acts, by Isouard, 1814. 
 
 John the Baptist, an oratorio in two parts, 
 liy Di. G. A. Macfarren. Produced at the 
 liristol Festival in 1873. 
 
 Jodein (Ger. yo'-d'ln\ A style of singing 
 peculiar to the Tyrolese peasants, the natural 
 voice and the falsetto being used alternately. 
 
 Jole (Fr. zhwa). Joy, gladness. 
 
 Jonin\eIll, Niccolb, (ySm-mel'-lee). A dis- 
 tinguished Neapolitan opera composer. Born 
 at Aversa 1714, and thoroughly educated in 
 music, at first at home, and afterwards in 
 Naples. Jommelli made his first appearance 
 as an opera composer in 1737, with great 
 success. The following twenty years were 
 passed at Venice, Vienna, Rome, and again 
 at Naples, where for the most of the time his 
 operas had distinguished success. Died 1774. 
 
 a a/V, &■ add, a arniy S eve, e end, I ice, I ill, 5 old, o odd, o dove, 00 moon, Q lute, u but, ii Fr. sound 
 
 35
 
 JON 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 KEI 
 
 Jones, Sir \Vm., the learned orientalist, was au- 
 thor of a treatise on " The Musical Modes of 
 the Hindus," 1784. Born 1746 at London. 
 Died at Calcutta 1794. 
 
 Jongleurs (Fr. zhonh-glur). An old term 
 for the itinerant musicians of the 10th and 
 following centuries. 
 
 Joseph and his Brethren, the 8th of Handel's 
 oratorios, 1743. 
 
 Joseph, opera comic in 3 acts, by Mehul. 1807. 
 2. Oiatorio in two parts by Dr. G. A. Mac- 
 farren. Produced at the Leeds Festival, 1S77. 
 
 Joshua, the 14th of Handel's oratorios, 1747. 
 
 Josqnin, Despres (yos-keen' da-pra). One 
 of the greatest masters of the Netherlands 
 school, and the immediate predecessor in 
 musical history of Lassus and Palestrina, was 
 born about the middle of the 15th century, 
 near St. Quentin. He was a prolific com- 
 poser, and left 19 masses, about 50 secular 
 pieces, 150 motets with sacred words, etc. 
 His works sound somewhat meagre now, but 
 he had genuine melody. 
 
 Jota (Spa. h5-ta). A Spanish national dance 
 in waltz time. Specimens may be seen in 
 " Sarasate's Spanish Dances." 
 
 Jubel-Floete (Ger. yoo-bel flo-te). An organ 
 stop of the flute species. 
 
 Jubilate I>eO (Lat. joo-be-la-te dee-6). 
 "O be joyful in the Lord." The first words 
 of the looth Psalm ; is used as a canti- 
 cle in the order of Morning Prayer. 
 
 Jubilee Overture, The, a celebrated over- 
 ture in E, op. 59, composed by C. M. von 
 Weber for the festival at Dresden in i8i8. It 
 winds up with " God save the King.'' 
 
 Jubilee, The Peace. Two_ monster festi- 
 
 v.als by this name were held in Boston 1869 
 and 1871, under the inspiration and general 
 direction of Mr. P. S. Gilmore. At the last 
 there was an orchestra of goo, a large organ, 
 a chorus of 14,000, and the audience room 
 held about 40,000. 
 
 Judas Maccabeus, the 12th of Handel's 
 Oratorios. Begun July g, ended Aug. 11, 
 1746. 
 
 Judith, I. An oratorio by Defesch, 173-!. 2. 
 An oratorio by Dr, Arne, 1764. 3. A " Bibli- 
 cal Cantata," by H. Leslie, 1858. 
 
 Juive, La (zhu-eev'). "The Jewess," opera 
 in 5 acts, by Hal^vy, 1835. 
 
 Jullien, Louis Antoine, the famous band- 
 master, and the first to bring a large orchestra 
 to America, was born at Sisterton, April 23, 
 1812. In 1838 he began his career as a con- 
 ductor in London, with an orchestra of go and 
 a chorus of 80. From time to time he en- 
 larged his resources, employed the greatest 
 solo artists, started a store, leased a theater, 
 and so made much money and rode on the 
 highest wave of popularity, only to be ovei - 
 taken finally by financial misfortunes. He 
 came to America in 1853, and remained here 
 until 1S54, On his return to England he 
 again lost heavily, removed to Paris, and 
 finally died in a lunatic asylum near Paris in 
 i860. To this enterprising, if somewhat ch.Tr- 
 latanish, conductor, the English and Ameri- 
 can public owe important education in the 
 taste for classical music and finished style of 
 performance. 
 
 JungSte Oerleht, Das, Spohr's f.rst ora- 
 torio. i8i5>. Not the same as his "The 
 Last Judgment." 
 
 Jupiter Symphony, The. Mozart's 49th 
 and last symphony, in C I Kochel 551) 1788. 
 The name was applied, perhaps, by J. B. 
 Cramer. 
 
 Just, a term apnlied to all consonant intervals, 
 and to the strings and pipes that give them 
 with exactness. 
 
 JuStO (Ital. yoos-to). Exactness, precision. 
 
 Jnngltiann, Albert (yoong'-man). A good 
 pianist, and an elegant composer of piano 
 pieces. Born 1824 at Langensalza. Lives in 
 Vienna. 
 
 Kafka, Johann Nepomuk, pianist and salon 
 composer, was born May 17, 1819, in Bohemia. 
 Studied in Vienna, and since 1840 has pro- 
 duced a constant succession of pleasing com- 
 positions for the piano. 
 
 KalUbrenner, Friedrich W. M., was in his 
 
 day a great virtuoso pianist and a prolific 
 compost.-r. He was born near Berlin in 1788. 
 Studied in Paris at the Conservatoire, where 
 he carried off the honors for his piano play- 
 ing. He at first settled in London, where he 
 had fine success as a teacher and player, but 
 in 1824 he returned to Paris, where he was re 
 ceived as a partner in the house of Pleyel & 
 Co., piano-makers, and eventually amassed 
 a fortune. His compositions for a time were 
 held in the highest repute, and were so when 
 Chopin went to Paris in 1831, but they are 
 nov/ forgotten. K. was an elegant pianist, 
 but without a large tone or much depth of 
 expression. D. 1849. 
 
 Kalliivoda, Johann Wenzelslaus, a violin 
 player and popular composer, was born at 
 Prague in 1800. He died at Carlsruhe in 
 1866. Was the author of 7 symphonies, be- 
 sides a large number of concertos, quartettes, 
 etc., which were melodious and well written, 
 but not of permanent value. 
 
 Kaninter (Ger. kam-mer\ chamber. Kain- 
 iner MusikyCha.To.hsT music. 
 
 Kaiine, Fr. A., a talented German composer 
 ;ind poet, born 1778 in Saxony, who left a 
 number of operas and dramas. Died in Vien- 
 na, 1S33. 
 
 HLapelle (Ger. kap-pel-le), chapel. A musical 
 establishment, usually orchestral. Formerly 
 applied to the private band of a prince or 
 magnate, but now .applied to any orchestra. 
 Thus, at Berlin, the Kaiserliche Konigliche 
 Kapelle (97 musicians called Kammermusiker) 
 forms the regular orhcestra of the Grand 
 Opera, with two Kapellmeisters (conduc- 
 tors), a Concertmeister (leader, or ist violin), 
 and a Balletdirigent (^ballet-master). IGrove.] 
 
 Kapellmeister (Ger. kap-pel-mis-ter). 
 Conductor of an orchestra. See above. 
 
 Keiser, Reinhard (rln-hiird klz-erl, an emi- 
 nent German opera composer of the olden 
 time, born 1673. For 40 years from 1694 he 
 remained at Hamburg, a favorite composer. 
 In one year he wrote 8 operas. He composed 
 his last opera, " Circe," in 1734, and died in 
 1739- 
 
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 36
 
 KEL 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 KOC 
 
 Ke3er-Bela Cwhose real name is Albert von 
 Keler) was born in Hungary in 1820. In 
 1845 he begun study in Vienna, and in 1854 
 took command of Gungl's orchestra in Berlin. 
 Presently he returned to Berlin and suc- 
 ceeded to the Leadership of Lanner's orches- 
 tra. Has composed many overtures, waltzes, 
 marches, etc., characterized by brilliant style, 
 and showy instrumentation. 
 
 KellOKg, Clara Louise, the favorite American 
 soprano, was born in Sumterville, N. C, in 
 1842. She made her debut as Gilda in Rigo- 
 lette in 186 1, since which she has been con- 
 stantly before the public. She is a conscien- 
 tious artist, has a voice of great compass and 
 purity, and is highly esteemed in England 
 and this country. 
 
 Kelly. Michael, an Irish composer of theatrical 
 music. 1764-1S26. 
 
 Kent Bugle, an improved form of the key 
 bugle. It had a complete chromatic scale 
 from Bi below the treble staff to C above. 
 Superseded by sa.v-hornsand cornets. 
 
 Keolailtlie, Or the Unearthly Bride, opera 
 in 2 acts by Balfe, 1841. 
 
 Keraulophon (ker-nw'-lo-phon), an organ 
 stop of string tone and 8 ft. pitch. 
 
 Kettle Drums are copper or brass basins 
 with a head of skin that can be tuned to a 
 true musical note. Used by cavalry and in 
 orchestras, always in pairs (^ tonic and domi- 
 nant). 
 
 Key, a mechanical contrivance through which 
 the finger produces or modifies a sound in 
 instruments. 
 
 Key, a relationship of tones. All authentic 
 modern music rests upon the normal key, or 
 tonal system from which all our harmony is 
 drawn. Taking any tone as tonic the remain- 
 ing seven tones of the octave stand in the 
 following relations to it: g-8, 5-4, 4-3, 3-2, 
 5-3, 15-8, 2-1. These are the ratios of the 
 major scale. The same tones may be used in 
 the minor mode without alteration, but gene- 
 rally ihe/ifi/i of the major is sharped so as to 
 make a major seventh in the minor. Thus 
 the tones C D E F G A B C make the key 
 of C. If G sharp be taken instead of G, the 
 key becomes A minoi. The subject of tona- 
 lity has been thoroughly investigated by 
 Helmholtz, to whose " Tone Sensations" re- 
 ference is made. 
 
 Key Xote, the tone of a key from which all 
 tlie others are determined. That tone of a 
 scale which makes the best point of closing. 
 
 Kiel, Friedrich (keel), a German violinist, and 
 distinguished master of counterpoint and 
 fugue in the Berlin Hochschule for music. Is 
 composer of a Requiem, a Missa Solemnis, 
 and in 1874 an oratorio, Christus. Born 1821 
 at Puderbach. 
 
 Kiuii^. Matthew Peter, an English composer of 
 operas. 1773-1823. 
 
 Kin«; Charles tlie Seoon*!, opera in 
 2 acts, by G. A. Macfarren, 1849. 
 
 Kirelie (keerk -he), church. 
 
 Kirclie-<"'antaten, church cantatas, of 
 which Bach left a large number. 
 
 Kireliner, Theodor (keerk -ner), one of the 
 most talented of the disciples of Schumann, a 
 composer of ^(?«?v pieces for the piano-forte. 
 Born 1824 at Newkirchen. Lives at Leipsic. 
 
 KirnberKer. Johann Phillip (keern-bar-ger). 
 Composer and theorist (most of the l.itter 
 being false), was born 1731. Lived at Berlin 
 as Kapellmeister to the Princess Amelia. 
 Died 1783. 
 
 Kit, a small violin. 
 
 Kittel, Johann Christian, a distinguished or- 
 gan virtuoso and composer, one of the last 
 pupils of J. S. Bach. Born at Erfurt 1732. 
 pied 1S09. Hispublished works are not very 
 important. His best pupil was Ch. Rink, of 
 Darmstadt. 
 
 Klavier, see Clavier. 
 
 K.laiig(Ger. kUng). Sound. 
 
 Klang-farbe (Ger. klang-fiir-be). Tone- 
 color. 
 
 Klinsemann, Carl (kllng'-gC-mrinl, a Ger- 
 man literary man and poet, author of m.iny 
 of the songs which Mendelssohn set to music. 
 Bom at Limmer 1798. Died in London, 1862, 
 as Secretary of Legation. 
 
 Klein (Ger. kiln). Little, small. 
 
 Klindworth, Carl, one of the best living 
 musicians and pianists, most distinguished as 
 editor of the famous "Jurgenson" edition 
 of Chopin. Born at Hanover 1830. In 1850 
 he went to Weimar to study with Liszt, where 
 he was the associate of Raff, Biilow, Priick- 
 ner, \Vm. Mason, etc., being especially inti- 
 mate with the latter. F"rom 1854 he lived 14 
 years in London. Since 1868 he has been 
 professor of piano-forte in the Conservatory 
 at Moscow. K. has distinguished himself, 
 also, by his arrangement of the piano score of 
 Wagner's " Der Ring des Nibelungen." 
 
 KlOSS. Karl Johani Chr., a noted organ 
 virtuoso, born 1792 at Mohningen, and served 
 as organist and director in various places. 
 Died 1853 at Riga. Left many songs, big and 
 little piano pieces, organ pieces, etc. 
 
 Klugliardt, August, a talented German com- 
 poser and director. Born in 1847 at Kothen, 
 educated at Dresden, and in 1873 became 
 Hof kapellmeister in Naustrelitz. Is com- 
 poser of songs, piano pieces, overtures, etc., 
 which show decided originality. 
 
 Kneellt, Justin Heinrich (knekt), a noted or- 
 gan, piano, and violin player, theorist, and 
 composer of psalms, motets, cantatas, sonatas, 
 etc., etc., and instruction books. Born 1752, 
 died 1817. 
 
 Kuee stop, an organ stop worked by the knee. 
 
 Knell, a stroke of the bell, made at intervals, 
 
 during funerals. 
 
 Knight, Joseph Phillip, an English writer of 
 over 200 songs, best known of which is his 
 " Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep." He is 
 a good organist. Born at Stratford-on-Avon, 
 1812. Was at ope time a clergyman. 
 
 Knorr, Julius, a German pianist, teacher, and 
 writer about music, was born 1807 at Leipsic, 
 and appeared in the Gewandhaus concerts 
 with success, in the first Chopin piece ever 
 played there. He was concerned with Srhu- 
 niann and Schunke in establishing the " New 
 Journal of Music." Died June 1861. 
 
 Koeh, Henrich Christoph (kok), was a labori- 
 ous theorist and musical lexicographer. Born 
 at Rudolstadt, 1749. Died i8i5. 
 
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 37
 
 KOC 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 KUL 
 
 Kuecliel, Dr. Ludwig Ritter von (ku'kel). A 
 learned musician and naturalist, the author 
 of a thematic catalogue of all of Mozart's 
 works. (Breitkojjf and Hartel, Leipsic 1862.) 
 Born 1800 at Stein. Died at Berlin 1877. 
 
 Koeltler, Louis, a many-sided German musi- 
 cian, especially a pianist, musical writer and 
 teacher, is known in all countries by his 
 Etudes for piano. Born at Brunswick 1820, 
 was educated under Sechter, Seyfried and 
 Bocklet. Since 1846 he has lived at Konigs. 
 berg, Prussia, as musical director, etc. 
 
 Koerner, Gothilf Wilhelm (kiir'-ner). A pro- 
 lific German writer of musical te.xt-books, 
 particularly for the organ. Born 1809. Died 
 at Erfurt 1865. 
 
 Itolbe, Oscar (kol'-be). A theorist and com- 
 poser. Born in Berlin 1836. 
 
 Kollniann, A., a musician, born at Hanover 
 in 1756, settled in England as organist at the 
 German chapel in London. Was author of 
 many text books in music. D. 1824. 
 
 Koiitslii, Antoine, a fine pianist and composer 
 of many pleasing salon pieces. Born at Cra- 
 cow, 1817. Lives in London. 
 
 Kotzwara, Franz, born at Prague, hanged 
 liimself in Ireland 1791, whether in remorse 
 at having written his celebrated inorceau^ 
 " The Battle of Prague," is not known. 
 
 Krakovialc (kra-k6'-vi-ak), called also Cra- 
 coznennL\ a Polish dance belonging to the 
 neighborhood of Cracow. Is in 2-4 time, in 
 8 measure periods. 
 
 Krause, Anton (krow'-se), a good pianist and 
 capable director, born 1834 at Geithain in 
 Saxony. Was educated at Leipsic, and in 
 1859 tindertook the direction of the concerts, 
 etc., in Barmen, as successor of Reinecke. 
 Krause is author of 10 sonatas, 60 studies, 
 etc., for the piano-forte, which are highly es- 
 teemed. 
 
 K.rel>iS, J. L. K., a distinguished German or- 
 ganist and composer for organ, educated un- 
 der Bach at Leipsic, and in 1737 organist at 
 Zwickau. Born 1713. Died at Altenberg, 1780. 
 
 KrebS, Marie, the celebrated piano virtuoso, 
 was born of a musical family in Dresden, 1851. 
 In her 5th year she played B. F. Burgmiiller's 
 25 studies, op. 100, with pleasure and the most 
 satisfactory completeness. She pursued her 
 studies with her father only. Her concert 
 career commenced in 1862, since which she 
 has played in all parts of Europe and in Eng- 
 land and the United States, with the greate-t 
 success. Her playing is distinguished by 
 splendid and complete technic, and 'genuine 
 musical feeling, both in classical and brilliant 
 music. 
 
 Kreisleriana (krls-ler-i-a'-na), wreaths. 
 Schumann's title of hi^ op. i6, "eight fan- 
 tasias for piano." 1838. 
 
 K.l'<yci, Joseph, director of Prague Conserva- 
 torium of ^Iusic. Born 1822 at Milostin. An 
 accomplished musician, a superior organist 
 and skillful director, and a composer of 
 church music (masses, etc.), as well as over- 
 tures, songs, etc. 
 
 K.reiin, Franz, an excellent German organist, 
 composer and director. Born i8i6at Dross, 
 in Austria. Studied in Vienna with Seyfried. 
 In 1844 he became organist, and in 1S62 
 Kapellemeister in the Royal Cathedral of St. 
 Michael. Is a composer of masses, vespers, 
 a symphony, quartettes, etc. 
 
 Kretselinaer. Ed, a fine organist and one of 
 the foremost dramatic composers of the pres- 
 ent time. Born 1830. Studied in Dresden, 
 and in 1854 becama organist there. Is Hof- 
 organist and Director of the boys of the 
 Royal Chape!. His " Geisterschlact " wa.s 
 sung with great success in 1S65, and took the 
 prize. His great 5-act opera, " Die Folkung- 
 ers," was successful in 1874 and 1875. 
 
 Kreutzer, Konradin (kroit'-zer), a talented 
 and favorite song and opera composer, b^rn 
 1782^ in Baden. Was well educated, and 
 studied medicine. In 1803 he became pupil 
 of Albretchsberger in Vienna, where he re- 
 mained till 1811, and, composed many operas. 
 In 1S17 he became Kapellmeister. Died in 
 Riga 1840. K. was the author of very many 
 successful operas, of which perhaps the best 
 known is " Das Nachtlager in Granada." 
 
 HLreiltzer, Rudolph, the same to whom Bee- 
 thoven dedicated the famous " Kreutzer Son- 
 ata,'' was a violinist and composer, who was 
 born at Versailles 1766. He was a fine musi- 
 cian, and especially a fine violinist, playing 
 with great success throughout France and 
 Germany. He was professor of the violin 
 from the foundation of the Conservatoire, 
 until in 1824 a broken arm compelled him to 
 stop playing. Died 1831 at Geneva. 
 
 Kreutzer Sonata, a famous piece for piano 
 and violin, Beethoven's op. 47, 1803. 
 
 Krieser, Adam (kreeg'-er), a notable Ger- 
 man organist and composer, 1634-1666. 
 
 Krueger, Wilhelm K. (kroig-er). A noted 
 pianist and composer of parlor pieces for the 
 piano, born 1820 at Stuttgart. Was pupil of 
 Lindpaintner. Is professor of piano in the 
 Conservatorium. 
 
 Krilg. Dietrich (kroog"), a noted pianist, and 
 author 9i a large instruction book for it, as 
 well as many piano pieces. Born 1821 in Ham- 
 burg. 
 
 Kruillhoril (crooked horn). An 8 ft. reed 
 stop in the organ. Otherwise called " Cre- 
 mona," " clarionet," etc. The name is not 
 now in use. 
 
 ICuecken. Friedrich Wilhelm, the melodious 
 and distinguished song writer, was born at 
 Blackede. Hanover, 1810. He studied counter- 
 point at Berlin, and with Sechter in Vienna, 
 and orchestration with Halevy in Paris. K. 
 was a prolific composer of operas, sonatas, etc., 
 as well as the songs and duets on which his 
 fame rests. Lives in Schwerin. 
 
 Kuhe, Wilhelm (koo-e), an elegant pianist 
 and composer, was born in 1823 at Prague, 
 and a pupil of Toniaschek, and later of Jul. 
 Schulhoff at Cologne. Resides (probably) in 
 London. Best known by his charming ca- 
 price " Feu FoUet.'" 
 
 Kulinail, Johann (koo-nou). A very re- 
 markable old musician. Cantor of Leipsic, and 
 the greatest figure in German clavier music 
 before Bach. He was the inventor of the 
 sonata as a piece of several movements not 
 dance tunes. Born 1667 at Geysing. Made 
 cantor at Leipsic 1684. Died 1722. 
 
 Kullali, Adolph, a deep thinker in music and 
 a teacher. Born 1823. Died 1862 in Berlin, 
 Author of ■' Das Musikalischschon," 1858. 
 and " Die Aesthetik des Clavieispiels," 1861. 
 
 a «/<?, a add^ 'X arm^ 5 eve^ e end, 1 ice, I ///, o old, 6 odd, dozie, 00 moon, u lute, li but, u Fr. sound 
 
 38
 
 KUL 
 
 DICTIOXAKY. 
 
 LAL 
 
 J4.unak. Theodor, the celebrated teacher, 
 pianist, and composer, was born i8i8 at 
 Krotschins. He was a pupil of Czerny, and 
 in 1846 was made Hofpianist to the King of 
 Prussia. In conjunction with Stern and 
 Marx in 1851 he founded a ConRervatory of 
 Music at Berlin. His own school of which 
 he is still the head, the " Neue Akademie 
 der Tonkunst," he founded in 1S55, Is the 
 author of many pieces, a great octave school, 
 and one of the first piano-teachers in Europe. 
 
 KuiBIlltCt*, Friedrich August, a great violon- 
 cellist and composer for his instrument. Born 
 1797. Lived in Dresden, and died there 1879. 
 
 K.UmI<ic1, Jacob, a pianist, composer, and 
 music dealer (Kunkel Bros.) was born Oct. 
 22, 1846, in Kleiniedesheim. Studied with 
 his father and brother, L. M. Gottschalk, and 
 afterwards with Tausig. Located in St. 
 Louis in 1868, where he still resides. 
 
 Kllll1i<'l, Charles, pianist, composer and music 
 dealer, was born at Sippersfeld, in the Rhine 
 Phalz, July 22, 1840. Came to America at 
 the age of 9, studied with his father who was 
 a good musician, and with 'I'halberg and 
 Gottschalk, removed to St. Louis in i868, 
 where he since resides. 
 
 Kusist (Ger. koonst, from konnen^ to be able). 
 Alt. 
 
 Klinjiit der Fugue, " The art of Fugue." 
 A remarkable work of Bach's, one of his very 
 latest. A series of ■2^/iigues on the same sub- 
 ject, . designed to illustrate the manifold 
 powers of Fugue. 
 
 Kurz (Ger. koorts). Short, detached, staccato. 
 
 Kuertzen (Ger. kiirt -zen). To abridge. 
 
 Ityrie Eliessoai (Greek.), " O Lord, have 
 mercy upon us !'' The opening anthem in 
 the mass. 
 
 Li, left hand. 
 
 Lift, a syllable applied to the sixth sound of the 
 major scrde. Also used in France as the 
 name of the pitch A. 
 
 I^a vital, and Fr. la), the feminine form of article. 
 
 I<a bemol (Fr. la bii-mol), the note A flat. 
 
 Labial, organ pipes with lips, called also Jlue 
 pipes. 
 
 liabitzky, Josef (yo'-zef lii-beetz'-ki), the 
 well-known dance-composer, born 1802 at 
 Schonfeld. Began the world as ist violin in 
 1820, and in 1821 removed to Carlsbad, where 
 he still resides. He formed his orchestra in 
 1835. His dances are full of spirit, but not so 
 Jjoetical as those of Strauss. 
 
 LiaMaclie, Luigi (lii-blash), the great basso, 
 was born at Naples 1794. He was very musi- 
 cal, and as a bjy a fine contralto, and as such 
 sang the solos in Mozart's Requiem on the 
 death of Haydn in 1809. He had talent for 
 the 'cello. At the age of so he had a splendid 
 bass voice of two octaves, V,b to E/'. From 
 his debut in 1S17 to his death in Paris 1858, 
 Lablache was the foremost basso in Europe, 
 and an actor and artist of the most sterling 
 character. He was immensely larje, about 
 6 ft. 4 in., and in his later years weighed 
 nearly 400 pounds. 
 
 liac «le Fees, Le, opera in 5 acts, by Auber, 
 1839. The overture only has survived. 
 
 liaebmann, Karl, a many-sided German 
 philologist, who has published a number of 
 works on " 'I'he Chorus of the Greek Tra- 
 gedy," the Niebelungenlied, etc., 1793-1851. 
 
 Liaehner, Franz (lakh-ner). One of the 
 greatest masters in mu^ic at the present day, 
 was born April 2, 1S04, and from 1836 to 1S52 
 when he retired on a pension, he was hof- 
 kapellmcister at Munich. L. is a prolific 
 composer in the classical style, of so'igs, 4 
 ooeras, 8 symphonies, cant.atas, etc., and is 
 very highly esteemed in Germany. 
 
 liaehner, Ignaz, brother of the preceding, was 
 born 1807. Assisted his brother at Vienna, 
 etc., .Tiid in 1861 se'tlcd at Frankfort, where 
 he fills many musical positions. He is also a 
 orolific composer of operas, sympho.iies, 
 piano-forte works, etc. 
 
 Liaeriniandu (Ital. la-kre-miin-do). jSIourn- 
 
 fully. 
 
 IiatrriniOKO (Ttal. lU-kre-mo-zd). In a mourn- 
 ful, pathetic style. 
 
 L.a diese (Fr. la di-as'). The pitch ; A sharp. 
 
 liady llenriette. a ballet pantomime in 3 
 acts, music by Flotow, Burgmiiller and T)el- 
 devez. 1844. The libretto was aftc-wards 
 expanded, and Flotow set it as " Martha." 
 
 tady «f tise liake. The. Cantata in 2 parts, 
 music by Prof, G. A. Macfarrcn. 1877. 
 
 ljS«ndler (Ger. land'-ler"). A country dance 
 orairin a rustic and pleasing style in 3-4 lime. 
 Popular in Austria, Bavaria, Br)liemia, and 
 Styria. It is danced more slowly than the 
 waltz. 
 
 JLa Crrange. M'me Anna (;a grang), one of 
 the most distinguished and lavorile coloratur 
 singers of the pre*;ent time, was born in 1825, 
 at Paris. Studied singing with Bordogni. 
 Made her debut in 1842, and had great siic- 
 cess in all parts of Europe. She visited 
 America in 185S, and ag.iin in 1869. Lives in 
 Paris, where she is a prominent teacher of 
 singing. M'lle Litta is one of the most dis- 
 tinguished of her puoils. She has a soprano 
 voice of great compass, \-ery finished execu- 
 tion, a lovely trill, and sang with true artistic 
 conception and taste. 
 
 Ljasi'imoso (Ital. la-gre-mo'-zo)^ and Lagri- 
 inatido, weeping, tearful. In a sad and 
 mournful style. 
 
 IiajeUJieSSe. the family name of tlie distin- 
 guished prim.a douna, Mi»s Marie Emma 
 Albani, (iil-bii'-nee). She was born in 1851 
 of French Canadian parents, near Montre.Al. 
 In 1864 the family removed to Albany, 
 whence she derived her pscudonvm whcil she 
 went upon the stage. Her finishing studies • 
 were made with Lamperti, at Milan, and her 
 debut was in 1870, when the beauty of her 
 voice, her i)lc."<.sing method, and the intelli- 
 gence of her singing speedily raised her to 
 the commanding pisiiion she now holds. 
 She was married to Mr. Ernest Gye in 1878. 
 
 Ijallali Slrtokll. IMoore's poem. i. Opera by 
 C E. Horn, 1830. 2. Opera by Felicien 
 David, 1862. 3. Opera in 2 acts, by Rubin- 
 stein, 1863. 4. Paradise and the Pel i, Schu- 
 mann. 5. Paradise and the Peri, con-eert- 
 overture, by Wm. Sterndale Bennett. 
 
 a aie, a add, a ar:n, G eve, o end, I ice, \ ill, o old, u odd, o dove, 00 moon, u lute, il but, u />. sound 
 
 39
 
 LAM 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 LAU 
 
 Lambillotte, Pater Loiiis (lara.beel-yot -te) 
 a celebrated and popular church composer, 
 was born 1797 at Charleroi, and at the age of 
 25 was kapellmeister in the Jesuit College in 
 St. Scheul. In 1S25 he joined the Order. L. 
 has produced a great quantity of music for the 
 church, which i> showy, brilliant, and effec- 
 tive, but has little sub-tance. Was also au- 
 thor of several works about music. Died in 
 1855. 
 
 liameilt. an old name for harp tunes of the 
 pathetic kind. 
 
 liailieiltabile (Ital. lii-mSn-ta -be-le). La- 
 mentable, mournful. 
 
 LailientationS, the funeral music of the 
 ancient Jews v/as called by this name. See 
 als(_) Tencbrae, 
 
 LiaineBltevoIe (Ital. la-men-tii'-vole). La- 
 nientful, lamentable, 
 
 I/anieiltOSO (Ital. l:i-m6n-to -z6). Lament- 
 able. 
 
 lia milteur (Fr. l;i- mln-ui). The key of A 
 minor. 
 
 lianiperti, Francesco (I;im - par' - tee). The 
 distinguished teacher of singing in Milan, was 
 born at Savona. in 1813, studied at Milan, 
 and in 1850 was appointed professor of singing 
 in the Conservatory, from which he retired in 
 1875. L. 'eaches the old Italian method of 
 Farinelli, etc. Mile. Albani was his pupil. 
 
 Ijaild lied (Gcr. litnd' leed). A rural or rus- 
 tic song. 
 
 liaiicor's Quadrille, a popular square 
 dance for 8 or 16 couples. 
 
 liailg', B. J., the distinguished pianist, organist, 
 conductor and teacher in Boston, was born in 
 1^40. See Addenda. 
 
 IJang'e. Gustav (laug -e), a pleasing pianist and 
 favorite composer for Ijis instrument, was 
 born 1830 at Schwerstedt. Studied with his 
 father, who was an organist, and later in Ber- 
 lin with Gustav Schumann and Loeschhorn. 
 Since i85ohas been very active .ts a composer, 
 having published over 250 pieces. 
 
 Ijailge. S. de, the distinguished organist, pian- 
 ist and composer, was born at Rotterdam, 
 Feb. 22, 1840. He was taught by his father, 
 who is yet organist in Hotterdam Cathedral. 
 He studied composition under T. F. Dupont, 
 Damcke, etc. From 1863 to 1874 he was 
 located in Rotterdam as organist. He then 
 spent a year in Basle, and one year in Paris, 
 since which he has resided in Cologne as 
 teacher of the organ and composition in the 
 Conservatory. He is authorof symphonies, 
 string quartettes, overtures, and especially of 
 interest ng works for the organ, 
 
 IJailgliaU!^. Wilhelm (l.ang-hous), a German 
 \ioliiiist, composer and writer about music, 
 born Hamburg, 1832. Studied at Leipsic, 
 servel as concertmeister and conductor at 
 Dlisseldorl", etc., and finally, in 187., took up 
 his residence in Derlin, where he is engaged 
 in musico-literary labors, and teaches history 
 in KuUak's Conservatory. Isauthor of string 
 quartettes, etc. 
 
 Ijailg^iani (Ger. lang -sam). Slowly. Equiva- 
 lent to largo, or adagio, or lento. 
 
 liailgsamer (Ger. lang'-sam-Sr). Slower. 
 
 liansueiliente (Ital. lan-gue-man'-te). Lan- 
 guishingly. 
 
 Jjanji^ueiido fital. Ian -gwan-do), JLan- 
 i^iiente (Ital. lan-gwan -te), Iiangtiido 
 
 (Ital. Ian -gwe-doj. Languishing; feeble; 
 with langor. 
 
 Jjannor, Joseph, the celebrated conductorand 
 composer of dance music, was born at Vienna 
 i 1 iSoi. Became a conductor at a very early 
 age, and died in 1843. 
 
 liarge, the longest note formerly in use, equal 
 to eight whole notes. 
 
 Largenieilt (Fr. larzh-manh). Full, free in 
 style. 
 
 JLargflietto (Ital. lar-giit'-to). A movement 
 not quite so slow as largo. 
 
 liai'SO (Ital. lar -go), bro.ad. A slow and sol- 
 emn movement. This word is frequently 
 modified by others, a.^ Largo aaai, very largo ; 
 Largo !tn poco. a little largo ; Largo ma non 
 troppo, largo, but not too much. 
 
 Iiarglii!4NiniO (Ital. lar-ghes'-e - mo), the 
 superlative oi largo. Extremely slow. 
 
 LiarilSOt (Fr. lar'-i-go), shepherd's Hute or 
 pipe. An obsolete name for an organ stop 
 timed an octave above the 12th. 
 
 Ijarynx. the upper part of the trachea. It 
 consists of five annular cartilages, placed 
 above one another and united by elastic liga- 
 ments. 
 
 IJatiit Shift, on a violin the shift to the 20th 
 
 line, or E. 
 
 liast tludifsnient. The, the English version 
 of Spohr's oratorio " Die letzten Dinge," 
 1830. 
 
 liaSSCn. Eduard, was born at Copenhagen 
 1830, but educated in Brussels, where he dis- 
 tinguished himself in composition, and finally, 
 in 1851 received the great government prize. 
 He went to Liszt at Weimar, who brought 
 out at intervals three of his operas. On 
 Liszt's resigning the directorship Lassen took 
 his place, which he still holds. L. is a fine 
 writer of the new school, having composed 
 operas, songs, a symphony, overtures, etc. 
 
 LasSUS. Orlando, or Lasso, a Netherlandscom- 
 poser of church music, born about 1530, who 
 produced a great mass of church compositions, 
 which influenced musical progress. D. 1594. 
 
 liatOUl'. Jean, a French pianist, and compiser, 
 born at Paris 1766, and settled in London as 
 pianist to the Prince of Wales. L. was a 
 prolific author of divertissments, variations, 
 etc., which were very fashionable in theirday. 
 He died in Paris in 1840. 
 
 Ijailb. Ferdinand (loiib), a great violinist, the 
 peer of Joachim and Wilhelmj. Born at 
 Prague in 1832. After the usual European 
 experience of virtuosi, he settled in Berlin in 
 1856 as teacher of violin in Stern's Conserva- 
 tory. His tone was extremely pur°, full and 
 artistic. D. 1875. 
 
 Liailda Sion. the name of a sequence sung at 
 High Mass on the least of Corpus Christi, 
 written by St. Thomas Aquinas, about 1261. 
 
 Lauds, a religious service held at daybreak. 
 
 Ijaurens. Alberto (real name Albert Lawrence), 
 an English baritone singer. Born about 1835. 
 At present a teacher of Italian singing in 
 New York. 
 
 liaute (Ger. lou'-te). The lute. 
 
 a<z/<?, a, add, 2 arm, e eve, e end, i ice, 1 ///, o old, o odd, dove, 00 moon, u lute, u dut, ii Fr. sound 
 
 40
 
 LAU 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 LEX 
 
 liauterbsu'll. Johaiiii Cristoph, one of the first 
 of living violinists, wr»> born July 24, 1832, at 
 Culmbach, studied with De Beriot, and made 
 many concert tours since 1853. Resides in ■ 
 Dresden. 
 
 fjay, a tune or song. 
 
 I/C, or before a vowel X' (Fr, lii), the. 
 
 Lieader, the first or principal violin in an or- 
 chestra, the director of a choir. 
 
 lieadilliS Motive, the principal motive of a 
 musical period or piece. A motive becomes 
 priticipal by being repeated more times than 
 any oth.er in principal key of the piece. This 
 term is also used to denote the leading mo- 
 tives, or "catch" motives of Wagner, and 
 many later composers. These are striking 
 motives, each of which is introduced in con- 
 nection with some one principal character. 
 See also Wagner in Chapter Ll. 
 
 liCading IVote, the major seventh of any 
 scale, so-called on account of its strong ten- 
 dency towards the tonic. 
 
 Kieltliaft (Ger. lab -hiift). Lively, vivacious, 
 
 cpiick, 
 
 Iiebrun, Francesca, a celebrated operatic so- 
 prano, born 1756. Died 1791. Had a voice 
 of great compass and purity. She also com- 
 posed sonatas, etc. 
 
 IJe C'arpeiltier, Adolphe Clair, a French 
 piano composer and music teacher, bom in 
 i8og at Paris, Died i86g. 
 
 liC l/lair. Jean Marie, aj celebrated violinist 
 and composer for his instrument, born at 
 Lyons 1697. Died 1764. Two of his sonatas 
 were edited by Ferd. David, and are highly 
 esteemed. 
 
 IJet'OCq, Charles, the popular composer of comic 
 operas, operettas, etc., was born in Paris in 
 1832, entered the Conservatoire in 1849, and 
 distinguished himself. His first successful 
 opera was " Le Docteur Miracle," in 1S57. 
 Among his most popular pieces are " La 
 Fille de M'me Angot," 1873, which ran for 
 500 nights consecutively. His works are dis- 
 tinguished for life, brio^ and easy gayety. 
 
 liCCOn (Fr. Ia-s6nh) lesson, an exercise. 
 
 IJe C'OUppey, Felicien, a French piano com- 
 poser, born in Paris 1814, educated at the 
 Conservatoire, and in 1843 appointed pro- 
 fessor of harmony there, and teacher of piano 
 in the ladies classes. Is the author of many 
 elementary and instructive compositions. 
 
 IjCCUreux, Theodore Marie, a French pianist, 
 organist, and composer, was born at Brest 
 1829, educated in Paris, and in 1848 returned 
 to Brest as organist and teacher of music. Is 
 the author of many elegant and pleasing 
 salon pieces. 
 
 JLeilger liilies (perhaps a corruption oileger) 
 short lines added to the staff above or below 
 to extend its compass. 
 
 JJeeds Musical Festival, was founded 
 
 1858. They are triennial 1874, 1877,1880. 
 l^efeburo- Wely. Louis James ( le-fii'-br wii'. 
 15), a distinguished organ virtuoso and im- 
 provisalore, was born 181 7 in Paris, became 
 his father's assistant as organist at the early 
 age of eight. At 15 was appointed his father's 
 successor at St. Roch. Entered the Conser- 
 vatoire in 1832. Was organist of the Madeline 
 from 1847 to 1858, after which he went to St. 
 Sulpice. Died i86g. Was a prolific composer 
 of organ music, chamber music, symphonies, 
 masses, a comic opera, etc. 
 
 liCfSare (Ital. le-ga -re). To slur, or bind. 
 
 LiO^atO (Ital. IC-ga-td). Slurred; connected. 
 On the violin legato notes are performed with 
 a single drawing of the bow. In singing, /f^fa/o 
 notes are delivered with one continuous tone. 
 On the piano, legato requires every key to be 
 held down until the next is struck. The 
 legato is indicated by a curved line, drawn 
 over or under the notes to be thus played. 
 
 lie;;atissillIO (Ital. le-ga-tees -s5-m6, super- 
 lative of the preceding). As legato as possi- 
 ble. 
 
 Jjeg'eilde (Ger. lag-en -de). A legend, or bal- 
 lad. 
 
 lieger (Fr. la-zhii). Light, nimble. 
 
 Liegerenieilt (Fr. lii-zhar-miinh). Lightly; 
 nimbly ; gaily. 
 
 lie^ffierissiniO (Ital. led -jer-ees-se-mo). 
 Very lightly (superlative of Leggiero.) 
 
 Liegjfiero (Ital. led-je-ii -ro). Light, swift, 
 delicate. 
 
 LiejSKieranieiite (Ital. led-je-6r-man-te), 
 
 Lightly, swiftly. 
 
 Jjeideiischaft (Ger. lid -en-shaft). Passion, 
 feeling. 
 
 Lieideiiscliaftlioll (Ger. lld'-en-shaft-likh). 
 
 Passionately. 
 L^eier (Ger. Ii-er). A lyre, a hurdy-gurdy. 
 liOise (Ger. H -ze). Low, soft, gentle. 
 Ij«'iter (Ger. li'-ter). Leader, also the scale. 
 
 LieitlllOtive (Ger lit-mo-tev). A leading 
 motive. 
 
 lieilllliens, Nicolas Jacques (lem'-men\ A 
 distinguished Netherland organist and com- 
 poser for the organ, was born Jan. 23, 1823, at 
 Zoerle-Parwys in Belgium. He studied the 
 organ at the Conservatory in Brussels, and 
 afterwards with Hesse at Breslau. In 1849 
 he became professor of the organ in the Con- 
 servatory in Brussels. L. has published 
 many brilliant pieces for the organ in a school 
 somewhat between the gravity of the German 
 and the levity of the French ; also an impor- 
 tant organ school. 
 
 Lieiiinieiis-Sherrington, Mdme., wife of 
 
 the preceding, is a prominent Lnglish so- 
 prano, who was educated at Brussels. 
 
 Ijeilioilie, Jean Baptiste, was a French opera 
 composer, born 1751. Died at Paris 1796. 
 
 JLeniolne, Gabriel L., son of the preceding, 
 was a prolific composer of piano and chamber 
 music. 1772-1815 
 
 IjeilO (Ital. la -nO). Weak, feeble, faint. 
 
 Ijeilt (Fr, liinh). Slow. 
 
 Ijeiltaineilte ( Ital. len-ta-miin'-te). Slowly. 
 
 fiClltando (Ital. len-tiin -do). Going slowly. 
 Synonymous with rullcntatido. 
 
 IjeiltO (Ital. lan'-tO). Slow. Frequently modi- 
 fied by other words, as lento assai, very 
 lento ; Ifuto ill 7Holto, very much lento. 
 
 £>eilK. Wilhelm von, Russian councilor at St. 
 Petersburg, and author of " Beethoven and 
 His Three Styles '' (2 vols., 1852), " Beetho- 
 ven : An Art-Study" (6 vols., i855-i86ot, and 
 an interesting little book on Piano-forte Vir- 
 tuosi. Lenz is an inaccurate but entertain- 
 ing writer. 
 
 a alL\ a ,1-1. ly ii ar;ic, e ez/i,]j enJ, i ice, 1 ill, o ol.l, o oJ.l, 6 dozu, 00 ;«<><,«, ii lute, u but, U Fr. sound 
 
 4»
 
 LEO 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 LIS 
 
 IdCO, Leonardo (la -0), one of the most celebra- 
 ted Neapolitan composers, was born 1694, and 
 died 1746. He wrote several operas and a 
 large number of pieces for the church. 
 
 Lieoilliai'd, Hubert, a favorite Belgian violin 
 virtuoso, composer and teacher for his instru- 
 ment. Born 1819 at Bellaire. Afte; the usual 
 career of a virtuoso, he settled down in 1849 
 as professor of the violin in the Conservator}' 
 at Brussels. 
 
 Ijeoilliard, Julius Emil, a notable German 
 pianist, composer and teacher, born i8io, died 
 1831 in Leipsic. 
 
 lieoiiorf ou PAmour Conjugal. An opera- 
 comique in 2 acts, words by Bouilly, music by 
 Gaveau.\. 1798. Translated into Italian, the 
 book was composed by Paer in 1804. Trans- 
 lated into German, it was composed by Bee- 
 thoven as " Fidelio." It was B.'s wish to 
 call the opera Leonore, but he was overruled 
 by the management of the theatre. His four 
 overtures to it are : No. i in C, op. 138, com- 
 posed in 1807; No. 2 in C, 1805, and played 
 at the three performances of the opera ; No. 
 3, C, 1806 ; Fidelio, in E, for the second and 
 final revision of the opera. 1814. 
 
 IJeSflietitzky. Theodor (les'-chet-tit'-ski), 
 a distinguished pianist, for some time profes- 
 sor of piano at St. Petersburg, but now living 
 in Vienna. Is the author of many pleasing 
 pieces for the piano. Born 1831. M'me 
 Annette Essipoflf was his pupil and wife. 
 
 Lieslie, Henry David, was born in London, 
 June 18, 1822. He became conductor of the 
 choir which bears his name in 1855, through 
 which he has established his fame as a re- 
 fined and highly accomplished conductor of 
 vocal music. Is the author of a symphony in 
 F, 1847; " Immanuel," an oratorio, 1853; 
 " Judith," oratorio, 1858 ; " Holyrood," can- 
 tata, i860 ; "Ida," opera, 1864, etc., etc. 
 
 lil'stocci, opera in 4 acts, by Auber, 1834. 
 
 liesueur. Jean Franfois, a French composer 
 of operas, and teacher, born 1763, and in 1792- 
 1796 appeared as the author of several operas. 
 In 1813 L. succeeded Gretry at the Institut, 
 and in 1818 became professor of composition 
 at the Conservatoire. Died 1837. 
 
 lit'vezza (Ital. le-vat'-tsii). Lightness. 
 
 JLiaiSOn (Fr. Ie-a-z6nh). Smoothness of con- 
 nection, also a bind or tie. 
 
 Liiberameute (.Ital. le-be-rii-man'-te). Free- 
 ly, easily. 
 
 Liibitum (Lat.). Pleasure; ad libitum^ at 
 pleasure. 
 
 IiilirettO (Ital. le-brat'-to~). A little book. In 
 other words, the text of an opera or other 
 dramatic piece of music. 
 
 liiceiise. an arbitrary deviation from the 
 established rules. Justifiable only by some 
 good effect thereby attained, 
 
 liie (Fr. le-a ). Smoothly, the same as legato. 
 
 Liiebeslied (Ger. lee'-bes-leed). A love 
 song. 
 
 liiebig. Karl (lee'-big). The successful founder 
 of classical popular concerts in Berlin, was 
 born at Schwerdt in 1808, and was for some 
 time clarinettist in a regimental band. He 
 established his orchestra in Berlin in 1850. 
 Died in 1872. 
 
 liieblich Oedaoht (Ger. leeb - likh ge- 
 dakht). The German name for the "stopped 
 diapason," an 8 ft. flute stop in the organ. 
 
 liieblin^, Emil (leeb -ling). Concert pianist 
 and teacher, was born at Berlin in iSji, 
 studied with Kullak, and came to Chicago in 
 1872, where he has since held high rank. 
 
 liied (Ger. leedj. K song. 
 
 liiedoheil (.Ger. leed'-kh'n). A short song, or 
 melody. 
 
 liiedrorin (Ger.) A song-form. 
 
 Liif dcr-JSpiel (Ger. lee -der-speel). "A 
 Song-play,'' an operetta. 
 
 LiiederkreiS (Ger. leed'-er-krls). A cycle 
 
 of songs. 
 
 liiedex* oliue "Worte (.Ger. Ieed-5r 6-nS vor'- 
 te). bongs without words. A title made fa- 
 mous by Mendelssohn. 
 
 liia:atur (Ital. le-gii-toor'). See ligature. 
 
 liig'ature, an old name for the tie or bind. 
 
 liigbt, a general name applied to any bright but 
 unimportant composition. 
 
 lA%\\t of the ^Vorld, The, an oratorio in 
 
 two parts, by Arthur S. Sullivan, 1873. 
 
 Ijillibui'lei'O, a celebrated old Irish doggerel 
 song and tune, the latter by Purcel. 
 
 liilt (Scotch). To sing or pipe. Also the name 
 of a quick tune. 
 
 Lilly of Killariiey, a grand opera in 3 acts, 
 by Jules Benedict. 1862. 
 
 Ijilld, Jenny, the great soprano, was born at 
 Stockholm, in 1820. Studied singing there 
 and afterwards with Manuel Garcia in Pans. 
 Her debut took place in 1842, but her reputa- 
 tion was not fully established until 1847. ^^'^ 
 American tour under Barnum's management 
 was in 1850 and 1851. In 1852 she married 
 Mr. Otto Goldsmith, the pianist. She still 
 lives in London. 
 
 f.illdblad. Adolph Frederick, Swedish com- 
 poser, mainly of vocal music, born at Stock- 
 holm in 1804. He was a teacher nf singing, 
 Jenny Lind being one of his pupils. Died 
 1878. 
 
 liilldpailltner. Peter Joseph von, a success- 
 ful and industrious German composer, and a 
 superior conductor, born at Coblenz, 1791. 
 In 1819 he was appointed Kapellmeister at 
 Stuttgart, and held that place until his death 
 in 1856. He wrote 28 op^jras, 3 ballets, 5 
 melodramas and oratorios, 6 masses, and 
 above 50 songs with piano accompaniment. 
 
 Lillke (Ger. lin'-ke), left. The left hand. 
 
 lilnley, an English musical family. Thomas, 
 1725-1795, was a composer of dramatic pieces, 
 and takes high rank. Three of his daughters 
 were successful singers. Willi.am, his young- 
 est son, devoted himself to literature and 
 music. 1767-1835. 
 
 liipinski. Karl Joseph, an eminent violinist 
 of the modern school, was born in Poland in 
 1790. After many concert tours, in which he 
 was to some e.\tent a rival of Paganini, L. 
 became Kapellmeister at Dresden, where he 
 died in 1861. His numerous compositions are 
 now nearly all forgotten. 
 
 liisbetll. The French title to Mendelssohn's 
 
 " Son and Stranger." 1865. 
 liiscio (Ital. le'-she-O). Simple, unadorned, 
 
 smooth. 
 
 a aCe., a add., a arm^ e eve^ e end, 1 ice, 1 ill, 6 old, 6 odd, o dove, 00 iito<,n, u lute, u but, u ». sound 
 
 42
 
 LIS 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 LUR 
 
 liisteniann. Bemhard Ferd., the distin- 
 guished violinist, was born about 1838. He 
 graduated at Leipsic in 1856. In 1868 lie 
 came to Boston, where he has since resided, 
 as teacher, first violin in quartette and 
 symphony orga.iizations, and at last in 1879 
 as conductor of his own orchestra. 
 
 li'istesso tempo (Ital. lTs-stas-s6 tam pu) 
 
 The same time, in the same speed. 
 
 L/iSZt, Franz, the king of the piano-forte, and one 
 of the most remarkably gifted men of the 
 present century was born in 181 1. See Chap- 
 ter 50. 
 
 Xiitany, a solemn form of prayer. 
 
 Liitollt', Henry Charles, the brilliant pianist and 
 composer of salon pieces for piano, was born 
 in London 1818, was a pupil of Moscheles, 
 and made a successful public appearance, as 
 early as the age of twelve. He removed to 
 Brunswick as music publisher in 1851, and in 
 1861 to Paris, where he has since resided. 
 He is also a composer of symphonies, over- 
 tures, etc. 
 
 Liitlirsy, the ritual for public worship in 
 churches using printed forms. 
 
 liObe, J. C, the distinguished teacher of com- 
 position and music at Leipsic, was born 1797 
 at Weimar, and appeared as solo flutist in the 
 Gewandhaus orchestra in Leipsic in 1811. In 
 1842 he removed to Leipsic as editor of a 
 musical periodical. He composed five operas, 
 besides overtures, etc., but is best known by 
 his letters on music, and his remarkably 
 interesting Kompositionslehre (4 vols. 8vo., 
 1851 to 1867). 
 
 IjOliegesai'g:, eine Symphonie Cantata, the 
 German title of Mendelssohn's " Hymn of 
 Praise," op. 52, 1840. 
 
 IiOck, Matthew, an English musician born 
 1653, died 1677. Best known by his music to 
 " Macbeth," and " Tempest.'' 
 
 liOOO (Ital. lo -ko), place. Denotes that a pas- 
 sage is to be played as written, and not an 
 octave higher or lower. 
 
 LiOtloiska. comedy in 3 acts. Music by Cheru- 
 biiii. 179T. Also the same story set to music 
 by Kreutzer. 1791. 
 
 IiOeSCllllorn, A., an excellent pianist and 
 musician, was born in Berlin i8ig. _ He was a 
 pupil of Berger. L. is a fine pianist, the 
 author of many valuable studies and other 
 pieces, and professor of piano since 1858 at 
 Berlin. 
 
 liOeive, Karl, an industrious composer, born 
 1796 at Loebejuen, and died 1869. Loewe 
 wrote 5 operas, many ballads and small 
 pieces, and several instruction-books. 
 
 IjOgier, Johann Bernard (lo-jeer'), was born in 
 1780 at Kaiserlantern, andcame to London at 
 the age of 10. He made a great success and 
 a fortune in England by a patent system of 
 instruction on the piano and in harmony, 
 which was for a time all the rage. He died 
 near Dublin in 1846. He is said to have been 
 the inventor of the keyed bugle. 
 
 liOlieng'rili (lo-hen-gren). A romantic drama 
 in 3 acts, by Richard Wagner. 1847. First 
 produced at Weimar by Liszt in 1850. See 
 Chapter LI. 
 
 LiOnibai'ili, I (e lom-biir'-dee). Italian opera 
 in 4 acts, by Verdi. 1843. 
 
 liOllsa. a note equal to four whole notes. Not 
 
 now in use, 
 
 LiOlIK Appoggiatura, a grace note, with- 
 out a stroke through the stem, which in old 
 music occupies half or two-thirds the time of 
 the following note. 
 
 liOllg: Meter, Iambic tetrameter, a form of 
 English verse, consisting of eight syllables 
 to the line : -^ — l'-^ — |^' — | -' — | . 
 
 liOllg Pause, abbreviated L. P., implies a 
 very long pause at a certain note or rest. 
 
 IjOihI of the Isles, The. Dramatic cantata 
 by Henry Gadsby. 1879. 
 
 fjOrtxillg. Gustav Albert, an opera composer 
 born at Berlin, 1803. Died at Berlin, 1852 
 Although Lortzing was composer of very 
 many light operas, of which the " Czar and 
 Carpenter" is the best known, he died in 
 n'-glect. His writing is pleasing and musi - 
 cianly. 
 
 IjOrele.V, Die, " The Loreley." An opera upon 
 which Mendelssohn was engaged at the time 
 of his death in 1847. 2. Also an opera by 
 Max Bruch, 1864. 
 
 liOtti, Antonio, a celebrated Italian composer 
 of operas, oratorios and church music, 1667- 
 1740. One song of his, ^^ Pur Dicesti^'' is 
 still current and admired. 
 
 JjOlire (Fr. loor), a dance of slow time and 
 dignified character, resembling the Gavotte. 
 
 liOve'S Triumph, opera in 3 acts, by Wm. 
 Vincent Wallace, 1862. 
 
 IjO^ve, Edward, an English composer of church 
 music, and professor at Oxford. Born about 
 1615. Died 1682. 
 
 TiUeea, Pauline, (look-ka), the brilliant and 
 pleasing operatic singer, was born in Vienna 
 in 1842, made her debut in Berlin in 1861. 
 She was in America in 1873. 
 
 liueia cli liamnieruioor (loo'-tse-a de 
 lam'-mer-moor). Opera in 3 acts, by Doni- 
 zetti, 1835. 
 
 liUoio Silla, a Dramma per viusica in 3 
 acts, by Mozart, 1772. 
 
 liUerezia Borgia (loo-knld'-zt-ii bor'-ja). 
 Opera in 3 acts, by Donizetti, 1834. 
 
 Iiue.stucr, Ignaz Peter, a noted violinist and 
 teacher, born 1792 at Pois-chwitz, lived main- 
 ly at Breslau, where he founded a school in 
 violin playing, and died in 1873. His sons 
 were all musical, and occupy prominent posi- 
 tions in different parts of Europe. 
 
 LiUelirs, Carl (leers). A talented composerof 
 symphonies, songs, etc. Born at Schwerin, 
 1824. 
 
 liUisa Miller, opera in 4 acts, by Verdi, 1849. 
 
 Lulli. Jean Baptiste, was one of the old masters 
 in the time before Bach. He was a French 
 composerof popular operas and sacred music. 
 Born 1633 near Florence. Died 1687. L. 
 was musical director to Louis XIV. 
 
 LiUmbye, Hans Christian, a Danish composer 
 of dances, born at Copenhagen 1808, was 
 the leader of an orchestra, like Strauss's, 
 Lanner's, Gilmore's, etc. Died 1874. His 
 son George succeeded to his father's popu- 
 larity and leadership. 
 
 liUrliue (loor-leen). Grand opera in 3 acts, 
 by Wm. Vincent Wallace, 1S60. 
 
 a<t/f , i add^ a arm, e eve, e end, 1 ice, I ///, 6 old. 
 
 I, 6 odd, o dove, 00 moon, u lute, u but, u Fr. sound 
 43
 
 LUS 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 MAN 
 
 liUSino^anito (Ital. loo-zen-gan'-do). Flat- 
 teringly, coaxingly. Whence, "in a soft and 
 tender manner." 
 
 liUstigen Weiber von Windsor, 
 
 " Merry Wives of Windsor," opera in 3 acts, 
 by Otto Nicolai, 1849. 
 
 LiUttUOSO (Ital. loot -too - 0-z6). Sorrowful, 
 mournful. 
 
 liUte. a large and beautiful stringed instrument, 
 with a long neck and fretted fingerboard, with 
 from six to nine strings. The body was pear- 
 shaped. Now obsolete. 
 
 liUX. Friedrich (loox), a distinguished organ vir- 
 tuoso and composer, born Nov. 24, 1820, at 
 Ruhla. Educated in organ and piano playing 
 by his father, who was Cantor, and in 1851 
 music-director in Dessau. Is the author 
 of a symphony and many considerable works. 
 
 liWOft", Alexis, a Russian violinist, composer 
 and writer, born 1799. Died 1870. 
 
 Liydian Mode. The church mode having 
 the tones F G A B C D E F. 
 
 Ijyre. an ancient stringed instrument. The 
 modern lyre has its representative in the 
 hurdy-gurdy. 
 
 Ijyx'ie, song-like. 
 
 ]Lysberg. Charles, properly Bovy, hence Bovy- 
 Lysberg, a brilliant pianist and composer of 
 salon pieces, was born in Geneva 1821. He 
 studied the piano with Chopin in Paris, and 
 published his first pieces, under the psctido- 
 nym of Lysberg, in 1836 or 1838. He resided 
 in Geneva, and died in 1873. 
 
 M. is used as abbreviation of inezzo^ inetronotne^ 
 mano^ etc. See "Abbreviations." 
 
 Ma (Ital. ma). But. 
 
 Maas. Louis, virtuoso pianist and teacher at 
 Leipsic. Born about 1850. 
 
 Maofarren, George A.,I\Ius. Doc, the Eng- 
 lish composer and President of the Royal 
 Academy of Music, was born March 2, 1813, 
 and educated in the institution of which he 
 is now president. Dr. Macfarren had defect- 
 ive vision in his youth, and about 1865 he be- 
 came entirely blind. In spite of this he has 
 been a productive composer, being the author 
 of several cantatas, operas, oratorios part- 
 songs, of which " St. John, the Baptist,'' is 
 one of the best. 
 
 Macfarren. Mrs. Natalia, wife of the preced- 
 ing, is a contralto singer and translator of 
 opera libretti, etc. 
 
 Macfarren, Walter, brother of G. A., is also 
 a professor of the piano in the same institu- 
 tion, and a composer. 
 
 Macbeth, opera in 4 acts by Verdi, 1S47. 2. 
 Overture for orchestra in B minor, Spohr. 
 3. Also music to Shakespeare's tragedy, by 
 Matthew Locke. 1673. 
 
 Madrigal (mad -re-gal). A composition for 
 three or more voices in strict style, on secular 
 words, popular in the i6th and 17th centuries. 
 Madrigals were full of imitations and fugues, 
 and sung without accompaniment. 'I'hey 
 were the predecessors of the modern glee. 
 
 Maestoso (Ital. mii-es-to -z6). Majestic, 
 stately, dignified. 
 
 Maestri, plural of ;«rtfj-/r(7. 
 
 Maestro (Ital. mU-as-tro). Master, composer, 
 a skilful artist. 
 
 Maessig (Ger. mfis-sig). Moderate, mode- 
 rately. 
 
 Maggiore (Ital. mad-je-o'-re). Greater, ma- 
 jor, the major key. 
 
 Magnificat (Lat. mag-nef-i-kat). " My soul 
 doth magnify the Lord," a part of the vesper 
 service. 
 
 Maid of Artois, opera in 3 acts, by Balfe 
 
 1336. 
 Main 'Fr. manh). The hand, as tnain dreii, 
 right hand ; main gauche, left hand. 
 
 Maistre, Mattheus le (otherwise known as 
 Matthias Lemaitre), a distinguished Nether- 
 land composer. Born about 15 10. Died 
 1577. From 1554 he was kapellmeister in 
 Dresden. 
 
 Maitre (Fr. matr), a master, director. 
 
 Majeur (Fr. ma-zhur). Major, major key. 
 
 Majesta (Ital. ma-yes-tii). Majesty, dignity. 
 
 Majeste (Fr. ma-zhes-ta). Same as the pre- 
 ceding. 
 
 Major, greater, as major/oiirth, greater fourth, 
 etc. 
 
 Major Semitone, a diatonic semitone, as 
 "E F, B C, F sharp, G, etc. 
 
 Malan, Rev. C^sar, a Swiss theologian, who 
 composed church music. i787-iS64.* 
 
 MalenconiCO (Ital. ma-len-ko'-ne-ko). Me- 
 lancholy, sadness. 
 
 Malibran, Maria, one of the most distinguished 
 and fascinating sonranos the world has ever 
 seen, was the daughter of Manuel Garcia. 
 Born 1S08 at Paris. Made her debut in 1825, 
 and immediately achieved success. She was 
 married to De Beriot, the violinist, in 1836, 
 the year of her death. 
 
 Mai linger, Matilde, a celebrated soprano in 
 the Berlin opera. Born 1847. Made her 
 debut in 1866, 
 
 Mancando (Ital. man-kan'-do). Falling, de- 
 creasing, dying away. 
 
 Mandolin, a small and very elegant instru- 
 ment of the lute kind, having frets like a 
 guitar, and four or five pairs of strings, set in 
 vibration by a plectrum. The lowest string 
 is of gut " spun over," the next of steel spun, 
 and the others of steel not spun. 
 
 Maniera (Ital. ma-ne-a'-ra). Manner, style. 
 
 Maniere tFr. man-e-ar ). Manner. 
 
 Mannerism, adherence to the same manner 
 or peculiarities of style. The constant recur- 
 rence of the same chord or phrase. 
 
 Manns, August, the eminent conductor of the 
 Crystal Palace concerts in Sydenham, was 
 born at Stolzenburg, 1825. He became mem- 
 ber of a military band, from which he was 
 transferred to Gung'l's orchestra in 1848, and 
 at length came to London in 1854, as sub- 
 conductor, and in 1855 as full conductor in his 
 present position, in which he has been of the 
 greatest service to English musical taste by 
 introducing the best German works in a su- 
 perior manner. 
 
 Mano (Ital. ma-no). Hand. 
 
 Manual, pertaining to hands. The key-board 
 for the hands, as distinguished from the 
 pedaU, the key-board for the feet. 
 
 Manual Coupler. A coupler connecting the 
 keys'of two organ manuals. 
 
 a ale, a add, a ariiu e eve, e end, I ice, I ///, old^ 6 odd, 6 dove, 00 moon, \i. lute, u but, u Fr. sound 
 
 44
 
 MAR 
 
 J)iaTIONARY. 
 
 MAT 
 
 3Iai*a, Gertrude Elizabeth, one of the greatest 
 cingers of the past century, born at Cassel 
 1749, died in 1833. 
 Mai'Cia (Ital. mar-tshe-ii). A march. 
 ^lai'Cll. a quick, or at least decided rhythm, 
 
 suitable for marching. 
 Mai'oello, Benedetto (mar-tshel-lo), an emi- 
 nent Venetian composer of cantatas, psalms, 
 and church music. Born 1686. Died 1739. 
 Marcliaiicl, Louis, a French organist of dis- 
 tinction, 1669-1732. 
 Mai'fliesi, Luigi (miir-ka'-ze), a fine operatic 
 
 singer. Born at Milan 1755. Died 1829, 
 MarclieSi, Mathildi de Castrone, the distin- 
 guished teacher of singing at Vienna, was 
 born at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 1826, and 
 made herdebut in opera in 1847. Since i85(. 
 she has lived in Vienna. Her greatest recent 
 pupil was Etelka Gerster. 
 Mavcliesi, Salvatore, husband of the preced- 
 ing, is also a vocal teacher, and composer of 
 songs, vocal exercises, etc. Born 1822. 
 Ulai'Clietti, F., one of the most distinguished 
 opera composers at present in Italy, vvfas born 
 in 1833. 
 Marked, accented. 
 
 JIarkil't (Ger. miir'-kert). Marked, accented. 
 Maretzek, Max (miir-et-zekl, the well- 
 known conductor, composer, and impressario, 
 was born in 1821 at Briinn, and was educated 
 at Vienna and Pans. His opera, "Hamlet," 
 was written in 1S43. i^^ came to New York 
 in 1847, where he has since resided. 
 Mai'ilielli, Galtano, a prolific opera composer. 
 Born 1760 at Naples. Died about 1811. 
 Wrote 16 operas. 
 Maria cli Koliail, opera in 3 acts, by Doni- 
 zetti, 1843. 
 Marino Faliero, opera in 2 acts, by Doni- 
 zetti, 1835. 
 Mario, Conte dl Candia, one of the greatest 
 operatic tenors, was born of a noble family at 
 Genoa in 1812. His debut was made in 1S38, 
 after which he ruled king of operatic tenors 
 until 1867, when he retired from the stage. 
 He was married to Mdme. Grisi about 1846. 
 Maritaiia, opera in 3 acts, by Wm. Vincent 
 
 Wallace, 1845. 
 Marpurg. Friedrich Wilhelm, eminent writer 
 on music and its theory, born 1718. Died in 
 1795 at Berlin. 
 Marsellaise, La. A French revolutionary 
 hymn, words and music composed by Rouget 
 de Lisle in 1792. 
 MartellatO (Ital. mar-tel-lii-to), hammered. 
 Strongly marked. (From iiinrtellare^ to 
 hammer, also mariellando, hammering.) 
 Martha, opera in 3 acts by Flotow, 1847. 
 
 Martini. Giovanni Baptista (mar-tee'-nee). 
 
 Commonly called Padre Martini, one of the 
 
 most scientific musicians of the i8th century, 
 
 was born at Bologna 1706. He was ordained 
 
 in the Franciscan order in 1722. Died 1784. 
 
 Author of a history of music and a work on 
 
 counterpoint ; also of many church and secu- 
 lar pieces. 
 Marscliner, Heinrich, one of the most 
 
 talented German composers of recent times, 
 
 was born at Zittau, 1795, and in 1830 was 
 
 kapellmeister to the King of Saxony. He 
 
 a, ale, a add, a arm, e eve, e end, \ ice, I ill, o old, o odd, o dove, 00 moon, u lute, u biet, u Fr. sound 
 
 composed very many popular operas, and 
 died full of years and honors, in Hanover 
 1861. 
 
 Martiri, I, " The Martyrs," opera in 4 acts, 
 by Donizetti, 1840. 
 
 Marx, Adol] :h Bernhard. an elegant and fluent 
 critic and theoretical writer niion music, was 
 born at Hall(5, 1799, and, although educated 
 for the law, became in 1824 the fiist editor of 
 the Berlin Miisik Zeituni;, then just founded. 
 He became professor in the University in 
 1830. Died in 1866. Was composer of two 
 oratorios and other music. 
 
 Marziale (Ital. miird-zeii -If'). Martial. 
 
 Masse, Victor, a pleasing French opera com- 
 poser, was born 1822 in Lorient, studied with 
 distinction in Paris, and has composed about 
 16 operas. Is a member of the Academy, and 
 teacher of composition in the Conservatoire. 
 
 MasaniellO (mas-sa-ne'-al-ir)>. Otherwise 
 known as " La Muette di Portici," opera 
 in 5 acts, by Auber, 1828. 
 
 Masiiadieri, I, " The Brigands," opera in 
 4 acts, by Verdi, 1847. 
 
 Mason, Lowell, Mus. Doc, was born at Med- 
 field, Mass., 1792, and died at Orange, N. J., 
 1872. He was a self-taught musician. His 
 first book of psalmody was published in 1822, 
 and was a step towards better rniisic in New 
 England. Dr. Mason was peculiarly an edu- 
 cator, and as such exerted an extremely im- 
 portant influence, which is still very per- 
 ceptible. Owing to his early privations, he 
 was not a musician in the learned sense of 
 the term. But he had a fine sense for har- 
 mony, and the gift of writing simple four-part 
 music agreeably and purely for voices. He 
 was studious in his tastes, and collected a 
 fine library, which was left to Yale College. 
 He was a man of generous and noble char- 
 acter, as well as great ability, and would 
 have distinguished himself in any walk of life. 
 
 Mason. William, Mus. Doc, son of the pre- 
 ceding, is a pianist and composer, born at 
 Boston in 1829. Learned the piano young, 
 and in 1851 studied with Moschelesand Haupt- 
 mann at Leipsic, and afterwards with Dreys- 
 chock at Prague, and Liszt at Weimar, where 
 he was classmate of Billow, Pruckner, Klind- 
 worth and Raff. Mason is a fine harmonist, 
 a good melodist, and a composer of remark- 
 ably elegant pieces for the piano. Since 1856 
 he has resided in Orange, N. J., and occupies 
 leading rank in New York as teacher of the 
 piano. He is also author of a new and vecy 
 important system of piano-forte Technics. 
 
 Mass, the music for use during the service of the 
 Mass. 
 
 Matliilde di Sliabran, opera buff'e in 3 
 
 acts, by Rossini, 1821. 
 Matilda of Hungary, dramatic opera in 
 3 acts, by Wm. Vincent Wallace, in 1S47. 
 
 Matins, the first division of the canonical hours. 
 
 Matinee (Fr. mii-lT-nii ). An entertainment 
 given early in the day. 
 
 Mathews, W. S. B., was bom at Loudon, N. 
 H., May 8, 1837. Began the study of music 
 at an early age, and became teacher at the 
 age of 15. Began to write for " Dwight's 
 Journal of Music " in 1859. Resides near 
 Chicago as teacher of piano-forte, orgin,and 
 musical writer. 
 
 45
 
 MAT 
 
 DICTIONARY, 
 
 MID 
 
 Mattel. Tito (tee -to mat-ta'-e), a popular 
 composer of songs and piano pieces in London. 
 
 Mayer. Charles (ml'-er), a favorite German 
 piano virtuoso, composer and teacher, born 
 at Konigsberg lygg. Appeared early as a 
 pianist. Lived much in St. Petersburg, and 
 died in Dresden 1862. As a player he be- 
 longed to the school of Field. 
 
 May t^lieen, The. A pastoral cantata, by 
 Sir Wni. Sterndale Bennett. 1855. 
 
 MaKlirka, a rather slow Polish dance in triple 
 time. 
 
 Measure, the grouping of pulsations in music. 
 Measure is two-part, three-part, or four-part. 
 There are also compound measures of these 
 various grades, in which each unit consists of 
 a triplet. Measure includes two elements, 
 both of which are essential to the intelligibility 
 of music ; a steady movement through the 
 piece, and a clear accent at the beginning of 
 each measure. The longer measures take 
 also secondary accents, at the beginning of 
 their aliquot parts. 
 
 Measure-note, the note which represents a 
 unit of time. It is always indicated by the 
 lower figure of the time-signature, 4 for quar- 
 ter-note, 8 for eighth, etc. 
 
 Medee, opera in 3 acts by Cherubini, 1797. 
 
 Mediant, the third note of the scale, the 
 medial between tonic and dominant. 
 
 Medial Cadence, a passing or imperfect 
 cadence. 
 
 Meeresstille and Ciluekliclie Falirt, 
 
 "Calm sea and Prosperous Voyage," poem 
 by Goethe. Music by Beethoven in 181 5. 
 Also by Mendelssohn for orchestra only, 1828. 
 Also by Rubinstein. 
 
 Melllig', Anna, a distingui?;hed pianist, born 
 at Stuttgart 1846, educated there, and after- 
 wards with Liszt, made her debut in England 
 1866. Was in America in 1873 ^"^1 1874. 
 Resides in Stuttgart. Has great technic, a 
 refined style, but somewhat cold. 
 
 Meliul, Etienne Henri, a celebrated French 
 composer. Born 1763 at Givet. Went to 
 Paris in 178 t, and came out as a composer in 
 his fourth opera in 1790. He wrote24 operas, 
 and many other works. Died 1817. 
 
 Meistersinger von Xuernberg, " The 
 
 ISLaster Singers of Nuremburg," opera, by R. 
 Wagner, 1846. 
 
 Melange (Fr. ma-liinzh'). A mixture. 
 
 Melaneolia (Ital. m61-an-ko -liii). Melan- 
 choly. 
 
 Melodeon, a reed instrument having a key- 
 board like the piano-forte. 
 
 Melodic, of or pertaining to melody. 
 
 Melody, a tune ; a symmetrically organized 
 and completed period. 
 
 Melodia (Ital. ma-lo'-dia). A melody. 
 
 Blelodia, an organ stop of the flute tone, 8 ft. 
 
 pitch. Commonly in the choir organ. 
 Melodic (Ger.) A melody. 
 
 Melodioso (Ital. ma-lo-de-o'-zo). Melodi- 
 ously. 
 
 Melodrama, a drama illustrated by music in- 
 terspersed, or frequently as accompaniment 
 to the spoken dialogue. 
 
 Melusine, overture by Mendelssohn, 1S33. 
 Also set as choral work by Hoffman. 
 
 Menie tFr. mam). The same. 
 
 jflendel, Hermann, editor of Mendel's Musi- 
 /calisishes Conversations-Lexicon (Musical 
 Encyclopedia), was born at Hall^, 1834. He 
 undertook his lexicon in 1870, and died in 
 1876, just as the work had reached the letter 
 M. It has since been completed in 11 vol- 
 umes, and is the most complete work of the 
 kind. 
 
 Mendelssohn, Felix, was bom at Hamburg, 
 1809, and died 1847. See Chapter XLVII. 
 
 Meno (Ital. ma-no), less ; meno tnosso, less 
 
 movement, slower. 
 
 Mensur, a measure. 
 
 Mennet (Fr. ma-noo-e). A minuet. 
 
 Menuetto (Ital. ma-noo-et'-to). A minuet. 
 
 Mercadante, Xav., a well-known opera com- 
 poser. Born at Altamura in 1798. In 1840 
 he became director of the Conservatorium of 
 Naples. Died 1870. 
 
 Messa di Voce (Ital. mas-sade v6'-tshee). 
 
 The gradual swelling and diminishing of the 
 
 voice. 
 MeSSe (Ger. mes'-s§). A mass. 
 Mesto (Ital. mas'-to). Sad, mournful. 
 
 Mestoso (Ital. mas-to'-zo). Sadly, mourn- 
 fully. 
 Mess'' \, The, an oratorio, by Handel, 1741. 
 Met, abbreviation oi 3Ietronoiiie, 
 
 Metal, organ, a composition of tin and lead in 
 varying proportions. Tin should be at least 
 one-third. 
 
 Metronome (met'-ro-nom). A measure of 
 time. A chronometer invented by Maelzel, 
 consisting essentially of clock-work and es- 
 cape wheel, and a pendulum swinging on a 
 pivot in the middle of its length. It can be 
 made to go slower by sliding a ball up towards 
 the top of the pendulum. The rate is indi- 
 cated by the letters M.M. for the metronome, 
 a figure showing the place of the ball on the 
 graduated scale of the instrument, and a note 
 which is to occupy the time of a single tick. 
 
 Meter, the plan of verse according to its feet 
 and length of lines. 
 
 Meyer, Leopold de (mi -er). An eccentric 
 pianist, born 1S16, a pupil of Czerny, visited 
 America in 1845 and 1868, and lives in Paris 
 and London. 
 
 Me.verbeer, Giacomo (gia-ko-mo mi-er- 
 bar), whose real name was Jacob Meyer Beer, 
 the celebrated opera composer, was born at 
 Berlin of a wealthy Jewish family, 1791. His 
 debut as composer was made in 181 1. His 
 best known operas were " 11 Crociato,'' 1824, 
 " Robert der Teufel," in 1831. and " Les 
 Huguenotte,'' 1836, the " Prophete," 1849. 
 Died 1864. All these operas are showy, and 
 extravagant, rather than inspired. 
 
 Mezza, feminine of mezzo. 
 
 Mezzo (Ital. mat-tso). Half, or medium. 
 
 Mezzo Soprano, a voice of soprano quality, 
 buli not so high as a pure soprano. 
 
 Mi (Ital. me). The third tone of the scale in 
 solmization. 
 
 Microphone (mi'-kro-fon). An instrument 
 for observing feeble sounds ; a microscope for 
 sounds. 
 
 Middle Voices, the inner voices in choral 
 writing, the alto and tenor. 
 
 a ale, a add, a arm, ti eve, e end, 1 ice, \ ill, 6 old, o odd, 6 dove, 00 moon, U lute, u but, li Fr. sound 
 
 46
 
 MIG 
 
 DICTIOXAKY. 
 
 MOZ 
 
 !^Ii;;ilOil, opera in 4 acts, by Ambroise Thomas. 
 
 jMilliS, S. 1!., virtuoso pianist, composer and 
 teacher, was born at Leicester, England, 
 March 13, iS^q. Studied at Leipsic, and 
 came to New York about 1858, where he has 
 since held a distinguislicd position. 
 
 Military Banrt, a brass band, or brass and 
 wood (horns, trombones, cornels, tulias, clari- 
 nets, oboes, flutes, piccolo kettle-drum, 
 snare-drum, and cymbal). 
 
 Minor, smaller. 
 
 Minor seeonrt, a diatonic semitone. 
 
 Minor third, a third equal to three semitones. 
 
 Minor triad, a triad with a minor third. 
 
 Minore (Ital. me-no-ret, minor. 
 
 Minor Scale, the scale beginning with the 
 syllable La, or the 6th of the major. See 
 Mason's "Piano Technics," for a discussion 
 of the M.S. 
 
 Minnesingers,m!nstrels of the 12th and 13th 
 centuries, who wandered from place to place 
 singing a great variety of songs. 
 
 Minstrels, wandering singers. 
 
 Minuet, an ancient, slow and stately dance in 
 3-4 time, usually in two strains. 
 
 Miserere (Lat. me-se-ra-re), "Have mer- 
 cy," a psalm of supplication. 
 
 Missa, a mass. Missal, a mass-book. 
 
 Misterioso (Ital. mis-ta-rJ-o'-z6). Mysteri- 
 ously. 
 
 MisuratO (Ital. me-soo-ra-to). Measured, in 
 e.\act time. 
 
 Mixture, an organ stop composed of several 
 ranks of pipes, designed to strengthen the 
 harmonic over-tones in the klang. " Two 
 rank" mixtures sound the 12th aud 15th of 
 the noti struck. Three rank the 15th, 19th, 
 and 22d. Modern mixtures do not contain 
 the third of the chord (or any of its octaves, 
 the loth, 17th, 24th), but only of^taves and 
 fifth:, and are voiced in flute quality. They 
 impart a clear and ringing quality to the tone 
 of the full organ. 
 
 ModeratO (Ital. mod-a-rii'-to). Moderately. 
 
 3Iode, a scale or key, " Major mode," major 
 key. 
 
 Modesto (Ital. mo-das'-to). Modestly. 
 
 Modulation, a harmonic progression out of 
 one key into another, by means of ambiguous 
 chords. " Modulation of voice" means con- 
 trol of the voice. 
 
 Modus (Latin). A mode. 
 
 Moins (Fr. mwa). Less. 
 
 Molique, Bernhard (mG-leek). An excellent 
 violinist. Born at Nuremburg, 1S02. Died 
 1869. Wrote concertos for violin, trios for 
 piano, violin and 'cello, and an oratorio, 
 "Abraham," i860. 
 
 Moll (Ger. mol). Soft, i.e., minor. 
 
 Molto (Ital. mol'-to). Much, very much, a 
 great deal. 
 
 Monoeliord, an instrument composed of a 
 single string stretched over a sounding-board, 
 along a graduated scale, for measuring musi- 
 cal intervals. 
 
 Monody, a composition on one subject, gener- 
 ally of a sad character. 
 
 Monteverde, Claudio, one of the greatest 
 masters in his time. Born 1566 in Cremona. 
 Died 1 65 1. He wrote operas, and deserves 
 particular honor for developing recitative. 
 
 Montre(Fr. monh-tra ), "mounted," in front. 
 Hence frequently applied to the diapason 
 stop in an organ, because its pipes are often 
 displayed in front. 
 
 Mor«M»au (Fr. mor-so). A piece, a choice piece. 
 
 Mordent (Ital. mor-diin - tS). A transient 
 shake or beat, formed by the principal note 
 and the next above. See supplement. 
 
 Moresea (Ital. mH-rSs-ka), Moorish. A mor- 
 ris-dan; e, in which bells are jingled and 
 swords clashed. 
 
 Morlaechi, Francesco (mOi-lak-kee), a suc- 
 cessful atid meritorious opera composer, born 
 
 1784, died 1S41. 
 
 Morniiigton, Earl of, father of the Duke of 
 Wellington, was a composer of glees and 
 church pieces. Born 1742 in Ireland. 
 
 Mortier de Fontaine, bom 1818 at War- 
 saw, the first who played Beethoven's gigan- 
 tic sonata, op. 106, in public. 
 
 Moore, Thomas, an English poet and song- 
 writer, born in Dublin 1779. Published his 
 Iriik Melodies'\\\ 1823. Died 1852. 
 
 Morgan. George Washbourne, the distin- 
 guished organist, living in New York, was 
 born in England about 1827, aud came to 
 New York about twenty years ago, where for 
 a long time h was organist of Grace Church. 
 
 Moselieles, Ignatz, the distinguished piano 
 virtuoso and teacher, wa= born at Prague in 
 1794. Studied with Zadrakha, a'-d later with 
 Dionys Weber and Clementi. He made his 
 debut in 1S15, and had famou-: success all 
 over Europe. He resided in London as 
 teacher, conductor and pianist, for some years, 
 and joined Mendelssohn as professor of piano 
 at the Leipsic Conservatory, in 1846, where 
 he died in 1870. 
 
 Moses ill Egypt, an opera, or oratorio, by 
 Rossini, 1827. 
 
 MOSSO (Ital. mos'-so). Movement, motion. 
 
 Moszkowski. Moritz (moz-ko'-ski), one of 
 the most gifted of the younger composers, 
 was born about 1853, and resides ir. Berlin, 
 where he was pupil of Kullak, and is a clever 
 pianist. His compositions are mainly for the 
 piano, and are fresh, musical and melodious. 
 
 Motette (mo-tet). A motet ; a vocal com- 
 position, with sacred words. The line be- 
 tween motet and anthem is not cle.arly dr.iwn. 
 
 Motive, a musical figure or germ employed as 
 a text. See Chaps. I. and X. 
 
 Motion, mode of progression. Rhythvtic J.I. is 
 progression in nf)tes of uniform value, or in a 
 particular rhythmic figure, through several 
 measures orperiods. See Ch.ips. VII. , VIII. 
 and IX. Voice M. is similar, parallel, con- 
 trary, or oblique. CV'«^>vi/««/'rt/ M. is " two 
 against one,' " three against one," " four 
 against one." 
 
 Moutlipieee, that part of a trumpet or brass 
 instrument which is applied to the lips. 
 
 Mozart, Leopold, born 1719 in .A.ugsberg. Died 
 1787. He was an excellent mii-ician, and a 
 tasteful and talented composer, and vice- 
 kapellmeister to the Archbishop of Salsz- 
 burg. 
 
 a ale, a add, a arm, e eve, 5 end, I ice, 1 ///, 6 old., 6 odd, 6 dove, 00 moon, u lute, u out, u Fr. sound 
 
 47
 
 MOZ 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 NAU 
 
 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born Jan. 27, 1756, at Salzburg, 
 and died 1791. See Chap XLV. 
 
 Muette <li Portiei, II, otherwise known as 
 " Masaniello," opera in 5 acts, by Auber, 
 1828. 
 
 llueller, A. E., organist of the St. Thomas 
 Church at Leipsic, was composer, for the 
 piano-forte, organ, orchestra, and voices. 
 1767-1S17. 
 
 Mueller, C. E. R.. an organist, pianist, and 
 composer. Born in Chicago about 1847, edu- 
 cated at Stuttgart, and at present residing in 
 Chicago. Is translator of Lebert and Stark's 
 piano method. 
 
 Mur.ska, lima di, the brilliant singer, was born 
 about 1843, in Croatia, studied singing with 
 Marchesi, in Vienna, and made her debut in 
 1862. Her voice is a soprano of about three 
 octaves compass and great execution. 
 
 Murray, Jam°s R., composer of school and 
 S. S. music, born at Andover, Mass., 1841. 
 
 Musette (Fr. moo-set'). An instrument of the 
 bag-pipe family. Also an air in 2-4, 3-4, or 
 6-S of moderate tempo and smooth and simple 
 character. 
 
 Music, of the Future, a term ironically 
 applied some years ago to the music of Wag- 
 ner. The name was derived from his essay 
 under the same title. 
 
 Musical History. The best accounts of, 
 are Brendel's ''^ Gi'schickie der Alusik^^' a.\\d 
 Reissmann's. Ritter's two small volumes, 
 and Hullah's " Lectureson Musical History," 
 are to be recommended. 
 
 Musical liibraries. The best in tliis coun- 
 try are those of the Harvard Musical Asso- 
 ciation, the Boston Public Library, and that 
 in Yale College. 
 
 Music Printing, from movable types, was 
 invented more than a hundred years ago, but 
 only within the present century has it become 
 able to represent instrumental music neatly. 
 
 MnsikaliSClieS Opfcr, " Musical Offer- 
 ing." A name given by Seb. Bach to a s'x- 
 part fugue for strings, on a subject given him 
 by Frederick the Great. 1747. This is ar- 
 ranged for the organ by Haupt, and played 
 by Mr. Eddy and other virtuosi. 
 
 Muta (Ital. moo'-tii). Change. Directs the 
 horn-player to change his mouth-piece. 
 
 Mutation Stops, organ stops not sounding 
 the 8ft. pitch. Applied especially to mix- 
 tures, quints and twelfths. 
 
 Mute (Ital. sordino^ Ger. ddmp/er)^ a contri- 
 vance for deadening the sound of stringed 
 instruments, by pinching the bridge and so 
 restricting vibration. 
 
 Xaainan. oratorio by Costa, 1S64. 
 
 XabUCO, orXabucodonOSOr, " Nebuchad- 
 nezzar," opera in 3 acts by Verdi, 1842. 
 
 IVachaniUng (Ger. niikh'-moong). Imitation. 
 
 Xachbanar, Franz (niikh-bowr), a noted 
 German tenor, born 1835 at Schloss Giessen. 
 
 Waclldruck (Ger. nakh'-drook). Emphasis, 
 accent, 
 
 WaclnlrucltSVOll (Ger. niikh'-drooks-fol). 
 
 Energetic, emphatic. 
 SfacltSatK (Ger. niikh'-satz). The second half 
 
 of a period. 
 
 XacllSClllagV (Ger. niikh-schlag). A passing 
 tone ; or, if one might say so, an appoggia- 
 tura ci/ter a note, instead of before it. 
 
 Xachspiel (Ger. nakh-speel). After-piece; 
 concluding organ voluntary in the church 
 service. 
 
 lVaclltStuecke(Ger. nakht'-steek-S). Night 
 pieces ; i. c, " nocturnes." A name given to 
 Schumann's op. 23. 
 
 Xaegeli, J. G., an eminent Swiss educator, 
 composerand music publisher, born at Zurich 
 1768. Died 1836. . 
 
 !%8einia. a cantata by Goetz. 
 
 Xagjelclavier, a keyed instrument of 5 oc- 
 taves, made about 1791. 
 
 Xake«l Fifths. Open consecutive fifths. 
 
 Xauilli, Giovanni, a celebrated Italian com- 
 poser, the first who wrote church music with 
 organ accompaniment. Died about 1620. 
 
 IVaples, School of. The chief masters of this 
 class were Scarlatti, Durante, Leo, Cotu- 
 maccil, Cafaro, etc. The Conservatories in 
 Naples were founded IS35, 1576. 'SSg, and 
 1584. 
 
 Xapoleon, Arthur, a promising pianist, born 
 in Lisbon, 1847. 
 
 XaprO^Vnik, Eduard, composer and chief di- 
 rector of the Russian Theatre, in St. Peters- 
 burg, was born in 1839. Studied at Prague, 
 distinguished himself in composition, and 
 became director in St. Petersburg in 1861. 
 
 Xares, James, Mus. Doc, an English conduc- 
 tor, composer and organist of York Minster, 
 born 1715. Died 1783. Author of harpsi- 
 chord lessons, collections of glees, catches, 
 twenty anthems, etc. Had little imagina- 
 tion, 
 
 Xasal, the reedy, unpleasant quality of the 
 voice when it issues in too great a degree 
 through the nostrils. The nasal quality is 
 characterized by too much prominence of the 
 I2th in the overtones. 
 
 Xasat, and IKazard, old names for the organ 
 stop, now called the " Twelfth." 
 
 ^asolini, Sebastiano (na'-zO-le'-ne), Italian 
 opera composer, born in Piacenza, 1768, and 
 at the age of twenty appeared with his first 
 opera. " Separate scenes in his operas hajd 
 talent,'' says Reissmann, and there were 18 in 
 all. Died 1799 or 1810. 
 
 m^atural, a character used to annul a sharp or 
 flat. 
 
 Xatural Key, a name improperly applied to 
 the key of C, because in this all pitches are 
 represented by staff-degrees in the " natural " 
 condition. 
 
 Xatural Trumpet, a trumpet without 
 
 valves. 
 
 Natural Scale, the scale of C. See Natural 
 Key. 
 
 Xanniann. J. G. (now-miin), a well known 
 composer in his day, born 1741 near Dresden. 
 Studied in Italy, where he produced his first 
 operas. Was kapellmeister at Dresden, and 
 died there 1801. He left 11 oratorios and 21 
 masses, and 12 operas. 
 
 Xauniann, Emil, grandson of the preceding, 
 also a composer of merit, was born at Berlin, 
 in 1827, and resides chiefly in Dresden. In 
 iSSo he succeeded W. Rust as organist of St. 
 Thomas' at Leipsic. 
 
 a.aU, a, add, ii arin^ e eve^ 5 end^ 1 ice^ 1 ///, o old^ o odd^ o dove^ 00 inaofty 11 Iiiie, u iui, u Fr. sound 
 
 48
 
 NAV 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 NON 
 
 JKava. Gaetano (na-viil,a distinguished Italian 
 teaclier of singing, and composer of vocal ex- 
 ercises. Born 1802 at Milan. Died 1875. 
 Among his pupils was Santley, the baritone. 
 
 Xeoessario (Ital. nii-tshes-sa'-rT-o), neces- 
 sary. Indicating that the passage must not 
 be omitted. 
 
 Neapolitan Sixth, a chord consisting of a 
 nunur third and minor sixth to .a given bass. 
 
 XfcVi, that part of a violin, or other similar in- 
 strument, extending from the head to the 
 body, and carrying the finger-board. 
 
 Xeefe, C. G.,a musician of some distinction in 
 his day, who was Beethoven's instructor. He 
 was organist at Bonn. Born 1748. Died 1798. 
 
 Xeige La, on le Nouvel JEgiiiliard, 
 
 opera in 4 acts by Auber, 1823. 
 
 Xetfliseiiza (Ital nag-le-jan-tsii). Negli- 
 gence, carelesspess. 
 
 Neitliardt, August Heinrich (nit - hiirdt), 
 founder of the Berlin Dom-Choir, was born 
 at Schleiz, T793. Served in the army about 
 twenty-five years, and in 1S39 was made royal 
 music director. Died 1861. Published a com- 
 pilation of the best church music, in 8 vols. 
 
 aiel (Ital. nal), also Nella, Nelle, Nello and 
 NelV . In the ; at the ; as Nel stesso ton/o, 
 in the same time. 
 
 Xet (Fr. nfiK also Nett (Ger. net). Neatly, 
 clearly, plainly. 
 
 Xeron, opera in 4 acts, by A. Rubinstein, 1879. 
 
 Nei'lltla, a celebrated German family of violin- 
 ists, of which M'rae WiLHELMINE NORMANN- 
 Neruda is the most distinguished living 
 member. She was born at Briim, 1840. Mar- 
 ried a Swedish musician named Ludwig Nor- 
 mann. Plays much in England, and is a 
 jrreat favorite as leader of quartettes in the 
 Popular Concerts. 
 
 Xethei'lands School, The, embraced such 
 composers as Dufay, 1432, Ochenheim, 1513, 
 Josquin de Pres, 1521. This school developed 
 musical science, especially counterpoint, 
 earlier than any other in Europe. 
 
 Neukoilini, Sigismund Chevalier (noi'-kom), 
 was born at Salzsburg, 177S. Studied with 
 Michael and Joseph Haydn, and appeared as 
 a composer in 1808. He led a wandering life, 
 always, however, having good appointments, 
 and spent the last twenty years of his life be- 
 tween Paris and London. Died in Paris, 
 185S. His two oratorios, " Mount Sinai " and 
 " David," and his symphony in E flat, were 
 played several time:; in England. Was an 
 industrious but uninspired composer. 
 
 Xexus, an old term for a phrase or sequence. 
 
 \i(*lit (Ger. nikht). Not. 
 
 Xicht zu geschw^iinl (Ger. nikht zoo ge- 
 schvlnd'). Not too quick. 
 
 Xlebellllisren {^'■Dcr Kin^ des Nicbelun- 
 ^('«"l, "The Ring of the Niblung." A se- 
 quence of four operas or music-dramas, by 
 Richard Wagner. First performed 1876. The 
 four operas in the series are : Das Rkeingold 
 1854, Die W^alkiire 1855, Sieg^/ried 1857-1859, 
 Die GotterdMi/niiernng 1871. 
 
 Xiccolilli. Joseph, a prolific composer of Ital- 
 ian operas, born 1771, died 1843 at Piacenza. 
 Author of 9 operas, 5 oratorios, 30 masses, 2 
 requiems, 100 psalms, etc. 
 
 !\i<*Olai, Otto ,("Ik'-o-in, composer of the 
 popular opera, '" The Merry Wives of Wind- 
 sor," was born ir Kiinigsburg, i8iq, and after 
 serving some years in Berlin as organist, ap- 
 peared at Vienna as conductor in 1837. Was 
 appointed kapellmeister at Berlin in 1848, 
 and died in 1849, just after completing his 
 most popular opera. 
 
 Ni<*olai. Wilhelm F. G., was born in 1829 at 
 Leyden. Studied at Leipsic, and then with 
 Schneider in Dresden, and returned to Ley- 
 den as an organ virtuoso. Is professor of the 
 organ and conductor at the Hague. 
 
 Nieclernieyer, Louis(ne -der-mi -er),acom- 
 poser of operas, motettes, masses, and teacher 
 of piano, born at Nyon, on Geneva Lake, in 
 1802. Studied with Moscheles and Forster. 
 Resided mainly at Paris, where he died in 
 1861. 
 
 ]^ii<Mliaiin, Albert, the famous German tenor^ 
 
 was born 1831 at Magdeburg. Is"kammer- 
 sanger " at Berlin, and played the part of 
 Siegmund in " Die Walkiire " at Bayreuth in 
 
 1876. 
 
 Xight-Horn, a name sometimes'applied to a 
 
 4 ft. Ilule in organs. 
 
 Night l>ancei'S, opera in 2 acts by Loder. 
 
 1846. 
 ]>IielsOll-RouilSeville,M'me Christine, the 
 
 successful piano-teacher in Chicago, was born 
 at Christiansand, Norway, Aug. 10, 1845. 
 Was a pupil of Haberbier, at that time pro- 
 fessor in Leipsic, and in 1871 came to America, 
 where she has since resided. Was married to 
 Dr. Rounseville in 1875. 
 
 Nilli^Oll, Christine, the celebrated prima- 
 douna, was born in Sweden, 1843, ''"'^ early 
 manifested her remarkable talent for music. 
 She played the violin and sang from house to 
 house. Her voice attracted attention, and 
 she was sent to Stockholm, and afterwards to 
 Paris, where she was pupil of Wartel. She 
 made her debut in 1864 as Violetta. In 1871 
 she was in America. Her voice is of moder- 
 ate volume, great sweetness and carrying 
 power. 
 
 Nocturne (Fr. nok-tiiml, also Notttirno^ a 
 nocturne. A song-like composition of a soft 
 and tender character, as if suitable for the 
 hours of night. See Lesson XXXII. 
 
 Node, that point of a chord at which it divides 
 itself when it vibrates by aliquot parts, and 
 produces the harmonic overtones. Any over- 
 tone car be prevented by striking the string 
 at its own node. 
 
 Noel (Fr. no-el). A Christmas carol or hymn. 
 
 Nohl, Ludwig (noP, a well known writer on 
 music and musical subjecti. (" Mozart's 
 Letters," " Beethoven's Letters," etc.) Was 
 born in Westphalia, 1831. He was educated 
 at Bonn and Heidelburg, and there since 
 1872 he resides as professor of musical history 
 and ajsthetics. 
 
 Nohr, Chr. Friedrich (nor), a violin virtuoso 
 and conductor at Saxen-i\Ieiningen. B. rn 
 1800. Wrote operas, a symphony, etc. Died 
 1875- 
 
 Non. not ; no ; as non vtolio^ not much ; ticn 
 tanioy not so great ; non tro/>/>o, not too much. 
 
 None (Ger. no -nP). The ninth. Also the 
 the last of the lesser hours in the Breviary. 
 
 Nonet, a composition for nine voices, or in nine 
 
 voice-parts. 
 
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 49
 
 NON 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 OCT 
 
 Kon nobis I>oniino, " Not unto us, O 
 
 Lord." A celebrated canon sung as a grace 
 after meat, at public dinners in England. 
 
 IVon Plus Ultra, " Nothing more beyond.'' 
 The bumptious title of a piano sonata by 
 Woelfl, op. 41, in lEo?. 
 
 Woillie Sanglante, La, opera in 5 acts by 
 Gounod. 1854. 
 
 Norma, opera in 2 acts, by Bellini. 1832. 
 
 Xornial, right : natural ; proper. 
 
 ]Vornial-ton (Ger. nor-mal -ton). The tone 
 A, to which orchestral instruments are tuned. 
 
 ^lornial Scale, the natural scale. 
 
 ]Korinal School, a school for teachers. 
 
 !KortIt, James O., a teacher of singing in St, 
 Louis. Born about 1830. 
 
 Notation, the signs by means of which music 
 is represented. See Appendix. 
 
 Note, a sign of musical utterance. "Wv^ pitch 
 is indicated by the staff degree on which the 
 note is played ; the length by the form of the 
 note. 
 
 Note Printing. The earliest printing from 
 movable types was by Ottaviano dei Petruc- 
 cio, in 1466. 
 
 Note-Head, the oval part of the note, which 
 
 occupies the pitch-place. 
 Note-Stem, the line running from the head. 
 
 Nottel>olini, Martin Gustav, composer, 
 teacher and writer on music, was born near 
 Ludenschied in 1817. Studied in Berlin with 
 Bergerand Dehn, and afterwards with Sech- 
 ter. He was one of the chief editors of the 
 critical editions of Bach, Handel, Beethoven, 
 Mendelssohn and Mozart. His compositions 
 include clavier trios and quartettes, solos for 
 piano, etc. 
 
 Nourrit, Adolph, a highly gifted tenor singer 
 in Paris, born 1802. Died 1839. Was profes- 
 sor of dramatic declamation in the Conserva- 
 tory, 
 
 Novelletten, " Novellettes," the title of a 
 series of 8 piano pieces by Schumann, op. 21. 
 1838. 
 
 NovellO. Vincent, an English composer, editor 
 and organist, was born in London, 1781. Was 
 organist in several important churches, author 
 and compiler of much church music, and died 
 at Nice, 1861. 
 
 NovellO, Clara, the celebrated soprano, daugh- 
 ter of the preceding, made her debut in 1833, 
 and was the leading oratorio and operatic 
 soprano in England for many years. 
 
 Novello, Joseph Alfred, eldest son of Vincent, 
 was a bass singer, and the founder of Novel- 
 lo's "Sacred Music Warehouse," the first 
 depot of music at a low price, and the begin- 
 ning of the present firm, " Novello, Ewer & 
 Co." Born 1810. Lives at Genoa. 
 
 NOZze di Figaro, Le, " The Marriage of 
 Figaro," opera buffa by 
 Hochzeit ) ^ 1776. 
 
 Nuances (Fr. nil-ahn-s ). 
 
 of e.\pression. 
 
 Nuit Blanches. " Restless Nights." The 
 title of a set of 18 lyric piano pieces by Stephen 
 Heller, op. £2. 
 
 Mozart (Figaro's 
 Lights and shades 
 
 Number. The several pieces or sections of an 
 
 opera or oratorio, are numbered for con- 
 venience of reference, etc. The overture is 
 never counted. 
 
 Nunc I>imittis, " Now dismiss us." The 
 canticle of Simeon, St. Luke, ii : 29, etc. A 
 vesper song. 
 
 Nut, a slip of ebony or ivory glued to the neck 
 of the violin, at the upper end of the finger- 
 board. 
 
 2. Of the bow, a piece of ebony or ivory 
 over which the hairs pass. 
 
 O (Ital. 6), or. 
 
 Od (Ital. before a vowel od), or, as, either. 
 Oakeley, Sir Herbert Stanley, Mus. Doc, was 
 born at Ealing, July 22, 1830, and educated 
 at Oxford. Studied music with Dr. Elvey and 
 Schneider, of Dresden, and completed at 
 Leipsic. In 1805 was appointed profe>sor of 
 music in Edinburg University. Composer of 
 songs, anthems, etc. Is a good organist. 
 ObbligatO (Ital. ob-ble-ga-to). Necessary, 
 
 obligatory, must not be omitted. 
 Oberon, romantic opera in 3 acts, by von 
 
 Weber, 1826. 
 Oberthuer. Chas., a distinguished performer 
 on, and composer for the harp, was born 
 March 4th, 1819, at Munich. Resides in 
 London, and has composed an opera, mass, 
 and many compositions for harp. 
 Ober-»verk (Ger. o-bSr-vark). The upper 
 
 manual on a two manual organ. 
 Obligat (Ger. 6b -11 -gat) Indispensable, 
 
 necessary. 
 Oblique Piano, an English term for the 
 diagonal arrangement of strings, usual in up- 
 right pianos. 
 Oboe (Ger. o-bo-e). A wooden reed-instru- 
 ment of two foot tone. It is played with a 
 double reed. It consists of a wooden tube ■ 
 about two feet h ng, with sound holes on the 
 sides, like a flute. Has a somewhat plaintive 
 and wailing tone. 
 Oboe d' Amour, an oboe exactly like the 
 usual one, but tuned in A, a minor third 
 lower. 
 Oboe di CacciO, an old name for an oboe 
 
 standing in %b or F. 
 Oboe Stop, an organ stop consisting -A imping- 
 ing reeds and conical pipes of a small scale, 
 usually in the swell organ. Owing to the 
 reed and block being of metal, it has a harsher 
 tone than the orchestral oboe. 
 Oea del i'airo, " The Goose of Cairo," 
 
 opera buffa in two acts, by Mozart, 1783. 
 Ocarina (o-ka-re'-na). _ Terra-cotta instru- 
 ment somewhat resembling the flageolet. 
 O'Carolan, or Carolan, Turlogh. one of 
 the last and most famous of the bards of Ire- 
 land. Born 1670. Died 1738, and was famous 
 for his improvisations. 
 Octachord, an instrument or system compris- 
 ing eight sounds, or seven degrees. 
 Octave, the eighth tone, in the diatonic scale, 
 above or below any other. The octave is the 
 most perfect consonance in music except the 
 unison. Its ratio is 2 : 1. Octaves are equiva- 
 lent in harmony. 
 Octave, an organ stop of diapason quality and 
 4 ft. tone, standing an octave above the dia- 
 pason. 
 
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 5°
 
 OCT 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 ()l{(i 
 
 Octavo Flute, a small flute an octave higher | 
 than the German flute. 
 
 Octave SufcewsioilS. or " consecutive oc- 
 taves," the parallel motion of two voices at 
 the interval of an octave, are forbidden in 
 four-part harmony, because they temporarily 
 reduce the number of parts to three. 
 
 Octette, a composition for eight voices or in- 
 struments. 
 Ode, an air or song ; a hymn of praise. 
 
 Oesten, Theodore, the famous arranger of 
 teaching pieces for the piano, was born at 
 Berlin, Dec. 31, 1813. Learned various in- 
 struments, and was in great demand as a 
 teacher of piano-forte. Died 1870. 
 
 Oeuvre (Fr. Uvr), work ; composition ; piece. 
 A term used in numbering a composer's pro- 
 ductions in the order of their composition or 
 publication. 
 
 Offenbach, Jacques, the famous composer of 
 opera buffo, was born at Cologne, 1819, of 
 Jewish parents. Studied music, became or- 
 chestral conductor, and appeared as composer 
 in 1853. O. composed 6g pieces and 143 acts 
 within 25 years. D. 1880. 
 
 Offertoriuill (Lat. 6f-ier- to-rl um). A 
 hymn, prayer, anthem or instrumental piece 
 played during the offertory. 
 
 Oline (Ger. o'-ne). without. Ohne begleitung, 
 
 without accompaniment ; ohne pedals, wLth- 
 
 oiit pedals (in organ music) ; ohne dd»ipfer, 
 
 without dampers (with the pedal pressed 
 
 dovfn). 
 Old Hlllldredth, The, a tune long associated 
 
 with the 100th Psalm. Supposed to have 
 
 been written as early as iSs'- 
 Ondesgiaiite (Ital. on-dad-je-an'-te). 
 
 Waving, undulating, trembling. 
 Ongletir (Fr. onh-gliir). An old term for a 
 
 performer on the lyre or harp. 
 Olinipiade. libretto by Metastasio, composed 
 
 over 31 times, by Caldara, Leo, Pergolese, 
 
 Hasse, etc. 
 Olynipie, lyric tragedy in 3 acts by Spontini, 
 
 1819. 
 Open IHapasoii (di-a-pa'-son). The most 
 
 important stop in an organ. It consists of 
 metal pipes, of large scale and free and solid 
 tone, and forms the foundation of the tone of 
 the full organ. 
 
 Open Harmony, or Open Position, a posi- 
 tion of chords in which the three upper tones 
 of the chord do not fall within the compass of 
 an octave. 
 
 Open Pipe, an organ pipe open at the upper 
 end. 
 
 Open Xote, a tone produced by an open string, 
 a free, uncramped tone. 
 
 Open Strinsf, a stnng vibrating through its 
 whole length. Open notes on the violin have 
 more resonance than those produced by 
 " stopping.'' 
 
 Opera, a drama set to music for solo singers, 
 chorus, orchestra, scenery, and dramatic ac- 
 tion. The words of an opera are called the 
 " Book," or " Libretto." Opera dates back 
 to the 15th century. The principal schools of 
 opera are the Italian, in which the singing 
 is the chief thing, tjie French, in which the 
 dramatic action is chief ; the German, which 
 aims at the complete union of action, singing, 
 and music;'.l description, and opera buff a in 
 which the absurd and laughable is aimed at. 
 
 0|>era Itiiit'a, comic or buffo opera. 
 
 Opei'a, Italian. The greatest composers of 
 this school were Donizetti, Bellini, Rossini, 
 Verdi. 
 
 Opera. Ciiernian. The greatest composers of 
 this school were Gluck, Mozart, von Weber, 
 and Wagner. 
 
 Opera, Rnelish. opera in English, by Eng- 
 lish composers. The principal masters of this 
 school are Balfe and Wallace. 
 
 Opera, French. The principal composers 
 are Haldvy, Hdrold, A. Thomas, and Aleyer- 
 beer, although the latter is also partly Ger- 
 man. 
 
 Opera Seria, a serious or tragic opera. 
 
 Opera, (iraild, opera in which the dialogue is 
 carried on by means of recitatives. 
 
 Operetta, a little opera. 
 
 Ophilcleide (6f-I-klid). A large bass brass 
 instrument, of deep and powerful tone. It 
 has a compass of three octaves from double 
 B flat. 
 
 Opus (Lat. o'-pfls, abbreviated op.') Work. 
 Used by composers in numbering their works 
 in the order of their composition or publica- 
 tion, as op. I, op. 2, op. 3, etc. 
 
 Opus POHthunms, a work published after 
 the death of its author. 
 
 Orage (Fr. o-riizh), a storm. An organ stop 
 intended to imitate the noise of a storm. 
 
 Oratorio, a species of musical drama consist- 
 ing of arias, recitatives, choruses, orchestral 
 accompaniment, etc., performed without 
 dramatic action or scenery. O. was origin- 
 ally performed as a religious service. See 
 Chapter XLI. 
 
 Orchestra, a full combination of stringed and 
 wind instruments. A full orchestra should 
 consist of not less than eighty to one hundred 
 men, disposed as follows : ist violins '20, 2d 
 violins 18, violas 10, 'cellos 10, basses 10, 
 oboes 2, clarinets 4, flutes 2, piccolo i, bas- 
 soons 2, horns 8, trumpets 4, trombones 3, 
 tuba I, kettle-drums 2, snare drum, bass 
 drum, triangle and cymbal. In reducing this 
 the horns would be reduced to 4, and as a 
 last resort to 2 ; the trumpets to 2, and the 
 clarinets to 2. Other reductions would be 
 made in the strings. The smallest number of 
 strings compatible with blending is 5 ist vio- 
 lins, etc. 
 Orchestra, that part of a theatre occupied by 
 the orchestra. The chairs adjacent to it. 
 
 Orchestrion, an instrument of the organ 
 kind, arranged to be played by means of a 
 tune-cylinder, or barrel, so as to imitate the 
 sound of an orchestra. Large instruments of 
 this class cost as high as $5,000. 
 
 Organ, a wind instrument the sounds of which 
 are produced by pipes either flue or reed, and 
 played by means of a key-board like the 
 piano-forte. It was invented from A.D. 800 
 to 1400. The essential parts of an organ are 
 a.belloius tocollect airand force itout through 
 the pipes, ■wind-ways, a sound-board or 
 ■wind-chest containing the valves and sup- 
 porting the pipes, keys for opening the valves, 
 and pipes for making the sound. Large or- 
 gans contain one large bellows with several 
 feeders, as many wind-chests as there are key- 
 boards, and as many valves as there are keys. 
 I Concerning pipes see Organ Stop. 
 
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 SX
 
 ORG 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 PAG 
 
 Ol'San Music, music designed to be played 
 upon the organ. 
 
 Organ itttop, or Register (German Stim- 
 ^iiungy voice). A set of pipes voiced alike, one 
 for every key in a key-board of an organ. 
 Stops are classed as a?/a/ai-(7«, including the 
 op. diapason, octave, and 15th; string^\\o\A'\ 
 gamba, viol d' amour, salicional, keraulophon, 
 dolce, and dulciana;y?«i'(?, the flutes, night- 
 horn and stopped diapason ; reed the oboe, 
 cornopeon, trumpet, clarinet, vox humana, 
 vox angelica, musette, euphone, trombone, 
 bombardon, etc. 
 
 Organ Stop, or Draw Slop, the knob at the 
 side of the key-board, which moves the slides 
 by means of whijh the pipes 1 f a stop are 
 shut off or admitted to communication with 
 the valves. 
 
 Organ Builder, one who builds organs. 
 
 Organ. Chamber, a small organ for use in a 
 house. 
 
 OrganO (Ital. or-ga -no). An organ. 
 
 Ol'gano Pleno (Lat. 6r-ga -no pla-no^. 
 Full organ ; all the stops of the " great or- 
 gan " drawn. 
 
 Organ Pieno (Ital. pe-a'-no). The full or- 
 gan ; all the stops of the great organ. 
 
 Organ Touch, the proper method of touch- 
 ing the keys of an organ. 
 
 Organ Tone, a tone of uniform force from its 
 beginning to end. 
 
 Organ Point (called also Pedalpoint)^ a bass 
 tone prolonged for several measures while 
 various coherently arranged harmonies are 
 performed by the higher parts. 
 
 Organ Trio, a composition arranged for three 
 single parts, emplo"ying two manuals and a 
 pedale. There are six sonatas of Bach writ- 
 ten in this form. 
 
 Organ Manual, the manual key-board of an 
 organ. They are designated as great, swell, 
 choir, and solo organs. 
 
 Organ Pedale, the pedale key-board. 
 
 Orgue Kxpressive (Fr. org egz-pra-sef). 
 
 The harmonium, or reed organ. 
 
 Orlandi, Ferdinand, a composer and professor 
 of singing, born in Parma, 1777, appeared 
 as opera composer in iSoi. Appointed pro- 
 fessor in the Mailand Conservatory 1806. 
 Died 1840. Wrote 20 operas, masses, mo- 
 tettes, and over 100 different works. 
 
 Orthography, the art of correct spelling, in 
 obedience to which one writes the chromatic 
 tones according to their derivation and har- 
 monic relation. 
 
 Oshorne, G. A., a composer of pleasing pieces 
 for the piano, was born at Limerick in i8c6. 
 Studied in Paris and came to London 1843, 
 where he since resides. 
 
 Ossia< (ItaL 6s-se-a). Or, otherwise, or else. 
 Written above the staff in connection with 
 an easier or different arrangement of the same 
 passage. 
 
 OS8ia pin facile (ItaL os-se-a pToo fa-tshe- 
 IP), or else in this more easy manner. 
 
 OstinatO (Ital. os-te-na-to). Obstinate, con- 
 tinuous, unceasing, adhering to some peculiar 
 melodic figure, or group of notes. 
 
 Ottava (Ital. ot-ta'-vii). An octave or eighth. 
 
 OttaA'a alta (Ital. al-ta\ the octave above, 
 or an octave higher. Marked 8r/a 
 
 Ottava bassa (Ital. bas-sa). The octave 
 
 below. Marked S&a bassa , or ?>va 
 
 below the notes. 
 
 Otto, Ernst Julius, cantor in the Dresden 
 Kreuzschule and teacher of theory, was a 
 composer of many oratorios, 2 operas, ma-ses, 
 sonatas, trios, songs, etc. Born 1804. Died 
 1877. 
 
 Otto. Rudolph Karl Julius, a teacher of singing, 
 and distinguished oratorio singer in Berlin. 
 Born 1829 at Berlin. 
 
 Ou (Fr. 00), or. 
 
 OulibichefT, Alexander (oo-le-W-cbef ). A 
 Russian writer about music, best known by 
 his " Beethoven et ses trois styles^' was born 
 in Dresden 1795, and died at Nischni-Novgo- 
 rod in 1858. 
 
 Ouseley. Rev. Sir F. A. Gore (oos-le), profes- 
 sor of music at Oxford, a writer on theory, 
 and composer, was born in 1825. 
 
 Ouverture (Fr. 00-var-tiir). An overture. 
 
 Overture, an introductory instrumental piece 
 to an opera or oratorio, or even for separate 
 performance. Overtures are of two kinds, 
 those in form of a sonata-piece, &\vi potpourri 
 overtures, composed chiefly of melodies oc- 
 curring in the work following. 
 
 P., abbreviation oi piano ^wA. pedale, 
 
 Pabst, August, born in Elberfelde, iSti, was 
 made director of the Conservatory at Riga in 
 1857. Has composed four operas. His two 
 sons, Louis and Paul^ are talented pianists. 
 
 Pachelbel, Johann (pakh'-el-beH, the imme- 
 diate predecessor of Sebas. Bach, as com- 
 poser, was born 1653 at NUrnburg, and occu- 
 pied important positions as organist. Died 
 1706. 
 
 Pacher, Joseph A. (pakh'-er), pianist and 
 salon composer, was born 1816 at Daubro- 
 witz. Came, at the age of 16, to Vienna, 
 where he afterwards resided. Died 1871. 
 
 Pacini, Giovanni (pa-tshe-ne), composer of 
 Italian operas, born 1796, made his debut as 
 composer at the age of 18, and lived at Ven- 
 ice, and afterwards at Milan. Died in 
 
 1867. 
 
 Pseon, a song of rejoicing ; a hymn to Apollo. 
 
 Paer. Ferdinand (pa'-er), a composer of Italian 
 operas, was born 1771 in Parma, where he 
 made his first successes as a composer. Later 
 he lived at Paris. P. wrote about 50 operas, 
 and many other works. D. 1839. 
 
 Paganini, Nicolo (pag-an-en'-e), the wonder- 
 ful violinist, was born 1784 at Genoa. He 
 grew up in poverty and cruelty, but per- 
 severed in his study of the violin, in which he 
 received assistance from many good masters, 
 and in 1798 began his concert tours, in which 
 he e.vcited the astonishment and admiration 
 of all Europe. He brought forth many com- 
 positions in new forms, which htt called 
 Caprices^ which, with Bach's 6 sonatas, stand 
 as the most original and remarkable works for 
 the violin. Died May 27, 1840. 
 
 a ale^ a addy a arm, e eve, e end, i ice, 1 ill, o old, o odd, o dove, 00 moon, ii lute, li /.v.', U Fr. sound 
 
 S2
 
 PAI 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 PAS 
 
 PaiSiello, Giovanni 'jo-vii -lie pii-e-sel-lo), a 
 celebrated composer of Italian operas, was 
 born 1741 inTaranto. Studied in Naplesand 
 appeared as composer at the age of 15. P 
 traveled over Europe, received with distinc- 
 tion everywhere, writing operas for Paris 
 London, St. Petersburg, etc. He wrote in 
 all some 94 operas, and many other works 
 and died 1815 in Naples. ' 
 
 Paix.Jacob, a prominent musician and noted 
 organist, born in .Augsberg about 1550. He 
 was organist in Lannigen, and made large 
 and elaborate collections of motettes, songs 
 dances, etc., by the best composers before 
 him. 
 
 Palaclilha, Emil (pa-la-dil-a), a French com- 
 poser, was born 1844 '" Montpelier, studyine 
 at home, and with Halevy. showing almos'^t 
 equal facility on several instruments, and 
 made his appearance, as composer of a sym- 
 phony in 1S60. He has since produced a 
 large number of compositions, including an 
 opera, three masses, very many songs, with 
 piano-forte accompaniment, as well as a 
 second symphony, overtures, etc., for opera. 
 
 Palestrilia. Giovanni Pierluigi de, (pal-es- 
 tre -na), the father of Italian church music, 
 was born about 1514 or 1524, studied at Rome 
 with Uaude Goudimel, and made his appear- 
 ance as a composer in a volume of four and 
 hve-voice masses in 1554. p. instituted a 
 reform in church music by composing it 
 throughout for itself instead of from secular 
 melodies as had been the previous custom 
 His music is deliciously pure and noble. He 
 died 1594. 
 
 Pallaviciui, Carlo (pa! -la-ve-tse -ne), one of 
 the finest opera composers of his time, was 
 born in Brescia, and worked in Venice from 
 1666 to 1687. In 1672 he was kapellmeister in 
 Dresden. He wrote many operas. Died 168S. 
 
 Pallet, a spring valve in the wind-chest of an 
 organ, covering a channel leading to a pine or 
 pipes. 
 
 Palmer, H. R., Mus. Doc. Theorist, composer 
 and conductor. Born 1834. Author of many 
 popular works. His "Theory of Music ' is ex- 
 tensively used. Received the degree of Doc- 
 tor of Music in 1879. Resides in New York. 
 
 Pandean Pipe.*!, one of the most ancient in- 
 struments of music, consisting of a number 
 of reeds or tubes of different lengths, fastened 
 together and tuned to each other, stopped at 
 bottom and blown into by the mouth at top. 
 
 Panofka, Heinrich, violinist and professor of 
 singing, was born at Preslau, 1807. Studied 
 at breslau and later at Leipsic. Entered 
 upon Ins career as violinist, was a brilliant 
 musical critic and correspondent of Schu- 
 mann s paper, and settled in Paris about 1848 
 where he has published a number of works 
 tor vocal instruction. 
 
 Pailtomillie, an entertainment in which not a 
 word IS spoken or sung, but the sentiments 
 are expressed by mimicry and instrumental 
 music. 
 
 Paiiseroil, Auguste Mathieu, teacher of sing- 
 ing and author of many works on it, was born 
 in 1796 .Tt Pans, educated there, and ap- 
 pointed professor in the Conservatoire in 
 1824. He was the author of several operas 
 and over 200 romances. Died 1859. 
 
 '*''of*rh.*'?V ^^■'°P'''"'\'on, an old instrument 
 of the dulcimer species, but larger. It was 
 more than nine feet long, four feet wide, and 
 had a hundred and eighty-six strings of gu-, 
 
 thedulcim:r.P'^^^'^'"' ^^'"^ ^-^^ ^^''^ '"'^ 
 
 I»a|»aKeilO floete rCer. pa-va-gl,an-0 flot-e).' 
 i an s pipes, a mouth organ. 
 
 Pape, Willie, a brilliant pianist and composer 
 
 ■ ^^'■';'''''' -^howy arrangements of favorite 
 
 ofllobir '"^"""' ''°''" ^'^°"t 1840, native 
 
 Pai>l»ei-itK, Beniamin Robert, was born in 
 Firiia, 1820, and since 1851 teacher of piano 
 at Leipsic. 
 
 ParartiNe and the Peri, a cantata, by 
 
 Schumann, 1843. 
 
 Parallel Iflotion, progression of two voices 
 in the same direction at the same distance 
 
 apart. 
 
 Parallel Fifths, called also Consecutive 
 I^ijt/is, progression of two voices in the same 
 direction at the interval of a fifth. Always 
 forbidden. ' 
 
 Parilllel Keys, the major and its relative 
 minor. 
 
 Parepa Kosa, Euphrosyne, the great singer, 
 was born in Edinburgh, 1839, made her debut 
 in Malt.a at the age of 16. In 1867 she came 
 to America, and awakened the most enthusi- 
 astic admiration. Died in London, 1875. 
 She had a large, pure soprano voice, and 
 sang with great fullness and steadiness of 
 tone. 
 
 Parish-Alvars, Eli, a distinguished harpist 
 and composer for his instrument, was born in 
 London, 1808, and made his appearance as 
 virtuoso at the age of 15. His tone was large 
 and his execution elegant. He played 
 Chopin s piano-forte sonata and Beethoven's 
 and Hummel's piano-forte concertos, with the 
 greatest ease. Died at Vienna 1847. 
 
 Parlando. (Ital. par-Ian -dO), accented, in a 
 declamatory style. 
 
 Parod.^', music or words slightly altered and 
 adapted to some new purpose. 
 
 Parry, John, an English musician, born 1776 
 in Denbight, and became very celebrated as 
 a harp virluoso and composer for his instru- 
 ment. 
 
 Parsons, Albert R., a pianist, teacher and 
 composer, the translator of Wagner s " Bee- 
 thoven," born ill Indianapolis about 1850, and 
 educated at Berlin. Resides in New York. 
 
 Part, the music for each separate voice or in- 
 strument. 
 
 Parte (Ital. p2r-te). A part ; a role in an opera. 
 
 Parte Caiitante (Ital. pUr-te kiin-tan-te). 
 1 he singing, or vocal part. 
 
 Partiniento (Ital. par-te-man -to). An e.v- 
 
 ercise, figured bass. 
 
 Partitnr (Ger. piir-tl-toor';. A score; full 
 score. See Score. 
 
 Partita (Ital. par-te-tS). An old term synony- 
 mous with variation. 
 
 Pas (Kr. pii). A step ; a dance. 
 
 ^aU,-^.add, u arm, e eve, e end, I ice, I ///, « old, o odd, dove, 00 moon, u lute, u Lut, U Fr. soumi 
 
 53
 
 PAS 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 PER 
 
 PasdelOlip, Jules (jool pa-de-loo), the 
 founder of popular classical concerts in 
 France, was born in Palis in 1819. Educated 
 at the Conservatory, where in 1833 he took 
 the first prize for piano-playing. Appeared 
 in 1851 as director of the Society of Yoim^ 
 Artists, whose mis-ion it was to introduce 
 classical music, in which he has been very 
 successful, and has gained the approval and 
 favor of the public. 
 
 Pas Seul (Fr. pa-sul). A dance by one per- 
 former. 
 
 PaSSaoagliO (Ital. pas-sa-kal-ye-o). A 
 species of chacon, a slow dance in 3-4 time, 
 the music consisting of divisions or variations 
 on a ground bass, and always in a minor key. 
 
 Passaeaille (,Fr. pas-sii-kal). A passacaglio. 
 
 Passage, any phrase or short portion ofan air, 
 or other composition. Also used for bravoura 
 passages, those parts of a piece which produce 
 an effect, but do not belong to the melody of 
 the piece. 
 
 PassagiO (Ital. pas-sad-je-5), a passage. 
 
 Pa^saniezzo (Ital. piis-sa-maf-so), an old, 
 slow dance, little differing from the action of 
 walking. 
 
 Passepiecl (Fr. pass-pe-a'). A sort of jig, a 
 lively old French dance in 3-4, 3-8, or 6-8 
 time ; a kind of minuet. 
 
 Passing ^otes, notes which do not belong 
 to the harmony, but serve to connect those 
 that are essential. 
 
 Passion Music, music composed for holy 
 week. 
 
 .Passions Musik, Bach wrote four passion 
 oratorios, the best known of which is that ac- 
 cording to St. Matthew, in 1729. 
 
 Passionate (Ital. pas-se-6-na'-t6). Passion- 
 ate, impassioned, with fervor. 
 
 Pasta, Guidetta (gwe-det'-ta pas'-tii), a fa- 
 mous dramatic singer. Born at Como, 1798, 
 made her debut at Verona in 1822, and sang 
 with the greatest success throughout Europe. 
 Her voice was of large compass, and very 
 beautiful. Died 1865. 
 
 PasticiO (Ital. piis-tef-tshe-o), a medley, an 
 opera made up out of songs, etc., by various 
 composers. 
 
 Pastoral, a musical drama on a rural subject. 
 
 Also an in-.trumental composition in pastoral 
 
 style. 
 Pastorale dtal. pas-to-ra-le). Pastoral. 
 Pastorelle (Fr. pas-to-rfil). A pastoral. 
 Patetico (Ital. pa-ta-te-ko). Pathetic. 
 Patiniento (Ital. pa-te-man'-to). Affliction 
 
 grief, suffering. 
 
 Patti, Adelina, and Carlotta, sisters, distin- 
 guished singers. Carlotta was born at Flor- 
 ence, 1840, and is noted for her delicate and 
 brilliant execution. Adelina, born at Madrid, 
 3843, sang in concerts at an early age, and 
 since 1859 has occupied the highest rank in 
 Europe. 
 
 Pauer. Ernst (powr), pianist and composer, 
 was born in Vienna, 1826, studied there with 
 Dirzka and Sechter, and later with Mozart's 
 second son. In 1851 he came to London, 
 where he has since resided. Is a successful 
 composer, but best known by his editions of 
 Schumann's works, etc. 
 
 Pauke (Ger. poli-ke). A kettle drum. 
 
 Paul, Dr. Oscar (powl), professor of musical 
 science in the University at Leipsic, was born 
 1836 at Freiwaldau, studied theology at the 
 University of Leipsic, as well as music. In 
 1866 he was appointed to his present position, 
 in which he has distinguished himsel.. Is 
 teacher of the piano in the Conservatory. 
 
 Pause, a delay or sudden cessation of rhythmic 
 movement by the prolongation of a tone or 
 chord. The character -T^ which requires 
 this. 
 
 Pavana (Ital. pa-vii'-na), a grave, stately 
 dance, which took its name Uom. pa-vo, a pea- 
 cock. It was danced by princes in their 
 mantles, and ladies in gowns with long trains, 
 whose motions resembled those of a peacock's 
 tail. It was in 3-4 time, and generally in 
 three strains, each repeated. 
 
 Pavilion (Fr. pU-ve-yonh). The bole of a 
 horn or other wind instrument. 
 
 Pavilion I'hiuois (Fr. pa-ve-yonh she- 
 
 iiwa). An instrument with numerous little 
 bells, which impart brilliancy to lively pieces 
 and pompous military marches. 
 
 Pax, Karl Edward, organist of the charity 
 church in Berlin, was born at Glogau in 1802. 
 A composer of men's songs, and instructive 
 piano pieces. Died 1867. 
 
 Pedal, of or pertaining to the foot. Hence 
 damper pedal, the lever by which the foot 
 r.aises the dampers .from contact with the 
 strings ; soft pedal, a lever operating mechan- 
 ism for diminishing the tone ; smell pedal, 
 a lever for operating the blinds of the " swell 
 organ;' tone-sustaining pedal, hy means of 
 which a tone is prolonged after the finger is 
 removed from the key. 
 
 Pedal Piano, a piano-forte fitted with organ 
 pedals for practice. 
 
 Pedal Point, see Organ Point. 
 
 Pedal I>Ol>l>io, double the pedals, that is, 
 play with both feet, a direction in organ play- 
 ing. 
 
 Pedals, Combination, pedals for drawing stops 
 in the organ. 
 
 Pellegrini, Angelo (pel-le-gre -ne). A dra- 
 matic composer, born in Como about 1805. 
 His three operas are often given. JLtelindei 
 1831, La Vedova di Bengala 1834, // diser- 
 tore s7'izzero 1841. 
 
 PenSOSO (Ital. pen sO'-zo). Pensively, mourn- 
 fully. 
 
 PentacllOrd, an instrument with fiva strings, 
 a scale or system of five diatonic sounds. 
 
 Pentatonic Scale, a scale of five notes, 
 sometimes called the Scotch scale, and simi- 
 lar to the modern diatonic major scale with 
 fourth ami seventh degrees omitted. 
 
 Pepusch, Johann Christoph, was born at 
 Berlin 1667, where he lived 20 years, when he 
 went to Holland, where his first compositions 
 were published, and then to England, where 
 he achieved great success as a composer. Died 
 1752. 
 
 Perdendo(Ital. par-dan -do), Perdendosi 
 (Ital. par-dan-do -ze). Gradually decreasing 
 the tone and the time ; dying away ; becom- 
 ing extinct. 
 
 a ale, a add, a arm, e ezie, 6 end, I ice, i ///, o old, o odd, o dove, 00 moon, u lute, n but, U Fr. sound 
 
 54
 
 PER 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 PIC 
 
 P«'ri«»«!. a melodic or harmonic formation con- 
 sisting of two or more sections, of which two 
 must stand in the relation of antecedent and 
 consequent. See Part Second. 
 
 Perkins*, Henry S., a teacher and writer of 
 choral music, was born at Stockbridge Vt., 
 March 20, 1833. Studied music at Boston, 
 and commenced his work as conductor of 
 musical conventions in i860. Is author of 
 about twenty collections of singing-class and 
 convention music. 
 
 Pei'liill!!!. Jule E., brother of the preceding, a 
 good pianist and composer, and a fine bass 
 singer, was born at Stockbridge, Vt., 1845. 
 Studied singing in Paris and Italy, and made 
 his debut in opera there about 1868, with dis- 
 tinguished success. In 1873 he joined the 
 Mapleson Opera Company in London. Died 
 at Manchester, England, 1875. 
 
 Perkins, W. O., Mus. Doc. composer and 
 teacher of music, brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Stockbridge, Vt., about 1829. 
 Studied in Boston, conducted conventions, 
 etc., since i860. Resides in Boston. 
 
 Pei'lie, Franfois Louis (pern), a learned French 
 teacher of musical theory and composer. 
 Born 1772 at Paris. Died 1832. 
 
 Pei'Siani, Josefo (piir-se-a'-ne). An opera 
 •composer. Born in one of the States of the 
 Church, 1805. 
 
 Perti. Giacomo Antonio (par'-te). A notable 
 composer of the old school. Born 1661. His 
 first mass was produced undei his own direc- 
 tion in St. Peter's in 1680. Died 1756. 
 
 Percussion (Eng. per-kush'-6n). Striking, 
 as applied to instruments, notes or chords ; 
 or the touch on the piano-forte. 
 
 Perfeet, complete, satisfactory. The perfect 
 consonances are unison, octave, fifth and 
 fourth. 
 
 Perfect Cadence, a cadence consisting 
 essentially of the chord of the dominant 
 seventh, followed by the tonic, both chords 
 uninverted, and the soprano and bass having 
 the tonic in the last chord. 
 
 Perpetual Canon, a canon without an end- 
 ing, like a round. 
 
 Pesante (Ital. pe-zan-te). Heavy, poriderous, 
 with importance and weight, impressively. 
 
 Pescllka-lieutner. Minna (pes-kha loit'- 
 ner). A brilliant singer, long a favorite at 
 Leipsic, and heard in this country in 1871. 
 Born 1839 in Vienna. 
 
 PestalOSBzi, Johann Heinrich (pes-ta-16t-zi>, 
 the celebrated teacher, was born in Zurich, 
 1746, and devoted himself to improving the 
 method of teaching children by presenting to 
 them " the thing before the sign.' ' 
 
 Petrella, Enrico (an-re -ko pa-trel-'a), an 
 Italian composer of operas. Born in 1813, in 
 Palermo, educated at Naples, and produced 
 at the age of 15 his first oper.i. Was author 
 of about twenty operas. Died'1877 in Genoa. 
 
 Pen (Fr. piih). Little, a little. 
 
 Pezze (Ital. pi. pilt-se). Fragments, scraps, 
 select, detached pieces. 
 
 Pfeife (Ger, pfT'-fe). Pipe, fife, flute. 
 
 Pfeiffer, Oscar, pianist, horn at Vienna, 1828, 
 made concert tours 18*5-1867 in Europe. In 
 1864 went to Rio Janeiro, where also he had 
 fine success. Composes for the piano. 
 
 Ptlushaupt, Robert (pflooghowpt), a bril- 
 liant pianist. Bor.i 1833 in Berlin, bludied 
 with Liszt. Died 1863. 
 
 Phantasie (Ger. f&n-la-see ). F'antasy, fancy, 
 imagination. 
 
 Pllilidor, Francois Andre, a French opera 
 composer. Born 1726. Died in London, 
 1795. P. was the inventor of French comic 
 opera, of which he composed 22. 
 
 Pllilharnionic, lovers of harmony, a society 
 devoted to the interests-of music. 
 
 Philosophy of Art, the relation of art to 
 the huiu.ui mind. See Part Four. 
 
 Phone (Gr. fo-ne). The voice, a sound or 
 tone. 
 
 Phonetik (Gr. fo-nBt -Ik). System of singing, 
 or of notation and harmony. 
 
 Plirase, a short musical sentence, a musical 
 thought or idea which makes sense, but not 
 complete sense. 
 
 Phrasing, the art of uniting tones into 
 phrases, and separating phrases from each 
 other, as well as the proper modulation of the 
 sound so as to express the musical idea. 
 
 Phrygian, one of the ancient Greek modes. 
 
 Physharnionica (Gr. fls-hiir-mon -i-ka). 
 
 An instrum^fnt, the tone of which resembles 
 that of the reed pipes in an organ, and is pro- 
 duced by the vibration of thin metal tongues, 
 of a similar construction to those of the har- 
 monium. The name is also applied to a stop 
 in the organ with free rccds^ and with tubes 
 of half the usual length. 
 
 Piacere (Ital. pe-a-tsha -re). Pleasure, incli- 
 nation, fancy ; a piacere, at pleasure. 
 
 Piacevole (Ital. pe-a-tsha-vO-le). Pleasing, 
 
 graceful, agreeable. 
 Piaciniento (Ital. pe-ii-tshe-man -to). See 
 
 piacere. 
 
 Pianino (Ital. pe-ii-ne-no). A small piano- 
 forte. 
 
 Piano (Ital. pe-a'-no). Soft, gentle. 
 
 Piagentlo (Ital. pe-a-jiln'-do). Plaintively, 
 sorrowfully. 
 
 Piano-forte. The distinguishing feature of 
 the piano-forte is the use of an elastic ham- 
 mer to strike the strings. Has been gradually 
 evolved through countless modifications dur- 
 ing the last two centuries. Steinway & Sons 
 are the most brilliant and successful experi- 
 menters during the past twenty-five years. 
 
 Piano a queu (Fr. pg-ii -no U kUh). A grand 
 piano-forte. 
 
 Piano Score, a series of staves arranged for 
 representing vocal music and its piano-forte 
 accompaidment. 
 
 Piatti. Alfred, the celebrated 'cellist, was born 
 in Bergamo, 1823, and appeared in public 
 with great success at the age of 16. In 1S46 
 he first came to London, where for the most 
 part he has since resided. Is author of a 
 number of pieces for 'cello and piano. 
 
 Piliroi'h (pi? -brok). A wild, irregular species 
 of music, peculiar to the Highlands of Scot- 
 land, performed on the bagpipe. 
 
 I»ic,chlcttatO (Ital. pe-ke-et-tli -to). Scat- 
 tered, detached. In violin playing it means 
 that sort of staccato indicated by dots under 
 a slur. 
 
 aa/ir, a, add, a arm, e eve, 5 end, i ice, 1 ///, o old, 6 odd, 6 dove, 00 moon, u lute, \x but,, u Fr. sound 
 
 S5
 
 PIC 
 
 DIOTIO NARY. 
 
 POI 
 
 Piooilllli, Nicolas (pet-tshe -ne), known under 
 the name Piccini^ a celebrated opera com- 
 poser, the rival of Glui-k, was born in 1728, 
 near Naples. Educated at Naples. Appeared 
 as composer in 1747, which was the beginning 
 of along and brilliant car er .ts opera com- 
 poser. P. lived chiefly at Naples. Died at 
 Passy, 1800. 
 
 Picoillili, Louis, second son of the preceding, 
 was born in 1766 at Naples, and was also a 
 very good composer. D. 1827. 
 
 Piecoloniini, Marie (pek'-ko-lo-me'-ne), a 
 pleasing singer, born at Siena, 1836. Made 
 her debut at Turin in 1855. Came to Ameri- 
 ca in 1858. 
 
 Piece (Fr. pe-as ). A composition or piece of 
 
 music ; an opera, or drama. 
 Pi'^no (Ital. pe-a-no). Full. 
 
 PietOSO ( Ital.pe-a-to'-zo). Compassionately, 
 
 tenderly. Implying, also, a rather slow and 
 sustained movement. 
 
 Pifferari (Ital. pi. pef-fe-ra'-re). Pipers. 
 
 Pilate, August (pi-la-te), a composer. Born 
 at Bouchain, 1810, educated at Pans. Brought 
 out his first opera about 1854. 
 
 Pinee (Fr. panh-sa). Pinched. ^^^ pizzicato. 
 
 Pipe, any tube formed of a reed, or of metal or 
 wood, which being blown into at one end, 
 produces a musical sound. The pipe^ which 
 was originally no mere than a simple oaten 
 straw, was one of the earliest instruments by 
 which musical sounds were attempted. 
 
 Pipes of Pasi. See Pandean Pipes. 
 
 Pieseiltlel. Johann George, a distinguished 
 German violinist. Born at Karlesburg, 1687. 
 Played and conducted in all the principal 
 cities in Europe, and died 17S5. 
 
 Piston (Fr. pis-tonh). A valve in a brass in- 
 strument. Hence cornel a piston., cornet with 
 valves. 
 
 PitO.U, means " point," the highness or lowness 
 of sounds. That quality of tones which de- 
 pends on the rapidity of the vibrations pro- 
 ducing them. Pitches are named by letters, 
 as A, A sharp, B, C, etc. The diflferent 
 octaves are distinguished as large, small, 
 once-marked., etc., namely. Middle C and 
 the six degree-; above it belong to the " once- 
 marked octave" and written e, a, etc., ore', d', 
 e',etc.; the octave above this is the "twice- 
 marked octave" c", d", e", f", etc. The 
 octave below middle C is the "small octave," 
 written c, d, e, etc., the octave below this the 
 " large" octave, C, D, E, etc., below this the 
 " double" octave, CC, DD,etc. Pitches are 
 also distinguished as "8ft," "4ft," " 2ft," or 
 "i6ft,'' according to the length of the pipes 
 producing them. Organ stops are designated 
 in this way according to the length of the pipe 
 producing the tone for the finger-key two 
 octaves below middle C. The standard pitch 
 is 8ft. A stop of this pitch gives for every 
 note sounds agreeing with the voice ; i6ft. 
 stops give sounds an octave lower ; 4ft. stops 
 an octave higher, 2rt. an octave higher still. 
 
 Pitcll, Coi.cert. French pitch is about 522 vi- 
 brations per second for middle C. Concert 
 pitch is higher, about 540. 
 
 Piu (Ital. pe-oo). More. As pi u allegro, more 
 allegro ; piu yorte, moie forte ; pin ii/oto, 
 quicker, etc. 
 
 Pixis, Friedrich Wilhelm, an organist in Mann- 
 heim, 1770, a pupil of the Abbe Vogler. Au- 
 thor of a number of works for organ and piano. 
 
 Pizzicato (Ital. pet-se-ka-to). Pinc/ted, 
 meaning that the strings of the violin, violon- 
 cello, etc., are not to be played with the bow, 
 but pinched, or snapped with the fingers, 
 producing a staccato efi^ect. 
 
 PIacl«lailieiite (Ital. p!a-tshe-da-man-te). 
 
 Calmly, placidly, quietly. 
 
 Plagal, ancient modes in which the melody 
 was confined between the dominant and its 
 octave. 
 
 Plagal Cadence, a cadence i.n which the 
 final chord on the tonic is preceded by the 
 harmony of the sub-dominant. 
 
 Plain Sitong, or Plain Chant, the name 
 given to tlie old ecclesiastical chant when in 
 its most simple state and without those har- 
 monic appendages with which it has since 
 been enriched. The ancient music for the 
 psalms and liturgy. 
 
 Plaintif (Fr. planh-tef). Plaintive, doleful. 
 
 PlaC|Ue ( Fr. pla-ka ). Struck at once ,vi'n\\o\it 
 any arpeggio, or embellishment. 
 
 Plaquer (Fr. pla-ka). To strike at once, 
 speaking of chords. 
 
 Plectrum (Lat. plek'-trum). A quill, or 
 piece of ivory or hard wood, used to twitch 
 the strings of the mandoline, lyre, etc. 
 
 Plein Jeu (Fr. planh zhii). Full organ. The 
 term is also applied to a mixture stop of 
 several ranks of pipes. 
 
 Pleno (Lat. 4)la'-no). Full. See " Full Organ." 
 
 Pleyel. Ignaz (pll -el), composer of a great 
 number of instrumental works, was born the 
 twenty-fourth son of his father, about 1757, 
 near Vienna. Died 1S31. 
 
 Pleyel, Camille, eldest son of the preceding, 
 also a good composer, was born at Strassburg, 
 1792. Died in Paris, 1855. 
 
 PliCO (Lat. ple'-ko). A kind of ligature used 
 in the old music, as a sign of hesitation or 
 pause. 
 
 Pnenniatle liCA'er, a contrivance for di- 
 minishing the weight of touch on large organs, 
 invented by Mr. Charles Barker, of London, 
 and afterwards of Marseilles. It consists of 
 a small bellows about a4 inches by 3, for every 
 key. When the key is pressed it opens a 
 valve into this bellows, which is immediately 
 inflated and thereby opens the valves belong- 
 ing to the key touched. The "pneumatic 
 action" completely softens the touch, which 
 on large org.ius amounts to several pounds 
 per key, but it results in a loss of time. In 
 order to diminish this as much as possible, 
 the pneumatics are operated by a " heavy 
 wind," of a pressure equal to a column of 
 water 6 inches high, or thereabouts. 
 
 Pochette (Fr. po-shet). A kit, a small violin 
 used by dancing masters. 
 
 POCO (Ital. po-ko). Little; as poco a poco,\\l- 
 tle by little ; uu poco adagio, a little adagio. 
 
 Pohl, Karl Ferdinand (pol), the popular author 
 of " Mozart and Haydn in London," Biogra- 
 phy of Haydn, etc., is an organist, and was 
 born 1823 at Berlin and studied in Vienna 
 with Sechter. 
 
 Poi (Ital. po-e). Then, after, afterward ; piano 
 poi forte, soft, then loud. 
 
 a ale, a add, a arm, e eve, o end, I ice, \ ill, old, 6 odd, 6 dove, 00 moon, u lute. \i loii, ii Fr. sound 
 
 r';
 
 POL 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 I'KO* 
 
 Polacca (Ital. po-lak -ka). A Pnlish national 
 dance in 3-4 time ; a dance tune in which an 
 emphasis is placed on the first unaccented 
 part of the measure. 
 
 Polka, a lively Bohemian or Polish dance in 
 2-4 time, the first three quavers in each bar 
 being accented, and the fourth quaver unac- 
 cented. 
 
 Polonaise (pol-o-niiz). A movement of three 
 crotchets in a measure, the rhythmical pause 
 coming on the last crotchet of the bar. 
 
 PolypllOliy. " many sounds." Applied to com- 
 positions consisting of three or more inde- 
 pendently moving voices, as in "fugue, etc. 
 Distinguished from Hoinopl^ony ^ in which 
 there is but one melodious voice, the others 
 being accompaniment, as in glees and Ameri- 
 can psalmody. See Chapter V. 
 
 Poiliposo (Ital. pom-p5 -z6). Pompous, state- 
 ly, grand. 
 
 PoiliatOWSki, Joseph, Prince, and kinsman 
 of Stanilaus II, last king of Poland, was bom 
 at Rome, 1816. He was educated in music, 
 and produced seven or eight operas. 
 
 PoiltO, Lorenzo da, a famous writer of opera 
 librettos, among them Mozart's " Figaro" and 
 "■ Don Juan." Born 1749. Died 1838. 
 
 Poi»l»er, David, a distinguished 'cellist, born 
 1842. Lived since 1868 in Vienna. 
 
 Porpora, Nicolo (por -po-ra), the distin- 
 guished opera composer and lival of Handel, 
 was born at Naples in 1686, educated there, 
 appeared as composer in 1708, and after 
 several years' wandering between Vienna, 
 London, etc., in 1760 he returned to Naples, 
 where he lived at the head of the Conserva- 
 tory of San Onofrio. Died 1767. Wrote 
 more than 50 operas, 6 oratorios, 4 masses, 29 
 other sacred works, 6 symphonies for cham- 
 ber, etc. 
 
 Portamento (Ital. por-ta-man -to). A term 
 applied by the Italians to the manner or 
 habit of sustaining and conducting the voice. 
 A singer who is easy, and yet firm and steady 
 in the execution of passages and phrases, is 
 said to have a good portamento. It is also 
 used to connect two notes separated by an in- 
 terval, by gliding the voice from one to the 
 other, and by this means anticipating the lat- 
 ter ui regard to intonation. 
 
 Portando la voce (Ital. por-tiin-do la v6'- 
 tshe). Carrying the voice, holdiiig it firmly 
 on the notes. 
 
 Posaillie (Ger. p6-zoii-ne). A trumpet, a 
 trombone, a sackbut, also an organ stop. 
 
 Potpourri (pot-poor -re^. A medley, a capric- 
 cio ox fantasia, in which favorite airs and 
 fragments of musical pieces are strung to- 
 gether and contrasted. 
 
 Position, a shift on the violin, tenor, or violon- 
 cello: the arrangement or order of the several 
 members of a chord. 
 
 Po.sitive, an appellation formerly given to the 
 little organ, placed in front of the full or 
 great organ. 
 
 Possibile (Ital. p6s-se'-be-le), possible; il 
 piii_forte possibitcy as loud as possible. 
 
 Postludiuni (Ital. post-lu -dl-um). After- 
 piece, concluding voluntary. 
 
 Potter, Cypriani, pianist and composer. Born 
 19 London, 1792, where his father was a pro- 
 fessor of music. Studied with Calcott, Crotch, 
 and Woelfl. Was made professor in the 
 Royal School of Music, and in 1825 president 
 of the same. Died 1872. Wrote trios, duos, 
 sonatas, and piano pieces. 
 
 Pral trill, thetjcrman name for the mordente, 
 an embellishment consisting of two small 
 notes preceding a principal one. See appen- 
 di.x. 
 
 Pratt, Silas G., pianist and composer, was born 
 Aug. 12, 1847. Studied at first in Chicago, 
 afterwards with Wiierst and Kullak, at 
 Berlin, and still later with Liszt, at Weimar. 
 Has written two operas, a symphony, many 
 piano pieces, etc. 
 
 Precentor, the appellation given formerly to 
 the master of the choir. 
 
 Prelude, a short, introductory composition, or 
 e.xtempore performance, to prepare the ear 
 for the succeeding movements. 
 
 Preeipitando (Ital. prii- tshe-pe- tan-do). 
 
 Hurrying. 
 
 PreeipitatO (Ital. prii-tshe-pe-ta'-to). In a 
 precipitate manner, hurriedly. 
 
 Precisione (Ital. pra-tshe-ze-o-ne). Pre- 
 cision, exactness. 
 
 Preg-hiera (Ital. pra-ghe-a'-ra). Prayer, 
 supplication. 
 
 Preparation, that disposition of the harmony 
 by which discords arc lawfully introduced. 
 A discord is said to be prepared when the dis- 
 cordant note is heard in the preceding chord, 
 and in the same part, as a consonance. 
 
 Prestainente (Ital. pres-ta-man-te). Hur- 
 riedly, rapidly. 
 
 Prestezza (Ital. pres-tad-sii). Quickness, ra- 
 pidity. 
 
 Presto (Ital. pras'-t5). Quickly, rapidly. 
 
 Pressure tone, a sudden crescendo. 
 
 Prima (Ital, pre -ma>. First, chief, principal. 
 
 Prima Vista (Ital. pre -ma ve'-sta). At 
 
 first sight. 
 
 Prima Volta (Ital. prP-ma vGl-ta). The 
 first time. 
 
 Principal, the chief idea in .a piece of music. 
 See Chapter XIII. 
 
 Principal, an organ stop of diapason tone. In 
 English organs the principal is the "octave," 
 a 4ft. stop. In German it is the open diapa- 
 son of 8ft. or i6ft. 
 
 Programme, an order of exercises for musical 
 or other entertainments. 
 
 Programme Music, music designed to tell 
 in tones a story derived from some poem, or 
 legend. See Chap. XXI. 
 
 Progression, movement from one tone or 
 chord to rnother. 
 
 Prosody, a term, partly grammatical and 
 partly musical, relating to the accent and 
 metrical quantity of syllables, in lyrical com- 
 position. 
 
 Prologue, llusical, the preface or intro- 
 duction to a musical composition or peifor- 
 inar.ce ; a prelude. 
 
 Professor of JIusic, the instructor or lec- 
 turer on mu^ic in a chartered college or school 
 An accomplished musician (English usage). 
 
 a ali\ a aid, a arm. e iTv, e en-.l, I ice, \ ill, o old., d odd, 6 doz'e, oj moon, fl lute, \l but, u Fr. s<^und. 
 
 57
 
 PRU 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 RAI 
 
 PrucUner. Dionys, a brilliant pianist^ and a 
 good teacher. Born about 1S30. Studied 
 with Liszt at Weimar, at the same time with 
 Billow, Mason, Klindworth, R.-iff, etc. Came 
 to New York in 1S74, but made only a short 
 stay. I; now professor of Piano in the Con- 
 servatory at Stuttgart (1880). 
 
 Pritckner, Caroline, a distinguished German 
 dramatic singer. Born at Vienna in 1832. 
 
 Prildeilt. Emil (pru-danh), a brilliant pianist 
 and composer oi elegant fantasias and salon 
 pieces, was born at Angouleme, 1817. Stud- 
 ied at the Conservatoire, and was much in- 
 fluenced by Thalberg. Died at Paris, 1863. 
 
 Priime. Francois, one of the most brilliant 
 violinists of recent times, was born at Stavelot 
 in 1816, appeared in public as violinist at an 
 early age. Died 1849. 
 
 Pimilie, Jehin. nephew of the preceding, was 
 also a fine violinist, and visited America in 
 i860. Born at Brussels, 1840. 
 
 Psalm, a sacred song or hymn. 
 
 Psalmody, the practice or art of singing 
 psalms ; a style or collection of music de- 
 signed for church service. 
 
 Psalter, the book of Psalms. 
 
 Purcell, Henry, an English dramatic and 
 church composer, was born in London, 1658, 
 the son of a musician. His talent was such, 
 that at the age of 18 he was organist of West- 
 minster Abbey and the Royal Chapel. He 
 composed music to many plays. Purcell had 
 positive genius, and showed fresh and vigorous 
 melodic invention. He had not the severe 
 contrapuntal training of Bach or Handel, liis 
 contemporaries. Died at the age of 37 in 
 1695. 
 
 Quadrat (Ger. quad-rat). The mark called a 
 natural. Sec Chromatic Signs in Appendix. 
 
 QaadrlUe (Fr. ka-drel). A French dance, 
 or set of five consecutive dance movements, 
 called La Pantalon, La Poule, L' Ete, La 
 Tenise (^or La Pastourelle) and La Finale. 
 
 i^Uantz. Johann Joachin, 1697-1773. A dis- 
 tinguished musician in the employ of Frede- 
 rick the Great, of Prussia, known especially 
 as a flute virtuoso. His instruction book for 
 that instrument marks an epoch in the de- 
 velopment of the flute, and of flute-playing. 
 Quantz was aUo an excellent violinist and 
 oboist, was thoroughly acquainted with all 
 the orchestral instruments in use in his time, 
 and with the art and science of music. He 
 left a large number of compositions, especially 
 for the flute. 
 
 Quart (Fr.) A fourth. 
 
 Quarter-note, a black note, otherwise known 
 as crotchet. 
 
 Quarter Rest, a rest equal to a quarter note. 
 
 Quarter-tone, a small interval of no precise 
 dimension, because the "whole tone" itself 
 varies. 
 
 Quasi 'Ital. qua se). As if, like. 
 
 Quartette (Ger. quar-tett ). A composition 
 for four voices or instruments. 
 
 Quart-Sex (Lat.) Fourth-sixth chord. 
 
 Quart - Septime (Lat.) Fourth-seventh 
 chord. 
 
 Quatuor (Lat.) A composition for four voices. 
 
 Quaver, an eighth note. 
 
 Querfloete (Ger. kwnr flo-te). A German 
 
 llute. 
 
 Querstand (Ger. kwar-stand). A false rela- 
 tion in harmony. 
 
 Quieto (Ital. kwe-a-to). Quietly, calm, se- 
 rene. 
 Questa (Ital. quas-ta). This, that. 
 
 Quiok-Step, a lively march, generally in 2-4 
 
 time. 
 Quintadena (kwin--ta-de'-na). An organ 
 
 step of soft, flute-like quality, which gives^ 
 
 the twelfth quite plainly. 
 
 Quintaton (Ger. quTn-ta-tOn). A manual 
 organ stop of 8ft. tone and stopped diapa-on 
 quality, producing the 12th perceptibly. Also 
 a pedal stop. 
 
 Quinten-folge (Ger.) Successions of fifths. 
 
 Quintette, a composition for five voices. 
 
 Quintole, a group of five notes. 
 
 Quint Oedaokt (Ger. quint ghe-diihkt). An 
 organ stop of the stopped diapason species, 
 sounding the fifth above. 
 
 Qui Tollis (Lat.) " Thou who takest 
 away,'' part of the Gloria in Excelsis, usually 
 set in music as a separate number. 
 
 Qnoniam tu Solus (Lat.) ''For thou 
 alone art holy," part of the Gloria, usually 
 set as a separate number. 
 
 K., right (hand). 
 
 Baekett, an old wooden wind-instrument, 
 lower and deeper than the bassoon. 
 
 Raddoppianiento (rad-dop-pe-a-man-to). 
 
 Augmentation, reduplication ; the doubling 
 of an interval. 
 
 Radecke, Robert, a pianist, violinist and 
 conductor, born at IJittmannsdorf in 1830. 
 Studied with his father at Leipsic, where he 
 distinguished himself, and in 1852 was made 
 second director of the Leipsic Sing-Acade- 
 mie. Resides at Berlin. Has composed many 
 songs, overtures for full orchestra, etc., and 
 in many ways shown himself one of the first 
 musicians of the present time. 
 
 Radieal Bass, a bass exclusively composed 
 
 of the roots of the chords. 
 
 Baff*, Joachim (yo -iik-em raf), one of the 
 greatest composers now living, was born May 
 12, 1822, at Lachen in Switzerland. His first 
 opera, " King Alfred,'' was composed in 1849. 
 From this time on Raff has produced a long 
 succession of works, all well written, although 
 sometimes too carelessly, which have at 
 length acquired currency throughout the 
 world. They consist of 8 symphonies, 2 
 suites, 5 overtures, several concertos, very 
 much chamber music, songs, piano piecefe, 
 etc., in all over 200 works. At present (1880) 
 Raff is director of the Consers'atory at Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Maine. 
 
 Ballentando (Ital. ral-len-tan -do). The 
 time gradually slower and the sound gradual- 
 ly softer. 
 
 Bainiondi, Pietro, a highly esteenied com- 
 po>er and teacher of counterpoint in Rome, 
 1786-1853. Wrote more than 60 operas, p2 
 ballets, 150 psilms of the style of Marcello s, 
 and very many other church pieces. 
 
 a aU^ a add^ a arin^ e eve^ e end^ 1 ice, i illy o old^ 
 
 6 odd, 6 dove, uo moon, u lute, u but, U hr. sound 
 58
 
 RAM 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 RET 
 
 JRameau, Jean Philippe (ra-mo ), a celebrated 
 French composer and theorist, was born 1683 
 in Dijon. Educated at a Jesuit college. Ap- 
 peared as writer of theoretical works in 1722, 
 and ten years later as an opera composer. 
 Died 1764. 
 
 Rail!i« des Vafhes (Fr. riinh dfi viish). Pas- 
 toral airs played by ihe Swiss herdsmen to 
 assemble the cattle together for the return 
 home. 
 
 ICapidaniente (Ital. ra-pe- da man-te). 
 
 Rapidly. 
 
 Rapido (Ital. ra -pe-do). Rapid. 
 
 Kappoidi, E. (rap-pol'-de),- one of the best 
 violinists of the present, was born in Vianria, 
 Feb. 22, 1839. Is concertmeister of the Royal 
 Opera at Berlin. 
 
 Rathberger, Valentine, a prolific old church 
 composer, a Benedictine monk, born 1690. 
 
 Ratio, relation. The relation of the rate of 
 vibrations in tones. 
 
 RauZKini, Venanzio (roiid-ze -nij), an Italian 
 singer and composer of operas, born at Rome 
 1747-1810. 
 
 Ravenseroft, Thomas, professor of music at 
 0.\ford, and one of the earliest English com- 
 posers of psalmody, was born 1590. Died i635_ 
 
 Ravilia, Jean Henri (ra-ve-na), pianist and 
 composer, was born at Bordeaux, May 20, 
 iSiS. Studied in the Conservatoire, and dis- 
 tinguished himself as a composer of salon 
 pieces. Died 1862. 
 
 Re (Ital. ra). The second syllable in solmiza- 
 tion. In French, the pitch D. 
 
 Rebec A Moorish word signifying an instru- 
 ment with two strings, played on with a bow. 
 The Moors brought the Rebec into Spain, 
 whence it passed into Italy, and after the ad- 
 dition of a third string obtained the name of 
 Rebecca, whence the old English Rebec, or 
 fiddle with three strings. 
 
 Rebel, Franyois, a French opera composer, 
 1701-1775. 
 
 Reolierche (Fr. re-sher-sha ). Rare, affected, 
 
 formal. 
 
 Reolite Hande (Ger. rShkte hand). Right 
 
 hand. 
 
 Recitative trec-I-ta-teev'). A musical decla- 
 mation. See Chapter XXXVI 1 1. 
 
 Redei*n, Count von Fr. Wilhelm, Prussian 
 general intendant of the opera, and composer 
 of occasional pieces, was born 1802 in Berlin. 
 
 Redlieireil, to reduce, or arrange a full instru- 
 mental score for a smaller band, or for the 
 piano-forte or organ. 
 
 Reed, a contrivance for procuring vibrations. 
 TheyVc^ rf^^/ consists of a socket and a thin 
 vibrating slip of brass fastened to it at one 
 end, the other end swinging completely 
 through the opening in the socket at each 
 vibratijn. Used in accordeons, concertinas, 
 reed organs, harmoniums, and "free reed" 
 stops in the organ, fiiipingivg or striking' 
 reeds, consist of a steel socket with a tri 
 angular opening, and a vibrating brass tongue, 
 which strikes against the socket in vibrating, 
 and does not pass through, thus allernaielv 
 
 opening and closing the pipe. Used in reed 
 stops of the organ generally. The reed 0/ 
 oboe and bassoon consists of two thin slips of 
 reed (woody fibre), closely approximated, 
 which alternately close and open when blown 
 through. The clarinet reed consists of a 
 slip, or tongue of reed vibrating against the 
 wooden socket, and is, therefore, an imping- 
 ing reed. The harmonics of a reed are simi- 
 lar to those of a string, hence reed instruments 
 take the place of strings in military bands. 
 
 Reed, Daniel, one of the old American psalmo- 
 dists, published his first book, "The Colum- 
 bian Harmony," in 1793. Tlie music was 
 illiterate. 
 
 Reeve, William, a suc:essfvd English composer 
 of musical dramatic pieces, and teacher of 
 music, lived in London. Born 1757. Com- 
 posed sixteen comic operas. 
 
 Reeves, Sims, the great tenor, was born at 
 Woolwich, 1821, made his debut about 1840, 
 after serious studies in London and Italy, 
 and has since held highest rank among opera- 
 tic and oratorio tenors. His son has in i88o 
 made a promising debut as tenor. 
 
 ReoreatiOll, a composition of attractive style, 
 designed to relieve tlie tediousness of practice ; 
 an amusement. 
 
 Redowa (ri^d -o-wal. A Bohemian dance in 
 2-4 and 3-4 time, alternately.. 
 
 Refrain, the burden of a song, a ritornel ; a 
 repeat. See Burden. 
 
 Regel (Ger. rag -SI). A rule. 
 
 Register, an organ stop. 
 
 Registration, the art of changing and com- 
 bining stops so as to produce a musical effect 
 in organ playing. 
 
 Regnard. Francis, Jacob, Paschalius and 
 Carolo, four brothers, of Douay,in Flanders. 
 They lived in the i6th century. Jacob and 
 Francis left many compositions, especially 
 the former, who was kapellmeister at Prague. 
 
 Rehearsal (re-hgr -sal). A trial, or practice, 
 previous to a public performance. 
 
 Reielia, Joseph, I746-1795, A distinguished 
 violinist and composer of Prague. He left 
 many compositions. 
 
 Reieha, Anton, 1770-1836, nephew of Joseph. 
 A distinguished composer and theorist, alsO' 
 born in Prague. He li\ ed for some years in 
 Vienna, in the society of Haydn, Albrechts- 
 berger, Salieri and Beethoven. The" last 
 twenty-eight years of his life he spent in 
 Paris, where he was professor of counterpoint 
 at the Conservatory. He wrote symphonies 
 and overtures, and a great deal of chamber 
 music. His first important publication deal- 
 ing with the theory of music consisted in " 36 
 fugues for the piano-forte, written on a new 
 system." This new system consisted in an- 
 swering the theme on every degree of the 
 scale, instead of on the dominant. But as 
 this principle is destructive of tonality, it 
 failed to attain favor among musicians. He 
 published works on melody, on harmony, and 
 on composition, which were much used both 
 in France and in dermany. He failed in his 
 attempts at dramatic composition, but suc- 
 ceeded as an instrumental composer, and was 
 universally respected as a learned and able 
 musician, and a skillful teacher. 
 
 a, ale, a add, a arm, e eve, e end, i ice, \ ill, old, o odd, o dove, 00 tnoon, Q lule, U bul, u Fr. sound 
 
 59
 
 REI 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 REL 
 
 Seicliardt, Johann Friedrich, 1752-1814. 
 Kapellmeister in Berlin, and a prolific com- 
 poser of operas and instrumental music, as 
 well as a critic. In the latter field he lacked 
 breadth of view and depth of insight, and 
 here, as in his compositions, he failed to pro- 
 duce anything of lasting value. But he was 
 of importance in the development of the Ger- 
 man song, for he introduced a more energetic 
 declamation, and hit upon a truer musical 
 expression for some of Goethe's songs than 
 had been found before. He is also the father 
 of the German Liederspiel (Vaudeville), a 
 play with popular songs introduced. 
 
 Rein (Ger. rin). Pure, clear, perfect ; kurz 
 unci reiuy distinct and clear. 
 
 Rlieiiibers'e*'. Joseph (rln-bar-gSr)oneofthe 
 most talented composers of the present time, 
 was born in Vaduz, 1S39. Showed great tal- 
 ent for music, and was organist in church at 
 the age of seven. He was educated at Mh- 
 nich, and resides there as teacher and con- 
 ductor. Has written several operas, oratorios, 
 organ pieces, piano works and chamber music. 
 
 Keilieeke, Karl (ri'-neck-e), composer, con- 
 ductor, and piano virtuoso, was born June 23. 
 1824, in Altona. He was taught by his 
 father, an excellent musician. At iS years of 
 age he made a successful concert tour to 
 Copenhagen and Stockholm, engaged as con- 
 ductor at Barmen in 1854. ^" '859 he ac- 
 cepted a more important conductorship at 
 Breslau. Since 1S61 he has been the conduc- 
 tor of the world-renowned Gewandhaus con- 
 certs at Leipsic. He continues to be an ex- 
 cellent concert pianist, and has made many 
 concert tours to London and elsewhere. He 
 is also constantly engaged in composition, 
 and has published more than 100 original 
 works, among them symphonies, operas, 
 masses, oratorios and overtures, and much 
 chamber music. 
 
 Reillken, Johann Adam, a very celebrated 
 organist, was born at Deventer, Province of 
 Ober-yssel, in the Netherlands. His educa- 
 tion was mainly obtained at Leipsic and 
 and Hamburg, in the latter place studying 
 with Scheidmann, whom he succeeded as 
 organist at the St. Catherine Church. Bach 
 made two journeys to.Hamburg to hear him, 
 the last time playing several hours for Rein- 
 ken, who declared that the art of organ- 
 playing, well-nigh extinct, had found a new 
 exponent. He died at the advanced age of 
 99 years and 7 months, Nov. 24, 1722. He 
 published but one work, entitled " Sonatro, 
 concertanten, allemanden, couranten, sara- 
 banden and chiquen for two violins and 
 cembals.'' 
 
 Keintlialcr, Carl Martin (rin'-ta-ler), a Ger- 
 man musician of some note as teacher of 
 voice and director of various musical societies 
 in Bremen, and also a school of vocal music, 
 was born at Erfurt, Oct. 13, 1822. He is the 
 author of an oratorio of note, " Gebtha." 
 
 Keissiger, Carl Gotlieb. a German musician 
 of versatile talent as singer, pianist, and com- 
 poser, was born Jan. 31, 1798, at Belzig. 
 Became a pensioner in the Thomas school in 
 Leipsic, where he studied composition and 
 piano. Later by the kindness of friends he 
 received money to pursue his studies in Berlin, 
 and Jatei in Munich with Winter ; after travel- 
 ing through Italy, France and Holland he 
 
 returned to Berlin and took a position as 
 teacher in a church music institute. He was 
 called in 1826 to Dresden to take the place of 
 director of German opera, vacated by Mar- 
 schner, and gave such evidence of his supe- 
 rior ability as a director that the King of 
 Saxony appointed him as successor to the 
 deceased von Weber. His compositions in- 
 clude operas, church music, masses, motettes, 
 orchestral works, symphonies, and overtures, 
 aud .also St ring and string and piano quintettes, 
 quartettes, trio and duos, besides piano works, 
 and songs. His songs, and especially piano 
 and string trios were at one time very popu- 
 lar, but are almost unknown at the present 
 time. D. 1859. 
 KeissiseJ", F. A., a brother of the above 
 Born July 26, i8og. As composer, director 
 and teacher he attained to some eminence in 
 Norway, his adopted home. 
 
 Reissman. Dr. Phil. August, was born at 
 Frankenstein, Nov. 14, 1825, where he also 
 received his first musical instruction. In 
 1843 h^ went to Breslau, where he studied 
 theory, composition, organ, piano, violin and 
 'cello, thus becoming practically acquainted 
 with music in many departments. During a 
 a stay at Weimar he decided to follow litera- 
 ture, and to his literary works is due the 
 greater part of his reputation. The follow- 
 ing are his principal literary works, " From 
 Bach to Wagner," " History of the German 
 Song,'' " General History of Music," three 
 books, "General Musical Instructor," 
 " Manual of Composition," biographies of 
 Schumann, Mendelssohn, and Schubert. 
 The University of Leipsic conferred upon 
 him the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 
 1875. He resides in Berlin, and lectures on 
 the history of music in the Conservatory. 
 
 Religiosamente (Ital. re-le-je-5-z:i-man'- 
 tej. Religiously, solemnly, in a devout man- 
 ner. 
 
 RellHtab, John Carl Frederick, was born Feb. 
 27, 1759, at Berlin. Died Aug. 13, 1813. He 
 was the son ofia printer, and made some im- 
 provements in that art. He organized in Ber- 
 lin the first musical circulating library, and 
 also was the fir^t to write musical critiques for 
 the public press. He did much for music in 
 Berlin, by the introduction of artists in con- 
 certs. Among his literary works may be 
 mentioned " An Examination into the Rela- 
 tion of Musical and Oratorical Declamation,'' 
 and " An Introduction, for Piano-Players, to 
 Bach's Method of Fingering, and his Embel- 
 lishments and Manner of Execution." 
 
 Rellstab, Caroline, a daughter of the above, 
 botn April 18, 1794, at Berlin, died Feb. 17, 
 1814. She was rightly called one of the great- 
 est singers of her time, possessing an organ of 
 remarkable beauty and compass, from Pi.b to F, 
 coupled with great dramatic talent. 
 
 Rellstab, Henry Frederic Louis, a son of J. 
 C, born April 13, 1799, died Nov. 28, i860. 
 A musical critic and writer of note. The 
 following are among his works." A witty 
 book entitled 'Henriette" (Sontag), "or 
 The Beautiful Singer : a History of our Day, 
 by Freimund Zusehauer ;" "Franz Li.szt," 
 " Ludwig Berger," biographies, and "The 
 Condition of the Opera since Mozart's time." 
 
 Related, having much in common. Related 
 scales, those differing in but one tone. 
 
 a, a/i?, u add^ ;i arttz^ e eve^ e. end, \ ire, I ///, 5 old, 6 odd, 6 dove, 00 moon, u lute, K\ but, u Pr. sound 
 
 60
 
 REL 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 RIG 
 
 Ilolution. False, that connection which any 
 two sounds have with one another when the 
 interval wliich they form is either superfluous 
 or diminished. 
 
 KeliKiOSO (Ital. re-16-je-o'-z6). Religiously, 
 solemnly ; in a devout manner. 
 
 JCrilliiiiKConce, reminiscence. 
 
 KcilK'iiyi, Eduard (re-man -ye), a great violin 
 virtuoso, born 1830, in Hewcs, Hungary. 
 From 1842-1845, studied in the Vienna Conser- 
 vatory. At thebreakingout of the Hungarian 
 revolution he entered the army as an adju- 
 tant, and at its close came to America as an 
 exile, and concerted through the country. 
 In 1853 he went to Liszt at Weimar ; 1854 was 
 appointed solo violinist to the queen of En<;- 
 l<\nd, and later went back to his native land. 
 Since early in 1879 he has been concerting; 
 in this country. His playing is characterized 
 by great fire and dash. 
 
 Kemote, far away. Remote keys are those 
 having few tones in common, as C and F 
 sharp, or F and C sharp. 
 
 Repeat, a character indicating that certain 
 measures or passages are to be sung or played 
 twice. 
 
 RepercnSSiO (Lat.rep-er-kiis'-sl-o). Reper- 
 cussion ; the answer in a fugue. 
 
 Repliea (Ital. ra'-ple-ka). Reply, repetition. 
 See, also, Rcpercitssio. 
 
 Reprise ( Fr. ril-prez). The burden of a song ; 
 a repetition, or return, to some previous part ; 
 in old music, when a strain was repeated, it 
 it was called a, reprise. 
 
 Requiem (Lat. ra-qui-em). A Mass, or 
 musical service for the dead. 
 
 Resolution, the subsidence of a dissonance 
 into the consonant tone it temporarily dis- 
 placed. 
 
 Resonance, the reverberation or echo of 
 sound. 
 
 Response, response or answer of the choir. 
 
 Rest, a mark signifying silence. Rests are of 
 different forms, corresponding to note-lengths. 
 
 Retard, gradually, more slowly. 
 
 Retro (Lat. ra-trd). Backward, the melody 
 reversed, note for note. 
 
 Renter, George (roi'-ter), a celebrated organ- 
 ist and composer of church and organ music. 
 Born at Vienna, 1660. Kcirl (called the 
 younger), son of the above, born in Vienna, 
 1697, was also a noted'organist. Died in 1770. 
 Rojnanns^ a Benedictine monk, born at Kall- 
 miiz, near Regensburg, 1755, and died 1806. 
 A composer of note among his brotherhood in 
 his time. 
 
 Reyer, Louis Etienne Ernst (rl'-er), a French 
 opera composer, born at Marseilles, Dec. i, 
 
 1S23. 
 
 Revoice, to restore the voice of a reed or 
 organ pipe by removing the dust, and other- 
 wise correcting the impairment of use. 
 
 RliapSOCly (Eng. rap'-so-dy). A capriccio, a 
 fragmentary piece ; a wild, unconnected com- 
 position. 
 
 Rliytlini (Eng. rlthm). The division of musi- 
 cal ideas or sentences into regular metrical 
 portions ; musical accent and cadence as ap- 
 plied to melody. 
 
 Rhythmic (rith-mlk;. Rhythmical. 
 irhythmus, a rhythm. 
 
 Kihattiita (Ital. re-biit-too-taj. A beat, a 
 passing note. 
 
 Ricci, Frederico (rt'-tshe), a dramatic composer 
 born at Naples, 1809, and also a teacher of 
 singing. 
 
 Rieei, Luigi, brother of the above, born at 
 Naples, 1808, died Jan. i, i860. An opera 
 composer of note. 
 
 Richardson, Nathan, a native of Gloucester, 
 Mass., born about 1830. Studied music for 
 several years with Dreyschock at Prague, 
 and on his return to America in 1852, pub- 
 lished his " Modern School for the Piano- 
 forte," which was little else than a transcript 
 of liis lessons with Drey:xhock. He estab- 
 lished the firm of Russell & Richardson in 
 Boston, and afterwards wrote R.'s "New 
 Method for the Piano-forte,'' which has sold 
 over 500,000 copies. Died 1858. 
 
 Richter, Ernst Friedrich Eduard (rlkh-ter), 
 German composer and writer on theory, born 
 Oct. 24, 1808, at Gross-Schonau. Received 
 his education at Zittau and Leipsic. At the 
 founding of the Leipsic Conservatory he was 
 appointed teacher of harmony and composi- 
 tion. At the death, of Hauptmann he was 
 appointed cantor of the Thomas-Schule. 
 As as composer he is known best by his 
 church compositions, but his works on har- 
 mony, counterpoint and fugue, are what give 
 him rank among musicians. He died in 1878. 
 
 Richter, Hans, one of the most distinguished 
 orchestral conductors of the present time. 
 Born about J833. 
 
 Ries, Ferdinand, piano virtuoso and composer, 
 was born at Bonn, Nov. 28, 1784, and died 
 Jan. 13, 1838. R. was the favorite pupil of 
 Beethoven for four years, and to his and Dr. 
 F. G. Wegler's " Biographical Notes of Bee- 
 thoven," we owe, in a large measure, our 
 knowledge of Beethoven as man and artist. 
 He was quite a prolific writer, but his works 
 have in the main sunk into oblivion. 
 
 Riedel, Carl (re'-del), bom Oct. 6, 1827, at 
 Kronensberg. He was the founder and direc- 
 tor of the now famous Reidelsche-verein, a 
 choral society which has done much for the' 
 advancement of music in Germany, but es- 
 pecially in Leipsic, by bringing out the works 
 of ancient and modern composers. He has 
 made no great reputation as a composer, al- 
 though many of his works have merit. 
 
 RietK, Eduard (reetz\ a noted German violinist 
 and director, born in i8oi at Berlin, died 1832. 
 
 Rietz. Julius, brother of the above, born in 
 Berlin, Dec. 28, 1812. A composer, director 
 and teacher. Was director, in 1S3S, of the 
 Gewandhaus Orchestia in Leipsic, where he 
 also taught composition in the Conservatorv. 
 R. is the editor of many standard works in 
 the Breitkopf & Hiirtel editions. Died Oct. 
 I, 1877. 
 
 Rig^hini. Vincenzo (rig-ee'-ne), an Italian opera, 
 composer and director of great note in his 
 time, was born at Bologna, Jan. 22, I7.';6. 
 Although his operas were very popular at the 
 time, they are never heard, and aside from an 
 overture to "Tigranes," of great nobility, but 
 few, if any, are heard at the present time. 
 Died Aug. 19, 1812. 
 
 a ale, a. add, a arm, e eve, e end, 1 ice, I ///, 6 old, 6 odd, 6 dove, 00 iitjon, u lute, u but. u Fr. sound. 
 
 6: . ■
 
 RIM 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 ROS 
 
 Rimhaillt, Dr. Edward, a learned English 
 writer about music, born at London June 13, 
 1816. Is author of many collections of music, 
 a history of the organ, etc. D. 1876. 
 
 RinfOl'zando (Ital. ren -for- tsan' - do). 
 Strengthened, reinforced ; a repeated rein- 
 forcement of tone or expression ; indicating 
 that several notes are to be played with 
 energy and emphasis. 
 
 Rilick, Christian Heinrich, a distinguished or- 
 ganist and composer for the organ, was born 
 at Elgersburg in 1770, was a pupil of Kittel, 
 a pupil of Bach's. In 1805 he became cantor 
 Stadtorganist at Darmstadt, where he died in 
 1846. 
 
 ICipieilO dtal. re-pe-a -no). The tutti^ or full 
 parts which fill up and augment the effect of 
 the full chorus of voices and instruments. In 
 a large orchestr.a all the violins, violas and 
 basses, except the principals, are sometimes 
 called Ripieni. 
 
 Ritardando (Ital. re-lar-dan-do). Retard- 
 ing, delaying the time gradually. 
 
 RitenutO (Ital. re -te-noo- to). Detained, 
 slower, kept back ; the effect different from 
 Ritarddndo^ by being done at once, while 
 the other is effected by degrees. 
 
 Ritornell (Ital. re-tor-nal >. The burden of 
 a song ; also, a short symphony or introduc- 
 tion to an air ; and the symphony which fol- 
 lows an air. It is also applied to ttitti parts, 
 introductory to, and between, or after, the 
 solo passages in a concerto. 
 
 Ritter, A. G., organ virtuoso and royal music 
 director, was born at Erfurt, Aug. 11, 181 1. 
 Was pupil of Ludwig Berger, A. W. Bach, 
 etc., and in 1847 became organist at the cathe- 
 dral in Magdeburg. Is the author of many 
 fine works for organ, and an instruction book. 
 
 Ritter, Theo, a pianist and composer, born 
 about 1838 in Paris. He was a pupil of Liszt, 
 and is a composer of merit. Was in this 
 country in 1875, with Nillson. 
 
 Ritter, Freidrich Louis, Mus. Doc, a learned 
 musician and professor of music in Vassar 
 College, was born at Strassburg in 183-, and 
 came to New York about 1864. 
 
 Ritter, Fanny Raymond, a brilliant soprano, 
 teacher of singing, and fine writer about 
 music, wife of the preceding, was born in 
 Philadelphia about 1840, and shares her hus- 
 band's labors at Vassar. 
 
 Ritual, an order of rites, hence the written 
 order of public religious service. 
 
 Rive-Killg, M'me Julia, the distinguished 
 piano-forte virtuoso and composer, was born 
 at Cincinnati, O., in 1853. Early showed a 
 talent for music, and played Thalberg's 
 " Don Juan " fantasia in public at the age of 
 eleven. Later she made some studies with 
 Mills in New York, after which she went to 
 Weimar, with Liszt. Returning to this coun- 
 try in 1875, she met everywhere the most dis- 
 tinguished success, and played highly import- 
 ant and artistic programmes in all parts of 
 the country. She resides at present in New 
 York, where she occupies a distinguished 
 position. 
 
 RiA'erSO (Ital. re-var'-so). Reverse motion, 
 the subject backward, in double counterpoint. 
 
 Roelllitz, Friedrich Johann, a writer about 
 music, at Leipsic, born 1769, died 1842. Au- 
 thor of an elaborate collection of vocal music, 
 . etc. 
 
 Rode, Pierre, a favorite violinist, born at Bor- 
 deaux, 1774. He lived chiefly in Paris, and 
 was distinguished for the elegance and grace 
 of his play. Died 1830. 
 
 Roger. GustaveHippolyte, 1815. A tenorsinger 
 of the Paris Opdra Comique, distinguished as 
 well for his dramatic ability as for his singing. 
 After he had passed his prime as an opera 
 singer he became professor of singing in the 
 Paris Conservatory. D. 1879. 
 
 Rolir (Ger. r5r). Reed, pipe. 
 
 Rohrfloete (Ger. r5r -flo -te). Reed-flute, a 
 stopped diapason in an organ. 
 
 Role (Fr. rol). A part or character performed 
 by an actor in a play or opera. 
 
 Roilianee"(Fr.) '&<te. Romanza. 
 
 Rouiailtie, strange, striking. See Part Sixth. 
 
 Roilianza (Ital. rG-miin -tsa). Formerly the 
 name given to the long lyric tales sung by 
 the minstrels, now a term applied to an irregu- 
 lar though delicate and refined composition. 
 
 Romberg. Andreas, Dr., 1767-1821. A dis- 
 tinguished violin virtuoso, and a talented and 
 skilful composer, most of whose artistic life 
 was spent in Hamburg. He wrote six sym- 
 phonies, eight overtures and much chamber 
 music. His best known work is his setting 
 of Schiller's " Lay of the Bell." 
 
 Romberg, Bernhard, 1767-1841. Cousin of 
 Andreas, and associated with him in his con- 
 cert tours for many years. He was a distin- 
 guished violoncello viituoso, and a prolific 
 composer for his instrument. He was also an 
 accomplished musician, and was conductor 
 four years in Berlin, and two years professor 
 in the Paris Conservatory. 
 
 Roneoili, Dominico(ron-ko-ne), 1772-1839. A 
 renowned tenor singer with a wonderful voice, 
 admirably trained. He was equally distin- 
 guished as a singing teacher. He taught in 
 Milan, Venice and elsewhere in Italy, and 
 also in Munich, Vienna and Paris, whither he 
 was repeatedly called. 
 
 Ronconi, Felice, George and Sebastian, sons 
 of Dominico, and all excellent singers. 
 George was the best of the three. 
 
 Rondo, a round. See Chap. XIV. 
 
 Roildino (Ital. ron-de -no), a little rondo. 
 
 Roiidoletto (Ital. ron-do-lat -to). A short 
 
 and easy rondo. 
 
 Root of a €"hord. The greatest common 
 measure of the system of vibrations produc- 
 ing the chord. The root is the resuitant-ione 
 of the chord, and remains unaffected by 
 changes of position in the parts, or by inver- 
 sion. Dissonant chords have properly no 
 roots. 
 
 Rore, Cyprian de, 1516-1565. A very distin- 
 guished master, and one who contributed 
 essentially to the development of music. He 
 wrote many motettes and madrigals, in many 
 of which he applied for the first time the 
 results of his own experiments and those of 
 his predecessors, Willaut and Zarlino, in 
 chromatic tones and harmonies, thusincreas- 
 ing the means ofmusical expression. 
 
 Rosellen, Henri, i8ti. An extremely popu- 
 lar piano teacher, of Paris, and the composer 
 of a great number of popular parlor pieces. 
 He was a pupil of Henri Herz in piano play- 
 ing, and of Fetis and Halevy in composition. 
 
 a.ale, u, aj.i^ a. arm, e eve, S end, I ice, I ///, o old, o odd, o doz'e, 00 moon, \\. lute, u but, il Fr. sound 
 
 63
 
 ROS 
 
 DICTION A KY, 
 
 SAC 
 
 ICosenliain. Jacob (ro-sSn-hine), 1813. An 
 excellent pianist, teacher and composer of 
 serious music ; byrn in Mannheim, but setilcil 
 for many years in Paris. He won the hearty 
 praise of Alendelssolin and Schumann, and is 
 respected by all who know him. He now 
 lives in retirement in Baden-Baden. 
 
 KONetti. Franz Anton (ro-st't'-tl), 1750-1792. A 
 Bohemian musician and composer. He 
 wrote oratorios, symphonies and chamber 
 music. 
 
 KOSN, John, 1764-1833. Organist of St. Paul's, 
 at Aberdeen. He wrote six concertos for 
 piano and orchestra, seven sonatas for piano- 
 forte, songs, etc. 
 
 RoS!^i, Lemme (ros'-st), 1601-1673. Professor of 
 philosophy and mathematicsat the University 
 of P(5rouse, his native city. He wrote a work 
 on the relations of the musical intervals. 
 
 Ro»>!!ii, Luigi Felicio, 1805-1863. A respected 
 professor of music and composer of church 
 music in Turin. 
 
 RONsiiii, Gioachomo Antonio (ros -se'- ne), 
 1792-1868, was born in Peraro, of poor but 
 musically gifted parents. His father was a 
 trumpeter; he was also a devoted patriot, 
 and his revolutionary enthusiasm caused hiiu 
 to be thrown into prison. While there, his 
 wife was obliged to support the family, and 
 being possessed of a fine voice and dramatic 
 talent, went upon the stage as a prima donna. 
 Young Gioachomo received musical instruc- 
 tion very early, though ina somewhat desul- 
 tory and superficial way. Even after he 
 entered the school of music at Bologna, in his 
 ipth year, he was poorly taught in composi- 
 tion. But he diligently studied Haydn and 
 Mozart, and soon felt the impulse to compose. 
 After some eight or ten insignificant operas 
 and other youthful works, which served to 
 develop his talent and to give him skill in 
 composition, he wrote " Tancred " in his 21st 
 year. This work was so brilliant, so florid, 
 S5 full of splendid, gorgeous effects, that it 
 made a new epoch in Italian music, and re- 
 tained its popularity all over Europe for many 
 years. He had been poor, but his success 
 with this and some other operas led to an en- 
 gagement in Naples, where Barbaja, his 
 theatre director, gave him valuable assist- 
 ance, and made money for them both. He 
 wrote here " The Barber of Seville," one of 
 the best comic operas ever produced, and 
 *' Othello," in which he strove after dramatic 
 characterization. This latter tendency he 
 showed still more in his " Moses in Egypt," 
 and especially in " William Tell," in which 
 his work culminated. This was his last opera, 
 and was written in 1830. He had now become 
 a rich man, and lived in luxurious retirement 
 the life of a cultivated and elegant gentleman 
 and connoisseur until his death. His only 
 important work after " William Tell " was 
 his " Stabat Mater," a brilliant and imposing 
 but not essentially religious work. He was 
 twice married, both times happily, and his 
 first marriage, especially, had an extremely 
 favorable influence on the development of his 
 genius. His was one of the great creative 
 minds of our time. (F.) 
 
 Roil^et de 1/ Isle. Claude Joseph (ro-ja dS 
 leel), 1760-1836. The composer of the world- 
 renowned RIarseilles Hymn, perhaps the 
 most inspiring battle song ever written. He 
 wrote nothing else of importance. 
 
 a, a/e, ii add, a arm, S eve, S end, i ice, I ///, o o/d, 
 
 63 
 
 Rousseau. Jean Jacques froos-s6), 1712-1778. 
 This distinguished philosopher and author 
 was also possessed of decided musical talent. 
 He lacked thorough technical training, but 
 succeeded, neveitheless, in producing at least 
 one opera which was decidedly successful. 
 He also educated himself to be an authoiiiy 
 in musical criticism, took an active part in 
 the disputes between Sully and the Italians, 
 and afterwards between the Gluckists and 
 Piccinists, and contributed materially to the 
 elevation and purification of French taste. 
 
 Ruhato (Ital. roo-bii-to). Stolen; 2. e. 
 slackening or varying the time for the pur- 
 pose of expression. 
 
 Rubilli, Giovanni Battista (ru-be'ne), 1795- 
 1845. One of the most renowned singers who 
 ever lived, and the best tenor in Europe in 
 his day. His voice was extremely fine, and 
 his execution astonishing. Among his be^t 
 pupils was Mario. 
 
 Rubinstein, Anton Gregor (rii -bin-stin). 
 '1 he greatest piano virtuoso of our time, and 
 also a noted composer, was born in W.illachia, 
 in 1829. His life, except when he has been 
 on concert tours in Europe and America, has 
 been spent in Russia. He was for many 
 years director of the Conservatory at St. 
 Petersburg, and also of the Russian Musicai 
 Society at the same place. He has written 
 songs, piano music, chamber music, oratorios, 
 operas and symphonies, some of which are 
 very important. 
 
 Rubinstein. Nicolaus, brother of Anton, 
 director of the Conservatory of the Singing 
 Society of the Russian Musical Society in 
 
 Moscow. 
 
 Rudersdorf, Emilia, a renowned singer of 
 our time. Born in Russia in 1822. Her 
 father was a Dutch conductor, who went to 
 Hamburg when she was a child. At her 
 marriage with Professor KUchermeister she 
 withdrew from the stage, but finally returned 
 to it, then settled in London, and has now 
 been for some years a teacher of singing in 
 Boston. 
 
 Ruhe (roo'-e). Rest, repose. 
 
 Rust, F. W. (roost), 1739-1796. Music director 
 in Anhalt-Dessau. Pupil of Friedemann 
 Bach, and C. P. E. Bach. He was a good, 
 but not a prolific composer, his strength being 
 devoted to the pmmotion of music and cul- 
 ture generally. He made the little princi- 
 pality an intellectual center of great impor- 
 tance. 
 
 Rust, W. K., youngest son of F. W. Rust, 1787- 
 1S55. He was an excellent pianist and 
 teacher. 
 
 Rust, Wilhelm, grandson of F. W. Rust 
 organist cf St. Luke's Church in Berlin, and' 
 since 1S71, protessor of counterpoint and 
 composition in Stein's Conservatory m Berlin. 
 Born in 1822. He- is a distinguished com- 
 poser, writer on musical topics, and editor of 
 numerous works. 
 
 Saeebini. Antonio M. G., 1734-1786. A dis- 
 tinguished Neapolitan composer, pupil of 
 Durante. He wrote many operas and much 
 church music. 
 
 Siaebs, Hans, 1494-1576. The most renowned 
 of the so-called " master singers," and a pro- 
 lific writer of verses. Lived in Nurnberg. 
 
 odd, 6 dove, 00 iitoon^ Q lute, u but, li Fr. sound
 
 SAC 
 
 DICTIONxVRY. 
 
 SCH 
 
 Sackbut. an old bass wind instrument resem- 
 bling a trombone. 
 
 Saorod lllisio. Music composed for religious 
 worship, or in a religious spirit. 
 
 Saeilgerfest (^sang -er-fest), a festival of Ger- 
 man singers. 
 
 Saillt-!^aeil8, Chas. Carville, born 183S, one 
 of the most noteworthy French composers. 
 Has written symphonies, operas, and much 
 else. Is best known in this country by his 
 " Phaeton " and his " Danse Macabre." The 
 former is a fine specimen of legitimate pro- 
 gramme music ; i. c, music which seeks to 
 express a series of emotions, connected with a 
 definite series cf incidents. He is also an ex- 
 cellent organist and pianist. 
 
 $$ailltOII-I>Olb,V. Madame, an eminent Eng- 
 lish contralto and teacher of singing. 
 
 Sala, Nicolo, 1732-1800. A Neapolitan contra- 
 puntist and opera composer. 
 
 Salioional (Fr. sa-le-sl-o-nal). An organ 
 stop of string quality and soft 8 ft. tone. 
 
 t^alieri, Antonio, 1750-1825. Born in Venice. 
 Lived mostly in Vienna. Prolific composer 
 of operas, which had onlya short-lived popu- 
 larity. Was friend of Gluck, rival of Mozart, 
 and teacher of Franz Schubert. 
 
 Salonian, Siegfned, born 1818. Danish com- 
 poser and violinist. Has written operas and 
 instrumental music ; also lectures on the 
 theory of music. 
 
 SaltarellO, an Italian dance of the 15th 
 century, in triple measure. Also a modern 
 Roman folks-dance. 
 
 Salve regina (siil-ve ra-ge -nii). " Save, O 
 Queen," a hymn to the Virgin. 
 
 Sail Martini, G. B. First half of 18th century 
 in Milan. Talented composer. Wrote sym- 
 phonies resembling the earlier ones of Haydn. 
 
 Sanf tig (Ger. siinf'-tig). Soft, gentle. 
 
 Sailgbar (Ger. sang-bar). Singable. 
 
 Sarabaiida, or Sarabaiicle, an old dance 
 in 3-4 time, in slow and stately movement. 
 
 Sai'asate, Pablo de, an extremely gifted young 
 Spanish violinist of the present time. He 
 already belongs in the first rank of virtuosi. 
 Was a pupil of Alard, in Paris. 
 
 Sarti, Giuseppo, 1729-1802. Italian opera com- 
 poser, pupil of Padre Martini. Was conduc- 
 tor and teacher in Milan, Venice, and at the 
 court of Russia. 
 
 Satz (Ger. satz\ Piece. Saiz is the German 
 for piece, phrase, movement. 
 
 Saxboril, a brass instrument of the trumpet 
 kind, iuvented by M. Sa.x, in 1842 ; much 
 used in brass bands. 
 
 Scale, the tones of a key arranged in regular 
 order according to the pitch. 4 
 
 Scarlatti, Alessandro, 1649-1725. One of the 
 greatest Italian composers, wrote operas, 
 church and chamber music. Was made a 
 knight, and was royal conductor in Naples. 
 
 Scarlatti, Domenico, son of A., 1683-1757. 
 Wrote operas, church music, and much piano 
 music, which is still prized. Was a superior 
 pianist. 
 
 Scaria, Emil, Born 1838. One of the noblest 
 bass singers of the present time. Pupil of 
 Garcia. 
 
 Sceiia (Ital. shii -nal, a scene, a distinct part 
 
 of an opera or play. 
 Scliad, Joseph. Born 1812. Pianist, teacher 
 
 and composer. Professor at Conservatory of 
 
 Geneva. 
 Sclialniei (Ger. schal-mi'), an 8 ft. reed stop 
 
 in the organ. 
 Scliarf, an acute " mixture" stop in the organ. 
 
 Sclierek, Max. Bom 1840. Violinist and 
 
 composer in Pasen. 
 Sclierzaildo (Ital. skert-zan -do). Playfully. 
 Scliei'ZO (Ital. skart'-zo). Play, sport, jest. 
 
 ScherzOSO (Ital. sk6rt-zo -so). Merry, play- 
 ful, iocose. 
 
 Scllillillg, Dr. Gustav, the musical literateur 
 and writer about music, was born in Schwieg- 
 ershausen, Hanover, in 1805, educated at 
 Gottingen and Halle, and resided for some 
 time in Stuttgart. Is author of a complete 
 Encyclopedia of music (7 vols. 8 vo.), a 
 theory of harmony, biographical notices, etc., 
 etc. Came to America in 1857. 
 
 Scllilldler, Anton, the biographer of Beetho- 
 ven, was born 1796 at Medl, studied the 
 violin, and became opera conductor. In 
 Vienna he became acquainted with Beetho- 
 ven, and in 1840 published his beok. Died 
 in 1S64. 
 
 Scllira, Francesco Vincenzio, a dramatic com- 
 poser, was born at Mailand, 1812, studied 
 there in the Conservatory, and composed his 
 first opera in 1833. Lived for several years 
 in Lisbon as opera conductor, and died there 
 of cholera. 
 
 Scllisnia, very minute interval equal to the 
 ratio 32805 : 32768. 
 
 Sclllag illStrimiente (Ger.'l Instruments 
 of percussion ; drums, cymbals, triangles, 
 bones, etc., as well as all the dulcimer tribe, 
 among which is the piano-foite. 
 
 Sclimitt. Alois, a favorite clavier player of the 
 old school, and composer for his instrument, 
 was born in 1789 at Erlenbach. At the age 
 of 14 he appeared as virtuoso, and studied 
 composition with Andr^, at Offenbach. Died 
 1866. Was composer of sj'mphonies, quar- 
 tettes, piano-pieces, etc. 
 
 Scliniitt, Alois G., was born at Hanover in 
 1827, composed an opera at an early age, and 
 appeared as pianist with success, especially 
 in England. On his return to Germany he 
 filled many positions as opera conductor, and 
 composed much music, including several 
 operas. 
 
 Scllliabel, Joseph Ignaz, was a celebrated 
 church composer of masses, etc. Born 1767 
 at Naumburg. Died 1831. 
 
 ScIlOOl, education, training. 
 
 Schneider. Friedrich Johann Chr., was born 
 near Ziltau in 1786. He was the son of an 
 organist, and at the age of eight took his 
 father's place at the organ. He began early 
 as a composer, producing symphonies, piano 
 and organ pieces, etc., and in 1812 was ap- 
 pointed organist of the St. Thomas Church 
 at Leipsic, a place he left in 1821 for one at 
 Dessau, where he died in 1853. He exerted 
 great influence by the education of pupils, 
 among whom were Baake, Gathy, Fritz 
 Spindler, Robert Franz, Carl Anschutz, etc. 
 He wrote g oratorios, 13 masses, 7 operas, 23 
 symphonies, 23 overtures, 60 sonatas, 7 con- 
 certos with orchestra, etc., etc. 
 
 a, ale^ a add^ ii arin^ <! eve, 6 endy i ice^ \ ill, old, 6 odd, 6 dove, 00 moon, fl. lute, u liut, U Fr. soutid 
 
 64
 
 sen 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 SER 
 
 Sclllieider. Johann Gottlob, lirotlier of Fried- 
 rich, was also born at Altgersdorf, near Zittaii, 
 in 1789, and studied not only the organ but 
 also the piano and all orchestral instruments, 
 distinguishing himself particularly upon the 
 'cello. In 181 1 he succeeded his brother as 
 organist in the University church at Leipsic, 
 and in 1812 became organist at GOrlitz. Dur- 
 ing the 13 years in this position he studied 
 organ building carefully, and cffecled various 
 important reforms in it. In 1S20 he came the 
 second time to Dresden, and there resided 
 until his death, April 13, 1864. Schneider's 
 activity was great in three directions : as 
 teacher, organ expert, and virtuoso performer. 
 
 Sclllieider, Johann Julius, royal music direc- 
 tor, etc., was born at Berlin in 1805, the son' 
 of an organ builder He showed great talent 
 for music, and studied the piano, organ, sing- 
 ing, theory, violin, horn, etc., and presently 
 occupied all sorts of prominent positions in 
 Berlin as teacher, director, organist, and 
 composer. He wrote opera^^, cantatas, 200 
 songs for male voices, a quintette for piano and 
 wind instrument, organ pieces, 70 pedal e.ver- 
 cises, 40 fugues, 80 choral preludes, etc. Has 
 been the recipient of many honors. 
 
 ScllOberleclmer. Franz, composerand piano 
 virtuoso, was born in 1797 at Vienna, a pupil 
 of Hummel, began early as a composer, in 
 1824 received 10,000 rubles for an opera he 
 brought out at St. Petersburg, and died 1843. 
 Wrote 5 operas and various instrumental 
 works. 
 
 ScIlOOnfeld, Henry, was born in iMilwaukee, 
 Oct. 4, 1856. He is a pupil of the Leipsic 
 Conservatory and Lassen, of Weimar. He 
 is a composer of considerable merit. Among 
 others, " The Easter Idyll," a cantata for 
 solo, chorus and orchestra ; several sonatas, 
 pieces for piano, violin, chorus and songs, etc. 
 
 !«!»eIlI'Oeder-l>evrieilt, Wilhelmine, a great 
 dramatic singer. Jiorn at Hamburg, 1804, 
 the daughter of a celebrated tragedienne, 
 made her debut in 1819, and in 1822 distin- 
 guished herself in Beethoven's " Fidelio." 
 Died i860. 
 
 Schubert, Franz Peter, the founder of the 
 romantic school of composition, and the great 
 master of song, was born Jan. 31, 1797, near 
 Vienna. His father vvras a schoolmaster. At 
 the age of eight he was choir-boy in the 
 Lichtenthaler church, and began the study 
 of music, and presently pl.iyed the first violin 
 with success. In 1810 he wrote his first 
 fantasia for piano-forte for four hands, and 
 from then until his death he produced a con- 
 tinual succession of compositions, in the 
 form of songs (of which he left 600), sonatas, 
 an opera, eight symphonies, masses and vocal 
 works of all sorts, trios, duos, etc. Schubert 
 is distinctly a melodist, yet as a harmonist 
 and orchestral colorist he is also great. His 
 songs are among the most beautiful works of 
 this kind, and in the greatest ones, like " The 
 Erl King," and " Gretchen at the Spinning 
 Wheel," he extended the bounds of musical 
 expression. In his longer works he is fre- 
 quently diffuse. But his melodies are always 
 fresh and spontaneous, in which respect he 
 is like Mozart. Seep. 190 for further obser- 
 vations on Schubert's relation to Chopin and 
 Schumann. Schubert died 1828. 
 
 Svlilillioff*, Julius, piano virtuoso and salon 
 composer, was born .it Prague in 1825. 
 Studied with Kisch and Tomascheck, and 
 appeared in public successfully at the age of 
 sixteen. In his 17th year he went to Paris, 
 where he learned higher piano-playing from 
 Chopin, Liszt, and Thalberg. Since 1854 he 
 has lived in Dresden. 
 
 Schultze, Edward, violinist and leader of the 
 famous Mendelssohn Quintet Club of Boston, 
 was born in Germany about 1828, and came 
 to this country with the Germania Musical 
 Society, about 1852, and has resided since 
 then in Boston. 
 
 Sclllllz. Johann Peter, anoted song composer, 
 was born at Llineburg, 1747. and became di- 
 rector of the theatre. Died 1800. -Schulz 
 exercised important influence on the develop- 
 ment of the Lied. 
 
 Sclilllliailll, Gustav, called also " the Berlin 
 Schumann,'' wEsborn at Holdenstedt, March 
 15, 1815, and has lived most of his life in 
 Berlin, where he is highly esteemed as com- 
 poser and pianist. 
 
 Schlllliailll, Robert, the greatest composer of 
 the romantic scliool, was born at Zwickau, 
 1810. Died 1856. See Chapter XLIX. 
 
 Scliarweilka, Philip. Born 1847. Teacher 
 in KuUak's Academy of Music in Berlin, of 
 which he was .a pupil. Composer of sym- 
 phonies and lesser works. 
 
 Scliarwenlia, Xaver, younger brother of 
 Philip. Born 1S50. Also a pupil of Kullak's 
 Academy, and taught there for some time. 
 Distinguished pianist and composer of piano- 
 forte music, as well as chamber music. 
 
 SchAveifzor, Anton, was a dramatic composer 
 and kapellmeister at Gotha and Weimar. 
 Born 1737, died 17S7. Composed about 20 
 
 operas. 
 
 ScordatO (Ital. skor-da'-to). Out of tune, 
 false. 
 
 Score, all the voice-parts of a piece, arranged 
 in parallel staves so as to show the entire 
 instrumentation at a glance. Orchestral 
 jfiiri? contains all the orchestral parts ; vocal 
 score^ all the voice parts ; piano score, all the 
 piano part, or the voice and piano parts. 
 
 Score-reading'. The art or act of playing 
 
 or thinking music from the orchestral score. 
 
 SeeliniSf, Hans, a brilliant pianist and good 
 composer, was born in 1828 at Prague, made 
 a number of concert tours, and died at Prague 
 in 1862. 
 
 Selig'llian, Hippolyte-Prosper, a violoncello 
 virtuoso, born 1817 at Paris, and e^iucated 
 there. Is the composer of over 50 works, 
 mostly operatic fantasies. Is the owner of 
 one of the best of Nicola Amati's 'cellos. 
 
 Seilfel. Ludwig, was one of the most noted 
 German composers of church music in the 
 16th century. 
 
 Seiiza (Ital. sand'-zS). Without; as seiiza 
 pedale, without pedal; senza ritard^ with- 
 out retard. 
 
 Servo, Alex. Nikol (sTii -vo), a Russian opera 
 composer and writer, a friend of Liszt and 
 Wagner, was born 1820. Several of his operas 
 were produced in St. Petersburg. Died 1871. 
 
 a ale^ a add, ii arin^ e ezie, S end, 1 ice, 1 ///, o old^ o odd, 6 dove, 00 i/ioon, u luU\ il iui, ii Fr. sound 
 ■> 65
 
 SER 
 
 DICTIOXARY. 
 
 SOS 
 
 Scrvais, Adrien Franfois (sar-va), iSsy- 
 1866. One of the greatest violoncellists of 
 his time. He wrote much for his instrument, 
 and was professor of the violoncello at the 
 Conservatory of Brussels. 
 
 Sextftto, a composition fjr six voices or in- 
 struments. 
 
 Seyfriecl, Ignaz Xaver, Ritter von (sT'-freed), 
 1776-1S41. I'upil of Mozart and Albrechts- 
 berger. For 30 years conductor at the 
 " Theater an der Wien," Vienna. Prolific 
 composer of operas and church music. 
 
 Sforza I Ital. sfOr-tsa). Forced, with vigor. 
 
 Shake, a trill. See "Embellishments" in 
 
 Appendix. 
 Sliarp, a character indicating elevation. See 
 
 " Pitch Notation" in Appendix. 
 
 ISlierWOOCi, William H., virtuoso pianist and 
 composer, was born in Lyons, N. Y., i8,it, 
 the son of a music teacher. Studied the 
 piano at an early age, and in 1871 went to 
 Berlin, where he studied with Kullak, and 
 afterwards with Liszt at Weimar. Since his 
 return to America in 1875, .Sherwood has ap- 
 peared in all the leading cities with the great- 
 est success in important and highly artistic 
 progr.immes. Resides in Boston. Is one of 
 the first pianists of our time. 
 
 Shield, William, 1754-1829. English composer 
 of over 50 operas for Covent Garden Theatre. 
 
 i^hift. position of the hand on the finger-board 
 of the violin. 
 
 Si l!>eillol (Fr. so bf'-mol). B fiat. 
 
 Sioiliano ( Ital. se-tshe-li-a-no). A dance of 
 the Sicilian peasantry, in soft, slow move- 
 ment, in 6-8 time. 
 
 Signature, sharps or flats placed at the begin- 
 ning of a st.iff or movement to indicate the 
 key. See "Chromatic Signs" in "Synopti- 
 cal Cliart of Musical Notation." Appendix. 
 
 Silhei'Bliami, Gottfried. Born 16S3. One of 
 the best oigan builders of his lime, and one 
 of the original inventors of the pi.ano-forte, 
 substituting hammers for the quills of the old 
 harpsichord. 
 
 Silvani. Giuseppo Antonio, first half of the i8th 
 century organist in Bologna, and composer of 
 much church music. 
 
 Simile (Ital. se-me-le). Similarly, in like 
 manner. Written after finger markings, indi- 
 cates that the. /inhering' 1% to be continued in 
 the same manner. After /f?;/ means that the 
 pedal is to be used in the same way thereafter. 
 
 Singer. Edmund. Born 1831 in Hungary. 
 One of the greatest violin virtuosi of his time. 
 Now professor in Stuttgart. 
 
 Singer, Otto. Born in 1833. Excellent pianist, 
 composer and teacher. Now of the College of 
 Music in Cincinnati. 
 
 Sin'al fine (Ital. sen al fen'-6). To the end, 
 or to the woxA_/lne. 
 
 Singspiel (Ger. stng-spel). A song-play, a 
 pl.^y interspersed with songs, an opera. 
 
 Sinistra (Ital. sin'-ls-tra). The left hand. 
 
 Siren, an instrument for measuring the rapidity 
 of vibrations producing given pitches. See 
 Tyndal on sound. 
 
 Sivori, Ernst Camille. Born 1817. The 
 greatest living Italian violin virtiioso. Also 
 a thorough musician, and a composer for his 
 instrument. 
 
 Skraiip, Fr. i3oi-:862. Bohemian opera com- 
 poser. Also an e,\cellent cniducior and a 
 composer of masses and of chamber music. 
 
 Slargando (Ital. Slar-gan'-do). Extending, 
 widening, making the time gradually slower. 
 
 Slentando (Ital. slen-tan -dO). Becoming 
 gradually slower. 
 
 Sloper, Lindsay. Born 1826. Pupil of Mos- 
 cheles in piano playing. Studied also in 
 Germany, became an excellent pianist, and 
 is now a piano teacher in London. Has also 
 composed piano-forte music and songs. 
 
 Slur, a curved line over two or more notes to 
 show that they represent legato tones. 
 
 Smart, George. 1778-1867. Excellent con- 
 ductor, and did much to promote the study of 
 classical music in England. Founded the 
 Philharmonic Society. Was a friend of Weber. 
 Was also a good composer. 
 
 Smith, John Christopher, 1712-1795. Born in 
 Germany, but lived in England in Handel's 
 time. Was a pupil of Handel in composition. 
 Wrote many operas. Was a good organist 
 and a talented, and accomplished musician. 
 
 Smith, Sydney, an English pianist and arrang- 
 er of popular pieces. Born about 1840, and 
 educated at Leipsic. 
 
 Smorzando (Ital. smor-tsiin'-do). Extin- 
 guished, put out, gradually dying away. 
 
 Snare Drum, a small side-drum used in mili- 
 tary music, deriving its name from two cords 
 of gut stretched across one of the heads. 
 These give it a hard metallic tone. 
 
 Soave (Ital. sO-ii'-ve). Softly, sweetly. 
 
 Soedermann. Aug. Johann, 1832-1876. Swe- 
 dish composer of marked originality. Pupil 
 of Richter and Hauptmann. Also an excel- 
 lent conductor. 
 
 Sol (Ital. sol). The fifth of the scale, the tone 
 G in French. 
 
 Solfa. See Tonic Sol-Fa. 
 
 Solo, a piece for a single singer or player. 
 
 Somniai(Ital. som-mii). Extreme, great. Som- 
 )na cspressione^ very great expression. 
 
 Sonata (Ital. so-nit-ta). An important form 
 in instrumental music. See Chapter V. 
 
 Song, a short poem for singing. A short piece 
 of music in lyric style. 
 
 Sonore (Ital. so-no'-ra). Sonorous, harmoni- 
 ous. 
 
 Sontag, Henrietta, 1805-1852. A renowned 
 opera singer, distinguished for the beauty of 
 her voice, the perfection of her method, and 
 the astonishing facility of her execution. She 
 commanded enormous prices. She married 
 Count Rossi, of the Italian diplomatic 
 service, and lived most happily with him 
 until her death by cholera in Mexico. 
 
 Sopra (Ital. so'-pra). Above. 
 
 Soprano (leal, so-pra-no). The highest 
 female voice. The music for soprano voice. 
 
 Sordino (Ital. sor-de-no). A mute. A small 
 instrument for obstructing vibration. In the 
 trumpet it is a plug nearly closing the bell. 
 On the violin^ a small instrument for pinch- 
 ing the bridge. 
 
 Sospirevole (Ital. sos-pe-rii-vo-leV Sigh- 
 ing, very subdued. 
 
 a, aCc^ a add^ ii arm., e eve^ e end^ i ice^ i ///, old, o odd, 6 dove, 00 moi,n, it Hute, u but, ii Fr. sound 
 
 66
 
 SOS 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 STR 
 
 Sostenilto (Ital. s6s-ta-noo'-to). Sustaining 
 
 the tone. 
 
 JSotto voce (Ital. sot -to vo -tshe). Under 
 the voice, that is, in a low voice, softly. 
 
 Speulel. Wilhelm, born 1826, in Vienna. An 
 excellent pianist, and especially rcnouiied as 
 a IJeethoven interpreter. Also an excellent 
 composer and conductor, and one of the 
 founders of the Stuttgart Conservatory. 
 
 Speitlel, Ludwig, brother of Wilhelm, born in 
 1830. Distinguished critic, and one of the 
 editors of the Vienna " New Free Press." 
 
 tliipiaiiato (Ital. spe-a-na-to). Smooth, even, 
 legato. 
 
 SpifcatO (Ital. spek-ka -to). Tointed, de- 
 tached. Jn violin music, " with the point of 
 the bow." 
 
 Spiinller, Fritz, born 1817. Fine musician, 
 composer, and piano-forte teacher. Pupil of 
 Fr. Schneider. Has written much piano-forle 
 music, also chamber music and a symphony. 
 Is a teacher in Dresden. 
 
 S^pillOt, an old instrument somewhat like the 
 square piano. 
 
 SpiritoSO (Ital. spe-re-to'-zo). In a spirited 
 manner. 
 
 i^pitx floete (Get. spitz fl6'-te.). An organ 
 stop of a pointed flute-tone, generally of 8 ft. 
 
 S^polir, Louis, 1784-1859. Native of Brunswick. 
 Distinguished composer and violin virtuoso. 
 Also an excellent orchestral conductor. He 
 wrote in all branches of composition, but es- 
 pecially operas and symphonies of high rank. 
 
 i^pontiiii. Gasparo tuigi Pacificus, 1774-1851. 
 One of the greatest Italian opera composers. 
 He was a superior conductor, and was for 
 more than twenty years directorot the Royal 
 Opera in Berlin, whither he was tempted from 
 a conductor's post in Paris, by a large salary 
 and great privileges. His greatest operas are 
 "The Vestal Virgins" and "Ferdinand 
 Cortez." 
 
 SpOllllOlz, Adolph Heinrich, 1803-1851. Or- 
 ganist in Rostock, and composer of piano- 
 iorte music, songs, motettes and orchestral 
 pieces. 
 
 Stabat Mater (stii -bat mil -ter). A cantata 
 or oratorio by Rossini in 1S32. The words 
 are those of a very old hymn. 
 
 Staccato (Ital. stak-ku -to). Detached, dis- 
 tinct, separated. Staccato is of many grades, 
 from the mild one made by the violin bow 
 when reversed for each successive note, to 
 the extreme pizzicato made by snapping the 
 strings. 
 
 Stseildclien (Ger. stand'-khen). A serenade. 
 
 Stailier, Jacob, 1621-1683. The greatest violin 
 builder of the Tyrol, and one of the greatest 
 anywhere, 
 
 Stailier. Mark, born 1659. Brother of Jacob, 
 also a violin maker. 
 
 t^tailiei', Dr. J., an English organist and com- 
 poser, author of many arrangements for the 
 organ, church music, etc. 
 
 Stanialy. Camille Maria, 1811-1870. Cele- 
 bralcd French teacher of the piano-forte, and 
 composer of valuable studies for that instru- 
 ment. He taught Camille Saint-Saens and 
 L. M. Goitschalk. 
 
 Stark, Ludwig. Born 1831. One of the foun- 
 ders of the Stuttgart Conservatory, and one 
 of the authors of Lebert and Stark's '" School 
 for the piano-forte." Lebert and Stark also 
 wrote an "Elementary Instruction Book for 
 Singing," and a " German Song School." 
 Teacher of the piano-furle and of singing, 
 also conductor and composer, especially of 
 sacred and secular choruses. 
 
 Staildi^l, Joseph (stow' - dtgl). 1804 - 1861. 
 Austrian bass singer, renowned in opera, 
 oratorio and songs. To his noble interpre- 
 tations the songs of Franz Schubert owe a 
 large part of their popularity. One of the 
 greatest singers of this century. 
 
 Steffani Agastino, the Abbd. 1655-1730. One 
 of the most distinguished composers and 
 singers of his time. A Venetian. He com- 
 posed operas, church music and chamber 
 music. 
 
 Steilx'It, Daniel, 1755-1823. Born in Berlin. 
 Pianist and composer. As a player he was 
 brilliant and effective, but lacked thorough 
 training both in this and in composition. His 
 works have no permanent value. 
 
 Steiliway, the name of a family engaged in 
 the manufacture of pianos in New York, 
 under the name of Steinway & Sons. The 
 founder of this firm, Henry Steinway, was 
 born in Brunswick, 1797. It is now conducted 
 by his two surviving sons, Theodore and 
 William. 
 
 Stem, Julius. Born in Breslau in 1820. He 
 is one of the ablest and best musicians of our 
 time, excelling, as a conductor and teacher. 
 His Conservatory of I\Iusic and Singing So- 
 ciety in Berlin are among the very best insti- 
 tutions of their kind. 
 
 Steriitlale-Beiinett, W. See Bennett. 
 
 Stesso lUOSSO (Ital. stas'-so-mos -so). The 
 same movement, i.e., any given note, as an 
 eighth or quarter, goes at the same speed in 
 
 both movements. 
 
 Stockliauseil, Julius. Born in Paris in 1826. 
 
 He is a most distinguished singer of songs, 
 and in opera and oratorio, and an e.\cellent 
 teacher and conductor. He is now director 
 of the Stern Society in Berlin. 
 
 Stop, an organ register. See Register. 
 
 Stopped Pipes, organ pipes stopped at the 
 upper end. In this case the sound-wave is 
 reflected back again to the mouth of the pipe, 
 consequently stopped pipes are only half as 
 long as open ones giving the same pitch. 
 
 St. Peter, an oratorio by John K. Paine, in 
 
 1873. Also by Sir Julius Benedict. 
 St. Paul, oratorio by Mendelssohn, in 1836. 
 
 StradeJla. Allessandro, 1645-1670 (?). One of 
 the best singers and composers of his time. 
 He was born in Naples, and assassinated in 
 Genoa. 
 
 Stradivari, Antonius, 1644-1737. The most 
 renowned and best of all violin makers. He 
 was born, lived and died at Cremona. 
 
 Stradivari. Franc'sco and Oruobone, sons of 
 Antonius, and also good violin makers. 
 
 StraliOScJl, Maurice, born in Hungary in 
 1825. Pianist, composer and impressario. 
 Lives in New York. 
 
 Strathspey, a lively Scotch dance, in common 
 
 time. 
 
 a «/f, a add., a arm, e e-ve., 6 end., I ice, 1 ///, o old, o odd, o dove, 00 moon, u lute, \x but, u Fr. sound 
 
 67
 
 STR 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 TAR 
 
 Strauss, Jos., 1793-1866. Conductor in the 
 serviceof the Grand Duke of Baden. Violin- 
 ist and composer of operas, overtures and 
 chamber music. 
 
 Strauss, Johann, 1804-1849. Lived in Vienna, 
 and is known the viforld over by his beautiful 
 dance music. His sons, John, Joseph and 
 Edward, are hardly less renowned for their 
 productions in the same field. John, indeed, 
 has also written comic operettas. His waliz, 
 " On the Beautiful blue Danube," is the best 
 known of his works. 
 
 Streng (Ger. streng). Strict, severe, rigid. 
 
 StrepitOSO (Ital. strep-I-l6'-z6). Noisily, 
 boisterously. 
 
 StrettO (Ital. straf-t5). Pressed, close, con- 
 tracted. That part of a fugue where all the 
 subjects come together, or where the imita- 
 tions take place more rapidly after each other. 
 A quicker passage leading to a close. 
 
 Strict, severe, rigid. 
 
 Stringed Instruments. Instruments 
 
 whose sounds are produced by striking 
 strings (as in the piano-forte or dulcimer), 
 drawing them (as in the harp or guitar), or 
 X.\ie friction of a bow (as in the violin family \. 
 
 Stringendo (Ital. stren-jan -do). Pressing, 
 hurrymg, accelerating the time. 
 
 String CJuartette, the violin family, con- 
 sisting of violins, viola and 'cello. Music for 
 these instruments, Also called "string band." 
 
 Stroplie, a stanza. 
 
 Stueclc (Ger. stiik). Piece, air, tune. 
 
 Sub (Lat. sub). Under. 
 
 Sub-bass, the low bass. The violon. A pedal 
 stop in the organ. 16 ft. 
 
 Snbdoniinant, the fouith of the key. 
 
 Subject, the leading idea of a work. 
 
 Suite (Fr. swet). A succession of pieces in- 
 tended to be played in connection. 
 
 Sul (Ital. sool). On, upon the. 
 
 Sullivan, Arthur Seymour. Born 1S42. He 
 was a pupil of the Leipsic Conservatory, and 
 is a talented and accomplished musician and 
 composer. He has written works of con- 
 siderable importance, including one or two 
 oratorios, but is best known in. this country 
 by his comic operetta, " H. M. S. Pinafore,'' 
 which had a most extraordinary run in 1879. 
 
 Supertonic. the tone above the tonic, the 
 second of the scale. 
 
 Suppe, Franz von, was born in Dalmatia in 
 1820. He is a conductor in Vienna, and has 
 composed operas, symphonies, quartettes, 
 etc, Hs is best known by his comic operet- 
 tas, of which " Fatinitza'' and " The Beau- 
 tiful Galatea" have been given in this country. 
 
 Suspension, a dissonant tone held over from 
 a preceding chord where it was consonant, 
 and finally resolved (geneially downwards) 
 into some proper tone of the chord into which 
 it had intruded. 
 
 Svendsen, Johann Severin, was born in 
 Christiana, Sweden, in 1840. He studied at 
 the Leipsic Conservatory, and is a much ad- 
 mired and highly respected musician and 
 composer. He has written admirable and 
 original quartettes, symphonies and other 
 works. 
 
 Swell Organ, that division of the organ 
 whose pipes are enclosed in a box with mov- 
 able blinds, operated by a '■swell-pedal," 
 thus making crescendo and diminuendo. 
 
 Symphony, the most important instrumental 
 form, being, in fact, nothing but a large sonata 
 for orchestra. See Chapters XV. and XVI. 
 
 Symphonic Poem, an orchestral composi- 
 tion in symphonic style, but not strictly so. 
 
 Syncopation, " a cutting into." a conceal- 
 ment of the measure accent, either by a false 
 accent (accent on what would properly be an 
 unaccented part of the measure), or by a 
 prolongation of a tone out of a weak part of 
 the measure past the moment when the ac- 
 cent should come. 
 
 Taborowski, Stanislaw. Born 183O. Violin 
 virtuoso. Studied in Brusse.ls. Lives in 
 Russia. 
 
 Tacchinardi, Nicholas, 1776-1860. Dis- 
 tinguished tenor singer of Florence. Sang 
 also in other Italian cities, and in Paris. 
 
 Tace (Ital, ta -tshe). Be silent. Indicates that 
 certain instruments are not to play. Violini 
 tacet, violins be silent, etc. 
 
 Tact (Ger. takt). Measure, time. 
 
 Tallis, Thomas, one of the greatest English 
 contrapuntists of the i6th century. Was an 
 excellent organist. 
 
 Tamberlik, Enrico, was born at Rome in 
 1820. One of the best tenor singers of our 
 time. Taught singing in Madrid after 1867. 
 
 Tambourine, a small instrument of the drum 
 family, consisting of a wooden hoop with 
 holes in the sides, in which are jingling 
 pieces of metal, and a sheepskin head 
 stretched on it. 
 
 Tamburini, Anton, 1800- 1876. A distin- 
 guished Italian bass singer. Sang in opera 
 with Rubini, Lablache and others, and was 
 their equal. 
 
 Tamtam, an Indian instrument of percussion. 
 
 Tansur, Wm. Born 1699. English contra- 
 puntist and writer on music. 
 
 TantO (Ital. tan' -to). So much, so great. 
 A llegro Jiia non tanto, allegro, but not too 
 much. 
 
 Tantiim Ergo (Lat. tan -turn ar-go). A 
 Latin hymn sung at the benediction in the 
 Roman Catholic service. 
 
 Tappert, Wm. Born 1830, in Silesia. Writer 
 on music of great ability, and a strong Wag- 
 ner partisan. Also teacher in Tausig's piano 
 school in Berlin. Editor of " The Universal 
 German Musical Journal" since 1878. 
 
 Tarantella (Ital tar-ran-tal-la). A swift, 
 delirious sort of Italian dance in 6-8 time. 
 
 Tardando (Ital. tar-dan -do). Lingering, 
 retarding the time. 
 
 Tartini, Giuseppo, 1692-1770. One of the 
 very greatest violinists of the 18th century. 
 He was the founder of a new school ofviolin 
 playing, and of a new system of harmony. 
 He was the discoverer of the so-called " Com- 
 bination tones." He was also a most dis- 
 tinguished teacher, sought by pupils from all 
 countries. He was also an excellent com- 
 poser, and wrote over 200 concert pieces for 
 his instrument, the best known of which is 
 the still renowned " Devil's sonata." 
 
 a ale, a add, a arm, e eve, 6 end, 1 ice, ' 
 
 ill, o old, o odd, 6 doz'e, 00 moon, Q lute, \\. but, u Fr. sound 
 68
 
 TAS 
 
 DICTIOXARY. 
 
 THI 
 
 Tastatlir (Ger. tas-tii-toor). The keyboard 
 of the organ or piano-forte. 
 
 Ta«te (Ger. tiis-te). The touch of any instru- 
 ment. Hence the key. 
 
 TastO solo (Ital. tas-to so -lo). One key 
 alone ; in organ or piano music this means 
 the parts in unison, without harmony. 
 
 Tauliert, Ernst E., born 1S38. Critic and com- 
 poser in Berlin. 
 
 Taubert, \Vm. C. G., born 181 1. Pianist and 
 conductor of the Royal Opera and orchestra 
 m Berlin. Composerof no great significance. 
 
 Tausisr, Carl, 1841-1871. Born in Warsaw. 
 One of the very greatest of all pianists, with 
 a technique so absolutely above all dilTicul- 
 ties and-o perfect as to defy criticism, and an 
 innate fire and firce hardly surpassed by the 
 great Liszt himself, whose pupil he was. 
 This fiery vigor was subdued and tempered 
 by his intellectual tendencies and attain- 
 ments, for Tausig was an earnest stud nt of 
 philosophy, and a lo\-er of all higher intel- 
 lectual pursuits. He was also an admirable 
 teacher. 
 
 Teehnic, skill or ability in the mechanical part 
 of any art. Fiaiio-fa>-te ti'cknic, the perfect 
 use of the fingers ; pedal tcchnic, proper use 
 of the feet ; vocal technicy correct use of the 
 voice. 
 
 Tetlosco (Ital. te-das'-ko). In the German 
 
 style. 
 
 Te «lpuni laiidanius (Lat. ta da-fin law- 
 da'-mils). "We praise Thea, O God," an 
 old hymn of praise. 
 
 Teleilianii, George P., 1681-1767. Born in 
 Magdebirg. Was 46 years conductor in Ham- 
 burg. Played organ, piano, violin and other 
 instruments. Was a highly educated man, 
 and a teacher and composer. Developed a 
 great musical interest in Hamburg; wrote 
 many operas there, and also much instru- 
 mental music. 
 
 Temperament, is a system of compromises 
 by means of which twelve tones in an octave 
 are made to do duty in place of about forty- 
 eight which would be necessary to perfect 
 intonation in all keys. Mathematically stated, 
 temperament makes, for ex'ample, the major 
 thi;d equal to four-fifths divided by two oc- 
 taves. That is, 3-2X1-2X3-2X3-2X1-2X3-2 
 = 81-64=5-4. Temperament is, therefore, a 
 system of imperfect tuning peculiar to the 
 piano and org in, in which all intervals except 
 the unison and octave are more or less im- 
 perfect. Its advantages are the simplicity of 
 the key-board of the twelve keys to an octave 
 in place of forty-eight. Music itself is writ- 
 ten without respect to temperament, 
 
 TempestOSO (Ital. tem-pes-t0'-z5). Tem- 
 pestuous, stormy, boisterous. 
 
 Tempo (Ital. tam'-po). The time, the move- 
 ment. The moiement of music is approxi- 
 mately indicated by means of Italian terms, 
 which refer generally to the unit of time, so 
 that slow movements may yet have quick 
 notes in them. Reissmann divides tempos 
 into three classes: Si.ow, i-ncluding Largo^ 
 Gyiive^ Ailagio^ Le7ito,^n<\ Larghetto^ which 
 here stand in progressive order of speed, the 
 slowest first. Medium, " going," W «(/««/(•, 
 Andantin", Modcraio^ Allegretto. Quick, 
 Alleg'O^ I'ivacf, ViTacissiino^ Presto, and 
 Prestissimo. Theorists are not agreed as 1 3 
 
 whether Larghetto is faster than Largo, or 
 jl ndantino faster than A ndnnte, but modern 
 usage is as here indicated. For the meaning 
 of the difl"erent terms look in the proper jd.ace. 
 
 Teiiebrae (Lat. tan'-e-bra). Darkness, a 
 Catholic service in holy week. 
 
 Tenerameilteiltal. ten-er-ii-man -te). Ten- 
 derly, dtdicately. 
 
 TeiiereSBZa (Ital. t8n-5-rat-tsa). Tenderness, 
 softness, delicacy. 
 
 TeilOl', the highest male voice. Tenor robusto 
 is a strong tenor. 
 
 Tenor <', the C next below middle C. 
 
 TeniltO (Ital. te-noo'-to). Held, sustained, 
 held down its full time. 
 
 Ter (Lat. t6r). Thrice, three times. 
 
 Terpandei", a great Greek poet, composer 
 and theorist, lived about the 7th century, B.C. 
 
 Terschak, Adolf, Rom 1832. Flute vir- 
 tuoso. Lives in V'ienna. 
 Tertia (Lat. tPr-shi-a). Third, tierce. 
 Terz (Ger. tarts). A third. 
 
 Terzetto (Ital. tfir-tsaf-to). A short piece, 
 or trio, for three voices. 
 
 TescUner, G. W. Bom 1800. Teacher of 
 singing in Berlin. Accomplished mu-ician 
 and indefatigable investigator, and collector 
 of old music, of which he has published much, 
 especially songs, and valuable vocal studies. 
 
 TeStO (Ital. tas'-to). The text, theme or sub- 
 ject. 
 
 Tetraeliorcl. a system or scale of four tones. 
 An instrunrent producing four tones. 
 
 Text, the words of a song, or opera. 
 
 ThalberjJ, Sigismund, was born at Geneva in 
 1812, and died in Italy in 1871. He was a 
 brilliant piano-forte virtuoso, and invented 
 the peculiar i-tyle of playing which consists 
 in carrying a melody supported by the pedal, 
 while playing a rapid accompaniment in ex- 
 tended arpeggios. He was greatly admired 
 as an executant in this peculiar style, but oc- 
 cupied himself very little with the works of 
 masters, and was by no means a great inter- 
 pretative or creative artist. His compositions 
 are now little used. 
 
 Thema or Theme (Ger. ta-ma). The 
 
 principal melodic subject in a work. An air, 
 which is afterwards varied. 
 
 Thematic 'Work, means literally, work on 
 motives taken from the theme ; it is now ap- 
 plied to any elaboration of motives, whether 
 those of the principal theme of the piece or 
 not. See Chapters I. and II. 
 
 Theory of Mlisie, includes Sound, the 
 science of musical tone ; Tonality, the doc- 
 trine of scales and keys ; Harmo?iy, the 
 doctrine of chords and chord-successions. 
 Coiinterf'oint, voice-relation ; Fu^iie, the 
 logical development of a subject ; Form, the 
 symmetrical arrangement of the parts of a 
 work ; Orchestration, the proper method of 
 employing and combining instruments ; Tech- 
 nics, the principles of correct performance, 
 and perhaps /Esthetics, or the principles of 
 the beautiful. 
 
 Thibailt, Anton, F. G., 1772-1840. Professor 
 in Heidelburg University. Was a connois- 
 seur in music, and wrote a valuable book on 
 "Purity in Musical Art." 
 
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 69
 
 Tin 
 
 DICTIO^NTARY. 
 
 TOT 
 
 Til ir<l, an interval between any tone of the scule 
 and the next but one above or below. 
 
 Thiele, Carl I-., 1816-1848. Organist in Berlin, 
 distinguished for superior technic and the im- 
 aginative quality of his pl.iyin."'. Left many 
 important works for his instrument, wh ch 
 are the most difficult legitimate organ pieces 
 yet produced. 
 
 Thomas, Ambroise, C. L., born 1811. Distin- 
 guished French opera composer, and director 
 of the Paris Conservatory. His work best 
 known in this country is " Mienon." He has 
 also written instrumental music. 
 
 Thomas. Theodore, born in East Frisia in 1835. 
 Has been a violinist and conductor in New 
 New York since 1847. He developed and 
 trained the finest orchestra yet seen in Ameri- 
 ca, with which he made extended concert 
 tours for many years. At the establishment 
 of the Cincinnati College of Music in 1877, he 
 was called to be its director, but resigned 
 early in 1880 and returned to New York. He 
 is a very superior conductor, possessing re- 
 maikable pjwer of commanding his forces 
 and making ihemrealize his ideals, which arc 
 very high, his readuigs of great works pos- 
 sessing an unusually imaginative quality, and 
 producing a remarkable effect on audiences. 
 
 Thomas. St.. School in Leipsic. An old 
 
 school for boys, where church music hns 
 been assiduously cultivated since the 13th 
 century. It retains the endowments it had 
 before the Reformation. Among its most 
 distinguished Cantori, or directors and teach- 
 ers of music were J. S. Bach, Moritz 
 Hauptmann and E. F. Kichter. Its choir of 
 pupils, numbering 60, provides the music in 
 the c.ty churches, and sings motettes every 
 Saturday p.m, in St. Thomab' church. 
 
 Tichatsoheck. J. A. Born in Bohemia in 
 1807. A remarkable tenor singer. Held the 
 first rank for many years in Vienna, Dresden 
 and elsewhere. Retired from the stage in 
 1870. 
 
 Tiersch, Otto. Bom 1838. Professor of Theory 
 in Stein's Conservatory, Berlin. Has pub- 
 lished works on harmony and other branches 
 of theory, besides contributing many articles 
 to musical newspapers, and to Mendel's En- 
 cyclopedia of Music. 
 
 Tietjens. Therese, 1831-1S77. Born in Ham- 
 burg. Was a most distinguished prima donna 
 of Her ' Majesty's 'llieatre, in London, and 
 an artist of the highest rank. 
 
 Timbre (Fr. tahnbr), quality of tone. 
 
 Timpani (Ital. tem-pii'-ne). The kettle- 
 drums. 
 
 TiniOtheuS, a distinguished Greek musician. 
 Born 446 B.C. He was a reformer, and 
 added five new strings to the seven-stringed 
 lyre, adding also to the harmonic resources 
 of his time by his experiments and discoveries. 
 For this he was banished from Sparta, the 
 sapient rulers of those parts fearing lest these 
 innovations should corrupt the morals of their 
 youth. 
 
 Tilictoris, Johann. Born about 1435, in West 
 Flanders. Distinguished theorist, and author 
 of the first Musical lexicon. Was also an ex- 
 celle.t composer. 
 
 Toccata (Ital. to-kli -tiil. An obsolete form of 
 composition for the organ or piano-forte, re- 
 quiring brilliant execution. 
 
 Todi. Maria F., 1748-1793. A distinguished 
 Portuguese singer. Sang in the principal 
 capitals of Europe in the important operas of 
 her day. 
 
 Tortt, J. A. W. Born 1833. One of the best 
 living organists. Is organist and teacher in 
 Stettin. Has composed much instrumental 
 music, songs, psalms, a symphony, an ora- 
 torio, and a school of singing. 
 
 Toepfcr, J. G., 1791-1870. Organist, theorist, 
 and composer. Teacher in the Seminary at 
 Weimar. Contributed much to the science 
 of crgan building, by placing it on a scientific 
 foundation, to which end he devoted ten. 
 years to scientific study. 
 
 Tomascheck. J. W., 1774-1850. Bohemian 
 composer, pianist and teacher of high reputa- 
 tion. Wrote a symphony, chamber music 
 and smaller works. 
 
 TOIlllinS. Wm. L., vocal teacher and conduc- 
 tor, was born in England about 1844. Studied 
 music in the Tonic Sol-Fa schools, and with 
 G. A. Macfarren and Silas, came to New 
 York in 1869, and resides in Chicago, where 
 he holds leading rank as vocal conductor. 
 
 Tone, a musical sound. A sound of determin- 
 ate pitch, and consequently of regular vibra- 
 tions. 
 
 Tonart (Ger. ton'-art). Key ; as key of D, 
 
 key of C. 
 
 Tonfarbe (Ger. ton-far'-be). Tone-color, or 
 ti)iib>-c. The quality of tones. Timbre de- 
 pends upon the number and relative intensity 
 of over-tones present in the sound. 
 
 Tonic, the key-note. Speaking by ear, the 
 ionic is that tone of a scale or key which 
 makes the best ending or point &f repose. 
 Mathematically, it is the tone from which all 
 the others in the key are determined, as shown 
 in the article Key. 
 
 Tonic Sol-Fa. The name of a new and very 
 
 simple English notation for vocal music, based 
 on the fact that, in singing, pitches are dettr- 
 niined by their relation in key, and not from 
 melodic intervals or absolute pitch. Besides 
 the notation, the system also includes a new 
 and very much improved method of teaching 
 music, by cultivating the musical perceptions 
 more than is generally done. See John Ciir- 
 wcn. 
 
 Tonknnst (Ger. ton-koonst). The art of 
 Music. 
 
 Tonleitei* (Ger. ton'-li'-ter). Scale. 
 
 Tone-painting, representing scenes or emo- 
 tions by means of tones. 
 
 Torelli. Guiseppe, one of the first violin virtu- 
 osi in Italy. A few years earlier than Corelli. 
 Died 1708. Originated the v-iolin concerto ; 
 wrote much chamber music. 
 
 Tottniann, Albert, born 1837. Violinist and 
 musician. Lives in Leipsic. Is now writer 
 on musical subjects, and teacher of theory 
 and seslhetics. 
 
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 70
 
 TOU 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 UXP 
 
 Tourjee, Eben, Mus. Doc, the head of the 
 New England Conservatory of Music at Bos- 
 ton, was born at Warwick, R. I., June i, 
 1834. Studied music young, and early be- 
 came a teacher, especially of choir singing. 
 He founded the N. E. Conservatory in 1867, 
 which has had a remarkable success. Dr. 
 Tourjee has great ability as an organizer, and 
 unlimited enthusiasm. It was under his 
 efforts that the great Peace Jubilee choruses 
 were formed, numbering no less than 10,371 
 members in actual attendance. 
 
 Traetta, Tomaso, 1727-1779. A renowned 
 opera composer of the Neapolitan school. 
 
 Transition, a change ; as of key, or style, or 
 expression. 
 
 Traii*!i])osing; Instruiiionts, those which 
 
 play from notes higher or lower than the 
 actual sound. All these instruments play 
 from notes in the key of C. " IVMnstruments" 
 play every thing a vi'hole-step lower than 
 wiitten. Those "in D" flay one degree 
 higher. " In A," ,a minor third lower. " In 
 Ki" a minor third higlier. Bass instru- 
 ments are usually written as they play. The 
 transposing instruments are tlie clarinets, 
 cornets, trumpets, trombones, and horns. 
 
 Traviata, La, (triive-ii'-tU), opera by Verdi. 
 
 TreniaiKlO (Ital. trii-miin'-do). Tremolo, or 
 
 vil)rating. 
 
 TreillOlaildo (Ital. trii-mo-lan'-dO). Vibra- 
 ting. Chords marked treiu. are played as 
 shown iu Appendi.x. (See "Abbreviations.") 
 
 Tremolo (Ital. tra -mo-lo). A note or chord 
 made to quiver, or shake. 
 
 Treniulailt, a contrivance in the organ for 
 producing tremolo, 
 
 Tretbar, Charles, was born in Brunswick iu 
 1832. At present a prominent member of the 
 house of Steinway & Sons, in New York, 
 and the author of some very ingenious ."nd 
 instructive analytic programmes of classic 
 symphonies and chamber music. 
 
 Triad, a chord of three tones, which nre always 
 a fundamental and its third and fifth. 
 
 Triailjjle. a small three-sided steel frame, 
 which is played upon by being struck with a 
 rod. 
 
 Tl'il!, a rapid vibration between a chief note 
 and its au.xiliary above. See Embellishments 
 in Appendix. ■ ' 
 
 Trio (Ital. tre'-o). A composition for three 
 voices, instruments, or parts. A soft digres- 
 sion in simple binary forms. See Chap. XIII. 
 
 Triplet, three notes of equal duration per- 
 formed in a unit of time, or an aliquot part 
 thereof. 
 
 Triple time, triple measure. Measure, con- 
 sisting of three units or pulses, the first ac- 
 cented. 
 
 TritOlie, a term in harmony signifying the 
 augmented fourth, or the fourth .and seventh 
 of the key, which must not b-; heard together, 
 except under certain limit.ations. 
 
 TroiJlba (Ital. trom -bii). A trumpet, also a 
 reed stop in the organ. 
 
 TrODJUBiel (Ger. trom'-mel). The military tor 
 snare) drum. 
 
 Trombone, a very powerful instrument of the 
 trum|)et specie,, having a lube eight or ten 
 feet long, with a sliding piece, by means of 
 which it is lengthened or shortened, and 
 thereby its fundamental is changed. 
 
 Trovatore, II, opera by Verdi. 
 
 Trouhartonrs. the bards and poet-musicians 
 of Provence, about the tenth century. 
 
 Trnmpet, a brass instrument of a brilliant 
 tone. Compass abovit two octavesand a lialf. 
 An 8ft. reed-stop in the organ. 
 
 TseliaikOWSky, Peter. Born 1840. Rus- 
 sian composer of reputation ; is teacher of 
 composition in the Moscow Conservatory. 
 Has written songs, piano-forte music, sym- 
 phonies and operas, and a piano-forte con- 
 certo. 
 
 Tsellireh, the family name of si.^ brothers, the 
 oldest of whom was born in 1S08, all of whom 
 were excellent German musicians. 
 
 Tuba (Lat. tu'-biil. A trumpet. The bass 
 trumpet. An organ stop, of which the tuba 
 mirabilzs\<, the most powerful kind. 
 
 Turea. alia turea (Ital. toor-ka). In Turk- 
 ish style. 
 
 Turkish musie, is mostly of a wild and 
 noisy character, based on keys not admitting 
 of harmonic treatment according to our ideas. 
 
 Turn, a grupetto. See Embellishments in Ap- 
 pendix. 
 
 Turini, F., i.^go-1656. Italian church composer 
 and Ic.rned contrapuntist. 
 
 Tutta la forza (Ital. toot -ta la fur-tsii). All 
 the force, as loud as possible. 
 
 Tutte eorde (Ital. toot'-ia kor -da). AJI 
 the strings. These words, or the abbrevi- 
 ation T. C. or expression /rf rfjr^/*', indicates 
 the discontinuance of the soft pedal of the 
 piano-forte. 
 
 Tutti (Ital. toot'-te>. All. Used in orchestral 
 and vocal music after solo passages. 
 
 Tye, Chris., distinguished English Church com- 
 poser of the first part of the i6th century. 
 
 Tympanum (Lat. tim'-pan-um). A timbrel, 
 a drum. 
 
 ITeberganjJ, transition. 
 
 I^golino, Vincenzo, a distinguished_ Italian 
 teacher and composer of churcli music, in the 
 latter half of the i6th century. Died 1626. 
 
 ITlriell, Hugo, 1827-1872. One of the most 
 gifted composers of the present time. Wrote 
 symphonies and an opera, but succumbed to 
 poverty and unfavorable circumstances, and 
 failed to fulfil his early promise. 
 
 Unibreit, Carl Tho., 1763-1829. Distinguished 
 
 German organist. Published valuable choral 
 books. 
 
 Una corda (Ital. oon-ii kor-diO. One string. 
 This direction iu jjiano music recpdres the 
 use of the soft pedal. It cds at /^f corde. 
 
 ITnda Maris (Lat. tin -dii mii-risl. Wave of 
 the sea. An organ slop ofa tremulous, w.ivy 
 effect, a set of very slender pipes tuned 
 slightly sharper than the others, thus produc- 
 ing w.ives or beat. 
 
 I'liisonO (Ital. oon-i-so-no). K unison, in 
 unison, two or more sounds having the same 
 pitch. 
 
 I'n poelielliiio, a very little. 
 
 a ale^ n. add^ ii arm. o e-je^ e cnd^ I ice^ \ til, o old, o odd, dove, oo moon, \\ l;if>-, 'i b:if, li Fr. s''und 
 
 T-
 
 uxu 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 VIO 
 
 BJn, Una (Ital. oon, oon -ii), One, a. UnPoco^ 
 
 a little. 
 Up Beat, the last beat in the measure. 
 
 Urban. F. J. Born 1838, in Berlin. Excelleiit 
 musician y.nd superior singini teacher. His 
 instruction book on this subject is highly 
 prized. 
 
 Ut (Fr. oot). The note C ; the syllable origi- 
 nally applied by Guido to the note C, or do. 
 
 Ut beniol (Fr. oot ba-mol). The note C flat. 
 
 Ut tliese (Fr. oot di-az). The note C sharp. 
 
 Ut S«upra (Lat. ut su-pra). As above, as be- 
 fore. 
 
 Vacoai, Nicr-ln. i7gi-:84g. Italian composer 
 of operas and church music. 
 
 ValOtti. F. A., 1697-1780. Learned Italian 
 musician and composer of church music. 
 
 Valse ( Fr. vals). A waltz. 
 
 Valse cle i^alon (Fr. vaise d8 sa-lonh). A 
 
 waltz for parlor playing, anJ not for dancing. 
 See Lesson XX. 
 
 Van deit iilheyn, M., 1721-1783. The most 
 
 renowned organist and carillon player of the 
 i8th century. Lived 40 years in Ghent. 
 
 Vai'iations, repetitions of a theme or subject 
 in new and varied aspects, the form or out- 
 line of the compo?ition being preserved while 
 the different passages are ornamented and 
 amplified. See Lesson VI. 
 
 Vaudeville (Fr. vo-de-vel'). A country bal- 
 lad or song, a roundelay ; also a simple form 
 of operetta ; a comedy, or short drama, inter- 
 spersed with songs, 
 
 Vecclli, Orazio, a distinguished Italian com- 
 poser of the i6th centuiy, and one who did 
 much toward the development of dramatic 
 music. 
 
 Velata (Ital. va-la'-taj. Veiled ; a voice sound- 
 ing as if it weie covered with a veil. 
 
 Velocity, rapidity. For principles of velocity 
 see INIason's Piano Technics. 
 
 Veloee_ (Ital. ve-lo'-tshe), Veloceniente 
 
 (ve-lo-tshe-man -tej. Swiftly, quickly, in a 
 rapid time. 
 
 Velo<»i.ssiniO (Ital. ve-lo-tshes'-se-mo). Very 
 swiftly, with extreme rapidity. 
 
 Venetian School. Venice was an import- 
 ant musical center as early as 1400. Its great- 
 est musical progress was made under the 
 influence of the great Netherlander, Adrian 
 Willaert, kapellmeister at St. Mark's Cathe- 
 dral, who, with his pupils and successors, 
 formed what is known in musical history as 
 the Venetian School. 
 
 Venl Haneti spiritu^. " Come Holy 
 Spirit," a hymn sung at the " Benediction'' 
 in the R. C. service, 
 
 Ventil (Ger. ven-tel). A valve. In organ 
 building the name ventil is applied to large 
 valves closing important wind-trunks, thus 
 shutting off an entire department of the or- 
 gan from its wind supply. 
 
 Veraeini, F. M., 1685-1750. Italian violinist, 
 next to Corelli, the best of his time. 
 
 Verdelot, Ph., end of the 15th and first part 
 of the 16th centuries. Noted Belgian contra- 
 puntist. 
 
 Vei'di, Guiseppe, was born in Busseto, Itsly, 
 in 1813. He is a prolitic composer of Ital. an 
 operas, of which the best known, in liis earlier 
 style, is " II Trovatore," a work popular on 
 account of its pleasing and effective melodies, 
 but poor in harmonic and contrapuntal treat- 
 ment, and lacking in truth of dramatic 
 characterization. In these points he has 
 greatly improved in his later opera, " Aida," 
 in which, as in his great Requiem Mass, he 
 shows the influence of the modern German 
 school. 
 
 Verliulst, J. T. H., bom t8i6. Lives in Am- 
 sterdam. Talented conductor and composer. 
 
 Vernier, J. A., b->in 1769, in Pans. Harp vir- 
 tuoso, and composer for his instrument. 
 
 Verset (Fr. ver-sot). A little verse ; a name 
 applied to short lyric pieces for the organ. 
 
 Vervoitte, C. J. Born 1822. French musi- 
 cian and composer of church music. Able 
 conductor of church music, and a learned 
 antiquary. 
 
 Viardot-Garcia, Paulini Michelle Ferdi- 
 nande, was born in Paris in 1S21. She was 
 one of the best singers of our time, and of all 
 times. She was especially renowned as a 
 dramatic singer. Lives in Paris as teacherof 
 singing. 
 
 Vibrato (Ital. ve-bra'-to). A strong, vibra- 
 ting full quality of tone ; resonant. 
 
 Victoria, T. L. Bom in Spain about 1540. 
 Lived in Italy. One of the greatest masters. 
 Wrote much church music. 
 
 Vierlinjr, George, was born in Frankenthal in 
 1820. He is a gifted and most accomplished 
 musician, and the composer of numerous 
 songs and choruses, besides instrumental 
 music, including overtures and a symphony. 
 One of his greatest works is '' The Rape of 
 the Sabines," written for chorus, solos and 
 orchestra, which has contributed much to 
 raise his reputation, 
 
 Viliotean, G. A., important writer on music. 
 Accompanied Napoleon I. to Egypt in 1798, 
 and investigated the origin and development 
 of Egyptian and oriental music. 
 
 Vinae, V., 1835-1872. Bohemian composer, 
 conductor and teacher. Wrote church and 
 chamber music, and an opera. 
 
 Vinci. L. 1690-1734. Neapolitan opera com- 
 poser and conductor of note. 
 
 Viola, a tenor violin, an instrument similar in 
 tone and formation to the violin, but larger in 
 size, and having a compass a fifth lower. 
 
 Viol da ganiba (Ital. ve-ol de gam'-ba). 
 Lcg;-7u'oly an instrument formerly much used 
 in Germany, but nearly obsolete. It was a 
 little smaller than the violoncello, furnished 
 with frets and five or six strings, and held 
 between the legs in playing, hence its name, 
 
 Viola- d'aniore (Ital. ve-o'-lii d'a-mo'-re). 
 
 An instrument a little larger than the itiola, 
 furnished with frets and a greater number of 
 strings, some above the fingerboard and some 
 below. 'I'he name is also given to an organ 
 stop of similar quality to \.\\^ gaiytha or salic- 
 ional. 
 
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 72
 
 VIO 
 
 DICTIONARY. 
 
 WAL 
 
 Violin, a well known stringed instrument hav- 
 ing four strings, and played with a bow. It 
 is the most perfect musical instrument known, 
 of brilliant tone and capable of every variety 
 of expression. When, or by what nation 
 this important instrument was first invented 
 is not at present known. 
 
 Tioloncello (Ital. ve-5-16n-tshar-lo). The 
 large or bass violin; the name is also applied 
 to an organ stop of small scale and crisp tone. 
 
 Viola I'ltal. ve-6-la). A tenor or alto violin. 
 Its four strings are c, g, d' and a . 
 
 ViOloilO (Ital. ve-(5-lo-no) or Violon, the 
 double bass, the largest of the string family. 
 The 'cello is the little violon. Violin is a 
 feminine diminutive of viola. 
 
 Virginal, a small keyed instrument, much 
 used about the lime of Queen Elizabeth, and 
 placed upon a table when played upon. It is 
 supposed to have been t-lie origin of the 
 spinet, as the latter was of the harpsichord. 
 
 Virtnoso (Ital. ver-too-o'-zo). A skillful and 
 masterly performer upon some instrument. 
 
 Vivier, E. Bom 1821. French horn player 
 and composer. 
 
 Vivo (Ital. ve'-v6). Animated, lively, brisk. 
 
 Vocalize (Ital. v6-ka-lez). An e.xercise for 
 the voice. 
 
 Vocalise, to practice vocal exercises, using 
 vowels and the letter A sounded in the Italian 
 manner (a) for the purpose of developing the 
 voice, and of acquiring skill and flexibility. 
 
 Voce (Ital. vo'-tshC). The voice. 
 
 Voce Flehile (Ital. v5-tsh6 fla'-be-le). A 
 
 weeping voice. 
 
 Voce rti Petto (Ital. vo'-tshe de pat'-to). 
 The chest voice, the lowest register of the 
 voice. 
 
 Vogel, F. W. F., distinguished Norwegian 
 organist and teacher, ts. 1807. 
 
 Vogfl, Heinrich. Born 1845. Bavarian tenor 
 singer of high rank. 
 
 Vogl, Theresa, wife of H. Born 1845. Also 
 singer in Munich opera. Both she and her 
 husband are admirable interpreters of the 
 chief roles in Wagner's operas. 
 
 VieuxtempS, Henri, born in Belgium in 1820, 
 is one of the most renowned violinists of the 
 French school. He has composed much for 
 his instrument, and is professor of the violin 
 at the Brussels Conservatory. 
 
 Viotti, Giovanni Battista. 1753-1824. A re- 
 nowned master of the violin and the founder 
 of the modern school of violin playing. He 
 wrote many concertos for the violin, and much 
 chamber music. 
 
 Vittori, Loreto, a renowned Italian singer, 
 composer and poet of the latter part of the 
 16th and the first past of the 17th centuries. 
 
 Vivaldi, Antonio, a distinguished Venetian 
 violinist and composer of "the latter half of 
 the 17th century. 
 
 Vosjl. J. M., 1794-1822. Distinguished opera 
 singer in Vienna, who introduced many of 
 Schubert's songs to the public. 
 
 Vogler, G. J. Abbe, 1749-1814. Theorist, com- 
 poser and organist, much admired in his time, 
 but of no great significance in his art. 
 
 Volante (Ital. v6-lan-tel. Flying; a light and 
 rapi 1 series of notes. 
 
 Volckmar, Wm., Dr., born 1812. Able pian- 
 ist, organist, theorist and composer. His or- 
 gan school has permanent value. 
 
 Volkniann, Robert, born 1815. One of the 
 best livingcomposers. Has written symphon- 
 ies, chamber music, vocal and piano -forte 
 music. 
 
 VOSS, Ch., born 1815. Piano teacher in Paris. 
 
 Writer of popular pieces for piano-forte. 
 Vox (Lat. vox). Voice. 
 
 Vo.V Iiuniana (Lat. vox hu-mU -nii^. Human 
 voice; an organ reed stop of 8 ft. tone, in- 
 tended to imitate the human voice, which it 
 sometimes does, though very imperfectly. 
 
 Vox Angelica (Lat. vox an-gel'-I -ka). An 
 organ stop of 8 ft., usually a free reed. 
 
 Vuillaunie, J. B., 1798-1875. The gre.itest of 
 a large family of distinguished French violin 
 
 makers. 
 
 Vll)]»ius, M., 1560-1621. Cantor in Weimar, 
 and composer of church music. 
 
 Von IkVeber, see Weber. 
 
 Voiles IVerk (Ger. fOl-les vark). The full 
 
 organ. 
 
 Voicing, the operation of improving the tone 
 of reeds, pipes, or piano-hammers. In reeds 
 this is done by bending the tongues in certain 
 ways, so as to make the reed speak more 
 quickly, and produce a better tone ; \\\ pipes, 
 by regulating the admission of the wind, the 
 size of the mouth, etc. ; pianos are voiced by 
 softening the hammers until harsh over-tones 
 are suppressed. In all voicing the principal 
 difficulty is to secure evenness or uniformity 
 of quality. 
 
 Voix Celeste (Fr. vwa sa-lgst). An organ 
 stop producing a wavy effect, on the same 
 principal as the Unda Claris. 
 
 Volti !>iullitO (Ital.vool-tesoob-e-t6\ Turn 
 over quickly. In old music this or the initials 
 V. S. frequently occur at the bottom of a page. 
 
 Vorspiel (Ger. for-spel). A prelude, an in- 
 troductory movement or overture. 
 
 Voluntary, an organ or choir piece introduced 
 without announcement. 
 
 Wachtel, Theodore (vakh'-tel). Born 1824 
 in Hamburg. Was son of a coachman, and 
 himself a coachman. Possesses an extraordi- 
 narily fine tenor voice, which he eventually 
 trained and became one of the most admired 
 opera singers in Europe. 
 
 Wagner, Johanna (Jachmann). Born 1828 
 niece of Richard Wagner. One of the finest 
 dramatic singers of this century, distinguished 
 equally as singer and actress. 
 
 Wagner, Richard, one of the greatest masters 
 who has appeared in dramatic music. Born 
 in 1813. See Chap. LI. 
 
 Wallace, Wm. Vincent, violinist, pianist and 
 composer. Born in Ireland in 1814. His 
 father was master of a military band, and the 
 boy showed great aptitude for it, and at 
 fifteen was successfully occupied in Dublin 
 as a violinist. Then followed concert tours 
 all over the world. His operas were "Mari- 
 tana," composed in 1845, " I-urli'ie" i860, 
 etc. He also composed a great number of 
 piano pieces, many of which were popular in 
 their day. Died 1865. 
 
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 73
 
 WAL 
 
 DlCTIOXATiY, 
 
 WIN 
 
 ^Valtlier von <lu Vogelweide, latter 
 
 part of I2lh century and first part of 13th. 
 One of the greatest and most prolific of the 
 Minnesingers. 
 
 W^arren, George Wm., organist, composer, 
 and teacher in New York, was born about 
 1830, is a popular composer of salon pieces for 
 piano, songs, etc. 
 
 "W^artel. Pierre F. (var-telK Born 1806. Dis- 
 tinguished French singing teacher. Has 
 been also a fine tenor singer at the Grand 
 Opera in Paris. Was master of Nillson, and 
 many other prima donnas. 
 
 WasieleAVSUy, Joseph W. Born 1822. One 
 of the first pupils to enter the Leipsic Con- 
 servatory. Pupil of Mendelssohn, Haupt- 
 mann and David. Excellent violinist. Best 
 known in this country by his biography of 
 Robert Schumann. Has written other equally 
 valuable works. 
 
 Waiier, Karl (vowr), 1783-1857. Distinguished 
 bass singer and actor at the Royal Opera in 
 Berlin. 
 
 Webbe, Samuel, 1740-1824. Favorite English 
 composer of glees and catches. 
 
 'W'^ebei', Carl Maria von (vii-ber), 1786-1826. 
 One of the most important of the Romantic 
 School of composers. His opera " Der 
 Freischutz," opened a new epoch in that 
 branch of composition. His instrumental 
 compositions were also original, and many of 
 them of very high rank. He was also a res- 
 pected writer on musical subjects, a thorough 
 musician, and an excellent pianist and con- 
 ductor. 
 
 ■W^eber, Constance, wife of Mozart and cousin 
 of C M. von Weber's father. 
 
 Webei*, Dionys, 1771-1842, a highly respected 
 Bohemian musician, teacher and composer, 
 and one of the founders of the Prague Con- 
 servatory. 
 
 Weber, Gottfried, 1779-1839. A jurist of high 
 rank, but still better known as a musician, 
 teacher and composer, theorist and critic. 
 His great work on musical composition has 
 be'^n translated into English. 
 
 "Webster, J. P., an American melodist, and 
 author of popular songs. Born about 1S30, 
 and died in Wisconsin in 18/ 1. 
 
 "W^eckerlill, J. B. T. Bom 1S21. Praise- 
 worthy French composer and music historian. 
 
 W^eellies. Thomas, distinguished English 
 Madrigal composer of the latter part of the 
 i6th century. 
 
 Wehle, Chat. Born 1825 in Prague. Piano 
 virtuoso and composer. Lives in Paris, 
 where he teaches and co-mposes. 
 
 \%'eigl, Joseph, 1766-1846. Composer of operas 
 and conductor in Vienna. 
 
 Weitzniailll. Carl Fnedrich,born 1808. Com- 
 poser, teacher and theorist in Berlin. Best 
 known by his theoretical and historical works. 
 His " Manual of Musical Theory," translated 
 by E. M. Bowman, is published in this.coun- 
 try. D. 1880. 
 
 Wieclt, Clara, see Clara Schumann. 
 
 W^iecli, Marie, daughter of Fr. Wieck, and a 
 
 distinguished pianist. 
 
 "Wieck, Friedrich, 17S3-1873. A most distin- 
 guished musician and teacher. Among his 
 pupils were his daughter Clara, who became 
 the wife of Robert Schumann, Schumann 
 himself, Fritz Spindler, Anton Krause, Hans 
 von Billow, and other celebrated musicians. 
 His two daughters, Clara and Marie, became 
 celebrated pianists. His little book, "Piano 
 and Song, how to teach, how to learn, and 
 how to form a judgment of musical perform- 
 ances," should be in the hands of every teach- 
 er and student of music. 
 
 "Wiepreobt. W. F., 1S02-1872. Prussianmili- 
 tary bandmaster of great distinction, and an 
 excellent composer of military music. 
 
 Wieiliawsky, Henry, 1835-1880. A celeb-a- 
 ted Polish violin virtuoso and composer. Not 
 only were his technical attainments extraor- 
 dinary, but his interpretative powers were of 
 the first rank, and as he constantly strove to 
 be a genuine ai list rather than a mere execu- 
 tant, he commanded the highest respect. 
 
 "Wieiliawski, Joseph, brother of Henry, was 
 born in 1837. He is a distinguished pianist, 
 teacher and composer, and has rendered great 
 service to his chosen art, especially in Mos- 
 cow, where he taught for many years. He 
 now Fives in Warsaw. 
 
 "Wilbye, John, was a distinguished English 
 ringing teacher and composer of madrigals at 
 the end of the i6th and beginning of the 17th 
 century. 
 
 "Wilbel 111. Carl, 1820-1873. A good German 
 director of singing societies, and composer of 
 much music, especially for male chorus. His 
 most popular song is "The Watch on the 
 Rhine.' 
 
 Wilbeill, Guillaume Louis Bocquillon, 1781- 
 1842. A distinguished French singing teacher, 
 composer, and writer of theoretical works. 
 His instruction books are still prized. 
 
 Wilbelnij, August Emil Daniel Friedrich 
 Victor, was born in Usiiigen, in 1845. He is 
 ihe most popular violinist since Paganini. He 
 is a virtuoso and artist of the highest rank, 
 and is distinguished equally for his pure, 
 broad, noble tone, the unsurpassable perfec- 
 tion of his execution, and his admirable in- 
 terpreiation of masters of all times and styles. 
 
 Willaert, Adrian, one of the most prominent 
 musicians and composers of the i6th century. 
 He was chapelmaster in St. Mark's Church 
 in Venice, and was the founder of the Vene- 
 tian school. He was a superior teacher and 
 wrote a great amount of church muiic. His 
 most celebrated pupils were Cyprian de Rore 
 and Orlandus Lassus. 
 
 W^illiliers, Rudolph, was born in Berlin, in 
 1821. He was an excellent pianist, a pupil of 
 Hummel. He w;is also a pupil of Fr. Schneider 
 in theory, and became a thorough musician 
 and a good composer. He died in 1878. 
 
 Winter, Peter von, 1754-1S25. Bavarian con- 
 ductor and opera composer of high reputation. 
 
 Wincl-chest, that part of an organ which 
 supports the pipes, and cnntains a wind- 
 chamber and the valves and pallets, for sup- 
 plying the pipes. 
 
 "Wind-trunk, a large pipe for conveying 
 wind from the bellows to a wind-chest. 
 
 "Winterfel*!, Carl G., 1784-1852. Distin- 
 guished jurist and a very prolific and reliable 
 musical historian of Berlin. 
 
 a alcy a add, a. a>-:n^ o eve, (5 end, 1 ice, 1 ///, o old, 6 odd, o dove, 00 moon, u lute, u but, u Fr. sound 
 
 74
 
 WOE 
 
 DICTIOiN'AUY. 
 
 ZWI 
 
 Woelfl, Joseph, 1772-1814. Piano virtuoso and 
 composer, known chiefly as a rival of Bee- 
 thoven's in Vienna. His playing wras much 
 admired. 
 "tVohlf hart, HeinHch. Born 1797. Excellent 
 teacher of the piano-forte, and author of 
 numerous hiuhly prized instruction and text 
 books, which have h.-»d a wide circulation. 
 ^Volf. a beat or dissonance in tuning, occasioned 
 by the interference of imperfectly attuned 
 vibrations. The sourness or dissonance of 
 imperfectly attuned chords. 
 ^Volff, Edward. Born 1816. Piano virtuoso 
 
 and composer. Teacher in Paris. 
 ^Vollt", Heinrich. Born 1813. Violin virtuoso 
 
 in Frankfort, and composer. 
 ^Volflf", Hermann. Born 1845. Composer and 
 writer. Editor of the Berlin New Journal 
 of Music. 
 "W^olfram von Kschenbaoli, one of the 
 greatest of the German Minne-singers. Died 
 abour 1220. 
 "Wolfsolin, Carl, pianist, composer, conductor 
 and indefatigable promoterof chamber music, 
 ■was born in Germany in 1830. He came to 
 this country about 1S60, and settled in Phila- 
 delphia, where he gave chamber concerts for 
 many years. In 1S73 he came to Chicago and 
 became thedirectorof the Beethoven ^-ociety. 
 Mr. Wolfsohn has three times played in pub- 
 lic the entire series of Beethoven s 33 sonatas 
 for piano-forte, and all the most important 
 ■works of Chopin and Schumann. 
 Wollenliaupt, Herman A., a German pianist, 
 and composer of popul.ir salon pieces. Born 
 at Skendlitz in 1827. Was a pupil of Haupt- 
 mann. Residing for several years in New 
 York, where he died about 1865. Several of 
 his pieces met with great success, the most 
 famous of them being " The Whispering 
 Winds." and " Valse Styrienne.'' 
 Woi'Ii, Henry C, an American composer of 
 popular songs, who, until 1S61, was a journey- 
 man printer. A lucky hit in a war-song led 
 to the production of many more, which also 
 were successful. Work is not a musician, 
 
 and hence ha.s not been able to develop his 
 talent, as he otherwise might, and produce 
 works of lasting value. 
 
 Zactiail, Fr. W., 1663-1721. Excellent organist, 
 composer and theorist. Was teacher of G. 
 F._ Handel, in Halle. 
 
 Zarlilin, Giuseppe, 1517-1590. A renowned 
 Venetian composer and theorist, chapel mas- 
 ter at St. Mark's church. His theoretical 
 works were of great importance, and mark 
 the beginning of a new epoch. 
 
 Zart (Ger, tsiirt). Tenderly, softly, delicately. 
 
 Zeleilka, J. D., 1681-1745. Bohemian com- 
 poser of church and instrumental music. Has 
 a liii;h reputation among connoiseurs. 
 Zelllicr, L. A. Born 1823. Theorist, composer 
 and teacher, and Secretary of the Vienna 
 Conservatory. A much honored musician. 
 Xelter, Carl F., 1758-1832. Professor in the 
 Acad"my of Arts, and Director of the Sing- 
 ing Academic in Berlin. A composer of 
 merit. Intimate friend of Goethe, and more 
 or less acquainted with Scliiller, Fichte, 
 Hegel, Schleirniacher, Kijrner, Beethoven, 
 Haydn, etc. The first teacher of Mendels- 
 sohn. 
 
 Ziea;ft'lrt, Florence, M. D., pianist and 
 teacher, President of the Chicago Musical 
 College, was born in Jever, in North Germany, 
 in 1841, began his studies with Stiehl, and 
 pursued them later at Leipsic, where he grad- 
 uated in 1863. Came to Chicago in 1S67, 
 where he occupies a leading position. 
 
 Zieilllioll (Ger. tsem' - likh). Tolerably, 
 moderately. 
 
 Zin^Sarcsa (Ital. tsen-ga-ra'-za). In the style 
 of gypsy music. 
 
 ZitlK'l'n, an instrument which may be called 
 a compound of the harp and the guitar. The 
 harmonies of the first named instrument are 
 produced from it, and it possesses the sweetest 
 notes pertaining to both, but not great com- 
 . pass. 
 
 iK'wiSChen-Spiel (Ger. tsve-shen-spell. In- 
 terlude played between the verses of a hymn. 
 
 Si'ale^ a add^ a arin^ o evc^ (^ end^ I ice^ 1 ill, o old, o odd, 6 dozie, 00 moon, vi lutcy u but,^ U Fr. sound 
 
 XoTE. The thanks of the editor arc due, and hereby tendered, to Prof. John 
 C. Filhnore, of IVIilwaukce, for important assistance, amoifnting to the preparation 
 of almost the entire biographical matter in the last twelve i>ages of this work. 
 
 7S
 
 ADDEJ^DA, 
 
 A second edition of " How to Understand Music " being required much 
 sooner than was expected, the opportunity is talven for remedyini? as far as pos- 
 sible tlie more noticeable omissions of the Dictionary. Several new biographical 
 articles are added, and a large number of foreign words, principallyGerman, 
 which, although not generally recognized as strictly musical terms, are occasion- 
 ally met with in the works of Beethoven, and very often in those of Schumann 
 and the later German writers. As these terms are liable to embarrass students 
 not familiar with German, it was thought advisable to include them here. In its 
 present form, including the addenda, it is thought that this work includes all the 
 terms and directions to be met with in the works of the classic and the principal 
 modern writers. Many typographical errors of date in the biographical articles 
 in the body of the work have also been corrected. The editor would take it as a 
 favor if the reader will notify him by postal card of any errors lie may happen 
 to notice as he consults the work. 
 
 EvANSTON, III., Jan. l.j, 1881. 
 
 Aber (Ger. ii -bSr). But. 
 
 AcoentliatO lltal. iit-tshiin-too-a -to). Dis- 
 tinctly and strongly accented. 
 
 Acciiratezza dtal. iik-koo-rii-tat -ziii. Ac- 
 curacy. 
 
 Aenssei'St (Ger. ois-sarst). Utmost, ex- 
 treme. 
 
 Affetazione (Ital. iif-fet-ta-ts5-5 -ne). An 
 artificial or affected style. 
 
 AfflittO (Ital. iif-flet'-to). Afflictedly, sorrow- 
 fully, with mournful expression. 
 
 AftVettaildo dtal. iif-fret-tan-do). Hurry- 
 ing, accelerating the time. 
 
 Africailie, 1/ (lUf-rl-kiin). Opera by Meyer- 
 beer, 1849. 
 
 Agitirt (Ger. ii-gi-tert ). Agitated, hurried. 
 
 Aida (ae'-dii). Opera by Verdi, 1871. 
 
 Allarg'ando (Ital. iil liir-giin -do). Enlarg- 
 ing, broadening, /. e. more slowly and em- 
 phatically. 
 
 Allegraiiieiite (Ital. al -la-gra-man -te.) 
 
 Gaily, joyfully, quickly. 
 
 Allegrissinio (Ital, al-la-gres -se-mo). Ex- 
 tremely quick and lively. 
 
 Alle (Ger. al-16). All. 
 
 Alternativo (Ital. iil-ter-na-te'-vo). Alter- 
 nating one movement with another. 
 
 Aniahilita (Ital. ii-ma-be -le-ta). Tender- 
 ness, amiability. 
 
 AllCOra (Ital. an-ko -rii). Once more, repeat ; 
 also, yet, still. 
 
 Anfailg (Ger. an' -tiing). Beginning. 
 
 Ankuilft (Ger. an-koonft). Arrival, coming. 
 
 Ardaineilte (Ital. ar-da-man -te). Ardently, 
 with warmth. 
 
 Aroionioso (Ital. ar-rn6-n(?-o -z5). Con- 
 coidant, harmonious. 
 
 Arpa ( Ital. ar'-pa1. The harp. 
 
 Arpeggiando dtal. :ir-pad-je-an'do). Play- 
 ed in arpeggio, in imitation of the harp. 
 
 Aspiratamente (Ital. as-pe-rii-ta-man'-te. 
 
 From aspirare, to take breath audibly). With 
 
 effort, with emotion. 
 Aufgeregt (Ger. ouf-ga-regt). Agitated. 
 
 Aullebend (Ger. ouf-lab -end). Reviving, re- 
 turning to life ; a tempo. 
 
 AuS (Ger. ous). From, out of. 
 
 AllSSer (Ger. ous -sar). Out of, beside. 
 
 AusdrneksVOll (Ger. ous -drooks-fol). Ex- 
 pressive. 
 
 Ballnifessig (Ger. bal-mils-sig). In dance 
 movement. 
 
 Itallo (Ital. bal -16). A dance or dance tune. 
 
 Battllta dtal. ba-too-ta). A measure, in 
 measured movement; a daituta^m correct 
 time. 
 
 Belebt (Ger. be-liibt'). Animated, sprightly. 
 
 Ite!i«<*hleuiiigeii (Ger. be-shloi -ne-ghen). 
 To accelerate, to hasten. 
 
 BOMtilllint (Ger. bes-timt'). Distinct, deter- 
 minate. 
 
 Bewegt (Ger. be-vagt ). Animated, rather 
 fast. 
 
 Bewegung (Ger. be-va -goong). Motion, 
 movement. 
 
 Bobeilliail Girl. Opera by Balfe, 1835. 
 
 Brabaill. John (brahm). A famous tenor 
 singer, born in London, 1774. Studied with 
 Leoni .and Rauzzini, made his debut in 1796, 
 In opera B. was for many years the composer 
 of his own parts, which were universally 
 popular. Had great versatility, and wrote 
 many extremely successful iongs. Died 1856. 
 
 Bl'ioso dtal. bre-o -zo). Lively, vigorously. 
 
 Bull. Ole Bornemann, the Norwegian vioUnist, 
 was born at Bergen, Feb. 5, 1810. He was 
 designed for the church, but his love for 
 music, and his success in a concert given dur- 
 ing his career as a university student, deter- 
 mined his devoting himself entirely to music. 
 From about 1830 his life was spent in concert 
 tours throughout Europe, and after 1852 in 
 most parts of the U. S. He had a home at 
 
 & ale, a add, a an 
 
 e eve., e end, i ice, I ///, o old, 6 odd, 6 dove, 00 vioon, u lute, li but, U Fr. sound 
 
 76
 
 CAL 
 
 ADDENDA. 
 
 GEil 
 
 Cambridge, Mass., as wfeU as at Madison, 
 Wis., and Bergen, Norway, and lived by 
 turns in all of them. He died greatly beloved 
 by a large circle of friends, in iSSo. As a 
 violinist he was very eminent, and e.vtremely 
 popular with the common people. 
 
 Calniandosi (Ital. kiil-miia-du -ze). Becom- 
 ing gradually more calm. 
 
 CaiitaiulO (Ital. kiin-tiin -do). In a melodious, 
 sinking style. 
 
 Capriooiosailieiite dtal. ka-pre-tshe-O-za- 
 man'-te). Capriciously. 
 
 Carmen. Opera by Bizet, 1875. 
 
 Cary. Annie Louise. This eminent and charm- 
 ing contralto was born in Maine in 1S4D. Her 
 fine voiceearly obtained for her a local recog- 
 nition, and she pursued serious vocal studies 
 with Mr. John Dennett at Portland. After 
 some years successful e,\perience as a concert 
 singer, she went abroad and studied in Paris 
 and Italy. Miss Cary attained her earliest 
 eminence as an oratorio singer. Since 1869 or 
 1870 she has been e.xtremely successful in 
 English and Italian opera. Her voice is of 
 great puiity and depth, and beautifully culti- 
 vated; and her phrasing is refined and satis- 
 factory. She is one of the greatest singers 
 of our time. 
 
 Cliaqiie Mesure (Fr. chak ma-zUr ). Each 
 measure; frequently used for the pedal in 
 piano forte music. 
 
 ClarinO (Ital. kla-re-no), Clarioti. A small, 
 or octave trumpet; also a 4 ft. organ reed 
 stop, tuned an octave obove the trumpet stop. 
 The term is also used to indicate the trumpet 
 parts in a full score. 
 
 Coda (Ital. ko -da). The end; a fe\y measures 
 added near the end ofa piece of music, to make 
 a more effective close. 
 
 CoiTOllte (Ital. kor-riin-tu) or Coranto. An 
 old dance tune in 3-2 or 3-4 time. 
 
 Crouch. F. Nicholls, a composer of many popu- 
 lar songs and ballads during the second quar- 
 ter of the present century, of which the best 
 known is " Kathleen Mavourneen." Came 
 to America in 1845. 
 
 l>aniliation of Faust. Opera by Berlioz, 
 
 1846. 
 
 l>aniroScll, Leopold, a distinguished violinist 
 and musical director, was born in Posen, in 
 1832, where his musical studies were begun. 
 Was educated in medicine at Berlin, and in 
 1854 was a practicing physician in his native 
 town. In 1855 a"d ^^856 he appeared at Mag- 
 deburg and Berlin as solo violinist, with great 
 success. He presently became conductor at 
 the Stadt theater in Posen. In 1871 he came 
 to New York as conductor of the "Anon' 
 Society, and has since resided there. Is at 
 present (18S1) conductor of the Oratorio So- 
 ciety, of syniphonv concerts, etc. As a con- 
 ductor D. is distinguished for energy and 
 vigor of conception. Is a warm advocate of 
 the Liszt-Wagner " music of the future," al- 
 though a successful exponent of the classic. 
 Is also a composer of violin and orchestral 
 works. 
 
 I>elieatissiniaiiiente (Ital. del-e-ka-te - 
 se-mii-man -te). With extreme delicacy. 
 
 l>eux (Fr. dii). Two. 
 nifllrile (Ital. de-fe -tshe-lel. 
 
 I Ital. dez-tiin-tsa). Distance, space 
 dez-tSn-ta-man -te). 
 Devoutly, solemnly. 
 
 Growin; 
 
 faint,- 
 
 To awaken, to 
 
 Ex- 
 born 
 with 
 mar- 
 
 Difficult. 
 
 a ale, a add, a arm, e eve^ e end, i ice, 1 ///, o old, o odd, u dov. 
 
 77 
 
 Distanxa 
 
 between. 
 
 l>iMtiiitauieiite (Ital. 
 Clearly, distinctly. 
 
 I>ivoto (Ital. de-vo -to). 
 
 l>OCll(Gcr. dfjkhj. Yet. 
 
 I>o«'tor of Aloantsira. Opera by Eichberg, 
 
 1S62. 
 Due (Ital. doo-e). Two ; in two parts. 
 l>urchaus (Ger. dfirkh'-ous). Throughout. 
 Gileild (c;er. il -endj. Quick, speedy. 
 Kiiifacll (Ger. in'-fakh). Simple, plain, un- 
 
 ornamented. 
 Eiuigen (Ger. In-i-ghen). Some, any. 
 Elegrantemente (Ital. el-e-gan-te-man'-t*^}. 
 
 Elegantly, gracefully. 
 
 Eli. Oratoria by Costa, 1855. 
 Energieaniente (Ital. en-er-je-kii-man -te). 
 
 Energetically, forcibly. 
 EnersiSCll (Ger. Sn-ar -ghish). Energetic, 
 
 with empliasis. 
 EntselllOSSeulieiJ (Ger. ent-shl6s'-s'n-hlt 1. 
 
 Resoluteness, firmness. 
 El'inattet (Ger. ar-miif-tet) 
 
 weary. 
 Erstes (Ger. erst -es). First. 
 Erwaolieu (Ger. ar-vUkh -en). 
 
 be aroused. 
 Espressione (Ital. es-pras-se-6-ne). 
 
 pression, feeling. 
 Essipolf. Annette, virtuoso pianist, was 
 in Russia in 1853, studied principally 
 Mr. Leschetitzki, whom she afterwards 
 ried, and made her debut with distinguished 
 success in 1870 or '71. She visited America 
 in 1875, where she charmed all hearers by the 
 refinement, grace and poetry of her playing 
 no less than by her consumraaie virtuosity. 
 M me Essipoff resides chief! v at Vienn;;, and 
 plays in all the European capitals. 
 Estinto (Ital. es-ten-to). Becoming e.xtinct, 
 
 dying away. 
 Estreniamente (Ital. es-trcl-mii-man -te). 
 
 E.xtremely. 
 Fatinitza (fii-tin-et -zii). Opera by Suppe. 
 Feme (Ger. fiir-ne). Distance. 
 Festlioli (Ger. (fesf-likh). Festive, solemn. 
 Feurijj (Ger. foi -rig^l. Fiery, ardent, pas- 
 sionate. 
 Fillmore. John C. a highly esteemed mu- 
 sician, piano teacher and critic, was born in 
 Connecticut, 1843. Studied at Oberlin and 
 Leipsic. Was for q years professor of mu«ic 
 in Ripoii College, Wis., and now resides in 
 Milwaukee. 
 Folgeii (Ger fol'-ghen). To follow. The fol- 
 lowing, succeding. 
 Fortsetzung (Ger. forf-set-soong). .A con- 
 tinuation. 
 Forza (It.al. fort'sa). Force, strength, power. 
 Fret (Ger. frH. Free. 
 CJebuildeu (Ger. ghe-bbon -d'n). Connected, 
 
 syncopated. 
 Geliender (Ger. ga -hen-derV Going. 
 Cjlehalteil ^Ger. ghehiilt -en). Held, sus- 
 tained. 
 
 n, u lute, ii l>ut, u /•>. sound 
 
 ■e, 00 v!Ot>
 
 GEM 
 
 ADDENDA. 
 
 MEP 
 
 Cieniosseiier (Gcr. gS-mes-sen-er). Meas- 
 ured, precise. 
 
 CJesailS (Ger. ghe-siing ). Singing; the art of 
 singing, a song, melody. 
 
 4jJesail^VOll (Ger. ghe-silng'-fol). Songful ; 
 in a singing style. Cantabite. 
 
 ttetrasen (Ger. ghe-tra -g'n). Well-sus- 
 tained, carried. 
 
 <jiIOCOll«lo (Ital. j6-I<on'-do). Cheerful, gay, 
 merry. 
 
 4]i^li«!i«aildo (Ital. gles-san'-dd). Sliding. A 
 method ,of playing a run by sliding the finger 
 rapidly along the keyboard of the pianoforte, 
 or by sliding the finger along the violin string. 
 
 <i<ran (Ital. griin). Great, grand. 
 ■dJraziosanieiite (Ital. gra-tsS-o-zii-man-tei. 
 Gracefully, smoothly. 
 
 4)lr08se (Ger. gr6s-s6). Major, referring to 
 inteivals; also, grand in style. 
 
 Out (Ger. goot). Good, well, sufficiently. 
 
 Halteil (Ger. hiil -ten). To hold back, check. 
 
 Hastig (Ger. has -tig). Hurrying, hastening. 
 
 HastinSI^S, Dr. Thomas, one of the pioneers in 
 American music, was born in Washington, 
 Ct., 1784. In some way he discovered his 
 talent for music, and began to teach in 1806. 
 His first book, I\Insica 6rtc>'rt, was published 
 in 1817, and in 1822 his "Dissertation on 
 Musical Taste." He was the sole or asso- 
 ciate editor of some 16 books of church music. 
 As a man he was studious, retiring and lov • 
 able. He was author of several hymns which 
 are still in use. 
 
 Haiiptfiiatz (Ger. houpt -satz). Principal 
 theme or subject ; the motive or leading idea. 
 
 HeinilicU (Ger. him -likh). Secretly, quietly, 
 calmly. 
 
 Hoeohst (hekst). Highest, utmost. 
 
 lluebsch (Ger. heebsh). Pretty, handsome. 
 
 IniperioSO (Ital. em-pa-r-e-o -zo). Imperi- 
 ous, pompous. 
 
 Iniprovisata (Ital. em pro-ve-zii -tal. Im- 
 provised ; in a fluent and off-hand style. 
 
 Ill<*Oll»iOlabile (Ital. en-kon-s5-la -be-le). 
 
 Ilinei'e (Ger. en -ner-e). Inner; as the inner 
 voices, or parts. 
 
 IlllliKk<^it (Ger. en -nig-kit). Inwardness, 
 feeling. 
 
 Illllig'Sten (Ger. en -nigs-ien). Most fervent, 
 most devout. 
 
 IlltilllO (Ital. en -te-mo). Inward feeling 
 
 IlltrodllzioiK^ (Ital. en-tro-doo-tse-o -ne}. 
 An introduction. 
 
 Inversione (Ital. iSn-viir-se-o -ne). Inver- 
 sion. 
 
 Jagdlied (Ger. yagd'-leed). Hunting song. 
 
 .ledeil (Ger, ya -den). Each, every. 
 
 Joseffy. Raffaele(yo-sef -fi). Virtuoso pianist, 
 was born at Miskolcs, Hungary, in 1S52. He 
 pursued his more advanced studies with Mo- 
 scheles at Leipsic, ard afterwards with Tau- 
 sig. He made his debut in 1870, and at once 
 attracted attention by the daintiness, uniform 
 crispness, and brilliancy of his playing. His 
 technique is superb, and his phrasing refined 
 and musical He visited America in 1879. 
 
 where he ha< been very successful. lie is 
 rather a genre pianist, a wonderfully fine per- 
 former of small pieces, than an interpreter of 
 broad and deep works. 
 
 Klagend (Ger. kla-g'nd). Plaintive. 
 -Kraft (Ger. kraft). Power, strength, energy. 
 lira'ftijs (Ger. kraf -tig). Powerful, vigorous, 
 full of energy. 
 
 Kliei'Zllilg (Ger. kiir'-tsoong). Abbreviation, 
 shortening. 
 
 EifPVa (Lat. la'-vU). The left ; the left hand. 
 
 Jjailg;, B. J., distinguished pianist, organist, 
 conductor and teacher, was born at Salem, 
 Mass., in 1840. Became organist in church 
 at the age of 11. In 1858 became organist of 
 the " Handel and Haydn" Society, of Bos- 
 ton, a position he still holds. Is also con- 
 ductor of the "Cecilia" and "Apollo" 
 Societies, and as such has brought out in 
 Poston a brilliant list of master works, em- 
 bracing the principal choral works of Schu- 
 mann, Mendelssohn, Beethoven, etc., and in 
 1880 l^erlioz's "Damnation of Faust," for 
 the first time in America. Mr. Langcccupies 
 a high socid position in Boston, where he 
 has so long held leading rank as concert pia- 
 nist, piano teacher and musical educator. 
 
 Liarganiente (Ital. liir-ga-man -te). Large- 
 ly, fully ; in a full, free, broad style of per- 
 formance. 
 
 lit'beildig (Ger. lil -ben-dig). Lively, quick. 
 
 Lebhaf tigkeit (Ger. lab-haf-tig-kit). Live- 
 liness, vivacity. 
 
 I^eSIS^ndario (Ital. led-jen-dar -lo). A 
 legend. 
 
 LiegSJ<'*'<?*!*Sl (Ital. led-jer-af-tsa). Lightness 
 and agilitj'. 
 
 JLejsnO (Ital. Ian -yo). Wood; col legno^ with 
 
 the bow stick. 
 Ijeicllt (Ger. likht). Light, easy, facile. 
 I.>ig'ato (Ital. le-gii -to). See Legato. 
 
 I^iiida di Chailiouiii (de-tsha -moo-ne). 
 (Jpera in 3 acts, by Donize.ti, 1842. 
 
 IjUllga (Iial. loon -giii. Long. 
 
 Lu!>>tig (Ger. loos -tig). Merrily, cheerfully, 
 gaily. 
 
 .Uagic Flute, The (Ger. Die Zauberfldie^ 
 Ital. II Flauto Magko). Opera in 4 acts by 
 Mozart, j 791. 
 
 I?Ial (Ger. mal). Times ; 20 //?«/, twenty times, 
 etc. 
 
 Maroando (Ital mar-kiin -do). I i\t-,,.IpI 
 
 MaroatO (Ital.mar-ka'-to). f luarkea, 
 
 accented, well pronounced. 
 
 Marcatiiiiwinio (Ital. miir-ka- tes -se-mo). 
 Very strongly marked. 
 
 Mayo, Oscar, was born in Germany in 1838. 
 Studied music with Fesca, came to this 
 country in 1869, and resides at Evanston, III. 
 Is a piano teacher, a good musician, and a 
 prolific composer of instructive and pleasing 
 pieces 
 
 Melir (Ger. mar) More. 
 
 Mehrere (Ger. ma'-ra-re). Mere; compara- 
 tive of preceding. 
 
 llephistopbeles. Opera by Arrigo Boito, 
 
 1875. 
 
 a ah, X\ add, a arjn, e ere, e end, 1 ice, T ?V/, old, o odd, 6 dove, 00 moon, u lufc, u hut, Ki. Fr . sound 
 
 78
 
 MER 
 
 ADD1■:^■DA. 
 
 PRE 
 
 ]!U**rz, Karl, a prolific composer of piano music, 
 songs, elc, and piano teacher. Was bora m 
 Germany in 183(1, and since 1861 professor of 
 music in Oxford Female College, Oliio. Is 
 editor ofBrainard's Musical World, and one 
 of the most instructive and widely-respected 
 writers upon music in this country. 
 
 Mi«l.*>uniin«'r Aijaflits" I>r«'aiii. Music 
 by Mendelssohn, consisting of Overture, 
 1826, Nocturne, and 1: other numbers, 1843. 
 
 j^Iirclla. Opera by Gounod, 1864. 
 
 Mit (Ger. nut). With, by. 
 
 Mceglicll (Ger. meg'-llkh). Possible. 
 
 HlOllli. Wm. H., organist, and composer and 
 arranger of church music, was born in Lon- 
 don in 1823. In 1S74 was made professor of 
 vocal music in King's College, and occupies 
 various educational relations. .Was one ot 
 the editors of "■ Hymns, Ancient an J Mod- 
 ern." 
 
 Mooiiliifht !i»Oliata. A name often, but 
 foolishly, applied to Beethoven's sonata m C 
 sharp, Op. 27, No. 2, composed in 1801. 
 
 Moreiulo (Ital. mo-ran -do). Dying away, 
 gradually diminishing in tone and time. 
 
 Mose in RsittO ("Moses in Egypt'"). An 
 oratorio or sacred opera by Rossini, 1818. 
 
 Moses. An oratorio by A. B. Mar.\-, 1841. 
 
 Motiv (Fr. ino-tev). Motive. See Chaps. 1 
 and X. 
 
 i^IotO (Ital. md -to"). Motion, movement ; con 
 tiioia, with motion, rather quick. 
 
 Mountain Sylph. Opera by John F. Har- 
 nett. 
 
 Movement. Manner or rate of going. Hence 
 employed as name for any piece of music, or 
 part of a piece, so far as it continues in the 
 same tempo. Thus a sonata has three or four 
 movements. A "number''' (as in opera or 
 other dramatic work ) frequently consists of 
 several movements, which in performance arc 
 closely connected. 
 
 M. S. Mano sittisira, the left hand. 
 
 Milliter (Ger. moon -t5r). Lively, sprightly. 
 
 Naclllasseinl (Ger. niiUk-liis -send). Slack- 
 ening. 
 
 XaclitlaKer in tiiranada. Das (Gei. 
 nakht-lU-ghPr in Grii-nii -dii). Opera by 
 Kreutzer, 1834. 
 
 Xaeh-Hnd-nae.ll (Ger. niikh oond nakh). 
 By little and little, by degrees, 
 
 Xoch (Ger. nokh). Yet, still, more. 
 
 Oberstininie (Ger. O-bSr-stim -me). Treble, 
 
 upper voice part. 
 Onibl'e, L' (Fr. lom-br). Opera by Fiotow, 
 
 1869. 
 Orpliee aiix Knfers. Opera in 2 acts, by 
 
 Offenbach, 1S58. 
 
 Orpli<?e et Kiiridiee. Opera m 3 acts by 
 Gluck, 1774. 
 
 Orplieu.s. Ol" Orfeo. Opera by Monteverde, 
 1607. Also by Gluck, 1762. 
 
 Otiieilu (Ital. Otcllo, o-tal-lo). Opera by 
 
 Rossini, 1S16. 
 
 Overblowing is the production of a higher 
 than the natural tone of a pipe, by forcing the 
 wind. In the flute the upper octaves are 
 legitimately so produced. In the organ it is 
 apt to arise when too much wind is pumped 
 
 into the bellows, to prevent which a safety- 
 valve is provided. 
 
 Paine, John Knowles, organ virtuoso, com- 
 poser, and professor of music in Harvard 
 College, was born at Portland, i.Ie., about 
 1840. Educated in Boston and with Haupt 
 at Berlin, and since about 1869 professor at 
 Harvard. Is author of an oratorio, " St. 
 Peter," an elaborate and original work, per- 
 formed by the Handel and Haydn Societj in 
 1874, two symphonies, string quartettes, a 
 mass, etc. 
 
 Parker, J. C. D., pianist, organist and com- 
 poser, was born at Boston about 1836. Edu- 
 cated there and at Leipsic, ;;nd for fifteen 
 years has occupied a leading position in the 
 musical life of his native city. Is organist at 
 Trinity Church, and author of a cantata or 
 oratorio, " Redemption Hymn,'''' part-songs, 
 etc. 
 
 Passione (Ital. piis-sS-o'-ne). Passion, feel- 
 ing. 
 
 Pausa (Ital. (pou-za). A pause. 
 
 Pedale dtal. pa-dii -le). Pedal. The pedal 
 keyboard of an organ. The abbreviation 
 "ped." requires the use of the pedal. 
 
 Per (Ital. par). For, by, through, in. 
 
 Petersilea. Carlyle, pianist and head of a 
 school of music in Boston, was born in Boston 
 in 1838, learned the piano with his father, 
 who was a good teacher, and afterwards stu- 
 died abroad. P. has rarely rppeared in pub- 
 lic, but since about i87ohas been prominently 
 engaged as a piano teacher in Boston. 
 
 Pliantastisell (Ger. fan-liis -tl-h). Fantas- 
 tic, fantastically. 
 
 Pianissimo (Ital. pe-an-es'-sS - mo). Ex- 
 tremely soft. 
 
 Pieeolo dtal. pi^'-ko-lo). Small, little. A 
 small flute. Also a 2 ft. organ stop, of wood 
 pipes. 
 
 PiU-e-Piu (Ital. pe-oo a pe-00). More and 
 nrore . 
 
 Plaidy. Louis (pli'-dy) celebrated teacher of the 
 pianoforte and author of a book of "Tech- 
 nics," was born in 1810 at Wcmsdorf. _ He 
 was for many years a professor in the Leipsic 
 Conservatory, retiring about 1871. He died 
 in Grimma, 1874. 
 
 Poelietto (Ital. po-ka t-to). A little. 
 
 Poeeliissinio (Ital. po-ke's-se-mo). A very 
 little, as little as possible. 
 
 Poet and Peasant. Opera by Suppd. 
 Poi-a-poi (Ital. po-e ii p6-e.) By degrees. 
 Popolare dtal. po-po Hi -re"). Popular. 
 Postilion de IjOiijumeaii, Lc. Opera by 
 
 Adam, 1S36. 
 
 Prseeis U^'Cr. pra-ses ). Precise, precisely. 
 
 Preeedeilte (Ital. pra-tshe-dan -te). Pre- 
 ceding. 
 
 Preeiosa (pra-tshe-o -zii). Music to drama, 
 by Weber, 1820. 
 
 Preeipitandosi (Ital. pra-tshe-pe-iiin-do - 
 ze). 
 
 PreeipitOSO dtal. pra-tshe-pe-to -zd). Hur- 
 rying, precipitate. 
 
 Preeiso (Ital pra-tshe-zo). Precise, exact. 
 
 Prestissimo (Ital. pras-tes'-se-mo). Verj' 
 quickly, as fast as possible. 
 
 a ale^ a acid, ii arm, e eve, 5 end, i ice, 1 ///, o old, o odd, 6 dove, 00 moon, u lute, u hit, ii Fr. sound 
 
 70
 
 PRI 
 
 ADDENDA. 
 
 SPI 
 
 PrinoipiO Ital. pren-tshe -pi-u). The prin- 
 cipal, tiie leading idea or part. 
 
 Propliete, Le(prd-fat ). Opera by Meyerbeer ; 
 libretto by Scribe. 1849. 
 
 Piiritaiil, I (e poo-re-ta'-ne). Opera by 
 
 Bellini, 1835. 
 t^uatre (Fr. kiitr). Four. 
 KaseU (Ger. riish). Swift, spirited. 
 
 RailSoliend (Ger. roush-end). Rushing, 
 ro.iring. 
 
 Repetizione (Ital. ra-pS-te-tse-o'-nS). Rep- 
 etition. 
 
 Ki<*e, Fenelon B., Mus. Doc, director of the 
 Oberlin Conservatory of Music, President of 
 American Music Teachers' Association, was 
 born at Green, Ohio, in 1841, educated at 
 Hillsdale College, Mich., graduated at Boston 
 Music School in 1863, entered Leipsic Con- 
 servatory in 1S67, was appointed Professor 
 of Music in Oberlin College and Director of 
 the Conservatory in 1871, where he has suc- 
 ceeded in building up a fine school, and ex- 
 ercises a commanding influence in favor of 
 good music and sound musical education. 
 
 Rieiizi (re-ant'-se). Opera by Wagner, 1840. 
 
 Ki^OlettO (re-go-lat'-to). Opera by Verdi, 
 185.. 
 
 Kigore (Ital. re-go-re). Rigor, strictness, 
 firmness. 
 
 Kilasciaiiclo (Ital. re-la-she-iin -do). Rela.\- 
 ing the time. 
 
 RiliiOlutO (Ital. re-zo-Ioo -to). Resolute, bold. 
 Risvegliato (Ital. res-vel-ye-a -to). Awak- 
 ened, re-animated. 
 
 Ritardare (Ital. re-tar-da-re). To retard, 
 or slacken the time. 
 
 Riteiieilte (Ital. re-te-nan-te). Detaining, 
 holding back the time. 
 
 RitlllO (Ital. ret- mo). Rhythm, cadence, 
 measure. 
 
 Roliert le I>ial>le. Opera by Meyerbeer, 
 
 libretto by Scribe, 1831. 
 
 Romeo and Juliet. Opera by Bellini, 
 1829. Also a sj'mphony by Berlioz, 1840. 
 
 Root, George Frederick, Mus. Doc, one of the 
 most distinguished and popular of American 
 song writers, was born in Sheffield, Mass., 
 Aug. 30, 1820. At an early age he became a 
 pupil of Dr. Lowell Mason and Mr. Geo. 
 Jas. Webb. In 1845 he became teacher of 
 singing in Rutger's and the Spingler Female 
 Schools in New York, and organist of Mercer 
 St. Church, where he remained for ten years. 
 Hii first popular song w.is " Hazel Dell," 
 which was sung and whistled the country 
 through. This was followed by "Rosalie, 
 the Prairie Flower," etc. In 1860 he became 
 head of the music firm of Root & Cady in 
 Chicago, where he still resides. During th-; 
 war the publications of this house were uni- 
 versally current. Mr. Root wrote many 
 battle songs, elementary singing books, can- 
 tatas, etc. 
 
 Root, Frederic JW., son of the preceding, was 
 born 1846, in Boston. Is a prominent 
 teacher of singing, composer and writer about 
 music, in Chicago. 
 
 Ssiiteil (Ger. si'-t'n). Timbrel, strings of a 
 violin. 
 
 Sailft (Ger. sanft). Soft, mild, smooth. 
 
 Santley, an eminent English baritone singer, 
 born in 183S. 
 
 i^chalkliaft (Ger. shalk-haft). Waggishly, 
 playfully, capriciously, 
 
 Sclllliniiuerlied (Ger. shloom -mer-leed). 
 Slumber song, 
 
 (^cllltlSS (Ger. shloos). The end, conclusion. 
 
 Sellliell (Ger. shnell). Quickly, rapidly. 
 
 Sclineller (Ger. shnel-ler). Quicker, faster. 
 
 Sehwa»elier (Ger. shva -ker). Fainter, softer. 
 
 Scli\vangesang;e (Ger. shviin -gS-sang-e). 
 "Swan Songs;" title of a set of songs by 
 Schubert. 
 
 Sell 11 mail II. Clara (Clara Wieck), the greatest 
 lady pianist who has yet appeared, was born 
 Sep. 13, 1819, at Leipsic, and learned piano 
 playing from her father. She made her first 
 public appearance as pianist at the age of 
 g, and three years later made an extended 
 and highly successful concert tour. In 1840 
 she was married to Robert Schumann, the 
 composer. M'me Schumann has resided 
 mainly at Dusseldorf, and as late as the end 
 of the year 1880 played in public in various 
 parts of Europe with the greatest success. 
 Her technique is remarkable, and the artistic 
 quality of her playing unapproachable; in 
 spite of her age, she still plays with great fire 
 and feeling. 
 
 Seiolto (Ital. she-ol-to). Free, light. 
 
 >^eioltaiiieilte (Ital. she- 51 - tii-man'-te). 
 
 With freedom, agility; easily, the notes 
 being rather detached than legato. 
 
 Seceo (Ital. sak'-ko). Dry, unornamented, 
 chord without arpeggio. 
 
 Secoildo (Ital. sa-kon-do). Second, a second. 
 
 >^egnO (Ital. san-yo). A sign: al segno^ 
 return to the sign ; dal segno^ repeat from 
 the sign. 
 
 Segue (Ital. sa-gwe). Now follows, as follows; 
 also, goon, in a similar manner. 
 
 Seguente(Ital. se-gwan-te). Following, next. 
 
 Sell!" (Ger. sari. Very, much, extremely. 
 
 SellltSUClltVOll (Ger. san'-sookht-fol). 
 
 Seite (Ger. si-tS). Side, p.ige, line. 
 
 Seloil (Fr. se-lijn). According to. 
 
 Semiraillide (sii-me-ra-mi -de). Opera by 
 Gluck, 1748; IMeyerbeer, 1819; Rossini, 1823. 
 
 SeiUpiiee (Ital. sam-ple'-tshe). Simple, pure, 
 plain. 
 
 Sempre (Ital. silm -pre). Always, continually. 
 
 SentimeiltO (Ital. sen-te-man'-to). Feeling, 
 sentiment, delicaie expression. 
 
 Sforzaildo (Ital. sfor-tsan'-do). (^ Fnrr-^rl 
 SforzatoOtal.sfor-tsa-tO). ( rorcea, 
 
 one particular note or chord to be empharized. 
 SIneerita (Ital. sen-sa'-re-ta). Sincerity, 
 
 simplicity. 
 Singliar (Ger. sing -bar). That may be sung. 
 Sillgeild (Ger. sing-end). In singing style. 
 Sino ( Ital. se'-no). To, as far as, until. 
 Sleiltare (Ital. slen-tU'-re). To slacken. 
 Soiliiambula, La. Opera by Bellini, 1831. 
 Spieleild (Ger. speel'-end). Playing. 
 Spielei* (Ger. speel'-er). Player. 
 
 a alcy a. add^ ii arm^ 6 eve, 5 cndy \ ice, 1 ///, o old, o od{, o dive, 00 moon, \l lute, li biit^ li Fr. sound 
 
 80
 
 STA 
 
 ADDENDA. 
 
 WEB 
 
 Staocatissinio dtal. stLik-kii-tes-se-mo). 
 Very much detached, as staccato as possible. 
 
 ^tark. (Ger. stark). Strong, loud, vigorous. 
 
 Jlitsi'riie (Ger. stiir'-ke). Vigor, force, energy. 
 
 !!»teis<'"rt<''* (Ger. sti -ghend-en). Ascending. 
 
 ^tilllllie (Ger. stim-me). The voice, sound ; 
 also, the sound-post in a violin, etc.; al>o, a 
 part in vocal or instrumental music ; also, an 
 organ stop. 
 
 Strafi' (Ger. strafif). Extended, full. 
 
 Strilljf Itaild. A band of stringed instru- 
 ments only. 
 
 SubitO (It.nl. soo'-be-to). Quickly, iinme- 
 
 diately, at once. 
 SusSuraiKlo (Ital. soos-soo-ran-dd). Whis- 
 
 pe.ing, murmuring. 
 
 Takt (Ger. tiiktX Time, measure. 
 
 Tannl«">l.:ser (tiin-hois-er). Opera in 5 
 acts, by \\':jgner. 
 
 Xhaypr, Eugene W., organist, composer and 
 teacher, was born in Mendon, Mass., in 1838, 
 studied in Poston and afterward in Berlin, 
 Made a successful concert journey in Ger- 
 many as virtuoso organist, and has since 
 occupied various prominent positions in Bos- 
 ton, where he foimded his Organ Studio m 
 1875. Is composer of a mass, many organ 
 works, a large method, etc., etc. 
 
 Thorough Bass. The art of representing 
 chord-successions by means of bass notes, 
 and figures giving the accompanying inter- 
 vals; the art of playing from such a bass. 
 Heiice, often used as equivalent to the word 
 Harmony. 
 
 Tie. A curved line connecting two successive 
 notes of the same pitch, to show that the 
 second is a continuation of the first, and 
 therefore is simply prolonged. 
 
 Ton (Ger. ton). Tone, sound, voice melody ; 
 also, accent, stress; also, pitch of any note 
 as to its acuteness or gravity ; also, the key 
 or mode. 
 
 Toriinndo (Ital. tor-nan -do). 
 
 TostO (,Ital. tos'-to). Quick, swift, rapid. 
 
 Tow<'r of Babel. Sacred opera by Rubin- 
 stein, 1875. 
 
 Tranqilillo (Ital. tran-kwel'-lo). Tranquil- 
 ity, calmness, quietness. 
 
 Tre eortle (Ital. triik«r'-de). Three strings. 
 
 Means that the soft pedal (one string) miist 
 no longer be held down. 
 
 Tristan an«l Isolde. Opera by Wagner, 
 
 TroiS (Fr. trwa). Three. 
 
 Tronipette (Fr. tronh-pat). A trumpet; 
 also, a trumpeter; also, a reed stop in an 
 organ. 
 
 Troppo (It.d. trOp'-po). Too much. 
 
 I'nilvoUruilg (Ger. oom'-kii-roong). Inver- 
 sion. 
 
 Uniore (Ital. oo-mo'-re). Humor, caprice, 
 whim. 
 
 ITnd (Ger. oondl. And. 
 
 Unjsedllldij;- (Ger. oon-ghe-dool -digh). Im- 
 patiently. 
 
 Unit of Time, The time occupied by a 
 single rhythmical pulsation ; the primary ele- 
 ment of the measure ; a beat. See chap. vii. 
 
 "^'ariaKioni (Ital. va-re-a-ts5-o'-ne). Varia- 
 tions. 
 
 V«'rlauf (Ger. ff-r-louf ). The lapse, progres- 
 sion, what follows. 
 
 V«'rsehiebHng (Ger. fer-she -boong). De- 
 lay, lingering, shifting. In German music, 
 ilie soft pedal. 
 
 Viet (Ger. fel). ^luch, a great deal. 
 Viert«'l (Ger. fer -t'l). Quarter note. 
 "^'igore lltal. ve-gO -re). Vigor. 
 Vigoroso (Ital. ve-go-ro -zo.i. Vigorous, 
 
 bold, energetic. 
 Vivaee (Ital. ve-vii -tshe). Lively, quickly. 
 
 ^'ivaoissinio (Ital. ve -ya- tshes -se-mo;. 
 Very livclj-, extremely vivacious. 
 
 ^'ivaeita (Itai. ve-va-tshe -ta). Vivacity, 
 
 liveliness. 
 
 Vivente (Ital. ve-van'-tej. Animated, lively. 
 Volkslied (Ger. folks -led). A. people's 
 song. A simple and natural melody. 
 
 Volkston (Ger. folks-ton). People's song ; 
 a simple, natural melody. 
 
 Volta (Ital. vdl'-tiil. Time; also, an old air 
 peculiar to an Italian dance of the same 
 name, 
 
 Vorher (Ger. for-hSr ). Before, formerly. 
 
 Vorigen (Ger. for -e-ghen). Former, preced- 
 ing. 
 
 Vortrag (Ger. fdr-trag'). Execution, deliv- 
 ery, the act of uttering. 
 
 Vorzntragen (Ger. fort -zoo-trii ghen). To 
 deliver, to utter. 
 
 Walkliere, Die (val-keer'-e). "The Val- 
 kyrie," opera by Wagner, 1855. 
 
 ^Varren, Samuel P., organ virtuoso and com- 
 posei,was born in Montreal, in 1841, early 
 showed unusual talent for the organ, his 
 father being an organ builder. Held position 
 as church organist at the age of 12. In 1861 
 he began his studies in Berlin with Haupt, 
 Gustav Schumann, and Wieprecht. On his 
 return to America, after one year in Montreal, 
 he removed to New York in 1865 as organist 
 of Grace Church, where he has since resided. 
 W. is one of the greatest organ istsof our time, 
 his playing being remarkable for refinement 
 and musical qua ity no less than for ease and 
 remarkable technique. His repertoire is very 
 large. He is composer of many original 
 compositions, as well as arrangements. 
 
 ^Vebb, Geo. James, teacher of singing and 
 organist, w.as born in Wilishire. England, 
 in 1803, studied music in childliooil (although 
 intended for the church), learning not only 
 the pianoforte and organ, but also singing, 
 harmony and the violin. In 1830 he came 
 to America and settled in Boston, where he 
 became colaboier with Dr. Lowell Mason in 
 teaching and the production of musical works, 
 many of which were very useful and suc- 
 cessful in their day. The Boston Academy 
 of Music was founded in 1836, with Messrs. 
 Mason and Webb at its head. W. was one 
 of the earliest conductors of symphony and 
 and oratorio performances in Boston, and for 
 many years he held the highest rank there 
 as teacher of the piano and singing. In 
 1870 he removed to Orange, N. J., and com- 
 menced his teaching in New York. He now 
 resides (1881) in New York, and is still active. 
 
 a ale, a add, a arm, e ez'e, e end, I ice, I ///, o old, o odd, o dove, 00 rrooii, u lit/i-, u hut. ii Fr. souna 
 
 81
 
 WEI 
 
 ADDENDA. 
 
 ZWE 
 
 '^Veiell (Ger. vikh). Minor, in respect to keys 
 
 and mode. 
 ■^Veiter (Ger. vi -ter^. More distant, btoader. 
 "IVenitf (Ger. van'-ig). Little. 
 
 Wllitiilia;, George E., organist and composer, 
 was born at Holliston, Mass., in 1837, studied 
 abroad in 1862 and 1874, between which times 
 he held good positions as organist m Boston. 
 In 1878 was appointed organist of the Cin- 
 cinnati .Music Hall, a position he still holds. 
 Has composed important works for organ, as 
 well as for chorus and orchestra. The best 
 of these, "The Tale of the Viking," com- 
 peted for the $1 ,000 prize in 1880, and missed 
 it by one vote. W. is an original and ver- 
 satile musician. 
 
 ■\t^hitlie.V. Myron W,,the distinguished basso, 
 was borq in Mass., in 1833. His magnificent 
 voice attracted attention as early as 1855. 
 He studied in Boston and afterward spent 
 sometime abroad, returning to this country 
 in 1868, where he has ever since held the 
 highest rank as an interpreter of the bass 
 roles in oratorio. W. is in every wav a great 
 singer, and an artist ol the highest rank. 
 
 '^Vie (Ger. ve). How, as. 
 
 ^Viodei" (Ger. ve -der). Again, anew, a second 
 time. 
 
 ■\Viea"«*"lied (Ger. ve -ghen-leed). Cradle 
 
 S Mlg. 
 
 IViiid Band. A band of wind instruments — 
 llutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons and the 
 brass. 
 
 IV'OOd. The "wood,"' in English musical 
 speech, includes all wind instruments except 
 the brass. 
 
 Kanipa. Opera by Herold, 1831. 
 
 Zettii'oso (Ital. zef-fe-ro'-zo). 
 
 Zeielieil (Ger. tsi -k'nj. A musical sign, note, 
 or character. 
 
 Zeltlliass (Ger. tsit -mass). Time, measure. 
 
 Zerrahll. Carl (tzijr-rahn ), the distinguished 
 conductor, was borr. in Mecklenburg-Schwer- 
 in, in 1826. Went in 1848 to London with 
 orchestra, " The Germania Musical Sociely," 
 gave concerts for three months, then they 
 came to America and traveled about for six 
 years, giving concerts all over the U. S. and 
 Canada. Z, settled in Boston in 1S54, was 
 elected conductor of the Handel and Haydn 
 Society, which position he has held ever 
 since. Is also conductor of Harvard Sym- 
 phony Concerts since their beginning in 1864, 
 teacher of voice, harmony and the art of 
 conducting in the N. E. Conservator}', con- 
 ducts the annual musical Jestival in Worces- 
 ter, and various other musical organizations. 
 
 Zoegernd (Ger. tso-ghernd). A continual 
 retarding of the time. 
 
 Ztl (Ger. tsoo) At, by, in, to, unto. 
 
 Zurneoklialtiins; (Ger. tsoo-riik-hal- 
 toongV Retarding, keeping back. 
 
 Zuspieleit (Ger. tsoo- spel'en). To play. 
 
 Kwoillial (Ger tsvi -mill) Twice. 
 
 ii ale, i add^ a arjn^ e eve, e ettd. i ice, i /'//, o old, o odd, o dove, 00 moon, u hite, u but, u Fr. sound 
 
 82
 
 (appendix.) 
 
 Synopsis of Pitch Notation, 
 
 {Prejyared expressly for this work.) 
 
 SECTION FIRST. PITCH. 
 
 Pitch is represented by the lines and spaces of the stafT. These arc called degrees. There 
 are.as many lines and spaces used as there are diatonic de^jrees in the scale of the music 
 represented. For ordinary use the staff consists of five lines and the spaces beloagiug to 
 them, chosen from any convenient part of the so-called Gkeat Staff of eleven lines. 
 Pitches above or below this compass are represented by means of short or leger lines, and 
 when in the highest or lowest pitches these leger lines become too numerous to be easily 
 recognized by the eye, the abbreviation 8va is employed, as shown below at ( ZJ. ) 
 
 GREAT STAFF OF ELEVEN LINES, 
 
 Showing the relation and pitch of the various Cl^fs and Staves used in Pianoforte and Vocal 
 Music, and in Orchrestral Scores ; together with the letters indicating absolute pilch. 
 
 f" 
 
 Violin or Soprano 
 
 Staff. „„ -a" 
 
 -Soprano-Staff.— f"-£- 
 
 (['" 
 
 Mezzo-Soi)r. Staff'.— 
 
 Base staff' 
 
 FF- 
 
 Written. (B) 
 8i-a 
 
 Played. 
 
 CHROMATIC SIGNS. 
 
 The chromatic signs are the J, X, b, blj and fl. The sharp J. indicates an elevation of a semi- 
 tone ; it is applied only to natural degrees (see a below.) The double-sharp X or -i- indicates 
 an elevation equal to two Beinitones; applied to "sharp" degrees. (Sec i below.) The Hat b 
 indicatef? a depression equal to a semitone; applied only to natural degrees. (See c below.; 
 The double flat, bfe, indicates a depression equal to two semitones; applied only to flat de- 
 grees. (See d below.) The t], restores a stafl'-dcgree to its "natural" condition and cancels 
 any of the previous signs. (See e below.) In restoring a single sharp or flat after a donble 
 one, it is necessary to use a natural to cancel the double sharp or flat, and a sharp or flat to 
 restore the degree to its desired condition. (See (.) 
 
 83
 
 SYNOPSIS OF PITCH J^OTATION. 
 
 Written. 
 
 i J., - 
 
 wmm^mm^mB^mm^ 
 
 
 
 («) {(^ ib) if) (c) (/) 
 
 SIGNATURES. 
 
 Sharps or flats placud at the beginniug to indicate the Icey, are calletl sigiiaturcB. The 
 sharps or Hats so placed not only eflect the degrees on which they are placed throuj;h- 
 out the stafl", but apply also to the octaves above and belov? on the same stafT. In printed 
 music the si?;naturQ is repeated at the beginning of every line. In manuscript music tlie 
 clefs and signatures are frequently omitted, except at the beginning of each piece or page. 
 Example of staves with signatures and names of staff-degrees. 
 
 n -C-Sharp,- 
 
 ACCIDENTALS. 
 
 1 . An accidental alVccts all notes following it on the same statf degree in the same measure 
 0. When the test note of one measure is affected by an accidental and the following meas- 
 ure begins with a note on the same degree, the accidental applies to that note also, but not 
 to any that occur after a different tone has intervened in the same voice. 
 
 Written. 
 
 
 ?=*^i_ 
 
 tP^=*-fr 
 
 t: 
 
 =-=i1^. 
 
 ■=~§'=±5^*z^!3^^=^ 
 
 3. Accidentals are played as written. A single sharp or flat on a note already sharped or 
 flatted in the signature, is not double-sliarped or flatted by the single accidental, but only 
 singly, the accidental having been introduced for precaution. See (g) below. 
 
 Written. 
 
 liibbtfizi^ki^i 
 
 Played. 
 
 
 9 
 
 -H- 
 
 -— 1- ■ 
 
 _^_-i_. 
 
 :t^izi*z:iz=— — : 
 
 MARKS OF ABBREVIATION. 
 
 In order to save space, repetitious of groups of notes are sometimes indicated bj' marks of 
 abbreviation, as at k above. 
 
 ARPEGGIO. 
 
 A tremolaudo efl'ect in cliords is indicated by bars running across the stems. 
 
 A waved lino liefore chords indicates that the notes are to be played successively, begin 
 ning with the lowest note reached by the waved line, and not together. The Arpeggio begins 
 at the time of the chord, and the tones follow each other very rapidly, and generally some- 
 what ct'escendo towards the last. 
 
 ?4
 
 MELODIC EMBELLISlLMENTiS 
 
 TIME NOTATION. 
 
 A note indicates a musical utterance. The relative length or duration of several ntter- 
 ances in connection, is represented by tlie different note-forms which are named whole note, 
 half, quarter, etc. Every note-form has a rest of corresponding value, which indicates a 
 silence of the same length. A dot after a note or rest adds half to its value. A second d(jt 
 adds half as much as the first, so that two dots increase the value of the note by three quarters. 
 
 Whole. 
 
 Half. 
 
 Quarter. 
 
 NOTES AND RESTS. 
 
 Sixteenth. Thirty-second. 
 
 Ei^'hth. 
 
 - r 
 
 5 
 
 ? 
 
 \ 
 
 Sixty-fourth. 
 
 •7 
 
 Explanation of Melodic Embellishments. 
 
 Prepared from the liest authorities, expressly for this work. 
 
 1. THE LONG APPOGGIATURA. 
 
 This embellishment consists of a grace note which takes half (a), two-thirds (6), or even 
 the whole (c), of the time of its principal as shown in the examples following: 
 
 a. Long appoggiatura before a note b. Before a note divisi- c. Before a note to 
 which can be divided into blc by three, (a which another 
 
 two equal parts. dotted note.) is tied. 
 
 A r> n-J H*^ -.-^- 
 
 m^^ 
 
 The long appoggiatura is now usually written out in full in large notes. 
 
 2. THE SHORT APPOGGIATURA. 
 
 2. The short Appoggiatura is a grace note with a little stroke through its stem. It begins 
 at the time of the principal note, and is played as quickly as possible— (a, 6, c.) 
 
 Written. 
 
 fv- 
 
 -f2- 
 
 
 f^ j_i_,_ J — • 
 
 K 
 
 -G>— 
 
 -G 
 
 I 
 
 a. Moderaio. 
 Played. 
 
 b. Presto. 
 
 before double notes. 
 
 
 ^^;-^^-.r,^^- 
 
 >-^ 
 
 ;5. AFTER NOTES. 
 
 After notes consist of one or more grace notes Introduced as passing or changing notes, in 
 passing from one melody note to another. They are generally connected with their iirinci 
 pal note by a slur, and never fall on an accent. 
 
 8s
 
 MELODIC EMBELLISHMENTS. 
 
 Written. 
 
 liit^ii^iPllsiSiH 
 
 Plaved. 
 
 h"^-J>- 
 
 
 4. DOUBLE APPOGGIATURAS. 
 
 Double appoggiatnraa consist of two grace uotea preccediug a melody uote. They begin 
 at the proper time of the principal note (and therefore with the corresponding Base note), 
 and are played as quickly as possible, the accent falling on the principal note. 
 Written. 
 
 b. c. 
 P—f- r-P—fg-r-M r^^ if»—i-i 
 
 5. THE TURN, OR GRUPETTO. 
 
 The turn consists of a principal note and two auxiliary notes, above and below respect- 
 ively, which may be a whole step or a half step distant from the principal. Generally the 
 upper auxiliary is the next tone above in the same key, and the lower a semitone below the 
 principal. When the upper auxiliary is only a semitone above the principal, as in the case 
 of turns on the 3rd and 7th degree of the scale, the lower auxiliary is played diatonic, and 
 consequently a whole step below the principal, in order to avoid the misleading chromatic 
 effect which would otherwise be produced. On the .5th degree of the minor scale, the lower 
 auxiliary is played chromatic. The turn usually comes at the close of the principal note, 
 as at a, b and c in the examples, where also is illustrated the use of accidentals in connec- 
 tion with the turn-sign. Sometimes, however, it comes at the beginning of a note, as at d, 
 in which case the turn-sign stands directly over it. With dotted notes the turn comes be- 
 tween the note and the dot, as shown at e and /. 
 
 C^ .11 «S5 ^ SSV 
 
 OS 
 
 mm 
 
 .---I — p- ,— »-, u^-, »-F-F- i— wC ----l^-^-r— 1 
 
 mr^^ 
 
 d 
 
 0—ft- 
 
 1 — 1— 
 
 -#— ^ 
 
 iHl 
 
 6. THE MORDENT, OR BOUNDING TRILL. 
 
 These two embellishments are precisely alike, except that one is made with the note below 
 the principal, and the other with the note above. The first is distinguished by the vertical 
 stroke through the sign, as at a, below. The other, also called Mordent by some, and Pralt 
 trill or "Bounding Trill" by others, lacks the vertical stroke through the sign, and is made 
 
 86
 
 MELODIC EMBELLISHx\IENTS. 
 
 with the nolo above. The same cmhellislimeiit is Romctimcs written out in small notes a8 
 at e Accordiii',' to Di . \Vm. JIason the Prall- Trill should be accented on ihajirst note as at 
 d. In all cases the embellishment is to be played as rapidly as possible. 
 
 I^Ei^i=^^? 
 
 g^=i^^3^i>=jr:^ 
 
 . A^ , 
 
 -0 •- 
 
 
 
 -=|^£ 
 
 -qz::]zin::^=:-z:3 
 
 d According to jvlason. e 
 
 P f 
 
 P f 
 
 :it-i?=,=^ 
 
 /witli (lonlile notes. 
 
 7. THE TRILL. 
 
 The trill consists of a rapid vibration or alternation of a principal note and the next above 
 in the same key. A vocal trill should begin somewhatdeliberately, but immediately become 
 rapid, as shown at a below. It concludes with a turn, which, however, may sometimes be 
 omitted in chain trills. Ou the pianoforte a long trill accompanied by a melody in the 
 same hand, may omit the auxiliary note at the moment of sounding the melody, in order to 
 facilitate the passage, as shown at d. It is of the greatest importance that the notes of the 
 trill should be of equal power. At the start the auxiliary may be accented. Trills should 
 vibrate at a uniform speed, after the motion is once established, and in some definite ratio 
 to the time of the passage. 
 
 The trill begins with the principal note, and not with the auxiliary, although the contrary 
 has been taught by eminent masters, and is sometimes required by a grace note as at b and c 
 below. 
 
 Written. 
 
 ^tr^ 
 
 -<s>- 
 
 ^ 
 
 :i^ 
 
 ■ G>— 
 
 B 
 
 mm 
 
 a 
 
 Perfiir;ned. 
 
 EEEEE 
 
 %' 0«0f 0f0*0'0,4 
 
 \-*lht ^ 0*0^0 '- 
 
 - -t- 
 
 0-0 0M-0t #_-«._^3 
 
 — ■ 
 
 
 Presto fr^ 
 
 1 
 
 - r
 
 s^^