UC-NRLF SB 25b hfi? LIBRARY OF TI1K University of California C/A' C UL ,1 r/XG BRANCH. f Return in. *w. week/; or a week before the end of the term. LIBRARY OF THE University of California. CIRC UL A TI N G B R A A' C H . Return in two weeks ; or a week before the end of the term. PRESERVATION COPY ADDED INDEX OF SUBJECTS. ACCENT Acute, Syllabic, .... 8, 9 ADJECTIVES Inflection, Derivation, Comparison, 21 Agreement, Position, Complement of, 75 ADVERBS History, Classification, Use, . ALPHABET Latin Equivalents, Capital Letters, ARTICLES Inflection, History, Use, AUGMENTATIVE NOUNS, ..... AUXILIARY VERBS, ...... CAPITAL LETTERS, ...... CASE, . COMPARISON, ....... CONJUGATION History, ..... Comparative Forms, Regular Forms, Irregular Forms, CONJUNCTIONS List, Use, .... CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES, .... DEFECTIVE VERBS, ..... DERIVATION, .... DERIVATIVE ENDINGS, DIMINUTIVE NOUNS, EUPHONIC CHANGES, GENDER, .... GEBUNDS Forms, Use, . INFLECTION, 66, 86 1 15, 73 19 42 3 13 22 38 52 49 56 70, 88 73 55 16, 17, 22, 39, 66, 69 72 20 18, 21, 24, 31, 51 11 62,86 11, 14, 17 90 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. INTERJECTIONS, ... 71 IRREGULAR VERBS List of, . 64 MOODS Use, 38, 84 NOUNS Inflection, Syntax, . . . . 16, 75 NUMBER, . . 11 NUMERALS List, Use, ..... '26, 75 PARTICIPLES Forms, Syntax, . . . 62, 86 PARTS or SPEECH, . ... 11 PASSIVE VERBS, ...... 54 PREPOSITIONS List, Use, .... 70, 87 PRONOMINAL VERBS, ..... 54 PRONOUNS Demonstrative, . . . . 33, 79 Indefinite, . 35, 80 Interrogative, . . . . 35, 79 Personal, 29,77 Possessive, ..... 32, 78 Reflective, 31 Relative, 34,79 PRONUNCIATION Vowels, Diphthongs, Consonants, 3 PUNCTUATION, ...... 8 SPANISH LANGUAGE History, .... v-xvi .... .... Historical Observations, 10, 12, 14, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 38, 47, 51 SUBJUNCTIVE MOCD Use, .... 84 SUPERLATIVES Relative and Absolute, . . 24 TENSES Formation, Use, .... 40, 83 UNIPERSONAL VERBS, ..... 54 V., VD., VM., &c., 47 VERBS Classification and Conjugation, . 36-66 Syntax, . ... 82 CORRIGENDA. L<}E viii.. Hi ic 8, " viii., ; 25, " viii., < < 26, " xi., ' 17, ' xiii., ' 2, ' 2 ' 2, ' 2, ' 3, 3, ' 1"', ' 5, ' 6, 9, ' 13, 18, ' 19, ' 19, ' 5 ' 21, ' 4,' ' 22 ' 31, 23' ' 4, ' 28, ' 34, ' 31, ' 5, ' 31, ' 10, " 33, ' 32, 33, ' 32, 34, ' 2 " 35, ' l', 35, ' 12, < 35, ' 21, ' 37, ' 6, ' 39, ' 3, 39, ' 27, 46, ' 5, 46, ' 21, " 48, ' 21, " 51, ' 12, 51, ' 13, l ' 51, ' 25, ' 54, ' 15, 54, ' ^1, 56, ' 9, 57, ' 10, ' 59, ' 8, 61, ' 6, 64, ' 28, 1 65, ! 11? 69, 69, " 25', ' 69, " 29, ' 71, ' 29, ' 76, ' 16, 76, ' 23, 1 77, ' 5, 80, < 2$, for mantainecl, read maintained. for batallia read, batalla. for classscal, read classical. for indispensible, read indispensable. for rnantained, read maintained. omit R, chicdere, QUAEUERK. for LACTEM, read LAC(TIS). for yerrar EKRARE, read yerro, ERROREM. for qnite, read quite. for aqua, read agua. after a, insert i; line 2G, forjiWor, read fior. first word, omit s. for Adjectivos, read Adjetivos. for tanta, read tanto. 5, 28, for menos, read menos. for 1-32 read 1-31. for dl si, read de si. for diamelo, read diomelo. for estaplumci, read estapluma. for silver, read silver. afcer cs., insert in poetry and. for mulieres, read mugeres. for Pronouns, read Pronouns. for inmdi'i, read envidia. for pronominale, read pronominal. for tendancy, read tendency. for eis read (ab)eis. for tedido, read tenido. for Hubise, read Hubiese. for SLA (spanish), read sea. for royo, read royo. for create, read believe. for hincio, read Mnchio, for alabidosi, read alabadosr. for v .-,, read o.s; line 27, Z/oiw read llucve. after the first letter, insert e. for st'ntid, read sentid. for jiii>?^mos, read jugwemos. for prevalrese, read prevalerse. for consequir, read conseguir. for 2, read 5. for escribio, read escriMa ; line 17, omit s. for sabe, read conoce d. for inplying, read implying. for pardon, read perdon. for paplees, read papeles. for ilostre, read ilustre. for decimo quarto, read dccima (puarta. for niwvo, read micro. A MANUAL COMPARATIVE GRAMMAE SPANISH LANGUAGE HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION W. L. MONTAGUE PROFESSOK OF FRENCH, ITALIAN ANO SPANISH IN AMHEK8T COLLEGE NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY r P. W. CHRlSTERN BOSTON: SCHOENHOF AND MOELLER Entered according- to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by WILLIAM L. MONTAGUE, > s :.$/ In the Office of the Librarian or Congress, at Washington. PREFACE. This Spanish Grammar has been prepared to meet the wants of a class of students who do not desire to speak Spanish, or have not time to learn the language as pre- sented in the grammars now in use. They have a few weeks (or months J only which they can devote to that subject, and they wish^ \p be introduced, as soon as prac- ticable, to the literature, and gain, if possible, some facility in reading it. They want only so much of gram- mar as may aid them in attaining the desired end. Such works as those of De Tornos and Sauer, though admirably adapted to the use of those who wish to speak the language, are not suitable for those whose time is so limited. With this want in view, the aim has been to present the general facts of the language in a com- prehensive and simple form. Among these essential facts have been included the varieties of declension and conjugation, in order that the different forms of inflected words may be readily distinguished. The most common uninflected words have also been given with their significations that they may be committed to memory, and thus translation may be facilitated. The principles of pronunciation have been stated that the students may have an idea of the sound of the Ian- IV. PREFACE, guage in connection with the reading. A brief extract from Cervantes ("Don Quixote") has been introduced, presenting nearly all the peculiarities of sound, which should be daily read until every word can be easily and accurately pronounced. This same extract will serve as an exercise for the application of the various facts re- specting the parts of speech as they are consecutively learned in the grammar. Thus in two or three weeks the student will be prepared to commence the reading of Spanish authors with some degree of satisfaction. An effort has also been made to give, as briefly as pos- sible, a comparative view of the relations of the Spanish to the parent Latin and the sister languages, the French and Italian. As no etymological dictionary of the Span- ish language was accessible, the derivations have nearly all been traced by the aid of such dictionaries in the other languages, particularly those of Littre, "Diction- naire de la Langue Francaise," and Bolza, "Vocabolario Genetico-Etimologico della Lingua Italiana," together with Diez, "Romance Dictionary," ed. by T. C. Donkin. In the preparation of this Manual the best grammars in Spanish, French and English have been consulted, together with the latest works on comparative philology, but special acknowledgements are due to M. Brachet and Mr. G-. Ticknor, from whose works many facts have been drawn relating to the history of the language. INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF THE ORIGIN OF THE SPANISH LANGUAGE. 1. The earliest inhabitants of Spain, of whom we have any knowledge, were the Iberians. At a very re- mote period, they seem to have occupied the entire pen- insula, south of the Pyrenees, but of their origin and history scarcely anything is known. It is evident that they were a very valiant and warlike people, since their power was never completely subdued by any of the numerous hosts that from time to time invaded the land. Traces of their language are found in the names of cer- tain rivers, mountains and other localities, which must have been given in those early ages. A remnant of this ancient race still exists among the mountains of North- western Spain, maintaining their distinctive customs and institutions, and speaking a language which appears to have but few features in common with that of any other people. 2. At a period prior to any authentic record, the foremost of those tribes migrating from the East, reach- ed the western shores of Europe and entered Spain. VI. INTRODUCTION. These invaders were Celts, and after a severe and pro- tracted confest for the supremacy, they ultimately con- quered, and gradually incorporated with themselves, the native population, with the exception of the few who took refuge among the mountains. Of this union sprung the people known as the Celtiberians, whom the Romans subsequently found occupying the principal part of the country. 3. But another people, the Phoenicians, had at some unknown period (B. C. 1000?) previously visited this El Dorado and established colonies near the Pillars of Hercules, in the vicinity of Cadiz, whence they drew much of that wealth that gave them such pre-eminence among the neighboring nations. Through these colo- nies the Carthaginians (from a sister colony) entered Spain, and subsequently, after the first Punic War, un- dertook the conquest and occupation of the whole terri- tory. In this undertaking they were opposed by the Romans, a rival power whose aid was first invoked by the Grecian colonists living on the Eastern coast. The Carthaginians were at first successful. They extended their conquests as far as the Iberus (Ebro), and found- ed Carthagena, which in thirty years (according to Livy) became one of the richest cities in the world. But the Romans under the Scipios finally gained the ascendency over them, and at the end of the second Punic War, B. C. 201, the Carthaginians were driven from the country. 4. Then commenced that violent and protracted contest between the Romans and the native tribes, which, after nearly two centuries of blood and crime, ended in the supremacy of Rome, 19 B. C. To the effects of this conquest can be traced the chief influences INTRODUCT1 which have made the Spanish language^ Till I flTTlTat the present day. From the very beginning of the Roman invasion, wherever the Roman arms were triumphant, there was soon established the military colony, with the civil administration, the civilization and language of Rome. 5. Some of these colonies, like Tarragona, Cartha- gena and Cordova, became very important and prosper- ous long before the subjugation of the Central and Northern sections of the country, while Cadiz was de- scribed by Strabo as second only to Rome itself in re- gard to activity, wealth and population. Spain soon became the most important of the Roman provinces. The Spanish subjects, appreciating the superiority of Roman civilization, adopted the customs and language of their conquerors, and many attained to great distinc- tion. A native of Cadiz, (Balbus) was the first foreign- er who reached the Consulship, and received the honors of a public triumph, and Trajan, a native of Italica, near Seville, was the first foreigner who occupied the impe- rial throne. 6. Under the beneficent policy of Rome, which was exceptionally mild and conciliatory in Spain, great at- tention and encouragement were given to learning and literature. The children of the principal native families were provided with accomplished teachers, who gave the best education in the purest Latin. As a consequence some of the brightest lights in Latin literature arose in Spain. The poets of Cordova spoke Latin so well that the cultured ear of Cicero could only detect something " rude and foreign " in their accent. Another native of Cordova, Portius Latro, an eminent advocate, was the founder of a noted school of Rhetoric at Rome. The INTBODUCTION. '^^*--^i L ^ best writer of his age on Agriculture was Columella, a native of Cadiz. Lucan, Martial, Quintillian and the two Senecas, were Spaniards. It is evident, therefore, that a pure and classic Latin was both taught and spo- ken in Spain, even purer than was known in Gaul, or even in Italy outside of Latium. This became so gen- erally accepted that a Spanish rhetorician at Rome, about 200 A. D., mantained that the Latin was the uni- versal language of his native country. Yet it is not probable that this universally spoken lan- guage was identical with the classical dialect of litera- ture. Not all the colonists and soldiers spoke the Latin of Cicero and Virgil. The popular speech of the un- lettered differed from the pure diction of the cultured not only in its vocabulary but also to a certain extent, in its system of inflection. This separation between the "SERMO NOBILIS" and the "SERMO PLEBEUS," " RUSTICUS," which had commenced even in Rome as early as the time of the second Punic War, had widened until, in the time of Caesar, they were regarded in many respects as quite distinct, (" CASTRENSE VERBUM "). For instance, instead of the classical " EQUUS," "HEBDOMAS," " PUGNA." the people and the soldiers used the popular caballus, septimana, batualia, words which now exist in the Span- ish forms caballo, semana, batallia. This popular dialect, closely connected with the purest classscal Latin, became the generally spoken language throughout the greater part of the peninsula. Thus there can be no doubt that during the 400 years of uninterrupted Roman rule the people became thoroughly Romanized. Roman laws and customs, Roman civilization and refinement every- where prevailed. 8. Before the decline of this civilization another element was introduced which subsequently modified greatly both the character and the language of the people. Near the end of the second century churches had been publicly established, and not long after Chris- tianity became the prevalent religion of the country. Although the prayers and services of the church were in the literary dialect, yet the clergy, being often humble, unlettered men, more anxious to convert the masses than to win princes and nobles, gave all their instruc- tions in the more simple, popular dialect. Opposed to the pernicious doctrines of the heathen religion, they opposed the language and literature in which such doctrines were taught. Hence the church, during these centuries of confusion, corruption and decline, (the 3d to the 8th), was one of the strongest agents in leading the people to discard the old Latin, and in promoting the growth of the new and popular speech which was to become the vehicle of a higher and nobler civilization. 9. At the beginning of the fifth century the literary dialect had already extensively declined, and given place to the common speech. During the barbarian invasions and in consequence of the general confusion which then prevailed in Southern Europe, literary culture almost ceased, and ignorance everywhere prevailed. Then, with very few exceptions, the popular dialect supplanted the other. The latter survived in the official language of the church, though not understood by the worshipers, nor by many of the priests. It was also used imperfectly in a sort of " Low Latin," by some monks, officials and scholastics during the middle ages, but it was no longer the language of the people. It perished with the aris- tocratic and cultured classes who had spoken it. This is fully proved by the fact that whenever a different X. INTRODUCTION. word was employed in the two dialects to express the same idea, it is the popular word in every instance that has been retained in the modern Romanic languages. It is from the popular Roman speech therefore that we must trace the slow development of the Spanish, as well as its sister tongues, the French and Italian. 10 In the fifth Century another very important rev- olution was effected which gave the language a new and quite different character by the introduction of a Teu- tonic element. Barbarian hordes from the North, con- stituting a fifth race of men, quite distinct in character, origin and language from any of the four races that had preceded it, commenced their invasions by crossing the Rhine in 406-7, A. D. " Tribe succeeded tribe with all the facility and haste of a nomadic life, which knows neither local attachments nor local interests, and with all the eagerness and violence of barbarians seeking the grosser luxuries of civilization ; so that when, at the end of that century, the last of the great warlike emi- gration had forced for itself a place within the limits of the Roman Empire, it may be truly said that from the Rhine and the British Channel on the one side, to Cala- bria and Gibralter on the other, there was hardly a spot of that empire over which they had not passed, and few where they were not then to be found possessors of the soil and masters of the political and military power." First to cross the Pyrenees were the Vandals, Alani and Suevi, who, after ravaging and desolating the Peninsu- la, passed on to Africa, and were seen no more. Then came the Visigoths, whose name had been a terror among the nations, but whose fierce barbarism had al- ready been somewhat softened during their sojourn in Italy, by the genial influences of climate, civilization and INTRODUCTION Christianity, When, therefore, they passed through Southern France into Spain, (in 411) they entered the country as fillies, or representatives of the Empire. As the Empire waned, their power increased, and when it fell, they held undisputed sway throughout the country. Thpugh their character had been to a certain extent civ- ilized and christianized, their language was still barba- rous. The words had been formed in ignorance, and were imperfect and undeveloped. Bishop Ulfilas (370) had found it almost impossible to express in them the simplest ideas, of Christian truth. In Spain this lan- guage was never written. It was Teutonic, or German, and had scarcely anything in common with the Latin. Yet the rulers and their subjects were so intimately con- nected and so mutually dependent, the one upon the other, that some medium of communication in the com- mon intercourse of life became absolutely indispensible. Hence resulted a union of the two languages, or rather a modification of the Latin. Although the Goths had the political and military authority, with the more vig- orous character, yet they were comparatively few in numbers, and their language was rude and unwritten, while on the other hand their subjects far more numer- ous, possessed whatever of civilization yet remained, with a more refined language, with written laws and literature, and the vast influence of the church with its numerous priests giving instruction only in the popular Latin. The Latin therefore prevailed, and, though greatly corrupted, formed the basis and by far the most important element in the new speech. 11. While many Gothic words, referring chiefly to names of familiar objects, food, implements, to war or to the peculiarities, customs and institutions of the race, Xll. INTRODUCTION. were introduced into the Latin vocabulary, the princi- pal changes effected were those of sound, inflection and grammatical structure. The uncultivated ear of the Goth failed to detect those nice distinctions of sound which gave to the Latin its peculiar elegance and varied signification, hence they adopted those which they heard most frequently, while they introduced some of the harsh and guttural sounds to which they were ac- customed, thereby effecting numerous changes in the vowels and consonants. They readily learned the indi- vidual words of the Latin vocabulary, but the grammar was altogether too philosophical and complicated. They never accurately learned its forms of declension and conjugation, but indicated the relations of nouns &c., by the article joined with prepositions, and many of the changes of the verb by auxiliaries. 12. In the eighth century, another tremendous revo- lution occurred, and the sixth race with peculiarities and characteristics no less striking than those of any that had preceded it, overran the country. Inspired by the genius and fanaticism of Mohammed, the Arabs, a "picturesque and extraordinary people" had already gained a success so wide and rapid, and a civilization so refined and elevated as to excite the wonder and admi- ration of all other nations. In less than a century they had conquered Western Asia and the North of Africa. In 711 they entered Spain near Gibraltar, won the bat- tle of Xeres after a desperate struggle of seven days, and within three years planted the standard of the Crescent in every part of the land, except the free North-west. But there behind those rugged mountains Pelayo and his followers maintained their indepen- dence, and preserved, for a subsequent triumph, the Spanish race and the Christian faith. INTKODUCT1ON. Xlll. 13. In the Centre and South, for nearly eight centu- ries, the Moors mantained a splendid kingdom. The arts and sciences, agriculture and commerce all nourished, and their Libraries and literary institutions became so cele- brated that they were resorted to by Christian students from all countries of Europe. Great numbers of native Spanish Christians remained as conquered subjects in the midst of this flourishing kingdom. Though obliged to pay a double tribute, and deprived of certain political rights, they still were allowed the free exercise of their religion, and were able to preserve themselves in a meas- ure as a separate people. But in process of time, yield- ing somewhat of their national character, they came to adopt the Moorish customs and language, so that they were scarcely distinguished from the Moors except by their religion. Thus they gained the name Mozarabes, i. e., imitators of the Arabs, resembling them in appear- ance bnt not in reality. A writer in the middle of the ninth century complains that hardly one Christian in a thousand could write a Latin letter- to his brother thoiigh many could rival the Moors themselves in writing Arabic poetry. The records of the churches were kept in Ara- bic for centuries, and the Bishop of Seville even trans- lated the Scriptures into that language because his people could read them in no other. 14. Meanwhile the Christians of the North had been living among the rude Basques in a state but little bet- ter than that of savage life. Their native speech, the vulgar Latin modified by Gothic influence, had become still more degraded in consequence of general ignorance and constant warfare. When therefore they began the re-conquest (restoration) of the country they found themselves in contact with many belonging to the same Xiv. \ -^-INTRODUCTION. race with themselves, still possessing the same Christian faith, united in sympathy and interest, but speaking a language quite different from their own. A modification of the two idioms became therefore a necessity in order that they might have one common medium of commu- nication. This modification also required centuries for its accomplishment. 15. The first result was manifest in the rise of sev- eral provincials dialects, as the Castilian, Galician, Cata- lonian, Valencian and Andalusian. These all had the popular Latin as a basis, and differed from each other according as they possessed the Gothic or Arabic ele- ment in a greater or less degree, or were influenced by a neighboring idiom as the Basque or Proven(;al. Among these dialects the Castilian, in consequence of its rela- tions, to the Court and the Civil power, gradually gained the ascendency and became established as the language af Spain. 16. From the influences exerted during those cen- turies of Arabic dominion, 8th to 15th, the Spanish re- ceived that oriental character which distinguishes it from all the other languages of Europe. This is seen, not so much in the vocabulary of the language, as in the style and structure of the idiom, in the flowery dic- tion, the vivid imagery, the extravagant hyperboles and the frequent use of long, high sounding words with which the Spaniard loves to clothe his thoughts, or em- phasize his strange conceits. 17. At precisely what period the Spanish became recognized as a language and was reduced to writing, is not known. The oldest discovered document belongs to the year 1155, and the celebrated poem of the Cid was probably written not much later, and certainly be- INTRODUCTION. fore the year 1200. It was during the the order, of Alfonso the Tenth, (1252-82) that the Bible was translated into Spanish, that all legal docu- ments were written in it, that it became the language of the courts of justice, and that the foundation was laid for its use and authority wherever the Spanish power was acknowledged. 18. Since that time the Spanish has undergone no important change of form, (except psrhaps a few modi- fications in Orthography, see Alphabet), and has received but comparatively few additions to its vocabulary. It introduced a few terms from America, from the East In- dies, Italy and the Netherlands. For a time it yielded to the popular and powerful influence of the French, but it soon recovered its independence and purity, and now it stands before the world as a remarkable historic monument. It has taken at least six distinct races of men nearly three thousand years to construct it. Other nations and many wandering tribes have also lent a helping hand. But the Romans were the chief build- ers, as six tenths of the structure, at least, may be refer- red to their wonderful energy and genius. Less than one tenth can be allowed to the races that preceded them, while the Goths and Arabs brought each about one tenth, and all the rest combined to complete the work. The Roman portion is so distinctly marked that many pages have been drawn from it which may be read either as Latin or Spanish. 19. Though not so universally known among other nations as the French, yet it is spoken, as a native tongue, more widely than any other Romanic language,* * It has been estimated that fifty-five millions speak Spanish, forty-five millions French, fifty-five millions German and ninety millions English. XVI. INTRODUCTION. and more closely than any other it resembles the Latin, in inflection, in strength, and dignity. It gives promise of being the best, the most permanent, and the most powerful representative of the old Roman speech. 20. As an eminent linguist has said, " The Spanish has not only extended its dominion over distant conti- nents, and widely scattered islands, it has enriched, de- veloped, and purified its own form and substance, until its claims to be one of the noblest languages spoken by man, are firmly established. To the soft sounds and the abundant vowels of the Italian, it adds greater en- ergy and dignity ; with the French clearness and pre- cision it combines superior elasticity, and incomparably greater fitness for poetical composition. It has all the sweetness and graceful elegance of the Portuguese, without its repulsive nasal sounds and incessant hissing. Harmonious in sound, dignified and courteous in struc- ture, it thus represents all that is noble, grand, and touching in the character of a nation, once the great- est and proudest of Europe, and commanding the re- spect and sympathies of the world, even in its fallen grandeur. " SPANISH GRAMMAR. (Gramatica Expaltola). PART FIRST. (Parte Primera). FORMS OF WOBDS. (ETYMOLOGY). (Etimologia). 1. ALPHABET. (Alfabeto). THE Spanish Alphabet is composed of twenty-seven letters. Though most of them are the representatives of the same letters in Latin, yet many have other Latin equivalents, some of which are represented in the fol- lowing table : NAME. LATIN EQUIV. ILLUSTRATIONS. A ah E, bramar, FREMERE. B bay r, p, bramido, FREMITUS; obra, OPERA. C thay a, Q, areilla, ARGILLAM; cocer, COQUERE; T, ciencia, SCIENTIAM. Ch chay CT, LT, hecho, FACTUM; noche, NOCTEM; mucho, MULTUM. ALPHABET. NAME. LATIN EQUIV. ILLUSTRATIONS. D day E ay O, M, PH, C, L, Q, H ah-tchay F, F ef-fay G hay ee ho-tali R, T, chiedere, QU^RERE; padre, PATREM, A, i, fee he, LACTEM; enfermo, INFIRMUM; f rente, FRONTEM; etcrno, /ETERNUM. lirifa, LYMPHAM. amigo, AMicuM;,?ni/e?', MULIEREM; agua, AQUAM. hacer, FACERE; h igo, FICUM. E, escribir, SCRIBERE; dinero, DENARIUM. G, L, teja, TEGULAM; hi jo, FILIUM, s, x, pajaro, PASSEREM; dije, DIXI. L ay-lay (sometimes transposed), cared, CARCEREM; silbar, SIBILARE. LI el-lyay CL, FL, llamar, CLAMARE; llama, FLAMMAM; PL, lluvia, PLUVIAM. M em-ay N en-ay M, tan, TAM; inmenso, IMMENSUM. N en-nye-ay GN, MN, leno, LIGNUM; suefio, SOMNUM. NI, NN, seilor, SENIOREM; atio, ANNUM. AU, u, oro, AURUM; onda, UNDAM. qaeso, CASEUM; quebrar, CREPARE. (sometimes transposed), lirio, LILIUM; fraguar, FABRICARE. TJ oo B, c, atisencia, ABSENTIA; auto, ACTUM; p, laatizar, BAPTIZARE. V vay X ay -kiss. Y ee-gree-ay-gah G, j, yema, GEMMAM; yugo, JUGUM. Z thaytah c, D, T, paz, PACEM; juzgar, JUDICARE; razon, RATIONEM. O o AU; p Q K pay koo er-ray c, L, S T es-say tay CAPITAL LETTERS. PRONUNCIATION. 6 EEM. The letters K and W of the English alphabet are found only in foreign words. NOTE 1. b is often inserted, sometimes with r, after m: hombro, HUMERUM; kotnbre, HOMINEM. NOTE 2. d is sometimes inserted after / or n: humil- de, HUMILEM; tendre, TENERE. NOTE 3. Lat. i': is of ;en changed to ie : tierra, TERRAM; cierto, CERTUM; siempre, SEMPER. NOTE 4. Lat. 6 often becomes ue, and sometimes assumes h when initial ; baeno, BONUM ; nuestro, NOSTRUM ; huevo, OVUM. NOTE 5. s is dropped, or an e is prefixed when in the Latin it was followed by c, P, or T ; cisma, SCHISMA, esoudo, SCUTUM ; esperar, SPERARE ; estar, STARE. NOTE 6. -y is often prefixed to initial E (HE) yerrar, ERRARE ; yerba, HERBAM. 2. CAPITAL LETTERS. ( Letras Mayusculas. ) The capital letters are employed less frequently than in English. Thus the names of the days of the week, names of the seasons, the pronoun of the first person and the interjection O! are not written ^ith capitals, except at the beginning of a sentence, or of a line of poetry. Adjectives of nationality are written with a capital only when used substantively and applied to a person. The names of the months are also sometimes written with small letters. In other cases the capitals are used nearly the same as in English. 3. PRONUNCIATION. (Pronunciation). With few exceptions the Spanish language is pro- nounced exactly as it is written, and therefore presents 4 VOWELS. DIPHTHONGS. less difficulty to the learned than most of the other for- eign languages. 1. H is the only silent letter. 2. Every letter, except c and g, is invariable in sound. 4. VOWELS. ( Vocal ex). The vowels are pronounced : 1. a like the English a in far. Ex. rasa, house ; padre, father. 2. e like a in name. Ex. evo, age; hecho, made. 3. i like e in me. v Ex. niilo, child; ingles, English. 4. o like o in obey. Ex. hora, hour; obra, work. 5. u like oo in moon. Ex. uno, one; panto, point. G. ?/ like e in me. Ex. ?/, and ; my, king. NOTE 1. u is silent in the syllable gue, gui, que, qui, unless marked with the diaeresis. Ex. guerra, war ; guitarra, guitar ; que, that; quien, who; ayuero, augury. NOTE 2. y is rarely used as a vowel except in the conjunction y, and at the end of certain words. Even in these its place is frequently supplied by i in modern orthography. Ex. nun for may, very ; though this form is not authorized by the Academy. 5. DIPHTHONGS. (Diptongo.*). Such diphthongs as are found in English, French and German do not exist in Spanish, since every vowel must be distinctly pronounced ; but two and sometimes three vowels may form one syllable. Ex. hay, there is ; b uey, ox. The diphthongs recognized by the Spanish Academy- are, ai, (ay), au, ea, ei, (ey), eo, eu, ia, ie, io, iu, oe, oi, (oy), ua, ue, ui, (uy), uo. NOTE. Whenever one of the vowels is accented there is no diphthong, since each vowel then belongs to a sepa- rate syllable. Ex. brio, strength; frio, cold. CONSONANTS. 6. CONSONANTS. (Consonantes.) B has very nearly the sound of the same letter in English, but is uttered with less firmness. It some- what resembles the sound of v, especially in the middle of a word, and is sometimes mistaken for that letter, though the two sounds are qnite distinct. Ex. bolsa, purse ; beber, to drink ; buscar, to seek. (7, before consonants and the vowels a, o, u, is pro- nounced like k in English ; before e and i it has the sound of th in thin. Ex. claro, clear; caso, case ; cosa, thing ; cual, which ; centra, centre ; cielo, heaven ; lec- cion, lesson. Ch, a single letter of double form, is pronounced like ch in church. Ex. .cache, coach ; muchacho, boy. NOTE. When ch is found in words of Greek or H'e- brew origin it has the sound of k, but such words are now written with c, or qu before e or i. Ex. caos, chaos ; quimica, chemistry. D has the same sound as in English, except when it is final or between two vowels, when it is much softer, resembling the sound of th in the, (not in thin). Ex. dama, lady ; de, of ; Madrid, Madrid ; todo, all. F is sounded as in English, and is now used instead of ph. Ex. fama, fame ; fuego, fire ; filosofia, philos- ophy. G before consonants and the vowels a, o, u, has the sound of the English g in good ; but before e and i it has a very strongly aspirated guttural sound which has no equivalent in English, though the h, when strongly aspirated in the throat, somewhat resembles it. This guttural sound is stronger in Castillian than in any other dialect. Ex. grande, great ; pagar, to pay ; negocio, business ; gusto, taste ; gente, people ; gigante, giant. O CONSONANTS. NOTE 1. In modern orthography j is written instead of g, in many words in which this letter would have the guttural sound. NOTE 2. In the syllables gue gui the g retains the hard sound, although the u is silent. Ex. Miguel, Michael ; guia, guide. NOTE 3. Gn is pronounced like the English gn in dignity. Ex. dig no, worthy ; signo, sign. H is (always silent) merely a sign marking the ety- mology of words, and is now omitted in many words formerly written with -ch, ph, th. Ex. hace, he makes ; kigo, fig ; Crisliano, Christian ; filologo philologist ; teafrOy theatre. NOTE. His written before words beginning with ue and ie. Ex. huerta, orchard ; huevo, egg ; kielo, ice ; fiierro, iron. J has, before all the vowels, the aspirated guttural sound that is given to g before e and i. Ex. jar din, garden ; jefe, chief ; jiga, jig ; joven, youth ; juez, judge NOTE. J is now often written for g, and generally for x. when these letters would have the aspirated guttural sound. Ex. mujer, woman ; Mejico, Mexico ; Don Quijote, Don Quixote. L, M, N, and P have the same sounds as in English. Ex. labor, labor ; madre, mother ; nada, nothing ; pa- pel, paper. LI, another single letter of double form, is pronounced nearly like Hi in brilliant. Ex. Have, key ; lleno, full ; brillante, brilliant ; llorar, to weep ; llavia, rain. N (con tilde) has very nearly the same sound as ni in union. Ex. Espafla, Spain ; nino, child. Q, found only with ue and ui, has the sound of k. Ex. queso, cheese ; quince, fifteen. CONSONANTS. 7 NOTE. In other combinations it has been replaced by c. Ex. CLiando, when ; cuanto, how much. E is pronounced nearly the same as in English. Ex. carta, letter ; oro, gold ; but at the beginning of a word, or of the second part of a compound word, when double, or preceded by /, n or s, it should be uttered strongly, with a rolling sound. Ex. rasa, rose ; maniroto, ex- travagant ; perro, dog ; malrotar, to waste; honra, honor; Israel, Israel ; alrededor, around. S has always the sharp hissing sound of the English s in sister. Ex. solo, alone ; ca.sa, house. T is pronounced nearly as in English, but somewhat softer. Ex. templo, temple ; baton, button. F has the same sound as in English, but is less dis- tinctly uttered, like b, for which it is often taken. Ex. vaca, cow ; vida, life ; voluntad, will. X, in the middle of words has the sound of ks or cs. Ex. examen, examination ; maxima, maxim. NOTE 1. The former guttural sound of x has been replaced by^'. Ex. relox, reloj, clock, watch. NOTE 2. --Some substitute s for x before a consonant, as estrangero, foreign ; but this practice is unauthorized. Y 3 when a consonant, is pronounced nearly like the English y in year. Ex. yo, I ; leyes, laws. Z has always the sound of th in thin. Ex. caza, chase ; zefiro, zephyr ; zizafta, discord ; zona, zone ; azucar, sugar. This sound is of Arabic origin. Z is now written in place of the ancient 9 as Zaragoza for Carago9a. NOTE 1. A single consonant between two vowels is always joined to the latter vowel. Ex. a-mor, le-che, ga-llo. 8 PUNCTUATION. NOTE 2. Two consonants between two vowels are separated, unless the former be /, or any mute except t, followed by / or r when both are joined to the following vowel. Ex. cm-tor ; azu-fre ; ta-Ua ; at-leta. NOTE 3. Of three consonants the last only, I and r excepted, belongs to the following svllable. Ex. cons- tar. NOTE 4. No Spanish word or syllable can- commence with s followed by a consonant. Ex. ciencia, SCIENTIAM ; estado, STATUM ; ins-pirar, IN-SPIRARE. NOTE 5. The consonants c, n, and r only are doubled. In such c.ases they must be pronounced separately. Ex. Facdon, Itinato, hierro. 1. PUNCTUATION. (Puntuacion). The marks of punctuation are generally employed in the same manner as they are in English. EXCEP. 1. The apostrophe is not used. EXCEP. 2. The marks of interrogation and exclama- tion, (in addition to the English usage), are generally placed inverted at the beginning of a sentence, inter- rogative or exclamatory, unless the preceding words convey a sufficient warning to the reader. Ex. & Ha- Uan el-'os f ranees f Do they speak French ? / Ojald cesara la yaerra ! Would to God the war would end ! Exc. 3. The sign (~) called tilde, which is peculiar to the Spanish language, is placed over the n in order to indicate the liquid sound. (See G. N). Exc. 4. The acute accent ( ' ) is used in the follow- ing cases : (1) It is placed over the vowels a, e, 6, u, when used either as prepositions or conjunctions. (2) It is given to certain words to distinguish them from others of the same form having a different signification. Ex. tu, thou ; tu, thy ; el, he ; el, the ; si, if ; si, yes ; porque, because ; porqiie, why? &c. (3) It is placed SYLLABIC ACCENTS. 9 over the vowel on which the stress is laid in pronuncia- tion, whenever there is a deviation from the general rules of syllabic acceDt. Ex. Idpiz, pencil ; dlli t there; periodico, newspaper; alcazar, palace. 8. SYLLABIC ACCENT (Acento Silabico). The syllabic accent, or tbe stress which is laid upon a certain syllable in every word, is determined by the fol- lowing general rules : 1. Words that end in a consonant are accented on the last syllable. Ex. comer, to eat ; papel, paper. 2. Words th.it end in a vowel, or in the diphthongs ending in a, e, o, are accented on the penultimate sylla- ble. Ex. padre, fatlur ; tetoro, treasure ; aqua, water ; gloria, glory ; nadie. nobody ; imperio, empire ; linea, line ; virgineo, virginal ; heroe, hero ; mutuo, mutual. NOTE 1. The verbal termination ia, being a contrac- tion of iba, retains the accent on the i. Ex. tenia, ten- dria. NOTE 2. The consonants n and s in the plural of verbs and nouns do not affect the accent, which remains the same as in the singular : kablo, hahlan ; libra, libros. EXCEP. cardder, cara'itire*, regimen, regimenes. NOTE 3. Propsr names terminating in $ or ez, and words of the same character derived from the Greek or Latin, are accented on the penult. Ex. Cervantes, Lopez, Cesar, crisis. NOTE 4. Words ending in ia, denoting the place where anything is made or sold, are accented on the i. Ex. Sastrena, tailor's shop ; libreria, book-store ; pana- dena, bakery. NOTE 5. In diphthongs not final the stress usually falls upon the former vowel. Ex. baile, dance ; paasa, pause ; aceite, oil ; deuda, debt. Exc. When the first vowel is i or u ; when the word 2 W . V READING EXERCISE. '-...'* ' T*'*" " containing the diphthong is a monosyllabic substantive, a verb in the infinitive mood, or an indeclinable word, the stress is laid upon the second vowel. Ex. cielo, heaven ; Dios, God ; pais, country; oir, to hear; avnque, though ; ntano, roan ; rut-go, request ; ruido, noise. NOTE 6. The addition of one or more pronouns to the verb does not affect the position of the accent. Ex. did, he gave ; diomelo, he gave it to me ; compra, he buys ; compramelo, he buys it for me. OBS. The accent is generally retained upon the same syllable as in the Latin, except in verbs derived from those of the third conjugation, as prirwipe, PRINCIPEM ; impresion, IMPRESSIONEM ; fiel. FIDELEM ; hacc'r, FACERE ; escribir, SCRIBERE. READING EXERCISE. Quien duda sino que en los venideros tiempos, cuan- do saiga a luz la verdadera historia de mis famosos hechos, que el sabio que los escribiere, no ponga, cuando llegue a contar esta mi primera salida tan de mafiana, de esta manera ? Apenas habia el rubicundo Apolo ten- dido por la faz de la ancha y espaciosa tierra las dora- das hebras de sus herinosos cabellos, y apenas los peque- fios y pintados pajarillos con sus arpadas lenguas habian saludado con dulce y mehfl.ua armonia la venida de la rosada aurora, qae por las puertas y balcones del man- chego horizonte a los mortales se mostraba, cuando el famoso, caballero D. Quijote cle la Mancha, dejando las ociosas plum as, subio sobre su famoso caballo Koci- nante, y comenzo a caminar por el antiguo y cono- cido campo de Montiel (y era la verdad que por el caminaba), y afiadio dicienclo : Dichosa edad y siglo di- choso aquel, adonde saldran a luz las famosas hazafias mias, dignas de entallarse en bronces, esculpirse en PARTS OF SPEECH. -NUMBER. marmoles y pintarse en tablas, para memoria en lo future, j Oh tu, sabio encantador, quienquiera que seas, a quien ha de tocar el ser cronista de esta peregrina historia ! ruegote, que no te olvides de mi buen Roci- nante, conipanero eterno mio en todos mis caminos y carreras. 9. PARTS OF SPEECH. (Partes de la Oration}. The Spanish language is composed of ten different species of words, namely : Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, Con- junction, and Interjection. The definitions are the same as in English. The Grammar of the Academy gives only nine parts of speech, including the adjective in the noun. 1. The article, adjective, noun, pronoun, and partici- ple are inflected to express declension ; number, gender and case. 2. Adjectives are also inflected to express compari- son. 3. The verb is inflected to express conjugation ; voice, mode, tense, number and person. 4. The adverb, preposition, conjunction and inter- jection are uninflected. 10. NUMBER. (Namero). There are two numbers, singular and plural, having the same use and signification as in English. 11. GENDER. (Genero). All nouns are either masculine or feminine; (mascu- lino d femenino). When, however, a substantive is used objectively, or an adjective, or pronoun, is used substan- 12 GENDER. lively representing an abstract idta, or a sentence, it is said to be of the neuter gender. Ex. Todo era graiide en este principe, lo Cristiano, h rey, lo caption ; Everything was great in this prince, the Christian, the king, the captain. Lo Imcno. the good ; e.so t j .s nada, that is nothing. The gender of nouns can be determined either by their signification or their termination. 1. Nouns, which represent male beings, or which denote dignities, professions, employments, &c., appro- priate to men, are masculine. Ex. homlre, man ; ca- IiaHo, horse ; emperador, emperor ; dentista, dentist. EXCEP. haya, (or jaca), nag, pony. 2. Nouns which represent female beings, or which denote dignities, professions, employments, &c., appro- priate to women, are feminine. Ex. Maria, Mary ; leona, lioness ; reina, queen ; co$turera, seamstress. 3. Nouns ending in a, d, ion. are generally feminine; those ending in other letters are for the most part mas- culine-; buf there are many exceptions. Ex. tinta, ink; virtud, virtue ; leccion, lesson. NOTE 1. The names of the seasons, months and days are masculine, except la primavera, Spring. NOTE 2. Names of rivers and mountains ; of winds, countries, towns, villages, arts and sciences, not ending in a, are masculine. NOTE 3. Names of the letters of the alphabet, and of the figures of rhetoric, poetry and grammar, are feminine. EXCEP. pleonasmo, pleonasm. OBS. The suppression of the neuter gender occurred, to some extent, in the Low Latin, even before the formation of the Romanic languages. In Plautus and in the inscriptions of the third century, in the Salic Law and in writings of the fourth and fifth centuries, many CASE. 13 words that were neuter in classic Latin are found in the masculine, and some neuter plurals are found in the feminine ; as ^vus, DORSUS, MEMBRUS. VESTIGIUS, PECOUAS, VESTIMENTAS, &C. Words that were masculine, or feminine, in Latin, retain the same gender in Spanish with very few excep- tions. Those that were neuter are generally masculine. 12. CASE. (Caso). The relations of case, which were expressed in Latin by a change of termination, are generally indicated in Spanish, as in Italian and French, by prepositions. Ho nee some maintain that nouns have no case, others admit two cases, the subject, (or nominative), and ob- ject, (objective). The Spanish Academy recognizes six cases : 1. The nominative, corresponding to the same case in English, is the subject of the verb, and is the simple form of the noun. Ex. Dios es el criador del m undo ; Grod is the creator of the world. 2. The genitive, expressing possession, origin, mate- rial, part, characteristic, &c., is indicated by the prepo- sition de, of ; and usually corresponds to the English possessive, or the objective with of. Ex. Los libros de mi hermanp, my brother's books. Las casas de piedra de Paris son hermosas, the stone houses of Paris are beautiful. He visto d la Venus de Medicis, I have seen the Medicean Venus. Los vinos de Espana son buenos, the wines of Spain are good. 3. The dative, expressing tendency, is indicated by the preposition a, or para, to, or for. Ex. Escribe una carta a la reina, he writes a letter to the queen . Esla flor es para ella, this flower is for her. 14 CASE. 4. The accusative, expressing the direct object, or the adverbial relations of time, &c., is of the same form as the nominative. Ex. Compra un pafiuefa de hilo (lino) todos /G.S' meses, he buys a linen handkerchief every month. NOTE. When a person, or a thing personified, is the object of an active verb the noun is always preceded by the preposition a. Ex. He visto d Juan, I have seen John. 5. The vocative, or form of address, is the same as the nominative. Ex. / Carlo* ! que ha hecho V! O ! Charles, what have you done ! 6. The ablative, expressing manner, means, motion, (from), place, time, &c., is indicated by the prepositions con, with ; de, from ; en in ; por, by ; sin, without ; &c. Ex. Hah! a f ranees con facilidad, he speaks French with facility. Vino de Boston por el camino de hierro, (ferro- carrii), en cuatro horas, he came by rail from Boston in four hours. Eda)m en Londres sin dinero. I was in London without money. OBS. The loss of the Latin case endings does not seem to have been effected at onjce. There was a time when t;ie nominative and accusative were still in use, the others having been suppressed probably as early as the beginning of the sixth century. This usage became fixed for a time in the Proven<;al and Old French, but the change went on in the Italian and Spanish till in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries they were languages without case endings, while the others still employed two, the subjective and the objective. Singular. Plural. Nom. MUKUS, mur*, MURI, mar, Ace. MURUM, mur, MUROS, murs. In the fourteenth century the subjective case ending was also lost, and the objective became the accepted form in all cases, and hence s became the distinctive mark of the plural number. ARTICLES. 15 " There is no trace in the Italian and Spanish lan- guages of any distinction of cases." G. C. LEWIS. 13. ARTICLES. (Articulos). The article is much more closely connected with the noun, in Spanish, than it is in English. It serves to mark its gender and number, and to determine the ex- tent of its signification. There are two articles, the definite, d, fa h, the ; and the indefinite, un, una, a or an. I. The definite article is thus inflected : Singular. Plural. Mas. Fern. Neut. Mas. Fern. Norn, elj la, lo, los, las, the. Gen. del, de la, de lo, de los, de las, of the. Dat. al, a la, d lo, d los, d las, to the. Ace. el, la, h, los, las, the. Abl. del, de la, de lo, de los, de las, from the. con, en, par, &c., el, la, lo, los, las, with, in, by, &c., the. NOTE 1. The masculine form el in the singular is always contracted with de and d into del, a 1 . NOTE 2. The neuter form lo has no plural. NOTE 3. The article is not used in the vocative case. II. The indefinite article is thus inflected : Singular. Plural. Mas. Fern. Mas. Fein. N. & A. un, una, a, an, unos, unas, some. G. & Ab. de un, de una, of a, an, de unos, de unas, of some. Dat. d un, a una, to a, an, a unos, a unas, to some. NOTE 1. As the Spanish language has no apostro- phe, the final vowel of de and of the article is not elided as in French and Italian. The only euphonic change is 16 NOUNS. the following : When the feminine noun commences with an accented a or ha, the masculine article el is used instead of la. Ex. el ahna, the soul ; el ham^re, hun- ger ; but la amir/a, the friend. NOTE 2. The article precedes the noun and agrees with it in gender, number and case. OBS. Although the Latin had no article, the Romans often used the demonstrative pronoun ILLE to mark an object more definitely Thus we find in Cicero, ANNUS ILLE QUO ; ILLE ALTER, &c. Tins usage, somewhat rare in classical Latin, became quite common in the popular speech, and the pronoun passed subsequently into the definite article of the Romanic languages. Sing. ILLE, ILLUM, ILLAM, ILLUD ; el, la, lo; It. il, lo, la ; Fr. le,la. Plur. ILLI, ILLOS, ILLAS ; lox, If in ; i,gli,le; les. The indefinite article is derived from the numeral adjective UNUM, UNAM ; un, una ; It. an, uno, una; Fr. un, une. 14. NOUNS. (Nombres). Tiie declension of the noun is mainly expressed by that of the article which precedes it. 1. Common Nouns. (a) Masculine, padre, PATREM ; It. padre, Fr. pere. Singular. Plural. Norn. el padre, the father ; los padres, the fathers. Gen. del padre, of the father ; de los padres, of the fathers. Dat. al (para el) to (for) the d (para) los, to (for) the padre, father ; padres, fathers. Ace. (al) padre, the father ; (a) los padres , the fathers. Voc. padre, father ; padres, fathers. Abl. con, de, with, from, con, de, with, from, en, por, in by, &c., &c. sin, sobre without, above los padres, the fathers. el padre, the father ; NOUNS. 17 (b) Feminine, rosa, ROSAM, It. rosa, Fr. rose. N. & Ace. la rosa, the rose, las rosas, the roses. G. & Abl. de, &c., la rosa, of, &c. de, &c., las rosas. Dat. d (para) la rosa, a (para) las rosas. (c) Neuter, bucno, BONUM. It. bvono. Fr. bon. N. & Ace. lo Imeno, the good. G. & Abl. de. tfec., lo Imeno, of, from, &c., the good. Dat. di (par a) lo l>ueno, to, (for) the good. 2. Proper Nouns. With proper names the article is commonly omitted, and the relations of case are expressed by the preposi- tions only. Ex. N. & Voc. Pedro, Peter. G. & Abl. de, con, por, &c., Pedro, of, from, with, &c., Peter. Dat. a-, para, Pedro, to, for, Peter. Ace. d Pedro, Peter. REM. The only inflection of the noun itself is made to indicate the plural number, and sometimes the femi- nine gender. Ex. casa, house ; casas, houses ; libro, book ; libros, books ; hijo, son ; hija, daughter ; patron, patron ; patrona, patroness. OBS. The distinctions of the five declensions of Latin nouns have been entirely lost. The Spanish substan- tive, though often the same in form as the Latin abla- tive, is generally regarded as formed from the accusa- tive, which was undoubtedly the early representative of the oblique cases in each declension. The final m was uniformly dropped, and the preceding vowel, though sometimes retained, was frequently changed or dropped. Ex. GLORIAM, gloria ; TEMPLUM, templo; PATEEM, padre; SERMONEM, sermon ; CRIATOREM, criador ; VERSUM, verso ; DIEM, dia. u became o uniformly, except in espiritu and tribu. 18 PLURAL OF NOUNS. The Latin nominative has been retained in a few pro- per names, as Carlos, Dios. The plural is often the same in form as the Latin accusative plural. Ex. Libros, plumas, flores. NOTE. As a Spanish word cannot end with any other consonant than d, I, n, r, ,s, ,T, z, whenever, by the drop- ping of the Latin termination, some other consonant is brought to the end of a word, it must necessarily be changed. Ex. Fraternitatem, f rater nidad, pacem, paz, regem, rey. T, of the penult, is retained in amistad, difi- cultad, facuUad, lealtad, lilertad, majest-ad and voluntad. 15. FORMATION or THE PLURAL or NOUNS. (Formation del Plural de los N&mbres). The plural of substantives is formed according to the following general rules : 1. All nouns which end in a vowel form the plural by adding s. Ex. carta, letter ; cartas, letters ; hombre, man ; hombres, men. Exc. Nouns ending in an accented d or u form the plural by adding es. Ex.^ bajd^ pasha, bajdes ; aleli, gilliflowers, alelics ; biricu, sword-belt, biricues. But ma- ma, papa, sofa, cafe, bisturi, maravedi, zaquizami, follow the rule. 2. All nouns which end in y, or in a consonant, form the plural by adding es. Ex. ley, law ; leyes, laws ; fllor, flower ; flores, flowers ; ciudad, city ; ciudades, cities. Exc. 1. Nouns ending in z commonly change the z to c before adding es. Ex. lapiz, pencil ; lapices ; voz, voice ; voces. Exc. 2. Patronymics ending in z, and all words of two or more syllables ending in s (the last syllable being PLURAL OF NOUNS. ~~ --.^ ~ unaccented) remain unchanged in the pluralr Nunez, Los Martinez ; lunes, Monday; los lunes, Mondays; analisis, analysis ; las analisis, analyses. REM. The following are irregular : val, valley, valles ; Lordfc (English), Lores, Lords. NOTE 1. Some nouns are used only in the plural. Ex. bofes, lungs ; preces, prayers ; viveres, provisions. NOTE 2. Some- nouns have a different signification in the plural. Ex. tenaza (fort), tenaille ; tenazas, tongs ; modal, fashionable ; modules, manners. NOTE 3. Some nouns have a double signification in the plural. Ex. mano, hand ; manos, hands, or handi- craft ; hijo, son ; Ai/ox, sons, children, (male and female). NOTE 4. The following expressions are always plural in Spanish : Buenos dias, good morning ; buenas tardes, good evening ; buenas noches, good night. 16. PLURAL OF COMPOUND NOUNS. ( Plural de los Nombres Compuestos) . In most compound nouns the latter component only takes the plural sign. Ex. Vanagloria, boasting, van- aglorlas. In the following compounds both components receive the plural sign : casamata, casemate ; gentilhombre, no- bleman ; ricohome (-or ricohombre), grandee. The plu- ral of hidalgo, (hijo de alguno], is hijosdalgo. 17. AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES. (Aumentativos y Diminutivos) . The Spanish language is quite rich in derivative nouns, which serve to augment or diminish the signification of their primitives not only in regard to size and impor- tance, but also in regard to dignity, esteem, value, &c. 20 AUGMENTATFVES AND DIMINUTIVES. 1. Augmentatives are formed by changing the final vowel of the primitive into azo, on. ote, or acho, ackon, arron, for masculine, and aza, ona, ota, &c., for feminine nouns. Ex. hombre, man ; homhrazo, hombron, a tall, large man ; hombracho, a short, square, thick man ; hombrachon, a tall, square, thick man ; mujer, woman ; mujeraza, mujerona. a tall, large woman. NOTE. The ending azo, sometimes expresses the effect of the primitive. fusi f , musket ; ftiKilazo, musket-shot. Ex. martillo, hammer ; martillazo, blow struck with a hammer. 2 Diminutives are formed by changing the final vowel of the primitive into ico, i f /o, ito, uelo, for mascu- line, and ica, ilia, ita, uela, for feminine nouns. Ex. hermano, brother ; hermanito, dear little brother ; perro, dog ; perrico, little dog ; re//, king ; reyecillo, reyezuc'o, petty king ; mesa, table ; mexica, little table ; mexila., pretty little table ; mesilla, mesuela, poor little table. NOTE 1. The termination ico, denotes diminution simply, ito with endearment, i//o sometimes, and uelo al- ways, with contempt and disgust. NOTE 2. Sometimes c, or z, ec, or ez, are prefixed to these terminations, particularly when the primitive is a monosyllable, or ends in e, er, or, on, or y. Ex. pan, a loaf ; panecico, a small loaf, a roll ; hombre, hombrecillo, hombrezuelo. NOTE 3. These derivatives are sometimes formed with other terminations. Ex. chico, little boy ; chiqui- tin, dear little boy ; chiquitina, dear little girl. They may also be formed from adjectives, participles and adverbs. The true signification, (whether of esteem, pity or con- tempt), in many instances, can only be determined by the nature of the sentence, or the tone and manner of the speaker. OBS. Some short Latin words expressing an impor- tant idea, or a strong emotion, have been lengthened in ADJECTIVES. 21 Spanish, that the outward form may correspond to the signification. Ex. COR, corazon, heart ; SPES, experanza, hope. 18. ADJECTIVES. (Adjectwos}. Adjectives are inflected to mark gender and number, to agree with the nouns which they qualify. 1. Those ending in o, (with the few in ete and ote*), change the final vowel into o,, when joined to a femi- nine noun. Ex. Un paix hermoso, a beautiful country ; una pintara. hermosa, a beautiful picture. 2. All other adjectives have only one termination for both genders. Ex. Un hombre grave, a serious man ; una materia grave, a serious matter. Exc. Adjectives denoting nationality, and those end- ing in an or on take a feminine termination in a. Ex. Espanol, Expanola, Spanish ; ingles, inglesa, English ; holgazan, holgazana, idle. 3. The plural of adjectives is formed by adding s, or ex, according to the rules for the formation of the plu- ral of nouns. Ex. bueno, buenos, good ; feliz, fehces, happy ; baladi, baladies, mean. NOTE 1.- The adjectives alguno, ninguno, bueno, malo, uno, primer o t tercero, and postrero, lose the final vowel ; ciento, grande and santo lose the final syllable of the singular number, when they precede a masculine noun. Ex. algan hombre, any man ; ningun cuidado, no care ; buen libro, good book ; mal negocio, bad busi- ness ; un soblado, one soldier ; primer capitulo, first chapter ; tercer panto, third point ; den caballos, a hun- dred horses ; gran rey, great king ; San Pablo, Saint Paul. NOTE 2. Grande also loses the final syllable before a feminine noun when it signifies a merit or quality. Ex. gran reina, a great queen. If, however, the substantive 22 COMPARISON. begins with a vowel, grande does not lose the final syl- lable. Ex. grande amigo, great friend ; grande alma, great soul. NOTE 3. Santo is used without abbreviation before the words Angel, Christo, Domingo, el Padre, Tomua, Tome, and Tor H do. EXCEPT. La isla de San Tomds. OBS. 1. Adjectives ending in o, a, are derived from Latin adjectives of the first and second declensions. Ex. Bueno-a, BOXUM-AM ; It. buono-a ; Fr. bon-ne. 2. Those in e are formed from Latin adjectives of the third declension, often with a syncopation of the penultimate vowel. Ex. Trisfe, TRISTEM ; It. tristo-a. Fr. triste. Amablc, AMABILEM ; It. amabile ; Fr. aim able. 8. Those ending in a consonant are mostly derived from adjectives of the third declension by dropping M with the preceding vowel. (See 14. Obs.) Ex. Mortal, MOHTALEM ; It, morta'e ; Fr. mortel. Comun, COMMUNEM ; It. commie ; Fr. comman. Feliz, FELICEM ; It. felice. 4. A few adjectives ending in a are derived from the names of nations, and a few in / are of Arabic origin. Ex. Persa, Persian ; turqui, deep blue. 19. COMPARISON. (Comparacion). There are three kinds of comparison, which may re- fer either to quality or quantity. 1. Comparisons of equality are expressed by tan, TANTUM, as or so, before, and cmno, QUO MODO, as, after the adjective when referring to quality ; and by tan to, as many, as much, como, cuanto, QUANTAM, as, after the noun when referring to quantity. Ex. Juan es tan estadioso como su hermana ; John is as studious as his sister. El Americano tiene tantydinero como el France* ; The American has as much money as the Frenchman. Tiene tanta hacienda cuanta tcnia su padre ; He has as much property as his father had. COMPARISON. 23 NOTE. Cuanto is generally used instead of como when followed by a verb. As an adjective, it must, like tanto, agree with the noun in gender and number. 2. Comparisons of inferiority are expressed by me- nos, MINUS, less ; que, QUAM, than. Ex. Pedro ess menos dodo que Pablo ; Peter is less learned than Paul. 3. Comparisons of superiority are expressed by max, MAGIS, more ; que, QUAM, (and sometimes de), DE than. Ex. El so! ex mas brillante que la I ana, the sun is more brilliant than the moon. Es mas rico de lo que parece, he is richer than he seems (to be). NOTE. Before numeral adjectives de, DE is used in affirmative, and que, in negative comparisons. Tiene mas de vemte casas, he has more than twenty houses. No tiene mas que diez caballos, he has not more than ten horses. OBS. The system of comparison by means of the par- ticles, was introduced in consequence of the loss of the terminations IOE, ISSIMUS, by which comparison had been expressed in Latin. The old synthetic forms have been preserved in a few words which are now considered as exceptions, and are said to be compared irregularly. The sister languages have adopted the same system. Comparison of Superiority. mas, MAGIS ; PLUS ; It. piu ; Fr. plus, more. que, de, QUAM, DE ; QUAM, DE ; che, di ; que, than. Comparison of Inferiority. menos, MINUS; meno ; moins, less. que, de, QUAM, DE ; che ; que, than. Comparison of Equality. tan, TANTUM (ALIUD sic), tanto, (aussi), as. cuanto, (como), QUANTUM, (QUO MODO), quanto, que, as. 24 SUPERLATIVES. 20. SUPERLATIVES. (Superlatives.) As the quality may be expressed in the highest degree with comparison, or in a high degree without compari- son, there are said to be two kinds of superlatives. 1. The superlative relative is formed by prefixing the article el, la, &c., to the comparative of inferiority or su- periority, as in Italian, and French. Ex. Barcelona es la ciudad mas comercial de Expafia. Barcelona is the most commercial city in Spain. Socrates era el mas docto y el mas virtuoso delos Griegos. Socrates was the most learned and the most virtuous of the Greeks. 2. The superlative absolute is formed by prefixing to the adjective the adverb may, (contraction of macho, MULTUM ; It. multo, Fr. tret, TRANS), very, most, or by adding the terminations i$imo-a, &c. ; (ISSIMUM-AM ; It. issimo-a) to the adjective which then drops its final vowel. Ex. EsmuybaenOjik is very good ; Ella es muy hermosa, she is most beautiful ; Esta leccion esfacilisima, this lesson is very easy ; Es doctisimo, he is very learned. NOTE 1. Adjectives ending in io drop both vowels before isimo. Ex. amplio, amplisimo ; but agrio, sour ; frio, cold ; and pio, pious, conform to the rule agrio, agriisimo &c. NOTE 2. The following terminations meet with eu- phonic change. Ble becomes W, as terrible terrible, terribilisimo. Co qa as rico rich, riquisimo. Go gu as largo large, larguisimo. Z c as feliz happy, felicisimo. lente and i'erlo drop the i, as ardiente ardent, ardentisimo; cierto, certain, certisimo. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 25 3. The following adjectives form the superla- tive absolute irregularly, retaining the Latin form : Acre, sharp, acerrimo ; amigo, friendly, amidsimo ; aspero, rough, a&perrimo (or axpermmo) ; benejico, beneficent, beneficen- tixitno ; benevolo, benevolent, benevolentisimo ; bueno, good, bonifi- imo ; celeh'e, celebrated, celeberimo ; fal, faithful, fedelisimo ; fuerte, strong, fortisimo ; intf-gro, just, honest, integerrimo ; libre, free, liberrimo ; mngnific't. magnificent, magnificentisimo ; misero, miserable, miserrimo ; munifico, munificent, munificen- tisimo ; noble, noble, nobilisimo ; nutw, new, nomsimo ; pobre, poor, pauperimo ; sagrado or mgro, sacred, sacratisimo ; salubre, healthy, nal-uberrimo ; sabio, wise, sapientisimo. 21. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. (Comparacion Irregular). The following adjectives are compared by a change of form, similar to the Latin from which they are de- rived, though they also admit of comparison according to the previous rules. Bueno BONUM It. buono Fr. bon good mejor MELIOREM migliore meilleur better optiino OPTIMUM ottimo (le meilleur) best malo MALUM (cattivo CAPTIVUM) mauvais bad peor PEJOREM peggiore pire worse pesimo PESSIMUM pessimo (le pire) worst 'pequeno (PARVUM) piccolo (PUNCTDLUM) petit (PIC) small menor MINOREM minore moindre smaller minimo MINIMUM minimo (le moindre) smallest grande (MAGNUM) GRAN DEM grande grand great mayor MAJOREM maggiore majeur (plus grand) greater maximo MAXIMUM massimo inaxime (le plus grand) greatest alto (SUPERUM) ALTUM alto haut high superior SUPERIOREM superiore superieur (plus haut) higher supremo SUPREMUM supremo supreme (le plus haut) highest 4 26 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. bajo (INFERUM) BASSUS It. basso Fr. has low inferior INFERIOREM infimo INFIMUM inferiore inferieur (plus has) lower infimo inmne (le plus has) lowest raucho MULTUM mas (PLUS) MAGIS (lo mas) (PLUUIMUM) molto (Pi") (il piu) (beaucoup) (plus) (le plus) much more most poco PAUCUM menos MINUS poco meno pen moins little less (lo menos) MINIME (il meno) (le moins) least REM. Macho find. poco in the comparative and superla- tive are used both as adjectives and adverbs in Spanish, though as adverbs only in French and Italian. 22. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. (Adjetivos Numerate*). I. Cardinals. (Gardinales). 1 uno, a UN US, A It. uno, a F. un, une 2 dos DUO due deux 3 tres TRES tre trois 4 cuatro (iUATTUOK The second person plural of the preterite in- dicative is found, in the writings of early authors, end- ing in es instead of eis, as amastes for amasteis. The same person of the other tenses is also found ending in des instead of is, as amades for amais, amabades for ama- bais, &c. OBS. The personal endings, with the connecting vowel and tense sign, have generally been preserved in the simple tenses of the Romanic languages, with cer- 52 CONJUGATIONS. > tain euphonic changes peculiar to each. These changes have been the most marked in French and the least in Spanish, as may be seen from the comparative view given in the following tables : I. First Conjugation, Amar. Latin. Spanish. Italian. French. AM-ARE ara-ar ana-are aim-er o e AS as i es AT a a e (et) AMU8 amos iamo ons ATIS ais ate ez ANT an ano ent ABAM aba ava ais (ive) (oie) (s) ABAS abas avi ais ABAT aba ava ait ABAM US abamos ava mo ions ABATIS abais avate iez ABANT aban avano aient AVI e ai ai AVISTI aste asti as AVIT 6 t> a (at) A VIM US amos ammo ames AVISTIS asteis aste ates (astes) AVERUNT aron arono irent EM e i e ES es i es ET e i e(et) EMUS emos iamo ions ETIS eis iate iez ENT en ino ent AVISSEM ase assi asse (aisse) AVISSES ases assi asses AVISSET ase asse at (aist) AVISSEMUS asemos assimo assions AVISSETIS aseis aste assiez AVISSENT asen assero assent A a a e ANTEM ante ante ant ATUM ado ato an do an do CONJUGATIONS. 53"/ II. Second and Third Conjuga Deber, DEBEEE ; It. dovere ; Fr. devoir, to owe. Vender, VENDERE ; It. vender e ; Fr. vendre, to sell. Servir, SERVIRE ; It. servire ; Fr. servir, to serve. 2(1. 4th. 3d. 2(1. 3(1. 2d. 3d. 3d. 2d. 4th. E (I) oi (i) s s es i oi (i) s T e e oi (i) t MUS e (i) mos iarao ev (iss) ous TIS eis (is) e (i) te ev (iss) ez (IT) NT en ono oiv (iss) ent (I) EBAM ia e (i) va ev (iss) ais (ois) EBAS ias e v i) vi ais BEAT ia e (i) va ait EBAMUS iamos e (i) vamo ions EBATIS iais e (i) vate iez EBANT iau e (i) vano aient U (IV) I i e (i)i u (i) s (0. F. i) ISTI isti e (i) sti s IT i6 fe(D t IMUS imos e (i) mmo mes ISTIS isteis e (i) ste tes ERUKT ieron e (i) rono rent E (1) AM a a oiv (iss) e AS as a(i) es AT a a e AMIIS amos iamo ions ATIS ais iate iez ANT an ano ent U (IV) ISSEM iese e(i) ssi u (i) sse ISSES ieses e (i) ssi sses ISSET iese e(i) sse t ISSEMUS iesemos e(i) ssimo ssions ISSETIS ieseis e (i) ste ssiez ISSENT iesen e (i) ssero ssent E (I) E e i oi (i) s (I) ENTEM iente eute ev (iss) ant (I) TUS ido uto u(i)u (I) ENDUM iendo endo 54 VEKBS. 30. PASSIVE VERB. Passive verbs are conjugated by prefixing to the past participle of an active verb all the tenses, simple and compound, of ser. Ex. /Sb?y amado-a, sere amado-a, hemos sido amados, habeis sido amadas dec. NOTE. When state or condition is indicated estar is used instead of ser. Ex. La carta e$td mal excrita, the letter is badly written. 31. PRONOMINAL VERBS. Pronominal (or reflective) verbs are conjugated with the accusative of the personal pronouns, which is always expressed, though the subject is often omitted. Ex. Present Infinitive, Alabarsv, to praise one's self. Gerund, Alabandoxe, praising one's self. Past Participle, AlaJbadosi, having praised one's self. Present. Indicative. Present Perfect To me alabo, I praise myself. Me he alabado. Tu te aloha*-, thou praiscst thyself. Te has alabado. El se alnba, he praises himself. Se ha alabado. Noxotros nos aldbamos, we praise ourselves. Nos hemos alabado. Vosotros vos (dabais, you praise yourselves. Vos habeis alabado. ELLos se alaban, they praise themselves. Se han alabado. 32. UNIPERSONAL VERBS. Unipersonal verbs are conjugated like other verbs, but only in the third person singular of each tense. Llover, to rain ; Uomendo, raining ; llovido, rained. Pres. llove, it rains. Ha llovido, it has rained. Imp. llovia, it was raining. Habia llovido, it had rained. Pret. llovio, it rained. Hubo llovido, it had rained. Fut. lloverd, it will rain. HaJbrd llovido, it will have rained. VERBS. 55 33. DETECTIVE VERBS. ( Verbos Defectives). The following verbs are used only in certain tenses and persons : 1. Concernir, to concern; pres. concierne, conciernen ; imperf. concernia-concernian ; pres. subj. concierna-n ; ger. concerniendo ; pres. part, concerniente. 2. Erguir, to erect ; pres. erguimos, erguis ; imperf. erguia-as, &c. ; pret. ergui-iste, erguimos, erguisteis ; fut. erguire-as, &c. ; imper. erguid ; imperf. subj., ergui- ria-as, &c. ; part, erguido. NOTE. In addition to these forms as given in the grammar of the Academy, some authors use the fol- lowing : Pres. ?/ergo, ?/ergues, ?/ergue, yerguen. Pret. ixguio, ^rguieron, Ger. wguiendo. Subj. 2/erga-as-a, irgamos-ais-?/ergan. 3. Placer, to please ; pres. me place, te place, le place, nos place, &c. ; imperf: me placia ; pret. me pJugo ; sub. plazca plega or plegue (a Dios) pluguiera, pluguiese (al cielo) ; fut. me pluguiere. 4. Podrir, to rot ; imperf. sub. podriria-as ; imper. podrid ; part, podrido. 5. Soler, to be accustomed ; pres. suelo-es-e, solemos, soleis, suelen ; imperf. solia-as, &c. ; pret. soli (rarely) ; pres. perf. he solido, has solido, &c. 6. Yacer, to h'e (down) ; pres. yace yacen ; imperf. yacia ; yaz-co(a), (go-a), yago-a, and yaciere are rarely found. 56 VERBS. 34. IRREGULAR VERBS. ( Verbos Irregulares). The number of irregular verbs (said to be about five hundred and fifty including compounds) is greater in Spanish than in the other languages, since nearly all the irregularities of the Latin verb are retained. These verbs may be separated into two divisions : I. Those having irregularities in common with others. II. Those having irregular forms peculiar to thern- S A lves (i. e. to each verb). I. The verbs having a common irregularity may be divided into three classes : a. Those which admit an i before the radical e. b. Those which change the radical o into ue. c. Those which change the radical e into i. NOTE 1. The irregularity of most of those verbs is found only in the present of the indicative subjunctive and imperative, in the three persons of the singular and the third person plural. NOTE 2. Verbs of the third conjugation are also irreg- ular in the gerund, the preterite (third person singular and plural) and its derivatives. They also change e into ', and o into u in the first and second persons plural of the subjunctive, and first person plural of the impera- tive. 1. Acertar, to hit the mark, (AD CERTARE, It. accertare] . a. 2. Ascender, to ascend, (ASCENDERE, ascendere). 3. Sentir, to feel, (SENTIRE, It. sentir e, Fr. sentir). Pres. Ind. 1. acierto 2. asc^'endo 3. s^'ento ac^ertas asciendes s^'entes acz'erta asciende s^ente acertamos ascendemos sentimos acertais ascendeis sentis acz'ertan ascz'enden si'enten VEBBS. 57 aci'erte ascienda s^'enta ac?'ertes asctendas sz'entas aczerte ascz'enda s^'enta acertemos ascendamos smtamos acerteis ascendais smtais acerteri asc^endau sientan acierta asciende si'ente aczerte ascienda sz'enta acertemos ascendamos sintamos acertacl ascended stntid aczerten asciendan sfentaii Pres. Subj. Imper. Additional irregularities of verbs of the Third Conju- gation : Gerund. Preterite. smtiendo. sintio smtieron . Imperfect Subjunctive. First Form. Second Form. smtiese, smtiesemos, smtiera, smtieramos, smtieses, smtieseis, smtieras, smtierais. sintiese, smtiesen, smtiera, smtieran. Future, siiitiere es e. smtieremos eis en. BEM. Discernir changes the e into ie like sentir, but in the other forms is regular. 1. C Acostar, to put in bed, (AD COSTAM, accostare, accoster). b. 2. } Absolver, to absolve, (ABSOLVERE, assolvere, absoudre). 3. ( Dormir, , to sleep, (DORMIHE, dormire, dormir). 1. acwesto 2. abswelvo 3. d^/ermo acwestas absw elves di/ei'mes acwesta abswelve dwerme Pres. Ind. acostamos absolvemos dormimos acostais absolveis dormis acwestan abswelven duermen 8 ac?/ieron- Fut. sabr/, sabras, &c. Imper. sabe, sep&, sepamos, sabed, sep&n. 10. Ser, to be ; see 28. 11. Taner, to touch ; TANGERE, It. toccare, Fr. toucher, Pret. tafii, taniste, tano tafiimos, tanisteis, tafieron. 12. Tener, to have ; see 28. 13. Traer, to draw ; TRAHERE, It. trarre, Fr. traire. Pres. traigtf, traes, &c. (Sabj. tr&iga, tr&igas, &c.) Pret. traje, trajiste, trajo, trajimos, tra;'isteis, tra/eron Imper. trae, tra^a, traz^amos, traed, tra?^an, NOTE. The compounds are conjugated in the same manner. VERBS. Gl 14. Valer, to be worth ; VALERE, It. valere, Fr. valoir, Pres. valf/o, vales, &c. (Subj. val<7a, val^as&c.) Fut. val- dre, vaMras, &c. Imper. vale, val^a, vaL/amos, valed, vak/an. NOTE. Equivaler has the same irregularity, (also prevalrese). 15. Ver, to see ; VIDERE, It. vedere, Fr. voir. Pres. veo ves, ve, &c. (Subj. vea, veas, &c. ) Imperf. veia, veias &c. (old form via, &c). Imper. ve, vea, veamos, ved, vean, Part, visto. C. Third Conjugation. 1. Adquirir, to acquire ; AD QUAERERE, It. acquistare, Fr. acquerir. Pres. adquiero-res-re, adquirimos-ris, adquieren, Subj. adqaiera-ras-ra, adquiramos-rais, adquieran. Imper. adquiere-ra, adquiramos-rid, adqui- eran. 2. Asir, to seize ; APISCI, It. sagire, Fr. saisir. Prex. asgro, ases, &c. (Subj. as(/a, asr/as, &c). Imper. ase, as^a, as^amos, asid, asp'an. 3. Conducir, to conduct ; CON-DUCERE ; It. condurre ; Fr. conduire. Pres. condu^co, conduces. &c. (Subj. condu^ca, &c.) Pret. conduje-Jiste-j/'o, Jimos-jiisteis, jeron. Imper. conduce, condu2:ca,-du2:canios,-ducid,- duzcan. NOTE. The compounds of ducir have the same forms, and also lucir, except the preterite luce, which is regu- lar. 4. Decir, to say ; DICERE. It. dire, Fr. dire. Pres. digo, d?'ces, dice, decimos, decis, dicen. Pret. di/e, d^'is- te, dijo, d?)'imos, dz)'isteis, d^)'eron. Fut. dire diVas, &c. (Subj. diga,, dig&s, &c). Imper. di, d^a, digamos, decid, Gerund, diciendo. Part, die ho. 62 VERBS. NOTE. The compounds are conjugated in the same manner, except that they have dice instead of di ; while bendwir and maldecir have also the future and condi- tional tenses regular, with double forms in the past par- ticiple. 5. Ir, to go ; IRE. It. ire; Fr. irai, &c., future of aller. Pres. VOY, VAS, va, VAMOS, VAIS, VAN. Tmpcrf. i/>a, ifrae, ifta, iftamos ifrais, iftan. Pret. FUI, FUISTE, FUK, FUIMOS, FUISTEIS, FUERON. Subj. VAYA, VAYAS, &c. (Gerund, ?/endo). Imper. VE, VAYA, VAYAMOS, (or VAMOS) id, VAYAN. G. Oir, to hear ; AUDIRE. It. udire ; Fr. ouir. Pres. oigo, o?/es, o?/e, oimos, ois, o?/en. Pret. oi, oiste, oyo, oimos, oisteis, o?/eron. Subj. oi#a, oit/as, &c. Gerund, oyendo). Imper. oye, oir/a, oi^arnos. oid, oigran. 7. Salir, to go out; SALIRE. It. salire (sortire). Fr. (sortir). Pres. sal^o, sales, &c. Fat. salrfre, &c. Subj. satya, &c. Imper. sal, salr/a, sal^amos, salid, salgan. 8. Venir, to come ; VENIRE. It. venire ; Fr. venir. Prex. ven^o, vi'enes, viene, venimos, venis, vz'enen. Prei. vme, viniste, vino, vinimos, vinisteis, vinieron. Fut. venire, ven^ras, &c. Subj. venr/a, ven^as, &c. Imper. ven, vengra, ven^amos, venid, venp'an. Gerund, vmiendo. 35. THE PARTICIPLE. (El Participio}. 1. Those forms of the verbs which end in ando, iendo, called gerunds in Spanish grammar, Correspond to the present participle in English, while those ending in ante, ente or iente, called present (or active) participles, correspond to the English verbal adjectives. 2. The gerund is always invariable. Ex. Entraron cantando, they entered singing. 3. The present (or active) participle agrees with the noun to which it is joined as a verbal adjective. Ex. VERBS. Prueba concluyente, convincing proof. Aguas corrientes, running waters. 4. The past or passive participle is invariable when joined with haber, but with ser, estar, quedar, &c., it agrees with the subject. Ex. Hemos comprado cua- dros, we have bought pictures. El (ella) es alabado (a), he (she) is praised. Estan (or quedan) demostradas estas verdades, these truths are (or remain) demonstra- ted. 5. The past participle of some verbs has two forms, a passive (regular), and an absolute (irregular) ; as, dividido, diviso, divided. Of the latter, frito, preso, pro- visto, and roto are used with haber. The rest are verbal adjectives. NOTE. Some passive participles have also an active signification. Ex. leido, read, well informed, (i. e.) one who has read much. 6. The following verbs and their compounds have only an irregular past participle : abrir absolver cubrir decir disolver escribir hacer abierto absuelto cubierto dicho disuelto escrito hecho imprimir morir poner resolver soltar ver volver impreso muerto puesto resuelto suelto visto vuelto NOTE. Inscribir and proscribir have also the forms inscripto and proscripto. IRREGULAR VERBS. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS, With References to Model of Conjugation in Sec. 34, pp. 56-63. Absolver, I. b. Calentar, I, a. Deferir, I, a. Abstraer, II, B. 13. Cegar, I, a. Degollar, I. b. Acertar, I, a. Cefiir, I, c. Demoler, I, b. Aoordar, I, 'o. Cerner, I, a. Demostrar, I, b. Acostarse, I, b. Cerrar, I, a. Denegar, I, a. Acrecentar, I, a. Cimentar, I, a. Deno^tar I b Adestrar, I, a. Cocer, I, b. Derreiigar, I, a. Adlierir, I, a. Colar, I, b. Derretir, I, c. Adquirir, II, C. 1. Colegir, I, c. Desacertar, I, a. Adueir, II, C. 3. Collar, I, 1). Desacordar, I, b. Advertir, I, a. Comedirse, I, c. Desalentar, I, a. Agorar, I, b. Comenzar, I, a. Desapretar, I, a. Alentar, I, a. Competir, I, c. Desaprobar, I, b. Almorzar, I, b. Comprobar, I, b. Desasosegar, I, a. Amolar, I, b. Concelnr, I, c. Desatender, I, a. Andar, II, A. 1. Concernir, Sec. 33. Desatehtar, I, a. Apacentar, I, a. Concertar, I, a. Desavcnir, 11, C. 8. Aporcar, I, b. Concordar, I, b. Descender, I, a. A postar, I, b. Condescender, I, a. Descenir, I, c. Apretar. I, a. Condolerso, I, b. Descolgar, I, b. Aprobar, I, b. Comlucir, II, C. 3. Descollar, I, 1). Arrecirse, I. c. Conlerir, I, a. Descomedirse, I, c. Arreridar, I, a. Confesar, I, a. Desconcertar, I, a. Arrepentirse, I, a. Conocer, II, B. 3. Desconsentir, I, a. Ascender, I, a. Coumover, I, b. Desconsolar, 1, b. Asentar, I, a. Consequir, i, c. Desempe avoid ambiguity. Ex. Yo le es- crili a el (a ella), I wrote to him (to her.) NOTE 5 The conjunctive pronoun is sometimes an expletive. Ex. El se lo comio todo, he ate everything. II. When used indefinitely the Possessive Pronoun is preceded by the neuter article. Ex. Lo mio no cs tuyo, mine is not thine. NOTE 1. When "mine" "thine", &c., are preceded by the preposition of, the preposition and the article are both omitted in Spanish. Ex. Es un amigo mio (tuyo), he is a friend of mine (thine). PRONOUNS. 79 NOTE 2. Su is often used, instead of the definite article, with a noun followed by de. Ex. Su libro de V, (your book). Sa cam de el, (his house.) NOTE 3. The pronoun is generally repeated with two or more nouns, differing in gender or number. Ex. Ha pcrdido sn padre sit madre y sus hermanas. III. The neuter forms of the Demonstrative Pro- nouns, csto, cso, aquello, are only used absolutely to re- present an abstract idea, and hence are never joined with a noun. Ex. Eso es cierto, that is certain. NOTE. When referring to time, estc denotes time present, esc time lately past, aquel time more remote. IV. The Kelative Pronoun is always expressed in Spanish, though sometimes understood in English. Ex. He recibido lioy la carta qne V. escribio la semana pasada, I have today received the letter you wrote last week. NOTE 1. If the antecedent in English is a personal pronoun, it is generally omitted in Spanish, (yo and ta excepted), audits place supplied by the definite article. Ex. Los que somos amigo^ we, who are friends. NOTE 2. Lo que corresponds to the English icliat. Ex. Dcbcmos contcntarnos con lo que tencmos, we ought to be contented with what we have. NOTE 3. Lo que is also used in the sense of how (lioio much). Ex. Aai se vc lo gcneroaa que fuc, thus we see how generous she was. NOTE 4. Quien is sometimes used in the sense of the one, the other. Ex. Quien quierc jugar, quien tr at a jar, the one wishes to play, the other to work. , V. The Interrogative Pronouns are always used without the article, and when preceded by a preposition the same must precede the reply. Ex. <>De quien ( Caya) es esta lolsa ? De mi padre, whose purse is this ? 80 PRONOUNS. my father's. $A cuanlos estamos hoy ? (cstamos) a doce, what day of the month is it ? the twelfth. VI. Of the Indefinite Pronouns ; 1. Alrjo is used with dc before an adjective and quo before an infinitive. Ex. Ticnc ahjo dc biteno, he has something good. $ Ticnc V algo qac dccir ? -have you anything to say ? 2. Alguno is used instead of alguicn before a prepo- sition. Ex. Alguno de cttos halilo, some one of them spoke. 3. Alguno and ninyuno must be used instead of algui- cn and nadic, when an indefinite person is spoken of as belonging to a class or definite number. Ex. ^ Vino a prcgantar por mi alguno dc mis amigosf has seme one of my friends asked for me ? Ninyuno dc mis disciptilos ha cstudiado la leccion, no one of my pupils has studied the lesson. 4. When nada, nadic or ninguno follows a verb the negative adverb must precede it. Ex. Nada tcngo, or no tcngo nada, I have nothing. No hay nadie en la pucrta, there is nobody at the door. No recibo ninguno, or nin- gano recibo, I receive none. 5. Se is often used like the French on with the signi- fication of one, they, people, &c, but it is commonly re- garded in Spanish as a sign that the verb has a passive sense. Ex, Sc pitcde ir dc Valencia a Madrid en quince horas, one (you, we, &c.,) can go from Valencia to Ma- drid in fifteen hours, g Qae se dice de nuovo ? what news is reported? (or do they report ?) Se desacrcdita lo quo no sc comprende, people discredit what they do not un- derstand. Aqui sc liabla cspaftol, Spanish is spoken here. 10 YEEBS. 81 G. Uno nnd o'tro are connected by y or ni to signify "both or neither. Ex. Uno y otro son infeliccs, botli are unhappy. No busca ni uno ni otro, he seeks neither, 49. USE or THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 1. Her (see Sec. 27. II. a.) is also used in designating dignity, profession, art, the property, destination or dimension of an object, or the material of which it is made. Ex. El s general, (medico, pintor), he is a general (physician, painter). Este libra cs de Pedro, this is Peter's book La flor es para dla, the flower is for her. Las medias son de seda, the stockings are of silk, 2. Eitar also indicates the situation or condition of persons or things. Ex. El! a cstaba en la colic, she was in the street. Estoy baeno, I am well. El mar csta a veinte Icguas de aqut, the sea is twenty leagues from here. NOTE. Some adjectives vary in signification accord- ing as they are used with scr or cstar. Ex. Es bueno, he is good. Estd bucno, he is well. Era malo, he was wicked. Estaba malo, he was ill. 3. Tener is used idiomatically with the substantives hambrc, sed, miedo, &c., instead of the verb to be and tho corresponding adjective in English, also in expressions of age and measure. Ex. ^Tiene V. hambrc? are you hungry ? Teniamos sed, we were thirsty. Tcngo treinta afios> I am thirty years old. Est& mesa ticne cinco pies de largo, this table is five feet long. NOTE. Hxber, tener and debar are used in elliptical expressions with de and que before an infinitive to de- note necessity or a proximate future action. Ex. Ha- bia de venir, he was to come. A 'qo tenyo qac decirle a V. I have something to tell you. Habo de essribir, he had to write. Dtbe de ser cnfermo, he musb by ill. 11 82 SYKTAX OP THE VERB, 50. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. The rules of agreement are generally the same as in English. NOTE 1. The subject of a unipersonal verb is never expressed. Ex. Llucve, it rains. Fae menestcr, it was necessary. NOTE 2. The subject is often placed after the verb for emphasis or euphony, Ex. Ln digo yo, I say it. NOTE 3, Two or more nominatives of different per- sons take a verb in the plural number and in the chief person. Ex. Tns hcrmanas y yo iremos alia mafiana, thy sisters and I will go there to-morrow. NOTE 4. Two or more subjects connected by the con- junction y take a verb in the plural if they precede it, otherwise the verb agrees with the nearest noun. Ex. Ni.uica me ha sido mas neccsario tu auxilio y tu asistencia, never have your aid and actual presence been more necessary to me, NOTE 5. A collective noun may be followed by a verb in the singular, when definite, and plural when indefi- nite, i . e., according as the attention is fixed upon the whole, or the individuals. Ex. El cjcrcito vencio, the army (the collective whole) conquered. Una tropa de soldados cntraron la ciudad, a troop of soldiers (as indi- vidual agents) entered the city. 51. THE OBJECT OF THE VERB. 1. The direct object (not a pronoun, see Sec. 48, I. 2.) usually follows the verb, and is preceded by the preposition a if it represents an animated being or the name of a city. But a is sometimes omitted before in- definite nouns, and for euphony, while it is often em- ployed with inanimate objects when personified. Ex. AID a mi padre. He vi4o d Barcelona. Basco amigos protector et. Yo comparo (d) los hcwbres d las olas (waves) del mar. Un aHo sigue d otro. NOTE. After tener, denoting possession, the object is not preceded by d. Ticncs un hermano, thou hast a brother. TTENSES. 83 2. Passive verbs are followed by an indirect object connected with them by the preposition por, by, when they express physical action and de or por when mental action is implied. Ex, La casa fae derribada por el viento, the house was thrown down by the wind. La virtad cs amada de (por) los bucnos, virtue is beloved by the good. 3. Neuter and some reflective verbs are followed by an indirect object connected with them by dc denoting the cause, &c. Ex. Tiritar de frio, to shiver with cold, Alcgrarse de las nucvas, to rejoice at the news, 4. The indirect objects indicated by the prepositions of, to, with, from, in, by, &c., in English, are generally expressed by the equivalent prepositions in Spanish, though there are many exceptions which can be learned only by observation and familiarity with the language. Ex. Escaparon dc laprision, they escaped from prison, Debo mucho a mi amigo, I owe much to my friend, Pide pcrdon a Dios, ask pardon of God, Robo cl dinero al banqaerOy he stole the money from the banker. 52, USE OF THE TENSES. The tenses are generally employed as in English. 1. The preterite definite is the historical tense m Spanish, since it designates the time of an action as completely past or accurately designated. Ex. Nacio en Madrid, he was born in Madrid. Dos meses ha que par- ticron dc aqui, they left here two months ago. 2. The present perfect marks a time undefined or a a period, some portion of which still continues. Ex. He aprendido cl Espaflol en Espafta, I learned the Spanish language in Spain. Mi hermano ha venido csta semana, my brother came this week. 84 , USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 3. The preterite perfect marks an anterior time more accurately tban the pluperfect. Ex. Partio de csla da- dad luego quc halo rccilido aqveUa mieva r he left this city as soon as he had received that news. 4. The future of the Subjunctive, found only in the Spanish and Portuguese languages, represents a future action contingent in the future, usually expressed by the present in English. Ex, Caeste lo qme costarc, let it cost what it may (will). 5. The imperfect has three forms which are not easi- ly distinguished in their usage. NOTE 1. The form in se most closely represents the English imperfect, what might, could or should be. Ex. Penw que nunca acabac, I thought that he would never finish. NOTE 2. The form in ria corresponds to the condi- tional in French and Italian and is generally used in the conclusion of a conditional sentence. Ex. Si taviese (iitciera) dincro iria a Londres, if I had money I would go to London. NOTE 3. The form in ra may be nsed for either of the others but refers to a time more remote and deter- mined. Ex. Macho me gustara (gustaria] que succdicse K, it would please 1113 much that you should succ3ad. NOTE 4. Se is used when the idea of ability, and ria when that of inclination, is implied. NOTE 5. When no conditional conjunction is nsed, and when ?/ in English has the sense of whether, ria is employed. Ex. Yo iria pcro lengo micdo, I would go but I am afraid. Le preguntti si su padre vcndria mafi- ana, I asked him if (whether) his father would come to- morrow. 53. USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. Tho Subjunctive mode is always employed in Spanish when the idea of a sentence is in any manner doubtful cr contingent, expressing not what is, but what may be. USE OP THE INFINITIVE. 85 1. Hence it is used after all verbs expressing any degree of wish or will, doubt or fear that a certain event might take place. Ex. Espcro que V. voiga, I hope that you may come. Temo que no vcnga mi tio. 2. The subjunctive is also used after certain conjunc- tions implying the same doubt or contingency ; such as antes que, before ; aunquc, although ; cuando, when ; paraque, porquc. in order that ; si if, and que when repre- senting a compound conjunction. Ex. Hacealo antes que mi padre vienc, do it before my father comes. Para que lo scpa V. selo dire, in order that you may know it I will tell it you. 3. The subjunctive is often used absolutely instead of the imperative in the third person singular, and in negative orders in the second person. Ex. Nitnca lo digas, never say it. 54. USE or THE INFINITIVE. 1. The infinitive either with or without an article often has the value of a substantive, and still governs any complement (except the genitive rarely) like the verb. Decir y haccr son dos cosas, saying and doing are two things. El comer, el bebcr y el dormir son ccsas ne- cezarias para conservar la vida, eating, drinking and sleeping are necessary to preserve life. 2. The infinitive is sometimes connected with a pre- ceding verb by que, or a preposition. De or a must be used after a verb of motion. Ex. Es tiempo de irse, it is time to go away. Voy a ve.rla, I am going to see her. Vengo de hacerlo, I have just done it. A cuyo favor se acaba dc dedarar la forttma, in whose favor fortune has just declared herself. (See Sec. 49, 3. Note.) 3. The infinitive is often used instead of the present participle. Ex. Al pasar por cl pucnte he encontrado a 86 GERUND PARTICIPLE ADVERB. ta hermano, in passing by the bridge I met your brother. El se resistia con decir, &c., he refused, saying, &c. 55. USE or THE GERUND. The gerund has taken the place of the present parti- ciple, which is no longer used in Spanish, all forms in ante or iente being now considered verbal adjectives or nouns, though anciently used as they now are in French and Italian. (See Sec. 35, 1, 2). NOTE 1. It is often joined to a verb to denote con- tinued action, as in English. Ex. Estoy leijcndo su carlo, de V. I am reading your letter. NOTE 2. Preceded by the preposition en it, denotes an action just completed. Ex. En dicicndo csto se fue, as soon as he said this he went away. 56. USE OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 1. With haber, scr, &c. (See Sec. 35, 4). NOTE. When tener is used in place of haber the par- ticiple is employed as a verbal adjective, and agrees with the direct object of the verb if one is expressed, otherwise it is invariable. Ex. Tengo Icidos esos hbros, I have read those books. Les tengo escrito largamente sobre esla materia, I have written to them fully about this matter, (i. e., lo qae era mr.ncster). 2. The past participle is often used absolutely, like the ablative absolute in Latin, instead of an adverbial clause, and then it agrees with the noun which it quali- fies. Ex. Sosegados los animos se restablccio la confianza, the minds being calmed confidence was restored. Apren- dida la gramatica se sabe el mecanismo de una lengua, hav- ing learned the grammar one knows the mechanism of a language. 57. USE OF THE ADVERB. 1. The adverb of negation is not used with the verb, as it is in French, when the sentence commences with a PREPOSITIONS. 87 negative word, but a second negative may be used when the first is no. Ex. Nada se dice (rien ne se dit), noth- ing is said. No hai ninguno, there is none. 2. No negative word is used after a comparative, nor after otro, or a menos quc, as in the corresponding ex- pressions in French. Ex. Es mas sabio que se cree, he is more learned than one thinks. Eres otro de lo que eras el aflo pasado, thou art other than thou wast last year. NOTE 1. The adverbs si and no are sometimes strengthened by que. Ex. No digo ni que si ni quc no, I say neither yes nor no. NOTE 2. The adverb is regularly placed after the verb, (and the participle in the compound tenses), ex- cept no, which usually precedes. Ex. Mi amigo no ha llagado todavta, my friend has not yet arrived. NOTE 3. No placed before a verb followed by quc or si-no gives the signification of "only" or "but." Ex. No tcngo que uno, I have only one. No viajo sino rara vcz, I travel but rarely. 58. USE OF CERTAIN PREPOSITIONS. 1. DC is used (a) to mark a particular distinction; Ex. El hombre de la capa verde, the man with a green coat ; (b) instead of a before an infinitive depending on an adjective ; Ex. Es bucno de comer, it is good to eat ; (c) before a clause introduced by que, (some noun like hccho being understood) ; Ex. Logro el consuelo de quc ellos faesen los agresores, he enjoyed the consolation of (the fact) that they were the agressors. 2. En implies motion into, a towards, and both are used in many adverbial expressions denoting manner, place, time, &c. Ex. Cuyo en el agua, he fell into the water. Voy a la posta, d pie, d las dicz, dc dia en dia, I go to the P. O. on foot, at ten o'clock, from day to day. 3. Para denotes (a) the exterior purpose, the end, object, limit, &c. ; (b) and joined with con it signifies 88 . x /CONJUNCTIONS. . . ." fi^pf esses ti comparison with a preceding noun. Ex. La carte es para F., the letter is for you. Parlo para Madrid, I start for Madrid. 82 porldba bien para con todoi, he behaved well towards all. No hay ninguno cosa imposible para con Dios, with God nothing is impossible. 4. For is often used instead of para with the signifi- cation. for. Though sometimes expressing purpose, it more frequently denotes the inward motive, and is used in expressions denoting in favor of, in place of, in ex- change for, &c. Ex. Hablar por alguno, to speak for some one. Asisto por mi compaTlcro, I am present for my friend. Doy la capa por el sombrero, I give the cloak for the hat. NOTE. In indicating the result of an action para im- plies expectation of success, por uncertainty. Ex. Tra- bajo para ganar la vida, I work in order to gain a living. Ando macho por ver si pucdo dormir. I walk much to see if I can sleep. Rem. The preposition is generally placed before its object and is not necessarily repeated as in French and Italian. Ex. En este mnndo dc miscrias y qflicciones cl Eoangclio da gozo y esperanza, in this world of sorrow and trouble the gospel brings joy and hope. 59. USE or THE CONJUNCTIONS. For the use of e, u, pero, sino, (see Sec. 38, N. 1 3). 1. Mas is used like pero, and both may be used after a negative when the verb is repeated. When the sentence is affirmative and but is equivalent to except it may ba rendered in Spanish by minos. Ex. Todos fueron alia ininos Carlos y su hermana, they all went there but Charles and his sister. 2. Quc is sometimes used to represent other con- junctions but not to avoid their repetition as in French, Ex. Quequicra, que no quiera, whether he will or not. YB CC972 U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES